Charles the Bald: Court and Kingdom: Papers based on a Colloquium held in London in April 1979 9780860541158, 9781407324029

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Note on the Frontispeice
Table of Contents
Abbreviations
List of Plates
List of Maps and Figures
I. SOME SOURCES FOR THE REIGN OF CHARLES THE BALD
1. Ademar of Chabannes and the History of Aquitaine in the Reign of Charles the Bald
2. The ‘Annals of St Bertin’
II. NUMISMATICS
3. The ‘Gratia Dei Rex’ Coinage of Charles the Bald
4. A Sketch of the Currency in the Time of Charles the Bald
III. POLITICS: THE COURT AND THE PROVINCES
5. On the Distribution of Political Power in Brittany in the Mid-Ninth Century
6. Charles the Bald and the Government of the Kingdom of Aquitaine
7. Charles the Bald, Judith and England
8. Ermentrude and Richildis
9. Charles the Bald and Wifred the Hairy
IV. THE ECONOMY
10. Geographie rurale du royaume de Charles le Chauve
11. Trade and Market Origins in the Ninth Century: An Archaeological Perspective of Anglo-Carolingian Relations
V. THE CHURCH
12. Falscher unter sich: zum Streit zwischen Hinkmar von Reims und Hinkmar con Laon
13. Zu den Beziehungen zwischen Hinkmar von Reims und Hrabanus Maurus
14. A Visual Epitome of the Eucharistic ‘Ordo’ From the Era of Charles the Bald: The Ivory Mass Cover of the Drogo Sacramentary
VI. Literature and Learning
15. Latin Poetry Under Charles the Bald and Carolingian Poetry
16. Rag. Reads Priscian
17. Carolingian Astrological Manuscripts
18. Masters and Medicine in Northern France During the Reign of Charles the Bald
VII. The Scholar in Society
19. The Debate on Predestination
20. Wulfad, Charles the Bald and John Scottus Eriugena
21. The Palace School of Charles the Bald
General Index

Citation preview

Charles the Bald: Court and Kingdom Papers based on a Colloquium held in London in April 1979 edited by

Margaret Gibson and J anet N elson with the assistance of David Ganz

BAR lnternational Series I o I

1981

S.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury

Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, E.Se., �I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, �l. A.

B. A. R. -S101, 1981: " Charles the Bald" . © The Individual Authors, 1981. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541158 paperback ISBN 9781407324029 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541158 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

PRE FACE I n t he S pr ing o f 1 979 , a n i n for ma l c o l loqu iu m o n t he r eign o f C har les t he B a ld was h e ld i n L ondon .

Most o f t he p apers i n t h is v o lu me were g iven i n

t he ir o r ig ina l f or m a t t ha t mee t ing ;

s o me were g enerous ly c on tr ibu ted l a ter

b y c o l leagues i n t h is c oun try a nd o verseas.

T here was n o a t te mp t t o make

t he c o l loqu iu m c o mprehensive , n or h as i tb een p ossib le i n t h is v o lu me t o t rea t s o me a spects o ft he r e ign a s f u l ly a s t hey d eserve . B u t i f many g aps r e ma in t o b e f i l led , b D th t he v o lu me , a nd t he c o l loqu iu m i t se lf—wh ich a t tracted s o me f i f ty e n thus iast ic p ar t icipants —show wha t w idespread i n terest t here i s i n C har les t he B a ld . S o i th as s ee med wel l wor th wh i le t o p ub l ish a c o l lect ion o f e ssays wh ich w i l l i nd ica te t he k ind o f work t ha t i s i n p rogress o n t h is imp or tan t a nd r e la t ive ly n eg lec ted r e ign . S tandard r eferences f or a l l c on tr ibu tors w i l l b e f ound o n p p . i x-x . I t w i l l b e n oted t ha t s o me c on tr ibu tors h ave i ndependen t b ib l iograph ies a t t he e nds o f t he ir p apers .

F or t he o thers , f u l l r eferences a re g iven i n t he n o tes.

T he e d i tors wou ld l i ke t o e xpress t he ir war m t hanks t o t hose who h e lped w i th t he c o l loqu iu m , e spec ia l ly t he s taf f o f K ing 's C o l lege Ha l l , a nd t o Professor H enry L oyn f or h is g en ia l p resence . We a re i ndeb ted t o t he C en tre d 'ttudes e t d e R ea l isa t ions C artograph iques G eograph iques , P ar is ( Cen tre Na t iona le d e l a Recherche S c ient if ique ) f or map X IV ;

t o t he R ev . F abbr ica

d i S . P ietro i n Va t ican° f or p er m ission t o r eproduce 'p la te 1 ;

a nd t o t he

B ib l io theque Na t iona le , P ar is f or p er m ission t o r eproduce p la tes 4 , 5 , 7a nd 8 .

Thanks a re a lso d ue t o t hose who h ave a ssisted i n t he p repara t ion o ft h is

v o lu me :

h ere we a re p ar t icu lar ly i ndebted t o Mr. A lan H odgk iss a nd h is

s taf f o ft he U n ivers i ty o f L iverpoo l , who d rew many o ft he maps , t o Mr. Hodgk iss f or h is d raw ings f ro m manuscrip ts , a nd t o Mr . Doug las B irch f or h is h elp w i th t he p ho tographs. Dr . Dav id B uck ton k ind ly p repared t he f ron t isp iece ; a nd M iss R ose marYl iudden g a l lan t ly t ook o ver t he i ndex a t v ery s hor t n o t ice.

Note o n t he F ron t isp iece

An i vory p anel o n t he t hrone r e moved t we lve y ears a go f ro m t he Bern in i s tructure i n S t . P e ter 's , Ro me , i n wh ich i th ad b een e nshr ined f or t hree c ent ur ies ;

a Carol ing ian r u ler w i th c rown , o rb a nd , o r ig ina l ly , s cep tre i s o ffered

t wo f ur ther c rowns b y a nge ls.

The s cene h as b een i den t i f ied a s t he imper ia l

c orona t ion o f C har les t he Ba ld ( A. D. 8 75 ) , b u t t he ' por tra i t ' may s i mp ly b e as tandard i conograph ic r epresen ta tion o f as on o r g randson o f C har le magne , s ince t he wood o f t he t hrone h as b een d endrochronolog ica l ly d a ted t o t he 8 40s a nd t he i vory i n q uest ion—pierced i n t he Metz t radi t ion—see ms t o h ave b een p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l d ecora t ion .

( M . Maccarrone , A . F errua , P . R o manel li ,

P. E . S chra m m , e t a l ., La c a t tedra l i gnea d i S . P ietro i n Va t icano , Va t ican C ity 1 971;

M . Maccarrone , B . B ischof f , N . G abr ie l l i , E . C orona , H .

H olls te in , e t a l ., Nuove r icerche s u l la c a t tedra l ignea d i S . P ietro i n Va t icano , Va tican C i ty 1 975 ;

Dan iel le G abor it-Chopin , I voires d u Moyen Age , Fr ibourg

1 978 , 7 2-76.)

P hotograph b y c our tesy o f R ev . F abbr ica d i S . P ietro i n Va t icano .

V

CONTENTS

Page PREFACE Note

o n t he F ron t isp iece

v

ABBREV IATIONS

i x-x

L IST OF PLATES

x i

L IST OF MAPS I . 1 .

x i i

SO ME SOURCES FOR THE REIGN OF CHARLES THE BALD J ohn G i l l ingha m , 'Ade mar o f C habannes a nd t he h istory o f Aqu ita ine i n t he r e ign o f Char les t he B a ld '.

2 . I .

3 -14

J anet L . N e lson , 'T he Anna ls o f S t . B er t in '

1 5-36

NU M IS MAT ICS 3 .

P h il ip Gr ierson , 'The Gra t ia D e i R ex c o inage o f C har les t he B a ld '

4 .

3 9-51

D . M. Me tca lf , 'A s ketch o f t he c urrency i n t he t ime o f Char les t he B a ld '

I I .

POL ITICS : 5 .

5 3-84

THE COURT AND THE PROV INCES

Wendy D av ies , 'On t he d istr ibut ion o f p o l it ica l p ower i n Br it tany i n t he m id-n in th c en tury '

6 .

8 7-107

J ane Mar t inda le , 'C har les t he B a ld a nd t he Governmen t o f Aqu ita ine '

1 09-135

7 .

Pau l ine S taf ford , 'C har les t he B a ld , J ud ith a nd

8 .

J ane H yam , 'E r men trude a nd R ich ild is '

1 53-168

9 .

R . J . H . C o l l ins , 'C har les t he Ba ld a nd W ifred t he Ha iry '

1 69-189

I V . 1 0 .

Eng land '

THE ECONO MY M iche l R ouche , 'G eograph ie r ura le d u r oyau me d e C har les l e C hauve

1 1.

1 37-151

1 93-211

R ichard H odges , 'Trade a nd marke t o r ig ins i n t he n in th c en tury :

a n a rchaeo log ica l p erspect ive o f Ang lo-

Caro l ing ian r e lat ions '

2 13-233

v i i

Page V .

THE CHURCH 1 2 .

H orst F uhr mann , 'F ä lscher u n ter s ich :

z um S tre it

zw ischen H inkmar v on Re i ms u nd H inkmar v on L aon ' 1 3 .

Ray mund K ot t je ,

Z u d en B ez iehungen zw ischen

H ink mar v on Re i ms u nd Hrabanus Maurus ' 1 4 .

Roger R . Reyno lds ,

2 55-263

Av isua l e p ito me o f t he Euchar ist ic

o rdo f ro m t he e ra o f Char les t he B a ld :

t he i vory mass

c over o f t he D rogo S acra men tary ' V I .

2 37-254

2 65-290

L ITERATURE AND LEARN ING 1 5 .

P eter God man ,

L a t in p oetry u nder Char les t he Ba ld

a nd Caro l ing ian P oetry '

2 93-309

1 6 .

Margaret G ibson ,

3 11-316

1 7 .

P a tr ick McGurk , 'C aro l ing ian a stro log ica l manuscr ipts '

1 8 .

J ohn J . C on tren i ,

RAG . r eads P r isc ian t

Masters a nd med ic ine i n n or thern

F rance d ur ing t he r e ign o f C har les t he B a ld ' V I I ,

3 17-332

3 33-350

THE S CHOLAR I N SOCIETY 1 9 .

D av id Ganz , 'The d eba te o n p redest ina t ion '

2 0 .

J ohn Marenbon , 'Wu lfad , C har les t he B a ld a nd J ohn S co t tus E r iugena '

2 1 .

Rosa mond McK it ter ick ,

3 53-373

3 75-383 The p a lace s choo l o f Char les

t he B a ld '

3 85-400

G enera l I ndex

v i i i

ABBREVIAT IONS

AB

Anna les d e S t . Ber t in e d . F . G ra t e t a l . ( Par is 1 964 )

A de mar

A d6 mar d e C habannes . C hron ique e d . J . C havanon , ( Par is 1 897 )

AM

Anna les d u Mid i

ARF

Anna les Regn i Francoru m , e d . F . Kurze MGH S RG ( 1895 )

A s tron .

Anony m i V i ta H ludov ic i P u ie d . G . Per tz MGH S S I . p p. 6 07-48

BECH

B ibl iotheque d e l ' cole d es C har tes

BNJ

Br i t ish Nu m is ma t ic J ourna l

Brühl

C .-R. Brüh l , F odrum , G istum , S erv i t ium Reg is

C a l met te.

J . C a l met te , La D ip lo ma t ie Carol ing ienne d u Tra i t6

( Co logne 1 96 8 ) d e V erdun ä l a Mor t d e C har les l e C hauve , C appuyns

( Par is 1 901 )

M . C appuyns , J ean S co t Er igene , s a v ie , s on o euvre , s a p ens6e ( Louva in 1 933 )

DA

D eu tsches Arch iv

D ev isse

J . Dev isse , H inc mar Archeveque d e Re i ms , 8 45-882 I I II

( Geneva 1 97 5 -76 )

EHR

Eng lish H is tor ica l Rev iew

Ermo ld

E rmo ld l e Noir , P oe me s ur L ou is l e P ieux e t Epitres a u Ro i P ein e d . E . Fara l , ( Par is 1 932 )

GX t

G a l l ia C hr is t iana , e d . D . d e S te . Mar the , ( Par is 1 71 5-1865 )

FMS

F rüh m i t te la l ter l iche S tud ien

K dG

K ar l d er G rosse , L ebenswerk u nd Nach leben I -IV ( Düsse ldor f 1 96 5 -67)

K oeh ler

W. K oeh ler , D ie Karo l ing ischen M in ia turen I -IV ( Ber l in , 1 930-71)

L ev i l la in

L . L ev i l la in , Receu i l d es Actes d e P epin Ie t P epin I R o is d 'Aqu i ta ine , ( 814-848 ) ( Par is 1 926 )

LMA

L e Moyen Age

L o t a nd Ha lphen

F . L o t , L . Ha lphen , L e Regne d e C har les l e C hauve

Lupus

L oup d e F err ieres . C orrespondance , e d . L . L ev i l la in

8 40-851

( Par is 19 09 )

( Par is 1 927-35 ) Mans i

J .-D . Mans i , S acroru m C onc i l iorum Nova e t Ampl iss i ma C o l lec t io , ( Ven ice 1 758-98 )

MGH

Monumen ta G erman iae H is tor ica

MGH , AA

MGH Auctores An t iqu issimi

MGH , Cap.

MGH Capi tu lar ia

MGH , Conc.

MGH C onci l ia

MGH , Epp , KA

MGH E pis tolae Karo l in i A ev i

MGH , Poet .

MGH P oe tae Aev i Karol in i

MGH , S S

MGH S cr ip tores i n F o l io

MGH S SRG

MGH S cr ip tores Reru m G erman icarum

MGH S SR M

MGH S cr ip tores Reru m Merov ing icaru m

MIÖG

M i ttei lungen d es I ns ti tu ts f ür Ö s terre ich ische G esch ich tsforschung

NA

N eues Arch iv

N i thard

N i thard , H is toire d es F i ls d e L ou is l e P ieux , e d . P. Lauer , ( Par is 1 926)

PL

J .-P . M igne , P a tro log ia La t ina

R eg ino

Reg ino P ru mens is , C hron ica , ' e d . F . Kurze MGH SRG

RB

R evue B& ' 16d ict ine

RHE

R evue d 'H is toire E ccl sias t ique

( 1890 )

P . S awyer , Ang lo-Saxon C har ters .

An Anno ta ted L is t

a nd B ibl iography , ( London 1 968 ) S S S po leto

S et t i mane d i S tud io d e l C en tro I ta l iano d i S tud i s u l l 'Al to Med ioevo

Tess ier

G . T essier , Receu i l d es A ctes d e C har les I l e C hauve, I I I I

( Par is 1 944-55 )

L IST OF PLATES

P la te

Page

1

Fron t isp iece

i v

2

Co in t ypes o f C har les t he Ba ld

3 9

3

A S e lect ion o f c o ins o f t he t ime o f C har les t he Ba ld

7 9

4

Par is , B .N ., L a t . 9 428 :

Mass C over

2 67

5

Reconstruc t ion o f Mass C over

2 77

6

Monza , B ib l . Cap ., Ms F . 91 76 , 1 .67

3 23

7

Par is , B . N ., N ouv .

3 25

8

Par is , B .N ., N ouv . A cq . L a t . 1 614 , f .8 1v

3 27

9

Par is , B .N ., L a t . 1 152 f .3 v ;

3 89

1 0

Acq . L a t . 1 614 , f .8 5

Mun ich , C lm ., 1 4000 , f .44v

x i

L a t . 1 141 f .2 v a nd 5

3 93

L IST OF MAPS AND F IGURES

Page The West F rank ish r ea lm u nder C har les t he B a ld I

1 7

H oards a nd S i te F inds f ro m t he t ime o f C har les t he Ba ld a nd t he y ears im med ia te ly f o l low ing

5 7

I I

The C o mp iegne H oard

5 9

I V

The S au meray Hoard

6 1

The C ourban ton H oard

6 3

The B l igny Hoard

6 7

The G l isy H oard

6 9

The M in ts o f Char les t he Ba ld

7 1

V V T V I I V I I I I X

X X I X I I

The G eograph ica l P a t tern o f C ircu la t ion i n t he T i me o f C har les t he Ba ld

7 5

Nor th West F rance

8 9

Redon a nd i t s N e ighbourhood

9 5

The K ingdo m o f Aqu ita ine

1 11

X I I I

The Ca ta lan C oun t ies i n t he L a te N in th C en tury

1 71

X IV

Grand D o ma in e t B ocage d ans l e Royau me d e Char les l e C hauve

1 95

x i i

I S OME S OURCES FOR THE REIGN OF CHARLES THE BALD

1

1 .

ADE MAR OF CHABANNES AND THE H ISTORY OF AQU ITA INE I N THE REIGN OF CHARLES THE BALD J ohn G il l ingha m

T he ma in h istor ica l w ork wr it ten b y A de mar o f C habannes, a nd k nown e i ther a s t he H istor ia o r t he Chron icon , b eg ins a s ah istory o f t he F ranks f ro m t he t i me o f A eneas a nd e nds a s ac hron ic le o f Aqu i ta ine .

I tb eco mes,

i ndeed t he b est n arra t ive s ource f or t he h istory o f Aqui ta ine i n t he 1 0 th a nd e ar ly 1th c en tur ies.

1

I n t h is f u l l v ersion i te x ists i n t wo r edact ions, n ow

g enera l ly k nown a s t he A t ex t a nd t he C t ex t .

2

Though t here a re o ther r e-

d ac t ions o f p ar ts o f t he work , i ti s w i th t hese t wo t ha t Is ha l l b e c oncerned h ere .

B ooks Ia nd I o ft he c hron ic le a nd t he f i rst f i f teen c hap ters o f B ook

I I a re b as ica l ly j ust c op ied o ut o f we l l-known ma jor s ources l ike t he C ont inua tor o f F redegar a nd t he R oya l F rank ish Anna ls .

3

C hap ter 1 6 b eg ins w i th

t he y ear 8 30 a nd e nds w i th t he b a t t le o f F on tenoy i n 8 41. t hen t ake u s u p t o t he e nd o f C har les t he B a ld ' sr e ign .

C hap ters 1 7 t o 1 9 The impor tance o f

t hese f our c hap ters l i es i n t he f act t ha t t hey s ee m t o g ive u s i n for ma t ion n o t a va i lab le a nywhere e lse .

C hap ter 1 6, f or e xa mp le , t e lls u s a bout a t horough

o verhau l o f t he g overnmen t o f Aqui ta ine u nder taken b y L ouis t he P ious i n t he w in ter a nd s pr ing o f 8 39/840 . 4 These c hap ters a lso p rov ide a c er ta in amoun t o fg enea log ica l i nfor ma t ion o ft he k ind s ough t a f ter b y many 1 9 th a nd 2 0 th c ent ury h istor ians.

I n p ar t icu lar w e a re t o ld a bout t he f am i ly o f Ra mnulf I , c oun t

o f P o i tou ( supposed ly f ro m 8 40 t o 8 66) a nd a bout t he f am i ly r e la t ionsh ips o f t he men who w ere c oun ts o fA ngou le ' me ( s upposed ly f ro m 8 40 t o 8 86) .

Th is

i n for ma t ion h as b een t aken s er ious ly a nd s o me o f i ti s n ow e nshr ined i n t he v as t g enea log ica l t ab le o f C har le magne ' sd escendan ts c o mp i led b y K . F . Werner a nd p ub l ished i n o ne o ft he massive K ar l d er Grosse v o lu mes .

5

T ha t i nfor ma t ion a bou t t he m id 9 th c en tury s upp l ied b y a n e ar ly 1 1 th c ent ury monk 6 s hou ld b e t aken s er iously may a t f i rst s igh t s ee m s urpr is ing , b ut g iven t he p auc i ty o f ma ter ia l f or 9 th c en tury A qui ta ine i ti s p erhaps o n ly n a tura l t ha t h istor ians s hou ld c lu tch a t s traws . Any d oub ts t hey may h ave h ad w ere p robab ly s t i l led b y t he r ef lex ion t ha t , b y a nd l arge , A de mar h ad b een a ccep ted a s ag ood a nd w orthwh i le s ource b y t he t wo d om ina t ing f i gures i n t he s tudy o f Caro l ing ian A qui ta ine :7

I : eon L ev i l la in a nd L eonce Auz ias .

8

P ost-

war h is tor ians who h ave f o llowed where t hese t wo l ed i nc lude s uch n otab le f i gures a s J acques B oussard ,

9

Rene C roze t ,

1 0

J an Dhond t ,

1 1

C har les

H igoune t , 1 2 Wa l ter K ienast 1 3 a nd K ar l F erd inand Werner 1 4 — af or m idab le l ist . T he o n ly h istor ian t o h ave made a s yste ma t ic s tudy o f A de mar ' s mat er ia l o n t he 9 th c en tury i s L ev i l la in .

H is c onc lus ion i s t ha t t he ma ter ia l i s

a ccura te , t ha t i n t he 1th c en tury monk we h ave a man w i th a p assion f or g enea log ica l r esearch .

1 5

am irror image o f h i mse lf .

I n o ther words L ev i l la in s aw i n A de mar o f C habannes Wha t Ip ropose t o d o i n t h is p aper i s t o t ake a

l ook a t A de mar a nd s ee i n h i m am irror image o f myse lf — i n o ther w ords a

3

man w i th a c er ta in i ngenui ty f or c o mbin ing o dd b i ts a nd p ieces o f i nfor ma t ion b ut e ssen t ia l ly a t horough ly u nre liab le h istor ian . The f i rst p o in t t o make c lear i s t ha t i ti s e v iden t t ha t , i n c o mp i l ing t hese f our c hap ters , A de mar h ad s o me e ar l ier wr i t ten s ources t o h and a nd t ha t a t l east s o me o ft hese s ources s t i l l s urv ive . — "I t ingst b ekann t", i n Werner ' sw ords 1 7

1 6

I th as g enera l ly b een a ccep ted — t ha t t hey i nc lude t he s o-ca l led

C hron icon A qu i tan icu m a s w e l l a s s o me s e ts o f a nna ls a t tr ibuted t o A ngour e me a nd L i moges .

1 8

Is ha l l r e turn t o t hese w e l l-known s ources l a ter , b ut f or

t he mo men t p ropose t o p roceed o n t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t t hey a re r e l iab le a nd t ha t t he p rob le ms b eg in when A de mar l eaves t hese e x tan t a nna ls b eh ind a nd g ives u s s o me a dd i t iona l i nfor ma t ion . o ne .

The q uest ion t h is r a ises i s a n o bv ious

D id A de mar p ossess o ther s ources n ow l ost t ou s?

t ha t h e d id a nd p os i ted t he e x istence o f s o me l ost a nna ls.

L ev i l la in b e l ieved L ess c lear-cu t

1 9

i s t he a t t i tude a dop ted b y Werner . H e s ta tes t ha t t hough Ade mar may h ave h ad s o me wr i t ten s ources i n a dd i t ion t o t he w e l l-known A qui tan ian ma ter ia l t hese c an o n ly h ave b een wha t h e c a l ls, i n ar a ther o paque p hrase, "o dd a nd p ieces" ( Par t ike l, v ere inze lte N achr ich ten ) .

2 0

b its

Iw ou ld g uess t ha t w ha t

Werner h ad i n m ind were t he n otes wr i t ten i n A de mar ' s own h and i n ab ook wh ich b e longed t o S t Mar t ia l ' s , L i moges g ra mma t ic i ' .2 1

e x l i br is b onae me mor iae A de mar i

These n otes a re c h ief ly b ased o n e x tracts f ro m c har ters

b e long ing t o t he monastery o f S t C ybard , A ngou lgme a nd t here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t A de mar d rew u pon t he m when wr i t ing u p h is c hron ic le .

2 2

Assu m ing t ha t

t h is i s wha t Werner mean t , i s h e r igh t t o b e lieve t ha t A de mar h ad n o o ther wr i t ten s ources, i .e . t ha t t here a re n o l ost a nna ls?

I ft here a re n o l ost a nna ls

t hen we w i l l h ave t o j e t t ison a t l east s o me o f t he i n for ma t ion wh ich A de mar p rov ides — i nc lud ing , i ron ica l ly e nough , s o me wh ich h as b een u sed b y Werner h i mse lf — s ince i ti s n ot t he k ind o f i n for ma t ion wh ich c ould b e d er ived f ro m c har ter e x tracts .

Then t here i s as econd q uest ion .

I n wha t manner d id

A de mar u se h is c har ter-based h is tor ica l n o tes ? I f , where w e c an c heck , i t c an b e s hown t ha t h e u sed t he m i naccura te ly , t hen e ven i nfor ma t ion d er ived f ro m t h is s ource w i ll h ave t o b e r egarded a s u n trustwor thy .

I ft ha t w ere t o

b e t he c ase t hen we m igh t a s we l l f orge t a bout A de mar a s as ource f or 9 th c en tury h istory . Is ha l l b eg in w i th t he q uest ion o f whe ther o r n ot t here w ere a ny l os t a nna ls . A de mar ' sa ccoun t o f t he y ear 8 45 r uns a s f o llows:

A l io a nno S igu inus , c o mes

B urdega lens is e t S ancton icensis, a N or mann is c ap tus e t o cc isus e st e t S anctonas aN or mann is c oncre ma ta e st , t hesaur is e ius o b t im is e xpor ta t is t .2 3

H is-

t or ians h ave a lways f ound t h is r epor t w orry ing b ecause a ccord ing t o t he t rea ty o f S t . B eno i t made e ar lier i n t he y ear B ordeaux w as a ssigned t o P ipp in I ' s s hare o f Aqu i ta ine wh i le t he S a in tonge b e longed t o C har les t he Ba ld .

2 4

H ow

c ou ld o ne man h ave b een a l lowed t o h o ld t wo c oun t ies s tradd ling t he b order b e tween t hese t wo e ne m ies?

Wha t h istor ians h ave d one i s s i mp ly t o s ay t ha t

A de mar mus t h ave made a m istake .

And s o , o f c ourse , h e may we l l h ave

2 5

d one , b ut t he r ea l ly s ign if ican t t h ing a bout t h is s en tence o f A de mar ' si s t he l i gh t wh ich i tt hrows u pon h is me thods. Aqu itan icu m r uns a s f o l lows :

The e n try f or 8 45 i n t he C hron icon

'S igu inus c o mes a N or th mann is c ap itur e t o c-

c id it ir , e t S anctonas u rbs c oncre ma tur , t hesaur is e ius o b t im is e xpor ta t is ' A de mar ' sb as ic d eb t t o t he C hron icon i s c rysta l c lear — b ut where c ould h e h ave o b ta ined t he a dd i t iona l i n for ma t ion a bou t t he c oun t ies h e ld b y S igu in? 4

2 6

F ro m a l os t s ource?

I n f act t he s i mp lest a nd mos t e cono m ica l a nswer i s

t ha t i t was a d educt ion f ro m h is k nown s ources .

A

S igu inus d ux Vasconu m '

a ppears i n A de mar ' sB ook I I C hap ter 2 ( t aken f ro m t he Roya l F rank ish A nna ls) , s o h ere we h ave a S iguin c oun t o f B ordeaux ,

2 7

wh i le i t would b e e asy e nough

t o b e lieve o n t he b as is o f t he s en tence i n t he C hron icon A qui tan icu m t ha t S igu in was a lso r espons ib le f or t he d efence o f S a in tes .

2 8

A de mar a dop ts a s im i lar p rocedure i n h is a ccoun t o f t he d ea th o f C oun t G auzber t o f L e Mans i n 8 53 .

The C hron icon Agui tan icu m s ays mere ly :

G auzber tus c o mes mense Mar t i° o ccid itur ' .2 9

Ade mar t sv ersion r uns:

'e t G auzber tus, c o mes C eno mannensis, i nsid i is Nanne tansiu m c ircu mven tus, o cc isus e st ' .3 0

G auzber t was b eheaded o n C har les t he B a ld ' so rders,

s o

3 1

where d id A de mar g e t t he i dea , u n ique t o h im , o f at rap l a id b y t he men o f Nan tes ? Aga in t he s i mp lest e xp lana t ion i s t ha t h e t hough t h e r ead i ti n t he C hron icon Aqu i tan icu m s ince a n e ar lier s en tence i n t he s a me e n try r uns: ' Lamber tus c o mes ( i den t if ied i n t he e n try f or 8 30 a s c oun t o f Nan tes) a Gauzb er to C eno mansiu m c om i te K a lend is Ma u io cc id i tur ' .3 2

I fl ess t han t we lve

mon ths l a ter C oun t G auzber t h i mse lf was k i l led , wha t c ou ld b e more n a tura l t han t he i dea t ha t L a mber t ' s men h ad a venged t he ir l ord?

These t wo e xa mp les

a re b oth t aken f ro m A de mar ' sA t ex t a nd i n e very i nstance where , i n h is A t ex t , A de mar a dds e x tra i n for ma t ion i ti s p ossib le t o s uggest t ha t h e d id s o b yu s ing t h is d educt ive me thod .

Th is i s t o a rgue t ha t h e was n o t r e ly ing o n

an ow l ost s ource b u t was c o mb in ing d e ta i ls wh ich a ppear i n h is k nown s ources, t he R oya l F rank ish A nna ls, A ngou le ‘ me a nna ls a nd c har ters, a nd t he Chron icon Aqu i tan icu m .

3 3

More s ign if ican t s t i l l i s t he f act i n t hese c hap ters ( i n h is A

t ex t ) h e n a mes a l l t he n ob les who a ppear i n t he Chron icon Aqu i tan icu m a nd t he Angou lg me a nna ls a nd o n ly t he m .

I fh e h ad p ossessed a l ost h istor ica l s ource

t hen i ti s s ure ly a n e x traord inary c o inc idence t ha t t h is s ource s hould n o t o f fer as ing le a dd i t iona l n a me .

Equa l ly i ti s ar e markab le c oinc idence t ha t t he l ost

s ource , j ust l ike Ade mar ' sk nown s ources , s hou ld h ave h appened t o om i t t he a no in t ing o f C har les t he Ba ld a s k ing o f Aqui ta ine a t Or leans i n 8 48 .

3 3a

The

mos t s ens ib le e xp lana t ion w ou ld s ee m t o b e t ha t t here was n o l ost s ource . Wha t t h is means i s t ha t we must a bandon t he p ract ice h i ther to a dop ted b y h ist or ians.

Wha t t hey h ave d one i s r e ject A de mar ' st est i mony when i tc an b e

p roved t o b e m istaken — a s i n h is b e lief t ha t i t was Char les t he Ba ld who was a no in ted k ing a t L i moges i n 8 55, when i t was i n f act C har les ' ss on C har les — a nd a ccep t i t when i ti s n ot o bv iously wrong ; i n o ther words t hey t rea t h im a s ag enera l ly r e l iab le c o mp i ler who o ccas iona lly makes m istakes . I ns tead we must t rea t e very th ing wh ich A de mar t e l ls u s w i th g rea t s cep t ic is m a nd a ccep t o n ly t hose d e ta i ls where i ti s h igh ly l ike ly t ha t h e h ad a r e liab le s ource i n f ron t o f h im — a n e xa mp le o ft h is wou ld b e h is a dd it iona l d e ta i ls a bou t t he c ourse o f t he monast ic r efor m a t S t Mar t ia l ' si n 8 48 . i n t he s phere o f monas t ic h istory g rea t c aut ion i s n ecessary .

3 4

B u t e ven

Desp i te t he

f act t ha t A de mar ' s own h ouse i s i nvo lved , we s hou ld , f or e xa mp le , j et t ison wha t h e t e l ls u s a bou t P ipp in

sf ounda t ions .

3 5

I n o ther words A de mar i s

s uch a n i ngen iously u nre l iab le h istor ian t ha t t he o nus o f p roof r ests f a ir a nd s quare o n t he s houlders o ft hose who w ish t o b e lieve a ny th ing h e s ays . S o f ar Ih ave b een d ea ling o n ly w i th A de mar ' sA t ex t . The ma t ter b eco mes more c o mp l ica ted when we t urn t o h is o ther ma in r ecension , t he C t ex t . Th is i s ar ev ision o f h is c hron ic le c arr ied o ut i n t he l i gh t o ft he A strono mer ' sL ife 5

o f L ou is t he P ious , ac opy o f wh ich i s i nser ted i n t he manuscr ip t b e tween b ooks 2a nd 3 o f A de mar ' sc hron ic le .

The b ackground t o C har les t he Ba ld ' s

3 6

r u le i n Aqui ta ine was h is f a ther ' sc a mpa ign t here i n 8 39 a nd h is r es idence a t P oi t iers d ur ing t he w in ter a nd s pr ing o f 8 39-40 .

O n t h is s ub ject Ade mar t e lls

u s ag ood d ea l wh ich i s n o t i n t he A strono mer ' sL ife a nd h istor ians h ave g ra tef u l ly a ccep ted t h is a dd i t iona l i n for ma t ion .

3 7

We a re t o ld t ha t t he l eader o f

t he p ar ty wh ich s uppor ted P ipp in I , a man r eferred t o a s o n ly "a c er ta in Emeno" i n t he V i ta , was i n f act t he c oun t o f P o i t iers ;

t ha t L ouis t he P ious

'motus i ra l r e moved h im f ro m o f f ice a nd r ep laced h im w i th Ra mnulf s on o f Gera ld , c oun t o f A uvergne a nd n ephew o f W i ll ia m ;

t ha t h e a lso a ppoin ted n ew

— n a med — c oun ts o f Angou lime , L i moges , B ordeaux a nd S a in tes;

t ha t E meno

a nd h is b ro ther B ernard f l ed t o t ake r ef uge w i th t he n ew c oun t o f Angou lg me a nd t he c oun t o f H erbauge r espect ive ly ; h e t ook P ipp in I b ack w i th h im .

3 8

t ha t when L ou is r eturned t o 'F rancia '

H istorians h ave t rea ted t h is d escr ip t ion o f

at o ta l o verhau l o ft he g overn men t o f Aqui ta ine p rec ise ly a s t hey h ave t rea ted t he r est o f A de mar ' s work — t ha t i s t o s ay t hey h ave r e jected t he s tory a bout P ipp in b e ing t aken t o 'F ranc ia ' a s b e ing m istaken a nd h ave a ccep ted t he r est . Bu t t h is i s w ishfu l t h ink ing .

We s hould f i rst o f a l l d ecide whe ther w e t h ink

t h is p ar t o f t he C t ex t i s b ased o n al ost s ource o r n o t .

I n f ac t i ti s c lear t ha t

a l most e very th ing wh ich A de mar s ays i n t h is p assage c ould h ave b een d educed f ro m h is k nown s ources.

H e c ould h ave b egun b y i den t ify ing t he ' E menus

q uidar a l o ft he A strono mer w i th t he C oun t Emeno o f A ngou lgme who w as k i l led i n 8 66 .

3 9

I n f act we k now t ha t A de mar d id t h is — a nd h as b een f o l lowed b y a l l

h istor ians e ver s ince . 40

S ince Ade mar k new t ha t A de mar , t he s on o f t h is

Emeno , b eca me c oun t o f P o i tou a t t he e nd o ft he 9 th c en tury ( 893-902 ) i t s ee med t o make s ense i ft he f a ther h i mse lf h ad a lso h e ld t h is h onour — i ndeed l a ter i n t he C t ex t A de mar makes p rec ise ly t h is p o in t . 41 h ad b een a c en tre o f P ipp in

And s ince P o i t iers

sp ower i n t he 8 30s , i ts ee med t o make s ense o f

t he r o le p layed b y t he 'Emenus q u ida m ' i n 8 39 i fh e h ad b een c oun t o f P o i tou. True , A de mar h ad a lready i den t if ied t he B ernard o f 8 44 a s c oun t o f P o itou, b ut t h is c ou ld b e t aken c are o f b y mak ing h i m Emeno ' sb rother .

Moreover

s ince B ernard h ad b een f ound f i gh t ing s ide b y s ide w i th Harvey , s on o fR a ina ld , i n 8 44 , i t made a n ea t p a t tern t o s uggest t ha t i n 8 39/40 h e h ad f l ed t o Ra ina ld c oun t o f H erbauge , wh i le Emeno c ou ld b e p ushed i n t he d irect ion o f Angou lg me ( where h e h ad t o b e b y 8 66) b y b e ing made t o f l ee t o h is "b ro ther" C oun t Turp io . Whe ther o r n o t A de mar w en t t hrough p recise ly t hese s teps, t h is i s c lear ly t he way h is m ind w orked a nd f or t h is r eason , g iven h is g enera lly h igh l eve l o f u nre liab i l i ty h istor ians w ou ld b e we l l-adv ised t o f orge t e very th ing wh ich A de mar t e l ls t he m a bou t L ouis t he P ious ' so verhau l o f Aqui ta ine i n 8 39-40 . B u t whereas i n t he A t ex t A de mar h ad n a med o n ly n ob les whose n a mes a ppeared i n t he Chron icon Aqu itan icu m o rt he A ngou lgme Anna ls, i n t h is s ect i on o ft he C t ex t h e d oes p rov ide o ne n a me w h ich i s n o t t o b e f ound i n a ny o f h is k nown n arra t ive s ources.

Th is i s Ray mond , c oun t o f L i moges .

A ccord ing

t o Ade mar h e s ucceeded t o L i moges af ter t he d ea th o f C oun t R a ther i n t he b a t t le o f F on tenoy .

4 2

Who was t h is man a nd f ro m where d id Ade mar g et h is i n for-

ma t ion a bout h i m?

Do , af ter a l l, s o me l ost a nna ls s tand b eh ind t he C T ex t?

The k ey t o a n a l terna t ive s o lut ion i s p rov ided b y a no ther o f A de mar ' sw orks, t he C o m me mora t io a bba tu m L e mov icens iu m43

6

— a n a bbo ts ' l i st wh ich i s b e-

g inn ing t o t urn i n to a G esta a bba tu m .

About t he e leven y ear p er iod o f o f f ice

o ft he s econd a bbot o fS t Mar t ia l ' s , Abbo, A de mar h ad j ust t hree t h ings t o r epor t .

F irst ly t ha t i n h is f if th y ear ( i .e . 8 55) C har les t he Ba ld was a no in ted

a t L i moges b y Ra lph , a rchb ishop o f B ourges a nd b y S tod i lo , b ishop o f L i moges . 44 S econd ly t ha t i n t he s a me y ear Archb ishop Ra lph f ounded t he a bbey o f B eau lieu. T h ird ly , a nd a lso i n t h is y ear , S a in t Gera ld o f A ur i l lac was b orn . '

5

S ta te-

men ts a bou t t he y ear o f as a in t ' sb ir th were g enera l ly b ased u pon i nsp ira t ion r a ther t han e v idence , b ut i ti s c lear ly p ossib le t ha t A de mar ' si n for ma t ion a bout t he f ounda t ion o f B eaul ieu h ad a more s o lid s uppor t .

H e c ould we l l h ave

s een t he k ey c har ter i nt he h ouse ' sh istory , t he Testa men tu m R odu lf i , ac opy o f w h ich was t o b e f ound i n aL i moges c ar tu lary . 46 T he w itness l i st was h eaded b y S tod i lo , b ishop o f L i moges a nd among t he l ay w i tnesses t he o n ly c oun t was a C oun t R ay mond .

4 7

I n t h is c on tex t i t would b e o n ly n a tura l t o

a ssu me t ha t Ray mond w as c oun t o f L i moges a nd i t would b e q ui te i n k eep ing w i th A de mar ' s me thod o f work i fh e h ad t hen j u mped t o t he c onc lusion t ha t h e h ad b een a ppo in ted i n 8 41 .

B u t t he T esta men tu m R odu lf i c ou ld d o n o more

t han d e monstra te t he e x istence o f aC oun t R ay mond ; 48

i tt o ld A de mar n oth ing

e lse a bout t he man — a nd j ust h ow u nre l iab le A de mar c an b e i s n ice ly i l l us tra ted b y h is o ne o ther r eference t o C oun t Ray mond .

He s ta tes t ha t Ray mond

w as t he f a ther o f Udo — t he Odo who b eca me k ing o f t he West F ranks i n 8 88 — w h ich , o f c ourse , h e w as n ot , a nd t ha t Udo was a no in ted k ing i n A qui taine b efore h e b eca me k ing i n 'Franc ia ' ,a s econd g lar ing m istake i n t he c ourse o f as ing le s en tence .'

9

T he d oub ts a bou t A de mar ' sa ccuracy wh ich a re r a ised b y t he c ase o f C oun t Ray mond , c an o n ly b e s treng thened b y c onsidera t ion o f a nother c ase , a nd t h is t i me o ne i n wh ich i tc an b e p roved b eyond d oub t t ha t h e d id h ave a d ocu men t t o d raw u pon .

The l ongest o ft hose n otes i n Ade mar ' sh and wh ich

were p r in ted b y De l is le c oncerns a n i n terest ing l awsui t wh ich was h eard

c um

r esed isse t V u lgr i mnus c o mes Aequa l is ma c um r a inburg is i n ma l lo p ub lico . A t t he e nd o f h is s u mmary A de mar n otes: X I It estes f i r maverun t c ar ta m .

'S ignu m Ra mnu lfo v iceco m i t i .

A ctu m a nno 1 1 r egnante C ar lo manno '

C oun t Vu lgr in d ied i n 86 a nd i ti s c lear t ha t Ade mar h ad i n h is h ands a d ocumen t d rawn u p i n t he r e ign o f C ar lo man ( who d ied i n 8 84 ) . o ft h is i n h is c hron ic le makes f ascina t ing r ead ing .

5 1

Wha t h e made

'H ic Vu lgr i mus s epe a

C ar lo manno , e t d e mu m a Caro b omagno impera tore f ra tre e ins, r a issus f u i t i n A qu i tan iae u rbes u na c um r a i mburg is p rop ter j ust ic ias f aciendas .

Era tque

j am s enex q uando e im C aro lus C a lvus f ec i t c om i te m ' .52 I n c onc lus ion t hen i ts ee ms c lear t ha t t here were n o l ost a nna ls a nd t ha t A de mar ' sh and l ing o f h is r ecord s ources was s o e x travagan t ly f ree a nd e asy t ha t n o h istor ian s hou ld t rus t a ny th ing h e s ays , h owever p lausib le i t may s ound , u n less i ti s i ndependen t ly c onf ir med b y s ta te men ts i n s urv iv ing much more n ear ly c on te mporary s ources, n o tab ly t he Aqui tan ian a nna ls a nd t he A stronomer ' sL ife o f L ouis t he P ious . B u t t here i s y e t af ur ther q uest ion wh ich we must a sk . t an ian a nna ls t he mse lves?

Wha t o f t he Aqui-

C an t hey b e r egarded a s b e ing a bove s usp ic ion?

I n f act t here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t s uch a nna ls were c op ied o ut a t Ade mar ' s d irec t ion a s p ar t o ft he p repara tory work wh ich wen t i n to t he wr i t ing o f h is own c hron ic le .

A l mos t c er ta in ly we c an i den t ify t he C hron icon Aqui tanicu m

7

a s o ne s uch p iece o f p repara tory work .

The who le t ex t d own t o t he p enu lt i-

ma te e n try ( f or 9 30 ) was wr it ten i n as ing le h and , b u t t hen t wo f ur ther h ands a dded t he l ast e n try , f or 1 025 .

The c on ten t o ft h is l ast e n try i s b o th d i f-

5 3

f eren t f ro m t ha t o f t he e ar lier a nna ls a nd v ery c harac ter ist ic o f Ade mar ' s own m ix o f i n terests:

o b i i t Wido v iceco mes 6 K a lendas N ove mbr is, a pud

s anc tu m Marc ia le m L e mov icas s epul tus . o b i i t , e t C ono imper iu msuscep i t .

E ode m a nno E enr icus impera tor

E ode manno B asi l ius impera tor G rae-

c oru m o b i i t , e t C onstan t inus f ra ter e ius imper iu m s uscep i t .'

Thus t he c on-

t en t a nd h andwr i t ing p o in t t o a manuscr ip t wh ich was p roduced c . 1 025 a t A de mar ' sb ehest , a nd t h is r a ises t he p ossib i l i ty t ha t t he o lder ma ter ia l was r e-worked a t a bout t ha t d a te . g one?

H ow f ar m igh t t h is p rocess o f r e-work ing h ave

I s i tp ossib le t o r ecover t he o lder ma ter ia l i n i t s o r ig ina l f or m?

I ti s c lear t ha t t he C hron icon Aqui tan icu m i s i n s o me way b ased o n t he Angou lgme Anna ls.

T he e xact r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he m i s h ard t o d e ter m ine ,

b ut Iwou ld s uggest t he f o l low ing r econst ruc t ion a s t he most l i ke ly o ne . k now t ha t A de mar p ossessed a v ery b r ief s e t o f A ngou lgme a nna ls . t ha t h e t hen c a me a cross a more d e ta i led s e t .

5 5

5 4

We I ts ee ms

F ro m t hese more d e ta i led

a nna ls Ade mar c o mp i led t he C hron icon Aqui tan icu m , om i t t ing t hose e n tr ies wh ich h e a lready k new f ro m t he s hor ter v ersion 5 6

a nd o ther e n tr ies ( t hose

f or t he y ears 8 25, 8 39 , 8 67 , 9 22 , 9 29 , 9 58 , 9 78 [ i n p ar t ], 9 74 , 9 80 , 9 81 a nd 9 91) wh ich c oncerned r e la t ive ly i nsign if ican t f i gures .

The C hron icon A qui-

t an icu m i s , h owever , n o t j ust a c opy o f t he l onger A ngou li me a nna ls om it t ing s o me i t em s .

A lthough i tc on ta ins n ot a s ing le e n try f or a ny y ear wh ich i s

n ot i n t he A ngou lgme Anna ls i td oes, i n many c ases , o f fer a dd i t iona l i n for mat i on . F or e xa mp le t he e n try f or 8 35 i n t he Angou le me A nna ls r uns a s f o llows: Hero i nsu la Ra ina ldus 1 3 K a i . I n t he C hron icon w e f i nd :

S ep te mbr is c um N or mann is c ongred i tur .'

'R a inardus Arba t i l icens is c o mes 1 3 Ka lendas S ep te m-

b r is c um N or th mann is d im icav i t i n H er io i nsula . 8 66.

I n t he a nna ls i tg oes:

Or t ake t he ir e n tr ies f or

'Emeno c um L andr ico c ongred i tur 1 8 K a l . I u l .,

e t o cc iso L andr ico , Emeno s auc ius a d c astru m r egred i tur s uu m , e t p os t d ies 8d eb itu m n a ture p erso lv i t 1 0 K a l . J u l .' r uns t hus:

The s am e e n try i n t he Chron icon

'Emeno Turp ion is f ra ter , Engo l is mae c o mes c um L andr ico S anc-

t on ico c om i te c onf lig i t , e t o cciso L andr ico , s auc ius i n c astro Runcon ia r edu .c i tur , e t d ie o ctava mor itur .' f erence t o Rancogne

57

(ui te .apar t f ro m a ny th ing e lse t he r e-

— l a ter o n a n impor tan t c ast le — i s s usp icious ) .

T he

A ngou lgme Anna ls, i n o ther w ords, c on for m t o 9 th c en tury p ract ice i n t ha t t hey r are ly i den t ify a man a s b e ing c oun t o f ap ar t icu lar c oun ty , wh i le t he C hron icon Aqu itan icu m b y i den t ifying t he c oun ts a nd f i t t ing t he m i n to ag eneal og ica l f ra mework f a ir ly o bv ious ly r ef lects A de mar ' s own a pproach t o h istory . I tw ou ld , h owever , b e r ash t o c onc lude t ha t i n t he t ex t o ft he Angou lgme Anna ls we h ave t he o r ig ina l , c on te mporary a nna ls.

I ndeed t he r eferences t o

C har les t he Ba ld ' se xped i t ions a ga inst t he Bre tons i n 8 43 , 8 45, 8 50 a nd 8 51 a s 'p r i ma v ice ' , s ecunda v ice ', o bv ious t ha t t h is i s n ot s o .

5 8

t er t ia v ice ' a nd 'q uar ta v ice ' make i t

N one t he l ess t he e v idence o ft he manuscr ip t

w ou ld s uggest t ha t t hese e n tr ies were e d i ted l ong b efore Ade mar was a t w ork . The l ast t en e n tr ies i n t he a nna ls ( f ro m 9 62 t o 9 91) a re i n av ar iety o f h ands

8

a nd i nks, h it t he d a tes f ro m 9 24 d own t o

M i lle ' were wr it ten a l l i n o ne g o ,

p resu mab ly t herefore e ar lier t han t hese t en e n tr ies, i .e . p robab ly i n t he f i rst h a lf o ft he 1 0 th c en tury . " Th is s ee ms t o i mp ly t ha t t he h and wh ich c op ied o ut t he d a tes a nd e n tr ies b e tween 8 73 a nd 9 23 was a n e ar lier o ne , a nd t ha t t he 'o r ig ina l ', more p r im i t ivelook ing h and r esponsib le f or t he d a tes a nd e n tr ies b e tween 8 15 a nd 8 72 w as e ar lier s t i l l .

5 9

I n o ther w ords i n t he e n tr ies f or

8 15 t o 8 70 we m igh t g uess t ha t we h ave a l a te n in th c en tury r e-work ing o f a c on te mporary t ex t , a nd we c an a t l east b e c on f iden t t ha t i t was n ot A de mar who e d i ted t h is e ar ly s ect ion o f t he A ngou lgme Anna ls — u n t i l, t ha t i s t o s ay , h e s e t t led d own t o w ork o n t he C hron icon Aqui tan icu m .

Wha t t h is means i s

t ha t t he Chron icon t sa dd i t iona l i n for ma t ion i s most l ikely t o b e t he p roduct o f A de mar ' sf er t i le b ra in a nd , f or t h is r eason , f u ture h istor ians would b e w ise t o d iscoun t i t .6 0 A l l t h is i s t o r e in force K . F . Werner ' sv iew o f Ade mar : p i la tor , s ondern G esch ich tsschre iber ' . 6 1

n ich t d er K orn-

H e u sed h is m ind t o make c on-

n ex ions b etween t he f rag men ts o f e v idence a va i lab le t o h im .

I nev itab ly t he

p a t tern wh ich h e s aw i n h istory , t he f or m wh ich h e c rea ted , was o ne wh ich was a ppropr ia te t o t he e ar ly 1 1th c en tury , n o t t o t he v ery d if feren t wor ld o f t he m id 9 th .

6 2

I n o ne s ense we may c oun t o urse lves f or tuna te i n b e ing a b le

t o c a tch a g li mpse o ft he w orkshop o f a n 1 1 th c en tury h istor ian ;

i n a nother

we may t h ink i t ap i ty t o h ave t o j e t t ison h is a dd i t ions t o t he h istory o f Aqu it a ine d ur ing t he r e ign o f C har les t he Ba ld .

We a re s o i gnoran t a bout

e ven ts i n t ha t p ar t o ft he wor ld —a r eg ion a bou t wh ich N i thard , P ruden t ius a nd H inc mar k new l i t t le — t ha t e very s crap o f i nfor ma t ion s ee ms p rec ious. N one t he l ess i ti s n o t a l l l oss.

Prun ing c an b e ap roduct ive e xercise .

There

a re s evera l e p isodes i n t he h istory o f Aqui ta ine wh ich A de mar ' sa dd it ions s erved o n ly t o c onfuse , a s ar esu lt o f wh ich c onscien t ious h istor ians l i ke A uzias f ound t he mse lves o b l iged t o wr i te l ong f oo tno tes i n ar a ther p uzz led a nd embarrassed t one . D iscard A de mar a nd t he h istory o f A qui ta ine i n t h is p er iod may b e a bbrev ia ted h it i ti s a lso c lar if ied . The g enuine s our ces — t he e ar ly s ect ions o f t he Angour eme Anna ls , t he A strono mer ' sL ife , s o me o f t he l et ters o f l upus o f F err ieres — c an b e i n terpre ted more s tra igh tforward ly w i thout h av ing t o b e t w isted i n o rder t o f i t i n to t he f ra mework o f A de mar ' s b r i ll ian t b ut wayward h istory .

L ondon S choo l o f E cono m ics .

9

NOTES

1 .

There i s s t i l l n o s a t isfactory e d i t ion .

The b est o ne a va i lable i s

J u les Chavanon , Ade-mar d e C habannes, C hron ique , ( Par is 1 897 ) . 2 .

The r e la t ionsh ips b etween t hese t wo , b e tween o ther , p ar t ia l , v ersions a nd b e tween A de mar a nd a l a ter , m id 1 2th c en tury work h ave b een e xp lored a nd c lar if ied b y K . F . Werner , 'A de mar v on C habannes u nd d ie H istor ia p on t if icu m e t c ora i tu m Engol is mensiu m ,' DA 1 9 ( 1963 ) 2 97-325 .

3 .

N one o f t he manuscr ip ts h as a c o mp lete d iv is ion i n to b ooks a nd c hap ters . The o ne u sed h ere i s C havanon ' s .

4 .

A de mar , p . 1 32 n ote 4 .

The c h ief d rawback o f C havanon ' se d i t ion i s

t ha t h e r egarded t he C t ex t — a s h ad Wa i tz b efore h im ( MGH , S S . I V , 1 06f f ) — a s t he w ork o f a nu nscrupu lous a nd s i l ly 1 2 th c en tury i n terp o la ter a nd h e t herefore r e lega ted t h is t ex t t o h is f ootnotes;

i ndeed h e

om i t ted s o me o f i ta l toge ther . 5 .

K dG , v o l . i v , Das N ach leben , e d ., W. B raun fe ls a nd P . E . S chra m m ( D t s se ldorf 1 967 ) .

6 .

A de mar was b orn c . 9 90 a nd d ied i n J erusa le m i n 1 034.

Af ter b eing

e duca ted a t S t Mar t ia l ' s , L i moges h e b eca me a me mber o f t he c o mmun i ty o f S t C ybard , Angou lgme. 7 .

One h istor ian whose d oub ts, t o j udge f ro m h is t one , h ave n ot b een s t i l led i s O t to G erhard Oex le.

B u t h e h as n ot t aken t he ma t ter a ny f ur ther ,

r e ma in ing c on ten t w i th t he n eutra l o bserva t ion t ha t

s cho larsh ip h as

a ccep ted Ade mar o f C habannes ' v ersion , — s ee Oex le ,

B ischof Ebroin

v on P oi t iers u nd s e ine V erwand ten ,' FMS 3 1 969 , p . 1 73 r t . 1 67 . 8 .

L . A uz ias, L ' Aqu i ta ine c aro l ing ienne 7 78-987 ( Tou louse-Par is 1 937 ). S ee , f or e xa mp le , p p . 1 28-29 , 1 49-50 , 2 13 , 3 23 , 3 52 , e ven t hough t here a re t i mes when Auzias was c lear ly embarrassed b y Ade mar ' si n forma t ion , e .g . p p , 1 56-7 , 2 22 , 3 52 .

9 .

H istor ia P on t if icu m e t C om i tu m E ngo lis mens iu m e d . J . B oussard ( Par is 1 957 ) . 3 ( 1 1 1X IV .

1 0 .

I t . C roze t , H istoire d u P oi tou ( Par is 1 970 ) , p p . 3 7-38 .

1 1 ,

J . Dhond t , E tudes s ur l a n a issance d es p r inc ipau tes t err i tor ia les e n F rance ( Bruges 1 948 ) p p . 1 94f f ,

1 2 .

C . H igoune t , B ordeaux p endan t l e h aut moyen ä ge ( Bordeaux 1 963 ) 3 4-41 .

1 3 .

W. K ienast , S tud ien ü ber d ie f ranzösischen V olksstä m me d es F rüh m itt e la l ters ( S tut tgar t 1 968 ) , 5 9-60 .

1 4.

K dG v o l . i v , 1 94-195, 4 50-51,

1 0

1 5 .

L . L ev i l la in ,

A de mar . d e Chabannes , g enea log iste ' B u l let in d e l a

S ocie te d es An t iqua ires d e l ' Ouest 3 rd s er ies, v o l . 1 0 ( 1934-35 ) 2 372 63.

On B ook I I , c hap ters 1 6-19 L ev i l la in ' sc o m men t was 'T out c e la

e st t res e xact '. 1 6 .

I ti s l ike ly t ha t h e was a lso a b le t o u se o ra l t rad i t ion , b ut t he e ar l iest i nd ica t ion o f t h is t ype o f i n for ma t ion c o mes i n c hap ter 2 0 — t he a ccoun t o f Vu lgr in a s at i re less warr ior a ga inst t he V ik ings a nd a s t he f irst b ui lder o f t he c ast les o f Marc i l lac a nd Mastac.

Vu lgr in , t he c oun t

who d ied i n 8 86 a nd whose t o mb was c la i med b y S t C ybard , b eca me , l ike o ther l a te 9 th c en tury f i gures s uch a s Wifred t he Ha iry a nd B a ldw in o f F landers, t he f ound ing f a ther o f ad ynasty o f c oun ts. S tor ies a bout h im would v ery p robab ly b e f am i l iar t o a monk o f S t C ybard , b u t t here i s n o h in t o f t rad i t iona l l ore c on ta ined i n t he i n for ma t ion i n Ade mar ' sc hapt ers 1 6 t o 1 9 . 1 7 . 1 8 .

Werner , 'Ade mar ' ,p p . 3 20-321 . MGH S S I , 2 52f f ;

MGH S S I V , 5 ;

MGH S S XV I , 4 85f f .

B u t a l l o f t hese

p r in ted t ex ts a re d efect ive i n s o me way . 1 9 .

L evi l la in , ' Ade mar t p p . 2 37-8 .

2 0 .

Werner , ' Ade mar ' p p . 3 20-1 .

2 1,

Th is i s MG L e iden U n ivB ., V oss l a t . o ct . 1 5 , d iscussed b y L . De l is le , ' Not ice s ur l es manuscr i ts o r ig inaux d 'A de mar d e C habannes, N ot ices e t e x tra i ts d es manuscr i ts d e l a B ib l iotheque Na t iona le e t a utres b ib l iotheques 3 5, 1 ( 1896 ) p p . 3 01-314. t he n otes i n q ues t ion .

On p p . 3 15-318 De l isle p r in ted

2 2 .

S ee b e low p . 1 4 .

2 3 .

Ade mar , p . 1 33.

2 4 .

F or t he d a te o f S igu in . ' sd ea th s ee L upus o f F err ieres i , Nr . 4 4 , p . 1 86 ( da ted t o N ove mber 8 45) : Q uida m v ero d e Aqui tan ia v en ien tes N or tmannos i n ter B urdega la m e t S anctonas e rup t ione m h is d iebus f ecisse r e tu lerun t e t n ostros , h oc e st c hr ist ianos , p edestr i c um e is p roe l io c ongressos e t m iserab i l i ter n isi q uos f uga e r ipere p otui t p ere mp tos. I n q uo b e l lo c o mprehensu m d uce m Vasconu m S igu inu m e t p ere mp tu m e t ia m j urando t es ta t i s un t.

2 5 ,

A uzias p p . 2 22-3 ;

l ot a nd Ha lphen , 1 89 n . 1 ; H igounet , p . 3 5 n . 4 .

2 6 .

MGH S S I , 2 53 . H ere t he C hron icon g ives n o i n for ma t ion b eyond wha t i s i n t he Angou le .m e Anna ls.

2 7 .

A de mar , p . 1 11 ;

2 8 .

A s s uggested b y A uz ias p . 2 33.

2 9 .

MGH S S I , 2 53 ( a tt he e nd o f t he e n try f or 8 52 , wh ich p resu mab ly r uns f ro m Easter 8 52 t o E aster 8 53 ).

3 0 .

A de mar , p p . 1 35-6.

ARF p . 1 44 ( ad a nnu m 8 16) .

1 1

3 1.

Anna les F u ldenses e d . K urze p . 4 4; t aken ly d a ted t o 8 60 .

Reg ino o f P r i am , p . 7 8 , t here mis-

On Reg ino ' sh and ling o f West F rank ish a f fa irs

s ee K . F . Werner , 'Z ur Arbe i tswe ise d es R eg ino v on Pe e tm ' ,D ie We lt a ls G esch ich te 1 9 ( 1959 ), p . 9 6ff . 3 2 .

S S I , 2 53.

Here t oo Chron icon a nd Angou lgme Anna ls a re i n a gree men t .

Th is e xp lana t ion r equires, o f c ourse , t ha t Ade mar d id n ot r ea lise t ha t t he L a mber t o f 8 30 a nd t he L a mber t o f 8 53 were t wo d ifferen t p eop le , b ut t here c an b e n o d oub t t hat , l i ke many o fu s, Ade mar was i n t he h ab i t o f h op ing t ha t i den t ity o f n a me mean t i den t i ty o f p erson . 3 3 .

F or e xa mp le Ade mar i den t if ies t he Raino who f i gh ts t ogether w i th h is ' prop inquus ',

Ra mnulf , c oun t o f P oi tou , a ga inst t he V ik ings ( Chron .

Aqua. 8 52 ) a s c oun t o f H erbauge .

Th is i s r ead i ly c o mprehensib le i n

v iew o f t he r eferences i n e ar lier e n tr ies ( 835 a nd 8 43 ) t o Raina ld , c oun t o f H erbauge, p lan t ing t he i dea t ha t Ra ino was Ra inald ' ss on . S ince Ra ino, i n 8 52 , f ought a longside a c oun t o f P oi tou a nd e igh t y ears e ar lier a B ernard h ad f ough t a longside Ra ina ld ' s( o ther ) s on H arvey ( Chron . Aqui t . 8 44), d id n ot t h is s uggest t ha t t he Bernard o f 8 44 w as a lso a c oun t o f P oitou ? Besides A de mar ' sc har ter-based n otes t o ld h im t ha t t here was a C oun t Bernard ( Del is le, N otice p . 3 17 ) a nd s ince H ervey a nd B ernard h ad b een f i gh t ing a ga inst L a mber t o f Nan tes, o f wh ich c oun ty c ou ld h e h ave b een c oun t i fn ot P oi tou?

There i s a lso t he

p ossib i l i ty t ha t Ade mar h ad s een t he d ip lo ma o f P ipp in Ir estor ing t o S t Ma ixen t a 'v i l la ' i n P oi tou wh ich h ad b een g ran ted a s a 'b enef ic iu m ' t o aC oun t B ernard , ( Levi l lain , p . 1 8 n r. 5 .) .

B ut t he i den t if ica t ion o f

t he 8 44 B ernard a s c oun t o f Poi tou c rea tes u nnecessary p rob le ms ( see A uzias 2 13, 2 33 ) a nd s hould b e d ropped .

Af ur ther e xa mp le o f A de mar ' s

i ngen ious d educt ive s k i ll would b e h is a ccoun t o f Warin a t t he b a t t le o f F on tenoy , 'c u m Tolosan is e t Provincian is s uperven iens t.

I n t he C hron .

Aqu i t . Warin a ppears o n ly a s 'Provinciae d uce m ,' b ut Ade mar h ad c op ied t he f o l low ing p assage o ut o f t he ARF a nd t h is c ould h ave l ed h im t o p lace Tou louse c on t ingen ts b y War in ' ss ide a t F on tenoy:

'S ira i l iter

L upos Wasco, q ui c um B erengar io T olosano e t Warino Arvern is c ora it ih is c onf lixera t ', ( Ade mar , p . 1 15;

ARF a d a nnu m 8 19 ) .

3 3a .

This was k ind ly p ointed o ut t o me b y J ane t Ne lson .

3 4 .

Ade mar , p . 1 34-5.

O ther e xa mp les migh t b e h is r epor ts t ha t C oun ts

Emeno a nd Vulgrin were b uried i n S t C ybard . 3 5.

I b id ., p . 1 32.

I b id., 1 37-8.

Ade mar ' ss tate men t t ha t P ipp in Ip u t f our h ouses,

S t-Jean-d ' Ange ly , S t C ypr ien ( Poi t iers ) , S t C ybard ( Angoulg me ) a nd Brantö me , u nder t he c on trol o f Abbot Mar t in a ppears t o s te m f ro m a c onfusion w i th t he c areer o f a wel l-known r efor m ing a bbot who was a ct ive more t han a h undred y ears l a ter , i n t he 9 30s a nd 9 40s.

Th is

was k ind ly p oin ted o ut t o me b y Rowan Wa tson . 3 6.

A de mar , p . x x .

MS Par is, B . N ., l a t . 5 926 , f . 8 2-116.

3 7 .

And t h is d esp i te t he p rob le ms i nvo lved — o n wh ich s ee Auzias p p . 1 57 , 2 09 n . 4 4.

3 8 .

A de mar , p . 1 32. 1 2

3 9 .

Astron .

V i ta H lud . c . 6 1, Ade mar , p . 1 37 .

4 0 .

With t he p ar t ia l e xcep t ion o f Oex le who, whi le mak ing i tc lear t ha t t here were a t l east t wo Emenos a round i n 8 40 , t akes n o s tand e ither f or o r a ga inst t h is p ar t icular i den t if ica t ion , s ee Oex le, 'Ebroin ' ,p . 1 79 .

4 1. 4 2 .

Ade mar , p . 1 39 . Th is p assage was om it ted b y C havanon , a nd s o i ti s n ecessary t o r efer t o L abbe ' so ld e d i t ion wh ich t ook t he C t ex t a s i t s b ase:

P . L abbe ,

B ib liotheca n ova manuscr ip toru m ( Par is 1 657 ) v ol . 2 , p p . 1 51-175. The p rob le m i s d iscussed b y L evi l la in , 'Ade mar ' ,p . 2 42 n . 3 . 4 3.

I n H . Dup les-Ag ier , C hron iques d e S a in t- Mar t ia l d e L i moges ( Par is 1 874).

4 4 .

Th is i s o ne o f A de mar ' s most f a mous m istakes, r epea ted i n h is c hron ic le Ade mar , p . 1 36.

I t was, o f c ourse, C har les ' ss on C har les who was

a noin ted k ing o f Aqu i ta ine i n 8 55. 4 5 . 4 6 .

F or Ade mar o n S ain t Gera ld s ee Ade mar , p p . 1 40-141. M . De loche , C ar tula ire d e 1 'a bbaye d e B eau lieu ( Par is 1 859 ) n r . 1 p p .

1 -7 , d ated b y t he e ditor t o N ove mber 8 60 .

S ee i b id., p . c cxxx i i

f or t he r eference t o ac opy o f t he Testa mentu m i n aL i moges c ar tulary. 4 7 .

S ee a lso i b id ., n r . XVI I I , p p , 4 2-3 f or a nother c har ter ( dated t o May 8 59 b y t he e d i tor ) r ecord ing a n e xchange o f l ands b e tween Archb ishop R a lph a nd C oun t Ray mond .

S ee R . d e L asteyr ie, E tude s ur l es c om tes

e t v ico m tes d e L i moges a n ter ieurs a l 'a n 1 000 ( Par is 1 874 ) p p . 1 7-19. 4 8 .

I n f act i t may make more s ense t o i den ti fy t his Ray mond a s ac oun t o f T oulouse who a lso h e ld l and i n t he L i mousin s ee J . Dhond t , E tudes 1 3 . 1 87 n . 3 ;

L ev i lla in , 'L es N ibe lungen h istor iques ' AM 5 0 , 1 938

p p . 2 0-21 , 4 9 .

A de mar , p . 1 39 .

5 0 .

De lis le , N ot ice p p . 3 16-317 ,

5 1.

C hron . Aqui t. p . 2 53, Angour e me Anna ls ( SS I V p . 5 ;

5 2 .

A de mar , p . 1 37 .

S S XVI p . 4 86 ) .

Another o f Ade mar ' sc haracters c o mes n ot f ar s hort

o f Vu lgr in ' sr ecord f or l ongevi ty . t he we l l-known f ounder o f C luny .

This i s Duke Wi ll ia m o f Aqui taine , By c o mpar ing Ade mar ' sr eference

t o h im i n B ook I I , c hap ter 2 1 w i th wha t h e s ays a bout C oun t Wi l l ia m o f A uvergne i n I I . 1 6 , i tl ooks v ery much a s t hough t he d uke who d ied i n 9 18 was t hough t t o h ave b een a c oun t i n 8 41.

Werner n oted a v ery s im i lar

c onfusion b y wh ich Ade mar a t tributed t o 7 69 a c har ter which r ea l ly b el onged t o 8 52 a nd t hen wen t o n t o c onclude t ha t Char le magne h ad s topped i n Angou lg me d ur ing h is 7 69 c a mpaign ; n . 1 8, 3 12 n . 4 2 .

Werner , 'Ade mar , 'p p . 3 02

S ee Tessier , n r . 1 49 .

1 3

5 3 .

MGH S S I , p . 2 53 n otes a a nd b .

Moreover t he manuscr ip t , MS P ar is ,

B .N ., l a t . 5 239 , h ad u nquest ionab ly p assed t hrough Ade mar ' sh ands . S ee J . L a ir , E tudes c r i t iques s ur d ivers t ex tes d es Xe e t X ie s iec les v o l . 1p . 3 3 ;

D . G abor it-Chop in , ' Les d ess ins d ' Ade mar d e C habannes '

B u l let in a rcheo log ique d u c om ite d es t ravaux h is tor iques e t s c ien t if iques N . S . 3( 1967 ) p p . 1 87-190 .

Iam g ra tefu l t o R ichard L andes f or h is

a dv ice o n t he Ade mar manuscr ip ts i n P ar is . 5 4 .

MGH S S I V , 5 . On t he manuscr ipt ( MS P ar is , B .N ., l a t . 2 400 ) s ee D e l isle , N o t ice p . 3 00 .

5 5 .

MGH S S XVI , 4 85-487 . s er ious e rrors.

H owever t h is p r in ted t ex t c on ta ins s evera l

I n t he manuscr ip t ( MS Va t ican , R eg inensis L a t . 127 )

t he c o mputus wh ich g oes f ro m t he b eg inn ing o ft he w or ld t o t he 2 5th y ear o f C har le magne ' sr e ign i s wr i t ten a t t he f oot o f f o l . 1 0v . a nd , a s t he b ook i s n ow a rranged , i s im med ia te ly f o l lowed b y t he a nna ls o n t he n ex t p age .

F or t h is r eason B e th mann a nd P er tz t rea ted t he c o mputus

a s a n i n troduct ion t o t he a nna ls a nd p r in ted i ta ccord ing ly .

Bu t i n f act

t hese a nna ls were wr it ten o n f o ls. 1a nd 2 a nd were s t i ll i n t he ir o r ig ina l p osi t ion i n t he 1 7 th c en tury , a s i s c lear f ro m t he l i st o f c on ten ts c o mp i led i n 1 647 .

A t s o me l a ter d ate t hese t wo f o lios were c ut o u t a nd t hen

i nser ted b e tween f o l ios 1 0 a nd 1 1 , t hus d eceiv ing t he MGH e d i tors. T he l i st o f r eg ions o f t he C hr ist ian wor ld a nd o ft he s ees o f Gau l which i s o n t he v erso o f t he s econd o f t hese t wo i n terca la ted f o lios i s c on t inued o n f o lio 3 r ecto .

( Th is i s n ot made c lear i n t he d escr ip t ion o ft he manu-

s cr ip t i n L . Duchesne , L e L iber P on t if ica lis, Vo l. 1 , 2 nd e dn ., P ar is 1 955 , p p . L -L I ) .

Apar t f ro m o ccasiona l m is-read ings, t he MGH e d i t ion

i s a lso m islead ing o n t he s ub ject o ft he v ar ious h ands, c f . my d escr ipt i on p . 1 6. 5 6.

i .e. t hose f or 8 15, 8 64 , 8 68 , 8 92 , 8 95, 9 16, 9 18 , 9 30 , 9 40 , 9 51 , 9 62 , 9 64 , 9 73 ( i n p ar t ) , 9 75 a nd 9 90 ,

5 7 .

MGH S S XVI , 4 85-486: S S I , 2 52-3.

5 8 .

MGH S S XVI , 4 86.

5 9 .

MS Va t ican , Reg . L a t . 1 127f f 1 -2 ,

6 0 .

Ano ther v ers ion o f t he C hron icon Aqu itan icu m i s o n f .1 30v o f a no ther o f Ade mar ' s manusc ip ts , MS Par is , B .N ., l a t . 3 784.

H ere A de mar ,

s ee m ing ly a t work i n 1 026 , h ad u sed MS Par is , B .N ., l a t . 5 239 , o r p oss ib ly a c opy o f i t , a t as tage when i ts t i l l l acked t he l ast e n tr ies o f t he L i moges Anna ls ( on 1 .19 ) a nd t he f ina l ( 1025 ) e n try o f t he C hron icon ( on 1 .21 ) .

I n MS P ar is , B .N ., l a t . 3 784 t he e n tr ies f or 8 86 a nd 8 55 —

i n t ha t o rder — s ee m p ar t icu lar ly c haracter ist ic o f Ade mar , s method .

6 1 .

Werner , ' Ade mar ', p . 3 00 .

6 2 .

O n t h is p o in t s ee t he s ens ib le o bserva t ions o f J . Wo l lasch , ' E ine a d l ige F am i l ie d es f re then M it te la l ters .

I hr S e lbstverständn is u nd i hre Wirk-

l i chke it ', Arch iv f ar K u lturgesch ich te 3 9 ( 1957 ) p p . 1 50-188 , e sp . p p . 1 77f f . 1 4

2 .

THE ' ANNALS OF S T BERTIN ' J ane t L . N e lson

T hough t he k eep ing o f a nna ls o r c hron icles h ad n ever e n t ire ly c eased i n Western Europe s ince t he f a l l o ft he R o man Emp ire , t he e igh th a nd n in th c ent ur ies b rough t c hanges t ha t were q ua li ta t ive a s w e ll a s q uan t i ta t ive .1 B efore C har le magne ' sr e ign , a nna l ists h ad b een a t w ork i n s evera l monaster ies i n t he B r i t ish I s les a nd t hen o n t he C on t inen t ; a nd o ne b ranch o f C har le magne ' s f am i ly h ad s ponsored t he k eep ing o f s o meth ing r a ther l i ke a nna ls o f t he F rank ish r ea lm .2

S t i l l , i t was n ot u n t i l C har le magne ' st ime , s pecif ica l ly

w i th t he o rgan ising o f ar oya l c hape l a nd a 'c hancery '

( t he t wo c annot b e

r ig id ly d ist inguished ) a t h is c our t , a nd t he b asing o f t ha t c our t a t A achen f or a t l east p ar t o fe ach y ear f ro m 7 94 o nwards, t ha t t he R oya l F rank ish Anna ls b eca me a c our t p roduc t , k ep tu p b y r oya l c hap la ins o r n otar ies. 3 C har le magne h i mse lf i s u sua lly s a id t o h ave i nsp ired t h is d eve lop men t , h it p a lace c lerks h ad t he ir own r easons f or wr i t ing c on te mporary h istory :

'n o l earned man

d oub ts , It h ink ', wrote o ne l earned man o f t he p er iod , 't ha t i ti s t he most a ncien t p ract ice , h ab i tua l f or k ings u p t o n ow , t o h ave wha tever t h ings a re d one o r h appen wr i t ten d own i n a nna ls f or p oster i ty t o l earn a bout ' .4 The s tress h ere s ee ms t o b e o n t he h istor ica l c onsciousness o ft he l earned r a ther t han a ny u se-va lue t o t he k ing .

G iven t he c haracter o f t he p a lace p ersonne l a nd a

c u lture c o mmon t o t he s cho lars i n monaster ies a nd p a lace a l ike , t he t ransfer o f monast ic a nna l-wr i t ing t o t he c our t was a n a tura l move . Once t he a nna ls w ere t here , i ti s p ossib le t ha t t he k ing , o r a t a ny r ate h is c ounse l lors, o cc as iona l ly c onsul ted t he m a nd f e lt g lad t o k now t ha t 't he most a ncien t p ract ice ' was r ev ived .

B u t t here i s n o e vidence t ha t C har le magne t r ied t o p ub l ic ise o r

c ircu la te t he m , s t i l l l ess u se t he m f or t o l a ter .

p ropaganda

— ap oin t Is ha l l r e turn

P a lace c lerks wr i t ing u p c on te mporary d oings a nd e ven ts ' w orked u nder s evere d if f icu l t ies i n n in th-century F rancia . C our t s cholars were e xpected when n ecessary t o d oub le a s warr iors, a nd n ot a l l k ings w ould h ave r esponded a s g ood-hu moured ly a s P ipp in o f Aqui ta ine d id t o t he c ack-handed E r mold : L ay y our weapons a s ide b rother , a nd b et ter s t ick t o y our b ooks: 5 The e x ten t t o wh ich t he c our t r e ma ined i t ineran t , e ven when c our t iers w ere n ot a ctua l ly c a mpa ign ing , made d ocu men ts h ard t o c o l lect a nd s tore . The n in thc en tury r oya l a rch ive w as t er med t he a r mar iu m6 — t he c upboard — wh ich i s p robab ly j ust wha t i t was . Wr it ten ma ter ia l, t hen , was n ot v ery p len ti fu l f or t he c our t a nna list : i n t he main h e n oted , r a ther , wha t h e h ad w i tnessed , o r w ha t o ra l i n for man ts h ad w i tnessed .

The c our t was a c en tre t o wh ich s uch

i n for ma t ion f l owed . B u t r u mour was r i fe: i t was n o c l iche when a n in thc en tury a nna list wrote t ha t t he k ing l earned s o me p iece o f n ews 'f or c er ta in ' o r b y an ot u ncerta in messenger ' . 7 S heer p rob le ms o f c o mmun ica t ion were e nor mous, a nd s o me t i mes a dded t o d e l ibera te ly b y C aro l ing ian r ulers. 8

1 5

Ih ave g lanced f i rst a t t he p roduct ion o f t he ARF , i n t he t i me o f C har le magne a nd L ouis t he P ious, b ecause t he Anna ls o f S t B er t in b egan l i fe a s ac on t inuat i on t hereof .

P erhaps Is hou ld h ave s a id , ' so-ca l led Anna ls o f S t B er t in '

( t hough It h ink i t ' st oo l a te t o p ropose a n a l terna t ive l abe l ) f or d esp i te t heir monast ic r ing , t hese a nna ls h ave n o o ther c onnect ion w i th S t B ert in ' st han t he a cciden t t ha t t he e ar liest manuscr ip t was p robab ly c op ied o ut t here .

9

I n t he manuscr ip ts ( and t here a re n ot many ) , t he AB im med ia te ly f o l low t he ARF . T here i s n o n ew h ead ing , n o b reak a t a l l : t he AB a nna list s i mp ly t akes u p t he s tory i n 8 30 where t he ARF l ef t of i n 8 29 .

Y e t t here must h ave b een

s o me k ind o f b reak i n p roduct ion a t t h is p oin t , b ecause most manuscr ip ts o f t he ARF d o n ot c on t inue w i th t he AB .

I ts ee ms t ha t t he b reak c oincides w i th

1 0

ac hange i n a uthorsh ip i n c ircu mstances wh ich a lso c on tr ibuted t o ad ispersa l o f c op ies o ft he ARF : t he a rch-chap la in H i lduin , who h ad e xercised s o me k ind o f s uperv ision o ver t he a nna ls ' p roduc t ion u p t o 8 30 , i n t ha t y ear j oined t he r evo lt o f L ouis t he P ious ' s ons a nd f e l l i n to d isgrace .

H i lduin ' ss uccessor

a s a rch-chap la in , F u lco , e v iden t ly i nc luded t he c on t inuance o f t he a nna lst rad i t ion amongs t h is r esponsib i l i t ies, u n t i l h e i n t urn was moved t o an ew j ob away f ro m t he c our t i n 8 35 .

1

The f i rst f i ve y ears o f t he AB t hus p red ictab ly

s how c on t inu i ty o f t he mes a nd g enera l s ty le w i th t he e ar lier ARF , e spec ia l ly p erhaps w i th t hose c over ing t he 8 20s.

The p icture i s s o mewha t s kewed b y

t he f ac t t ha t F u lco ' sa nna ls c over y ears o f p ol i t ica l u pheava ls — L ouis t he P ious ' r e mova l f ro m p ower i n 8 33, h is t e mporary r ep lace men t b y h is e ldest s on L o thar , f o l lowed b y L ouis ' r ecovery e ar ly i n 8 34 — wh ich must h ave made t he k eep ing o f c our t a nna ls p ecu liar ly h ard .

I tl ooks a s i f , t hough i n for ma t ion

was b eing c ol lec ted t hroughou t , t he a nna ls f or t he e ar ly 8 30s w ere n ot wr it ten u p i n t he ir p resen t f or m u n t i l 8 34.

L ou is t he P ious i s c ons isten t ly d ep ic ted

a s a wronged f a ther , w i th a l l t he s tress l a id o n h is v ir tues o f magnan im i ty , p a terna l f ee ling , p a t ience i n a dversi ty — 'a s i s h is c usto m ' ,c o m men ts t he a nna list 1 2

— a nd f i na l ly , c le mency .

H is e ne m ies, e spec ia l ly E bbo, a rch-

b ishop o f Rhe i ms, who s tage- managed L ouis ' e nforced p enance ( and h ence d e f acto d eposi t ion ) a t S oissons, a re e qua l ly c onsisten t ly d ep icted i n h ost i le t er ms: t he ir t ra i ts , t he v ery o pposi te o f L ouis ' ,a re d isobed ience, d isloya l ty , f i l ia l imp ie ty , c rue l ty . The a nna list t r ied t o ma inta in t he ARF t rad i t ion i n r ec ord ing t he r u ler ' si t inerary , e specia l ly where h e s pen t E aster a nd C hr ist mas e ach y ear , when a nd where a sse mb lies w ere h e ld a nd a t wh ich o ne t he a nnua l g if ts were h anded o ver .

B u t i nev i tab ly t he e n tr ies f or 8 32-3 b eca me a c hron ic le

o f t he c on f lict b etween L ouis a nd h is s ons, w i th o ther e ven ts n eg lected . 8 34 , t he a nna l ist ' sh or izon c ould w iden a gain :

I n

h e r ecorded a Dan ish a t tack o n

F r is ia , a nd h ad more d eta i led i n for ma t ion o n a f fa irs i n I t a ly a nd i n N eustr ia . 1 3 I ti s w or th a sk ing wha t c our t c hap la ins a nd c lerks, i n p ar t icular F u lco h i ms e lf , a c tua l ly d id when L ouis was impr isoned a nd L o thar w i th h is own e n tourage t e mporar i ly t ook u p q uar ters a t Aachen .

N o d oub t t hose o f L ouis ' c lerks who

s tayed l oya l t o h im t hough t f i t t o l i e l ow f or a wh i le: a s t he AB s ay u nder 8 33 , ' so me o ft hose a ga inst who m t he r ebe ls ' wra th r aged most f i erce ly s l ipped away a nd t ook t he mse lves o f ft o t he l ands o f t heir f r iends a nd f a ithfu l men ' .1 4 P a lace c lerks h ad p ersona l l inks w i th monaster ies — F u lco h i mself was a bbot o f S t Wandr i l le a s we l l a s o f S t H i la ire a t P oi t iers — a nd would s eek r efuge t here .

The r esu mp t ion o f a nna l-wr i t ing a t L ou is ' c our t must h ave h ad t o wai t

t i ll t he s pr ing o r s u m mer o f 8 35.

Th is s a me y ear b rough t a nother c hange o f

1 6

8 43 b oundary ••—

8 70 b oundary

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g ! f r- S erva is . •—% P i tr e s C l u ie rsy e . I nge lhe im C omb i gne 4/ 4/ 4 , L aon D ouzy 1 , v e rbe r ie 0 r sons ; T r ier Se ige l s a m o u s s , c l A t t i gn y Wor mS S tOer is OVe r R he i ms / I M ar n e t pe rn aY , V erd2r93Th ionv i l le ‚ i s A Paris 1 . t C Aä lons e Metz ; Gorze 1 S t •M au rd es -Foss is • 'Ponth 2n • e R ennes 4 C hartres S avonn ieres e. X B a l lon E ntrammes oCou la ines B r ienne G ondrev tI l e ( 845 ) L e M ans S ens T royes T ou O r leans F e r nl e res S ITasbJrg L o ire A ngers M e un g S t . I . B eno r t e lAuxerre • • • ./ ".' N N antes T ours C osne X e ) F on tenoy 0 4! P ou ' L 2r i gres . ‘ . • •

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2 00

I : THE W EST FRANK ISH REAL M UNDER CHARLES THE BALD

P av .a

a rch-chap la in w i th i D l lis l a ppoin t men t o f h is h a lf-brother a nd s tand-by , B ishop Drogo o f Me tz ,

1 5

wh i le F u lco wen t t o a dm in ister t he a rchd iocese o f

R he i ms f o l low ing E bbo ' sr e mova l f ro m o f f ice , f or ma l ised i n F ebruary 8 35. U n l ike h is t wo p redecessors a s a rch-chap la in , Drogo h ad e p iscopa l r esponsib i l i t ies, wh ich h e t ook s er iously .

B ecause h e h ad t o s pend m u .ch t ime away

f ro m t he c our t , Drogo a ssigned t he t ask o f k eep ing u p t he a nna ls t o o ne o f t he p a lace c hap la ins.

As ing le s urv iv ing manuscr ip t r evea ls t he e x is tence o f

ac opy o f t he a nna ls f ro m 8 30 o nwards wh ich may h ave b een made l a te i n 87 , f or i tc on ta ins p ar t o f t he a nna l f or t ha t y ear b ut b reaks o f f b efore t he AB a ccoun t o ft he w in ter a sse mb ly a t Aachen .

1 6

Th is c opy o f t he AB a nna ls f or

8 30 t o 8 37 was p reserved a t Me tz i n t he t we lf th c en tury : p resu mab ly i th ad b een made f or Drogo, who a s a rch-chap la in , t hough n ot b ased a t c our t , c ont inued t o t ake a n i n terest i n t he a nna ls i fn ot a ct ive ly t o s upervise t he m . 1 1

One o f L ouis t he P ious ' p a lace c lerks , t hen , t ook o ver t he AB i n 8 35. G iven t ha t h e h ad b een t ra ined i n t he c hape l a nd c on t inued t o w ork t here , r es id ing a t t he c our t w i th a ccess t o i n for ma t ion , wr i t ten a nd o ra l , c om ing i n t here , h is a nna ls, l i ke F u lco ' s , s how p red ictab le c on t inui ty o f s ty le a nd c ont en t w i th t he p reced ing ARF .

T h is c on t inu i ty i n t he a nna ls a s l ong a s t hey were

b e ing k ep t u p a t t he c our t t ranscends a ny c hanges o f a uthorsh ip a s b e tween o ne c lerk , o r g roup o f c lerks, a nd a nother .

I ts ee ms w iser , t herefore , n ot t o s p l i t

t he AB i n t he c onven t iona l way , l i ke Gau l , i n to t hree p ar ts, a ccord ing t o a uthors , b u t r a ther t o s p li t i ti n to t wo: t he p ar t wr i t ten a t t he c our t , a nd t he p ar t wr i tt en a t t he c our t , a nd t he p ar t wr it ten e lsewhere .

T he a ppearance o f an ew

a nna l ist i n 8 35 i s , t hen , r e la t ive ly i nsign if ican t i n t er ms o f t he c harac ter o f t he AB .

S t i l l , i ti s t ime t o i den t i fy o ur c lerk a s P ruden t ius.

1 7

He w as a

S pan iard b y o r ig in , p robab ly f ro m a r efugee f am i ly who s ough t t heir f or tune n or th o f t he P yrenees e ar ly i n L ou is t he P ious ' r e ign 1 8 a nd w ere d oing we l l e nough i n G ascony b y a bout 8 20 t o s end o ne o f t he ir b oys t o I . Duis ' c our t , e ven tua l ly t o t ake u p s erv ice i n t he c hape l.

Pruden t ius ' f am i ly c onnex ions

may h ave h ad s o me e f fect o n h is a ccess t o i n for ma t ion a bout t he S pan ish March , G ascony a nd e ven S pain i t se lf , b u t t he AB y ie ld d isappoin t ing ly l i t t le e v idence a a nd v ir tua lly n one o f P ruden t ius ' c orrespondence s urvives 1 9 t o h elp o ur unders tand ing o f h im .

More impor tan t t han h is b iolog ica l c onnex ions, a nyway , s ee m

t o h ave b een t he n ew s oc ia l o nes o f c o mmon o u t look , e xper ience , c u lt ure a nd p ersona l i n terest wh ich h e made a t L ou is ' c our t .

Two men i n p ar t icu lar were

t here i n t he 8 30s who h ad a ma jor i nf luence o n h is s ubsequen t c areer :

l i a .pus,

a bbot o f F err ieres f ro m 8 40 , a nd Wen i lo , a rchb ishop o f S ens f ro m 8 36 o r 8 37 . B oth t hese men h ad p owerfu l c onnex ions w i th in t he F rank ish r ea lm : h encef or th t he S pan iard c ou ld h ope t hrough t he m , a s w el l a s t hrough Caro l ing ian p a tronage , f or p ower t here t oo.

I n t he n in th c en tury , a n a b le p a lace c lerk

c ould r easonab ly e xpect t o e nd u p ab ishop . P ruden t ius k ep t wr i t ing t he AB f ro m 8 35 t o 8 61 , when h e d ied o n t he j ob. B u t b ecause h is s i tua t ion c hanged r ad ica l ly d ur ing t h is p er iod , s o t oo d id t he n ature o f t he AB .

Un t i l 8 40 , t he a nna ls c on t inued t o c en tre o n t he move men ts

a nd d oings o f L ouis t he P ious — h is c a mpa igns, h is whereabouts o n t he ma jor

1 8

20

f easts, h is a sse mb l ies, h is r e la t ions w i th h is s ons.

Where e lse t han a t c our t

c ou ld Pruden t ius h ave g ot t he i n for ma t ion t ha t o n 2 6 Dece mber 8 38 , at err ib le f l ood h appened i n Fr is ia a f ter wh ich ' t he n u mber o f p eop le d rowned was v ery c arefu lly c oun ted :

2 ,437 d ea ths w ere r epor ted ' ?2 1 Wh o b ut a p a lace c lerk

would h ave b een s o s ha t tered b y t he c onversion t o J uda is m ( 'r u mour s pread t he n ews ' )o f t he p a lace c lerk B odo who h ad , s o t o s peak , d efected wh i le o n a v is i t t o Ro me ?2 2

On ly a t c our t c ou ld Pruden t ius h ave u sed t he t ex t o f al e t ter

s en t b y t he Wes t S axon K ing i Ethe lwulf t o L ouis i n 8 39 r epor t ing a n E ng lish p r iest ' sv is ion o f s upernatura l warn ing :

i fC hr ist ian p eop le d o n ot q uick ly d o

p enance f or t he ir v ar ious v ices a nd c r i mes...then a ll o f as udden p agan men w i l l l ay waste t he ir l and w i th f i re a nd sword ' .2 3

The i n terest i n V ik ing a ct i-

v i t ies , a nd i n t he Ang lo-Saxons ' r esponse t o t he m , would r ecur i n P ruden t ius ' a nna ls i n l a ter y ears .

2 4

B u t wh i le h e r e ma ined a t L ouis ' c our t , t he image

o f imper ia l s uccess was k ep t a s b r igh t a s p ossib le.

A ccord ing t o N i thard ' s

l a ter a nd p lausib le a ccoun t , t here was a c onsp iracy a ga inst L ouis i n 8 38 , b ut t he AB s ay n oth ing o f i t .

P ruden t ius , k now ing t he emperor m igh t s ee h is

w ork , g ave t he impress ion t ha t L ou is ' a rrange men ts f or t he r oya l i n her i tance

o fh i s y ounges t s on C har les were q ui te s ecure ;

h it N i thard , wr i t ing i n v ery

d i f feren t c ircu mstances , would r evea l t he o pposi t ion L ouis ' p lans a roused .

2 5

Where was P ruden t ius when , o n 2 0 th J une 8 40 , t he o ld emperor d ied? L ev i lla in26 h as s uggested t ha t a lready d ur ing t he w in ter o f 8 39-40 P ruden t ius was a t tached t o t he c our t o ft he y oung C har les a t P oi t iers i n Aqui ta ine a nd r ema ined w i th h im , o r w i th t he Empress J ud i th , t hereaf ter .

Th is w ou ld mean

t ha t P ruden t ius ' c areer s h if ted f a ir ly smooth ly f ro m o ne c our t t o a nother , i n wh ich c ase h is a nna ls s hould r ef lect s i mp ly a t ransfer o f p ersona l a dherence f ro m t he o ld emperor t o C har les.

B u t p erhaps t h ings were more c o mp lica ted .

I t may we ll b e t ha t B ishop E broin o f P o i t iers h ad a lready t aken u p t he o f f ice o f a rch-chap la in t o C har les i n 8 39 ,

2 7

b ut t o c la im t ha t P ruden t ius was o n h is

s ta f f f ro m t h is t ime o nwards, o ne w ould l ook f or e vidence e i ther i n L upus ' c orrespondence , p erhaps , o f ap ersona l c onnex ion b etween t he t wo men , o r i n t he AB f or P ruden t ius ' c loseness t o C har les i n 8 40 . d ead-end ;

T he f or mer l i ne i s a

t he l at ter l eads i n a nother d irect ion ,f or t he 8 40 a nna l, af ter r e-

c ord ing L ou is ' d eath o n a n i s land i n t he Rh ine 'w i th in s igh t o f t he p a lace o f I nge lhe im , d oings .

2 8

h as p ract ica l ly n o more t o s ay , a nd n oth ing a t a l l a bout C har les '

It h ink t ha t P ruden t ius, a long w i th Drogo o f Metz , t he a rchb ishops

o f Ma inz a nd T r ier a nd many o thers, was a t L ouis ' d ea thbed 2 9 a nd s o, l ike Drogo a nd t he r est , f aced a n a gon ising c hoice : o f fer h is a l leg iance a nd h is s ervices ?30

t o wh ich o f L ou is ' s ons t o

Ac o mpar ison o ft he AB f or 8 40 a nd

8 41 , t aken t oge ther w i th N i thard ' sv ery f u ll a ccoun t o f t hese y ears, s hows t ha t P ruden t ius h ad n o d e ta i led k now ledge o f C har les ' move men ts u n t i l t he a utu mn o f 8 41.

Is uggest , t herefore , t ha t l ike Drogo a nd o thers h e d id n ot

j oin C har les u n t i l n ews o f L o thar ' sd efea t a t F on tenoy ( 25 J une ) h ad made t ha t t he o bv ious o p t ion . P ruden t ius d u ly r ecorded where C har les s pen t C hr istmas i n 8 41 ( Cha lons ) a nd b oth E aster a nd C hr ist mas i n 8 42 ( Hersta l a nd S t Q uen t in ); 31 ma jor f east .

a nd t ha t was t he l ast t ime h e n oted C har les ' whereabou ts a t a L ike t he e ar ly 8 30s , t he y ears 8 40-3 were e xcep t iona l : c on-

t inu ing p ol i t ica l c r isis , f requen t c hanges o f p ersonne l, moves a nd c a mpa igns mus t h ave made a c our t c hap la in ' sl i fe h ard , ac our t a nna l ist ' sh arder s t i l l . Under s uch c ond i t ions , t he a nna l f or 8 42 was s o meth ing o f a n a ch ieve men t , 1 9

i nclud ing a s i td oes n ot o n ly d e ta i ls o f t he a ct iv i t ies o f a l l t hree F rank ish k ings a nd a c arefu l r ecord o f C har les ' marr iage , b ut a lso i nfor ma t ion o n V ik ings i n t he C hanne l a nd S aracens i n t he Med i terranean . The n ex t d eve lop men t i n Pruden t ius ' c areer , a nd o ne w i th a d ecis ive e f fect o n t he AB , was h is a ppo in t men t t o t he b ishopr ic o f Troyes, u sua l ly d a ted s o me t i me b e tween 8 43 a nd 8 46. more c lose ly .

