Chess: Man vs Machine 049802167X

Citation preview

$ 25.00

The first complete history of chess'playing machines, from their invention in 1769 to today's chess computers, including 65 games played by chess automatons and over 250 illustrations.

CHESS: MAN MACHINE BRADLEY EWART This book is about much more than chess, about more than machines that play chess. It concerns a grand entertainment that began over 200 years ago, a magnificent deception, the most bizarre episode in the history of chess. And it so intriguingly portrays the human capacity for invention and illu­ sion that even readers who are not chess players will find it both enlightening and beguiling. The saga of chess-playing machines includes many stories of renowned personalities. It is persuasively sug­ gested that a chess automaton may have been responsible, at least partly, for Beethoven’s success as a musician; for Cartwright’s invention of the power loom; and for Poe’s develop­ ment as a detective writer. And readers are invited to ponder the disturbing possibility that, to those most closely associated with the chess automatons, the machines may have brought death. The first chess automaton was the Turk, invented by Kempelen in 1769 as an amusement for the Empress Maria Theresa. Later the automaton passed into the hands of Maelzel—a friend of Beethoven, the perfector of the metronome, and “the Prince of Entertainers.” During his career of 84 years, the Turk played chess with Franklin, Frederick the Great, Napoleon, as well as many thousands of lesser personages. But the Turk was not the only chess automaton. Ajeeb, Mephisto, As-rah, and Mazam continued to mystify audi(Continued on back flap)

Chess: Man vs Machine

Chess: Man vs Machine Bradley Ewart

S a n D ie g o • N ew Y o r k

A . S. B a r n e s & C o m p a n y , I n c . I n Lo n d o n :

T

he

T a n t i v y P ress

Chess: Man vs Machine text copyright © 1980 by Bradley Ewart A. S. Barnes and Co., Inc. The Tantivy Press Magdalen House 136-148 Tooley Street London, SKI 2TT, England

All rights reserved under International and Pan American Copyright Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in reviews and articles. First Edition Manufactured in the United States of America For information write to A. S. Barnes and Company, Inc., P.O. Box 3051, San Diego, CA 92038 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Ewart, Bradley, 1932Chess: Man vs. Machine Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Chess—Data processing—History. Miscellanea. I. Title. GV1447.E93 794. Г7 77-84566 ISBN 0-498-02167-X

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

84 83 82 81 80

2.

Chess —

#

T o B e th y

.

*

*

Contents 1 “An Illusion Which Does Honor to the H um an M ind”: Kempelen’s Automaton Chess Player O n t h e C h e s s b o a r d : The Knight’s T o u r 2 Cashing Coin from Base Metal: Travels with the Turk 3 Napoleon, the Turk, and the Prince of Entertainers O n t h e C h e s s b o a r d : The Chess Career of Napoleon Bonaparte 4 A Quarrel Between Friends: Maelzel and Beethoven 5 How to Operate a Chess Automaton for Fun and Profit: The Turk’s Second Tour of Europe O n t h e C h e s s b o a r d : The T urk’s London Games 6 A Tale o f Four Cities: Maelzel and the Turk in A m erica O n THE CHESSBOARD: Foregone Conclusions:

Some Endgames Played by the Turk and a Game with Mrs. Fisher 7 “A Sublime Departure”: Last Days o f the Turk O n t h e C h e s s b o a r d : A Pair o f New York Games by a Walker Automaton 8 An Automaton of the Third Class: Secrets of the Turk 9 The Crystal Palace Automaton; or the Truth About Ajeeb 10 Mephisto and the Insect ON THE C h e s s b o a r d : The Games O f Mephisto 11 Chess, Whist, and the Ladies’ Game; or the Games Automatons Play 12 Did Ajeeb Kill Pillsbury? O n t h e C h e s s b o a r d : The Games of Ajeeb and His Directors 13 The Myth o f the Supermechanical Chess

14

13 22

25 42 51 57

69 82 91

103 107 123 125 141 158 171 181 202 219

Player: C o m p u te r Chess O N THE CHESSBOARD: Som e C o m p u te r G am es

226

237

Catherine the Great and the Chess Automoton; or Chess Automotons in Fiction

245

Bibliography Index

281

-

• ■

* ш

У

t

\

Abbreviations Used in Illustration Credits

AC AH BB BC BL BN CPL DM EPFL FLP GRH

HM HW ILN INPS

Author's collection. American Heritage Publishing Company. Beethoven-Haus, Bonn. Bapst Library, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. British Library, London. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Cleveland Public Library, collections other than those of the John G. White Department. Deutsches Museum, Munich. Maryland Department, Enoch Pratt Free Li­ brary, Baltimore. Print and Picture Department, Free Library of Philadelphia. General Research and Humanities Division, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations. Harper's New Monthly Magazine. Ha rper’s Weekly. Illustrated London News. I. N. Phelps Stokes Collection, Prints Division, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations.

JG W

John G. White Department, Cleveland Public Library. JM John M ulholland Collection in the Walter Hampden-Edwin Booth Theatre Collection and Library at The Players. JT W James T. White and Company. KB Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague. KCPL Kansas City Public Library, Kansas City, Mis­ souri. MCF Medical and Chirurgical Faculty of the State of Maryland. NMU Collection of the National Museum from Music Box to Barrel Organ, Utrecht, Holland. N’PG National Portrait Gallery, London. NYPL Picture Collection, The New York Public Li­ brary. ON Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna. SA Scientific American, Inc. SH Schloss Heinsheim. SS Schlosshauptmannschaft Schonbrunn, Schloss Schonbrunn, Vienna. TM Technisches M useum fu r In d u strie u n d Gewerbe, Vienna.

JP

У

\

Acknowledgments

I began this book by visiting the superb chess collection of the John G. White Department of Folklore, Orientalia and Chess on the third floor of the Cleveland Public Library. As the work progres­ sed I found myself returning again and again to that vast well-catalogued accumulation of chess mate­ rials. There 1 discovered not only a wealth of literature on chess automatons and related subjects but also approximately half the illustrations used in the book. I am especially indebted to Mrs. Alice N. Loranth, Head of the White Department, for mak­ ing the entire collection available to me and for translating materials from German and Hungarian. Her staff was helpful to me in many ways. In addition, for the use of research facilities, services, and illustrations, I am most grateful to the following institutions and organizations and to the many persons there who have assisted me. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations, including the I. N. Phelps Stokes Collection, Prints Division; General Research and Humanities Division; Rare Book Division; Theatre Collection, Performing Arts Research Center; and the Picture Collection The John Mulholland Collection in the Walter Hampden-Edwin Booth Theatre Collection and Library at the Players, New York Free Library o f Philadelphia, Print and Picture Department The Library Company, Philadelphia, George Allen Chess Collection Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, Cator Col­ lection, Maryland Department Medical and Chirurgical Faculty of the State of

Maryland, Baltimore, for supplying the photograph of Dr. Joshua I. Cohen Bapst Library, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts Linda Hall Library, Kansas City, Missouri University of Missouri-Kansas City Library Kansas City Missouri Public Library Chicago Public Library Rolling Hills Library, Saint Joseph, Missouri University of Iowa Library Missouri Western State College Library Saint Joseph Public Library The British Library, London National Portrait Gallery, London The Royal Pavilion, Brighton Koninklijke Bibliothek, The Hague National Museum from Music Box to Barrel Organ, Utrecht, Holland Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris Musee du Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, Paris Musee Grevin, Paris Chateau de Versailles Beethoven-Haus, Bonn Hotel Schloss Heinsheim am Neckar, Bad Rappenau, West Germany Deutsches Museum, Munich Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bild-Archiv und Portrat-Sammlung, Vienna Technisches M useum fu r In d u s trie u n d Gewerbe, Vienna Schloss Schonbrunn James T. White & Co. Scientific American, Inc. American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.

International Federation for Information Haines Photographic Services Kansas Missouri Chess League For translating the book on the chess automaton by Racknitz, I am deeply indebted to Elizabeth Soiner Farber o f Graz, Austria. I also thank Martin Kunze, Sherri Remmick, and Michael Magoon for

additional German-English translations. I gratefully acknowledge all those who have contributed support and encouragement, particu­ larly the John Heim and Sam Ewart families. Finally, I especially appreciate the aid of my dear wife Mary Betli Heim Ewart. She read the m anu­ script at several stages, and her suggestions have been a helpful influence throughout the prepara­ tion of the book.

“ An Illusion Which Does Honor to the Human Mind” : Kempelen’s Automaton Chess Player

1. / “ W hat do you think of' these supernatural phenomena?” asked the Empress Maria Theresa, as she sat, like the common parent of a large family, amid a crowd composed of her own children, the upper nobility, and foreign ambassadors. The year was 1769 and the Empress had gathered the spec­ tators to watch a Frenchman named Pelletier per­ form magnetic tricks which, although new to the Viennese court, were commonly seen in exhibitions on the boulevards o f Paris. Maria Theresa was extremely fond of all sorts of entertainments. In her youth, she had thought nothing of staying up all night dancing and playing cards. She had sung in elaborately staged operas with members of the court and imperial family. Indeed, had she not been destined to rule the Habsburg empire, her voice might have assured her of a successful operatic career. In her later years— she was then fifty-two— she had become an enthusiastic spectator. The Empress had directed her question to Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen, the Hungarian gentle­ man sitting at her side. He was counselor to the Royal Chamber of the Empress in Hungary and a celebrated mechanical genius. For that reason, Maria Theresa had summoned him to Vienna from

The Empress Maria Theresa started a conversation and ended by commissioning the building of a chess automaton. b y p e r m is s io n o f o n .

13

his home in Pressburg (Bratislava) to sit next to her at the performance and advise her. “It's nothing which should surprise you,” replied the thirty-five-year-old Kempelen. “Nothing is sim­ pler. Anyone can do those experiments which seem to you so extraordinary.” “I f it weren’t for your reputation as a learned man, I would doubt what you say. But I ’d be more willing to believe all this is a mere trifle if you yourself would show us something more marvelous, more incredible.” “I accept your majesty’s challenge, and I dare hope to make you forget that French charlatan forever. However, I beg of you, Madam, at least one year’s time before presenting myself before you.” “One year!” exclaimed the Empress. “One year!” repeated Kempelen in a low voice, and he retired. With the performance at an end, Maria Theresa returned to her principal preoccupation that year: the program o f instruction to prepare her youngest daughter, Marie Antoinette, for her future role as

Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen began constructing his famous Turk in 1769. c o u r t e s y o f j e w .

For Marie Antoinette it was good-bye Schonbrunn, hello Versailles. Later the Turk would make the same trip, b y p e r m i s s io n o f o n .

In the 1926 French film Le Jo u e u r d ’Echecs, Charles D ullin played Baron von Kempelen. COURTESY o f k b .

14

Queen of France, an effort doomed to failure. Kempelen, meanwhile, returned to Pressburg to begin the project which had no doubt been forming for some time in his mind. The challenge by his Empress had been all that was needed to get it under way. Born at Pressburg on January 23, 1734, Kempe­ len at 35 could claim a remarkable variety of achievements. Since childhood he had excelled in mechanics and engineering to such an extent that he sometimes nearly impoverished himself through his flair for invention, which consumed his spare funds and the time he might have devoted to more profitable pursuits. He was an expert on hydraulics and mechanics, a good naturalist, and an excellent artist and architect. His talents were employed in designing the cascades at Schonbrunn Palace and in supervising the construction o f the Royal Palace at Budapest. He later studied the human voice and constructed a mechanical speaking machine capable of imitating human speech. He held high govern­ ment offices both at the imperial court in Vienna and at Pressburg, which was then the capital of Hungary. He also served as director general of the state-owned salt mines in Hungary. In later years, he even wrote for the theater. Kempelen, with his wife and children, lived on the first floor of his Pressburg residence. O n the second floor, he had a small workshop which served as an anteroom to his study. The benches in the workshop were strewn with the tools of a carpenter, locksmith, and watchmaker, all resting in apparent disarray. To a casual observer there was little to suggest the nature of the work in progress. Only the inventor’s mechanical mind could visualize what might be forthcoming. Passing from the workshop into the study, the visitor found himself in a room nearly surrounded by large oak shelves and cabinets containing books, antiques, and a small collection o f objects of natural history. Spaces of wall between the cabinets were decorated with paintings and prints executed by Kempelen himself. For six months after his return to Pressburg, the Baron spent most of his time in the workshop. His new invention was completed in the early spring of 1770, in only half the time he had promised. After trying it out a few times, he partly disassembled it, carefully loaded it into a carriage, and set out, accompanied by several assistants, for Vienna.

2. When Maria Theresa learned that Baron von Kcmpelen’s masterpiece was finished and ready to be displayed, she assembled her family, the court, and many scientists and scholars to see the promised exhibition. Am ong the spectators was her son and

At Schonbrunn Palace in 1770 Kempelen first exhibited the Turk, f r o m лс.

co-regent, the Emperor Joseph II. It is likely that the debut of the Baron’s invention took place at Schon­ brunn Palace, since the Empress spent much o f her time there after the death, in 1765, of her husband, Francis Stephen o f Lorraine. As soon as the spectators had assembled, an announcement rang out above the buzz of conver­ sation. Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen, counselor to the Royal Chamber of the Kingdom of Hungary, celebrated mechanician and inventor, would for the first time in history present a mechanical device that rivaled, even surpassed, the human brain in the intricacies of its organization. He would demon­ strate the greatest mechanical achievement of all time, his remarkable automaton chess player. A startled silence fell over the guests as an assistant wheeled the machine into the room. They saw a slightly larger than life-size figure dressed in T urk­ ish costume and seated behind a maple cabinet 3 Vi feet long, 2 feet wide, and 2 /2 feet high. The T urk’s chair was attached to the cabinet, which could be rolled about on four castors. His right arm lay extended upon the top of the cabinet, while his left arm held a long Turkish pipe, as if he had just been smoking. The mustached Turk wore a turban and a long fur-lined cloak. His features were just hum an enough to convey an unearthly supernatural feeling without leaving any doubt that he was an artificial being of wood and metal. The eyes of the figure appeared to be gazing upon an 18-inch-square chessboard, which was permanently fixed to the surface of the cabinet. The first idea which occurred to many of the spectators was that the cabinet was large enough to conceal a human player, who would somehow direct the Turk’s game from within. One eyewitness, Karl Gottlieb von Windisch, reported that he, along with most of the crowd, could not help suspecting at first that a child was contained in the cabinet. From its dimensions, Windisch guessed that a ten- or twelve-year-old might have been hidden inside.

15

Many of' the audience began to voice such opinions and they derided Kempelen for thinking them so gullible as to be taken in by so obvious a deception. Would the good Baron be so kind as to allow them to inspect the cabinet? Kempelen seemed not the least dismayed by the outcry. He had, in fact, hoped for just such a reaction. Holding up his hands for silence, he announced that he would open each and every door of the cabinet and also the body of the Turk for as thorough an inspection as anyone wished to make. He would not only open all of the doors in the cabinet, but would move the machine around the room, turn it in any direction, and allow each spectator to examine it as he pleased. He then began the demonstration that would be repeated each time the Turk was displayed. Though countless thousands were to witness the routine during the next eighty-five years, few would be less mystified than Windisch, who stated, “I was not backward in my scrutiny. I searched into its darkest corners; and finding no possibility of its concealing

any object of even the size of my hat, my vanity was terribly mortified at seeing my ingenious conjecture put totally to flight.” To begin the demonstration, Kempelen opened the door o f a compartment on the T urk’s righthand side. It occupied slightly less than one third the length o f the cabinet and appeared to be completely filled with wheels, levers, cylinders, and other pieces of clockwork. Kempelen then opened a smaller door in the rear of the cabinet to allow spectators to see through the spaces between the machinery. In order to show that no person was hiding behind the tangle of wheelwork, Kempelen called for an atten­ dant to bring a lighted candle, which he held just inside the rear door. Closing that rear door, the Baron came around to the front and pulled out the single long drawer at the bottom of the cabinet. From it he took a set of chessmen of red and white ivory, set in a wooden block, and placed it next to the T urk’s chessboard. Also in the drawer was a small elongated box containing six miniature chessboards, each of which

Before each game Kempelen displayed the Turk with all doors open. COURTESY OFJGW .

16

The Turk was wheeled around to show the doors in the rear of the figure, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

exposing the back of the figure. There, more doors were opened, revealing, as promised, the complete structure of the automaton’s interior, which seemed to contain only more wheels and levers. There was even a small door in the T urk’s trousers to show that his legs were hollow. Then, with garments still turned up and with all doors flapping loosely, Kempelen wheeled the au­ tomaton around the room for a thorough inspection by all present. When the spectators had satisfied themselves completely as to the machine’s anatomy and lack of human occupant, Kempelen shut all doors and placed the apparatus behind a railing or balustrade, the purpose of which, he announced, was to prevent anyone from shaking, touching, or leaning upon the machine, and to allow himself a space to walk between the crowd and the front of the cabinet. Next Kempelen reached into the interior of the machine and appeared to make some adjust­ ment. He then removed the pipe and placed the T urk’s left arm on the cushion. At that point the inventor directed everyone’s attention to the small cabinet or casket that he had placed upon a little table nearby. 'I'he casket’s door

presented an endgame situation. The endgames could be set up on the automaton’s board and played out when time did not permit the playing of full-length games. I'he large compartment under the Turk’s left hand occupied two thirds the length o f the cabinet and had two doors in front and a smaller one in the rear to show that there was no false back to the compartment. The space within, as was next dem­ onstrated, was nearly empty except for two pieces of machinery which looked like quadrants. On the floor of the large compartment were a small oblong wooden box or casket, a cushion, and a small board inscribed with golden letters. Kempelen removed the casket and board and set them on a side table. 'I'he pillow would be used to support the Turk’s arm between moves. The Baron again called for the candle, which he thrust through the open rear door o f the compartment to throw light into its remotest corners. Finally Kempelen wheeled the l urk around, lifted his robes, and threw them over his head,

17

faced away from the audience, so that Kempelen could open it and peer in from time to time during the game that followed, without exposing its mys­ terious contents to view. It was the casket, he declared, that contained the secret directing force which controlled the Turk’s arm, causing it to select the logical move in response to any move by a human opponent. There remained only to select an opponent for the Turk. If anyone thought the adversary was to be Kempelen or a confederate planted in the crowd, such ideas were quickly dispelled when the inventor announced that the Turk would challenge each and every person who wanted to test the machine. Several volunteers stepped forward from among the scholars and scientific advisers the Empress had assembled and, though one was selected to be first, each would get his turn. It is interesting to note at this point that the Turk had played a few games in Pressburg before he was taken to Vienna. I'he man who had been chosen for the honor of being the automaton’s first opponent was Herr Matthias, a friend of Kempelen and a counselor of the empire. One day late in 1769, Matthias had been invited to Kempelen’s house fora game of chess with “an unusual opponent.” When Matthias arrived, he found that a kind of tent had been erected in Kempelen’s drawing room. Then the silken curtains of the tent were drawn aside, revealing the inventor with his newly con­ structed automaton. Kempelen demonstrated the Turk in the same manner as he later did in Vienna and allowed Matthias, a player of some ability, to match himself against the machine. The test was quite effective, assuring the inventor that his au­ tomaton was ready to be shown before the Empress and her court. Before the beginning of the first game for the Empress, Kempelen announced that the first move would always be reserved for the automaton and that no move, once made, could be retracted. Moreover, if either opponent made a false move, the piece making the move would be removed from the board and the move would be forfeited. Also he requested all adversaries to take care in placing each piece exactly in the center of a square. That, he assured them, was necessary to prevent damage to the Turk’s fingers. Up to that time, the Baron had cleverly convinced everyone that the machine could hold no human director and that its sole motive power was the machinery just demonstrated, but the greatest test of the automaton was yet to come. Could the Turk really play a game of chess? As if in reply to that unspoken question in the minds of all assembled, the slow whir of clockwork machinery was heard and the automaton moved his head from side to side, as if contemplating the board before him. Seeming to make a decision quickly, he slowly raised

his left arm from the cushion and moved his hand, with astonishing precision, into position over a pawn. Then, after hovering a moment, the hand descended by a movement of the wrist, the fingers spread, grasped the pawn, and moved it forward two squares. The hand then returned to its place on the cushion and the sounds of machinery died out. %

t

The Empress and the whole assemblage followed those events with a mixture of admiration and great astonishment, but one old woman, who surely remembered the tales she had been told in her childhood, crossed herself with a heavy and devout sigh and, according to Windisch, hid herself in a window seat, as distant as she could be from the evil spirit which she firmly believed possessed the au­ tomaton. No doubt thinking he could beat any machine at chess, the opponent made his move. The automaton responded as before by surveying the board and making a move, and the game proceeded. When the Turk captured a piece, he first removed it from the board and then replaced it with his own chessman. It soon became apparent that the automaton was not only playing chess, but was playing it exceptionally well. He made his moves without any apparent aid from Kempelen, who did nothing but noisily wind up the T urk’s machinery every ten or twelve moves. At other times, the inventor sat among the spec­ tators or strolled about the room, never touching the automaton. He would, during the course of several moves, stand with his back toward the chessboard and converse with some member of the audience. At other times he would go to the small table, open the door of the casket, and gaze inside, as if to reassure himself that everything was in order, insisting that the little box was necessary for the automaton’s operation. Though twenty or thirty persons kept their eyes 011 Kempelen at all times, he never betrayed by the slightest movement any possible means of communication with the machine other than those mentioned. When attacking his opponent’s Queen, the Turk politely signaled the threat by nodding his head twice. When the adversary’s King was endangered, the automaton announced the check with three nods. Soon the figure was nodding his head quite frequently. Finally, after the opponent had made a move, the Turk shook his head, indicating his refusal to continue. Kempelen stepped forward and explained that the gentleman had just been checkmated and that the automaton had won the game. Then the inventor again demonstrated the interior of the cabinet by opening its doors and lifting the T urk’s robes as before. I'he Baron kept his invention in Vienna for a time, while many games were played with the automaton, who won most, if not all, his contests. To test the T urk’s powers of discrimination, adver­

18

The automaton always moved with his left hand, resting it on a pillow between moves, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

Transporting a chess automaton was always a problem.

saries frequently made false moves contrary to the rules of chess. Whenever that occurred, the Turk, seemingly outraged, indignantly shook his head from side to side in disapproval. He then snatched up the offending piece and took a move himself, thus depriving his opponent of both piece and move, a situation which nearly always assured the Turk a victory. The automaton himself never made illegal moves,''thus avoiding the penalty of his own rule.

Kempelen installed the l urk in his upstairs study. Visitors were received in an apartment downstairs, then led up through the workshop and into the study, where the automaton, placed opposite the doorway, / 7 first struck the view of visitors. There the Baron exhibited the Turk before groups of twenty to thirty persons and allowed the visitors to engage the automaton in games of chess. When time did not permit the playing of full games, the Baron got out the small box from the drawer of the Turk’s cabinet. The box contained six miniature chessboards, each of which showed a different endgame position. Kempelen allowed a guest to select any endgame and to choose to play either side. I'he trick was that each endgame was designed so that the winner would be the player who played first and the Turk was always given the honor of the first move. His opponent usually chose the side that had the most or the strongest pieces. Some tried to outguess the machine by picking the side that looked weaker, but it made no difference. With the first move, the automaton almost always won. I'he Turk also performed what is known as the Knight’s Tour. After the chessmen were removed from the board, a spectator was allowed to place a Knight upon any of the squares and, from there, the Turk moved it successively over the sixty-four squares in just sixty-four moves, without stopping on any square more than once. I'he one final trick in the Turk’s repertoire involved the board with golden letters, which was placed on the automaton’s chessboard at the com­ pletion of all chess activity. Kempelen then pre­ tended to adjust some interior mechanism which seemingly enabled the l urk to answer any question

3. Eventually business obligations called Kempelen back to Pressburg. Meanwhile, news of the marvel­ ous automaton chess player had spread throughout most of Europe. With each retelling, the story, which was quickly picked up by the newspapers and journals, became more exaggerated and distorted. The modest Kempelen had built the l urk simply to provide a few days’ entertainment for the Empress and the imperial court and had thus expected, upon his return home, to put the automaton aside and resume his work, which had been neglected some­ what during the time he had spent working on the chess player. He was, however, greatly mistaken in that expectation. As word o f the automaton spread, visitors to his dwelling in Pressburg formed lirst a small stream, then a steady flow, and finally a mighty torrent, interrupting him day and night and pre­ venting any thoughts other than those of the au­ tomaton from entering his mind. He was also inundated with letters demanding that he explain the automaton or begging his permission to inspect the mechanism.

COURTESY OF JGW .

19

Q J t jn u / m

In Pressburg, Kempelen’s home soon became the center of much unwelcome attention, b y p e r m is s io n ok b l .

Mr. Dutens. Louis Dutens was an English clergy­ man of French Huguenot ancestry who had re­ ceived his clerical post at Elsdon as a favor from his friend and patron the Duke of Northumberland. When Dutens first arrived at Elsdon, his appear­ ance, manners, and foreign accent excited consider­ able surprise among his parishioners, but his professional duties, they soon discovered, consisted chiefly of escorting the Duke’s son, Lord Percy Algernon, around the capitals of Europe. After trying the automaton’s skill in a game, Dutens wrote the first English report of the Turk in a letter to the Gentleman's Magazine, datelined Pressburg, July 24, 1770. A French version of the same letter appeared in the Mercure de France. Like many others, Dutens tried to deceive the Turk by making a false move. At one point in the game he moved his Queen like a Knight. Instead of removing the Queen and taking a move, the automaton merely replaced the impertinent piece on the square from which it had made the illegal Knight move and allowed Dutens to continue. A frequent visitor to Kempelen’s study was the The Reverend Mr. Louis Dutens wrote perhaps the first aforementioned Karl Gottlieb von Windisch, who English account of the automaton, b y p e r m is s io n o f b l . was personally acquainted with Kempelen and who often played chess with the automaton. In 1773, from the audience by pointing successively to letters Windisch published some accounts o f the T urk in making up the reply. To indicate the end of each several provincial German journals and later in­ word, the automaton returned his arm to the cluded them in his Georgraphy of the Kingdom of cushion. An assistant usually repeated each letter Hungary. Windisch wrote some letters about the and word in a loud voice, for the benefit o f persons automaton to his friend Chretien de Mechel in Basel and, in 1783, Mechel published the letters in a in the rear o f the room. One of the many groups of visitors to Kempelen’s pamphlet, with three plates carefully engraved house included the English ambassador, several from Kempelen’s own drawings of the automaton. English lords, Prince Guistiniani, and the Reverend Apparently neither Windisch nor Dutens learned

20

Karl Gottlieb von W indisch, who witnessed the Turk’s debut, later provided the most complete description of the automaton, b y p e r m is s io n o f o n .

began to find that fame, however glittering, has its drawbacks. Many years of time, and the greater part of his fortune, had he lavished in improving the science o f hydraulics. These efforts were before the public; but, although deservedly of merit, his im ­ proved fire-engines and water-pumps were al­ together pushed into the shade, in favor of the automaton chess player!” Kempelen perhaps could have quelled the inter­ est in his automaton by simply exposing the T urk’s secrets to the public, but he could not bring himself to do that. Though he thought them “a mere trifle,” he could not give up so easily the secrets which had baffled the best scientific minds of all Europe. The Baron had several offers to purchase the automaton and the secrets for large sums of money from persons hoping to profit by exhibiting the Turk. Kempelen, however, had not created the automaton to make money and he had not charged visitors to view the automaton, since his sense of honor pre­ vented him from taking profits from an invention he regarded as a trick. It was for him a mere

the secrets o f how the Turk played chess. “Is it an illusion?” asked Windisch, “So be it. But it is, then, an illusion which does honor to the human mind; an illusion more surprising, more inconceivable, than all those which are to be found in the different collections of mathematical recreations.” Dutens, who appeared even more mystified than Windisch, wrote, “You will perhaps expect me to propose some conjectures ;is to the means employed to direct this machine in its movements. 1 wish I could form any that were reasonable and well founded; but not­ withstanding the minute attention with which I have repeatedly observed it, 1 have not been able in the least degree to form any hypothesis which could satisfy myself.” Kempelen himself was the first to admit the automaton was an illusion. To a group of friends, including Windisch, he declared, “It is a mere trifle, not without merit as to its mechanism; but those effects, which to the spectator appear so wonderful, arise merely from the boldness of the conception, and the fortunate choice of the means employed by me to carry out the illusion.” While not attempting to pass o ff the automaton as a pure machine, the Baron never revealed in public just what the illusion was or what means he used to carry it out. Yet he did not want the fame and applause the automaton had suddenly thrust upon him. “Torn to pieces by the crowd, who eagerly rushed to view the phenomenon," wrote chess journalist George Walker, “Kempelen found it was easier to raise a spirit than to lay him again. Pestered with letters demanding explanation, from all the savants of Europe; annoyed at the absurdities . . . by the public press; and called upon morning, noon, and night to set up [the automaton], poor Kempelen

George Walker, author of “ Anatomy of the Chess Automaton,” spread the Turk’s fame, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

21

recreation; he considered his profession was sci­ ence, not magic tricks and conjuring. Finally Kempelen hit upon an idea to unburden himself of the tiresome duties thrust upon him by the Turk. He partly dismantled the automaton, stowed him away, and let it be known that the mechanism had been damaged by frequent moving from place to place. As a result, he said, the machine could no longer be exhibited. Thus he was able to resume work on the mechanical devices which he believed to be his life’s work. In the story “Enoch Soames” by Max Beerbohm, Soames, who fancied himself a writer destined for literary immortality, sold his soul to the devil in exchange for a chance to visit the reading room of the British Museum one hundred years in the future to savor the acclaim denied him in the present. Had Kempelen made a similar deal for a two-hundred-year time trip, he would have found a few scattered references to himself as a hydraulic

A Knight’s Tour adorned the title page of Racknitz’s book on the automaton. COURTESY OFJGW .

engineer and inventor of a speaking machine. However, he would have found that he was chiefly remembered for a feat he considered a mere trifle, a trick, a bagatelle: the invention of the famous automaton chess player.

ON T H E CHESSBOARD T he K night’s T o u r When Windisch witnessed the first public exhibi­ tion of Kempelen’s chess automaton, he was, of course, amazed by the T urk’s ability to conduct a game of chess, but in addition he added, “The moving o f the Knight successively over the sixtyfour squares of the board, in as many leaps, is also a feat too remarkable to be passed over. As soon as the chessmen are taken off, one of the bystanders places a Knight on any square of the board he chooses. I'he Automaton lifts up the Knight, and beginning at the square on which he stands, causes it to cover the sixty-four squares in the same num ber of moves, without missing one, and without touching one

The Knight’s Tour began by allowing a spectator to place the piece on any square of the chessboard. COURTESY OFJGW .

22

The most interesting routes are the reentrant or closed tours, in which it is possible to start on any square and return to that same square on the sixty-fourth move. The Turk always performed that type of tour, in which, as Windisch reported, a spectator was allowed to begin the demonstration byplacing the Knight on any one of the sixty-four squares. I'he most interesting of the closed tours display some form o f symmetry.

Knight’s Tour 1 When Kempelen exhibited the Turk, the au­ tomaton may have executed the following fascinat­ ing symmetrical design. It is almost certain that this Knight’s Tour was used at a later period of the automaton’s career. I'he tour was composed by Euler around 1759 and undoubtedly would have been available to Kempelen.

The Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler solved the K night’s Tour algebraically, b y p e r m i s s io n o f o n .

square twice over. The spectator marks the squares in the progress o f this difficult calculation, by placing a counter on each square to which the Knight is played. No matter what square you first seat the Knight upon, he never misses the perform­ ance of his task.” The Knight’s Tour, which was often performed by the Turk throughout his career, was nothing new in Kempelen’s day. Л complete tour o f the chessboard probably had been known to al-Adli, a ninth-century Moslem composer of chess problems. Even before that time, early Moslem and Indian manuscripts had described half-board tours of thirty-two squares. About 1759, the great Swiss mathematician, Leonard Euler, worked out general principles for calculating the Knight’s Tour and composed a number o f beautifully symmetrical tours. Further methods for composing tours were later described by Vandermonde, Moon, De Moivre, and Roget. Despite the difficulty o f composing Knight’s Tours, there are considerably more possible tours of the sixty-four squares than one might suppose. Estimates have ranged from the conservative “ex­ ceeds thirty-one million” to the not-so-ridiculous “zillions.”

23

Knight's Tour 2

K night’s Tour 3

Euler also composed tours comprising half the board. Two such pathways, when combined, form a complete tour, provided it is possible to ju m p from one half to the other. In the following example, the series 1...32, when inverted, is identical with 33... 64. As pointed out in Le Palamede, 1842, other tours may be constructed by making transforma­ tions in the original route 1...32, such as: I. 7 ... 1, 8 ...3 2 . II. 7 ... 1, 8 ...2 5 , 32...26. III. 15... 10,7... 1,8,9, 16... 21,24...32,23,22.

One o f the most fascinating of the symmetrical Knight’s Tours was first published in the Schach Zeilung, 1849. As in many other symmetrical tours, any two squares on the opposite side o f the center, and equidistant from it, have numbers with a difference of thirty-two. But in addition, this tour forms a magic square. The numbers in each rank and file add up to 260. Surprisingly, this is not the only Knight’s Tour discovered which forms a magic square.

» т

У

2 Cashing Coin from Base Metal: Travels with the Turk

1. In the fall of 1781, nearly a year after the death of Maria Theresa, her son and heir the Emperor Joseph II interrupted the work of his counselor Baron von Kempelen with a summons to appear at court. When the inventor arrived in Vienna, Joseph told him that he remembered the automaton chess player, which had excited so much interest a decade earlier, and wondered if Kempelen could again present the marvelous Turk at court for the forth­ coming visit o f the Grand Duke and Duchess of Russia. The Baron was gratified to have a chance to please his sovereign and immediately consented to begin the task o f rehabilitating the automaton. Joseph liked the Grand Duke Paul and especially favored his consort, the Grand Duchess Marya Fyodorovna. He had met the royal couple the year before, when he had visited Russia, and had praised them in a letter to Maria Theresa, saying, “The Grand Duke is greatly undervalued abroad. His wife is very beautiful and seems created for her position. They understand each other perfectly. They are clever and vivacious and very well edu­ cated, as well as high-principled, open and just. I'he happiness of others is more to them than wealth.” Paul, however, had been greatly ill at ease with his mother, the Empress Catherine II; and thus, in September 1781, he and the Grand Duchess began an extended visit to the capitals of Europe. Travel­ ing as the Count and Countess du Nord, they

The Emperor Joseph II, a devotee of chess, did not forget Kempelen’s Turk. BY p e r m is s io n o f o n .

planned to stop first at Vienna, where Joseph wished to do everything he could to make their visit a pleasant one. The Emperor thought Kempelen’s automaton might amuse his royal guests, who fan­ cied chess.

25

The Grand Duke Paul was responsible for the Turk’s resurrection, b y p e r m is s io n o f o n .

2. Progress was slow on this early-model speaking

Kempelen, since 1769, had been experimenting machine, so Kempelen abandoned it and started over. with speaking machines, artificial devices patterned COURTESY OFJGW . after the human voice and capable of imitating it to some extent. He hoped that after the machines were \hdi\.papa sounded likephaa-ph-a. perfected they might enable mute persons to speak. After working on the machine for two years he At first the inventor tried to produce vowel sounds by positioning his hand in various ways was so dissatisfied that he abandoned it completely inside a funnel-shaped device fitted with a tube, but and began work on a new speaking machine. The that attempt proved unsatisfactory. Then after a new device, more like a hum an speech organ, had detailed study of the human vocal organs, he an elastic, funnel-shaped rubber mouth and two constructed a jawlike mechanism consisting of a tubes of tin to represent a nose. By shutting the two-part, hinged, hollow, oval box fitted with a mouth and opening both nasal tubes, he could sound tube powered by a bellows. I'he sounds a, o, produce a perfect m sound, which could be changed and и could be produced with the jaws in various to n by simply closing one of the tubes. He soon positions, but the e sound was faulty, while i was discovered a way to make a p sound which, when modified, sounded something like the consonants d, impossible to produce. Further experiments with the device enabled g, k, and /. By further manipulations and combina­ Kempelen to add the consonant sounds/, in, n, and p tions he was able to produce about thirty words and and to combine them with vowels to create syllables a few phrases. The machine’s vocabulary included and words, such as maman, papa, aula, lama, and utterances such iisastronomie, chapeau, opera, comedie, mulo. He built the vowel and consonant elements pantomime; and even Constantinopolis, Mississippi, and into a keyboard instrument resembling a small Josephus Secundus Romanorum Imperator. organ, but the sounds did not come out just right, so Eventually Kempelen refined the machine to the

26

Kempelen operated this speaking machine, now at the Deutches Museum, M unich, as a musician plays a fine instrument. COURTESY o f d m .

point where it could pronounce any word in Latin, French, or Italian. It was capable of speaking complex sentences such as “M a chere Mama, aime moi; je vous aime de tout mon coeur—Oh, ma chere Mere, on m'a fa il du ma-a-a-al." When Kempelen exhibited the machine, spec­ tators saw a cloth-covered box sitting on a table. While pum ping a bellows apparatus on the side, the

inventor would slip his hand under the cloth to form words requested by the audience. Once a young lady found Kempelen alone in the room where he was exhibiting the speaking machine. As she approached, the Baron bowed and addressed her by name while, at the same time, a second voice joined him in the greeting. Kempelen could hardly keep the poor girl from running out of the room in terror, but finally reassured her by explaining the invention. The speaking machine also answered questions from spectators. When Windisch heard the device, he said it answered “clearly and distinctly” in a “sweet and agreeable” voice, but that it pronounced the letter r “lispingly and with a certain harshness.” He added, “When its answer is not perfectly under­ stood, it repeats it slower, and if required to speak a third time, it repeats it again, but with a tone of impatience and vexation.” Goethe once heard the machine and commented that it could produce some childish words very nicely. Kempelen had intended to dress the machine in the form of a human child of the age of five or six. He thought the voice sounded like that of a child of that age, and, in addition, he wanted to show that the machine was not yet perfected but was in a state

Kempelen’s right elbow operated the bellows while his hands entered the two holes in the box. c o u r t e s y o f jg w

.

27

Inside the box, Kempelen’s right hand operated various levers and keys while his left hand manipulated the flexible mouth, C. c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

of childhood. However, the inventor probably never carried out his plans to dress the machine. Kempelen realized his speaking machines were not faultless, but hoped that in the future some inventor would be able to perfect them. He thus described the machines fully in his book The Mechanism of Human Speech. Many years later, a copy of the book fell into the hands of Sir Charles Wheatstone, who decided to reconstruct one of the machines from the descriptions and diagrams. A friend of Wheatstone heard of the experiments and came to see the machine and hear it talk. 'I'he friend’s young son, who accompanied his father, later wrote, “I saw Sir Charles manipulate the machine, and heard it speak; and although the articulation was disappointingly crude, it made a great impression on my mind. Sir Charles very kindly loaned my father Baron von Kempelen’s book, and I devoured it when we reached home.” Thus it was not Wheatstone who fulfilled Kempe­ len’s hopes for the perfection of the speaking machine, but rather that young lad, whose name was Alexander Graham Bell.

t.

3. After working five weeks, Kempelen had the Turk ready to perform for the visit of the Grand Duke and Duchess in November 1781. The Baron had completely refurbished the automaton with new clothing and decorations in preparations for the court appearance, which took place as planned.

Sir Charles Wheatstone reconstructed Kempelen’s speaking machine, b y p e r m is s io n o f n p g .

28

Although the royal pair had been lavished with every entertainment that hum an talent and in­ genuity o f the day could provide, they were struck with surprise and admiration when the Turk was exhibited for their amusement. They, along with others o f the nobility present, urged Kempelen to take the automaton on a tour of the European capitals so that others might see the amazing inven­ tion. That suggestion must have caused some conflict within the inventor’s conscience, for he still felt that it was wrong to profit from an invention he knew to be a deception. As George Walker put it, “His nice sense of honor prevented him from stooping to coin cash, from metal so intrinsically base, as he felt the ore in question really to be.” But on the other hand, Kempelen’s fortunes had been badly depleted by several years of incessant work on the speaking machines, from which he had not yet gained any profits. Many of the courtiers advised him that he owed it to his family to take advantage of the money-making potential o f the chess automaton. It would have mortified Kempelen to have been discovered in a deception before the public, but he no longer feared that the secrets o f the T urk’s operation would be exposed. He had exhibited the automaton often enough to be confident of success. Furthermore, the inventor wanted an excuse to travel and exhibit his speaking machines publicly, for he felt that the inventions were not fully ap­ preciated at home. Perhaps the deciding factor in favor of the tour was provided by the Emperor Joseph, who joined the others in being delighted and astonished by the feats of the Turk. The Emperor was eager for the rest of Europe to see such a marvel, which had arisen in the Habsburg realms. Thus Joseph liber­ ally rewarded Kempelen for his performance and offered to allow the inventor a leave of absence for two years, during which time his salary as counselor o f finances would continue. The Baron agreed to take the automaton chess player on a journey through France, England, and Germany, where the Turk had become something of a legend since his first appearance at the Viennese court in 1770. Travel in the eighteenth century was anything but pleasant. To get anywhere, it was necessary to spend many days bum ping along over rough roads in a horse-drawn carriage. Kempelen at first considered sending the automaton on tour with an exhibitor while he himself remained at home. The inventor, however, rejected that plan because he feared the Turk might require repairs, which would have to be entrusted to some foreign workman. I f that failed, the profits from the tour might be lost. Thus Kempelen decided to go along to supervise repairs, but he did not wish to have to exhibit the machine himself. For that purpose he hired an assistant

known as Herr Anthon to officiate at the exhibitions. The Baron hired another assistant, a strong chess player whose name may never have been revealed, to act as the automaton’s concealed director. There are several possible clues to that director’s identity, but none is completely satisfactory. I'he French conjurer, Robert-Houdin, revealed in his memoirs that the T urk’s secret director was a legless Polish patriot named Worousky. I'he rest of RobertH oudin’s story, however, seems at great variance with the true history of the Turk and will be quot­ ed in a later chapter on fictional automatons, not so much because it is fiction, which it may be, but be­ cause many pieces of fiction have been based upon the account. It is just possible, however, that there might have been a real director named Worousky. Edgar Allan Poe thought that in Kempelen’s time the secret director of the Turk had been an Italian who traveled with the Baron but was never seen during exhibitions of the automaton. Mrs. Rivardi, a friend of the Kempelen family, once reported that the director (or directress) was Kempelen’s own twelve-year-old daughter, who eventually had to give up her duties for reasons of health. Kempelen evidently kept the secret identity of his director carefully hidden, since it is not known which, if any, of the above reports are true. The Turk himself required some modifications to facilitate packing him for journeys from one city to another. Eventually all preparations were com­ pleted, so that early in the year 1783 Kempelen set out for Paris, accompanied not only by his assistants, but by his wife, his two daughters, and his two sons.