3 2

Th is c an p robab ly b e p inned d own

L upus r evea ls t ha t h e a nd P ruden t ius , a l most c er ta in ly a

b ishop b y t hen , were e ngaged o n a n o f f ic ia l m ission i n t he a u tu mn o f 8 44 , a nd h e a ddresses P ruden t ius a s b ishop i n Apr i l 8 45.

Then t here i s t he e v idence

3 3

o f t he AB t he mse lves wh ich imp ly s o me k ind o f b reak l a te i n 8 43:

n o more

i nfor ma t ion i s g iven a f ter A ugust u nder t ha t y ear ( wh ich means t ha t C har les ' Breton c a mpa ign , t he a sse mb lies o f G er m igny a nd C ou la ines , a nd Char les ' w in ter ing a t T ours 3 4

a re a l l u n men t ioned ) wh i le , o n t he o ther h and , t he 8 44

a nna l s ee ms t o b e s et t led i n ap at tern f o l lowed b y P ruden t ius t hereaf ter , t ha t i s , u nder e ach y ear t here i su sua l ly s o me i n for ma t ion o n e ven ts i n I t a ly , e spec ia l ly c oncern ing t he p apacy , o n V ik ing a ct iv i t ies, a nd o n L ou is t he G er man , w i th s o me t i mes a s crap o n t he B r i t ish I s les o r S pa in .

Where t hese s craps

c an b e c hecked , i nciden ta l ly , t he i n for ma t ion s ee ms a ccura te , a s i n t he n ot ices o fV ik ing a t tacks o n I re land u nder t he y ear 8 47 a nd o f ag rea t I r ish v ictory u nder 8 4 8: t he Anna ls o f U lster b ear t h is o ut a nd t he move men ts o f I r ish s cho lars o n t he C on t inen t s uggest l ikely l i nes o f c o mmun icat ion .

3 5

B u t P ruden t ius ' AB f ro m 8 44 o nwards a re d if feren t i n a more f unda men ta l way f ro m t he AB o f t he 8 30s a nd f ro m t he ARF .

T hey a re n ot o n ly l ess f u ll

b u t a lso much more s crappy , b ecause t he r uler ' sd eeds a nd d ip lo macy n o l onger p rov ide a l i nk ing t he me .

The s en tences j erk a long f ro m o ne l u mp o f

i n for ma t ion t o t he n ex t , n ot b ecause P ruden t ius '

L a t in ity i s w eak , b ut b ecause

t here i s n oth ing r ese mb ling a c on t inuous n arra t ive .

Pruden t ius ' p rob le ms

may h ave a r isen p ar t ly f ro m t rying t o k eep t oo many b a l ls i n t he a ir a t o nce , i n s o f ar a s h e was i n terested i n t he d oings n ot j ust o f o ne C aro lingian r u ler b ut o f s evera l;

b ut t hey a rose , t oo, f ro m t he s pas mod ic, p a tchy way i n wh ich

n ews r eached h im .

The a nna ls f or 8 44 a nd 8 49 , f or i nstance , w i th t he ir c on-

f used a nd f rag men tary a ccoun ts o f e ven ts i n f ar-of f Aqu i ta ine , s how h ow h ard i t was f or Pruden t ius t o a rrange h is ma ter ia l i n ac oheren t t ime-sequence . The e xp lana t ion f or t he c hanged c haracter o f Pruden t ius ' a nna ls f ro m 8 44 t o 8 61 l i es, It h ink , i n h is a bsence , most o f t he t i me , f ro m C har les ' c our t , a nd h is l i v ing , a ga in most o f t he t ime , a t T royes wh ich d ur ing t h is whole p er iod h ard ly f i gured a t a l l i n C har les ' i t inerary .

3 6

C hron ic i l lness may h ave b een

a nother r eason why P ruden t ius v isi ted t he c our t a nd a t tended a sse mb l ies l ess of ten t han s o me o ther b ishops. 37 S o me h istor ians h ave f ound i th ard t o a ccoun t f or P ruden t ius ' s i lences o n wha t i n t he v iew o f t hose s a me h istor ians w ere q ui te impor tan t e ven ts . L ot a nd H a lphen , f or i nstance , w onder ing why P ruden t ius f a i led t o men t ion t he S ynod o f Ver ( 8 44 ) o r t he s o-ca l led F irst C ol loquy o f Meersen ( 847 ), w ere moved t o s ugges t t ha t t h is was b ecause n e i ther mee t ing p roduced s uccessfu l r esu lts . F rank ly i ti s h ard t o s ee why t he S econd C o l loquy o f Meersen ( 8 51 ) s hould b e t hough t a ny more 'impor tan t ' i n t er ms o f r esults, t hough t h is was t he c r i ter ion , s o L ot a nd Ha lphen a l lege , o n wh ich P ruden t ius n ot mere ly ment i oned i t , b ut i nc luded v erba t im t he t ex t t ha t emana ted f ro m i t , i n t he AB .

2 0

3 8

Y e t i ft h is r ea l ly was t he c r i ter ion o n wh ich P ruden t ius i nser ted , o r om i t ted , ma ter ia l, why d o t he AB s ay n oth ing o ft he S ynod o f N ove mber 8 49 a t P ar is when t heolog ica l mat ters wh ich P ruden t ius c er ta in ly t hough t impor tan t were s e t t led i n a manner wh ich h e t hough t s uccessfu l?39 Two r easons o f aq u i te d iff eren t k ind may b e a dvanced f or P ruden t ius ' p lacing o f t he Meersen c ap i tu la i n t he 8 51 a nna l :

f i rst , t h is was a v ery l ean y ear i n t er ms o f o ther i n for-

ma t ion , a nd s ince 8 50 h ad b een s t i l l worse ( i t i s b y f ar P ruden t ius ' s hor test a nna l ) h e may s i mp ly h ave b een g ra tefu l f or more , a nd r eady- made , ma ter ia l , e spec ia l ly a t at i me w hen h e was mich p reoccup ied w i th wr i t ing a b ulky t heol og ica l t rea t ise ;" s econd — a nd t he p o in t i s n ot q u i te s o o bv ious a s i tl ooks — P ruden t ius was a b le t o g e t h old o f t he Meersen t ext , f or w hether o r n ot h e was h i mse lf p resen t a t Meersen , 41

h e was c erta in ly i n c on tact a t t h is t i me ,

u nusua l ly , w i th t he k ing a nd w i th h is own metropo li tan Wen i lo o f S ens, 42 o f w ho m were .

b oth

Anyway , t he 8 51 a nna l i s t he e xcep t ion t ha t p roves t he r ule:

n or ma l ly Pruden t ius was i n n o p osi t ion t o h ave s uch a n ' of f icia l d ocu men t ' a t h is d isposa l . T h is r a ises a w ider p rob le m :

Pruden t ius ' a nna ls h ave g enera l ly b een

s een a s , s t i l l , a n ' of f ic ia l ' w ork , a nd t he o b l iga t ions o f a 'c our t ier ' ( 'd 'un c our t isan , o u t ou t a u mo bs p ar t isan ' )h ave b een i nvoked t o e xp la in b oth wha t Pruden t ius s a id o r d id n ot s ay , a nd h ow h e s a id i t . 43 E very th ing w as p resent ed , a ccord ing t o L ev i l la in , i n a way t ha t f avoured 'h is master ' ( Char les ) wh ich p roduced

f au lts s o o bv ious t ha t h istor ians .. a re u nab le t o l e t t he m-

s e lves b e l ed i n to e rror ' ( ; ) We l l , wha tever P ruden t ius " f au lts ' ,t hey a re s ure ly n ot t hose L ev i l la in a l leges .

F or Pruden t ius d id g ive i n for ma t ion d is-

c red i tab le t o C har les, a nd i ndeed e xp lic i t ly c r i t ic ised h im i n more t han o ne p lace ;4 4

wh i le wha t h e d id n ot d o i n a ny a nna l a f ter t ha t f or 8 41 45

i n a ny p hrase o r e ven e p i the t t ha t m igh t h ave f l a t tered t he k ing .

was t o p it O dd i ft h is

was t he b est a 'c our t ier ' c ou ld d o .. L öwe , e viden t ly r ecogn is ing t he i nadequacy o f s uch a v iew a s L ev i l la in ' s , h as o f fered h is own e xp lana t ion o f t hose AB p assages i n wh ich P ruden t ius c r it i cised C har les:

'h is ( cr it ica l ) p osi t ion c orresponds t o t he r ise o f t he \ Vest

F rank ish e p iscopa te t o ap osi t ion i n wh ich i tc ou ld c la im t o c on tro l a nd d irect t he West F rank ish k ing , a nd , s een f ro m t h is p erspect ive ,

i t was q ui te

u nderstandab le t ha t a f ter P ruden t ius ' d ea th , h is w ork was c arr ied o n b y H inc mar o f R he i ms ' .46

B u t o n t h is a na lysis , i tb eco mes s trange t ha t a n e p iscopa l

s pokes man s hould h ave n eg lected e ven t o men t ion t he a l leged

e p iscopa list '

t r iu mphs o f Ver a nd Meaux-Par is ( 844 , 8 45 ), 47 a nd d ep icted t he e ven ts o f a utu mn 8 58 i n s uch v ery u n' e p iscopa l ist ' c o lours.

Those e ven ts, a nd

P ruden t ius ' t rea t men t o ft he m , h ave a g ood d ea l t o t e ll u s a bou t n in th-cen tury p ol i t ica l r ea li t ies, n ot l east a s t hey a f fected b ishops.

L ou is t he G er man ' s

i nvas ion o f t he r ea lm o f h is h a lf-brother C har les d id n ot c o me o ut o f t he b lue : 48 as izab le f act ion o f t he a r istocracy o f C har les ' r ea lm h ad p ro m ised L ou is t he ir s uppor t , a nd were a s g ood a s t he ir word .

Among t hese were Wen i lo

A rchb ishop o f S ens a nd O do C oun t o f Troyes. 49

And wha t t hen was P ruden t ius '

p os i t ion , w ith h is metropo li tan a nd h is l oca l c oun t g one t o w e lco me t he i nv ader?

We c an o n ly g uess a t t he d egree o f Pruden t ius ' c o mp l ici ty when L ouis

c a me t o Troyes i n N ove mber a nd made i tb r ief ly h is b ase i n West F rancia .

5 0

B y t he f o l low ing s pr ing , C har les h ad r ecovered h is p osi t ion a nd L ou is h ad w i thdrawn e astwards .

H ow d id Pruden t ius wr i te u p a l l t h is ? N eg lect ing e ven 2 1

t o men t ion Wen i lo o r Odo , h e r ecoun ted t he moves o f L ouis a nd Char les w i thout c o m men t o r e xp lana t ion — s o b a ld ly , i n f ac t , t ha t al a ter West F rank ish c opy ist o f t he AB was moved t o i nser t as en tence a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 8 58 a nna l s u m mar ising t he y ear ' se ven ts i n a way s y mpa thet ic t o C har les. 51 Y et i f Pruden t ius wrote n o c r i t ic is m o f L ouis i n to h is a nna ls, H inc mar o f Rhe i ms , h is s uf fragans a nd h is c o l league o f t he p rovince o f R ouen h ad r a l l ied i n p rac t ica l , m i l i tary s uppor t o f C har les a nd d ispa tched a b eaut iful ly c opa l ist ' l et ter o f p rotes t t o t he i nvader .5 2

e p is-

Pruden t ius ' f a i lure t o c onfor m

a t t h is p oin t t o a ny i deo log ica l s tereotype s hou ld make u s l ook f or a nother i n terpre ta t ion o f h is c onduct : h e s ee ms t o h ave b een o n t he f r inge , a t l east , o f ag roup o f n ob les w i th who m Wen i lo a nd Odo w ere i nvo lved a nd s o me o f whose me mbers h ad b een i n i ncip ien t r evo l t s ince 8 53 5 3

— wh ich migh t b e

l i nked , i n t urn , w i th t he c r i t ic is ms o f C har les i n t he AB u nder t he y ears 8 53 a nd 8 55 .

E ven i ft he c o mposi t ion o f t h is g roup r e ma ins o bscure, a nd i t s c on-

s istency o f p o licy q uest ionab le , t here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t t he way i n wh ich P ruden t ius wrote h is a nna ls was d eter m ined l ess b y a ny a bstract p rincip les t han b y h is p ersona l p o li t ica l l oya lt ies a nd c onnex ions. Th is b r ings u s t o t he l ast p rob le m o f P ruden t ius ' s ect ion o f t he AB , t he c ur ious p assage a t t he e nd o f t he e n try f or 8 59:

P ope N icholas f a ith fu l ly c on-

f i r med a nd c a tho lic ly d ecreed c oncern ing t he g race o f G od a nd Free W i l l , t he t ruth o f Doub le P redest ina t ion a nd a bout t he b lood o f C hr ist , h ow i tw as s hed f or a l l b e l ievers?

5 4

N ow w i thout g oing i n to t heolog ica l d eta i ls, i t 's e nough

t o n ote h ere t ha t t h is a l leged p apa l p ronounce men t b e longs i n as aga o f d oct r ina l c on troversy o ver t he t each ings o f G ot tscha lk .5 5

H inc mar a nd many o f

t he F rank ish b ishops h ad c onde mned t hese t each ings, b ut Pruden t ius a nd o thers h ad s y mpa th ised w i th t he m ;

a nd i n t he 8 59 a nna l as im i lar s y mpathy w as a t-

t r ibuted t o t he p ope h i mse lf .

S o me h ave s a id t ha t P ruden t ius i nven ted t h is

'd ecree ' o f P ope N icho las ;5 6

O thers h ave s uggested h e r ecorded a c urren t

r u mour .

5 7

B u t P ruden t ius makes t he s ta te men t s ound p erfect ly a u then t ic.

I s wha t h e s ays i n f act i ncred ib le?

It h ink n ot .

Thanks t o r ecen t w ork , i t

i s f a ir ly c lear t ha t G ot tscha lk ' st each ings r e ma ined i n c ircu la t ion a s l ong a s t hey d id b ecause h e h ad f ound p owerful f r iends a nd p a trons t hroughout h is c areer . Then , o f c ourse , h is p o li t ica l , i n terests. H inc mar ' so pponen ts.

h eresy ' b eca me a p eg o n wh ich t o h ang o ther ,

Thus G ot tscha lk ' sf r iends c a me t o i nc lude s o me o f 58

I n t he l i gh t o f a l l t h is, we c an n ow l ook a t al e t ter wr i t ten b y H inc mar i n 8 66 — f or h im a n e specia l ly d i f f icul t y ear .

C har les h ad i nsisted o n a ppoin t ing

t o t he v acan t s ee o f B ourges ( ap lace v i ta l t o r u ling Aqu ita ine ) h is t r ied a nd t rusted c lerk Wu lfad . B u t t here was a s nag : Wulfad h ad o r ig ina l ly b een c ons ecra ted i n h oly o rders b y H inc mar ' sp redecessor E bbo who , t hough d eposed f ro m o f f ice , a s w e s aw , i n 8 35 , h ad b een b r ief ly r e insta ted a t Rhei ms b y L othar i n 8 40 a nd d ur ing t he f ew mon ths b efore h e w as e xpe l led a ga in i n 8 41 h ad c onsecra ted a n u mber o f c lerks, i nclud ing Wu l fad .

The i ssue r a ised i n

8 66 was t ha t o f t he f ina l i ty o f E bbo ' sd eposi t ion , wh ich i t was o f c ourse v i ta l f or H inc mar t o ma in ta in .

C har les, t o b e f a ir , d id n ot w ish t o c hal lenge t h is,

2 2

b ut was d e ter m ined t o p ut i n h is man a t B ourges. a bout e n l ist ing t he s uppor t o f t he p ope. 59

B oth h e a nd H inc mar s et

And am idst a l l t h is, t o H inc mar ' s

a lar m , t he f r iends o f G ot tscha lk were , p red ictab ly , a gain r ear ing t he ir h eads. I t ' ss a id h e h as many s uppor ters ', wrote H inc marG° i n S ep te mber t o E ig i l , Archb ishop o f S ens , j ust t hen l eav ing o n am ission t o R o me. s uppor ters, H inc mar c on t inued , h ad b een P ruden t ius, — r eferr ing t o h is w ork o n Predest ina t ion .

One o f t hese

a s h is wr i t ings s how '

H e a lso ', a dded H inc mar , 'i n

t he Anna ls o ft he Deeds o f o ur K ings wh ich h e p ut t ogether ( i .e . o ur AB ) i ns er ted t he f o l low ing i n t he e ven ts o f t he y ear 8 59 t o c onf ir m h is own o p in ion .. , a nd H inc mar t hen q uoted t he o f fend ing p assage a bout N icholas " d ecree ' . 'We h ave n ever h eard t h is f ro m a nyone e lse ', H inc mar w en t o n , ' nor r ead i t a nywhere e lse .

T herefore s ince t hose Deeds ( aga in , t he AB ) i n wh ich t hese

t h ings a re wr i t ten h ave j ust n ow c o me i n to t he h ands o f an u mber o f p eop le , i t i s n ecessary t ha t y ou ( E ig i l ) h ave a w ord w i th t he p ope a bout t he mat ter , l est s canda l c o me f ro m i ti n to t he C hurch '.

Af ter h ast i ly a dd ing t ha t n o men t ion

s hou ld b e made o f h is own n a me ( 'f or h is m ind i s s a id t o b e moved a gainst me , a nd many p eop le a re wr i t ing t o h im a gainst me ' ) , H inc mar wan ted t o make c lear t o E ig i l e xac t ly wh ich a nna list ic t ex t h e mean t : e v iden t ly i t was n o t a l l t ha t f am i l iar t o t he Archb ishop o f S ens. t a lk ing a bout , t he k ing h as:

Tha t s et o f Anna ls Iam

i ti s t ha t v ery s a me b ook wh ich h e l en t t o me i n

y our p resence , a nd wh ich Ir eturned t o h im i n y our p resence i n t he c hurch where h e c o m mended y ou t o u s ' E ig i l was c onsecra ted t o S ens.

The r eference mast b e t o t he y ear 8 65 when Then , a t a ny r a te , t he k ing was i n p ossession

o f P ruden t ius ' s ect ion o f t he AB . B u t H inc mar ' sw ords n eed n ot imp ly t ha t h e h ad h ad i tf or l ong b efore t ha t .

On t he c on trary , H inc mar s ays t ha t i ti s o n ly

r ecen t ly ( i am ) t ha t P ruden t ius ' a nna ls h ave c o me i n to t he h ands o f o f p eop le '.

an u mber

H is w ords a lso s uggest t ha t t h is t ex t was s pecia l , e ven u n ique: 61

H inc mar h ad h ad t o t ake h is c opy f ro m t he k ing ' s manuscr ip t , a nd t he r es earches o f Gra t a nd o thers h ave s hown t ha t t here i s n o e v idence f or t he e x ist ence o f a ny o ther manuscr ip ts i n t he n in th c en tury b esides t hese t wo. Amaz ing ly , t h is l et ter o f H inc mar h as b een c i ted a s i nd ica t ing t ha t n ot o n ly C har les t he B a ld b u t , b y e x tension , C har le magne t oo k ep t at ex t o f t he r oya l a nna ls c lose b y h i m 'i n t he c hancery ' f or h andy r eference , a nd a l lowed o pen a ccess t o i t : s ecre t ' ( :) 6 2

' there was n o t hought o f k eep ing t he r oya l a nna ls a s a n o f f icia l B u t s ure ly H inc mar ' sl e t ter imp l ies t ha t C har les h ad n ever h ad

ac opy o f Pruden t ius ' a nna ls d ur ing Pruden t ius ' l i fet i me , b ut , when H inc mar wrote i n 8 66, h ad o n ly r ecen t ly a cqu ired t he u n ique manuscr ip t .

We d on 't

k now wha t h appened t o P ruden t ius ' p apers a nd l i brary when h e d ied , b ut we d o k now t ha t C har les a ppoin ted a s h is s uccessor o ne o f t he p a lace n otar ies, F u lcr ic .

6 3

Is uggest t ha t Pruden t ius ' a nna ls o n ly t hen g ot i n to t he h ands o f

t he k ing , a nd i n d ue c ourse , o f o thers, p erhaps b ecause C har les wan ted t o d raw t heir a t ten t ion t o t he 8 59 a nna l w i th i t s e v idence o f N icho las ' s of t l ine o n p redest ina t ion ist h eresy . T o s u m mar ise my v iew o f P ruden t ius ' a nna ls:

wr i t ten , o n H inc mar ' s

e v idence , a s ' Deeds o fo ur K ings ', t hey were , f ro m 8 44 o nwards, p roduced n ei ther a t n or f or t he c our t , a nd n ot e specia l ly p reoccup ied w i th o n ly t he West F rank ish r ea lm .

G iven P ruden t ius ' c onnex ions w i th a g roup wh ich was i n

t ouch w i th L ouis t he G er man a t v ar ious p oin ts i n t he 8 50s , t he f a ir ly c onsisten t i n terest s hown i n L ouis ' d eeds i n t h is p ar t o ft he AB , a nd s peci f ica l ly t he

2 3

t rea t men t o ft he e ven ts o f 8 58 , f i nd a n e xp lana t ion . I f , a s L evi l lain a pp aren t ly b e l ieved , P ruden t ius ' a nna ls were i n tended f or C har les ' e yes , t hen t he q ues t ion wou ld h ave t o b e f aced : c r i t icis ms o f C har les?

h ow c ou ld h e h ave wr i t ten i n to t he m

The t h ing t o r e me mber i st he s i mp le f act o f P ruden t ius '

s i tua t ion : g eograph ica l ly , p ol i t ica l ly , p ersona l ly , h e was r e moved f ro m t he c our t .

I n o ther w ords, t he a ssocia t ion o f a nna l-product ion w i th t he C arolin-

g ian r oya l c hape l was b roken af ter 8 43 .

C har les t he B a ld s ee ms t o h ave made

n o a t te mp t t o r e-estab l ish i t , a nd i ndeed a l lowed t he o f f ice o f a rch-chap la in t o l apse af ter 8 60.

L öwe h as a rgued t ha t t h is h e lps t o e xp la in t he e nd o f t he

c our t-anna lis t ic t rad i t ion . way r ound :

B u t a ny r e la t ionsh ip h ere s ee ms t o b e t he o ther

6 4

o ne r eason a n a rch-chap la in was n o l onger n eeded was t ha t b y

8 60 t he p roduct ion o f a nna ls h ad l ong s ince c eased t o b e p ar t o f h is r esponsib i li t ies .

Is ha l l r e turn p resen t ly t o t he w ider q uest ion o f h ow t h is c a me t o b e

SO.

I t,s t ime n ow t o c onsider t he l ast a nd b est-known s ect ion o f t he AB — H inc mar ' ss ect ion , c over ing t he y ears 8 61 t o 8 82 when H inc mar d ied . L ev i lla in was p erhaps a l i t t le c arr ied away when h e l i kened H inc mar ' sa nna ls t o t he Me-moires o f S a in t-S i mon ,

6 5

b u t i t 's t rue t ha t , c o mpared w i th P ruden t ius '

s ect ion , t hey a re o f ten e n ter ta in ing a nd o ccasiona l ly , e ven , q ui te g r ipp ing . I f we b eg in b y a sk ing why H inc mar t ook u p t he a nna l ist ' sp en a t a l l ,

8 6

t he

f i rst t h ing t o n ot ice i s t ha t h e r ever ts, i n s o me r espec ts, t o t he o ld s ty le o f t he ARF .

H e r ecords t he r oya l i t inerary i n s o me d e ta i l, w i th s pecia l n ote

t aken o f where t he k ing s pends E aster a nd C hr ist mas.

A sse mb l ies a nd s ynods

a re f a ir ly t horough ly r ecorded , a nd t here i s much d e ta i led i n for mat ion a bout d ip lo ma t ic e xchanges .

H incmar , h imsel f aF rank a nd k ins man o f a t l eas t

t wo c oun ts , i s a lso i n teres ted i n t he a c t ions a nd a ppo in t men ts o f l ead ing a r is tocra ts .

6 7

H e a t te mp ts f u l ler c overage o vera l l :

h is a nna ls a verage

a t5 + p ages p er a nnu m a s a ga ins t 1 1 ' f or P ruden t ius ' s ec t ion a nd 2 1+ f or t he ARF i n t he 8 20s . 68

We r eca l l t ha t H incmar h ad t he ARF a nd F u lco 's

a nna ls b efore h im i n P ruden t ius ' manuscr ip t ,

a nd t ha t h e h ad b egun h is

c areer a s ap a lace c lerk , ap ro tégé o f H i ldu in who was p robably r espons ib le f or t he a nna ls ' p roduc t ion i n t he 8 20s .

6 9

Ac er ta in n osta lg ia f or t hose

g ood o ld d ays , as o mewha t a ggr ieved d e ter m ina t ion t o r eaf f ir m t he ir s ound p rac t ices i n t he t ee th o f modern d ec line , w ere l a ter t o b e l e i t moti fs i n H inc mar ' s De Ord ine P a la t i i ,

7 0

a nd may we l l h ave i nsp ired h i m when i n 8 61 h e s et a bout

c on t inu ing t he AB where P ruden t ius h ad l ef t o f f .

A lso r e levan t , p erhaps, may

h ave b een H inc mar ' sy ou thfu l a cqua in ta ince w i th h istor ica l wr i t ing i n t he f or m o f t he G esta Dagober t i : t h is ap in was a n i n terest t o wh ich h e r eturned -l a ter i n l i fe w ith t he V i ta Re m ig i i . t an t :

7 1

Af ur ther b iograph ica l p oin t i s s ure ly impor-

i n 8 61 , H inc mar h ad r ecen t ly c o mp leted t wo v ery l arge works, t he f i rst

o f t he m i nvo lving , a s Dev isse h as s hown ,

7 2

a ma jor p rogra m me o f r e-

e duca t ion — t he Th ird Trea t ise o n P redest ina t ion , a nd t he De D ivor t io .

Wi th

t hese o f f h is d esk , t h is i ndefa t igab le p en-pusher may w e l l h ave b een i n s earch o f an ew t he me . B u t i n o ne v i ta l r espect , H inc mar was i ndeed c on t inu ing Pruden t ius ' work r a ther t han r esu m ing t he ARF t rad i t ion : h e was n o t wr i t ing a nna ls a t t he c our t , a nna ls wh ich t he k ing s hould o r migh t s ee , b ut wr i t ing a t Rhe i ms , we may g uess f or h is own f am i l ia o f c lerks, f or p oster i ty t oo p erhaps, l i tt a bove a l l f or h i mself .

H inc mar ' sn eed t o j udge t he c onduc t o fo thers a nd t o j ust ify

h is own i s o ne o f t he most s tr ik ing t ra i ts i n h is p ersona l i ty , a nd i t s p ro m inence 2 4

i n h is a nna ls d if fers o n ly i n d egree , n ot i n k ind , f ro m wha t we f i nd i n h is w orks d esigned f or p ub lica t ion .

I tl arge ly a ccoun ts f or t he much g rea ter f u l-

n ess o f h is s ect ion o f t he AB c o mpared w i th P ruden t ius ', f or when H inc mar ' s s ty le l ooks a t i t s most

o f f icia l ' ,i ti s i n f act v ery s ub ject ive .

When h e

q uotes f ro m ' of f icia l d ocu men ts ' ,wh ich h e d oes r e la t ive ly o f ten a nd a t t ed ious l eng th , t hey a re b e ing u sed a s p ieces j ust if ica t ives f or H inc mar ' sown p osit i on o r a ct ions i n ag iven c ase.

F or i nstance , t he p roceed ings b efore C har les '

c onsecra t ion a s k ing o f L othar ing ia a t Me tz i n 8 69 a re g iven i n f u ll ,

7 3

p ar t ly

b ecause H inc mar d esigned a nd s tage- managed t he r i tua l o n t h is o ccas ion ( as o n o thers:

l i ke p resen t-day H era lds , h e c lear ly f ound t hese ma t ters f as-

c ina t ing a nd impor tan t ) a nd p ar t ly b ecause h e w ished t o r eproduce h is own s peech j ust ify ing h is o f f icia t ing i n s o meone e lse ' sa rchd iocese ( reason e nough t o p u ll , t r iu mphan t ly , o ut o f t he m i tre t he my th o f C lov is ' h eaven-sen t o i l wh ich we ( a t R hei ms ) s t i ll h ave s o me ' 1 ) .

o f

Aga in , when h e g ives t he t ext o f a

l e t ter s en t b y t wo L othar ing ian a rchb ishops t o t he ir c ol leagues, w e f i nd t ha t h e h as d octored i t .

7 4

Apparen t ly h is mot ive h ere , s ince t he t wo L othar ing ians

were f i erce ly c r i t ica l o f t he p ope , was t o d issoc ia te h i mse lf f ro m a n e xtre me p os i t ion w i th wh ich t hey h ad t r ied t o i den t ify t he e n t ire F rank ish e p iscopa te . ( H inc mar c ou ld , o n o ccasion , h i mse lf c r i t ic ise t he p ope v ery f ree ly i n t he AB , b u t o n ly when h is p ersona l p osi t ion was t hrea tened .) . H inc mar l acked a c oncep t ion o f t ex tua l a u then t ici ty ;

7 5

I t was n ot t ha t

r a ther t ha t , i n t he AB

a s i n o ther w orks, h e man ipu la ted d ocu men tary e v idence a s a means t o wha t h e s aw a s h igher , p o lemic , e nds. 7 6 T he me-moires-ana logy i s c er ta in ly more u sef u l t o a n u nderstand ing o f H inc mar ' sp urposes i n t he AB t han t he c harge t ha t h e of ten

f orgot h is d u ty a s a n h istor ian ' .7 7

C r i t ic is m o f o thers i s , I 've s aid , an otab le f ea ture o f H inc mar ' sa nna ls. H e l oosed h is s haf ts o ver a w ide r ange o f p eop le , f ro m t he men o f T ou louse , ' w i th t he ir u sua l p erf idy ', t o H agano , 'a c raf ty a nd v ery g reedy I t a lian b ishop ', t o C har les ' u ncle , C oun t C onrad , 'w i th h is a rrogan t y e t s uperf icia l k now ledge o ft he w or ld wh ich b rough t l i t t le b enef i t t o h i mself , s t i l l l ess t o o thers ' ,7 8 t o — f i na lly — P ruden t ius whose u nf in ished a nna l f or 8 61 h e c on t inued a s f o l lows: 7 9 'Pruden t ius B ishop o f Troyes , o r ig ina l ly n a med G a l indo , aS pan iard b y b ir th , was a t f i rst a v ery l earned man .. B u t l a ter , e xc i ted b y b it ter f ee lings , h e b eca me a v ery k een d efender o f ( Got tscha lk ' s ) h eresy a ga inst c er ta in b ishops

Then h e d ied , s t i l l s cr ibb ling a way a t many

t h ings t ha t a re mutua l ly c on trad ic tory a nd c on trary t o F a i th .

Thus ,

t hough h e h ad b een w orn d own b y i l lness f or a l ong t i me , h e p ut a n e nd a t o nce b oth t o l i v ing a nd t o wr i t ing '. A s w e 'y e a lready s een , H inc mar h ad p ersona l r easons f or h ost i l i ty t o Pruden t ius a nd a more t han t heolog ica l s take i n t he P redest ina t ion c on trov ersy . Bu t when we t urn t o H inc mar ' sc r i t ic is ms o f C har les t he B a ld , t he s i tua t ion may s ee m a v ery d if feren t o ne . F or L öwe 8° h as a rgued t ha t t hese r ef lect 'n ot j ust p ersona l r ancour b u t ap ol i t ica l w i l l ', a c onsisten t p ol icy — ak ind o f e p iscopa l is t p ol icy — wh ich i nvolved s et t ing u p c er ta in s tandards f or r oya l b ehaviour .

L awe ' sa ccoun t o f H inc mar ' sv iews m igh t b e t rans la ted

( w i thou t , Ih ope , t oo much m isrepresen ta t ion ) i n to t he f o l low ing l i st o f c oncrete p roh ib i t ions:

2 5

1 .

t he k ing s hou ld n ot n egot ia te w i th V ik ings:

h e s hould f i gh t t he m .

2 .

t he k ing s hould s top g iving c hurches a nd c hurch l ands t o l ay men .

3 .

t he k ing s hould s top c la im ing c on tro l o ft op e cc lesiast ica l a ppoin tmen ts .

4 .

t he k ing s hould n ot g et i nvolved i n I t a ly when h e s hould b e a t h o me f i gh t ing V ik ings.

5 .

t he k ing s hould n ever f l out t he r u les o f c anon l aw a s e xpounded b y me , H inc mar .

We c an t est L 5we ' sa rgu men t f i rst , b y l ook ing a t a l l t he i nstances o f n egot iat i ons w i th V ik ings , a nd s o o n , r ecorded i n t he AB t o s ee whe ther H inc mar r eacts c onsisten t ly t o r oya l b reaches o f h is 'r u les ' ;a nd s econd , b y i nvok ing t he h e lp o fo ther s ources , t o s ee i fH inc mar i n t he AB h as n ot s o met imes s he lved a p rob le m o f h is own b y om it t ing c er ta in a wkward f acts.

L e t ' s ,t hen ,

l ook b r ief ly a t t he p oin ts o n o ur l i st i n t urn . 1 .

H ow t o d ea l w i th V ik ings.

True , u nder t he y ears 8 65 a nd 8 66 , H inc mar

d oes c r i t icise , more o r l ess e xp l ic i t ly , l ack o f r es istance t o t he V ik ings, a nd , imp l ic i t ly , t he mak ing o ft rea t ies w i th t he m .

8 1

d eta i ls o f Danege ld p ay men ts w i thout c o m men t ,

On t he o ther h and , h e r ecords 8 2

a nd u nder 8 73, i n what r eads

l ike a n e ye-w i tness a ccoun t , h e a pproves C har les ' s k i l l i n n egot ia t ions w i th t he V ik ings a t Angers when a ccord ing t o o ther c on te mporary i n for ma t ion w i th ad if feren t b ias, h e c ould a c tua l ly h ave c rushed t hese V ik ings b y f orce . 2 .

G iv ing c hurches t o L ay men .

o n t h is s core u nder 8 66.

8 4

8 3

Yes, H inc mar d oes l odge b i t ter c o mp la in ts

On t he o ther h and , u nder 8 67 h e r ecords w i thout

a dverse c o m men t t ha t C har les h i mself a ssu med t he a bbacy o f H inc mar ' so ld h ouse , S t Den is. 3 .

8 5

E cc lesiast ica l a ppoin t men ts a nd r oya l c on tro l.

Yes, t here a re s harp

p rotests u nder 8 66 a bout r oya l i n terference i n t he c ase o f Wulfad , a nd u nder 8 76 i n t ha t o f Anseg is o f S ens.

8 6

On t he o ther h and , t here a re n o c o mp lain ts

a bout o ther e p iscopa l a nd a bba t ia l a ppoin t men ts made b y t he k ing , a nd H inc mar i s q ui te s y mpa the t ic t o C har les i n h is p resen ta t ion o f t he c ase o f H inc mar o f L aon u nder 8 68-871. 8 7 4 .

i nvo lve men t i n I t a ly .

I n f act t here i s n o e xp l ic i t c r i t icis m o n t h is s core

i n t he AB , a nd t he t wo i nstances o f i rony L öwe 8 8 f i nds u nder 8 77 a re n o t d irected a ga inst t he I t a l ian i nvolve men t i t se lf . a nother w ork i n 8 75 , 8 77 .

8 9

H inc mar d id c o mp lain i n

b ut h is v iew may h ave b eco me more f avourab le b y

9 °

B efore d ea ling w i th t he l ast p oin t o n o ur l i st , we c an a lready r egister s o me d oub ts a bout L öwe ' sp resen ta t ion o f t he AB e v idence .

H inc mar ' sc r i t ic is ms

o f C har les c o me i n v ery s pecif ic c on tex ts , a nd t wo s hor t p er iods — 8 65-6 a nd 8 76 — s tand o ut a s y ears o f c o mp la in t .

The f i rst o ft hese was , a s we 'v e s een ,

t he t i me o f Wu lfad ' sa ppoin t men t t o B ourges a nd o f H inc mar ' sr eawakened a nx ie ty o ver t he h eresy o f G ot tscha lk a nd h is s uspected p a trons i n h igh p laces. I t was a lso a p er iod o ft e mporary e strange men t f ro m t he k ing . t i on s hows s tr ik ing s im i lar i t ies:

The 8 76 s i tua-

Char les h ad t r ied t o r a i lroad t he a ppoin t men t

2 6

o f Anseg is o f S ens a s P r i ma te o f Gau l a nd Anseg is h ad s uperseded H inc mar i n t he r oya l c ounse ls .

B y c on trast , d uring p er iods when H inc mar a nd t he

k ing were c lose , o r a t a ny r a te n ot i n c on f l ict , e ven d eba teab le r oya l a ct ions e voked n o o ver t c r i t ic is m i n t he AB .

When C har les a t tacked P rovence i n 8 61 ,

f or i nstance , H inc mar e xpressed h is d isapprova l i n al e t ter t o aP rovenca l magna te whose h e lp h e wan ted t o p rotect t he p roper ty o f t he c hurch o f R hei ms i n t ha t r eg ion , b ut a s a nna l ist h e s i mp ly r ecorded C har les ' moves, r eserving h is c r it ica l c o m men ts f or t he c onduct o f t he k ing ' st roops.

9 1

When C har les

made a s im i lar swoop o n L othar ing ia i n 8 69 , H inc mar h ad h is own r easons ( based n o d oub t o n h is c hurch ' si n terests ) f or a pprov ing , a nd c on f ided h is v iew s o mewha t c oy ly i nt he AB .

9 2

I n 8 73 a ga in , t he AB s how H inc mar f i rm ly

a l igned w i th C har les o ver h is d ea l ings w i th t he L oire V ik ings a nd a lso h is t rea t men t o f h is s on C ar lo man ( whose r evo lt h ad e v iden t ly o ccasioned a g ood d ea l o f d a mage t o t he p roper ty o f H inc mar ' sc hurch ) . c onc lude t ha t t he d ist inc t ion b etween

9 3

It hink we h ave t o

p ersona l r ancour ' a nd 'p ol i t ica l w i ll '

i s r a ther m is lead ing i n t he t er ms ' Awe h as p roposed , a nd t ha t t here i s n o c ons isten t i deo log ica l p osi t ion t o b e f ound i n H inc mar ' ss ect ion o ft he AB a ny more t han i n P ruden t ius ' . D if feren t r esponses t o s im i lar p ieces o f r oya l b ehav iour r ef lect , n ot mere 'p ersona l r ancour ' ,b u t c hanges i n H inc mar ' s p o l i t ica l s itua t ion . F ina lly , we s hould g lance a t H inc mar ' sa l leged c onsistency i n t he a pp l icat i on o f c anon l aw .

C hr ist ian marr iage w i ll s erve a s ag ood e xa mp le , f or

H inc mar i n t he AB a nd e lsewhere h as mich t o s ay i n t he 8 60s a bout t he f a mous d ivorce c ase o f L othar I .

I n t h is, a nd i n o ther s im i lar c ases , H inc mar i s

u sua l ly c la i med t o h ave u pheld , u nequivoca l ly , t he l aw o ft he C hurch .

9 4

B y

a pp ly ing t he r ules , H inc mar c ould p ronounce L othar ' s marr iage i nd issolub le , c h i ld less t hough i tm igh t b e . The f act was t ha t i f L o thar d ied w i thout h e irs who were i nd isputab ly l eg i t i ma te , t hen h is u nc le C har les t he B a ld c ou ld h ope t o i nher i t a l l o r p ar t o f h is k ingdo m — wh ich o f c ourse i s wha t h appened i n 8 69 .

Most h is tor ians h ave b een r igh t ly s usp ic ious o f C har les ' mot ives i n

p reach ing a dherence t o t he c anon l aw o n marr iage , y e t t hose s a me h istor ians h ave b e lieved i n H inc mar ' sc o mp lete i n tegr i ty . 9 5 O n ly q ui te r ecen t ly h as i t b een n ot iced t ha t t here w as a nother s tr ict ly c o mparab le c ase o f r oya l d ivorce o n wh ich H inc mar t ook a d if feren t l i ne.

9 6

I n h is a nna l f or 8 78 , H inc mar

wrote t ha t when t he p ope c a me t o West F ranc ia , L ou is t he S ta mmerer ( s on a nd h e ir o f C har les ) a sked f or h is w ife ( who m H inc mar d id n ot n a me ) t o b e c onsecrated q ueen , ' bu t h e c ou ld n ot g e t h is way ' .97

The r eader i s l ef t w i th

t he impress ion t ha t t he l ady i s t he s a me o ne men t ioned i n t he r ecord o f y oung L ouis ' marr iage u nder t he y ear 8 62 . o pera t ive?

9 8

Why , t hen , was t he p ope s o u nco-

I tt urns o u t t ha t a l though t he 8 62 w i fe was s t i l l l i v ing , t he 8 78 w ife

was a d ifferen t l ady .

E v iden t ly a t t he i nsistence o f C har les n ear t he e nd o f

h is r e ign , a nd f or c lear p ol i t ica l mot ives, L ouis h ad b een made t o r epud ia te h is f i rst w ife a nd make a nother a l liance , a nd t he whole a f fa ir w as a rranged w i th H inc mar ' sc onn ivance:

Is hould a dd t ha t s o me v ery c lever d etect ive w ork

was n eeded t o e xpose t h is H inc marga te .

F or tuna te ly , o n t h is s ub ject H inc mar

t he l e t ter-wr i ter 99 p roved t o h ave b een l ess d iscree t t han t he a uthor o f t he AB .

T he i n terest ing h istor iograph ica l p oin t i s t ha t Hi nc mar was f ound o ut ,

s o t o s peak , o n ly when t he p ossib i l i ty o f h is g ui l t o n s uch a s core c ould b e c once ived o f . P erhaps i t ' sn ot s urpr ising t ha t t he p rocess o f r ev ision h as

2 7

b een l ong a nd p a in ful .

F or t he r ea li t ies o f n in th-cen tury p ol i t ics a re of ten

o bscured f ro m u s i n t he c ler ica l ly-produced t ex ts o f t he p er iod , a nd n ot l east i n t he AB , b y t he wr i ters ' u se o f ac ode i n wh ich p o li t ica l c onf l icts a re e xp ressed a s t heo log ica l o r c anon ist ic o nes.

T o r econstruc t t he c on tex t a nd

p urposes o f H inc mar ' sw ork w i thout a nachron is m i s ad e l ica te b usiness. I n t he e nd , t o s u m mar ise , H inc mar ' sa nna ls h ave t o b e r ead , n ot a s b ad h istory , n o t mere ly a s me-moires, c er ta in ly n ot a s t he r ef lect ion o f a n e p isc opa l p rogra m me , b ut a s as er ies o f s ub ject ive a nd more o r l ess i ns tan taneous p ercep t ions o f a nd r eact ions t o c on te mporary p o li t ica l e ven ts i n wh ich H inc mar was h i mse lf more o r l ess d irect ly i nvo lved . e ver r evised h is s ec t ion o f t he AB .

There i s n o e v idence t ha t H inc mar

When h e d ied , h e l ef t , i ts ee ms , as ing le

manuscr ip t , f ro m wh ich a l l e x tan t manuscr ip ts o r f rag men ts o f t he AB i n o ther w orks ( w ith a s ing le e xcep t ion )9 9 aa re d er ived . T h is t ime , n o s uccessor c on t inued w i th af ur ther i ns ta l men t o f t he ' Dezds o f o ur K ings '. B u t i fs uch c a tegor ies a s 'h istory ' o r 'm

m o ires ' a re c lear ly u nap t , t he

AB a lso r a ise d oub ts a bout t he u sefu lness o f c onven t iona l d ist inct ions b etween ' pub lic ' a nd 'p r iva te ' ,' of f ic ia l ' a nd ' unof f ic ia l ' h is tor iography.

We a re

f orced t o c onsider wha t was t he f unct ion o f a nna ls o r c hron icles o f t he r ea lm i n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages.

I ft hey were u sed b y o r p oten t ia l ly u sefu l t o k ings,

why d id n ot o n ly C har les t he Ba ld b u t o ther n in th-cen tury C arol ing ians t oo a l low t he Caro ling ian t rad i t ion o f c our t a nna ls t o l apse? must b e :

B u t ap r ior q uest ion

why were c our t a nna ls e ver wr i t ten u nder a ny C aro ling ian?

A s I

s uggested a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is p aper , a nna l-keep ing h ad a lways b een t he p roduc t o f c ler ica l , n ot r oya l e n thusias m , s peci f ica l ly o f t he i n terest o f a sma l l n u mber o f p a lace c lerks a sse mb led i n t he f i rst p lace b y Char le magne t o c her ish t he r eborn L a t in l earn ing .

I t was t he v ery g row th o f t h is r oya l

p rotege wh ich l ed i n d ue c ourse t o t he emp ty ing o f t he n ursery .

Desp i te

H eir ic ' sf u lso me e u logy o f C har les t he Ba ld ' sp a lace a s ah o me o f l earn ing , 1 00 t here i s v ery l i t t le e v idence f or a c our t s choo l i n h is r e ign . 1 00a

I n p lace o f

t he t igh t-kn i t c our t c irc le o f C har le magne a nd e ven o f L ou is t he P ious, t here c a me i n t he n ex t t wo g enera t ions a d ispersa l o f s cho larsh ip i n to a n u mber o f r eg iona l b ases , l oose ly b ut e f fect ive ly l inked , a s t he P redest ina t ion d eba tes, f or i nstance , s howed , b y t i es o f p ersona l a f fect ion a nd a l liance a nd s hared p o li t ica l a s w e l l a s s cho lar ly c oncerns.

Y e t wh i le p oetry o r t heology o r music

t hr ived i n monaster ies a nd e p iscopa l c i t ies , t h is d ispersa l b rough t a n e nd t o c our t a nna l-keep ing .

Wha t h ad b een a s p in-of fo f t he f i rst , c onstr icted , p hase

o ft he C aro ling ian R ena issance was o ut moded i n t he more e xpansive , d iverse a nd d ecen tra l ised e cc les iast ica l c ul ture o f m id-n in th-cen tury F rancia . The q uest ion o f why C har les t he B a ld was n ot c oncerned t o ma in ta in t he c our t-anna ls t rad i t ion i n t urn b eco mes l ess p ressing i f we j et t ison t he f a lse n ot ion o f C aro ling ian r oya l a nna ls a s i n a ny s ense p ropaganda .

I t was b ecause

t he y outhful C har les , f resh f ro m Wa lah fr id ' st utorsh ip , was i ndeed c oncerned w i th t he r epresen ta t ion o f h is c ause t o p oster i ty t ha t i n 8 40 h e a sked N i thard t o wr i te , n o t a nna ls, b ut a h istory o f r oya l f am i ly c onf licts.

D isi l lusioned

p erhaps w i th t he o utco me o f t ha t c o mm ission ( i f h e e ver e ven s aw N i thard ' s i ncreasing ly d yspep t ic Th ird a nd F our th B ooks ) C har les a pparen t ly d id n ot r epea t t ha t a t te mp t .

A s f or p ropaganda , o f c ourse l i ke a ny p re- modern r u ler ,

C har les was c oncerned t o i nf luence a nd c a jo le c on te mporary a r istocra t ic o p in ion .

G rea t a sse mb lies, c onsu l ta t ions , o a thtak ings, p ub l ic a ddresses , 2 8

r i tua l d isp lays were i ns tru men ts a l l o f wh ich C har les e xp loi ted v igorously . Bu t c our t a nna ls, i n L a t in , h ard ly c a me i n to t h is c a tegory .

Their p ol i t ica l

i rre levance b eco mes c lear , f ina l ly , i ft hey a re c on trasted w i th t he c on te mp orary Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le . I ts ee ms t ha t A lfred d id wha t n o C aro ling ian e ver t hough t o f d oing w i th t he ARF o r t he AB : a rranged f or t he c opy ing a nd c ircu la t ion o f ar ev ised t ex t o ft he Chron icle 1 01 v ernacu lar , men c ou ld h ear , i fn ot r ead . 10 2 message .

wh ich , s ince i t was i n t he

The med iu m c ou ld a f fect t he

Modern i deas o f p ropaganda a re o f c ourse , a s Professor Wh i telock

r em inds u s,

1° 3

a nachron ist ic f or n in th-cen tury Eng land ;

b ut c erta in ly t he

p o ten t ia l a ud ience o ft he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le was n o mere c ler ica l c oter ie. C on trary t o ar ecen t t endency t o s ee C on t inen ta l i n f luence i n A lfred ian h ist or iography , 1°4 Iwould n ow s tress t he d if ferences b etween Eng lish a nd Frank ish a nna l-keep ing i n t he n in th c en tury , a nd s uggest t ha t t he A l fred ian Chron icle h a i led f ro m a d ist inct ive ly i nsular t rad i t ion . whe ther a t S t B er t in ' so r d ur ing h is s tay a t Rhei ms, manuscr ip t o f t he AB

1 °5

1° 6

I f Gr i mba ld ,

e ver s aw H inc mar ' s

t here i s n ot t o my m ind t he s l igh test t race o f t h is t o b e

f ound i n s ubsequen t C hron ic le product ion a cross t he C hanne l .

I n t he c ase o f

t he AB , i nd ispensab i l i ty t o h istor ians i s i n i nverse p ropor t ion t o c on te mporary impact : a nd i n t ha t r espec t , ab et ter modern a na logue ,for a l l i t s l im i ta t ions, t han S a in t-S i mon ' s Memoires m igh t b e t he D iary o f S a mue l P epys. K ing 's C o l lege , L ondon NOTES

1 .

Wa t tenbach-Lev ison 1 953 , p p , 2 45f f ,;

H of fmann 1 958 .

2 .

Wa t tenbach-Lev ison 1 953 , p p , 1 61f f ., 1 8Of f .;

3 ,

F leckenstein 1 959 , p p . 4 Of f ., 7 4f f ., Ma lbos 1 966.

Wa l lace-Hadr i l l 1 960 . I n wha t f o l lows ,

t he R oya l F rank ish Anna ls a re r eferred t o a s t he ARF . 4 .

Smaragdus , V i ta S . B ened ict i An ianensis , MGH , S S XV , i , p . 2 01.

5 .

E r mo ld , I n H onore m H ludow ic i , l i ne 2 019 , p . 1 54 , C p . L upus , E l ) . 7 2 , p . 1 2 .

6 . 7 .

G anshof 1 958 , p p . 6 5f f . E .g . AB s . a . 8 75, p p . 1 96 , 1 98 ;

8 62 , p . 8 7 ;

8 69 , p . 1 56.

C p . 8 71 ,

p p . 1 82-3. 8 .

AB s . a . 8 37 , p . 2 2 ; i , p p . 1 54, 1 86 ;

8 64 , p p . 1 05, 1 12 .

i , p . 1 24.;

C p . L upus , Epp . 3 5, 4 5, 1 01,

H inc mar Ep . 1 69 , MGH Epp . KA V I , i ,

p p . 1 58-9 . 9 .

L ev i l la in 1 964 , p p . v , x v if f .

I n wha t f o l lows, t he Anna ls o f S t B er t in a re

r eferred t o a s t he AB . 1 0 .

C o mpare K urze 1 895, p reface , w i th L ev i l la in 1 964 , p p . x x i i f f .

1 1.

G r ierson 1 940a , p p . 2 77 f f ,;

1 2 .

AB s . a . 8 32 , p . 7 .

L ev i l lain 1 964 , p p . v i i if f .;

2 9

Ma lbos 1 966.

1 3 .

AB s . a . 8 34 , p p . 1 4-5.

1 4 .

AB s . a . 8 33 , p . 9 .

1 5 .

O ex le 1 967 , p p . 3 47f f .

1 6 .

L ev i l la in , p p , x xx ixf f .

1 7 .

Wa t tenbach-Lev ison 1 957 , p p . 3 48f ,

1 8 .

C p ., t hough w i th n o men t ion o f Ga l indo-Pruden t ius, H igounet 1 949.

1 9 .

MGH , E pp . KA I I , p p , 3 23-4 , 6 31-3,

2 0 .

L ev i l la in 1 927 ;

2 1 .

AB s . a . 8 39 , p . 2 8 .

Th is i s Gra t ' s MS

M '.

Werner 1 959 , p p . 1 64f f . The e ven t i s r ecorded b etween r eferences t o

L en t a nd Easter ( 6 Apr i l ) 8 39 p resu mably b ecause d e ta i ls were n ot a va i lab le a t t he c our t u n t i l March . 2 2.

AB s . a . 8 39 , p p . 2 7-8 .

2 3 .

AB s . a . 8 39 , p p . 2 9-30 .

2 4 .

S ee P aul ine S taf ford ' sp aper i n t h is v o lu me.

2 5.

N i thard , i,c .6 , p . 2 6 .

2 6.

1 964 , p . x i i i .

2 7 .

G r ierson 1 934 , p p , 2 41f f .;

2 8 .

AB s . a . 8 40 , p . 3 6 .

2 9 .

A stron . c . 6 3 , p . 6 47 .

3 0 .

C p . Gr ierson 1 934 , p p . 2 44f .

3 1.

AB s . a . 8 41 , p . 4 0 ;

3 2 .

D uchesne 1 910 , i . p . 4 56 ; Wa t tenbach-Lev ison 1 957 , p . 3 49 .

3 3 .

l upus , E pp . 4 0 , 4 1, i , p p . 1 70 , 1 72-4.

3 4.

L o t a nd H a lphen , p p . 7 4f f .

3 5.

AB s . a . 8 47 , p . 5 4 ;

O ex le 1 969 , p p . 1 66f ,

8 42 , p p . 4 1 , 4 3.

8 48 , p p . 5 5-6.

C p . C hadw ick 1 958 , p p . 1 01ff .

Iam g ra tefu l t o G lenn McKee f or d iscussion o ft h is p oin t . 3 6.

Ac har ter i ssued a t t he monastery o f Mou t ierla-Ce l le, Troyes , o n 1 0 J anuary 8 59 , Tessier 1 , n o. 2 01 , p p . 5 12-4 , s ee ms t o g ive t he o n ly e v idence f or C har les ' p resence a t Troyes d ur ing Pruden t ius ' e p iscopa te . F or t he c ircu mstances o f J anuary 8 59 ,s ee a bove p . 2 1.

3 7 .

AB s . a . 8 61 , p . 8 5 ;

3 8 .

L ot a nd H a lphen , p p . 1 29 n . 2 , 1 79 n . 1 , 2 27 n . 2 .

3 9 .

MGH Epp . KA I I , p . 6 33 .

L ot a nd Ha lphen , p p . 2 08 , 2 13 n . 3 .

Th is s ynod , u n men t ioned b y

Dev isse 1 975 , v o l. 1 , p p . 1 27f f ., m igh t t hrow a d if feren t l igh to n r ea ct ions t o G ot tscha lk i n 8 49 f ro m t ha t o f fered b y Devisse . 4 0 .

PL . 1 15, c o ls 1 011-1352 .

3 0

4 1.

L ot a nd Ha lphen , p . 2 28 n . I .

4 2 .

Dev isse 1 975, v ol . 1 , p p . 1 46 , 1 52f .

4 3.

L evi lla in 1 964 , p p . x i i if ,

4 4.

AB s . a . 8 46, p . 5 2 ;

8 53, p . 6 8 ;

8 55, p . 7 0 .

r igh t c r i t icis m o f Char les ' a t t i tude t o

Under 8 46, t he f or th-

e p iscopa l warn ing ' a t t he

A sse mb ly o f Epernay l ook t o me l ike a H incraar ian i n terpola t ion ( Ih ope t o d efend t his v iew e lsewhere ) , a s d o t he c o m men ts o n G ot tscha lk a nd t he S ynod o f Qu ierzy u nder 8 49 , p p . 5 6-7 .

F or a d ifferen t v iew , s ee

S chrörs 1 884, p . 1 01 n . 5 5, a nd Dev isse 1 975, v ol . 1 , p . 1 28 .

On t he

o ther h and t he much l ess f or thrigh t c r i t icis ms o f C har les ' i n trigues w ith t he S lays ( 8 53 ) a nd h is weak l ine o n h eresy ( 855 ) s ee m t o me Pruden t ius ' own .

F or t he ir c on tex t , s ee a bove , p . 2 2 .

4 5 .

AB s . a . 8 41 ,

4 6 .

Wa t tenbach-Levison 1 957 , p . 3 49.

4 7 .

L ot a nd H a lphen , p p . 1 26ff ,, 1 45f f .;

4 8 .

C a l met te 1 901 , p p . 3 4f f .

4 9 .

p . 3 7 . Cp . L öwe 1 967 , p . 7a nd n . 2 3. U l l mann 1 972 , p p . 9 8f .

L ibel lus p roc la ma t ion is d o mn i Caro li r eg is a dversus Wen i lone m c c. 7 -14, MGH , Cap I , p p . 4 52f .;

Anna ls o f F u lda S . a . 8 58 , e d. K urze ,

MGH , S SRG , p p . 4 9ff . 5 0 . 5 1 .

AB s . a . 8 58 , p . 7 9 . AB s . a . 8 58 , p . 7 8 n . a ., f ro m MS ' 0 '.

Cp . , Werner 1 959 , p . 1 65

n . 7 9 . 5 2 .

MGH , C ap . 2 , p p . 4 32ff . Epp . KA V I , i,p . 6 4.

Cp . H inc mar ' sc o m men t i n Ep . 1 26, MGH ,

S ee Ha lphen 1 947 , p p . 3 13ff .

5 3 .

Werner 1 959 , p p . 1 63f f .;

Oex le 1 969 , p p . 1 91f f .

5 4.

AB s . a . 8 59 , p . 8 2.

5 5 .

V ie lhaber 1 956; Devisse 1 975, v ol. 1 , p p . 1 18ff .

S ee a lso t he p aper

o f David Ganz i n t h is v o lu me. 5 6.

The n owlost f rag men t o f t he AB t ranscr ibed b y B ol land i n t he s event een th c en tury h ad a marg ina l n ote a ga inst t h is p assage o f t he 8 59 a nna l : H ic Pruden t ius 6 15 d e N icolao s cr ipsi t q uod u t f i eret v o lui t ; f actu m f uer i t , v eru m n on d ix it '.

s ed q uia

F or t he l i kel ihood t ha t t his n ote, a nd

t he MS i t se lf , were H inc mar ' s own , s ee Ganshof 1 949 , a nd L ev i l lain 1 965, p p . x v i i if .

Th is i s Gra t ' s MS 'C ' .

5 7 .

Mc Keon 1 974, p . 1 05.

5 8 .

Ganz 1 979 .

5 9 .

S ee Char les ' l et ter t o N icho las I , PL . 1 24 , c o ls. 8 67-9 , 8 70-5. H inc mar Ep . 1 85, MGH Epp . KA V I , i , p p . 1 87ff . v ol . 2 , p p . 6 0Of f .;

6 0 .

McKeon 1 978 , p p , 6 2ff ,

E l ) . 1 87 , MGH Epp . KA V I , i , p p .

3 1

1 94f .

Cp . Devisse 1 976,

6 1 .

B u t H inc mar d oes s ee m t o h ave h ad , o r s een , ac opy o f F u lco 's s ect i on o f t he AB a lready i n 8 59 o r 8 60 .

H e t er med t h is t ex t :

A nna les

d o mn i L udov ici impera tor is ', a nd r eferred t o t he p assage i n t he 8 35 a nna l c over ing E bbo ' sd eposi t ion , PL . 1 25 , c ol . 3 91 , Cp . L ev i l la in 1 965 , p p . xv if . 6 2 .

Wa t tenbach-Lev ison 1 953 , p . 2 48 .

6 3 .

T essier 3 , p . 7 3.

6 4.

L öwe 1 967 , p . 3 .

6 5 .

L ev i l la in 1 965, p . x iv .

6 6.

T he n eartota l n eg lect o f t he AB i n Dev isse 1 975-6 , i s s urpr is ing . B üch t ing 1 887 , d oes n ot c onsider t he g enera l q uest ion o f H inc mar ' s mot iva t ion ,

6 7 .

L öwe 1 967 , p . 1 0 n . 3 9 , p oin ts o ut t ha t H inc mar s o me t i mes d ep icts t he m a s a ct ing a s ag roup :

6 8 .

t he p r i mores.

T o make t h is r ough a nd r eady c o mpar ison , Iu sed Wa i tz ' se d i t ion o f t he AB , MGH , S SRG .

6 9 .

Ma lbos 1 966.

7 0 .

MGH , C ap . I , p p , 5 17 f f .

7 1.

Wa l lace-Hadr i l l 1 953 ; Dev isse 1 976 , v ol . 2 , p p . 1 092 ;

7 2 .

Dev isse 1 975 , v o l. 1 , p p . 2 44f f ., 3 86f f .;

7 3 .

AB s . a . 8 69 , p p . 1 58-64 .

7 4.

AB s . a . 8 64 , p p . 1 07-10 , where a lso t he v ar ian ts f ro m t he t ex t a s

Cp . I ßwe 1 972 . 1 004f f .

1 976 , v o l. 3 , p p . 1 351f f .

Cp . MGH , C ap . I , p p . 3 37ff .

g iven i n t he Anna ls o f F u lda a re g iven i n t he a ppara tus.

S ee a lso t he

c o m men ts o f L ev i l la in , p . 1 08 , n . 1 . 7 5.

AB s . a . 8 65 , p p . 18-9 .

7 6.

Dev isse 1 975 , v o l . 1 , p . 9 6 ;

1 976 v ol . 2 , p p . 6 57f f ., 7 98f ,

F or a

b roader p erspect ive o n e ar ly med ieva l a t t i tudes , s ee F uhr mann 1 972 , v o l . 1 , p p . 6 5f f . 7 7 . 7 8 .

B t ich t ing 1 887 , p . 2 2 . AB s . a . 8 63 , p p . 9 7 , 9 8 ;

8 62 , p . 9 5.

Cp . t he c o m men t o n t he d ea ths

o f R ober t a nd Ra mnu lf , S . a . 8 66 , p . 1 31, a nd t he j ibes a t Ro thad s . a . 8 62 , p p . 9 1f . 7 9 .

AB s . a . 8 61 , p p . 8 4-5.

8 0 .

1 967 , p . 9 .

8 1.

AB s . a . 8 65 , p . 1 24 ;

8 2 .

AB s . a . 8 61 , p . 8 6;

8 3 .

AB s . a . 8 73 , p p . 1 94-5 .

8 66 , p . 1 25 ;

L dwe 1 967 , p . 7n . 2 4.

8 77 , p . 2 13.

MGH , S SRG , p p . 1 05f f .

C p . R eg ino C hron icon S . a . 8 73 , e d . K urze , S ee Werner 1 959b , p p . 9 9f f .

3 2

8 4 .

Above , n . 7 8 .

8 5.

AB s . a . 8 67 , p . 1 35 , Cp t he g rants o f S t Aubin 's, Angers, t o S a lo mon , S t H i la ire , P oi t iers, t o A cfrid , S t . Maur ice , Agaune , t o B oso, e tc.: AB s . a . 8 63 , p . 9 6 ;

8 67 , p . 1 40 ;

3 69 , p . 1 67 .

8 6 .

AB s . a . 8 66 , p . 1 29 ;

8 76 , p . 2 02.

8 7 .

AB s . a . 8 68 , p p . 1 51-2 ;

8 8 .

1 967 , p . 8n . 3 2.

8 9 .

De f i de Caro b or eg i s ervanda c . 1 2 , PL . 1 25 , c ol . 9 67.

9 0 .

A p ossib le i n ference f ro m t he AB s . a ., a nd f ro m t he r ole a ssigned t o

8 69 , p . 1 52 ;

H inc mar a t Qu ierzy i n J une:

8 71, p . 1 81.

S ee Mc Keon 1 978 .

MGH , Cap . I , c . 1 2.

9 1 .

Ep . 1 42 , MGH E pp . KA V I , i , p . 1 15;

9 2 .

AB s . a . 8 69 , p . 1 57 .

9 3 .

AB s . a . 8 73, p . 1 90 .

9 4.

Weinz ier l 1 949 ;

AB s . a . 8 61, p . 8 7 .

Devisse 1 975 , v o l. 1 , p p . 3 83ff ., 4 59f f .

9 5., C al met te , p p . 8 Of f .;

Devisse 1 975, v o l. 1 , p p . 4 39f f .

9 6 .

Br f lh l 1 964 , p p . 6 Off .;

Werner 1 967 , p p . 4 37ff .

9 7 .

AB s . a . 8 78 , p . 2 27 .

9 8 .

AB s . a . 8 62 , p . 9 1.

9 9 .

S chrörs Reg . n os. 4 04, 4 80 , f ro m F lodoard i n MGH S S X I I I , p p . 5 13, 5 10 .

9 9a . 1 00 .

S ee a bove , n . 1 6. V ita S anct i Ger man i , v erse p reface i n MGH P oet I I , p . 7 56 ; f ace i n PL . 1 24 , c o ls. 1 131f f .

p rose p re-

Cp . McK it ter ick 1 980 , a nd h er p aper

i n t h is v o lu me , b elow p p . 3 85f f . 1 00a .

Iam g ra tefu l t o P e ter God man f or d iscussion o f t h is p oin t .

S ee h is

c o m men ts b e low , p . 3 02 . 1 01 .

Cp . S isa m 1 953 , p p . 1 4Off .

1 02 .

Wor ma ld 1 977 .

1 03 .

Wh itelock 1 977 .

1 04.

Wa llace-Hadr i ll 1 950 ;

J ohn 1 966, p . 3 9 ;

p p . 1 65f f . 1 05.

Cp . Harr ison 1 976 ;

1 06.

Grierson 1 940b .

B a te ly 1 979 .

' /Q

Nelson 1 967 ;

Parkes 1 976,

REFERENCES Ba tely , J ., 1 979. a nd H eroes ,

' Bede a nd t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron icle ' , i n S a in ts , S cho lars S tud ies i n Med ieva l Cu l ture , i n h onour o f C . W. J ones ,

e ds . M. H . K ing , a nd W. M. S tevens , M innesota 1 979. Brüh l , C . R ., 1 964.

' H ink mar iana .I I :

H inkmar i m Widers trei t v on k anon ische m

Rech t u nd P o l i t ik i n Ehefragen ' , i n DA 2 0 , 1 964 , p p. 5 5-77. Bücht ing , E ., 1 887.

G laubwürdigke i t H inc mars v on Re i ms im d r it ten T e i le

d er s ogenann ten Anna len v on S t . B er t in , Ha l le 1 887. Chadw ick , N ., 1 958 .

S tud ies i n t he Ear ly Br i t ish C hurch , Cambridge 1 958.

Dav is , R . H . C ., 1 971.

' A l fred t he G rea t :

P ropaganda a nd Tru th ' , i n

H is tory 5 6 , 1 971 , p p. 1 69-82. Duchesne , L ., 1 910.

Fas tes E i sco a ux d e l ' anc ienne Gau le ( 3 v ols .) ,

v o l. 2 , Par is 1 910. F leckens te in , J ., 1 959.

D ie H ofkape l le d er d eu tschen K ön ige v o l. 1 MGH

S chr i f ten 1 6/1 , S tu t tgar t 1 959. Fuhr mann , H ., 1 972.

E in f luss u nd V erbre i tung d er p seudois idor ischen

Fä lschungen ( 3 v ols ) v ol . 1 , S tu t tgar t 1 972. G ansho f , F ., 1 949 .

' No tes c r i t iques s ur l es Anna les B er t in ian i t , i n

Mé langes F . G ra t ( 2 v o ls .) , v o l . 2 , Par is 1 949 , p p. 1 59-74. Ganshof , F ., 1 958 . G anz , D ., 1 979.

Recherches s ur l es Cap itu lar ies , Par is 1 958.

r ev iew o f Dev isse , H inc mar , i n Revue Be ige d e P h i lo log ie

e t d 'H is toire LV I I , 1 979 , p p. 7 11-18 . G r ierson , P., 1 934.

' Hugues d e S t . Ber t in :

Char les l e C hauve ? '. G r ierson , P ., 1 940a .

f ta i t-i l a rchichapellain d e

i n LMA 4 4 , 1 934 , p p . 2 41-51.

' Abbot Fu lco a nd t he d a te o f t he G es ta a bba tu m

Fon tanel lens iu m i , i n EHR 5 5 , 1 940 , p p. 2 75-84. G r ierson , P ., 1 940b.

' Gr i mba ld o f S t . Ber t in ts , i n EHR 5 5 , 1 940 , p p .

5 29-61. Ha lphen , L ., 1 947.

Char le magne e t l 'E mp ire Caro l ing ien , Par is 1 947.

Harr ison , K ., 1 976.

The Fra mework o f Ang lo-Saxon H is tory , Ca mbr idge

1 976. H igounet , C ., 1 949.

' Les A znar ' , i n AM 6 1, 1 949 , p p. 5 -14.

Hodgk in , R . H ., 1 924 .

' The Beg inn ing o f t he Year i n t he Eng l ish Chron icle ',

i n EHR 3 9 , 1 924 , p p. 4 97-510 . Hof f mann , H ., 1 958.

Un tersuchungen z ur k aro l ing ischen Anna l is tik , B onn

1 958 . 3 4

J ohn , E ., 1 966.

Orbis Br i tann iae , L eices ter 1 966.

Kurze , F ., 1 895 .

I n troduct ion t o Anna les Regn i Francoru m , S S r er G er m ,

H annover 1 895 . I n troduct ion t o L oup d e F ern eres , C orrespondance ,

Lev i l la in , L,, 1 927. P ar is 1 927.

I n troduc t ion t o Anna les d e S ain t-Ber t in , e dd. F . G ra t

Lev i l la in , L ., 1 964. a l ., Par is 1 964 Lev ison , W.,

S ee Wa t tenbach , W.

Löwe , H ., 1 957.

S ee Wa t tenbach , W.

Löwe , H ., 1 967.

1G esch ich tschre ibung

d er a usgehenden Karo lingerze i t ',

i n DA 2 3 , 1 967, p p . 1 -30 . Löwe , H ., 1 972.

' H inkmar v on Re i ms u nd d er A pokr is iar i , i n Fes tschr if t

f ür H . H ei mpe l ( 3 v ols .) G ö t t ingen 1 972 , v o l . 3 , p p. 1 97-225 . Ma lbos , L ., 1 966.

' L 'anna l is te r oya l s ous L ou is l e P ieux ' , LMA 7 2 , 1 966,

p p . 2 25-33 . McKeon , P . R ., 1 974 .

' The Carol ing ian C ounci ls o f S avonnMres ( 859 ) a nd

T usey ( 8 60 ) a nd t he ir Background ' , i n RB 8 4 , 1 974 , p p. 7 5-110 . McKeon , P . R ., 1 978 .

H inc mar o f Laon a nd C aro ling ian P ol i tics , U rbana-

C h icago-London , 1 978 . McK i t ter ick , R ., 1 980 .

' Char les t he Ba ld ( 823-877) a nd h is l i brary:

t he

p a tronage o f l earn ing ' , i n EHR 9 5 , 1 980 , p p. 2 8-47. Ne lson , J . L ., 1 967.

' The P rob le m o f K ing A lfred 's Roya l Anoin t ing ' , i n

J ourna l o f E ccles ias tica l H is tory 1 8 , 1 967 , p p. 1 45-63. Oex le , 0 . G ., 1 967.

' D ie Karol inger u nd d ie S tad t d es h e i l igen Arnu lf ' ,

i n FMS 1 , 1 967 , p p . 2 50-364. Oex le , 0 . G ., 1 969.

' Bischof E broin v on P o i t iers u nd s e ine

Verwand ten ',

i n FMS 3 , 1 969 , p p . 1 38-210. Parkes , M., 1 976.

' The p a leography o f t he Parker manuscr ip t o f t he

C hron ic le , l aws a nd S edu l ius , a nd h is tor iography a t Winchester i n t he l a te n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies ' , i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land 5 , 1 976, p p . 1 49-171. S chrörs , H ., 1 884. S isa m , K ., 1 953.

H ink mar , Erzbischof v on Rei ms , Fre iburg i .B., 1 884. S tud ies i n t he H is tory o f O ld Eng l ish L i tera ture , Ox ford

1 953. U llhann , W., 1 972.

A S hor t H is tory o f t he Papacy , London 1 972.

V ie lhaber , K ., 1 956. Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , 1 950.

G ot tscha lk d er S achse , Bonn 1 956. ' The Franks a nd t he Eng l ish i n t he N in th C en tury:

S o me Co m mon H is tor ica l I n teres ts ', i n H istory 3 5 , 1 950 , p p. 2 02-18 , r epr . i n Ear ly Med ieva l H is tory , Ox ford 1 975 .

3 5

Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , 1 953.

' Archbishop H inc mar a nd t he a u thorsh ip o f L ex

S a lica ' i n T i jdschr if t v oor Rech tsgesch iedn is 2 1 , 1 953 , p p. 1 -29 , r epr . i n The L ong-ha ired K ings , L ondon 1 962 . Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , 1 960.

The Four th B ook o f t he C hron icle o f Fredegar ,

Ox ford 1 960. Wa t tenbach , W. a nd Lev ison , W., 1 953 , 1 957.

D eu tsch lands G esch ich ts-

q uel len im M i t te la l ter , r ev ised e d . b y H . L öwe , H ef t 2 , H ef t 3 , We i mar 1 953 , 1 957. Weinzier l , K ., 1 949.

' Erzbischof H inc mar v on R e i ms a ls Ver fech ter d es

g e l tenden R echts ' , i n E piscopus .

S tud ien ü ber d as B ischof s am t ..

Kard ina l v on Fau lhaber ... d argebrach t , Regensburg 1 949 , p p. 1 36-63. Werner , K. F ., 1 959a .

' Un tersuchungen z ur Frühze i t d es f ranzös ischen

Fürs ten tums ( 9 .-10 .J h t .) ;

I V ' , i n D ie Wel t a ls G esch ich te 1 9 , 1 959,

p p . 1 46-93. Werner , K . F ., 1 959b.

' Zur Arbei tswe ise d es Reg ino v on Prü m ‚, i n D ie

Wel t a ls G eschich te 1 9 , 1 959 , p p. 9 6-116. Werner , K . F ., 1 967.

' D ie Nachko m men Kar ls d es G rossen b is um d as

J ahr 1 000 ( 1 .-8. G enera t ion ) ', i n W. B raun fe ls e d ., Kar l d er G rosse , L ebenswerk u nd Nach leben , v o l . 4 :

Das Nach leben , Düsse ldor f 1 967,

p p . 4 03-79. Wh i te lock , D ., 1 977.

The Impor tance o f t he Ba t t le o f Ed ing ton , Wes tbury

1 977. Wor ma ld , C . P ., 1 977.

' The U ses o f L i teracy i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land a nd

i t s N eighbours ' , i n Transact ions o f t he Roya l H is tor ica l S ociety 2 7 , 1 977 , p p . 9 5-114.

3 6

I NUM ISMAT ICS

3 7

3 .

THE ' GRATIA DEI REX ' CO INAGE OF CHARLES THE BALD 1 P h i l ip G r ierson

The d en iers o f C har les t he Ba ld a re p redo m inan t ly o f t wo t ypes .

Both

h ave o n o ne s ide a c ross , b u t t he f i rst h as o n t he o ther a t e mp le ( P la te 2 a ) a nd t he s econd a monogra m s urrounded b y t he i nscr ip t ion GRAT IA D I REX ( P la te 2 b ) .

_

o\ f‘

42

4 z ) .7 1 , ( t. 2 „,

P la te 2

( b ) Am iens , GDR t ype

( a ) Char tres , t e mp le t ype

The f irs t t ype , wh ich was s truck f ro m 8 40 2 t o 8 64 , c on t inued t he f ina l c o inage o f L ou is t he P ious , b u t w i th C har les ' n ame r ep lac ing t ha t o f h is f a ther a nd w i th a m in t-s igna ture u sua l ly t hough n o t i nvar iab ly s ubs t i tu ted f or t he XP IST IANA REL IG IO o f L ou is ' c o ins . T he s econd t ype r an f orma l ly f ro m 8 64 t o 8 76 , b u t i n an umber o f min ts i t was c on t inued t o t he e nd o f t he r e ign a nd e ven b eyond , b e ing im mobilised w i thou t c hange u nder C har les 's s uccessors . I tr epresen ted a r evers ion t o C har le magne 's n ova mone ta o f 7 94-812 b u t w i th GRATIA D I REX r ep lacing CARLVS REX FR.

T he o bverse a nd r everse

l egends were a lso i n terchanged , s o t ha t t he min t-na me a cco mpan ies t he c ross i ns tead o f t he monogram . T o t h is g enera l iza t ion r egard ing C har les t he Ba ld 's c oinage t here a re t hree e xcep t ions , o r r a ther t hree g roups o f e xcep t ions .

The f irs t c ons is ts

o f s uch v ar ian t t ypes a s ap lace-name a cross t he f i e ld , ap or tra i t b us t , o r ac i ty g a te a s r everse t ype wh ich were s truck b y af ew min ts a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he r e ign . The s econd i s t he c o inage o f A qu i ta ine , wh ich was a berran t t hroughou t . T he t h ird c ons is ts o f t he c o ins g iv ing C har les t he imper ia l t i t le , wh ich were s truck a t af ew min ts i n 8 76-7 a nd e ven l a ter .

These a l l p resen t

p o in ts o f i n teres t , b u t f or t he p urpose o f t h is p aper t hey c an b e l e f t o u t o f a ccoun t.

T he ma in c o inages o f t he r e ign were t he t wo i l lus tra ted a bove .

T he s econd h as t rad i t iona l ly b een d escr ibed a s ' t he t ype o f t he E d ict o f A res ' , b u t wh i le t here i s n o d oubt t ha t i t was t ha t i n troduced i n 8 64 t he i nscr ip t ion i s n o t t he o ne p rescr ibed b y t he e d ic t , s o t ha t s uch a t er m i s s carce ly s a t isf ac tory.

M . La faur ie h as r echr is tened i tt he " GDR t ype" ,

3

a nd t h is c onven ien t

l abe l , wh ich h as s ince b een a dop ted b y mos t s cho lars , w i l l b e u sed h encef orward i n t h is p aper .

3 9

T he t e mp le t ype o f t he y ears 8 40-864 i s k nown f or e leven min ts , t o wh ich c oins w i th a C hr is t iana R e l ig io i nscr ip t ion mus t b e a dded . f or i t s p ar t l i s ts t en min ts , i nc lud ing t ha t o f t he P a lace.

The Ed ic t o f P i tres The t ota l o f m in ts

i s n ear ly t he s ame , b u t t here i s s o me d i f ference i n t he ir l oca t ion , a s c an b e s een i n t he a cco mpanying t able .

M in t

T e mp le

E d ic t

T ype

L is t

Auxerre

X

B ourges

X

C ha lon-sur-Sgone

X

C har tres

X

Laon

X

Meaux

X

Me l le

X

Narbonne

X

OrMans

X

X

P ar is

X

X

Quen tov ic

X

X

R he i ms

X

X

R ouen

X

S t Mar t in o f T ours

X

S ens

X

C hr is t iana R e l ig io

X

X

Pa lace

X

The e xp lana t ion o f t he c hanges i s n o t a lways v ery c lear , a nd i s p erhaps n o t v ery i mpor tan t , s ince i n a t l eas t t wo r espec ts t he t erms o f t he E d ic t were n ever f u l f i l led .

T he i nscr ip t ions o n t he c o ins a re n o t t hose l a id d own i n

C lause 1 1 o f t he E d ic t , a nd t he n umber o f min ts f ar e xceeds t he n u mber o f t en ( i nc lud ing t he P a lace ) p rescr ibed i n C lause 1 2 .

T hey r an t o at ota l o f

n ear ly a h undred —an e xcc t f igure c anno t b e g iven b ecause o f t he u ncer ta in a t tr ibu t ions o f s o me w i th b lundered i nscr ipt ions —for N eus tr ia , Francia a nd Burgundy , t o wh ich s o me t wen ty-f ive more were a dded a f ter t he a nnexa t ion o f p ar t o f L o thar I 's k ingdo m i n 8 69 .

A qu i ta ine , as epara te k ingdo m , was

n o t i nc luded i n t he t erms o f t he E dic t , d esp i te t he r e ference t o t he min t o f Me l le , a nd n o GDR c o ins were s truck i n A qui ta ine a t a l l . T o u nders tand wha t h appened we mus t l ook i n more d e ta i l a t t he t erms o f t he E d ict , t oge ther w i th a c har ter o f N ove mber 8 64 r e la t ing t o t he r ecoinage . The E d ict , d a ted 2 5 J une 8 64 , o rdered a r enewa l o f t he c o inage f ro m t he Mar t inmas f o l lowing ( 1 1 N ov .) , a nd t he c onsequen t e xchange o f o ld d en iers f or n ew o nes mus t h ave o ccas ioned p rob le ms i n many l oca l i t ies . On 2 2 N ove mber 8 64 B ishop E rchenraus o f C hä lons-sur- Marne , who was w i th t he k ing a t C asnu m i n t he f ores t o f C o mp iegne , o b ta ined f ro m h im ac har ter4 c on f ir m ing s o me p roper t ies o f h is s ee .

H e a lso a sked f or t he e s tabl ish men t

o f a min t i n h is e p iscopa l c i ty , a nd t hrough t he g ood o f f ices o f Queen E rmen trude h is r eques t was g ran ted . T he r esu l t ing c har ter 5 t hrows much l i gh t o n wha t h ad h appened e ar l ier . The k ing r e fers t o h is r ecen t d ec is ion t o r enew t he c o inage , whose d e f ic iencies

4 0

were k nown t o h im ' mone tam q ua m u b ique c orrup tam e sse c ognov imus ' ,

6

b o th f or t he b e t ter o rder ing o f t he k ingdo m a nd t o p reven t t he f rauds o f moneyc hangers ( trapezi tarum a s tu ta f raudu len t ia ') .

H e h as t herefore d ecreed

t he i ssue o f an ew c o inage , marked w i th t he r oya l monogra m , a nd o rdered t ha t n o o ther t ype o f c o in s ha l l b e u sed ( 'monogram mano m in is n os tr i i l l i i uss imus i ns ign ir i , p rec ip ien tes r eg ia p o tes ta te u t n e mo a l i is i n n os tro r egno i n emendo a u t v endendo u ta tur d enar i is ' ). E rchenraus i s r epor ted a s h av ing b rough t t o t he k ing 's a t ten t ion t he d i f f icu l ty o f me mbers o f t he ' f am i l ia e ccles ie s anc t i S tephanP , t he c a thedra l c hurch o f C ha lons-sur- Marne , n o d oub t as ubs tan t ia l p ropor t ion o f t he p opu la t ion , i n o bta in ing t he n ew d en iers , a nd a sked t ha t amin t s hou ld b e s e t u p i n h is c i ty , a s t here h ad b een i n o thers o f t he k ingdo m

r u t.

mone tam ').

i n e ade m c iv i ta te , s icu t i n a l i is r egn i n os tr i , s ta tuere mus

T he k ing c o mp l ied w i th h is r eques t , o rder ing t ha t t he n ecessary

min t e qu ip men t s hou ld b e s upp l ied t o E rchenraus b y t he r oya l c amera ( ' iuss i mus i l l i d ar d e c amera n os tra monetam n os tra m ' ) a nd a gree ing t ha t t he p rof i ts o f t he min t s hou ld b e p a id t o t he c a thedra l c hap ter a nnua l ly o n H o ly T hursday. I T he more i mpor tan t d ocumen t i s t he E d ic t o f P i tres .

7

Th is l eng thy

p iece o fl e .g is la t ion , w h ich d ea ls w i th a w ide v ar ie ty o f a dm ins tra t ive a nd s oc ia l p roble ms , was i ssued a t P i tres ( Eure , a rr . L es Ande lys , c an t . P on t-de-PArche ) , ar oya l p a lace s i tua ted o n t he S e ine a f ew mi les a bove R ouen . Mone tary ma t ters h ad e v iden t ly f or med p ar t o f t he a genda f ro m t he f irs t , s ince t he t erms o f C lause 1 4 i mp ly t ha t c oun ts h av ing min ts h ad c o me a t tended b y t he ir moneyers , a nd t he s even teen c lauses ( nos . 8 -24 ) d evo ted t o t he r ecoinage a nd r e la ted t he mes make i tt he mos t i l lum ina t ing monetary d ocumen t o f t he who le C aro l ing ian p er iod t ha t h as s urv ived .

I td rew h eav i ly

o n e ar l ier l eg is la t ion , c i ted n orma l ly a t s econdhand t hrough t he C api tu lar ium C o l lec t io8 wh ich Anseg is , a bbo t o f F on tene l le a nd j um ieges a nd o ne o f t he mos t p ro m inen t men o f t he d ay , h ad p ubl ished i n f our b ooks i n o r s hor t ly a f ter 8 27.

The c lauses r e la t ing t o t he n ew c o inage may b e s um mar ised a s

f o l lows : 8 , 9 .

D en iers o f a l l t ypes a t p resen t i n c ircu la t ion , p rov ided t hey a re

o f g ood meta l a nd f u l l w e igh t , s ha l l b e l ega l t ender , a nd mus t n o t b e r efused , i n a ccordance w i th e ar l ier l eg is la t ion o n c o in c ircu la t ion ( Capi t ., I V 3 2 [ rec te=30 ]) u p t o t he n ex t Mar t inmas ( 1 1 N ove mber ) .

O f f icia ls a re t o e nsure

t ha t t he l aw i s o bserved . 1 0 .

Fro m n ex t Mar t inmas o n ly d en iers ' o f o ur n ew c o inage , o f g ood

me ta l a nd f u l l we igh t ' , s ha l l b e l ega l t ender , a nd a nyone t rying t o u se o ther c o ins i n t rade a f ter t ha t d a te s ha l l b e b rough b efore t he c oun t a nd h is o f f icia ls a nd s ha l l f or fe i t t he m , a s p rov ided i n Cap i t . 1 .18 . 1.

Tha t t he n ew d en iers s ha l l h ave , o n o ne s ide , t he k ing 's n a me i n

t he c ircu lar i nscr ip t ion a nd h is monogram i n t he c en tre , a nd , o n t he o ther s ide , ac ross a nd t he n ame o f t he c i ty ( ' no men c iv i ta t is ' ). 1 2 .

' Accord ing t o t he c us to m o f o ur p redecessors a s i s f ound i nt h eir

c ap i tu lar ies [ i .e. Cap i t . 1 1 .13 ], we o rder t ha t o ur c oin s ha l l b e made n owhere e lse i n o ur e n t ire k ingdom C u t i n n u l lo l oco a l io i n omn i r egno n os tro mone ta f i t ' ) s ave i n o ur P a lace a nd a t Quen tov ic , Rouen ( where t he mone ta b y a nc ien t 4 1

c us to m b e longs t o Quen tov ic ) , Rhe i ms , S ens , P ar is , Or leans , C ha lons ur-Sd öne , Me l le a nd Narbonne . 1 3 .

Tha t t hose p ersons ( i .e. t he c oun ts ) i n w hose j ur isd ic t ion t here

i s t o b e a min t s ha l l a ppoin t h ones t moneyers , who s ha l l s wear t o c arry o u t t he ir d u t ies f a i th fu l ly , n ot s tr ik ing o r a l low ing t o b e s truck a ny d en ier o f b ad a l loy o r u nder we igh t ( 'mix tu m d enar ium e t minus , q ua m d ebet , p ensan te m n on mone tan t n ec monetar i c onsen t ian t ' ).

N or s ha l l t hey c hea t p eop le who

b r ing t he m s i lver t o b e p ur i f ied a nd c onver ted i n to c oin .

O f fences a ga ins t

t hese p rov is ions s ha l l b e p un ished b y ampu ta t ion o f t he h and , a s l a id d own i n Cap i t . I V .3 3 [ rec te 3 1 ], a nd b y p ub l ic p enance f or t he ir o f fences. 1 4 .

Tha t o n 1J u ly n ex t e ach c oun t who h as a m in t i n h is j ur isd ic t ion

s ha l l s end t o S en l is ( 6 0 mi les f ro m P i tres , a nd a f avour i te r oya l r es idence ) h is v iscoun t , a cco mpan ied b y t wo p ersons o f s ubs tance f ro m h is c oun ty , a nd h is moneyer ( ' suum mone tar iu m ! ) , a nd t here t hey s ha l l r ece ive f ro m t he r oya l c amera f i ve p ounds b y we igh t o f p ure s i lver , t o b e u sed b y t he moneyer f or s tar t ing t he n ew c oinage e ibi a cc ip ian t .. d e c amera n os tra a d o pus u n iusqu isque mone tar i i d e mero a rgen to c um p ensa l i bras q u inque , u t h abea t , u nde i n i t ium mone tand i p oss i t i nc ipere ' ).

T he e qu iva len t b y we igh t , b u t i n

t he n ew c o inage , s ha l l b e r epa id t o t he c amera o n t he S a turday b efore L en t i n t he f o l low ing y ear . 1 5 .

Dea ls w i th t he o bl iga t ion o n e very p erson t o c hange h is s i lver

( ' argen tu m s uu m ' ) i n to .n ew c o in e in c ons t i tu t is mone t is c oncambiar i f ac ian t ' ) d ur ing t he p er iod b etween 1 J u ly a nd 1 1 Nove mber , a nd t he p ena l t ies f or r e fus ing n ew c o in a f ter 1 J u ly a nd o f t r ying t o u se o ld c oin a f ter 1 1 N ove mber . 1 6 -1 9 .

Dea ls i n g rea t d e ta i l w i th t he d e tec t ion a nd p un ishmen t

2 0 -2 2 .

o f f a lse c o in ing . D ea ls w i th s uperv is ion o f t he c o inage , f ines , e tc.

2 3 -2 4 .

Dea ls w i th t he c o m merce i n p rec ious me ta ls a f ter 1 O c tober .

Many o f t hese p rov is ions r equ ire n o c o m men tary.

T hey a re wha t s hou ld

b e n ecessary i n a ny r enova t io mone tae , a nd t hey o n ly s e t o u t i n d e ta i l wha t mus t h ave h appened o n t he o ccas ion o f e ach s uch r enova t io i n t he Caro l ing ian p er iod . The t wo p o in ts t ha t r equ ire n o t ice a re t he c hange i n t he i nscr ip t ion a nd t he n umber o f min ts . The f irs t p oin t i s a minor o ne. T he GDR c o ins , a s h as b een n o ted a lready , h ave a s t he ir o bverse i nscr ip t ion t he G ra t ia D ei r ex f ormu la , i ns tead o f t he k ing 's n a me a s l a id d own i n C lause 1 1.

T he s ubs t i tu t ion

p resumab ly r esu l ted f ro m a f ur ther i ns truct ion , p erhaps n o more t han v erb a l i n c harac ter .

The r eason was p robably a w ish t o d i f feren t ia te t he n ew

c oins f ro m t hose o f C har le magne , t hough t he f ac t t ha t af ew min ts ( e .g . Beauva is ) e ven o u ts ide A qu i ta ine p referred t o u se t he C ar lus r ex Fr i nscr ipt ion s hows t ha t e xcep t ions were t o lera ted . The GDR f ormu la h ad i t se l f b een p ar t o f t he r oya l t i t le , r egu lar ly u sed i n d ip lo mas , s ince t he a ccess ion o f Char le magne — i t f i rs t o ccurs i n ac har ter d a ted 1 3 J anuary 7 69 —and s o me c oins o f Laon h ad u sed i ti n t he p er iod o f t he T e mp le t ype ( MG 7 93 ). ma t is ts a re s o me t i mes p uzzled b y t he u se o f

N um is-

f or DEI , f or t he p lacing o f

t he mark o f s uspension b e tween t he l e t ters i ns tead o f a bove t he m s hows t ha t i t was n o t o ccas ioned b y a ny l ack o f s pace o n t he c o in . F or s acred n a mes

4 2

( e .g . I HS , XPC ) , h owever , a nd f or s uch t i t les a s MP XP I ( f or Ma ter C hr is t i ) i t was a n a nc ien t t rad i t ion , u sed o r ig ina l ly f or p ersona l n ames b u t t aken o ver b y t he e ar ly C hurch , n o t t o s pe l l o u t t he words i n f u l l .

" In t he b ooks o f t he

G reeks" , n o tes t he D e monogram ma XP I a scr ibed t o S t J ero me ,

" wherever

n ames a re wr i t ten , t he f i rs t a nd l as t l e t ters a re i nscr ibed a nd a sma l l s troke i s i nscr ibed f ro m l e f t t o r igh t . "9

T he u se o f D I f or DEI t hus r equ ires n o

s pecia l e xp lana t ion . Much more i mpor tan t i s t he d iscrepancy o ver min ts , w i th a bou t ah undred a c t ive a t o ne t ime o r a no ther i ns tead o f t he t en e nv isaged b y t he E d ict .

Mos t

s cho lars , Ii mag ine , h ave a ssumed t ha t t he t erms o f t he Ed ic t w ere f ound u nworkable , f or t he r easons i nd ica ted i n B ishop E rchenraus ' c har ter , a nd more min ts were a l lowed t o o pen i n o rder t o c ope w i th t he r ecionage .

O bv ious

p ara l le ls t ha t o ccur t o a n Eng l ish r eader a re t he t e mporary o pen ing o f f i f teen p rov incia l min ts t o a ss is t L ondon , C an terbury a nd t he e ccles ias t ica l min ts i n t he i n troduc t ion o f t he l ong-cross c o inage i n 1 247/8 , a nd o f f i ve p rov incia l min ts t o a ss is t i n E dward I ' s r eco inage o f 1 279/80 . A n a l terna t ive e xp lana t ion h as b een p u t f orward b y La faur ie , o n t he b as is o f d iel inks wh ich h e d iscovered b e tween min ts i n t he GDR c o inage .

A

1 0

d en ier o f S a in t-Andoche o f Au tun , f or e xamp le , s hares a c o m mon o bverse d ie w i th o ne o f A va l lon , a min t s o me 2 5 mi les a way t o t he s ou th , a nd a n o bverse d ie s hared b y Mon t Lasso is a nd Troyes , min ts a lso s o me 2 5 mi les a par t , s ee ms , f ro m t he r e la t ive d egrees o f w ear o n t he c o ins , t o h ave b een u sed a t t he l a t ter min t b e tween t wo o ccas ions when i t was i n u se a t Mon t Lasso is ;

i t a lso b e longs t o ag roup o f d ies f ro m e as tern min ts —Nevers ,

L yon , V ienne , B esançon , A va l lon , D i jon , Bar-sur-Aube , C ha lon-sur-Säone — wh ich s ee m o n s tyl is t ic g rounds t o h ave s hared a s ing le d ie-s inker .

La faur ie 's

e xp lana t ion i s t ha t t he m in ts n amed i n t he E d ict were t hose where t he c o ins were s truck ( " ce s on t d es v er i tab les u s ines" ) wh i le t hose n amed o n t he c o ins a re t he p laces where t hey were i ssued .

Th is wou ld e xp la in b o th t he s tyl is t ic

g roup ings a nd t he d ie l i nkages b e tween min ts . T here a re d i f f icu l t ies , h owever , i n a ccep t ing s uch a n e xp lana t ion i n i t s e n t ire ty . Tha t t he d ies w ere ma in ly p roduced a t al im i ted n u mber o f l oca l i t ies s eems i n i tse l f v ery l i ke ly.