4. Kempelen arrived at the French capital about the middle of April, 1783. He planned to exhibit the Turk at a theater there beginning Monday, the twenty-first. Before he could begin, however, he was summoned to give an exhibition for the royal court at Versailles. Interest there was so great that it was not until May that he was able to show the automa­ ton in Paris. At Versailles the automaton was

At Versailles the Duke beat the Turk,

29

from ac.

occasionally outplayed, once by the Due de Bouil­ lon. The Duke then asked the Turk if he would play the great Francois Andre Danican Philidor, but the automaton answered, by means of his alphabet board, that he was unworthy of such competition. Eventually Kempelen moved into Paris and made his headquarters at the Hotel d’Aligne, rue d ’Orleans St. Honore. At that time the center of chess in Paris, and in fact the world, was the Cafe de la Regence. After moving to Paris, Kempelen matched his automaton against the best of the players at the famous cafe. I'he Regence had been built 011 the location o f Henry IV ’s victorious entry into Paris and so it was said to be natural that it became the perpetual battleground of kings. It was frequented by the foremost chess players of the day, such as Verdoni, Leger, Carlier, and Bernard; but the greatest among them was the nearly legendary Philidor, unequaled in his time at chess and also a noted musician. The Turk was no match for the players at the Regence; yet he put up such a good fight that he always won a round of applause for his efforts. Kempelen never claimed that his chess player was invincible and it seemed only natural that the world’s best flesh-and-blood players could beat a machine. It almost seemed as if the defeats actually enhanced the T urk’s popularity. There were in Paris, however, only seven or eight persons who could beat the Automaton. Bernard, although he had beaten the automaton,

Against the Turk, Philidor failed by winning, o f jg w

was convinced that his adversary had displayed great resources. Thus there was a great demand for a game between the Turk and Philidor. Interest in viewing the wondrous machine was especially high at the Academie des Sciences and a performance was organized before that body, in which the Turk was to compete with Philidor. I'he game proved to be a very difficult ordeal for Philidor and one in which he failed, but not in the ordinary way. While preparations for the match were in prog­ ress, Kempelen went to the great French master with an unusual request: “I am not a sorcerer, as you well know, and my automaton is no stronger than I. It is my last resource and my only livelihood now. Think, sir, what it would mean to me if I could announce at the exhibitions and proclaim in the newspapers that my automaton had beaten you.” Philidor, with his usual benevolence and lack of vanity, replied, “Sir, I would be glad to do it." Then, after a moment’s reflection, he added, "But you must admit that, in your own interest, we must not appear to conspire. I must defend myself and it must not seem that I am demonstrating any negli­ gence, but I shall do all I can, I promise you, to be beaten by your automaton.” His good wishes were in vain, however, and all his efforts to succumb were futile. Philidor found it more difficult to lose under such conditions than to win and finally had to beat the Turk. All those who witnessed the contest agreed that Philidor had hardly played his best game; yet the great master himself often said that the chess game with the automaton was the most fatiguing of any that he had ever played. It was because he had failed to achieve his goal: defeat! Before Kempelen left Vienna, he had asked M. Valltravers to write a letter introducing him to Benjamin Franklin, who was then American A m ­ bassador to France. The occasion of this letter is furnished me [wrote Valltravers on December 12, 1782], by a very ingenious gentlem an, Monsieur Kempelen, Counsellor of his Imperial Majesty’s Finances for the Kingdom of Hungary who, 011 a furlough obtained for two years, is ready to set out for Paris, Brussels, and England, attended by his whole family; not only to satisfy his own curiosity, but also in a great measure, that of the public. Endowed with peculiar taste and genius for mechanical inventions and improvements for which he sees 110 manner o f encouragement in these parts, he means to import several of his most important discoveries and experiments wherever they shall be best received and rewarded. As an amusing specimen of his skill in mechanics, and as a means at the same time of supporting his traveling charges, he intends to exhibit the figure of a Turk playing at chess with any player, and answering, by pointing at the letters of an al­ phabet, any question made to him. I saw him play-

courtesy

.

30

Гг JH

otel

de Va le n t ih o u

№ 6 Ш Я Ш 1ii№№ ^ S /Л

•»' i *• 4_

‘ ••

* •*4* •

•*• /I

.

"• • ...... -г^«^|:|1Я|1: ...:■■/■;//. W.A:r *

I

* f,

Г

•

* •*. ’ * • * •* *'v

•# f ■ • \»

••

* . » ■. .

.

•

• .... V.Vj.|

r:\ ' . i r •..• p h y .

And laftly, whcu the Check­

mate is givert on either Side, if the Орройг attempts to purfuc the Game, the Automaton refufes by (baking its Head. T he Game being over, and the Pieces all taken off, except one of the Knights, which may be fet at Pleafure on any one of the Sixty-four Squares, the Auto­ maton moves it fuccefTively, by its proper Move, into every Square of the Board, w ithout ever bringing it twice into the fame Square. F inally, this Automaton gives Anfwers to any QuefUon propofed by the Speftators.

P hilip Thicknesse, usually described as an eccentric, “ Exposed and Detected” Kempelen’s Turk, b y p e r m is ­ s io n o f

BL.

T his is accomplifhed by (hewing w ith its Fingers on an Alphab:t*

Table, the Letters, w hich compofe the W ords neceffary for that Purpofe.

/

Bcfides this Automaton, there is another Machine to be feen, no: lefs wonder­ ful and new.

SP1

Such a Contrivance was attempted in feveral Ages, without any

Succefs, and its Performance, reputed quite iropoflible.

A K IN C ,

I K ilM lK .

T his Machine now is

brought into Execution, confiding in a fmall Organ, w hich having the Voice

of a C hild between five and fix Years of Age, fpcaks a great many W ords very diAinltljr, when played by its Inventor.

Admittance

FIFE

4

H p

T II >

SHILLINGS. AU T O M A T O N CHESS-PLAYER,

Parties o f at 1еаЛ Light Perfons, may have a private Exhibition to themfcives, at any ocher H our o f their own Choice, on giving previous Notice to M r.

A n t i i o n , at the above-mentioned Place, and fending for Tickets. T abtci by It. R E T N E L L , Q H . t i j Fkofclty. o a r the H iy-U nct*

KXI’OSEI) AND DETECTED.

A 1784 advertisement for the London exhibitions of the chess automaton told of Anthon but not Kempelen. COURTESY O FJG W . N tfl

H it С

NVVJMVt

k i l l

N i n i l .

5. As originally planned, Kempelen and his entour­ age left Paris and, crossing the English Channel, arrived in London in time for the exhibition season which began in the fall of 1783. There was in -London at that time a growing interest in chess, especially among the aristocracy. That enthusiasm was due primarily to the influence of Philidor, who was engaged by the prestigious Chess Club for a stay of four months in the English capital every winter.

LONDON: •

PRINTED w > f ОI I I I

К OR

JOHN

STOCKDALE,

b и Я I I N г. т O N - N О Г » I ,

M DCC L X I X I V .

COURTESY OFJGW .

35

I I С С A l> I t t T .

elbow. Before each move, Thicknesse noted, the exhibitor would put his left hand into his pocket and make a great show o f moving his hand and fingers back and forth, as if he were thus influencing the autom aton’s movements. Occasionally Anthon would unlock and lock the little cabinet on a side table or wi^d up the automaton with a key. Thicknesse was deceived by none of those actions, which he judged were “merely to puzzle the spec­ tators.” He remarked that Anthon was a good chess player, to which the exhibitor instantly repled, “La, la; so, so." Thicknesse, however, did not really think that Anthon was the T urk’s director but suspected instead “an invisible Agent," a child, in fact, “of ten, twelve, or fourteen years of age,” who was concealed inside the automaton’s cabinet. To support that argument, Thicknesse noted that the automaton was exhibited only from one to two o’clock, when longer performances would have allowed more profits. He reasoned that the hidden player could not have endured longer confinements. At first Thicknesse guessed that the concealed director “may probably see the moves, by a looking-glass fixed to the ceiling,” but he soon changed his mind, conjecturing, “I rather think the invisible player sees all the moves through the hair trimmings of the T urk’s habit.” He was certain that the director moved the automaton’s hand by putting his own arm into the sleeve of the Turk. As evidence, he noticed one or two movements in the ermine trimmings of the T urk’s cloak at a time when the automaton should have been completely at rest. Thicknesse was undoubtedly correct in that obser­ vation since Edgar Allan Poe saw a similar motion while observing the Turk more than fifty years later. Thicknesse was quite close to the truth about the chess automaton and published his ideas in a pamphlet in 1784, but since he did not support his theories with drawings or a more detailed explana­ tion, his expose was regarded by many as mere rhetoric. Although the chess player was an enormous success in London, it must have been a great disappointment to Kempelen that his speaking machine was all but ignored. I'he inventor adver­ tised the contrivance along with the chess automa­ ton and he himself demonstrated its ability to reproduce any word that a spectator might call for; but there was good reason for the public apathy. Less than a hundred yards from Kempelen’s hall, a Frenchman was exhibiting, for half a crown adm it­ tance, a rival attraction known as the “Speaking Figure.” It consisted of a doll “about the size o f a very young child,” suspended by a ribbon around its waist in the doorway of a room. The doll had in its mouth a tin horn about a foot in length, into which spectators could whisper questions in French, English, German, or Italian. “Quelle age avez vous? How old are you?” asked

At first, the l urk was exhibited at No. 8 Saville Row, Burlington Gardens, but was later moved to No. 14 St. James’s Street. At both locations, the chess automaton was shown from one to two o’clock every afternoon except Sundays at an admission price of five shillings. “Hundreds and thousands of per­ sons,” wrote the exuberant Walker, “flocked to the show; and the silver crowns rained down on the ingenious inventor, till he was knee-deep in the argent stream.” One of the most interesting visitors to the exhibi­ tion was Philip Thicknesse, an elderly gentleman who had been quite an adventurer in his youth. He had served with Oglethorpe in Georgia and as a soldier of fortune in Jamaica. Later he had become lieutenant-governor of Languard Fort and was the self-styled patron of the artist Thomas Gains­ borough, until their friendship was broken by a “wretched squabble.” Thicknesse had, said one writer, “in a remarkable degree the faculty of lessening the number of his friends and increasing the number of his enemies.” Thicknesse was outraged at having had to pay fifteen shillings to admit his family to see the Turk, but his character was such that he probably wouldn’t have missed the performance at any price. Forty years earlier Thicknesse had been one of three hundred spectators who had gathered to witness a coach move without horses. “Many persons present were angry with me,” explained Thicknesse, “for saying it was trod round by a man within the hoop, or hinder wheels; but a small paper of snuff, put into the wheel, soon convinced every person present that it could not only move, but sneeze too, perfectly like a Christian.” When Thicknesse discovered Kempelen's exhibi­ tion in St. James’s Street, his indignation rose. “Let the Exhibitor. . . call it a G O O D D ECEPT ION , and, I will subscribe to the truth of it,” he exclaimed; “but while he draws a large sum of money from us, under the assurances of its being an Automaton that moves by mechanical powers, he endeavours to deceive, and it is fair game to expose it, that the price at least may be reduced. For I confess it is a curiosity, and I believe as much money would be received at one shilling each, as is gained, by demanding five.” Inside the exhibition hall, Thicknesse saw what he conceded to be “a well-executed figure of a Turk,” sitting behind a wooden cabinet, and under “a kind of tent.” The automaton was separated from the audience by a railing, which presumably would have provided protection from such hazards as Thicknesse’s paper of snuff. The only person be­ hind the railing was Anthon, who began the per­ formance by opening the cabinet to demonstrate the machinery inside. Kempelen, when present, gener­ ally sat among the spectators. After the usual preparations the game began, during which Anthon stood next to the Turk’s right

36

»т; •

«V

* »ч

Kempclen’s visit to London was a financial success but the Baron had hoped that somehow his inven­ tions would be received with more enthusiasm among scientists. He probably never realized what a profound effect one of his machines had upon the Reverend Edm und Cartwright and upon the course o f the Industrial Revolution. Had Cartwright not visited Kempelen’s exhibition in London, he prob­ ably would have remained an obscure country clergyman and poet. The events which resulted from that visit were described by Cartwright him ­ self:

iCV

Happening to be at Matlock in the summer of 1784, I fell in company with some gentlemen of Manchester, when the conversation turned to Arkwright’s spinning machinery. One of the company observed that as soon as Arkwright’s patent expired, so many mills would be erected and so much cotton spun that hands never could be found to weave it. . . . I replied that Arkwright must set his wits to work to invent a weaving mill. . . . The Manchester gentlemen unani­ mously agreed that the thing was impracticable; and, in defence of their opinion, they adduced arguments which I certainly was incompetent to answer, . . . having never at the time seen a person weave. I controverted, however, the impractica­ bility of the thing by remarking that there had lately been exhibited in London an automaton figure which played chess. “Now you will not assert, gentlemen,” said I, “that it is more difficult to construct a machine that shall weave than one which shall make all the variety of moves required in that complicated game.”

The Speaking Figure, a fraudulent rival of Kempelen’s speaking machine, was exhibited just down the street. COURTESY O FJG W .

Thicknesse, who naturally intended to expose the fraud. "J’ai dix-huil. I am eighteen,” replied the Speaking Figure in a faint whisper. After a bit of investigation, Thicknesse explained that a “prostrate confederate" was concealed over the doorway and spoke or listened through a trumpet mounted in a hole in the ceiling. A third trumpet, hidden in the doll’s feathered headdress, transmitted sounds between the other two trum ­ pets. To prove his point, Thicknesse installed a similar Speaking Figure in his own home. Although the Speaking Figure was a fake, it must have appeared to many gullible spectators a more remarkable invention than Kempelen’s genuine speaking machine. The Speaking Figure had also been exhibited in Paris, which probably explains the apparent lack of interest there in Kempelen’s speaking machine. Moreover, Kempelen had not perfected all the details of construction of his device until several months after his arrival in Paris. In 1784, while Kempelen was still in London, Thicknesse anonymously published his ideas in a booklet, The Speaking Figure, and the Automaton Chess-player, Exposed and Detected.

Shortly thereafter Cartwright remembered the conversation and began to solve the problem of constructing a power loom. He immediately employed workmen to put his plans into effect. His first invention, which he patented in 1785, was, in his own words, “a most rude piece of machinery.” He soon found, upon inspecting some ordinary looms then in use, that they were actually easier to operate than his invention. In 1787, however, he patented a much improved power loom, which was eventually refined further. By 1833, more than 100,000 of the machines were in operation, chang­ ing the clothing industry forever. Ironically, Cartwright probably never realized that Kcmpelen’s automaton, the inspiration for it all, was only a deception; but that, of course, did not make Cartwright’s inventions any less real.

37

6. Kempelen remained in London for nearly a year but left in time to reach Leipzig in September 1784 for the Michaelmas Fair. Along the way he stopped for brief exhibitions at cities such as Frankfurt am Main and Gotha. In Leipzig, the Turk and even the speaking machine were soon attracting enthusiastic audiences. They were, in fact, the two most remark­ able attractions at the fair. Kempelen demonstrated the speaking machine, which was greatly admired, while Anthon officiated when the chess automaton was exhibited. In Leipzig the T urk’s adversaries were not per­ mitted to make their moves on the same chessboard as the automaton, but rather on another board placed at a table outside the railing and to one side. That arrangement, it was claimed, allowed the spectators a better view, and possibly it prevented the opponents from hearing the movements of the concealed director. Kempelen, as before, sat among the spectators and sometimes seemed to take no interest in the games. Occasionally, however, he spoke to Anthon

The automaton’s exhibition area in Frankfurt featured the Turk, r, behind his cabinet, Imno. He faced the audience with his back to a recess in the wall, abed. A railing, efghik, separated the automaton from his oppo­ nent, s, and the spectators. Anthon usually stood at q, between the Turk’s cabinet and the small cabinet,/}. In Frankfurt, the automaton played about thirty games, losing only two. COURTESY OFJGW .

38

in a coded language which none of the audience could understand. I f a game lasted too long, Kempelen would suggest that it be speeded up or perhaps terminated. There seems to have been at Leipzig more interest in the l urk’s ability to answer questions than there had been in London. After a game had been concluded and the Knight’s T our had been per­ formed, Anthon brought out the board with golden letters, placed it on the cabinet, adjusted the machinery, and wound up the automaton as he did during a game. At one of the Leipzig performances the questioning session began with a spectator asking, “Turk, what do you think of the women in Leipzig?” The automaton appeared to reflect for a moment, and then began to point at letters on the board, pausing to place his arm on the cushion between words. Although he had formed his replies in French when in Paris, he now answered in German. Anthon loudly pronounced each word for the benefit of persons standing at a distance. “T H EY ARE EX C E E D IN G LY B E A U T IFU L,” spelled out the Turk with laborious precision. The audience was greatly amused, and soon another onlooker inquired, “How does this machine work?” “H A V E N ’T YOU SEEN IT ?” “What is in that small box over there?” asked another. “A PART OF T H E SECRET.” “How is the Emperor in Vienna?” “VERY W ELL.” “How did your last opponent play?” “AS W ELL AS P H IL ID O R .” “Turk, are you married?” “I HA V E M ANY W IVES.” “How old are you?” “ 192 M O N T H S .” “How do you like Leipzig?” “IT IS A SM ALL PARA DISE.” “How many variations are there in the game of chess?” In response to the last question the Turk first pointed to the one, then many times to the zero, indicating an inconceivably large number. The Turk lost only two games in Leipzig and thus excited great curiosity as to how a machine could play chess so well. Two of the spectators, Carl Friedrich Hindenburg and Johann Jakob Ebert, each wrote booklets detailing the visit and attempt­ ing to explain the mystery. Neither writer, however, suspected that a concealed player was responsible for the automaton’s operation. They seemed to be convinced that much of what they had observed was purely mechanical, influenced perhaps by Anthon through magnetism or some other force. It was exactly the impression that Kempelen and Anthon had hoped to convey.

i

Colored plates of Racknitz’s models illustrated his book. COURTESY OFJGW . f i-//

Joseph Friedrich, Freyherr zu Racknitz, was a model automaton builder, c o u r t e s y o f s h .

This Racknitz plate showed the Turk as viewed from behind, c o u r t e s y O F jc w .

Schloss Heinsheim, now a hotel, was the home of Racknitz. f r o m a c .

At Dresden a much more fascinating and original attempt to probe the Turk’s secrets was undertaken by Joseph Friedrich, Freyherr zu Racknitz. Kempelen arrived in Dresden toward the end of 1784 and began a series of exhibitions similar to those in Leipzig. Racknitz often visited the exhibi­ tion hall, where he became acquainted with Kempelen and discussed the chess automaton with him. The inventor, however, would not reveal the automaton’s secrets, so Racknitz set out to solve the

enigma for himself. He began his observations by watching the automaton as a whole, and then by scrutinizing one part of the machine at a time. At the same time, he collected, compared, and examined the remarks and speculations of other observers. He also studied a copy of Windisch’s letters describing the automaton. After systematically rejecting several suggested solutions, Racknitz finally concluded that a person hidden in the machine itself moved the Turk and directed his games. He was uncertain just how Kempelen had accomplished the trick but he felt that he himself at least might be able to duplicate the automaton. At a social gathering Racknitz explained his ideas to some friends, who encouraged him to explore the matter further. He therefore began to

39

•с According to some stories, the Turk’s tour ended in a storeroom at Potsdam, f r o m h m .

construct two small models of the automaton, not over a foot in length, the first to demonstrate how the hidden director conducted a game, and the second to show the whole machine. To complete the models, Racknitz enlisted the aid of Lieutenant Honig, his former mathematics teacher, who cor­ rected some details in the plans and built many of the interior parts. It took Racknitz nearly five years from the date of Kempelen’s Dresden visit to complete his models, have drawings made of them, and publish his booklet, Ueber den Schachspieler des Herrn von Kempe­ len und dessen Nachbildung (On Kempelen’s Chess Player and Its Imitation). The work appeared quite impressive, especially its seven colored plates showing every detail of Racknitz’s models. Unfor­ tunately, many persons did not look far beyond the plates and failed to realize that they portrayed only the models Racknitz had made and not Kempelen’s original automaton. No doubt the most notorious example of such a person was Thomas Collinson, an Englishman who toured the continent shortly after the publication o f Racknitz’s book. Mr. Eden, the English envoy in Dresden, had introduced Collin­ son to Racknitz, who presented the visitor with a copy of his book on the automaton. Collinson greatly admired the work and, not being able to read German, hoped to get it translated but, without waiting for the translation, he examined the “curi­

ous plates neatly coloured” and distilled the entire work into one sentence. “A well-taught boy, very thin and small of his age (sufficiently so that hecould be concealed in a drawer almost immediately under the chess-board), agitated the whole.” Thus was born the famous thin, small boy, who figured in nearly every subsequent work on the chess au­ tomaton and, through a further com pounding of errors, later became a thin, tall boy. Collinson also originated the legendary “Mr. Freyhere” through his ignorance of the title of his host, Joseph Fried­ rich, Freyherr zu Racknitz (roughly equivalent to Baron von Racknitz). Both “Mr. Freyhere” and the thin, small boy first made their appearances in a letter from Collinson, quoted in the 1796 supple­ ment to Hutton’s Philosophical and Mathematical Dictionary. Before going to Dresden, Collinson had visited Kempelen in Vienna and had noticed that “not a word passed about the chess-player.” He then con­ cluded, “This discovery at Dresden accounts for the silence about it at Vienna.” Actually, Racknitz dis­ covered very little that had not been suggested previously. Decremps in 1784 and Johann Lorenz Boeckmann in 1785 had already published expla­ nations which contained essentially the same ele­ ments Racknitz proposed in 1789. Racknitz was aware of the two earlier works, but claimed he had not seen them until his models were completed. As will be explained in Chapter Eight, all three solu­ tions were probably incorrect except for the fact that

40

a hum an director was concealed in the cabinet. After Dresden, Kempelen visited some other German cities and then exhibited his machines in Amsterdam in 1785. According to some accounts, the tour ended that same year in Berlin after Frederick the Great sent word that his court would welcome a chance to sec and play against the famous automaton chess player. ✓ Although Frederick was probably not a strong chess player, his name has sometimes been linked with the game. When Philidor visited the Prussian court at Potsdam in 1750, the King watched the Frenchman play but did not himself participate. Frederick was thought to have once carried on a correspondence game with Voltaire. The King supposedly sent his moves by royal courier to his old teacher, who often contemplated the position at the Cafe de la Rcgence before dispatching a reply. The story of Frederick and the chess automaton borders on the legendary but has found its way, in some form, into nearly every account of the Turk. According to most of the tales, Frederick was no match for the Turk, who defeated the King and his entire court. The monarch, however, was unwilling to let Kempelen depart without revealing the au­ tomaton’s inner workings, and he thus offered the inventor an enormous sum of money for the secrets of the machine. Some stories claim that Frederick purchased the automaton and kept the invention for many years in a storeroom at Potsdam; but later versions held 'that Frederick merely paid for the T urk’s secrets, allowing Kempelen to keep the machine. 1n either case, it was said that the price was paid and the courtiers were dismissed, after which Kempelen revealed to Frederick alone the secrets which had so greatly mystified the world. As the inventor had often predicted, when the solution was disclosed its fascination was lost, and Frederick was completely disillusioned. “The spell was dissolved,” added Walker, “the charm broken.” Though the monarch must have felt humiliated to have been deceived, he never divulged the secret for which he had paid so dearly. In 1785, at the end of his two-year leave, Baron

Frederick the Great, it was said, paid a handsome price for the automaton’s secret, f r o m h m .

von Kempelen returned to Vienna, where he ex­ perimented with fire-fighting equipment and hydraulic systems and tried to improve upon Arkwright’s cotton mill and upon the steam engine of Boulton and Watt. Me not only wrote The Mechanism of Human Speech but even composed works for the theater. Despite some reports that Anthon continued to exhibit the Turk, it seems more likely that the chess automaton remained dormant for a period of about twenty years, a time marked by the revolutions and wars that ushered out the eighteenth century and began the nineteenth. On March 26, 1804, Kempelen died at the age of seventy but his automaton chess player was destined for a career of fifty more years— a career filled with fantastic adventures the Baron could scarcely have imagined.

• •

3

Napoleon, the Turk, and the Prince of Entertainers

1.

In 1792, while Kempelen’s chess automaton re­ posed in a storeroom at Vienna, a Corsican youth awaiting employment by the French War Office came daily to play chess at the Cafe de la Regence. Lieutenant Napoleon Bonaparte, who then lived at a hotel on the nearby rue du Four, was thin, pale, and sickly-looking, with hair that fell to his shoul­ ders in a style known as spaniel’s ears. He wore a threadbare uniform much of the time, but his features had great delicacy and his keen eyes lit up when he talked. Several years later the management of the Re­ gence would preserve with great reverence a small table of gray marble bearing the incription, “Table on which Bonaparte the Consul played chess at the Cafe de la Regence in 1798.” At first one might not have recognized Bonaparte the Consul as the same Lieutenant Bonaparte who had earlier played at the Regence. His fine chestnut hair was cut short and was beginning to thin so that it exposed his brow, and he appeared more robust in contrast to the extreme thinness of his youth. Napoleon still maintained a great fancy for chess, but his manners at the chessboard had decidedly taken a turn for the worse. He was known to be a poor loser, becoming vexed and irritable under defeat. Moreover, he was prone to cheat at chess as well as at other games. Napoleon made illegal

An unemployed youth named Napoleon played chess at the Cafe de la Regence. f r o m a c .

moves, which few of his opponents dared correct, and he would even go so far as to slyly sneak his adversary’s pieces off the board or return his own captured men to the scene of battle. He cheated because he liked to win, and the added excitement of escaping detection increased his pleasure in the game. Many of his opponents, of course, were fully aware of his trickery, but with few exceptions the

42

I

As First Consul, then Emperor, Napoleon had become nearly “ invincible” at chess, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

members of his court purposely allowed him to win his cherished victories rather than risk the dubious glory o f beating the great general. Several stories of Napoleon are set against the background of a game of chess. Among them, the incident which occurred at Malmaison on the eve of the execution of the Due d ’Enghien seems to be well documented. It was on March 20, 1804, that the thirty-one-year-old Duke, a prince of the house of Bourbon, had been taken to Vincennes, where he was judged guilty of some treasonous acts and sentenced to be executed the following morning. Napoleon, accompanied by Josephine and mem­ bers of the court, had gone to seek rest and isolation at Malmaison. Distracted, but affecting calm, the - First Consul seated himself at a table and proposed a game of chess with the Comtesse Claire de Remusat, a lady in waiting to Josephine and a woman of great sensitivity and intelligence. Mme. de Remusat, trembling at the thought of the im pending execu-

43

The Due d ’Enghien awaited death while Napoleon played chess, f r o m а с .

tion, had persuaded Josephine to intercede with Napoleon on the Duke’s behalf. Josephine’s efforts, however, had not succeeded, and as the chess game began Mine, de Remusat dared not lift her eyes to Napoleon. After several moves Napoleon took his turn and then m urmured, almost to himself, a verse of Corneille: He who pardons easily invites offenses; Punish the assassin, pursue his accomplices. But then! always blood, always torture. And the blood spread upon a thousand conspirators Makes my days more accursed, and not more assured. The game continued, and Mme. de Remusat rejoiced momentarily in the hope that the Duke might be pardoned. She noticed, however, that her position on the board was beyond remedy, and after a few more moves Napoleon rose and declared, “You are checked and mated. Tomorrow I shall give you your revenge. Today let us speak of other things.” But their faces were grave and they hardly dared speak. The only sound heard was Napoleon m ut­ tering under his breath as he paced quickly back and forth in the room, his hands behind his back. As he reconsidered over and over to himself the possibility of a pardon, he quoted Voltaire:

interest in the automaton and had not even been entrusted with the secrets of the T urk’s operation. He was therefore happy to allow Maelzel to pur­ chase the apparatus for 10,000 francs, half the price the Baron had asked. The automaton’s new owner was a large, phleg­ matic man whose sandy hair and whiskers framed a ruddy visage set with heavy-lidded blue eyes, a wide but pleasant mouth, and a Roman nose. Although irritable at times, he was very kind, especially with children, and he had a great capacity for making friends. Maelzel was thirty-four years old at the time he purchased the chess automaton, having been born August 15, 1772, at Regensburg (Ratisbon), Bavaria. He was the son of an organ builder and thus had an opportunity to study the piano and musical theory, as well as the mechanical aspects of his father’s trade. By the age of fourteen Maelzel was already considered one of Regensburg’s best pianists, and from 1788 to 1792 he gave lessons on the instrument. His principal interest, however, was in the field of mechanical inventions, so he jour-

You know the difference in the Gods we serve: Your gods have counselled murder and vengeance, Mine, when your arm is raised against me, Command that I should pity and forgive. Mme. de Remusat believed the Duke was saved, but it was not to be, for at daybreak he was shot. Josephine cried upon learning the news, and Mme. de Remusat did not think of demanding her re­ venge of Napoleon.

2. All during Napoleon’s spectactular rise to First Consul and then, in 1804, to Emperor of the French, Kempelen’s chess automaton remained in Vienna, inactive and almost forgotten. Kempelen, in his later years, sought to dispose of the automaton and tried to make a bargain with the inventor and musician Johann Nepomuk Maelzel, who had taken a fancy to the machine. The Baron repeatedly offered to sell the automaton, but demanded 20,000 francs, a price Maelzel thought excessive, so the bargain was not made. About two years after Kempelen’s death in 1804, the Baron’s son ap­ proached Maelzel and renewed the offer to sell the chess player. The younger Kempelen, who did not share his father’s fondness for mechanics, had no

44

This nineteenth-century cylinder orchestration, now in the collection of the National Museum from Music Box to Barrel Organ, Utrecht, H olland, is a cousin of Maelzel’s panharmonicon. c o u r t e s y o f n m u .

neyed to Paris and London to study applied mathematics. After settling in Vienna in 1792, Maelzel com­ bined his knowledge o f music and mechanics to construct a sort of mechanical military band, con­ sisting of automatic instruments such as flutes, trumpets, drums, triangle, and strings which were struck by hammers, all contained within a ten-foothigh cabinet. A descending weight, housed in a fourteen-foot structure at the instrument’s right, turned the main cyclinder, which set the whole device in motion. Maelzel sold the instrument, which played works by Haydn, Mozart, and Crescentini, for 3000 florins to the Archduke Charles of Austria. That prince allegedly purchased it solely for the purpose of annoying his friends, a fact which, if true, seems to indicate not only that Charles had a rather strange sense of humor, but that the instrument had not exactly attained musical perfection. Maelzel then set to work on a new mechanical orchestra, supporting himself meanwhile by per­ forming on the piano and giving lessons. Maelzel's musical talents were such that he earned the praises of even Beethoven, who in 1795 wrote that he “possesses a considerable knowledge of music and plays with good technique.” The new mechanical instrument, known as the panharmonicon, was much improved and con­ tained, in addition to the instruments of its pre­ decessor, clarinets, recorders, oboes, horns, bas­ soons, a serperrt, and a big bass drum , all worked by weights acting upon cylinders. The wind instru­ ments, arranged in two rows, were somewhat com­ parable to organ pipes. By means of reeds, Maelzel had approximated the sounds produced by the action of the lips and tongues of human players. The whole assemblage was housed in a glass cabinet six-feet square at the base and pyramidal in shape, rising to a height of five feet. The panharmonicon was first exhibited in Vienna in 1804, to the great delight, it was reported, of all who heard it. The instrument had a powerful sound but was also capable of executing the piano passages perfectly. In 1807 Maelzel took the panharmonicon to Paris, where it performed outdoors on the Champs do Mars, causing as much astonishment as pleasure. After that introduction, Maelzel announced that there would be daily panharmonicon concerts at two in the afternoon and at eight o’clock in the evening at the Hotel de Montmorency, Rue du Mont-Blanc, chaussee d ’Antin, beginning the eighth of March. The concerts were so popular that in July, Maelzel opened, due to “public dem and,” a second concert at each performance. The admission was three francs for one show, six francs for two. Later in the year the concerts were moved to a new location at

The Kaufman Trumpeter, like that of Maelzel, had leather bellows for lungs and reeds which imitated the sound of a brass instrument, f r o m a c .

No. 1, Cour des Fontainnes. Opening there De­ cember 12th, the panharmonicon featured a new work by Daniel Stcibelt which depicted the four turning points of the day. After the concerts were well under way, Maelzel returned to Vienna, leaving the panharmonicon under the care of a manager. In October 1808 he returned to Paris to unveil his newest invention, the Automaton Trumpeter, a life-size figure that was to share the program with the panharmonicon. The Trumpeter was wound up with a key and usually performed to the accompaniment of Maelzel on the piano, but on special occasions the automaton was soloist with a real live band or orchestra. In either case, the program usually consisted of a French or Austrian cavalry maneuver, followed by a specially

45

Drawings by Grandville ridiculed the kind of musical automatons that Maelzel created. A duet by M. Tunnel and Mile. Tender was accompanied by a mechanical rhythm section, b y p e r m is s io n o f b l .

commissioned march by Dussek, Pleyel, or Weigl, noted composers in their time. The Trumpeter was an upright figure, a little over five feet in height. His wardrobe consisted of two elegant uniforms, one of the German regiment of cuirassiers of Saxe-Teschen, the other o f the corps o f musicians of the Imperial Guard of France. During performances he was made to advance and retreat by means of a cord attached to the small movable pedestal upon which he was mounted. Several writers have cast doubts upon the au­ thenticity o f the Trumpeter, basing their judgments upon Maelzel’s reputation for trickery. However, Maelzel often allowed the mechanism to be exam­ ined by noted authorities on mechanics, notably Dr. Thomas P. Jones, professor of mechanics at the Franklin Institute and Superintendent of the United States Patent Office. In Paris a writer for Journal de VEmpire reported that when one placed his hand in front of the trumpet, the air could be felt escaping just as the sounds were heard. It is quite clear that the Not even Maelzel attempted anything as ambitious as Grandville’s melody for 200 trombones, b y PERMISSION OF BL.

q

'S o

li

РЬл^ Л .(< i

Maelzel, of course, achieved his remarkable feats through a knowledge of acoustics, mechanics, and optics, but many Viennese suspected him of black magic. In an earlier, less enlightened age, he, along with his automatons, might have been burned at the stake. Maelzel patented a musical chronometer and his well-known metronome, which were improvements of ideas of Stockel and Winkel, respectively. His talent for benefiting from the ideas of others gained him a reputation as a shrewd entrepreneur. Above all, Maelzel was a showman. He was unexcelled in his ability to present his own inventions, or those of others, before the public. We find in Thayer’s Life of Heethoven some indication of those qualities: The mechanician was not only a man of unques­ tionable inventive genius, but he also understood the public; knew as by instinct how to excite and gratify the curiosity without disappointing ex­ pectation, and had the tact and skill so to arrange his exhibitions as to dismiss his visitors grateful for an amusement for which he had paid. Franklin Peale of Philadelphia summed it up by calling Maelzel “the Prince of Entertainers.” Maelzel purchased the automaton chess player in 1806, at which time he was showing the panhar­ monicon in Vienna. Although Kempelen’s son was unable to explain to him how to operate the Turk, Maelzel’s Trumpeter was considered superior to the Maelzel found no difficulty in discovering the se­ flute player and drum m er of Vaucanson, both of which crets for himself. Some writers thought Maelzel required large pedestals to conceal some of their parts. then exhibited the chess automaton in Paris along BY PERMISSION OF Bi.. with the panharmonicon, or that he went with the automaton on an “unrecorded tour” through Ger­ Trumpeter was run by a cylinder, bellows, and many. However, Maelzel himself stated that he clockwork apparatus similar to that of the panharallowed about ten years to elapse before he began to monicon. There were, in fact, trumpets incorpo­ exhibit the chess player publicly. The reason for the rated into the panharmonicon itself—as many as delay, he explained, was that he thought the au­ sixteen in one model. tomaton could be considerably improved, and he Jacques de Vaucanson, some years earlier, had determined to make several alterations calculated to invented an automaton flute player on principles render the T urk’s action more difficult to explain. similar to the Trumpeter, and several other au­ As might be expected, he did not specify exactly tomaton instrumentalists were constructed during what alterations he made. He probably changed the the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is in­ Turk’s attire somewhat, but that would have made teresting to note that in 1808, the year Maelzel little difference in the automaton’s action and could introduced his Trumpeter, another automaton have been quickly accomplished. Maelzel may have trumpeter was constructed in Vienna by J. G. and modified the interior of the apparatus to accommo­ Friedrich Kaufmann. It was Maelzel, however, who date a larger director, since at least two of the first perfected the mechanism by which reeds could players he later employed were about six feet tall. be made to approximate the sounds of the human Although public tours were not begun until 1817, lips against a trumpet mouthpiece. there were, before that time, at least two notable Maelzel had studied surgery and could fit an private showings of the automaton, both of which amputee with an artificial limb. After the Battle of will soon be revealed. Austerlitz he supplied many of the survivors with mechanical legs, which one writer enthusiastically reported were “no less commodious than those 3. furnished by Dame Nature herself.” For Beethoven, Maelzel fashioned several ear trumpets, one of Late in 1808 Maelzel sold the panharmonicon in Paris for an alleged 60,000 francs and returned to which was used for years by the composer.

47

victorious, but by May things had gone so well for Napoleon that his army was on the outskirts of Vienna. As court mechanician, Maelzel had been summoned to Schonbrunn to execute some work for the Empress. When Napoleon arrived at Schon­ brunn in July, after his victory at the Battle of Wagrum, the imperial family and most o f the court had lied, but the court mechanician remained in the rooms assigned him.

Visitors to Schonbrunn can view the room where Napoleon stayed, c o u r t e s y o f s s . The Emperor Franz I of Austria spent much of his time fighting Napoleon, b y p e r m is s io n o f o n .

It was the Battle of Wagrum that brought Napoleon to Schonbrunn in 1809. f r o m a c .

Vienna, where his reputation as a skilled inventor had earned him the appointment of Mechanician to the Royal and Imperial Court, a post similar to the one Kempelen had held. The Emperor at that time was Franz I, who had become Holy Roman Emperor after the two-year reign of his father, Leopold II, the younger brother of Joseph II. After the dissolu­ tion o f the Holy Roman Empire, Franz had become Emperor o f Austria. On February 8, 1809, Franz declared war on France. At first it seemed that Austria might be

The Great Gallery of Schonbrunn was the site of Napoleon’s escapade with the Turk, c o u r t e s y o f s s .

48

Napoleon left these two eagles at the gates of Schon­ brunn as a reminder of his visit, c o u r t e s y o f ss.

While a peace treaty with Austria was negotiated, Napoleon remained at Schonbrunn until October, residing in the same study and adjoining bedroom he had chosen during his first occupation of the palace in 1805. Sometime during his stay, probably late in July, Maelzel let it be known that he had something that might interest Napoleon, and an exhibition was arranged. A crowd had gathered in the Great Gallery at

Schonbrunn when Napoleon strode into the room. Maelzel stepped forward to greet the great general, but Napoleon’s interest was riveted on a figure in the center of the gallery behind the mechanician. There, separated from the spectators by a rope barrier, sat the automaton chess player, looking much as he had when Kempelen first introduced him forty years earlier. The Turk was, in fact, the same age as Napoleon himself. Although Napoleon was eager to begin a game with the automaton, Maelzel first produced a set of keys from his pocket to open the cabinet and demonstrate that nobody was concealed inside. He performed the demonstration in the same manner Kempelen had, opening each door in succession until it appeared that the whole interior of both the cabinet and figure was open to the view of Napoleon and the entire assemblage. Maelzel had discarded the little casket which Kempelen or Anthon had placed on a table nearby when the Turk was exhibited. Some years later, when asked why he had done away with the casket, Maelzel explained that he did not believe the audiences were as gullible as they had been in Kempelen’s day. Maelzel also dispensed with the board inscribed with golden letters, which the Turk had used to answer questions. George Walker

The Turk appeared much as he had in Kempelen’s time. COURTESY OF JCW .

'

4 49

555ЖВйЯВбвЕ6ййЯ!

Ы 2М" 'лииш а :шппряялшяпГГ Ж ::^т/:!;Ш ЛПП 1?;Л?ПЩ П1П?-ХП1Ш ПГ

ЗДрЩ жНН Napoleon was allowed to examine the interior of the Turk’s cabinet, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

thought Maelzel had omitted the trick because it had been overworked by several other performers. After Napoleon, like many before him, had been convinced that he had seen every part of the automaton’s interior, Maelzel closed the cabinet and adjusted some machinery in the rear. While Napo­ leon watched with interest, Maelzel removed the pipe from the T urk’s left hand and rested the hand on a cushion he had taken from the drawer in the cabinet. As Kempelen had sometimes done, Maelzel set up at one side a table with a chessboard. Napoleon, thinking the game should begin, ap­ peared to be about to pass the rope barrier, when Maelzel checked him with, “Sire, it is forbidden to pass beyond there.” He then explained that, in order to provide the spectators with a belter view, the adversary would play at the side table. Maelzel would then walk back and forth at each move, alternately representing each player. Napoleon ac­ quiesced immediately to the proposed arrangement with a good-natured, “Eh b ie n and seated himself at the little table outside the cord. While Maelzel wound the machinery, and before the Turk could make a move, Napoleon seized his King pawn and advanced it two squares. Although the first move was usually reserved for the automa­ ton, Maelzel perhaps wondered if it might not be

50

The Emperor of the French watched with interest as Maelzel prepared the Turk for a game, f r o m а с .

better, in that case, to concede the move to the Emperor of the French, and so he relayed the move to the T urk’s board. Almost immediately the whir­ ring of machinery was heard from within the cabinet as the automaton moved his head from side to side and appeared to be scrutinizing the whole board. Slowly his left arm rose from the cushion and he swung his hand awkwardly but accurately into position just over his King pawn. After a brief pause, his hand descended and the wooden digits closed w'ith amazing precision around the pawn. The arm transported its tiny burden forward two squares, then returned to the cushion as the sound of gears came to a halt. Obviously in the best o f spirits, Napoleon fol­ lowed the T urk’s maneuvers with great amusement. O n one o f his early moves, Napoleon deliberately placed a piece on the wrong square, a habit to which he often resorted in his games. The automaton responded by politely bowing his head, replacing the piece, and signaling Napoleon to continue. The game resumed, but soon Napoleon made another illegal move. That time the Turk removed the troublesome piece from the board and, without allowing Napoleon another chance, made a move of his own. Barely concealing his laughter, Napoleon made a third incorrect move, just to see what would happen next. There was a slight pause. Completely concealed from view inside the automaton, drops of sweat rolled down the face of the Viennese chess master Johann Allgaier. The concealed player, an officer in the Austrian Imperial Army and the chess tutor to the sons of the Emperor Franz, would later write the first chess manual in the German language. As he peered through the gauzelike material in the shirt of the Turk, he surveyed the classic features o f the short but imposing figure in dark green uniform with red facings. Napoleon, nearing his fortieth birthday, was beginning to show the corpulence of his later years. Perhaps Allgaier recalled that this man with magnetic gray eyes and seductive smile was the same one who had ordered the execution of the Due d’Enghien, just to set an example. O n the other hand, Napoleon was obviously in a jovial mood. Again the clatter of wheelwork broke the silence as the Turk raised his arm and mechanically swept the pieces from the board. Overjoyed at having caused a machine to lose its composure, Napoleon wanted to test the automa­ ton’s ability at chess. He persuaded Maelzel to allow him another game and promised to observe the rules. When the chessmen were replaced in position and the new game progressed, it was evident that Napoleon was no match for the Turk— or perhaps we should say, for Allgaier. Soon Napoleon, who had brought out his Queen for a premature attack, was forced to retreat. On the eleventh move, the automaton checked Napoleon’s King, a move he

announced in the usual manner by nodding his head three times. Napoleon was forced to abandon the game after his nineteenth move, since his Queen had been captured and it was evident that checkmate would soon follow. The Turk then waved his head triumphantly and seemed to gaze complacently about the room. Maelzel offered to allow Napoleon to inspect the mechanism again, and after finding it as before, the Emperor retired to his chambers. Maelzel then wheeled the automaton back to his own apartment and opened the cabinet, allowing Allgaier, who was badly in need of fresh air, to climb out. Soon afterward Maelzel left Schon­ brunn and moved into rooms at Stein’s pianoforte factory in Vienna. According to one version of the story of Napoleon and the Turk— and there were at least three— Napoleon requested additional contests with the Turk, during which he tried in vain to defeat the automaton by placing a large magnet on the chessboard and, in another game, by encasing the Turk in a lady’s shawl. That same account featured an ill-tempered Napoleon, who brusquely pushed his way through the rope barrier, shouting, “1 will not contend at a distance! We fight face to face,” and who, after losing several games, “swept the chessmen from the board, and crying Bagatelle! strode over Knight and pawn, and so out of the room.” Other versions of the story placed the meeting in Berlin or in Paris rather than in Vienna, while in still other variations, Napoleon became the owner of the automaton or at least of its secrets. Some writers have questioned whether a game was ever played between Napoleon and the Turk. De­ spite the controversy, however, the main story presented above seems most consistent with the one which Maelzel himself told on more than one occasion. After his encounter with the Turk, Napoleon’s fortunes were mostly bad. Marengo, Austerlitz, Wagrum, and the other great victories were all behind him; ahead lay Moscow, Vittoria, and finally Waterloo. On the other hand, the meeting signaled for Maelzel and the Turk the beginning of a successful career that would last nearly thirty years. It was a career, moreover, which would again be influenced at several turns by the fortunes of Napoleon.

O N T H E CHESSBOARD T he Chess C areer of N apoleon Bonaparte Game I Although at least three recorded chess games have been attributed to Napoleon Bonaparte, there is no certainty that even one is genuine. O f the three

Napoleon’s chessboard was the map of Europe, upon which, observed George Walker, “ he could afford odds to Ju lius Caesar.” c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

Napoleon was supposed to have played chess on this table, c o u r t e s y o f n y p l .

games, the one with Mine, de Remusat is probably intermediate in believability. In 1880 The Chess Player’s Chronicle noted that “Napoleon had really at that time an acces or fit of Chess upon him, and played every night,” but concluded that “it is al­ together improbable that, at a period when the preservation of games was almost unknown, and there were no Chess organs, a game at court should have been taken down.” Nevertheless, the game did appear in the French chess journal Le Palamede, July 15, 1845. At the time the game was supposedly played, the rules of chess had not become well standardized; therefore, it is not surprising that Mine, de Remusat, though she played the black pieces, had the first move. In most subsequent reprintings of the game, the colors have been reversed, giving Mine, de Remusat White. Here, however, the game is presented in its original form, except that modern chess notation is used. The opening was described in Palamede as “a woman’s opening: reserved and timid.” It soon transposed into something resembling Alekhine’s Defense, which of course had not been invented at the time.

Irregular Opening Malmaison, March 20, 1804

White

Black

Napoleon Bonaparte

Madame dc Remusat

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

P-Q3 P-K4 P-KB4 'P x P N-QB3 P-Q4 P-N3 N-R3 K-K2 K-Q3 K xN K xB K-Q5

N-KB3 N-B3 P-K4 QNxP KN-N5 Q-R5ch Q-B3 N-B 6 ch NxPch N-K4ch B-B4ch Q-N3ch Q-Q3 mate

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

P-Q3 IV-КN5 N-KR4 B xN N-B5 N-Q5 N x Pch Q-R5 N-B 6 ch N xQ ch?

(>-() Q-Q3 P-R3 QxB Q-Kl B-N3 K-R2 P-KN3 K-N2

15 N-B5ch! would have forced a pretty mate in two. Napoleon might have chosen to capture either Knight, but if 1 5 ...K X N , 16 Q-R4ch, P-N4, 17 Q-R6 mate. O r if 1 5...P X N , 16Q-N5ch, K -Rl, 17 Q-R6 mate. 15 16 Q-N5? (N-B5ch!) 17 В x BP 18 Q xN Pch B-Q5 19

Game 2 I'he game between Napoleon and the Turk was probably first published in the chess column of the Illustrated London News, November 30, 1844. Al­ though the source of the game was not specified, The Chess Player’s Chronicle, 1880, thought it “by no means unlikely that the moves were taken down at the time by Maelzel’s direction: while the game is not, like the others, too good for a confessedly bad player.” Napoleon played miserably, it is true, but we may pardon him for that. What seems really inexcusable is the performance of Allgaier, who was directing the Turk. O n move 15, he missed a brilliant combination and the chance to create a beautiful game. O f course, capturing Napoleon’s Queen can hardly be considered a blunder, but it is a pity he did not see the mate in two moves. As recorded in the Illustrated London Neivs and later in many chess journals, the game ended with “Mate in four moves.” Such a mate could have been accomplished, however, only with the cooperation of Napoleon; actually six moves were required to force mate. I'he game was accompanied by the remark, “Napoleon, who played with the black pieces, insisted on having the first move.”

Irregular Opening Schonbrunn Palace, Vienna, July, 1809

White

Black

The Turk (Allgaier)

Napoleon Bonaparte

1

-----

2 P-K4 3 N-QB3 4 5

N-B3 B-B4

P-K4 Q-B3 B-B4 N-K2

P-QR3

RxN P-Q3 R-R1 K-Bl K-K2

Here “Mate in four” was erroneously announced for White, but could have been accomplished only with the aid of Black: 20 21 22 23

Q-B7ch Q-B 6 ch Q-K 6 ch N-B7 mate

K-Ql K-Q2? (K-Kl!) K-Ql

To avoid extensive analysis, the real mate is left to the reader to find.

A Tale and uFantaisie Napoleon participated in many games of chess with Berthier, Bourrienne, Murat, the Due de Bassano, and others during the armistice of Vienna and later in the Polish and Russian campaigns, but apparently none of the games were preserved. There was apparently a great desire among early nineteenth-century chess enthusiasts to hear of Napoleon’s exploits in connection with their favo­ rite game. To satisfy that hunger, Louis Charles Mahe de Labourdonnais, chess champion and editor of Le Palamede, collected from Napoleon’s associates any stories which centered around the chessboard. He received one such anecdote verbally from Count Merlin, the Due de Bassano, and the interpreter Amedee Jaubert, with whom Napoleon played constantly in Egypt. During the Polish campaign, the Persian ambas­ sador was announced before the Emperor in Paris. Napoleon was absorbed in a game of chess with Berthier, but ordered the ambassador to be shown in anyway. While Jaubert interpreted, Napoleon questioned the ambassador about many civil and

Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow became a chess fa n taisie. f r o m a c .

military matters in Persia and the Orient, still continuing to make his moves on the chessboard. The clever Persian diplomat praised his country and its institutions, but especially acclaimed the cavalry of Isfahan. Napoleon interrupted him several times with questions, but each time the ambassador re­ turned to the subject of the Persian cavalry, which he insisted was superior to any other in the world. Finally the Emperor turned from the chessboard and jum ped to his feet, addressing Jaubert, “Tell him that tomorrow I ’ll show him a little bit of cavalry.” With that the audience ended and the Persian retired. Napoleon continued the game, pausing only briefly between moves to dispatch orders to his cavalry commanders in the vicinity. For Napoleon it was no different than moving a Knight on the chessboard; they were all under his hand. Next day the startled Persian witnessed a procession of forty thousand French cavalry, the likes of which had never been seen in Isfahan. But it was to be the last time Paris would behold those proud horsemen.

Ahead of them lay Moscow and the vast frigid chessboard of Russia. Napoleon’s retreat from the campaign of Moscow became the subject of a chess fantaisie, which Labourdonnais received from the Russian chess champion Alexander Petroff.

N A PO LE O N ’S RETREAT FROM MOSCOW (from T he Chess Player’s Magazine, 1846) Napoleon, the Black King, stands on the square representing Moscow. The long white diagonal representing the Berezina is commanded by the White Queen. The White Knights or Cossack cavalry pursue Napoleon from Moscow to Paris, where the Czar or White King administers a victori­ ous discovered mate. As Napoleon crosses the Berezina, the Russian Queen can checkmate him, but the impetuous Cossack pursuers frustrate the movement.

54

Black

Count Bertrand often played chess with Napoleon, but he did not play the famous game reproduced here, f r o m ас.

r)

The solution to “ Napoleon’s Retreat from Moscow” consists of the following series of forced moves: While

Black

Russia

France

1 N-Q2 dbl ch K-R7 2 N-B3ch K-R6 3 N /2 - N lth K-N5 4 N-R2ch K-N'4 5 N-R3ch K-R3 6 N-N4ch? (Q-R8 mate!) K-R2 7 N-N5ch K-Nl

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

N-R6ch

K-Bl

N-R7ch N-N8ch N-B8ch N-Q7ch N-K7ch K-N2 mate

K-Q2 K-K2 K-Bl K-NI K-R1

At St. Helena there was plenty of time for chess,

from

ас.

window at Longwood House to allow Fitznob to catch a glimpse of Napoleon. “Norris peeped warily in; I looked over his shoulder, and sure enough there was Napoleon playing chcss with an upright soldierly-looking man of about five-and-forty, in military undress. I gazed on the great captive almost breathlessly, and with a feeling o f indescribable interest. He was attired in a white dressing-gown, not over clean, and had a red handkerchief tied round his head, the ends of which, fastened in front, were disposed so as to give them a fanciful resemblance to a laurel crown I had seen on one of his busts. The Emperor’s face was turned to us, so that 1could see his profile distinctly. His figure seemed to be enormously corpulent; his face bloated, and pallid even to ghastliness.” Later, explained Fitznob, Bertrand went over one of the games and it was recorded. The whole episode, including of course the game, was purely fictitious; however, the game has often been pub-

Game 3 The game in which Napoleon defeated Count Bertrand at St. Helena would easily have been the great general’s best, except that, unfortunately, it was a complete fraud. Captain Hugh A. Kennedy included the game in his book W aifs and Strays, 1862, but later admitted he had inserted it only “to adorn a tale.” It was actually a game played between Ken­ nedy and the Rev. John Owen. In Kennedy’s story, Captain Norris and Lieuten­ ant Fitznob, who was telling the story, crept up to a

55

“ Ah! my poor Louis X V III,” Napoleon was reported to have said, “ you have fallen.” COURTESY OFJGW .

lished as authentic, a fact which undoubtedly would have greatly pleased Napoleon.

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Scotch Game St. Helena, 1820 (supposedly) While

Black

Napoleon (actually Capt. Kennedy) 1 P-K4 2 N-KB3 3 P-Q4 4 N xN 5 B-QB4 6 P-QB3

Count Bertrand (actually Rev. Owen) P-K4 N-QB3 N xP PxN B-B4 Q-K2

0-0 P-KB4 K-R1 В x Pell .P x Q BxN Q-N3

Q-K4 PxP dis ch PxP K-Ql PxR(Q) IV-K2 P-QR4

Here N apoleon announced mate in follows: 14 R-B8ch! 15 B-N5ch 16 В x Bch 17 Q-B7ch 18 Q-B8 mate

56

B xR H-K2 KxB K-Ql

У

$

4 A Quarrel Between Friends: Maelzel and Beethoven

1.

Had not the/ingenious and quick-witted Maelzel sold the Chess Automaton, . . . there is every probability that several things of importance in the world’s history would not have occurred. Notably, Beethoven would never have been rec­ ognized as a great musician, his life would have been still further stunted by poverty and neglect, and specifically, he would not have composed one of his best known works. Can that be true? Whether or not one agrees completely with that evaluation from the 1917 article “Beethoven and Chess” by Charles Willing, it must at least be admitted that Maelzel greatly influenced Beethoven at a very critical point in the great composer’s life. Although the chess automa­ ton played a passive role during that time, it was a very important period in shaping the future career of Maelzel, the T urk’s proprietor. In tracing the story, we shall have the opportunity of becoming better acquainted with the Prince of Entertainers. The episode began during the latter half of 1809, shortly after the game between Napoleon and the automaton, at which time Maelzel left his apartment in Schonbrunn Palace and moved to rooms in Stein’s pianoforte factory in Vienna. Sometime between then and 1812 Maelzel was invited to demonstrate the automaton chess player in Milan at the court of the Viceroy of Italy. Since Napoleon’s relatives were

Eugene Beauharnais was the new owner of the chess automaton, f r o m a c .

57

sitting at that time on many of the thrones of Europe, it is not surprising that the Viceroy was Eugene Beauharnais, the son of the Empress Josephine and the adopted stepson of Napoleon. Eugene had followed Napoleon in the campaigns of Italy and Egypt and was a general of brigade by 1804. When Napoleon established the empire that year, he named Eugene successively Prince of the Empire, Arch-chancellor of State, and then Viceroy o f Italy. Governing from Milan, the Viceroy was Napoleon’s most loyal lieutenant. He raised an 80,000-man army of Italy, which fought in the campaigns of Austria, Spain, and Russia. Eugene was an avid chess player and had, during the Austrian campaign, occupied his leisure byplaying chess with Triaire, one of his adjutants. After the Battle of Wagrum, the Viceroy had been sent to Pressburg, where he remained until July twenty-second, getting the city’s bombed-out Danube bridge back into operation. He thus may have missed witnessing Napoleon’s encounter with the Turk, but he evidently at least had heard about the automaton. When Eugene saw the mechanical chess player demonstrated in Milan, he would not be satisfied until he knew the automaton's secrets, and thus he offered to purchase the Turk for the princely sum of 30,000 francs. Maelzel, though reluctant to part with the au­ tomaton, was too astute a businessman to refuse a price three times what he had paid for the machine. Thus the bargain was made, the courtiers were The conflagration of Moscow, a tragedy for Napoleon, dismissed, and the doors locked to assure that the was for Maelzel a brilliant inspiration, c o u r t e s y o f secret would not pass beyond the automaton’s new nypl. master. Then Maelzel threw open all the doors of the cabinet and Eugene Beauharnais joined the very for such diversions. The chess historian George select group of perhaps a dozen persons who knew Allen reported that the Duke of Saxe-Weimar saw how the chess player was operated. For now it will the automaton in 1812 “abandoned to inglorious suffice to say that he saw a man, a real human chess repose” in the Casa Buonaparte, Eugene’s viceregal player, looking somewhat uncomfortable in his palace at Milan. Millin, in his Voyage dans le Milanais, newly revealed hiding place. said Allen, also recalled seeing the Turk there in How did Eugene react to the astonishing revela­ about the same year. tion he had just witnessed? According to Walker, “He shrugged up his shoulders, took a pinch of snuff, laughed at the joke, and though he probably 2. thought his purchase rather dear at the price, ex­ pressed much gratification at inspecting the figure After having disposed of the automaton chess in all its parts. He even subsequently placed himself player in Milan, Maelzel returned to Vienna, where in the necessary relation with the automaton, and he kept himself busy with his other mechanical giving it the invisible impulse, conducted it during devices. In 1810, when Napoleon married the several games against some of his most intimate Habsburg princess Maria Louisa, Maelzel installed friends.” upon the balcony of his own home in Vienna an Soon, however, the novelty wore off and the automaton that sang nuptial hymns in honor of the automaton became little more than a museum piece. bridal couple. The imperial pair, who were actually The Turk was at his best only when functioning, and in Paris at the time, seemed miraculously to appear he did not function well without someone like at a window of Maelzel’s dwelling to acknowledge Maelzel. To operate the automaton properly, the tribute. Before departing within, they bowed to Eugene would have had to employ a strong chess the wildly cheering crowd below who scarcely sus­ master as director, and that he apparently never pected that Maelzel had achieved the effect with a did, since the followers of Napoleon had little time pair of lifelike automatons.

58

If Maelzel took the opportunity to celebrate Napoleon’s good fortunes, he was equally quick to profit from his bad ones. The Viennese, who had been twice invaded and occupied by Napoleon’s armies, were elated to h ear o f the Emperor’s disas­ trous Russian cam paign of 1812. Maelzel, hardly failing to notice that fact, constructed an elaborate mechanical dioram a, which he called the Conflagra­ tion o f Moscow. During thu next thirty-five years Moscow would endlessly burn and reburn, accom­ panied by somber music and by the jin g le of coins at the box office. An eyewitness at a perform ance of the d ioram a once wrote, When the curtain rose, last night, Moscow lay before us in m iniature. T h e r e was the “Holy City” with its churches, palaces, bridges, houses, etc., and with its towering minarets bathed in the silvery light of the full moon. Across a bridge, near the foreground, the French arm y was a d ­ vancing; while in front were crowds of citizens, bearing upon their backs such valuables as they could carry away. Anon a bright flame shot up

from the heart of the city, and the great confla­ gration had commenced. T h e fire spread slowly on all sides, sen d ing up tongues of flames and clouds of smoke, until nearly the entire city was involved, and the lurid glare of b u rn in g churches and houses had drowned out the moonbeams and spread the red pall of ruin and devastation over everything. T h e strains of martial music, the booming of artillery, the rattle of musketry, and crushing of falling walls added to the deception and carried the spectator back to those d read nights in Septem ber, 1812, when the most heroic sacrifice of modern times was made by a patriotic people. Maelzel planned to feature the Conflagration o f Moscow at his Kiinstkabinett, an exhibition hall which he opened in Vienna in 1812. Visitors to the Kiinstkabinett could view such attractions as statues, paintings, and various scientific wonders, am ong which were “a large electrical machine with a p ­ paratus for popular experim ents” and probably at least one model of Kempelen’s speaking machine. T h e r e w ere p erfo rm an ces by the autom aton trum peter and later by the new panharmonicon. One could also witness a mechanical diorama known as Haydn's Seasons “in a sensational decor with appropriate transformations. In winter, the snow fell, and the shepherds’ huts were buried by ava­ lanches; in sum m er the rain streamed down, the thunder rum bled . . .” 3.

M aelzel’s C o n fla g r a tio n o f M o s c o w was undoubtedly the model for this later version, which was complete with fireworks, c o u r t e s y o f cpl.

I 1812 Maelzel was principally employed in the construction of th e Conflagration o f Moscow and of his new improved panharm onicon, which was seven feet long, six feet wide, and six feet high and contained mechanical violins, cellos, trum pets, flutes, clarinets, drum s, cymbals, and a triangle. Its clockwork m achinery was operated by weights act­ ing on cylinders, each of which produced a different musical composition. Beethoven, who was fascinated by Maelzel’s m echanical curiosities, fr e q u e n tly visited the mechanician in his workshop in the pianoforte factory. T h e two were intimate friends and had probably known each other as early as 1795, when Beethoven had written a letter of introduction for a “H err Menzel,” evidently a misspelling of “Maelzel.” In the letter, Beethoven, who was less than two years older than Maelzel, praised his friend’s abilities at the piano. Both musicians had come, in 1792, to make their fortunes in V ienna, drawn from thenrespective homes in Bonn and Regensburg to the musical capital of the world. In the sp rin g of 1812 Beethoven and Maelzel, along with other companions, gath ered for a sort of

Beethoven often visited Maelzel’s workshop,

by p erm is­

s i o n o f ON.

farewell dinner. Beethoven, on the advice of his For Beethoven, Maelzel constructed these ear trum pets on d isp lay at Beethoven-Haus, Bonn, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f physician, was going for the sum m er to the baths at bb. Teplitz, Karlsbad, and Franzenbrunn and then to visit his brother Jo h an n in Linz. Maelzel planned a Symphony, but later scholars disputed the idea, since trip to London to exhibit the mechanical trum peter, the Eighth Symphony was probably sketched out a jo u rn ey, however, which he had to postpone before the cannon was written. However, the can­ indefinitely. According to Beethoven’s biographer non does show Beethoven's high esteem for Maelzel Anton Schindler, “Beethoven, who was in the com­ at the time. pany of his intimate friends was, as usual, cheerful, As Beethoven’s h earin g becam e progressively witty, satirical—‘un b utto n ed ’ as he called it— worse, Maelzel spent much time in an effort to improvised at this farewell dinner” the canon to construct an ear trum pet that might be of some the words “Ta, ta, la, lieber, lieber, Maelzel.” benefit to the composer. T h e mechanician eventu­ T h e “ta, ta, ta” represented the strokes o f the ally completed at least six instruments, but only the musical chronometer, an improvement by Maelzel smallest and simplest ap p eared to be of any practical of a similar device by Stockel. Maelzel’s instrument, use. However, Beethoven used the device for a the fo re ru n n er of his more famous metronome, period of eight or ten years. consisted of a small lever, which was set in motion by By the winter of 1812-1813 Maelzel had com­ a toothed wheel, and which kept time by beating on pleted work on the new panharm onicon and was a small wooden anvil. Stockel’s chronometer had busy placing musical compositions on its cylinders in worked upon similar principles, but had been too preparation for the trip to London, which he still large for practical use. T h e re had been for some hoped to make. He had even by that tim e persuaded years a need for such a machine to mark time in Beethoven to accompany him on the proposed music, and the composers Salieri, Beethoven, VVeigl, jo u rn ey. G yrowetz, a n d H u m m el h ad en th u sia stic a lly T h e first cylinders which Maelzel p rep ared con­ praised Maelzel’s invention in a public testimonial. tained C h e r u b in i’s Lodoiska O verture, H a y d n ’s Schindler claimed that the “ta, ta, ta” cannon was “Military” Symphony, and the overture and chorus the basis for the Allegretto of Beethoven’s Eighth from H andel’s Timotheus, and by late J a n u a r y he had

60

Ignaz Moscheles wrote inarches for MaelzePs p a n h a r­ monicon. f r o m нм. The Duke of Wellington scored a victory and another inspiration for Maelzel. f r o m а с .

begun to record an echo piece composed for him by Cherubini. T h e following su m m er he ad d ed some m arches by the p o pu lar yo u n g pianist Ignaz Moscheles, who often visited the workshop d u rin g construction o f the cylinders. 11 is interesting to note that those cylinders, which were stored in the basement of a museum in Stuttgart, still exist, although the panharmonicon was destroyed when the museum was bombed d urin g World War II.

piece, b earing the now great nam e of Beethoven, he would increase both its attractiveness and the public interest and curiosity in the composer. Thanks again to Napoleon, Maelzel had just the inspiration he needed for the new panharm onicon piece. After Napoleon had fled from Moscow, he had partly recovered from the Russian defeat, raised a new arm y, and even won some new vic­ tories. T h e Viennese and others who had grown weary of Napoleon had, in fact, viewed the Russian campaign with mixed feelings; after all, who but the Russians wanted to win by burning their own capital city? T h en on J u n e 21, 1813, A rthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, won a magnificent victory over Napoleon at Vittoria, Spain. Here was a new hero who could Stand up to the tyrant and beat him on the battlefield. When news of the victory reached Vi­ enna, Maelzel immediately recognized the subject of the new panharm onicon piece, and he easily p er­ suaded Beethoven to write the Battle o f Vittoria or Wellington's Victory for the mechanical instrument. Battle pieces were very popular at that time. Begin­ ning with Frederick the Great’s victory at the Battaille de Prague, nearly every battle or siege of an y importance in the past fifty years had been the subject of an orchestral refighting of some sort. A Battle o f Vittoria would be very popular in Vienna and would be guaranteed instant success on the

4. T h e trip to England was fu rth er postponed until the late au tu m n of 1813, because Beethoven’s brother Carl was in ill health. Maelzel, moreover, wanted to rem ain in V ienna to complete some work on the Conflagration o f Moscow, which he hoped to exhibit in England. By the end of the year, Carl was in better condition and the Conflagration was com­ plete, so it ap p e a r e d that nothing rem ained to delay the much-postponed jo u rn e y . However, Maelzel had been tu rn in g over an idea in his mind as suggested in T h a y e r ’s Life o f Beethoven: He knew by experience the principal cities of the Continent, and London well enough to forsee, that the noble compositions of Handel, H aydn, an d C h e ru b in i se cu red the success o f his panharm onicon there; but that if he could ad d to its repertory some new, striking and popular Ф

61

fft/rr

iir (las Piano ^Forte, .fyr/ / / > / Y V / S

W / ——

Ql a subject of a fu gu e in quick movement, emanates from Maelzel. All this I saw in sketches an d scores, brought by Beeth­ oven to Maelzel's workshop, then the only suitable place of reception he was provided with.

in .A dm /t ' f t

b r n w

i u

van

B E E T H O V E N

D uring the period when he was composing the battle piece, Beethoven h im self wrote, “W el­ lington’s Victory Vittoria, only God Save the King, but a great victory for Wellington. . . . 1 must show these English a little what a blessing there is in God Save the King. . . . It is certain that one writes most * У./Л л. Aw prettily when one writes for the public, also that one writes ra p id ly.” One d ay in early October, less than four months im \V rl*£ b*i S .A .S f r in r r ивД Comp, -w after the actual battle, Beethoven brought Maelzel H A rttI C F / ittn f . ЛУ the completed panharm onicon score, bearing the inscription in the composer's own hand, “On Wel­ lington’s Victory, 1813, written for Hr. Maelzel by L u d w ig van B e e th o v e n .” Maelzel b egan im ­ Beethoven’s S even th S y m p h o n y shared the program mediately to p rep are the cylinders for Wellington’s with W ellin gton ’s Victory and Maelzel’s Trum peter, b y Victory, but that task was soon interrupted by PERMISSION OF ON. another idea. Maelzel’s musicianship told him that the battle piece^in his hands had possibilities beyond gold ducats, about $750, just to allow the composer his original plans for the panharm onicon. T he to maintain himself in Vienna. composition seem ed too good for the mechanical Clearly some means of m aking money for the instrum ent an d the mechanician envisioned it in a London trip was needed, so Maelzel proposed that magnificent score for full orchestra. In that form it Beethoven expand Wellington's Victory into a score would d raw much g reater public acclaim and thus for full orchestra. That piece would then be fea­ assure the panharm onicon version of even more tured in a series of concerts, the proceeds from which would finance the proposed jo u rn ey. Beeth­ success later in London. F urtherm ore, Maelzel had been calculating the oven, who had himself conceived the idea of a battle costs of the trip to England. To make the jo u rn ey, he piece for large orchestra, readily ag reed to the plan, would have to transport the panharm onicon, the and Maelzel returned the panharm onicon score to Conflagration o f Moscow, and several other exhibits by him. While Beethoven rewrote Wellington’s Victory in its horse-drawn carriage for m any days over rough roads. T h e expenses would be gigantic. With new form, Maelzel took charge of preparations for Beethoven along he would have to go directly to the coming concerts. T hough the two friends London; he would probably not be able to stop, as he needed money, Maelzel conceived the idea to first often did, to earn expenses by giving public exhibi­ give two g ran d charity concerts for the benefit of Austrian and Bavarian soldiers wounded at the tions in cities along the way. In anticipation o f the London trip, Maelzel had battle of H anau in o rd er to enlist public interest in closed his exhibitions at the Kiinstkabinett, and thus the events. T h en they would repeat the concerts for he had no source of income while the expenses their own benefit. Partly through his personal popularity and partly mounted. Beethoven, who was never very adept at m an a gin g his finances, would be of no help with from the charitable nature of the concerts, Maelzel expenses. Describing his condition, Beethoven succeeded in forming an orchestra consisting of wrote, “At this time I was beset by severe financial nearly all the leading Viennese musicians, as well as em barrassm ents. I was alone here in Vienna, aban­ others who happened to be passing through. Many doned by the whole world, aw aiting a change for the came out of curiosity about the new battle piece by better.” In fact Maelzel had to lend Beethoven fifty Beethoven, who had never before attempted such a m /л /.ц /

*

• «/ «A t

63

,

^

VAf.A *■

to ». «««•

T ru m p e te r, with full orchestral accom panim ent— one by Dussek, the other by Pleyel. 3. Wellington’s Victory. By writing the A rchduke Rudolph, Beethoven was able to influence university officials to allow him the use o f the larg e University Hall for the concerts. T h us the arran gem en ts for the concerts were well u n d er way, and Beethoven began the task of re ­ hearsing the orchestra. Although Beethoven was unm atched as a com­ poser, his style of conducting was somewhat ludi­ crous. Spohr recalled that “at piano he crouched down lower and lower as he desired the degree of softness. If a crescendo then entered he gradually rose again and at the entrance of the fo r te ju m p e d into the air.” His exaggerated style became particu­ larly pathetic at one rehearsal session when he lost his place and skipped ten or twelve measures ahead of the orchestra. T hat caused him to prem aturely leap up, then stare in bewilderment at the orchestra, which was still playing pianissimo. Later, d u rin g one of the concerts, the same thing happened. T h e singer Franz Wild noted that a disaster was pre­ vented when “at the critical moment Kapellmeister U m lauf took the com m ander’s staff and it was indi­ cated to the orchestra that he alone was to be obeyed. For a long time Beethoven noticed nothing of the change; when he finally observed it, a smile came to his lips . . . ” At one point in rehearsing the symphony, the violin players refused to continue, exclaim ing that the passage was impossible to play. Beethoven The large U niversity Hall or Redoutensale was ob patiently begged them to take the music hom e and tained for the 1813 concerts, f r o m a c . practice it. W hen the passage went smoothly at rehearsal next day, the musicians rejoiced at being work. It seems likely that most o f the perform ers able to please the composer. viewed the concert as a gigantic musical joke and While Beethoven rehearsed the orchestra, M ael­ none wanted to he left out. Schuppanzigh would be zel had some posters printed, an n o un cing the first concertmaster, while Spohr and Mayseder would concert. On these he m ade the mistake of speaking take second and third places in the violins. T h e o f the battle piece as his own property. Maelzel famous Dragonetti would play double bass. M eyer­ believed that to be true, because he had shared in beer an d H u m m el would play d ru m s, while the composition of the work, and Beethoven had Moschelles would be on cymbals. Salieri would beat undoubtedly given him the panharm onicon ver­ time for the d ru m m ers and salvos. Everyone wanted sion, which had preceeded it. Beethoven, however, to take part in the huge professional frolic, which objected to what he considered usurpation of his Beethoven him self would conduct. property, and although Maelzel, at some expense, Besides W ellington’s Victory, on which Beethoven had the posters changed to say the piece was was working diligently, Maelzel knew the composer composed “out of friendship an d for his jo u r n e y to had completed a new symphony, the Seventh, in A London,” there were violent argu m en ts, the b egin ­ major. As an interlude between those longer works, ning of a long, bitter dispute. Moscheles would be on cymbals. Salieri would beat Despite the altercation, the two charity concerts than the battle piece. His own automaton trum p eter were p erfo rm ed as scheduled, and they were a would play two of his p ro gram m ed marches, ac­ trem endous success. Spohr com m ented, “T h e y companied by full orchestra. T h u s the complete were masterly, in spite of Beethoven’s eccentric, and program for the two charity concerts scheduled for at times absurd, conducting. T h e Battle Piece or the eight and twelfth of December, 1813, was: Military Sym phony, created such a furor that 1. “An entirely new sym phony,” by Beethoven Beethoven found him self su d d en ly and over­ (the Seventh, in A major). whelm ingly popular. This popularity exten ded 2. Two marches played by MaelzePs Mechanical even to the humblest of Viennese. T hat the unlet-

64

J

I'he Automaton T rum peter of Friedrich Kaufman, built shortly after M aelzel’s T rum peter, may be seen today at the Deutsches M useum , M unich, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f d m .

%

Racknitz’s book was illustrated with colored en grav ­ ings of sm all models he had constructed to show’ how the T u rk might have operated, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

У

T h is rear view of the T u rk by Racknitz was nearly identical to a sim ila r d ra w in g by W indisch. c o u r t e s y o fjg w

.

The Great G allery at Schonbrunn.

COURTKSY o f s s .

tered should respond to his music was in Beeth­ oven’s eyes his greatest triu m p h .” 5.

After the concerts, Beethoven prepared a “Note of T h a n k s,” expressing his appreciation to all who had donated their services^and concluding with, “But our greatest thanks are d ue to H err Maelzel, since it was he who first conceived the idea of this concert and there fell to him afterw ards the m an ­ agem ent, care and a rra n g em en t—the most arduous labors of all.” T h e tribute was never published, however, since the dispute between the two form er companions continued to worsen. In the lawsuit resulting from that q uarrel, only the documents presenting Beethoven’s side o f the argu m en t have been preserved. As T h a y e r pointed out, “Maelzel’s contra-suit to his lawryer is lost. He had no yo u n g disciple planning with zeal to preserve it and give it, w'ith his version of the story, to posterity.” T h e “young disciple” was Schindler, author of one of the earliest Beethoven biographies. T h a y e r, in his own biography, presented Maelzel’s side more fairly. He challenged many of the inac­ curacies in Schindler’s version of the events and in Beethoven’s own statements. T h a y e r ’s analysis along w'ith that of subsequent Beethoven biog­ raphers seems to indicate that, while neither party in the q uarrel was beyond reproach, most of the discredit falls uf>on Beethoven. Im m ediately after the first concert on December eighth, Beethoven returned the fifty ducats he had borrowed from Maelzel and declared that he would never travel with the mechanician, since he had learned of his character. In Beethoven’s “Deposi­ tion” to his lawyer, he called Maelzel “an ill-bred fellow, quite uneducated and without refinem ent.” As proof of MaelzeFs “low and disloyal character,” Beethoven quoted his form er friend as having said, “I shit on V ienna. . . ; I did not do this for the sake of the wounded but for the money.” Beethoven also claimed that Maelzel had spread a rum or that the composer owed him four h u n d red gold ducats. Beethoven nevertheless claimed he had been willing to allow Maelzel to take Wellington’s Victory to London, but “only on certain conditions,” of which the composer would inform him. Maelzel, however, maintained the battle piece was his own property, a “friendly gift,” to which Beethoven replied, “who would allow him self to be compelled to give a friendly present to such a m an?” To emphasize that he could no longer give the work unconditionally to Maelzel, Beethoven p rep ared an elaborate copy of the battle piece and sent it to the Prince Regent of England. T h at monarch, however, took no notice of the score; it was filed away in his library and not perform ed in England until several years later. If

65

Maelzel had complied with Beethoven’s wishes, he might have obtained some sort of conditional rights to perform Wellington’s Victory, but the mechanician continued to believe, with considerable justification, that the work was his property. Maelzel had delayed his jo u rn e y for many p re ­ cious weeks while laboring to m ake a success of the two charity concerts, which had so aroused public interest that further concerts were dem anded. Beethoven, in fact, arran g ed for his own benefit two more concerts on J a n u a r y second and February twenty-seventh, but he completely ignored Maelzel and denied him any share in the profits from those successful events. Beethoven deleted Maelzel’s T ru m p eter from the program s o f the concerts and substituted selections of his own. He lengthened the February concert by introducing for the first time his Eighth Symphony in addition to th с Seventh and the battle symphony. Although extrem ely disappointed with Beeth­ oven’s behavior, Maelzel rem ained for several weeks in Vienna, hoping perhaps that some sort of friendly agreem en t could be reached. He met several times with Beethoven at the office of Dr.

r T

_

f

f

J

у

j /

!. t Si A

ii

if

-'ill

r

i

/ ж

a

W jj[V

Y

I

\ J

During most of his association with Maelzel, Beethoven resided in a flat on the top floor of the Pasqualati House, now Wein 1, Molkerbastei 8. The S ev en th S y m p h o n y was written here, f r o m a c .

A dlersburg, ihe composer’s lawyer, to discuss the Battle o f Vittoria an d the visit to England. Maelzel m ade various proposals “to secure the work, or at least the right of first perform ance for himself.” It was to those meetings that Beethoven referred when he wrote, “. . . one can im agine how he behaved to me d u rin g that time and thus infuriated me more and more.” Guessing perhaps from Beethoven’s attitude that furth er consultations would be futile, Maelzel did not a p p e ar at the last scheduled meeting, at which he was supposed to have received a reply to his proposals. Instead he left V ienna for Munich, where, on March sixteenth and seventeenth, 1814, he staged concerts featuring the Battle o f Vittoria. A pparently Maelzel had recon­ structed the score from parts he had obtained from musicians who had participated in the concerts in Vienna. When news of the Munich concerts reached Vienna, Beethoven was furious. Although Maelzel was on his way to parts of Europe outside the jurisdiction of the Austrian courts, Beethoven in­ itiated a lawsuit against the mechanician. Beethoven thought Maelzel was planning to organize concerts in England, and so he sent there an “Explanation and Appeal to the Musicians of London,” w arning them that Maelzel’s copy of the battle piece was a “spurious or mutilated work.” Maelzel did not in fact produce Wellington’s Victory in London, but not because of an yth ing Beethoven did to prevent it. As T h a y e r explained, “T h e simple truth is, that in those days for a stranger like Maelzel to un dertake orchestral concerts in London would have been madness.” 6.