T he mak ing o f ac o in d ie may b e ar e la t ive ly

s i mp le o pera t ion f or s omeone who k nows h ow t o d o i t ,

1 1

b u t i ti s d i f f icu l t t o

b el ieve t ha t t he n ecessary d egrees o f k now ledge a nd s k i l l wou ld h ave b een s o w ide ly d i f fused i n mid n in th-cen tury France t ha t i t wou ld h ave b een p oss ib le t o f ind moneyers f or a h undred l oca l i t i tes , i n mos t o f wh ich n o c o ins h ad p rev ious ly b een s truck , w ho wou ld b e c apable o r mak ing t he ir own d ies . A lthough t hey m igh t o ccas iona l ly h ave t r ied t he ir h and a t i t—so me o f t he f req uen t mis-spe l l ings o f p lace-names o n t he c o ins , o f ten d egenera t ing i n to c o mp le te u n in te l l ig ibi l i ty , may h ave c o me a bou t i n t h is f ash ion— the n a tura l p rocedure wou ld h ave b een t o p rocure o ne 's d ies a t s o me n eighbour ing min t where t he s erv ices o f a n e xper t were a va i lab le . The s ame c ircums tances wou ld h ave r esu l ted i n t he o ccas iona l l end ing o f d ies f ro m o ne min t t o a no ther , f or i n many min ts t here w ou ld h ave b een l ong p er iods when i td ies were n o t i n u se .

S o me moneyers may we l l h ave b een r espons ib le f or min ting i n

s evera l l oca l i t ies , w i th c onsequen t mix ing o f d ies , a nd t here mus t h ave b een o ccas ions when V ik ing a t tacks f orced moneyers t o t ake r efuge i n n eighbour ing t owns ,

j us t

a s monks s ome t i mes h ad t o d o w i th t he ir r e l ics a nd o ther o b jec ts

o f v a lue . 4 3

I ti s , o nce a ga in , p oss ible t o p roduce p ara l le ls , f or t he p heno menon o f d iel inkage b etween m in ts i s n ot o ne c on f ined t o t he GDR c oinage . L a faur ie h i msel f h as n o ted s evera l c ases o f i ti n t he Merov ing ian s er ies . 1 2 B ernaregg i h as r ecen t ly c a l led a t ten t ion t o ad iel ink b e tween a c o in o f M i lan a nd o ne o f B erga mo amongs t t he g o ld c o ins o f C har le magne i n t he I lanz h oard ,

1 3

a nd

t he e x is tance o f as ubs tan t ia l n umber h as b een n o ted i n l a ter Ang lo-Saxon c oinage .

1 4

I n t he Eng l ish c ase , where t he n a mes o f t he moneyers a re i n

mos t c ases r ecorded o n t he c o ins , t he e xp lana t ion i s o f ten a moneyer e xerc is ing h is f unc t ions a t more t han o ne l oca l i ty o r mov ing f ro m o ne t o a no ther . A s f or t he t e mporary e x i l ing o f min t p ersona l u nder war t i me c ond i t ions , o ne c an c i te we l l-documen ted p ara l le ls f ro m t he L ower R h ine land d ur ing t he Revo l t o f t he N e ther lands i n t he l a te 1 6th a nd e ar ly 1 7th c en tur ies .

T he

moneyers o f t he J ü l ich min t a t Mü lhe im , f or e xamp le , h ad t o t ake r e fuge a t R odenk irchen , av i l lage s ou th o f C o logne , i n 1 572 a nd a ga in b e tween 1 588 a nd 1 593 , wh i le b e tween 1 584 a nd 1 588 t hey were a t Düsse ldor f .

I n 1 605 ,

when t hey were a ga in i n e x i le , t h is t ime a t C o logne , t he min t- mas ter o f t he c i ty d ied , a nd h is J ü l ich c oun terpar t , b e ing o n t he s po t , was t e mporar i ly p laced i n c harge o f t he C o logne min t u n t i l as a t is fac tory s uccessor c ou ld b e f ound .

D ie l inkages i nev i tably e nsued , r esu l t ing i n s uch a no ma l ies a s e igh t-

h e l ler p ieces o f C o logne s truck w i th a n orma l C o logne o bverse b ear ing t he i nscr ip t ion Nu m mus C o lon ien a nd a J ü l ich r everse w i th C usus Molhem iae 6 05 .

1 5

Aga ins t t he a rgumen t t ha t t he p laces n amed o n t he c o ins were n o more t han t hose o f i ssue t here s ee m t o b e b o th p ract ica l a nd a d min is tra t ive o b ject ions . The p ract ica l o b jec t ion i s t ha t p ersons n eed ing t o c hange o ld c o in f or n ew , o r t o h ave p la te t rans formed i n to c oin , wou ld e xpec t t o d o t h is a s as ing le t ransact ion . I ft he n ew c oins were n o t min ted l oca l ly s uch p ersons w ou ld h ave t o p ar t w i th t he ir o ld c oins , a l low t he m t o b e t aken e lsewhere t o b e a ssayed , me l ted a nd r eco ined b y p ersons o f who m t hey h ad n o k nowledge , a nd t hen wa i t a n i ndef in i te p er iod f or t he n ov i d enar i i t o wh ich t hey were e n t i t led t o b e s en t b ack t o t he p lace where t hey l i ved .

One may p erhaps s ay

t ha t t h is wou ld n o t h appen , s ince t he moneyers i n e ach l oca l i ty wou ld h ave r eserves o f n ew c o ins t o p ay o u t , b u t C lause 1 4 o f t he E d ic t , s howing e ach moneyer c o l lec t ing f i ve p ounds o f s i lver t o s tar t t he c o inage o f h is l oca l min t , i nd ica tes t ha t t he l i qu id i ty r eserves a t t heir d isposa l , a nd t he amoun t o f b u l l ion t hey were e xpec ted t o b e p rocess ing a t a ny g iven mo men t , wou ld b e v ery sma l l i ndeed .

T he p rob le ms o f B ishop Erchenraus ' f am i l ia c ou ld h ave o n ly b een

s o lved b y l oca l min t ing , n o t b y l oca l d is tr ibu t ion . i n a ny c ase , a n a d min is tra t ive p roble m.

T here wou ld h ave b een ,

T he E d ic t makes i tc lear t ha t t he

n eed f or s tr ic t c on tro l was a r ea l o ne , w i th c oun ts a nd o ther o f f icia ls made p ersona l ly r espons ible f or i ssues t ak ing p lace u nder t he ir j ur isd ict ion . H ow , o ne mus t a sk , c ou ld t he C oun t o f B eauva is o r B ar-sur-Aube b e h e ld r espons ible f or wha t c o ins were i ssued i n t hese c i t i tes i ft he c o ins were s truck e lsewhere b y moneyers u nder aq u i te d i f feren t j ur isd ic t ion a nd whose w ork h e was i n n o p os i t ion t o s uperv ise?

I ssue a nd manu fac ture were a l mos t

n ecessar i ly l inked w i th e ach o ther . H ow t hen s hou ld t he h uge mu l t ip l ica t ion o f min ts i n t he mid 8 60k b e e xp la ined?

I n p ar t , n o d oub t , a long t rad i t iona l l ines : t he r eco inage , i fi t was

t o b e s a t isfactor i ly c arr ied t hrough i n t he s pace o f f our mon ths , wou ld h ave

4 4

r equ ired more min ts t han t he E d ic t c on te mp la ted . Iw ou ld s ugges t , i s r a ther d i f feren t i n c haracter .

Bu t t he r ea l e xp lana t ion , There wou ld h ave b een ,

i n t he f irs t p lace , an eed t o make g ood t he l oss i n c o inage r esu l t ing f ro m t he Danege ld p ay men ts o f 8 45 , 8 60/1 , ä nd 8 62 , more e specia l ly t he t wo l a t ter . There wou ld a lso , a nd t h is was p robab ly t he more i mpor tan t f actor , b e t he n ecess i ty f or c op ing w i th t he Danege ld o f 8 66.

We h ave n o e v idence t ha t t he

mu l t ip l ica t ion o f min ts w en t b ack t o 8 64 , o n ly t ha t t he n ew min ts were c a l led i n to e x is tence s o me t ime b e tween 8 64 a nd t he e nd o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r eign . A s tudy o f t he Danege ld p ay men ts b e tween 8 45 a nd 8 66 s hows t hese t o h ave b een p u t t ing a g rea ter a nd g rea ter s tra in u pon t he Wes t Frank ish e cono my. On e ach o ccas ion t he s i ze o f t he p ay men t d ecl ines a nd t he d i f f icu l ty a nd d e lays o ver c o l lect ing i ti ncrease .

The f ina l p ay men t wou ld c er ta in ly o n ly h ave b een

made p oss ib le b y t he e x tens ive t rans forma t ion o f p la te i n to c o in , a nd i t was , Is ugges t , t he n eed t o a ch ieve t h is l oca l ly , i n o rder t o s pread t he i ncidence o f t he t r ibu te , t ha t e xp la ins t he p ro li fera t ion o f min ts f or t he GDR c o ins. Tha t e cono m ic f actors p layed a minor r o le i s s hown b y t he f act t ha t a t l eas t h a l f o f t he min ts o f t he GDR c oinage s ubsequen t ly d isappeared , a nd n ever s truck c oin a ga in . I I T he p ay men ts o f Danege ld t ha t r equ ire o ur a t ten t ion were e ssen t ia l ly f our i n n u mber , t hose o f 8 45 , 8 60-1 , 8 62 a nd 8 66.

A sma l ler p ay men t o f

s o me s or t t ook p lace i n 8 53 , b u t i ti s k nown o n ly f ro m a c asua l r e ference i n t he C ap i tu lary o f S oissons o f 2 2 A pr i l o f t ha t y ear 1 6

a nd s ince i t was n o t

o f s u f f icien t g enera l i mpor t t o b e men t ioned i n t he o f f icia l a nna ls i t may b e n eg lec ted .

The o thers a re r easonab ly we l l d ocu men ted a nd h ave b een v ery

f u l ly d iscussed b y J oranson , b u t s u f f ic ien t a t ten t ion h as n ot b een p a id t o t heir p oss ib le r e la t ionsh ip t o t he c o inage .

Wha t f o l lows i s e ssen t ia l ly b ased o n

E iner J oranson 's e xce l len t monograph o f 1 923 , f or a l though h is d eve lop men t o f t he a rgu men t i s n o t a lways a ccep tab le —he t ends t o a ssume t ha t measures t aken i n 8 66 mus t a lso h ave b een a pp l ied o n e ar l ier o ccas ions , w i thou t a l low ing f or t he way i n wh ich t he e ar l ier Danege lds made i th arder t o r a ise t he money f or t he l a ter o nes —h is d ocumen ta t ion i s e xhaus t ive. E ven i fo ne h as t o g o e lsewhere f or a d iscuss ion o f t he c auses a nd h is tory o f t he V ik ing i nvas ions , t here i s n oth ing , s o f ar a s t he Danege lds a re c oncerned , t o b e a dded t o h is ma ter ia l .

1 7

T he f irs t p ay men t , t ha t o f 8 45 , was t he l arges t .

1 8

A Dan ish a rmy u nder

Ragnar h ad l anded i n e ar ly March a t t he mou th o f t he S eine a nd a dvanced u p t he r iver , o ccupying P ar is s ou th o f t he r iver o n t he 2 8 th .

The p os i t ion o f t he

k ing , s ta t ioned a f ew mi les a way a t S a in t-Den is , was t oo i nsecure t o a l low h im t o a t tack , a nd i n A pr i l h e a greed t o b uy t he r e trea t o f t he i nvaders b y ap aymen t o f 7 000 l bs o f s i lver .

1 9

The money was r a ised a pparen t ly w i thou t d i f f i-

c u l ty w i th in t he b r ief s pace o f t hree mon ths ;

f or t he Anna les B er t in ian i ,

wh ich a t t his p o in t a re n arra t ing e ven ts a s t hey were k nown t o t he ir a u thor i n s tr ic t c hrono log ica l o rder , p laces t he d epar ture o f t he V ik ings im med ia te ly a f ter C har les ' r ecogn i t ion o f P ipp in I a s v ir tua l ly i ndependen t r u ler o f Aqu i ta ine , i .e . i n l a te J une o r e ar ly J u ly . 2° J oranson a ssu mes t ha t t he p aymen t r equ ired a g enera l l evy , b u t o n ly b ecause t he r a is ing o f s ubsequen t Danege lds d id s o ;

i ti s n o t s ugges ted b y t he Wes t Frank ish t ex ts a nd i ndeed 4 5

s ee ms i nco mpa t ib le w i th t he b r ief p er iod o f t ime i nvo lved , a nd t he s um c ou ld p robably h ave b een r a ised b y d raw ing o n t he r oya l t reasure a ugmen ted b y c on tr ibu t ions f ro m t he g rea t magna tes , a nd e spec ia l ly f ro m t he Church .

I f

t here h ad b een a g enera l l evy we wou ld e xpec t t o h ave h eard a bou t i t , n o tw i ths tand ing t he c hange i na u thorsh ip o f t he Anna les B er t in ian i i n 8 61 , a nd t he f act t ha t P ruden t ius g ives a l ess p ersona l n arra t ive t han d oes h is s uccess or H inc mar , a s we d o o n s ubsequen t o ccas ions . The s econd s ubs tan t ia l p ay men t , t ha t o f 8 60/1 , was t echn ica l ly o ne f or s erv ices r endered , n o t ar anso m l i ke t ha t o f 8 45 . h is tory b eh ind i t .

2 1

I th ad s evera l y ears o f

I n 8 56 a l arge f orce o f V ik ings h ad o ccup ied t he i s land o f

O sce l lus i n t he S eine , n ear J eu fosse , s o me t h ir ty m i les wes t o f P ar is .

With

t h is a s ab ase t hey r avaged a nd p lundered t he s urround ing c oun try a t t he ir l e isure .

An a t te mp t t o d is lodge t he m i n 8 58 was af a i lure , a nd i n 8 60 C har les

a greed t o p ay a no ther V ik ing g roup , wh ich h ad i nvaded t he v a l ley o f t he S o m me , t he s um o f 3 000 l bs o f s i lver b y we igh t ( ' pondere e xam ina to ' ) i fi t wou ld d r ive t he m a way.

On t h is o ccas ion t he money h ad t o b e r a ised b y t axa t ion , which

we a re t o ld was l ev ied o n c hurch t reasures , o n mans i a nd o n t he p roper ty o f a l l merchan ts , e ven t he p oores t ( ' de t hesaur is e cc les iarum e t omn ibus mans is a c n ego t ia tor ibus e t ia rn p auper t in is ' ). 22

A n u p-to-da te e va lua t ion

o f c hurch p roper ty was a va i lab le , s ince o ne h ad b een made i n 8 53 ,

23 a nd

n ow

t he p roper ty o f merchan ts was s im i lar ly a ssessed i n o rder t o d iscover h ow much t hey c ou ld p ay ( ' i ta u t e t iam d o mus e orum e t omn ia u tens i l ia a dprec iar en tur e t i nde s ta tu tus c ensus e x igere tur ' ) . H ow t he mans i were e va lua ted we d o n o t k now , n or wha t t he r a tes were t hroughou t .

We may g uess t ha t t he

c hurch a u thor i t ies p a id l arge ly i n p la te a nd t he merchan ts i nb u l l ion a nd c oin . I n a ny c ase , i tp roved i mposs ible t o r a ise t he s um r equ ired w i th in a r easonab le t ime , s o C har les g ave h os tages f or t he c o mp le te p ay men t a nd t he S o m me V ik ings b e took t he mse lves t o Eng land .

There t hey s pen t t he b es t

p ar t o f ay ear , r eturn ing i n t he e ar ly s pr ing o f 8 61 a nd f ina l ly c arrying o u t t heir u nder tak ing , t hough t hey n ow d e manded , a nd o b ta ined , at ota l o f 5 000 l bs o f s i lver , t oge ther w i th l arge q uan t i t ies o f g ra in a nd c a t t le ( ' qu inque mi l ia l i bras a rgen t i c um a n i ma l ium a tque a nnonae s um ma n on mod ica ' ). 2 4 B u t t he s um was s t i l l sma l ler t han wha t h ad b een p a id i n 8 45 , a nd t he d i f f icu l ty i n r a is ing i t was e v iden t ly g rea t .

The c hron ic ler a dds t ha t t he p lunder c o l-

l ec ted b y t he S e ine V ik ings o ver t he y ears 8 56-61 i nc luded a f ur ther 6 000 l bs i n g o ld a nd s i lver wh ich t hey h ad t o s urrender t o t he a rmy f ro m t he S o m me ( ' obsess i ... s ex mi l ia l i bras i n ter a uru m e t a rgen tum o bs iden t ibus d onan t e isque s ocian tur y ) ,

2 5

as u m wh ich mus t h ave s ubs tan t ia l ly r educed t he r e-

s erves o f s i lver i n t he c oun try o n wh ich t he k ing c ou ld d raw . The t h ird ma jor Danege ld , a bou t wh ich we k now l i t t le b ecause o f i t s r eg iona l n a ture , was t ha t o f 8 62. L ike i t s i m med ia te p redeeessor i t was s t ipend iary i n c harac ter .

2 6

R ober t t he S trong , f aced w i th t he p oss ib i l i ty

o f ap ar ty o f t he S e ine V ik ings , b ough t o f f b y t he k ing i n 8 61 , j oin ing f orces w i th Duke S a lo mon o f Br i tanny; f ound i te as ier t o t ake t he m i n to h is p ay. For a c ons idera t ion o f 6 000 p ounds o f s i lver t hey a greed t o a t tack t he Bre tons ,

2 7

a nd Rober t , n a tura l ly u nable t o p roduce s uch a s um a t a mo men t 's

n o t ice , g ave h os tages a s ag uaran tee wh i le i t was b e ing r a ised . H ow i t was r a ised , o r e ven whe ther i th ad a l l e ven tua l ly t o b e r a ised a nd p a id a t a l l , we d o n o t k now,

C er ta in ly S a lo mon was c o mpe l led t o s ub m i t , wh ich s hows t ha t 4 6

t he V ik ings c arr ied o u t t he ir s ide o f t he b arga in , b u t t he f act t ha t t he c hron ic ler makes s o l i t t le o f i ts ugges ts t ha t Rober t managed t o c o l lec t wha tever s l im h e e ven tua l ly f ound n ecessary w i th in h is " duchy" o f N eus tr ia a nd w i thou t a ny r ecourse t o ag enera l l evy wh ich h e wou ld h ave h ad n o a u thor i ty t o r a ise o n h is o wn . T he f our th ma jor Danege ld was t ha t o f 8 66. 28

I n mid J u ly 8 65 a l arge

V ik ing a r my h ad o nce a ga in i nvaded t he v a l ley o f t he S e ine .

C har les ' e la-

b ora te s che me o f f or t if ica t ions a t s tra teg ic p o in ts a long t he r iver—one o f t he m was a t P i tres —had p roved af a i lure , a nd i n O ctober t he V ik ings c ap tured Par is a nd S a in t-Den is a nd s e t t led d own f or t he w in ter .

I n 8 66 t hey r esumed

t heir r a ids , a nd C har les h ad o nce a ga in t o r econci le h i mse lf t o t he p ay men t o f aD anegeld , t h is t ime o ne o f 4 000 l bs o f s i lver a ccord ing t o t he Dan ish s tandard ( ' qua t tuor mi l iu _m l i br is a rgen t i a d p ensam e orum ' ).

The r eckon ing

b y t he Dan ish s tandard was i n tended t o a void t he ambigu i ty o f t he Frank ish " pound" , wh ich c ou ld e i ther b e ap ound o f s i lver o r t he s l igh t ly l ower p ound we igh t o f 2 40 d en iers .

2 9

Th is t ime , a l though t he s um was sma l ler t han i n

8 45 , 8 61 a nd 8 62 , t he c oun try was s o s hor t o f p rec ious me ta l t ha t t he d i f f icu l ty i n r a is ing i t was e x tre me .

A l l mans i were t axed a t v arying r a tes a ccord ing

t o t he ir c haracter , f rom 6 d . o n t hose h e ld b y f ree men d own t o o f h osp i t i ;

d . o n t hose

merchan ts h ad t o p ay a t en th o f a l l t he ir p ossess ions a nd e ccles i-

a s t ics a ccord ing t o t he ir r esources ; a nd t he h er ibannus—the t rad i t iona l 6 0s . f ine f or f a i l ing t o c o mp ly w i th a d e mand f or mi l i ta ry s erv ice —was l ev ied o n a l l F ranks ( ' ind icta p er r egnu m s uu m c on la t ione a d i de m e xso lvendum t r ibu tu m , d e u noquoque manso i ngenu i l i e x ig tu i tur s ex d enar i i e t d e s erv i l i t res e t d e a cco la u nus , e t d e d uobus h osp i t i is u nus d enar ius , e t d eci ma d e omn ibus q uae n egoc ia tores v ideban tur h abere ;

s ed e t ap resb i ter i 's s ecundum q uod u nus-

q u isque h abu i t v ec t iga l e x ig i tur , e t h er ibann i d e omn ibus Franc is a ccip iunt ur ' ) .

3 0

Even s o c o mprehens ive a l evy a s t h is p roved i nsu f f icien t , s o t ha t

af ur ther d enar ius h ad t o b e i mposed o n f ree a nd u n free mans i ( Un c le d e u noquoque manso , t am i ngenu i l i e t s erv i l i , t u tus d enar ius s urni tur y ) , a nd t hen t wo f ur ther l ev ies , p ar t ly i n s i lver a nd p ar t ly i n w ine , were r equ ired f ro m t he magna tes , mak ing a t o ta l o f f our a ssess men ts i n a l l b efore t he s um i n i t ia l ly a greed u pon c ou ld b e r a ised ( ' e t d e mun i p er d uas v ices , i ux ta q uod u nusqu isque r egn i p r in ioru m d e h onor ibus h abu i t c on iec tum , t am i n a rgen to q uam i n v ino , a d p ensum q uod i ps is N or t mann is p actum f uera t p erso lvendum c on tu l i t ' ). The f our l ev ies t ook s o me f ive mon ths t o c o l lec t , f ro m e ar ly i n t he y ear ( February?) , w hen t he t rea ty was made , t o J u ly , when t he i nvaders f ina l ly e vacua ted t he ir s trongho ld n ear S a in t-Den is , moved d own t he S eine , a nd p u t t o s ea .

3 1

No f ur ther p ay men t o f Danege ld , a t l eas t o n a ny s ca le ,

h ad t o b e made u n t i l 8 77. I ti s i n t he l igh t o f t hese p ay men ts t ha t we c an b es t i n terpre t t he s udden i ncrease i n t he n umber o f min ts t ha t a cco mpan ied t he GDR i ssue .

T he e xp lana-

t ion c anno t b e a dm in is tra t ive , f or o ther r eco inages — those o f 7 94 , 8 19 , 8 22 —saw n o thing c o mparab le , n or c an i tb e e cono m ic , f or , a s h as b een n oted a lready , mos t o f t he n ew min ts q u ick ly d isappeared a ga in .

Tha t Frank ish

c o inage was s t i l l av ery sma l l-sca le a f fa ir c an b e f a ir ly i n ferred f ro m t he f ac t t ha t i ts o rgan isers b el ieved f ive p ounds o f s i lver p er min t wou ld b e s u ff ic ien t t o p rov ide t he work ing c ap i ta l f or t he who le o pera t ion . T he Danegelds o f 8 45 , 8 61 a nd 8 62 wou ld h ave s er ious ly r educed t he q uan t i ty o f c o in i n

4 7

c ircu la t ion , f or e ven i f much o f t he m was p a id i n p la te a nd b u l l ion s o me mus t h ave b een p a id i n c o in .

H ow much f resh min t ing was d one we c anno t s ay ,

b u t t he p ay men ts a re a t l eas t l i ke ly t o h ave b rough t b ack i n to c ircu la t ion much h oarded c oin o f e ar l ier t imes , t o r ep lace t he b e t ter o nes t ha t were a l l t he N or thmen wou ld a ccep t . I t was a pparen t ly t he d i f f icu l ty a r is ing f ro m t h is t ha t a c ap i tu lary i ssued a t Qu ierzy i n 8 61 was i n tended t o r ecti fy , f or wh i le i tr ep ea ts t he c us to mary p ena l i t ies f or r e fus ing g ood c oin i tg oes o n t o e xp la in t ha t t h is i s n o t i n tended t o a pp ly t o t he mo men tary r e fusa l o f p ro ferred c ash i n t he p rocess o f a rr iv ing a t a n a greed p r ice , s ince wo men i n p ar t icu lar were a ccus to med t o b arga in ing b efore mak ing p urchases ( ' S i a u te m i l ium d enar ium b onu m i nvener i t [ m issus ], c ons idere t a e ta te m e t i n f ir m i ta te m e t s exum h omin is , q u ia e t f em inae b arcan iare s o len t ' ). 3 2 T he r epea ted Danege lds , e ach i nvo lv ing t he l oss o f h uge q uan t i t ies o f g ood q ua l i ty c o in , wou ld i nciden ta l ly h ave i ncreased t he p ropor t ion o f f a lse c o in i n c ircu la t ion ;

c oun ter fe i t ing , t hough n o t v ery e v iden t f ro m e x is t ing c o ins , was

ap heno menon c o mp la ined o f t hroughou t t he Caro l ing ian p er iod . Aw ish t o g e t r id o f c oun ter fei ts was f orma l ly t he ma in r eason b eh ind t he d ec is ion t o u nder take a ma jor r eco inage i n 8 64 , t hough a p assage i n C lause 1 3 o f t he E d ic t , d ea l ing w i th t he p oss ibi l t t ies o f f raud o n t he p ar t o f t he moneyers , a lready e nv isages t he me l t ing d own o f c hurch p la te a nd o b jec ts o wned e ven b y t he p oor a s we l l o f o f o ld c o in ( ' de a rgen to r e i p ub l icae t— I t ake t h is t o mean c o in , r a ther t han t he k ing 's s i lver p la te — 'e t d e a rgen to r erum e cc les ias t icarum e t d e f acu l ta te p auperu m ' ) , s how ing t ha t a n i ncrease i n t he much r educed v o lume o f c o inage i n c ircu la t ion was a lso c on te mp la ted .

B u t i t was , Is ugges t , t he

t h ird Dan .ege ld o f 8 66 r a ther t han t he i n i t ia l r equ ire men ts o f t he r eco inage t ha t r esu l ted i n t he w idespread o pen ing o f n ew m in ts , i n c as tra , c as te l la , a nd o ther f or ms o f s e t t lemen t i n a dd i t ion t o c iv i ta tes , f or t he f ur ther t urn ing o f s i lver p la te i n to wha t , a f ter t he Te mp le t ype o f L ou is t he P ious , i s t he b es t-known c o inage o f t he C aro l ing ian p er iod .

G onv i l le a nd C a ius C o l lege , Ca mbr idge

NOTES 1 . T he s tandard r e ference works o n Caro l ing ian c o inage , a re : L es monna ies r oya les d e France s ous l a r ace c aro l ing ienne

E . G ar ie l , 2v o l.

( S trasbourg , 1 884 ) ; M . Prou , L es monna ies c aro l ing iennes C a t . d es monna ies f ranca ises d e l a B ib l io theque Na t iona le ) ( Par is , 1 896 ) ; a nd K . F . Morr ison a nd H . G run tha l , Caro ling ian C o inage New Y ork , 1 967 Nu m is ma t ic No tes a nd Monographs , No. 1 58 .

The r ecen t work o f H .

Frere , L e d en ier c aro l ing ien , s pec ia le men t e n B e lg ique ( Louva in-laN euve , 1 977 ) i s s o me t imes u sefu l .

The a ccoun ts o f C har les t he Ba ld 's

c o inage i n t he s tandard works o f A . Enge l a nd R . S errure , T ra i te d e n um is ma t ique d u moyen ä ge I ( Par is , 1 891 ) , 2 34-44 , a nd A . B lanche t , Manue l d e n um is ma t ique f ran9a ise I( Par is 1 912 ) , 3 37f f ., mus t b e u sed w i th c au t ion , s ince t he c o ins o f t h is r u ler a re n o t s a t is factor i ly s epara ted

4 8

f ro m t hose o f C har le magne a nd C har les t he S i mp le. v an Rey ,

The a r t icle b y M .

' Die Münzpragung Kar ls d es Kah len u nd d ie wes tfränk ische

K ön igs landscha f t ' , i n D ie S tad t i n d er Europä ischen G esch ich te: s chr i f t E d i th Ennen(Bonn ,

1 972 ) , p p . 1 53-84 ,

Fest-

i s h elpfu l o ver min ts .

2 . A l though a p ar t i t ion a rrange men t o f 8 37 a l loca ted C har les t he r eg ion b etween t he S e ine a nd F ris ia , a nd h e was a ctua l ly c rowned k ing i n S epte mber 8 38 , h is c harters a re d a ted f ro m h is e ffect ive s uccess ion a f ter L ou is t he P ious ' d ea th ( 20 J une 8 40 ) , a nd n one o f h is c oins a ppear t o a n teda te t h is e ven t . 3 . J . La faur ie ,

' Deux t r sors mon aa ires c aro l ing iens :

S aumeray ( Eure-

e t-Lo ir ) , Rennes ( I l le-e t-Vi la ine ) ' , Revue n um is ma t ique 6 , 7 ( 1965 ) , 2 65-6. 4 . T ess ier , I , p p. 1 22-3 , n o. 2 78 . 5 . I b id ., p p. 1 20-1 , n o . 2 77.

Ear l ier e d i t ions , a nd t he whole s econdary

l i tera ture , r egu lar ly d a te t h is c har ter t o Nove mber 8 65 , i .e. a y ear a f ter t he c hange i n t he c oinage t ook e f fect , b u t 1 1 Nove mber i n t he 2 5 th y ear o f C har les ' r e ign f e l l i n 8 64. 6 .

L eg is la t ion a ga ins t c oun ter fei ting i s ar ecurren t f ea ture i n t he c api tu lar ies . H ere o ne may s i mp ly n ote a c lause i n aC ap i tu lary i ssued t en y ears p rev ious ly , i n 8 54 , a t A t t igny , ' De mone t is e t f a lsar i is f abr is , v idel icet u t d i l igen ter i nqu iran tur e t emenden tur i ( MGH Cap . 1 .278 , c ap . 9 ) .

7 .

MGH Cap . 1 .310-28 .

The mone tary c lauses a re o n p p. 3 14-18 .

8 . T ex t i n MGH Cap. 1 .382-450 . 9 .

Pseudo-Jero me , D e monogra m ma XP I , a ppended t o S anct i H ierony m i p resbyter i t racta tus n ovissime r eper t i , e d . G . Mor in ( Anecdota Mared solana , 1 1 .2.

Maredsous , 1 903 ) , p . 1 95 .

o f L . Traube , N om ina s acra . K ürzung (Mun ich , 1 907 ): 1 0 .

The c lass ica l s tudy i s t ha t

Versuch e iner G esch ich te d er c hr is t l ichen

f or Deus a bbrev ia t ions s ee p p. 1 46-8 .

' L 'Ar t ic le X I I d e l 'Ed i t d e P i tres d u 2 5 j u in 8 64 ' , Bu l l . S oc. f ranc. d e n um is ma t ique , 2 3 ( 1 968 ) , 3 24-6, d eve loped i n h is ' Moneta Pa la t ina ', F rancia , 4( 1976 ) , 6 7-9.

1 1.

C f . D . S e l lwood , ' Med ieva l min ting t echn iques ' , BNJ 3 1 ( 1962 ) , 5 7-65.

1 2.

' L ia isons d e c oins d e q ue lques monna ies meroving iennes ' , Bu l l . d e l a S oci6t6 f ranca ise d e n umis ma t ique , 2 4 ( 1969 ) , 4 29-32.

1 3 .

t re miss i l ongobard i ec aro l ing i d e l r ipos t ig lio d i I l anz , n ei G r ig ion i t , Quadern i T icines i , 6( 1977 ) , 3 61.

1 4 . R . H . M. Do l ley , ' The r e levance o f o bverse d ie-links t o s o me p roble ms o f t he l a ter Ang lo-Saxon c oinage ' , C o m men ta t iones d e n u m mis s aecu lorum I X-X I i n S uecia r eper t is , I( S tockho lm , 1 961) , 1 53-72.

Many more

e xa mples c an n ow b e a dded t o t he 2 0 l i nks k nown t o Dol ley i n 1 961. 1 5 .

A . Noss , ' Der Neiderrhein ische A lbus ' , M i t tei lungen d er Bayer ischen , Nu mis ma t ischen G ese l lscha f t . 1 1 ( 1892 ) , 1 7-18 . For 1 609 t here a re d ie-linkages i n b oth d irec tions , w i th C o logne o bverses/Jü l ich r everses

4 9

a nd J ü l ich o bverses/Co logne r everses ( T. K irsch , ' Verwechse lung v on Münzs te mpeln am N iederrhein ' , Frank fur ter Münzzei tung , 7 -9 ( 1 907-9 ) , 1 45-6). 1 6.

MGH Cap . 1 .267 , n ote * * . The ma in a rgu men t f or i t s e x is tence i s t he f act t ha t G odfrey 's a rmy , wh ich h ad l anded i n t he S e ine t he p receding O ctober , was i nduced i n s o me way t o r et ire , a nd a p ay men t o f D anege ld s ee ms t he o n ly p oss ible e xp lana t ion .

S ee E . J oranson , The Danegeld

i n France ( Rock I s land , I l l ., 1 923 ) , 3 9-44 . 1 7.

The f u l les t n arra t ive a ccoun t r e ma ins t ha t o f W. Voge l , D ie Normannen u nd d as f ränk ische Re ich b is z ur G rundung d er Nor mand ie , 7 99-911 ( He idelberg , 1 906).

F or l a ter i n terpre ta t ions , a nd more u p-to-da te

b ibl iography , s ee L . Musse t , L es i nvasions :

l e s econd a ssaut c on tre

l 'Europe c hr6t ienne ( V I Ie-X Ie s iecles ) ( Par is , 1 971).

The s tudy b y F .

L o t , " Les t r ibu ts a ux Nor mands e t l ' eg l ise d e France a u I Xe s ièc le ' , BECH 8 5 ( 1924) , 5 8-78 , r efers ma in ly t o t he Danege ld o f 8 77 a nd i s e ssen t ia l ly a n e nqu iry i n to why t he s u ms p a id were n ot , i n v iew o f t he a u thor 's p robably e xaggera ted e s t i ma tes o f t he p opu la t ion a nd wea l th o f n in th c en tury France , much l arger t han t hose r epor ted b y t he c hron iclers . 1 8.

J oranson , 3 6-38 .

1 9.

AB , p . 4 9.

2 0.

J oranson , 3 6 , n o te 5 3 .

2 1.

J oranson , 4 5-58 .

2 2.

AB s .a . 8 60 ( pp. 8 2-3 ).

2 3.

MGH pap. 1 .266-70 .

2 4.

AB s .a . 8 61 ( p . 8 6).

2 5.

l oc. c i t .

2 6.

J oranson , 5 9-61.

2 7.

AB s .a . 8 62 ( p . 8 9 ):

' Ro tber tus a u te m S a lo mone m s us t inere n on v a lens ,

c um p raefa tis Nor mann is q u i d e S equana e x ieran t , a n tequa m e os S a lo mon s ibi a dversus e um a dscisceret , d a t is u tr i mque o bs id ibus , i n s ex mi libus l i br is

a rgen t i c on tra e unde m S a lo mone m c onven i t .'

d iscussed b y F . L ot ,

The a greemen t i s

' La L oire , l 'Aqu i ta ine e t l a S eine d e 8 62 a 8 66 ':

Rober t l e For t ', BECH 7 6 ( 1915 ) , 4 77-8 , n . 3 . 2 8. 2 9.

J oranson , 6 2-92. H ow e xact ly t he Frank ish weigh t-pound a nd c o in p ound were r ela ted t o e ach o ther i s d ispu ted , a nd n eed n ot c oncern u s h ere. c rea ted p roble ms o n o ther o ccasions .

The ambigu i ty

I n a Wes t Frank ish p ay men t o f

Danege ld i n 8 82 t he f igure o f ( presumably ) 2 000 l bs i n a uro e t a rgen to i s e xpressed a s d uo mule l i bras e t LX)0 C v e l _pau lo p lus ;

q ua m l i bram

XX s ol idos c o mpu ta mus e xple tam ( Anna les Fu ldenses , s .a . 8 82 , e d . F . Kurze 3 0.

Hanover , 1 891 , 1 09 ).

AB s .a . 8 66 ( pp. 1 25-6 ).

5 0

3 1. 3 2.

F or t he d a tes , s ee J oranson , 9 0 n ote 1 52 , a nd 9 1 , n ote 1 63 . MGH Cap . I , 3 02 ,

Th is s ee ms t o b e t he e ar l ies t r ecorded u se o f t he

word b arcan iare e o ur ' barga in" , f ro m La t . b arca , a sma l l b oa t.

5 1

4 .

A SKETCH OF THE CURRENCY

I N THE T I ME OF CHARLES THE BALD D . M . Metca l f When s c ien t is ts a sk g overnmen t a genc ies f or l arge amoun ts o f money i n s uppor t o f ar esearch p ro jec t , t hey a re s o me t imes i nv i ted t o s ub mi t wha t i s c a l led i n Amer ica a ' ba l l-park e s t i ma te '. B y c onven t ion , t he a pprox i ma te s um i s men t ioned , n o t i n t housands o f d o l lars o r p ounds , b u t i n ' Ks '.

The

f igure i s n o t e xpec ted t ob e f i rm o r p rec ise , a s l ong a s i ti s ' i n t he r igh t b a l l-park ': i ti s e nough t o a l low t he i nev i tab le c omm i t tee t o we igh c o mpe t ing c la ims a ga ins t a va i lable r esources . T he p urpose o f t h is a r t ic le i s t o e s tabl i sh w h ich b a l l-park we a re i n when we t ry t o u se t he c urrency o f C har les t he Ba ld a s e v idence f or e cono m ic h is tory , b y s howing t ha t t he c urrency was s truck i n v ery l arge q uan t i t ies i n s o me p ar ts a t l eas t o f G au l , a nd t ha t i t c ircu la ted w ide ly.

I ti s q ui te a s i mp le e xercise ( or wou ld b e i f more o f t he

f acts a bou t mone tary c ircu la t ion were t o h and ) , h i ther to n eg lec ted p erhaps b ecause n um isma t is ts h ave h ad t o s pend a l mos t a l l t he ir e f for ts i n s cru t in izing i nd iv idua l c o ins u nder amagn i fy ing-g lass .

1

T he o ne wor th-wh i le a t te mp t t o

g enera l ize t he e v idence f or mone tary h is tory was , It h ink , p erverse i n d ep rec ia t ing t he h oards , a nd r eached a s er ious ly m is taken c onclus ion t hrough af a i lure t o c ons ider t ha t f ore ign c oins migh t h ave b een a bsen t b ecause t hey were s tr ict ly e xc luded f ro m c ircu la t ion i n t he Carol ing ian emp ire , a nd n o t b ecause t hey d id n ot a rr ive i n G au 1 .2

S tr ic t c on tro l o f t he c urrency was e v i-

d en t ly w i th in t he p ower o f C aro l ing ian r u lers :

s o me th ing c o mparab le c an b e

d emons tra ted i n t he c ase o f Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , where t here i s ac on tras t b e tween h oards f ound i n t he t err i tor ies u nder r oya l c on trol ( no f ore ign c o ins ) , a nd i n t he n or th a nd wes t o f t he Br i t ish I s les ( nu merous C aro l ing ian a nd o ther f ore ign c oins ).

3

T he r e la t ive i mpor tance o r o therw ise o f c o m merce a nd a money e cono my a s o pposed t o a n a grar ian r eg ime a nd l oca l s e ll-su f f ic iency i n t he t ime o f Char les t he Ba ld i s s o me thing a bou t wh ich t he d ocu men tary s ources h ave l i t t le s ys te ma t ic t o t e l l u s . Ye t , f or t he g enera l h is tor ian , i ti s t he p r i mary q ues t ion wh ich t he c urrency p oses .

I ft he e cono my o f Francia was l i nked

t o t he wor ld o f t he n or thern s eas more c lose ly t han were t he e cono m ies o f N eus tr ia o r A qu i ta ine , —or i f Francia was a n a l toge ther wea l th ier r eg ion , i n wh ich mone tary t ransac t ions p layed a g rea ter p ar t t han e lsewhere , — then t h is s hou ld b e t he f ra mework w i th in wh ich we e xam ine a l l t he d e ta i led n um is ma t ic e v idence .

We may b e s ure t ha t s uch d i f ferences were a pprec ia ted a nd e x-

p lo i ted a t t he t ime , b y t he t raders who c ame a nd wen t where t hey t hough t t ha t t he ir a dvan tage l ay. L a touche p laced t he b ir th o f wes tern e cono my i n t he e leven th c en tury: b efore t ha t d a te , l oca l s e l f-su f f ic iency was t he o rder o f t he d ay. 4

Ap roper

s tudy o f t he Caro l ing ian c o inage , h owever , s hou ld c ause o ne t o q ues t ion t ha t v iew , a nd t o s ugges t t ha t t he c hanges h e d iscerned were n o t s o much t he b ir th a s t he r ebir th o f wes tern e cono my a f ter t he d is loca t ion o f t he l a te n in th a nd 5 3

t en th c en tur ies .

B e fore 8 77 , G au l h ad r eached a much h igher l eve l o f d eve lop-

men t t han w ou ld b e s uspec ted f ro m a n e leven th-cen tury v iewpo in t.

Ma jor

c o m merc ia l c hanges , p ar t icu lar ly i ft hey a re r e trograde , c an t ake p lace more s w i f t ly t han s ocia l o r i ns t i tu t iona l c hanges .

B oa ts l e f t u ncared f or o ver a

f ew w in ters a re h ard ly wor th r epa ir ing , a nd t he g ood-w i l l o f a ny m idd le-Tr a n 's b us iness h as e qua l ly t o b e k ep t i n r epa ir . We s ha l l n ever h ave t he s or t o f s ta t is tica l i n forma t ion a bou t C aro l ing ian G au l wh ich g overnmen ts c o mp i le t oday: p opu la t ion ;

t he s ize a nd a ge-s tructure o f t he

f ami ly i nco me , s how ing t he g rada t ions o f r ich a nd p oor :

i n r ea l d isposab le i nco me ; t he s tumb l ing-b lock .

a nd s o o n .

t rends

T he l ack o f s ys te ma t ic e v idence i s

C on te mporary r ecords g ive u s o n ly o ccas iona l g l impses

o f a ct iv i t ies i nvo lv ing c ash t ransac t ions .

T hus , f or e xamp le , we r ead i n t he

Anna ls o f S t . B er t in a bou t t he t raders a nd s h ie ld-se l lers ( 'merca tores a c s cu ta v enden tes ' ) who f o l lowed t he i mper ia l a rmy , a nd w ho . i n 8 76 . were c augh t u p i n ar ou t ,

c logg ing t he n arrow r oad a nd t hus b lock ing t he e scape-rou te o f t he

f l ee ing s o ld iers .

The o ppos ing a rmy s e ized a l l t he g oods t ha t t he t raders

were c arrying .

Presumably t raders a nd s h ie ld-se l lers f o l lowed a rm ies o n

5

o ther o ccas ions , a nd r an a way q u ick ly e nough when t he n eed a rose ;

b u t we

a re t o ld a bou t i to n ly o n t h is o ccas ion b ecause o f am isadven ture , a nd w ou ld o therwise n ever h ave k nown t ha t t here was s uch a n o ccupa t ion i n t he n in th c en tury a s i t ineran t s h ie ld-se l ler ,

Anna l is ts were p r i mar i ly c oncerned w i th

aq u i te d i f feren t s tra tu m o f s oc ie ty .

G enera l izing t he f ragmen tary i n for ma t ion

wh ich t he wr i t ten r ecord o f fers a nd d iscoun t ing i t s b ias a l lows h is tor ians e xc ess ive s cope f or d ivergence o f o pin ion a bou t mone tary a f fa irs . I t i s t h is d ear th o f s a t is fac tory e v idence wh ich i mpe ls u s t o g lean wha t we c an f ro m n um is ma t ics . T he c o inage , o r more p recise ly t he c urrency , i s p o ten t ia l ly o f i n teres t j us t b ecause , a nd t o t he e x ten t t ha t , i tc an p rov ide s ys te ma t ic i n forma t ion . I ta u to ma t ica l ly r e f lects t he i n terp lay o f a l l t ypes o f mone tary t ransac t ions i n ar eg ion , i nc lud ing t he ' f orgo t ten ' o nes ( as when o ne s ays , p ound n o te t h is morn ing .

h ad af i ve-

H ow i s i tt ha t Io n ly h ave t h is much l e f t i n my

p urse?' —and t hen a f ew minu tes l a ter , o ne r e me mbers , ' Oh y es , o f c ourse , Ip a id t he mi lkman ' ) . Wha t d oes o ne w ish t o k now a bou t t he c urrency i n t he t ime o f C har les t he Ba ld , a nd a re t here a ny ways i n wh ich o ne migh t f i nd i to u t? B efore a ny th ing e lse , o ne wou ld l i ke t o k now r ough ly wha t t he s ca le o f t he money s upp ly was. Ear l ier s tuden ts , wh i le l eav ing t h is q ues t ion u nasked , s ee m t ac i t ly t o h ave a ssumed t ha t C aro l ing ian c oins were min ted i n o n ly sma l l q uan t i ti tes , a nd n o t b y t he mi l l ion a s c oins a re t oday. T h is a ssu mp t ion c o loured t heir u nders tand ing o f o ther a spec ts o f t he e v idence .

They t hough t t hey were i n ad i fferen t b a l l-

p ark , i .e . t ha t t he n um is ma t ic e v idence was t o b e s een i n t he c on tex t o f a n e ssen t ia l ly n on- mone tary e cono my.

N ex t , o ne wou ld l i ke t o k now h ow t he

t o ta l s tock o f c urrency was d is tr ibu ted a round t he c oun try ; wha t i ts v e loc i ty o f c ircu la t ion was ; whe ther i t s u se was a ssoc ia ted c onsp icuous ly w i th c ert a in t ypes o f t ransac t ion ;

a nd h ow w ide ly d i f fused c o inage was t hrough s oc ie ty.

There a re t wo we l l-trodden ways i n wh ich we c an e xp lore t hese t opics , a nd , a l though t hey h ave t ended t o b e t he p reserve o f n um isma t is ts , t he c onc lus ions t o wh ich t hey l ead a re c er ta in ly w i th in t he s phere o f i n teres t o f h is tor ians .

5 4

Wha t , t hen , a re t hese t wo p rocedures? T he f irs t r e l ies o n e s tab l ish ing t he p oin t o f o r ig in o f t he c o ins , wh ich were s truck y ear b y y ear , i n v arying q uan t i t ies , a t al arge n umber o f min ts s ca t tered t hrough t he c oun try.

Once

t hey h ad b een i ssued , o f c ourse , t he c o ins w ere c arr ied a bou t f ro m p lace t o p lace .

I ti s i n p r inc ip le p oss ib le t o a na lyse t he c urrency s ta t is t ica l ly i n

t erms o f t he p lace a nd d a te o f o r ig in o f t he c o ins i n u se .

T he n ecessary i n-

f orma t ion c an b e d er ived f ro m t he c o mpos i t ion o f h oards , e ach o f wh ich i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een p u t t oge ther more o r l ess a t o ne t ime a nd i n o ne p lace ; a nd s im i lar ly f ro m s tray f inds o f s ing le c o ins , a l though t heir d a te o f l oss c anno t b e d a ted p recise ly. T he h oards s how , a s migh t b e e xpected , t ha t t he c urrency v ar ied f ro m d ecade t o d ecade , a nd f ro m r eg ion t o r eg ion , e .g . t he p ercen tage o f c o ins s truck a t s ome p ar t icu lar m in t w i l l i ncrease o r d wind le , a nd i tw i l l v ary w ide ly i n d i f feren t r eg ions o f G au l . s ugges t t he mse lves ;

R easons f or t hese v ar ia t ions may

b u t t he f irs t t h ing i s t o a sse mble t he f ac ts .

S im i lar ly , o ne c ou ld l ook f or t he r easons why c o ins were s truck where t hey w ere s truck , b u t t ha t t op ic w i l l n o t b e p ursued h ere , a s i ti s o n ly i nd irec t ly r e levan t t o ad escr ip t ion o f t he c urrency. N o te t ha t t here i s n o o ther d irec t way o f s tudying t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c urrency , e xcep t t hrough h oards a nd s ing le f inds .

C o in c ol lec t ions a s t hey

e x is t t oday i n museums a nd e lsewhere a re v ery much s econd-hand e v idence f or t h is p ar t icu lar e nqu iry , e ven t hough t he c o ins i n t he m c o me f ro m t hose s ame h oards .

I t wou ld n o t b e l og ica l , f or e xamp le , t o a ssess t he c urrency

b y a sk ing wha t c o ins were min ted i n t he n a me o f C har les t he Ba ld ;

f or wha t

i fe ar l ier C aro l ing ian c o ins h ad made u p as ign i f ican t p ropor t ion o f t he c urrency ?—or wha t i ft he C aro l ing ian c o ins h ad b een min ted p r i mar i ly i n o rder t o make p ay men ts t o t he V ik ings , a nd n o t f or g enera l c ircu la t ion?

T he

s pec imens s urv iv ing t oday migh t t hen h ave p assed s tra igh t f ro m t he min ts t o t he h ands o f t he V ik ings , h av ing n ever f ormed p ar t o f an orma l c urrency. T he s econd p rocedure i s t o e s t ima te t he v o lume o f min t-ou tpu t b y c heck ing t he amoun t o f d ie-dup l ica t ion i n ar ando m s a mple o f c oins .

The t o ta l n unber

o f c o ins s truck n eed n o t , u n for tuna te ly , b e t he s ame t h ing a s t he s ize o f t he c urrency. Once t hey w ere i n c ircu la t ion , t he c o ins t ended t o b e l os t a nd t o dw ind le a way , f or e xamp le t hrough e xpor t t o Eng land , where t hey w ou ld b e me l ted d own , a nd t here i s e v idence wh ich s ugges ts t ha t t he l oss-ra te may h ave t een o f t he o rder o f 1o r 2p er c en t p er a nnu m , o r e ven more .6 U n less t here h ad r ecen t ly b een a t horough r eco inage , t herefore , s uch a s o ccurred i n Francia i n t he y ears 8 64 o nwards , t he v o lu me o f t he c urrency may h ave b een o n ly t hree-quar ters o r e ven a h a lf o f t he f igure i nd ica ted b y s ta t is t ica l s amp l ing f or t he v o lume o f min t o u tpu t . p o in t .

The l a t ter i s n ever the less t he n ecessary s tar t ing

The e s t i ma tes a re s ub ject t o marg ins o f s ta t is t ica l u ncer ta in ty , wh ich

may ( where t he b es t a va i lab le n um is ma t ic s a mp le i s r a ther sma l l ) b e d isapp oin t ing ly w ide . Bu t f or t he p urposes o f e s tabl ishing a g enera l h is tor ica l v iew o f t he c urrency , t he u ncer ta in ty may n o t much ma t ter .

( To t ake a n e x tre me

c ase , i t may b e a s i f Is a id , ' Have y ou g o t e nough wa ter t o f i l l ab ucke t?', a nd y ou r ep l ied , ' Un for tuna te ly , Ic an 't f or a v ar ie ty o f r easons e s t i ma te h ow much wa ter t here i s h ere a ny more a ccura tely t han t o w i th in p lus o r minus a bou t 6 0% , b u t my c en tra l e s tima te i s 1 6 g a l lons ' ).

I f C har les t he Ba ld s truck

u pwards o f , s ay , a n e s t ima ted 5 0 mi l l ion c o ins ( and , a s we s ha l l s ee , t he f igure c an h ard ly b e l ess ) t h is i s p robably e nough , t aken i n t he c on tex t o f t he 5 5

h oard e v idence , t o t e l l u s t ha t we h ave , e ven a f ter t he h eavy e xact ions o f n u merous d anege lds h ad b een me t , a t l eas t ab ucke t-fu l l l e f t —in o ther words , t ha t we c anno t b e v iewing a n e ssen t ia l ly n on- mone tary e cono my. n o t p roduced o n ly f or t he p ay men t o f d anege ld ,

C o ins were

o r t o s erve t he h igher e che lons

o f s oc ie ty , a ny more t han f oss i ls a re , a s s o me p re-Darw in ian s cho lars b e l ieved , l usus n a turae , s por ts o f n a ture , i nser ted i n to t he r ocks b y t he C rea tor a s aj ape .

L e t u s b eg in , t hen , b y c ons ider ing t he h oards , a nd b y s ketch ing f ro m t he ir e v idence t he o u t l ines o f C har les 's c urrency.

T h is w i l l n ot b e s uch a

l eng thy t ask a s migh t a t f irs t a ppear , f or a l though t here a re b etween s i x ty a nd s even ty h oards wh ich a re t hough t o r k nown t o h ave c on ta ined c o ins o f C har les , mos t o f t he m a re o f l im i ted i n teres t f or o ur p urpose . Ad ozen a re f rom Fr is ia , t he ir f ind-spo ts l y ing we l l b eyond C har les 's t err i tor ies .

7

O thers a re

f ro m t he Br i t ish I s les o r S cand inav ia , a nd a l l t hese p rov ide o n ly o b l ique e v id ence o f t he c urrency o f t he Empire .

Another d ozen o r s o h oards w ere s hared

o u t among t he f inders o r d ispersed w i th o n ly ab r ief o r p ar t ia l r ecord , a nd t he ir t es t imony a s t o t he p roport ions o f d if feren t i ssues i n c ircu la t ion i s u ns ure . S o me h oards a re v ery sma l l , a nd , a l though i n teres t ing , d o n o tg ive a n a dequa te s ta t is t ica l s a mp le . Then t here i s ag roup o f h oards wh ich s ee m t o h ave b een c oncea led i n t he f irs t t en o r f i f teen y ears o f C har les 's r e ign a nd wh ich c ons is t mos t ly , s t i l l , o f c o ins o f L ou is I , w i th p erhaps o n ly t wo o r t hree i n t he n ame o f C har les . Wh i le t hey a re p oten t ia l ly o f much i n teres t f or t he s tudy o f monetary c ircu la t ion , s ince t hey were s truck a t n u merous m in ts , t he n ames o f t he min ts a re u n for tuna te ly n o t g iven o n t he c oins , wh ich a re s i mp ly i nscr ibed XP ISTIANA REL IG IO , a nd t he ir a t tr ibu t ion h as t o c on jec tured f ro m c ons idera t ions o f s ty le a nd p rovenance . We w i l l b eg in , t here fore , w ith t he min t-s igned c o ins f ro m t he e nd o f t he r e ign , a nd r e turn l a ter ( sec t ion I I b e low ) t o l ook b r ief ly a t t he p roble ms o f t he u na t tr ibu ted v ar ie t ies . T he p o s t8 64 c o inage , wh ich w i l l b e o ur s tar t ing-po in t , was s truck a t we l l o ver a h undr ed d i f feren t min ts , a nd a ccord ing ly g ives r ich s cope f or a na lys is .

O n e ach

c oin , i t s min t i s c lear ly n amed o n t he r everse , a s may b e s een f ro m t he s pec imens i n P l . 3 .

( On ly a sma l l p ercen tage o f t he c o ins a re f ro m p laces o f wh ich

t he l oca t ion i s d eba teab le ) .

T he d a te o f b ur ia l o f t he h oards f ro m wh ich t he

p os t-864 c o inage i s k nown c anno t a lways b e j udged p recise ly , b u t many o f t he m c er ta in ly were c oncea led a f ter C har les 's d ea th , a nd t o s o me e x ten t , t here fore , t hey o f fer o n ly r e trospec t ive e v idence o f mone tary c ircu la t ion d ur ing h is l i fe time . The V ik ing a ssau l ts wh ich p robably o ccas ioned t he c onc ea l men t o f many h oards s ee m a lso t o h ave c aused t he c urrency t o b eco me more l oca l ized b y a bou t t he e nd o f t he c en tury , a nd o ne s h ,u ld b e p repared t o d iscoun t t h is d i f ference , i n u s ing t he p os t-877 h oards a s e v idence f or c irc u la t ion b efore t ha t d a te . • T he mos t r e l iab le o r wor th-wh i le i n forma t ion a bou t t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c urrency c o mes , t hen , f ro m o n ly a s e lec t ion o f t he k nown h oards . a re marked w i th s l igh t ly l arger s y mbo ls t han t he r es t o n t he map ,

T hese

F ig . I .

S ince t here were , a s we s ha l l s ee , v ir tua l ly s epara te c urrencies i n Francia , Fr is ia , N eus tr ia , B urgundy , A qu i ta ine a nd t he march o f T ou louse ,

5 6

I :

HOARDS AND S ITE-FINDS FRO M THE T I ME OF CHARLES

THE BALD AND THE YEARS IM MED IATELY FOLLO W ING . F inds o f ma jor impor tance a re marked b y s l igh t ly l arger s y mbols .

5 7

n ot t o men t ion P rovence , o ur h and fu l o f u se fu l h oards w i l l n o t g o f ar t owards d e f in ing t he q uan t i t ies o f c o ins i nvo lved , e specia l ly i fe v idence i s r equ ired a lso o f t he c hanges wh ich o ccurred i n t he c urrency d ur ing C har les 's r e ign . Fro m t he h ear t land o f t he P ar is b as in , f or e xamp le , i n t he v a l leys o f t he O ise a nd t he Marne — the r eg ion i n wh ich l ay Par is a nd S t . Den is , Rhe i ms , L aon , C hä Ions , N oyon , A t t igny , a nd C o mp iegne , a nd where t here were many a ctive min ts—chance h as b rough t t o l igh t o n ly o ne l arge h oard , n a me ly t ha t f ro m C o mp iegne . I t was f ound a h undred y ears a go , a nd was d escr ibed b y G ar ie l .

I tc on-

t a ined 2 33 s i lver d en iers a nd o bo les , o f wh ich 2 28 were c o ins o f C har les . The d a te a t wh ich i t was c oncea led i s i nd ica ted b y t wo c o ins ( f ro m V ise a nd Tours ) o f L ou is t he S tam merer ( 8 77-9 ) o r p erhaps L ou is I I ( 8 79-82 ) .

As

t here were o n ly t wo among s o many e ar l ier c oins , t he d epos i t was p robably n ot more t han a y ear o r s o a f ter 8 77: d ied a t C o mp iAgne i n 8 79 .

o ne r eca l ls t ha t L ou is t he S tammerer

The t hree r e ma in ing s pec i mens were g arbled o r

i rregu lar , a nd may h ave b een c on te mporary i m i ta t ions . c o ins .

There were n o f oreign

Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne o r t wo s trays o f e ar l ier d a te , v ir tua l ly a l l

t he c o ins i n t he h oard were s truck f o l lowing t he c o inage r efor m o f 8 64 , s o t ha t t hey were a t mos t a bou t 1 5 y ears o ld when t hey were b ur ied . a verage a ge may h ave b een l ess t han 1 0 y ears . min ts .

T he ir

Y e t t hey a re f ro m 4 0 d i f feren t

S even teen p er c en t o f t he t o ta l were f ro m R ouen , 1 6% f ro m R he i ms ,

1 3% f ro m Quen tov ic , 1 0% f ro m " the P a lace" , a nd 8 % f ro m P ar is .

T hese

were ma jor min ts , a s we may j udge f ro m t he ir p ro m inence i n o ther h oards a s we l l .

The r es t o f t he c o ins f ro m C o mp i 4ne w ere s ca t tered i n t wos a nd

t hrees , mos t ly f ro m minor min ts i n Francia , b u t w i th a f ew a lso f rom N eus tr ia a nd Burgundy.

There a re n o c o ins , h owever , ' f ro m t he a c t ive min ts

o f Me l le , T ou louse , o r B ourges .

The g eograph ica l p a t tern o f t he h oard c an

mos t e as i ly b e a pprecia ted f ro m t he map , F ig . I I , wh ich h as b een d rawn i n s uch a way t ha t t he c ircles , c en tred o n t he v ar ious min ts , a re p ropor t iona l i n a rea t o t he r e la t ive n umbers o f c o ins .

A lso , t he t ota l a rea o f a l l t he c irc les

h as b een made t he s ame i n F ig . I I a nd t he s ucceed ing d iagra ms , i n t he i n teres t o f c o mparab i l i ty.

The whereabou ts o f t he p a la t ine min t ( or min ts ) i s u ncer ta in .

a nd t he s y mbo l f or t hose c o ins h as b een l e f t i n t he marg in .

Ac o mpar ison o f

F igs . I I , I V , Va nd V I i nd ica tes p re t ty c lear ly , h owever , t ha t most i fn o t a l l o f t he p a la t ine c o ins o r ig ina ted f ro m t he I l e d e F rance , a nd t h is s uggests C o mp iegne a s t he most l ike ly l oca t ion . The n um is ma t ic f ac ts a bou t t he C o mp ibgne h oard h ave b een f am i l iar f or al ong e me — s o f am i l iar , p erhaps , t ha t we p ass o ver t he m w i thou t s topp ing t o t h ink v ery h ard a bou t wha t t hey i mp ly f or mone tary c ircu la t ion .

T he ma in

p o in t i s t ha t c o ins f ro m a s many a s 4 0 d i f feren t m in ts i n Neus tr ia , B urgundy , a nd a bove a l l , Francia h ad b eco me i n ter m ing led i n t he c urrency w i th in ad ec ade o r s o.

T here i s n o n eed t o i ns is t u pon t he e xac t n umber o f y ears :

i t i s

v ery r e markab le t ha t i t. s hou ld h ave h appened a t a l l . Two o f t he mos t r ecen t c o ins i n t he h oard , t hose i n t he n ame o f L ou is , a re f ro m t he f ur thes t a f ie ld o f a ny.

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f c oin ge r evea led b y t he C o mp iegne h oard s ee ms

t oi mp ly n o t o n ly a s urpr is ing v e loci ty o f c ircu la t ion , b u t a lso mone tary e xc hanges a t ad is tance .

I ft here h ad b een a l i ve ly money e cono my s uppor ted

o n ly b y p eop le b r ing ing t he ir p roduce t o t he week ly marke t , a nd e xchang ing i t among t he mselves , we s hou ld e xpec t t o s ee l i t t le o r n o s ign o f t h is l i ve liness

5 8

I I : THE COMP IE GNE HOARD . The f ind-spot i s marked b y a t r iang le . Each o f t he c irc les , c en tred o n t he min ts where t he c oins were s truck , i s p ropor t iona l i n a rea t o t he p ercen tage o f c oins o f t ha t min t i n t he h oard .

5 9

i n t he n um isma t ic e v idence :

t he c o ins o f t he l c ca l m in t wou ld h ave s tayed

w i th in t he o rbi t o f t he l oca l marke t , h owever

f as t t hey were c hang ing h ands.

Wha t we i n f ac t s ee i s s o me th ing q u i te d i f feren t , a nd t he o n ly o bv ious e xp lanat i on o f i tt ha t c o mes t o m ind i s t ha t c oins w ere b eing u sed i n ab r isk i n tra- o r i n ter-reg iona l t rade .

Moreover , i ft he C o mp i 4ne h oard i s ar ando m s ample

o f t he c urrency , a nd i fo ther h oards t e l l t he s ame s tory , t hey i mply t ha t t he i n ter m ing l ing o f c o ins f ro m d i f feren t min ts i nvo lved a s ubs tan t ia l f rac t ion o f t he e n t ire c urrency , a nd t herefore t he

g eograph ica l d isp lace men t o f m i l l ions

o f c oins i n a l ld irec t ions . w i th in t en o r f i f teen y ears . T h is c onclus ion s ee ms t o b e a r i th me t ica l ly i nescapab le . T he f ac ts a re i ndeed r e markable , b u t when we t ry t o a ccoun t f or t he m , we u n for tuna te ly h ave t o e n ter t he r ea lm o f c onj ec ture .

Never the less i ti s i mposs ible t o e nv isage t ha t t axa t ion a nd t he r oya l

f inanaces wou ld p roduce t h is g eograph ica l p a t tern , a nd e qua l ly d i f f icu l t t o work o u t a ny e xp lana t ion i n t er ms o f t he e x tor t ions o f t he V ik ings . I f e i ther o f t hese were t he u nder lying c ause , t here wou ld b e s igns o f i ti n t he p a t tern o f min ting , i n c on junct ion w i th t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he h oards .

T hus f or e xamp le

i ft he min ts h ad s truck c oin s peci f ica l ly i n o rder t o mee t ad anegeld ,

t hose

c oins wou ld h ave b een h anded o ver a nd ( un less t he N or th men t hen p ro mp t ly s pen t t he money l oca l ly ) h ave d isappeared f ro m t he r eg ion , p ossibly t o r eappear i n aq u i te d i f feren t r eg ion . T h is wou ld n o t h ave r esu l ted i n am ixed l oca l c urrency o f t he k ind t ha t t he h oards r evea l .

We a re d r iven t o s uppose t ha t

t he v o lume a nd p ervas iveness o f t rade , o ver a nd a bove a ny l oca l marke t t rade , were f ar g rea ter t han c ou ld o therw ise h ave b een i mag ined . N ex t , we may n o te t ha t t he h oard i nc luded q u i te a l o t o f o bo les o r h a l fd en iers .

The t ex ts , i nc lud ing t he E d ic t o f P i tres , make n o men t ion wha tever

o f t he e x is tence o f h a lves ;

y e t t hey were s truck a t many m in ts .

( A s pecimen

f ro m t he p a lace m in t a t C o mpiAgne , a nd a no ther f ro m Cambra i . a re s hown i n P l . 3 .)

P resumably t hey were s truck i n r esponse t o an eed o n t he p ar t o f

t he u sers f or sma l l c hange .

The min t- mas ters w ou ld o therw ise s ure ly h ave

b een r e luc tan t t o g o t o t wice a s much t rouble t o p roduce e ach s h i l ling 's w or th o f c oin .

H a lfpenn ies were u sed i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land t oo , b u t r ound h a l f-

p enn ies a re e xcess ive ly s carce , b ecause t heir p lace was n orma l ly t aken b y p enn ies c u t i n t wo . f inds :

C u t h a l fpenn ies i n Eng land a re k nown ma in ly a s s tray

t hey were a s ar u le f irm ly e xc luded f ro m h oards .

The p resence o f

s o many o bo les , f ro m 1 5 o r 1 6 min ts , i n t he C o mp ibgne h oard t herefore c o mes a s as urpr ise t o a nyone more f am i l iar w i th A ng lo-Saxon h oards .

A s

t he sma l ler d eno m ina t ion i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een d is t inc t ly more p len t i fu l i n t he c urrency t han i n t he h oards , e ven i n F rance , o bo les may h ave made u p n earer t wen ty p er c en t o f t he c urrency t han t en . O ne f ur ther p o in t t o wh ich F ig . I I d raws a t ten t ion i s t he r e la t ive impor tance o f t he min ts o f Rouen a nd Quen tov ic. The C o mpibgne h oard , o ne migh t s ay , l ooks t owards t he C hanne l p or ts , a nd t h is g ives u s af irs t h in t o f t he d irect ion o f al arge p ar t o f t he t rade . B ecause t hese t wo min ts were s o a ct ive , t here i s ap resump t ion t ha t f ore ign c o in o r o ld c o in was b e ing r em in ted when merc han ts c om ing f ro m o verseas c arr ied i ti n to t he Emp ire .

The s i lver me l ted

d own t o s upply t he R ouen a nd Quen tov ic min ts s o p len t i fu l ly c ou ld h ave b een Ang lo-Saxon c o ins f ro m Eng land , o r Arabic d irhe ms f ro m t he n orthern l ands , o r p erhaps j us t i ngots a nd misce l laneous b u l l ion . On b a lance a s urp lus o f g oods may h ave b een c arr ied f ro m t he i n land p ar ts o f Francia t o t he c oas t , 6 0

3

I V :

THE SAU MERAY HOARD.

t r iang le .

The f ind-spot i s marked b y a

Each o f t he c irc les , c en tred o n t he min ts where t he

c oins were s truck , i s p ropor t iona l i n a rea t o t he p ercen tage o f c oins o f t ha t min t i n t he h oard .

6 1

w i th a c orrespond ing c oun ter f low o f money s ou thwards .

T he c on f irma t ion o f

o ther h oards i s n eeded , o f c ourse , b u t i f ar eg ion a ccu mu la ted t reasure ( o ther t han b y p iracy ) , i ti s l i ke ly t o h ave b een a s ar esu l t e ssen t ia l ly o f ap ers is ten t b a lance o f p ay men ts s urp lus . A t C la iro ix , o n ly a bou t 5 km f ro m C o mp iegne ( see F ig . I ) , t wo c o ins o f C har les t he Ba ld were f ound t oge ther—presumab ly a min i-hoard. f ro m t he min t o f Va lenc iennes , a nd t he o ther was f ro m Langres .

O ne was 8

I th as s o me t i mes b een s ugges ted t ha t s tray f i nds migh t t e l l ad i f feren t s tory f ro m h oards , a nd t ha t h oards a re l i ab le t o b e more a ssor ted i n t heir min ts t han t he c urrency o f t he r eg ion where t hey were c oncea led.

T h is h y-

p o thes is h as , It h ink , n ow b een d isproved a s r egards l a te Ang lo-Saxon Eng land . a nd t here i s n o p os i t ive r eason t o g ive i tc redence e lsewhere .

From t he

F rance o f C har les t he B a ld , r egre t tab ly f ew s tray f i nds h ave b een p ub l ished, a l though many mus t h ave c o me t o l i gh t o ver t he y ears . a re o n r ecord — for e xamp le , a n

T he v ery f ew t ha t

o bo le o f R ouen f ound n ear Bar-sur-Aube ,

o r aT ou lousan d en ier o f P ippin , f ound a t S a in te-Pe tron i l le —are c ons is ten t w i th t he h oard e v idence .9 H av ing s e lec ted t he C o mpiegne h oard a s as tar t ing-po in t , a nd b locked i i n i n t he f oreground o f o ur s ke tch , l e t u s n ow a dd s o me o ther h oards , a nd b eg in t o e s tab l ish a p erspec t ive . c ea led c . 8 80 ,

1° r ef lec ts

F ro m f ur ther w es t , t he S aumeray h oard . c on-

al arge ly s epara te c ircu la t ion-area i n N eus tr ia ,

a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he L o ire v a l ley .

O r leans i s t he ma jor min t , a ccoun t ing

f or 5 8% o f t he h oard , b u t e igh t o ther m in ts a re r epresen ted , among t he m Tours , w i th 1 4% , L e Mans , w i th 1 0% , B lo is , w i th 7% , a nd C har tres . w ith 3 .5% , w i th n or ther ly o u t l iers f ro m R ennes , L is ieux , a nd HCVRTISASON IEN . an or th-wes tern min t whose l oca t ion i s d ispu ted .

T he g eograph ica l p a t tern

i s s hown i n t he map , F ig . I V , wh ich c on trasts s harp ly w ith F ig . I I .

I ti s

c ur ious t ha t t here s hou ld b e , a pparen t ly , a n e qua l ly b r isk i n ter ming l ing o f t he c urrency w i th in F rancia a nd w i th in N eus tr ia , a nd y e t r e la t ively l i t t le i n terchange b e tween t he S e ine a nd t he L oire v a l leys .

T here was n o o f f icia l

r eason , s o f ar a s o ne c an s ee , f or t he t wo c urrenc ies t o b e k ep t s epara te. The c o ins were i den t ica l i n d es ign a nd a ppearance , a nd t he ir weigh t a nd a l loy were i nd is t ingu ishab le . T he n a mes o f t he min ttowns were s tamped o n t he m ; b u t p resumably mos t o f t he u sers c ou ld n o t r ead .

T he s i mp le p a t tern i l lus-

t ra ted i nF ig . I V may we l l b e p ar t ly a r ti f icia l , f or t here were o n ly 5 7 c o ins i n t he S aumeray h oard .

H ad i tb een l arger , t here migh t h ave b eerha p er-

c en tage o f s trays f ro m more d is tan t min ts .

Tha t i s wha t we s ee i n t he l arge

N eus tf ian h oard f ound a t Mon tr ieux-Courban ton ,

1 1

n ear B lo is , i n 1 857.

T he s a me h a lf-dozen min ts a s a t S aumeray d om ina te t he h oard , w i th t he l oca l min t o f B lo is s o mewha t more h eav i ly r epresen ted .

Bu t t here i s ac ons iderab le

s ca t ter , i n sma l ler q uan t i t ies , o f c o ins f ro m o ver 2 0 min ts i n Franc ia a nd Burgundy ( see F ig . V ) . E ven s o , 8 2% o f t he 6 72 c o ins f ro m C ourban ton 1 857 a re f ro m min ts i n N eus tr ia . C onverse ly , a t C o mp ibgne , t here were o n ly 4 .6% o f N eus tr ian i ssues . O ther h oards b ear o u t t h is d i f ference :

t he f l ow f ro m Francia t o Neus tr ia

was g rea ter t han v ice v ersa , p erhaps ( as w i l l b e s ugges ted b e low ) b ecause t he t o ta l s tock o f c urrency i n Francia was much l arger .

I n t he l i t t le N ourray

h oard ( see F ig . I ) a bou t h a l f t he c o ins a re N eus tr ian a nd h a l f a re f rom Francia .

6 2

V :

THE COURBANTON HOARD .

t r iang le.

The f ind-spot i s marked b y a

Each o f t he c irc les , c en tred o n t he min ts where t he

c oins were s truck , i s p ropor t iona l i n a rea t o t he p ercen tage o f c oins o f t ha t min t i n t he h oard .

6 3

F ro m B r i t tany , we h ave n o h oards , a nd t here fore a bou t t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c urrency.

we c an s ay n o th ing

R ennes was a min t o f s o me i mpor-

t ance , wh ich s truck c o ins i n t he n ame o f C har les , e ven i n p er iods w hen i t s ee ms c lear t ha t h is a u thor i ty t here was a t b es t n om ina l . T he p ar t ia l s epara t ion o f t he c urrencies o f Francia a nd Neus tr ia l eads u s s tra igh t i n to wha t i s s t i l l o ne o f t he ma jor d i f f icu l t ies i n d rawing t he o u tl ines o f mone tary a f fa irs u nder C har les t he Ba ld , a l though t he p rob lem c an e ven tua l ly b e o verco me .

Wi th in Franc ia we c an c o mpare t he r e la t ive o u tpu t

o f t he ma jor min ts , f ro m t he e v idence o f s evera l h oards , wh ich d o n o t c o inc ide e xac t ly i n t he it p ropor t ions , b u t wh ich s how we l l e nough t ha t R ouen , Quen tov ic , R he i ms , P ar is , a nd o ne o r t wo more were t he l ead ing m in ts , i n r ough ly t ha t o rder .

Wi th in N eus tr ia we c an a t te mp t t o d o t he s a me , t o e s-

t ab l ish t he i mpor tance o f T ours , Angers , L e Mans , B lo is , a nd e spec ia l ly O r leans . B u t we c annot , f ro m t he h oard-ev idence , a ch ieve a ny v a l id c o mp ar ison b e tween t he a c t iv i ty o f t he O r leans a nd P ar is min ts , i ft he ir c o ins d id n o t ming le f ree ly i n c ircu la t ion . When we t urn t o A qu i ta ine , t he h oard-ev idence r evea ls a r ad ica l ly d i ff eren t mone tary s i tua t ion .

Th is s harp c on tras t i s t he " van ish ing p oin t" ,

o r f ocus o f t he p erspec t ive , o f o ur s ke tch .

There were , i n t he f irs t p lace ,

many f ewer min ts —of wh ich o n ly f ive , n ame ly Bourges , Tou louse , C ler mon t , Me l le , a nd " Aqu i ta ine" ( l oca t ion u nknown ) were i mpor tan t .

Ah oard f ound a t

Auzev i l le , n ear T ou louse , i n c . 1 878 , c on ta ined 4 39 c o ins .

One was o f Lou is

I , 6 7 were o f P ippin I o f A qu i—t a ine 1 2 were o f C har les .

( see t he i l lus tra t ion i n P l . 3 ) , a nd 3 71

Bu t a l l 4 39 were f ro m t he l oca l min t o f T ou louse :

r epresen t as uccess ion o f i ssues o ver a p er iod o f t ime .

t hey

The c oins s tayed

i n t he ir p lace f or y ears o n e nd , q u i te u n l ike t hose i n Franc ia , wh ich moved a round s o r ap id ly.

The s l igh t ly l a ter C as te lsarras in h oard 1 3

s is ted e xc lus ive ly o f c o ins min ted a t T ou louse .

l ikew ise c on-

T he s ame c haracter a t taches

t o at iny h oard f ro m Yronde , n ear C lermon t , f ound i n 1 842 ( see F ig . I ) . I t c ons is ted o f o n ly f our c oins —bu t a l l f our were o f t he min t o f C ler mon t . A v ery l arge h oard f ro m t he r u ins o f B onnevaux a bbey , n ear P oi t iers , c ons is ted a s t o 9 9% o f c oins ( aga in ) o f t he l oca l min t , i n t h is c ase Me l le ( see F ig . I ). The p ropor t ion i s o ver 9 8% i n a no ther h oard f ro m n ear Me l le , f ound a t Br ioux i n 1 878 .

I tc on ta ined 1 43 c o ins o f t he l oca l min t , o f v ar ious i ssues i n t he

n ames o f C har les a nd P ipp in , o ne c o in o f " Aqu i ta ine" , a nd o ne o f P av ia . Fro m B ourges , t he c ap i ta l , t here i s l ess e v idence t han o ne c ou ld w ish ; b u t t here a re a f ew s tray f inds ( i nclud ing wha t i s p oss ib ly a no ther t iny h oard ) , a l l o f c oins o f t he B ourges min t . Marci l ly ,

1 5

1 4

I n t he n earby h oard o f C hau moux-

t he c o ins o f B ourges were b y f ar t he mos t p len t i fu l o f t hose t ha t

b ore a min t-s igna ture .

( The ma jor i ty o f t he c o ins i n t he h oard , i ns tead o f

h av ing a min t-s igna ture , were o f t he t ype i nscr ibed at e mp le —see P l . 3 ,

C hr is t iana Rel ig io a round

where s evera l s peci mens i n d i f feren t s tyles a re s hown .

Th is d es ign , a bou t wh ich more w i l l b e s a id b e low , was i n troduced b y L ouis I , a nd c on t inued u nder C har les , a l though n o t t hroughou t t he k ingdo m .)

The

G anna t h oard , f ro m n ear C lermon t , i s as l igh t e xcep t ion t o t he p a t tern : a bou t 8 5% o f t he c o ins i n i ta re o f s uccess ive i ssues f ro m B ourges , a nd c . 1 2% a re o f C lermon t , w i th 3% f ro m N evers .

And t he P erp ignan h oard c on-

t a m ed , a pparen t ly , j us t s ix c oins —one e ach f ro m t he min ts o f Bourges , Tou louse , Me l le , T ours , Narbonne , a nd Pav ia .

1 6

6 4

I n a word , t he c urrency i n A qu ita ine

a nd t he march o f T ou louse was t o ta l ly u n in f luenced b y t ha t o f t he n or thern r eg ions , a nd was l argely c o mpar t men ted i n to " ce l ls" o f mone tary c ircu la t ion a round e ach l oca l min t .

Aga in , t here fore , o ne c anno t make c o mpar isons

wh ich wou ld measure t he r e la t ive a c t iv i ty o f t he A qu i tan ian min ts a ga ins t t hose o f , s ay , Francia—or e ven make c o mpar isons w i th in A qu i ta ine .

I ti s

c o m mon ly s upposed t ha t t he min t o f Me l le , d er iv ing b o th i t s r aw ma ter ia ls a nd i t s n a me ( Meta l lum ) f ro m t he l oca l a rgen ti ferous l ead mines , was more p ro l i f ic t han a ny o ther C aro l ing ian min t .

F or t he r e ign o f C har les t he Ba ld ,

t his may o r may n o t b e t rue , b u t i ti s a n o p in ion t o wh ich n o-one i s e n t i t led , s ince t hey c anno t b eg in t o p rove i t .

C o ins o f Me l le a re e x tre me ly p len t i fu l

t oday , b u t t ha t i s l arge ly a ma t ter o f c hance ;

t here were , f or e xamp le , a bou t

5 ,000 i n t he Bonnevaux a bbey h oard , wh ich j us t h appens t o h ave b een a n u nusua l ly l arge h oard f ound n ear Me l le . T rade a t ad is tance was a pparen t ly f ar l ess i mpor tan t i n A qu i ta ine t han i t was i n t he n or th , b u t o ne s hou ld h es i ta te t o d educe t ha t a money e cono my was much l ess d eve loped .

T he l oca l marke t may h ave s uppor ted ab r isk

c ircu la t ion , w i thou t l eav ing a ny o bv ious t races i n t he h oards .

t ho les s ee m

t o b e , i fa nyth ing , more p len ti fu l a t A qu i tan ian min ts t han e lsewhere . And t here a re n o f ore ign c oins o r misce l laneous o lder c oins i n t he h oards . These r ef lec t ac urrency u nder f ir m a nd e f fec t ive r oya l c on tro l , i fn o t b y Char les t hen b y P ippin . T he s trong c on tras t , t o wh ich t he e v idence p oin ts , b e tween Francia a nd Aqu i ta ine d oes n o t , o f c ourse , p rove t ha t l ong-d is tance t rade was a bsen t i n t he s ou th — mere ly t ha t i th ad f ar l ess i mpac t o n t he c urrency t han i n t he n or th . I n A qu i ta ine t he " inv is ib le t ransact ions"— those o f wh ich t he d ocumen tary r ecord g ives n o h in t —were p redo minan t ly l oca l .

As we s ha l l s ee , h owever ,

Aqu i tan ian c oins were e xpor ted o r p lundered i n c ons iderab le q uan t i t ies :

i t

s eems i ndeed t ha t t he r eg ion h ad a n e t b a lance o f p ay men ts d e f ic i t . F ro m Provence w e h ave o ne —and o n ly o ne —relevan t h oard . I t was f ound a t Av ignon i n 1 822 , a nd c ons is ted o f a n e ncrus ted l ump o f n ear ly 8 00 c oins , many o f wh ich d is in tegra ted when t he a t te mp t was made t o c lean a nd s epara te t he m .1 7 One c an , h owever , s a fe ly s ay t ha t we l l o ver 9 0% o f t he m were o f t he min t o f Ar les ( t hough t hese were o f C ar lo man , n o t C har les t he Ba ld ) , w i th o n ly a v ery f ew f ro m t he o ther s ou ther ly min ts o f C lermon t , T ou louse , B6ziers , a nd S ubs tan t ion .

Wi thou t e xac t f igures i ti s h ard ly wor th

d raw ing a no ther map , b u t o ne c an e as i ly e nv isage h ow d i f feren t i t wou ld l ook f ro m F igs . I I-V . T hroughou t t he s ou th a nd wes t , t hen , i t wou ld s ee m t ha t al oca l ized mone tary c ircu la t ion was t he n orm . L e t u s n ex t move n or th , u p t he Rhöne v a l ley , b ack t owards t he h ear t lands o f t he empire , —and t owards p rov inces where t he c o in-f inds a re r a ther more d i ff icu l t t o i n terpre t .

F ro m s ou thern Burgundy ( t he r eg ion o f D i jon , C ha lon ,

a nd A u tun ) t here a re f i ve o r s ix h oards , b u t mos t o f t he m a re i nadequa te ly r ecorded . Ah oard f ound n ear Au tun c on ta ined a bou t 1 ,500 c oins , i nc lud ing , s urpr is ing ly , s o me 5 00 f ro m t he d is tan t min t o f HC VRT ISASON IEN . The o ther min ts h eav i ly r epresen ted were Bourges a nd N evers .

There were a bou t

4 0 d en iers a nd o boles o f A u tun . C harve t wr i tes w inn ing ly , " Au mo men t d e c e t te d ecouver te ( 1852 ) j ' b ta is j eune , j e d 6bu ta is d ans l a n um is ma t ique e t 6 5

n 'a i p as p r is d e n ote r e la t ive a c e d ép t , ma is j e n e me r appe l le p as a vo ir v u f igurer d ans c e t resor d es d en iers a ppar tenan t a ux v i l les d u n ord d e l a France . . ."1 8

The B ourgneu f h oard c ons is ted p r incipa l ly o f c o ins o f

R ennes : h ow t hey c ame f ro m t he f ron t iers o f B r i t tany , t o b e c oncea led i n Burgundy i s ap uzzle ( and o ne wh ich may h ave ab ear ing o n t he HCVRTISASON IEN c oins a t A u tun ) , b u t we s hou ld h es i ta te t o d is m iss B ourgneu f a s s i mp ly a t rave l ler 's h oard , s ince a r ecen t f ind f ro m C ha lon ( 1 956) was made u p o f e igh t c oins o f D i jon , o ne o f C ha lon , —and 1 0 o f R ennes .

La faur ie , c o m men t ing

o n t he v ery i n fer ior a l loy ( 4 6% ) a nd s l igh t ly d efec t ive we igh t o f t he o s tens ib ly n or thern c o ins i n t he Bourgneu f h oard , h as made t he e n l igh ten ing s ugges t ion t ha t t hey were p erhaps f orger ies :

" Ce t te masse d e d en iers d e Rennes Wes t-

e l le p as u ne i mpor ta t ion d e monna ies f ausses d ans l ' es t d e l a France? "1 9 Iw ou ld v en ture f ur ther , a nd a sk whe ther t hey may n o t h ave b een min ted l oca l ly. I ft ha t were s o , o ne c ou ld s ee t he c urrency o f Burgundy a s e ssen t ia l ly l oca l , a nd i n c on form i ty w i th t he p a t tern e lsewhere i n F rance .

The a l terna t ive

s ee ms t o r equ ire a n a no ma lous l ong-d is tance l i nk w i th t he n or th-wes t , i nv olv ing s peci f ica l ly t he i mpor t o f c oun ter fe i t c oins f ro m t he min t o f R ennes , a nd o thers f ro m HCVRT ISASON IEN b u t n o t f ro m t he i n terven ing min ts s uch a s B lo is a nd O r leans . F ur ther

n or th a ga in , f ro m n ear Bar-sur-Aube , t he B l igny h oard i l lus-

t ra tes a c urrency i n wh ich t he l oca l min ts a re we l l-represen ted ( Bar , 2 3% , Mon t-Lasso is , 4% ) , t oge ther w i th a s trong e as ter ly c o mponen t ( Verdun , 1 1% , a nd s ing le tons f ro m Me tz a nd Marsa l ).

Bu t t here a re n umerous c o ins a lso

f ro m F rancia ( e .g . P ar is , 1 0% , R ouen , 1 0% ) .

N ear ly 3 0 min ts i n a l l a re

r epresen ted ( see F ig . V I ) , a nd t he B l igny h oard i s t hus c o mparab le w ith t ha t f ro m C ourban ton , i n t ha t t he i n f luence o f t he c urrency o f Francia o n t ha t o f Burgundy i s much s tronger t han v ice v ersa . The c o mp le te a bsence f ro m o ur c o m men tary s o f ar o f c o ins o f L o thar I o r L o thar I f ro m L othar ing ian min ts may s ee m s urpr is ing .

Dores tad ( t he

modern p lace-na me i s Wi jk-b i j-Duurs tede —see F ig . 1 ) was a p rol i f ic min t wh ich worked f or L o thar I ; b u t i n land , i n t he b as ins o f t he u pper Meuse a nd t he Mose l le t he o n ly min ts o f a ny c onsequence were V erdun , Metz, a nd Tou l . The i ssues o f V erdun o ccur i n sma l l n u mbers among t he min t-s igned c o ins i n t he P i l l igerheck h oard ,

wh ich i s , h owever , d om ina ted b y Chr is t iana

2 0

Re l ig io d en iers g iv ing n o i nd ica t ion o f t he min ts where t hey were s truck . Enno v an G e lder h as wr i t ten :

' On n 'a j a ma is d ou te q ue c es d en iers n e s o ien t

l es p rodu i ts d 'un n o mbre c ons iderable Wa te liers mone ta ires s i tues d ans t ous l es c o ins d u v as te emp ire .

T ou tefo is , l es c as o t i l ' on a p u s ou ten ir l ' a t tr ibu t ion

d e c er ta ins d en iers d e c e t ype a t i n a te l ier d e term ine s on t t rs p eu n o mbreux ." 2 1 Many o f t hose i n t he P i l l igerheck h oard c a me , p resumab ly , f ro m t he mou ths o f t he R hine , a nd t h is s ugges ts a n a na logy w i th t he s ou thwards d r i f t o f c oins f ro m R ouen a nd Quen tov ie i n to t he P ar is b as in . O thers may b e f ro m Metz. 22 T he t ask o f a t tr ibu t ing t he C hr is t iana R e l ig io d en iers ( and o bo les ) t o t he ir min ts i s a ma jor c ha l lenge t o n um isma t is ts ' p owers o f s tyl is t ic a na lys is , a nd i tw i l l i nvo lve r esearch s pread o ver d ecades . T he C hau moux- Marei l ly h oard i s ac lear e xamp le o f t he k ind o f p rogress t ha t c an b e made . I t was d om ina ted b y a n u nusua l s tyl is t ic v ar ie ty w i th a c ross p a t tee o n t he o bverse , s truck o n t wo we igh t-s tandards o f C . 1 .19g a nd 1 .33 g , 23 much l i gh ter t han t he r un o f L ou is 's C hr is t iana Re l ig io c o ins .

Bu t t he t ask o f d is t ingu ish ing a nd l oca l izing

6 6

V I :

THE BLIGNY HOARD .

The f ind-spot i s marked b y at r iang le.

Each o f t he c irc les , c en tred o n t he min ts where t he c oins were s truck , i s p ropor t iona l i n a rea t o t he p ercen tage o f c o ins o f t ha t mint i n t he h oard .

6 7

v ar ie t ies i s u sua l ly more d e l ica te a nd d i f f icu l t , a nd f or t he p resen t at opog raph ica l s tudy o f t he c urrency i n t he e ar l ier p ar t o f C har les 's r e ign r e ma ins we l l-n igh i mposs ib le . L o thar ing ia i n t he n in th c en tury was c lose t o t he e as tern b orders o f t he a rea i n wh ich c oinage c ircu la ted .

B eyond t he Rh ine t here were , e xcep t a t

Ma inz , n o min ts work ing i n t he t ime o f C har les t he B a ld .

( And t here were

o n ly f our c o ins o f Ma inz , s truck f or L ou is t he G erman , i n t he P i l l igerheck h oard , c o mpared w i th a t o ta l o f 1 42 f or C har les t he Ba ld .) s ar i ly t o s ay t ha t t here was n o c urrency:

T h is i s n o t n eces-

money may h ave f i l tered e as t o r

s ou th f ro m Burgundy , F rancia , o r t he Rh ine mou ths .

I n t he a bsence o f h oards

f ro m t he midd le R h ine lands ( o ther t han t he P i l l igerheck h oard ) we h ave mere ly n ega t ive e v idence , wh ich , a s H ess h as s hown i n av a luable s tudy , i s c on trad icted b y d ocumen tary r eferences t o p ay men ts o f t ax r eckoned i n c ash .2 4 Broad ly s peak ing , n ever the less , i t mus t b e t rue t o s ay t ha t L ou is t he G er man r u led o ver t err i tor ies i n wh ich a money e cono my was u nknown o r ad ead l e t ter , wh i le L o thar ing ia ( t he mou ths o f t he R h ine a lways e xcep ted ) o n ly j us t f e l l w i th in t he w es tern , moneyed p ar ts o f t he Emp ire .

C har les 's p or t ion was v ery d i f-

f eren t f ro m h is b rothers ' i n t ha t r espec t . F ro m s oon a f ter C har les 's d ea th , t he c harac ter o f t he V ik ing i ncursions c hanged : b ased .

t hey b eca me more h os t i le a nd d amag ing , a nd more p er manen t ly B u t i n t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he n in th c en tury t he b a lance s hee t was n ot

s o n ega t ive .

The n um is ma t ic

e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t he n or thern c oas ts

o f t he emp ire , i nc lud ing F rancia , e n joyed l ucra t ive c on tac ts w i th t he l ands t o t he n or th a nd e as t . I ft here i s v ery l i t t le f ind-ev idence f ro m t he m idd le Rh ine , t he Mosel le , a nd t he u pper Meuse v a l leys , t he a va i lab le i n for ma t ion i s f u l ler f ro m t he c oas ts o f l ower L o thar ing ia .

Fro m t he b each a t Do mburg , o n t he i s land o f Wa lcheren ,

t here a re n umerous s ing le-f inds , wh ich t oge ther h ave much t he s a me v a lue a s e v idence a s ah oard .

S tray l osses were p resumab ly r ando m w i th r espect

t o t he ir min t , a nd , i n s u f f ic ien t q uan t i ty , s hou ld p rov ide a r e l iable s amp le o f t he c urrency .

O ver t he y ears t here h ave b een f ound a t Do mburg 1 1 d en iers

o f L o thar , 1 7 o r more d en iers a nd 3 o bo les o f C har les , a nd a d en ier a nd 2 o bo les o f P ipp in o f A qu i ta ine .

2 5

I n t he l igh t o f t he r eg iona l v ar ia t ion i n t he

c urrency i n Francia a nd e lsewhere , t he min ts r epresen ted among t he f i nds s ugges t t ha t c o inage was r each ing Do mburg f ro m t hree ma in s ources , n a me ly f ro m n or th-eas tern F rancia , f ro m Dores tad , a nd ( b y s ea?) f ro m Aqu i ta ine. The f irs t s ource i s r epresen ted b y s ing le c o ins f rom Bruges , G hen t , V a lenc iennes , S t . Quen t in , Quen tov ic , a nd ( more t han o ne f ro m ) t he P a lace ; t hen t here a re s ing le c o ins f ro m O r leans a nd " Hcur t isason ien ."

T he s econd s ource i s r ep-

r esen ted b y n o f ewer t han e igh t c o ins o f t he Dores tad min t , a nd t wo o thers w i thou t m in t-s igna ture , wh ich may b e f ro m t here , a nd o ne f ro m Cologne . F our C hr is t iana R e l ig io c o ins i n C har les 's n ame may a lso f a l l i n to t h is g roup. T h ird ly , t here a re a d en ier a nd t wo o bo les o f Me l le , a nd t hree o ther A qu itan ian o boles , o f P ipp in a nd o f C har les , a nd a d en ier o f P ipp in w i thou t min t-s igna ture . These wes ter ly i ssues c anno t h ave r eached Do mburg b y p ass ing f ro m h and t o h and t hrough F rance . T he h oard-ev idence t ha t we h ave l ooked a t r u les t ha t o u t c a tegor ica l ly.

T hey c ou ld h ave b een c arr ied d irec t f ro m A qu i ta ine b y p er-

s ons mak ing t he j ourney o ver land , b u t i ti s v ery imp laus ib le , s ince o ne must a ssu me t ha t t he s tray f inds r ef lec t t he p ropor t ions among t ens o f t housands o f c o ins c ircu la t ing a t D o mburg . a rr ived b y s ea .

One i s l e f t w i th t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t hey 6 8

V I I :

THE GLISY HOARD.

The f ind-spot i s marked b y at r iang le.

Each o f t he c irc les , c entred o n t he min ts where t he c oins were s truck , i s p ropor t iona l i n a rea t o t he p ercentage o f c oins o f t ha t m int i n t he h oard .

6 9

THE M INTS OF CHARLES THE BALD .