Maelzel probably did not even go to London at that time. He did, however, go to Amsterdam, where he may have exhibited the automaton trum peter and the panharm onicon. It seems, however, that the main purpose of MaelzeFs visit was to meet with the Dutch inventor Diederick Nicolaus Winkel, whom he had met on a previous trip to Holland early in 1812. At that time he had discussed with Winkel the problem of the metronome, and the Dutchman had agreed to work on the invention. When Maelzel returned in 1815, Winkel was anxious to show him the pendulum device he had discovered. T h e speed of the pendulum , which could be used to m ark musical time, was regulated by means of weights that could be moved up and down its length. Maelzel, who clearly understood the possibilities of the invention, took it and added a g r a d u a te d scale with divisions in d icatin g the number of beats per minute. After ad d in g a few more refinements, Maelzel took the machine to Paris and in 1816 submitted it for approval, u n d e r his

66

At the T ech nisches M useum, V ienna, two Maelzel Metronomes are d isp lay e d in a cabinet at the recon­ structed shop of a violin maker, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f t m .

own nam e, to the Institut de France. Maelzel re ­ ceived a patent an d then established the firm of J . Maelzel and Com pany, whose business was to m anufacture and sell the metronome. Several others had alre ad y proposed the idea of using a p en d ulum to m easure musical tempo. In 1813 Gottfried Weber had suggested the use of a bullet suspended on a piece of thread, and Beeth­ oven’s friend Zmeskall ad d ed some improvements to that simple device, but it was the ingenuity of Maelzel that m ade the metronom e a practical and profitable invention. It was perhaps unfortunate, however, that Maelzel did not give Winkel the credit for his part in the invention. Maelzel’s m etronom e soon became popular in France, England, an d the United States, but it had not caught on in G erm any an d Austria. T o popularize his instrum ent in the G erm an-speaking countries, Maelzel realized that it would need the endorsement of the foremost composers such as Salieri, Weigl, and, of course, Beethoven. If, in addition, he could convince Beethoven and the others to m ark their music for his metronome, its success would be assured. T h us, in 1817, Maelzel decided to return to V ienna, risking the conse­ quences of a renewal of the lawsuit Beethoven had initiated three years earlier. There was another reason for the jo u rn e y east, perhaps even more important to Maelzel then the metronome. He had for several years hoped to visit Eugene B eauharnais in Munich to try to work out an agreem ent to repurchase the automaton chess player from him. After acq uirin g the T u r k from Maelzel, Eugene had gone to Russia with Napoleon and had then retu rn ed to Milan to try to retain his viceregal domains. In spite of Eugene’s enlightened rule, his subjects had not welcomed him, and he sought refu g e, first in France, and then in Munich at the court of his father-in-law, King Maximilian I of Bavaria. In 1805, at Napoleon’s insistence, Eugene

sanction of the metronome was of such value that Maelzel would read ily have conceded much to obtain it; and the whole tone of the composer’s correspondence in this period, so far as relates to his pecuniary affairs, shows how little unlikely he was to sacrifice an y ju s t claim.” A pparently Beethoven simply cam e to realize he had treated Maelzel unfairly. O f the whole episode of Beethoven’s quarrel with Maelzel, T h a y e r observed, “C andor and justice compel the painful admission that Beethoven’s course with Maelzel is a blot—one of the few—upon his character, which no am ount of misrepresentation of the facts can wholly efface; whoever can convince himself that the composer’s conduct was legally and technically just and right, must still feel that it was neither noble nor g e n e r­ ous.” Although Beethoven had been am ong those who strongly endorsed Maelzel’s chronom eter in 1813, the composer was at first reluctant to extend his approval to the new metronome. To Maelzel’s dismay, Beethoven said, “It is silly stuff; one must feel the tempos.” After exam in in g the instrument more closely, however, Beethoven changed his mind, and he publicly acknowledged its merits. “I The Italian-born composer Antonio Salieri jo in ed have long thought of giving up the nonsensical Beethoven in endo rsing M aelzel’s metronome. BY pkr- designations Allegro, A ndante, Adagio, Prestos” m i s s i o n OF ON. wrote Beethoven; “Maelzel’s metronome gives us the best opportunity to do this.” He m arked his had m arried Maximilian’s daugh ter Auguste. compositions for the metronome and jo in ed Salieri Eugene was well received in the Bavarian capital, in attesting that the instrument was “indispensable where he was given the titles Prince of Eichstadt and to all students of singing, pianoforte, or other Duke of Leuchtenberg. Upon leaving Milan, he had instruments.” been able to retain most of his possessions including On December 28, 1817, Beethoven wrote in a the automaton chess player. letter to Frau Nanette Streicher, “T h e day before yesterday I was busy with Maelzel, who is in a great h urry, because he is leaving Vienna very soon.” It 7. was probably MaelzeFs last visit ever with the great composer. When Maelzel retu rn ed to V ienna in the fall of In Munich, Maelzel did not find the Duke of 1817, it seem ed almost as if there had been no bitter L euchtenberg in a generous mood. Although quarrel, no refusal to share profits, no lawsuit. T h e Eugene no longer had much interest in the a u ­ only evidence of the form er difficulties was a tomaton, he refused to part with it for less than the friendly ag ree m en t between Maelzel and Beeth­ 30.000 francs he had paid for the machine. As oven to share equally the legal expenses resulting George Allen explained, “T h e ex-viceroy was known to possess the virtue of clinging to his goods from the litigation. T h e atm osphere was so amiable, in fact, that and chattels with a peculiarly tenacious grasp.” T h e exact terms of the bargain finally reached Beethoven and Maelzel gath ered with some friends at a tavern to enjoy some drinks and to again sing the have been variously reported. T h e French chess hum orous canon “7a, ta, ta, lieber, lieber, Maelzel." journalist Mathieu De T o urn ay thought that Maelzel Schindler, who sang soprano to Maelzel’s bass, was required to pay the interest on the 30,000 francs reported that it was “really a very jo lly evening.” Eugene had paid him for the automaton. For that Now the “ta, ta, ta” had a new significance—it interest payment, Maelzel would be allowed to represented the ticking of the metronome pen­ exhibit the T u rk , but Eugene would retain ow ner­ ship of the mechanism. Allen, however, learned d ulum instead of the beat of the chronom eter lever. What h ad happened to account for the new from Dr. C. F. Schmidt, who had resided at Munich change in Beethoven’s mood? According to T h a yer, in 1827-1828, that Maelzel bought the T u rk for “This would be incredible had Beethoven had any 30.000 francs, to be paid back in installments out of substantial gro un ds for the [legal] action; for his the profits from exhibitions. It was further stipu­

67

At Leuchtenberg Palace, M unich, Maelzel again took possession of the T urk, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f o n .

took and retained possession of the T u rk , m ade some paym ents to Eugene, an d later left the Conti­ nent. With the chess automaton again u n d e r his control, Maelzel returned to Paris to begin a new series of European exhibitions that would equal, and perhaps even surpass, the success of the earlier tour u n d er Baron von Kempelen.

lated, according to Schmidt, that Maelzel was not to leave the Continent to exhibit the automaton. In a letter Maelzel later wrote, he referred to the T u r k as “the automaton chess player entrusted to me by H.R.H. Prince Eugene,” but in the same letter he offered to sell the T u rk as if the automaton were his own property. In any case, we know that Maelzel

68

5 How to Operate a Chess Automaton for Fun and Profit: The Turk’s Second Tour of Europe

1. Europe in 1818 must have been one of the most pleasant of places and times. Napoleon was safely confined on St. Helena, and gone were the wars, the suffering, a n d the enmity am o n g nations. It was a world of little interest to historians, but a world safe for the exhibitors of chess automatons. T h e T u r k was nearly fifty years old by then, and the mysteries of his chess-playing mechanism had not yet been fully revealed to the public. Most spectators could not even rem em b er the previous exhibitions of the chess autom aton, while those few old enough to recall his visits welcomed him as an old friend and spread his fam e am ong yo u n ger persons. When Maelzel arrived in Paris with the au to m a­ ton again in his possession, he went to the Cafe de la Regence, still the world center of chess. Unlike Kempelen, however, he did not challenge the strongest players at the Regence to public chess matches. Instead he enlisted the services of those heirs of Philidor as secret directors of the T u rk . Boncourt, one of the chess professors Maelzel recruited, seem ed the most unlikely possible candi­ date for the job. Although an excellent chess player, he was a strapping fellow six feet tall. T he French jo u rn alist Depping, who was acquainted with Bon­ court, com m ented, “It is almost impossible to be­ lieve that a man of his large dimensions could, by any m an n er of means, ensconce himself within a box of four feet in length, three in height, and two in

69

width, and yet be able to play a skillful gam e of Chess.’’ Maelzel may have chosen Boncourt for that very reason. Who would have suspected that a man of such proportions was the secret director? In Kempelen’s day many spectators suspected that a child or a d w a rf directed the T u rk . Windisch, Dutens, Racknitz, Decremps, and Thicknesse had all expressed such opinions in their works, and Maelzel probably reasoned that if he could get the giant Boncourt into the automaton, the secret would be safe. Maelzel once said that he had made several alterations in the T u r k ’s mechanism “calculated to ren d er its action of more difficult explanation.” Could one of those have been a modification to allow the automaton to accommo­ date a larger operator? Boncourt, however, did not long remain the T u r k ’s director. Besides the disadvantage of his large size, he was about fifty years old. Furthermore, Boncourt was a slow player, a decided drawback for a director of the automaton, since spectators tended to lose interest if a gam e became prolonged. After all, the T u r k was supposed to be a calculating machine able to outpace the fastest hum an minds. Although Maelzel may not have voiced that claim, it was certainly implied, and his most successful operators were rapid players. One incident which occurred d u r in g a perform ­ ance of the T u rk in Paris nearly resulted in Boncourt’s exposure, but it was due to neither his large size nor his slowness of play. One day Maelzel had

ci*/ra The Cafe de la Regence was still the world center of chess, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

from 1820 until his untimely death in 1840. When Labourdonnais died, Pierre de Saint-Am ant was generally considered the top player. Boncourt had defeated Saint-Am ant in a match by a score of 19-16 while Labourdonnais was champion, but by the time Labourdonnais died, Boncourt was in his seventies and was no longer able to defeat Saint-Amant. Boncourt was strongest in the complicated positions o f the middle gam e of chess. “In the twenty-five years I have played chess,” Labourdonnais once rem arked , “never did I see Boncourt commit an erro r in a crowded situation.” Besides Boncourt, Maelzel also em ployed W eyle and A lexan d re to direct the l urk in Paris. Aaron A lexandre, a native of G erm any, was about fifty-two years old but was a small man and could therefore fit into the automaton more easily than Boncourt. A lexandre presided over his own Paris chess club at the Cafe de l’Echiquier an d was the author of the Encyclopedic des Echecs, which covered all chess openings known at the time. Weyle, also a Germ an, for m any years m ade his living by playing for stakes at the Regcnce. Although the chess automaton was Maelzel’s main

ju s t wheeled out the automaton to begin a d em o n ­ stration when a strangely hum an noise seemed to issue from somewhere within the mechanism. Em­ barrassed by what he im m ediately recognized as a poorly muffled sneeze, the mechanician quickly pushed the T u rk behind the nearest curtain and did not return until he was certain that Boncourt had recovered. After several such perilous mishaps, Maelzel solved the problem by installing a clam or­ ous spring mechanism, which the concealed direc­ tor could activate by m erely p ushing an interior button at the first sign of symptomatic tickling. He could then relieve him self by sneezing or coughing as loudly as he wished without any d an g er of revealing his presence. One of the recu rrin g themes in the history of chess automatons is that the persons who directed them were nearly—but not quite—world champion chess players. Boncourt, for exam ple, was always overshadowed by the powerful Labourdonnais, who was recognized as the best player in Europe

70

attractio n , he also ex h ib ite d the m ech an ica l trum peter and the panharm onicon. T h e y were nearly as p o pu lar with audiences as was the T u rk , and the Paris exhibitions were successful, but Mael­ zel, who had always felt that the English would appreciate his shows, decided to visit London in the autum n of 1818.

2.

In London Maelzel spent several weeks searching for a suitable place to exhibit his machines and finally selected a house at No. 4, Spring Gardens. Since Maelzel had not brought with him from Paris a director for the l urk, he contacted J . H. Sarratt, then the foremost chess player in England. Sarratt himself was too ill to consider an yth ing so strenuous as directing the automaton, but he rec­ om m ended for the job his student and assistant, William Lewis. Sarratt had been revising some o f his works on chess, and Lewis was aiding him by doing Boncourt, who directed the T u rk in Paris, was second in chess only to Labourdonnais, shown here, c o u r t e s y o f jg w .

W illiam Lewis, pictured here in his later years, directed the Turk in London, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

One of the T u r k ’s Paris directors was Aaron A lexandre, author of t h e E n c y c lo p e d i c d e s E checs. c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

71

Maelzel on the piano, executed on the slack rope “the most surprisin g feats with the greatest agility, and without any ap p aren t m echanism .” While on the rope or in the hand, one of the rope dancers was heard to exclaim, with a French accent, “Oh! La! L a!” Maelzel also exhibited some sp eakin g figures that, when an arm Was moved, said “M am an ” and “Papa.” T h e principle employed in the figures was probably sim ilar to that used in K em p elen ’s sp e a k in g machines. Later, of course, there were many talking dolls, but in Maelzel’s time they were unique. Professor Jo n es of the Franklin Institute once said he would have ra th er tried to m ake the chess player than one of the speaking figures, which he claimed had “frequently baffled the skill of the most in ge­ nious mechanicians.” Jo n es also greatly ad m ired the perform ance of the rope dancers, stating that it very much surpassed all that he had seen before. When some of the London gentlem en heard the voices of the rope dancers and the speaking figures, they suggested to Maelzel that it would be an improvement if he could make the T u r k say “check” instead of nodding his head to warn his opponent. T h e idea ap p ealed to Maelzel, an d he constructed and installed the T u r k ’s new voice ap p aratus d u r in g the London visit. Some have claimed that the T u r k ’s voice was introduced by Kempelen on his visit to London in 1784 or by Maelzel at the time of his trip to America, but Maelzel him self said the alteration was made d u r in g his London exhibitions. On a later visit to Paris Maelzel modified the mechanical voice to utter something like the French word echec, which the automaton continued to exclaim d u rin g the rest of his chess career.

In London, Maelzel exhibited the T u rk at 29, St. J a m e s ’s Street, SW1, in the b u ild in g seen here at the left. Kempelen had exhibited the automaton at No. 14. At the end of the street is St. Ja m e s ’s Palace, f r o m a c .

As part of the publicity su rro u n d in g the T u r k ’s visit to London, there was published in 1819 a book entitled Letters on the Automaton Chess-player o f De Kampelen. T h at was simply a new English translation of Windisch’s letters, originally published in 1783. T h e Windisch account was soon followed by a new book, Observations on the Automaton Chess Player, Now Exhibited at 4, Spring Gardens, by “An Oxford G raduate.” I'he anonym ous Oxford g rad u ate was widely quoted, but his Observations ad d ed little to Windisch’s earlier description of the automaton. T h e Oxonian could not explain how the T u r k was operated, dismissing the enigm a, in W alker’s words, “with a parcel of ‘probablys,’ leading to no conclu­ sion whatever.”

some of the analytical tasks. Lewis thus had a vast theoretical knowledge of chess and great skill as a player, and he directed the play of the T u rk with much success. Soon the automaton was winning nearly every gam e and was attracting widespread praise by the London press. As a result of the publicity there was no longer enough room for the crowds at S p rin g Gardens, so Maelzel moved his exhibition to a larger hall at No. 29, St. J a m e s ’s Street. In addition to the T u rk and the T ru m p eter, Maelzel had room in the new hall to exhibit his orchestrion, a mechanical orchestra patterned after the panharm onicon. Eventually Maelzel enlarged his presentation to include his popular dioram a the Conflagration o f Moscow and an attraction billed as the automaton slack rope dancers. T h e rope d a n ­ cers were small figures which, accompanied by

Lewis once related that while he directed the T u r k one evening “a gentlem an came fully d e te r­ mined to win and accompanied by several friends who believed that he would.” Lewis opened the gam e with his usual King’s Gambit but soon found that his opponent knew all the correct moves. T h in k in g he recognized Peter U n ger Williams, a

72

Maelzel’s automaton slack rope dancers, like those seen here, were motivated from backstage by thin wires in sid e the rope itself, which was re ally a hollow tube. COURTESY O F J G W .

strong p layer w'ho had for some time been absent from London chess circles, Lewis realized he had to play with great care. T h e gam e lasted an hour and a half, but Lewis was able to win back his gambit pawn with a good position, and he then forced his adversary to resign. T h e visitor, as Lewis had

guessed, was indeed Williams, one of Sarratt’s pupils, who had become a top English player only eighteen months after he learned the moves. Lewis informed Maelzel that Williams was a quick and brilliant p layer with great genius for chess, so the mechanician, with his usual good ju d g m en t, called

T here were m any automaton rope dancers exhibited throughout the nineteenth century, c o u r t e s y o f d m .

whichever side he wished, but always reserved the first move for the automaton. T h e afternoon sessions were usually followed by upon Williams and enlisted his aid to occasionally evening perform ances at eight, when complete direct the automaton. T h u s, rath er than opposing games were played. Since confinement within the the T u rk , Williams became the assistant director, an automaton was always a strain upon the director, a rran g em en t which suited Lewis very well. To exhibitions were limited w henever possible to an further relieve Lewis, Maelzel also obtained the hour. Short presentations by the T r u m p e te r and services of W. J . H unnem an, who in 1820 recorded other attractions were included in both the after­ and published A Selection o f Fifty Games fr o m Those noon and evening performances, for which Maelzel Played by the Automaton Chess Player in London. H un­ charged an admission of two a n d a h alf shillings for neman played endgam es, while Lewis or Williams adults and only one and h alf for children. directed the automaton in complete games. T h e London exhibitions continued into 1819 From November 1818 until the following Feb­ until the beginning of sum m er, when the season ruary, Maelzel limited his exhibitions to three days a ended. Maelzel planned to visit other cities in week, but beginning in February he increased their England and Scotland d u r in g that su m m er, but frequency to six days a week, resting only on Lewis did not wish to leave London. T h u s it was Sundays. Each day would begin with afternoon necessary to seek another director, and except for perform ances at one and three o’clock, d u r in g an occasional substitution at later periods Lewis which the T u rk , directed by H unnem an, played ended his association with the T u rk . only endgam es. T h e re was scarcely any d an g e r of Like Boncourt, Lewis might have been the the autom aton’s losing an endgam e. To assure foremost player of his day had it not been for success, Lewis m ade up a little booklet bound in Labourdonnais. After the death of Sarratt in 1821, green morocco, which contained en d gam e studies. Lewis was generally re g a rd ed as the best English From those Maelzel chose the endgam es to be player, and he went that year to France to play played by the T u r k each day. Lewis had carefully against Dcschapelles, whom m any considered selected each en d g am e position so that it could Europe’s strongest player. Deschapelles, however, always be won by the player who moved first. refused to meet the Englishman without giving him Maelzel generously allowed the challenger to play odds of pawn and move, a practice the French

Paul Morphy was greatly influenced by the w ritings of Lewis. COURTESY O F JG W .

M aelzel’s sp eak in g figures were genu ine but had a lim ited vo cabu lary. When the arm s were moved, a bellows m ech anism was activated. The speaking figures were exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1823. f r o m a c .

Although Lewis had shown there was little, if any, difference in strength between Deschapelles and himself, Labourdonnais was a different matter. Labourdonnais went to England in 1823 and d e­ feated Lewis in a match by a score of 5-2, ending any doubt about who was champion. In 1834 the two adversaries met again for a match of about seventy games, and although the score is not known, Labourdonnais was again the victor. Lewis’s fame, however, rests more on his ability as a chess writer than as a player. In 1825 he opened a chess school in London but wrent bankrupt two years later. He closed the chess rooms but in 1832 published his lessons in the form of a book, Progres­ sive Lessons o f the Game o f Chess, which M urray called a “lan dm ark in the history of the gam e.” T h at and later works established the Lewis or English school of chess, which replaced the school of Philidor and governed the style of all English and German players for the following fifty years. T h e greatest practitioner of the Lewis school was the American Paul Morphy, perhaps the strongest player of all time.

master em ployed to show his disdain for all challen­ gers. U n d er those conditions Lewis won one gam e and drew two, but since the games were played at odds nothing was decided. In the opinion o f chess historian H .J . R. M urray, “Had they played on even - terms, there can be no doubt that Lewis’s knowledge of the openings would have m ade him the more successful p layer.” Deschapelles did not even play his own pupil Labourdonnais on even terms and retired from chess when his protege surpassed him.

3. Jacques-Francois Mouret, who in 1819 replaced Lewis as the T u r k ’s director, was probably nearly the equal o f Boncourt and Lewis on the chessboard and possessed several other qualities that m ade him one of the most successful of the autom aton’s operators. Mouret, a man of wit and hum or, was a

75

professor of chess at the Cafe de la Regence, the g ran d n ep h ew of Philidor, and the chess tutor to the children of Louis Philippe. One writer thought Mouret was a dwarf, who, inside the automaton, “hid his tiny self from all spectators like a mouse in a wainscot.” Another reported that Mouret had but one leg. It seems certain at least that the new director was small enough to fit comfortably inside the automaton. Mouret acted as director d u r in g the sum m er tour of 1819, d u r in g which the T u rk was exhibited in Liverpool, M anchester, and Edinburgh. When Maelzel retu rn ed to London in the fall for a second season, Mouret continued to direct the automaton, and he probably rem ained the principal director for several more years. Before Mouret became the director the T u rk had nearly always played White and had taken the first move, but now Maelzel announced that, in ord er to make the exhibitions ap p ear more spectacular, the T u r k would allow his adversaries the first move and would in addition play without his King Bishop Pawn, thus giving odds of pawn and move. A p p ar­ ently Mouret was confident that he could success­ fully direct the T u rk under those conditions, and records show that he did. M urray reported that Mouret lost only six games out of some three h un d red while directing the automaton. Of the fifty games H unn em an recorded while Mouret was the director, the T u rk lost only three against some of the top players of the day including Brand, Keen, Mercier, and Cochrane. Cochrane was the best English player next to Lewis but could score only one win and one draw in his five games with the T u rk . How was Mouret able to build such an impressive record for the automaton? George W alker claimed that Mouret ranked himself only as a second-rate player and explained, “It must not be supposed that because he appears to win at these odds, of players like Mr. B rand, Mr. Mercier, or Mr. Cochrane, he was in reality their superior in any one respect.” Forgetting perhaps that he himself, in another article, had credited Mouret with “h ard ly losing one gam e in a h u n d re d ,” W alker continued, “It is difficult to recollect games we have lost; and we must not conclude that our automaton possessed a stronger m em ory in this respect than other people.” Maelzel, in fact, did show signs of a weak memory when he later rem arked in America that “the automaton had been conquered but three times.” Allowing for some exaggeration, however, the a u ­ tomaton evidently lost a rem arkably small propor­ tion of his gam es u n d er M ouret’s direction. W in­ ning was quite important to the success of the T u r k ’s exhibitions, for, although Maelzel was careful not to claim that the automaton was invincible, he knew the spectators expected to see the machine victori­ ous.

76

George W alker, pictured here, claim ed that Mouret h ard ly lost one gam e in a h u n d red , but he still c o n sid ­ ered the Frenchm an only a second-rate player, c o u r ­ t e s y OFJGW .

A study of H u n n em an n ’sFi//) Games reveals some of the reasons Mouret was able to win so often. Some of the T u r k ’s adversaries m ade spectacular blun­ ders, losing a pawn, a piece, or even the whole gam e. Many seemed to carelessly throw away pawns, perhaps thinking they could afford to do so since they had started the gam e a pawn ahead. Most, however, received no compensation for their losses and were eventually defeated as a result. T im e was undoubtedly a big factor in favor of the T u rk . Most of the London players were, in W alker’s words, “slow in digesting their chess calculations,” while Mouret, on the other hand, had been schooled at the Cafe de la Regence, where a more rapid style of chess was played. T h e gam es H unnem an r e ­ corded averaged about thirty-two moves in length, and since Maelzel usually insisted the exhibitions last no more than an hour, each p layer would have had less than a minute per move, a rapid rate of play by today’s standards. If the T u r k ’s opponent hesi­ tated too long, the mechanical figure rap p ed sharply upon the cabinet with his right hand. T h at must have been for his bewildered adversaries a terrifying experience, causing m any hasty blunders with resulting losses. Some players seemed to begin their gam es with too much confidence, realizing too late the great strength of their clockwork adversary. Others tried bizarre moves, hoping perhaps to confuse the machine, but such efforts n early always failed.

Mouret even m ade good use o f the autom aton’s supposed disadvantage, the odds o f pawn and move. It was common practice to give odds in those days. Deschapelles, it has been noted, h ard ly ever played without giving a so-called advantage to his opponent. W eaker players at the Cafe de la Regence w ere often called “Knight players” or “Rook players” accord in g to the odds customarily given them. Often the person who gave odds actually gained an ad van tage by doing so. I'he odds-giver knew all o f the intricacies of the gam e played at odds, while his opponent was on unfam iliar ground. T o illustrate that point, Richard Proctor once quoted the following story: A p layer offered an opponent o f considerable strength, but o f less experience, the odds o f four first moves (to be taken within his own half of the board, as otherwise the fam iliar scholar’s mate could be given in four moves). T h ey played two gam es at these odds. In the first, the taker of the odds played out his King’s and Q ueen’s Pawns two squares each, and his two Knights to King’s and Q ueen’s Bishop’s third square—having thus at the start a splendid opening. But he lost the gam e, his opponent’s superior experience in odds games enabling him to take ad van tage of every flaw in the continuation o f the attack. In the second gam e the taker o f odds moved out his King’s Knight as his first move, his Q ueen’s Knight as his second, then moved back his King’s Knight as his third move, an d his Q ueen’s Knight as his fourth move, leaving the board as it stood at the beginning, and the first mo've to his opponent. This gam e, in which he had no odds, and even the disadvantage (as far as it is such) of the second move, he won. T h e fact is, he was on fam iliar gro u n d , whereas in taking the odds he was all at sea.

while playing the T u rk , and they had no idea how to cope with it. M ouret, of course, knew how to take full advantage of the situation. Being a chess automaton offered certain ad v an ­ tages over a m ere mortal opponent. T h e re is, in fact, evidence that the T u rk may have frightened some of his adversaries into losing. When Kempelen first presented the automaton at court in 1770, an old woman fled in fear of the demon she believed to possess the machine. Though less superstitious than she must have been, many of the T u r k ’s opponents may have been defeated partly owing to a touch of terror. At one of the autom aton’s exhibitions in London, an opponent’s fear of the supernatural almost certainly contributed to the outcome of the gam e, as one gentlem an who witnessed the contest reported: We had attended the exhibition several times with a view to an inquisitive examination of its mechanism and principles of construction, but not being conversant with the gam e of chess, were desirous to be accom panied by some friend who could play a gam e with the automaton, and probably be enabled by his observations to assist us in o ur mechanical conjectures. To this end we invited an old schoolfellow, on whose intelligence and acuteness of observation we had learned to depend. . . . He was of robust and healthy fram e, and although of nerves somewhat irritable, was rem arkable am ong his companions for cool selfpossession an d j u d g m e n t , in a n y case of em ergency or surprise. He was conversant with mechanics, fully aware of its capabilities, and was familiar with all those deceptions which to the unlearned ap p e ar miraculous, from their d e­ pending on science with which they are unac­ quainted: he was a scholar and a soldier. T hus accompanied, we paid our visit, and, as was previously concerted, on the invitation to play a gam e with the unknown, our friend accepted the challenge, while we attentively looked on. During the early moves, our friend, whose countenance and actions we carefully noted, seemed highly delighted and surprised at the novel and curious subject before him, although we perceived an air of uncommon seriousness stealing over him; our observation was now quickened, not to the artifi­ cial but the living perform er: it ap p eared to us that in the early moves of the gam e our friend had too lightly estimated the mechanical talents of his adversary, for he had then played with quickness, and without much consideration; now he seemed to calculate, and once, after what we suppose to have been a masterly move, and which was as skilfully answ ered, we detected our friend in an involuntary gaze on the autom aton’s face; this was repeated more than once with evident marks of an increasing excitement; the interest of the scene will never be forgotten while we retain the powers of recollection; the by-standers seemed divided in their opinions, some seemed to partake the feel­ ings of the player, others to consider him a

For sim ilar reasons, Proctor believed, “Many players who could have conducted a tolerably strong gam e against Mouret, playing even, would find them ­ selves at a disadvantage in playing the odds-gam e.” Jo h n C ochrane, who cam e off second best in his five gam es with the T u rk , must have learned some­ thing from the encounter. I n his Treatise on the Game o f Chess, 1822, Cochrane included a forty-eight-page section entitled “On the A dvantage of the Pawn and Move.” He advocated that the giver of odds should employ what is now known as the French Defense but was not at the time known by that name. Allen in 1859 called it a “Boeotian defense, thoroughly understood at the Cafe de la Regence—so often p l a y e d a f t e r w a r d s by La B o u r d o n n a i s , so thoroughly detested by McDonnell.” T h e defense probably originated as a resource for those who gave the pawn and move, and later it was found to be even more effective when odds were not given. Mouret used the opening in forty-five of the fifty re c o rd e d g a m e s. M an y p la y e rs p ro b ab ly encountered the French Defense for the first time

77

confederate, whose well-acted affectation of as­ tonishment was to heighten the effect and character o f the exhibition. This incredulity was, however, soon to be removed, the scene to take a change which none expected and few who witnessed it will forget. A false move was m ade (inadvertently, as we were afterw ards informed) which the figure instantly rectified in its usual m anner; at the unexpected outstretch of its arm to replace the piece on which the mistake had occurred, our friend, who was not forew arned of this piece of its practice, started with evident tokens of am azem ent; but when it proceeded, without giving him time to recollect himself from his surprise, to mak e it s o w n wove, he h alf rose in his seat, stared incredulously in the face of the automaton, expecting to detect at once some living agency, and on the quiet mechanical settling of the playing arm on its cushion, actually sank back on the chair and FAINTED! nor was he sufficiently recovered for removal, without m edi­ cal assistance. Mouret’s skill and cunning, combined with the overconfidence, slowness, and superstition of the auto m aton ’s ad versaries, resulted in an over­ whelming advantage for the T u rk . On those rare occasions when, to Maelzel’s great distress, he found his automaton in a losing position, the mechanician had certain ways of rescuing the gam e or, at least, of m aking the defeat seem less conspicuous. We have seen that, either by intention or accident, the T u r k ’s antagonists sometimes made false moves, to which the automaton replied by removing the offending piece and taking a move of his own. Sometimes when defeat ap p eared imminent, Mael­ zel would step forward and blandly request the near-victorious adversary to m ake a false move. With that invitation Maelzel cleverly implied that the spectators anxiously desired to see how the T u rk might answ er such a provocation. T h e hapless opponent usually complied, only to find that the resulting loss of his piece was enough to reverse the contest in favor of the automaton. On the occasion of other im pending losses, Mael­ zel was known to adjourn the gam e, claiming there was no more time to continue. He then courteously invited the player to return and resum e the gam e at a later time, almost always at an hour when no spectators would be present. T h erefo re, when the fatal “checkm ate” finally ran g out, it fell only upon the ears of Maelzel and the hidden director. T h us the public seldom witnessed the T u r k ’s defeat. I'he rare defeats that could not be avoided or concealed did little to m ar the reputation of the automaton. T h e success of the exhibitions may have been d ue as much to the character and reputation of Maelzel as to an y other factor. To illustrate that point, George Allen explained: He stood before the visitors of his room, by no

78

means as a showman, but as a great inventor. Such he had proved him self to be by his panharm onicon, his rope dancers, his metronome, an d his T ru m p eter; an d a genius that could do so much was half-believed to be capable of inventing a machine that could calculate the combinations of chess. And not his talent alone—his ap p earan ce and m anners attracted the applause of his visitors. He was the perfection of politeness and am iabil­ ity; he was' passionately fond of children, and invariably reserved for them his front seats and distributed sweetmeats am o n g them; and occa­ sionally gave a benefit to orphans, or widows, or some other charity, in a way that evinced real benevolence of disposition. From 1818 to 1821 Maelzel toured successfully in England, Scotland, and nearby cities on the Conti­ nent, sp en d in g most of his time in London and visiting other cities d u rin g the su m m er months. He found that short exhibitions in several different cities were very profitable. Maelzel once claim ed that a two-week stay in Liverpool had brought in more receipts than six months in London. The mechanician might have become wealthy from his exhibitions, but he lived very extravangantly, often sp en din g money as fast as he m ade it. He was a perfectionist and would spare no expense to maintain his exhibits in faultless condition, even if he had to tear them apart and rebuild them com­ pletely. In addition, he was m aking payments, though often irregu larly, to Eugene B eauharnais. Perhaps to solve his financial problems, Maelzel offered to sell some of his machines. An 1820 handbill of his London exhibitions announced that the panharm onicon, the T ru m p e te r , the Conflagra­ tion o f Moscoiv, and his m etronom e patent were all to be disposed of. Because of Maelzel’s shaky financial situation, his directors often found him in arrears. At one time he owed Lewis fifty pounds, of which he paid back twenty-five, perhaps in the hope of p ersu ad in g Lewis to accom pany him on a proposed trip to Russia. Maelzel, it seems, was also slow in p ayin g Mouret. Once d u r in g an exhibition of the au to m a­ ton in A m sterdam , the King o f Holland sent Maelzel three thousand francs and reserved most of the exhibition hall for him self and his retinue. On receiving the money, the mechanician ran to a n ­ nounce the good news to M ouret over lunch. Maelzel rejoiced at the opportunity to match his T u rk against the monarch and im m ediately began preparations for a gran d exhibition. T h e King was expected to arrive at 12:30, and Maelzel anxiously awaited his arrival, but at noon Mouret had not yet arrived to take up his post inside the automaton. Maelzel, in great panic, went to search for his associate and finally found him in bed, trem bling convulsively. “W hat’s the m eaning of this?” d em an d ed Maelzel.

“W hat’s w rong with you?” “I have a fever,” moaned Mouret. “What do you mean? T h e r e was nothing wrong with you at lunch a little while ag o .” “ 1 rue. I was stricken quite sud d en ly.” “T h e King will soon arrive.” “Let him go back ag ain .” “But what can 1 tell him ?” “Ju st say the automaton has a fever.” “How can you jo k e at a^time like this?” “W ho’s la u g h in g ?” "But we’ve never m ade so much money.” “You can give it back.” “I beg of you, get u p .” “Impossible.” “I'll get a doctor.” “Useless.” “Isn’t there an yth in g that will help?” “Now that you mention it, I can think of ju s t one thing.” “Name it.” “You can give me the fifteen h u n d red francs you owe me.” “Yes, I will . . . this evening.” “No, no, right now.” Realizing there was only one thing to do, Maelzel went to get the money, which, as Mouret had predicted, proved an excellent cure: the automaton had never played such an inspired gam e. T h e King himself did not play against the T u r k but was represented instead by his Minister o f W ar, whom

When King W illiam I of the Netherlands arrived , Mouret knew it was p ayd ay, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f o n .

he advised from nearby. When the automaton soundly defeated the partnership, the loss was blamed entirely upon the poor Minister. After the adven ture in A m sterdam Maelzel re­ turned to London in the fall of 1820 for his third season of exhibitions in the English capital. Early the following year the T urk became the subject of a new book entitled An Attempt to Analyse the Automaton

Chess Player o f Mr. de Kempelen. With an Easy Method o f Imitating the Movements o f That Celebrated Figure. Many books and jo u rn als had dealt with the a u ­ tomaton since Maelzel’s arrival in London in 1818, but none had shown much original thinking. Most had, in fact, merely quoted parts of Observations on the Automaton Chess Player, which was itself a superfi­ cial work. T h e new book, about forty pages long, contained a clearly illustrated explanation of how a fully grown man could have concealed himself within the automaton and directed from there a gam e o f chess. Robert Willis, who had modestly omitted his nam e from the title page but was soon recognized as the book’s author, had solved the mysteries of the automaton solely through his powers of observation and reasoning. Accompanied by his sister, Willis had repeatedly visited the T urk's exhibitions in London and had eventually pieced together his analysis. His conclusions were similar to those of Thicknesse in 1774, but, unlike Thicknesse, Willis rested his conclusions on a carefully constructed framework of illustrated explanations, clearly d em ­ onstrating how the T u rk might have been con­ structed. Willis thought the automaton’s director occupied three positions, the first two while the cabinet was opened and the third while conducting a game. T h e book on the automaton was for the twentyone-year-old Willis a prelude to a distinguished career as a scholar and lecturer. In 1837 he was named Jacksonian professor of mechanics at C am ­ bridge, and he was noted for his work in architec­ ture and archeology. Willis was in many ways curiously like Kempelen; he even modified and improved the Baron’s speaking machine. Maelzel, it was claimed, adm itted that Willis’s explanation of the automaton was true. Even if it was not entirely accurate in every detail, as some have maintained, it was essentially correct. T h us it is tempting to conclude that the publication of the book hastened MaelzePs d ep artu re from London in the spring of 1821, but of course he usually left the city at that time of year anyway. From London the mechanician proceeded to Paris, which became his base of operations for the next several years. Later in 1821 Maelzel again visited Am sterdam to exhibit the chess automaton. T h e r e he was con­ fronted by the an g ry Winkel, from whom, on a previous visit, he had usurped the plans for the metronome. T h e Dutchman had soon learned of

Robert W illis, who made this draw in g , observed the chess automaton on numerous visits to Maelzel’s Lon­ don exhibitions, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f g r h .

• fir * / • о/

____ *__ i __ ___ С—

2

— ~4

As drawn by W illis the T urk still looked the same as alw ays from the rear, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f g r h .

In an attempt to eclip se M aelzel’s panharm onicon and thus avenge the theft of the metronome, W inkel built this m echanical c y lin d e r cabinet organ in 1819. The in ­ strument is now in the collection of the National Museum from Music Box to Barrel Organ, Utrecht, Holland. COURTESY OF NMU.

80

Maelzel’s deceit, and, in the Gazette Musicale de Leipsick, 1818, he had protested his prior claim to the invention. W hen Maelzel retu rn ed to Am sterdam in 1821, his antagonist went before the Netherlands Institute, which nam ed a special commission to settle the dispute. After carefully exam in in g the whole affair, the commission forced Maelzel to swear his indebtedness to Winkel for the original idea of the Metronome. Maelzel was even prohib­ ited from claim in g that' he had o rigin ated the m etronom e’s g rad u ated scale, a point which Winkel himself had not contested. All of the testimony before the commission was taken down and filed in the archives of the Institute, but apparently the proceedings had little effect on Maelzel. After leaving the Netherlands he continued to style him ­ self “the inventor of the m etronom e,” and the instrum ent continued to bear his nam e alone. For the exhibition season beginning in September 1822, Maelzel retu rned to London where he found that Willis’s book had done little dam age to the reputation o f the chess automaton. Upon his return to Paris the following year, it became evident that, despite his m any successful exhibition tours, Mael­ zel had not been able to save enough money to keep up his paym ents to the Duke of Leuchtenberg, who had begun legal proceedings against him in the French courts. Even Eugene’s death in 1824 did not end the lawsuit, which was continued by the Duke’s heirs and their representatives. By 1825 Maelzel had decided that it would be in his best interpst to sell the chess automaton and pay o ff his creditors, and thus he began to contact wealthy patrons am ong the nobility to make in­ quiries about the possibility of disposing of the machine. T h e mechanician readily admitted to prospective buyers that, in ord er to realize the autom aton’s full potential, they would have to employ a strong chess player to direct the games. When that fact became known to purchasers, their

W hile in Paris, Maelzel rented a boutique in the Pas­ sage des Panoram as, located between the R u e SaintMarc and the Boulevard Montmartre. At various times he occupied shops located at both No. 8 and No. 9. FROM AC.

N -r i% w ilv < ia '''r ie sJvs J Ja u Q ia n iu $ BoulKjuc, № q.

,T.

млгххгл.,

Mccrmicien, Invcnicur Ju Рлмг^вмомсоп, dc ГЛитсмлтЕ-тпо.мпл;::, clef.

P ar Brevet (VInvention ,

METftONOM tS ET

p г: т 1т s hv т о м л т 1: s i\\ к la M aelzel’s P aris business card advertised most of his inventions but failed to mention the chess automaton. (Dark spot was a red w ax seal.) c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

The Duchess de B erry allowed Maelzel to entertain her guests. BY p e r m i s s i o n o f o n .

81

New Y o rk a b o a r d th e H a v r e p a c k e t s h ip H o w a r d on D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1825, le a v in g M o u r e t in P aris, w h e r e a s e c u r e p o sitio n as a postal e m p l o y e e u n d o u b t e d l y p r o v id e d h im a w e lc o m e r e l i e f f r o m th e h a z a r d s of trav e l with th e P rin c e o f E n te r ta in e r s .

. The Count de Rechberg was interested, but no sale was

According to W illis ’s d ra w in g the T u rk had grown a beard. BY PERMISSION OK GR„.

m a d e , by pe rm issio n of o n.

in te re s t in th e m a c h in e q u ic k ly f a d e d . M aelzel e v e n w ro te to L o n d o n in a n a tte m p t to m a k e a d e a l, but h e d id not re c e iv e a n y satisfac to ry o ffers. H e a r ­ r a n g e d for two e x h ib itio n s o f th e a u t o m a t o n , a lo n g w ith o t h e r p ieces o f his m a c h in e r y , b e fo re th e w h o le F ren ch c o u rt at th e h o u se o f th e D uchess d e B e r r y , h o p in g that s o m e o n e a m o n g th e g u e sts m ig h t w a n t to b u y th e T u r k . T h e C o u n t d e R e c h b e r g a n d o t h e r f o r e ig n a m b a s s a d o r s twice visited M aelzel in his P aris e x h ib itio n hall at B o u t iq u e No. 9, N o u v elle G a le rie d e s P a n o r a m a s , but t h o u g h th e y d is p la y e d a g r e a t in te re s t in th e a u t o m a t o n , n o n e o f th e m e x p r e s s e d a n y d e s ir e to a c q u ir e th e m a c h in e , n o r d id a n y o n e else. M aelzel h a d h o p e d that th e festivities a c c o m ­ p a n y i n g th e c o ro n a tio n o f K ing C h a r le s X m ig h t b r i n g to P aris so m e f o r e ig n e r s w h o w o u ld w ish to p u r c h a s e th e a u t o m a t o n , b u t still no b u y e r a p ­ p e a r e d . H a v in g f a ile d in all his a tte m p ts to d isp o se o f th e T u r k , M aelzel p la n n e d to ta k e th e a u t o m a t o n on a t o u r o f G e r m a n y . W h ile in M u n ic h h e h o p e d to e x h ib it th e T u r k fo r E u g e n e ’s w id o w , th e D uchess o f L e u c h t e n b e r g . It is not c le a r w h e t h e r M aelzel e v e r m a d e th a t tr ip , but it is c e r ta in th a t at s o m e tim e a f t e r A p ril 1825 h e d e c i d e d to ta k e th e chess a u t o m a t o n to A m e r ic a . M aelzel m a y h a v e fled fro m E u r o p e to a v o id th e law su it, a n d h e m a y h a v e ta k e n th e a u t o m a t o n a g a in s t th e w ish e s o f his c re d ito rs . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , h e m a y h a v e p a r tly settled th e su it, a g r e e d to p a y a b a la n c e o f f o u r th o u s a n d fra n c s , a n d ta k e n th e T u r k with th e full co n sen t o f th e D uchess. In e it h e r case, M aelzel e m b a r k e d fo r

ON THE CHESSBOARD The T urk’s London Games Game 4 W h e n M a elze l was t o u r i n g E u r o p e " ’ith th e T u r k f ro m 1818 to 1825, system s fo r r e c o r d i n g g a m e s o f chess w e r e j u s t b e c o m in g p o p u l a r . B e f o r e th at p e r io d t h e r e is h a r d l y a n y r e c o r d o f g a m e s w ith th e chess a u t o m a t o n . Most o f th e con tests w hich follow d e m o n s t r a t e h o w th e l u r k p la y e d u n d e r th e d i r e c ­ tion o f W illia m Lew is o r J e a n - J a c q u e s M o u r e t , but th e first show s th e style o f B o n c o u r t, o n e o f th e T u r k ’s d ir e c t o r s in P aris. B o n c o u rt p la y e d th e g a m e as h im s e lf, not as th e T u r k . H is o p p o n e n t , w h o was fo rced to a g r e e to a d r a w a f t e r fo rty m o ves, was L a b o u r d o n n a i s , th e f o r e m o s t p l a y e r o f his tim e . A lth o u g h r e s o u r c e f u ll y p l a y e d by both sid es, it byno m e a n s p r o v e d B o n c o u r t th e e q u a l o f th e g r e a t m a s te r, sin c e L a b o u r d o n n a i s p la y e d th e g a m e w it h ­ o u t s e e in g th e c h e s s b o a rd . It w as first p u b lis h e d in T he Chess P la y er 's C h ro n icle.

Philidor’s Defense Cafe de la Regence, Paris

82

White

Black

Labourdonnais 1 P- K4

Boncourt P- K.4

2 N-KB3 3 B-QB4 4 P-Q3 5 N-QB3 6 0 -0 7 Q-K2 8 B-N3 9 N -Q l 10 P x P 11 B-QB4 12 Q x B 13 P x P 14 Q-K2 15 N-Q4 16 N-K3 17 N x N 18 N-B5 19 B-K3 20 N-Q4 21 P-KB4 22 P-KR3 23 QR-Q1 24 P-B5 25 P-B4 26 P x P 27 P-B4 28 В x В 29 R x R 30 В x N 31 P x P 32 P-Q 6 33 P-Q7 34 Q-B4ch 35 R-Q5 36 K-R2 37 Q -B 5 38 Q x K P 39 R-K5 40 P-N3 Draw

P-Q3 P-KB4 P-QB3 B-K2 N-B3 P-QN4 P-N5 PxP IV-R3 BxB "'P-Q4 PxP P-K5 Q-Q2 N-B3 QxN B -B l Q-Q2 IV-Q3 0 -0 P-KR4 B-B4 QR-K1 P x P e.p. R-K4 BxN RxP QxR Q xB Q-K4 P-K 6 R -Q l K-R2 Q -R 8ch P-N3 Q-B3 R-KB1 Q-Q3 R-B2

4

K -Bl 5 P-QB3 6 P-Q4 7 N-B3 8 BxP 9 QN-Q2 10 N xN 11 Q-N3 12 R -K l 13 N-N5 14 B-Q5 15 B x B 16 R x P 17 n x q 18 N x Pch 19 Q-Qi 20 N-B5 21 N x B 22 IV-N5ch 23 P-Q5 24 P-KN3 25 26

27 28 29

30 31

Q-Q3

QxNP K-N2 Q-N7ch R-KB1 RxN QXR

P-Q3 N-QB3 Q-K2 N-B3 N x KP B-B4 BxN N -Q l P-KB4 P-QN3 P-B3 PxB Q xR IV-K2 K-Q2 P-KR4 P-NK3 KxN K-Q2 P-B4 P-N4 P-B5 R -B lc h K-B2 N-B2 K-N3 RxR Resigns

Game 6 “One of the most skilful am ateurs of the time” was the T u r k ’s adversary in this gam e, which, like the previous one, was first published in The Chess Player’s Chronicle, 184 1.

Sicilian Defense No. 29 St. James’s Street, London, 1819

Game 5 Lewis directed the T u rk in this gam e played at S p rin g Gardens on New Y ear’s Eve, 1818, shortly after Maelzel first opened his exhibitions in London. O pening with his usual King’s Gambit, Lewis had little difficult forcing the exch an ge of his Rook for the Black Queen with an easy win over a weak adversary.

King’s Gambit No. 4, Spring Gardens, London, December 31, 1818 White

Black

The Turk (Lewis)

Simons

1 P-K4 2 P-KB4

P-K4 PxP

3

Q-R5ch

B-B4

83

White T he T u rk (Lewis) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 B-N5ch 5 В x Bch 6 P-K5 7 P-QB3 8 P-Q4 9 0-0 10 B-K3 11 Q-K2 12 Q x N 13 QN-Q2 14 P-KR3 15 N-R2 16 Q-K2 17 P-B5 18 R x P 19 Q-R5 20 N-N4

Black Am ateur P-QB4 P-K3 P-Q4 B-Q2 NXB N-R3 IV-К 2 P-B5 P-QN4 N-KB4 NXB P-KR3 P-QR4 N -B l N-R2 P-N4 PxP 0 -0 R-R3 Q-N3

21 R/1-KB1 22 R/1-B3 23 N -B l 24 P x P 25 N-N3 26 N-K3 27 N-N4 28 Q x Q 29 R x R 30 N-K3 31 NXQP 32 R -B 6 33 N-K4 34 N xN 35 N-Q 6 36 N/6- K 8 37 K -Bl 38 R-B7ch 39 P-K 6 40 N -B 6ch 41 R-R7 mate

Q-K3 P-N5 PxP Q-KN3 K-N2 Q-K3 Q-KN3 PxQ NxR N-K.3 B -R 6 B -B 8 N-B2 R-R2 K-R2 B -K 6ch B-Q7 K -N 1 Bxp K -R l

25 P-KR3 26 Q-KB2 27 B x B 28 P x P 29 QR-N1 30 R x R 31 R - N 1 32 R x B 33 N -K 1 • • 34 K-R2 1 35 N-Q3 36 N-N4 37 Q - B l 38 R-N7ch 39 R -N 8ch 40 N -R 6ch 41 Q-N5th 42 R-K 8 mate

R-KN2 P -R 6 QxB QxP Q -B 6 BxR K-Q2? Q -B 8ch P -B 6 P-R4 Q -Q 8 Q-Q7 Q xQP K -B l K-B2 K-Q2 K-K 2

Game 8 Game 7

H a r r y W ilson fro m th e Isle o f W ig h t was o n e o f th e finest p la y e r s in L o n d o n . On his th irty -first m o ve, W ilson u n w is e ly sa c rific e d a B ish o p , a p p a r ­ e n tly h o p in g to Q u e e n a p a w n . B e fo r e th e p a w n co u ld re a c h its d e s tin a tio n , h o w e v e r , th e T u r k h a d m a te d h im .

P eter U n g e r W illia m s w as, lik e L ew is, a p u p il o f S a r r a t t . W illia m s w as su ch a f o r m i d a b le o p p o n e n t th a t th e T u r k w as a b le to d e f e a t h im o n ly by s u p e r i o r e n d g a m e p la y . A f t e r th e g a m e , M aelzel w isely e n lis te d W illia m s as a p a r t - t im e d ir e c t o r o f th e a u t o m a t o n .

K ing’s Gambit No. 29 St. Ja m e s ’s Street, London, 1819 Black White Williams The T u rk (Lewis) P-K4 1 P-K4 PxP 2 P-KB4 P-KN4 3 N-KB3 B-N2 4 B-B4 P-Q3 5 P-Q4 P-QB3 6 P-QB3 Q-K2 7 0 -0 P-KR4 8 N -K l P-B3 9 P-KR4 RxB 10 B x N 11 Q xPch K -Q l PXP 12 P x P B-B3 13 N-B3 PxP 14 P-K5 BxN 15 N x KP Q xP 16 P x B Q-B4ch 17 B x P N-Q2 18 R-B2 N-B3 19 B-N3 B-Q2 20 Q -Q lc h Q-N3 21 P-N4 22 Q-Q4 Q xQ N-K5 23 P x Q N xB 24 R-B3 P-R4 25 R x N P-R5 26 R-QR3 B-K3 27 N-Q2

Sicilian Defense No. 29 St. Ja m e s’s Street, London, 1819 Black White Wilson I'he T u rk (Lewis) P-QB4 1 P-K4 P-K2 2 P-KB4 P-Q4 3 N-KB3 N-B3 4 B-N5ch P-QR3 5 P-K5 PxB 6 В x Nch B-K2 7 P-Q3 N-R3 8 P-B3 P-R4 9 0-0 10 P-Q4 P-R5 N-B4 11 B^K3 P-B5 12 Q-Q2 R-QN1 13 Q-KB2 R-N4 14 B -B l P-B4 15 QN-Q2 P-R3 16 R -K l PxP 17 N -B l P-N3 18 P x P R-KN1 19 N-K3 NPxN 20 N xN B-Q2 21 Q-B2 B-N5 22 B-Q2 R-N5 23 B-B3 Q-K2 24 Q-Q2

84

Ф

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

N-K4 N-B5 R-KB1 R-K3ch P-R3 R -B 2 RxR R-Q2 K-B2 K-N3 N-K4 N-B3 R -Q l R-Q2 N-K4ch N-B3ch N -Q l R-K2ch R-B2ch NxR K-B3 N-K4 P-N4ch K-K3 N x Pch K-Q3 K-B3 N-B3 N-K5 P-N5 P-N 6 K-Q3 N xB P-Q5 K-Q4 , PXP P-B7 K-B5

P-N4 B-Q4 K-K2 K -Ql R-R2 R-K2 KxR B -B 5 R -B ld i R-B4 ' K-K3 K-Q4 R-B5 R -B 8 K-Q3 K-K3 B -N 6 K-B3 RxR K-K3 B-Q4ch K-B4 K-K3 IV-R7 K-Q4 B -N 8ch IV-N3 K-K3 B -K l K-B4 K-B3 В x Pch m» KxN K-B3 K-K2 K-Q3 K xP . V •

White won.

Game 9 G iv in g o d d s o f p a w n a n d m o ve, M o u r e t was said to h a v e lost o n ly six o u t o f t h r e e h u n d r e d g a m e s w h ile d i r e c t in g th e T u r k . T h is g a m e a n d th e r e ­ m a i n in g o n e s in th e section w e r e all d ir e c t e d by M o u r e t a n d w e r e first p u b lis h e d in 1820 as A S e le ctio n o f Fifty Gaines f r o m T h ose P la y e d by the A utom aton C hess P la y er , by W . J . H u n n e m a n . M o u r e t d e fin ite ly f a v o r e d th e F r e n c h D e fe n se , w hich h e u s e d in f o r t y - f o u r o f th e fifty g a m e s . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note th at th e p ieces on th e T u r k ’s b o a r d w e r e w h ite a n d r e d , a n d th e a u t o m a ­ ton a lw a y s p la y e d w ith th e w h ite p ieces w h e t h e r h e h a d th e first o r s e c o n d m o ve. F o llo w in g m o d e r n p r a c tic e , h o w e v e r , w e a r e d e s ig n a t in g th e first p l a y e r W h it e a n d th e s e c o n d p l a y e r Black. T h is g a m e with Keen sh o w s h o w th e T u r k u n d e r M o u r e t c o u ld q u ic k ly s u b d u e a n u n w a r y o p p o n e n t.

French Defense L o n d o n ,1820 Black White T h e T u rk (Mouret) Keen Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. P-K3 1 P-K4 P-QB3 2 P-Q4 P-KN3 3 IV-Q3 P-Q4 4 P-QB3 P-QB4 5 P-K5 N-QB3 6 P-KB4 N-R3 7 N-KB3 IV-K2 8 0 -0 0 -0 9 P-QN3 PxP 10 Q -K l B-B4 11 N x P N-KN5 12 B-K3 NxB 13 P-KR3 Q-N3 14 Q x N N xN 15 N-Q2 N-K7 dbl ch 16 Q-N3 NxQ 17 K-R2 Black won.

Game 10 In this e x a m p l e th e F u rk first demolishes H o o k ’s c e n t e r p a w n s , th en m a r c h e d his own d o w n th e m id d le .

French Defense L o n d o n ,1820 Black White T he T u rk (Mouret) Miss Hook Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. P-K3 1 P-K4 P-QB4 2 P-KB4 N-KR3 3 P-QB3 N-QB3 4 P-KR4 P-Q4 5 N-B3 N-B4 6 P-K5 PxP 7 P-Q4 Q-N3 8 PxP K NxQP 9 P-KN4 N x Nch 10 B-Q3 B-K2 11 Q x N IV-N5 ch 12 P-N3 0 -0 13 N-Q2 NxP 14 P-R3 B xN ch 15 Q-K2 N x Bch 16 B x B IV-Q2 17 Q x N IV-B3 18 P-R4 19 R-KB1 Q -Q i Q -B3 20 Q-R3 P-K4 21 R -Q l P-Q5 22 P-B5 Q-Q3 23 P-N5

85

24 P-KR5 25 Q-KB3 26 Q-N4 27 P-N 6 28 B-N4 29 R x R 30 Q-B4 31 B -Q 6 32 R-Q2 Black won.

B-Q2 Р-К5 Q-Q4 P-KR3 RxP BxR P-R4 P-Q 6 P-K 6

Game 11 M o u r e t k n e w how to t u r n th e s u p p o s e d d i s a d ­ v a n t a g e o f his m issin g K in g B ish o p Paw n in to a p o w e r f u l asset. T h e T u r k ’s u n id e n t if ie d o p p o n e n t in this g a m e d e c id e d to allow th e a u t o m a t o n to win b a ck his p a w n in e x c h a n g e for r a p id d e v e lo p m e n t. W h ite e v e n t h r e a t e n e d m a te , but th e T u r k f o u n d a m a te o f his o w n on th e o p e n K in g B ish o p file.

Remove Black’s King Bishop 1 P-K4 2 P-Q4 3 B-K3 4 P-K5 5 B-K2 6 BxN 7 P-KN3 8 P-QN3 • * 9 PxP 10 P-KB4 11 N-KB3 12 P-B3 13 N-Q4 14 B-N5 15 Q-Q 3 16 N-K2 17 PxN 18 Q -B2 Black mates in three moves. 19 20

K -Ql RxQ

Pawn. P-K3 P-QB3 P-Q4 P-KN3 N-KR3 BxB Q-N 3 P-QB4 Q xBP N-B3 0 -0 P-R4 B-Q2 QR-B1 KR-B2 N x KP! BxB Q-B7ch Q -B 8ch RXR mate

French Defense L o n d o n ,1820 Black

White Amateur Remove Black’s King Bishop 1 P-K4 2 P-Q4 3 Q-B3 4 B-Q3 5 N-KR3 6 BxP 7 0-0 8 N-N5 9 R -Q l 10 Q-KR3 11 N x RP 12 B x N P Black mates in three moves. 13 14

K -Rl RxQ

Game 13

T h e T u rk (Mouret) Pawn. P-K3 P-QB3 P-Q4 P-KN3 PxP QxP N-B3 B-N2 Q-N3 0 -0 N xN

U n f o r t u n a t e ly fo r M o u r e t th e T u r k ’s g a m e s w e r e not a lw a y s sh o rt. M e r c ie r , o n e o f th e top L o n d o n p la y e r s , h e ld th e a u t o m a t o n to a d r a w in this e x t e n d e d con test. M o u r e t m u st h a v e g r o w n w e a r y a f t e r so lo n g a c o n f in e m e n t; h e c o u ld h a v e w o n , but p e r h a p s h e just w a n te d to e n d th e o r d e a l.

French Defense L o n d o n ,1820 White Black Mercier T h e T u rk (Mouret) Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. 1 P-K4 P-K3 2 P-Q4 P-QB3 3 P-KB4 P-Q4 4 P-K5 P-QB4 5 P-QB3 N-QB3 6 N-B3 Q-N3 7 Q-N3 Q -B2 8 B-N5 B-Q2 PxP 9 B-K3 10 P x P N-R3 11 0 - 0 N-KN5 N xB 12 QN-Q2 13 Q xN B-K2 14 QR-B1 0 -0 15 B-Q3 P-KN3 16 P-QR3 Q-N3 17 P-QN4 P-QR4 18 P-N5 N -Q l 19 P-QR4 N-B2 20 N-N3 N-R3

Q x Pch Q -B 8ch R x R mate

Game 12 H e r e B a r o n S t u n n e r set u p a p a w n b lo c k a d e to k e e p th e T u r k ’s p ieces fro m p e n e t r a t i n g his po si­ tion, but u n d e r M o u r e t ’s g u i d a n c e th e a u t o m a t o n b r o k e t h r o u g h th e K ing B ish o p file fo r a n o t h e r s p e c ta c u la r m ate .

French Defense White Baron S tu n n e r

L o n d o n , 1820 Black T h e T u rk (Mouret)

86

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

P-KR3 BxN N-B5 Q-B2 P-R4 R-B2 R / l-B l P-N3 K-R2 R-KN1 R/2-B1 N-Q2 P-N 6 R -N 1 RxP N/2-N3 R x Rch N xB Q-Q2 ^-B 3 Q-N3 n x q

N-B5 K-R3 P-N4 RxB K xP N xP K-N3 K-R2 N-B5 N-N7 NxP K-R3 K-R2 N -B 6 K -N l P-R5 N-N4 P -R 6 K -B l P-R7 K-K2 N xP P-K 6 P-K7 N -B 6 P-K 8(Q) NxR N -B 6 N-N4

N-B4 N PxB B -K l K -Rl P- R3 KR-N1 R-N 5 IV-R4 R/1-KN1 R/1-N3 K-R2 Q-R2 Q xp Q -B3 R-N 2 BxN Rx R Q-N3 B -B 6 IV-K5 Q XQ R-N2 R-N7ch B -B 6 В x Pch P X Rch K-N3 P-R4ch R -N 6ch K-B4 R -K 6 KxP R-K7ch R- K6ch K-N5 R-K7ch KxP R-QB7 R-Q7 K-N 6 RxP R-B5ch R -B l R-QR1 RxP R -R l P-R5 RxQ K-N7? (P-R 6 !) P -R 6 Draw

Black White T h e T u r k (Mouret) Brand Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. P-K3 1 P-K4 P-QB3 2 P-Q4 P-Q3 3 P-QB4 P-KN3 4 N-KB3 B-N2 5 IV-КЗ P-Q4 6 P-K5 P-N3 7 P-B5 PxP 8 IV-Q3 N-Q2 9 PxP N-K2 10 Q -B2 Q-B2 11 1V-Q4 0 -0 12 Q-B3 N-B4 13 0 - 0 RxB 14 B xN P-QR4 15 R -K l P-R5 16 P-QR3 B-QR3 17 QN-Q2 PXP 18 P-QN3 IV-N4 19 N x P B-KR3 20 QN-Q2 R-R5 21 N -B l R -B l 22 N-K3 R / l- R l 23 KR-N1 Q-R4 24 R-N4 QxR 25 R x R B-N2 26 N-N4 BxN 27 N -B 6ch P-R3 28 P x B 29 P-B7ch? (Q-K3!) KxP N xN 30 N-K5ch Q-K5 31 BXN P-K4 32 B -R 8 R-R5 33 B x P Q -Q 6 34 R -K l Draw

Game 15 Perhaps to avoid the French Defense, Brand tried the English Opening, probably not yet known by that name. I 'h e T u rk m anaged to win two pawns, but again the result was a draw.

English Opening L o n d o n ,1820

Game 14

White

Black

Brand

The Turk (Mouret)

Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. 1 P-QB4 P-K4 N-KB3 2 P-Q3 3 N-QB3 P-QB3 4 P-K3 P-Q4 PxP 5 PxP 6 IV-Q2 N-B3 B-Q3 7 P-QR3 8 Q-N3 B -B 2

B ran d , an o th er strong London player, played the T u r k to at least two draws, o f which the following is an exam ple.

French Defense London,1820 87

9 Р-К4

10 Q-Ql 11 B-K2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

N-B3 N xN NxP P xN B-KB3 B-QN4 Q xP B-B5 BxB 0 -0 P-R3 К R -Q l PxB B-N2

26 Q-Q5ch 27 P-K5 28 R-Q 3? 29 Q x R 30 R -K l 31 R-K.3 32 K-R2 33 P-B4 34 K xQ 35 K-BS 36 K-K4 37 K-Q5 38 R-QB3 39 R-B7ch 40 R-R7 41 P-K6 42 K-Q6 Draw

N-Q5 0 -0 1^K3 PXP P xN N xN Q-R5 QR-K1 R-B3 B-N3 B-KB2 RXB/N3 R-KR3 B-K3 BxP QXRP R-N3 K -Rl P-KR3 R x Bch QxR R-K3 Q -N 8ch Q xP Q xQ ch P-KN3 K-N2 K-B2 R-N3 K-K2 K-Ql P-KR4 R-N4ch R-N3ch

13 Q-Q3 14 N xN 15 K -Rl 16 Q x N 17 N-B3 18 B-K3 19 B x B 20 Q-N4 21 N x P ! • • 22 P-K 6 23 Q x B 24 QR-B1 25 R-B7 26 R x R 27 R - Q B 1 28 R-B7 29 R -B 8 30 Q xQ ch 31 Q-B2ch 32 P-KN3 33 K-N2 34 K-B3 35 K-K4 36 K-K5 37 K xP White won.

QNxQP NxN NxB 0 -0 B-Q2 B-B4 QxB R-B2 PxN BxP P-Q5 Q-N5 R-KB1 RXR P-KR3 Q -B l Q xR K-R2 K -R l P-QN3 R-B3 P-QR4 R-Q3 R-KB3

Game 17 Due perhaps to the speed with which the gam es were played, Cochrane m ade more blunders than might have been expected. In this exam ple, he missed a chance to win two pawns. T h en a more serious erro r cost him the gam e.

Game 16

French Defense

Next to Lewis, Jo h n Cochrane was the strongest English player o f that time. Of his recorded games with the T u rk , Cochrane lost three, drew one, and won only the following.

London, 1820 Black

White Cochrane T h e T u rk (Mouret) Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. 1 P-K4 P-K3 2 P-Q4 P-QB3 3 P-KB4 P-Q4 4 P-K5 P-QB4 5 P-QB3 N-QB3 6 N-KB3 N-R3 7 B-N5 B-Q2 8 BxN PxB 9 0 -0 PxP 10 N x P P-QB4 11 N-B3 Q-N3 12 K -Rl B-N4 13 R -K l B-K2 14 B-K3 P-QR4 15 N-R3 B-QB3 16 Q-N3 Q-R3 17 N-KN5 B-Q2 18 Q-B2 P-N3 19 QR-Q1? (N x R P !) 0 -0 20 R-KB1?? BxN

French Defense L o n d o n ,1820 Black

White T h e T u rk (Mouret) Cochrane Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. 1 P-K4 P-K3 P-QB3 2 P-Q4 3 P-KB4 P-Q4 P-QB4 4 P-K5 N-QB3 5 N-KB3 N-R3 6 P-QB3 Q-N3 7 B-K2 Q-B2 8 Q-N3 B-K2 9 0-0 PxP 10 Q-B2 11 P x P Q-N3 N-B4 12 R -Q l

88

21

PxB

22

RxR

23 24

B -N 1 Q -B 2

25

BxQ

26 B-B5 Black won.

R x Rch QxRch N-B4 Q xQ P-B5 R-Nl

While

Black T h e T u rk (Mouret)

Strickland Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn.

Game У 18 A v o id in g th e u s u a l F re n c h D efense, this anonym ous p layer opened with 1 P-Q4. However, he found the l u r k well p rep ared to meet the challenge.

Queen’s Pawn Game L ondon,1820 White Black Am ateur T h e T u r k (Mouret) Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. 1 P-Q4 P-Q4 2 P-QB3 N-KB3 3 P-K3 P-K3 4 B-Q3 P-QB4 5 N-B3 N-B3 6 P-QN4 PxNP PxP 7 0 -0 8 N xP B-Q3 9 N-QN5 B-N 1 10 B-R3 P-QR3 11 N-B3 P-QN4 12 B-N 2 Q-Q3 13 P-KR3 0 -0 P-K4 14 P-N3 BxP 15 B-K2 16 R - K 1 P-K5 B-Q2 17 N-KN5 18 B-KB1 N-KN5 N x BP 19 N-R3 Q xP ch 20 N xN Q xN ch 21 B-N 2 Q-R5ch 22 K -R l Q -R 7 mate 23 K -N 1

1 P-K4 2 P-QB3 3 P-Q4 4 P-Q5 5 P-QB4 6 N-Q2 7 B-Q3 8 P-QR3 9 N-K2 10 0 - 0 11 P-B3 12 P x B 13 Q x R 14 N-KB3 15 K-Rl 16 K-N 1 17 K -Rl 18 K-N 1 19 K -Rl 20 K-N 1 21 K-Rl 22 N-N5 23 B-B4 24 K-N 1 25 N x R 26 K -Rl 27 P-QN4 28 Q x B 29 N-K 6 30 PxN 31 P-K7 32 Q-KN1 33 K xQ 34 P x P 35 K -Bl 36 K-K2 Black won.

P-KN3 P-K4 IV-N2 P-Q3 N-KB3 0 -0 N-R3 N-R4 B-N5 N-B5 Nx В R x Rch P-B3 Q-N3ch N-B7ch N x N P d is ch N-B7ch N x P dis ch N-B7ch N -Q 6 dis ch P-K5 R-KB1 N-B7ch RxB N -R 6 dbl ch N x N/N4 BxR Q-B7 N xN N-B2 P-K 6 Q xQ ch P-Q4 PxP K-B2 P-Q5

Game 20 Playing 1 ...P -K N 3 , the T u rk was able to draw with Cochrane; but against Lomax, a weaker player, the result was decisively in favor of the automaton.

Modern Defense

Game 19

London, 1820 White Black Lomax The T u rk (Mouret) Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. P-KN3 1 P-K4 P-K3 2 B-B4 P-QB4 3 B-N3 4 P-QB3 B-N2 N-K2 5 N-B3 0 -0 6 P-Q3 P-QN3 7 IV-КЗ

In their 1972 book The Modern Defence, Keene and Botterill called 1 ...P -K N 3 “the most ultram odern defence at Black’s disposal.” Mouret, m any years ahead of his time, employed the Modern Defense in at least three gam es as early as 1820—and he even gave odds.

Modern Defense London,1820 89

8 QN-Q2 9 P-K5 10 B-B2 11 N-N5 12 N/2-B3 13 N xN 14 P-Q4 15 P-KR4

P-Q4 B-QR3 QN-B3 Q-Q2 N xP BXN B-Q3 N-B4

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

90

P-KN4 P xN B-Q3 K-Q2 KxB K-B2 K -B l

NxB PxP

B-N6ch BxB Q-N4ch R-B7ch Q x P mate

6 A Tale of Four Cities: Maelzel and the Turk in America

1. New Yorkers who followed the “Ship’s News” would have noted the arrival on February 3, 1826, of a certain “ M r/ Maelzel, Professor of Music and Mechanics, inventor of the Panharmonicon, the Musical T im e-K eeper, etc.” That announcem ent was followed shortly by an attractive editorial in the E vening Post, introducing to the public the autom a­ ton chess player. Soon after disem barking, Maelzel had called upon the Post's editor, William Coleman, to present him with letters of introduction and to enlist his editorial support. Maelzel and the T u r k had clearly arrived in the New World, but it would be two months before the citizens o f New York would have the privilege of witnessing a perform ance of the famous automaton, for, as usual, Maelzel was in no rush to open his exhibitions. He rented a suitable hall at the National Hotel, 112 Broadw ay, ju s t across from City Hall, and began the u n h u rried task of unpacking his boxes an d assembling his exhibits. As he liked to keep a close watch over his m achinery and those who assisted him, Maelzel m ade his own lodgings in the hotel. One possible cause for delay in opening the exhibitions was that Maelzel had not brought with him a director for the T u rk . T o fill that vacancy, the mechanician had to enlist the services of a French woman, the wife of a man he had en gaged to m anipulate the slack rope dancers. Although the

new directress would conduct only en d gam e play, it undoubtedly required some time for Maelzel to instruct her in her duties. George Allen suggested that another possible cause for delay might have been the renewal of legal proceedings with the Leuchtenberg family. At that time, it was thought, Maelzel owed them about eight hundred dollars, a sum he was not yet p repared to pay. However, the executors probably realized that Maelzel would be able to pay more promptly if he were allowed to keep the automaton, and they thus postponed their dem ands for payment. On T h u rsd ay, April 13, 1826, about one hun d red persons, responding to an advertisement in the papers, gath ered at the National Hotel to witness Maelzel’s first American exhibition of the chess automaton and other attractions. Although the attendance was disappointing, those present quickly spread the news of the wonders they had seen, so that it soon became necessary at each perform ance to turn away scores who could not be seated. After that Maelzel no longer had to publicize the chess automaton; the newspapers did it for him. One editor, in fact, felt obliged to apologize to his readers for “perm itting the Automaton to occupy so much of his columns,” explaining that “persons at a distance can form no idea how much the attention of our citizens is occupied by it.”

91

In Maelzel’s time the Broadway stage was a means of transportation, f r o m h w .

At the two exhibitions Maelzel gave each day, one at noon and the other in the evening, only endgam es were played. As in Europe, an adversary was selected and seated at a board on a side table separated from the automaton by a silken cord. T h e challenger was then presented with a printed d ia­ gram on which Maelzel had penciled in symbols indicating an en dgam e situation. At each perform ­ ance Maelzel p repared a different endgam e d ia­ gram selected from the little green morocco-bound book which Lewis had compiled in London and to which Deschapelles and Mouret had added some problems. Each endgam e, as we have noted, had been carefully chosen to guaran tee a winning a d ­ vantage to the side taking the first move, and of course the automaton always began the game. Maelzel made a great show of allowing the T u r k ’s opponent to pick the side he wished to play, and, to aid his choice, the mechanician printed in large num erals on the card the exact num ber of pieces on each side. Most of the adversaries took the side having the larger number o f or the more powerful pieces, but it m ade no difference, for the winner was predeterm ined. Maelzel had carefully taught his French directress to make the right moves from

either side of the board. When the T u r k had defeated his challenger, the pieces were set up for another gam e, with the automaton taking the oppo­ site side but retaining the first move. Naturally the T u rk was again victorious, and Maelzel wheeled the automaton behind the curtain am id thunderous applause. Along with the chess autom aton, Maelzel exhib­ ited the T ru m p e te r and the slack rope dancers. About a month after he opened his exhibitions, Maelzel was also dem onstrating an automaton vio­ loncello p lay e r. Prince B e rn h a rd o f Saxo n yW eimar, who visited New York in May 1826, wrote, “Mr. Maelzel showed us a small figure m ade of pasteboard, rep resen tin g a violoncello p layer, which moves his head and both hands. Mr. Maelzel plays several pieces on the piano and the small figure accompanies him with his violoncello, keep­ ing exact time.” Later Maelzel sometimes advertised “the am using little bass fiddler,” probably a similar, if not the same, automaton. T h e T u rk received much favorable publicity in New York, but there were also the usual attempts to explain the secrets of the machine. T h e E vening Post, in fact, claimed that Maelzel’s secrets had been guessed at least a dozen times d u r in g the first week

92

of exhibitions—and each guess was different. Mael­ zel actually welcomed those am usin g guesses be­ cause they gave him a chance to refute them and thus increase interest in his exhibitions. One person theorized that when Maelzel relayed the ad versary’s moves to the autom aton’s board he placed the pieces in such a way as to indicate to a concealed player the proper response. T o dispel that idea, Maelzel him ­ self sat at the little side table while the adversary was allowed to m ake the moves on the T u r k ’s board. Another explanation, proposed in an anonymous letter to Maelzel, held that the writer had seen Maelzel touch certain springs on either side of the board. After that, Maelzel was careful to rem ain at a distance of twenty feet from the T u rk except when m aking the ad versary’s moves. Several persons had noted that a certain French woman had a way of disap p earin g d u rin g the hours when the chess automaton was exhibited. T h a t observation was a bit too close to the truth for Maelzel’s taste, and the situation grew more a la rm ­ ing as word of the enigmatic French woman spread Finally, at one perform ance things nearly got out of hand. Maelzel had just brought out the T u rk before a packed audience and was p rep arin g the table for the adversary when cries of “W here is the French wom an?” broke out. For several minutes it looked as if the evening, and perhaps the whole American tour, would end in disaster, but then suddenly there was complete silence. T h e French woman had ap ­ peared at the door, had calmly walked down the aisle, and was seating herself at the adversary’s table. As if nothing unusual had happened, Maelzel calmly h an d ed the young lady a card showing the evening’s en d g am e situation. After casually choos­ ing the side she would take, she played out the en d g am e against the T u rk , who beat her as easily as he would any o rd in ary challenger. In a rematch the autom aton defeated the French woman just as readily from the other side of the endgam e, and the crowd went wild with applause. Later, after the hall had em ptied, Maelzel went behind the curtain and congratulated his new di­ rector, the son of his friend Coleman. T h e cun n ing exhibitor had explained the whole situation to Coleman and had en gaged the editor’s son to occasionally direct the automaton. Besides yo u n g Colem an, Maelzel confided the T u r k ’s secrets to at least two other persons. One was a young G erm an, while the other, according to Allen, was a tall “well-known scientific gen tlem an .” Later, when the Frenchwoman, along with her husband, deserted the exhibition, the three young men alternated as replacements for the erstwhile directress. Those a m a te u r directors, of course, did not com pare in playing strength with the T u r k ’s form er directors in Europe. T h u s the Americans were allowed to play only endgam es, which they were able

to study thoroughly before each performance. Maelzel would not permit them to play complete games because he feared they would lose, and he knew that h ard ly anything could harm the re p u ta ­ tion of the automaton more than to have him beaten. Despite his precautions, however, Maelzel suf­ fered the sham e of seeing the T u r k twice defeated in New York. One of the losses came while playing the symmetrical position of three pawns against three pawns, a complicated en d gam e which eventu­ ally cost the automaton several defeats. Endgame positions, because of the frequency of exhibitions, had to be repeated from time to time. At one perform ance a young man who had happened to be present when the three-pawns en dgam e was previ­ ously played volunteered to oppose the automaton. After the earlier performance the young player had rem em b ered the position and had studied it thoroughly. T h us when the T u r k ’s director played carelessly, his young adversary was ready to seize the advantage and win the game. T h e second defeat was Maelzel’s fault: he had, as he sometimes did, courte­ ously consented to allow the T u r k ’s adversary the fatal first move. Those losses, though not numerous, were an annoyance to Maelzel, as was the constant necessity to explain why the automaton would not play entire games, as he had in Europe. T herefore, when profits from the exhibitions began to flow in, Mael­ zel wrote to a strong chess player at the Cafe de la

Princess Auguste, the Duchess of Leuchtenberg, was probably the true owner of the T urk. In Am erica, Maelzel ev e n tu ally raised enough money to pay her off. FROM HM.

93

Regence, sending him the money he would need for his passage to New York. It is likely that before leaving France Maelzel had made arran gem en ts for the first-rate player to join him in America as soon as possible, but travel by sea was so slow that it would be at least three months from the time he sent for the new director until his arrival. Maelzel, increasingly anxious to present the T u rk in complete games in New York, awaited the time when a ship from France would b rin g the new director. By J u n e first, however, he had seen no sign of his new associate and had reluctantly closed the New York exhibitions w'ith the intention of moving to Boston. Five days later Maelzel changed his mind and announced that he would open again in New York after unpacking, which would take a week or two. Maelzel may have simply wished to remain in New York to take advantage, on J u ly fourth, of the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. On the other At J u lie n H all, Boston, the new director jo in e d Maelzel hand, he might have delayed his d ep artu re in the ju s t in time. C O U R T E S Y o f b c . hope that the foreign director would finally arrive in time to give some New York performances, but if nearly decided to initiate one of the top Boston that was the case, Maelzel was disappointed. players as his director. T h e chess players of Boston, Another possible cause for the postponement of it should be noted, considered Maelzel a talented the Boston trip was that Maelzel was detained by an artist rather than a m ere showman, and they treated agent of the Leuchtenberg family, who dem anded him with great respect and friendliness. T h u s he the final payment of eight hun d red dollars before soon became well acquainted with many of the city’s they would release the automaton for further travel. leading players, from am ong whom he might have By that time Maelzel was able to pay the sum, and he selected a director, but before that happened word at last resum ed full title to the chess automaton. reached Maelzel that his new, foreign director had Finally, on J u ly fifth, Maelzel again closed his finally arrived in New York. exhibitions. T hat time he really left for Boston, William Schlum berger, a yo un g man in his early without having presented the T u r k in any complete twenties, stepped off the packet Howard in New games. York on the tw'enty-seventh of September. From his appearance one might not have ju d g e d him a likely candidate to direct the chess automaton. He was, 2. like Boncourt, a full six feet in height. Nevertheless, he became one of the T u r k ’s most competent On W ednesday evening, Septem ber 13, 1826, directors, as well as Maelzel’s good friend and loyal Maelzel opened his exhibition season in Boston. companion. After that, he held performances twice daily, as in As Allen pictured Schlum berger, “his m anners New York. For the Boston exhibitions, Maelzel had were gentlem anly, and his conduct every way r e ­ rented rooms in Ju lien Hall, at the corner of Milk spectable. His countenance was rem arkably a g r e e ­ and Congress streets. Those quarters provided an able in expression; his features well-defined and exhibition hall, as well as the usual chambers for handsome; his nose well-formed and prominent. lodging an d eating near his exhibits. T h e adm irable formation of his head, with its d ark To direct the T u rk , Maelzel had brought with him brown hair, and his beautiful chestnut eyes, are to Boston a young New Yorker. T h e Bostonians always dwelt upon by those who had known him. His loudly d em and ed the opportunity to play the a u ­ figure was muscular and well-proportioned, with tomaton in complete games, but Maelzel still would the drawback which Poe has com m em orated, of ‘a not entrust his youthful director with anything but -remarkable stoop in the shoulders.’ When visiting endgam es. Even in the endgam es, however, the gentlem en’s houses, he was always neatly an d r e ­ T u r k was beaten three times, once because of a spectably dressed; but at all other times h e . . . was by blunder by the director, and twice because Maelzel no means careful of his personal ap p earan ce.” gallantly allowed the antagonist the first move. Schlum berger, who was known at the Cafe de la After about two weeks in Boston, Maelzel was Regence as Mulhouse after his place of birth, beginning to realize that the endgam es would not belonged to a wealthy m anu facturing family of that continue to satisfy his audiences. He had therefore city. After receiving a good education, especially in

94

H ad it not been for Labourdonnais, p la y in g on the right sid e of the chessboard at left, one of the T u rk ’s directors m ight have been the cham pion of Europe. Before going to A m erica, S ch lum b erger often p layed Labourdonnais at the Cafe de la Regence. c o u r t e s y o f j c w .

mathematics and languages, he and his brother had been placed in ch arge of the Paris branch of the family business. Eventually a commercial misfor­ tune had ru in ed the firm and caused him to turn for his livelihood to chess, which probably was his p rim ary interest anyway. As a professor of chcss he had supported him self by giving chess lessons at the Cafe de la Regence. At the chessboard he was fully the equal of Boncourt, A lexandre, and Mouret, and second only, as they all were, to Labourdonnais. Had it not been for Labourdonnais, who could give even the strongest players odds of pawn and move, it is interesting to speculate that one of the T u r k ’s directors would probably have been chess champion of Europe. By enlisting the aid of directors such as Allgaier, Boncourt, A lexandre, Lewis, Mouret, and Schlum berger, Maelzel was guaran teed that the automaton was virtually unbeatable. Perhaps Sch lu m b erger’s most famous pupil at the Cafe de la Regence was Saint-Amant, who suc­ ceeded Labourdonnais as editor of the chess jo u rn a l Palamede. In 1842, at the height of his career, Saint-Am ant praised his form er teacher, who had first initiated him in the intricacies of combinational play through repeated practical examples. At the same time, however, Saint-Am ant pointed out that Sch lum b erger h ad been barely existing upon three or four francs a day, which he earn ed as a chess instructor. T h e r e were then few opportunities for a professional chess player to earn a living. There­ fore, Schlum berger, whom Allen called a striking exam p le of a perfect chess enthusiast, welcomed the chance to become perm anently employed as Maelzel’s director at a salary of fifty dollars a month plus traveling expenses. W hen Sch lum b erger arrived in Boston about October first, it was impossible to hide himself from

Pierre de Saint-Amant, seen here, was S ch lum b erger’s most illustrio us pupil. C O U R T E S Y O F J G W .

the top chess devotees. One of those gentlem en, Samuel Dexter, had visited the Cafe de la Regence on a recent trip to Paris and had seen Schlum berger playing there with Labourdonnais. T h erefo re, Maelzel made no attempt to conceal the identity of his new director from the Boston chess circle, as he did from the general public. For them, the secret was how Schlum berger controlled the automaton. Maelzel, in fact, encouraged his new director, whose good m anners m ade a favorable impression w her­ ever he visited, to play privately at the homes of the

95

Maelzel’s travelin g chessboard with holes for pegged pieces was probably the one he used in games with Schlum berger. COURTESY OFJGW.

perm anence between them, while m aking a delib­ Boston players. By that means, it was soon estab­ lished that none of them was a match for Schlum ­ berger. Schlum berger required about two weeks’ practice to learn to conduct a gam e from within the T u r k ’s mechanism. T h e director took a room in a boarding­ house ad joining Ju lie n Hall, so that he could dine with Maelzel while the two played chess. That agreeable habit became a perm an en t feature of their relationship as long as they were together. On such occasions [wrote Allen] they had . . . a most am u sin g way of keeping the chessboard en

96

erate and gentle progress through the pleasant stages of the savory meal. Attacks and counterat­ tacks were vehem ently carried on, fork in hand. Maelzel would meditate a move as he masticated; and Schlum berger, always rapid at chess, would reply without the loss of a mouthful. T h e severity of desperate situations was softened to the G er­ m an’s heart by copious d rau g h ts of claret; an d his French antagonist, in the keen pursuit of victory, put the glass often unconsciously to his lips. Neither of them was by any means deliberately disposed to intem perance; yet if the gam e h ap ­ pened to be protracted to an ex trao rd in ary num ber of moves, Maelzel, to be sure, would be steady as a rock, but S ch lu m b erger might,

As satirized in C ru ik sh an k ’s 1819 print, the Londoners were fascinated with the gam e of chess and were thus a ready au d ien ce for Maelzel’s automaton, c o u r t e s y o f jg w .