Av ery r ough i nd ica t ion o f

t he o u tpu t o f t he m in ts h as b een a t te mp ted b y p r in t ing t he n ames o f t he ma jor m in ts i n c ap i ta ls , a nd a lso b y u s ing l arge , med ium , a nd sma l l d o ts .

( Bu t o u tpu t v ar ied b y af ac tor o f ah undred o r more

b e tween v ery l arge a nd v ery sma l l min ts .)

O pen c ircles s how min ts

s tr ik ing f or C har les 's c on te mporar ies , o r m in ts r epresen ted i n t he h oards d iscussed h ere . NOTES 1 .

M in ts o f wh ich t he n ames c ou ld n ot b e c rowded o n to t he map : E =E s t innes , G =G e mbloux?, N = N ive l les , P =P ierrepon t , R =R e thondes , V =V edr in

2 .

HCURTISASON IEN a nd t he P a lace h ave b een l e f t o f f .

3 .

T he c anon o f min ts f o l lows R ey , e xcep t t ha t t he f o l lowing d ubious a t tr ibu t ions h ave b een om m i t ted : Aardenburg?, A ire?, B ou logne?, L ouhegn?; S t . Omer a nd L e Ta b u h ave a lso b een omi t ted a s d ub ious , t oge ther w i th t he u n loca ted min ts CH IM IR IACO a nd BRUDONSONT .

4 .

R ey a lso q uer ies t he a t tr ibu t ions t o Auxonne a nd P or t-sur-Saöne .

7 0

°

M aastricht

. . . , . , e s •

•

7 ,,,err

u rtrai G nent ; J 2 assel T herJuanne • L J E TCVIC

•

•

Z hievres

T curnai •

•

N

V

• E

•

L iege

, I uy

• ntnIsnes N amur

• S av e • R a ubeu ge • 2 ouvin /7

Z onae . V alenciennes , • . rras . . i.=. "

•A achen

4 Vi. se •

D inant B astogne . •

J ambrai C orbie

P ironne •

S t 6Z uentin

A MIENS •

N oyon

R oucy

R S oissons • M orienval

' • B eauvais

e

J un teaux

B ar-s Aube

L angres S ENS • C hAteau-

C hAteaudun •

O RLEANS

(

T royes

C outances

M ayenne

T oul •

C hAlcns-s-M .

P rovin• e

A rpajon •

•

V erdun

R HEIMS

C helies

P ARIS

L isieux

•

•J ouarre M eaux

S T-DENIS D eus-

A ttigny

• Z AON

a m

C ompiegne " ROUEN

b l ouson

C hateauP orcien

M ont L assoie

T onnerre

•

B esancon •

L andon • A vallon

B eaugency R ennes •

B OUNCES A ngers

•

T OURS

R evers •

• C hinon

C lermont •

B ubatantion •

T OULOUS3 • D as •

V I II :

N arbonne

THE MINTS OF CHARLES THE BALD 7 1

P ort 1 3S . _

A t Wi jk-bi j-Duurs tede i t se l f , at o ta l o f 3 5 s ing le f inds i nc ludes v ery f ew f ro m F rancia , a nd ( i f o ne a ssu mes t ha t t he C hr is t iana Re l ig io c o ins f ound t here a re e ssen t ia l ly l oca l ) i s e ven ly b a lanced b e tween A qu i ta ine a nd t he l ower Rh ine lands .

T h is i s e ven c learer t es t imony t o l i nks o f t rade ( or p iracy )

b e tween t he t wo r eg ions .

There a re e igh t c o ins o f Me I le ( f our d en iers a nd

f our o boles ) , f our o f " Aqu i ta ine" , t wo o f B ourges , o ne o f Agen , a nd 1 o f Tou louse .2 6

T he min t-p lace ( or p laces ) o f t he c o ins i nscr ibed AQV ITAN IA

o r t he l i ke i s u nknown .

There a re v ery f ew min t-s igned c o ins o f B ordeaux ,

b u t t he a t tr ibu t ion o f t he A qu i tan ian s er ies t here i s p rob le ma t ic .

2 7

T he n e t

o u t f low o f c o in f ro m A qu i ta ine ( e .g . t o t he L ow C oun tr ies ) a nd t he a bsence , a s s hown b y t he A qu i tan ian h oards , o f a ny c oun ter-curren t may mean t ha t t here was l i t t le d e mand f or min t ing i n Bordeaux .

P o i t iers ( drawing s upp l ies

o f b u l l ion f ro m Me I le n earby ) i s p erhaps a s tronger c and ida te a s t he min tp lace f or t he " Aqu i tan ian" s er ies . L e t u s t urn b ack f or a mo men t t o t he c oas ts o f A qu i ta ine .

The c urrency

o f B ordeaux i s i nadequa te ly d ocu men ted b y t he a va i lab le h oards .

2 8

Two

wh ich s ee m t o b e r e la t ive ly e ar ly i n d a te —fro m S t . Em i l ion a nd Langon—both c on ta ined c o ins o f Me I le .

S o me o f t he A qu i tan ian money r each ing t he l ower

Rh ine , a s r epresen ted b y c oins o f Me I le , migh t t herefore h ave c o me f ro m t he r eg ion o f Bordeaux r a ther t han f ro m t ha t o f Me I le i t sel f . Bu t i ti s i n teres t ing t o s ee f i ve c oins o f Dores tad i n a sma l l h oard f ound n ear t he c oas t j us t t o t he n or th o f La R oche l le , t ha t i s , w i th in t he o rbi t o f t he min t o f Me I le. o f money was n o t q u i te a l l i n o ne d irec t ion .

T he f l ow

O u t o f at o ta l o f 6 5 d en iers a nd

1 8 o bo les i n t he h oard o f L a G i l ler ie ( S t . C yr-en-Ta lmonda is ) , 3 2 d en iers a nd 1 3 o bo les were f ro m Me I le .

There were 1 5 C hr is t iana Re l ig io i ssues , a nd

ag ood r epresen ta t ion f ro m Neus tr ia ( Or leans , 4 , T ours , 4 , Angers , 3 ) .

2 9

One migh t t h ink i n t erms o f ac oas ta l z one , where t he c urrencies o f Me I le a nd N eus tr ia m ing led ;

b u t t he c haracter o f t he h oard wou ld b e c learer i ft he

C hr is t iana R e l ig io c o ins c ou ld b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he ir m in ts . T he D o mburg a nd Duurs tede f inds t hrow l i gh t o n t he Roermond h oard , wh ich t o j udge f ro m i t s c o mpos i t ion d rew o n ac urrency s i mi lar t o t ha t a t t he Rh ine mou ths , s upp le men ted b y c o inage f ro m n or th-cen tra l France , b u t wh ich h ad n o o bv ious c onnect ion w i th t he min ts o f t he r eg ions d irect ly t o t he e as t .

I tc on ta ined 2 11 c o ins o f Char les t he Ba ld , 1 1 o f P ipp in , a nd 1 37 o f

L o thar .

O f t h is t o ta l o f 3 59 , 1 42 were C hr is t iana R e l ig io i ssues a nd 4 1 were

f ro m D ores tad .

Ano ther 4 1 were f ro m A qu i ta ine .

I t a l ian c oins o f L o thar ,

f ro m M i lan , Pav ia , a nd Trev iso ( i n t o ta l 2 2 ) p o in t t o t ra f f ic a cross t he A lps. Then t here a re i ssues f ro m Or leans ( 29 ) , Par is ( 18 ) , Rhe i ms ( 1 7) , a nd S ens ( 1 7 ) .

3 0

( Th is f inds a s urpr is ing ly e xac t p ara l le l i nt he c on te mporary

P i l l igerheck h oard , i n wh ich t he s igned c o ins o f C har les were a l mos t a l l f ro m t he s ame min ts :

O r leans 2 1, P ar is 5 , Rhe i ms 2 2 , S ens 1 0 , T ours 1 0 ,

a nd 8 o ther c oins .3 1)

T he d a te o f d epos i t o f t he Roermond h oard s eems t o

b e c . 8 55-60 , y e t t he g rea ter p ar t o f i tc ons is ts , s t i l l , o f c o ins o f L ou is I , a nd i n p ar t icu lar o fs o me 7 00 o f t he Chr is t iana Re l ig io c o ins wh ich d om ina ted t he r eg iona l s tock o f c urrency o f L ower L o thar ing ia . H oards f ro m Fr is ia ,

b eyond imper ia l t err i tory , a re s im i lar i n c o mpos i-

t i on t o t hose o f P i l l igerheck a nd R oermond .

They i nc lude a n i mpor tan t p ro-

p or t ion o f c o ins o f L o thar , a nd t hey a ga in s how a c ur ious emphas is o n t he min ts o f Or leans a nd Rheims .

C o ins f ro m Dax a nd Me I le o f fer a r e minder

o f t he A qu i tan ian c onnec t ion . 7 2

L e t u s c lose t he c ircle b y r e turn ing n ow t o n or thern F rancia , t ak ing a s as amp le o f t he c urrency t he G l isy h oard o f 1 865 , f ro m n ear Am iens .

I t was

c oncea led c . 8 80 , a nd i s t hus c lose ly c o mparable w i th t he C o mp i gne h oard , f ound 7 0 km f ur ther s ou th .

The l oca l m in t o f Am iens , wh ich wou ld n or ma l ly

a ccoun t f or a bou t 1 % o f ah oard i n F ranc ia , h ere p rov ides 1 4% o f t he t o ta l . Quen tov ic , t he n eares t l arge C hanne l p or t , l eads w i th 2 2% .

O therwise , t he

n ex t h a lf-dozen min ts a re much t he s ame a s a t C o mp Mgne ( t he P a lace , 9% , R he ims , 8% , R ouen , 7% , S t . D en is , 5 % , P ar is , 4% ).

Nu merous l oca l min ts

i n F landers a nd t he l ower Meuse v a l ley a re r epresen ted i n sma l l q uan t i t ies , a s may b e s een f ro m t he map , F ig . V I I .

T hey g ive t he h oard s o me l oca l

" co lour" , b u t t hey d o n o t a dd u p t o more t han a bou t 5% o f t he t o ta l , ap ropor tion wh ich i s n o t s ign i f ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m t ha t a t C o mp Mgne , o r i ndeed , s o f ar a s o ne c an s ee , a t B l igny . A l though t here was s o me t i mes a s trong r epresen ta t ion o f t he l oca l min t , t hen , t here s ee ms o therwise t o h ave b een l i t t le v ar ia t ion i n t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c urrency i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f F ranc ia .

( Obv ious ly , i n s aying t h is , o ne

wou ld p refer n o t t o h ave t o r e ly s o le ly o n t he C o mp i gne h oard f or t he c urrency o f t he c en tra l r eg ion .)

F ro m t he P as d e C a la is t o C hampagne , a nd a s f ar a s

t he S e ine , t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a s ing le " ce l l" , t hroughou t wh ich t he c oinage was r ap id ly a nd e ven ly d i f fused . c luded t he l ower Meuse

Whe ther t h is c ircu la t ion a rea i n-

a nd t he c oas t lands o f B e lg ium i s p roble ma t ic .

T he

A ssebroek h oard , f rom n ear Bruges , i s much more l oca l i n i t s c o mpos i tion , b u t t h is may w e l l b e b ecause i ti s l a ter i n d a te ( perhaps d ur ing t he 8 90s a f ter t he V ik ing d isrup t ions i n F landers ). W i th in Francia ( and i nc lud ing t he a d jacen t p ar ts o f L o thar ing ia a cqu ired b y C har les b y t he Trea ty o f Meersen i n 8 70 ) l ay more t han h a l f o f t he 1 20 o r more m in ts wh ich s truck c oins i n h is n ame . T he map , F ig . V I I I , s hows h ow t h ick o n t he g round t hey w ere , e verywhere n or th a nd e as t o f P ar is . E ach min t was a lso a n e xchange :

n o c lear d is t inct ion was made b e tween t he t wo f unc t ions

u n ti l much l a ter i n t he m idd le a ges .

T he E d ic t o f P i tres r e fers t o t he n orma l

p rocedure whereby p r iva te i nd iv idua ls b rough t s i lver t o t he min t ( i .e . t he e xchange ) t o h ave i tc o ined ( e os , q uoru m a rgen tu m a d p urgandum a ccep er in t , i psum a rgen tum e x meren t e t s ine f raude t am i n p ensa q uam i n p urga t ione d enar ios c oncambien t ) .

3 2

A s i n l a te Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , where t here were

6 0 t o 8 0 min ts , t he p rov is ion was u ndoub ted ly f ar i n e xcess o f wha t was n ecessa ry f or t he c onven ience o f u sers . The v e loc i ty o f c ircu la t ion was s uch t ha t , many f ewer min ts wou ld h ave f u l f i l led t he s ame t ask e f f ic ien t ly a nd more e conom ica l ly.

The r easons f or s e t t ing u p s o many min ts a re , t here fore ,

r a ther o bscure , b u t c lues t o t he p rob le m may l i e i n t he c on tras t b e tween Franc ia a nd t he r es t o f C har les 's t err i tor ies , a nd i n t he r e la t ive ly l a te d a te i n t he r e ign a t wh ich t he n umber o f min ts was i ncreased .

L e t u s l eave t he

ma t ter t here , a s i th as o n ly a n i nd irec t b ear ing o n o ur s ke tch o f t he c urrency : i fo ne w ished t o e nqu ire w hy min ts were l oca ted where t hey were , a nd h ow t hey p rospered , i tw ou ld b e a s we l l t o b eg in w i th s o me c ase-s tud ies , a nd t o l ook f or c lues i n t he d e ta i ls o f u rban a nd monas t ic h is tory . d e l ica te a nd c o mpl ica ted .

The t ask wou ld b e

More g enera l ly , h owever , o ne may a sser t t ha t t he

i dea ( wh ich h as a f ol lowing ) t ha t min ts c ame i n to e x is tence b ecause o f t he n eed f or c o in t o p ay d anege ld s u f fers f ro m i n terna l i ncons is tencies .

T here i s s urely ,

n o s ugges t ion t ha t t he p ay men ts wou ld o n ly b e a ccep tab le i n n ew c oin . 7 3

Why

r em in t e x is t ing c oins ( wh ich we h ave g ood r eason t o t h ink were a bundan t a nd i n r ap id c ircu la t ion ) s i mp ly i n o rder t o h and t he m o ver t o t he V ik ings , who were g o ing t o a ssess t he m a t t heir b u l l ion v a lue a nyway?

I ti s , Is uspec t ,

ac ase o f b e ing i n ad i f feren t b a l l-park , i .e . t he c onnex ion b e tween m in t a nd d anegeld s ee ms l og ica l i fi ti s ac oro l lary o f t he b e l ie f t ha t t he t o ta l s tock o f c oinage was sma l l .

Bu t i t s o lves o ne p roble m o n ly b y c rea t ing a no ther .

I f

i t was n ecessary t o min t c o ins f or d anege lds b ecause t here w ere n o e x is t ing c oins a va i lab le , where d id t he s i lver c o me f ro m f or t hese n ew c oins? b u l l ion?

( He ld b y who m , a nd a cqu ired h ow?)

Fro m

S weep ing t he p roble m u nder

t he c arpe t d oes n o t g e t r id o f i t . T he n u merous m in ts o f Francia a nd t he B e lg ic p rov inces a re o f ap iece w i th t he g rea t v o lu me o f t he c urrency a nd t he r ap id mone tary c ircu la t ion i n t hose r eg ions .

O u ts ide Francia , m in ts were g enera l ly f ur ther a par t ;

a nd i n

t he s ou th a nd wes t , t here were " ce l ls" o f mone tary c ircu la t ion f ed b y o n ly o ne o r t wo min ts .

T he g eograph ica l p a t tern o f c ircu la t ion , s o f ar a s t he h oards

a l low u s t o d e f ine i t , i s s um med u p i n F ig . I X .

The e v idence o n wh ich i t r es ts

i s i nadequa te f or i tt o b e c a l led more t han a s ke tch .

A s n ew h oards c o me t o

l i gh t , t hey w i l l a dd t o t he i n terpre ta t ion , a nd may w e l l modi fy i ti n c er ta in r espec ts , e spec ia l ly a s r egards t hose r eg ions f rom wh ich a t p resen t o n ly o ne h oard i s k nown—or n one , a s i n t he c ase o f B r i t tany , o r t he S pan ish March . I H ow many c o ins d id C har les 's min ts s tr ike?

O ne r ea l ly s hou ld r es is t

a ny i nc l ina t ion t o g uess a t a n a nswer o n t he b as is o f t he ir p resen t-day s urv iva l . The v as t ma jor i ty o f t he s pec i mens t ha t a re s ca t tered i n p ub l ic a nd p r iva te c o l lec t ions t oday u ndoubted ly c ame t o l igh t i n h oards , a nd t he h oards , a s we h ave s een , a re r eg iona l i n t he ir c o mpos i t ion .

C hance h as p layed a l arge

p ar t i n t he n umber , a nd s ize , o f t he h oards f ound i n e ach r eg ion .

T he o n ly

o b jec t ive way t o a pproach t he p rob le m i s t o j udge f ro m t he n umber o f d ies t ha t were emp loyed .

D ies wore o u t ;

t he u pper d ie g radua l ly b ecame s hor ter ,

t hrough t he r epea ted h a m mer b lows , u n t i l i t was t oo s hor t t o b e h e ld c o mfor tably — like t he s tub o f ap enc i l —and i th ad t hen t o b e d iscarded . E ng l ish m in td ocu men ts f ro m t he f our teen th c en tury s how , w i th awea l th o f d e ta i l , t ha t t he a verage o u tpu t o f ay ear 's s upp ly o f r everse d ies was o f ten i n t he r ange o f 1 5 ,000-20 ,000 c o ins e ach , a l though b o th h igher a nd l ower v a lues a re r ecorded .3 3 Very much t he s ame t echno log y was u sed i n t he n in th c en tur y , a nd , a s ac ons erva t ive e s t i ma te , we may p resume t ha t t he r everse d ies o f C har les 's c oins were c apable o f s tr ik ing a t l eas t 1 0 ,000 c o ins o n a verage , b e fore t hey b ecame t oo s hor t t o h o ld , a nd h ad t o b e r ep laced .

Whether t he d ies were u sed t o t he

l im i t o f t he ir t echn ica l c apaci ty i s a no ther ma t ter ; b u t i f we s ee a min t u s ing d ozens o r s cores o f d ies o f t he s ame d es ign w i th in ap er iod o f af ew y ears , i ti s r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t t hey were u sed t hr i f t i ly. There wou ld b e n o p ract ica l r eason t o d iscard a s erv iceab le d ie s i mp ly i n o rder t o r ep lace i t w i th a no ther o f i den t ica l d es ign—and t o d o t h is , a t ama jor m in t , e very f ew weeks o r e ven a f ter a f ew d ays .

A t av ery sma l l m in t , o n t he o ther h and ,

d ies may h ave b een u nder-used s i mp ly b ecause t here was l i t t le d e mand f or c o in .

I f , a s i so f ten t he c ase , o n ly f our o r f ive s pecimens f ro m t ha t m in t

s urv ive t o t he p resen t d ay , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o j udge h ow f u l ly t he d ies were u sed . Bu t t he v ery sma l l min ts a ccoun t f or o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he t ota l 7 4

I X :

THE GE OGRAPHICAL PATTERN OF C IRCULATION I N

THE T I ME OF CHARLES THE BALD The map s ums u p d iagra m ma t ica l ly t he c onc lusions o f t he t ex t .

7 5

n umbers o f d ies u sed , a nd t herefore t hey c anno t i n a ny c ase a f fec t t he o vera l l a verage v ery much .

( One c ou ld i n p r incip le t es t t he u nder-use o f d ies a t

sma l l min ts a ga ins t t he e v idence , b y g roup ing a n umber o f sma l l m in ts t og e ther s ta t is t ica l ly , a nd c o mpar ing t he n umbers o f d ies f or t he g roup a s a who le , a ga ins t t he ir o ccurrence i n s u i tab le h oards , a nd t hen b y mak ing t he s ame c o mpar ison f or s o me l arge min ts .) I n t he l i s t ing o f d ie-var ie t ies , C aro l ing ian n um is ma t ics l ags f ar b eh ind i t s l a te A ng lo-Saxon c oun terpar t .

Th is i s l arge ly f or t he a cciden ta l r easons

t ha t t he f l ow o f s i lver t o S cand inav ia h ad n o t y e t b egun i n C aro l ing ian t imes , a nd t ha t t he c o ins were n o t i nscr ibed w i th moneyers ' n a mes . o f o ne m in t a re r a ther b or ing ly a l ike .

A l l t he c o ins

Wha t af i e ld-day o ur French c o lleagues

wou ld h ave b een a b le t o e n joy i fe ach c o in o f C har les t he Ba ld h ad s hown t he n ame o f i t s moneyer : F or a d ozen d i f feren t Ang lo-Saxon m in ts , s tuden ts h ave c o mp i led l i s ts o f a l l t he s urv iv ing s pec i mens , a nd h ave c arr ied o u t as ys te ma t ic c heck f or d ie-dup l ica t ion .

U n t i l v ery r ecen t ly , n o th ing c o mparab le h ad b een wr i t ten

a bou t t he c o ins o f C har les t he B a ld , w i th t he h onourable e xcep t ion o f Meer t 's c orpus f or t he D inan t min t .

3 4

H e r ecorded a d ozen d en iers , i nc lud ing t wo o r

p oss ib ly t hree p a irs o f d ie-dup l ica tes , a nd t wo o bo les . F rn -e 's r ecen t monog raph , L e d en ier c aro l ing ien , s p&cia le men t e n B e lg ique 3 5 e x tends a s i mi lar d ie-check ( a l though n o t q u i te s o me t icu lous ly ) t o s o me t wen ty sma l l m in ts i n t he B e lgic p ar ts o f n or thern F rancia .

S o f ar a s o ne c an v er i fy t he d ies f ro m

h is p la tes , t he r everses o f 1 06 c o ins a re f ro m 1 02 d i f feren t d ies .

S ta t ist ic ians

h ave d e mons tra ted t ha t t he p ropor t ion o f s urv iv ing c o ins wh ich a re n o t t he o n ly r epresen ta t ives o f t he d ies f ro m wh ich t hey were s truck i s ag ood e st ima te o f t he p ropor t ion o f t he t o ta l o u tpu t o f t he c o inage wh ich was s truck f rom t he k nown d ies .

3 6

I n o ther w ords , n on-s ing le tons

= o u tpu t f ro m k nown d ies

k nown c o ins

t o ta l o u tpu t o r ,

8

= 1 02

1 06 x = 1 06 x 1 02 27 8 = 1 ,350 The f or mu la a l lows f or u nder-use among t he d ies f ro m wh ich n o s pec i mens s urv ive , s o we may w i thou t t oo many misg iv ings mu l t ip ly t he i nd ica ted n umb er o f 1 ,350 " d ies" ( wh ich i s , h owever , mere ly a s ta t is t ica l e s ti ma te s ubj ec t t o marg ins o f s amp l ing e rror ) b y an ot iona l a verage o u tpu t o f 1 0 ,000 , i n o rder t o a rr ive a t af igure o f 1 31 m i l l ion c o ins .

V ir tua l ly t he w ho le o u tpu t

was a f ter 8 64 , f orming p ar t o f t he r eco inage c o m manded b y t he Ed ic t o f P i tres , a nd i ndeed n ineten ths o f i t was a f ter 8 69 . N o g rea t a ccuracy s hou ld b e i mpu ted t o t he e s t ima te .

The t rue t o ta l

migh t we l l b e h a l f a s much a ga in , o r i t migh t b e o n ly t hree-quar ters a s much . E ven w i th in s uch r ough-and-ready l im i ts , i tg ives a n i dea o f s ca le w h ich w i l l p erhaps s urpr ise s o me h is tor ians .

7 6 •

We c an t ake t he a rgumen t as tep f ur ther b y p o in t ing o u t t ha t c o ins f ro m t he t wen ty B elg ian m in ts 3 7

( Bruges , G hen t , C our tra i , T ourna i , C h i vres ,

Mons , Les E s tinnes , Na mur , C ouv in , V edr in , G e mb loux , N ive l les , D inan t , H uy , An th isnes , B as togne , L ens , " Vendun is" , L iAge , V ise , a nd Maas tr ich t ) make u p a pprox i ma te ly 1 .3% o f t he C o mp iAgne h oard , 3 .5% a t G l isy , 3 .1 % a t B l igny , a nd 1 .9% a t A bla incour t .

T o a ssume t ha t t he B e lg ian m in t-ou tpu t

was , s ay , 3% a nd t ha t t he o ther min ts o f Francia t here fore s upp l ied 9 7% o r 3 2 t imes a s much wou ld l ead o ne t o at o ta l t ha t s ee ms t o d e fy c redu l i ty. Bu t t here i s v ery g ood e v idence t ha t t he c o inage o f C har les 's c on te mporary , K ing Burgred o f Mercia , was s truck f ro m a n e s t i ma ted 5 ,000 d ies , t hus amoun t ing t o p erhaps 5 0 mi l l ion c o ins .

3 8

We c anno t p rove , h owever , t ha t t he c urrency o f t he B e lg ic p rovinces m ing led f ree ly w i th t ha t f ro m t he r es t o f Francia .

I ft he 3% i n h oards f ro m

f ur ther s ou th a nd wes t were mere ly s trays f ro m a n e ssen t ia l ly s epara te c urrency-area ( as w i th t he N eus tr ian c o ins d iscussed a bove ) w e s hou ld y e t a ga in b e d epr ived o f a ny b as is f or a p ropor t iona l e s t ima te . a b le h oard f ro m B elg iu m i n t he 8 70s . t i on i s p ro m ised ,

3 9

There i s n o s u i t-

The F echa in h oard , o f wh ich a p ub l ica-

may t ake u s as tep n earer ( see F ig . I ), b u t o n ly a s tep .

T he s tray f inds o f c o ins o f D inan t , r ecorded b y Meer t , h in t a t a more l oca l ised c ircu la t ion i n Be lg ium .

T hey c o mpr ise t wo d en iers a nd a n o bo le , o ne f ound

i n ag arden a t D inan t , a nother a t Fur fooz , 7 km s ou th-eas t o f D inan t , a nd t he o bo le i n t he b ed o f t he r iver a t Namur . There , r a ther i nconc lus ive ly , t he p roble m mus t b e l e f t f or t he t ime b e ing . E ven s o , o ne c anno t d oub t t ha t t he o u tpu t o f t he min ts o f R ouen , Par is , Rheims , Quen tov ic , a nd t he Pa lace e nor mous ly o u twe ighed t ha t f ro m B e lg iu m .

Ad ie s tudy f or a t l eas t o ne o f

t hese ma jor min ts i s , f ro m t he mone tary h is tor ian 's ' v iewpo in t , a n u rgen t d es idera tum , s ince i ts hou ld a l low u s t o c a lcu la te a t o lerably r ea l is t ic f igure f or t he t ota l c urrency o f Francia .

A t p resen t , o ne c anno t d o more t han make

a n i n for med g uess , t ak ing i n to a ccoun t t he f ind e v idence f ro m t he N e ther lands , a nd p ropose 5 0 mi l l ions a s av ery c onserva t ive e s t i ma te. F or a l l t he o ther c ircu la t ion-areas , d ie-s tud ies o f t he k ey min ts a re l ack ing . A s a min imu m g u ide , a ga in , we n eed e s t i ma tes o f t he o u tpu t f ro m O r leans , T ou louse , D i jon , a nd V erdun .

Me l le c ou ld b es t b e s tud ied i f ah oard

c ame t o h and wh ich c ou ld b e d a ted t o n o t l a ter t han 8 80 , t o a vo id t he p rob le m o f " im mobi l ized t ypes" . As a t e mporary s ubs t i tu te f or a c orpus o f t he c o ins o f ap ar t icu lar min t , o ne c an g a in s o me i dea o f t he s ca le o f t he i ssues f ro m t he amoun t o f d ied up l ica t ion i n a we l l-pub lished h oard .

Ah oard may n o t b e ar ando m s amp le

o f t he c urrency , a nd i ti s d i f f icu l t o r i mposs ib le t o j udge h ow f ar t h is i s l i ke ly t o b e t he c ase . I ft he e s t i ma te i ty ie lds i s i n e rror , i tw i l l n ecessar i ly b e a n u nderes t i ma te . D ie-dup l ica t ion i n t he S au meray h oard , wh ich was p ubl ished w i th e xe mp lary c are b y La faur ie , 4 °i nd ica tes t ha t t he N eus tr ian c urrency f ro m wh ich i t was d rawn t o ta l led s o me 4 . 1 - mi l l ion c o ins .

T h is f igure c ou ld b e mis-

l ead ing ly t oo sma l l , b u t i fi ti s o f t he r igh t o rder o f magn i tude , i tp o in ts t o a s harp c on tras t b e tween t he mone tary wea l th o f Francia a nd N eus tr ia .

7 7

P la te 3 .

A S e lec t ion o f c o ins f ro m t he t ime o f C har les t he Ba ld

A l l a re t h in c o ins o f g ood-qua l ity s i lver , we igh ing 2-t o 1 Z g ra m mes i ft hey a re d en iers . a nd h a lf a s much i fo bo les .

They a re i l lus tra ted a t t he ir a ctua l

s ize . I . O lder c oins r e ma in ing i n c ircu la t ion 1 -2 , 4 -5 , d en iers , a nd 3 , o bole , o f L ou is I , t o i l lus tra te t he v ar ia t ion i n s ty le wh ich may r ef lect t he o u tpu t o f d i f feren t min ts .

C o mpare n o . 2w i th

n o. 1 2 ( t hree d o ts i n o ne q uar ter o f t he o bv ., t hree d ots b e low t e mp le , a nd o ne t o e ach s ide ).

The min t o f n o. 1 2 i s n a med a s Quen tov ic , a nd o ne may

g uess t ha t n o . 2i s f ro m t he s ame p lace . I .

C har les 's c on te mporar ies

6 -7 , L othar I , Den ier , Dores tad min t .

O bo le , n o m in t n ame ( Xpis t iana

R e lig io ). 8 , L othar I , Den ier , V erdun min t . 9 -11, P ippin I o f A qu i ta ine .

9 , d en ier , Me l le m in t .

1 0 , O bole , a nd J 1,

d en ier , b oth o f t he Tou louse min t . I I .

C o ins o f C har les

1 2. " Te mple" t ype . 1 3. " Two l ine" t ype.

Den ier o f Quen tov ic . O bo le o f A qu i ta ine .

1 4. " Car lus Rex ( Fr )" t ype ( so met i mes c i ted a s CRF t ype ) .

Den ier o f

C lermon t ( im mobi l ized t ype?). 1 5-24. "Gra t ia De i Rex" t ype ( so me t i mes c i ted a s GDR .

The r e form

c oinage o f t he Ed ict o f P i tres , 8 64 o nwards ). 1 5 , d en ier , min t o f S a in t-Den is ( no te t he G reek d e l ta ). 1 6 , d en ier , o f t he c i ty o f Rouen . 1 7 , o bole , o f t he p a lace o f C o mpi gne ( CONPENDIO PALACIO. 1 8 , d en ier , o f t he c as trum o f D i jon . 1 9 , d en ier , o f t he c i ty o f Auxerre . 2 0-1, t wo v ar iet ies o f d en ier o f HCVRTISASON IEN . 2 2 , o bole , o f t he min t o f S a in t-G ry a t Ca mbra i ( SC I GAVGER IC I M ). 2 3 , d en ier , o f t he c as te l lum o f Bar-sur-Aube . 2 4 , d en ier , o f t he monas tery o f C he l les ( KALA MONASTERI ).

7 8

3

2

5

e • kw oe 7

6

e i v ee ; \

i eK r e 'r\ , 9

( v , fe ri , s -

1 0

/ '

J

1 1. 7 I C' ,

• \ •

?14

1 5

1 6

1 7

1 8

f e7 -1 : t . te

22

I I I ft he n um is ma t ic t ask o f d e f in ing t he q uan ti t ies o f c o inage o f C har les t he Ba ld i s o ne where a l mos t e veryth ing r e ma ins t o b e d one , ad escr ip t ion o f t he c urrency a s i t was b efore t he r eco inage o f 8 64 i s i fp oss ible e ven more d ep enden t o n f u ture r esearch . There a re f ewer h oards , a nd t hey t end t o b e sma l ler :

C haumoux- Marci l ly , C osne , E tr &hy, a nd W rbv i l le-S t-P re a re

among t he mos t i n forma t ive . They s how t ha t o boles were r e la t ive ly p len tifu l i n t he e ar l ier p ar t o f C har les 's r eign . The n umbers o f s urv iving c o ins , e ven i nc lud ing t hose o f u nknown p ed igree , a re u n for tuna te ly t oo sma l l , f or most o f t he i nd iv idua l min ts , t o b e t he b as is f or a ccura te s ta t is t ica l e s t i ma tes o f min t-ou tpu t . Bu t i fi ti s t he c urrency , r a ther t han t he c oinage , wh ich o ne w ishes t o s tudy , t he f i rs t r equ ire men t i s ab et ter u nders tand ing o f t he C hr is t iana Relig io c o ins o f L ou is , wh ich r e ma ined s o p len t ifu l i n to t he 8 50s .

I n t he I de h oard ,

4 1

met icu lous ly p ubl ished b y Enno v an G e lder , t he t o ta l o f 12 C hr is t iana Re lig io c oins i nc luded o n ly o ne d ie-iden t i ty.

Th is imp l ies a c urrency i n t he l ow ,e r

Rh ine lands r unn ing i n to t ens o f m i l l ions o f c o ins . Many f ewer min ts were a t work b efore t he E d ict o f P i tres. n ecessar i ly i nd ica t ive o f t he q uan t i t ies o f c o ins b e ing i ssued . p onds f or t he mos t p ar t w ith t he l arger p os t-864 m in ts ;

4 2

T h is i s n o t

The l i s t c orres-

Rouen ( un less i t was

s tr ik ing a nony mous t ypes ) i s as urpr is ing a bsen tee . I V The v olume o f t he c urrency i s n o t i n i t se l f c onclus ive e v idence o f t he e x ten t o f a monetary e cono my i n ac oun try o r ar eg ion . 43 r ela ted t o t he b a lance o f p ay men ts .

I ti s more c lose ly

Bu t t he r apid c ircu la t ion a nd ming l ing

o f mi l l ions o f c oins w i th in a r eg ion s uch a s Francia c lear ly i mplies t rade , a nd n o t j us t w i th in t he o rbit o f t he l oca l t own .

There i s v ir tua l ly n o n umis-

ma t ic e v idence f ro m t he r e ign o f C har les t he Ba ld t o p oin t t o l ong-d is tance t rade u p t he Rhe ine v a l ley , o r t o a nything more t han a l oca l monetary c ircu la tion i n t he Medi terranean c oas t lands .

The ma in o r ien ta t ion i s t owards t he C hanne l

a nd t he N or th s ea , b y way o f p or ts s uch a s R ouen , Quen tov ic , a nd D ores tad . The d irect ion o f t he t rade f ro m t hose p or ts i s u ncer ta in : way i n wh ich we c ou ld j udge t he r e la t ive impor tance a s t rad ing p ar tners , f ro m t he Caro l ing ian c o ins .

t here i s n o o bv ious

o f Eng land a nd S candinav ia

We wou ld n ot e xpect more

t han t he o ccasiona l s tray t o t urn u p i n Eng land , where t he c urrency was u nder f ir m r oya l c on tro l , e ven i ft rade was b r isk .

There a re v ar ious f inds f ro m

t he I r ish S ea c oas t lands , a nd s o me , b u t s urpr is ing ly f ew , f ro m S cand inav ia , where t hey migh t h ave b een e xpec ted n o t t o b e r em in ted , a nd t o s urv ive a s b u l l ion .

The e xp lana t ion may b e t ha t Francia a nd L o thar ing ia r an ab a lance

o f p ay men ts s urp lus , b y v ir tue o f t heir e xpor ts , a nd t ha t t he n et o u t f low o f c oin was t herefore o n ly s porad ic o r l oca l .

The s ame may we l l b e t rue o f

Neus tr ia , a l though t he n um is ma t ic e v idence i s s t i l l i nsuf f icien t t o s uppor t a ny f ir m c onclus ions .

C er ta in ly, t he f inds f ro m Fr is ia a nd f ro m S cand inav ia

c on tradict a ny t hough t t ha t Francia u p t o 8 77 was b eing b led o f i ts s i lver e ither b y r a id ing o r b y h onest t rade : h oards i s u n i mpor tan t .

t he r epresen ta t ion o f Francian min ts i n t he

N or a re t here c oins f ro m N eus tr ia i n q uan t i t ies t o

8 0

s ugges t t ha t t ha t r eg ion was b e ing p lundered o f i t s wea l th d ur ing C har les 's l i fe t i me .

A qu i ta ine s ee ms t o h ave r un a d e f ic i t , a nd n o d oub t i t was p lundered

a s we l l , b u t t he c ash wh ich l ef t t he , r eg ion may h ave b een mos t ly d rawn b ack i n to t he Emp ire a f ter at ime , v ia t he l ower R h ine lands .

A sh mo lean Museum , Ox ford

NOTES 1 . The s tandard works o f r eference i n wh ich t he c o ins o f C har les t he Ba ld a re d escr ibed a nd i l lus tra ted a re s t i l l E . G ar ie l , L es monna ies r oya les d e France s ous l a r ace c aro ling ienne , S trasbourg , 1 883-4 , a nd M . P rou , L es monna ies c aro l ing lennes , 1 896.

T he more r ecen t Caro l ing ian

C oinage , b y K . F . Morr ison w i th t he c o l labora t ion o f H . G run tha l , New York , 1 967 i s o f ten v ery i naccura te a nd u nre l iab le —as may b e j udged f ro m r ev iews b y J . La faur ie i n R evue Num is ma t ique 1 967 , 2 91-5 a nd b y P . G r ierson i n Num is ma t ic C hron ic le 1 969 , 3 46-50 .

F or t he r e ign

o f C har les t he Ba ld , much t he mos t c onven ien t r ecen t s urvey o f t he n um is ma t ic e v idence i s M . v an R ey , " D ie Münzprägung Kar ls d es Kah len u nd d ie wes t fränk ische K ön igs landscha f t" , i n D ie S tad t i n d er e uropä ischen G esch ich te .

F es tschri f t E d i th Ennen , ( ed . W. B esch e t a l .) B onn , 1 972 ,

1 53-84 . I tg ives l i s ts o f h oards a nd o f min ts , w i th a f u l l b ibl iography f or t he m , a nd Ih ave n o t q uoted s ources e xcep t where Rey 's r e ferences n eed t o b e s upp le men ted . 2 . K . F . Morr ison , " Nu m is ma t ics a nd C aro l ing ian t rade :

ac r i t ique o f t he

e v idence" , S pecu lum ) (XXV I I I ( 1963 ) , 4 03-32 g ives a u sefu l s urvey o f e ar l ier wr i t ings wh ich t ouch o n mone ta ry h is tory. 3 . R . H . M . Do l ley a nd K . F . Morr ison , " F inds o f Carol ing ian c o ins f ro m G rea t Br i ta in a nd I reland" , BNJ = CH ( 1963 ) , 7 5-87;

D . M. Metca lf ,

" La t ravers6e d e l a Manche ( V I I IeIXes ik les )" , Bu l le t in d e l a S ocib tg f ran9a ise d e n um is ma t ique X )0 ( I-XXXV ( 1976-80 ) , 5 11-15 . 4 . R . La touche , The B ir th o f Wes tern E cono my. E cono m ic A spec ts o f t he Dark Ages ( Eng l ish e d i t ion , 1 961) . The r es tr ic ted c r i t ic is m t ha t Ih ave t o o f fer o f a much-apprec ia ted b ook i s t ha t t he a u thor 's e s t i ma te o f t he e x ten t o f t rade a nd a money e cono my d oes n o t a ccord w i th t he n um is ma t ic e i r idence .

S ee f or e xa mp le p . 1 57 , " ... n o l arge-sca le t rade o r i ndus tr ia l

a c tiv i ty ma in ta ined b y c on tr ibu t ions f ro m c ap i ta l .. t he o n ly l oans k nown were t hose c onnected w i th f oods tu f fs" ; mos t i n d e mand was s a l t" .

p . 1 60 , " one o f t he c o m mod i t ies

The s i lence o f t he wr i t ten s ources p resen ts

s im i lar p roblems i n Eng land a nd e lsewhere , f or e ar ly med ieva l mone tary h is tory. 5 . AB s .a . 8 76. 6 .

On was tage r a tes , s ee B . Thorde man , " The L ohe h oard .

Ac on tr ibu t ion

t o t he me thodo log y o f n um is ma t ics" , Nu m is ma t ic C hron icle 6 V I I I ( 1948 ) , 1 88-204 , a nd N . J . Mayhew , " Im i ta t ive s ter l ings i n t he A berdeen a nd Mon tra ive h oards" , i bid .

7

XV I ( 1 976 ) , 8 5-97. 8 1

7 .

Rey , l oc. c i t .

8 .

J . La faur ie ,

" Den iers d e C har les l e C hauve t rouves a C la iro ix ( O ise )" ,

Revue a rch . d e PO ise I V ( 1973 ) , 2 3-6. 9 .

R . To masson , " D ix a nnees d e s auvegardes a rcheolog iques d ans l ' arrond isse men t d e Bar-sur-Aube" , Bu l le t in d e l a S oc iete a rch kdog ique d u d epar te men t d e l 'Aube I ( 1 967) , 1 55 ;

J . La faur ie i n C h . H igoune t ,

Bordeaux p endan t l e h au t moyen a ge , 1 963 , p . 3 18 . n ear N ice:

S te-Petron i l le i s

b u t c f . t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he P erp ignan h oard ( wh ich o ne

may s uspec t n ot t o h ave b een c o mp le tely r ecovered :). F or a n a na lys is o f l a te Ang lo-Saxon f inds s ee D . M. Me tca lf , " The r ank ing o f t he b oroughs : n um is ma t ic e v idence f ro m t he r e ign o f A Ethe lred I" , E thelred t he Unready: Papers f ro m t he M i l lenary C on ference ( ed . D . H i l l ) , ( B. A. R. B r i tish S er ies , v o l . 5 9 ) , Ox ford , 1 978 , 1 59-212 , a t p p . 1 70f . 1 0 .

J . La faur ie , " Deux t resors moneta ires c aro l ing iens : e t-Lo ir ) , Rennes ( I l le-e t-V i la ine ) ," 2 62-305 .

S au meray ( Eure-

Revue N um is ma t ique 6 V I I ( 1 965 ) ,

Th is p aper r epresen ts a ma jor c on tr ibu t ion t o l a te C aro ling ian

n um is ma t ics , a l though i t s metrolog ica l c onc lus ions a wa i t c on f irma t ion f ro m t he s tudy o f o ther h oards . 1 1.

I b id ., 2 71-2.

1 2.

The s tandard works a l l r efer t o c oins o f P ipp in Io r I , l eaving t he ma t ter u ncer ta in , b u t s ee n ow J . Dup lessy ,

" Les ° boles 'c aro l ing iennes d 'Aqu ita ine

a u n om d e L ou is , r o i ( Lou is d e J eune , 8 54?)" , Bu l le t in d e l a S ociete f ran9a ise d e n ura is ma t ique 1 976-9 , 4 07-8 , c la i ming t o h ave s hown ( e lsewhere ) t ha t t hey s hou ld a l l b e a t tr ibu ted t o P ippin I , 8 39-64 . Tou louse f e l l t o Char les i n 8 49 ( F. L ot , Recherches s ur l a p opu la t ion e t l a s uper f icie d es c i tes , v o l . I , 3 18-19) .

The a ge-s tructure o f t he

h oard , w i th dwind l ing p ropor t ions o f o lder c o ins , i s t yp ica l.

2 .c i t . ( no te 1 ) , I , 1 27f .

1 3.

Gar ie l ,

1 4.

Morr ison a nd G run tha l , 2 2 .c i t . ( note 1 ) , p . 3 89 , n os . 1 46 a nd 1 49 .

1 5.

Rey mis-spel ls t h is p lace-name , a nd l oca tes i t wrong ly o n h is map.

1 6.

G . C laus tre , " Decouver te d 'un t resor c arol ing ien d e l a d eux ie me moi t ie d u I Xe s ièc le" , Bu l l .

s oc . a gr ico le , s cien ti f ique e t l i t tera ire d es

P yrenees Or ien ta les LXXV II ( 1962 ) , 2 7-34 ( no t a va i lable a t t he t ime o f wr i ting ) ;

r epor ted b y J . La faur ie , "M igra t ions d es p eup les e t h au t

moyen ä ge e n O cciden t" , A S urvey o f Nu m is ma t ic Research 1 960-1965 , v o l . I , C openhagen , 1 967 , p p. 1 3-51 a t 4 2 . 1 7.

Gar ie l , 92 .ci t ., I , 1 19f .

1 8.

J . C harve t , "Monna ies d ecouver tes ä G lisy" , Revue Be ige d e Num is ma t ique 1 870 , 4 23-4.

1 9. 2 0.

La faur ie , Revue Nu m is ma t ique 6 V I I ( 1965 ) , 2 94 . Rey 's b ibl iography s hou ld b e s upp le men ted b y t he f u l les t , t hough s t i ll b r ief , a ccoun t o f t he h oard y e t a va i lable , J . La faur ie , " Nu mis ma t ique r o ma ine e t medieva le" , Annua ire , 1 969-1970 ( Eco le p ra t ique d es Hau tes E tudes , I Ve S ec t ion , S c iences h is tor iques e t p h i lo log iques ) , 3 23f ., l i sting 1 ,8 68 c o ins . 8 2

2 1.

H . Enno v an G e lder , " Le t resor c arol ing ien Wide ' , Revue Numis ma t ique 6 V I I ( 1965 ) , 2 41-61 , a t p . 2 45.

2 2.

La faur ie , i n Annua ire , 1 969-70.

2 3 .

P . Chenu , " No tes d e n um is ma t ique e t d e s ig i l lograph ie.

No te n o . 3 ' ' ,

Me moires d e l a S ocie te h is tor ique d u C her4 XXX IX ( 1931-2 ) , 1 03-30. 2 4 . W. Hess , " Ge ldw ir tscha f t am M i t te lrhe in i n k aro l ing ischer Z ei t" , B lä t ter f ür d eu tsche Landesgesch ich te XCV I I I ( 1962 ) , 2 6-63. 2 5 .

H . H . V ö lckers , K arol ing ische Münzfunde d er Frühzei t ( 751-800 ) , G ött ingen , 1 965 , p p . 2 6, 4 4-50 , 1 28-36.

2 6. I b id., 2 6 , 5 1-60 , 1 37-150 . 2 7. A l though o n t he l e f t b ank o f t he G ironde , Bordeaux was a lways i n Aqu i ta ine , n o t Gascony ( F. L o t , 2 2..c i t . ,v o l . I , 3 11).

The l oca liza t ion o f t he

AQU ITAN IA c oins , i n ar eg ion where o ther i ssues a re e x tre mely l oca l ized , a ppeared t o b e v ery b lurred .

They migh t h ave b een s truck a t a min t

wh ich a lso s truck min t-s igned c oins ;

o r a t more t han o ne min t ;

o r e ven

a t at rave l l ing min t . 2 8 . J . La faur ie ,

" La monna ie b orde la ise d u h au t moyen " ä ge" , i n C h . H igoune t ,

H istoire d e Bordeaux , v ol . I , Bordeaux 1 963 . 2 9.

B . F i l lon , Cons idera t ions h is tor iques e t a r t is t iques s ur l es monna ies d e France , F on tenay-Vendee , 1 850 , p p. 5 6f .

3 0 .

H . Enno v an G elder , "Mun tvondst Roermond" , De G euzenpenn ing X IX ( 1 969 ) , 2 5-28 .

T he t wo p ubl ica t ions t o wh ich Rey r efers r epea t wha t i s

s a id h ere w ithou t a ny d if ferences o f c onsequence .

C oins f ro m t he h oard ,

wh ich was r egre t tably d ispersed a t t he t ime o f d iscovery , h ave c on t inued t o c o me t o t he a t ten t ion o f Professor Enno v an G elder , a nd a f u l l p ublic a tion i s a wa i ted . 3 1.

La faur ie , l oc.ci t . ( no te 2 0 ).

3 2 . The t ex t i s p r in ted i n MGH , Cap . I , n o . 2 73 , a nd more r ecen t ly i n H . FrAre , L e d en ier c aro l ing ien , s pecia le men t e n Be lg ique , a t p p. 9 6-100 . 3 3 .

M . Ma te , " Coin d ies u nder Edward Ia nd I" , Num is ma t ic C hron icle 7 I X ( 1969 ) , 2 07-18 , a nd e ar l ier s tud ies c i ted t here.

3 4 .

C . Meer t , " Les monna ies c arol ing iennes d e l 'a te l ier d e D inan t" , R evue B elge d e Num is ma t ique CV I I I ( 1962 ) , 1 53-72 .

3 5 . 3 6.

2 .ci t. ( no te 3 2) . C . S . S . L yon , " Ana lys is o f t he ma ter ia l" , i n H . R . Mossop , The L incoln M in t , c . 8 90-1279 , 1 970 , p p . 1 1-19 a nd Append ices .

3 7.

F o l lowing t he a t tr ibu t ions i n Fr re ,

3 8 .

H . E . Pagan , " Coinage i n t he a ge o f Burgred" , BNJ 1 1-27.

" ooax

( 1965 ) ,

3 9 . F or Fecha in , s ee J . La faur ie , " Les t rouva i l les d e monna ies merov ing iennes e t c arol ing iennes d 'A miens" , Bu l le t in d e l a S ocie te f ran9a ise d e n um is ma t ique 2 1-5 ( 1 966-70 ) , 4 04 .-7. 8 3

4 0.

l oc. c i t . ( note 1 0 ).

4 1.

l oc. c i t . ( note 1 9 ).

4 2.

The v ar ious t ypes i ssued b efore 8 64 a re s ummar ized b y Fr re , 2 2 .ci t., a nd t he min ts t ha t a re k nown t o h ave b een work ing a re c onven ien t ly l i sted b y R ey , l oc. c i t .

4 3.

Th is p oin t was n o t t aken i n my e ar l ier s tudy, " The p rosper ity o f n or thwestern Europe i n t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies" , E cono m ic H is tory Rev iew 2 XX ( 1967) , 3 44-57.

8 4

I I POL IT ICS : THE COURT AND THE PROV INCES

8 5

5 .

ON THE D ISTRIBUTION OF POLITICAL PO WER I N BRITTANY I N THE M ID-N INTH CENTURY Wendy Dav ies

T he p o l i t ica l s ta tus o f B r i t tany i n t he n in th c entury i s p rob le ma t ic f or u s a nd was a p rob le m , a t t he t ime , f or B re tons a s much a s f or F ranks .

1

T h is

c ircu mstance a r ises i np ar t b ecause o f migra t ion f rom B r ita in i n to n or thwes tern F rance — t he A r mor ican p eninsu la — i n t he l a te R oman a nd v ery e ar ly medieva l p er iod , o ccas ion ing t he n a me Br i t tany [ Bri tann ia ( Minor ) ], a nd b ecause o f t he c onsequen t i n trus ion a nd maybe r e inforce men t o f C e lt ic l anguage a nd i nst i tu t ions , t hereby d ist ingu ish ing i tf ro m t he r es t o f F rancia . E very thing p o in ts t o ah eav ier c oncentra t ion o f B r i t ish s e t t le men t i n t he west ern h a lf o f t he p en insu la , t hough , d esp i te t he s treng th o f F rank ish p o li t ica l i n teres ts i n R ennes a nd N an tes , t he medieva l l i ngu ist ic b oundary s eems t o h ave r un f rom t he mou th o ft he L o ire t o t he wes tern b ase o f t he C o ten tin p enins u la ( see map A ) .

T here i s n o d oub t t ha t t he F ranks c ons tan t ly c laimed t o

r u le B ri t tany af ter t he migra t ion a nd t ha t t hey h ad n o sma l l i nf luence i n t he l a te s ixth c entury , e spec ia l ly i n e as t B rit tany .

I ndeed , R ennes a nd N an tes ,

p resu mab ly a s F rank ish s trongho lds , were a t tacked b y t he B re tons t hen a nd G regory o f T ours c lear ly c ons idered t he r iver V i la ine t he B re ton b oundary . S im i lar ly , e ar ly i n t he n inth c en tury , t he Roya l F rank ish Anna ls c ou ld r ecord t ha t L ouis wen t f rom V annes i nto B r i t tany .

R e la t ions i n t he i n tervening p er iod,

t he s even th a nd e igh th c entur ies , a re q u i te o bscure , a s a re r e la t ions b e tween E as t a nd West Br i t tany , f or t here i s a l mos t n o c on te mporary e v idence; o bscur i ty must h ave i t se lf a f fec ted r e la t ions i n t he n in th c en tury .

t ha t

2

We k now o f F rank ish e xpedi t ions s en t i n to B rit tany b y t he C aro ling ian p red ecessors o f C har les t he Ba ld — P ippin , C har les t he G rea t a nd L ou is t he P ious — i n 7 53 , 7 78, 7 86, 7 99 , 8 11 , 8 18, 8 24 .

A l l o f t hese e xpedi t ions were made

t o s ta te a nd t o e f fec t C aro ling ian c on tro l o ver t he r eg ion ;

a nd L ouis h imse lf

l ed t he l ast t wo , p ene tra t ing a s f ar a s L andevennec f ar i n t he wes t o f t he p en insu la .

We k now o f t he c onsequent a ppo in t men t o f t he B re ton N ominoA a s

L ou is 's missus a nd d ux i n B r i t tany r ound a bout 8 31 a nd o f F rank ish b ishops a s f ar west a s Qui mper a nd S . P o l i n t he midd le o ft he c entury .

We k now o f

s ome a ssoc ia t ion o f t he a r istocra t ic f a mi l ies o f west N eustr ia w i th t he B re tons a lready i n 8 13-22 , when t he c oun t o f Vannes was G uy , b ro ther o f L ambert o f A n jou , a nd s ubsequen t ly i n t he 8 40s a nd 8 50s , a nd a ga in i n 8 78 , when Gauz lin a nd G auzber t g o t t he f i de lity o f s o me ( pars ) o f t he B re tons .

We k now o f f urther

e xpedi t ions b y C har les t he Ba ld i n 8 45 a nd 8 51, a nd o f mee t ings a nd a gree men ts b e tween C har les a nd t he Bre tons E r ispoA a nd S a lo mon .

As a r esu lt o f t hese

mee t ings , R ennes , N an tes a nd t he p ays d e R e tz were g iven t o E r ispoA i n 8 51; a' t h ird ' o f B ri t tany ( t he d e ta i ls were n o t s pec if ied ) was c eded t o S a lo mon i n 8 52 ;3 f ur ther l ands were g iven t o S a lo mon i n An jou a s ab enef ice i n 8 63 a nd i n t he C o ten t in a nd Avranch in i n 8 67;

a nd j o in t B re ton/Caro ling ian a ct ion was

t aken a ga ins t t he V ik ings , i n 8 68 a nd 8 73 ( see map X ) .4

Moreover , wha tever

t he t ruth o ft he c la ims o f t he Anna ls o f S t . Bert in t ha t S a lo mon was t he f i de lis 8 7

o f C har les a nd c om mended h i mse lf i n 8 63 , t here i sg ood e v idence o ft he o ccurr ence o f F rank ish i ns t i tu t ions a t l eas t i n e as tern B r i t tany i n t he n in th c entury : c o mmenda t ion , f i de les a nd v assi were t o b e f ound , a s were t he j udic ia l i nstrumen ts o f ma l lus a nd s cabin i .

C o ins were min ted i n R ennes i n t he n ame o f

C har les . 5- 1 3 -( o th t he i n teres t o f t he F ranks i n B r i t tany a nd t he ir i nf luence u pon t he c ountry a re t herefore q u i te c lear ly d e mons trab le . On t he o ther h and , we k now t ha t N ominoe , L ou is 's missus , r avaged An jou i n t he 8 40s , s e ized R ennes a nd N an tes i n 8 49 , work ing w i th L a mber t o f An jou , a nd was r egarded a s ar ebe l , a nd t ha t E r ispoe c on t inued t h is o ppos i t ion . C har les s uf fered d efea t a t t he h ands o fb o th o f t hem . 6 Bes ides t h is , B re ton b ishops d id n o t a t tend F rank ish c ounc i ls n or a cknow ledge t he metropo l i tan a uthor i ty o f T ours . C onsequen t ly , b o th medieva l a nd modern h istor ians o f B r i t tany h ave a rgued t ha t N om inoe e stab l ished a n i ndependen t k ingdom . T he e leven th-century C hron ic le o f N an tes a ccording ly r ecords t ha t N om inoA was e leva ted t o t he k ingsh ip , wh i le i n t he l a te n ine teen th c en tury L a B order ie s ign if ican t ly h eaded h is a ppropr ia te c hap ters ' La d e l ivrance d e l a B re tagne ( 826-46) ' , ' For ma t ion d e l a monarch ie b re tonne ( 846-5 4 ', ' Le f i ls d u l i bera teur ( 851-7 ) ', ' Apogee d e l a monarch ie b re tonne ( 857-74 ) ' .

7

Moreover , e xp lic it ly

C e lt ic i ns t itu t ions a re a s e asy t o f i nd i n e astern B r it tany i n t he n in th c entury a s a re F rank ish o nes : e nepuuer t ( morning g if t ) , l o th a nd c ofr i t — i n t he p hrase d icofr i t o r s ine c ofr i to — ( charges o n l and ) , mach t iern ( l oca l ' ru ler ' ) .

A l l

a re o bv ious ly C e lt ic words b u t s ome a lso r efer t o d is t inc t ive i nst i tu t ions , wh ich of ten h ave t he ir p ara l le ls — l i ke We lsh mechdeyrn a nd wynebwer th — i n o ther C e l t ic c oun tr ies .

8

B ri t tany t herefore d if fers f ro m many o ther a reas

o f F rank ish i n teres t a nd c on tro l i n t ha t i tp rov ides p lent ifu l e v idence o fd ist i nc t ive ly n on-Frank ish i nst i tu t ions . I th as a p ar t ly C e lt ic n ature a nd s upp lies s uf f ic ien t i ndica t ion o f s epara t is t t endenc ies t o s ugges t t he p ossibi li ty o f a d is t inc t ive , n on-Frank ish i den t i ty .9 T here i s t herefore a q ui te c lear p rob lem i n c onsider ing t he p o li t ica l s tatus o f B ri t tany i n t he n in th c entury . p o li t ica l c on tro l;

Bo th F ranks a nd B re tons c la imed o vera l l

b o th F rank ish a nd B re ton s oc io-po l i t ica l i ns t itu t ions were

e viden t . H istor ians o f t he C aro l ing ian s ta te a re p rone t o s ee i ta s aF rankish a ppendage , b u t Bretons a s a n i ndependen t C e l t ic s ta te . A t i t s c rudes t , t hen , was B ri t tany F rank ish o r B re ton?

Wha t was t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween B re tons a nd

F ranks? And , ap o int t ha t i s l ess o bv ious b ut a s s i gn if ican t i n a ny c ons idera t ion o fp o l i t ica l s ta tus , wha t was t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he B re ton ' ru lers ' o f B ri t tany a nd t he B retons? Was t here a ny mach inery o fp o l i t ica l c on tro l? Wha t was t he p oss ibi li ty o f e f fec t ing t he p o li t ica l w i l l o f t he r u ler a t g round l eve l? H ow , i ndeed , d oes r u le a t g round l eve l c ompare , i fa t a l l , w i th o ther p arts o f t he C aro l ing ian wor ld ? T h is p aper i s a bout t he n a ture a nd e xerc ise o fp o l i t ica l p ower i n B r it tany i n t he n in th c en tury . Much o f i tr anges o ver ma ter ia l t ha t h as of ten b een d iscussed b efore , a nd Iam aware t ha t l i t t le t ha t Ih ave t o s ay i s t o ta l ly n ew .

H owever , t h is i s au sefu l o pportuni ty t o s ta te

t he p rob le ms a nd b ring t he m b efore t he a t ten t ion o f a n E ng l ish a udience a nd t o p lace B r it tany i n t he C aro ling ian c on tex t a s we l l a s t he C e lt ic ; h opefu l ly i t w i l l s t imu la te f ur ther a nd more s oph is t ica ted c ons idera t ion .

8 8

Cotent in

0

k m 2 00

Ayranchin Goe lo 0

Do mnonie Poher

L andevennec

Poutrocoet ' Rennes

Cornouai He

• Vannes

R VI/ei ne

R edon

Anjou •Ange rs RL o tre

*N an tes

— •— • Med ieva l L ingu is t ic B ounda ry k m

P ays

5 0

X :

NORTH WEST FRANCE

8 9

d e

Retz

We a re f ortuna te i n p ossessing u nusua l ly g ood s ources f or t he h is tory o f e as t B r i t tany i n t he n in th c entury , ac ircu mstance wh ich d is t ingu ishes i nves t ig a t ions o f t h is p er iod f rom t hose a bout t he p reced ing o r i m med ia te ly s ubsequen t c en tur ies . N o t o n ly a re t here t he e xpec ted i nc iden ta l a nd o ther n o t ices o f F rank ish a nna l ists , t hose o ft he Anna ls o f S t . B er t in b eing e spec ia l ly v a luab le , a nd a f ew l e t ters o f c ler ica l i n teres t , b ut t here i s a lso a u sefu l c orpus o f s a int ly V i täe — o f P au l , G ueno le , T udwa l , Machu tes a nd C onwo ion ( t he l a t ter i n t he G es ta S anc toru m R o tonens iu m ) — a nd a v ery l arge c o l lec t ion o f c har ters f rom t he monas tery a t R edon . R edon i s s outh o f R ennes , i n e ast B r i t tany , a nd t he monas t ic f ounda t ion was made i n 8 32 , w i th t he s uppor t o f N ominoe , who c onf ir med i ti n 8 34 .

I t s e leven th-cen tury c ar tu lary c on ta ins 3 23 c har ters

o f t he n in th c en tury a nd a f ur ther 1 00 o r s o o f t he t en th a nd e leven th c en tur ies .

1 0

Most o f t he n in th-century c har ters r ecord g ran ts a nd s a les made w i th in 5 0 y ears o f f ounda t ion , b ut a f ew d e ta i l t ransac t ions w h ich h ad t aken p lace i n t he g enera t ion b efore 8 32 .

T hey r efer t o l ands s ca t tered a l l o ver t he s ou th-

e as tern q uar ter o f B r i t tany , w i th t he g rea tes t c oncen tra t ion o ccurring j us t wes t o f al i ne b e tween Redon a nd R ennes , t hough a f ew a re more w ide ly s ca tt ered . T he c harters a re e xcep t iona l ly r ich i n p ersona l a nd t opograph ic , i ns t i tut iona l a nd c ircu ms tan t ia l d e ta i l . H ence , t h is c oncen tra t ion o f ma ter ia l f rom a s hor t s pace o f t ime , t oge ther w i th t he c lose c onnec t ions o f t he f oundat ion w i th t he ' r u lers ' o f B r it tany , p er m i ts s ome d e ta i led i nves t iga t ion o f m idn in th c en tury B ri t tany t o b e u nder taken . We may b eg in b y a sk ing wha t c an b e s a id o f t he ' r u lers ' o f B r i t tany , t he Bre tons o f t he n in th c en tury whose p o l i t ica l p owers h ad s o me a ssoc ia ted a ura o f i ndependence .

The p rinc ipa l r u lers , a s Is ha l l r efer t o t hem , were f i ve ,

c over ing t hree g enera t ions .

N om inoe , t he f i rs t , emerged a s i mper ia l missus

i n C . 8 31 b u t was r ebe l ling a t l eas t f rom 8 42 , i fn o t e ar l ier . On h is s udden d ea th i n 8 51, h e was f o l lowed b y h is s on E r ispoe . E r ispoe was k i l led i n 8 57 b y h is own c ous in , S a lomon , who was h i mse lf k i l led i n 8 74 a s t he r esu l t o f a c onsp iracy b y t he p r imores o f B r i t tany l ed b y P ascwe then , h is s on-inlaw , a nd b y G urhana t , s on-inlaw o f E r ispoe .

T hese t wo w ere j o int ly d om inan t u n t i l

t hey were s ucceeded t hree y ears l a ter b y P ascwe then 's b ro ther , A lan , a nd G urhana t 's s on , J udicae l . 1 1

T hereaf ter , A lan 's d escendan ts b ecame d ukes o f

B r i t tany .

A l l a va i lab le e v idence wou ld s ugges t t ha t t h is s er ies o fp rominen t men h ad r esponsib i l i ty f or t he who le o f B r i t tany , P ascwe then a nd G urhana t s har ing i t . H ence , N ominoe was o r ig ina l ly a nd i n i t ia l ly d es igna ted missus i mpera tor is i n B ri t tann ia , was d escr ibed b y t he G esta S anc torum R o tonens iu m a s r u ling a l mos t a l l B r it tany a t t he t ime o f f ounda t ion o f R edon , a nd a s p r inceps B r i tann iae s ubsequen t ly .

1 2

T he t i t les u sed t o d escr ibe t hese men b y t hose w ho

d raf ted t he R edon c harters o f ten emphas ise t he w ide s pan o f t he ir p ower : t o t ius B r i t tann iae , d om inan te B r i t tann iam u sque Medanu m f l u men , g ubernan te t o tam Br i t tann iam , t o tu m d o min ium Br i t tann iae , a nd e ven t o t ius Br i tann iae magneque p arts G a l liaru m , u sed o f S a lo mon i n 8 69 .

1 3

Fur ther , t he c o m men ts

o f F rank ish a nna l is ts s uggest t ha t t he p r inc ipa l r u lers n ego t ia ted f or t he who le ' r eg ion , a s , f or e xa mp le , o n t he o ccas ion i n 8 63 when S a lomon a greed t o t he p ayment o f t r ibu te f rom B r i t tany a nd c aused a l l t he p r imores o f B r i t tany t o s wear t o C har les . 14 S im i lar ly , S a lo mon a ppears t o h ave h ad d efens ive r esp ons ib i li ty f or t he e n t ire a rea : i n 8 71 t he p r inc ipes o f B r it tany r efused t o l e t 9 0

h im make a p i lgrimage t o R o me b ecause t hey f eared a N orse a t tack i n h is a bsence . 1 5 C lear ly h e was e xpec ted t o p ro tec t t he m a l l . G iven t he c ons ist ency o f t he e v idence o n t h is p o in t i t wou ld b e u nreasonab le t o d oubt t ha t t he r u lers t heore t ica l ly h ad r espons ib i li ty f or a l l o f Br i t tany , t hough i ti s wor th r eme mbering t ha t we h ave v ery l i t t le ma ter ia l f ro m wes t B r it tany a nd i ti s b y n o means i nconce ivab le t ha t t he p rominen t men h ad l i t t le e f fec t ive p ower i n t hose p ar ts . T he c har ters p rov ide a n a ddi t iona l p erspec t ive o n t he p osi t ion o f t he r u ler i n t he p art icu lar c ase o f S a lo mon , f or t hey c onta in i nd ica t ions t ha t h e ( or h is r ecording s ource ) c ons idered h is a uthor i ty r oya l , w i th t he g rea ter o r l esser c onno ta t ions o f i ndependence t ha t t ha t t er m b r ings .

F rom 8 68 h e was c a l led

r ex , r a ther t han t he misce l laneous d escr ip t ive t er ms a nd c ircu m locu t ions a pp l ied t o h im a nd h is p redecessors b efore t ha t d a te — d ux , c omes , NG r ubern an te/do minan te/poss iden te .

I ndeed , i ncreasing ly s ince 8 58 , t ransac t ions

1 6

h ad b een d a ted b y r eference t o t he p rinc ipa te o f S a lo mon r a ther t han t o t he y ear o f t he F rank ish k ing 's r u le :

.. a nno p r inc ipa tus S a lo mon is i n Br i t tann ia

r a ther t han r egnan te d cmno .. a nno i mper i i e jus . t he l as t y ear o f E r ispoe 's l i fe , 8 57 .1 7

T h is a lso h appened d uring

T he c hange o fp rac t ice i n d a t ing a nd

i n t i t les i s v ery marked u nder S a lo mon , a nd c on trasts s trong ly w i th t he c om (m )es i n t o ta B r i t tann ia wh ich N om inoe was s t i l l u sing i n 8 50 .

S o , t here

i s l i t t le i n c on te mporary e v idence t o s upport t he n o t ion o f t he e leva t ion o f N om inoe t o t he ki ngsh ip ,

1 8

a s ma in ta ined b y t he C hron ic le o f N an tes .

1 9

On

t he o ther h and , S a lo mon c lear ly a ppears t o h ave b een c onsidered k ing o f B r i tt any i n t he l a te s ix t ies a nd s even t ies b y an u mber o f d if feren t s ources , a c ircu mstance wh ich may h ave s ome th ing t o d o w i th a c hange i n h is r e la t ions w i th C har les t he B a ld : marked i n t he 8 60s ;

t he V ik ing p ressure o n wes tern F ranc ia i s v ery

R ober t h ad n o t b een p owerf u l e nough a ga ins t S a lo mon ,

w ho was a ss ist ing t he V ik ings , i n 8 62 , t hough h e h ad k i l led more t han 2 00 B re ton p r i mores who were r a iding i n t ha t y ear ; w i th t he V ik ings i n 8 65 .

2 0

a nd more Bre tons a l lied

I ti s more t han p oss ib le t ha t S a lo mon was a t

l eas t a s p owerfu l a s C har les a nd h is o f f icers i n wes t F ranc ia i n t h is p er iod a nd t ha t t he p eace n ego t ia t ions a nd g ran ts t o S a lo mon o f 8 67 r epresen t a t rea ty wh ich C har les was f orced t o s eek . p ay ing t r ibu te o n t h is o ccas ion .

2 1

S a lo mon i s n o t r ecorded a s

T he c hange i n t he t er ms o f r eference t o

S a lomon may we l l t herefore r ef lec t ar ea l c hange i n p o li t ica l s ta tus a nd s treng th .

H owever , t he v ery f ac t t ha t s o me s ources c a l l Er ispoe r ex wou ld

i ndica te t ha t we a re d ea ling w i th a c hang ing t rend r a ther t han w i th s udden c hanges :

t here was n o mo men t o f c rea t ion o f ak ingsh ip , a s t he C hron ic le

o f N an tes wou ld h ave u s t h ink , b u t B re ton ( and o ther ) t hough ts t urned more a nd more t o av iew o f t he B re ton r u ler a s k ing .

2 2

H owever we a ssess t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he p rinc ipa l r u lers w i th t he C aro ling ians , a nd e spec ia l ly t he o ppos i t ion o f S a lo mon , t he a bove r ange o f d eve lop men ts r epresen ts c hanges f or B ri t tany i n t he emergence o f as er ies o f men w i th a t l eas t an o t iona l r espons ibi l i ty f or t he who le o f i t .

L a Borderie

mus t s ure ly h ave b een r igh t i n s ee ing t he n in th c en tury a s ap er iod i n wh ich aB re ton monarchy d id emerge , e ven i fh e a n t ic ipa ted t he d eve lop men t s o mewha t .

P re-Caro ling ian B r i t tany a ppears t o h ave b een p o li t ica l ly v ery

f ragmen ted , a ccording t o t he e v idence o f G regory o f T ours a nd t he ( l arge ly n in th-century ) c orpus o f V i tae .

2 3

R u lers t er med d uces a nd c omi tes made 9 1

t he ir a ppearances , b ut a lways i n l im i ted g eograph ica l c on tex ts : R iwa l , o ne o f t he b e t ter e v idenced , i s c a l led d ux o f mere ly p ar t o f Domnon ia ( nor thern B ri t tany ) i n t he L ife o f G ueno le .

On ly o ne o f t hese r u lers , J udicae l , c on te m-

p orary o f Dagober t , a cqu ired t he t i t le r ex f rom a c on temporary s ource , a nd e ven h e was s o t er med b y t he d istan t F redegar .

H is c onnec t ions were i n f ac t

c onf ined t o Do mnon ia . 2 4 H in ts o f movemen t t owards p o l i t ica l u n if ica t ion o n ly c ome w i th t he C aro l ing ian o ns laugh t . B efore L ou is s e lec ted N om inoe , r es ist ance s eems t o h ave b een f ocused a bou t ac er ta in Morvan , w ho i s c a l led k ing ( rex ) b y t he c on temporary E rmo ld a nd b y t he A stronomer a nd ' a t yran t w ho e leva ted h i mse lf t o t he k ingsh ip ' b y t he l a ter L ife o f C onwo ion . 25 I ti s d i f f icu lt t o a ssess wha t was h appen ing , b u t t he c oncentra t ion o f r eferences s ugges ts t he b eg inn ings o f s ome movemen t o fw ider i mpor t a t t ha t t ime .

T he R oya l F ran-

k ish Anna ls n o te t ha t Morvan a sser ted a c laim t o r oya l p ower , a ga inst t he u sua l c us to m o f t he B re tons — a c lear i ndica t ion o f c hange . 2 6 And E rmo ld may h ave c om men ted t ha t Morvan d id n o t d eserve t o b e c a l led r ex b ecause h e h ad n o p owers o fg overn men t , b ut t h is t oo i s n o t ice o f t he f ac t o f d eve lopmen t . F rom Morvan , t hen , t here s eems t o h ave b een a n ew e lemen t i n t he p o l i t ica l s truc ture o f B r i t tany :

2 7

t he n o t ion o f as ing le p o l i t ica l — n o t mere ly s oc ia l —

i den t i ty a nd w i th i t ap rospec t o ft he r o le o f s ing le r u ler t o b e f i l led . I n t he c ase o f S a lomon , a t l eas t , t here i s g ood i nd ica t ion t ha t h e u sed i ns t i tut ions i n s uppor t o f h is a uthor i ty , f or h e s eems t o h ave u t i lised s ome mach inery o f g overn men t w i th in B r i t tany .

We h ear o f c oun ts w i th t err i tor ia l ly-

d ef ined c oun tsh ips d uring t he n in th c en tury : c omes p rov in t iae Brouueroch , c o mmes ( s ic ) P oucaer . 2 8 T here w ere c erta in ly c oun t ies o f Vannes/Broweroc ( SE ) , C ornoua i l le ( SW ) a nd P oher ( W ) i n t he mid-n in th c entury , a nd o f L eon ( NW ) a nd G oe l lo ( N ) i n t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he c en tury , i n a ddi t ion t o t he ' Frank ish ' c oun t ies o f R ennes a nd N an tes ( see map X ).

T he l a tter t wo s ee m

t o h ave b een k ep t i n t he h ands o ft he p r inc ipa l r u lers , ' and L a Border ie h as made a g oo d c ase f or t he ir r e ten t ion o f ac en tra l c oun ty o f P outrecoe t a s we l l . T he r ema in ing c oun t ies were o f ten h eredi tar i ly t rans m it ted . 2 9 E very c ount o f whom we h ave k now ledge a ppeared w i th S a lomon o n t he ma jor o ccas ions ' o f s ta te ' i n 8 68 a nd 8 69 when h e c onf irmed p r iv i leges a nd made g if ts t o R edon .

3 0

T h is s ugges ts s o me c apac i ty t o c ompe l a t tendance a nd t he p ossibi l ity , t heref ore , o f t he d ependence o ft he c ounts o n t he p r inc ipa l r u ler , a nd t he ir p o tent ia l u se a s h is f unc t ionar ies .

P ascwe then , a s c oun t o f B roweroc , was c erta in ly

u sed a s e nvoy ( v icar ius ) b y S a lo mon i n t he miss ion t o C har les i n 8 67 . 3 1 S a lo mon 's a b i l i ty t o r a ise t r ibute f rom B r i t tany , f or p aymen t t o C har les i n 8 64 , may f ur ther s ugges t t he e x is tence o f s ome a d min is tra t ive mach inery . 3 2 I t was l ev ied , s o s ay t he Anna ls o f S t . B ert in , s .a . 8 63 , ' according t o a nc ient c us to m ' .

T he p oss ib i l i ty o ft he e x is tence o f s ome f i sca l mach inery i s a lso

i ndica ted b y S a lomon 's o rder f or d ona t ion a nd c ons truc t ion f rom h is ' p ub lic r igh ts ' , e x n os tro p ub l ico , i n 8 69 .3 3 F ur ther , b o th N om inoe a nd S a lomon u sed miss i f or mak ing g ran ts a nd p res iding o ver c ases , i n t he ir own n ames .

3 4

And S a lomon a nd P ascwethen , a t l eas t , s eem t o h ave h ad s ome p owers o fj ur isd ic t ion o ver t he more p owerfu l B re tons .

C omp la in ts wen t t o t he r u ler , who

p res ided a nd o n t hree o ccas ions r eso lved t he c ases — whereas j udgemen t i t se lf was more u sua l ly , i n l ess p o l i t ica l ly s ens i t ive c ases , a ma t ter f or l oca ls . 35 A l l o ft he a bove c ons idera t ions , t hough s ke tchy , s uggest t he e xerc ise o f s o me p owers o ver t he who le c om mun i ty b y t he p rinc ipa l r u ler a nd t he e xis tence o f s o me mach inery b y wh ich h is w i l l migh t b e e f fec ted . 9 2

R u lers a nd c oun ts w ere n o t , h owever , t he o n ly e lemen t i n t he p o li t ica l s truc ture , f or t here was a lso t he mach t iern ( some t imes t i ern o r e ven t i rannus ) , ap erson d is t inguished b y h is own p roper t er m o f r eference , o f whom t here i s p len t i fu l e v idence i n t he R edon c artu lary . Mach t iern i s aB re ton word wh ich i nc ludes t he e lemen t t i ern , f rom c om mon C e l t ic t egernos/ t igernos ' r u ler ', a nd h ence modern We lsh t eyrn ,'ru ler , monarch ' a nd t he o ccurrence o f t he e lemen t i n p ersona l n ames s uch a s Vor t igern a nd T egernoma lus . 3 6 T he word o ccurs i n We lsh a nd C orn ish — W . mech teyrn , C . mych tern — where i tu sua l ly h as t he mean ing o f ' g rea t r u ler , o ver lord ';

i n C orn ish i ti s u sed o f P haroah ,

o f D av id, a nd o f C hr is t .3 7 T here i s e v idence , t hen , o f r u lers o ther t han t he p r inc ipa l r u ler i n B r i t tany i n t he n in th c en tury . Wha t may b e s a id a bou t t he m? T he mach t iern was o f e x tre me ly l oca l ised s ign if icance . T here i s much t ha t a ssoc ia tes h im w i th wha t was a pparen t ly t he p r imary u n i t o f s oc ia l o rgan is a t ion i n e as t B r i t tany a t t ha t p er iod , t he p lebs , a word wh ich s urv ives i n modern Bre ton p lace-names a s p lou .3 8 P lebs , b as ica l ly , means ' group o f p eop le '; b y t he n inth c entury i tq ui te c lear ly h ad a t err i tor ia l c onno ta t ion t oo : t he l and i nhab i ted b y t he g roup . Men i den t if ied t hemse lves w i th r eference t o t he ir p lebs; t ransac t ions t ook p lace a nd p roper ty l ay i n t h is o r t ha t p lebs; i ti sn o t u ncom mon t o f i nd t ha t t ransac t ions h ad t o b e n o t if ied t o t he men o f t he p lebs , o r e nqu iries were a ddressed t o t hem . T he word h as much t he s ame c onno ta t ion a s a modern c iv i l p ar ish . ( Medieva l p lebes u sua l ly b ecame modern ' communes ', t he sma l les t u n i ts o f c iv i l a d min is tra t ion i n F rance , a nd were t he e cc lesias t ica l p ar ishes o ft he t ime b efore 1 789 . ) N ow , i ti s mos t u nusua l t o f i nd more t han o ne mach t iern o f f ic ia t ing i n ap lebs i n a ny o ne p er iod , t hough h e m igh t p ersona l ly h ave h e ld p roper t ies i n s evera l p lebes a nd t hough i ti s n o tu nusua l t o f i nd o ne p erson h o lding t he mach t iernsh ip o f af ew p lebes , wh ich were n o t n ecessari ly t hose i n wh ich h e h ad p roper t ies ; h ence , P or t i toe h ad p roper t ies i n P leucadeuc b ut a ppeared a s mach t iern i n P leucadeuc , R uf f iac , Mo lac , a nd C aren to ir , a nd t he mach t iern T r iho iarn s o ld p roperty i n G ui l lac t hough R iwa l t was mach t iern t here .3 9 Moreover , t he t erms o f r eference s ome t imes e xp l ic i t ly a ssoc ia te t he mach t iernsh ip w i th t he p lebs ; mach t iern i n p lebe R uf f iac o r p lebe C aren toerense , mach t iern i n i l la p lebe , a nd e ven p rinceps p leb is .

4 0

( Reference t o I arnh i t in a s mach t iern , t yrannus a nd p r inceps

i n o ne s ing le c har ter s eems t o e s tab lish t he i den t i ty o f mach t iern a nd p rinceps . ) I n P leucadeuc , t herefore , we f i nd G urb i li a s mach t iern , f o l lowed b y P or t i toe , f o l lowed b y B i ll ; i n R uf f iac , P or t itoe , f o l lowed b y G urbi li , h im b y C a t lo iant , h im b y I arnh i t in a nd h im b y H inua ladr . T he o n ly e xcept ions l i e i n t he d ua l mach t iernsh ip o f t he t wo b ro thers P or t i toe a nd G urb i l i , who a re e xp l ic i t ly d es igna ted ' duo mach t iern i np lebe C a toc ', t hereby mark ing t he p ecu l iari ty . The r o le o r o f f ice o f mach t iern t herefore a ppears t o h ave b een d ef ined i n r e la t ion t o t he u ni t o f c iv i l a ssoc ia t ion , t he p lebs , a nd t he i mp l ica t ion i s t ha t e ach p lebs h ad i t s mach t iern . H is own p roper t ies were n o t w ide ly s ca t tered , a s were t hose o f t he c ounts a nd p r inc ipa l r u lers; t he e x ten t o ft he a rea i n wh ich h e migh t p erform f unct ions a s mach t iern was v ery l im i ted — 2 5 mi les i n d iame ter a t t he mos t . H ence C oun t Bran a nd C oun t P ascwethen a ppeared i n p laces a s s ca t tered a s C leguerec , R he t iers a nd G uerande , p laces more t han 7 5 mi les a par t . 4 1 I nd eed , P ascwe then a ppears s o f requen t ly t ha t we c an d eter m ine c hanges i n t he

9 3

p at tern o f h is a ppearances :

a t f i rs t , c . 8 50-60 , h e o ccurs a s w i tness i n a

v ery l im i ted a rea — Mo lac , R edon , P le lan ;

s ubsequen t ly , a nd j us t b efore

h e was t er med c oun t , we f i nd h im i n F ougeray , i n R he t iers , i n C leguerec .

T he

4 2

mach t iern I arnh i t in , s on o f P or t i toe , o n t he o ther h and , a ppeared f rom Mo lac t o R uf f iac ( about 1 3 mi les a par t ) a nd h ad p roper t ies i n t hose p laces :4 3

Mach-

tern Deurho iarn a ppeared a s mach t iern i n P loArme l a nd A ugan , a s w itness i n C aro a nd C aren to ir, a nd h ad p roper t ies i n A ugan . C a mpeneac a nd P le lan .

4 4

( Augan t o P le lan i s a bout 1 2 mi les ; A ugan t o C aren to ir a bout 1 1 mi les . ) H is f a ther R iwa lt a ppeared a s mach t iern i n C a mpeneac a nd G ui l lac , a s w itness i n A ugan , a nd made d ona t ions f ro m C a mpeneac a nd A ugan .

The g rea test

4 5

s pan o f a ppearances a re t hose o f P or t i toe f rom Mo lac t o G uer , l ess t han 2 0 mi les , a nd o f G urb i li h is b ro ther f rom P leucadeuc t o P le lan , l ess t han 2 5 mi les .

4 6

( See map X I .) T hough t he o ccurrence o f t wo mach t iern b ro thers i s

u nusua l , t he f am i ly i n teres t i s n o t ; t here a re s evera l mach t iern f am i l ies a nd t he p os i t ion was c lear ly of ten h ered i tary . H ence I arnwocon , 8 58-78 . s on o f Deurho iarn , mach t iern 8 33-68 , s on o f R iwa lt , macht iern 8 26-40: 4 1

Mach t iern

I arnh i t in , 8 14-36, a nd h is t wo s ons P or t i toe , mach t iern 8 21-46 . a nd G urbi li , mach t iern 8 14-47 , P or t i toe 's s on I arnh i t in , mach t iern 8 49-72 . a nd G urbi li 's s on C a t lo ian t , mach t iern 8 26-46; 4 8 C a twore t , f i de l is o f N o minoe .

4 9

R a tu i l , mach t iern 8 32-51, a nd h is s on

T he s um o f t he a bove c ons idera t ions i ndica tes

c lear ly e nough t ha t t he mach t iern was s ome s or t o f sma l l-sca le h eredi tary r u ler . The c har ters a re s o me t i mes e xp lic i t a bou t t he a t tr ibu tes a nd f unc t ions o f t hese r u lers .

T he mach t iern migh t e xpec t t he l oya lt

a nd h ad p owers o ver v acan t p roper t ies i n t he p lebs .

5 1

o f t he men o f t he p lebs 5 ° I ti s imp lied t ha t t he

mach t iern s hou ld r ece ive p aymen t o f c ensus i n s ome c ases : a ccused o f h o lding monas t ic i ncome a s i fi t were s ub c ensu .

i n 8 68 A ltfrid w as T he v ery c om-

5 2

p la int i ndica tes , o f c ourse , t ha t e xemp t ions were p ossib le , i fn o t c om mon ; many g ran ts were made s ine c ensu

af ter a l l , l i ke t he s a le made b y al ay man

t o h is s is ter i n 8 21 .

5 3

t o t he p r inceps .

T h is ma ter ia l s ugges ts , t herefore , t ha t where t axa t ion

5 4

I n 8 34 a g ran t was made i n o rder t o p ay w ha t was d ue

( census ) was d ue , i t was d ue t o t he mach t iern a nd n o t t o a ny o ther o f f icer o f s ta te . The c leares t f unc t ions e xerc ised b y mach t ierns were , h owever , t hose r el a t ing t o t ransac t ions .

T hey p res ided a t t ransac t ions o f s a le a nd l oan , d ona t ion

a nd c onf ir ma t ion o f d ona t ion , t hough t ransac t ions a pparent ly c ou ld a lso t ake p lace w i thout r eference t o t he m ;

h ence , f ro m 7 97 we f i nd r eference t o t h is o r

t ha t h appening a n te mach t iern a nd s ome t i mes v erbo mach t iern . t hey a ppear t o h ave p layed s o me p ar t i n s ecur ing t ransac t ions :

5 5

Occasiona l ly

R a tu i l a c-

c ording ly r ece ived 6 p ence i n 8 43 a f ter a s a le ( a s d id N ominoA 's m issus a nd t he f i de iussores — t he mach t iern was n o t t he o n ly g uaran tor ) . o ver t he r eso lut ion o f d isputes :

5 6

They a lso p res ided

when a l ay man h ad a g r ievance a ga inst Redon

i n 8 54 h e t ook h is p la int t o t he mach t iern , who o rdered a n i nves t iga t ion . S evera l mach t ierns were p resen t a t ah ear ing a bou t d isputed p roper ty r igh ts b e tween a n a bbo t a nd a l ayman , u nder t he p res idency o f o ne o f t he ir n u mber . Bu t , t hey were n o t t he o n ly p res iden ts a nd were n o t u sua l ly t he j udges .

5 7

D is-

p utes b etween o rdinary l ay men t ended t o b e h eard b y t he p rinc ipa l r u ler o r h is o f f icers ( m iss i o r c om i tes ) , w i th j udgemen t b e ing g iven b y s cabin i i n t he e ar l ier

9 4

• Medreac

•C legue rec

* R ennes •P l e Ian P loö rme l •C ampeneac G u i l lac • • A ugan lGue r. Ma u r e

R he t ie rs •

N IC a ro R u ff iac •

UC aren to ir

• Mo lac

•F ouge ray AR edon

*Nan tes t › ;

'

0 k m 5 0

X I :

REDON AND I TS NEIGHBOURHOOD

9 5

p er iod .

5 8

A f ter N om inoe 's r evo lt , t here i s n o f ur ther r eference t o s cabin i

o r t he ma l lus , a nd t he i mp l ica t ion i s t ha t t he t erm ino logy — a t l eas t — o f t he s pec if ica l ly C aro l ing ian i ns t itu t ion d isappeared , t hough t h is d id n o t p reven t t he u se o f r espec ted l oca l men i n j udic ia l c ases . T he i mp l ica t ion o f s evera l o f t he l a ter c ases i s t ha t t he mach t iern , h av ing h eard t he e v idence f rom l oca ls , r eso lved t he c ases .

P lan io l makes t he s ens ib le o bserva t ion t hat t he mach inery

o f j us t ice c lear ly e x is ted a t t wo d if feren t l eve ls , t ha t o f t he ' prince ' f or q uas ip o l i t ica l a f fa irs — t o whose j ur isdic t ion t he mach t iern h i mse lf was s ub jec t — a nd t ha t o ft he mach t iern f or l oca l a f fa irs . T h is , i n t he p resent s ta te o f k now ledge , s eems a n a ccep tab le d is t inc t ion b etween t he d if ferent c lasses o f p res iden t .

We d o n o t k now i n what c ircumstances l ay t he d is tinc t ion b e tween

t he u se o f l oca ls f or j udge men t a nd t he u se o f t he r u ler a nd/or mach t iern , n or t he r e la t ion o fp res idency t o t he g iv ing o f j udgemen t .

T here i s n o d oub t ,

h owever , o f t he s ign if icance o f t he j ud ic ia l r o le o ft he mach t iern .

5 9

C omp la in ts migh t b e made t o t he mach t iern a t aU s , a word meaning ' c our t ' o r ' r es idence ' i n Modern We lsh ( lys ) a nd a ssoc ia ted w i th r u lers i n O ld We lsh p oe try . T he u s was c lear ly a r es idence , w i th p r iva te r ooms : R iwa lt h ad a d omus

L isu ison , a nd S a lomon l ay i l l a t L ispenfau .

6 0

S ome-

t imes r ecords a nd f ac i l i t ies f or wr i t ing were s pec i f ied : o ne t ransac t ion was d one a t A ugan b ut r ecorded a t L iscoe t .6 1 N or ma l ly o n ly o ne us was f ound i n e ach p lebs a nd o n ly o ne mach t iern was a ssoc ia ted w i th e ach us , t hougs ht he p rinc ipa l r u ler o r h is a gen t migh t b e f ound i n c ompany t here w i th h im .

6 z

T he us migh t we l l h ave a ppur tenan t p roper ty , l i ke L isbron iuin a nd h oc q uod a d jace t e i , e x p lebe K e mpen iac , 8 39-44;6 3 b ut f or t ha t r eason a lone , t hough t here was u sua l ly o n ly o ne p er p lebs , i ti s c lear t ha t t he who le p lebs w as n o t c onsidered a ppur tenan t t o t he l i s .

One mach t iern might h ave s evera l , h owever ,

a nd t he u s was a lienab le : R iwa l t h ad L isbroniuin a nd L isu ison , a nd g ave t he f or mer t o N om inoe . 64 I t was t herefore q ui te c lear ly a p r iva te r esidence , b u t o ne wh ich migh t o f ten h ave a ssoc ia t ions w i th p ub l ic d u t ies , t he p lace f rom wh ich t he mach t iern a cted;

t here may h ave b een d is t inc t ions b etween t hose

t rea ted mere ly a s p roper t ies , i n wh ich t he t er m u s was mere ly r es idua l , l i ke t he h a lf r andremes o f L iswern g iven t o N om inoe i n 8 47 , a nd t hose where t he mach t iern s t i l l a c ted o ut h is p ub l ic f unc t ion . T he mach t iern t herefore s eems t o h ave b een a l oca l r u ler w i th c iv i l f unct ions , who migh t e xpec t s ome p ayment f or h is s erv ices . T here i s n o th ing wh ich s uggests h e h ad a mi litary f unc t ion — whereas t here a re s ugges t ions t ha t t he c oun ts d id h ave s uch a f unc t ion 65

— a l though , o f c ourse , t he a necdo tes

o f t he t yrannous mach t ierns s ugges t t ha t h e may w e l l h ave h ad s ome m i li tary c apac i ty . Maybe t here were mach t ierns amongs t t he 2 00 r a iders k i l led b y Rober t i n 8 62 o r amongs t t he f i gh t ing f orces a t tached t o c ounts .

6 6

Wh ichever

way t h is p rob lem i s a nswered , i ti s c lear t ha t t he f unc tion o f t he mach t iern a s s uch was c iv i l . Was h e ap ub l ic o f f ic ia l o r ap erson o f i ndependen t a uthor i ty? T h is q uest ion h as v exed s cho lars f or g enera t ions a nd i ti s q u i te c lear t ha t p resent e v idence i s n o t a dequa te t o s upp ly a c onc lusive a nswer . t urns o n t he p lebs o f Ba in a nd o n R edon i t se lf .

6 7

T he c h ief p rob lem

T he s ta tements o f t he G esta

S anc toru m Ro tonens iu m t ha t N om inoe , a s L ouis 's missus

h anded o ver a

q uarter o f t he p lebs o f B a in t o t he f ounda t ion a t R edon , p roper ty i t se lf g ran ted

9 6

b y t he mach t iern R a tu i l , a nd t ha t L ouis h i mse lf s ubsequent ly g ave Ba in a nd a no ther p lebs , L ancum , t o R edon i ndica te t ha t t he emperor was i n ap os i t ion t o a l iena te p lebes; a nd s ugges t t ha t N om inoe , a s missus h ad b een a ss igned aq uar ter a s i nco me .

6 8

I ft h is was s o , a nd t here i s n o r eason t o d isbe lieve

t he G esta , t hen e i ther L ouis d id s o a s emperor b ecause h e h ad u l t i ma te p owers o f c on tro l o ver a l l p lebes , o r h e h appened t o h ave c ome i n to p ersona l p ossess ion o f t hem .6 9 T h is t herefore c lear ly r a ises t he p oss ib i li ty t ha t p ower o ver t he p lebs was a n a spec t o f t he ' pu issance p ub l ique ' , t he a ppara tus o f t he C arol i ng ian s ta te . " S ome i ndica t ion o f t he p o l i t ica l s ta tus o f t he mach t iern i s s upp l ied b y t hree s epara te s ta te men ts o f h is r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he p lebs : ( p r inceps ) q uiposs ideba t p lebe m , q u i B ain h abere t i n p o tes ta tem , p r inceps q u i d o minare tur i n B a in ; moreover , i n 8 72 A ourken was t i rann issa a nd l ega te i n P leucadeuc s ub p o tes ta te S a lomon is .

7 1

N ow t hese a re p ropr ietary t er ms

a nd s ugges t a n e ssen t ia l ly p ropr ietary r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he p lebs . H ence , b o th p lebs a nd l i s were a l ienab le : t he p lebs o f B a in a nd p lebs o f L ancu m were g iven t o R edon ; I arnwocon a way ;

R iwa l t g ave L isbroniuin t o N ominoe a nd S a lo mon g ave L is S a lomon h i mse lf a ppears t o h ave h e ld t he mach t iernsh ip o f

P leucadeuc i n 8 72 .7 2 T he c ase o f t he l ady who , i n d efau lt o f h e irs , w i l led S em in iaca p lebs t o S a lomon p rov ides a n a l terna t ive c ase o f ap ropr ie tary r el a t ionship w i th t he p lebs .