»

»

«

iJ r .u t fi X

У У Ш Т К 11Ю К » E

'yiiW •

.

/

/

'T S L L A fe , Р М Ч 'Л т Ы Л Г ,

✓Р &

1/7М •

///Л >

/ / 7/ / / / / / / / / ' ? ' « / "

Л у

.Г / г

/ч/

/ ) '*.’ -

р •/ /

Maelzel and Mouret undoubtedly started many of their tours aboard a c arriage such as this one draw n by C ruiksh ank for Pierce Egan’s Life in L ondon, b y p e r m i s ­ s i o n OF BL.

м

у .' .

I*

//' л

/'!,П1рЦ 1ЙИШ И |111

G ran d v ille’s fanciful “o r c h e s t r e a la v a p e u r ” or steam orchestra, caricatured the m echanical m usic Maelzel was noted for. b y p e r m i s s i o n o f b l .

T h is d iag ram was evid en tly laid over the travelin g chessboard so that Sch lum b erger or other directors could practice the Knight’s Tour, c o u r t e s y o f j c w .

perhaps, m u r m u r his “Echec et mat!" with the least sign of a hiccup upon him. On October thirteenth Maelzel felt that Schlum ­ berger was ready, and he inform ed the Boston players they would soon have the opportunity of playing full gam es with his automaton at private exhibitions, which would be held, for a short time, at noon daily. T h e first such session was held on the sixteenth and it was the first time Schlum berger ever directed the automaton. As expected, Schlum ­ berger p erfo rm ed brilliantly, and Maelzel was d e­ lighted that the automaton could finally perform

97

full games. But that very same evening a youthful challenger defeated the T u r k —in an endgam e. Later in the week the automaton suffered a second defeat, this time in a full game. Evidently Schlum berger was having some difficulties getting used to his duties, but in the process he m ade a minor celebrity of his adversary Dr. Benjamin Green, who from that time on was known in Boston chess circles as “the man who beat the autom aton.” Perhaps those two losses shook MaelzeFs confi­ dence in his new associate, so that d u rin g another gam e the exhibitor questioned the wisdom of a move his automaton had just made. Instead of repeating the move on the opponent’s board, Mael­ zel went over to the T u r k ’s board and nonchalantly replaced the piece where it had been. Im m ediately

the automaton repeated the move, but Maelzel again vetoed it. A third time the T u r k made the same move, but with such vehem ence that Maelzel reluctantly relayed it to the adversary’s board. I'he result of the g am e proved Schlum berger had been correct. On another occasion Schlum berger nearly re ­ vealed him self by emitting a loud sneeze ju s t as Maelzel was b rin gin g the automaton from behind the curtain. T h e startled Maelzel quickly wheeled the noisy mechanism backstage, but soon retu rn ed and carried on as if nothing had happened. Since a similar incident had occurred once when Boncourt was directing the automaton in Paris, Maelzel again resolved to install a noisy spring which Schlum ­ b erger could activate d u rin g such crises. While the T u r k was in Boston or shortly th ereaf­ ter, there was published a pamphlet entitled The

History and Analysis o f the Supposed Automaton Chess Player, by Dr. Gamaliel B radford, a physician who served for several years as Superintendent of the Massachusetts General Hospital. B rad ford ’s ac­ count, like several others, drew mainly upon Willis’s booklet for both explanation and diagram s, but the doctor ad d ed several original ideas based upon his own observations. He even timed the intervals between an opponent’s moves and the autom aton’s replies, finding that they varied from only ten seconds to three minutes. He thus concluded it was unlikely that Maelzel initiated the moves at the times he relayed the adversary’s moves to the T u r k ’s board. Maelzel did not give B radford much time to observe the automaton, since the inventor left Boston only two weeks after Schlum berger began directing. He headed for Philadelphia on October twenty-eighth, stopping for a short stay in New York in response to a challenge which had appeared in the New York American. A man calling himself “Greco” had declared that he would represent New York chess in a three-gam e match with the autom a­ ton “for love or money,” and he would thus prove the superiority of New York players over those of Boston. Maelzel, upon arriving in New York, a n ­ swered the challenge on November seventh, saying that a num ber of Boston gentlem en had authorized him to defend their reputation by accepting Greco’s challenge at stakes of $1,000, or up to $5,000 if he preferred. Soon Maelzel was visited by two New York players who, according to Greco, were capable of playing “with a d egree of skill inferior to no champion whatever, either American or Euro­ pean.” When they arrived at Maelzel’s lodgings, the two players discovered that Maelzel’s troupe had a new member, a Mr. Schlum berger, who would enjoy playing a few private games. A few days after those encounters Greco humbly reported in the American, “I am sorry to state that both the American chess players on whose skill 1 relied so arrogantly

98

have been beaten with ease by a foreigner. I must therefore back out from my challenge, as better men have done before me, and subscribe to the a u to m a­ ton’s superiority without a trial.” 3. >

%

Maelzel ap p aren tly had a g reater affinity for Philadelphia than for any other American city, and thus he m ade that city a center for his travels and established m any lasting friendships there. Before beginning exhibitions in Philadelphia he rented an old building on Fifth Street below Walnut and spent a considerable sum in rem o d elin g the second floor to provide both an exhibition hall and his own private rooms, where he and Schlum berger could dine. In addition, he widened the stairway and rented out the lower floor of the building, which came to be known as Maelzel Hall. Maelzel also rented a storeroom from Jo h n F. Ohl, a friend who often advised him on business matters. D uring Maelzel’s travels the old storeroom provided a convenient place to deposit some of his exhibits, safe from persons who might wish to pry into their THF.

H IST O R Y A N D

OF TH E

A K A £ T ffX S

9UPPOSED

AUTOMATON CHESS PL A T E R , OF

M . DE K E IV IFE L E N ,

NOW

EXHIBITING Ilf T H IS

COUNTRY,

В Т M R . MAELZEL J

WITH LITHOGRAPHIC FIG URES, ILLU STR A T IV E OF THF. PROBABLE METHOD

BY WH1CU

ITS MOTIONS A R E DIRECTED*

“ loclogi ligno o ccu lu n tu r Achm.”

BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY H ILLIARD , ORAY AND CO.

1826.

*

I 1/ I

.

/•!

b' ■

Dr. Gamaliel Bradford’s booklet on the T u rk contained some o rigin al observations, but his pictures were copied from W illis, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

secrets. Even the automaton chess player spent some time in storage there. T h e newspapers did not announce Maelzel’s arrival in Philadelphia until December 22, 1826, although he had been in the city about a month a r ra n g in g for his exhibitions. During preparations for his op en in g he kept a crew of workmen busy on various parts of his attractions. Most had little u n d e rstan d in g of what t-hey were doing, since Maelzel kept to him self the overall plan of each m echanism, entrusting them to nobody. One of the workmen called to assist in the final preparations gained m ore of Maelzel’s trust than usual. He was Joseph J . Mickley, a yo u n g piano m anufacturer who was sum m oned in late December to make some m inor repairs on the piano Maelzel used to accom pany the T ru m p e te r and the rope dancers. Maelzel took an im m ediate liking for the friendly yo un g Mickley, who was a native of the Moravian settlement at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and spoke fluent German. When Mickley arrived at Maelzel Hall, he found the inventor busily training someone hidden behind the curtains in the proper manipulation of the rope dancers. Sp eak in g em phatically in French, the teacher o rd ered , fretted, adm onished, and scolded his unseen pupil, who mildly and good-naturedly interjected his protests. Maelzel paused in his tirade to apologize to Mickley for his aw kw ard disciple, saying pleasantly, “He is a novice: he has been only a little while with me.” From behind the curtains there em erg ed a tall stooping young man, whom Maelzel in tro d uced to Mickley as “ M onsieur S c h lu m ­ b erg er.” T h e man who had form erly worked the rope dancers had long since departed along with his wife, the T u r k ’s French directress. Schlumberger had thus inherited the duties of both Maelzel’s form er associates. In addition, he had become a sort of confidential secretary and clerk, writing letters for Maelzel a n d supervising the men who worked on the exhibits. Above all, Schlum berger was MaelzePs best friend and companion, and a ready opponent at chess, which occupied m any spare hours at the exhibition hall. When not otherwise occupied, Schlum berger often called upon some of the Philadelphia chess am ateurs, the most notable of whom was Charles Vezin. Maelzel e n c o u ra g e d such visits n early everyw here they went. Not only did the encounters keep Schlum berger in good practice and satisfy his appetite for chess, but they also allowed the director to identify all of the strongest players, thus avoiding an y surprises at exhibitions of the automaton. Maelzel slyly requested Vezin not to play the au,tomaton in public, although there was little d a n g e r that the Philadelphian would beat the T u rk . T h e inventor often used such flattery to gain the support o f the best chess players in each city. In retu rn , the T u rk was.of incalculable value in

prom oting chess in Philadelphia and in other American cities. News of the automaton's exploits were carried in all the papers, generating a lively interest in chess and causing a great dem and for the books of Philidor, Sarratt, Cochrane, and Lewis. Even before the T u r k arrived in Philadelphia, the news of his coming had excited so much enthusiasm for the gam e that the city’s first chess club was formed and had enrolled over one h un d red m em ­ bers in early 1826. Vezin, the leadin g spirit of chess in Philadelphia in those days, often said in later years that he knew nothing of real chess until he began to play with the director of the automaton. T h e day after Christmas 1826 Maelzel opened his first Philadelphia exhibition season, which lasted nearly three months. T h e T u rk , along with the T ru m p eter and the rope dancers, perform ed each d ay at noon and again in the evening. Schlum berger directed the T u r k in both endgam es and full games, losing only one of each d u r in g that visit to Philadephia. The endgam e, lost to Daniel Smith, was the same three-pawn position responsible for one of the autom aton’s defeats in New York. T h e winner of the full gam e was a certain Mrs. Fisher, who, being a woman, was gallantly given the first move. It was rum ored, in fact, that Maelzel gave her the whole g am e by o rd erin g Schlum berger to allow her to win. T h e contest was begun on J a n u a r y thirtieth but could not be completed, so was con­ tinued the following day. After Mrs. Fisher’s thirty-ninth move, Maelzel, realizing the gam e was lost, politely thanked the lady and observed that his automaton was fairly beaten. The Philadelphia Gazette printed the gam e, which appears to be the only exam p le of Sch lum b erger’s play ever recorded. Full gam es were rarely played, but in one of them, lasting five hours and played in three sittings, the T u rk fought an eminent Philadelphia player to a draw. The automaton, it was noted, appeared veryhard pushed, pausing up to seven and a h alf minutes between the more difficult moves. The February 1827 issue of The Franklin Jo u rn a l and American Mechanic's Magazine contained an a rti­ cle, “Observations upon the Automaton Chess Player, now exhibiting in this city, by Mr. Maelzel, and upon various Automata and A ndroides.” T h e jo u r n a l’s editor and author of the article, Dr. Thom as P. Jones, included in it some elements of Willis’s ideas, but ad d ed interesting observations of his own on the T u rk . He also commented briefly on the T ru m p eter and the rope dancers. Although such publications did not seem to d am ag e the popularity of the T u rk , they probably irritated Maelzel, and Jo n e s’s article may have hastened his decision to leave Philadephia. Besides, he knew there was a fourth American city whose inhabitants had had their curiosity aroused by the chess a u ­ tomaton. He therefore closed his exhibitions at Maelzel Hall on March twentieth and proceeded to Baltimore.

4. When Maelzel arrived in Baltimore he began there his customary preparations for exhibitions. He selected a hall at the Fountain Inn, on Light Street, and as usual remodeled it to provide him self living quarters adjoining his exhibition room. Schlum berger, who took a room elsewhere, spent much of his time playing chess with Maelzel or with the leading players of the city, am o n g which a Mr. A m elun g was considered the strongest. Schlum ­ berger soon found he could give odds to all who challenged him. One day the director was playing with Dr. Joshua Cohen, to whom he regularly gave odds of a Knight, when a friend of Dr. Cohen came in. T h e doctor offered the visitor his seat at the board and a chance to test his skill against the “soul of the autom aton.” Since the new adversary asked no odds, Schlum ­ berger played him even and after a hard contest was defeated. “I cannot play even with you,” said Schlum berger, “I must give you a piece.” In the ensuing gam e, Sch lum b erger gave Knight odds and won. In the first gam e he had not been able to arouse in himself sufficient interest to play his best, while in the second the Knight handicap had challenged him to play more strongly. Public exhibitions at Fountain Inn began Monday evening, April 30, 1827, and according to Maelzel’s advertisements they commenced with perform-

In Baltimore, Maelzel exhibited the T u rk at the Foun­ tain Inn, shown here as it ap peared ju s t before it was torn down in 1871. c o u r t e s y o f e p f l . .

ances by “the am u sin g little Bass Fiddler, A utom a­ ton T ru m p e te r , and Automaton Slack Rope Dan­ cers.” T h e automaton chess p layer was to be exh ib ­ ited “only to private parties on application to Mr. Maelzel,” but it seems likely that the I urk was called upon to perform nearly every evening. I he a u ­ tomaton was seldon challenged to play full gam es, but in those' few that were called for he was unbeaten. In endgam es, however, he suffered a few defeats. One of the successful e n d g a m e challengers was that same Dr. Cohen who had received Knight odds in private gam es with Schlum berger. T h e doctor was a constant spectator at exhibitions but had never himself taken part in the play. One evening before a large audience Maelzel ch allen ged the spectators to play the autom aton, but no one stepped forward. Spotting Dr. Cohen am o n g the com pany, Maelzel invited the physician to come forward and oppose the T u rk . Dr. Cohen was at first reluctant, but, urged by his friends and noting MaelzePs plight, he seated himself at the opponent’s table and began to study the en d g am e d iagram he was given. He shrewdly chose the side which he suspected had been m ade to a p p e a r weaker, reasoning that it was really meant to win. Schlum berger, of course, could have easily won either side with the first move, but Maelzel, as an inducem ent to play, had allowed the doctor to begin the gam e. Dr. Cohen, playing merely to oblige Maelzel and expecting to be speedily checkm ated, at first moved perfunctorily. He soon observed, however, that his position grew steadily stronger, an d , encouraged by the excitement of the audience, he began to play with great care. Eventually Maelzel noted, to his great dism ay, that the physician would win the contest. With checkmate just a few moves away, Maelzel cunningly resorted to one of his old tricks. As if m erely to dem onstrate an interesting feature of" the autom aton, he calmly asked Dr. Cohen to make a false move. When the physician am iably complied, the T u r k an grily shook his head, rap ped sharply on the table, and rem oved the offending piece. T h en , am id great applause an d laughter, the automaton m ade his own move on the board. “But how about the g am e ?” exclaim ed a few of Dr. Cohen’s supporters, but their cries were drow ned out by the am usem ent over the T u r k ’s antics. Nevertheless, the next m orning’s papers carried the news of Dr. Cohen’s trium ph. T h e goodnatured physician, who knew Maelzel was always an gry with Sch lum b erger for losing a gam e, was really sorry about his victory. On those ra re occa­ sions when Sch lum b erger lost, Maelzel used to swear horribly at his meek and penitent director. Dr. Cohen, despite the ad van tage of the first move, had not played accurately and should have lost, but Schlum berger, who had perhaps taken a bit too much wine with his dinner, h ad also played badly.

100

Charles C arroll, last su rviv in g sign er of the Declaration of Independence, also survived a gam e with the Turk. COURTESY OF NVPL.

Dr. Jo sh u a Cohen apologized for beating the Turk. COURTESY OF MCF.

T h e next сЦу, Dr. Cohen called upon Maelzel and apologized for beating the automaton. Maelzel, who com plained that the gam e had been poorly played, promptly challenged his friend to play the same position at the next exhibition, but Dr. Cohen politely declined, protesting that he had gained enough notoriety. Not all of the T u r k ’s defeats were Sch lum b erger’s fault. Occasionally, out of courtesy, Maelzel allowed a distinguished adversary to beat the automaton. Such was almost certainly the case when, on J u n e second, the New York Mirror, in a story “T h e A u­ tomaton Beat A gain,” reported “T h e venerable Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the only surviving signer o f the Declaration of Independence, now in his eighty-ninth year, beat his T urkish majesty in a gam e o f chess, on W ednesday week, in the city of Baltimore, to the great delight of a crowded a u d i­ ence.” T h e r e was more to the story, however, than the b rie f news item conveyed. Carroll, a slight, affable old gentlem an, arrived by carriage at the Fountain Inn exhibition hall at about noon on W ednesday, May twenty-third, accom­ panied by his d au g h te r and son-in-law, the Catons, and by Robert Gilmor, a lead in g Baltimore m er­ chant and patron of arts and letters. Gilmor had alread y attended several perform ances of the chess autom aton an d had become quite interested in

solving the mystery of the machine. As soon as Maelzel discovered that a Founding Father of the Republic was present, he displayed a great deal of attention and requested that his distinguished visitor play the automaton. Carroll, who had once been a good chess player, readily consented to a gam e with the T u rk . T h e contest began, and it quickly became evident that Maelzel had every intention of allowing the old gentleman to win. But, since Carroll had lost much of his playing ability, Schlum berger found the task of losing was not an easy one. At one point the T u r k could have checkmated his elderly adversary by simply moving in his Queen, which was supported by a Bishop. Before the fatal blow could be d e­ livered, however, Maelzel announced that he had to make an adjustm ent in the autom aton’s machinery. He took a light and went behind the T u rk “to exam ine and put to rights the interior.” Maelzel’s repair work was so effective that, instead of adm inistering the checkmate, the automaton placed his Queen in the path of Carroll's Rook, which of course captured the piece. Even without his Queen it was no easy matter for Schlum berger to force his adversary to win the gam e, and the deception fooled hardly anybody. Carroll himself said, “I think you have favored me in this g a m e .” But in spite of the whole conspiracy, he seemed satisfied with his victory.

101

and waited. At the end of the first h o u r’s p erfo rm ­ ance, Maelzel wheeled the chess autom aton behind the curtain. T h e excessive heat of that southern spring evening left poor Schlum berger, in the depths of his confinement, gasp in g for relief. 'I'o aid his friend, Maelzel stepped to the window, opened wide the shutters, and then re tu rn ed to open up the machine. As (he two youths stared in am azem ent, the tall, sweating, shirt-sleeved figure of S ch lu m ­ berger em erg ed from within the mysterious contri­ vance. One of the boys told his father what he had seen and a few days later, 011 Friday, J u n e first, the Baltimore Federal Gazette recorded the revelation un d er the headline “T h e Chess Player Discovered.” That same day Gilmor, in his own words, “called in for a moment at M eredith’s to talk of the recent discovery by a boy, of the secret of Maelzell’s [sic] Automaton Chess Player; which was, as we all suspected, moved by a man concealed in the machine.” When some of Maelzel’s friends heard the news, they rushed to tell him of the exposure, but they found the exhibitor quite calm. He was used to such pretended discoveries, he said disdainfully, and he Robert Gilmor was a d isillu sio n ed supporter of M ael­ zel. COURTESY O F J T W .

Up to that time Gilmor had been convinced that Maelzel him self conducted the T u r k ’s gam es bytouching certain combinations o f keys concealed on the autom aton’s cabinet, and he had defended that theory against the opinions expressed by several of his friends that there was someone hidden in the cabinet. “I cannot conceive the possibility,” Gilmor had declared, “of a man being concealed within the desk at which the figure sits and plays. It would be a contemptible trick, and unw orthy of the ingenuity of the inventor of the machine.” Maelzel’s adjust­ ment of the automaton for the benefit of Carroll, however, was too transparent for even Gilmor. Maelzel had been exhibiting in Baltimore only a few weeks when a series of disturbing events began. T h e first was the publication on May nineteenth of an article, “T h e Automaton Chess Player,” in the North American, a Baltimore weekly paper. That piece borrowed both text and d iagram from the story in the Franklin Jou rn al, which had claimed that the T u rk was directed by “a concealed intelligent agent.” T h e North American article was merely speculative, but a more direct exposure soon occurred. During the last week in May two boys, one fifteen and the other nineteen, resolved to discover the secrets of the automaton. Having failed to solve the mystery in the exhibition hall, they decided upon another approach, and so they climbed to the roof of a shed adjoining the backstage area of the exhibition room

Chess historian George Allen was the author of “ The History of the Automaton Chess P la y e r in A m erica,” a source for much of the information in this chapter and the next, c o u r t e s y o f j t w .

102

would pay no hush money. Several of his com pan­ ions, however, warned him o f the gravity of the situation and convinced him he should take steps to discredit the discovery. Maelzel therefore began to consider plans for repeating the trick he had staged in New York. He thought perhaps he might teach one of his yo u n g friends to direct the automaton so that S ch lu m b erger could dram atically ap p ear and act as the T u r k ’s adversary, just as the French woman had done. ^ Before he could put the plan into operation, however, Maelzel was saved by a rem arkable piece o f luck. On J u n e fifth the Federal Gazette carried another article casting some doubt upon its original story of the discovery. T h e reason for the sudden change of opinion was that some o f the other American papers had contested the truth o f the exposure. A rival Baltimore p ap er, the Republican, even asserted that one o f the boys who had made the discovery had “d em an d ed money for disclosing it.” T h e National Intelligencer of Washington, then the most prestigious jo u rn a l in America, treated the Gazette article as “a clever device by the proprietor to keep alive the interest of the community in his exhibition.” After that, the other newspapers would not repeat the story o f the discovery and \ht Gazette's editor, looking somewhat foolish, was forced to defend his stand in several issues. Moreover, the general public refused to believe the truth of the discovery. “T h u s it was,” concluded Allen, “that a revelation, which might have been expected to spread over all the country like wildfire, did nothing but raise a slight smoke in one city, and even there, as if fairly asham ed of itself, it soon vanished into a ir.” At that time the hot sum m er weather in Baltimore m ade exhibitions o f any sort unbearable, so it was not surprisin g that Maelzel closed his hall on J u n e second. T h r e e days later, thanking the people of Baltimore for their kind patronage, he announced that in a short time he would exhibit, in addition to the chess player and other attractions, his fam ed Conflagration o f Moscow. T h e magnificent dioram a, which had ju st arrived from Paris, he hoped would divert the public’s attention from further specula­ tion about the T u r k ’s secrets. Having thus tem porarily closed his Baltimore exhibitions, Maelzel h urried off to New York to investigate first-hand still another disturbing new development. He had heard reports that someone there h ad been exhibiting a rival automaton chess player.

ON THE CHESSBOARD Foregone Conclusions: Some Endgames Played by the Turk and a Game with Mrs. Fisher In Am erica the T u rk played endgam es more

103

often than full games. At first that was due to the lack of a competent director. T h e endgam es seemed to satisfy most audiences, but the New York player who called him self “Greco” saw through the decep­ tion and wrote, “T h e ends of games played by the m a c h in e . . . are of the most subtle construction. Few players, even o f the highest order, are able to seize the solution o f these different situations on viewing them set up for the first time. On the other hand, the individual who governs the autom aton’s board, being fully possessed, by constant practice and experience, o f every possible move which can occur, engages in contest with charm ed strength and unfair advan tage unless the opponent happened to have seen and studied the situation. T h e only fair test of skill would be full gam es.” After Sch lum b erger became the T u r k ’s director, Maelzel allowed the automaton to play complete games, but they were not often called for. Endgames continued to satisfy most of the autom aton’s a d v er­ saries in America. At each performance, Maelzel presented the challenger with an en dgam e d iag ram printed on a card and allowed him to choose the side he would play. His choice made little difference, since, as shown by the following examples, all could be won by the player having the first move. Except on a few rare occasions, it was always the T u rk who had the deadly first move.

Endgame 1 At the first exhibition in America, [wrote Allen] the position set up was the forty-first of Stamma (in Lew is’s Oriental Chess the sixty-eigh th ), wherein Black, who was bound to lose, had the advantage of a pawn, and that too a passed pawn, within one step of the royal line. T h e adversary of course chose the side of Black, and lost (say the newspapers) in five moves. Against such an ad v er­ sary, even the female Director could be safely risked with a change of sides. T h e pieces were set up again; the automaton took the Black—with the first move—and won again in about the same num ber of moves. “T h e figure was then removed am id great an d deserved plaudits.” T he following en d gam e position is the one Allen described, although it appears that Black has a two-pawn advantage rather than only one. I f White moves first: 1 R -K lch R -N 8 R x Rch 2 R -Q B 1 If 2 . . . P - R 4 , then P x P etc. 3 K xR P-R4 4 PxP P-N5 5 P-R 6 P-N 6 6 P-R7 P-N7 7 P-R 8(Q or B) mate

BLACK

BLACK

WHITE

W HITE

I f Black moves first: 1 2 3 4 5

R-B2ch K-N 8 R -B 1 K xR K-Q7 wins

K-N3 R -K lch R x Rch K xP Or if K-N7 2 K-Ql K-R 6 wins 3 R-N4ch If 3 R-K7ch, K-N 8 wins Or if K-N7 2 K-Q2 K-R 6 3 R-N4ch R-B5 4 R-N 6 R -R5 wins 5 R -R 6ch

Endgame 3 In th e u n lik e ly e v e n t his o p p o n e n t ch o se B la c k in th e fo llo w in g e x a m p l e , th e T u r k , with W h ite , s im p ly c a p t u r e d th e e n e m y Q u e e n w ith a n e a s y win.

BLACK

Endgame 2 Even w h e n g u i d e d by th e most in e x p e r i e n c e d d ir e c t o r s , it is e a s y to see h o w th e T u r k c o u ld h a v e won th e fo llo w in g two e n d g a m e positions, as lo n g as th e a u t o m a t o n was a llo w e d th e first m ove.

I f White moves first: 1 2 3 4

R-K 8ch Q-K3ch Q-K7ch Q x N mate

K-R2 P-N3 N-B2

I f Black moves first: 1 2 3 4

Q-Q5ch P-R3 PxQ

N xP K-R2 Q xP ch R-R2 mate

W HITE

104

I f White moves first:

While must now play opposite the pawn that moves.

1 P x Q wins

I f Black moves first: 1 2 KxQ 3 4 5

Q xR P ch K-N2ch

IV-R5 If 3 K-N4, R-N3 mate R x Bch K-N4 R-N3ch K xR ' B-B6ch mate in two moves If 6 P-N4, R -R 3ch; 7 K-N5, P-B3 mate or 6 K-R4, R-R3ch; 7 K-N5. P-B3 or R-R4 mate

P-R6 5

K-R2

If now 5 . . . P - B 6 , 6 K-N3 stops the advance, therefore, K-R3 6 P-B6 K-R2 7 P-N5 K-N 1 8 P-R6 K -R l or R2 9 P-B7 Queens next moveand wins

Cochrane then gave eight additional variations. T h e player moving first, White in this case, can lose if he does not play accurately, as illustrated by the I he difficult position o f three pawns against three following variation. pawns was the cause of at least two of the l u r k ’s defeats in e n d g a m e play. One of Maelzel’s directors K-N4 1 P-B5 in New York lost the position, and even Schlum ­ P-B5! (P-N5? loses) 2 K-N2? (K-R2!) berger fell victim to the intricate formation, losing to 3 K-R2 Daniel Smith in Philadelphia. T h e position formed If 3 K-R3, P-B6! wins the frontispiece of Jo h n C ochrane’s Treatise on the P-B6! (P-N5? still loses) Game o f Chess, 1822. T h e caption read, “T h e party 4 K -Rl If 4 K -N l, P-R6! wins without the NP moving first will win.” P-R6 T h e following solution is adapted from Coch­ 5 K-N 1 P-N5 ra n e’s Treatise:

Endgame 4

6

1 2 3 4

P-B5 K-R2! (K-N2? loses) K-N2 K-N 1

K-N4 P-N5 P-B5

K -Rl or R2

P-B7 Queens next move and wins

Endgame 5 In B a lt im o r e th e T u r k , d ir e c t e d by S c h lu m -

BLACK

BLACK

WHITE

WHITE

berger, lost this position to Dr. Jo sh u a Cohen, who played White. In addition to allowing the physician his choice of sides, Maelzel graciously gran ted him the honor of moving first. Dr. Cohen played inaccu­ rately, giving up his advantage, but Schlum berger too played carelessly, and thus the automaton was defeated.

I f White moves first: 1 QR-K1

Q-KN7

Lewis gave this move, but 1 ...Q X R ; 2 R x Q , R - B l seems to give Black better chances. 2

N -N l KxN Ох В R -B l

R-R8ch

3 RxNch 4 5 6 7

P-Q7 dis ch P-Q8(Q)ch Q x R ch P x Q w in s

KXQ

I f Black moves first: NxP

1 2

3 4

QR-K1 If 2 NXN, B x N wins P xN К moves

NxN ch Q-Q5ch Q-N7 mate

Game 21

“His ‘T u rk s h ip ’ has not yet discovered the d e x ­ terity of his fair antagonist; expecting to achieve an easy victory, he considers it beneath his dignity to take care of his pawns.” Or is this part of his plan to allow the lady to win? 6 7 8 9 10 11

12 0 - 0 - 0 13 14 15 16 17 18

French Defense Philadephia, J a n u a r y 30-31, 1827

White

Black

Mrs. Fisher 1 P-K4

T h e T u rk (Schlumberger) P-K3

“ Most of our readers, we presum e, are aw are that the automaton was a T u rk ; had he been a Christian, he surely would not have played P-К З against a lady.” 2 3 4 5

N-QB3 Q-B3 B-Q3 P-QN3

P-Q4 N-KB3 P-QB4 B-Q3

P-KR3 Q-B3 Q xB N-B3 P-KN4 P-QB4

PxP N xN 0-0

N-B3 B-K3 P-K.N3

Q-Q2

B -B 4 BxB QR-K1 P-QR3 P-QN4

“We like the boldness and decision of Mrs. F.’s style of play; this is true chess.” 19 20

QxP K -Nl

21

Q-B3

PxP R-N 1 Q-N2 N-Q5? (P-B3)

“Badly p layed .” Sch lum b erger does indeed seem to be trying to lose. 22

In Philadelphia on J a n u a r y 30 and 31, 1827, the T u rk was beaten by Mrs. Fisher in a gam e played at two different sittings. Out of “devotion to the fair sex” Maelzel allowed Mrs. Fisher the first move and probably ordered Schlum berger to lose. U n­ fortunately, this may be the only surviving exam ple of Sch lu m b erger’s play. T h e American Chess Magazine reprinted the gam e in 1847. I'he notes, some of which are quoted below, were probably written by Charles H. Stanley, the m agazine’s editor.

PxP NxP QxN B-N2 P-QR3 Q-K4

23 24 25 26 27 28 29

N xN QxP QxB Q-B4ch K-R2 Q-R4 P-N4 Q-N3

B-K4 BxN P-B3

K-N2 KR-QB1 R-B7 Q-Q4ch

“T h e hour having passed by,” reported the Philadelphia Gazette, “Mr. Maelzel politely requested the lady to continue the gam e on the following d ay.” 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

KR-K1 R -Q B 1 RxR R -Q l P-QN5 QxP Q-N3 P-Q4 P-QR4 Q-N3

Q-K5 Q -B3 RxR

Q-Q3

P-QR4 P-R5 Q-Q4ch Q-QB4 Q-N4 Q -B5 Resigns

“Never was better account re n d ered of Infidel and Saracen, on the sandy desert of his own soil, than is now given by the fair champion of Christen­ dom of her unbelieving foe, on the chequered field of his own battleground.”

106

✓

7 “A Sublime Departure” : Last Days of the Turk

1. While conversing pleasantly with a friend, Maelzel once said, “You Am ericans are a very singular people. I went with my autom aton all over my own country—the Germans w ondered and said nothing. In France, they exclaim ed, M agnifique! Merveilleux! Superbe! T h e English set themselves to prove—one that it could be, and an o th er that it could not be, a m ere mechanism acting without a man inside. But I had not been long in your country, before a Yankee came to see me and asked, ‘ Mr. Maelzel, would you like an o th er thing like that? I can make you one for five h u n d red dollars.’ I laughed at his proposition. A few months afterwards, the same Yankee cam e to see me ag ain , an d this time he said, ‘Mr. Maelzel, would you like to buy another thing like that? I have one read y m ad e for you.’ ” T h e Yankee in MaelzeFs story was one of the two brothers, J . and D. W alker, who, with the aid o f a mechanic n am ed Bennet, constructed the American Automaton Chess Player at Ithica, New York. T h ey had evidently patterned their imitation after the original T u r k , which they had seen at exhibitions. As Maelzel explained in his story, he laughingly spurned the first two offers, but when he learned that the counterfeit T u rk was actually being dis­ played in New York, he was forced to take the matter seriously. Newspaper accounts proclaimed the W alker autom aton as good as the T u rk in all respects, except that he was by no means as strong a player. When Maelzel heard that, he im m ediately wrote to his friend William Colem an, asking his

opinion of the rival automaton. Coleman sent back the dism aying response that the Walker automaton was decidedly the better of the two. T h u s after closing the Baltimore exhibitions for the su m m er of 1827, Maelzel hastened to New York to see for himself. When he arrived there, Coleman took him to an exhibition hall at the corner of Reade Street and Broadway, a place known principally as the home of the Boisseaux Dancing Academy. T h ere, since May, the Walker brothers had been showing their a u ­ tomaton, which they billed as the American A u­ tomaton Chess Player. Seated next to Coleman, Maelzel fidgeted as he noted that the cabinet of the American Automaton was several inches shorter than that of the T u rk , and the height and depth were also proportionally less. Furtherm ore, the American ap p aratus ap p eared to contain more machinery. When the Walkers exhibited the inte­ rior of their machine, they opened all the front doors and brought out the d raw er to its utmost extent. T h e y even opened front and back doors in the body of the figure and held a light behind it, so that the spectators sitting in front could sec all of the machinery within. T h e three back doors, the front doors, and the draw er, were all open at the same time, and none was locked until every one had been opened. Although the workm anship of the A m eri­ can Automaton was less elegant than that of the l urk, the Am erican moved his arm more gracefully and naturally than the original and uttered the English “C heck!” rather than its French equivalent. After the perform ance Maelzel approached the

107

two brothers an d , e x u d in g an air o f affected slyness, said to them , “Your automaton is very good, but then you know it is very different from mine. 1'here is no use o f us having two automatons in the field. I will give you a thousand dollars for your machine, just to tear it up; and you shall become my cashiers.” Rejecting the offer, the W alkers proceeded to exhibit their autom aton in Saratoga, Ballston Spa, and other places, while Maelzel retu rn ed to Balti­ more, hoping the new rival would not pose a serious threat to his own machine. He had noted that the two Yankees were no match for him self as showmen and that their automaton could be beaten by a n y­ one, which he ju d g e d would soon prove fatal to the success of the venture. Back in Baltimore, Maelzel spent several months p rep arin g for his new exhibitions of the Conflagra­ tion o f Moscoiv, which opened on Monday, October 8, 1827, about four months after he had closed his doors for the sum m er. Due perhaps to the recent near exposure of the T u r k and the ap pearance of a rival, Maelzel decided it would be prudent for the T u rk to affect a graceful but tem porary retreat from public attention. T h erefo re, in his exhibitions the spectacular Conflagration supplanted the chess automaton. An inconspicuous note at the foot of his advertisements had often announced, “ I'he a u ­ tomaton chess player will be exhibited only to private parties, on application to Mr. Maelzel.” Now Maelzel used that proclamation as an excuse to virtually withdraw the T u r k from public view. Although S ch lu m b erger’s services were no longer required in his role as director of the T u rk , he was kept busy with the more prosaic duties connected with perform ances of the slack rope dancers, the Conflagration o f Moscow, and other exhibits req uirin g his assistance. T h e Baltimore exhibitions lasted until November sixteenth. A few weeks later Maelzel returned to Philadelphia, apparently planning to proceed soon to New York, but on J a n u a r y 5, 1828, he opened a season in Philadelphia which lasted until April nineteenth. In December, shortly after his arrival, he had been irk ed by the discovery that the A m eri­ can Automaton Chess Player was being exhibited in Philadelphia. Perhaps for that reason, he did not exhibit his own chess automaton d u rin g his e n g ag e­ ment in that city, and he probably relegated the T u rk to the old storeroom he rented from Mr. Ohl. After closing in Philadelphia, Maelzel moved his exhibitions to Boston, pausing in New York on May ninth to caution the public against the W alker automaton, then exhibiting there. “ I'he impostor,” he adm onished them in an E vening Post advertise­ ment, “w-as not the autom aton he had exhibited in New York two years before, nor had it any real pretentions to the skill and power of that celebrated chess p layer.” Jo h n Scudder, who was at that time m anagin g the American Chess Player, replied in the

Post on May twelfth, that his chess player was “at least the equ al” of Maelzel’s autom aton, “if not superior.” Maelzel’s w arning, however, may have had the desired effect, since the A m erican Automaton Chess Player was advertised for sale several weeks later, and one of the W alker brothers actually did become Maelzel’s cashier. A ccording to one account, Maelzel h im self bought the automaton “for five thousand dollars, and most ruthlessly consigned him to the flames.” In fact, no such heavy-handed dealings were neces­ sary, since fate again intervened in Maelzel’s favor, producing a solution more satisfying to him than any he might have engineered himself. It h ap p en ed that at the time the American A u ­ tomaton Chess Player was placed on the market, the French aero n au t Eugene Robertson was in New York a r ra n g in g to make some balloon ascensions there. Robertson, a showman of the caliber of Maelzel himself, purchased the autom aton, evi­ dently plan nin g to exhibit the mechanism in con­ junction with his aeronautical performances. Eugene Robertson was one of a rem arkable fam ily o f e a r ly -e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y a e r o n a u ts , headed by the father Etienne Gaspard Robertson. I 'h e elder Robertson, born at Liege, Belgium , in 1763, had been a professor of physics there at the outbreak of the French Revolution. During that turbulent period he went to Paris to propose that the government construct a h uge A rchim edean m irro r to concentrate the rays of the sun an d thus b urn up the British Navy. A commission was organized to study the invention, and they even gave it a favor­ able report, but for some reason the plan was never put into effect. Robertson, however, rem ain ed in Paris and was the first person in France to e x p e ri­ ment with electric batteries, but it was as a balloonist that he chiefly left his mark. Eugene Robertson was born in Paris in 1799, and a second son, Dmitri, was sired in St. Petersburg, Russia, eight years later. T h e eld er Robertson had no taste for family life and as a result had never m arried. “It was one of those bastard congregations that one sees sp rin gin g up d u r in g revolutionary times,” wrote Ju les Francois Dupuis-Delacourt, a fellow aero n a u t and friend of the family. Although both sons followed their father’s p ro ­ fession, there were scarcely any family ties am o n g the three, each going his own way and p u rsu in g his own aeronautical career. Dmitri’s home base was St. Petersburg from whence his aerostatic ventures took him to G erm any and India. Eugene m ade ascensions in Lisbon, Oporto, M adrid, and Paris. He is noted for having m ade at Lisbon a spectacular pioneer parachute descent from a balloon at a height of 15,000 feet. Eventually, however, spectators in the European cities became so accustomed to seeing balloon ascen­

108

sions that it was necessary to seek new audiences in rem o ter areas, and thus E ugene had toured New York, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Havana. At the time he purchased the American A u ­ tomaton Chess Player in 1828, he was back in New York, w here he m ade ascensions on Septem ber 18 and October 22 at Castle-Garden. T h e first of those nearly en d ed in traged y when a sudden gust of wind swept the rising balloon against a tall mast, which had earlier been e rected 'in honor of the visit of General Lafayette. Robertson, saluting the cheering spectators with his back to the mast, suddenly found himself falling from the overturned gondola. For­ tunately, Robertson m anaged to grasp the gondola, and, after d an g lin g for ten desperate minutes a h u n d red feet above the scream ing spectators, he was able to g rab the mast rope and pull himself down. In the process, however, he broke several teeth with which he had been clinging to the rope. He even succeeded in preventing the balloon from escaping, but he was unable to keep a num ber of ladies from fainting. Such was the new proprietor of the American Automaton Chess Player. Robertson returned for a short visit to Paris, where, on August 3, 1829, he m ade an ascension in the Tivoli Garden. He then took his balloon and chess automaton to Mexico, where he died in Mexico City in 1836, or, according to another account, in V era Cruz in 1838. By a strange coincidence both his father and brother died d u r in g that two-year period; one in Paris, the other in Calcytta. T h e W alker Brothers never again heard of the A m erican Automaton Chess Player— and neither, one m ay presum e, did Maelzel. On J u n e 4, 1828, Maelzel opened his exhibitions in Boston but closed after about three weeks, an n o un cing that he had to make a short visit to New York. Earlier, in Philadelphia, he had similarly in terrup ted his en g ag em en t for an urgent trip to New York. A pparently, the object of those New York excursions was to negotiate with the builder of still another rival attraction, the Automaton Whist Player. Since May 14 the whist player had been showing his skill at the National Hotel in New York, and Maelzel may have discovered that the machine was there when he went to New York to see the American Automaton Chess Player. The whist p layer’s inventor, Mr. Balcom, had also exhibited the autom aton at a museum in Rochester, New York. After several trips to New York, Maelzel was finally successful in coming to terms with Balcom, who for a considerable sum was persuaded to part with the machine. Later the whist p layer m ade his debut as a part of Maelzel’s own grow ing exhibition, but evidently the new attraction never became very popular with audiences. T h e reason may have been Schlum berger, who once vehem ently objected, "I do not like whiat, but I do like chess.”