7 3

P resu mab ly t hese c ases d o n o t i mp ly t he p osses-

s ion o f a l l p roper t ies i n t he p lebs , b ut r a ther t he p ossess ion o f s ome s pec if ied r igh ts a nd d ues ;

h ence , i n t he 8 40s t o l ls t aken a t Ba lr i t were d ue t o t he man

w ho h ad t he p lebs o f B a in i np o tes ta te m , a nd i n t he 8 60s t he t wo p roper t ies o f B ron- W inoc were r eserved , i n d efau lt o f h e irs , f or h i m who d ominaretur i n B a in .

7 4

O f c ourse , t he u se o fp ropr ie tary t erms n eed n o t make t he r e la t ion-

s h ip b e tween p lebs a nd p rinceps a p ure ly p riva te o ne; 7 5 af ter a l l , t he r u lers o f B r i t tany w ere men t ioned i n s i mi lar t erms : Nposs iden te , d ominan te B r i tt ann ia m .

T ha t u se mere ly s tresses t he p reva lence o f p ropr ie tary a t t i tudes

t o p o l i t ica l p ower . T he g enuine ly p ropr ie tary e le men t , a s man ifest i n t he a l ienab i li ty o fp lebs a nd u s a nd p oss ib i l i ty o f a ccu mu la t ion o f n u mbers o f t hem , d oes mean , h owever , t ha t i ft he mach t iern was i n r ea l i ty e xerc is ing a p ub l ic o f f ice f or wh ich h e was r espons ib le t o s o me h igher l eve l o fg overnment — b e i tc oun t o r B re ton r u ler o r k ing — t hen a lready b y t he 8 40s , w i th in a g enera t ion o f L ou is 's c onques t , t here was much t ha t was p r iva te i n h is e xerc ise o f t he o f f ice . I n t h is B r i t tany was s carce ly d ist ingu ished f rom t he wes t F rank ish k ingdo m a s a who le . I ft he a bove i s t rue , t hen t he c rux o f t he p rob lem d oes n o t l i e i n d e ter m in ing t he s ource o ft he mach t iern 's p ower a s we p erce ive i ti n t he mid-nin th c en tury . B y a nybody 's a ssess men t t here was much t ha t was p r iva te a bou t mach t iern ly p ower a t t ha t p eriod . H ence , P lan io l wr i tes o f t he h eredi ted e f a i t o f t he p r ince 's a gen ts b e ing t ransfor med i n to h eredi te d e d ro i t , a s a means o f e xp la in ing n in th-century d eve lop men ts .

7 6 -

T he c rux o f t he p rob lem i s t wofo ld .

T he r ea l c rux l i es i n o r ig ins : were t he e ar l ies t mach t ierns a gen ts o f s o me h igher a uthor i ty o r v ir tua l ly i ndependen t l oca l r u lers? T he n in th-cen tury w r i ters o f s a in t ly V i tae c onceptua lised t he o r ig ina l p r inceps p leb is a s l eader a nd f ounder o ft he c ommun i ty : F racanus e s tab l ished t he p lebs wh ich s ubseq uen t ly t ook h is n ame , P loufragan . 7 7 T hey s aw t he o rig ins a s i ndependen t . T h is d oes n o t mean t hey were , b ut i td oes a t l eas t emphasise t he c on te mporary v iew o f t he m . T he s econdary c rux i s t h is : i ft here was s o me p r iva te a spec t

9 7

o f t he mach t iern 's p ower , i tc lear ly was n o t s o le ly e xerc ised f or t he p r iva te b enef i t o f h is f am i ly . As ense o fp ub lic r espons ib i l i ty i s p erfec t ly c lear i n t he d e l ibera t ions a nd p rocedures t ha t f o l low c o mp la in t . T o t ha t e x tent a t l eas t mach t iern ly p ower i s p ub l ic . B ut d id .the mach t iern o f t he mid-nin th c en tury h ave a r espons ib i l i ty e x o f f ic io t o a nyone o ther t han t he c ommuni ty o ft he p lebs ? S ome c ons idera t ion o f o ther C e l t ic a reas o f fers p oss ib ly u sefu l s uggest ions . T he e x istence o f s pec ia l p eace-keening of icers i n medieva l s outhern S co t land a nd N orthu mbr ia ( ma ir a nd i udex, E ng land ( ser jean t o ft he p eace ) ,

7 9

1 8

a s a lso i n Wa les a nd w estern p ar ts o f

of icers whose f unc t ions a re c ommon ly c on-

s idered t o b e o f C e lt ic o r ig in , s treng thens t he c ase f or t he p re-Caro l ing ian o rig ins o f t he f unc t ions p erfor med b y t he mach t iern .

I n t he N orth t he ma ir

i s n otab le f or r ece iv ing d ues f or t he p erfor mance o f l oca l p o l icing f unc t ions , wh i le t he i udex i s e ven more c omparab le t o t he mach t iern i n t he p rom inent p ar t h e p layed i n t he a t tes ta t ion o f l ay t ransac t ions a nd h ence i n t rad i t io i t se lf , a nd i n t he o ccas iona l r u l ings h e g ave i n c our t .

T he s er jean t o f t he p eace i s

n o tab le n o t mere ly f or h is p o lic ing f unc t ions b ut f or h is r o le i n f orc ing s usp ec ts t o f i nd s ure t ies f or t he ir d ue a ppearance i n c our t .

T hough a l l t he

ma ter ia l wh ich r e la tes t o t he f unc t ion o f t hese of ic ia ls i s o f l a te o r ig in , n orma l ly t we lf th c entury o r l a ter , a nd t hough t here a re c lear d i f ferences b etween t hese a nd mach t ierns , n ever the less t he o ccurrence o f al oca l o f f ic ia l much c oncerned i n t ransac t ions a nd a no ther much c oncerned w i th s uret ies mus t r a ise t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he mach t iern i s a n e ar l ier , B re ton e xa mp le o f t he l oca l p eace-keeper a nd t ha t t he s evera l c ases r epresen t d if fer ing mani festa tions o f s o me e ar ly B r i t ton ic p eace-keep ing i ns t itut ion .

8 °

T he s ixth-cen tury B re ton

l aw c ode k nown a s C anones Wa l lic i may p oss ib ly s upp ly , e v idence o ft he o perat ion o f s uch i ns t itu t ions i n B r i t tany a t a n e ar lier s tage , when i tr efers t o t he t ributar ius who c o l lec ted t r ibutu m f rom t he p opu la t ion a nd t he i udex w ho p res ided o ver c ases .8 1 I ft he e x is tence o f c ompara t ive i ns t i tu t ions i n o ther C e lt ic a reas may p oin t i n t he d irec t ion o ft he i ndependen t o r ig ins o f mach t iern ly p ower , t here a re f ur ther n in th-cen tury c ons idera t ions wh ich p o int i nt he d irec t ion o f t he r et en t ion o f a measure a t l eas t o f i ndependence a nd o f al ack o f r espons ib i l ity e x o f f ic io t o a ny h igher a uthor i ty . T hough t here i s e v idence o f v assa lage i n Br i t tany a t t h is p er iod , t here i s a bso lute ly n o e v idence o f t he v assa lage o f mach t ierns t o t he c oun ts , t he o f f icers who migh t b e e xpec ted t o h ave b een t he ir n atura l i mmedia te s uper iors . Where t he p r inc ipa l r u ler o f B r i t tany c o mmun ica tes w i th mach t ierns h e d oes s o d irec t ly . Moreover , t he p r incipa l r u lers moved a bou t w i th t he ir own r e t inues , wh ich were n o t c o mposed o f mach t ierns : N om inoe v is i ted R edon w i th h is o p t ima tes; S a lo mon 's s on Wigon h ad h is own f i de les .8 2 F ur ther , S a lomon , a pparen t )v , c ou ld n o t c o mpe l t he a t tendance o f a l l mach t ierns a t h is p rinc ipa l mee t ings , e ven t hose w ho r es ided n ear t he p lace o f mee t ing . I n 8 68, a t Maure , t herefore , Deurho iarn was t here b u t n e i ther I arnh i t in o f R uf f iac n or A l t fr id o f Medreac n earby were ; t he s ame was t rue a t P le lan i n 8 69 .

8 3

S uch c ons idera t ions s ugges t t ha t t he

p r inc ipa l r u lers h ad n o p ower t o c ompe l t he p erformance o f mach t iern ly f unct ions b y t he mach t ierns , t hough t hey migh t e s tab l ish p ersona l r e la t ionsh ips w i th t he m . P or t i toe a nd G urb i l i were t herefore v assa ls ( vass i d om in ic i ) ; a nd S a lo mon c ou ld c a l l o n t he t irann issa w i fe o f I arnh i t in , macht iern o f 9 8

R uf f iac , t o a c t a s h is r epresen ta t ive i n P leucadeuc .

8 4

Iwou ld s uggest t here-

f ore t hat t he mach t iern s tructure was u t i l ised b y t he mid-nin th c entury r u lers o fB r i t tany , B re ton o r C aro ling ian , i n o rder t o r each t he l oca l i t ies , b ut t ha t i td id n ot d epend u pon t hese r u lers .

T he d istr ibut ion o fp o l i t ica l p ower i n B ri t tany i n t he n inth c entury t heref ore h as a n u nusua l a ir , b ecause o ft he e x istence o f l oca l r u lers . I ti s u n l ike t he d is tr ibu t ion o fp owers i n Wa les a nd S co t land a nd I re land . Was i ts o u nu sua l i n F ranc ia? T here s ee m t o h ave b een l oca l r egu la tors o f s oc ia l r el a t ionsh ips a nd t ransac t ions , w i th p ropr ietary r igh ts o ver t he u n i ts o f r egu la t ion , a nd w i th a p ower t o d emand a nd r ece ive t ax .

T hey h ad a n e conom ic a nd s oc ia l

p ower wh ich p er m i t ted a rb i trary e xp lo i ta t ion : t i rann i

s ome mach t ierns were l i tera l ly

a s o ne c har ter wry ly n o ted — ' A lfr i tu m t yrannum e t v ere t yrannu m 1.65

The ir p ower was t ransm it ted h ereditar i ly , a nd t hey were n o t e x o f f ic io a ns werab le t o a ny s uper ior a u thor i ty , t hough t hey migh t h ave c ontrac ted a p ers ona l r e la t ionsh ip w i th s uch a p owerfu l man . I ft h is was s o , t hen t he c apac i ty o f t he p r inc ipa l r u lers o f B r it tany — N om inoe , E r ispoA , S a lomon e spec ia l ly — t o g overn , t he c apac i ty t o c om mand a nd t o r e la te t o t he men o f t he p lebs was l im i ted b y t he ir c apac ity t o e stab lish i nd iv idua l r e la t ionsh ips w i th t he mach t ierns . G overn men t e x is ted o n t wo l eve ls , a nd t here was n o c lear ly e s tab l ished mach inery o f c on tac t b etween t hose l eve ls . H ence , t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he C aro l ingian r u lers w i th t he B reton was c ondi t ioned b y t he t wo s epara te f ac tors o f t heir f l uc tua t ing r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he p rinc ipa l r u lers o n t he o ne h and , a nd o n t he o ther o f t hose r u lers ' r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he mach t ierns .

Desp i te t he i n teres t a nd a c t iv i ty o f t he

e ar ly C aro ling ian k ings i n B r it tany , t herefore , t he c apac i ty o f C har les t o i nt ervene i n a nd a f fec t B re ton a f fa irs was l im i ted n o t mere ly b y t he mi li tary p ower o f t he p rinc ipa l r u ler b u t b y t he l oca l p owers o f l oca l r u lers .

U n iversi ty C o l lege , L ondon .

9 9

FOOTNOTES

1 . Av ers ion o f t h is p aper was f i rs t r ead t o members o f t he Medieva l S oc ie ty a t t he I nst i tute o f H is tor ica l R esearch , L ondon , i n F ebruary 1 979 .

Iam

mos t g ra tefu l f or t he c o m men ts r ece ived o n t ha t o ccas ion , a s a lso , o f c ourse , f or c o m men ts a t t he C har les t he B a ld c onference .

Io we a

f ur ther d eb t o fg ra t i tude t o J ane t N e lson , J u l ia Sm i th a nd C hr is W ickham f or t he ir v ery h e lpfu l c r i t ic is ms o f wr i t ten d raf ts o f t he p aper ; a nd t o M . G i ldas Bern ier f or h is a dv ice o n B re ton n ames . 2 .

F or r ecen t c o m men t o n t he migra t ion s ee C hadw ick 1 965 , p p . 2 35-99 a nd F leur io t a nd G io t 1 977 , p p . 1 06-16 .

There i s s o me c om men t o n t he f o l-

l ow ing c en tur ies i n C hadw ick 1 969 , b u t t he mos t d eta i led c ons idera t ion , a nd o ne wh ich r efers t he r eader t o mos t o f t he e v idence , r e ma ins t ha t i n L a B order ie 1 905 , v o l . i .

S ee a lso P lan io l 1 953 ( t h is i ndispensab le work

was p ub l ished i n p ar t s o me t wo g enera t ions a f ter i t was wr it ten [ 1 891-4 ]; i ti s s hor t ly t o b e r epr in ted i n f u l l ). F or l i ngu is t ic a nd o ther b oundaries s ee F la tres 1 977 , p . 3 12 .

S ee a lso ARF , s .a . 8 18 .

3 . AB , p . 6 4 : ' Sa lo mon B r i t to K aro lo f i de l is e f f ic i tur t er t iaque B r i t tann iae p ar te d ona tur ' . I ti s q u i te u nc lear t o wh ich p ar t o f B r i t tany t h is r efers , a nd i ndeed i f ' Br i t tany ' means t he a rea wes t o f V annes o r i nc luding Vannes ; i ti s a lso u nc lear h ow t h is was i n tended t o a f fec t E r ispoe 's r e la t ions w i th C har les . 4 . AB , p p . 6 3f , 9 6, 1 37 , 1 51 , 1 93-5 . S ee L a B order ie 1 905 , i . 3 -115 , 2 647 2; Boussard 1 968 , p p . 1 5-21 , f or t he s ubs tance o f t h is p aragraph . 5 .

C artu la ire d e Redon , e d . A . d e C ourson ( Par is , 1 863) , n o . c v i i , c xcv i , l x i , c xc i i , f or e xa mp le .

Iam mos t g ra tefu l t oM ichae l Metca l f f or

a dv ice o n t he d if f icu l t a rea o f t he c o inage . 6 .

S ee L a B order ie 1 905 , i . 4 9f . ,7 0-2 .

7 .

Mer le t 1 896 , p p . 3 3-9;

8 .

S ee F lcur io t 1 971 , p p . 6 01-60 , e sp . p p . 6 50-2 ; x lix , c l i ,

L a B order ie 1 905 , i . c c . i -v , p p . 2 7-122 . C art . Redon , n o . c cxxxv i ,

x x i , f or e xamp le .

9 . I ti s n o t , o f c ourse , a lone i n p rov iding e v idence o f s epara t is t t endenc ies ; s ee K ienas t 1 968, p p . 4 -p , f or s ome d iscuss ion o f t h is . 1 0 .

T he manuscr ip t i s a t p resen t i n t he c are o f t he o rchb ishop o f R ennes; i t was p ub l ished i n as omewha t u nre l iable e d i t ion , whose a ccuracy i s v ery i ncons is ten t , i n t he n ine teenth c entury ( Car t . R edon ) .

L a B order ie

1 890 , p p . 5 35-630 , i ndica ted s o me c orrect ions , a nd t he c har ters p ert a in ing t o t he d iocese o f V annes h ave r ecen t ly b een r e-edi ted , b u t n ot p ub l ished , b y Tonnerre 1 978, v o l . i . u se o f t h is l a t ter t hes is .

1 00

Ih ave b enef i ted g rea t ly f ro m t he

1 1 .

L a Border ie 1 905 , i . 4 3-51 , 5 9-65 , 7 0-5 , 8 2f . ,1 14-16, 3 18-24 , 4 05-18 .

1 2 .

S ee , f or e xa mp le , C ar t . Redon , n o . c lxxv i i a nd c lxx ix , b o th o f t he y ear 8 37;

' Gesta S anc toru m R o tonens iu m ' i n Mab i l lon 1 738, p p . 2 03 ,210 , 2 16 ,

2 20 . 1 3 .

C art . R edon , n o . c cxxv , c v , c lxxv i i i ,

c cx l i .

1 4 . AB, p . 9 6 . 1 5 . 1 6 .

C art . R edon , n o . c cx lv i i . C art . R edon , n o . x x i ,

CCXXV,

CCXIiii,

CCX1Vii,

c c lv i i .

T here i s s o me

p oss ib i l i ty , h owever , t ha t S a lomon u sed d ux o f h i mse lf when wr i t ing t o t he p ope i n 8 71; 1 7 .

C ar t . Redon , n o . b o cxix .

C art . R edon , n o . x xv i , x ix , x x i i i , x x iv , x xv , e tc .

C f . t he c o m men ts o f

L o t 1 907 , p p . 3 3-5 . 1 8 .

R egino o f P r i lm , who d ied i n 9 15 , a nd who r eferred t o N om inoe a s k ing , i s c o m mon ly h e ld t o h ave u sed s o me l os t a nna ls o f P r t i m wh ich were e xcept iona l ly we l l i nfor med a bout B r i t tany .

Th is may h ave b een s o , b ut i f s o

i ti s c lear t ha t R eg ino h ad i nsuf f ic ien t i nfor ma t ion a bout t he mid-nin th c entury s ince h is a nna ls u p t o t he 8 70s a re v ery b ad ly c o l la ted :

h e h as

a n a nna l f or 8 18 s .a . 8 36 , 8 33 s .a . 8 37 , 8 51 s .a . 8 62 a nd 8 63 , 8 57 s .a . 8 66; a t 8 74 t he c o l la t ion i s c orrec t a nd h ere h e h as a l ong e n try wh ich d oes s ee m t o d epend o n l oca l B re ton k now ledge p p . 5 67f f .

( See a lso

Werner 1 959, p p . 1 06-16 , o n t he r ange o f R eg ino 's s ources . ) R eg ino 's r eferences t o N om inoe a s k ing a re t herefore o f d oub tfu l v a lue . 1 9 .

Mer le t 1 896, p . 3 9 .

T he c o mb ined e v idence o f t he c har ters i n t h is r espec t

i s s ure ly much more c redib le t han t he r e trospec t ive e leven th-century r epor t .

( Cf . P lan io l 1 953 , i . 3 7f . )

Moreover , t he e leva t ion o f N o minoe

i s n o t r eported i n t he ' Gesta S anc toru m Ro tonens iu m ', a s ource much i n f avour o f h im ( Mab i l lon 1 738, p p . 2 02-31 ) , a nd t he s o-ca l led ' Anna ls o f R edon ' r efer t o N o minoe a s s ubregu lus b ut t o S a lo mon ( and E r ispoe ) a s r ex ( M igne , PL , 2 02 , c o l . 1 323 —th is l a t ter t ex t i s e x tre me ly b r ief a nd r epresen ts a n a bs trac t made f or Robert o f Tor igny , a bbo t o f Mon t S . M iche l i n t he mid- t o l a te t we lf th c entury .

I tp resu mab ly d rew u pon

e ar lier r ecords b u t we c anno t k now i ft hey were c on te mporary o r n o t ) . T he C hron ic le o f N an tes a lso i nc ludes a l et ter o f c onf ir ma t ion o f e cc les ia s t ica l p r iv i lege wh ich r efers t o E r ispoe a s r ex; Mer le t 1 896, p p . 4 4-8; c f .

P lan io l 1 953 , i .39 .

2 0 . AB, p p . 8 9f ., 1 17-24 . 2 1 .

S ee a bove , p . 8 7.

2 2 .

C f . P lan io l 1 953 , i . 4 3f ., who a rgues t ha t t he F ranks t oo must h ave s een Br i t tany a s ak ingdom ( bu t t h is d id n o t p reven t t hem e xpec t ing t r ibute ) .

2 3 .

T he e xcep t ion t o t he n in th-cen tury d a te o f t he L ives i s i n t he L ife o f S a mson , wh ich s t i l l a ppears more l i ke ly t o h ave b een w r i t ten i n t he s even th c en tury , p ace P ou lin 1 977 . i n i ts p o l i t ica l t er m ino logy .

1 01

The L ife i s n o t , h owever , d is t inc t ive

2 4 .

S ee L a Border ie 1 905 , i .350-488;

2 5 .

L a Border ie 1 905 , i .7-26;

2 6 .

ARF , s .a . 8 18 ,

P .

P lan io l 1 953 , i .2 54-64 .

F ara l 1 964 , l i ne 1 308; As tron , MGH , S S I , p . 6 23 .

1 48 : ' Na m p ostqua m Mor manus , q u i i n e a p rae ter

s o li tu m B r i t ton ibus more m r eg ia in s ib i v indicavera t p o tes ta te m , a b e xerc i tu i mpera tor is o cc isus e s t .... ‚ . C f ., h owever , t he a sser t ion o f t he c ar tu lary o f L and evennec ( an e leven th-cen tury c artu lary c on ta ining e d i ted e ar l ier ma ter ia l ) t ha t Grad Ion h ad b een k ing i n t he t i me o f C har les t he G rea t ;

L a Border ie 1 888, p . 1 52 .

2 7 .

F ara l 1 964 , l i ne 1 309 .

2 8 .

C art . R edon , n o . x x i , c cx lv i i , c c lv i i i , c v i i .

2 9 .

S ee P lan io l 1 953 , i . 2 54-75 , i .6 5-8;

L a B order ie 1 905 , i . 1 37-41 .

We

d o n o t k now t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t hese c oun t ies w i th p re-nin th-cen tury u n i ts . 3 0 .

C art . R edon , n o . c cx l , c cx l i .

3 1 .

AB , p . 1 37 .

3 2 .

AB , p . 1 13; 1 376 :

c f . s .a . 8 63 ,

P .

9 6 .

( See a lso E r mo ld , F ara l 1 964 , l ine

Morvan r efused t o p ay t r ibu te . )

3 3 .

C ar t . R edon , n o . c cx l i .

3 4 .

C art . R edon , n o . c v i , c x i , b o cxv i i , c xxx ix , e cx xv , f or e xa mp le .

3 5 .

C ar t . R edon , n o . x x i , c cx lv i i , c c lx i ; c c lxv i i , c xc i i , c boo c , e tc .

C f . a lso

L a Border ie 1 905 , i . 1 36, o n S a lomon g iv ing j udge men t . 3 6 .

S ee F leur io t 1 971 , p p . 6 22f . ;P lan io l 1 953 , i . 9 5-102; J ackson 1 953 , p p . 4 46f .

3 7 .

T he mean ing o f t he i n i t ia l e le men t i n t h is word i s d ispu ted : mach means ' sure ty ' b u t i th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t here may h ave b een a l os t a d jec t ive , c ogna te w i th I r ish mass mean ing ' f ine ', a nd h ence t he u sage ' g rea t r u ler ' i n i nsu lar c on tex ts . I n Br i t tany , a s we s ha l l s ee , i t makes much more s ense t o u nderstand mach a s ' sure ty ' .

Wha tever t he d iscuss ion a bout t he

mean ing o ft he s epara te e le men ts i n t he word macht iern t here i s n o d isa gree men t t ha t t he t er m s ign if ies ' ru ler ' , b o th i n i t s r oo t mean ing a nd i t s u se i n o ther B r i t ton ic c on tex ts a t ac omparab le p er iod . p p . 3 9f . ;s ee a lso Wi l lia ms 1 972 , 3 8 .

P lebem< p lou;

P .

c f . modern We lsh p lwyf , ' par ish ' .

c orrespond ing c hurch .

Most p lebes h ad a

There i s much d iscuss ion o ft he p oss ib le Bre ton

e cc les ias t ica l o r ig in o f t hese c iv i l u n i ts ; p are , h owever ,

Wi l l iams 1 939-41 ,

2 6 .

s ee L arg i l lf ere 1 925 .

Co m-

F la tres 1 956 , p p . 1 1f ., f or s uggest ions o f t he p re-

B reton o r ig in o f t he p lou o f B r it tany . 3 9 .

C ar t . R edon , n o . c xv i ;

a nd s ee b e low , n . 4 6 .

4 0 .

C art . R edon , n o . i x , x v i , c xxx i , c c lv ;

4 1 .

C ar t . R edon , n o . c cx lv i i , x x i ,

)00 C,

1 02

c lxxv i i i , c c lxv i i .

4 2 .

F or e xa mp le , C ar t . R edon , n o . c cx l ix , x x , a nd t hen x x i , c cx lv i i , c cxv , c cx l i i , X XX , e tc .

4 3 .

C art . R edon , n o . c x lv , c x l i i i , C CXX , C XXXiX ,

cclvii,

C e l l ,

c l;

I V , MXVI i .

C f . P lan io l 1 953 , i . 8 4-92 , 1 14-20 , f or d e ta i ls o f a l l mach t ierns c i ted i n t he c ar tu lary . 4 4 .

C art . R edon , n o . x x iv , c lxxv ;

l xx ix , c v i i , c xx i i , c cxxxv i .

4 5 .

C ar t . R edon , n o . c xv i , c xc iv ;

v , c c ;

4 6 .

c v i i , c xx i i i ,

v i,

cxxii,

C CXXXV i .

C art . R edon , n o . i x , x i , x i i i , x i i , x iv , x v i , c xxx i , c x lv i i , c lv , c lv i , c lxxx , c xcv i , c c l i i , c c lv ;

c x i i , c xxx i , c x lv i i , c x lv i i i , c lv , c lv i , c lxv i ,

c lxx i , c lxxv i i i , c c lv , v i i i , x i i , x v i , x xx iv , x lix , C XXX I I. 4 7 .

C art . R edon , n o . c lxxv , c cxxv , c cx l i , c cxxxv i , l xxix ; c xv i , c xxv i i i , c cx ix .

c v i i , c xx i i , c cx l;

T he d a tes g iven h ere a re t he d a tes o f e ach i ndiv idua l 's

a ppearance . 4 8 .

C art . R edon , n o . c x lv i , c c lxv i i , c x lv i i ; x v i , x xxv i i , c x lv i , c x lv i i ; c x lv i i , c x lv i , CI X V i , X XXV i i , C CXX ;

c lxx i .

4 9 .

C art . R edon , n o . i , c x i , c lxx i i , c x i i i ;

5 0 .

C art . R edon , n o . x cv i ;

5 1 .

C art . R edon , n o . c lxxxv ;

5 2 .

C art . R edon , n o . x x i .

5 3 .

C art . R edon , n o . c x lv i .

5 4 .

C art . Redon , n o . c lxxv i i i ; Border ie 1 905 , i . 1 57 .

c v i i .

c f . P lan io l 1 953 , i . 1 00 . c f . T onnerre 1 978, p p . 1 76f .

c f . c lxxix a nd v i , a nd t he d iscuss ion o f L a

T onnerre a ss igns a d a te o f 8 37 t o n o . c lxxv i i i :

Tonnerre 1 978 , p . 6 6 . 5 5 .

C art . R edon , n o . c x i i , c xv , c lxx i i , c lx 3c, c ; c lxv i i i . p erfor med i n d i f feren t l oca t ions :

T ransac t ions were

o n t he l and i t se lf , i n o r i n f ron t o f a

c hurch , a t al i s o r a u la ( cour t ) , o ccas iona l ly i n s o meone 's h ouse ( do mus ) T he p lace where t he t ransac t ion was p erfor med was n o t n ecessar i ly i n t he s a me p lebs a s t he l and wh ich c hanged h ands , t hough t here was a t endency f or t h is t o h appen where t he mach t iern p res ided; t h is p erhaps s uggests t ha t t he mach t iern , i fp res iding , t rave l led t o t he r e levan t l oca l c entre . 5 6 .

C art . R edon , n o . c x i .

5 7 .

C art . R edon , n o . c lx i i , c f . n o . c c lxx i ;

5 8 .

C art . R edon , n o . c cx lv i i , x x i , c xc i i , c c lx i , x x ix , c cx l i i .

5 9 .

P lan io l 1 953 , i . 1 30-2 .

6 0 .

C art . R edon , n o . c xx i i , c xc iv , l xxxv .

6 1 .

C art . R edon , n o . v .

6 2 .

C art . Redon , n o . x xix , c lxxv i .

c bo cx .

Where more t han o ne mach t iern i s f ound

a t a us ( e .g . G urb i l i a nd Ra tui l a t L isnow id ) , t hey a re f ound a t d if feren t t imes .

1 03

6 3 .

C art . R edon , n o . c v i i .

6 4 .

C art . R edon , n o . c v i i , c xx i i , l xxv i ii , c v i i i , e lxxxv i i i .

6 5 .

S ee L a Border ie 1 905 , i . 1 40f .

6 6 .

AB , p . 9 0 .

6 7 .

S ee L a Border ie 1 905 , i . 1 58-61;

P lanio l 1 953 , i . 1 10f . ,1 27f . ;F leurio t

1 971 , p . 6 52 . 6 8 .

Mab i l lon 1 738, p p . 2 10f .

6 9 .

We k now t ha t Ratui l was a mach t iern b ut we h ave n o e v idence t ha t h e was mach t iern o f Ba in .

I ndeed, i t wou ld b e u nusua l i f h e w ere mach t iern i n

C arentoer a nd Ba in , s ince t hey a re s o me d istance a par t .

N . B . a lso t ha t

L ouis h ad made g rants o f l ands n ear Morvan 's p lace ( near t he r iver E l le ) t o a n a bbo t ( Fara l 1 964 , l i nes 1 344/5 ) . L ouis h ad p roper t ies ,

We d o k now , t herefore , t ha t

o r p ower o ver p ropert ies . i n Br i t tany .

7 0 .

P lan io l 1 953 , i . 1 10 .

7 1 .

C art . Redon , n o . c lx i i , c v i , c lxxxv , c c lv i i .

7 2 .

C art . R edon , n o . i , c v i i , l xxv i i i , c c lv i i .

7 3 .

C art . R edon , n o . c ix:

Is ee n o r eason t o a rgue , a s s o me h ave d one , t ha t

t h is mus t r ea l ly h ave b een a r oya l g rant . 7 4 .

C art . R edon , n o . c v i , c lxxxv .

7 5 .

Ic anno t h e lp wonder ing , d espi te t he c ases i n wh ich t he p r inceps a nd mach t iern o f ap lebs were t he s a me p erson , i ft h is was a lways s o .

7 6 . 7 7 .

P lan io l 1 953 , i . 1 23 . V i ta S anct i Winwa loe i i n L a Border ie 1 888, p p . 9 f .:

1( Fracanus )

f undum

q uenda m r epper iens n on p arvu m , s ed q uas i u n ius p leb is modu lu m i nunda t ione c u jusda m f l uv i i q ui p ropr ie S angu is d ic itur l ocuple tem ' . 7 8 .

D ickinson 1 977, p p . 5 2-5:

7 9 .

S tewart-Brown 1 936 , e sp . p p . 8 7-98 .

8 0 .

Iam most g ra tefu l t o P a trick Wor ma ld f or i n i t ia l ly s ugges ting t h is l i ne o f e nquiry .

Barrow 1 973 , p p . 6 7-74 .

I t s ee ms t o me t hat , i n f ac t , t he o f f ices o f ma ir a nd

s er jean t o f t he p eace a re n ot c lose p ara l le ls o f t ha t o f macht iern , p art icular ly w i th r espec t t o t he c ontex ts i n wh ich s ure t ies were a cquired, b ut t he e x is tence o f p eace-keep ing o f f icers i n B r i t ton ic c on tex ts r e mains e x tre me ly i n teresting i n t he l i gh t o f t he mach t iern 's f unc t ions . 8 1 .

' Canones Wa l l ic i ' ( A ) , 3 0 i n B ie ler 1 963 , p . 1 42;

f or t he d ate a nd p ro-

v enance o f t h is c o l lect ion s ee F leurio t 1 971, p p . 6 01-18 .

S ee a lso t he

c o m men ts o f P rofessor F leur io t , c i t ing P rofessor J enk ins , o n t he macht i ern a s ' pr iva te ' l aw o f f icer . 8 2 .

Mab i l lon 1 738, p . 2 10 ;

AB, s .a . 8 73 , p . 1 93 .

8 3 .

C art . Redon , n o . c cx l , c cx l i .

I ft he mach t iern i s t o b e i dent if ied w ith

t he i udex p ub licus o f S a lo mon 's c harter f or P r t im o f 8 60 , t hen t he f act 1 04

t hat h e i s d is t inguished f ro m t he r oya l s ervan ts ( m in is tr i ) wou ld emphas ize t he s a me p o int ;

Beyer 1 860 , p . 9 9 .

8 4 .

C art . R edon , n o . c c lv i i .

8 5 .

C art . Redon , n o . c cx lv i i .

1 05

REFERENCES Barrow , G . W. S ., 1 973. B eyer , H . ( ed .) , 1 860.

K ingdo m o f t he S cots ( London ).

U rkundenbuch z ur G esch ich te d er mi t te lrhe in ischen

T err i tor ien ( Koblenz) . B ie ler , L . ( ed .) , 1 963 . B oussard , J ., 1 968 .

The I r ish P en i ten t ia ls ( Dub l in ).

' Les d es t in k 's d e l a N eustr ie d u i xe a u x ie

C ah iers d e c iv i l isa t ion m k l ib ia le , 1 1, p p. 1 5-28 . Car tu la ire d e Redon .

e d . A . d e C ourson ( Par is , 1 863 ).

Chadwick , N . K ., 1 965 .

' The c o lon isa t ion o f Br i t tany f ro m C elt ic B r ita in ' ,

P roc. Br i t . A cade my, 5 1, p p. 2 35-99. C hadwick , N . K ., 1 969 .

Ear ly Br it tany ( Card i f f ) .

D ick inson , W. C ., 1 977.

S co t land f ro m t he e ar l ies t t imes t o 1 603 , 3 rd e d .,

e d . A . A . M. Duncan ( Ox ford ). F la tres ,

P

1 956.

' Les d iv isions t err i tor ia les d e Basse-Bretagne c o mpar es

c e l les d es c on tr es c el t iques d 'ou tre- mer ' . Anna les d e Bre tagne , 6 3 , p p . 3 -17. F la trbs , P

1 977.

' H is tor ica l g eography o f wes tern France ', i n T he mes

i n t he h is tor ica l g eography o f France , e d . H . C lou t ( London ) , p p . 3 014 2. F leur iot , L ., 1 971.

' Un f ragmen t e n La t in d e t rs a nciennes l o is b retonnes

a r mor ica ines d u v ie s ièc le ' , Anna les d e Bre tagne , 7 8 , p p. 6 01-60. F leur iot , L . a nd G iot , P .-R ., 1 977.

' Ear ly Br i t tany ', An t iqu ity , 5 1, p p.

1 06-16. J ackson , K . H ., 1 953 . K ienas t , W., 1 968 .

Language a nd H is tory i n Ear ly Br i ta in ( Ed inburgh ).

' D ie f ranzös ischen S tä m me b ei d er K ön igswah l ' ,

H is tor ische Z e i tschri f t , 2 06 , p p . 1 -21. La B order ie , A . ( Le Moyne ) d e ,

( ed.) , 1 888 .

C ar tu la ire d e l 'Abbaye d e

Lan Mvenec ( Rennes ). La B order ie , A . ( Le Moyne ) d e , 1 890 .

' La c hrono log ie d u c ar tu la ire d e

R edon ' , Anna les d e Bretagne , 5 , p p. 5 35-630 . La B order ie , A .

( Le Moyne ) d e , 1 905 .

Larg i l l i re , R ., 1 925 .

H is toire d e Bretagne ( Rennes ).

L es s a in ts e t Porgan isa t ion c hrb t ienne p r im i t ive

d ans PAr mor ique b retonne ( Rennes ). Lo t , F ., 1 907.

Mélanges d 'h is to ire b re tonne ( Par is ).

Mabi l lon , J . ( ed.) , 1 738 .

A cta S anctoru m Ordin is S . Benedicti , s aec. i v ,

p t . 2( Ven ice ). 1 06

Mer let , R . ( ed .) , 1 896. P lan iol , M ., 1 953 .

La C hron ique d e Nan tes ( Par is ).

H is to ire d es i ns t i tu t ions d e l a , Bretagne ( Rennes ).

P ou lin , J -C ., 1 977.

' La p re m i re v ie d e S . S amson d e D o l ' , Francia , 5 ,

p p. 1 -26. S tewar t-Brown , R ., 1 936.

S er jean ts o f t he p eace i n med ieva l Eng land a nd

Wa les ( Manches ter ). Tonnerre , N-Y ., 1 978.

' Le d ioc se d e Vannes a u I Xe s iècle d 'apr s l e

c ar tu la ire d e Redon ' , Th se d e t ro is i Nne c ycle , Un ivers i té d e Par is X . Werner , K . F ., 1 959 .

' Zur Arbe i tswe ise d es R eg ino v on P r i lm ' , D ie We l t

a ls G esch ich te , 1 9 , p p. 9 6-116. W i l l ia ms , I . , 1 939-41.

' Mechdeyrn ' , Bu l l . B oard o f C e l t ic S tud., 1 0 ,

p p. 3 9-41. Wi l l ia ms , I . , 1 972 .

Armes P ryde in , t rans . R . Bro mwich ( Dubl in ).

1 07

6 .

CHARLES THE BALD AND THE GOVERN MENT OF THE K INGDOM OF AQU ITAINE J ane Mar t inda le

Was ' Aqu i tan ian s epara t is m 'l t he c h ief r eason f or t he f a i lure o f t he C aro l ing ians t o c on trol t he ir t err i tor ies s ou th o f t he R iver L o ire?

S hou ld

i tb e a ccep ted ( as i to f ten h as b een b y h is tor ians ) t ha t r oya l a u thor i ty c ou ld a ch ieve n o th ing i n t he f ace o f t ha t ' i ncon tes table s ense o f c o m mun i ty ' wh ich c ons tan t ly f ound e xpress ion i n ' res is tance t o f ore ign d om ina t ion ' —and i n p ar t icu lar t o Frank ish d om ina t ion? 2

A sser t ions s uch a s t hese h ave l ed

h is tor ians t o c onc lude t ha t A qu i ta ine was v ir tua l ly ' ungovernab le ' , wha tever me thods o f g overnmen t o r a dm in is tra t ion were emp loyed , a nd wha tever were t he p o lic ies a dop ted b y i t s r u lers . I ti s my c on ten t ion t ha t , a l though t hese a ssump t ions h ave p rov ided a c onven ien t—and n o t a l toge ther i mp laus ib le —exp lana t ion o f t he s er ies o f r ev o l ts wh ich s hook t he r eg ion d ur ing t he y ears b e tween 8 40 a nd 8 77, t hey a re f unda men ta l ly mis lead ing . U ndoubted ly t hey h ave d eep ly i n f luenced a l l d isc uss ions o n t he c ond i t ion o f A qu i ta ine d ur ing t he r e ign o f C har les t he Ba ld , a nd h ave p oss ib ly e ven d rawn a t ten t ion a way f ro m a ny c ons idera t ion o f t he c onduct o f g overnmen t i n t he r eg ion , a s o pposed t o t he d iscuss ion o f t he p o l i t ica l r iva lr ies b e tween d i f feren t f act ions , wh ich h ave r ece ived e x tens ive h is tor iograph ica l t rea t men t .

3

Ad mi t ted ly , o n f i rs t c ons idera t ion t he v iew t ha t A qu i ta ine was v ir tua l ly u ngovernab le , a nd i t s i nhabi tan ts ' o ppos i t ion t o t he C aro l ing ians d eep-sea ted a nd u ncon tro l lable , s ee ms t o b e f a ir ly c onv inc ing .

F or e ven i n 8 40 , when

C har les t he Ba ld s ucceeded h is f a ther , many o f t he s ecu lar magna tes o f t he r eg ion r efused t o a ccep t h im a s t he ir k ing , p referr ing t o g ive t he ir a l leg iance t o t he y oung P ippin I , d ied i n 8 38 ;

4

s on o f t he i ndependen t ' rex A qu i tanorum ' who h ad

a nd i t was o n ly i n 8 48 , a f ter Char les h ad u nder taken a n u mber

o f mi li tary c a mpa igns , t ha t t he ' Aqu i tan i ' c a me t o Or leans t o s ub m i t t o h im a nd a ccep t h is a u thor i ty. 5 I n s p i te o f t he f act t ha t C har les t he Ba ld was c onsecra ted k ing a t O r leans 8 h is p os i t ion was e ven t hen n o t e n t ire ly s ecured ; d ur ing t he f o l lowing y ears v ar ious A qu i tan ian f ac t ions a ppea led t o o ther me mb ers o f t he Caro l ing ian h ouse t o a c t a s t he ir r u ler , o r r ever ted t o t heir f ormer a dherence t o P ippin I who p ers is ted i n h is c la im t o b e ' rex A qu i tanoru m f.

7

I ft hese e ven ts a re i n terpre ted a s p roof o f A qu i tan ian ' par t icu lar ism ' , i t s ee ms l og ica l t o a ccep t C har les t he Ba ld 's s ubsequen t a c t ions a s a n a t te mp t t o a l lev ia te t he g r ievances e xpressed b y a' na t iona l is t ' p ar ty b ecause , whereas h is a po log is ts a t f irs t t rea ted t he r eg ion a s t hough i t mere ly f ormed p ar t o f a g rea ter who le , t h is h ad t o b e r eversed a f ter 8 55 when C har les t he Ba ld h i ms e l f i n h is t urn c rea ted a ' rex A qu i tanorum ‚. I ns tead o fb e ing i ncorpora ted i n to t he g rea t wes t F rank ish k ingdo m b es towed o n h im b y L ou is t he P ious ,

8

i n 8 55 Aqu i ta ine was s epara ted f ro m t he n or thern p ar ts o f h is r ea l m when C har les t he Ba ld 's y oung s on a nd n a mesake was c onsecra ted a t L i moges . A f ter t he d ea th o f C har les ' t he C h i ld ' a no ther s on , L ou is , was s en t t o A qu i ta ine i n 8 67; 9

t hus t he ' regnum A qu i tanorum ' was p erpe tua ted d own t o t he t ime o f

C har les t he Ba ld 's o wn d ea th . 1 09

H is tor ica l ly , o f c ourse , t h is c hange a lso r epresen ts a r eturn t o t he s o lut i on d ev ised b y C har les t he G rea t i n t he l a te e igh th c en tury f or t he g overnmen t o f A qu i ta ine ; 10 b u t i n a ny c ase , whe ther o r n o t C har les t he Ba ld 's r eturn t o t h is p o l icy o ugh t t o b e i n terpre ted a s ac oncess ion t o A qu i tan ian i ndependence , t here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t i t , t oo , was a p o l i t ica l f a i lure .

F or a l though i n

many i mpor tan t s pheres o f g overnmen t C har les was s t i l l a ble t o s ecure o bed ie nce t o h is a u thor i ty , i n A qu i ta ine i t se l f h e me t w i th a n umber o f h um i l ia t ing r ebu f fs ;1 1

a nd , moreover , i t was d ur ing t hese y ears t ha t c ons iderable p ower

f e l l i n to t he h ands o f l oca l magna tes .

The o r ig ins o f t he ' t err i tor ia l p r inci-

p a l i t ies ' o f A qu i ta ine , f ounded b y c oun ts o f P o i t iers , Tou louse a nd p robab ly a lso o f Auvergne , may w i thou t d eba te b e t raced b ack t o t he p o li t ica l a rrangemen ts made , o r a ccep ted , b y C har les t he Ba ld—so t ha t i n s o me s enses h e c ou ld b e h e ld r espons ib le f or t he u l t i ma te d is in tegra t ion o f r oya l p ower i n A qu i ta ine .1 2 H owever , t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he e xercise o f r oya l p ower was u nder mined b y t he f orces o f ' Aqu i tan ian s epara t is m ' s ee ms t o r a ise more p rob le ms t han i t s o lves .

I n t he f i rs t p lace , t here i s t he o b ject ion t ha t i ti s n ow b y n o means

u n iversa l ly a greed t ha t C aro l ing ian A qu i ta ine d id r epresen t as ing le n a t iona l u n i ty i n t he f ash ion e nv isaged b y L 6once Auzias .

F or , a s P h. Wo l f f h as

a rgued , t h is ' vas t a nd d iverse c oun try ' was c o mposed o f g roups w i th w ide ly d i f fer ing r ac ia l a nd l i ngu is t ic o r ig ins , wh ich o ver a n u mber o f c en tur ies h ad u ndergone v ery d i f feren t e xper iences o f Frank ish g overn men t .

1 3

I tc anno t

s er ious ly b e ma in ta ined t ha t ak ingdo m wh ich e nco mpassed G o th ic S epti man ia , a nd t he R o man a nd Frank ish i nhabi tan ts o f A qu i ta ine — to s ay n o th ing o f t he mys ter ious G ascon p opu la t ion o f t he s ou th-wes t—ever p roduced a s ing le ' na t iona l ' f ac t ion t o o ppose t he i mpos i t ion o f Frank ish ' o r C arol ing ian g overnmen t .

1 4

S econd ly , t here mus t b e s er ious d oubts o ver t he s ign i f icance o f t he p o l it i ca l s trugg les i n A qu i ta ine d ur ing C har les t he B a ld 's r e ign .

I s i tr ea lly

c orrec t t o i n terpre t t hese a s p rov ing t he e x is tence o f a' na t iona l ' o ppos i tion t o e x terna l o ppress ion?

Reg iona l s en t imen ts t here may h ave b een , a nd

h os t i l i ty t o C aro l ing ian g overnmen t ;

b u t f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f C har les t he

Ba ld 's r e ign t he c on f l ic ts wh ich t ook p lace i n t he f ormer ly i ndependen t k ingd om h ave a l l t he s igns o f as trugg le f or p ower among t he me mbers o f t he Caro l ing ian r oya l h ouse i t sel f .

The i n i t ia l r es is tance t o C har les i n A qu i ta ine ,

f or i ns tance , was t he d irec t c onsequence o f t he d ec is ion made b y L ou is t he P ious i n 8 38-9 t o o verr ide t he p re tens ions o f t he y oung P ippin I t o s ucceed h is o wn f a ther a s ' rex A qu i tanorum i —pre tens ions embodying t he n o t ion t ha t t he r eg ion o ugh t t o b e t rea ted a s ah ered i tary k ingdo m a ccord ing t o t he a rrange men ts f i rs t made b y t he emperor i n 8 17.

1 5

The f i erceness o f t he

o ppos i t ion a roused when Char les t he Ba ld a t te mp ted t o f u l f i l t he emperor 's w i l l a nd t o a cqu ire A qu i ta ine f or h i msel f d e mons tra tes t he d epth o f a t tach men t t o t he ' P ipp in id ' c ause ;1 6

a l though a t a no ther l eve l t he c on fl icts i n A qu i ta ine

may a lso b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he p rob le ms r esu l t ing f ro m b ew i lder ing a nd f req uen t c hanges i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f l ands a nd p ower among t he s ons o f Loü is t he P ious d ur ing t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he ir f a ther 's r e ign .1 7 O f e qua l i mpor tance p o l i t ica l ly was t he i mpac t o f t hese d ynas t ic r iva lr ies o n t he r eg iona l magna tes , a s t he s trugg le b e tween C har les a nd P ipp in I f or t he p ossess ion o f Aqu i ta ine s ee ms t o h ave c aused t he r ev iva l o f a n tagon is ms 1 10

0r léans 5t·8eno'it

O Auxerre � X Fontenoy

Ne�

ó

o

B 1shopr ic (Civ itas)

5

Archbishopric Royal Palaces: 1 Doué -la Fontaine 2. Chasseneu il 4. Ébreuil 5. Le Palais

Principal religious houses mentioned in the text 3 Angeac

•

Approx1mate southern boundar y of the Kingdom of Aquitaine �778 Approximate frontier of th2 province ot Aquitaine under Pippin I Approx 1mate boundar y ot the province ot Narbonne (i.e. Septimania), detached trom the k ingdom ot Pippin I Eastern boundary o' the lands allotted to Charles the Bald by the Partition ot Verdun in 843

XII: THE KINGDOM OF AQUITAINE

111

wh ich h ad e ar l ier b een a roused d ur ing t he c r ises o f L ou is t he P ious ' g overnmen t , d iv id ing h is s ons a nd t he ir g rea t a r is tocra t ic f o l lowers . T he e xecu t ion i n 8 44 o f B ernard o f S ep t i man ia i s t he mos t s tr ik ing e xa mp le o f t h is .

Bernard 's

e xecu t ion c er ta in ly t ook p lace i n A qu i ta ine , a nd i t was a ssoc ia ted w i th C har les ' s e f for ts t o b r ing t he r eg ion u nder r oya l c on tro l ; b u t h is tor ians h ave b een u nab le t o a gree whe ther C har les 's a ct ion a f fec ted t he o u tcome o f t he s iege o f Tou louse , o r o n t he mo t ives wh ich p ro mp ted t he k ing t o t ake t h is d ras t ic s tep .1 8 H owe ver , t he s ign i f icance o f t h is e ven t—one o f t he mos t n otab le o f C har les t he Ba ld 's e ar ly y ears —can o n ly b e g rasped i fi ti s r e la ted t o t he r o le p layed b y t he g rea t marqu is a t t he B a t t le o f F on tenoy i n 8 41 , a nd t o t he r a ther e qu ivoca l p os i t ion h e o ccup ied i n t he n ego t ia t ions b e tween t he b ro thers L o thar , Lou is a nd C har les f ro m 8 40 o nwards .1 9 I ndeed , i t may e ven b e n ecessary t o a ssoc ia te h is d ea th w i th t he r epu ta t ion wh ich h e h ad a cqu ired a t a n e ar l ier d a te wh i le h e was I secundus win i mper io ' t o t he Emperor L ou is t he P ious , when s uspicions were e xpressed t ha t h e h ad c om m i t ted a du l tery w i th C har les t he Ba ld 's o wn mo ther , t he Empress J ud i th . 20 I nt h is c ase , a nd i no thers where t here i s s u f f icien t s urv iv ing i n forma t ion t o a l low t he h is tor ian t o s pecu la te o n s uch ma t ters ,2 1 i t may b e a rgued t ha t many o f t he c on f l ic ts wh ich t ook p lace w i th in t he f ron t iers o f A qu i ta ine a f ter 8 40 n eed t o b e r e la ted t o i ssues a nd d ispu tes o ccurr ing o u ts ide t he r eg ion , b u t whose r epercuss ions b rough t a bou t , o r h e igh tened , a n a t mosphere o f i ns ecur i ty w i th in i t .

The r efusa l o f t he Emperor L o thar t o c on tinue h is s uppor t

f or t he c la ims o f P ipp in I p rov ides t he mos t i mpor tan t i ns tance o f t h is :

f or

t he p o l i t ics o f t he k ingdo m o f A qu i ta ine were i rrevocably t ransformed b y t he d efea t o f t he a rmy o f L o thar a nd P ipp in a t F on tenoy i n J une 8 41 , a nd a s a r esu l t o f t he Caro l ing ian d ip lo ma t ic manoeuvres wh ic litook p lace n or th o f t he L o ire . Moreover , i t mus t n ever b e f orgo t ten t ha t b o th t he s uppor ters a nd t he o pponen ts o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r 6g ime s ou th o f t he L o ire were d rawn f ro m t he r anks o f t ha t F rank ish a r is tocracy wh ich s e t t led t hroughou t t he r eg ion a f ter t he C aro l ing ians c onques t o f A qu i ta ine h ad b een c o mp leted b y C har les t he G rea t23 i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he e igh th c en tury. A f ter a l l , when P ippin I r esound ing ly d efea ted a n a rmy l ed t hrough t he A ngoumo is b y C har les t he B a ld 's ' ho m ines ' , h is v ic tory was r espons ible f or t he d ea ths o f an umber o f men who ( l ike t he wr i ter N i thard ) w ere c lose ly r e la ted t o h im b y b lood —as t hey p robab ly a lso w ere t o t he o ther l eader o f t he A qu i tan ian a rmy , t he s on o f t he e xecu ted B ernard o f S ep t iman ia . 24 Th is was n o c on f l ic t w i th a f oreign f oe , i ti nvo lved a s trugg le f or p ower a t t he h ear t o f t he C aro l ing ian d ynas ty . I ndeed , i f P ipp inI I h ad n o t b een a b le t o p u t f orward c er ta in w e l l-founded c la ims t o b e a ccep ted a s t he r u ler o f A qu i ta ine , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t h e wou ld h ave b een a b le t o i ssue d ip lo mas a s ' r ex A qu i tanorum t f ro m t he p er iod i mmed ia te ly a f ter t he d ea th o f h is f a ther i n 8 38 , 25 o r t ha t h e wou ld h ave p roved s uch af orm idab le p o l i t ica l o pponen t t o h is u nc le , a l though t he a po log is ts o f C har les t he Ba ld w ere o f c ourse d e termined t o d ismiss P ippin 's c la ims e nt i rely a nd t o r epresen t C har les a s t he embod imen t o f t he o n ly l eg i t ima te r oya l p ower i n t he r eg ion .

I n t h is t hey h ave b een f o l lowed u n t i l r ecen t ly b y mos t h is-

t or ians ;2 6 b u t c on te mporary s ources r evea l t ha t t here was i n f ac t c ons iderab le d oubt i nt he 8 40s among me mbers o f t he Caro l ing ian h ouse a bou t t he j ust ice o f P ipp in I 's c ause ;27 a nd i n 8 45 C har les h i mse l f wen t s ome way t o c onced ing h is n ephew 's c la ims w i th t he e x tens ive g ran t wh ich h e made a t S t . B enoi ts ur-Lo ire .

2 8

E ven i n t he c ond i t ions o f t he l a te 8 50s , wh ich were much more 1 12

f avourab le t o C har les , h e was p repared t o a l low P ipp in c on tro l o f c er ta in u nna med ' c oun t ies a nd monas ter ies i n A qu i ta ine ' 2 9

The k ingdo m o f A qu i ta ine h as b een d escr ibed a s a n ' under-k ingdo m '. T h is t erm i s n o t , h owever , t o b e f ound i n a ny o f t he v ar ious d ocumen ts o f ac ons t i tu t iona l t ype 3 0 w h ich , o n an umber o f o ccas ions , l a id d own t he r egul a t ions f or s uccess ion t o t he d i f feren t t r egna t w i th t he Caro l ing ian emp ire .3 1 I ti s t rue t ha tb e fore 8 40 t he ' rex A qu i tanorum ‚, l i ke t he o ther s ons o f L ou is t he P ious , t rave l led t o t he a ssemb l ies wh ich h is f a ther s um moned ,3 2 c on tr ibu ted t roops a nd f ough t i n a rm ies wh ich w ere l ed b y t he Emperor , o r h is a ppoin ted c o mmander .3 3 The a greemen ts made i n 8 17 a lso l a id d own t ha t t he v ar ious k ings o f t he d ynas ty w ou ld d irect f ore ign ambassadors t o t he i mper ia l c our t , a nd make a nnua l g i f ts t o t he emperor ;3 4 o n ar a ther d i f feren t p lane i ti s v ir tua l ly c er ta in t ha t —a t l eas t d ur ing h is f a ther 's l i fe t ime — the ' rex A qu i tanorum ' was n o t f ree t o c hoose h is own w i fe .

3 5

Bu t t hese o bl iga t ions , i n tended t o b ind t he k ings o f t he Caro l ing ian h ouse more c lose ly t o t heir b ro thers a nd f a ther , were o n ly e xpressed i n t he mora l is ing l anguage o f f il ia l a nd f ra terna l d u t ies ; t hey d o n o t s eem t o h ave p roceeded f ro m a ny e labora te o r c oheren t t heor ies a bou t t he c ons t i tu t iona l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he r u lers o f t he d i f feren t ' r egna '. 3 6 A nd , a l though C har les t he Ba ld 's p o l icy t owards t he g overnmen t o f A qu i ta ine u ndoubted ly u nderwen t ac hange d ur ing h is l i fetime , t h is c hange d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave b een t he r esu l t o f t he k ing 's ' cons t i tu t iona l ' o r' l ega l ' a t t i tudes b e ing t rans formed .3 7 Never the less , s pecu la t ion o n t he c ons t i tu t iona l s tructure o f t he emp ire a nd i t s c o mponen t t err i tor ies h as p robab ly o bscured t he n eed f or i nves t iga t ion i n to t he a c tua l me thods o f g overnmen t emp loyed w i th in t he d i f feren t ' regna ' , a nd f or c ons idera t ion o f t he d eve lop men ts wh ich modi f ied t he C aro ling ians ' g overnmen t a nd a dm in is tra t ion d ur ing t he n in th c en tury. I ts ee ms p oss ib le t ha t C har les t he B a ld 's f a i lure i n A qu i ta ine was a s much g overnmen ta l a s p o l i t ica l : h owever , b efore t h is v iew c an b e e ven t en ta t ive ly s ubs tan t ia ted i t i s n ecessary t o c ons ider t he f ash ion i n wh ich t he r eg ion was g overned b efore 8 40 . 38 I ti s n o t a lways r ea l ised h ow w ide t he p owers o f aC aro ling ian ' underk ing ' were , o r h ow n ear ly a u tono mous h is k ingsh ip. F or i ns tance , P ippin I i n A qu i ta ine g ran ted l and i n f u l l ownersh ip ,3 9 i ssued d ip lo mas o f immun i ty a nd p rotec t ion f or r el ig ious e s tabl ishmen ts , 40 p resumab ly r egu la ted t he c om merce o f h is k ingdo m t hrough t o l ls a nd marke ts ,

4 1

a nd —in s o me a reas a t

l eas t —cou ld a u thor ise t he s e t t le men t o f was te l ands . 42 H e c ou ld h o ld a ssemb l ies o f h is o wn ' n ob les ' a nd , l i ke o ther C aro l ing ians , c ou ld s i t i n j us t ice w i th h is ' f ideles ' a nd t he c oun t o f h is p a lace ; 43 i ndeed t he c o mp le teness o f t he a u thor i ty h e e xercised i n h is own k ingdom i s p roved b y t he a ppearance o f a l i t igan t f ro m o u ts ide A qu i ta ine t o p lead a bou t l ands i n P o i tou44 a t C hasseneu i l .

i n t he c our t

I n s p i te o f e ngagemen t i n mi l i tary c ampa igns b eyond t he f ron t iers o f h is k ingdo m a nd v is i ts t o t he i mper ia l c our t , t he r u le o f t he ' rex A qu i tanorura ' 1 13

was n or ma l ly c onducted i n p erson .

I n o rder t o f u l f i l h is r oya l o f f ice h e was

p rov ided w i th a s epara te wr i t ing-o f f ice wh ich h ad i t s own c ler ica l s ta f f , a nd a h ouseho ld wh ich r ese mb led t hose o f o ther C aro ling ians . 46

4 5

Moreover ,

when t he me thods emp loyed b y C -R . Brüh l t o r econs truct t he i t inerar ies o f C aro l ing ian r u lers a re a pp l ied t o t he k ingdo m o f A qu i ta ine , i tc an b e s een t ha t f ro m t he e nd o f t he e igh th c en tury u n t i l L ou is t he P ious t ook t he mo men tous d ec is ion t o d is inher i t h is g randson P ipp in ,

4 7

t he r u ler o f A qu i ta ine mos t f re-

q uen t ly g overned f ro m o ne o f h is r ura l ' v i l la& o r p a laces . t ha t u rban p a laces were a lso a va i lab le f or t he r u ler 's u se ,

S ince i ti s k nown 4 8

i t may b e a ssumed

t ha t t h is p a t tern o f r es idence was b ased o n p ersona l p re ference 49 —an a ssu mpt i on wh ich i s c on f irmed b y E rmo ld 's p oe t ic d escr ip t ions o f t he r ura l d el igh ts a f forded b y t he Caro l ing ian p a laces i n A qu i ta ine . 5° I n f act , b e tween t he 7 80s a nd t he d ea th o f P ippin Ii n 8 38 , t he who le p a t tern o f k ingsh ip i n A qu i ta ine c on forms t o t he mode l e s tabl ished b y Brüh l a s c haracter is t ic o f t he ' reges Francorum ' d ur ing t hose y ears .5 1 Th is p a t tern o f r eg iona l g overnmen t was a l mos t t o ta l ly d es troyed d uring Char les t he Ba ld 's r e ign b u t , a l though i t migh t a ppear t o b e a n i nev i table c ons equence o f t he p o l i t ica l d i f f icu l t ies wh ich t h is k ing e ncoun tered , t he c hange d oes n ot s ee m t o h ave b een p rev ious ly c ons idered i n r e la t ion t o t he i mpor tan t q ues t ion o f t he d ecl ine o f Caro l ing ian r oya l p ower .

F or i tb eco mes a pparen t

t ha t a f ter 8 40 t he r oya l i t inerary n o l onger r evo lved r ound t he r ura l ' v i l la& wh ich h ad f or mer ly b een t he f avour i te w in ter-pa laces o f t he k ings o f A qu ita ine :5 2 whenever C har les t he Ba ld v is i ted A qu i ta ine h is j ourneys n ow t ook h im t hrough u rban c en tres l i ke B ourges , C lermon t , P o i t iers o r L imoges ,

5 3

e ven i f s o me

o f h is e ar lier d ip lo mas a re d a ted f ro m r ura l ' v i l la& i n t he r e moter p ar ts o f t he k ingdo m .

5 4

Br i ih l h as a lready d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he s ign i f icance o f t he

c hanges wh ich t ook p lace i n t he C aro l ing ians ' i t inerar ies d ur ing t he m id-n in th c en tury;55

a nd i n many r espec ts t he e v idence f or A qu i taine s i mp ly c on forms

t o t he p a t tern h e d escr ibes .

H owever , i n t ha t r eg ion t here a re f ewer s igns

t ha t t he k ing r esor ted t o t he h ospi ta l i ty o f r e l ig ious e s tab l ish men ts—whe ther e p iscopa l o r monas t ic—as h e d id n or th o f t he L oire .

5 6

r espec t t he A qu i tan ian e v idence i s s tr ik ing ly d i f feren t :

And i n o ne i mpor tan t a f ter 8 55 C har les t he

Ba ld n ever a ga in r es ided i n A qu i ta ine , o r p robab ly e ver v is i ted t he r eg ion e xcep t a t t he h ead o f ap un i t ive mi l i tary e xped i t ion .

5 7

The s ign i f icance o f

t hese c hanges n eeds t o b e e xam ined . The y ear 8 55 c o inc ides w i th t he c onsecra t ion o f C har les ' t he C h i ld ', a nd t he r eappearance o f as epara te ' rex A qu i tanorum ' .

I n t hese c ircums tances

i t migh t b e a rgued t ha t C har les t he Ba ld 's c hanged a t t i tudes t owards A qu i ta ine o ugh t t o b e c o mpared w i th t he f ash ion i n wh ich C har les t he G rea t a nd L ou is t he P ious t rea ted t he r eg ion d ur ing t he y ears when t he ir own s ons h ad r u led a s ' reges A qu i tanorum '.

5 8

H owever , a n e xam ina t ion o f t he e v idence f or t he

y ears b e tween 8 55 a nd 8 77 i nd ica tes t ha t C har les t he Ba ld 's t rea t men t o f A qu i ta ine i s o n ly s uper f ic ia l ly c o mparab le t o t ha t o f h is g rand fa ther a nd f a ther d ur ing t he y ears when L ou is a nd P ippin were a c t ing a s ' reges Aqu i tanoru m ': f or t he a ctua l g overnmen t o f t h is k ingdo m a f ter 8 55 was c onduc ted o n t ota lly d i f feren t p r inc ip les f ro m t hose p u t i n to p rac t ice d ur ing t he y ears b e tween Char les t he G rea t 's c rea t ion o f t he k ingdo m a nd P ipp in 's d ea th i n 8 38 . A f ter 8 55 t here a re n o s igns t ha t r oya l p ower was e ver e xercised i n p erson b y e i ther o f C har les t he Ba ld 's s ons , n or a re t here a ny t races o f a ny n or ma l

1 14

g overnmen ta l o r a dm in is tra t ive a c t iv i ty o n t he ir p ar t d own t o t he t ime o f t he ir f a ther 's d ea th . T h is s urpr is ing f act was e s tab l ished b y L eon L ev i l la in o n t he b as is o f h is i nves t iga t ions i n to t he ' acta ' o f t he k ings o f A qu i ta ine : h e c onc luded t ha t t he c o mple te a bsence o f a ny d ocu men t d rawn u p i n t he n ame o f e i ther C har les ' t he C h i ld ' o r L ou is mus t p rove t ha t t hey were n ot empowered b y t he ir f a ther t o i ssue s uch i ns trumen ts .

U n l ike t he ir p redecessors a s ' reges

A qu i tanorum ' t hey w ere n o t a pparen t ly p rov ided w i th t he s erv ices o f a ' chancery '.

E ven t he ' pre tender ' P ipp in I whose a u thor i ty a s k ing was n ever

u n iversa l ly a ccep ted—cer ta in ly n o t b y C har les t he Ba ld —en joyed t he s erv ices o f ar oya l wr i t ing-of f ice .

5 9

One i nc iden ta l c onsequence o f t h is a bsence o f

' c hancery ' a c t iv i ty i s t ha t i ti s q u i te i mposs ib le t o e s tab l ish a ny r oya l i t inerary f or C har les t he Ba ld 's s ons a s k ings o f A qu i ta ine , s ince t he p r i mary s ources o f i n for ma t ion f or s uch i t inerar ies a re t he d a t ing-c lauses o f t he r oya l d ip lo mas ;8 ° b u t t h is l acuna s ee ms r e la t ive ly i ns ign i f ican t i n i t se l f c o mpared w i th t he l i gh t wh ich i tt hrows o n t he c haracter o f r oya l g overnmen t i n t he k ingdo m o f A qu i ta ine d ur ing t he l as t t wo d ecades o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r eign . I ft he n om ina l r u ler o f t he r eg ion was n o t empowered t o b es tow p r iv i leges o n h is s ub jec ts , e ndow t he r e l ig ious e s tab l ish men ts w i th in h is k ingdo m , o r d isp ose o f h is r oya l r esources , t hen t he p a t tern o f g overnmen t i n A qu i ta ine h ad c er ta in ly u ndergone a r ad ica l t rans forma t ion .

I ti s s carce ly p oss ible t o

d isagree w i th L ev i l la in 's g enera l c onc lus ion t ha t ' Aqu i ta ine was n ow n o more t han a p ar t o f t he k ingdo m o f " Franc ia o cciden ta l is" ;

a nd t he d ip lo mas o f

( i ts ) k ing eman ted f rom a c hancery wh ich was n o t e xc lus ive t o A qu i ta ine '. 8 1 L ev i l la in 's c onc lus ions a re b ased o n n ega t ive e v idence , b u t t hey a re b orne o u t b y a n e xam ina t ion o f t he o ccas ions o n wh ich t he a f fa irs o f A qu i ta ine make a n a ppearance i n t he ' ac ta ' o f C har les t he Ba ld , b ecause e ven a f ter 8 55 t h is k ing c on t inued t o i ssue d ip lo mas mak ing l and-gran ts w i th in t he k ingdo m , o r b es tow ing o ther p r iv i leges o n i ts l a i ty a nd c lergy . 63

6 2

I ndeed , i te ven s ee ms

p robab le t ha t C har les 's s ons were n ot a l lowed t o p er form t he e ssen t ia l ly r oya l f unc t ion o f s i t t ing i n j udge men t , s ince a t s o me t ime b e tween t he y ears 8 69-74 t he ir f a ther s en t t wo ' r n iss i ' t o s e t t le t he a f fa irs o f t he a bbey o f C harroux i n P o i tou . These ' m iss i ' w ere C har les t he Ba ld 's own c oun t o f t he p a lace a nd h is ' i un ior t ,

6 4

a nd t hey w ere o rdered ' u t i us t ic ias f acere s tudean t '. 65

Another

d ip lo ma o f al ess e as i ly c lass i f iab le t ype a lso r evea ls C har les 's d irec t i n terv en t ion i n t he c onduc t o f a f fa irs w i th in t he k ingdo m:

i n 8 69 h e p roh ib i ted —

a nyone t rave l l ing ' sub h os t i l i mi l i t ia ' f ro m l odg ing o n e s ta tes i n B erry o r t he A uvergne 6 8

wh ich b e longed t o S t . Mar t in .

A l toge ther t he d ip lo mas o f C har les

t he B a ld p rov ide c onc lus ive p roof ( t hough t he e v idence may b e o f ac ircums tan t ia l n a ture ) t ha t n e i ther o f h is s ons was p er m i t ted t o e xerc ise i n p erson a ny o f t he p owers wh ich h ad a lways h i ther to b een a ssocia ted w i th t he o f f ice o f k ingsh ip , a nd w i th t he c rea t ion o f ar oya l t i t le b y t he Caro l ing ians . 67 T he f u l l s ign i f icance o f C har les t he Ba ld 's own d irect e xercise o f r oya l p ower i n t he k ingdo m o f A qu i ta ine c an o n ly b e a pprec ia ted i ft h is i s r e la ted t o t he a ct iv i ty p reced ing t he i ssue o f a ny wr it ten i ns tru men t i n t he r oya l wr i t ing-of f ice . These p rocedures h ave b een me t icu lous ly d iscussed b y T ess ier , whose e d i t ion o f t he ' ac ta ' o f C har les t he Ba ld d e mons tra tes t ha t d irec t a pp l ica t ion h ad t ob e made t o t he k ing ( e i ther i n p erson o r t hrough a t h ird p ar ty ) b e fore a d ip lo ma wou ld b e i ssued ; 88 a nd t h is mus t h ave mean t t ha t , i n o rder t o o bta in r a t i f ica t ion o f a rrange men ts made i n h is c apaci ty a s

1 15

l ay-abbo t o f t he c hap ter o f S t . H i la ire , C oun tR amnu lfof P o i t iers w as i n 8 62 o b l iged t o a pp ly t o t he c our t o f C har les t he B a ld o u ts ide A qu i ta ine .6 9 Pr es u mab ly t he f ounda t ion o f t he monas tery o f V abres i n 8 67 mus t a lso h ave e n ta i led s im i lar a pp l ica t ions o n t he p ar t o f C oun t B ernard o f T ou louse .7 0 O ther d ip lo mas p rov ide c learer i nd ica t ions o f h ow r oya l i n terven t ion c ou ld b e o bta ined : t he b ishop o f Au tun a cted a s ' ambasc ia tor ' f or t he L imous in monas tery o f S o lignac ,7 1 o r t he p ower fu l B ishop F ro tar ius i n tervened t o o b ta in a d ip lo ma f or C oun t O l iba f ro m t he S pan ish March .7 2 T ess ier 's f i nd ings h ave i mpor tan t c onsequences f or t he h is tor ian o f t he n in th c en tury : i tl og ica l ly f o l lows t ha t , i n i ns t iga t ing o r a ccep t ing t hese p roc edures , C har les t he Ba ld mus t h ave d es igned h is o wn c our t t o b e t he o n ly c en tre o f r oya l p a tronage f ro m wh ich a l l f avours wou ld b e d ispensed .7 3 Thus t he a t tract ion o f t he c our t o f t he k ing o f A qu i ta ine f or t he magna tes o f t ha t r eg ion w ou ld b e s er ious ly d i min ished , a nd h is a u thor i ty d ras t ica l ly r ed uced . A l though d irect i n forma t ion o n t he a t t i tudes o f C har les t he Ba ld t owards s uch i mpor tan t ma t ters i s l ack ing , i ts eems p robab le t ha t t he c hanges j us t d escr ibed d id i n f act r epresen t ac onsc ious p o l icy o f r eac t ion t o t he y ears when P ipp in I h ad c on tes ted Char les 's s uccess ion t o A qu i ta ine. D ur ing t hose y ears ( wh ich e f fec t ive ly e nded i n 8 48 ) s ome o f t he mos t p ower fu l f i gures i n A qui ta ine h ad e xp loi ted t he r iva lr ies w i th in t he C aro l ing ian h ouse :

A rchb ishop

Rodu l fus o f B ourges , f or i ns tance , o bta ined g ran ts f rom b oth P ipp in I a nd h is u nc le ; 74

wh i le t he i n f luen t ia l C oun t H eccardus o f Au tun ( a member o f

t he ' house ' o f t he Marqu is B ernard ) s eems t o h ave u sed h is p os i t ion t o o bta in d up l ica te f avours d ur ing t he d i f f icu l t y ear o f 8 39 .7 5 V iewed i n t h is l i gh t C har les t he Ba ld 's a c t ion i n d epr iv ing t he ' r eges A qu i tanorurn ' o f t he means t o i ssue d ocumen ts i n t he ir own n ame i s o f t he g rea tes t s ign if icance . By t he s tandards o f l a ter a ges —and b y t he s tandards o f many h is tor ians— these c hanges may b e i n terpre ted a s r epresen t ing a n a dvance t owards a g enu ine c en tra lisa t ion o f g overnmen t , a nd t hereby a s treng then ing o f r oya l p ower . Bu t may i tn o t b e d oubted whe ther t hese s tandards a re a l toge ther a ppropr ia te t o t he d is turbed p o l i t ica l r 6g ime , a nd t he i ncreas ing ly i mpover ished r esources , o f t he midn in th c en tury C aro ling ians? 7 6 A dm i t ted ly C har les t he Ba ld d id r e ta in a c ons iderab le d egree o f r oya l c on tro l w i th in A qu i ta ine a nd , i n p ar t icu lar , c on t inued t o d ispose o f o f f ices a nd t honores t. I n 8 67, f or i ns tance , h e a rbi trar i ly t rans ferred t he c oun ty o f B ourges f ro m C oun t G erard t o A cfr id , a f ter t he l a t ter h ad a l ledged ly g iven h im ' exen ia n on mod ica ' i n o rder t o i n f luence t he k ing 's d ec is ion .7 7 H e a lso d epr ived t he s ons o f C oun t Ramnu l f o f P o i t iers o f t he ir f a ther 's ' h onores ' , b es tow ing t he impor tan t a bbey o f S t . H i la ire o n A rchbishop Fro tar ius ;

b u t

t he a nna l is t o f S t . B er t in i s u n for tuna te ly l ess i n forma t ive o n t he f a te o f t he c oun ty o f P o i t iers , a bou t wh ich h is tor ians h ave h ad c ons iderable d i f ferences o f o pin ion . 78 Th is k ing 's d is tr ibu t ion o f a bbeys a nd h is a ppoin t men t t o e cc les ia s t ica l o f f ices a lso p rov ide e xamp les o f t he e xercise o f h is a u thor i ty w i th in A qu i ta ine .

7 9

S ince t hese i ns tances r ein force t he impress ion t ha t C har les

t he Ba ld 's p o l icy was —wherever a nd whenever p oss ib le—in tended t o c heck a ny o ppor tun i t ies f or t he e s tab l ishmen t o f a r is tocra t ic p ower b locs w i th in A qu i ta ine , 8 0 a nd t hus t o make i t s magna tes e n t ire ly d ependen t o n h im f or f avours , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o e scape t he c onclus ion t ha t h is c rea tion o f ' r eges 1 16

A qu i tanorum t was a mere p o l i t ica l e xped ien t , a nd n ever d es igned t o p rov ide ar e turn t o p ersona l r eg iona l g overnmen t s uch a s h ad c haracter ised t he r e igns o f h is f a ther L ou is a nd h is b ro ther P ippin Ia s ' reges A qu i tanorum ‚. Bu t d id t h is c en tra l isa t ion o f a u thor i ty e f fec t ive ly i ncrease o r s treng then r oya l p ower? I ts eems r a ther t ha t a n a pparen t ly d ecis ive e xercise o f a u thor i ty o f ten p roduced h os t i le r eact ions , a nd t ha t t he k ing was i ncreas ing ly i ncapable o f a ctua l ly e n forc ing h is w i l l . A f ter a l l , w i th in a f ew mon ths o f t he t rans fer o f B ourges t o A cfr id , C har les t he Ba ld 's n ew ly a ppo in ted c oun t was d ead , murdered b y t he v assa ls o f t he man h e was s upposed t o d isp lace ; a nd i n s pi te o f ar oya l c ampa ign i n B erry t he k ing was u nab le t o d epr ive G erard o f h is c on tro l o f t he r eg ion .8 1 L ess d rama t ic e xamp les o f C har les t he Ba ld 's a c tua l p ower lessness a re p rov ided b y t he l a ter h is tory o f h is r e la t ions w i th t he magn a tes o f A qu i ta ine who , i ft he Anna ls o f S t . B er t in a re t o b e b e l ieved , f a i led t o r espond t o t he r oya l s um mons when r equ ired t o mee t t he k ing .8 2 S uch i ns tances a s t hese r a ise i n t he ir mos t a cu te f orm t he p ract ica l d i f f icu l t ies o f r u l ing a h uge a nd d isorder ly r eg ion w i thou t ap ower-base ( or c lus ter o f b ases ) a t i t s h ear t . C er ta in ly t o g overn A qu i ta ine e f fec t ive ly f ro m o u ts ide i t s f ron t iers mus t h ave b eco me imposs ib le b y t he l a ter y ears o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r e ign : s uch me thods wou ld p robab ly a lways h ave b een u nsu i ted t o t he c ond i t ions o f t he n in th c en tury . A l though n o t s uppor ted b y p rofound o r i n te l lec tua l ly s a t isfying t heor ies o f k ingsh ip , t he p o l icy o f a ctua l r eg iona l d e lega t ion , i n i t ia ted b y C har les t he G rea t a nd ma in ta ined b y L ou is t he P ious d own t o t he y ear 8 39 , s eems t o h ave b een f ar more a ppropr ia te t o c ond i t ions i n A qu i ta ine . A s l ong a s t he ' rex A qu i tanorum ' was more t han a c eremon ia l f igure —and wou ld n o t s o me o f h is s ub jec ts h ave k nown t ha t ' rex ' was h e ld t o d er ive f ro m y regere '? 8 3 — the means e x is ted f or i n terna l c on tro l w i th in t he k ingdo m .

The p a laces o f L ou is t he

P ious a nd h is s on P ipp in a c ted a s af ocus f or t he c lergy a nd s ecu lar a r is tocracy o f t he r eg ion whenever t he k ing was i n r es idence ; b u t t he a brup t a l tera t ion i nt he p a t tern o f t he r oya l i t inerary , a nd t hen C har les t he Ba ld 's c o mp le te r e t ire men t f rom t he k ingdom o f A qu i ta ine , mus t h ave r e moved mos t c hecks o n t he a ct iv i t ies o f l oca l c oun ts a nd o f f icia ls , 8 4 w ho were i n a ny c ase f req uen t ly d rawn f ro m t he r anks o f t he Caro l ing ian l anded a r is tocracy.

8 5

T he f a i lure o f t he k ing t o a ppear i n A qu i ta ine wou ld t herefore h ave c rea ted o ppor tun i t ies f or j us t t hose a buses o f wh ich t he Caro l ing ian k ings s howed t hems e lves s o c onsc ious i n t heir c ap i tur lar ies b u t wh ich , u l tima te ly , t hey s o s ign a l ly f a i led t o c orrec t . A s G anshof c om men ted , ' even d ur ing p er iods o f r e lat ive s treng th , t he F rank ish monarchy n ever h ad o rgans p ower fu l e nough t o e nsure t ha t t he d ec is ions o f r oya l a u thor i ty were f u l ly i mple men ted t hroughou t t he l eng th a nd b read th o f t he r ea lm '; 8 6

a nd i t may b e c la imed t ha t , t hrough

t he c rea t ion o f an umber o f v ir tua l ly a u tono mous ' regna i , t he e ar l ier Caro li ng ians h ad made a g enu ine a t te mp t t o r eso lve t ha t p rob le m. C har les t he Ba ld , o n t he o ther h and , c an b e h e ld r espons ib le f or f a il ing t o r ecogn ise t he a dvan tages o f t h is s ys te m o f g overnmen t ; wh i le , i n a t te mpt ing t o impose a measure o f c en tra l isa t ion wh ich h e d id n o t h ave t he means —or t he a gen ts— t o e n force , h e a ggrava ted t he c ond i t ion o f ah uge r eg ion a lready t orn b y t he e ar l ier p o li t ica l s trugg les w i th h is n ephew 's p ar t isans . H is a c t ion i n r e l inq u ish ing t he s ubs tance o f r oya l p ower i n to t he h ands o f l oca l c oun ts s ee ms t o

1 17

p rov ide a more c onv incing e xp lana t ion f or t he d ecl ine o f r oya l p ower i n A qu i ta ine t han t he ' Aqu i tan ian s epara t is m ' wh ich h as s o f requen t ly b een i nvoked .

U n ivers i ty o f Eas t Ang l ia .

NDTES 1 .

Auzias 1 937 , p p . 8 , 1 35 ' l es A qu i ta ins s epara t is tes '.

2 . Dhond t 1 948 , p . 1 69 ; 3 .

c f . A uzias , p . 5 8 ;

L ewis 1 965 , p . 5 1.

T he work b y Auzias was p ub l ished p os thumous ly a nd , a l though t he n arra t ive p o l i t ica l s ect ions h ad b een l arge ly c o mp le ted , t he a na lys is o f Caro l ing ian me thods o f g overnmen t i n A qu i ta ine h ad s carce ly b een b egun .

S ince i th as b een u sed f or r e ference b y l a ter h is tor ians wr i t ing

o n t he r eg ion ( e .g . b y Dhond t a nd L ew is ) i ti s n o t s urpr ising t ha t t hey f o l lowed t he a pproach a lready a dop ted .

Dhond t o f c ourse r ev iews t he

who le o f t he wes tern ' regnurn Francorum ' i n h is d iscussion o f t he f orma t ion o f t he ' t err i tor ia l p r incipa l i t ies ' , b u t L ew is 's t he me i s r es tr ic ted t o s ocie ty s ou th o f t he L o ire . H is a na lys is o f t he ' Caro ling ian s ys te m ' ( pp. 5 0-69 ) d oes n o t s upersede Auzias .

Wo l f f 1 965 p rov ides a f ar more

d e ta i led a nd p ene tra ting a na lys is o f t he p os i t ion o f A qu i ta ine i n t he e ns e mb le o f Caro l ing ian t err i tor ies , b u t t h is s tudy o n ly r e la tes t o t he y ears b efore C har les t he G rea t 's d ea th .

The i n troduct ion b y Leon L ev i l la in

t o h is e d i t ion o f t he d ip lo mas o f K ings P ippin Ia nd I o f Aqu i ta ine c on ta ins many i mpor tan t o bserva t ions o n t he g overnmen t a nd p ersonne l o f t he k ingdo m , b u t h as b een s trange ly n eg lec ted : c b cxxv i i i . 4 .

L ev i l la in , p p. c lxv i i i-

S ee f ur ther , Werner 1 958-60 , p p. 2 58-64.

As tron , p . 3 72: ... ' a l tera p ars p opu l i ...assumen tes f i l iu m q uondam P ippin i i t ide m n om ine .' The c harac ter o f t he s uppor t g iven t o P ipp in Ii s r evea led b y ad ip lo ma i ssued i n h is n ame s oon a f ter h is f a ther 's d ea th , i n s p i te o f t he f ac t t he L ou is t he P ious w i thhe ld o f f icia l c onsen t f ro m t he s uccess ion o f t h is g randson , s ee b elow n n . 8a nd 2 5 .

5 . AB , p . 5 5 .

On t he c on fus ing c hrono logy o f Char les 's move men ts

d ur ing J an . -J une 8 48 , s ee L ev i l la in 1 903 , p . 3 6 n . 3 (cf . L o t a nd Ha lphen , p . 1 91 n . 1 ) .

A ccord ing t o L ev i l la in C har les was i n P oi t iers

o n March i s t ( Tess ier , n o . 1 05 ) a nd moved f ro m t here t o t he D ordogne a nd t hen o n t o L i moges f or t he e nd o f L en t a nd ( ?) Eas ter . c onsecra ted a t O r leans o n J une 6 th , o p. c i t .) p p. 3 5-7.

H e was

Bu t C har les 's

p resence i n L i moges i s men t ioned o n ly b y A de mar , p . 1 34 :

a nd t h is

a u thor misrepresen ts t he s ources f or C har les t he Ba ld 's r e ign o n more t han o ne o ccas ion—see G i l l ingham , s upra . 6 . The p urpose o f t he c ere mony h as b een much d eba ted .

I n t he c on tex t o f

t h is p aper i t s s ign i f icance s ee ms t o b e t ha t i t was t he f irs t c onsecra t ion o f t he r e ign , a ssoc ia ted w i th t he p o l i t ica l p rob le ms o f Aqu i ta ine —wha tever i deo log ica l s ign if icance i t may h ave a ssu med i n t he minds o f t he k ing o r h is e cc les ias t ica l s uppor ters a t al a ter d a te . 1 18

On t h is w ider s ign i f icance ,

a s t he a no in t ing r i te c ame t o b e t rea ted a s c ons t i tu t ive , Ne lson 1 977, e sp. p p. 2 45-50 . 7 . P ippin I o n ly f i na l ly d isappeared t o a n ' ar t iss ima c us tod ia t i n S en l is i n 8 64 .

H e h ad b een f orcib ly t onsured i n 8 52 a nd c on f ined b y C har les

t he B a ld t o S t . M6dard d e S o issons , f ro m where h e h ad e scaped a s a l ay man ' ;

d ur ing t he i n terven ing y ears t he ' Aqu i tan i . ' h ad a lso o n o ne

o ccas ion a ppea led t o K ing L ou is ' t he G erman ' whose s on p ursued h is p ol i t ica l f or tune i n t he r eg ion w i thou t much s uccess . S ee AB , p p. 6 5 , 6 7 , 6 8-9 , 1 13 a nd Auzias 1 937 , p p . 2 71-339 ;

Dev isse 1 975 , p p . 3 10 ,

3 57-79. 8 . N i thard s e t t he t one when h e wro te o f t he ' dona t ion ' o f A qu i ta ine b y L ou is t he P ious t o C har les a nd o f t he 'tyranny ' e xerc ised b y t hose who o pposed t he Emperor 's w i l l i n 8 38-9 , p p. 3 2-4 , w i th f ur ther r eferences . 9 . C har les ' t he C h i ld ' was c onsecra ted k ing a t t he A qu i tan ians ' own r eques t a t L i moges i n mid-Oc tober :

AB , p . 7 1;

c f . p . 1 35 .

1 0 . Wol f f , p p . 2 70-4 , p laces t he c rea t ion o f a' regnu m A qu i tanoru m ' a ga ins t t he b ackground o f t he Caro l ing ian d efea t i n t he P yrenees i n 7 78 , a nd t he d i f f icu l t ies e xper ienced b y C har les t he G rea t 's f a ther a nd g rand fa ther i n s uppress ing t he r evo l ts o f t he ' pr incipes ' o f A qu i ta ine. 1 1. E .g . t he a l mos t i m med ia te r epud ia t ion o f t he a u thor i ty o f C har les ' t he Ch i ld ':

AB , p . 7 4 ;

c f . a bove , p p . 1 12-3 .

1 2 . Dhond t , p p . 1 69-209 ;

a nd w i th a r a ther d i f feren t i n terpre ta t ion :

Werner 1 965 ( t rans l . 1 979 ) , p . 1 77. 1 3 . Wol f f , p . 2 69 , d raws a t ten t ion t o t he f act t ha t e ven tua l ly t here emerged o u t o f t he ' regnum A qu i tanoru m "des e nse mbles b ien d is t inc ts , A qu i ta ine , L anguedoc e t C a ta logne e np ar t icu l ier ';

a nd , a s h ad b een a lready r e marked

b y Lev i l la in , G ascony v ir tua l ly l ay o u ts ide t he s cope o f Caro l ing ian c ont rol , L ev i l la in , p p. c lxv i i iix . 1 4 .

C er ta in ly b efore t he Caro l ing ian c onques ts o f t he e igh th c en tury ' Aqu i tan ia p rov incia ' h ad n or ma l ly b een d is t ingu ished f ro m

‚G o t ia t

b y

c on te mporar ies , a s i s s hown b y t he s o-ca l led Fredegar ( ed . Wa l laceHadri l l ) , p . 1 21 ;

c f . Wol f f , p p. 2 93 , 3 01.

F or t he r eign o f Char les

t he Ba ld e ven t he r oya l d ip lo mas d is t ingu ish S ep ti man ia f ro m t he more n or ther ly p rov inces o f A qu i ta ine , Tess ier e .g . n os . 4 4 , 4 6 e tc. I n n o . 4 3 t he r eg ion i s d escr ibed a s ' regnum S ep t i man iae ' ;

c f . n o. 3 22.

On t he p os i t ion o f t he c oun ty o f Tou louseP marka T o losana ' i n 8 17: Wolf f , p . 2 69 , p p . 1 66-68. 1 5 . A l though t he k ingdo m c rea ted f or P ippin Ii n 8 17 was o f sma l ler s ize t han t he t err i tor ies r u led b y L ou is b efore 8 14 , t he more g enera l c lauses o f t he a rrange men ts t hen made p er m i t ted t he s uccess ion o f o ne o f t he l eg i t im ( i ) f i l i ( i ) ' l e f t b y a ny o f L ou is 's s ons — 's i v ero a l iqu is i l loru m d ecedens l eg i timos f i l ios r e l iquer i t .' On ly i ft here were n o l eg i t i ma te c h i ldren s hou ld t he ' po tes tas ' o f e ach b ro ther r ever t t o t he e lder , Ord ina t io I mperi l , c aps 1 , 1 4-15 i n MGH C ap . I , p p . 2 71-3.

S ee f ur ther G anshof

1 955 , p p . 2 79-80 , f or h is c oncern o ver whe ther t he Ord ina t io o ugh t t o b e i n terpreted i n a' un i tary ' o r ' pa tr i mon ia l ' s ense ; 1 19

c f . b e low n . 3 1.

1 6.

L ou is t he P ious h ad t o f ace s trong o ppos i t ion when t he r umour f i rs t r eached A qu i ta ine :

' Karo l° i de m ap a tre t rad i tum r egnu m ' , A s tron .,

p . 3 70 . 1 7.

The i n terpreta t ion o f Werner 1 958-60 , p . 2 62 , t ha t t he s ons o f L ou is t he P ious h ad a lready ' corrup ted ' t he ir g rea t a r is tocracy , r everses t he more c o m mon ly e xpressed j udgmen t t ha t i t was t he r apaci ty o f t he a r is tocracy wh ich U nder m ined r oya l a u thor i ty .

1 8 .

The e xecu t ion i s n o ted a s t ak ing p lace ' i n A cqu i tan ia , i ussu K aron ', a f ter t he a nna l is t h ad men t ioned t he war mness o f t he w in ter , AB

p . 4 5 .

L o t a nd Ha lphen p p . 9 8-100 , s ugges ted a d a te o f A pr i l- May 8 44 , w hen t he k ing was r es iden t o u ts ide t he wa l ls o f T ou louse o r i n t he i mmedia te v icin i ty.

Th is d a t ing r es ts o n t he s trong c ircums tan t ia l e v idence o f t he

r oya l d ip lo mas , o f wh ich Ma lbos 1 964 , p . 8 , s ee ms u naware .

S ee Table ,

b e low n os . 4 7-62 . 1 9 .

L o t a nd H a lphen , p p . 2 1-36.

2 0 .

F or t he r u mours , a ccusa t ions , a nd i nnuendoes wh ich c ircu la ted s ee S i mson 1 874 , i , p p . 3 35-40 .

Bernard 's membersh ip o f t he d ynas ty

d escr ibed a s ' l es N ibe lungen h is tor iques ' i s d iscussed b y L ev i l la in 1 937-8 , e sp. p . 3 62 s qq . 2 1. The f am i ly t ies a nd web o f a r is tocra t ic a l leg iances i n A qu i ta ine c anno t b e c ons idered i n i so la t ion : 1 84 ) ; 2 2.

Werner , 1 965 , p . 1 33 ( t rans l. 1 979 , p .

c f . a lso L ev i l la in 1 937-8 , who m Werner u nderra tes .

L o t a nd Ha lphen , p p . 3 7-51;

Auzias , p p . 1 60-73 . ,

The e xc lus ion o f

P ippin f ro m a ny s hare i n t he p ar t i t ion made a t Verdun o r i n t he d ip lo ma t ic a gree men ts wh ich p receded t h is , mus t a lso h ave weakened h is c ause , s ee G anshof 1 956 , e sp . p p . 2 90 , 2 92.

A l though t he r oya l s e t t ing i s v ery

d if feren t L eyser 1 979 , p p . 1 1-22 , h as s o me v ery i n teres t ing t h ings t o s ay o n u nres t b eing t he p roduc t o f t he ' t hwar ted e xpec ta t ions o f c o-heirs ' ( p . 1 3 ) . 2 3.

A s tron ., p . 2 62 :

' Ord inav i t a u te m p er t o tarn A qu i tan iam c om i tes ,

a bba tes , n ecnon a l ios p lur i mos q uos v assos v u lgo v ocan t , e x g en te Francorum ...'; Wol f f 1 965 , p p . 2 87-91 ( f o l lowing A uzias , p p . 1 1-14 ). T here i s an eed f or f ur ther r esearch i n to t he d ep th t o wh ich F rank ish i n f luence p ene tra ted e spec ia l ly i n t he s ou thernmos t p ar ts o f t he ' regnum A qu i tanorum '.

I ti s f or i ns tance k nown t ha t t he Caro l ing ians e ncouraged

S pan ish s e t t le men ts i n t h is r eg ion , I mbar t d e l a T our 1 907 , p p . 3 3-68 ; C o l l ins , i n fra , p p.163f f . 1 955 , p p . 2 25 , 2 31; 2 4.

On t he s urv iva l o f t he ' l ex G otoru m ' , Dupon t

C o l l ins p .178 .

L o t a nd Ha lphen , p p. 1 13-17 , p rov ide v ery f u l l r eferences t o t h is ' c l6bi tcle 6 pouvan tab le '.

2 5 .

The f irs t d ocumen t o f P ippin I 's ' r eign ' s ee ms t o h ave b een i ssued b efore t he d ea th o f L ou is t he P ious , a nd i s d a ted b y L ev i l la i nb e tween 2 5 Dec. 8 38 - Dec. 8 39.

I ti s ad ip lo ma o f p ro tec t ion a nd i m mun i ty f or t he mon-

a s tery o f S ol ignac i n t he L imous in ( t he o r ig ina l s urv ives ) :

L ev i l la in

c ons idered i tt o b e ad ocumen t d rawn u p i n P ippin Ps n a me , b u t a u thent i ca ted w i th h is s on 's s ea l , L ev i l la in , n o. XL IX ( pp . 1 87-95 f or d iscuss ion o f t he d ocumen t 's d iplo ma t ic c haracter is t ics ) . 1 20

2 6.

N i thard , p p . 2 6 , 3 2-4 , i mp l ies t ha t t he l eg i t i macy o f C har les t he Ba ld 's p os i t ion i n 8 37-8 d epended o n ' auc tor i ta (s ) d iv ina a tque p a terna ';

a nd

t he a c t ion o f L ou is t he P ious i n e ndow ing h is s on a f ter t he d ea th o f P ippin o f A qu i ta ine was b ased o n s im i lar a ssumpt ions . 2 7 .

C f . n . 8a bove .

Many c on te mporar ies wou ld h ave a greed t ha t P ippin Ic ou ld j us t i f iably t rea t t he k ingdom o f A qu i ta ine a s h is p a tr i mony; ' successore m r e l inquens P ippinu m f i l ium i , Reg ino , p p . 7 6-7 ;

s ee G a laber t 1 937 , p p. 2 40-60.