In addition to the automatons of W alker and Balcom, there was to be yet another chess au to m a­ ton built in Am erica in Maelzel’s time. T h at model was prim arily destined for the title role in the three-act comedy The Automaton Chess P layer , by none other than J. Walker. T h e play opened J u ly 8, 1831, at New York’s Bowery T h eatre, where it shared billing with Eagleston, the American Hercu­ les, on the Corde Volante. T h e Walker production did not enjoy a long run, and the Thespian auto­ maton was soon retired. He was, however, exhibited in New York for many years afterw ard. 2.

On J u ly 15, 1828, Maelzel announced in Boston that he wished to sell the Conflagration o f Moscow, and about a month later a group of three Bostonians purchased the dioram a for S6,000, along with the T ru m p eter, the rope dancers, and the speaking figures. T h e com pany hired as an exhibitor William F. Kummer, a traveling jew e lry salesman whom Maelzel had recommended. After closing his exhibitions on Septem ber 6, Maelzel disassembled the T u r k , packed him in boxes, and sent him to be stored in Ohl’s storeroom. A week later it was announced that Mr. Maelzel would reopen his Boston exhibitions in compliance with num erous requests. In fact, the real Maelzel was at that time on board a ship bound for Europe. T h e Boston Company, which had bought Maelzel’s name as well as his exhibits, presented the Confla­ gration o f Moscow, the T ru m p eter, the rope dancers, the speaking figures, and the automaton violoncel­ list, all u n d er the supervision of Kummer, who was ably assisted by Schlum berger. After an e n g a g e ­ ment at Ju lie n Hall in Boston, Kummer and Schlum berger took the exhibition on a long tour, beginning with Providence, Baltimore, Richmond, and New York—and some time afterward continu­ ing on to New Orleans, Nashville, Louisville, and Cincinnati. On April 13, 1829, while p rep arin g for exhibi­ tions at T a m m a n y Hall in New York, Maelzel’s exhibition was suddenly jo in ed by the Prince of Entertainers himself, who had just disem barked from the Havre packet. An agreem en t was quickly negotiated u n d e r the terms of which Maelzel and the Boston company would jointly exhibit their respective attractions, and the partnership re ­ mained in New York from the opening of exhibi­ tions on May eighteenth until May twenty-fourth the following year. In addition to the T u rk , who was brought out of retirement, Maelzel exhibited several new attrac­ tions which he had brought with him from Paris. One of them, t h e M echanical Theatre, was specifically designed to capture the interest of children in the

109

audience. Maelzel, who loved children, adm itted Conflagration o f Moscow. T h e other dioram as were them for h a lf price and reserved the two front exhibited at 223 Broadw ay an d were accom panied benches exclusively for them. T h e M echanical by the melodium. In Boston that su m m er Maelzel reportedly staged Theatre featured small mechanical figures such as the Bass Fiddler, the French Oyster Woman, the an impressive mechanical concert, which consisted Old French Gentleman, the Chinese Dancer, the of “a set of musical autom ata, no less than 42 in num ber, which compose a complete orchestra, and Little T ro u b ad o u r, and Punchinello. Another mechanical exhibit was the Grand Tour­ execute several of the most difficult pieces of music nament or Grand Carrousel, which consisted of eight in the most perfect m a n n e r.” T h e p ro gram in­ horses an d twenty hum an figures displaying feats of cluded overtures to Don Giovanni, La Vestale, and horsem anship before the illum inated background Iphigenie. If we m ay believe reports in the London of a landscape and fountain. Maelzel also brought Times and the Vienna Theater Zeitung, the au to m a­ from Europe the Cathedral o f Rheims, a spectacular tons executed the music by movements of their dioram a depicting the interior of the edifice. In fingers, “precisely as if they were living p erfo rm ­ addition to the splendors of the cathedral, painted ers.” It was alleged that an American com pany by the artist Ciceri, spectators could view a m echani­ offered Maelzel S300.000 for the whole m echanism, cal congregation “walking to and fro, and moving but the inventor held out for $500,000 and even tu­ about in all directions.” During the showing of the ally got S400,000. It seems unlikely, however, that dioram a, bells ra n g and compositions by Rossini, Maelzel ever received such an incredible sum or M ercandante, and Auber were played on the anything near it. On Septem ber 26, 1829, Maelzel advertised for “m elodium ,” a musical instrum ent of Maelzel’s invention, “never heard in A m erica.” MaelzePs sale the M echanical Theatre an d the Cathedral o f melodium was evidently a new form of the p an h ar­ Rheims as well as the automaton whist p layer and other items, but ap p aren tly no buyers were found at monicon. T h e Maelzel exhibition had grown so large that it that time. Maelzel frequently offered to dispose of was divided and exhibited at two different locations parts of his exhibitions, p lan n in g either to rebuild in New York. At T a m m an y Hall every evening the them or replace them with new exhibits. Although program consisted of the T u rk , the T ru m p eter, the he had attem pted to sell the l urk in Europe in the speaking figures, the slack rope dancers, and the 1820s, he had evidently decided to retain the

TO A L L T H E EX H IB ITIO N S i

U ’^ / / / # - и -

A season ticket to the T u rk ’s exhibitions! What more could anyone ask for? COURTESY o f j g w .

110

automaton by the time he reached America, or perhaps he simply could not locate a suitable p u r ­ chaser. From 1830 to 1834 Maelzel continued to exhibit in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. During that period there were probably times when he did not exhibit at all, or d u r in g which he kept his doors open but did not need to advertise. Although records are inconclusive, he may have taken his exhibition down the Ohio an d Mississippi to New Orleans, or perhaps into C anada. T h e r e is also some evidence that he m ade a second voyage to Europe. At Philadelphia late in 1831 he advertised his intention to abandon public exhibitions and again offered to sell his Conflagration o f Moscoiv and other exhibition items, perhaps as a prelude to a European visit. Maelzel exhibited in New York from May 14, 1832, and far into that sum m er, the time of the d read ed cholera epidemic, about which Poe wrote, “T h e very air . . . seemed to us redolent with d eath .” Although m any New Yorkers fled the city in fear of the terrifyin g disease, Maelzel rem ained at Masonic Hall showing the T u rk , the T ru m p eter, the slack rope dancers, and the Conflagration o f Moscow for the entertainm ent of those who d ared remain. T h e following sum m er Maelzel was in Boston, but he probably spent most of his time in Philadelphia, exhibiting at Maelzel Hall or at other locations there. An exhibition in May 1834 at Masonic Hall, on Chestnut Street in Philadelphia, was probably typical of the period. T h e first part began with a perform ance by the automaton chess player, fol­ lowed by the T ru m p ete r, the M echanical Theatre, the speaking figures, and the rope dancers. The Grand Tournament began the second part of the exhibition, which concluded with the Cathedral o f Rheims. At other times the Conflagration o f Moscow was featured on the p ro gram . Dr. Silas W eir Mitchell, a Philadelphia physician and au th o r, fondly rem em bered first visiting Maelzel’s exhibition as a child, and in 1857 he wrote a nostalgic recollection of those performances: T h e re is a long row of wide-awake little faces on the front bench. T h e wild eyes of childhood are watching the nimble puppets. A paynim -puppet cuts deftly off a p up p et’s head, and tiny tumblers leap and bound, and Lilliputians ride more des­ perately than b igger men, and fight and quarrel in similar fashion. You will rem em ber, also, the little oyster woman, with her su gar bivalves, which none but the little girls got; and how you wished you, too, were a girl, for the nonce, all for the love of sugar-oysters. T h en Moscow burned for the thousandth time, and while Napoleon fled, and Frank and Cossack rode a n d ran, you avowed to your big brother that it was great fun, and you’d ju s t like to come every night, always. And then, those babies whose squeezed stomachs gutturally g ro an ed , та ma, pa pa, you can buy them in any toy-shop, now-a-days. T h a t stalwart trum peter, so

M aelx eV »

E X HПА8 IB ITIO N , 0 .МС HALL. t r P E R FORM A N CE

every

EV EN IN G.

jo

ON SATURDAY MAY 17 V 183#

ТЮ ТС

>•i«— I ii>« 1Ж l/ x p>tym W •< E»**p* и*«4 4 Л Aw м гr кi n* ,. м.M4 iиt cм/ и« H —Itm l w aeki l(i Im >4*1, • ; « . I.**, и 4 kiW*. M k Ш r r n liH **4 М м в т **i (i4* шС1лгУ") * W * .......... ... U t m m — f

THE

A utom aton T ru m p e te r. T W T r v ^ t W •« « I ■ f.M . w , **4 to IW и Л г в W Ik* frw*4 U i h w . T W p b tm ч — **4 W «*•* w* р*«С*«м4 « v * • i м л ч т н 4 ^ n * Im ***w«l».W* ky ik* tort Ik* m u m m n W II* * W « f . b * O* и iW 4 »>m W . i >n*Hrfy p v fart. t . » m tii—Ut i y m m W *4. и « M lу to iW » i f i w r f IW t f w . W< . 1 » >« Ik* » » » W f W IV* i ik* Ц »г*. T W p .iw i I *m«4 M ik* T ».'•»*«. iK«r. •* »-r*« «W m H* . 4 н m k i*t* ai ;««•»-', ( к I * , ky iW i m i ( lw. iS. »/«M k ** A i i 'и » C*»»>7 X m « n » i n . 14, А МмчК »ttk м T* I

MECHANICAL THEATRE, I t V— . » •*Л « I •

r u r p m l , l a u « i .< * 4 IW И м | Г > М « И м J a t t a U * Г М —т*. if < * « к т * » n * i m i i M ) w w t TW Ia u U #m> ^ . Tv. i r . ^ * » - « k* k*»« I* tW O to fM r . **4 ik* 4««x» « f k*« и*. k . н . * i | i n k w w * | k*f O iiW n I* U* , . . __ 1 v* 0*4 Г < r v l C « il b M V *< ik* » .«■**« *-*!••«. •W 4««|| i'-м MW* » * k ki* Т м Ы м . I V. to 4 l . «4 .( У пьЫ W « . fa# WM

^

R hebn « U ГУ**. И I

РФрГЩ Ш Ш Ш "

И Ik* MkV ^ C k r t^ iy m4 • Oto rt* **3* ik* KU«r ^гГ Г ш г vk* c*A^«-.. ^ ;t WtWAJ р я * И | «

+•

iL iu w -h а -

M E L O D I U М»

—

- —

An 1834 showbill detailed M aelzel’s program in Philadelphia, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

gifted with unbounded lungs, we shall not soon forget him; and last, and, perhaps, least for you, that jo y of your elders—the automaton chess player, the T u r k —even he, with his oriental silence and rolling eyes, would haunt your nightly visions for m any an evening after. Ill

W hile in P h ilad elp h ia, Maelzel sometimes rented the Masonic H all on Chestnut Street for his exhibitions. COURTESY OF Fl.P.

During the 1834 season at Masonic Hall in Philadelphia, the T u rk was beaten by Sam uel Smyth, a handsom e youth of eighteen. Sm yth ’s gam e began d u rin g a public exhibition, but because of the time limit imposed by Maelzel, the gam e could not be completed. Smyth, accompanied by a friend, called at the exhibition room the next morning, where Maelzel greeted him with great courtesy and invited him to sit down and play out the gam e with Schlum berger. When Smyth won the gam e, his friend was so excited that he rushed from the room without his hat and ran up Chestnut Street to report the news to the local paper. Schlum berger showed no sign of ill hum or at his loss, but instead displayed a great interest in the youth’s talent for chess and encouraged him to come frequently to play in private.

In R ichm ond, a young editor nam ed Edgar Allan Poe visited M aelzel’s exhibition, c o u r t e s y o f n y p l .

of about eight h un d red dollars a year, Poe, who was twenty-six, was supporting himself, his Aunt Maria Clemm, and his thirteen-year-old cousin V irginia Clemm, to whom he had been secretly m arried the previous year. All three were living in the bo ard in g­ house of Mrs. Yarrington. During Poe’s two years with the M essenger its circulation rose from 500 to 3,500 d u e m ainly to his own efforts. He was not only the jo u r n a l’s editor but 3. also its principal contributor. Poe wrote for the M essenger eighty-five reviews, six poems, three During the period from 1834 to 1836 Maelzel’s stories, an d four essays, in c lu d in g “ M aelzel’s exhibition ap p eared in Richmond, Charleston, and Chess-Player,” which ap p eared in the issue of April Washington, D.C. For those visits Maelzel some­ 1836. “Maelzel’s Chess-Player,” which may be found times divided his exhibits, showing the Conflagration in nearly every library as part of some collection of o f M oscow in one city, while at the same time the Poe’s works, is undoubtedly the most widely read automaton chess player was featured in another. publication on the T u rk . Poe’s biographers have T h e Conflagration was probably a duplicate, or often com mented on the essay, usually a g re e in g perhaps an improvement, of the dioram a which with Joseph Wood Krutch, who wrote that it “fu r­ Maelzel had sold to the Boston company in 1828. nishes the first extended exam p le of the a u th o r’s T h e original Conflagration, or perhaps still another skill in what he called ratiocination and which is copy o f it, was exhibited in New York and Philadel­ marked by the most elaborately methodical exposi­ phia in 1834. T h us several exhibitions bore the tion. It may well be considered as the first o f his nam e of Maelzel, giving the impression that the writings which bases itself not upon dream s nor great exhibitor was in several places at once. upon pseudo-science but upon the logical faculty When Maelzel brought the T u rk to Richmond in alone.” December 1835, the editor of the Southern Literary As an exposure of the T u rk , the essay may be M essenger cam e aro un d to write a story on the classified am o n g the many descendants of Robert automaton. T h a t editor, who had ju st been a p ­ Willis’s Attempt to Analyse the Automaton Chess Player. pointed to the position with the December issue of Poe inherited Willis’s explanation through Sir David the magazine, was Edgar Allan Poe. With his salary Brewster’s Letters on Natural M agic, first published in

112

wa s n o t the illness of Schlumberger. I'he inferences from all of this we leave, without further com­ ment, to the reader. The incident of Schlumberger’s illness had hap­ pened during Maelzel’s first visit to Richmond in the fall of 1834, at which time Poe was living in Baltimore. T h ere, it has been suggested, he may have come across th eF ed era l Gazette article telling of Schlumberger’s exposure by two boys in May 1827 and also the North American article, both of which he may have used in writing his essay. It matters little, however, how he gathered his data, or even if his facts were entirely correct. As Hcrvey Allen wrote in Israfel, the Life and Times o f Edgar Allan Poe, Out of a dead book or a banal news-sheet, Poe developed the habit of culling the one living incident, the pertinent fact, or the picturesque scene. That the French of obscure titles, the original sources, and the precise wording of quotations were somewhat garbled, is of im­ portance only in the cemetery of the scholastic mind, for, by the living use of such matter, Poe frequently conferred upon it the only gleam of vitality which it ever possessed. Although critical of the placement of the right arm, Poe felt this illustration was a “tolerable representation” of the Turk, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

Although some of the other writings on the T urk are not entirely devoid of any “gleam of vitality,” few if any approach the literary brilliance of “MaelzePs Chess-Player.”

1832. Brewster, the distinguished author of over 4. three h un dred scientific papers, probably became aware of the chess automaton while editing the After the Richmond engagement Maelzel re­ Edinburgh Philosophical Jou rn al, in which he reviewed turned to Philadelphia, where on April 26, 1836, he and quoted Willis’s pamphlet. Poe based his expla­ nation of the automaton on Brewster’s book, and he may also have seen the North American article of May 1827, which he mistakenly thought was the origin of Brewster’s account. Despite a few inaccuracies in his essay, Poe made some valuable observations, which were, in his own words “taken d urin g frequent visits to the exhibition of Maelzel.” Some of them, which may help to show how the T u rk was directed, will be explained in the next chapter. Maelzel did not take Poe into his confidence as he often did the leading chess players in the cities he visited. When asked, “Is the automaton a pure machine or not?” Maelzel replied, “I will say nothing about it.” He did not inform Poe that Schlumberger was the “soul of the automaton,” but Poe managed to identify the director by means of his own. T here is a man, Schlumberger [wrote Poe] who a t te n d s [M a e lz e l] w h e r e v e r he goes. . . . M oreover, some years ago Maelzel visited Richmond with his automaton. . . . Schlumberger was suddenly taken ill, and d urin g his illness there was no exhibition of the Chess-Player. The reason assigned for the suspension of . . . performances

Signor Antonio Blitz received advice from Maelzel on the subject of audience control. COURTESY o f c p i ..

113

With gear such as this, Signor Blitz became one of A m erica’s most popular and most imitated performers. COURTESY OF CPL.

114

opened his exhibitions in the Union building, on the northeast corner of Eighth and Chestnut streets. One day he was approached by a genial little young man with a I.incolnesque fringe of whiskers, who introduced himself as the magician Signor Antonio Blitz and proposed that Maelzel share with him the exhibition hall. Maelzel readily agreed to the idea, offering liberal terms, and the two showmen soon became good friends as well as partners. Blitz’s show co m b in ed sleigh t-o f-h dn d, v en trilo quism , an d trained birds into an uproaringly humorous pro­ gram. At the time he met Maelzel, he was only twenty-five, but he had been, according to his own somewhat questionable account, performing before the public since he was thirteen. At that time, he explained, his father had sent him out with a servant to make a fortune from his magic tricks, with which he had been astonishing the countryside. Although Blitz claimed that his early years had been spent in central and western Europe, he was actually born in Kent, England, J u n e 21, 1810. Blitz came to the U n ited States in 1835 an d soon settled in Philadephia. He eventually became so popular in America that at one time thirteen imitators were traveling the country, copying not only his per­ formances but even his name. In Blitz’s 1871 autobiography, Fifty Years in the M agic Circle, the magician told of his agreeable partnership with Maelzel and Schlumberger.

Our success was ample and flattering [wrote Blitz]. Maelzel was a large, phlegmatic man, extremely irritable, yet very kind. He displayed great taste and refinement in all his arran ge­ ments, without regard to cost. “It must be cor­ rect,” was his constant observation. At the close of my first evening he came to me and, placing his immense hands on my shoulders, said: “My dear Blitz, you are an excellent p er­ former, but you must not make the people laugh so much. It is not shenteel to make them ha! ha! They laugh too loud; that’s not shenteel.” At the breakfast table the following morning, and durin g the day, he often reminded me not to forget his advice to "make the audience laugh shenteel.” When the hour announced for open­ ing the door in the evening arrived, he whispered in my ear, "Remember to make them laugh shenteel, Blitz, and not them big ha! ha! h a!” At the rise of the curtain he disposed of himself in one corner and remained there the whole time I was before the company. Whenever they be­ came merry he would whisper, “Blitz, Blitz! T h ere’s too much laughing ha! ha! make it shenteel!” He continued these tactics throughout my engagement, urging me to control the risibil­ ity of the audience—but giving me hard work to control my own—incessantly enjoining me to make the people laugh “shenteel.” Enjoying a first-class knowledge of chess him­ self, Maelzel was capable of anticipating, with approximate certainty, the success or defeat of his famous automaton. By those acquainted with his peculiarities there could generally be formed a correct idea of the state and prospect of the game. For when Schlomberg [sic], inside the automaton, was non compos from the effects of wine—a not infrequent occurrence-Maelzel’s fingers became electrified and telegraphic, plainly interpreting defeat. Schlomberg was very accomplished—could speak fluently English, French, Italian, Spanish, and German—was most unobtrusive in his man­ ners, with little or no dignity in his personal appearance. His position was a responsible one, for, in addition to playing the automaton, he superintended the outdoor business, and in a great degree directed the exhibitions. Occasionally his love of genial companionship would betray him into bibulous indulgence, sufficient to unfit him to compete with the strong players who frequently opposed the automaton; yet there were instances, strange to say, when under the influence of liquor, he would triumph over his adversary. Maelzel and Schlomberg were so wrapped up in the game that they dreamed of it by night and practised it by day. At every meal, and in all intervals, a portable chessboard was before them; they ate, drank, and played, while not a word escaped their lips, their features revealing what their tongues did not express.

SIG.BUTZ Learned Canary Birds 41ЛЛЯШ ГтЖГФП.Щ v r r ic * | Ш Т ВТИГО10 DUWJKJ THE W EM

¥1МВФИ**ЛТТ»ПИImxvvw FUN!

FUN!

FUN

LEARNED CANARY BIROS itfim u M n IB S

-IrC ш яш т ж т kSRirjl’"^■•*• ь* ~_■

В

iruaci ГМТ ИТКA

A N IM A L PRODUCE

____ ■—

M

k

л т а г

x v v ** •

LEARNED Ш Ш HBDS:

m

VElfTRILOODISI!

For many years, Blitz’s showbills were a fam iliar sight in Philadelphia, c o u r t e s y o f j m .

In late J u n e 1836 Maelzel began to make prepa­ rations for a new tour, which ended his pleasant 115

association with Signor Blitz. By that time many people had read Poe’s essay on the chess automaton, and according to one paper Poe had even chal­ lenged “a reply from Maelzel himself.” Instead of answ ering the challenge, the restless Maelzel headed west, taking with him the T u rk , the T rum peter, the melodium, the rope dancers, the speaking figures, the M echanical Theatre, and The Pyric Fires, another of his dioramas. By S ep tem b er or October Maelzel was in Pittsburgh, and from there he traveled by steamboat down the Ohio and Mississippi durin g the fall of 1836 and the following winter. After visiting Cin­ cinnati and Louisville, he arrived in New Orleans, where on Monday, Ja n u a ry ninth, he opened his exhibition in a hall on Poydras Street at the corner of Camp. For the evening’s entertainment, which began each weekday at seven, he charged an admis­ sion of one dollar, but as usual children were admitted for half price. The performances con­ tinued until Saturday, February 25, 1837. Instead of retracing his path up the great rivers, Maelzel decided to return to Philadelphia by sea, a plan which allowed him to stop for a short exhibition season in Havana. T he engagement in Havana was greeted with great applause, but the Cubans were disappointed to learn that Maelzel had not brought with him the famous Conflagration o f Moscow. In preparation for the long riverboat journey, he had again sold the huge diorama. Before leaving Havana, however, Maelzel promised to return soon with a new, far more beautiful Conflagration, built just for them. Returning to Philadelphia in the spring of 1837, Maelzel discovered that a new attempt to expose the T u rk had been published in his absence. In the National Gazette of February sixth, he found a copy of an article from a recent issue of the Parisian chess journal Palamede. The piece, by Mathieu De Tournay, was entitled "La Vie el Les Aventures de L'Automate J o u e u r D’Echecs" (The Life and Adventures of the Automaton Chess Player). It differed from most previous publications on the chess automaton in that it did not borrow the ideas of Willis. De T ournay had instead adopted the explanation pro­ posed in a one-page story that had appeared in the Magazin Pittoresque in 1834. The anonymous author of th a Pittoresque article had supposed that the T urk was operated with the aid of an elaborate magnetic chessboard, somewhat like the one Racknitz had detailed. George Walker thought the source of the explanation in Pittoresque had been none other than Jacques Mouret, Maelzel’s former director. Mouret, according to Walker, had “burnt out his brain with brandy” and had “sold the secrets of his prisonhouse to the French penny magazine.” T here is, however, some cause to doubt that Mouret was the source of the Pittoresque article. It is known, however, that in May 1837 Mouret

died in Paris after having been for several years paralyzed in all his limbs and in a great state of suffering. He had been a postal employee and had a small pension, but d urin g his final days he had been dependent upon the Paris chess community, which generously came to his aid. Maelzel saved a copy of De T o u rn ay’s article, but at the time he was less interested in the T u rk than in his plans for the new Conflagration o f Moscow, which he intended to construct on a grand scale. For that purpose he rented the Adelphi Buildings on Fifth Street near Walnut, where, d urin g the sum m er and autumn of 1837, he kept a large crew of mechanics at work. In order to personally superintend and expedite the construction, he moved into private rooms on the premises. Maelzel hoped to exhibit the new Conflagration in Havana and then in all the principal cities of South America. In anticipation of the tour, Maelzel employed a Mr. and Mrs. Fischer in Philadelphia. Mr. Fischer, an experienced exhibitor, would re­ lieve Schlumberger of some of his duties, while Mrs. Fischer would act as cook and housekeeper for the whole company. To ensure that everything would run smoothly when they reached Cuba, Maelzel tried out the new living arrangem ents at the Adel­ phi Buildings for some time before their departure. Displaying an excess of his usual perfectionism, Maelzel badgered his workmen incessantly, insisting

One of Schlum berger’s Philadelphia chess companions was Henry Vethake, who later became Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, c o u r t e s y o f f l p .

116

that they redo any work inconsistent with his high Havana exhibition was to be, not a beginning, but an expectations. He was so absorbed with the construc­ ending, a most disastrous ending for those most tion of the new diorama that he gave no exhibitions closely associated with the Turk. d u rin g the entire sum m er and autumn. One morning, while busy in his own exhibition As a result, Schlumberger was free to accept the hall, Signor Blitz was surprised by the sudden invitations of the Philadelphia chess amateurs to appearance of Maelzel. 'The normally convivial play at their homes. Among those who frequently showman was evidently in a state of extreme agita­ played with the director at that time was Henry tion. “Schlumberger is d ead !” he blurted out Vethake, who later became Provost of the Univer­ abruptly. MaelzeTs dear companion had died quite sity of Pennsylvania. By tfiat time Schlumberger had suddenly of yellow fever. Blitz, who often visited his visited nearly all the principal cities of the United two friends, had not even known that poor Schlum­ States and had played with the leading chess players berger was ill. wherever he went. No one had come close to beating Maelzel at first took great pains to keep the death him on a regular basis. There was at that time no of Schlumberger as secret as possible, hoping to save United States Chess Championship, but it seems the Havana exhibitions from ruin. “He undoubt­ very likely that, as William Rum m er later asserted, edly calculated upon providing himself with some Schlumberger was then the strongest player in the other director,” wrote Allen, “and upon continuing country. his exhibitions with the same alacrity and success as Schlumberger had grown more and more into the before. If so, he was deplorably mistaken—and that confidence and affection of Maelzel. “Their con­ too from a cause, which he could not have taken into nection,” wrote George Allen, “had lasted so long, account, namely, the sudden and absolute prostra­ they were always so much together, their manner tion of his own spirit, hitherto so hopeful and so towards each other was such, that an opinion grew indomitable, consequent upon the loss of one, who up, am ong our German citizens, at least, that had been for so many years his devoted and efficient Schlumberger was a near relation, or an adopted ally.” Schlumberger’s untimely death marked the be­ son, of MaelzeTs; nay, some thought him to be ginning of a dismal decline for MaelzeTs Havana actually his son.” With November came the time scheduled for exhibitions, which dragged on miserably for several their dep arture for Havana, but the ne w Conflagra­ months after the fatal event. Moscow still burned tion o f M oscow was not yet completed. Maelzel brightly, but it must have been somehow evident delayed the vessel a week but still had to sail with that the soul of its exhibitor had been nearly some of the details of the diorama only partly extinguished, and the performances were poorly finished. Finally he embarked with his entourage on attended. Sensing the impending failure, the Fis­ November 9, 1837, aboard the brig Lancet under the chers abandoned Maelzel to his melancholy fate, command of Captain Young. T he Lancet belonged thus adding the blow of desertion to the one to MaelzeTs friend John Ohl, who had connections inflicted by death. Nearly sixty-six years old, Maelzel in Havana through his shipping business. Maelzel found himself alone in a strange land, reduced in knew the best time for his exhibitions in Havana circumstances, and involved in debt. In the d ark­ would be d u rin g the carnival season from Christmas ened and empty exhibition hall, the enormous to Ash Wednesday, which in 1838 fell upon the last panorama of Moscow must have seemed more day of February. He had therefore timed his de­ desolate than Moscow itself had ever appeared to parture so as to arrive in late November with four or Napoleon—as wretched and forlorn as MaelzeTs own spirit. five weeks to prepare for the holiday season. “His pride and spirit could not battle with the A few days after Maelzel disembarked in Havana, a ship arrived from New York, bringing the inde­ change,” commented Blitz. T h ere was nothing to do fatigable Signor Blitz, who had himself decided to but close the exhibitions and return to Philadelphia, bring his show to the Cuban capital for the season of the plans for South America having vanished com­ festivity. T he magician rented a hall nearby for his pletely. Maelzel wrote a pathetic letter to William performances and was a frequent and welcome Kummer in Philadelphia, requesting him to engage an exhibition hall for him there and recounting his visitor in MaelzeTs rooms. Maelzel was ready to open his doors in time to take misfortunes in Havana. According to Allen, “the full advantage of the Christmas merrymaking, and letter was gloomy in its backward view of the the season began with great success. 'The splendid past—gloomy in its prospect of the future— new diorama of Moscow, it appeared, fully justified ominous signs, in the case of a man naturally so the time and attention to detail that its creator had cheerful and so hopeful as Maelzel.” Captain Nobre, master of Ohl’s brig the Otis, lavished upon it. Soon the exhibition drew crowds of festive Cubans and there was an air of great op­ greeted his friend Maelzel, who boarded the ship in timism. It seemed a most propitious start for a Havana on Saturday, Ju ly fourteenth, for the voy­ successful South American tour. However, the age back to Philadelphia. T he Captain could hardly 117

It is doubtful that any of MaelzeTs fellow believe it was the same Maelzel he had seen just three months before when the Otis had visited passengers realized that the old man who died that Havana in April. Schlumberger had then been alive day had laughed with Beethoven, had deceived and Maelzel was “as stout and florid, as active and Napoleon, had perfected the panharmonicon and lively, as he had been twelve years before, when he the metronome, had brought chess to America, and landed at New York, still a young man at the age of had entertained countless thousands on two conti­ fifty-three.” T h e old man who now came on board nents. It must have been a lonely death for the had obviously deteriorated greatly in both body and Prince of Entertainers. The general feeling of deep regret over Maelzel’s spirit, as if the source of his strength had been sorry demise was, however, expressed in Philadel­ abruptly cut off. After the brig had cleared the harbor, Captain phia by Joseph R. Chandler, editor of the United Nobre again turned his attention to Maelzel, whom States Gazette, who wrote: he found sitting on deck, clutching a little traveling chessboard, perhaps a rem inder of happier days. His ingenuity seemed to breathe life into the work Maelzel invited the Captain to play and they sat of his hands, but it could not retain the breath in down and finished two games as the ship slipped by his own nostrils; the kindly smile that he had for Mon o Castle in Havana Harbor. Nobre, no match children will be no more lighted up on earth; and for his skilled adversary, was defeated in the first the furrow of thought that marked his brow as he game, but in the game which followed, Maelzel’s inspected the movements of the famous T urk, weakened condition became evident. Finally a posi­ will no more convey intelligence. He has gone, we tion arose similar to one which had caused the l urk hope, where the music of his Harmonicons will be several defeats: three pawns against three pawns. It exceeded; but his body will rest beneath the blue was Captain Nobre’s move, and sensing that his waves of the Atlantic, till the “last trum p” [by an chances depended upon which Pawn he moved, he automaton trumpeter, no doubt] shall sound for the convocation of the quick and dead. asked Maelzel, a noted endgam e expert, to advise him. “You must play your own game; I cannot tell you what to move,” snapped Maelzel with un­ 5. characteristic rudeness. Nobre found the right move and soon won by pushing his pawns down T he deaths of Schlumberger and Maelzel left the upon Maelzel’s helpless King. It was the last game of T u rk an orphan, disassembled and boxed up in six chess Maelzel ever played. Maelzel dined that evening with the other or seven packing cases, along with some portions of passengers, then took to his berth and never left it the Carrousel, in Ohl’s storeroom in Philadelphia. again. He had the steward place on the edge of his Since Maelzel had not taken the chess automaton on berth a case of claret he had brought on board with the second visit to Havana, the dismembered him. With weak and trembling hands he from time mechanism had been g a th e r in g dust in the to time raised the bottle to his lips. Asking nothing, storeroom since the spring of 1837 and, along with receiving nothing, and saying nothing, he seemed all of Maelzel’s other exhibits, remained in storage perfectly aware of his condition. until they were sold at public auction on Friday, T he Otis sailed on for six days while Maelzel September 14, 1838. In his last grand effort to remained in that deplorable state. On Friday the produce a spectacular Conflagration o f M oscow for brig entered the shoals off the coast of North the ill-fated Havana exhibitions, Maelzel had ex­ America. In the evening Nobre noted a marked pended vast sums, including his last $5,000 and decline in Maelzel’s condition, and thus he was not even some money borrowed from Ohl. Thus Ohl surprised to find the great showman dead in his had no choice but to sell the exhibitor’s property to berth the following morning, Saturday, J u ly 21, pay off the debt. 1838. That day, off the coast of Charleston, Maelzel The chess automaton, still packed in several was buried at sea, a four-pound shot fastened to his boxes, was the first of Maelzel’s possessions put up feet. for auction, and the high bid came from Ohl Allen reported that Maelzel had at one time “had himself, who bought the T u rk for four hundred in the bank over twenty thousand dollars,” while dollars. Immediately after his offer was accepted, another biographer claimed “he left a considerable another bidder appeared who would have offered fortune, estimated at half a million dollars.” Yet more than twice that sum. Ohl, who had no interest when Captain Nobre ordered Maelzel’s trunks in exhibiting the automaton, hoped perhaps to sell opened and the contents inventoried, the only the machine later at a greater profit. valuables found were a gold medal, presented to the The magician P. L. Zaionczek acquired several of great mechanician by the King of Prussia, and Maelzel’s exhibits, either at the auction or at some twelve gold doubloons loaned him in Havana by an later time. For some years after Maelzel’s death, agent of John Ohl. Zaionczek exhibited, along with his own perform118

weight lifting. Later that year Zaionczek had billed himself as “the Polish Samson” and had balanced Major Stevens on his chin. Stevens was a thirty-oneyear-old midget, forty inches high and weighing fifty pounds. A program which Zaionczek presented at the Assembly Building in Philadelphia in Ja n u a ry 1845 began with MaelzePs Pyric Fires. That was followed by Zaionczek’s own performance, and the evening’s entertainment concluded with the Conflagration o f Moscow, which received the largest billing on the program. In a note at the bottom, Zaionczek assured the public, “Moscow has, for the last five weeks, been visited by the most respectable audiences, the clergy and church members of all creeds included.” In Montreal, after an exhibition season in Ju n e and Ju ly 1847, Zaionczek advertised for sale the Conflagration, along with Maelzel’s Grand Carrousel, the automaton rope dancers, and the speaking figures. T he magician, who claimed that he planned to retire, also offered to sell “a beautiful Phantas­ magoria, complete with 57 slides, Grand Cosmorama, comprising fourteen views, two of which arc moved by clockwork with eight lenses,” and even his own legerdemain apparatus. MaelzePs name was attached to several exhibi­ tions, such as “MaelzePs Mechanical Exhibition” and “MaelzePs Dancing Figures,” for several years after the death of the great exhibitor. An automaton trumpeter, not advertised as MaelzePs, was exhib-

COIFUGH iTIONO FDOT!! T h e A s s e m

b l y В и П « и ™е

ЧУ E v e ry Evening this W eek! U |11 ** K '^ j1 ,1"- loiwv*Hi*» Entertainm ent.

THE P V k ic FIRES!

W hich have been nightly uxvl%cj Utt>l unbounded a pplause In conjunction with die above, the celebrated

M r. Z A I O N C Z E K ! W ill go through his pleaaing^oiiJ^urpn T o conclude with the

CONFLAGRATION

MOSCOW!

Id which M r. M. has so combined the arte o f Design, Mechanism arid Music, as to produce, by н novel imitation o f nature, a perfect fac­ simile o f the real scene. It is taken at night, and the moon observed aloft is rendered pale by the glare of the blazing and smoking ruin* below, the combined effects o f which, striking upon the distant build­ ings, clothe them in gloomy splendor. T h e view is from ao elevated terrace o f the K renikn, the Imperial Palace, a t the moment when the inhabitants are evacuating the Capital o f the Czars, and the French columns are commencing their entry

T hey advance Id (he follow ing o rd e r: The Vanguard with its Artillery, Hegimtnt of F lying Artillery, foL Regim ent o f Voltigbers, lotted by their Cannon AmmuniThe Imperial Foot Guards tion, Baggage Wagons, Regiment oj Cuirassiers, tfc. Amid the din, hurry and confusion* the Incendiaries who fired the city are seen with blazing torches, passing to and fro among the flying inhabitants, in the precincts o f the Kremlin. T ho rapid progress o f the fire, spreading from the centre to the ex­ trem ities o f the city, the hurrying bustle o f the Fugitives, the eager­ ness o f the Invaders, the tolling o f Alarm Bells, the sound o f T rum ­ pets and other French M ilitary Music, the roar o f Cannon, the brisk discharge o f Musketry,

,

,

зрзш

ш ш р&ф э т ф к

а

ш тш а

W hich demolishes what tho Fire had spared, and the

B R B K b lN Р А Ь Ы » » ДО RTJI1T3 W ill tend to impress the spectator with * true idea o f the scene, which baffles all powers o f description.____________ •______________ N . B.— M okow baa, for the Um IS a w w k i, Ь м п vieiud by tba n o * iW f tcHM s м Л т ст . U>c C lergy and C hurch M tm b tr* oTall сsaad* ibcI qM [From tKe Vnaed S u u e ОлаШе, i f О» 144 b M m t.)

MAELZEL’S MOSCOW.—Tba fcmova axhibfekao of tba - Coeitfraboe оt UcBxyw,* со». atru oj*c n ito n aft*\i* f real daUfb*,

With the help of P. L. Zaionczek, “ Maelzeal’s Exhibition” survived for several years after the death of the Prince of Entertainers, c o u r t e s y o f j g w .

ances of legerdem ain, the Conflagration o f Moscow and other pieces of MaelzePs mechanisms. Apparently Zaionczek had begun his American career at Peale's Museum in New York in February 1834. At that time the athletic young Pole had presented an act featuring ju g g lin g , trickery, and

Dr. John Kearsley Mitchell restored the Turk in 1840. COURTESY OF FLP.

119

itecl at various locations in New York from October 1837 until about the same time the following year. Assuming it was MaelzePs original T rum peter, the inventor must have sold the mechanism before leaving Havana. Eventually, the T rum peter found a home with a Philadelphia family. He was last heard publicly when in 1871 Signor Blitz exhibited him in Philadelphia at the Great Central Fair in Logan Square. As late as March 1863, a humorist named Gallagher was exhibiting Maelzel’s Conflagration o f M oscow at the Sprin g Garden Institute Hall, Philadelphia, along with dioptic paintings and a ventriloquism act. It is difficult to trace further the destinies of the various pieces of Maelzel’s exhibi­ tion, but the fate of the automaton chess player is known. For over a year the T u rk remained in the posses­ sion of Ohl, stored in a warehouse at Lombard Street W harf in Philadelphia. The hoped-for buyer had not appeared, so that by the spring of 1840 Ohl was willing to part with the automaton for the same four hundred dollars he had paid at auction. Dr. S / lO * .A S

cC

V

f

^

John Kearsley Mitchell, a prominent physician and lecturer from Philadelphia, and an acquaintance of Maelzel, had long been fascinated by the elusive secrets of the T u r k ’s operation. He thus resolved to purchase the automaton, but not for himself. In­ stead, he organized a club composed of seventy-five gentlemen, each of whom would subscribe five or ten dollars to,become joint owners of the chess player. Mitchell authorized Jam es Gibson to collect a total of five hundred dollars in dues, which would pay the price Ohl was asking and allow an additional hundred for “contingent expenses.” The autom a­ ton thus became the property of a club, the m em ­ bers of which would be privileged to share the secrets of the famous machine. It is interesting to note that the author of “Maelzel’s Chess-Player” had been living in Philadelphia since 1838, writing for various magazines and trying to launch a literary journal of his own. In fact, Dr. Mitchell was the personal physician of Poe and his wife Virginia, and Mitchell had on the evening of February 29 invited Poe to his home. Poe’s name,

/*/,■>

U * /l

r/a

*

/ l j-t^l /0• " /г?. - »- /#. * —

4Ы4-) os'frs jr/ft v

//7. ~ //>T. /о» — _____:

---------

a y.