I t i s r are ly p oss ib le f or t he h is tor ian t o d is t ingu ish s uppor t i n wh ich s e l fi n teres t p redo m ina ted f ro m s uppor t b ased o n t he c onv ic t ion t ha t P ipp in I r epresen ted t he l eg i t i ma te Caro l ing ian l ine i n t h is r eg ion ;

b u t h ad

Lo thar 's c ause b een t r iumphan t a t F on tenoy , n o d oubt P ipp in I 's c la i ms wou ld h ave b een more w ide ly a dm i t ted .

I t was t ha t d efea t i n b a t t le wh ich

l ed L othar t o p ro m ise C har les t he Ba ld t ha t h e wou ld ' double-cross ' h is n ephew ;

N i thard , p . 9 4.

2 8 . The d e ta i ls a re k nown f ro m AB 8 45 , T ess ier I , n o. 7 1.

s .a . 8 45 ( p . 5 0 ) ;

o n t he d a te o f J une

C har les r eserved f or h i mse lf P o i tou , S a in tonge

a nd t he n e ighbour ing Aun is , n o t ( as a n e ar l ier e d i tor o f t he AB t hough t ) t he more d is tan t c oun ty o f t he Angoumois .

For L o t a nd H a lphen , p .

1 49 n . 3 , t h is a gree men t was a d ip lo ma t ic t r iu mph f or Char les t he Ba ld ; b u t i n v iew o f P ippin 's v ic tory o ver h is u nc le 's a r my i n J une 8 44 i t s ee ms f ar more l i ke ly t ha t i t was a c oncess ion wrung f ro m C har les i n h is n ecessi t y ( perhaps t o s ecure t he r e lease o f t he p r isoners t aken b y P ippin I?). 2 9 . Th is was i n 8 58 , l ong a f ter P ipp in I h ad e scaped f ro m h is f irs t c ap t iv i ty a t S t. M6dard d e S o issons , a nd h ad ma in ta ined s o me a u thor i ty i n A qu i ta ine , i n s p i te o f t he c rea t ion o f C har les ' t he C h i ld ' a s k ing , a nd i n s p i te o f t he i n terven t ion o f t he G erman C aro l ing ians i n t he r eg ion , AB , p . 7 8.

Auzias ,

p p. 2 71-303 , t races t he b ew i lder ing p o l i t ica l c hanges o f t he y ears 8 526 0. 3 0 . Bo th I ta ly a nd A qu i ta ine a re d escr ibed a s ' Un terkön igre ichen ' b y Ew ig 1 965 , p . 1 67 ;

c f . C lassen 1 972 , p p . 1 21 , 1 23 ( Aqu i ta ine ).

G anshof

a voids t h is t erm i n h is a ccoun t o f t he Frank ish monarchy u nder Char le magne ( 1968 , p . 3 1) , b u t i n h is c o m men ts o n t he O rd ina t io Imperi l o f 8 17 , h e a sser ts t ha t t he r u lers o f Bavar ia , I ta ly , a nd A qu i ta ine were t rea ted a s ' sub-k ings , g overnors ' ( 1955 , p . 2 78 ).

Auzias 1 937 , p . 1 67 , d escr ibes

t h is r eg ion a s ' un r oyau me v assa l ' , w i thou t a na lys ing wha t h e means b y t he t erm . 3 1. T he D iv is io Regnoru m o f 8 06 h ad s ta ted t ha t ' t o tum r egn i c orpus ' wou ld b e d iv ided t rina p or t ione i , MGH Cap . I , p . 1 27;

a nd , a l though t he 8 17

O rd ina t io e nv isaged t he s ubord ina t ion o f t he Caro l ing ian k ings t o t he emperor , t he ir b ro ther , t h is s ubord ina t ion was c ouched i n t erms o f p ersona l l oya l ty a nd t he o bl iga t ions wh ich t hey o ugh t t o f u lf i l .

No l ega l

p hraseo logy h ad b een d ev ised t o d i f feren t ia te t he ir k ingdo ms f ro m t he t err i tor ies r u led b y t he emperor , MGH Cap.I , p p. 2 70-3.

N ever the less ,

G ansho f 1 955 , p p . 2 79-80 , u pho lds t he ' un i tary ' i n terpre ta t ion o f t he O rd ina t io ;

b u t c f . h is n . 7 3.

3 2 . A s ' rex A qu i tanorum t P ippin Ia t tended a n a sse mb ly a t A t t igny i n 8 22 , a nd i s men t ioned a s v is i t ing h is f a ther a t Aachen d ur ing t he w in ter o f

1 21

8 26 ' u t i ussus e ra t , c um s u is o p t i ma t ibus e t H ispan ic i l imi t is c ustod ibus ' : ARE , p p . 1 59 , 1 69 ; c f . p p. 1 74-5 —a p robab le v is i t t o I nge lhe im. The p resence o f t h is k ing i n t he l ands g overned b y h is f a ther i s a lso p roved b y t he d a t ing o f d ip lo mas i n t he n a me o f t he t rex A qu i tanorum t f ro m n or thern r es idences ( Aachen , N i mbgue , P ierre f i t te , P on th ion ) : Lev i l la in , p . c lxv i i , n n . 3 -6. 3 3. I n 8 19 P ippin Il ed a c ampaign a ga ins t t he G ascons , i n 8 24 was a ppoin ted o ne o f t he l eaders o f ac ampa ign a ga ins t t he B re tons , i n 8 26-8 was i nv o lved i n t he p lans made b y L ou is f or t he d e fence o f t he S pan ish marches : ARF , p p . 1 51-2 , 1 65 , 1 69 o nwards ;

c f . A s tron . p p . 3 26 , 3 30 .

Accord ing

t o Er mo ld 's p oe t ica l a ccoun t o f t he Bre ton e xped i t ion , Lou is w as r esp ons ible f or r eserv ing t he ' agmen ... med ium ' f or h i mse l f a nd f or a l lo t t ing t roops t o f igh t w i th h is s on P ippin : 3 4.

Er mo ld , p p . 1 52-4 l ines 1 994-2027.

O rd ina t io Imper i i , c aps . 8( ambassadors ' ab e x ter is n a t ion ibus ' ) , 4 -5 ( g i f ts a nd v is i ts ) :

MGH Cap . I , p p . 2 71-2 .

T hese wr i t ten r egu la t ions

may h ave r ef lec ted t he c us to m o f C har les t he G rea t 's d ay , i fL ou is t he P ious 's a c t ions a f ter t he c ap ture o f t he c i ty o f Barce lona were t ypica l o f t he y ears b efore 8 14 . C har les t he G rea t : 3 5 .

( He s en t i t s b oo ty a nd t he c ap tured g enera l t o

Er mo ld , p p . 4 8-50 , 1 . 5 72 o nwards ).

O rd ina t io Imper i i , c ap . 1 3 , l a id d own t ha t marr iages w i th in t he d ynas ty were t o b e made ' cons i l io e t c onsensu s en ior is f ra tr is ': p . 2 72.

M GH C ap , I ,

I ndeed L ou is t he P ious 's f irs t marr iage a s ' rex Aqu i tanoru m '

was s a id t o h ave b een made ' consensu e t c ons i l io p a tr is ' , Thegan , V i ta H ludowici , p . 2 18 ; c i t ., p . 2 70 .

a l though t he word ing o f A s tron .i s ' cons i l io s uorum ' , A pparen t ly i t was L ou is who d ec ided t ha t P ipp in I s hou ld

marry t he d augh ter o f t he c oun t o f Madr ie ' que rn — i n c on iugem f ecit a ccipere ' , ARE , p . 1 59 a . 8 22. 3 6. The i n troduct ion t o t he 8 17 O rd ina t io t rea ts p a terna l a nd imper ia l a u thor i ty a s b eing o f e qua l impor tance ... ' sa lva i n omn ibus n os tra imper ia l i p o tes ta te s uper f i l ios e t p opu lum n os trum c u m omn i s ub iect ione q uae p a tr i e t f i l i is e t impera tor i a c r eg i as u is p opu l is e xh ibe tur ' ; c f . t he s ubsequen t r e fe rences t o ' f ra terno amore ' , ' p io f ra ternoque amore ' , ' p io amore ' , c aps . 4 -5 , 1 4 , MGH C ap . I , p p . 2 71 , 2 73.

The s treng th o f a n a ppea l t o

s uch f i lia l a nd f ra terna l s en t i men ts i s d e mons tra ted b y Thegan , 9 2 . c i t ., p . 2 46 , a nd N i thard , p p . 1 02 , 1 04 , 1 06. 3 7.

S ee f ur ther Ca l me t te p p. 5 -6.

C f . b e low , p p .114f f . a nd n n . 5 7-73 .

3 8 . Wol f f , p p. 2 89-95 , i s p redo m inan t ly c oncerned w i th t he y ears b e fore 8 14 ; a nd Auzias d id n o t wr i te o n t he g overnmen t o f C aro ling ian A qu i ta ine a s h e h ad i n tended t o d o . 3 9.

L ev i l la in , n os . V , X I , X I I I , XV I I I , XXI I-I I I ,

XXX IX ;

c f .

i n trod . p . x xv i i i . Ih ope t o d ea l e lsewhere w i th t he s ign i f icance o f t hese d ona t ions , a nd w i th t he w ider p o l i t ica l p rob le ms c onnec ted w i th t he a l iena t ion o f f isca l l ands i n A qu i ta ine . 4 0.

L ev i l la in , i n trod . p . x xxv i i i i m . 3a nd 7 .

T he Ord ina t io Imper i i c ap . 3

may h ave e nv isaged t he g ran t o f s uch p r iv i leges when i t r a ther v ague ly e n jo ined t ha t ' hones tas e t u t i l i tas ' s hou ld b e p reserved ' i n h onor ibus ' , MGH Cap. I , p . 2 71. 1 22

4 1 .

P ippin Ig ran ted S te . Cro ix d e P o i t iers t he r igh t t o h o ld t wo marke ts , wh ich h e e xe mp ted f ro m t o l l :

L ev i l la in , n o. I I .

H e a lso a pparen t ly

c on tro l led c om mun ica t ion a nd t ranspor t ' per d iversa f lum ina i n r egno ... n os tro d iscurren t ia ' :

9 2 • c i t ., n o . XV I I ;

s i mi lar c oncess ions b y P ippin I .

c f . n os . L I , L i l l , LX I f or

These g ran ts h ave b een s een a s mark ing

o ne o f t he s tages b y wh ich p ub l ic a u thor i ty was d is me mbered : L a Tour , p . 2 8 .

Imbar t d e

Ende mann 1 964 , p p . 2 09-10 , o n t he c on trary , a ssocia tes

t he r oya l g ran ts o f marke ts , a nd o f r igh ts o ver t he m , a s p roof o f p ower ; c f . 2 p..c i t ., p p . 2 1-7 , f or t he p r iv i leges f or A qu i ta ine . I ncreased e conomic a ct iv i ty i s p os tu la ted b y L ew is 1 965 , p . 8 6 —bu t h e d oes n o t c o m men t o n t hese r oya l g ran ts wh ich s ee m o f p ar t icu lar r e levance t o t he t op ic. 4 2 . Al os t d ip lo ma ( men t ioned i n al a ter d ocumen t o f 8 38 ) h ad a pparen t ly r egul a ted t he c oncess ions made t o c er ta in i Span i f who h ad b rough t l ands i n to c u l t iva t ion ' ex e re mo ' , L ev i l la in , n o . XM I I .

On t he g enera l s ign i f icance

o f t hese ' apr is iones i , I r nbar t d e l a T our , p p . 4 7-55 ;

Dupon t 1 965 ,

t hroughou t , a nd s ee h is map , p . 2 02 . 4 3 . O n ly o ne d ocumen t s urv ives t o b ear w i tness t o wha t mus t h ave b een more f requen t j ud ic ia l a ct iv i ty o n t he p ar t o f t he ' reges A qu i tanoru m ';

b u t

P ippin Ic er ta in ly d espa tched a ' r nissus ' t o h ear a l awsu i t o n a t l eas t o ne o ccas ion :

L ev i l la in , n o . ) ca , a nd i n trod . p .

An ow l os t d ip lo ma

XXV I.

r efers t o t he h old ing o f a' conven tu (s ) n ob i l itun i n J ogun t iaco p a la t io ' ,

2 p..c i t ., n o. X II I ;

a nd t here i s a more c ircums tan t ia l a ccoun t o f t he

a ppearance o f A bbo t H i lbod o f S t . Ph i l iber t b efore P ippin Ia t a' genera le ..regn i s u i p lac i tum ' i n 8 36: S t . Ph i l iber t , p p . 2 4-5 .

Monumen ts d e l ' h is to ire d es a bbayes d e

A s tron , p . 2 70 , a lso r efers t o a' conven tu m

g enera le ' h eld b y L ou is i n A qu i ta ine ( a t T ou louse ) ;

c f . p p . 2 72 , 2 82.

4 4 . T he ' advoca tus ' o f t he a bbey o f C or mery i n t he T oura ine a ppeared a t P ippin I ' s p a lace a t C hasseneu i l n ear P o i t iers t o a nswer t he c harges made b y t he ' co lon i ' dwe l l ing i n t he P o i tev in ' v i l la ' o f ' An ton iacus ' t ha t t hey were b e ing b urdened w i th u n jus t i f iab le s erv ices .

The ' advoca tus '

c on tes ted t hese c o mp la in ts w i th t he p roduct ion o f ar d iscr ip t io ' made d ur ing t he t ime o f A lcu in 's a bbacy ( d ip lo ma c i ted i n p rev ious n o te ). 4 5 . L ev i l la in , i n trod . p p. x l-l i i ;

c f . F leckens tein 1 959 , p p . 6 3 , 8 1 , 1 14-15 ,

17 o n t he p ersonne l o f t he ' Hofkape l le ' o f t he ' reges A qu i tanor tun ' f ro m t he t ime o f L ou is t he P ious o nwards ;

Wo lf f , p . 2 93 n . 1 98 .

4 6. F or i ns tance i n 8 28 P ippin I ' s ' co mes p a laci i ' a nd h is wr i ting-s ta f f p roduced t he j ud ic ia l d ocu men t r eferred t o i n n n . 4 3-4.

A more e x tended

d iscuss ion o f t he me mbersh ip o f t he h ouseho ld o f t hese k ings w i l l b e a t te mp ted i n t he p aper men t ioned a bove , n o te 3 9 . 4 7. B rüh l 1 968 , p p. 7 -8 , b rough t o u t t he s ign i f icance o f t he e s tabl ish men t o f ar oya l i t inerary f or o ur u nders tand ing o f ar u ler 's me thods o f g overnmen t a nd a dm in is tra t ion .

The T ab le b e low s hows t ha t P ipp in I ' s d ip lo mas

w ere w i thou t e xcep t ion d a ted f ro m r ura l v i l la-pa laces l i ke C hasseneu i l , wh ich l i es a f ew k i lo me tres f ro m P oi t iers . 4 8. D ur ing t he c ampa ign o f L ou is t he P ious i n A qu i ta ine a f ter t he d ea th o f P ippin I , h e i ssued a d ip lo ma f ro m P o i t iers ' c iv i ta te p a la t io r eg io ' a s t he f irs t C aro l ing ian k ing h ad d one i n 7 68 : S ee T ab le b e low , f or t he 1 23

y ears 7 68 a nd 8 39 , n os . 1 , 7 .

Br i lh l 1 975 , p p. 1 66-7 , 1 98-200 ( w i th

p lans ) , c ons iders t ha t t here were a lso u rban p a laces i n Bourges a nd T ou louse . 4 9.

S o me o f P ipp in I ' s d ip lo mas were e ven d a ted f ro m r oya l f ores ts :

s ee

T able , n os . 9 -10 , 2 8-9 . 5 0.

Ermo ld , p p . 5 8 , 2 02 , 2 04 .

5 1.

Brüh l 1 968 , p p. 1 8-32 ; G anshof 1 968 , p p . 4 0-41. T he w in ter i t inerary o f t he k ings o f A qu i ta ine b e fore 8 38 was c en tred o n f our ' v i l la& d es igned b y L ou is t o s upp ly t he k ing a nd h is c our t :

A s tron . p . 2 68 .

n amed a s C hasseneu i l , Angeac , Doug a nd t breu i l :

T hese were

Wo lf f , p . 2 94 n . 2 05

( f or i den t i f ica t ion ). 5 2.

A f ter 8 38 n o f ur ther d ip lo mas were d a ted f rom t hese ' v i l la& ( s ee Tab le ) , wh ich a lso d isappear f ro m t he n arra t ive s ources .

Rura l r es idences

wou ld a dm i t ted ly p rov ide v ery l i t t le p ro tec t ion a ga ins t Norse a t tacks , a nd migh t t herefore h ave b een a bandoned f or t h is r eason ;

b u t n or th o f

t he L oire C har les t he Ba ld b y n o means a bandoned t he t rad i t iona l p a laces o f h is d ynas ty , a s i s s hown b y 1 3 reh l 1 968 , p p . 4 0-41. 5 3 .

T ab le :

y ears 8 41-2 , 8 44 , 8 48-50 , 8 52 , 8 54 , n os . 4 0-1, 4 3 , 6 4 , 6 6-73 .

5 4 .

E .g . ' Av in tus v i l la ' , ' Ferrucius v i l la ' , ' v i l la Mar iscar ias ' , ' v i l la P u tea ta ' , T ab le , n os . 4 4-6 , 6 3 , 6 5 .

There i s n o e v idence t ha t L ou is

t he P ious o r P ippin Ir es ided a t t hese

‚v i l lae '

when t hey were ' reges

A qu i tanorum '. 5 5 .

Br i lh l 1 968 , p p. 4 2-3 , n o tes t ha t C har les t he Ba ld t ended i ncreas ing ly t o r es ide i n c i t ies , o r t o a ccep tthe h osp i ta l i ty o f r e l ig ious e s tab l ishmen ts .

5 6.

Three o f P ipp in I 's d ip lo mas a re d a ted f rom t he monas ter ies o f F igeac , S o l ignac ,a nd S t . Ma ixen t n ear P o i t iers ( 838/9 a nd 8 48 —see T ab le , n os . 3 2 , 3 8-9 ).

A par t f ro m t he d ip lo mas wh ich p rove Char les t he Ba ld 's

p resence i n t he monas tery o f S t . S a turn in ' prope Tho losa ' , t here i s n o e v idence f or h is r es idence i n a ny monas tery i n A qui ta ine ;

b u t t he c ase

o f S t . S a turn in was e xcep t iona l , ow ing t o t he p ro longed s iege o f T ou louse : L o t a nd Ha lphen , p p . 9 7-106;

T ess ier n os . 3 6-56;

c f . Tab le , n os .

4 7-62 . 5 7.

The s er ies o f Char les t he Ba ld 's d ip lo mas d a ted f ro m w i th in t he ' regnum A qu i tanorum ' i n f ac t c eases a f ter J u ly 8 54 , s ee Tab le .

5 8 . I t was p er t inen t ly r e marked b y Wol f f , p . 2 95 , t ha t C har les t he G rea t was n o t o bl iged t o e n ter A qu i ta ine b e tween 7 78-814 , ' parce g u 'un r o i d e s on s ang s ty t rouva i t ...cas u n ique d ans s on emp ire '.

L ou is t he P ious p ro-

b ab ly i n tended t o p ursue a s im i lar p o l icy a f ter 8 14 s ince , b e fore t he p o l i t ica l d is turbances o f t he 8 30s , t here a re n o t races o f h is p resence i n A qu i ta ine e i ther .

H owever , i n 8 32 h e p ursued P ippinito t he L i mous in

a f ter t he l a t ter h ad f a i led t o o bey a n imper ia l s u m mons t o a ppear a t O r leans , As tron ., p . 3 40 ; 5 9 .

S i mson , i , p p. 2 4-5.

L ev i l la in , i n trod . p p . i ii .

1 24

6 0 . Loc. c i t .

The e x is tence o f as epara te ' rex A qu i tanoru m ' a f ter 8 55 i s

o ccas iona l ly a cknow ledged i n t he d a t ing o f ap r iva te c har ter , a s Lev i l la in s hows i n h is d iscuss ion ;

b u t i n t his p aper i ti s t he e xercise o f r oya l

a u thor i ty wh ich i s i n q ues t ion . 6 1. L oc. c i t ., p . 6 2 . S even d ip lo mas g ran t ing l ands i n S ept i man ia were i ssued b y C har les t he Ba ld 's c hancery b e tween 8 55-77 a nd n ine f or A qu i ta ine , T ess ier , n os . 1 93 , 2 03 , 2 08 , 2 10-11 , 2 75 , 2 87 , 3 41 , 3 44 , 3 53 , 3 77 , 4 09-11 , 4 28 , 4 48 . 6 3 . Tess ier , n os . 1 78 , 2 07 ,

( wi th c orrup t p assages ) , 2 83 , 2 85 , 3 39 , 3 44 ,

3 74-5 , 3 76 ( i n terpo la ted ) , 3 92 , 4 40 , 4 42 , 4 48 .

These a re d ip lo mas o f

im mun i ty o r p ro tec t ion i ssued f or A qu i tan ian c hurches a f ter 8 55 ; a lso n . 9 3 b is wh ich h as a r eference t o al os t d ip lo ma );

( c f .

t hey i nclude

p r iv i leges i ssued a t t he r eques t o f C har les 's s ub jec ts f or r e l ig ious h ouses f ounded p r iva te ly , s ee b e low n n . 6 9-70 .

C har les i ssued t we lve s uch

d iplo mas f or A qu i ta ine b efore 8 55 . 6 4 . Tess ier , n o. 3 75 :

' H i me mnone m v ide l ice t , c om i te m p a laci i n os tr i ,

e t H i ter ium i un iore m e ius ...' 6 5 .

L oc c i t . Th is d ocumen t e xe mp ted t he monas tery f ro m a l l c o mi ta l e xact ions , a nd r eserved i t s ' cause ' ( l awsu i ts ) f or h ear ing b y t he k ing h i mse l f , i fn o t m iss i t c ou ld b e p resen t .

C f . n o . 3 76 wh ich a l lowed t he c anons o f

S t. J u l ien d e Br ioude t o b r ing t he ir c o mp la in ts ' nos tro c oram c om i te p a laci i '. 6 6. T ess ier , n o . 3 19 .

T h is was g ran ted a t t he r eques t o f ' Hugo a bba , n os ter

p ropinquus ' a nd e nacted a t C osn .e-sur-Lo ire where t he k ing h ad o rdered ' breves d e h onor ibus ...per omne r egnum ' t o b e p resen ted :

T ess ier , n o .

3 18. 6 7. I ti s t rue t ha t C har les ' t he Ch i ld ' was v ery y oung i n 8 55 ( he was n o t y e t f u l ly f i f teen i n 8 62 ) , b u t h is b ro ther L ou is was o ver t wen ty when h e s ucc eeded C har les i n 8 67:

Auzias , p . 2 82 n . 5w i th r eferences .

C har les

t he Ba ld was h i mse l f a l mos t t he s ame a ge i n 8 40 , Dev isse , p . 2 82 ;

c f .

L ot a nd H a lphen , p p. 1 3-14. 6 8 . T ess ier , i i , p p . 9 4-116.

T ess ier c ame t o t he c onclus ion ( p . 1 02 ) t ha t

o n ly t he k ing , t he a rchchance l lor a nd t he c h ief o f t he n o tar ies were p ermi t ted t o g ive t he c o m mand ( ' iuss io ' ) f or t he d raw ing-up o f a' precep tum '. 6 9 . T ess ier , n o. 2 41 ( f ro m a p seudo-or ig ina l whose t ex t i s , h owever , a ccep ted ).

Two d ocumen ts r ecord ing a n e xchange o f l ands h ad b een

d rawn u p ' par i t enore ' , were p roduced ' ad r e legendum ' , a nd t hen c onf ir med i n t he k ing 's ' precep tu m ' d a ted f ro m Qu ierzy. I n v iew o f T ess ier 's c o m men ts t hese s ta te men ts o ugh t t o b e a ccep ted l i tera l ly. 7 0 . T ess ier , n o. 3 39.

The word ing i nd ica tes a p ersona l a ppearance :

' Bernardus T o losanus march io e t d i lec t iss i mus n obis f ide l is , a d n os tra m a ccedens mansue tud ine m ... Qua mobre m h um i l i ter n os tra m p e t i i t a l t i tud in em ' e tc . 7 1. T ess ier , n o. 4 10 , d a ted 1 6 J u ly 8 76 f ro m Pon th ion ( f ro m t he o r ig ina l ) . On t he r o le o f t he ' ambasc ia tor ' , i bid . i i , p p. 1 03-108 ( w i th b ibl iography ). 1 25

7 2.

T ess ier , n o. 4 28 , d a ted 1 1 J une 8 77 f ro m Qu ierzy ( a lso f ro m t he o r ig ina l ). The i ssue o f t h is d ocumen t t hus c o incided w i th t he a sse mb ly w h ich d rew u p t he f a mous c ap i tu lary , a nd a t wh ich C har les t he B a ld 's f ina l I t a lian e xped i t ion was d iscussed , H a lphen 1 911 , p p . 7 4-82 ;

i d . 1 949 , p p . 4 32-6.

Fro tar ius , o ne o f t he mos t d evo ted s uppor ters o f C har les , h ad b een t ransf erred f ro m t he a rchb ishopr ic o f B ordeaux t o t ha t o f B ourges i n 8 76 , Auzias , p p . 3 77-81;

GX t , i , c o ls . 3 0-34 ;

a nd c f . Dev isse i , p p. 7 73 ,

7 80 , 8 53 f or i n teres t ing c o m men ts o n h is p ar t i n t he e ccles ias t ica l p o l i t ics o f t he r e ign . 7 3 .

7 4.

N o t o n ly r oya l g ran ts a nd p r iv i leges were i nvo lved ;

t he k ing a lso r eta ined

c on tro l o f s ecu lar a nd e ccles ias t ica l a ppo in t men ts :

s ee b e low r m . 7 7-80 .

L ev i l la in , n os . L ( Ju ly 8 40 ) a nd LV I ( January 8 48 ) , f or P ipp in I 's g ran ts t o Rodu l fus a nd h is monas t ic f ounda t ion o f B eau l ieu i n t he L imous in ; c f . T ess ier , n o. 2 75 ( Oc t . 8 64 ) .

7 5.

S ee f ur ther Auzias , p p. 3 45-5 .

B e tween J une 8 36 a nd Dec . 8 38 P ipp in Ig ave t he impor tan t ' v i l las ' o f P errecy a nd S ancenay i n t he c oun ty o f A u tun t o h is ' f idel i H eccardo ' : L ev i l la in , n o . =

M IL

I n t he y ear f o l low ing P ipp in 's d ea th L ou is

c on ferred t he s ame p laces o n t he s ame c oun t w i thou t a ny r eference t o h is d ead s on 's d ip lo ma: C har tes ...S t . B enoi t-sur-Lo ire , n o . XX I . A s Au tun h ad b een a t tached t o P ipp in 's k ingdo m b y t he Ord ina t io o f 8 17 , i t s ee ms t ha t t he Emperor 's d ip lo ma was i ssued i n t he h opes o f a t tach ing t h is p ower fu l me mber o f t he ' N ibe lungen h is tor iques ' t o t he c ause o f h is s on C har les : 7 6.

L ev i l la in 1 937-8 , p p . 3 56 o nwards .

A uzias p p. 2 82-3 :

' La s o lu t ion e ta i t e legan te e t c ons t i tua i t u n r etour

u ne t rad i t ion q u i a va i t e n s o m me , d onne d e b ons r esu l ta ts ... Au tor i ta ire e t c en tra l isa teur p ar t e mperamen t ...

( com men ts o n Char les t he Ba ld 's

c rea t ion o f a' rex A qu i tanoru m ' ). 7 7.

AB , p . 1 40 .

A d r id a lready h e ld ' abba t iam S anct i H i lar i i c um a l i is

p lur im is h onorab i l ibus b enef ic i is i —bu t h e c ou ld p robab ly o n ly h ave o bt a ined S t . H i la ire a f ter t he d ea th o f Ramnu l f o f P o i t iers i n S ep te mper 8 66 ( see n ex t n o te ). I th as b een s upposed b y L ot 1 902 , p . 4 36 n . 1 , t ha t t he g ran t o f t he c oun ty o f P o i tou a cco mpan ied t he k ing 's b es towa l o f S t . H i la ire ;

b u t , a l though t h is a ssu mpt ion was f o l lowed b y A uzias ,

p p . 3 57-9 , i th ad b een d ispu ted b y R ichard 1 903 , i , p . 3 0. b e c onclus ive ly p roved o ne way o r t he o ther .

I tc annot

C f . Dhond t , p p . 2 00-01 ;

Werner 1 958-60 , p . 1 67 n . 6 8 . 7 8 .

T he c hrono logy a nd s equence o f e ven ts i s c on fus ing .

There c an b e n o

d oubt o f t he d ea th o f C oun t Ra mnu l f w i th R ober t ' t he S trong ' a t B r issar the i n t he a u tu mn o f 8 66:

AB , p . 1 31;

a nd s ee t he e x tens ive d iscuss ion b y

L o t 1 915 , p p. 5 05-9 .

H owever , t he d epr iva t ion o f Ramnu lf 's s ons i s

n o t men t ioned b y t he AB u n t i l e ar ly 8 68 , when i ti s a ssocia ted w i th t he g ran t o f S t . H i la ire t o Fro tar ius ;

a nd t h is i s men t ioned a f ter t he murder

o f Ac fr id, who h ad a lso h e ld t he a bbey o f S t . H i la ire .

Much c on fus ion

migh t h ave b een a vo ided i ft h is t imelag h ad b een men t ioned b y L o t 1 902 , p . 4 35 , who wro te a s t hough C har les a c ted t o r e move t he p a terna l ' honores ' f ro m Ra mnu l f 's s ons i m med ia te ly a f ter Br issar the , b estowing t he m o n A cfr id ( see p rev ious n ote ). I f Ac fr id ,was n ot c oun t o f P oi tou a f ter Ramnu lf 's d ea th , who was?

Dhond t a dm i ts d efea t , p p . 2 03-04.

1 26

7 9.

C oun ts Ra rnnu l f a nd A cfr id , a nd B ishop Frotar ius were a l l g ran ted S t . H i la ire b y C har les , ( prev ious n otes 7 7-78 ) ;

a nd Fro tar ius h e ld o ther

a bbeys a nd t he b ishopr ic o f P o iti ers , b efore b e ing p ro mo ted t o t he a rchb ishopr ic o f B ourges , n . 7 2 a bove .

The AB 8 66 ( p . 1 29 ) a lso men t ions

Char les 's a ppo in t men t o f Vu l fadus t o B ourges . o f l ands a nd o f f ices o f t he c hurch : 8 0 .

O n t h is k ing 's t rea t men t

L esne 1 92? , p p . 1 77-80 , 2 04-36.

C f . S chram m 's d iscuss ion o f t he r o le d es igned b y Char les t he Ba ld f or Lou is t he " S tammerer" i n 8 67 ( 1960 , p p. 2 0 a n . 7 -8 ) , a l though S chram m r ela tes t h is t o t he r u ler 's d i f f icu l t ies w i th h is s ons r a ther t han t o t he p rob le ms o f t he g overnmen t o f A qu i ta ine .

Dur ing t he mid-n in th c en tury

t he o f f ice o f k ing was c er ta in ly b eing i nves ted w i th n ew mean ing :

U l l mann

1 969 , p p . 7 8-89 , N e lson 1 977 , p p . 2 77-9 ( c f . B rüh l 1 962 , p p . 2 73-4 f or t he c ere mon ia l p ract ices o f Char les t he Ba ld ) ;

b u t , o nthe o ther h and ,

t rad i t iona l p rac t ices a nd a t t i tudes were a f fec ted when a ' rex ' was d en ied t he o ppor tun i ty o f f u lf i l l ing h is c h ief f unct ion— tha t o f r u l ing , s ee n . 8 3 b elow . 8 1. AB , p . 1 42.

C har les s pen t C hr is t mas 8 67 a t Auxerre , t rave l led t o

Pou i l ly-sur-Lo ire ( where h e r ece ived n ews o f A cfr id 's murder ) , a nd t hen e n tered B erry ' quas i a d h oc v ind icandu m f lag i t ium '.

A f ter a n u nsuccess-

f u l c ampa ign h e r eached S t . Den is b y A sh Wednesday 8 68 . r eference t o t he d isposa l o f B erry o ccurs i n 8 72 : 8 2 . AB , 8 69 ( p . 1 52 ) .

The n ex t

AB , p . 1 85 .

F or t he c onsequences o f h is f a i lure t o s ecure t he

magna tes ' o bed ience s ee AB , 8 77 ( p . 2 16 ). 8 3 . I s idore , E ty mo log iae ( ed . L indsay ) , I X , 2 , 4 -6 ;

c f . V I I , 1 2-17 ;

c f . Lupus o f F erneres wr i t ing t o C har les h i mse lf :

a nd

' Cur e n im r eg iu m

n o men p rae tend i t is , s i r egnare n esc i t is?' , Lupus , i , p p. 1 42-3.

There

a re o ccasiona l h in ts t ha t n in th c en tury a u thors r ef lec ted o n t he r ea i l i ty o f p ower , a s when A s tron ., p . 3 36 , c o m men ts o n t he emperor 's i nabi l i ty t o p reven t t he b l ind ing o f Bernard 's b ro ther :

' I n t a l ibus ... s o lo n om ine

i mpera tor a es ta te m t ranseg i t '. 8 4 . I n p ar t icu lar , c on trol o f e s ta tes a nd r es idences i n A qu i ta ine o r o f t he k ing 's e cono m ic r esources wou ld h ave b een v ir tua l ly imposs ib le , g ran ted t ha t t here were n o a dequa te i nven tor ies , a nd t ha t l oca l c oun ts o f ten h ad c harge o f t he a dm in is tra t ion o f t hese a sse ts : 1 947 , p p . 2 58-9 .

Dumas , p . 2 71;

Ganshof

8 5 . The c o m men ts o f Werner , ( n . 1 2 a bove ) a re r e levan t h ere a lso . 8 6.

G ansho f 1 961 , p . 9 0 , f o l low i n gt he o bserva t ion t ha t ' t he Frank ish monarchy n ever k new i t s p ower a s a nyth ing b u t weak :

t h is g enera l isa t ion h o lds g ood

a s much f or t he u nd iv ided monarchy a s f or t he " Tei lre iche" ,

t hese a re

h arsh c o m men ts , b u t t hey u nder line t he i mpor tance o f ar u ler 's p resence a nd p ersona l s uperv is ion ; c f . Wo l f f a bove , n . 5 8 . A l though many c ons truct ive c o m men ts were made b y me mbers o f t he C har les t he Ba ld c o l loqu iu m , Ie specia l ly w ish t o t hank J ane t N e lson f or h er h e lpfu l s ugg est ions d ur ing t he r e-wr i t ing o f t h is p aper .

1 27

REFERENCES Auzias , L ., 1 937.

L 'Aqu i ta ine Carö l ing ienne , B ib l io theque Mer id iona le ,

2 nd s er ies x xv i i i ( Par is/Tou louse ). Brüh l , C .-R ., 1 962.

' Frank ischer K rönungsbrauch u nd d as P rob le m d er

" Fes tkrönungen"

H is tor ische Z e i tschr i f t 1 94 .

Brüh l , C .-R., 1 975 . Pa la t ium u nd C iv i tas . S tud ien z ur Profan topograph ie s pä tan t iker C iv i ta tes v om 3 . b is z um 1 3.Jh t ., i , G a l l ien ( Co logne/V ienna ). Char tes S t . B enoi t . Recue i l d es c har tresde l 'Abbaye d e S t . Benot t-sur-Lo ire , e dd . M . P rou a nd A . V id ier , D ocumen ts p ub l ies p ar l a S oc ie te H is tor ique e t A rcheo log ique d u Ga t ina is , V . ( Par is , 1 907 ). Char tes N oua i l le .

C har tes d e l ' abbaye d e N oua i l le d e 6 78 a 1 200 , e d. P .

d e Monsaber t , A rch ives H is tor iques d u P o i tou 4 9 ( 1 936). C lassen , P ., 1 972 .

' Kar l d er G rosse u nd D ie T hron fo lge im F rankenre ich ' ,

i n F es tschr i f t f ür H ermann H ei mpe l z um 7 0 G ebur ts tag ,Verö f fen tl ichungen d es Max P lanak—Ins t i tu ts f ür G esch ich te , v o l . i i ( Gö t t ingen ) . Dhond t , J ., 1 948 .

E tudes s ur l a n a issance d es p r inc ipau tes t err i tor ia les e n

F rance ( i xe -Xe s ièc le ) ( Bruges ) . Dumas , A ., 1 926.

' Que lques o bserva t ions s ur l a g rande e t p e t i te p ropr ie te

al ' epoque c aro l ing ienne ' , Revue H is tor ique d e Droi t Franpa is e t

t ranger

4 th s er ies , V . Dupon t , A ., 1 955 .

' Cons idera t ions s ur l a c o lon isa t ion e t l a v ie r ura le d ans

l e Rouss i l lon e t e n Marche d 'Espagne a u i xe s ièc le ' , AM l xv i i . Dupon t , A ., 1 965 .

' L 'apr is ion e t l e r eg i me a pr is ionna ire d ans l e M id i d e

l a France ' , LMA 7 1. Ende mann , T ., 1 964. Mark turkunde u nd Mark t i n Frankre ich u nd Burgund v om 9 . b is 1 1. J h t . ( Cons tance ) . Ew ig , E ., 1 965 .

' Descr ip t io Franc iae ' , i n K dG

F leckens te in , J ., 1 959.

D ie H ofkape l le d er d eu tschen K ön ige , i , G rund legung .

D ie k aro l ing ische H ofkape l le . G a laber t , F ., 1 937-8 .

I .

( S tu t tgar t ) .

' Sur l a mor t d e P epin I er e t d e P epin I , r o is

d 'Aqu i ta ine y , AM x l ix-1. G anshof , F . L ., 1 947.

' Char le magne 's Fa i lure ' t rans l . b y J . S ondhei mer

i n The Caro l ing ians a nd t he Frank ish Monarchy ( London 1 971 ). G anshof , F . L ., 1 955 . ' So me o bserva t ions o n t he O rd ina t io Imper i i o f 8 17 ' , i n The C aro l ing ians a nd t he Frank ish Monarchy ( London 1 971 ) . G ansho f , F . L ., 1 956.

' On t he g enes is a nd s ign i f icance o f t he T rea ty o f

V erdun ( 843 ) ' , i n The Caro l ing ians a nd t he F rank ish Monarchy ( London 1 971) . G anshof , F . L ., 1 961.

' The i ns t i tu t iona l f ramework o f t he Frank ish monarchy ' ,

i n The C aro l ing ians a nd t he Frank ish Monarchy ( London 1 971 ).

1 28

G anshof , F . L ., 1 968 .

Frank ish I ns t itu tions u nder C har le magne , t rans l .

B . a nd M . L yon ( Prov idence , Rhode I s land ). H a lphen , L ., 1 911.

' A p ropos d u c api tu la ire d e Qu ierzy-sur-O ise ' , Revue

H istor ique c v i , r epr in ted i n Ät ravers l ' h is to ire d u Moyen Age .

( Par is

1 950 ) . H a lphen , L ., 1 949.

Char le magne e t l 'E mpire c aro l ing ien 2 nd e dn . ( Par is ).

I mbar t , d e l a Tour , 1 907.

k p o qu ef eoda le .

Ques t ions d 'h is toire s oc ia le e t r e l ig ieuse .

( Par is ).

I s idore , I s idor i H ispa lens is E piscopi E ty mo log iaru m s ive O r ig inu m , e d . W. M. L indsay , 2v o ls . ( Ox ford 1 911). L esne , E ., 1 922.

H is to ire d e l a p ropr iete e ccles ias t ique e n France :

i .

La p ropr iete e cc les ias t ique e t l es d roi ts r ega l iens a P epoque c aro l ing ienne ( f asc 1 ) :

L es &apes d e l a s ecu lar isa t ion d es b iens d 'tg lise d u

v i i ie a u x e s ièc le .

( L i l le 1 922 ).

L ev i lla in , L ., 1 903.

' Le s acre d e Char les l e Chauve a Or leans ' , BECH

l x iv. L ev i lla in , L ., 1 937-8 .

' Les N ibe lungen h istor iques e t l eurs a l l iances d e

f amine ' , AM x l ix-1. L ev i l la in , L ., 1 934.

' Ade mar d e Chabannes , g enea log is te" , Bu l let in d e l a

S ocie te d es An t iqua ires d e l 'Oues t ' , 3 rd s er ies , x . L ew is , A . R ., 1 965.

The Deve lop men t o f S ou thern French a nd Ca ta lan

S ocie ty , 7 18-1050 ( Aus tin , Texas ). L eyser , K . J ., 1 979 .

Ru le a nd C on f l ict i n a n Ear ly Med ieva l S oc ie ty:

O tton ian S axony ( London ). L o t , F ., 1 902.

' Um a nnee d u i .g rne d e Char les L e C hauve .

Anne e866 ' ,

L MA 1 5. L o t , F ., 1 915.

' La L oire , l 'Aqu ita ine e t l a S e ine d e 8 62 ä 8 66:

Rober t L e

For t ' , BECH 7 6 , Ma lbos , L ., 1 970 .

' La c apture d e Bernard d e S ept i man ie ' , LMA 7 6.

Monu men ts d e l 'H is to ire d es A bbayes d e S t . Phi l iber t , e d . R . P oupard in , C ol lect ion d e t ex tes p our s erv ir ä l ' etude e t al ' ense igne men t d e Ph is toire. ( Par is , 1 905 ). N e lson , J . L ., 1 977.

' K ingsh ip , l aw a nd l i turgy i n t he p ol i tica l t hough t o f

H inc mar o f Rheims ' , EHR x ci i . R ichard , A ., 1 903.

H is toire d es C om tes d e P oi tou ( 7 78-1204 ) , v o l. I :

7 78-1126 ( Par is ). S chra m m , P ., 1 960 .

Der Kön ig v on Frankreich , Das Wesen d er Monarch ie

v o m 9z um 1 6 J ahrhunder t 2v o ls . ( Wei mar ). S i mson , B ., 1 874.

J ahrbücher d es Frank ischen Re ichs l i n ter Ludwig d em

Fro m men , 2v o ls . U l lmann , W., 1 971.

( Leipzig ).

T he Caro ling ian Rena issance a nd t he I dea o f K ingsh ip.

( London ). 1 29

Werner , K . F ., 1 958-60 .

' Un tersuchungen z ur Frühze i t d es f ranzösischen

Fürs ten tu ms ( 9-10 J ahrhunder t ) ' , D ie We l t a ls G esch ich te x v i i i-xx . Werner , K . F ., 1 965 .

' Bedeu tende Ade ls fa m i l ien i m Re ich Kar ls d es

G rossen ' i n K ar l d er G rosse , i , n ow t rans l . ( w i thou t a ppend ices ) b y T . R eu ter i n The Med ieva l N obi l i ty , S tud ies o n t he Ru l ing C lasses o f France a nd G er many f ro m t he S ix th t o t he Twe lf th C en tury ( Ams terdam/ N ew York/Ox ford 1 979 ). Wo l f f , P ., 1 965 .

' L 'Aqu i ta ine e t s es Marges t i n K ar l d er G rosse , i( as

c i ted f or Ew ig , a bove ) .

1 30

APPENDIX CAROLING IAN RES IDENCE I N AQU ITA INE ( 751-877)

Th is l i s t h as b een c o mpi led f ro m t he d ip lo mas i ssued b y t he C aro l ing ian k ings b e tween t he a ccess ion o f P ippin i n 7 51 a nd t he d ea th o f C har les t he Ba ld . I t s p urpose i s t o i nd ica te t he s i tes wh ich a ppear i n t he i t inerar ies o f t hese r u lers i n t he k ingdo m o f A qu i ta ine , a nd t o c o mp le te t he i n forma t ion p rov ided b y Brüh l whose v a luab le maps d o n o t i nclude t he ma ter ia l f or t he ' reges A qu i tanoru m '. The me thod emp loyed i s t o g ive t he d a te e s tabl ished b y t he e d i tor ( t he d ip lo mas were n orma l ly d a ted b y t he r egna l y ear ) t oge ther w i th t he p lacen ame i n t he f orm t o b e f ound i n t he d ocu men t . Th is i s f o l lowed , whereever p ossib le , b y t he modern i den t i f ica t ion a nd d bpar te men t . Re ferences a re t o t he c r i t ica l e d i t ions o f t he d ip lo mas o f t he f irs t C aro l ing ians , o f t he k ings o f A qu i ta ine , a nd o f C har les t he Ba ld :

i n t he c ase o f L ou is t he P ious t o t he

b es t a va i lab le e d i t ion o f t he d ip lo mas i n q ues t ion .

The a nno ta t ion h as b een

k ep t t o t he min imu m p oss ib le ( e .g . p rob le ms o f a u then t ic i ty , o r i n terpo la ted d ip lo mas h ave n o t i n g enera l b een n o ted ).

1 31

P IPP IN I , K ing o f t he Franks ( 751-68 ) 1 . 7 68 , J u ly

P ictav is c iv i ta te ( Po i t iers , V ienne )

D ip. K aro l , i , n o. 2 4

CHARLES I , ' t he G rea t ' ( 7 68-814 ) 2 .

7 69 , May

Murnaco ( Mornac , Charen te )

D ip. K arol., i , n o. 5 8 .

3 . 7 69 , J u ly

And iaco ( Angeac , C haren te )

D ip. K arol., i , n o. 5 9 .

LOU IS I ' The P ious ' ( i ) a s K ing o f A qu i ta ine 4 . 5 .

7 94 , Aug . 3 8 08 , Apr i l 7

7 78-814 )

J ogund iaco p a la t io n os tro ( Le Pa la is ,

Char tes Noua i l l6 ,

H te. V ienne )

n o. 6 .

Cassanogelo p a la t io ( Chasseneu i l ,

RHF , v i , 4 53.

V ienne ) ( i i ) a s Emperor - 8 40 6 . 7 .

( ? ) 8 32 , N ov .

Caduppa v i l la ( poss ibly Chauppes ,

RHF , v i , 5 83

1 9

n r . Mirebeau , V ienne?)

8 39 , Dec . 2 9

P ictav is c iv i ta te , p a la t io r eg io

Char tes S t . Benoi t

( see n o . 1 )

n o. XX I

P IPPLN I , K ing o f Aqu i ta ine ( 8 17-38 ) 8 .

8 18 , J une 2 6

i n Cas t i l l ione c as tro q uod e s t s uper

LeviHa in , n o. I

f luv ium Dordon iae ( Cas ti l lon-surDordogne , G ironde ) 9 .

8 25 , A pr i l 1

i n f ores te q uae d ici tur Mo lar iasI I

n o.

( Mou l ibres , V ienne ) 1 0.

8 25 , O ct . 3 1

A lber ide f ores te ( Aureix ,H te. V ienne ) n o. I V

1 1.

8 25 , Dec. 2 2

Ad i l la Warda p rope And iaco ( pro-

No. V

b ably n ear Angeac , C haren te - s ee n o. 3 ) 1 2.

8 27 , J une 2 4

i n v i l la Warda ( probably t he s ame

n o. V I I

l oca t ion a s n o. 1 1?) 1 3.

8 27 , S ep t . 2 7

1 4. 1 5.

i A n ud A e u )sone c as tro ( A lzonne , c l 6p.

n o. V I I I

8 28 , J an . 1 1

i n Casanog i l i p a la t io ( see n . 5 )

n o. I X

8 28 , J une 6

i n s anc ti Mar t ia l is monas ter io

n o. X I

( monas tery o f S t . Mar t ia l , L i moges , H te . V ienne ) 1 6.

8 28 , J une 9

Casanog i lo v i l la p a la t io n os tro i n

( Tuesday )

p ago P ictavo s ecus a lveum C l inno

n o. X I I

( see n o . 5 ) . 1 7.

( 829 , J u ly 2 3 )

Vodevog i lo ( un iden ti f ied , b u t a l mos t

n o. X IV 1

c er ta in ly i n A qui ta ine ) 1 8 .

8 29/30 , Aug .

i n Av iziac i v i l la ( un iden t i f ied , b u t

1 0

a l mos t c er ta in ly i n A qu i ta ine )

1 32

n o. XV

1 9.

8 30/31, J an .

i n c onven tu n obi lium i n J ogun t iaco

n o. XV I2

p a la t io ( see n o. 4 ) 2 0.

8 34/5 , Oc t .

Theovado p a la tio n os tro ( Dou8-1a-

2 4

Fon ta ine , Ma ine-e t-Lo ire )

n o. XX I

2 1.

8 35 , O ct . 2 6

i n Teo tuadum p a la t iu m n os tru m

2 2.

8 35 , N ov . 1

i n Teo tuadu m p a la t ium n os tru m

2 3.

8 35 , N ov. 2 4

i n Ner is io ( N8r is , A l l ier )

n o. XX IV

2 4.

8 37, Dec. 2 5

i n Pa lacio lo ( poss ibly Pa l issous ,

n o. XXV I

2 5.

8 38 , Feb. 2 7

2 6.

8 38 , Mar . 2 8

n o . XX I I

( see n o. 2 0 ) n o. XX I I I

( see n o. 2 0 )

Dordogne ) S anct i H i lar i i monas ter io ( S t .

n o. XXVI I

H i la ire , P oi t iers , V ienne ) Care mp tas ( poss ibly C haren ta is ,

n o. XXV II I

L ndre-et-Lo ire ) 2 7.

8 38 , A pr i l 2 3

i n Caseno ( Chassenon , C haren te )

n o . XX IX

2 8 .

8 38 , Aug . 2 3

i n Guanap i i f oreste ( l a G arnache ,

n o . XXX I I

2 9 .

8 38 , S ep t ./

C ervar io f ores te ( l a Rocheserv iAre ,

Oct . 1

Vend8e )

3 0 .

8 38 , Nov . 2 5

N er is io ( see n o. 2 3 )

n o. XXXV I

3 1.

8 36-8

V odi log i lo ( see n o . 1 7 )

n o. X >O

0 0 4 c ) J D

o o

4 1

C . )

6 3 C

I I

C . )

C l )

CO

APPENDIX I

L is t o f c har ters i n wh ich Er men trude a nd R ich i ld is a ppear , e ither a s g ran tors o r i n tercessors Benef iciary

Da te

Ro le

Prin ted

ER MENTRUDE P ost 8 52(?)

Abbey o f F are mou t iers

I

T .12

1 6 Dec . 8 54

Abbo t E inhard o f F osses

C

T .169

F eb. 8 56

S S . Ragnober t a nd Z eno , S u iacu m

I

T .1 8 2

3O ct . 8 56

S t . P ierre , C orbie

C

T .1 8 9

1 2 Aug . 8 59

Church o f C hä lons-sur- Marne

I

T .212

1 2 Aug . 8 59

Church o f C hä lons-sur- Marne

I

T .213

2 6 O ct . 8 62

Church o f Chä lons-sur- Marne

I

T .248

2 0 J une 8 64

S t . G erma in , Auxerre

I

T .269

2 2 Nov . 8 64

Church o f C hä lons-sur- Marne

I

T .277

2 2 N ov . 8 64

Church o f C hä lons-sur- Marne

I

T .278

No tre-Dame , Mor ienva l

I

T .329 b is

A bbey o f Or igny

I

T .197 b is

1 4 Dec. 8 42 x 6O ct . 8 69 8 47 x 8 57 R ICH ILDIS 2 5 Dec. 8 75 x 2 5 Oct. 8 76

Rober t

I

T .416

9J u ly 8 77

Abbey o f N ive l les

I

T .433

9 10

Abbey o f G orze

G

H .87

9 10

Abbey o f G orze

G

H .88

I -I n tercessor C - C on f ir ma t ion o f q ueen 's g ran t G - G ran tor T - Tessier H - H erbo mez , Car tu la ire d e l 'Abbaye d e G orze

1 68

9 .

CHARLES THE BALD AND WIFRED THE HA IRY R . J . H . C o l l ins

I n t he n or th t ransep t o f t he monas tery c hurch o f R ipo l l r epose , o r s o i ti s c la i med , t he mor ta l r e ma ins o f t he c oun t- marqu is Wi fredus , o r ' Gu i fre e l P r los ' , a s h e i s k nown i n C a ta lon ia .

H e h as s u f fered t he misfor tune o f

h av ing h is n ame a ng l ic ized a s ' W i l fred t he H a iry ' , o r e ven ' W i l fred t he S haggy ' , b u t i t may b e l ess i mper tinen t j us t t o c a l l h i m Wifred .

1

Wh i ls t j us ti f iable

s cep t icism , e x is ts a bou t t he c on ten ts o f t he t o mb t ha t i s s a id t o b e h is , Wi fred 's c la im t o b e t he e f fec t ive f ounder a nd p r incipa l e ar ly b ene factor o f t he f irs t monas tery a t R ipo l l r es ts a bove s usp icion .

2

B u t i ti s o ne o f t he v ery f ew

t h ings t ha t c an b e s a id a bou t h im , h is c areer a nd h is s ign i f icance w i th a ny measure o f c onv ic t ion .

F or a l though t o h is tor ica l ly- m inded C a ta lans Wi fr ed

s tands a s t he f a ther o f C a ta lan i ndependence a nd t he f ounder o f ad ynas ty t ha t was t o r u le C a ta lon ia a nd l a ter t he k ingdo m o f Aragon u n in terrup ted ly u n t i l t he f i f teen th c en tury , h e i s , t o s ay t he l eas t , av ery s hadowy f igure , a nd p erh aps o ne t oo f ra i l t o b ear t he e normous b urden o f h is tor ica l r espons ibi l i ty i mposed u pon h im .

3

L i t t le b u t t he b ares t o u t l ines a re k nown o f h is c areer ,

a nd h is o r ig ins a nd a n teceden ts h ave p rov ided o ccas ion f or much s cho lar ly c on troversy.

I n p ar t icu lar , h is r t le a s t he f ound ing f a ther o f Ca ta lan p ol i t ica l

i ndependence i s more o pen t o r ev is ion t han h as b een a l lowed , o r r a ther i t n eeds t o b e p u t more c lear ly i n t he c on tex t o f t he r ea l i t ies o f h is o wn t imes . T here i s o n ly o ne s ubs tan t ia l n arra t ive a ccoun t o f h is l i fe , t he v ery e x ist ence o f wh ich may b e t hough t t o h ave p roved more o f ah indrance t han a h e lp i n t he s earch f or t he h is tor ica l Wi fred .

Th is i s t o b e f ound i n t he o pen ing

c hap ters o f t he G es ta C om i tu m Barcinonens ium , a work c o mposed , i t s ee ms , b e tween 1 162 a nd 1 184 , i n a l l p robab i l i ty b y a monk o f e i ther Cu ixa o r R ipo l l , b o th h ouses w i th c lose a ssoc ia t ions w i th Wi fred 's d ynas ty .4

Ab r ie f b u t

d rama t ic a ccoun t o f t he c areer o f t he d ynas t ic f ounder i s g iven i n t he f irs t t wo c hap ters .

Wi fred i s d escr ibed a s t he s on o f ar ich a nd i n f luen t ia l man

o f t he c oun ty o f C on f len t , o f t he s ame n ame . When e n r ou te f or t he C aro ling ian c our t h is f a ther k i l led a Frank ish s o ld ier a t Narbonne , who h ad h ad t he t e me r i ty t o s eize h im b y t he b eard d ur ing a mi l i tary r evo l t . The d ead Frank 's c omrades s oon t ook t he ir r evenge a nd murdered t he e lder Wi fred o n h is j ourney.

O ur Wi fred , h owever , c a me u nsca thed t o t he c our t , where t he k ing ,

who c hrono log ica l ly c an o n ly h ave b een C har les t he Ba ld ,bu t i s l e f t a nony mous i n t he a ccoun t , was mos t u pse t a t wha t h ad h appened , a nd p rophes ied d isas ter f or t he Frank ish monarchy a s ac onsequence .

H e a lso t ook k ind ly t o t he y oung

Wi fred , who s oon g o t h i mse l f e ngaged t o t he c oun t o f F landers 's d augh ter . H is tor ica l ly t here was s uch a l ady , i n f ac t C har les t he Ba ld 's g randdaugh ter , a nd t h is l ia ison wou ld h ave a t tached Wi fred t o t he Caro l ing ian d ynas ty b y marr iage , b u t whe ther t he a u thor o f t he G es ta a pprec ia ted t h is p o in t i s u nc lear . Bu t t o r e turn t o h is a ccoun t : when W ifred wen t b ack t o C onf len t h e was a ccept ed a s l ord b y h is f a ther 's f o l lowers , a nd t hen p roceeded t o murder w i th h is own h and S o lo mon t he c oun t o f Barce lona , aF rank ,

1 69

H e t ook o ver S o lo mon 's

t i t le a nd a u thor i ty , a pparen t ly w i thou t' f or fe i t ing t he g ood w i l l a nd e s tee m o f t he F rank ish monarch . S oon a f ter , t he A rabs b egan t o a t tack W i tr ed 's n ew. f ound d o ma in , a nd h e was f orced t o t urn -to h is F rank ish o ver lord f or a ss ist . , t ance . T he k ing r egre t fu l ly was u nab le t o h e lp , b u t p romised t ha t s hou ld Wi fred b e a b le t o e xpe l t he i nvaders b y h is o wn e f for ts , h e a nd . h is d escendan ts s hou ld h ence for th h o ld t he c oun ty i n f u l l . p ossess ion a s a n a lod , i ndependen t o f a l l r oya l a u thor i ty. Wi fred d id t h en e xpe l t he Mus l ims a nd a s ar esu lt , s ecured f reedom f or C a ta lon ia f rom A rab a nd F rank a l ike , a nd t he d escen t o f h is p ower t o h is 1, 7 1 rs * • T o s ay t ha t t here i s p robab ly n o t as ingle s ta temen t w i th a g ra in o f t ru th i n i ti n t he w ho le o f t h is a ccoun t w ou ld n ot b e a iming t oo w ide o f t he mark , t hough i n teres t ing ly , a s w e s ha l l s ee , . a • l i t t le o f i tg e ts c lose t o t he s p ir i t o f wha t h appened . A s af ac tua l d escr ip t ion i ti s , o f c ourse , t o ta l ly u nre l iab le , a nd e lemen ts o f i tc ame u nder a t tack a s e ar ly a s t he f i f teen th c en tury . 5 Bu t c r i t ic ism p erhaps h as -no t b een r ad ica l e nough , a nd i ti s t he Wi fr ed o f t he G es ta w ho h as d omina ted C a ta lan h is tor iography a t l eas t u n t i l t h is c en tury , a nd s t i l l d oes p rov ide t he p opu lar l eve l o f t he u nders tand ing o f t h is p er iod . I ti s t he p erspec t ive o f t he G es ta r a ther t han t he r ea l i t ies o f t he l a te n in th c en tury t ha t makes . W ifred a h ero . o f C a ta lan n a t iona l ism . I ti s a lso , i nc id en ta l ly , p robably t hanks t o t he G es ta t ha t h e h as r ece ived h is p opu lar e p i the t o f t he H a iry ': h ei s d escr ibed a s h av ing . ap ar t icu lar ly l uxur ian t g rowth o f h a ir o n h is b ody: 6 T o g e tb ack b eyond t he G es ta t o w ha t may -b e k nown a bou t Wit r ed f ro m c on temporary s ources i s t o e n ter a v ery murky a rea i ndeed . D epress ing ly l i t t le e v idence d oes s urv ive f or t he h is tory o f C a ta lor t ia i n t he n in th c en tury . B e fore t he t we l f th c en tur y t here i s n o n arra t ive h is tor ica l s ource a nd t he r e ferences i nc on te mporar y Frank ish a nna ls , r e la t ive ly s ubs tan t ia l f or t he c ampa igns o f C har lemagne a nd L ou is t he P ious i n t he r eg ion , a re v ir tua l ly n on-ex is ten t f or t he r e igns o f C har les t he B a ld a nd h is s uccessors .7 N o . c hron ic les w ere wr i t ten i n C a ta lon ia a t t h is t ime a t a l l . T here a re o ccas iona l v a luab le r eferences i n t he works o f A rab wr i ters -of t he t en th a nd e l even th c en tur ies , b u t t he o n ly r e levan t L a t in s ources a re i n t he f orm o f a dm in is tra t ive d ocumen ts . T here a re a n umber o f d i f feren t c lasses o f t hese : C aro l ing ian r oya l d ip lomas , a c ts o f d ona t ion b y p r iva te i nd iv idua ls , d eeds o f s a le , w i l ls , l ega l j udgemen ts a nd r e la ted d ocumen ts , a nd v ar ious misce l laneous t ypes .8 S o man y a nd s o. v ar ied a re t hese t ha t w i th t he e xcep t ion o f p ar ts o f n or thern I t a ly , C a ta lon ia p rov ides t he r iches t c o l lec t ion o f a dm in is tra t ive r ecords o f a ny p ar t o f med ieva l E urope i n t he n in th c en tur y . 9 The h ear t lands o f t he C aro l ing ian Empire c o me n owhere n ear r iva l l ing i t . H owever , c er ta in d i f f icu l t ies e x is t i n t he u se o f t h is ma ter ia l . T hese d ocumen ts a lmos t i nv ar iab ly r e la te t o p roper ty e i ther t hen p ossessed o r s ubsequen t ly c om ing i n to t he h ands o f t he r e l ig ious I ns t i tu t ions o f t he r eg ion : t he monas ter ies a nd c a thedra l c hurches . U n for tuna te ly , , v ir tua l ly a l l o f t hese .h ave s uf fered d amage a nd d es truct ion , p r inc ipa l ly i n t he l as t t wo c en tur ies : i n F rance f rom t he 1 789 R evo lu t ion , a nd i n S pa in f rom b e Napo leon ic o ccupa t ion a nd t he s ecu lar isa t ion o f t he monas ter ies i n 1 835 .

T hus , f or e xamp le , o ft he o ne

h undred a nd f our teen c har ters o f C aro l ing ian monarchs r e la t ing t o C ata lon ia i n t he e d i t ion o f Ramon d 'Aba c Ia l , o n ly t we lve o r ig ina ls s urvived a tt he t ime t ha t h e was work ing . "

A l though v ar ious o f t he o ther c lasses o f d ocu men ts

1 7u

X I I I :

THE CATALAN COUNTIES I N THE LATE N INTH CENTURY

1 71

a re a lso s t i l l e x tan t , b as ica l ly t he modern h is tor ian h as t o d epend u pon c op ies made b y s even teen th a nd e igh teen th c en tury h is tor ians a nd p ubl ished u sua l ly a s a ppend ices t o t heir h is tor ies o r i t inerar ia .

T he b es t k nown o f t hese a re

P ierre d e Marca a nd E t ienne Ba luze 'S Marca H ispan ica , p ubl ished i n 1 688 a nd t he v ar ious v o lu mes o f J orge V i l lanueva 's V iage l i terar io a l as i g lesias d e Espar ia ( 1804-21) .

T he C aro l ing ian r oya l d ip lo mas a re a lso t he o n ly

c ons t i tuen t o f t h is c orpus o f ma ter ia ls t o h ave r ece ived t he b enef i t o f a modern c r i t ica l e d i t ion .

1 1

F or t he r es t we h ave t o h ave r ecourse t o t he o f ten

r are v olumes o f t he a n t iquar ies t he mse lves . N ow t h is t ype o f e v idence i s n o t g o ing t o t e l l u s much a bou t t he c areer o f Wi fred b eyond s o me i n forma t ion a bou t h is f ounda t ions a nd e ndow men ts , a s o f t he monas ter ies o f R ipo l l a nd S an J oan d e l es A badesses , a nd a lso o ccasiona l h in ts a t c hrono log y.

1 2

Bu t , a s we s ha l l s ee , i td oes r evea l q u i te a l o t a bou t

t he C a ta lon ia o f h is d ay , a ga ins t wh ich h is r ecorded a ct iv i t ies c an b e p u t i n to p erspec t ive . F ro m t he c har ter e v idence i ti s k nown t ha t Wi fred was t he s on o f aC oun t S un i fred a nd C oun tess E r mess inda , a nd t ha t h e h ad a t l eas t t hree b ro thers : M iro , Radu l f a nd S un i fred .

1 3

U n for tuna te ly t he d ocu men t i n q ues t ion , ad eed

o f g i f t made b y t he b rothers f or t he r epose o f t he ir p aren ts ' s ou ls , d oes n o t s pec i fy wh ich S un i fred t he ir f a ther was .

The p rob le m l i es i n t he f act t ha t

t here were s evera l S un i freds e x tan t i n C a ta ton ia i n t he mid-n in th c en tury, a nd t o make i t worse Wi fred 's w ife , t he c oun tess Win id i ld is , a lso h ad a f a ther c a l led S un i fred .

Wh ich S un i fred was Wi fred 's f a ther a nd wh ich h is f a ther-

i n-law h as , n o t s urpr ising ly , g enera ted much s cho lar ly .h ea t . 1 4

B u t a t t he

mo men t t he a ccep ted p os i t ion i s t ha t h is f a ther was t he S un i fred who was c oun t o f U rge l a nd C erdanya f ro m 8 34 t o 8 48 , a nd a lso c oun t o f Barcelona a nd G irona a nd Narbonne w i th t he a dd i t iona l t i t le o f march io o r marqu is , f ro m 8 44 t o 8 48 . H e i s a ssumed t o h ave d ied i n t he l a t ter y ear , a s h is o f f ices a re s ubsequen t ly f ound b e ing e xercised b y o thers . A s f or Wi fred 's o wn c areer , h is a t tes ta t ion o f v ar ious d ocu men ts g ives ar ough c hrono logy , t hough n o t a bso lu te p recis ion .

H e s ee ms t o h ave b een

a ppo in ted c oun t o f U rge l a nd C erdanya , a n o f f ice o nce h e ld b y h is p resu med f a ther , i n a bou t 8 70 .

T o t h is was a dded , p robab ly i n 8 78 , t he c oun t ies o f

Barce lona , G irona a nd Ausona o r V ic , t ogether w i th t he t i t le o f march io .

1 5

H e was a lso p robably t he n o mina l c oun t o f C on f len t a nd o f B esa lü , b u t d eleg a ted t he t i t les a nd a u thor i ty t o h is b ro thers :

M iro k nown a s ' e l V e i l ' , was

c oun t o f C on f len t f ro m c . 8 70 u n t i l h is d ea th i n 8 94 o r 8 95 , a nd a lso a cqu ired t he c oun ty o f R ossel lo i n 8 78 , wh i ls t Radu l f was c oun t o f B esa lü u n t i l p oss ib ly a s l a te a s 9 12 , t hough t h is may b e Wi fred 's s on R adu l f r a ther t han h is brother o f t he s ame n ame .

1 6

T he f our th o f t he b ro thers , S un i fred , was a bbo t o f Ar les

i n t he sma l l c oun ty o f Va l lespir , b y a t l eas t 8 81 when h e r ece ived a c har ter f or h is monas tery f ro m K ing C ar lo man .

1 7

A l though t he p o ten t ia l f or g enea log ica l c on fus ion a nd c on troversy r e ma ins , wha t a ppear t o b e o ther b ranches o f t he f am i ly w ere a cqu ir ing o f f ice i n d iff eren t p ar ts o f C a ta lon ia a t t he s ame t ime a s Wi fred a nd h is b rothers .

O l iba

I a nd A cfred , who a re c la i med a s t he ir c ous ins , h e ld t he c oun ty o f C arcassonne i n s uccess ion , a nd a no ther p resu med c ous in S unyer I was c oun t o f Empur ies , a nd s ubsequen t ly o f R osse l lo o n t he d ea th o f M iro ' e l Ve i l '.

1 72

A l l o f t hese o f f ices ,

t hose h e ld b y Wifred a nd h is b ro thers , a nd t hose o f t he ir p oss ible c ous ins , p assed i n d ue c ourse a nd w i thou t i n terrup t ion t o t he ir d escendan ts .1 8 I ti s f or h is u n i t ing o f a l l o f t he e as tern c oun t ies o f t he F rank ish march s ou th o f t he P yrenees , w i th o n ly Pa l lars-R ibagor9a r e ma in ing i n o ther h ands , t ha t W i fred i s mos t f amous .

A l though t h is h ad p rev ious ly b een a ch ieved b y h is

p robab le f a ther , i t was o n ly i n Wi fred 's d ay t ha t t hese o f f ices c eased t o b e p recar ious a nd t enab le a t p leasure a nd b eca me i ns tead t he h ered i tary p ossess i ons o f t he f am i ly.

F ro m t h is i s h e ld t o s te m t he c rea t ion o f C a ta lon ia a s

a n i ndependen t p o l i t ica l u n i t . Bu t when Wifred d ied , f ro m i n jur ies r ece ived i n as k ir m ish w i th h is n e ighbour L ope i bn Moham mad , t he Banu Kas im l ord o f Tudela , i n 8 97/8 , w ha t e xac t ly h ad h e a ch ieved?

1 9

I ti s c er ta in ly f a l lacious t o r egard h is

c areer a s e f fec t ing a ny f unda men ta l b reak i n t he t i es t ha t l inked C a ta lon ia t o t he r es t o f t he C aro l ing ian Emp ire .

N e i ther h e n or h is s uccessors , who

monopol ized a l l o f t he p r inc ipa l s ecu lar a nd many o f t he e cc les ias t ica l o f f ices o f t he r eg ion , t ook t he t i t le o f k ing , a l though a p receden t f or t h is e x is ted a t t he o ther e nd o f t he P yrenees , i n Navarre , where t he Basque c oun ts o f P amp lona t hrew o f f F rank ish s uzera in ty a nd t ook a r oya l t i t le , p oss ibly e ar ly i nt he n in th c en tury . 20 T he C a ta lan c oun ts r e ta ined j us t t heir c om i ta l t i t le u n t i l t heir a ccess ion t o t he Aragonese t hrone i n 1 162 . I n t he l a te n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies wha t i s mos t s tr ik ing a bou t C a ta lon ia i s t he c on t inu i ty o f l i nks b e tween i ta nd Francia , r a ther t han t he r enunc ia t ion o f t he m.

A bbo ts , b ishops a nd l ay l ords s t i l l f e l t i tw or th t he ir wh i le t o g o

t o r ece ive c on f ir ma t ion o f t heir l andho ld ing r igh ts f ro m s uccess ive F rank ish k ings , e ach o f who m c on f ir med t he s er ies o f c har ters g ran ted b y h is p red ecessors .

Many o f t he monas ter ies a nd c hurches o f C a ta lon ia mus t h ave h ad

ac har ter f ro m e ach o f t he s uccess ive C aro l ing ian monarchs f ro m p oss ib ly a s e ar ly a s t he r e ign o f C har le magne t hrough t o t he l a te n in th c en tury .2 1

Th is

p rocess c on t inued u n t i l t he d ea th o f t he l as t s ign i f ican t C aro l ing ian k ing o f Francia , L o thar , who g ran ted a c har ter t o t he monas tery o f S an C uga t d e Va l les n ear Barce lona i n 9 86, t he y ear o f h is d ea th .

2 2

H is b r ie fl ived

s uccessor L ou is V ( 986-7) was c er ta in ly r ecogn ised a s k ing b y B orre l l , t he c oun t o f Barce lona ( 9 48-92 ) , b u t h is r e ign was t oo s hor t t o h ave l e f t a ny c har ters .

2 3

A l though t he v es t ig ia l l ega l r igh ts o ver C a ta lon ia c la i med b y

t he F rench k ings were n o t f ina l ly r enounced u n t i l 1 258 , t he e nd o f C arol ing ian r u le i n Francia i n 9 87 s ee ms t o h ave marked t he e f fec t ive e nd o f t he a ccept ance a nd u se o f F rank ish o ver lordsh ip b y t he C a ta lan c oun ts a nd t he ir s ubj ec ts .

The l ong a nd i mpress ive r un o f r oya l c har ters e nds a t t ha t p o in t , a s

d o s o me o f t he g enea log ica l l i s ts o f t he Frank ish monarchs t ha t c ircu la ted s ou th o f t he P yrenees , c onc lud ing w i th L o thar o r L ou is V .

2 4

H owever , t here a re a n umber o f f ea tures a bou t t he c areer o f Wi fred a s C aro l ing ian c oun t i n C a ta lon ia t ha t a re e spec ia l ly n o tab le .

F irs t ly , u n l ike

mos t o f t he p rev ious o f f ice-ho lders i n t h is r egion , Wi fred a nd h is f am i ly a ppear t o h ave b een i nd igenous . l og ica l c on troversy; p aren ts .

H ere a ga in we e ncoun ter a n a rea o f g enea-

o ne t ha t r e la tes t o t he g enera t ion o f Wi fred 's g rand-

The a u thors o f t he f amous H is to ire d e Languedoc , f o l lowed b y L eon

Au zias , b e l ieved t ha t W i fred 's g rand fa ther o n h is f a ther 's s ide was B orre l l , c oun t o f Ausona-V ic , w hereas more r ecen t ly Ramon d 'Abada l a rgued t ha t i t

1 73

was B e l lus , c oun t o f C arcassonne , who m t he o ther a u thor i t ies h e ld t o b e h is ma terna l g rand fa ther .2 5 F rank ly , t he e v idence i s n o t s ubs tan t ia l e nough t o p rove e i ther c ase , b u t f or t he p resen t p urposes i td oes n o t r ea l ly ma t ter a s b o th f am i l ies a ppear t o h ave b een i nd igenous t o C a ta lon ia , o ne f rom t he n or th , t he o ther f ro m t he s ou th o f t he P yrenees . o r ig ina ted i n C on f len t .

2 6

Tha t o f C oun t B e l lus p robably

T h is i s i n teres t ing , i n t ha t w i th t he emergence o f

Wi fred i n t he l a te 8 70s , f or t he f irs t t ime , e xcep t f or t he l as t f our y ears o f h is f a ther 's l i fe , 8 44-8 , a l l o f t he c oun t ies o f t he r eg ion s ou th o f t he P yrenees were i n t he h ands o f members o f a n i nd igenous d ynas ty whose i n teres ts l ay s o le ly i n t ha t a rea . T he s ign i f icance o f t h is b eco mes c lear when c on tras ted w i th w ha t h ad h appened p rev ious ly a nd i ndeed c on t inued t o o ccur i n p ar ts o f C a ta lon ia n or th o f t he P yrenees i n r espec t o f C aro l ing ian a ppo in t men t o f c oun ts .

T hroughou t

t he n in th c en tury a s uccess ion o f p ower fu l men w i th e x tens ive p ossess ions a nd o f f ices e lsewhere i n F rancia were e n trus ted w i th t he C a ta lan c oun t ies a nd w i th r espons ibi l i ty f or t he S pan ish a nd G o th ic marches .

I n v ir tua l ly e very

c ase t h is was t o l ead t o s er ious p o l i t ica l p roble ms f or t he r u l ing C aro ling ian monarch .

One o f t he f i rs t o f t hese was t he f amous o r n o tor ious B ernard o f

S ep t i man ia , whose p ro mo t ion t o t he i mper ia l c hamber la incy i n 8 29 was a d irec t c ause o f t he t e mporary o ver throw a nd d epos i t ion o f t he Emperor Lou is t he P ious b y h is s ons i n t he f o l low ing y ear .

T h is B ernard h ad c on trolled

2 7

Barce lona a nd t he who le o f t he March , i nclud ing h o ld ing mos t o f t he c oun t ies , f ro m c . 8 26 t o 8 30 , a nd a ga in f ro m 8 35 t o 4 4.

H e was s e ized b y C harles t he

Ba ld a nd e xecu ted i n 8 44 , b u t h is s ons c on t inued t he f am i ly 's a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he March b egun b y B ernard 's f a ther S t . Wi l l iam o f T ou louse , al ead ing f igure i n L ou is t he P ious 's c ampa igns i n t he r eg ion .

2 8

B ernard 's s on Wi l l ia m , i n

r ebe l l ion a ga ins t C har les t he Ba ld , s e ized Barce lona i n 8 48 o n t he d ea th o f C oun t S un i fred , b u t was b e trayed b y i t s c i t izens a nd e xecu ted i n 8 50 .

2 9

H is

b ro ther B ernard ' P lan teve lue ' p roved e ven more o f a menace t o C aro l ing ian r oya l a u thor i ty. H e h e ld s o me o f t he o ff ices o nce e xercised b y h is f a ther i n t he r eg ion , a nd may we l l h ave a sp ired t o r ega in t he m a l l .

He was c oun t

o f T ou louse f ro m 8 72 a nd o f Narbonne f ro m 8 78 , u n t i l h is d ea th i n 8 86.

H e

was o ne o f t he l eaders o f t he a r is tocra t ic r evo l t a ga ins t C har les t he Ba ld i n 8 77 , a nd p robab ly c on t inued t o c onsp ire a ga ins t h is s uzera ins , t he w es tern Frank ish k ings L ou is I I a nd C ar lo man , i n t he i n teres ts o f t he e as tern Frank ish r u ler , C har les t he Fa t .

H e p robably d ied f igh t ing f or t he l a t ter a ga ins t Boso

t he u surp ing k ing o f P rovence . "

Ano ther o f t he g rea t f igures o f t he S pan ish

march a nd af e l low r ebe l w i th B ernard ' P lan teve lue ' a ga ins t Char les t he Ba ld i n 8 77-8 was B ernard o f G o th ia .

H e h e ld i mpor tan t o f f ices i n Ca ta lon ia a s

c oun t o f Barce lona , N arbonne a nd R osse l lo f rom 8 65 t o 8 78 , a nd o f G irona f ro m 8 70 , b efore b eing s tr ipped o f h is h onours f or h is c on t inued r ebe l l ion . H is f a l l i n 8 78 p aved t he way f or t he r ise o f Wi fred a nd M iro ' e l Ve i l ' , who s ucceeded h im i n t hree o f h is c oun t ies .

3 1

E qua l ly a s u ns table a s t he t hree

Bernards was t he Marqu is H um fr id , who b e tween 8 58 a nd 8 64 a ccumu la ted t he c oun t ies o f B arce lona , Pa l lars , T ou louse , C arcassonne , Narbonne , Rosse l lo , a nd Empur ies , a s we l l a s t ha t o f Au tun a nd o ther t err i tor ies i n Franc ia p roper .

H e , t oo , was d ispossessed f or r ebe l l ion , i n 8 64 o r 8 65.

3 2

T hus w i th r e markab ly f ew e xcep t ions t he F rank ish c oun ts impor ted i n to Ca ta lon ia , whose p ower was d e l ibera te ly c rea ted a nd a ug men ted b y t he

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C arol ing ian monarchs , n o tably C har les t he Ba ld , a dd ing c oun ty u pon c oun ty t o t heir h o ld ings , p roved d is loya l a nd u l t i ma te ly h ad t o b e s tr ipped o f t he ir o f f ices .

On t he o ther h and , t he i nd igenous c om i ta l d ynas ty o f S un i fred a nd

W i fred i s n o tab le f or i t s c on t inuous l oya l ty t o t he Caro l ing ians .

N one o f i t s

me mbers e ver e ngaged i n r ebe l l ion , o r g ave s uppor t t o t hose who were . I ndeed t hey were a lways q u ick t o t ake a dvan tage o f r ebe l l ion t o p rove t he ir l oya l ty a nd t o a t tack t he p ossess ions a nd f o l lowers o f r ebe ls , a s i n t he c ases o f t he r evo l ts o f H um fr id a nd B ernard o f G o th ia .

I n t he l a t ter c ase i n 8 78

M iro r avaged B ernard 's c oun ty o f R osse l lo a nd d ispossessed h is a ppo in tees , l ay a nd e ccles ias t ica l .

3 3

M iro a nd Wi fred 's b ro ther S un i fred e scaped f ro m

h is monas tery t o j o in i n a nd h ad t o b e s en t b ack b y ap apa l o rder .

3 4

The p o in t i s , o f c ourse , t ha t t he r ebe l l ious c oun ts were F ranks a nd o u ts iders , a nd were r egarded a s s uch .

T hey s ee m t o h ave h ad l i t t le l oca l

f o l lowing amongs t t he l esser l andowners o f C a ta lon ia .

E ven t he d escendan ts

o f S t . Wi l l iam o f T ou louse , t hree g enera t ions o f who m were a ssoc ia ted w i th t he March a nd s ee m t o h ave r egarded t he mselves a s h av ing h ered i tary i n teres ts i n i t , r ece ived n o s ign i f ican t l oca l s uppor t i n t he ir r evo l ts .

I n f act i n t he

c ase o f a l l o f t hese F rank ish c om i ta l r ebe ls , whereas t he ir o f f ic ia l r espons ib i l i t ies may h ave l a in i n C a ta lon ia , t he ir r ea l p ower a nd i n teres ts w ere e lsewhere , i n F rancia p roper .

I ts ee ms t o h ave b een p o l i t ics a t c our t o r s trugg les

f or i n f luence w i th o ther me mbers o f t he Frank ish n obi l i ty t ha t d rove t he m i n to mak ing g es tures o f r ebe l l ion .

None o f t he m s ee m t o h ave a i med a t e s tabl ish ing

a n i ndependen t s ta te f or t he mse lves i n t he March , a s B oso d id i n P rovence i n 8 82 , o r a s migh t h ave h appened i n A qu i ta ine . The ir l ack o f l oca l i nvolvemen t a nd s uppor t wou ld h ave made s uch a n a sp ira t ion f u t i le i n a ny c ase . On t he o ther h and , t he d eep ly e n trenched i nd igenous a r is tocracy o f t he March was c on ten t t o r e ma in l oya l t o t he C aro l ing ians , e ven when t he ir p ower was n o more t han a l ega l f i c t ion . e xam ined s hor t ly.

S o me o f t he p oss ib le r easons f or t h is w i l l b e

Thus t he p os i t ion a ch ieved b y Wifred was t he c u l mina t ion o f ap rocess o f t he a ccu mu la t ion o f p ower a nd o f f ice i n al arge p ar t o f s ou thern C a ta lon ia a ch ieved b y h is f am i ly i n t he c ourse o f t hree g enera t ions .

T h is was d one ,

i ts ee ms , l arge ly o n t he b asis o f c ons is ten t p o l i t ica l l oya l ty t o t he C arol ing ian d ynas ty , made e as ier b y t he l ack o f w ider i nvo lve men ts e lsewhere i n Francia , wh ich h ad l ed t o t he d own fa l l o f s o many o f t he ir r iva ls . I th ad n o t b een a n e ven r ise .

Much o f wha t Wifred a ch ieved h ad p rev ious ly b een a cco mp l ished

b y h is f a ther .

Bu t t here h ad b een n o s ecur i ty o f s uccess ion , a nd a f ter t he

d ea th o f S un i fred i n 8 48 a l l o f h is o f f ices w i th t he p oss ible e xcep t ion o f t he c oun ty o f U rge l -C erdanya h ad p assed t o o u ts iders , a nd i t was l e f t t o h is s ons t o r ecrea te h is p ower . H owever , i n t he l i fe t i me o f Wifred , t he t rans it i on o f t he c oun ty f ro m b e ing a r oya l o f f ice t enab le a t p leasure t o b e ing a h ered i tary o ne s ee ms t o h ave o ccurred , a nd n o t j us t i n C a ta lon ia .

Wi fred

h i msel f was t he r oya l ly a ppoin ted c oun t o f t he s ou thern P yrenean c oun t ies , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f P a l lars-R ibagor9a .

3 5

Bu t h e was a ble , i ts ee ms , t o

d e lega te s o me o f t hese t o h is b rothers , o n h is o wn a u thor i ty , g ran ts wh ich i f n o t f or ma l ly r ecogn ised b y t he C aro l ing ian c our t were t ac i t ly a ccep ted . From t he t ime o f Wi fred a nd M iro t here was u nbroken d ynas t ic s uccess ion i n t hese c oun t ies a nd n o a t te mp t was made b y t he F rank ish r u lers t o i n trude a ny f ur ther o u ts iders .

T h is was a p rocess , t ha t we c an o f ten p erce ive o n ly v ery

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d im ly , g o ing o n a l l o ver t he t err i tor ies o f t he C aro l ing ian Emp ire i n t he c ourse o f t he l a te n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies .

Th is was i ndeed t he f or ma t ive p er iod o f

t he med ieva l a r is tocracies o f mos t p ar ts o f Wes tern Europe.

C er ta in f am i l ies

were a ble t o o b ta in a f irm g r ip u pon o f f ices , t i t les a nd l ands t ha t h ad n ever p rev ious ly b een s o s ecure . A rgumen t e x is ts a s t o wha t e x ten t t h is p rocess was r ecogn ised a nd d el ib era te ly f os tered b y t he C aro l ing ian r bg i me .

T he e xac t s ign i f icance o f Char les

t he Ba ld 's r egu la t ions f or t he s uccess ion t o v acan t c oun t ies d ur ing h is a bsence i n I t a ly i ssued a t t he A sse mbly a t Qu ierzy i n J une 8 77 h as b een d eba ted i n t h is c on tex t .

3 6

F or i ts ee ms a s i ft he r igh ts o f t he s ons o f t he f or mer c oun ts were

b e ing e xpress ly p ro tec ted , a s i fi n n or ma l c ircums tances t hey wou ld b e e xp ec ted t o s ucceed t he ir f a thers .

B as ica l ly o n t he d ea th o f ac oun t d ur ing t he

p er iod o f t he k ing 's a bsence i n I ta ly h is r espons ibi l i t ies wou ld b e t aken o ver b y h is e ldes t s on o r b y ac ounc i l made u p o f t he f ormer c oun t 's c h ie f o f f icers a nd t he l oca l b ishop , p end ing t he k ing 's r e turn .

I ft he c oun t 's s ons a re minors

t he e ldes t w i l l b e i nves ted w i th t he t i t le p rov is iona l ly , u nder t he c on tro l o f t h is c ounc i l , o r i ft he h e ir i s o f a ge b u t a bsen t w i th t he k ing s o me o f h is f am i ly o r f o l lowers w i l l b e a dded t o t he c ounc i l t o p ro tect h is i n teres ts .

S o me h ave

a rgued t ha t t hese r egu la t ions , wh ich a re i nco mp le te , i mp ly f or ma l r ecogn i t ion o f t he r igh t o f h ered i tary s uccess ion i n t he c om i ta l o f f ices b y t h is t ime , whereas o thers wou ld s ee t he m a s n o more t han t e mporary e xped ien ts t o d ea l w i th p rob le ms a r is ing f ro m t he k ing 's e xcep t iona l a bsence i n I ta ly.

3 7

I n o ther words ,

i n t hese c ircums tances t he s ta tus q uo w i l l b e ma in ta ined b u t o n ly t e mporar i ly , a nd n o t a s o f r igh t .

C lear ly t he a rgumen t c anno t b e r eso lved o n t he b asis o f

t he Qu ierzy r egu la t ions a lone .

O ther i nd ica t ions mus t b e s ough t .

Once t he f anc ies o f t he G es ta C om i tum a re d iscoun ted , t he C a ta lan e v id ence h as s o me th ing t o o f fer o n t h is p ar t icu lar p roble m .

C lear ly t he d ynas t ies

t ha t emerge s uccess fu l ly f ro m t he s trugg les o f t he 8 70s d o t hen r e ta in , i n Ca ta lon ia a t l eas t , t he ir o f f ices a nd l ands o n a n a pparen t ly h ered i tary b as is . Th is i s n o t j us t t rue o f t he v ar ious b ranches o f Wi fred 's f a mi ly , b u t c an a lso b e s een f ur ther wes t i n t he j o in t c oun t ies o f P a l lars-R ibagor9a , where a f ter t he murder i n 8 72 o f y e t a no ther o f t hese F rank ish c oun ts w i th e x tens ive i n teres ts , B ernard o f T ou louse , p ower p assed d e f in i t ive ly t o al oca l d ynas ty.

3 8

N ow t h is i s n o t j us t aq ues t ion o f c on t inu i ty o f t enure o f o f f ice i n t he h ands o f p ar t icu lar f am i l ies . T he n a ture o f t he c om i ta l o f f ice a nd t he b as is o f i t s l oca l p ower s ee ms a lso t o h ave a l tered s ign i f ican t ly i n t h is s a me p er iod . Prev ious ly F rank ish c oun ts h ad b een r oya l o f f icers , a ppo in ted a t w i l l , t o c arry o u t v ar ious a dmin is tra t ive a nd j ud icia l d u t ies . I n many c ases t hey h ad l i t t le o r n o p ersona l s take i n many o f t he t err i tor ies e n trus ted t o t he ir c are . I n o ther words , t hey h ad f ew o r n o f am i ly t i es w i th me mbers o f t he i nd igenous p opu la t ion .

They may we l l h ave o wned l i t t le o r n o l and i n t he r eg ion .

Cu l-

t ura l ly a nd e ven l i ngu is t ica l ly t hey may h ave b een a l ien t o t heir c harges .

T hus

i n C a ta lon ia , l eav ing a s ide t he q ues t ion o f l i ngu is t ic c o mprehens ion , t he F rank ish c oun ts h ad t o a dm in is ter j us t ice o n t he b as is o f ac ode o f l aw , t he L ex G o thorum , q u i te d i f feren t f ro m t ha t t o wh ich t hey t he mselves were s ubj ec t .

3 9

O bv ious ly t he c hange f rom F rank ish t o C a ta lan c oun ts a l tered t he ir

p os i t ion i n l oca l s ocie ty.

Bu t t h is was n o t a l l .

T here e x is ts a c har ter o f

C har les t he Ba ld , d a ted 2 0 th J u ly 8 70 , g ran ted t o o ne o f Wi fred 's p resu med c ous ins , O l iba I c oun t o f C arcassonne , t ha t i mp l ies t ha t t he l ands t ha t f ormer ly

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b e longed t o t he r oya l f i sc i n t he c oun t ies o f C arcassonne a nd Rases h ad b een t ransferred t o O l iba a s a n a lod ia l p ossess ion . " Thus t he l ands o nce a dm in is t ered b y t he c oun t f or t he k ing n ow b ecame h is p r iva te p roper ty t o d ispose o f a s h e wou ld .

C lear ly t he l anded wea l th a nd p owers o f p a tronage o f t he

c om i ta l f am i ly wou ld b e t rans formed .

T he e ssen t ia l d i f ference was t ha t t he

c oun t was n o l onger a nswerable f or t he u se t ha t h e made o f t he l ands a nd r evenues e n trus ted t o h im .

A l though t h is c har ter i s u n ique t here a re i nd ica-

t i ons ( t o wh ich Is ha l l r e turn ) t ha t s o me th ing s im i lar o ccurred i n t he c oun t ies s ou th o f t he P yrenees a s we l l .

Th is t here fore s ugges ts t ha t we a re s ee ing

h ere a d el ibera te p o l icy b e ing f o l lowed b y t he C aro l ing ian c our t i n t he l as t y ears o f C har les t he Ba ld , a t l eas t i n r espec t o f C a ta lon ia , t hough q u i te p oss ib ly e lsewhere t oo .

F or O l iba 's g ran t s ee ms t o h ave b een s ecured b y t he

i n terven t ion o f B oso , whose s is ter C har les t he Ba ld marr ied , a nd who b u i l t u p s uf f ic ien t l oca l p ower i n P rovence t o e nab le h im t o c rea te a n i ndependen t k ingdo m f or h i mse l f s oon a f ter h is b ro ther-inlaw 's d ea th .

I ti s q u i te l i ke ly

t ha t s i mi lar p o l ic ies w ere b e ing f o l lowed i n r espect o f P rovence a s o f t he S pan ish march . Bu t i n teres t ing ly , whereas Provence a nd l a ter Burgundy r epud ia ted C aro l ing ian r u le a nd emerged a s sma l l k ingdo ms , h owever , s hor tl ived , a nd A qu i ta ine migh t h ave d one , C a ta lon ia r e ma ined , a s we h ave s een , u nswerv ing ly l oya l t o t he F rank ish monarchs .

Wha t a re t he e xp lana t ions f or t he s trong t i es

t ha t c on t inued t o b ind C a ta lon ia t o t he C aro l ing ians , l ong a f ter t he l a t ter h ad c eased t o h ave t he p ower t o i n tervene d irec t ly i n i t s a f fa irs?

F or L ou is t he

P ious , when k ing o f A qu i ta ine , h ad b een t he l as t C aro l ing ian t o a ppear i n p ers on i n t he r eg ion , a nd f ro m t he t ime o f C har les t he Ba ld t he Ca ta lans were l e f t t o l ook a f ter t he mse lves o n t he ir o wn r esources .

4 1

T he a t tach men ts b etween C a ta lon ia a nd F rancia d id r each b ack l ong b efore t he t ime o f t he C aro l ing ians .

A l though t he r eg ion h ad b een p ar t o f t he V is i-

g o th ic k ingdo m , f irs t i n G au l a nd t hen i n S pa in , s ince 4 16 , a nd h ad o f ten b een e xposed t o d es truct ive F rank ish r a id ing , h e lp was o n o ccas ion r eques ted f ro m t he F ranks i n r es is t ing t he a u thor i ty o f t he G o th ic k ings .

I n 6 30 t he C oun t

S isenand was a ble t o o ver throw S w in th i la w i th t he a ss is tance o f F rank ish t roops s en t b y t he Merov ing ian K ing Dagober t 1 , 42 a nd i n 6 72 Pau l r ece ived Frank ish a id i n h is u nsuccess fu l r ebe l l ion a ga ins t Wamba i n S ep t iman ia . For t h is r evo l t t he who le r eg ion was c as t iga ted i n a n I nsu l ta t io b y J u l ian o f T o ledo f or i t s c on t inuous p er f idy a nd p o l i t ica l d is loya l ty .

4 3

P robab ly a s a

r esu l t o f t hese t rad i t ions a nd t he e cono m ic a nd c u l tura l l i nks t ha t t i ed Ca ta lon ia t o s ou thern France , C aro l ing ian i n terven t ion i n t he a rea i n t he l a te e igh th c ent ury w h ich l ed t o t he c rea t ion o f t he S pan ish march a ppears t o h ave b een we lc o med a nd a ss is ted , whereas i n t he Basque t err i tor ies a t t he o ther e nd o f t he P yrenees i t was r es is ted a nd Frank ish c on tro l p roved p recar ious a nd s hor tl i ved .4 4 T rad i t ion a lone was n o t e nough , n or e ven t he s i mp le b enef i ts t o b e g a ined f rom h av ing wha t was an a tura l g eograph ic a nd e cono m ic u n i t u nder o ne p o l it ica l a u thor i ty.

C aro l ing ian r u le d id c on fer t ang ible a nd p rac t ica l b enef i ts .

M i l i tar i ly t hey may n o t a f ter t he r e ign o f L ou is t he P ious h ave d one much t o a ugmen t t he l oca l r esources o f t he r eg ion , when u nder p ressure.

Bu t t hose

r esources p roved s u f f ic ien t a t l eas t t o r e ta in , i fn o t e xpand , t he t err i tor ies C har le magne a nd L ou is t he P ious o r ig ina l ly c onquered . More i mpor tan t i n

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t he l a ter n in th c en tury was t he c on t inued d ip lo ma t ic a ct iv i ty o f t he C arol ing ians . The Umayyad t hrea t t o t he F rank ish march i n C a ta lon ia d ec l ined r ap idly a f ter t he d ea th o f A bd a r-Rah man I i n 8 52 , a nd was n o t b e t o r esu med u n t i l t he l a te t en th c en tury. 45

Bu t t he Banu Kas im o f Tude la , Z aragoza a nd H uesca ,

a ct ing s o me t i mes i n t he n ame o f t he Umayyads b u t more u sua lly i n t heir own i n teres ts p resen ted a c loser a nd more a ct ive menace . 46

I t was i n r esis t ing

o ne o f t he ir r a ids t owards Barcelona t ha t Wi fred was t o r eceive h is f a ta l i n jur ies i n 8 97/8 , a nd e ar l ier Barce lona h ad b een s acked b y t he m , e i ther i n 8 56 o r 8 60 .4 7

C arol ing ian d ip lo macy a ppears t o h ave a t te mp ted t o n eu-

t ra l ise t he m , f or when t he c areer c fc onques t o f o ne o f t he mos t a c t ive o f t he m , Musa i bn Musa , was t erm ina ted b y

K ing O rdo l io Io f t he A s tur ias a t

A lbe lda i n 8 60 , p resen ts f ro m C har les t he Ba ld were f ound i n h is c ap tured t en t . 48

Bu t o bv ious ly w i th t he i ncreas ing weakness o f t he C aro l ing ian a nd

Wes tern Frank ish r u lers i n t he l a te n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies t he ir d ip lo ma t ic e f fec t iveness d ec l ined i n p ropor t ion a nd t he Banu Kas im c on t inued t o p ose t he g rea tes t e x terna l t hrea t t o t he C a ta lan c oun t ies u n t i l t he e x t inc t ion o f t he ir d ynas ty a t t he h ands o f Mus l im r iva ls i n 9 07. T he e f fec t iveness o f t he C aro l ing ian a dm in is tra t ion o f t he r eg ion a nd t he p rov is ion o f g ood o rder a nd j us t ice may h ave h ad much t o d o w i th t he c ont inu ing C a ta lan c om m i tmen t t o t he ir F rank ish r u lers .

Paradox ica l ly t he

a dm in is tra t ive p ract ices a nd l aw t ha t t he c oun ts emp loyed were n o t t hose o f t he F rank ish h o me land b u t were t hose o f t he n ow v an ished V is igo th ic k ingdo m . A s ar esu l t t he C a ta lans p robably e n joyed b e t ter g overnmen t a nd a more s oph is t ica ted s ys te m o f l aw t han t he ir f e l low s ub jects i n mos t o ther p ar ts o f t he Frank ish Emp ire.

F or t he s urv iv ing n on-roya l d ocumen ts o f C a ta lon ia

o f t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies s how j us t h ow c omprehens ive t hese l ega l p ract ices a nd c oncep t ions i nher i ted f ro m t he V is igo th ic p as t a ctua l ly were .4 9 A lso , i nciden ta l ly , a l though t wo o r t hree c en tur ies l a ter i n d a te , t he d ocu men ts may g ive i nd ica t ions o f h ow V is igo th ic l aw mus t h ave b een a dm in is tered a t t he t ime o f t he f l our ish ing o f t he k ingdo m i n t he s even th c en tury. T ha t t he a dm in is tra t ive a nd j ud icia l p ract ices o f C a ta lon ia u nder Frank ish r u le were q u i te d i f feren t f ro m t hose o f mos t o ther p ar ts o f t ha t Emp ire a nd were d irect ly i nher i ted f ro m t he V is igo th ic p as t i s c lear e nough b o th f ro m t he a bsence o f s im i lar d ocumen ts a nd e v idence o f s im i lar p ract ices f ro m o ther p ar ts o f Francia a nd more p os i t ive ly f ro m t he e xac t p ara l le ls w i th t he p roc edures o f L ex G o thorum a nd t he s pec i f ic c i ta t ions o f t ha t l aw b ook a nd n o o ther i n t he C a ta lan d ocumen ts . "

T he f orma l c haracter is t ics o f t he d ocu-

men ts , o ther t han r oya l c har ters , mark t he m o f f f ro m t he ir Frank ish e qu iv a len ts .

They a re u sua l ly l ong a nd i m mense ly d e ta i led , a nd s o me c on ta in

l eng thy p assages o f d ia logue i n d irec t s peech .

A l though n o d ip lo ma t ic o f t he

V is igo th ic p er iod h as s urv ived , t he s oph is t ica t ion o f t hese d ocumen ts a nd t he a bsence o f e xac t c on te mporary p ara l le ls make i tl i ke ly t ha t t hey d er ive f ro m V is igo th ic a nd t herefore u l t i ma te ly l a te Ro man p rac t ice .

5 1

Many e xa mples

c ou ld b e c i ted o f t he s tr ik ing a nd u nusua l p rocedures e nshr ined i n t hese d ocumen ts . F or i ns tance , t here i s ac oncern w i th t ang ible b oundary markers a nd a v ocabu lary o f s uch o b jec ts f ound b o th i n t hese d ocumen ts a nd i n t he G o th ic l aw .

T hus when a n ew g ran t o f l and was made o r ad ispu te o ver owner-

s h ip was s e t t led t he c oun t was o b l iged t o s end o u t as pec ia l c omm iss ion o f j udges t o e rect markers ' as t he G o th ic l aw r equ ires '.

1 78

5 2

S uch p ane ls o f j udges

w ere t he r ea l a rb i ters o f j us t ice .

They s a t w i th t he c oun t o r h is d epu ty t he

v iscoun t a s t he ir p res iden t , t o h ear c ases , t o v is i t d ispu ted l ands , t o t ake s worn s ta te men ts f rom w i tnesses a nd s o o n .

5 3

T here i s ar e markable i ns is-

t ence u pon t he wr i t ten word a t e very s tage o f t he l ega l p rocess t o b e f ound i n t hese d ocumen ts , wh ich m igh t a rgue t he e x is tence o f at ra ined n o tar ia l c lass . P leas a nd j udge men ts a re o f c ourse p reserved i n wr i t ing , b u t s o t oo a re t he s worn s ta te men ts o f t he w i tnesses a nd , a n a pparen t ly u n ique f ea ture , e xvacua t iones , f orma l r enuncia t ions o f c la i ms made b y t he l osing p ar ty i n a d ispu te t o p reven t t hem o r t he ir d escendan ts f ro m e ver r esurrec t ing t he ir p re tensions .

5 4

I t was t h is c oncern w i th d ocumen ta t ion , w i th wr i t ten e v idence

o f r igh ts a nd t i t les , t ha t l ed g enera t ions o f C a ta lan a bbo ts , b ishops a nd l ay l andowners t o t rave l t o a nd f ro t o t he C aro l ing ian c our t t o g e t c on f ir ma t ion o f t he ir p roper ty h o ld ings , a nd n ew c har ters f ro m s uccess ive k ings .

A l though

t he p ract ica l d e ta i ls a nd t echn ica l i t ies o f t he l aw a nd i t s a dm in is tra t ion were i n t he h ands o f t he p ane ls o f j udges , mos t o f who m n o t s urpr is ing ly h ave G o th ic n ames , t he C arol ing ian k ings a nd t he ir c oun ts h ad a v i ta l r ö le i n e nsur ing t he c on t inued work ing o f t he s ys te m.

F or u l t ima te ly s ecure e n t i t le men t t o p os-

s ess ion o f l and c ame f ro m t he k ing .

T he p os i t ion o f t he k ing a s t he s ource

o f t he i nd iv idua l 's r igh t t o o wn h is l and was a no ther i nher i tance f ro m t he V is igo th ic p as t a nd p aradox ica l ly i t worked t o k eep C a ta lan s ub jec ts l oya l t o aF rank ish k ing . I n as oc iety s uch a s C a ta lon ia i n t he n in th a nd t en th c ent ur ies , where a s ar esu l t o f i mm igra t ion , war a nd t he r ese t t le men t o f was te l ands , l andho ld ing was f rag i le a nd d ispu ted p ossess ion f requen t , a work ing l ega l s ys te m t ha t p rov ided b o th t he p r incip les a nd t he p ract ices n ecessary t o e nsure t enure f or t hose who h ad b ona f i de r igh ts t o t he ir l ands was i mpera t ive . T he C arol ing ian k ing w as t he l ega l s ource o f t hose r igh ts , a l though t he l aw emp loyed was t ha t o f t he V is igo ths , a nd h is c oun ts a nd j udges e nsured t he smoo th work ing o f t ha t l aw . T he s treng th o f t he t i es t ha t l i nked C a ta lon ia t o t he C aro l ing ian 1 . .g i me was r e in forced b y t he e x is tence o f as pecia l c lass o f l andho lders i n t he r eg ion . T hese a re t he men k nown a s t he ' H ispan i t. p ecu l iar ly u nhe lpfu l p iece o f t erm ino log y.

5 5

N ow t h is may s ee m t o b e a

Were n o t a l l t he i nhabi tan ts o f

t he f or mer V is igo th ic t err i tor ies , a t l eas t s ou th o f t he P yrenees , ' H ispan i i? S im i lar ly wha t i s t he d i f ference b e tween a ' Go th ' a nd a ' S pan iard ' i n t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies? B y t he e nd o f t he r eign o f C har les t he Ba ld , h owever , t he r eg ions o f ' Go th ia ' a nd o f ' H ispan ia ' were p rec ise ly d is t ingu ished .

' Go th ia t

c o mpr ised t he r eg ion o f C a ta lon ia n or th o f t he P yrenees , e f fect ive ly t he o ld V is igo thic S ept iman ia , wh ich t hey h ad c a l led ' Ga l l ia ' , whereas ' H ispan ia ' was t he more r ecen t ly a cqu ired t err i tory t o t he s ou th o f t he moun ta ins . H owever , i n t he c har ters a nd l ega l d ocu men ts t he ' H ispan i l were a d is t inc t c lass o f l andwoenrs , n ot j us t a ny o f t he i nhabi tan ts o f Frank ish ' H ispan ia '.

They were

ma in ly r e fugees f ro m n on-Frank ish S pa in , s o me w i th A rabic o r a rab icised n ames , t hough s o me may h ave b een n a t ive P yreneans , who were g ran ted c er ta in l ands o n s pec ia l t erms b y t he F rank ish c rown .5 6 The l ands i n q uest ion w ere was te , o r a bandoned a nd u ncla i med t racts wh ich h ad t hereby b eco me t he p roper ty o f t he r oya l f isc. I n s o me o f t he c ases t ha t we k now o f f ro m t he d ocumen ts t he l ands w ere g ran ted f or mi l i tary s erv ices a lready r endered t o t he F rank ish r u lers .5 7 The e ar l ies t o f t hese g ran ts were made i n t he r e ign o f C har le magne , o f l ands i n S ep t iman ia , 5 8 b u t a s r ese t t le men t p rogressed i n

1 79

t he n in th c en tury s ou th o f t he P yrenees , t he s ys te m was e x tended t here t oo . C lear ly t he v a lue o f s e t t l ing t hese r e fugees o n d eser ted l and i n t he f ron t ier z ones was c ons iderable , a nd mus t h ave c on tr ibu ted s ubs tan t ia lly t o t he c apac i ty o f t he more v u lnerable Ca ta lan c oun t ies t o d e fend t he mse lves a ga ins t e x terna l a ggress ion .

A s t he emp ty l ands c lear ly c on tr ibu ted n o th ing o f

f inancia l v a lue t o t he f i sc , t hey c ou ld b e g iven a way o n v ery g enerous t er ms b y t he c rown .

I n r e turn f or a n o a th o f l oya l ty , t he ' H ispan i ' r ece ived t he ir

l ands u nder p ersona l r oya l p ro tec t ion , f ree o f a ny r en ts , p ay men ts o r d u t ies a nd , e xcep t f or c er ta in r eserved o f fences , u nder t he ir o wn j ur isd ic t ion a nd f ree o f t ha t o f t he c oun t .

Wha t i s more , t hey r ece ived t he a bso lu te r igh t t o

p ass o n t hese l ands t o t he ir h e irs o r t o s el l o r d ispose o f t he m b e tween t he ms e lves i n a ny way t ha t t hey w ished .

S uch a g ran t was k nown a s a n a pr is io ,

5 9

a nd t he H ispan i h e ld t he ir l ands P er , a pr is ionem . T he s e t t ing u p o f t he h onour o f o ne ' H ispanus ' a ga in g ives u s a n i nd ica t ion o f s o me o f t he a dm in is tra t ive p rac t ices o f C a ta lon ia i n t h is p er iod . t ha t o f t he 'H ispanus '' J ohn .

Th is was

T h is man a nd h is f o l lowers d e fea ted a n Arab f orce

i n t he v ic in i ty o f Barce lona , p robably i n 7 93 .

T he s po i ls o f h is v ic tory , h orses

a nd a r mour , h e b rough t t o K ing L ou is o f A qu i ta ine , r eques t ing a g ran t o f was te l and t o c u l t iva te i n t he c oun ty o f Narbonne .

T he i mpress ion mus t b e t ha t h e

a nd h is men h ad s erved a s mercenar ies o n t he f ron t ier , b u t were n ow s eek ing ap er manen t s take i n t he l ands t hen b e ing r ese t t led t o t he n or th o f t he P yrenees . L ou is made t he g ran t o f t he d eser ted e s ta te o f F on te joncosa a s r equested , a nd s en t J ohn o n t o C har le magne t o r ece ive h is c on f irma t ion o f t he d ona tion , a t Aachen .

W i th t h is a ch ieved , J ohn h ad t o p resen t al e t ter f ro m K ing Lou is

t o S tur m io , c oun t o f Narbonne , when n ex t o n at our o f j us t ice w i th h is p anel o f j udges , f or i t was t he ir t ask t o f i x t he p hys ica l l im i ts o f t he e s ta te .

Th is

t hey d id b y v is i t ing i n t urn a l l o f t he a d jacen t v i l lages a nd e s ta tes a nd s u mmon ing t he o ldes t i nhab i tan ts , who were r equ ired t o s wear where i n t heir b e l ief o r k now ledge t he b oundar ies o f t he p roper t ies t hey d we l t o n l ay .

These

wou ld t hen b e marked when n o t a lready d one , a nd a s ar esu l t t he e x ten t o f t he d eser ted l ands i n t he midd le was d e l im i ted .

A f ter t ha t i to n ly r e ma ined

f or J ohn t o s ubd iv ide h is n ew p roper ty t o p rov ide f or h is o wn f o l lowers , who h ence for th i n v ir tua l ly a l l r espec ts were u nder h is a u thor i ty a nd f ree o f t ha t o f t he c oun t a nd o ther r oya l o f f ic ia ls . 60

J ohn w en t t o o bta in a s econd c har ter

o f c on f irma t ion f ro m C har le magne i n 8 12 a nd a no ther f ro m L ou is t he P ious i n 8 15 , s oon a f ter h is a ccess ion . 61

L ikew ise J ohn 's s on T heode fred f e l t i t

wor thwh i le t o o bta in t wo c har ters f ro m C har les t he Ba ld , o ne i n 8 44 a nd a no ther i n 8 49 .6 2

T hese d ocu men ts l ay d own i n i ncreas ing d e ta i l t he r igh ts a nd im-

mun i t ies t o b e e n joyed b y t he r ec ip ien ts .

T he e s ta te r e ma ined i n t he p ossess ion

o f t he f am i ly u n t i l 9 79 when i t was a l iena ted t o t he c hurch o f Narbonne. 63 The p r iv i leges g ran ted t o J ohn a nd h is f e l low ' H ispan i ' were r e markable c onc ess ions i n c o mpar ison w i th t he o lbiga t ions a nd r es tr ic t ions imposed u pon o ther l andho lders o f t he d ay .

Thus i ti s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t t he c oun ts a nd t he

l ess f avoured i nd igenous l andowners o f ten a t te mp ted t o h arass o r d ispossess t hese ' H ispan i ' , e specia l ly i n p er iods where t he c en tra l a u thor i ty was t e mp orar i ly weak , a s i n t he p er iods o f L ou is t he P ious 's c on f l ic t w i th h is s ons i n 8 30-3 , a nd t he c iv i l wars o f 8 40-3 .

C har le magne , L ou is t he P ious a nd

Char les t he Ba ld , t he l a t ter i n ac ap i tu lary i ssued a t T ou louse o n 1th J une 8 44 , a l l t ook s teps t o p ro tect t he ' H ispan i ' a nd t o f orce t he c oun ts t o make r es t i tu t ion o f l ands i l lega l ly s e ized f ro m t hem. 6 4 1 80

I t was i n t he i n teres ts o f

t he c oun ts w ho a dm in is tered t he l oca l l ands o f t he r oya l f i sc t o g ran t t he m o u t a s b enef ices t o f o l lowers o f t he ir o wn a nd s o t he r oya l d ona t ions t o t he ' H ispan i ' c u t a cross av a luable s ource o f l oca l p a tronage f or t he m , a s we l l a s i nh ibi t ing t he ir j ur isd ic t ion .

Thus c ame t he c ons tan t c o mp la in ts o f

h arass men t b y t he r oya l o f f ic ia ls who s ough t t o d ispu te t he o wnersh ip r igh ts o f t he ' H ispan i ' a nd t o i n trude c l ien ts o f t he ir o wn o n to t he e s ta tes . On ly t he i n terven t ion o f t he c en tra l a dm in is tra t ion , when i t was f unct ion ing p rop er ly , c ou ld p reven t t he m . 65

A s t he l ands a nd s pec ia l p r iv i leges o f t he

' H ispan i ‚ were h er i tab le t here g rew u p a n i ncreas ing ly l arge b ody o f l ando wners , e specia l ly t o t he s ou th o f t he P yrenees , who l ooked d irec t ly t o t he k ing f or t he ir t i t le t o t he ir l ands a nd f or t he p ro tect ion o f i t . N ow t he f requency w i th wh ich we e ncoun ter r eferences t o t he h arass men t o f t he ' H ispan i ' i n t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he n in th c en tury migh t l ead u s t o e xpec t e ven more o f t h is w i th t he d ec l ine o f t he c en tra l a u thor i ty i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he c en tury. Bu t t h is i s n o t t he c ase . I ns tead we f ind Wi fr ed a nd t he o ther c oun ts o f h is f am i ly mak ing u se o f t h is s ame s ys te m o f a pr is io t o r ep opu la te t he f ron t ier z ones o f t he ir t err i tor ies .

Wha t i s d i f feren t i s t ha t t he

d eser ted o r was te l ands t ha t wou ld h ave p rev ious ly b e longed t o t he r oya l f isc , a nd w ou ld h ave b een g ran ted

d irect ly t o t he s e t t ler b y t he k ing , a re n ow h e ld

b y t he c oun t p er a pr is ione m a nd h e r ed is tr ibu tes t he m o n t he s ame t er ms t o t he n ew c o lon is ts .

D esp i te t he p auc i ty o f t he e v idence , t here a re c lear i nd i-

c a t ions t ha t t h is i s h ow t he s ys te m was work ing , i n ' H ispan ia ' a t l eas t , b y t he 8 80s .

Wi fred a nd h is d escendan ts u sed i tt o r epopu la te t he v a l leys o f

t he T er a nd L lobrega t .6 6 A t s o me s tages t hen , b e tween 8 44 when C har les t he Ba ld was i n terven ing a ga ins t c om i ta l h arass men t o f ' H ispan i ' i n t he c oun ty o f Barcelona , a nd Wi fred 's r epopu la t ions o f t he 8 80s , as ign i f ican t c hange h ad c lear ly t aken p lace i n t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween k ing , c oun t a nd l andho lder . T he c oun ts h ave n ow b een i n truded b e tween t he k ing a nd t he l esser l andowner , a nd p a trona ge i s n ow o f f ic ia l ly b eing e xercised b y t he c oun t r a ther t han b y t he k ing . Th is mus t b e t he p roduc t o f ad e l ibera te a c t t rans ferr ing p ossess ion o f t he emp ty l ands , t he e rem i , f ro m t he r oya l f i sc t o t he c oun ts .

C lear ly t hen ,

s o me th ing o f t h is n a ture o ccurred i n t he c oun ty o f Barce lona i n t he s ame way a s w e k now i td id i n t he c oun ty o f C arcassonne u nder O l iba I .

The l ack o f

as pec if ic c har ter means t ha t t he p o in t c anno t b e d a ted f or Barce lona a s i t c an , i n 8 70 , f or C arcassonne .6 7

I ti s q u i te l i ke ly t ha t i tt ook p lace a t a pprox i-

ma te ly t he s ame t ime a nd migh t we l l h ave b een p ar t o f aw ider p rocess t ransf err ing a l l s uch l ands f ro m t he p ossess ion o f t he f isc t o t ha t o f t he c oun t , t hroughou t a l l o f t he c oun t ies o f t he March . L ack o f t he r e levan t d ocu men ts means t ha t t h is c an b e n o more t han a g uess , i fh owever a p robab le o ne. T hus t he y ears o f Wi fred 's a ct iv i ty a s c oun t o f Barce lona a nd march io d o mark a n u mber o f s ign i f ican t c hanges i n t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween Ca ta lon ia a nd F ranc ia , a nd b e tween k ing a nd c oun t .

Bu t i ti s g oing t oo f ar t o t a lk o f

i ndependence , o r a t l eas t w i thou t s er ious q ua l i f ica t ions .

I n p ract ice , o f

c ourse , b y t h is t ime t he a u thor i ty o f t he Caro l ing ian r u lers was i n d ec line a nd t hey l acked t he p ower t o c o mpe l C a ta lon ia t o r e ma in p ar t o f t he d is in teg ra t ing Wes tern Frank ish k ingdo m . T h is makes t he c on t inued l oya l ty a nd a c t ive c omm i t men t o f t he C a ta lan c oun ts a nd t he ir s ub jec ts t o t he ir d is tan t s uzera ins a l l t he more r e markable .

T he t i es t ha t l inked C a ta lon ia t o Francia 1 81

were p os i t ive o nes a nd b y t h is t ime v o lun tary o nes .

C a ta lon ia was n ot b e ing

h eld d own b y a n a l ien a nd i mpor ted marcher a r is tocracy , n or d id i th ave t o r e ly u pon t he F ranks f or a mi l i tary p ro tec t ion t ha t t hey c ou ld n o l onger p rov ide , b u t t he F rank ish k ings , e specia l ly t he d escendan ts o f C har lemagne , c lear ly s t i l l ma t tered .

Wha t p ar t t he C hurch h ad t o p lay i n a l l o f t h is s t i l l

r ema ins t o b e e xp lored , b u t l aw a nd l andownersh ip c er ta in ly e nhanced r a ther t han weakened t he t i es .

T he c o mp lex i t ies o f l ega l t hough t a nd a dm in is tra t ion

t ha t u nder lay t h is were i nher i ted f ro m t he V is igo th ic a nd l a te Roman p as t , a nd were i n many r espec ts a l ien t o Frank ish l aw a nd c us to m , b u t t hey s ecured f or t he C aro l ing ian r u lers o f t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies t he ir mos t c ons ist en t ly l oya l s ub jec ts . l ingers o n? r un :

A nd p erhaps t he me mory o f t he C aro l ing ians s t i l l

A f ter a l l d o n o t t he o pen ing l i nes o f t he Andorran n a t iona l a n the m

' Char le magne t he g rea t , my f a ther , w i l l d e l iver me f ro m t he Arabs ;

a lone Ir e ma in t he o n ly d augh ter o f C har le magne , C hr is t ian a nd f ree ':

U n ivers i ty o f L iverpool .

NOTES 1 . F or t he monas tery o f R ipo l l , s ee J . d e V i l laneuva , V iage l i terar io a l as i g les ias d e E spana , v o l . V I I I , 2 .

( Va lenc ia , 1 821) , C ar ta LX , p p. 1 -60 .

R . d 'Abada l id e V inya ls , ' La f w adac i6 d e l monas t ir d e R ipo 1 1 ' , i n A na lec ta Mon tserra tens ia I X ( 1962 ) , p p . 2 5-49 , r epr in ted i n t he s ame a u thor 's D e is V is igo ts a ls C a ta lans ( Barce lona , 2 nd e d i t ion 1 974 ) v o l . I , p p . 4 85-94.

F or Wi fred 's c har ters i n g enera l s ee F . Va l ls T aberner ,

' Es tud i s obre e is d ocu men ts d e l c om te G u i fre Id e Barcelona ' i n Es tud is U n ivers i tar is C a ta lans 2 1 ( 1936 ) , p p . 1 1-31. 3 . T he f u l les t a ccoun t o f h is l i fe a nd h is a ch ieve men ts w i l l b e f ound i n R . d 'Abada l id e V inya ls , E ls p r i mers c om tes c a ta lans ( Barce lona , 1 958 ) , c hap ters V , V I I , a nd X .

Much u ncer ta in ty e x is ts a s t o t he c hronolog y

o f h is c areer a nd many a ccoun ts i n ' s tandard ' r e ference works a re misl ead ing . 1 952 ) ,

e .g . L . G . d e Va ldeave l lano , H is tor ia d e E spa i ia I( Madr id , whose p lacing o f Wi fred i n h is c om i ta l l i s ts p p . 1 074-7 i s i nac-

c ura te .

A lso s ee F . S o ldev i la , H is tor ia d e C a ta lunya ( Barce lona , 1 963 )

p p . 5 9-73 .

F or t he r i n th c en tury , a s o pposed t o t he p resen t , Iu se t he

t er m ' Ca ta lon ia ' t o d es igna te t he a rea d el inea ted b y t he map i n t he a ppend ix . 4 .

T ex ts a va i lable i n P . d e Marca , Marca H ispan ica ( Par is 1 688 ) p p. 5 36-96 , a nd f or Wi fred i n p ar t icu lar p p. 5 39-40 ;

a lso E l ' Ges ta C om i tu rn

Barcinonens iu m ' , e d . L . Barrau-D ih igo a nd J . Mass6 iTorren ts ( Barce lona , 1 925 ) , On t he d a te o f t h is work a nd v ar ious h is tor ians ' i n terpre ta t ions o f i t , s ee R . d 'Abada l , E is p r i mers c o mtes c a ta lans ( Barce lona , 1 958 ) , p . 2 6 , n o te 1 , a nd p p. 2 09-16. 5 . R . d 'Abada l , 2 E . c i t ., p . 2 11. 6 .

R . d e Marca , Marca H ispan ica , p . 5 39 .

1 82

7 . Ear lier n in th c en tury r eferences a re r e la t ive ly p len t i fu l , f or e xamp le i n t he Anna les R egn i F rancoru m e d . F . Kurze ( M. G .H . S cr ip tores i n u su m s cholarum , Hanover 1 895 ) u nder t he y ears 7 97, 8 01, 8 09 , 8 10 , 8 20 , 8 27 a nd 8 29. 8 . C o llected t oge ther i n t he d ocumen ta l a ppendices t o P. d e Marca , Marca H ispan ica ( Par is , 1 688 ) , p p. 7 61-1490 , e specia l ly f or t he n in th c en tury n u mbers

p p . 7 61-834 ;

J . d e V i l lanueva , V iago l i terar io a l as

i g les ias d e Espana v ols . 8 -15 ( Va lencia , 1 821, 1 850 , 1 851) a nd C . Devic a nd J . Va issete , H isto ire g enera le d e Languedoc , 3 rd e di t ion , v o ls . I a nd V ( Tou louse , 1 876 , 1 875 ). 9 . P . Bonass ie , La C a ta logne d u mi l ieu d e Xe s iècle ä l a f in d u X Ie s ièc le , 2v ols . ( Tou louse , 1 975-6) v ol . I , p p. 2 2-32 f or a n a ccoun t o f t he g enera l wea lth o f Ca ta lon ia i n r espect o f c har ters .

F or t he n in th c en tury I ta l ian

d ocu men ts s ee C . Manares i , Ip lac i t i d el ' Regnum I ta l iae ' , v o l . I( Ro me , 1 955 ) . 1 0. R . d 'Abada l id e V inya ls , C a ta lunya C aro l ing ia v o l . 2p ar t 1( Barce lona 1 926/1950 ) p p. XX I I I-XXVI I I. 1 1. I b id., v o l . 2 , 2p ar ts ( Barcelona 1 926/1950 , 1 952 ). 1 2 .

F or R ipol l , s ee n o tes 1 a nd 2 a bove ;

f or S . J oan d e l es A badesses ,

s ee J . d e V i l lanueva , V iage l i terar io , v o l . V I I I ( Va lencia 1 821) c ar ta LX I , p p. 6 1-95 , a lso F . Monsa lva t je y F ossas , C o lecciön D iplo mä t ica d e l Condado d e B esa lü , v o l . XV ( O lo t , 1 907) , d ocumen t M MXV I , f or t he f ounda t ion c har ter .

S ee a lso E . J unyen t , E l mones t ir r o man ic d e S an ta

Mar ia ' d e R ipo ll ( Barce lona , 1 975 ) , a nd E . J unyen t , E l mones t ir d e S an t J oan d e l es A badesses ( S . J oan d e l es A badesses , 1 976).

L ikew ise J .

P icola iS o ler , L es A badesses d e S an t J oan ( S . J oan , 1 972 ). 1 3 .

C . Dev ic a nd J . Va isse te , H is to ire g enera le d e Languedoc I ( Tou louse , 1 876) a ppendix 2 00 , p p . 3 99-400 .

1 4 . D iscussed i n R . d ' Abada l , E ls p r i mers c om tes c a ta lans ( Barce lona , 1 958 ) p p. 1 3-27. 1 5 .

R . d ' Abada l , 2 1 2 . c i t ., p p. 4 6 , 6 5-7.

L . G . d e Va ldeavel lano 2 2 . c i t .

p p . 1 074-7 i gnores t he r ea l S o lo mon , C oun t o f U rgel c . 8 48 t o 8 70 b y d a t ing Wifred 's t enure o f t h is c oun ty t o c . 8 50.

Th is S o lo mon may h ave

b een a me mber o f W ifred 's f am i ly. 1 6. R . d 'Abada l , 2. 2..c i t ., p p. 6 7-8 , f or M iro ;

P . d e Marca , Marca H ispan ica ,

a ppend ix 4 6 , a nd R . d 'Abada l , 2 2.•c i t ., p p. 1 38-9 , f or Radu l f . 1 7.

3 0 th Augus t 8 81, R . d 'Abada l , Ca ta lunya C arol ing ia v ol . 2 , p ar t 1 , p p . 3 7-9.

1 8 . R . d 'Abada l , E is p r i mers c om tes c a ta lans , g ives a c hrono log ica l t able o f c o mi ta l o f f ice h o lders i n n in th c en tury Ca ta lon ia b etween p ages 4 0 a nd 4 1.

T his i s o f ten more p rec ise t han t he e v idence a l lows , b u t many

o f h is s ugges ted d a t ings , d iscussed i n t he t ex t o f t he b ook s ee m c onv incing . 1 9.

F or t he d ea th o f Wi fred , s ee t he o n ly e x tan t a ccoun t i n t he Muk tabis o f I bn Ha iya m , i n J . M . M il läs Va l l icrosa , E is t ex tos d e ls h is tor iadors musu l mans r eferen ts a l a Ca ta lunya Carol ing ia ( Barce lona , 1 922 ) , p . 1 53. 1 83

2 0 .

The h is tory o f Navarre a nd t he Basque r eg ions i n t he n in th c en tury , d epend ing a l mos t e n tirely u pon t he e v idence o f s o me g enea log ies o f t he l a te t en th c en tury , i s p ecu l iar ly c on fused , a nd t he s ub ject o f s o me c ont en t ion amongs t S pan ish h is tor ians .

S ee C . S anchez-A lbornoz , ' Proble mas

d e l a h is tor ia d e Navarra d e l s ig lo I X ' , i n C uadernos d e H is tor ia d e E spana , 2 5-6, 1 957, p p. 5 -82 , r epr in ted i n h is Misce lanea d e E stud ios H is tor icos ( Leon , 1 970 ) p p. 2 95-366 , a lso A . U bie to Ar teta , ' La d inas t ia J i mena ' i n S a i tabi , 1 0 ,

( 1 960 ) , p p.65-79 , a nd t he r eac t ion o f C . S anchez-

A lbornez, ' Otra v ez l os J i menos d e Navarra ' i n C uadernos d e H istor ia d e Espa i ia , 3 3-4 ,

( 1 961) , p p.314-26, a lso r epr in ted i n M isce lanea d e

Es tud ios H is tor icos , p p. 3 69-80.

S ee a lso J . M. Lacarra , ' S obre l a

monarqu ia Pamp lonesa e n e l s ig lo i x ' i n Quadernos H ispanoamer icanos , 6 9 ( 1969) , p p . 3 88-98 . 2 1.

Th is i s t rue f ro m t he s urv iv ing e v idence o f t he monas tery o f A r les , i n Va l lespir , a nd t he c a thedra l c hurchs o f G irona a nd U rgel ;

R . d 'Abada l ,

Ca ta lunya Caro l ing ia , v o lu me 2 p ar t 1 , p p. 2 0-39 , 1 16-51, 2 76-88. O ther c o l lect ions a nd a rch ives , n o l onger s o c o mple te , may we l l a lso h ave t o ld t he s ame s tory.

•c i t .,

2 2.

J an ./Feb. 9 86 , R . d 'Abada l , 2 a

2 3 .

R . d 'Abada l , E is p r i mers c om tes c a ta lans , p p. 3 33-4.

2 4.

p p. 1 94-200 .

' De Reges Francorum ' l i s t i n J . M. Lacarra ( ed .) ' Tex tos n avarros d e l C odice d e Roda ' , i n E s tudios d e Edad Med ia d e l a C orona ( 1 945 ) , p p . 2 53-4.

d e A ragon I

H owever i t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t c a ta lan d ocu men ts

c on t inued t o b e d a ted b y French r egna l y ears u n t i l t he c oun t ies merged w i th t he K ingdo m o f Aragon .

Th is i s we l l i l lus tra ted i n t he l ong r un o f

c har ters o f t he t en th t o t we lf th c en tur ies i n t he c ol lec t ion B .M . Add. C har ters 6 2604 t o 6 2681. 2 5.

H istoire g enera le d e Languedoc , v ol . I ( Tou louse , 1 876) , p p . 2 34-5 , L . Auzias , L 'Aqu i ta ine C aro ling ienne , 7 78-987 ( Tou louse , 1 937 ) , p p. 1 88-9 a nd R . d 'Abada l , E is p r i mers c o mtes c a ta lans ( Barce lona ,

1 958 )

p p. 2 0-2. 2 6. 2 7.

R . d 'Abada l , 92

c i t ., p p . 2 0-2 .

Anna les Regn i Francorum e d . F . Kurze ( Hannover , 1 895 ) , s .a . 8 29; Anna les d e S a in t-Ber t in , e d . F . G ra t ( Par is , 1 964 ) , s .a . 8 30 .

L .

Auzias , L 'Aqu i ta ine C aro ling ienne ( Tou louse , 1 937) , p p. 9 7-101.

On

t he f unct ions o f C aro l ing ian c oun ts i n Ca ta lon ia s ee R . d 'Abada l , ' La i nst ituciö c o mta l c aroling ia e n l a p re-Ca ta lunya d e l s eg le I X ' i n Anuar io d e E s tud ios Med ieva les I , ( 1964 ) , p p. 2 9-75 . 2 8 .

L . Auzias , 2 2 . c i t ., p p. 3 6-8 .

S ee a lso R -d 'Abada l ,

' Eis p r imers t e mps

d e Car ies e l Ca lb a Ca ta lunya , 8 40-843 ', i n E s tud is d 'H istör ia Medieva l 2( 1970 ) p p . 1 -18 . 2 9.

Anna les d e S a in t-Ber t in , e d . c i t . s .a . 8 48 :

' Gu i lhe l mus f i l ius B ernard i

Impor iu m e t Barc inona m d olo mag is q ua m v i c ep it '; f ugaque a rrep ta ,

d u m Barcinonae s e r ec ip i p osse c on f idere t , f act ione

A ledrann i e t q uorundam G othorum c ap ita le m s ubi it p oena m.

F rag men tu m

C hron ici F on tane l lens is , e d . G . H . P er tz , M .G .H . S cr iptores I ( Hanover , 1 829) , p . 3 02 , s .a . 8 49 ( recte 8 50 ). 1 84

3 0 .

The b es t a ccoun t o f t h is c haracter may b e f ound i n L . Auzias , L 'Aqu i ta ine Carol ing ienne ( Tou louse , 1 937 ) , p p . 3 89-423 .

3 1.

S ee R . d 'Abada l , E ls p r i mers . c o mtes c a ta lans ( Barce lona , 1 958 ) , p p . 5 3-64 , f or h is c areer i n t he March .

3 2. I bid., p p. 6 -9 . 3 3.

Anna les d e S a in t-Ber t in e d. c i t . s .a . 8 78 , f or t he c ounci l o f Troyes ; s ee a lso R . d 'Abada l , 2a .ci t ., p p. 5 9-62 f or t he e f fec ts o f t he e ven ts o f 8 77-8 o n t he March .

3 4.

Ed . E . C aspar , M. G .H . E pis tolae Karo l in i a ev i , v ol . V , ( Ber l in , 1 928 ) n o. 1 19 , p . 1 08.

3 5 .

For t he h istory o f t h is r eg ion d ur ing t he Carol ing ian p er iod , s ee R . d 'Abada l id e V inya ls , ' Eis o r igens d e l c o mta t d e Pa l lars-R ibagor9a ' i n Dels V is igo ts a ls Ca ta lans , 2 nd e di t ion ( Barcelona 1 974 ) , p p. 2 41-60 , a nd t he s ame s cho lar 's e d i t ion o f t he c har ters o f t h is c oun ty i n Ca ta lunya Carol ing ia v o lu me 3 , 2p ar ts , ( Barce lona , 1 955 ).

3 6.

M. G .H . Capi tu lar ia , v o lume 2 , p ar t 2 , c lause 9 , p . 3 58.

3 7.

R . d 'Abada l , E is p r i mers c om tes c a ta lans ( Barce lona , 1 958 ) , p p. 5 7-8.

3 8 .

S ee a bove , n o te 3 5.

3 9 .

M. G .H . l egum s ect io 1 , t .1 : L eges V is igo thorum , e d . K . Z eu mer ( Hanover/ L eipzig , 1 902 ).

F or t he u se o f V isigo th ic l aw i n t he S pan ish March i n

t he Caro ling ian p er iod , s ee t he e xamples r bferred t o i n n o te 4 9 b elow. S ee a lso W. K ienas t , ' La p erv ivenc ia d el d erecho g odo e n e l s ur d e Francia y e n C a ta lu i ia ' i n Bole tin d e l a R ea l A cade m ia d e Buenas L etras d e Barcelona , 3 5 ( 1 973/4 ) p p. 2 65-95 . 4 0.

Ac tes d e C harles I l e c hauve , e d . G . Tess ier ( Par is , 1 943-55 ) , n o. 3 41;

v o l . I ( 1 952 ) p p . 2 60-2, ( 20th J u ly 8 70 ).

S ee a lso n o. 4 28 , p p.

4 56-8 ( 1 1th J une 8 77) , H is toire d e Languedoc v o l . I( 1874 ) p p . 1 108-9 , a nd t he c o m men ts o f R . d 'Abada l , E ls p r imers c om tes c a ta lnas ( Barce lona , 1 958 ) , p . 4 4. 4 1.

ARF. s .a . 8 01.

4 2. The Four th B ook o f t he C hron icle o f Fredegar , e d . J . M. Wa l laceHadr i l l ( London , 1 960 ) c ap. 7 3 , p p. 6 1-2.

The p robabi l i t ies t ha t

S isenand e xercised h is c o mi ta l f unct ions i n t he P yrenees o r S ept i man ia a re h igh . 4 3 .

J u lian o f T oledo , H istor ia Wambae a nd I nsu l ta t io v i lis s tor ici i n t yrann ide m G a l l iae , MGH , S SR M V ( 1910 ) p p. 4 86-535 , r epr in ted i n C orpus C hr is t ianoru m v o l. 1 15 ( 1976) , p p. 2 18-49 .

4 4. 4 5 .

As tron . p p . 6 07-48 , c ap. 3 7 p . 6 28 .

ARF. s .a . 8 24.

E . Lb.v i-Provença l , H is toire d e l 'Espagne Musu l mane , 2v o ls . ( Par is/ Leiden , 1 950 ) , v o l . Ip p. 2 11-18 f or t he a ct iv i t ies o f A bd a r-Rahman I i n r ela t ion t o t he March , a nd v o l. I p p . 2 33-46 f or t hose o f A l- Mansur i n t he l a te t en th c en tury. 1 85

4 6.

F or t he c areers o f t he Banu Kas im , s ee E . L ev i-Provença l , 9 2 . c i t ., v o l. Ip p. 1 54-6 , 3 24-8 a nd v ol. I p p. 3 0-2 .

4 7.

L . Auzias , L 'Aqu i ta ine Caro ling ienne ( Tou louse , 1 937 ) p p. 2 64-6. E . L ev i-Provença l , 2 n . c i t ., v ol . I , p . 3 14.

4 8.

Cron ica Ro tense , e d . M . G o mez- Moreno i n B o lean d e l a Rea l A cade mia d e H is tor ia v ol . 1 00 ( 1932 ) , p . 6 20 ,

' . . munera q uos e i Caro lus r ex

f rancorum d irex i t .' 4 9.

F or e xamp les o f t he s peci f ic c i ta t ion o f t he V is igoth ic l aw c ode ( see n o te 3 9 a bove ) s ee t he d ocumen ts p r in ted i n P . d e Marca , Marca H ispan ica ( Par is , 1 688 ) a ppendices XV I , XV I I , XXX IV , J . d e V i l lanueva , V iage l i terar io a l as i g les ias d e Espana v ol . X I I I l ex G othoru m c o m me mora t i ( year 8 81).

a ppendix V I , p . 2 32 ' s icu t

R . d 'Abada l , Ca ta lunya Caro lingia

2( Barce lona , 1 926/1950 , 1 952 ) p ar t i , p . 4 37 ( 18 Aug . 8 78 ) a nd c f . 2 2 • c i t . p ar t i , p . 7 3 . l i ne 1 1. 5 0 .

S ee t he r eferences i n n ote 4 9 a bove.

5 1.

At horough i nves t iga tion o f t he c haracter a nd o r ig ins o f t he Ca ta lan c har ters a nd o ther l ega l d ocumen ts o f t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies h as y et t o b e made .

As we l l a s i n r e la tion t o F rank ish d ip lo ma t ic , t here

a re s ubs tan t ia l a nd i n ters t ing d if ferences t ha t d is t ingu ish t he m f ro m t ha t o f t he c on te mporary As tur ian a nd L eonese k ingdo m a s we l l.

I n t he p re-

s en t s ta te o f t he e nqu iry s uch s pecu la t ions a s Ih ave h ere a dvanced c an o n ly b e t e .n ta t ive , b u t Ih ope t o b e a ble t o e s tabl ish t he m more f i rm ly i n af u ture s tudy. 5 2.

C . Dev ic a nd J . Va isse te , H is toire g enera le d e Languedoc v o l . I ( Tou louse , 1 876 ) a ppendices 4 5 p p. 1 18-9 a nd 9 0 , p p. 1 94-9.

P . d e

Marca , Marca H ispan ica ( Par is , 1 688 ) a ppend ix V , c f . Leges V is igothorum , B ook X , t i t le i i ' de t ermin is e t l imi t ibus ' p p . 3 96-9. 5 3.

S ee P . d e Marca , 9 2 . c i t ., a ppend ices V , XX I , =

UV , = CV .

J . d e

V i l lanueva , V iage l i terar io a l as i g les ias d e E spana v ol . X I I I ( Va lencia , 1 850 ) a ppendices I -IV , V I a nd v o lume X IV ( Va lencia , 1 850 ) a ppendix XXV , f or n in th c en tury e xamples .

I ns tances o f a l l t he f ea tures r eferred

t o i n n o tes 4 9 , 5 2 a nd 5 3 a re e ven more p len ti fu l f ro m t he more n u merous s urv iv ing d ocu men ts o f t he t en th c en tury. 5 4.

Marca H ispan ica , a ppend ices XVI I , ) 0 ( 1 , V i l lanueva , V iage l i terar io , v ol. X I I ( Va lenc ia , 1 850 ) a ppend ices XV I , XVI b is , H is toire d e Languedoc v o l. I a ppendix 1 69 , p p. 3 96-7 , amongs t o thers .

5 5 .

On t hese s ee R . d 'Abada l , Ca ta lunya Carol ing ia 2 , p ar t i( Barce lona , 1 926/ 1950 ) p p. X -XV I .

The a rgumen ts o f A . Barber s : ) , ' La i n tegraciön

s ocia l d e l os ' H ispan i t d e l P ir ineo o r ien ta l a l r eino Caro ling io ' i n Me langes o f fer ts a Rene Croze t ( Poi tiers , 1 966) v o l . Ip p. 6 7-75 t ha t t he ' H ispan i t were ma in ly i nd igenous P yreneans a re f ar f ro m c onv incing . 5 6.

S ee R . d 'Abada l , 9 2 . c i t . p p. 3 10-11 ( March 7 95 ) , 3 18-9 ( 29 D ec . 8 14 ) , 3 20-1 ( 1 J an . 8 15 ) , 3 24 ( 1 4 O ct . 8 29 ) , 3 28 ( 18 D ec. 8 32 ) , 3 38-4 ( 2 5 J an . 8 43 ) , 3 36-7 ( 1 9 May 8 44 ) , e tc. f or d ona t ions a nd s ubsequen t c on f ir ma t ions t o ' H ispan i t.

1 86

5 7.

For t he c ase o f t he ' H ispanus ' J ohn , s ee R . d 'Abada l , Ca ta lunya Caro l ing ia e v ol. 2 , p ar t i , p p. 3 07-11.

5 8 .

March 7 95 ( see r eference i n n o te 5 7 a bove , f or e ar l ies t e x tan t g ran t ) , b u t s ee R . d 'Abada l ,

2 .ci t ., p p. 4 12-14 , f or e v idence t ha t t he p rocess

was a lready u nder way e ar l ier i n t he r e ign o f Char le magne . 5 9 .

S ee t he d escr ip t ive t es t i mony o f w i tnesses s wear ing o n b eha l f o f t he ' H ispanus ' Teude fred a ga ins t t he i ncurs ions made i n to h is r igh ts b y c oun t A de mar o f Narbonne , H is toire g enera le d e Languedoc , v o l . I , ( Tou louse , 1 876 ) a ppendix 8 5 , p p . 1 85-7; 4 42-4 .

R . d 'Abada l ,

.c i t ., p p.

Th is d ocu men t p rov ides a n u nusua l ly f u l l d escr ip t ion o f t he p ro-

c ess o f e s tab l ish ing t he e s ta te o f aH ispanus .

S ee a lso R . d 'Abada l ,

2 2 . c i t ., p p. 3 07-10 . 6 0 . R . d 'Abada l , C a ta lunya C aro l ing ia , v o l . 2 , p ar t i , p p. X-XVI a nd p ar t i , p p . 3 07-11, 4 42-4 ( docu men ts ), 6 1. R . d 'Abada l , 2 2 . c i t ., p p. 3 20-1 ( docu men t o f i st J anuary. 8 15 ). 6 2. I bid ., p p . 3 38-9 , 3 43-4 ( documen ts ) . 6 3 .

H is toire g enera le d e Languedoc , v o l. V ( Tou louse , 1 875 ) a ppend ix 1 13 , p p. 2 51-3.

On J ohn a nd h is d escendan ts a nd t he s e tt le men t o f t he

' H ispan i ' , s ee a lso E . Cauve t , E tude h is tor ique s ur l ' etabl isse men t d es Espagno ls d ans l a S ep t i man ie a ux V I I Ie e t

I xe

s ièc les , ( Mon tpe l l ier ,

1 898 ). 6 4 .

MGH , C ap I p ar t 2 , n o. 2 56, p p . 2 58-60.

6 5 . The a t te mpts o f s uccess ive Frank ish k ings t o p ro tect t he ' H ispan i ' a re made p a ten t i n t he d ocumen ts g iven b y R . d 'Abada l , Ca ta lunya C aro ling ia , v ol. 2 , p ar t i , p p. 3 12-14 ( 2 A pr i l , 8 12 ) , 4 12-14 ( s _ . 7 80 ) , 4 15-16 ( c . 8 01) , 4 17-19 ( 1J an . 8 15 ) , 4 20-1 ( 10 Feb. 8 16) , 4 22-5 ( 1 1 J une 8 44 : s ee a lso n o te 6 4 a bove ). 6 6. R . d 'Abada l , E is p r i mers c om tes Ca ta lans ( Barce lona , 1 958 ) , p p. 9 6-103. 6 7.

S ee n ote 4 0 a bove , 1 1th J une 8 77.

1 87

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1 88

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1 89

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1 91

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G EOGRAPHIE R URALE D U R OYAUME D E 0 1 1ARLES L E C HAUVE M ich l

R auche

U ne c outume l ongue e t v gngrable, p uisqu 'elle r emonte % aB enjamin G ugrard , v eut q u 'en F rance l 'histoire d es c ampagnes c arolingiennes s e f asse t emps,

l 'aide d es p olyptyoues ( 1)

o n a t res t öt r emarqug ,

. E n m eme

q u 'ä l 'exception d e c eux d e M ar-

s eille e t d e B obbio, l es p lus c omplets e t l es p lus i mportants d e c es d ocuments c onfinaient n os c onnaissances P icardie ,

l a N ormandie,

L orraine c 'est-ä-dire i nfluence f ranque.

l 'Ile d e F rance,

l a F landre ,

l a

l a C hampagne e t l a

l 'Austrasie e t l a N eustrie, p ays d e f orte

A drien V erhulst ( 2)

p rouva e n 1 966 q ue l e

r ggime d omanial o u m anorial q ui c aractgrise c es g rands d omaines d gcrits p ar c es d ocuments e st " ne a u c ours d es V II ° VIII ° s iecles d ans q uelques r ggions d u N ord d e l a F rance o t c ertaines c onditions h umaines ( implantations a ssez d enses d e d omaines r oyaux, d gfrichements) e t c ertaines c onditions g gographiques ( sols a ttractifs,

s ituation p gdologique,

d gveloppement),

r elief f avorables ä l eur

s e t rouvaient r gunies d ans u ne m esure q ui a c e

m oment n 'gtait a tteinte n ulle p art a illeurs.

A p artir d e c es

r ggions, c e r egime s 'est g gngralisg s ouvent 1 u ne g poque a ssez t ardive e t d ans d es f ormes a bätardies". l ui,

G eorges D uby p ensait,

q ue c es t extes n ous p rgsentaient b eaucoup p lus u n i deal o u

u n a spect f ugitif q u 'une r galitg ( 3)

. D ans l es d eux c as,

v oulons v grifier l 'exactitude d e c es c onclusions, s ysteme d omanial d 'origine f ranque, m anorial c lassique ,

e xpansion d 'un

e t m ise e n p ratique d u r ggime

i i f aut g largir n otre d ocumentation d ans

l 'espace e t d ans l e t emps,

s i p ossible 1 l a q uatrieme g gngration

c arolingienne s ous l a d irection, p ar e xemple, C hauve d e 8 40 1 8 77.

s i n ous

N ous p ourrons a lors

d e

C harles l e

p eut-etre t r acer u n

p ortrait d es p aysages e t d es m odes d e c ulture d e s on r oyaume. C ompte t enu d e l 'apport d es p olyptyques i l e st e n e ffet p ossible d e r etrouver l a v arigtg d es s ystemes d e r a ise e n v aleur d es s ols d ans l a F rancie O ccidentale.

I l s uffit p our c ela d e

p artir d es d gfinitions a nciennes e t d e v grifier s i d ans l es

1 93

d iplömes e t l es c artulaires d u d euxieme q uart d u I X° s iecle e lles t rouvent l eur e xacte r eproduction o u n on. t out l es o riginaux,

q ui s ont b ien d ates,

D ans c es d ocuments,

s ur-

e t b ien l ocalisgs n ous

p ouvons r etrouver u n v ocabulaire t echnique,

d gsignant d es u nit s

d 'exploitation s emblables o u b ien D roches o u b ien r adicalement d iffgrentes d e c elui d es p olyptyques.

A vec u ne p areille mgthode

l 'extrapolation p eut e tre f aite s ur d es b ases s olides.

Elle e st

d 'autant p lus i ndispensable q ue l es o uvrages d e s ynthese r ggionale s ur l a q uestion s ont r elativement p eu n ombreux ( 4 )

.

E n r evanche l a

m asse d es c inq c ents c inq d iplömes d e C harles l e C hauve (5)

p eut

n ous a pporter d es r enseignements p rgcis s ur d es p ays m al o u p eu g tudigs j usqu 'ici. c artulaires,

I ls f ormeront l a b ase,

a vec q uelques

d e c ette t entative d e d escription d es s ystemes d 'ex-

p loitation d u s ol d ans l e d omaine d u p remier r oi d e F rancie o ccidentale. J e n e m 'attarderai p as 1 d iscuter d e l a t aille d es e xp loitations n i d es r apports d e p roportion e ntre g rande e t p etite p roprigtg .

I l e st m aintenant a vgrg q ue l es n ombreuses p arcelles e t

l es p etites e xploitations l 'emportent s ur l es l atifundia. p hgnomene e st g gngral, g rand d omaine.

m e r le ä f oison

C e

m algrg u ne d ocumentation q ui p rivilggie l e

L es d iplömes g mis p ar C harles l e C hauve g numerent l es d ons d e m anses (6)

,d e

p etits m anses ( 8 )

p recisge e n b onniers,

,d e c olonges (7)

,d e m esnils o u

p etits c hamps d ont l a s uperficie n ous e st e n a rpents,

e n p erches e t m eme e n c arreaux (9) ,

p hgnomene p articulierement f rgquent p our l es v ignes g videmment , s ans o ublier l es i solgs ( 11)

j ardins a ppelgs c ourtils ( 10

e t l es D rgs

P arfois m eme o n d onne d e t outes p etites p ieces d e

t erre c omme c elles o ffertes a u m onastere d e S aint-Denis. e n V exin,

S ituges

e lles s ont d glimitges s oigneusement p ar t oute u ne s grie

d e c onfronts ( 12)

. L e m orcellement p ara t m om s p oussg d ans l e

n ord d u r oyaume o ü ii n 'est q uestion q ue d e m anses d ivisgs e n d eux m ais j amais e n q uatre ( 13)

a lors q u 'il a rrive d ans l e M idi c u 'une

p roprigtg a ppellge v illa s oit p artagge e n c inq ( 14)

. En c ela,

l e

p arcellaire e st p robablement p lus m orcellg e t f igs d ans l es a nciennes t erres r omaines v u l es n ombreuses m entions d e m anses e t d e v illares ( 15)

,q ue d ans c elles d ominges p ar l es F rancs s urtout

au n ord d e l a S eine.

L es l imites

1 94

d u

d omaine d e F esmpy p ar

R OYAUME D E C HARLES L E C HAUVE ( 840 -877 )

S a in t -Ber t in I .• • •• • . r . : 51 34 .1F L.Ä h lORE • :Y .. COMTgS E TP AG I ( Y . •• ` • . B OULONNA ISs . .. 1. .. s •. • •. ) •' • •• •: • e s u se 1 c i tds d ans l ' ar t ic le •••••.• t • P ONTH IEU •' 1 2 p • ,ARTO IS V IMEU ' ? # . L OTHAR INGIE C AMBRgS IS • • . . .. ; ) , ;: . •• • . r• 1 . , , _ " •, 4 1 9 • •• ' : • • • AM IgNO IS ARDEN NES • • • • : • 1, 0 •• • ••• ▪• • A BEAUVA IS IS < I :AONNO IS . • ) , • * . : 2 . ; ! • • • : • . , : • • . • / i ILORRAINE) •• C i.E SS IN •• • •• . 3 , , • , 4 1 / . • • , ' R e ims 1 . .t • - .• • • •. 1 .• " ‘ ' • . •V EX IN t •• . , ,C HAM PAGNE( • , Landevenr iec • •:•.:•: • . : .• • ;7 1 . •1# 4* • , . „ * . • : • • • • : • / . -1 7 . • . . /, .p a r i s ‘ • .; . • . . . • : . * . . .• .» . *• •. •..•. : , t:• . •. . •. 7 4. •.• ' ` . : : , : • . ' , : .( . . • : . A . .: z. . ) y --, % ‘‘ P ERTHO IS • '• . ' . • • :• B RE TAGNE ;••k•' . - :• w r . : •. , ; ; .` •" * .‘' •1 3 . p eC i lE ; - ( • t . •••-••• • . •• • •.• •• * . • . . . •. ••.s i . P A ? • i r ! •• ' •" .Y . ‘ •• . •> /: . lE . )`-' 1 ‘ ; M on t ierender . . .. .. .. . ••. • • . .• ••. .• .. .••' I '•* • • •( e Me ri s i e •.• 7 ' . *• / I %S . ; • .• •• ••.• A • . _ • :• • • : • • : . : . %. • . • . . • . • . . .. . • e r 3 .• % , • • • • . -t ,‘ G . P 1 . • ••• e don ,• : • • ' 4 . . . • '•• , • •• •• . 1• -LC ` • • ., . . i ' s 2 • •• :••••" • • .: . • . • .• .• 4 r T ‘ c osnl . . . 1 e t, ' La n .g i res s; '0 . 1/ ' Nen tei . . 1: :ANJOU . 2. , • 2 / % 2 ; e1r! • • : . •••• 11 * **** • * ** • %D i en: "

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« I 4 1 I M M I « I

f ron t ibre d ur oyaume d eC har les l eC hauve a van t8 70 e erie l ep ar tage d e Moores « ( 870 ) l i m i te d ec om t6 e tp agus l i m i te s ud d ug rand d oma ine c aro l ing ien

GRAND DO MAINE ET BOCAGE DANS LE ROYAU ME DE

CHARLES LE CHAUVE

1 95

e xemple,

d onng e n 8 75 1 S aint-Gery d e C ambrai,

s ont d gfinies n on p ar

d es c onfronts m ais p ar d es z ones-tampons c ouvertes d e b ois e t d 'autres t erres f iscales (16)

D 'ailleurs l 'gtude d e G abriel

F ournier s ur l e p euplement d e l a b asse A uvergne (17)

c orrobore c ette

i mpression g gngrale e n m ontrant q ue d ans c ette r ggion r omanisge l e m ot d e m anse d gsigne u ne t oute a utre r galitg q u 'en I le d e F rance o u e n C hampagne,

p uisqu 'il e st s ouvent l e c entre d 'une e xploitation

p aysanne a vec d e m ultiples d gpendances,

r galitg q u 'il d gfinit p ar

d es e xpressions d estin es ä e n e xprimer l a v arigtg e t l e m orcellem ent t els q ue m anse g lgmentaire, m anse p arcellaire.

m anse l arge,

m anse c omplexe e t

L es b ornes d e p ierres ( termini)

q ui dglimitent

l es c hamps s ont d 'ailleurs p lus s ouvent m entionnges a u s ud d e l a L oire

u 'au n ord (17)

b is

. Bref ,

l 'examen d e l a g randeur d es c hamps

e t d e l a p rgponderance d es p etites e xploitations o u d es p etites e t m oyennes p roprigtgs q ui d ominent l argement l es c ampagnes a pporte % u ne p remiere o pposition q ui s e d evine e ntre d eux z ones, d ionale,

l 'autre s eptentrionale,

de

l 'une m gri-

l eur p ass ge t p robablement

a d es s ystemes d e m ise e n v aleur d iffgrents. E xaminons a lors m aintenant l es t erres o ü s 'est r gpand ue l a p ratique f ranque d u g rand d omaine a vec r gserve e t m anses d gpendants,

t eile q u 'en s on p ortrait c lassique,

r gpandue e t e x-p liquge p ar t ous l es a uteurs (18) r egne d e C harles l e C hauve,

e lle e st d gsormais T oujours p our l e

t rois p olyptyques a u m om s n ous d g-

c rivent c es g randes p roprigtgs c ompos es d 'un m anse d omanial, m anses i nggnuiles e t d e m anses s erviles.

C elui d e S aint-Bertin

r gdigg v ers 8 47-853 c ouvre e n p artie l a F landre, l a P icardie (19)

d e

l e B oulonnais e t

;c elui d e l 'abbaye d e M ontigrender d ate d e l 'annge

8 48 e t r ecense s urtout d es g rands d omaines s itugs e n C hampagne h umide (20)

. C elui d e l 'abbaye d e S aint-R4Mi d e R eims (21)

c oncerne

s urtout l a C hampagne s eche e t l es A rdennes l ors d e s a d ate d e r gd action s ur l 'ordre d e H incmar e n 8 61.

D gjä us p ermettent d e

s aisir q ue c es g rands d omaines s i p eu n ombreux n 'ont P u e tre c rggs q ue g rtce ä d es d onations m assives d e t erres d e g rande s urface e t % a u ne s urveillance d e t ous l es i nstants p ar l eurs p roprigtaires, v u l a d ispersion d e c es d omaines q ui s ont l oin d 'etre c ontigus,

o u

p arfois m er le l e p etitesse d e c ertains d 'entre e ux t el Ruminghen d ont l a r gserve n e f ait q ue t rente-cinq h ectares (22)

1 96

.

C e s ysteme

n g a u V II ° s iecle c o me l 'a m ontrg A .

V erhulst ( 23)

s 'est-il g tendu

1 d 'autres r egions m ieux d ominges p ar l es C arolingiens?

E st il

s orti d e s on p ays d 'origine p endant l a d euxieme m oitig d u I X° s iecle? U n p remier d gpouillement d es a ctes d e C harles l e C hauve d onne s oixante d eux d iplömes o r i l e s chgma c lassique b i-parti e st n ettement c itg e t e xplicit , p oint d ans l es a utres.

c e q ui n e v eut p as d ire q u 'il n 'existe

I l n 'y e st p oint r econnaissable e t c 'est

p ourquoi j e n 'en p an e p as.

M ais l orsque l e r oi c onfirme l a c on-

s titution d e l a m anse m onastique d e M ontigrender e n 8 45,

l 'identitg

d es t ermes t echniques e t d es t oponymes a vec c eux d u p olyptyque p erm et d 'affirmer s ans a ucune h gsitation (24) e st l e m lme.

q ue l e r egime d es t erres

D onc j e p eux d gduire e n b onne l ogique q ue l es

s oixante d eux a ctes d e C harles l e C hauve q ui m entionnent m anses s eigneuriaux , s ysteme.

i nggnuiles e t s erviles,

O n l e r etrouve a insi e n P icardie e t e n F landre (25)

A rdenne e t e n C hampagne (26) g vide ment ( 28) L aonnois,

d gcrivent b ien n otre f ameux

,e n I le d e F rance ( 27)

. I i e xiste a ussi e n C ambrgsis,

e n P erthois,

e n B eauvaisis,

I l ag agng p ar l e p ays d e C aux ,

e t D ijon ,

e t e n L orraine

e n A rtois ( 28)

,e n

e n M ulcien e t e n E tampois (30)

l e Bessin ( 31)

B ourgogne p uisqu 'il e st m entionng e n G ätinais, A uxerrois,

,e n

e n T onnerrois e t e n A utunois ( 32)

e t s 'est r gpandu e n e n S gnonais,

e n

E nfin d epuis L angres

i l a tteint B eaune e t M acon e t p arait s 'arrIter 1 1 (33)

.

D e m lme i l p ousse u ne d euxieme p ointe v ers l e s ud d epuis l 'Orlganais j usqu 'ä C osne (34)

. E n s omme,

v enu d es p ays g ermaniques

i l ap rogress gd ans d es r ggions s ituges a u s ud d e l a S eine p our a tteindre l a N eustrie o ccidentale, r emarqug L ucien M usset ,

l a L oire e t l a S a ne.

C omme l 'a

i l p arait s 'arrIter " au s ud-ouest d 'une

l igne d ont l e t ract d 'ensemble i rait d e S enonches 1 P ontorson" e t ,

j 'ajoute p our m a p art,

( 35)

d u P erche n on c ompris 1 O rlgans j usqu'l

C osne e t M econ e n g vitant l es t erres a cides d u M orvan. i l af ait d isparattre d 'anciens m odes d e f aire-valoir ,

A u p assage c omme e n

P onthieu,

e n V imeu e t e n B eauvaisis o i s ont m entionngs d es

s etici (36)

. S 'agit-il d 'emplacements e nclos,

p loitation d 'une a ncienne p roprigtg?

o u d e s ieges d 'ex-

L 'un a v isiblement g tg t rans-

f orms e n p etite r eserve, m ais l es a utres s emblent s ugggrer l a p rgsence d e p ieces d e t erre o u d e t errains r elativement m odestes.

1 97

Q uoiqu 'il e n s oit d e c ette g pineuse q uestion , m om s v rai q ue, m eme d ans c es p ays, e st u ne i mportation r gcente,

i l n 'en d emeure p as

l e r egime d omanial c lassique

q ui n 'a p as q uatre g gngrations d igge

p uisque l e v ocabulaire a ntgrieur 1 c es o pgrations d e r edistribution d es p ratiques a graires s ubsiste e ncore e n 8 44 , 8 56 e t 8 68 .

C es

s urvivances p rouvent q ue l e n ouveau s ysteme a d l g laborer u n c omp romis a vec l 'ancien p our p arvenir

s 'imposer .

A p lus f orte r aison f aut-il a lors d gduire l a m lme c onc lusion d es d iplömes d e C harles l e C hauve c oncernant l e M aine, l 'Anjou e t l a T ouraine.

D gjl R obert L atouche a vait r emarqug ( 37)

l 'originalitg d e c ette r ggion e t i nsistait s ur l 'aspect p articulier d es r ggimes a graires d e c ette z one . l es d ocuments, a u m om s s ix f ois,

U n t erme r evient s ouvent d ans

c elui d e f actus.

C ette u nits d e

t erre g quivaut c ertainement a u m anse d e t ype m gridional p uisqu 'elle e st s ouvent m entionnge a vec s es d gpendances ( 38)

. O r b ien q ue t res

a ncienne, p uisqu 'elle e st c it e e n L imousin a u V II ° s iecle, c ompletement c hangg d 'affectation a u I X° s iecle .

e ile a

E lle e st e nglobte

m aintenant d ans u n s ysteme s eigneurial b i-parti p uisqu 'il e st q uestion d e p lusieurs f acti d gpendants d 'une c urtis d ominica o u e ncore d e f acti c oloniles o u s erviles (39)

. L 'adjectif c olonilis

e st p articulierement r gvglateur 1 1 e ncore 1 c ause d e l 'gquivalence f aite a vec l a s ervitude.

I l s 'agit d 'anciens l ots d e t erres

c ultivgs p ar d es e sclaves q ui o nt g tg r egroup s e n u n e nsemble d omanial, u ne r gserve a vec p lusieurs d izaines d e t enures. d ominica,

i nconnue 1 l 'gpoque m grovingienne d ans l e d omaine d e

T resson s itu ga u s ud-est d u M ans, p robablement a u I X° s iecle. p reuve

( 40

L a c urtis

D onc,

ya f ait s on a pparition

L e t oponyme d e C ourdemanche e n e st l a

u ne f ois d e p lus n ous t rouvon

l es p reuves d e

l 'importation e ntre S eine e t L oire d u s ysteme d omanial s ous l a f orme d 'un r egroupement d 'anciennes u nites d e c ulture . n 'est p as t otal, m ais i l e st r eel.

S on s ucces

S gmantique e t c hronologie d u

v ocabulaire a gricole s ont i ci t res r gvglatrices. J e c rois

A r ne

n gcessaire d e p oser l e p robleme d e l a

m aniere d ont c e n ouveau s ysteme a g tg i nstall . g roupement d es t erres s ous u ne

m eme

a utoritg .

J 'ai p arlg d e r eJ e n 'irai p as

j usqu '1 p arler d e r emembrement d es t erres p ar l es n obles f rancs o u g ermano-romains c ar n ous n ' e n a vons a ucune p reuve,

1 98

e t l a f aveur d e

l a n ouvelle t erminologie v enue d u n ord n 'y i ncite g uere. c ertains t ermes p articuliers,

t els q ue h aga,

ä -dire, h aie v ive, h aie t aillge,

s epes,

N ganmoins

c oncides,

c 'est-

o u e ncore h aie f orestiere r evien-

n ent s ouvent e t p araissent i ndiquer u n m ode d e l imite o u d e f ermet ure d es t erres c ultivges p ropre a ux F rancs p uisqu 'il e st s ouvent t raduit e n G ermanie p ar b ifang,

c e q ui d gsigne u n e space

d gfri-

c her c rgg a u m ilieu d es b ois e n g ardant l es a rbres s ur p ied c omme l imites. p ratique

P lusieurs a ctes d e C harles l e C hauve s ignalent c ette ( 41),

d e F rance.

e n A mignois,

e n Beauvaisis,

e n C hampagne,

e t e n I le

C harles H igounet v ient r gcemment d e m ontrer

t ance d e c es h aies f orestieres e n E urope o ccidentale (42)

.

L a

l oi

d es S aliens m entionne c ette p ratique f ranoue c o me h abituelle ( 43) L es p olyptyques p arlent c ouramment d e s ilva m inuta,

m ot t radition-

n ellement t raduit p ar b ois-taillis e t q ue j 'aurai t endance, m a p art ä r endre p lutöt p ar b ois t aill .

p our

I i s 'agit e n f ait d e b ois

o u l es j eunes a rbres s ont g mondgs c onstamment p our f ormer d es o bstacles c ontinus ,

d es l imites i nfranchissables ,

d gcrivent C gsar p our l a G aule C eltioue,

c omme n ous l es

e t l es t extes r elevgs p ar

C harles H igounet p our l es g randes h aies d es X II ° e t X III ° s iecles. L orsqu 'un a cte d e 8 67 p an e d e " treize b onniers d e b ois t aillg" o u d u " bois t aillg d es F rancs" (4 4) o u q u 'un a utre c onsidere l e b ois d e V incennes p res d e P aris c o me u ne h aie f oresti re (45)

,i i f aut

e n c onclure q ue c ette t echnique d e c löture d 'origine c eltique a doptee p ar l es F rancs e t l es S axons ( 46 )

a g tg r gpandue p artout o u

l 'on o rgait l e r egime d omanial b i-parti.

D 'ailleurs e ile n 'est

j amais a pparue, Ar ne p ar l a s uite, a u s ud d e l a L oire, ä l 'exception d 'une z one f ortement c eltisge,

l e P oitou o ccidental.

L es t ermes e n q uestion n e d gpassent p as l es l imites m gridionales d e l a z one d u g rand d omaine .

L e p aysage d u b ocage e st d onc n g

t res a nciennement e t i l a c onnu u r ic f orte e xpansion d ans l e n ord d e l a F rancie o ccidentale a u c ours d u I X° s . s embles d e c ulture, r eserve e t m anses, p as t oujours, t antöt l arges,

L es n ouveaux e n-

g taient d onc,

s ouvent, m ais

e nserrgs p ar d es e spaces b oisgs s ans c esse t aillgs t antöt r gduits 1 d e s imples h aies v ives.

Q ue l 'Austrasie,

l a N eustrie e t l a B ourgogne

s eptentrionale a ient f inalement a dopts p our l eurs g randes f amilies n obles o u l eurs g randes p roprigtgs e cclgsiastiques l e s ysteme d omanial,

e st c omprghensible .

L 'autoritg c arolingienne y g tait

1 99

f orte.

L es r gformes y f urent a ppliqu es m ieux q u 'ailleurs.

E t

c omme l e f ait r emarquer K .F . W erner ,

l es c irconscriptions a ttribuges

r ggulierement a ux m issi d ominici ( 47)

c oncernent s urtout " la F rancie

p roprement d ite e t l a B ourgogne d u N ord".

D onc i l e st n ormal d e

v oir s 'y p ropager l e r egime d omanial e n d eux o u t rois g tapes ; r este ä s avoir s 'il p gngtra e n A quitaine.

P armi l es c inquante d eux

d iplömes d e C harles l e C hauve q ui d gcrivent u ne m ise e n v aleur d e t ype m gridional, p as u n s eul n e l aisse d eviner l a p rgsence d e n otre m odele q ui y a urait g tg i mport .

I i f aut a voir r ecours a u

c artulaire d e Beaulieu e n L imousin p our p eut-etre t rouver u ne a llusion ä u n m anse s eigneurial . R odulf ,

d 'origine f ranque,

D ans s on t estament ,

l egue a u m onastere d e Beaulieu ,

v ient d e f onder e n 8 55 d ans l a v icairie d 'Arnac, d ominicariam ,

l 'archeveque q u 'il

" casam n ostram

s uper f luvium S ordoriam ( Surdoire) s itam,

c ujus

v ocabulum e st V eterinas ( Vegennes) c um m ansis p ertinentibus h is d untaxat l ocis..." ( 48)

. S uivent a lors l es n oms d es e sclaves q ui

t iennent l es m anses.

M ais d eux o bstacles s e d ressent d evant c elui

q ui v oudrait y r econnaitre l es p ratiques s eptentrionales. m anses s ont s itugs d ans u n l ieu a utre q ue V egennes , S arrasac e t n on p lus e n L imousin .

e n Q uercy , 1

n fin l e t erme d e c asa d gsigne,

n on u n m anse s eigneurial, m ais l a m aison, T ous l es a utres a ctes o

L es

l a r gsidence d u m aitre.

a pparaissent d ans c e c artulaire l e m ot

v illa o u c urtis i ndominicata, m ansus i ndominicatus, o u d ominicarius , n ous r envoient 1 l a m eme c onstatation, p lusieurs s ur u ne m eme p roprigtg ,

c ar , o u b ien,

i i y e n a

o u b ien Us s e t rouvent e n c on-

c urrence a vec l e c hef-manse o u c ap-manse ( 49)

. O r c e d ernier e st

t oujours u ne t erre d u m aitre e n f aire-valoir d irect,

s ans o bliga-

t ion d e c orvge p our l es d gpendants i nstall s s ur d 'autres m anses. C omme l e f aisait r emarquer G abriel F ournier p our l 'Auvergne l e " vocabulaire n e d olt p as f aire i llusion e t c e r ggime, d ans l a m esure o u i l a e xistg , p arait a voir g tg

t res a ttgnug"

( 50)

. En

f ait l a m ode f ranque o nomastique a c achg l a m aintien d e l 'ancien s ysteme. D onnons-en e ncore q uelques p reuves . c as d e B eaulieu ,

T oujours d ans l e

l e c omte G eoffroi d onne u ne " curtis i ndominicata"

a vec u ne g glise " et b accallariis i ndominicatis e t m ansis s ervilibus"

( 51)

. C es b achelleries d omaniales s ont d es t erres

2 00

a ppartenant a u m attre d ont rusufruit a g tg a ccord s tipendium (52)

d e j eunes h ommes c glibataires.

1

c endants d es b ucellaires d e l 'Empire t ardif ,

g ät itre d e

L ointains d es-

us s ont p ay s e n

g change a u s ervice m ilitaire a u e cclesial p ar l e r evenu d e c ette t erre.

T out c ela e st e minemment a rcha que,

n on f ranque.

d 'inspiration r omaine e t

T outes l es p roprigtgs, m eme l es p lus g randes s ont

m orcellges e n u nit s,

t enues l es u nes p ar d es h o mes l ibres,

a utres p ar d es e sclaves, d emeure d u p roprigtaire.

l es

m ais s ans l ien o rganique p uissant a vec l a U n m eme s pectacle e st o ffert p ar l a

f ondation d u m onastere d e V abres e n R ouergue.

S i l 'on f ait l e

t otal d es d onations q ui s 'gchelonnent e ntre 8 61 e t 8 74 , e n e ntiers s ont d onnges a vec l eurs d gpendances e t, l ieux q ue c eux o ü s e t rouvent c e

p roprigtgs,

s ix v illae

e n d 'autres

c inquante-cinq

m anses, a utres u nites d 'exploitation t enues p arfois p ar d es e sc laves,

s ouvent s ans a ucun p ersonnel m entionng , m ais t oujours a vec

l eurs d gpendances ( 53)

. C es m anses s ont d e v gritables u nit s d e

c ulture a utonomes a nalogues 1 c elui q u 'a r etrouvg C harles H igounet d ans l a m eme r ggion (54)

. M me s i c ertains a ctes d e C harles l e

C hauve p arlent d e m anses v ides a u p lutöt d e t erres v ides, n 'y v oyons 1 1 e ncore a ucune a llusion a u r egime d omanial (55) e n Berry ( 56) V elay,

,P oitou (57)

V ivarais ( 59)

m gditerrangen)

,A ngoumcis,

,T oulousain ,

S aintonge (58)

. P artout

,L yonnais ,

S eptimanie ( Languedoc

e t m arche d 'Espagne (59)

n ous r etrouvons l es m emes

c onstatations q u 'en L imousin , A uvergne e t R ouergue.

L 'ancien

f undus e t l 'ancienne c olonica g allo-romains s ont a ppelgs v illa e t m ansus ( sauf e n N imois o . l 'on c ite e ncore d es c olonges).

A ucune

t entative d 'y i ntroduire u ne m gthode n ouvelle p our c oncentrer l es r evenus a gricoles d ans l a m ain d 'un g rand p roprigtaire n e p eut y e tre d gcouverte.

L es p ays s itugs a u s ud d e l a L oire s ont r gsolu-

m ent c onservateurs d ans l eur e xploitation d es t erres.

L es r ois

c arolingiens n 'ont p as c herchg 1 y i mposer l eurs s olutions .

e n c ulture,

L a Bretagne,

e ile,

s urenchgrit d 'archa/sme d ans s a m ise

d es t erres .

E lle g chappe,

c ertes, a u p ouvoir d e

C harles l e C hauve m algrg l e c ourt i ntermede d e N ominog v aguement r econnu c o me m issus d ominicus ( 6o )

. Aussi f aut-il c onsulter l es

c artulaires d e R edon e t d e L andvennec p our s 'apercevoir q ue 1 1 e ncore l e r ggime d omanial b i-parti e st a bsent m eme s i l es m ots

2 01

v illa e t m anse ( orthographig s ouvent m assus) s ont p laqugs s ur d es r galitgs c eltiques e t g allo-romaines .

E n e ffet,

v illa e st p arfois

t ranscrit p ar r an e t m anse p ar t igran.

C haque d onation o u v ente

m entionne e xprgssgment l es d gpendances,

s ans a llusion a ucune ä d es

m anses d omaniaux . P ar e xemple v ers 8 47, d eux f reres s ont c ondamngs % a d onner a ux m oines s ur l 'ordre d e N ominog p lusieurs p ieces d e t erres ,

l es u nes ä m oitig , l es a utres e xception f aite d 'un m anse

e ntier o u c oup ge n d eux ( 61) u nit s .

L e m anse,

A ucun l ien p rgcis n 'existe e ntre c es

o u t igran , b reton p ara t m eme n 'etre s ouvent

q u 'une p etite t erre d ot e d 'une m aison d 'habitation p arfaitement a utonome a vec s es d gpendances, b ois, p rgs, p ätures,

e tc...

P lus

l es t erres s ont s ituges p res d e N antes e t p lus l 'ancien f ormulaire g allo-romain e st c ourant l aissant a insi s oupionner q ue l a r egle g gngrale d emeure l a g rande o u l a p etite p roprigtg 1 l a m aniere a ntique .

E n p leine t erre c elte ,

l e c artulaire d e L andevennec ( 62)

n e c ite q ue d es d ons o u d es v entes d e p roprigtgs h grgditaires ( hereditates) d e v illae o u d e p ieces d e t erre ( tribum) avec ä c haque f ois l eurs d gpendances ( apendiciae).

R angeons d onc l a

Bretagne p armi l es t erres d u r oyaume d e C harles l e C hauve q ui n 'ont p as s ubi l 'influence d u g rand d omaine f ranc. C ette o pposition e n d eux g randes z ones g gographiques n e d oit p oint c ependant e tre m ajorge.

S i l es b ornes d e p ierre e t l es

l imites s trictes d essinent m ieux l e p arcellaire d es c hamps s ur l es s ols d u M idi e t d e l 'Ouest q ue l es g paisses h aies e t l es c lötures d 'gpineux d ans l e Bassin P arisien e t l e N ord ,

s i l es g randes p ro-

p rigtgs m gridionales m orcelges s 'opposent a ux g rands d omaines d u n ord d e l a L oire r egroup s a utour d 'une r gserve,

c es d iffgrences

n 'en s ont p as m om s a ttgnuges p ar d es p ratiques c ommunes, q ue p eu n oyges a u m ilieu d es p etites p roprigtgs.

e t q uel-

L es f iscs r oyaux

p arsement u niformgment t out l e t erritoire d e C harles l e C hauve . D ans l e L aonnois,

l e f isc d e V oulpaix c omporte s oixante d ix m anses

f ormant u n b loc m assif a uquel s 'ajoutent d e m ultiples d gpendances (63)

D ans l e C arcasses,

l e f isc d e F raissg e nglobe

p lusieurs c ommunes a ctuelles e ntre A lzau , l e C abardes, l e c ours d u F resquel 6 4)

L aprade e t

O utre c e l atifundium a ntique,

d 'autres

t erres, m orcellges c ette f ois-ci, a ppartiennent a u r oi d ans d es l ieux v oisins.

L 'aspect e xtgrieur d es f iscs r oyaux e st d onc l e

2 02

m eme d 'un b out 1 l 'autre d u r oyaume, m ais o n n e p rend p as l a p eine, d ans l e C omtg d e C arcassone, d e p rgciser ,

c omme 1 V oulpaix ,

l es

d ivisions i ntgrieures d u d omaine p arce q ue l e l ien o rganique e ntre r gserve e t m anses n 'y a p oint g tg c r .

L es f iscs d u M idi s ont

s ans r gserve, a u c ontraire d u N ord, p uisque l es a ctes d e C harles l e C hauve l a m entionnent s eulement e n A ustrasie e t N eustrie. U n a utre t rait c ommun c aractgrise c es c ampagnes, t endance e t l 'encouragement a u d gfrichement.

l a

J e n e r eviendrai p as

s ur l a t echnique m gridionale e t r omaine d e l 'aprision, a ppuyge s ur l a p ratique d e l a p rescription t rentenaire.

C ette t echnique q ui

c onsiste ä " arracher a u d gsert" d e n ouvelles c ultures,

f avorise l es

p etits p roprigtaires l ibres s ur l es t erres i ncultes, p roprigtgs r oyales d 'apres l a l oi r omaine.

L e p rgcepte d e C harles l e C hauve

d e 8 44 r gsume f ort b ien c ette p olitique (65)

d estin e 1 p eupler

l 'Aquitaine,

l a S eptimanie e t l 'Espagne g race a ux r gfugigs e spagnols

o u g ascons .

M ais a u n ord d e l a L oire,

a pparait a ussi.

l a p ratique d es e ssarts

L es m oines d e M ontigrender s ont e ncouraggs 1

e ssarter l es b ois e n p ratiquant l a t echnique d e l a h aie f orestiere (66) g arrigue ,

. L e p aysage d iffgre s eulement : d 'un c ött l a

d e l 'autre l e b ois g pais, p arfois Ar ne l e m arais e t d u

c oup l a p rgsence d e p rairies u niquement r gservges ä l 'usage d es v aches e n B oulonnais e t e n F landre (67)

.

L 'aspect d ynamique d e l 'agriculture s eptentrionale p a r a t m eme p lus i mportant q ue d ans l 'extreme f range m gridionale ä c ause d e l a p rgsence d es h ostises.

C e t erme i nconnu ä l 'epoque

m grovingienne d gsigne u ne t enure a ccordge 1 u n h o me l ibre.

E lle

s e t rouve s ituge s ouvent e n b ordure d es z ones c ultivges e t n e p ara t g uere l ige a u s ysteme d u g rand d omaine f ranc.

O r e ile e st

s trictement l imitge a ux z ones o ü i i s 'est r gpandu : Bassin P arisien e t T ouraine e n p articulier ( 68)

. C ette n ouveautt c aro-

l ingienne p rouve u ne f ois d e p lus l 'aspect m ouvant e t c hangeant d es r ggions s ituges a u n ord d e l a L oire,

c ar i ci a ucune g uerre

g trangere n 'explique l a p rgsence d 'individus g migrgs e t i solgs s 'attaquant a u d gsert c o me d ans l e M idi. A insi, m algrg l 'aspect p rovisoire q ue p rgsente c ette s ynthese s ur l a g gographie r urale d u r oyaume d e C harles l e C hauve,

2 03

c hacun v erra q u 'il e st p ossible d e s e l ibgrer d e l 'emprise d es p olyptyques p our t enter d e m ieux s aisir l e v isage d es c ampagnes d e c ette g poque.

D u c oup " la r oyautg" d u g rand d omaine b i-parti c aro-

l ingien p eut A tre r amenge ä s es v gritables l imites. p etites p roprigtgs e t d e p etites e xploitations, p ropagg p ar l es n obles, l ingiens .

S ur u n f ond d e

i l a l entement g tg

l es e cclesiastiques e t l es r ois c aro-

I l a d gpassg l a S eine d es l 'gpoque d e C harlemagne , e t

a tteint l a L oire s ous l e r egne d e C harles l e C hauve, a insi q ue l a B ourgogne s eptentrionale .

C ette e xtension s e f ait e n u tilisant l a

v ieille t echnique c eltique d e l a h aie f orestiere. a vis ,

C eci p ose a m on

l e p robleme d e l 'origine e t d e l 'expansion d u b ocage e n

F rance d 'une m aniere i nattendue.

L e b ocage b reton, l e b ocage

n ormand e t l e b ocage d e l a T higrache s ont c ertainement d es r el iquats d 'une p ratique g ermano-celtiaue b eaucoup p lus

t endue

a utrefois. L i ga u p ouvoir r gel d es r ois c arolingiens,

l e m odele

d u g rand d omaine a vec r gserve e t m anses d gpendants n 'a p as p u a tteindre l es r ggions f ortement r omanisges s ituges a u s ud d e l a L oire, a lors q u 'il y g tait p arvenu a u n ord .

S eul s on v ocabulaire

y e st u tilisg , p laqug s ur l e s ysteme a ntique d u f undus g allor omain q ui

c late d e p lus e n p lus e n u nit s m orcellges.

B retagne a r gsistg 1 l 'influence f ranque.

Mme l a

L es s tructures a graires

m gridionales s ont f igges e n u n c onservatisme q ui n e l aisse o uvertes q ue d eux p ossibilitgs

m orcellement a ccentug d es t erres

a nciennement c ultivges o u d gfrichement p ar l a t echnique d e l 'aprision .

E ncore f aut-il s ouligner q ue c ette d erniere s olution

n 'est v raiment u tilis e q u 'en S eptimanie.

D ans l e n ord e he

d emeure l atente, m ais e ile p eut s e d gvelopper e n d ehors d u g rand d omaine p ar l e b iais d e l 'hostise.

L 'autoritg r oyale u nifie

c ertes c es t erres p ar l a p rgsence d e s es f iscs, m ais e ile n 'a p as o sg i mplanter c l ans c eux d u M idi l es p ratiques d u g rand d omaine b ip arti. U n d gsgquilibre t res n et a pparatt d onc c l ans l es s ystemes a graires q ui s e p artagent l e r oyaume d e C harles h e C hauve. A u n ord l e p aysage e t l 'exploitation a gricoles s ont r emodelges p ar d 'incontestables n ouveautgs.

A u s ud , d es i nnovations c aro-

l ingiennes o nt b utt s ur u n r ggime d es t erres a ntiques,

2 04

c l ans t ous

l es s ens d u t er me .

J e n e p ense p as q ue l es f a ib les s uccesseurs d u f i ls d e

L ou is l e P ieux a ien t P u r epandre l es s o lu t ions f ranques d ans u n p ays q u i s e r evo lte d epu is 8 38 e t l eur e chappe p our l ong te mps e n 8 88 .

D eux pies d e

d eve loppe men t a gra ire v on t d onc p ouvo ir a lors e ssa i mer a u tour d 'e ux , 1 'u n a u n ord d e l a S e ine v ers l a Manche , l 'a u tre a u s ud d es P yrennees v ers

E bre .

C hacun marquera l e s o l d 'u ne man iere d if feren te d ans l a l i gne d u s yste me d e m ise e n v a leur a n ter ieur , a ccen tuan t a ins i c e t te d iv is ion q ue l es C aro l ing iens n 'o n t P u f a ire d ispard i tre . U n ivers ity o f L i l le A dd it iona l n o te T he d if ference b e tween

b o is t a i l l is ' a nd

b o is t a i l le ' . T he f or mer t er m

d eno tes a c opse w ith s o me f u l ly g rown t rees , a nd t he

l a t ter a wood w h ich

h as b een p runed , w ith a l l t he t rees s hor tened a nd t he ir b ranches i n terwoven , f orm ing a l iv ing b arr ier o f v ar iab le w id th . I t must b e d ist ingu ished f ro m OHG z aun , OE t un , modern t own , wh ich r efers t o as e t f ence o f h aw thorns a nd o ther t horns s urround ing A ng lo-Saxon v i l lages t o f or m a d efens ive p a ll i sade . When 'b o is t a i l le ' i s r educed i n w id th t o f or m a n e nc los ing b oundary h edge , t h is f or ms t he t ype o f l andscape k nown i n F rench a s 'b ocage i. T he ' se t ic i ' o f n o te 3 6 a ppear t o b e f i e lds w ith a b oundary p a l l isade l i ke t hose which h ave b een d iscovered i n a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions a t D orestad a nd Ha mw ih ( Sou tha mp ton ) , s urround ing a c en tra l w ooden h ouse .

I ti s a lso

p oss ib le t ha t t he p rac t ice o f s aepes , s epes , r eferred t o b y P a l lad ius ( Tra ite d 'A rch itecture , e d . R . Mar t in , P ar is 1 976 , I , ) 00 ( IV , 5 , p . 3 8 ) i s o f R o man o r ig in .

H uber t l e B ourde l les k ind ly t e l ls me t ha t s aept icu m , b y r o mance

p t- mu ta t ion t o ta f ter a v owe l , c ou ld b eco me s et icu m .

S o s et icus , s et icu m ,

w ou ld b e af i e ld o r g arden s urrounded b y ap lan ted t horn h edge .

NO T E S 1 ) R . F ossier , P olypty ques e t c ensiers , T ypologie d es s ources d u M ayen A ge o ccidental , T urnhout , 1 978 . 2 ) A . V erhulst , ' La g enese d u r ggime d omanial c lassioue e n F rance a u H aut M oyen-Age ', S S S poleto , X III , 1 966 , p .135 - 1 60 . 3 ) G . D uby , L 'gconomie r urale e t l a v ie d es c ampagnes . . P aris , 1 962 , t . 1 , p .91 e t 1 15 . 4 ) N ous n e d isposons e n e ffet q ue d e R . F ossier , L a t erre e t l es h ommes e n P icardie , 2t . P aris , 1 968 , d e G . F ournier , L e P euplement r ural e n B asse A uver n e d urant l e H aut Mo e n-A e , d 'E . M agnou-Mortier , L a s oci t l alque e t l 'Eglise d 2ns l a p r ovince d e N arbonne , T oulouse , 1 974 e t A . D elgage , L a v ie r urale e n B ourgogne , 3v ol ., M äcon , 1 941 . 5 ) T essier , 1 943 - 1 955 . 6 ) I bid . no 5 , 8 41 , p .17 ; no 3 5 , 8 44 , p .95 ;n° 5 7 , 8 44 , p .163 ; no 3 42 , 8 70 , p .264 . 7 ) I bid . no 9 8 , 8 47 , p .262 ; o uatre c olonges s ises e n L yonnais ; no 1 50 , 8 52 , p .1 ; no 2 39 , 8 62 , p .36 ;n° 3 26 , 8 69 , p .222 . bid . no 1 11 , 8 49 , p .296 ; h uit m gnils d ans l e b ois d e 8 ) I B rotonne a ppartenant ä J umieges , no 1 12 , 8 49 , p .299 ; no 14 , 8 49 , p .305 ; n° 3 79 , 8 75 , p .349 . 9 ) I bid . no 6 2 , 8 45 , p .179 ; no e , 8 55 , p .460 , u ne p editura d e v igne ; n° 1 79 , 8 55 , p .477 ; n 2 19 , 8 60 , p .549 ; no 2 52 , 8 62 , p .77 ; n° 2 97 , 8 67 , p .153 ; no 3 67 , 8 73 , p .319 ; no 4 34 , 8 77 , p .470 . L e c arreau f ait a pproximativement 8 0 m 2 . 1 0 ) I bid . n° 1 60 , 8 54 , p .424 ; no 1 69 , 8 64 , p .446 ; no 2 22 , 8 60 , p .560 ;no 2 61 , 8 63 , p .91 ; no 2 93 , 8 66 , p .148 ; n° 3 11 , 8 68 , p .188 ;n o 3 99 , 8 75 , p .385 . 1 1 ) I bid . no 1 91 , 8 57 , p .497 ; no 1 92 , 8 57 , p .500 ;no 2 27 , 8 61 , p .6 ; n° 2 93 , 8 66 , p .148 ; no 3 11 , 8 68 , p .188 ; no 3 44 , 8 70 , p .267 . 1 2) I ls s ont a ppelgs d u n om c urieux d e r ecu lae ; c 'est-l-dire d e b iens c onvenables p our u n c ultivateur . C e t ype d e p iece d e t erre r emonte ä l 'Empire t ardif . I bid . n° 2 63 , 8 64 , p .94 . 1 3 ) I bid . no 1 23 , 8 50 , p .327 ; no 1 40 , 8 51 , p .369 ; n° 1 59 , 8 54 , p .418 ;n o 1 68 , 8 54 , p .444 ; n o 1 74 , 8 55 , p .460 ; no 1 85 , 8 56 , p .489 ; n° 3 29 , 8 69 , p .227 ; n° 3 69 , 8 74 , p .321 ; n° 3 71 , 8 74 , p .326 ; n° 4 22 , 8 77 , p .436 . E videmment j e p an e p as i ci d es p olyptyques d gcrivant d es q uarts d e m anses . 1 4 ) I bid .

n o

3 90 , 8 75 , p .374 .

1 5 ) I bid . no 1 2 , 8 42 , p .38 ; no 3 5 , , 8 44 , p .95 ;n° 5 3 6 e t 3 7 , p .98 e t 1 00 ; n 4 7 , 8 44 , p .134 ; n u 1 20 , 8 49 , p .318 ; n° 1 51 , 8 53 , p .403 ; no 1 66 , 8 64 , p .437 ; n° 2 09 , 8 59 , p .532 ; no 3 21 e t 3 22 , 8 69 , p .207 e t 2 10 . 1 6) A rchives d u N ord , 4G , 1 06 , M us e 2 5 . 1 7) G . F ournier , o p . c it ., p .241 - 2 51 .

2 06

1 7) bis T essier , n° 4 4 , 8 57, p .502.

8 44, p .122

; no 1 22, 8 49, p .324 ; no 1 93,

1 8) G . Duby , o p. c it ., p .100-113 ; G . F ourquin, H istoire g conomique d e l 'Occident m gdigval, P aris, 1 j777-7e- 7 d .

p .80-81.

1 9) F .L . G anshof , F . G odding-Ganshof , A . d e S met , L e p olyptyque d e l 'abbaye d e S aint B ertin ( 844-859), P aris, 1 975 . 2 0) C . L alore, L e p olyptyque d e M ontigrender , T royes, 1 878 . F erdinand L ot, u ne f ois d e p lus h ypercritique, l 'a d ate d e 8 32-845 d ans ' Note s ur l a d ate d u p olyptyque d e M ontigrender ', L MA, t . X XXV , 1 904, p .107-117. 2 1) B . G ugrard , P olyptyque d e l 'abbaye d e S aint-Remi d e R eims, P aris , 1 853. 2 2) F .L .

G anshof ,

S aint-aertin,

o p. c it ., p .78.