*•

*^v. 0P. «.« **r 3^ С/сж^Х .----

t f- ir

*

/

«

________

.

< -

^

1

/ ^

^

'*• — .

I

\ /(L it

—-

s~

V/ j r^ Z '7 / Т ур ua#,

-

04*

u . s . y j f - /A-,j I / ' J. Vy* £ — ^ •*- г /:V ..... ; ^*> AS/s X (//.-> > - 0 - 0 16 Q-B3ch 17 N xN 18 R x N 19 P-K6 20 Q-B7ch! 21 P x Rch 22 R x B 23 B-Q2 24 R -K l 25 R x B P 26 B x Q 27 B-N4ch 28 P-B8(Q) mate

32 33 34 35 36 37 38

R -lfl R-KB7 R xQ P RxP R -B l B -B 6 BxP

N-K3 P-R4 N-B4 R-K3 R -K l R -Q B 1 Resigns

G am e2^

Game 26 T he next gam e is unique in that Gunsberg was Mephisto’s adversary rather than his director. For only that one day Zukertort directed Mephisto, so that Giimpel could prove that the mechanical chess player could function without the aid of Gunsberg.

Mephisto played the following three games in the handicap tournament of the Counties Chess Asso­ ciation. In the first game he was required to give odds of a pawn and two moves. While most of Mephisto’s exhibition games were played quite rapidly, this tournament game lasted four and a half hours.

Irregular Opening Evans Gambit 49 Leicester Square, London, 1878 White

Black

Mephisto (Zukertort) 1 P-K4 , 2 N-KB3 3 IV- B4 4 P-QN4 5 P-QB3 6 P-Q4 7 0-0 8 Q-N3 9 P-K5 10 NXP 11 B-R3 12 N-QN5 13 N x Pcli 14 N x R 15 B x N ch 16 Q-R3ch 17 N-R4 18 Q-KN3 19 QXP 20 Q-N5ch 21 QR-B1 22 B x P 23 Q X Q 24 QR-Q1 25 P-B4 26 IV-R5 27 K -R l 28 B-B3 29 B x B 30 P-N3 31 B-K4

Gunsberg P-K4 N-QB3 B-B4 BxP IV-R4 PxP PxP Q-KB3 Q-N3 KN-K2 P-QN3 IV- N2 K -Ql N-Q5 K xB K-Ql Q-K5 BxN R -K l K-B2 K -N 1 Q xP RxQ R-K5 P-N4 B-N3 N-K3 RxP RxN R-R3 N-Q5

Counties Handicap T ourney, King's College, London, J u ly 1878 While Black Baxter Mephisto (Gunsberg) Remove Black’s King Bishop Pawn. 1 P-K4 P-K3 2 P-Q4 Q-K2 3 N-KB3 4 P-QB3 P-Q3 P-K4 5 IV-Q3 1V-N5 6 (>-() N-Q2 7 IV-КЗ P-KR3 8 QN-Q2 P-KN4 9 Q-B2 KN-B3 10 N-Kl B-R4 11 P-B3 IV-B2 12 R-B2 N-R4 13 N -B l N-B5 14 P-KN4 NPxB 15 B x N B-N2 16 R-N2 0 -0 -0 17 P-Q5 B-B3 18 P-N4 P-KR4 19 P-QR4 PxP 20 IV-K2 R-R6 21 P x P IV-N4 22 B-B3 IV-N3 23 Q-K2 N-B3 24 R-R2 Q-R2 25 P-R5 P-N3 26 P-R6 BxP 27 Q-B4 IV-N3 28 N-Q2 P-K5 29 Q -B6 N xQ P 30 N-B4 PxB 31 Q x N

173

32 Q-N7ch 33 N / l x P 34 N x B 35 N x Q 36 N-N5 37 NxPch 38 К x В 39 N-K4 40 K-B2 41 N-B6ch 42 N x R 43 R-Q2 44 R x P 45 K-N 1 46 P-N5 47 R-Q7 48 R x P 49 R-R8 50 P-R7 51 R-QN8 52 R x P 53 K-R2 54 R-KB5 55 R-B6 56 R-QR6 57 K -Rl 58 R-KB6 59 R-N6ch 60 R-B6 61 K-R2 Resigns

18 N-R3 19 N-B2 20 P-QR4 21 N-Q4 22 P x P 23 P-B4 24 P-B5 25 R x P 26 R / l - R l . . 27 P x R . 28 Q-B4 29 P-R7 30 B-K3 31 Q-N5 32 Q-N8ch 33 N-N5 White won.

K-Q2 B-K5 BxQ Вx R R x BP BPxN R-KN1 R xP ch R-KR6 K-K3 K-B4 K xN R x Pch R-R7 R-N7 RxP R-R4 K-B6 P-N4 RxP R-R8ch R-K8 R-K2 R-KN2 R-N7ch R-Q7 K-N 6 K-B7 P-B6 K-K8 dis ch

Game 29 Mephisto won first prize in the handicap tourna­ ment by beating F. S. Ensor in the last round. Steinitz called Mephisto’s final moves “an ingenious sorcery.”

Rny Lopez Counties Handicap Tourney, King’s College, London, July 1878

Game 28 Playing the next game without giving odds, Mephisto wasted time in the opening but soon made up the loss.

French Defense Counties Handicap Tourney, King's College, London,

July 1878 White Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 P-Q4 4 B-Q3 5 P-B3 6 Q-K2 7 BxP 8 QxB 9 N-B3 10 Q-Q3 11 NXP 12 Q x N 13 Q-Q3 14 B-Q2 15 P-QN4 16 0 - 0 17 P-N3

Black

Coker P-K3 P-QN3 B-N2 P-QB4 P-KB4 PxK P BxB N-QB3 N-B3 PxP N xN Q-B2 B-B4 0-0 B-Q3 N-Q4 R-B4

P-QR3 P-QN4 N-B3 R-R4 Q-N3 Q -N l B-K2 R-Q4 RXR Q -R 2 Q-Rl N- Kl P-R4 N-B2 K-B2

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 N-KB3 3 B-N5 4 B-R4 5 P-Q3 6 P-QB3 7 IV-К N5 8 BxN 9 QN-Q2 10 B-N3 11 P-QR4 12 P x P 13 P-KR3 14 R-R7 15 Q -R l 16 Q -R5 17 QxPch 18 Q -R5 19 PXP 20 0 - 0 21 B-R4ch 22 R -Q l 23 Q -R6 24 P-QN4 25 N-N3 26 P x P 27 N-B5 28 N-Q7 29 R / l x B 30 R/Q7-N7

Ensor P-K4 N-QB3 P-QR3 N-KB3 P-Q3 В- К N5 P-R3 Q xB P-QN4 N-K2 R -B l PxP B-R4 B-N3 P-Q4 PxP Q -B3

174

Q-Q3

P-KB3 B -B 2 P-B3 Q -N l B-K3 P-N4 P-KN5 BXP K-B2 BXN/Q2 R-R2

Q-Q3

Bx R P-R4 Q-K3 Resigns

31 R x Nth 32 Q x R 33 N-R4 34 Q x Q ch After 34 move.

K xQ , 35 B-N3ch and mate next

Game'30 'I'he most interesting encounter on Mephisto’s opening day at Westminster Aquarium was this one with Col. Jam e s Minchin. Steinitz thought the game should have been a draw, but then on move 20 Mephisto gave up a pawn to throw his opponent off balance. He then offered his Queen, but that gift had to be refused.

Sicilian Defense Westminster Aquarium, London, October 2, 1878 Black While Col. Minchin Mephisto (Gunsberg) P-QB4 1 P- K4 P- КЗ 2 P-KB4

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

N-KB3 N-B3 B-N5 0-0 BxN P-Q3 N-K2 P-K5 PxP P-B3 N-N3 B-Q2 Q-B2 QR-K1 Q-Ql PXP NxN B-R6 RxR PXB Q-K2 Q-B3 P-KN4 PxB Q-R5 R-B3 K-B2 R-N3

N-QB3 P-KN3 KN-K2 B-N2 NxB 0-0 P-Q4 P-B3 QxP B-Q2 QR-K1 P-N3 Q-K2 Q-Q3 P-K4 NxP BxN R x Rch BxN QXP Q-Q3 B-B4 Q-KB3 P-KN4 R-K6 R-K8ch Q-K2 Resigns

Game 31 Mephisto did not always win; here he lost to Mr. H. Lee, third board on the Oxford team. “Mr. Lee deserves praise for the conception of this fine sacrifice,” commented Steinitz, “and for the manner in which he utilizes its consequences.”

King’s Gambit Declined

p4v«

,Щ .

С

.

: • ■

г з к я я

. ; V-

ISA? ... ч

•

• VN

Col. Ja m e s Innes M inchin was Mephisto’s most in ­ teresting a d v e r s a ry on the m echanical p la y e r ’s first day at W estm inister A quarium , b y P E R M IS S IO N OF N PG .

Westminster Aquarium, London, 1878 Black White Lee Mephisto (Gunsberg) P-K4 1 P-K4 B-B4 2 P-KB4 P-Q3 3 N-KB3 N-KB3 4 B-B4 P-B3 5 P-Q3 P-QR4 6 P-B3 PxP 7 PxP 0-0 8 NxP P-KR3 9 B-KN5 P-QN4 10 B-R4 P-R5 11 B-QN3 R-Kl 12 B-QB2 IV-К N5 13 N-B3 B-R4 14 P-KR3 P-N4 15 QN-Q2 В-Кб 16 B-KN3 QxB 17 BxN 175

18 19

King’s Gambit

Q-N 6ch BxQN Q R-Q i Q-B5ch P-R 6 N-Q4 N-K 6 B-N3 RxQ P QXN RxP K-N 2 N-B5ch RxR K-N 1

Q-K2 K-Ql 20 K xB 21 K-Bl 22 K -N 1 23 PXP 24 K-N2 25 P-N4 26 B-N3 27 Q x R 28 QR-K1 29 Q-Q 8ch 30 R-R2 31 BxN 32 Q-Q4ch 33 В x Pch

Westminster Aquarium, London, 1879

Black threatened mate at QN8. Now Black played Q x B and won.

Game 32 “Of sulphurous subtlety,” noted W. N. Potter after Mephisto’s sixteenth move in the next game.

K ing’s Gambit Declined

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 B-B4 • ' 5 P-KR4 ' 6 P-Q4 7 Q-Q3 8 P xP 9 RxR 10 P-K5 11 Q-R7 12 Q-R5 13 P-QN3 14 B-R3 15 P-B3? 16 K-B2 17 NxN 18 Q -R l 19 Q-Kl 20 N xP 21 K-N 1 22 В x P? 23 Q-KB1 Resigns

M’Lennan P-K4 PxP P-KN4 B-N2 P-KR3 P-Q3 N-QB3 PxP Вx R B- N2 K-Bl Q-K2 PXP N-N5 N-B7ch N xB N-B3! Q xN P-K5 N-N5ch N-K 6 Q-N7 N xQ

Westminster Aquarium, London, December 1, 1878

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 B-B4 5 P-Q3 6 P-KR3 7 Q xB 8 N-B3 9 P-B5 10 P-KN4 11 Q-N2 12 P-KR4 13 P xP 14 R x P 15 K-Ql 16 P-B 6ch 17 Q xN White mates in three moves.

Beardsell P-K4 B-B4 P-Q3 N-KB3 B-KN5 B xN

Game 34 “The devil commits here a ludicrous blunder in grasping at a bishop,” declared Steinitz, “and he pays with immediate defeat for his disrespect against the clergy.”

0-0

King’s Gambit

N-B3 P-KR3 N-Q5 N-R2 P-KN4 N xP N/5-B6ch K-N 2 KxR

Westminster Aquarium, London, 1879

Q-Q2

Game 33 Although Mephisto rarely lost a game, G. H. M’Lennan, “a talented young player,” beat him in both the following games. Steinitz thought the mechanical player underestimated his opponent.

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 IV- B4 5 P-Q4 6 P-KR4 7 Q-Q3 8 P xP 9 R x Rch 10 N xP 11 P x P 12 K -B l? (Q-K2!) 13 N-KB3 14 Q-N3 15 K-N 1 16 N xB ? Resigns

M’Lennan P-K4 PxP P-KN4 B-N2 P-Q3 P-KR3 N-KB3 PxP BxR P-Q4 Q-K2ch N-R4 IV- B4! N-N 6ch В x Pch Q- K8ch

176

15 16 17 18 19

K-Rl NxP! В x Nch N-B4 B-N2! 20 R -K 1 21 R x Q 22 Q-B5 (Q-N3ch!) 23 Q x B 24 Q-KB5

Game 35 Mephisto’s reckless attack, though unsound, quickly paid off in this gam e against J . G. Ascher, secretary o f the Montreal Chess Club.

K ing’s Gambit Declined

P-KR3 KxN K-N 1 B -B 6 BxB BxR Вx R N-Ql N-K3 Resigns

Mephisto’s Chess Rooms, No. 9 Strand, London, April 1879

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 B-B4 5 P-Q3 6 PxP 7 Q-K2 8 P-Q4 9 N-N5 10 P-Q5 11 P- K6 12 Q-R5ch 13 Q -R 6 if 13...P X N , 14 B x P 14 N-B7 15 Q x R P 16 Q x P 17 P x R 18 Q-N 8cb 19 B-KRO

Ascher P-K4 B-B4 P-Q3 N-KB3 N-N5 N-B7 NXR B-N3 B-K3 B -B l P-KB3 P-N3 Q-K2 wins the Black Queen R -B l R xN K-Ql N-Q2 Q -B l Resigns

Game 37 White played strongly in this game and won a piece, but Mephisto did not give up. After move 31 Steinitz commented, “Black has defended himself remarkably well under extreme difficulties, and he now forces the game by a fine and well-calculated combination.”

Evans Gambit Mephisto’s Chess Rooms, No. 9 Strand, London, 1879

In the next gam e the visitor from Montreal again fell victim to Mephisto’s vigorous attack.

Evans Gambit Mephisto’s Chess Rooms, No. 9 Strand, London, April 1879 Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 N-KB3 3 B-B4 4 P-QN4 5 P-B3 6 P-Q4 7 0 -0 8 Q-N3 9 P-K5 10 N xP ' 11 N-K2 12 B-Q3 13 Q -N l 14 N-N5

Black

Mocatta 1 P-K4 2 N-KB3 3 B-B4 4 P-QN4 5 P-B3 6 P-Q4 7 Q-N3

Mephisto (Gunsberg) P-K4 N-QB3 IV-B4 BXP B-R4 PXP Q-B3 P-Q3 PxKP P xP KN-K2 (BxN !) Q-N3 0 - 0 (P-B4!) B-B4 (Q-R4!) Q-B3 NxN P-KR3 Q-N3 QXP Q-R5 Q-B3 KR-N1 R-N3 P-N3 N-K4 R-K 1 P-Q 6 R/3-K3 P-Q7 N-N5 Q xR ! R-K 8ch RxR N x Pch P-Q 8(Q)

8

Game 36

White

White

Black Ascher P-K4 N-QB3 B-B4 BxP B-R4 PXP PxP Q-B3 Q-N3 KN-K 2 P-QN4 Q-K3 N-N3 QXP

177

0 -0

9 P-K5 10 PxP 11 Q N -Q 2 12 N-K4 13 B-Q3 14 N/4-N5 15 N-R4 16 N xB 17 P-N4 18 N-K4 19 N-N3 20 BxN 21 Q xN P 22 B-QR3 23 Q-R 6 24 Q-K2 25 B-R3 26 B-KN2 27 B-B5 28 Q-K3 29 Q xR P 30 K -R l? (N-K4!) 31 Q-R3 32 R x Q 33 N -B 1 34 B-Q4 35 BxN

36 K-N 1 37 В x В 38 В -В 6 39 K -R 1 40 Q -B 8ch Resigns

B-N3 R P xB Q-Q5ch R/1-K8 K-N 2

Allgaier Gambit Mephisto’s Rooms, London, 1879

Game 38 Here White hoped to break through on the King side but soon found his King surrounded by Mephisto’s pieces. “A neat finish,” rem arked Steinitz.

King’s Gambit Declined Mephisto’s Chess Rooms, 48A Regent Street, London, 1879

White

Black

Gossip 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-QB3 4 N-B3 5 B-N5 6 P-Q3 7 BxN 8 N-QR4 9 N xB 10 P-B5 11 P-KR3 12 Q-K2 13 P xP 14 P-B4 15 K-B2 16 P-KN4 17 B-K3 18 K-N2 19 P-N3 20 P-KR4? 21 P-B 6 22 B-N5 23 P xP 24 B-B4 25 B-N3 26 Q-KB 2 27 QR-KB1 Resigns

Mephisto (Gunsberg) P-K4 B-B4 P-Q3 N-QB3 N-B3

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P- K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 P-KR4 5 N-N5 6 N xP 7 B-B4ch 8 В x Pch 9 B x P !? 10 B x B 11 P xP 12 Q-K2 13 P-K5 14 P-Q4 15 Q-K4 16 P-Q5 17 PxN 18 P xQ 19 K-Bl 20 K-N2 21 K-R3 22 R-N 1 23 KxP Resigns

Amateur P-K4 PxP P-KN4 P-N5 P-KR3 KxN P-Q4 K-N 2 P-B 6 Q xB P-N 6 N-KB3 N-R4 N-QB3 Q-K3 Q xK P QxQch B-B4 K R -B lch R-B7ch P-N7 R -B 6ch R-N 6ch

0 -0

PxB B-N3 RPxN P-R3 P-Q4 PxP IV-R3 N-R4 Q-K2 N-B3 N x К Pch N-Q3 P-B4 P-R4! QxP Q-K3 P-KB3 Q-N5ch N-B4 B-N2 R xP!

Game 40 M ephisto u s u a lly m a d e b etter use o f the T h e to rm e n te d victim in this g a m e from M ercu ry was o n e o f the best p la y e r s o f tl Chess Club.

Allgaier Gambit Mephisto’s Rooms, London, 1879

Game 39 Mephisto often employed gambits in order to quickly subdue his challengers, but in the following game, the Allgaier Gambit, named for one of the T u rk ’s directors, took an unexpected disastrous turn for the mechanical chess player.

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 P-KR4 5 N-N5 6 QxP 7 QxP 8 P xB 9 P-Q4 10 N-B3 11 IV-КЗ 12 P-Q5 13 P xP 14 0 - 0 - 0 15 N-N5! 16 B-Q4 17 P x P

Bennett P-K4 PxP P-KN4 P-N5 B-R3? (P-KR3!) P-Q3 B xN IV-КЗ P-QB3 Q-K2 N-Q2 PxP IV-B4 B-N3 N-K4 P-B3 NxP

178

18 NxPch 19 B x N 20 B-Q3 21 R x B 22 B xN White mates in five moves.

Q xN R-QB1 Вx В Q-R3 Q xR

Game 41 У

In this gam e Mephisto recklessly sacrificed pawns and pieces to get at the Black King, and he finished the game with a brilliant Queen sacrifice.

5

N-N5 6 N xP 7 P-Q4 8 BxP 9 N-B3 10 B-K5 11 B-Q3 12 O-Och 13 Q -K l 14 Q xN 15 B-B4ch 16 R-B7ch 17 R-N7ch 18 B-B7ch 19 K-R2 White mates in two moves.

P-KR3 KxN P-Q4 N-KB3 B-N 5 N xP NxN K-N I N-K5 P xQ K-R2 K-N3 K-R4 KXP

Cunningham Gambit Game 43

Mephisto’s Rooms, London, 1879

While

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 B-B4 5 P-N3

Amateur P-K4 PXP B-K2 B-R5ch PxP P x Pcb P-Q4 N-KB3 N xB B -R 6 В XR

6

0 -0

7

K-Rl 8 BxP 9 N-B3 10 NxN 11 N xB 12 Q-N4 13 N-B5 ' 14 N/B5-K7ch 15 P-N3 16 B-N2ch 17 R x B ! 18 Q xN ! 19 R x P 20 R-B7 mate

0 -0

P-KN3 K-Rl N-Q2 P-B3 P-B3 QxQ P-KR4

Game 42 At the seaside resort of' Brighton, Mephisto con­ tinued to win in spectacular fashion. In this gam e he sacrificed both Knight and Queen to break through Black’s defenses.

Allgaier Gambit Mephisto’s Chess Rooms, 79 King’s Road, Brighton, 1879

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P- K4 2 P-KB4 3 N-KB3 4 P-KR4

Amateur P- К4 PxP P-KN4 P-N5

In this gambit which went astray, Mephisto sacrificed a Knight on move 14, hoping the Black King would move to the Bishop square. His oppo­ nent, however, found shelter in the opposite direc­ tion.

Evans Gambit Mepbisto’s Chess Rooms, 79 King’s Road, Brighton, 1879

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 N-KB3 3 B-B4 4 P-QN4 5 P-B3 6 P-Q4 7 0 -0 8 Q-N3 9 P-K5 10 B-R3 11 NXP 12 N xP 13 Q-R4 14 N-Q 6ch? 15 P x P 16 KR-Klch 17 B-Q3 18 BxN 19 Q-QB4 20 IV-N2 21 QR-B1 22 KxB 23 K-N 1 24 Q-B3 25 Q-R3 26 N-N5 27 N-K4 28 K-Rl 29 Q x Pcb Resigns

Warner P-K4 N-QB3 B-B4 B xN P B-R4 PxP PxP Q-B3 Q-N3 KN-K 2 P-N4 R-QN1 B-N3 PxN N-B4 K -Q l! Q-B3 Q xB R-K 1 R-K3 В x Pcb R x Bch R xQP Q-B3 R-N3 K-B2 Q-Q5ch R-K3 B-N 2

Game 44 This final Mephisto gam e was annotated by Steinitz and later by S. G. Tartakover. It featured a double Rook sacrifice, of which Steinitz wrote, “A highly ingenious and brilliant sacrifice, and as beautiful as it is original; to the best of our recollec­ tion we have never seen a similar finish in actual play.” Tartakover added, “Whether Black accepts it or not, his fate is sealed.” Mephisto’s adversary, Mr. W., was a member of the St. George’s Chess Club.

Scotch Gambit Mephisto’s Chess Rooms, 79 King’s Road, Brighton, September 1879

White

Black

Mephisto (Gunsberg) 1 P-K4 2 N-KB3 3 P-Q4 4 N xP

Mr. W. P-K4 N-QB3 PxP Q-R5

6

N-KB3 B-K2

7

0 -0

8

N-B3 B-QN5 N-Q4 P-B4 R-Kl NxQP B xN N-N5 B-K3 N/N5XBP RxB N xB P-B4 R-QR3 R-Nl P-QN4 Q-Q4 R x Pch! R x Pch! Q-N 6ch N-B7 mate

5

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

23 24 25 26 27 28

180

QxKPch P-Q4 B-K3 Q-B4 N-K2 Q-N3 P-B4 B-Q2

0-0-0 N xB B-B4ch B-K3 В x Bch B xN Q-B2 KR-K1 K -N 1 Q -B l N xP N-B3 K xR NxR K-Rl

Chess, Whist, and the Ladies’ Game; or The Games Automatons Play

1. In 1879 the renowned magician John Nevile Maskelyne explained in a Leisure Hour article: Some years back I commenced constructing an automatic chess-player of such small proportions as entirely to upset the idea of its even containing a child withinside; a figure, indeed, not weighing more than twelve or fourteen pounds, and . . . perfectly insulated and isolated upon a glass column. . . . This project was laid aside for other, and to the public, more attractive work. The fact is, chess—skilful and beautiful game as it is— cannot be made of a very engrossing character to a general audience, so I prepared other figures with endowments more popular and pleasing, before completing that for chess. I have not therefore abandoned the idea. Although both Mephisto and Ajeeb were exhib­ ited in London that year, Maskelyne may have been partly correct in evaluating the popularity of chess automatons. Proctor, a few months later, observed that Mephisto’s Rooms merited far more numerous visits than they received, and that may have to some extent explained the final demise of the mechanical chess player. Probably the most celebrated of Maskelyne’s “other figures” was Psycho, an automaton whist John Nevile Maskelyne decided that whist would be player first exhibited in 1875 before the Prince of more popular than chess, c o u r t e s y o f j m .

Psycho, exhibited by Maskelyne, played his card in a game of whist against three startled adversaries, c o u r ­ tesy of

N Y PI..

Wales and a party gathered at Sandringham. Later that year, Psycho performed on stage in London at the Egyptian Hall, Astley’s, and also at the London Pavilion. Psycho, the joint invention of Maskelyne and John Algernon Clarke, was a small Oriental figure sitting cross-legged on a box which was supported by a single large cylinder of clear glass. Originally the cylinder had rested on the carpeting of the stage but was later placed upon a small stool with solid wooden legs. Maskelyne, in fact, would permit the automaton to be placed in a variety of ways, and it thus seemed impossible that the figure could be influenced by an electric current, a magnetic attraction, or a hy­ draulic or pneumatic force from outside. T here could have been no fine threads or wires attached to Psycho, since they would have been seen by persons from the audience who were permitted to come near the automaton in order to play a game of whist. I'he figure of Psycho was much smaller than life-size, only about twenty-two inches tall and thus

much too small to contain even a child. Neverthe­ less, Richard Proctor, a witness at one of Maskelyne’s 1875 performances, expressed the opinion that the figure together with the supporting box were “certainly large enough to give room for a small boy.” Although the magician made a show of prodding the automaton with a rod, it was noted that there was “room between the rod and the face of the lower enclosure for a boy’s legs.” Proctor, writing in Cornhill Magazine, supposed the boy to be “in a sitting position but somewhat askew posture, with his knees where the legs of the figure ap p ear,” and thought he was probably “about four feet in height, and rather thin, but not remarkably so.” When Maskelyne called for volunteers to join Psycho in a gam e of whist, Proctor was disappointed not to be am ong the three gentlemen selected to play. He in fact suspected at first that the chosen gentlemen might be confederates of the magician. At a second performance, however, he noted that “a very eminent man of science, president of one of the chief learned societies,” was am ong those selected to go on stage to examine Psycho and eventually to take one of the whist hands. I'he presence of the scientist, who “most assuredly was not a confed­

182

erate,” convinced the writer that the game was not rigged. Although Psvcho was the best known of the whist players, there had been an automaton whist player in America as early as 1828. Whist was then the leading intellectual card gam e but has since been largely supplanted by its more challenging off­ spring, bridge. Unlike bridge, there is in whist no dum m y hand exposed cjuring the play of the cards. Also there is no bidding in whist, the trump suit being determined merely by the turn of the last card dealt. Psycho did not, of course, shuffle and deal the cards. When those duties had been performed by another player, Maskelyne placed Psycho’s thirteen cards in slots in a specially constructed holder, which formed an arc in front of the figure. In so doing, Maskelyne disclaimed all knowledge of the hand, but Proctor thought the magician saw each card and memorized its position. Maskelyne then, Proctor suspected, indicated by prearranged signals the number of the card which his concealed operator was to play. T he writer ju d g e d Psycho’s play to be “not very profound, nor even always sound,” chid­ ing the automaton for signaling for trumps without reason, a weakness known as “the Blue Peter.” He thought that Maskelyne directed most of Psycho’s game but sometimes left the supposed youthful operator to make his own choices. Psycho’s motions were limited to moving his right arm in an arc above the cards, pausing over the selected card, and with thumb and finger plucking that card out of its slot in the rack. In addition, the automaton moved his head as if his eyes were following the actions of his hand. Besides playing whist, Psycho performed card tricks and mathematical calculations. A spectator was asked to draw a card from the deck. Psycho then indicated the suit and rank of the card by striking a bell. I'he spectator chose another card, secretly marked it, and shuffled it into the pack. Psycho instantly found the card and held it up. Finally the pack was reshuffled and Maskelyne held it be­ hind his back in full view of the audience. Psycho correctly indicated each card as it was revealed in succession. It was claimed that Psycho was capable of making all the arm movements necessary to play chess or checkers, and later in his career the automaton may have even played chess, as Maskelyne had originally intended. Albert A. Hopkins, the author in 1901 of a book on magic, evidently thought Psycho played chess and even called him “the automaton chess player.” He thought there were “two forms of the ‘Psycho,’ one which depends upon compressed air, and the other upon a small individual who is secreted in the cabinet.” T he latter form, however, turned out to be Kempelen’s Turk, as was evident from the diagrams copied from those of Willis. 183

Arprey Vere, in his 1879 Ancient and Modern Magic, explained with the aid of diagrams how Psycho might have been operated by means of compressed air. In 1875, the year Psycho was invented, Maskelyne and Clarke had patented a method of controlling the speed of clockwork by compressed air or gas stored in the pedestal of an automaton and controlled remotely by a foot valve. It was not known, however, if the principle was applied to Psycho or to some other invention, or if it was ever used at all. It is interesting to note that the compressed-air Psycho pictured in Vere’s book was obviously de­ signed to play whist and could not possibly have made the more complicated movements required in chess or checkers. Thus, if Maskelyne’s Psycho did play chess or was capable of playing chess, it must be concluded that Vere’s drawings and explanation are incorrect. If, on the other hand, Psycho was oper­ ated by a small person concealed in the figure and box, as Proctor suggested, then the automaton could have played chess as well as whist. As with Ajeeb and the T urk, there were several imitations of Psycho, some of which may have operated differently from the original. The magi­ cian Charles Arbre exhibited a card-playing au ­ tomaton at the Reichshallen in Berlin in November 1878. That automaton was called “the London automaton, Psycho” and seems to have been pat­ terned after Maskelyne’s original invention. A re­ porter for the Nationalzeitung ju d ged that Arbre’s Psycho played cards extraordinarily well and thought the figure was directed from a spot behind the curtain, but by what means he could not discover. Arbre also exhibited his fraudulent Psycho in other cities, including Stockholm. In Paris, Robert-Houdin exhibited Sophos le Savant, a card-playing automaton that appeared remarkably similar to Psycho. When an opponent tried to cheat Sophos during a game, the automaton would ring a bell “in a very comical manner.” Professor Pepper of the Polytechnic Institution also constructed a Psycho imitation and exhibited the figure with the name Synthia. Although very ingeniously contrived, it was said, Synthia’s per­ formance fell somewhat short of the original. Another imitation, named Hanky, was a poorly constructed figure of a man seated on an octagonal box. That automaton was directed by a boy con­ cealed inside who received his instructions by means of signals from the exhibitor, a system that often led to mistakes. Signor Boz eventually acquired Hanky, rechristened him Yorick, and exhibited him in Liverpool and various other towns. The magician W. H. Crcmer exhibited a whist player consisting of a huge complicated mass of machinery that required such careful supervision for a smooth and uninterrupted performance that it could never be relied upon. In those days, however,

Arprey Vere, in 1879, explained how Psycho was directed from behind the scenes with compressed air which entered the automaton's glass cylin d er through a tube beneath the stage, b y p e r m i s s i o n o f b l .

184

У//7//У///А

According to Gamage, two assistants were required to direct Psycho from backstage. An expert whist player with binoculars was stationed atop a ladder where he could see the game. By means of a speaking tube he informed the man below stage how to squeeze the rubber ball. The number of squeezes corresponded to the position of the card selected to be played, c o u r t e s y OF D M .

This diagram , sim ilar to that of Vere, was by A. W. Gamage, who explained that compressing the rubber ball caused the arm to move to the selected card. A clockwork mechanism, A, was then engaged, causing the arm to pick up a card, c o u r t e s y ' o f d m .

This automaton card p layer was invented by Professor Dicksonn in 1900. Like the Turk and Ajeeb, a director was concealed inside. C O U R T E S Y o f d m .

185

Dicksonn’s card player was nearly disassembled right in front of the spectators, who could find no director— unless they thought to look inside the automaton’s oversized chair, c o u r t e s y o f d m .

no magic act was complete without some sort of whist automaton. At the time of the Paris Exhibition of 1900, Professor Dicksonn exhibited an automaton card player at his Theatre du Cours la Reine. 7 he figure could be taken apart for the inspection of the audience and placed anywhere upon the stage to prove there werg no connections un der the floor or behind the scenes. A director was hidden inside the automaton’s chair. A French firm constructed another Psycho imita­ tion for a Mr. Everett. The automaton was eventu­ ally taken to America and may have been the same one that was owned by the famous American magician Harry Kellar. That Psycho, a fairly good duplicate of the original, played whist and poker, did calculations, and was said to have been beaten at chess by Benjamin Franklin. After his retirement, Kellar gave his Psycho to Harry Houdini. T here were so many imitations of Psycho that the name became a sort of generic term for any kind of card or chess playing automaton. Thus we see Hopkins calling even the T u rk a form of Psycho. But what happened to the real Psycho? An a u ­ tomaton thought to be Maskelyne’s Psycho has been exhibited in a London museum. It is difficult, however, to tell if it is the original or one of the imitations. In addition to Psycho, Maskelyne constructed On stage at Egyptian Hall, M askelyne posed with his automatons Psycho, Fanfare, Labial, and Zoe. f r o m i l n .

186

other types of automatons such as Zoe, a figure that wrote and drew at the dictation of the audience. Zoe, devised in 1877, was a nearly life-size but very light doll that sat freely upon a cushioned stand placed on a thick plate of clear glass laid on the carpet of the stage. According to Vere, a real artist under the stage guided her hand by means of a pantograph device. In 1878 and 1879 Maskelyne invented two musi­ cal automatons, Fanfare? a cornet player, and La­ bial, a euphonium player. Both were said to be operated by mechanisms in the figures and were supplied with wind from separate bellows placed upon the stage. However, Vere claimed that their instruments were connected by hidden tubes to mouthpieces that were played by real musicians under the stage. Finally, we come to what might be the last word in a game-playing automaton. Maskelyne’s Dyno, which played dominoes with a spectator, was noth­ ing more than an artificial hand in a glass case. Explanations of a mechanical nature have been advanced to account for Dyno, but it seems that the trick can be better explained as a variation of the ghost principle of Pepper. In other words, the spectators saw only the reflection of a real human hand whose owner was hidden from view.

game, a name which still persists in the names for checkers in various countries, such asj e u des dames in Fra nee, Damenspiel in Germany ,il giu o co delle dame in Italy, о j a g o das damas in Portugal, and Daama in Iran and Turkey. In 1882, while Ajeeb was being exhibited at the Panopticum in Brussels, As-Rah (or Az Rah), a new chess automaton, appeared at Bordeaux where he drew large crowds at an industrial exposition. The name As-Rah seems to have been derived from the Asrah device used by magicians to counterfeit the shape of an object that is made to vanish. The Asrah, for instance, may be a piece of cardboard shaped like a coin and held under a handkerchief to disguise the fact that the real coin has already been placed elsewhere. Probably inspired by Ajeeb, the automaton AsRah sat cross-legged upon a small cabinet, a chessboard on his lap. He was, however, forced to retire from the Exhibition Theatre when the Bor­ deaux police discovered that he was directed by an eighteen-year-old youth, whose health was being

2.

At the close of the Paris Exhibition, Ajeeb re­ turned to London and was again exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium , beginning in March 1879, just a few weeks after Mephisto had been moved from the Aquarium to his new rooms on the Strand. It is likely that the Ajeeb shown at the Aquarium at that time was the same that had been at the Crystal Palace. Ajeeb rem ained at the Aquarium until November 1880, at which time arrangements were made to exhibit him, or perhaps the other Ajeeb, at the newly opened Castan’s Panopticum in Brussels. The Brussels Panopticum, located in the place de la Monnaie, was operated by Maurice Castan, a rela­ tive of the proprietor of the Berlin Panopticum. Both buildings housed collections of life-size, cos­ tumed wax figures representing noted personages and historical events. Ajeeb remained in Brussels about three and a half years, attracting great interest and curiosity and playing, in addition to chess, the Continental gam e known as “dam e,” “je u des dames," or the ladies’ game. The ladies’ game was similar to the English game of checkers or draughts, but was at that time played upon a larger board of one hundred squares with twenty pieces on each side. It was then fashionable to consider checkers a form of chess for ladies, and thus it was condescendingly referred to as the ladies’

As-Rah’s career was cut short by the Bordeaux police. BY P E R M ISS IO N OF B L .

187

seriously endangered by long confinements within the mechanism. When a new exhibition of wax figures, the Musee Grevin, opened in Paris at 10 Boulevard Mont­ martre in 1882, the museum’s directors arranged with Hooper to bring Ajeeb back to Paris as one of the new building’s attractions. That Ajeeb, which was first.exhibited at the Musee Grevin on May 1, 1884, by a woman with a strong English accent, was almost certainly the Ajeeb originally exhibited at Brighton. It seems likely, in fact, that the Brighton Ajeeb was the one usually exhibited on the Continent, perhaps because he traveled better than the Crystal Palace Ajeeb. Hooper, who always tried to conceal the fact that there were two Ajeebs, probably owned both automatons at that time. According to Hooper’s account, the engagem ent at the Musee Grevin, which lasted about a year, was a great success. The reception room was crowded daily [he re­ ported], players at chess and dame having to wait for hours in their turn for a chance of playing a game with Ajeeb, so anxious were they not to leave without having the gratification of telling their friends that they had played with the a u ­ tomaton. Often on Sundays and f e t e days hunThe Musee Grevin, 10 boulevard Monmarte, Paris, is as popular today as it was in Ajeeb’s time, f r o m a c .

Rosenthal directed the Cercle des Echecs, where he often engaged wealthy gentlemen in simultaneous e x ­ hibitions. C O U R T E S Y O F J G W .

188

dreds of visitors were unable to get even a view of Ajeeb, and had to leave the Musee tfery disappointed at not being able to gratify their excited curiosity at the time of their visit, but determined to do so on the first favorable opportunity.

quite likely that his cases contained not one but two Ajeebs. 3.

Accompanied by his wife, Hooper arrived in New Rosenthal again visited Ajeeb in Paris and wit­ nessed the automaton’s execution of the Knight’s York on J u ly 25, 1885, and a week later the Ajeeb Tour. Rosenthal had feuded with his old com­ that had formerly been known as the Crystal Palace panions at the Cafe de la^Regence but spent his time Automaton opened at the Eden Musee, 55 West profitably directing a private chess club for wealthy Twenty-third Street. Ajeeb was exhibited at the gentlemen. Although not considered one of the Musee almost continuously for the next thirty years, chess giants of the era, he was formidable at times. and his name became closely associated with that In the London Tournam ent the previous year, he establishment. T he other Ajeeb, the one that had first appeared had been aw arded a special brilliancy prize for his ' gam e with Steinitz and had scored two wins and two at Brighton, was exhibited in a booth near the pier draws in his four games against the world cham­ on the boardwalk at Atlantic City. Hooper, who remained with the Ajeeb at the Eden Musee, ap p ar­ pion. Ajeeb continued to perform at the Musee Grevin ently did not exhibit the Brighton Ajeeb in America until J u n e 1885. T he m useum’s directors were but rather hired someone else as the exhibitor or anxious that the automaton should remain another perhaps sold the automaton. Later in 1885 the Brighton Ajeeb was moved year, but Hooper had already decided that Ajeeb was to visit the United States. He thus dismantled from the boardwalk to H artm ann’s Hotel, across the automaton, packed the apparatus securely in Atlantic Garden, where he was exhibited every cases, and boarded the Cunard steamer Etruria at afternoon from two to five and in the evening from Liverpool on Saturday, Ju ly 18, 1885. As Maelzel seven to eleven. Ju d g in g from the language in a had done sixty years earlier, he would seek new program of the exhibition, the exhibitor must have audiences for his chess automaton in America. been a foreigner who was not perfectly acquainted Although he carefully concealed the fact, it seems with English. “No human being is existing,” he

The Ajeeb that had been at Brighton was exhibited in a booth on the boardwalk at Atlantic City in 1885. f r o m hm .

y,/

189

the wonderful

automatic

4) Д I F F R

*s л In oriental dross, which sitting on a ease plays chess or draught with his visitors, if they desire so. and wins the game in the most cases. Д T U T ? П is an original invention, l i e stays upright on the lJU U floor surrounded by the spectators and plays game after gamo as often as desired. Д T T ? \?T> is no optic Illusion. No human being is e x i s t i n g . J - l i U J L J w |l 0 Could put in motion the ap p a ia ln s inside «•!' the Automate. At'ter each game the ■ • tei o m M vofet Ш лв » OiwtoolOoot

M itc h ltM M uolo! ■or* CurtoeltJoot

KutuloAo liMMlif turning |ammm it

fioutono tihtMtof

t u r e t n c Invontlofiof 01Иno* W ort.» « f Art Г

ftlMI

C4«u*M « w it* U rft# n f lw ii h n . u t a

x ... »> • I

x ...« b * r t u *

C . I A U » M t V A I I , О' Ы Ы К и ч »

C. IA U M CVAMt. е*ы гъ1 M