2 3) c f n ote 2 . 2 4) " ... v illam S ummore V igra ( Sommevoire) q ue h abet oq uatuordecim m ansa.." A ctes d e C harles l e C hauve, o p. c it. n 7 0, 8 45 , p .200, " In S umma V igra m ansum i ndominicatum I ... A spiciunt a d i psum m ansum m ansa i ngenuila X III" P olypty2ue d e M ontigrender , o p. c it ., p .89 , I . L 'ordre s uivi e st l e m eme. 2 5) T essier , no 2 2, 8 43 , p .55 ; n°05 8, 8 44 , p .165 ; n° 1 89, 8 57, p .493 ; no 3 03 , 8 67, p .169 ; n 3 37, 8 70, p .248 ; no 4 30 , 8 77, p .461 ; n° 4 34 , 8 77, p .470 . 2 6) I bid. n° g o , 845, p .199 ; no 7, 8 45 , p .212 ; no 1 52, 8 53, p .405 ; n 1 85 , 8 56, p .489 ; n 1 91, 8 57, p .497 ; n 1 92, 8 57, p .500 ; no 2 02 , 8 59, p .516 ; n° 2 99, 8 67, p .157 ; no 4 58, 8 77, p .511.

5 ,8 4 5 ,

2 7) I bid . n° g p .186 ; n° 1 19 , 4 89, p .316 ; n° 1 25 , 8 51, p .358 ; n 3 29, 8 69, p .228 ; n 3 63 , 8 72, p .309 ; n 4 25 , 8 77, p .451. 2 8) I bid .

n° 3 30, 8 69, p .464 ; n o 4 31, 8 77, p .464 .

2 9) I bid . no 9 2, 8 47, p .246. H . P latelle, L e t emporel d e l 'abbaye d e S t A mand , d es o rigines ä 1 340 , P aris, 1 962. T essier , nö 3 24, 8 70 , p .239 ; n° 37, 8 71, p .295 ; no 3 61, 8 72, p .301 ; n 4 35 , 8 77, p .473 ; n 4 36, 8 77, p .476. 3 0) I bid . p .444 p .261 p .191 p .264

n° 6 5 , 8 45 , p .186 ; n° 1 7 , 853, p .415 ; n° 1 68 , 8 54 , ; no 1 72, 8 55 , p .454 ; n 1 74 , 8 55 , p .460 ; n° 2 48, 8 62, ; n° 3 02, 8 67, p .166 ; n° 3 11, 8 68, p .188 ; no 3 13, 8 68, ; n° 3 29, 8 69 , p .227 ; no 3 36 , 8 70, p .243 ; n° 3 42, 8 70 , ; n° 3 57, 8 71, p .293.

3 1) I bid . no 2 4 , 8 43 , p .61 ; no 1 60, 8 54, p .424 ; no 2 23, 8 60 , p .562 ; n° 3 99 , 8 75 , p .385 ; n° 4 07, 8 76, p .409 . 3 2) I bid . n° 1 6, 8 43, p .40 ; n° 1 24, 8 50 , p .330 ; n° 1 46, 8 52, p .386 ; no 1 48, 8 52, p .392 ; no 2 05 , 8 59, p .520 ; n° 2 61, 8 63 , p .91 ; n° 2 69, 8 64, p .106 ; no 2 93, 8 66, p .147 ; n° 3 77, 8 75, p .341 ; n° 4 45 , 8 77, p .500 . 3 3) no 2 06 , 8 59, p .523

; n° 3 26, 8 69, p .221

3 4) n° 1 50, 8 53, p .401

; n° 1 77, 8 55 , p .467.

2 07

; n° 3 52, 8 71, p .283.

3 5) L . M usset, L es d omaines d e l 'gpoque f ranque e t l es d estin es d u r ggime d omanial d u I X0 a u X I0 s iecle, C aen , 1 945 , p .41. 3 6)

" Verculfum ( Vercourt) c um s eticis i n R agineri Exclusa ( Reg nieres-Escluse) t errisque a d e a r n p ertinentibus, R oconis m ontem ( Roquemont) c um s eticis e t t erris i n M arflariis ( Mouflers) S acrocampo ( Sarcamp) e t P etronutio ( Perrois) c onsistentibus . e t i n p ago Belvacense i n l oco q ui d icitur G ellis ( ?) s etici s ex e t d e v inea a ripennos o cto, e t i n R ivitsicurte ( Rivecourt) s eticis d uobus e t d e v inea aripennos s ex ; e t i n Q uentvico ( Quentovic) s eticis d uobus, i n M osultro ( Mesoutre) i n A sco ( Acheux) s eticis t ribus..." T essier , t . I , n° 5 8 , 8 44 , p .165 -1 66 ; " in p ago A mbianensi d e ( fisco) q uad v ocatur R augia ( Roye) i n l oquo q ui d icitur F ilcarias ( Feuq ui res) s eticos d uos q ui h abent ( lacune) t res q ui c inguntur a b o mni p arte e t p ortione m emorati S ancti P etri ( St P ierre d e C orbie) e t e .. t o u na p ... q uae e xtenditur ad v iam p ublicam." I bid . no 1 89, 8 56, p .494 ; " in p ago B elloacensi i n v illa q uae d icitur V allis ( Vaux) s eticum i ndominicatum h abentem q uadrellos C XXX ..." I bid . t . I I, n° 3 13, p .192. LM usset v oit d ans l e s eticus " une i nstitution-soeur d u • m anse" o p. c it. p .33. J e s uis d 'accord a c ondition d e p rec iser q u 'il s 'agirait p lutöt d u m anse m eridional. I l f aut p eut-etre c omparer s eticus a vec s edile. M ais c e d ernier s eticus e st b ien t rop p etit ( un h ectare s oixante q uatre) p our f aire u ne r gserve.

3 7) R . T atouche, E tudes M gdigvales, L e H aut M ayen-Age, l a F rance d e l 'Ouest, d es P yrgnges a ux A lpes, P aris, 1 966. 3 8) T essier , n° 6 2, 8 45 , p .179 ; n° 7 8, 8 45 , p .220 ; n° 7 9 , 8 45 , p .222 ; no 1 05 , 8 48 , p .277 ; no 1 34, 8 50 , p .356 ; no 2 39 , 8 62, p .35 ; n° 3 67 , 8 79 , p .319 . J e n e p eux p as, a u v u d e l 'acte n° 1 34, q ui p arle d e s ept f acti 1 Bournand e n P oitou, c onclure 1 l a p rgsence d u r egime d omanial d ans c e c omtg , f aute d e m ention d e c urtis d ominica. 3 9)

" Factos c oloniles X XX e t s erviles X III c um c apella e t v ineis e t s ilvis e t p ratis a rabilibus s ub o mni v idelicet i ntegr tate, s icut i pse i n s uos d ominicos u sos e os h abebat." I bid . n 1 05 , 8 48, p .242. C ette m ense m onastique e st p rise su n l a v illa d e S oeurdres c e q ui v eut d ire q ue l e s ysteme d omanial r este i ntact, l es p roduits d u m anse s eigneurial c ontinuant ä e tre v erse 's ä l 'abbt q ui f ait c ette d onation .

4 0) M . R auche, L 'Aquitaine d es W isigoths a ux A rabes, P aris, 1 979 , p .213 o ü j e d gmontre l 'gquivalence e n r ggime a graire m gridional e ntre c olon e t e sclave. C .M . d e l a R onciere, R . D elort , M . R auche, L 'Europe a u M ayen-Age, t . I , 1 969, p .76.

8 48 , p .287 ; no 1 89 , 8 56 , p .494 ; no 2 99 , 8 67, p .157 ; no 3 13 , 8 68 , p .191 ; no 3 98 , 8 67 , p .383 . Aucune p reuve

4 1) T essier , no 1 08 ,

p our l e M aine, l 'Anjou e t l a T ouraine, B autier , A ctes d e R obert, P aris, 1 978,

s auf u n c as, 8 94 , p .143 .

R .H.

4 2) C h . H igounet , ' Les g randes h aies f orestieres d e l 'Europe M 4di4vale s, R evue d u N ord , 1 980, 1 p arattre. 4 3)

" Si q uis c oncisam v el s epem a lterius c apulaverit", e d . K .A . E ckhardt, M OH, L eg . I V , 1 962, 1 8, 4 , 8 .

2 08

L ex S alica

4 4) " De c oncidis b unuaria s eptem e t a rpennos d uos" .. i n a lio l oco q ui d icitur F rancorum C oncidis, d e t erra a rabili a rpennos t res...", T essier , no 3 98, 8 67, p .383 . 4 5) " Concidem q uae v ocatur V ilcenna, h abentem p erticas q uingentas t rigentam s eptem". I bid . n° 1 08, 8 48 , p .287.

4 6) M . R ouche, ' Les S axons e t l es o rigines d e Q uentovic', R evue d u N ord , 1 977 , p .457 -4 78 o ü j e m ontre l a p ratique d es h ales d efensives v illageoises ( Zaun ,

t hun ,

t own).

4 7) K .-F . W erner , ' Les d uchgs " nationaux" d 'Allemagne ', P rincipautgs a u M oyen A ge , B ordeaux , 1 979 , p .29 -4 6 . 4 8) " De q uibusdam p roprietati5 m eae r ebus e ligo,

i n L es

q uae s unt i n p ago

C aturcino, i n v icaria C asiliacense, S araciacum s cilicet, c um e cclesia S . G enesi m artin s, n ecnon e t i n a lb ol oco, i n o rbe L emovicino, i n v icaria A snacense, c asam n ostram d ominicariam, s uper f luvium S ordoniam s itam c ujus v ocabulum e st V eterinas, c um m ansis a d s e p ertinentibus i n h is d umtaxat l ocis, o asis d omibus...". M . D eloche, C artulaire d e l 'abbaye d e B eaulieu , P aris, 1 859, no X VI, 8 5 G , p .37 . C ertains f ont d es r gserves s un l es c opies q u 'aurait u tilisg l 'auteur . 4 9) E .

M agnou-Nortier,

L a s ocigtg l alque e t l 'Eglise...,

o p.

c it.

p .134 -1 41. 5 0) G .

F ournier ,

L e p euplement r ural,

o p . c it ., p .305 .

5 1) " Curtam m eam i ndominicatam q uae v ocatur I geracus c um e cclesia i n h onore S . M artini, c onstructa, e t b accallariis i ndominicatis e t m ansis s ervilibus m ansum u num u bi..." M . D eloche, C artulaire d e l 'abbaye d e B eaulieu , o p. c it ., n° I II, 8 66 , p .10. 3 2) M . R ouche, L 'Aquitaine, o p. c it. p .370. E videmment j e m e m ets i di e n o pposition a vec l a d gfinition c lassique d u t erme, m ais i i s uffit d e l ire c e c artulaire p our s 'apercevoir q ue l a b acallaria i ndominicata e st l 'ancetre d u f evum. 3 3) C artulaire d e V abres, M anuscrit f l oat, 1 48, a ctes d es a nnges 8 61-862 e t 8 74 . P ar e xemple p our l e p remier , j e l is " curtis m ea C assinias ( Cassagnes-Begones) c um a ppendiciis s ubs h is n ominibus R igilio ( ?), A ltcapias ( Saint-Jean d 'Alcapies) T urondellos ( Thgrondels) v el a d i psos m ansellos...." C f l e m gmoire d e m attrise d e M me C ausse-Touratier , T rente c hartes d u C artulaire i ngdit d e V abres, L ille, 1 975 .

5 4 )

C . H igounet , ' Observations s un l a s eigneurie r urale e t l 'habitat e n R ouergue d u I X a u X IV ° s iecle ', i n P aysages e t V illages n eufs a u M oyen-Age, B ordeaux , 1 975 , p .151. L 'article d ate d e 1 950 . J 'avoue n e p as A tre d 'accord a vec l e s avant a u -t ear s un " l'empreinte c arolingienne" e n R ouergue. L ui-meme e xplique d 'ailleurs f ort b ien e n q uoi l e c ap-manse n 'est q ue l e m anse o ü s e t rouve l a m aison d 'exploitation p ar o pposition a ux a utres m anses d ispersgs 1 t ravers b obs e t a utres c hamps. L a d onation d e B erteiz 1 V abres ( cf n ote p rgcgdente) q ui g numere t rente q uatre m anses d ispersgs e ntre d ouze v illae e mpeche d e c onclure q ue l a " villa r ouergate d u I Xo s iecle c omprenait c omme c elle d e l a F rancia l es d eux g lgments : r gserve e t t enures". E n e ffet u ne t eile d onation

2 09

d gsarticulerait l e r ggime d omanial , s 'il e xistait . J amais , e nfin , u n t exte m gridional n e c ite u ne v illa c omportant u n s eul e t u nique m anse s eigneurial p our u n m eme d omaine . 5 5 ) " In M onterrione t erras a psas .... T essier , n° 1 49 , 8 52 , p .398-399 . bid . 56 ) I

n o

I n V er lena t erras a psas ."

1 78 , 8 55 , p .473-474 .

bid . no 4 48 , 8 77 , p .504 . 5 7) I 5 8) I bid . no 1 3 , 8 42 , p .32 ; n° 1 49 , 8 52 , p .398 ; no 3 78 , 8 75 , p .345 .

5 9 )

I bid . no 2 44 , 8 70 , p .267 ; no 3 35 , 8 71 , p .290 ; no 3 78 , 8 75 , p .345 ; n 4 43 , 8 77 , p .496 .

5 9) I bid . no 1 5 , 8 42 , p .37 ; no 1 7 , 8 42 p .41 ; no 3 5 , 8 44 , p .95 n° s 3 6 e t 3 7 8 44 , p .97 e t 1 01 ; nd 4 0 e t 4 1, g 4 4 , p .109 e t 1 14 ; n° g 3 , ,8 44 , p .120 ; n° 2 8 4 , 8 44 , p .123 ; n L 6 , 8 44 , p .129 ; n 4 7 , 8 44 , p .134 ; n 4 8 , 8 44 , p .139 ; n0 1 - 5 0 , 8 44 , p .145 ; no 5 4 , 8 44 , p .153 ; n o 9 4 , 8 47 , p .254 ; no 1 18 , 8 49 , p .314 ; n° 1 20 , 8 49 , p .318 ; n° 1 22 , 8 49 , p .324 ; n° 1 51 , 8 53 , p .401 ; n° 1 64 , 8 54 , p .431 ; no 1 66 , 8 54 , p .437 ; n° s 1 93 e t 1 93 b is , g 5 7 , p .502 e t 5 05 ; no 2 03 , 8 59 , p .518 ; n° 2 08 , 8 59 , p .529 ; n 2 09 , 8 59 , p .532 ; n ° 2 10 , 8 59 , p .534 ; n° 2 11 , 8 59 , p .536 ; n° 2 21 , 8 60 , p .557 ; n- 2 22 , 8 60 , p .560 ; no 2 45 , 8 62 , p .52 ; n° 2 89 , 8 66 , p .140 Ä no 2 90 , 8 66 , p .142 Ä n° s 3 21 e t 3 22 , 8 69 , p .207 e t 2 10 ; n 3 40 , 8 70 , p .259 ; n ' 3 41, 8 70 , p .262 ; n° 3 60 6 8 72 , p .298 ; n 3 88 8 408 75 , p .368 ; n 3 89 , 8 75 , p .371 ; no 3 90 , 8 75 , p .374 ; n 4 1 5 , 8 75 , p .429 ; n o 4 28 , 8 77 , p .457 . 6 0 ) H istoire d e l a B retaGne , s ous l a d irection d e J ean D elumeau , T oulouse , 1 969 , p .128-152 . 6 1) " ... d uas r andremessas , u na e st q uae d icitur R andremes G olbin , e xcepto u no t rigano , i n E rgentet , e t d imidium R andremes B onaf ont , e xcepto d imidio t egran B onafont , e t d imidium R andremes L isuuern e xcepto d imidium ( sic) t egran , t radiderunt s upradicti f ratres s upradictam t erram c um m assis e t m anentibus i bi h abitantibus , c um s ilvis , p ratis , p ascuis , a quis , a quarumve d ecursibus , m obilibus , e t i mmobilibus , c um o mnibus a ppend iciis s uis ..." C artulaire d e l 'abbaye d e R edon , e d . A . d e C ourson , P aris , 1 863 , n o C VIII , v ers 8 47 , p .82 . 6 2) C artulaire d e L andevennec , e d . A . d e l a B orderie , R ennes , 1 888 , p assim . p .143-179 . 6 3 ) " Quasdam r es f isci n ostri , i d e st v illam B ospatium ( Voulpaix ) i n p ago L audunensi s itam h abentum m ansos s eptuaginta , c um o mnibus v illulis s ibi p ertinentibus , c unctisque s uis a ppendiciis ..." T essier , n° 3 02 , 8 67 , p .166 . 6 4 ) " Fraxinum f iscum n ostrum e t d e H elesau u sque i n C abardense e t d e P rada u sque i n f lumine F iscovo, q uantum i bi n ostrum i ndominicatum h abebamus ( pas q uestion d u m ansus i ndominicatus) . . e t g uantam i n B asara ( Bass ?) f isco h abere v isi s umus ...." I bid . n 3 41 , 8 70 , p .262 . 6 5 ) A . D upront , ' L 'aprision e t l e r ggime a pr isionaire d ans l e m idi d e l a F rance ', L MA , 7 1 , 1 965 , p .179-215 e t 3 75-401. T essier ,

2 10

n o 4 6 , 8 44 ,

p .129-132.

6 6) " Quicquid f ratrum f amuli d e j am d ictis s ilvarum c oncisis e xstirpare p oterint , t otum i n u sus f ratrum a bsque s ubstractione a licujus p ermaneat." P olyptyque d e M ontiir ender , o p . c it., i bid . ;T essier , n° 1 92, 8 57, p .498. 6 7) " Vaccaritias c um s ilvis a djacentibus .. i n m arisco Buosigahem v accaritiam c um h ortulo..." I bid . n° 4 30, 8 77 , p .462 .

6 8 ) I bid . no 1 12, 8 49 , p .299 ; no 1 68, 8 54 , p .444 ; no 3 99 , 8 72 , p .389 ; no 3 63 , 8 72 , p .309. P our t out c e q ui c oncerne l e g rand d omaine c arolingien , o n s e r eportera 1 l a d erniere s ynthese p articulierement e xhaustive d e Y oshiki M orimoto, P roblemes d e l a f ormation d e l 'gconomie m gdigvale e n O ccident, r gsumg f raniais d e S eio C husei, K eisaiK eisukatei-no-Shomondai, T okio, 1 978.

2 11

1 1 .

TRADE AND MARKET ORIG INS I N THE N INTH CENTURY : AN ARCHAE OLOG ICAL PERSPECTIVE OF ANGLO-CAROLING IAN RELATIONS R ichard H odges

Th is s y mpos ium o n C har les t he B a ld w i l l i nev i tably f ocus o n t he p ar t icu lar s equence o f h is tor ic e ven ts , b u t d rawing b ack t o al eve l o f g enera l isa tions i t i s a pparen t t ha t t h is k ing r u led p ar t o f a mass ive t err itor ia l e n t ity i n t he t hroes o f c o l lapse .

Th is p rocess o f c o l lapse h as many s tr ik ing p ara l le ls i n wor ld

h is tory a s R en frew h as r ecen t ly s hown ( 1979 , 4 84 ) , b u t i n o n ly a f ew o f t hose c ases h ave t he i mp l ica t ions f or i n ter-reg iona l e xchange b een s a t is factor i ly i den t i f ied .

I n t h is e ar ly med ieva l e xamp le t he wea l th o f a rchaeo log ica l e v i-

d ence f ro m u rban e xcava t ions o ver t he p as t d ecade p er m i ts a t en ta t ive p ersp ec t ive wh ich c an b e t es ted b y f u ture e xcava t ions i n c on junc t ion w i th f ur ther h is tor ica l a nd n um isma t ic r esearch . Th is e ssay , t here fore , d iv ides i n to t wo p ar ts .

The f irs t h a lf i s b ased

o n a n a n thropo log ica l mode l , s o me t i mes k nown a s t he p res t ige g oods mode l , whereby a c o mp lex t err i tory d irec ts t rade w i th l ess c o mp lex t err i tor ies o n i t s p er iphery .

The p urpose o f t h is t rade i s e xp l ici t ly t o a cqu ire r aw ma ter ia ls

a nd c er ta in p rest ige g oods i n o rder t ha t e xpans ion o f t h is more c o mp lex e cono my i s made p oss ible .

B y c on tras t t he c o m mercia l r a t iona le o f t he l ess c o mp lex

c ommun i t ies o n t he p er iphery i s t o o bta in manu factured g oods wh ich f unct ion a s p rest ige g oods t ha t a re s ign i f ican t i n ma in ta in ing t he s ocia l s ys te m i n a p re- marke t c on tex t ( Da l ton , 1 975 ;

Sm i th 1 976;

Frankens te in a nd R owlands ,

1 978 ; Ra th je , 1 978 ) . Par t Id escr ibes t he z en i th a nd t hen t he d ec line o f j us t s uch a s ys te m o pera t ing b etween t he C aro l ing ian k ingdo ms a nd t he t err it or ies t o t he n or th a nd west , a nd emphas ises t he i mpac t t ha t t he c o l lapse o f t h is s ys te m must h ave made o n t he o pera t ion o f t he k ingdo m g overned b y C har les t he Ba ld .

P ar t Ib r ief ly c ons iders t he means b y wh ich c er ta in o f

t hese c o m mun i t ies a t te mp ted t o d es ign a n ew e cono m ic mode b ased o n c o mpet i t ive marke t s ys tems ( c f . Sm i th , 1 976 ).

Th is s econd s ec t ion c an b e r egarded

a s n o more t han a s ke tch a s t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i s a s y e t v ery s l igh t . H owever t he mode l p roposed h ere c an b e t es ted b y f ur ther e xcava t ions a t a ny t ime .

The o r ig ins o f t wo ' compe t ing ' t rade n e tworks L ong-d is tance c o m mercia l i n ter-act ion r e-e merged i n Eng land i n t he l a te s ix th o r e ar ly s even th c en tur ies o n ar egu lar l eve l .

I t was a t t h is t ime t ha t

t rade a cross t he N or th S ea a nd a cross t he S tra i ts o f D over was o nce a ga in t ransacted a t f ixed c oas ta l l oca t ions .

I n t he p reced ing c en tury i ta ppears t ha t

i n terna tiona l e xchange s ys te ms , when p ene tra t ing c er ta in o f t he emergen t Ang lo-Saxon k ingdo ms , t ended t o b e d irec ted t owards t he c our ts where t he k ings were t o b e f ound .

The c rea t ion o f f ixed c oas ta l l oca t ions mus t h ave

b een a r eac t ion t o t he i ncreased n umbers o f a l ien t raders . 2 13

At rad ing s i te ,

f or e xamp le , h as n ow b een i den t i f ied a t I psw ich d a t ing t o t h is p er iod ( Wade , 1 980 ) a nd i ti s v ery l i ke ly t ha t a no ther e x is ted o n t he Wan tsu m C hanne l p ossi b ly a t S arre ( B idd le , 1 976a , 1 15 ).

These s i tes w ere e v iden t ly c ons t i tu ted a s

p o in ts where t raders a nd n a t ives migh t mee t i n ap ro tec ted c on tex t a l though u nder t he l aws a nd r egu la t ions s e t o u t b y t he n a t ive monarch ( c f . H odges e t a l ., 1 978 ).

An e x tens ive a n thropo log ica l l i tera ture d e mons tra tes t ha t t h is

was a k ing 's o r ac h ie f ta in 's means o f p reven t ing t raders f ro m p ene tra t ing t he d e l ica te ly b a lanced s oc io-econo m ic a rrange men ts ma in ta ined b y t he n a t ive c o m mun i ty ( c f . Humphreys , 1 969 , 1 95 ; Da l ton , 1 975 ). T he r ed is tr ibu t ive s ys te m o pera ted b y k ings s uch a s t hose r u l ing i n s ix th-and s even th-cen tury Eas t Ang l ia a nd K en t migh t h ave b een p u t u nder s o me s tress i ft he i n-co ming c o m mod i t ies w ere e xchanged d irec t ly w i th f ar mers i n t hose c o m mun i t ies. I nstead , t hese c om mod i t ies p resumably p ene tra ted t he t r iba l s ys tem t hrough e vo lved i ns t i tu t iona l mechan is ms o f l argesse , o fb r idepr ice e tc . ( c f . Ear le , 1 977;

Ra th je , 1 978 ).

P rofessor S awyer h as r ecen t ly d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he

f orma l h ierarch ica l c on tro l o f e xchange s ys te ms i n e ar ly med ieva l s oc iety ( 1977 ) , a nd h is c onc lus ions p resen ted t here may b e r ead i ly c o mpared w i th more g enera l ized s ta te men ts made a bou t s uch s ys te ms t hrough t ime a nd a round t he w or ld ( e .g . Ra th je , 1 978 ). B u t we mus t l ook b eyond t he r ecep t ive k ingdo ms , t he s econdary s ta tes i n t he n e tworks , t o t he p r i mary mo tor o f t h is c om merce i n o rder t o d iscover i ts o rgan iza t ion a nd p urpose. T here i s c ons iderab le e v idence t o i nd ica te t ha t t he t rad ing n e tworks were c on tro l led b y t he Merov ing ian a nd , l a ter , C aro l ing ian c our ts .

I t a ppears ,

f or e xamp le , t ha t t he Aus tras ian c our t b ased i n t he c en tra l Rh ine land v igorous ly a c t iva ted a s ys te m c oncen tra ted t hrough t he empor ium a t D orestad , a t t he j unc t ion o f t he L ek a nd Rh ine i n t he N e ther lands .

T he c hurch i n t he e igh th

c en tury a lso p ar t ic ipa ted i n t h is s ys te m (i n p ar t icu lar t he b ishops o f U trech t : ( Hodges , 1 980b ) ) , wh i le many sma l ler c our ts b es ides t he N eus tr ian c our t i n t he Par is r eg ion wou ld a ppear t o h ave h ad i n teres ts i n t he o pera t ion o f t he a l terna t ive n e twork .

Th is a l terna t ive n e twork e x tended f ro m s evera l empor ia

a long t he Eng l ish C hanne l : i n p art icu lar t he ' por ts ' a t R ouen , Am iens a nd Quen tov ic ( near modern g tap les ) a ppear t o h ave b een t he k ey n odes f ro m wh ich t he c our t t raders s et o u t ( Hodges , 1 980b ). The n e tworks were p r inc ipa l ly d es igned t o a cqu ire ma ter ia ls wh ich were n o t a va i lable w i th in t h is C on t inen ta l Emp ire a l though t hese mus t h ave c hanged t o s o me e x ten t o ver t he t wo h undred y ears u nder r ev iew . I n p ar t icu lar , t here a ppears t o h ave b een a k een i n teres t i n a cqu ir ing c o m mod i t ies wh ich m igh t e nhance t he p ersona l e cono mies o f t he C on t inen ta l k ings e i ther d irec t ly i n t he f orm o f v a luables o r i nd irec t ly i n t he f or m o f c o m mod i t ies wh ich migh t b e r ed is tr ibu ted t o p ower fu l e f fec t , o r c o m mod i t ies wh ich migh t f ur ther i ncrease t he p roduct ion o f s urp lus wh ich i n t urn migh t b e i n troduced i n to t he t rad ing n etworks . P rec ious g armen ts , s aga ( S ten ton , 1 971 , 2 21 ) a re a n e xample o f i n tr ins ica l ly v a luable i t e ms s ough t i n t h is c o m merce . These may h ave b een o b jec ts o f e s tee m a nd p oss ibly s ign i f ican t t o t he ma in tenance o f s ta tus . t he l a t ter c a tegory s laves mus t a lso h ave f igured p ro m inen t ly.

I n

S laves were

e v iden t ly a s ign i f ican t Ang lo-Saxon impor t a s t he f ew i nc iden ta l r eferences i n B ede 's h is tory s ugges t .

There a re s evera l o ther r eferences i n s even th-

c en tury C on t inen ta l t ex ts t ha t f ur ther e ndorse t he ir i mpor tance .

2 14

Ye t we mus t n o t d ece ive o urse lves w i th t er ms i n d escr ibing t hese t rad ing n e tworks .

Any c ursory s tudy o f t he b oa ts o pera t ing a cross t he N or th S ea o r

i n t he Eng l ish .C hanne l f ro m t he s even th t o n in th c en tur ies f u l ly d e mons tra tes t he modes t s ca le o f t hese c o m merdia l t ransact ions ( Hodges , 1 980b ) .

The

r ema ins o f t he mo t ley v esse ls k nown t o u s when r ev iewed i n t he l i gh t o f c ont e mporary i l lus tra t ions s how t ha t t hese c ra f t w ere a l l r ow ing b oa ts wh ich made o n ly modes t u se o f s a i ls . Large n umbers o f o ars men n ecessar i ly p rec luded t he c arr iage o f b u lky g oods , a nd c argo c apaci t ies a ppear t o h ave b een i n t he o rder o f 8 -10 t ons max i mum ( El l mers , 1 972 , A bb. 3 9 , a -d i l lus tra tes t he s h ips o n t he c o in o f C har le magne a nd L ou is t he P ious i ssued a t D ores tad a nd Quen tov ic ) .

F ur ther more , j udg ing f ro m t he k ind o f d ebr is l e f t b y t he

t raders i n t he empor ia t hey mus t h ave s pen t l ong p er iods o f t ime s i mp ly wa i t ing t o d o b us iness .

We h ard ly e xpec t t ha t t he merchan ts were r ush ing

b ackwards a nd f orwards , b u t i ns tead p er iod ic v oyag ing was p resumably ma int a ined b y ' par tners ' i n t he n e tworks j us t a s many a n thropo log is ts h ave d esc r ibed i n O cean ia ( c f . S ah l ins , 1 972 , c hap ter 6 ) . T h is b r ief r ev iew i s mean t t o b e n o more t han a p reface t o a more d et a i led a ppra isa l o f t he t wo n etworks when t hey h ad e volved t o t he ir mos t c o mp lex a nd t hen a s t hey c o l lapsed .

The ir c o l lapse a s we s ha l l s ee c an b e

c ons idered a s a ma jor f ea ture o f t he n in th c en tury , a nd c er ta in ly o ne o f t he s ign i f ican t p rob le ms f aced b y C har les t he Ba ld . T he R hen ish n e twork T h is n e twork i s n ow we l l d ocumen ted , e spec ia l ly i n i t s f ina l p hase 7 90 - C . 8 20/830 ) when i ta t ta ined a c o m mercia l p eak wh ich was n o t s ee m ing ly g enera ted a ga in f or a f ur ther t wo a nd a h a l f c en tur ies o r s o .

Th is c o m mercia l

a c t iv i ty i s mos t s a t is factor i ly i n troduced f ro m a p oin t a t i t s c en tre .

Th is

p o in t i s t he s i te o f Dores tad , t he l a ter Merov ing ian a nd C aro l ing ian p redec essor o f modern Wi jk b i j Dures tede .

Dores tad l i es a t t he c on f luence o f t he

r ivers Lek a nd Rh ine , a nd p robably j us t b eyond a Ro man f or t wh ich h ad b een ap ar t o f t he l imes . H o lwerda e xcava ted h ere i n t he 1 920s a nd r evea led a n e normous ly c o mp lex s e t t le men t ( Ho lwerda , 1 930 ) .

More r ecen t ly t he Du tch

Archaeolog ica l S erv ice h ave c onducted a t en-year p rogra m me o f e xcava t ions s tr ipp ing n ear ly 5 0 h a . o f t he s i te .

An e xcava t ion o n s uch a mass ive s ca le

p erm i ts u s ar e markab le i ns igh t i n to a s et t le men t o f t h is k ind ( c f . Van E s , 1 969 ;

v an E s e t a l ., 1 978 ).

E ssen t ia l ly , t h is s i te c o mpr ises a s tr ing o f

merchan ts ' s tructures a long t he r iver b anks a nd a n a grar ian n ucleus i n t he c en tre o f t he c o mp lex . The f arms i n t he c en tre a re c ons truc ted i n av ernac u lar s tyle t yp ica l o f t he Fr is ian r eg ion j us t t o t he n or th .

The o bv ious c on-

c lus ion t o b e d rawn f ro m t h is i s t ha t t he i nhabi tan ts were Fr is ians , a nd , t here fore , t ha t t h is e normous s e t t le men t was t he f ocus o f t he Fr is ian t rade s o f requen t ly d iscussed i n t he h is tor ica l l i tera ture ( see J e l le ma , 1 955 f or a r ev iew o f t h is ).

H owever , t h is i s a n u rban c o mp lex q u i te u n l ike a ny o ther

r ura l n uc le i k nown f ro m t he c en tra l Ne ther lands . I n p ar t icu lar , i ti s c harac ter ized b y v as t q uan t i t ies o f t raded ma ter ia ls . C o lossa l q uan t i t ies o f R hen ish p o t tery made i n t he Caro l ing ian k i lns i n t he Vorgebirde H i l ls n ear C ologne , a nd a lso n ear Mayen i n t he E ife l moun ta ins make u p 8 0% o f t he c era m ic a sse mblage f ro m t he s i te ( van E s a nd V erwers , 1 975 ) .

G lass ,

me ta l-work , r ough-hewn q uern-s tones , s tone mor tars , a nd o ak a nd s i lver f ir w ine b arre ls emana te f ro m t he .s ame r eg ion ( van E s e t a l ., 1 978 ). F ish ,

2 15

b y c on tras t , was b eing b rough t f ro m t he N or th S ea b eyond t he Fr is ian I s lands , a nd p rov ides a r are i ns igh t i n to t he k inds o f c om mod i t ies c o ming f ro m a s eaward d irect ion i n to t he e n trepö t . B es ides t hese i mpor ts t here a re a lso many i nd ica t ions o f u rban-based c ra f ts l i ke b one-work ing a nd me ta l-work ing wh ich p rovide a f ur ther d i mens ion o f l i fe i n t h is s i te . The e v iden t c onclus ion t o b e d rawn f ro m t h is d a ta i s s i mple .

Whi le i t

was a Fr is ian s i te , i ta ppears t o h ave f unc t ioned b y t he l a ter e igh th c en tury a s a n e n tre A t f or t he s urp lus p roducts o f t he h igh ly c en tra l ized i ndustr ies i n t he M idd le Rh ine land .

T hese were u nden iab ly c on tro l led b y t he C arol ing ian

c our ts u p t o t he r e ign o f L ou is t he P ious , a nd t he d iscovery a nd s tudy o f t he g rea t p a lace o f I nge lhe im n ear Ma inz ( c f . Rauch a nd J acobi , 1 976 ) , i n t he h ear t o f t h is a rea , p rov ides j us t o ne e xa mp le o f t he d irec t a dm in is tra t ion wh ich we may p red ict t o h ave b een e xer ted o ver t h is p roduct ion .

T he c en-

t ra l iza t ion o f t he p o t tery i ndus tr ies wh ich s erved t he w ine e xpor t t rade e i ther a s measured c on ta iners o r a s a ccou tre men ts t o t he o ver t ly c eremon ia l a spec t o f w ine d r ink ing i n t he t err i tor ies b eyond t he C aro l ing ian Emp ire , i s af ur ther e xamp le o f t he c on tro l led n a ture o f t h is n e twork ( c f . H odges , 1 980a ). T he g rowth o f t rade s ee ms t o h ave p eaked d ur ing t he r e igns o f C har lemagne a nd L ou is t he P ious .

The p ubl ished c o in h is togra m f ro m D ores tad

i nd ica tes , s uper f ic ia l ly , a t l eas t , t he g rea tes t c o m merc ia l a c tiv i ty d ur ing t he p er iod c . 7 90 - c . 8 20/830 ;

t herea f ter t here i s as lump i n t he n u mbers ,

a l though t he s lump i s o n ly marked b y t he t ime L ou is t he P ious d ies ( 840 ). C lear ly i ti s p re ma ture t o c r i t ica l ly e va lua te t hese c o ins f ro m t he e xcava t ions , s o we c annot p lace t oo g rea t a n emphas is o n t h is c hrono log ica l i n forma t ion . Ye t t h is t en ta t ive c hrono logy h as b een r e-a f f irmed t o s o me e x ten t b y an umb er o f r ecen t ly p ubl ished d endrochrono log ica l d a tes f or p lank-bu i l t w ine b arre ls wh ich were r e-used i n Dores tad a s t he l i n ings o f t imberl ined we l ls s unken i n to t he s and ( Ecks te in , v an E s a nd H o l ls te in , 1 975 ). These d a tes t end t o a dd emphas is t o ap eak o f a ct iv i ty i n t he l a ter e igh th a nd e ar ly n in th c en tur ies . I tr e ma ins t o p u t t h is s ingu lar ly we l linves t iga ted s i te i n to a b roader p erspect ive. We mus t a sk where t he t rade was b ound f or a nd wha t was c om ing i n r et urn .

We n eed t o e xp la in why i t a l l s hou ld h ave o ccurred i n a ny c ase , a nd

why i ts hou ld h ave p eaked , i fi td id , i n C har le magne 's r e ign .

And we s hou ld

a sk why Fr is ian e n trepreneurs were p ermi t ted t o o pera te t h is l ucra t ive a c t iv i ty. The e x ten t o f t h is R hen ish s ys te m c an

b e

l arge ly r econs truc ted i f we

a ssu me t ha t t he a r ti factua l d ebr is f ound a t D ores tad w i l l t ypi fy t he F r isian t raders wherever t hey wen t ( Hodges , 1 977a , 2 42-248 ).

I n p ar t icu lar , i t

s ee ms mos t s a t is fac tory t o p lo t t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he d is t inct ive B adorft ype p o t tery made i n t he k i lns l oca ted i n t he Vorgebirge H i l ls . A sse mblages c on ta in ing Bador ftype ware were i den t i f ied e ar l ier t h is c en tury a tt he f amous Ba l t ic empor ia o f B irka ( cen tra l S weden ) , K aupang ( Norway ) a nd Ha i thabu ( Wes t G er many ) ( c f . Arb man , 1 937 ). T h is g ave r ise t o s pecu la t ion t ha t t he Fr is ians h ad b een more p ro m inen t t han was s upposed i n t he Ba lt ic r eg ion ( c f . C hr is tensen , 1 976 , 9 -30 ).

A s ar esu l t o f modern a na lyses a

more a ccura te i mpress ion c an b e p resen ted o f t he e igh th t o n in th-cen tury Bador ftype ware d is tr ibu t ions . 2 16

I n t he B a l t ic t he p a t tern i s n ow p recise ly d e ter m ined ;

o n ly a t Ha i thabu

a t t he base o f J u t land , a nd a t R ibe ( Den mark ) o n t he wes t c oas t o f J u t land a re t here n o table n u mbers o f Rhen ish p o t tery impor ted l a te i n t he e igh th o r e ar ly n in th c en tur ies . B eyond D enmark t he n u mbers o f R hen ish p o ts a re min i ma l i n c o mpar ison t o impor ts f ro m t he S lav ic a reas .

I n B irka , f or

e xamp le , Rhen ish p o ts f igure a s u nusua l a nd t here fore , p resumab ly , p res t ig ious impor ts ( Hodges , 1 980a ;

1 980b ).

T o t h is p ic ture c an a lso b e a dded t he q uan t i t ies o f R hen ish p o ts f ound a t s i tes l oca ted a long t he F r is ian c oas t line , a nd i n p ar t icu lar a t ar ecen t ly d isc overed empor iu m o f t h is p er iod a t Mede mbl ik , d ue n or th o f D ores tad ( S te l ler , 1 974 ;

Bes teman , 1 974 ).

R hen ish wares o f t h is k ind were a lso

r ecogn ised i n Eng land i n t he 1 950s d ue t o t he a t ten t ion o f Dr . G . C . Dunn ing ( 1 956 ) , a nd t hese h ave o f ten b een c i ted t o s uppor t t he c ase f or F r is ian p red om inance i n t he t rade a cross t he Nor th S ea t o Eng land . s ha l l s ee , c an n o l onger b e s us ta ined i n i t s e n t ire ty.

T h is c ase , a s we

Rhen ish wares h ave ,

h owever , b een f ound i n s ubs tan t ia l n umbers a t t he M idd le S axon t rad ing s e t t le men t o f I psw ich , as i te i n e xcess o f 5 0 h a . i n a rea b y t he l a ter e igh th c en tury ( Wade , 1 980 ).

B u t r e la t ive ly f ew Rhen ish impor ts h ave b een f ound

o n s i tes e lsewhere i n e as tern a nd s ou thern Eng land .

T h is r eg ion a ppears

t o h ave b een a t rad ing a rea l arge ly c on tro l led b y merchan ts f ro m n or thern France ( see b e low ). A s ar esu l t we c an n ow s ugges t t ha t t he p roduce wh ich was t aken u p t he Rh ine t o Dores tad f ro m t he e s ta tes i n t he C en tra l Rh ine land was t raded t o t he F r is ians t he mse lves i n a nd a round D ores tad ; f ur ther n or th o n t he e dge o f t he N or th S ea ;

t o t he Fr is ian c o m mun i t ies

t o t he Danes who a lso h ad a ccess

t o t he l i ve ly e ar ly V ik ing c o m merce i n t he Ba l t ic ; a nd t o t he Eas t Ang l ians whose c o m mercia l f ocus was t he empor iu m a t I pswich . C lear ly a t H a i thabu a nd I pswich , t he t er mina l p oin ts o f t he t wo d irec t iona l r ou tes , t he Fr is ians were n ot t he o n ly merchan tmen p resen t .

T he p ot tery a sse mb lages a t t hese

s i tes s ugges t t ha t t he F r is ian merchan ts were c o mpe t ing w i th S lays , p oss ibly S cand inav ians a nd p oss ib ly Danes i n Ha i thabu ; wh i le i n I psw ich t hey wou ld h ave p robab ly e ncoun tered t raders f ro m n or thern France a nd modern B e lg ium ( Hodges i n Wade , 1 980 ) . I tf o l lows t ha t t he f unct ion o f t he t rade-rou tes p ass ing t hrough D ores tad w i l l b e l inked d irect ly t o t he r ange o f g oods r equ ired b y t he Rhen ish r u lers who i nst iga ted t he s ys te m . Un for tuna te ly we k now v ery l i t t le a bou t t he g oods wh ich were b rough t b ack t o t he c our ts i n t he Rh ineland .

We c an o n ly s pecu-

l a te t ha t s laves were n eeded t o work t he v ineyards a nd f or h ouseho ld c hores , a nd t ha t t hese were b rough t f ro m Denmark a nd Fr is ia i n e xchange f or manuf ac tured g oods a nd f or w ine .

We c an o n ly s pecu la te t ha t Arab ic s i lver b rough t

n or th t o t he Ba l t ic S ea c o m mun i t ies a f ter a bou t A .D. 7 90 was a lso b eing s iphoned back t o C har lemagne 's t reasury. O ccas iona l r eferences s ugges t t ha t F r is ian a nd Eng l ish c loaks were i n d e mand a s we l l a s Eng l ish l ead , b u t i ti s impossible t o a ssess t he s ign i f icance o f t hese r eferences .

P oss ibly

we s hou ld r ef lect o n t he s pec ia lis t a grar ian r eg i me wh ich n ow c haracter izes t he R h ine land , a nd wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een i mpor tan t t hen .

C oncen tra t ion

o n w ine p roduct ion mus t h ave n ecess i ta ted t he i mpor ta tion o f s tock , o f woo l f or c lo thes a nd o f whea t a s i td oes n ow . T he e cono my i nb road t erms was p oss ib ly s carce ly d i f feren t t o t ha t R o man a rchaeo log is ts p os tu la te f or t he 2 17

s a me a rea w i th Dan ish s tock , Fr is ian woo l a nd s ou thern Eng l ish w hea t s ust a in ing a l arge i mper ia l a r my o n t he l imes ( c f . H edeager , 1 978 ).

H igh i n-

v es t men t i n as pec ia l ized a grar ian r eg i me may w e l l h ave c o mpe l led C har lemagne a nd L ou is , f or e xa mp le , t o t rade f or a s im i lar r ange o f g oods .

( The

s o l i tary r eference b y Er mo ld t o t he s end ing o f A lsa t ian whea t u p t he Rh ine t hrows a l i t t le l igh t o n t h is q ues t ion ( Fara l , 1 932 , 2 10-211 ) ). I ti s a pparen t h owever t ha t C har le magne h i mse l f was i n teres ted i n a l l a spec ts o f c o m merce .

The o f t-c i ted l e t ter e xchanged w i th O ffa i n 7 96 i l lus-

s tra tes c oncern w i th d e ta i ls .

More s ign i f ican t ly , C har le magne 's r igorous

l eg is la t ion p ropaga t ing t he u se o f c o inage p oin ts t o ak een i n teres t i n a mone tary e cono my ( Gr ierson , 1 965 ).

H is r eform o f t he c oinage i nc lud ing

t he c en tra l izing o f min ts a nd t he u p-grad ing o f t he q ua l i ty o f t he s i lver u sed i n h is i ssues , f o l lowed b y r epea ted l eg is la t ion l eads u s t o a sk why d id h e d o t h is? C har le magne 's r easons c an o bv ious ly o n ly b e s ur m ised , bu t w hen we c ons ider t he r enewed s ca le o f min t ing , t he l eg is la t ion a nd t he b urs t o f l ongd is tance t rade a mode l may b e p resen ted wh ich c ou ld b e t es ted b y a rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwork .

I t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he was a t te mp t ing t o i ncrease r eg iona l

e cono m ic a c t iv i ty w i th in h is k ingdo ms ;

h e was t rying t o s t i mu la te l oca l mar-

k e ts a nd t hereby l oca l p roduc t ion wh ich migh t p erhaps b e s a t isfac tor i ly t axed i f ar espec table , v igorous ly c on tro l led c oinage was u sed a s t he a ccep ted a nd l ega l med ium i n t h is c o m merce.

T he t axab le r evenue a ccru ing f rom s uch

a ct iv i ty wou ld f inance a n a dm in is tra t ion a nd e nsure t he e f f ic ien t g overnmen t o f t he C arol ing ian k ingdo ms . T h is a ppears t o b e r a ther a s oph is t ica ted e xp lana t ion a nd , moreover , i ti s c ons tructed o n v ague ly s uppor ted a rchaeo log ica l a nd h istor ica l i n ferences . Bu t a s a mode l we s hou ld b e a ble t o t es t i t , measur ing t he i ncrease i n mark e t ing a nd r ura l i n teract ion w i th in t he Caro ling ian Emp ire i n t he f i e ld , a nd b y r e-eva lua t ing t he r e levan t d ocumen tary s ources .

( Lobbedey 's r ecen t

r ev iew o f G erman u rban a rchaeo logy t en ta t ive ly c on t inues t he mode l , a l though more r igorous a na lyses o f t he k ind u nder taken b y J annsen i n t he E i fe l a re a lso c a l led f or ( Lobbedey 1 977 ;

J annsen 1 976 ) ).

The Wes tern Frank ish n e twork T he s pectacu lar s uccesses o f t he Du tch A rchaeo log ica l S erv ice h ave y e t t o b e ma tched b y French a rchaeo log is ts f or t he C aro ling ian t rad ing s ta t ions wh ich n ow l i e i ns ide t he ir b oundar ies .

Quen tov ic , t he mos t c e lebra ted o f

t hese s i tes , h as y e t t o b e l oca ted d esp i te a n e nor mous l i tera ture d iscussing i t s d ocumen tary h is tory ( see i n p ar t icu lar Dhond t , 1 962 ).

S im i lar ly l im i ted

u rban e xcava t ions a t Am iens a nd R ouen h ave f a i led t o l oca te t he C aro ling ian s e t t lemen ts t here , p oss ibly s ugges t ing i n t he l i gh t o f t he Du tch a nd E ng l ish e xper iences t ha t t hese t wo s i tes were r e la t ive ly modes t i n t er ms o f a rea . A t t he mo men t o ur u nders tand ing o f t h is t rad ing s ys te m i s d er ived f ro m t he Eng l ish s ide o f t he C hanne l . S even th-cen tury e v idence o f t h is t rad ing c onnect ion i s n ow we l l d ocumen ted i n K en t ( c f . S ten ton , 1 971 , 5 9 ; C row foo t a nd Hawkes , 1 967 ; R igo ld , 1 975 ;

H odges , 1 977a ;

1 977b ;

E v ison , 1 979 ), b u t i ti s o n ly r ecen t ly t ha t

we h ave c o me t o r ea l ize t he s ign i f icance o f Wes t S axon i nvo lve men t i n t h is

2 18

c o mmerce.

T he s e t t lemen t a t Hamw ih ( or H a mwic o r Ham tun o r H am ton )

o n t he west s hore o f t he r iver I t chen p rov ided s ea-farers w i th a s he l tered b ased t ha t was s erved b y d oub let ides .

Moreover , i t was we l l c onnected

b y t he r iver I t chen i t sel f a nd R o man-Per iod r oads t o t he h ear t land o f Wessex . The f i rst p hase o f t he s e t t le men t was c ons tructed s o me t ime d ur ing t he r e ign o f K ing I na a nd was v ery modes t i n s ca le ( Hodges , 1 977b ; 1 980b ). The s i te was t hen r edes igned a nd a ppears t o h ave b een l a id o u t u s ing ag r idded s tree t s ys tem .

Th is s econd p hase i s d a ted t o c . 7 20 - c . 7 50 b y t he s econdary

s cea t tas a ssoc ia ted w ith i t , b u t i ta ppears t o h ave b een f o l lowed b y ap er iod o f r e la t ive i nac t iv i ty s pann ing t he y ears c . 7 50 - c . 7 80/790. T he t h ird ma jor p hase o f a ct iv i ty d a tes r ough ly t o c . 7 90 - C . 8 20/830 , a nd s ee ms t o h ave b een a s l arge a s e t t le men t a s t he s econd p hase a l though o ur d a t ing o f i ti s more d i f f icu l t s ince t here a re f ewer c o ins ( c f . C herry a nd H odges , 1 978 ). The r oad s ys te m w i th in t he s e t t le men t o nce i n d ec line b e trays a p er iod o f d ecay a s p i ts were c u t i n to t he g rave l s ur faces , b u t e xac t ly when t h is h appened i s r a ther p roble ma t ica l a s we s ha l l s ee. T he bu lk o f t he a r t i fac tua l e v idence p o in ts t o c on tacts w ith n or thern France —the c a tch men t a reas o f Quen tov ic , Am iens a nd Rouen—and v ery l i t t le , i f a ny , c on tac t w i th t he Rh ine land ( Hodges ,1977a ;

1 977b ;

1 980a ).

The g rea t

wea l th o f French C arol ing ian c eram ics h igh l igh ts s evera l f ea tures wh ich i n t h is e ssay c an b e t rea ted s um mar i ly.

I np ar t icu lar , t he r ange o f f or ms a nd

f abr ic v ar iab i l i ty i nd ica te t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he v esse ls were p robab ly b rough t b y t raders f or t he ir own u se i n t he s e t t le men t i n p re ference t o t he c rude M idd le S axon wares made i n a nd a round Hamw ih ( Hodges 1 977a ; 1 980a ) .

1 977b ;

On ly o ne t ype , t he c lass 1 4 B lack wares , h as b een f ound e x tensively

t raded e lsewhere i n Eng land ( c f . H odges , 1 977a ).

Fur thermore t he a sse m-

b lages i l lus tra tes t he e x is tence o f many p o t tery p roduct ion c en tres i n n or thern France wh ich mass-produced c era m ics p resu mab ly f or s o me k ind o f ' per ip hera l ' marke ts s uch a s f a irs i nt he a bsence o f p er manen t marke t-p laces ( c f . H odges , 1 980a ). T he e x is tence o f Merc ian c oins a nd a f ew K en t ish c oins ( scea t tas a nd p enn ies ) a t Hamw ih emphas ises t he i n ter-re la t ionsh ip b e tween t he s ou thern Eng l ish c o m mun i t ies d ur ing t he e igh th a nd e ar ly n in th c en tur ies ( c f . Me tca lf , 1 972 ) .

I t may p o in t , f or e xamp le , t o H amw ih h av ing s erved a s a Mercian

o u t le t f or t he ir s urp lus p roduce .

I t was d ur ing t h is p er iod t ha t t he s uccess ive

Merc ian k ings , A e the lba ld , O f fa a nd f ina l ly , C cenwu lf d om ina ted Eng l ish p ol i t ics . Th is e v idence l i nk ing Mercia a nd Hamw ih migh t a ccoun t t o s o me e x ten t f or t he v ir tua l a bsence o f M idd le S axon t rad ing w i th in t he s tr ing o f f arms l oca ted d ur ing t he l as t t h ir ty y ears a long t he Tha mes i n G rea ter L ondon , as i te wh ich h as t rad i t iona l ly b een a ssoc ia ted w i th Merc ian c o m merce ( c f . Brooke a nd Ke ir , 1 975 , 5 8 ). T he o pera t ion o f t h is t rad ing n e twork i s n o t q u i te a s c lear a s t he Rhen ish o ne , b u t i ti s a pparen t t ha t t he n or thern French e l i te were t rad ing v ia t he r oya l t o l l s ta t ions o n t he Eng l ish C hanne l w i th t he Wes t S axon a nd , p erhaps , t he Mercian c our t . T he e x is tence o f ar oya l s e t t le men t n ear Ha mwih , a nd i ndeed t he we l l-documen ted i n terven t ion o f t he s ou thern Eng l ish k ings i n l ong-d is tance t rade i s f irm ly e s tabl ished ( c f . S awyer , 1 977). The e xchange o f l e t ters b e tween C har le magne a nd O f fa p u ts s o me f ine p erspect ive o n t h is c o mmerce , wh i le t he p raecep tum n egoc ia toru m ( Gansho f , 1 957 ) p erm i ts u s s o me i ns igh t i n to t he a gen ts o f t he e xchange s ys te m . 2 19

The r ecen t e xcava t ions a tHamw ih h ave s hown t ha t t he i ncrease i n s ca le was p robably a p lanned p heno menon r a ther t han a n o rgan ic o ne.

F or t he

Eng l ish k ings t he a t tract ion o f t he e n terpr ise o u tweighed t he s ocio-po li t ica l d angers t ha t i t migh t e n ta i l ( c f . H odges , 1 980b ) .

We a ssume t ha t p rest ige

g oods were i mpor ted b y t he S axon k ings , a nd t ha t many o f t hese w ere s t i l l u sed p r incipa l ly t o ma in ta in t he r ed is tr ibu t ive b a lance t hrough d ispersed l argesse e tc . ( c f . Ear le , 1 977;

Ra th je , 1 978 ) .

S ubs is tence a r t i fac ts l ike

t he E i fe l Moun ta in q uern-s tones , ( ? ) p e trae n igrae ( Parkhouse , 1 976 ) a lso i ncreased s oc ia l p roduct ion when d ispersed t hroughou t t he k ingdo m ( c f . Ra th je , 1 978 ) a s we l l a s t o s o me e x ten t o p t im izing a gr icu l tura l p roduct ion . H owever , i ti s p ar t icu lar ly f rus tra t ing t ha t we c anno t a ccura tely d iscerh t he p roduce t raded b y t he S axons i n e xchange ; v a t ing f ac tor f or t he C arol ing ians .

t he p roduce t ha t p roved t he mo t i-

A r eg iona l a na lys is o f M idd le S axon s i tes

w i l l b e n eeded , w i th d eta i led a t ten t ion t o t he f auna l a sse mb lages o n s o me l arge-sca le t o d e ter m ine whe ther woo l len p roduct ion , f or e xa mp le , was r ea l ly o f i n terna t iona l s ign i f icance , a s t he l e t ters e xchanged b e tween O ffa a nd C har le magne i mp ly . Dec l ine a nd t he d em ise o f t he n etworks We mus t l ook t o t he c ore o f t he t wo n e tworks t o d e tec t t he r easons f or t he n in th-cen tury d em ise o f l ong-d is tance t rade .

Wi thou t d oubt a s ign i f ican t

c ause was t he u nres t w i th in t he c our ts t ha t i n i t ia ted t he e xchange s ys te ms . Th is o wes i t s o r ig ins t o t he l a ter y ears o f C har le magne 's r e ign ( a l though i t c ou ld b e s ugges ted t ha t h e mere ly marks a h ia tus i n t he f i ss ioned p o l i t ica l l i fe o f t he C on t inen ta l k ingdo ms ).

I ti s av iew t ha t h o lds n o a ppea l f or many

Br i t ish a rchaeo log is ts a nd h is tor ians who wou ld p re fer t o c onsider t he c o l lapse o f t hese t rad ing s ys te ms a s ad irec t c onsequence o f V ik ing r aids f ro m t he 8 30s o nwards .

Th is V ik ing e xp lana t ion p resupposes a c ons is ten t a nd d eep ly

p enetra t ing menace , p ower fu l e nough b y t he 8 30s t o i mpa ir t he e cono m ic mo t ives o f a n Emp ire , a lbe i t o ne i n d ecay. A t Dores tad , a s n o ted a bove , as tudy o f s ix teen w ine b arr les wh ich were r e-used a s t he l in ings f or we l ls h as p rov ided a n a ccura te means o f d a t ing t h is e n tre A t . p er iod 6 91-837.

These b arre ls h ave b een d a ted b y d endrochronolog y t o t he Th is i s a dm i t ted ly a sma l l s amp le b u t i t emphas izes t ha t

mos t o f t he we l ls were c u t i n t he e igh th c en tury , a nd i ndeed , o n ly o ne was c u t s o me t ime i n t he 8 30s ( Ecks te in , v an E s a nd H o l ls tein , 1 975 ) . When t aken i n to c ons idera t ion w i th t he c o ins f ro m D ores tad , t here a ppears t o b e af a l l-of f i n c o m merc ia l a ct iv i ty w i th in t he s e t t le men t d ur ing t he r e ign o f L ou is t he P ious t ha t i s s udden ly v ery marked b y t he t ime , f or e xamp le , t ha t Char les t he Ba ld i ssued h is f irs t c oins .

The c omb ined e v idence w ou ld s ug-

g es t t ha t t he t rad ing s ys te m emana t ing f ro m t he C en tra l Rh ine land was b eg inn ing t o b reak d own b y t he 8 30s .

( A more p recise d a te s hou ld b e a va i lable

when t he c o in s er ies i s d ef in i t ively e xa mined .) D ores tad c lear ly c on t inued , p oss ib ly f unc t ion ing o n s o me l ower l evel o f c o m mercia l a c t iv i ty , u n t i l t he 8 60s b u t we mus t c onc lude t ha t t he s ca le o f c o m merce was v ery modes t i ndeed i n i t s f ina l t wo d ecades .

I t s hou ld b e

p oss ib le t o d iscern t he e xac t s ca le o f mid-n in th c en tury t rade f rom t he o ng oing e xcava t ions a t I psw ich , S u f folk .

H ere s evera l e ar ly t o mid-n in th-

c en tury c oins h ave b een f ound , a nd a re r a ther a s tr ik ing d iscovery i n v iew o f 2 20

t he o vera l l p auci ty o f c o ins f ro m t he many e xcava t ions a t t h is s i te ( c f . D o l ley i n Wes t , 1 963 ;

Wade , 1 980 ).

Moreover , i n ar ecen t r e-appra isa l o f t he s i lver b oards f ound i n s ou thern S cand inav ia , K lays R andsborg h as s hown t ha t t he Arab ic c onnect ion w i th t he Ba l t ic c o mmun i t ies was , i n i t s f irs t p hase , c o mpara t ive ly s hor t-l ived . T h is p hase p oss ib ly l as ted n o l onger t han f ro m c . 7 90 t o c . 8 30 ( Randsborg , 1 980 , 1 52-3 ) . Randsborg a t tr ibu tes t he c o l lapse o f t h is t rad ing n etwork t o i n terna l c r ises w i th in t he Arabic n a t ions who h ad i n i t ia ted t he c on tac t ( 1980 , 1 52-3 ).

One l i ke ly r esu l t o f t he d em ise o f t h is c on tac t was t he i n tens ive

V ik ing r a ids o n wea l thy wes tern European s i tes . Whi le we c an c lear ly d etec t t he d ec l ine o f t he Rhen ish n etwork , t he e nd o f t he wes tern n etwork r e ma ins r a ther more c on trovers ia l . T he s ca le , c harac ter a nd d a te o f t h is s ys te m h as b een r econs tructed f ro m t he e xcava t ions a t H a mwih ( Saxon S ou thamp ton ) , s o c lear ly t he e nd o f t h is s i te i s o f ma jor s ign i f icance .

Addy man a nd H i l l ( 1968 , 6 4-65 ) b e l ieved t he s e t t le men t t o h ave

c on t inued u n t i l t he e ar ly t o midten th c en tury when a s wi tch o f f ocus was s udden ly made t o t he s i te o f med ieva l S ou thamp ton o n t he g rave l r idge t o t he wes t .

More r ecen t ly H o ldswor th h as s pecu la ted o n at er m ina l d a te i n t he

8 60s o r 8 70s when t he V ik ing i ncurs ion h ad p roved d evas ta t ing t o t he Eng l ish k ingdo ms ( 1976 , 6 0 ) .

H owever , as urvey o f t he c o inage d e mons tra tes t he

t enuousness o f t hese a rgu men ts .

Mos t o f t he c o ins f ro m t he e xcava t ions a re

e i ther s cea t tas o f t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he e igh th c en tury o r p enn ies i ssued b efore 8 20 ( Cherry a nd H odges , 1 978 , f ig . 1 ) .

P enn ies o f t he r e igns o f E gber t

a nd A e the lwu l f f or e xamp le , a re e x tre mely r are , a l though a n a l leged d en ier o f C har les t he Ba ld h as c o m manded s o me a t ten t ion ( Addy man a nd H i l l , 1 968 , 8 9 ;

s ee a lso C herr y ,a nd H odges , 1 978 ).

I ti s c leaffro m t he e xcava ted

c o inage t ha t t here i s a n a bsence o f c oins r e la ted t o t he r ise o f t he West S axon k ings ( c f . J ohn , 1 966 , 3 5 ) , a nd moreover , t he o n ly t en th-cen tur y c o ins f ro m Hamwih a re t hose r epu ted ly f ound i n t he n ine teen th c en tury b y b r ick-ear th e xcava tors ( c f . C herry a nd H odges , 1 978 , 2 99-300 ).

When t h is n um is ma t ic

e v idence i s c ons idered w i th t he p auci ty o f n in th-cen tury i mpor ted p o t tery , t he e ar ly e nd f or Hamw ih b e ings t o g a in s treng th .

To t h is we c an a dd a r ecen t

mu l t ivar ia te s er ia t ion a na lysis o f t wen ty l arge p i t g roups , a sma l l s amp le o f t he l arger H a mwih p i ts , wh ich h as s hown t ha t t here i s marked c lus ter ing o f i n-f i l led p i ts a round t he e nd o f t he e igh th a nd p erhaps e ar ly i n t he n in th c ent ur y , b u t v ery l i t t le e v idence o f f ur ther a ct iv i ty ( Cherry a nd H odges , 1 978 ). T he t hrus t o f t he e v idence p o in ts t o ad ec l ine i n t he s et t le men t 's c o m merc ia l f unc t ion s o me t ime i n t he 8 20s o r 8 30s .

( One n o table p oin t t o wh ich p roper

a t ten t ion h as n o t b een p a id , i s t he h igh p ropor t ion o f Merc ian p enn ies i n t he e xcava ted c o l lect ion f ound o ver t he p as t d ecade .

Mos t o f t hese p enn ies were

i ssued b y C o enwu lf o f Merc ia , s ugges t ing t he c on t inued p resence o f e i ther Merc ian t raders o r Merc ian o ver lordsh ip d ur ing t he e ar ly y ears o f E gber t 's r e ign .

J ohn ( 1966 , 3 5 , n . 2 ) h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o C cenwu l f 's s ta tus a s

o ver lord a s l a te a s 8 16.

We may o n ly s pecu la te , t here fore , t ha t t he s h i f t

a way f ro m H amw ih may b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he Wes t S axon k ing a s s oon a s h e h ad c o mp lete c o m mand o f h is p o l i t ica l d es t iny f o l low ing t he d ea th o f t he Merc ian k ing i n 8 21 .)

2 21

An e nd f or H amw ih i n t he . 8 20s o r 8 30s d oes a ppear c ur ious . F irst ly , Egber t a nd A ethe lwu l f were b oth ' Europeans ': E gber t h av ing s pen t h is y ou th i n aC aro l ing ian c our t , wh i le h is s on was t o marry t he d augh ter o f C har les t he Ba ld i n 8 56 ( S ten ton , 1 971 , 2 45 a nd s ee P . S ta f ford 's p aper i n t h is v olume ). C on t inued c on tac t s hou ld h ave b een ma in ta ined a nd s hou ld h ave p rospered . S econd ly , t here i s a n o f t-quoted r eference t o H amwih made b y N i thard i n h is H is tor ies d evo ted t o t he wars b e tween t he s ons o f L ou is t he P ious ( Lauer , 1 964 , 1 24 ).

P er i de m t e mpus N or t mann i C on tw ig d epreda t i s u i t i n ib ique

mare t ra jec to Hamwig e t N ordhun .nwig s im i l i ter d epopu la t i s un t .

T h is r a id

t ook p lace i n 8 42 a nd we s hou ld n o te t ha t i ti s t he o n ly r a id b y t he V ik ings men t ioned b y N i thard ;

D ores tad , f or e xamp le , i s n ot men t ioned b y t h is

wr i ter d esp i te s u f fer ing a s er ies o f r a ids i n t he 8 30s .

We h ave n o r eason

t o b el ieve t ha t N i thard i s r ecord ing more t han h earsay wh ich h as e spec ia l s ign i f icance f or h im i nso far a s h is f am i ly were a ssocia ted w i th t he r eg ion o f Quen tov ic .

( I ndeed , t he e d i tor o f t he t ex t c i ted a bove s pecu la tes o n t he

t wo Eng l ish s i tes b e ing Harwich a nd N orwich r espec t ive ly !)

Th is r e ference

g ives u s n o n o t ion o f s ca le , a nd i ts ee ms a s l i ke ly t ha t t he s et t le men t a t tacked b y t he r a iders was t he r oya l e s ta te , Nordhunnw ig , c lose t o which was t he d ec l in ing c oas ta l c o m mun i ty o f Hamwih .

Two e ar l ier r a ids i n 8 40 r ecorded

i n t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le s carce ly c o m mand more a t ten t ion f or a f ter H a mw ih , t he s econd s i te i s men t ioned a s P or t land where n o t rad ing s i te h as b een l oca ted b u t where t here was a r oya l s e t t lemen t .

I n v iew o f t h is e v idence

i tc an b e p os tu la ted t ha t b y t he 8 40s t he l eve l o f i n terna t iona l c o mmerce h ad d ecl ined t o as ca le t ha t i s n o t d e term inab le a rchaeo log ica l ly.

Any t rade a nd

c on tac t t ha t c on t inued was f ocussed , p erhaps , o n t he r oya l a nd e ccles ias t ica l s et t le men ts , a nd o n t he n ew h ierarchy o f s i tes i n wh ich , Winches ter , L ondon a nd C an terbury were a t ta in ing s o me s upre macy a l though o n ad im in ished s ca le ( c f . H odges , 1 978 ).

I n t h is

i ns tance t he r ecen t e xcava t ions a t P or t-

c hes ter C as t le p rovide a n i n teres t ing c ase s tudy ;

t hese h ave r evea led a

M idd le S axon s e t t le men t p er ta in ing t o t he B ishops o f Winches ter d a ted b y f our n in th-cen tury c oins ( Cun li f fe , 1 976 , 2 30-231 ). L oca ted o n t he c oas t , P or tc hes ter i l lus tra tes t he c hang ing emphases i n t he s e t t le men t s tructure , a nd t he emergence o f n ew modes c oncerned w i th c ross-Channe l t rade . I n g enera l t erms t he e v idence s ugges ts t ha t C har le magne h ad made a c oncer ted e f for t t o g enera te a s ys te m o f c o mpe t i t ive marke ts based o n t he r eg iona l v ar iabi l i ty a nd a grar ian s pec ia liza t ion t ha t h ad d eve loped w i th in t he Frank ish k ingdo ms o ver s evera l c en tur ies .

Th is g oa l was t o b e p ar t ly

a ch ieved b y e xpor t ing manu fac tured g oods a nd c er ta in p roduce a nd i mpor t ing r aw ma ter ia ls ( f ood?) a nd meta ls a nd , i ndeed , s laves wh ich migh t f ur ther t he e xpans ion o f t he e cono my.

Fur ther more , t he i mpor ta t ion o f s i lver f ro m

t he Ba l t ic i fi t o ccurred , wou ld h ave p ermi t ted C har le magne t o u pgrade t he c oinage wh ich was h igh ly c en tra lized , a nd wh ich m igh t b e u sed ( i n t heory) w i th c on f idence i n r eg iona l e xchange n e tworks i np reference t o b ar ter ing w i th v a lues e xpressed i n k ind . T he p auci ty o f n in th-cen tury a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f ro m a l leged Caro l ing ian t owns d e mons tra tes t he f a i lure o f t h is s ys te m .

There was n o

u rban e xpans ion i n B onn , f or e xa mp le , (M iner , 1 978 ) , o r e ven i n C o logne ; wh i le a rchaeo logy h as y e t t o s how a n u rban r ev iva l a t t h is d a te i n Tr ier , o r P ar is , o r Rhe i ms o r O r leans o r Tours ( Ga l in ie , 1 978 ).

2 22

The r oya l a nd

monas t ic n uc le i wh ich were t he f ocus o f s e t t le men t i n t hese o ld R o man-per iod t owns c on t inued t o e xpand b u t o n n o r evo lu t ionary s ca le ( c f . Hodges , 1 980b ). T h is p oin t i s e as i ly emphas ised b y .c o mpar ison w i th t he c rea t ion o f t he mass ive empor ia i n t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies , o rb y c o mpar ison w i th l a ter t en th-cen tury u rban e xpans ion . F or t he Ang lo-Saxon k ings t he d em ise o f t he t rad ing n e tworks mus t h ave c ome a s as hock , y e t i t* was a d iscon t inu i ty t ha t t he ir g rand fa thers h ad a lso e xper ienced d ur ing t he c en tra l d ecade o f t he p reced ing c en tury.

L ike t he

Danes who s ee m t o h ave p assed e as i ly f ro m t rad ing t o r a id ing , ar egu lar lyi n terchangeable a c t iv i ty , t he Wes t-Saxons s ough t t o c onso l ida te t he ir p ower d ependen t o n t he s oc ia l d ispersa l o f impor ted g oods .

T he Wes t S axon s uccess

u l t ima tely s te m med f ro m t he c rea t ion o f at err i tor ia l u n i t t ha t was a s a t isf ac tory s ize i n p o l i t ica l a nd e cono m ic t erms , a nd b y t he c rea t ion o f n ew , c en tra l p laces ( Hodges , 1 978 ).

They a lso p ossessed t he a dvan tages o f c ra f t-

s pec ia l is ts f os tered i n t he empor ia a s a means o f d eve loping a n i n terna l market ing e cono my a s w e l l a s a n e nv ironmen t t ha t h ad b een u nderdeve loped f or o ver f our h undred y ears ( c f . H odges , 1 980b., c hap ters 7 a nd 8 ) . I F or t he l a ter n in th c en tury t here i s o n ly miscel laneous a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i nd ica t ing c on tac t b e tween t he C aro l ing ian k ingdo ms a nd Eng land . I ti s c lear , f or e xa mp le , t ha t t he t rad ing n e tworks d escr ibed a bove were d e funct a s t he V ik ings t ook c o m mand o f t he s eaways i n t he p er iod b e twen c . 8 70-890.

I ns tead , t he e v idence o f c on tac t i s t o b e f ound i n t he i n terchange

o f c er ta in mi l i tary , e cono m ic a nd t echno log ica l i deas , a l though i n t hese p ar t icu lar i ns tances a rchaeo logy i s u nco m for tably i r ivrec ise.

I ti s t hese

misce l laneous p oin ts w h ich Iw ish t o b r ief ly r ev iew h ere i n a n a t te mp t t o i l lus tra te t he o r ig ins o f t he e cono m ic s ys te m wh ich r ep laced t he s ys te m d escr ibed i n t he p rev ious s ec t ion o f t he p aper . B y t he mid t en th c en tury i ti s c lear t ha t as ys te m o f h ierarch ica l lya rranged marke ts was o pera t ive w i th in s ou thern , c en tra l a nd e as tern Eng land . The s peed w i th wh ich t h is s ys te m e vo lved i s s tr ik ing , a nd i ta ppears t o h ave d eve loped f ro m t he b urhs f ounded b y K ing A lfred i n Wessex wh ich were s ubs equen t ly e x tended t o t he r econquered Dane law a reas i n t he t en th c en tury. No tab ly , t he Danes t hemse lves were a lso c ons truc t ing c o m muna l f or tresses i n t he l a te n in th o r e ar ly t en th c en tury i n e as tern Eng land a nd t hey were a lso u s ing t hese a s t he f oc i f or t he d evelop men t o f marke t-p laces . A lfred 's b urhs made u se o f many e x is t ing R o man-per iod d efences , a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he i dea was i n f ac t d er ived f ro m t hese monu men ta l r u ins o f fer ing o bv ious p ro tect ion a ga ins t sma l l , b u t p ower fu l V ik ing o ns laugh ts .

H owever , a s Mar t in B idd le

p o in ts o u t ( 1976a , 1 25 ) , t hese f or tresses s tra teg ica l ly l oca ted s o t ha t e very v i l lager was n o more t han t wen ty mi les d is tan t f ro m a r efuge , were a lso t o b ecome s ign i f ican t f oci i n t he u rban r evo lu t ion o f t he t en th c en tury.

T o K ing

A lred 's r eign ( and t o t he r e igns o f h is c on te mporar ies w i th in t he Dane law ) we c an a t tr ibu te t he r ad ica l s h if t f ro m a n e cono my f ocused p r i mar i ly o n c en tra l p ersons ( a r ed is tr ibu t ive e cono my i n P o lanyi 's s ense ( 1957) ) , t o a n e cono my t ha t f unct ioned t hrough a s truc tured marke t s ys te m ( c f . P o lanyi 1 957; S ta i th , 1 976 ). T h is d ec is ive c hange , o f c ourse , h ad impor tan t i mp l ic a t ions f or t he c oncep t o f k ingsh ip a s we l l a s t he n a ture o f s oc ia l r e la t ions w i th in t he emergen t s ta te ( c f . C ohen , 1 978 a nd P r ice , 1 978 f or a d ef in i t ion o f 2 23

as econdary s ta te o f t h is p ar t icu lar k ind ).

Thus , we mus t a sk whe ther

A l fred 's b urhs were t he r esu l t o f h is o wn i nven t ion , o r whe ther t he c oncep t was c op ied f ro m C on t inen ta l measures b eing t aken a ga ins t t he Danes .

S im i-

l ar ly , were t he n ew marke ts i n f luenced b y C on t inen ta l d eve lop men ts o r c an we a rgue t hese t o b e t he s ingu lar Wes t S axon a ch ieve men t w i thou t E uropean p ara l le l a s B idd le d oes ( 1976a , 1 25 )? A s we h ave a lready d iscussed , C har le magne a nd L ou is t he P ious were c lear ly i n teres ted i n t he c oncep t o f marke t-p laces , a nd d ur ing t he p er iod C . 7 90 - C . 8 30 many c en tres were f ounded w i th a v iew t o g enera t ing r eg iona l e cono m ies o f ak ind t ha t h ad n o t b een s een s ince t he f our th c en tury A . D. K ing A l fred may we l l h ave r e f lec ted o n t he amb i t ions a nd t he c oncep ts u nderp inn ing t h is C aro l ing ian e cono m ic p o l icy , h owever i ti s e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t t o p rove t h is , a s i ta lso i s , f or e xamp le , t o s tress t he impor tance o f Ro man i n f luences o n h is p o l icies .

H owever , C har les t he Ba ld h ad a t te mp ted t o r e-

a sser t c er ta in o f h is f orebears ' p lans d ur ing t he 8 60s i n France , a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha tA l fred was i n f act i n f luenced b y t hese more i m med ia te a ct ions j us t a cross t he Eng l ish C hanne l .

E qua l ly , h e may h ave b een g rea t ly impressed

b y t he a ct ion Ba ldw in o f F landers was t ak ing i n o rder t o r epe l t he Danes . V ercau teren ( 1935-36) h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he d efens ive measures e nacted i n t he wes tern Emp ire d ur ing t he n in th c en tury.

H e h as s um mar ised

t hese a c t iv i t ies a s f ol lows : 1 . c . 8 00 - c . 8 64:

v ery l i t t le e v idence o f a n e nerge t ic r esponse t o t he

V ik ing a t tacks 2 .

8 64 - 8 79 : n u merous measures t aken b y t he e l i te t o f or t i fy a l l t ypes o f s i te i nc lud ing t he c ons truct ion o f s evera l' c as tra a nd t he d efend ing o f b r idges

3 .

8 79 - 8 87 : l i t t le d ocumen tary e v idence o f f ur ther measures o f f or ti f ica t ion

4 .

8 87 - 1 0 th c en tury:

t he c rea t ion o f as er ies o f f or ti f ied c en tres i n

Br i ta in a nd i n F landers There h as b een v ery l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion o f t hese t wo p er iods o f f or t i f ica t ion .

N otably Hassa l l a nd H i l l ( 1970 ) h ave r ev iewed t he e v idence

f or t he s econd p er iod , a nd more r ecen t ly Tr i mpe Burger h as s u mmar ised t he e v idence f or t he F le m ish f or tresses ( 1973 ). Hassa l l a nd H i l l ( 1970 ) make a s trong c ase f or A l fred 's b urhs b e ing g rea t ly i n f luenced b y t he measures p u t i n to o pera t ion f ol low ing t he E d ic t o f P i tres .

They d e mons tra te t he c lose t i es b e tween Wessex a nd n or thern France

a s s hown b y r eferences i n t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le , a nd t hey t ry t o s how h ow t he Wes t Frank ish b r idge-works o n t he S e ine a t P on t d e l ' Arche n ear P i tres may h ave b een t he mode l i n A l fred 's mind when h e c onstruc ted s im i lar b r idge-works o ver t he r iver L ea i n 8 95 .

S ad ly t he e xcava t ions a t P on t d e

l 'Arche f a i led t o s uccess fu l ly d a te t he e ar then f or tress o n t he n or th b ank o f t he S eine ( le f or t ' ) , b u t t h is s hor t

r ev iew a r t ic le p ower fu l ly d e mons tra tes ,

a t l eas t , t he e x ten t o f t he Frank ish d efences .

H owever , u n l ike t he A l fred ian

( and l a ter ) s ys te m , t ha t i n France a ppears t o l ack t he p ro m inen t n ew b urhs wh ich a re a s ign i f ican t e le men t i n t he Wes t S axon a ch ieve men t ( c f . C a mpbe l l , 1 975;

Brooks , 1 979 ).

F or t he mos t p ar t , t he f or t i f ica t ions o f France were

r e-used Ro man-per iod d efences . 2 24

Ad efens ive s yste m wh ich i s s i mi lar i n i t s d esign t o t ha t i n Wessex h as b een i den t i f ied i n F landers a nd a ppears t o d a te t o t he f our th p er iod d ef ined b y V ercau teren .

A s tr ing o f c oas ta l d e fences were c rea ted i nc lud ing s o me

R oman-per iod s i tes a s we l l a s as tr ik ing n umber o f n ew f or tresses .

T hese

f or ts e xtended f ro m t he i s lands o f S chouwen a nd Wa lcharen ( i n modern H ol land ) t o t he S o m me.

O f t hese f or ts o n ly O os t-Souburg o n Wa lcharen h as b een

e x tensively i nves t iga ted , a t though t here h ave b een l ess impor tan t e xcava t ions ( w i th r egard t o t h is p er iod ) a t Aardenburgh , Burgh , M idd leburg ( Tr i mpe B urger , 1 973 ) a nd a lso a t Oudenburgh .

I n p ar t icu lar , Tr i mpe Burger 's

e xcava tions o f n ear ly h a l f o f O os t-Souburg h ave s hown t h is t o b e ac arefu l ly p lanned , s y m metr ica l s i te wh ich was o n ly b r ief ly o ccupied i n t he l a ter n in th c en tury, a nd t hen a bandoned u n t i l a bou t t he t urn o f t he mi l lenn ium. The F le m ish c oas ta l f or t i f ica tions a re u sua l ly a t tr ibu ted t o Ba ldwin I , C oun t o f F landers ( 883-918 ).

I t was h e who r efurbished t he wa l ls o f Bruges

i n 8 83 a f ter t he ir e ar l ier d es truct ion b y t he Danes ( D 'Haenens , 1 967 , 1 16) , a nd s evera l h is tor ians h ave r ecen t ly a t tr ibu ted t hese c oas ta l d efences t o t he p er iod b e tween 8 85 a nd 8 91 when t here was a p hase o f c o mpara t ive p eace a s t he V ik ings a t tacked t he S eine v a l ley s e tt le men ts ( D 'Haenens , 1 967, 1 16-122 ; Tr i mpe Burger , 1 973 ;

Me tca l f , 1 979 , 4 -7).

The r eference i n t he Miracu la

S anct i Ber t in i t o c as tel la ..recens f acta , t o r ecen t ly c ons tructed f or ts , c lose t o t he monas tery a t S t . Omer , a nd d a ting t o c . 8 92-900 a ga in s erves t o emphas ise t ha t t hese f or tresses may h ave b een c ons tructed d ur ing t he 8 80s . There a re s evera l r easons f or p os tu la ting t ha t A l fred c ou ld h ave b een i n f luenced b y t h is F le mish s ys te m .

I n p ar t icu lar , h e h ad n ot o n ly b efr iended

af or mer monk o f S t . B er t in 's d ur ing t he 8 80s , b u t h is y ounges t d augh ter was t o marry Ba ldwin I , C oun t o f F landers , t he p robable a rch i tect o f t he F le m ish d efences .

A lfred 's f r iendsh ip w i th G rimba ld i n t he 8 80s i s d i f f icu l t t o a ssess

i n t h is c on text , a l though i t mus t b e n o ted t ha t h e was o f fered t he a rchbishopr ic o f C an terbury b y t he West S axon k ing .

The marr iage o f Ael f thryth t o Ba ldwin

o f F landers o n t he o ther h and d e mons tra tes t he s trong c onnect ions b e tween t he t wo a reas d ur ing t he 8 90s , p oss ibly a s ac onsequence o f t he ir s i mi lar c oncern o ver t he V ik ing r a ids ( Gr ierson , 1 940 , 8 4-86).

Bu t i s i tp oss ible t o

d e monstra te t ha t t he F le m ish s ys te m p receded t he West S axon o ne , o r were b o th t hese s ys te ms i m i ta t ing t he measures f irs t t aken b y C har les t he Ba ld? Mar tin B iddle b e l ieves t ha t t he c ons truct ion o f t he Wes t S axon b urhs was we l l a dvanced b y 8 86 when K ing A l fred t ook c on trol o f London ( 1976a , 1 24 ;

1 976b , 2 73 ;

2 78 ).

H owever , Dav id H i l l i n h is mos t r ecen t e ssay o n

t he s ub ject o f b urhs d a tes Winches ter t o t he ' c lose o f t he r e ign o f A l fred ' ( H i l l , 1 978 , 1 80 );

S ha f tesbury , l ess r e l iably , t o 8 80 ( 1978 , 1 80-181) ;

C h ichester , o rgan ised f or d efence b y 8 94 ( H i l l , 1 978 , 1 82) ;

Cas tel To l l a t

Newenden was p robab ly u nder c ons truct ion i n 8 92 ( H i l l , 1 978 , 1 83 ) ;

wh i le

Por tchester Cast le was n o t i n r oya l h ands u n t i l t he r e ign o f Edward t he E lder ( 1 978 , 1 83 ).

We c annot a t tach much we igh t t o t he S ha f tesbury e v idence , b u t ,

b y c on trast , t here i s s o me b as is f or d a t ing t he s yste m t o t he l as t d ecade o f t he c en tury a nd t o t he f i rs t d eacdes o f t he t en th c en tury.

I n t his c on tex t i t

i s w or th n ot ing t ha t t he New M ins ter a t Winches ter , t he s y mbo l o f t he n ew Wes t S axon c ap i ta l— the ' burh c hurch ' t o q uo te Mar tin B idd le ( 1975 ) —was n ot c once ived o f u n t i l t he l as t y ear o f K ing A lfred 's r eign , a nd n ot c o mpleted u n t i l t wo o r t hree y ears l a ter .

I ti s , t herefore , c hronolog ica lly p oss ible t ha t

2 25

A l fred migh t h ave b een i n f luenced b y Ba ldwin 's n ew f or tresses a l though we s hou ld n ow s eek f ur ther s i mi lar i t ies b e tween t he d es igns t o s ubs tan t ia te t he ma t ter . A l fred 's s ys te m b e trays a n on-rando m s pacing wh ich i s u sua l ly e xp la ined a s a n i dea l d es ign f or r efuges s o t ha t n o-one i s more t han a bou t ad ay 's wa lk f ro m s a fe ty.

B y c on tras t t he f or ts a long t he l i t tora l o f F landers a re s paced

c loser t ogether a nd o n Wa lcharen , D o mburg , O os t-Souburg a nd M iddleburg a re o n ly 6 -9 mi les a par t .

T here i s a n i mpress ion , a t l eas t , t ha t t hese were

b u i l t a s s tra teg ic d efences s im i lar t o t he e ar l ier R o man-per iod s ys te m ( Mer tens , 1 977 ).

S econd ly , t he f orm o f t he n ew f or tresses was marked ly

d i f feren t t o t hose b e ing c ons tructed e lsewhere i n wes tern Europe .

As i n

Franc ia a nd Wessex , e x is t ing R o man wa l led c en tres were r efurbished ( ? D o mburg , Aardenburg , B ruges , O oudenburg a nd V eurne ) , b u t i nb e tween t hese f or ts were p laced c ircu lar f or tresses ( a t Burgh , M idd leburg , O os t-Souburg , ? Souburg , S t . Omer ( Tr i mpe Burger , 1 973 ) a nd p robab ly a t Pon tho i le ( So m me ) , as i te r ecen t ly d iscovered b y a er ia l p ho tography ( Agache , 1 970 , f i g . 1 ) ). These h igh ly d is t inct ive c ircu lar e ar thworks a ppear t o h ave b een p ro to-types f or t he mid-ten th-cen tury T re l leborgtype f or tresses o f D en mark ( O lsen a nd S ch mid t , 1 977 , 9 2-95 , f ig . 7 1 ) , a nd t hese s ame f or tresses may h ave i n f luenced t he d es ign o f t he Eas t Ang l ian t en th-cen tury b urhs where S udbury a nd I psw ich , f or e xamp le , a re c ircu lar o r n ear-circu lar .

T h ird ly , t he Wes t S axon f or-

t resses a re much l arger t han t hose i n F landers .

Dudenburg , aS axon S hore

f or t o f t he f our th c en tury ( Mer tens , 1 977 ) , was a bou t 2h a . i n a rea , wh ile P or tches ter C as t le , o ne o f t he sma l les t a nd l eas t s ign i f ican t Wes t S axon b urhs was a bou t 3h a . i n a rea .

O os t-Souburg c overs o n ly a bou t 2h a . c o m-

p ared t o t he 2 9ha . c overed b y C r ick lade o r t he 3 7ha . c overed b y Wareham ( B idd le , 1 976a , 1 26).

The d i f ference i n t erms o f c o m muna l l abour i s q u i te

s tr ik ing , wh i le , s i mi lar ly , t he n umbers r equ ired t o d efend o ne o f t hese c irc u lar f or tresses w ou ld h ave b een s ign i f ican t ly l ess .

I f , f or e xamp le , 1 60

men were t heoret ica l ly r equ ired t o d efend a f ur long o f a Wes t S axon wa l l a s t he Burgha l H idage d ec lares ( H i l l , 1 978 , 1 83 ) , t hen Wareha m wou ld h ave n eeded a bou t 1 500-1600 men t o man i t s wa l ls .

T h is p robably r epresen ts

s o me th ing i nt he o rder o f t h ir ty t o f or ty v i l lages ( c f . H odges , 1 980b , c h . 7 ) . B y c on tras t , i f we a pply t he s a me f igures t o O os t-Souburg , af orce o f l ess t han 4 00 men wou ld h ave b een r equ ired ; v i l lage c o m mun i t ies .

af orce d rawn f ro m p erhaps t en

( I t w i l l b e i n teres t ing t o c o mpare t he r espec t ive man-

h ours i nvolved i n c ons truct ing t hese d e fences o nce O os t-Souburg h as b een p ubl ished i n f u l l .) B a ldw in I 's f or tresses a ppear , t herefore , t o h ave b een d ev ised f or e i ther sma l l p opu la t ions o r f or a n im med ia te mi l i tary p urpose .

As a r esu l t o n ly

Bruges b ecame t he f ocus o f t en th-cen tury u rban a c t iv i ty.

I nves t iga t ions i n

Burgh , M idd leburg , Oos t-Souburg a nd Aarenburg s how t ha t as econd p er iod o f o ccupa t ion d id n o t o ccur u n t i l a round t he t urn o f t he mi l lenn ium .

T h is i s

marked ly i n c on tras t , o f c ourse , t o t he Wes t S axon b urhs , many o f w h ich were f l our ish ing u rban c en tres b y a bou t 1 000 A .D .

T o s o me e x ten t t h is i s a lso

s y mbo l ised b y t he c on tras t i n t he c o inages o f t he t wo r eg ions .

A l fred i ssued

h eavy s i lver p enn ies a nd e ven t he f irs t Eng l ish f rac t ions o f p enn ies ( Lyon , 1 976 , 1 83 ) , wh i le Ba ldwin was p ers is t ing w i th d ebased d en iers a nd o bo ls ( a t Bruges , G hen t a nd Arras ) ( Me tca l f , 1 979 , 5 ) .

2 26

Was K ing A l fred , t hen , i n f luenced b y C har les t he Ba ld 's b id t o ma in ta in a nd g enera te r eg iona l g row th i n h is e cono my?

I ti s o bv ious ly a d i ff icu l t p oin t

t o d iscuss i n v iew o f t he p oor e v idence a va i lable. H owever , t here a re a f ew i nc iden ta l d e ta i ls t ha t t hrow a l i t t le l i gh t o n t he i ssue , a l though t hey p robab ly o n ly s erve t o c o mp l ica te t he ma t ter . I tc an b e c lear ly s een t ha t A l fred f ounded h is e cono m ic d es ign o n e x is t ing Wes t S axon t rad i t ions o f c ra f ts mansh ip .

T he n a t ive i ndus tr ies t ha t h ad s o me

t wo g enera t ions e ar l ier o pera ted i n Hamw ih were n ow s low ly d eve loped t o mee t n ew e cono m ic d e mands . o f t he p o t tery i ndus try .

Th is i s a ccura te ly d e mons tra ted b y t he c ase

I n t he M idd le S axon p er iod t he Wes t S axon p o t tery

i ndus try was f ocused o n af ew s pec ia l is ts who p roduced c rude , h and- made wares i n c er ta in a reas w i th in t he r eg ion ( Hodges , 1 980a , c hap ter 6 ).

The

A l fred ian a nd l a ter u rban e xpans ion n ecess i ta ted mass-produced p ot tery i n aw ider r ange o f f orms .

A s ar esu l t t he Wes t S axon p o t ters a ppear t o h ave

a dop ted t he u se o f t he p o t ters ' whee l a nd t hey a wkward ly a dap ted t he ir t rad i t iona l f orms i n t rad i t iona l f abr ics t o t he n ew n eeds . T he f irs t v esse ls a re h ybr ids o f t he t wo e ras , b u t b y t he midten th c en tury ( i f n ot e ar l ier ) c o mple te whee l-thrown wares w ere b eing made , a nd d ur ing t he s econd h a l f o f t h is c en tury g lazed wares w ere a lso b e ing made w i th in t he r eg ion ( Hodges , 1 980a , c hap ter 6 ;

H odges , 1 980b , c hap ter 9 ;

H odges , f or thco m ing ).

B y c on tras t ,

i n e as tern Eng land , i n t he Dane law , n ew p o t tery f orms were i n troduced r ep lacing t he M idd le S axon I psw ichtype wares wh ich h ad b een made o n a s low whee l .

T he n ew p o t tery t ypes were made o n af as t whee l i n aw ide r ange

o f f orms p rev ious ly u nknown i n Ang lo-Saxon c u l ture .

T h is c hange f ro m

I psw ich ware t o T he t ford ware t ypes ( and t o L inco ln a nd York ware t ypes , a s w e l l ) h as b een t rad i t iona l ly d a ted t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he n in th c en tury ( see Hurs t , 1 976 , 3 14-318 ) , b u t t here i s a bso lu te ly n o e v idence t o s how t ha t i tp receded t he V ik ing c onques t o f e as tern England .

I n o ther words , t h is

d eve lop men t a ppears t o b e ap roduct o f t he n ew e cono m ic d es ign , d a t ing t o l a te i n t he n in th c en tury a nd c lear ly f lour ish ing b y t he f irs t d ecade o f t he t en th c en tury .

H owever , t hese n ew f orms a re n o t i m i ta t ions o f Rhen ish wares

s uch a s were t o b e f ound i n I psw ich i n t he l a te e igh th t o e ar ly n in th c en tur ies . The t ford-type wares a ppear t o b e r e markably a ccura te c op ies o f wares t ha t were p roduced b e tween t he Pas-de-Ca la is a nd N or mandy ( see H odges , 1 980a , c h . 7f or a d iscuss ion o f t hese French wares ).

I ndeed , t he s im i lar i t ies a re

s ome t i mes s o g rea t t ha t i th as b een s upposed t ha t p o t ters were b rough t a cross t o I psw ich a nd e lsewhere i n e as tern Eng land f ro m N eus tr ia b efore N or mandy was c eded t o R o l lo i n 9 11. T o t h is q ues t ion o f p o t tery f orms we s hou ld a lso a dd s o me n o te o n t he a pparen t p lag iar is m o f min t marks b y t he Ang lo-Scand inav ian moneyers i n t he l as t d ecade o f t he n in th c en tury. D o l ley ( 1978 ) h as s hown t ha t t he f irs t moneyers o f J orv ik were i m i ta t ing t he c o ins o f Quen tov ic a nd E vreux , a nd ab reak h ad b een made w i th N or thu mbr ian s ty les o f t he p as t . Whe ther t h is e xchange o f t echn ica l i deas a nd s tyles r epresen ts t he movemen ts o f c raf ts men r e ma ins u nknown . Bu t a s ar esu l t t here i s as tr ik ing c on tras t b e tween t he s ou thern Eng l ish c u l ture ( wh ich h ad h ad t rad i t iona l c ont acts w i th n or thern F rance ) a nd t he Dane law .

The a rchaeology s erves t o

i l lus tra te h ow c o mp lex were t he i n teract ions i n t h is p er iod a s n ew s e t t le men ts were b e ing c rea ted i n o rder t o a ch ieve n ew e cono mic g oa ls . 2 27

The a rchaeo logy

a lso emphas ises t he r e la t ive i ns ign i f icance o f l ong-d is tance t rade , o f ak ind s een i n t he n in th a nd e igh th c en tur ies , a s t h is n ew s e t t le men t s ys te m e vo lved . I n terna t iona l t rade i n t he t en th c en tury may h ave b een f ocused o n L ondon ( t hough i ti s n o t p roven b y r ecen t e xcava t ions ) , b u t i t was c lear ly n ot import an t e lsewhere ( i nc lud ing Y ork ) u n t i l t he t urn o f t he mi l lenn iu m , a nd p erhaps e ven a s l a te a s t he s econd q uar ter o f t he e leven th c en tury ( Hodges , 1 980b , c hap ter 9 ) . C onc lus ions A s a rchaeo log is ts we c an s hed o n ly o b l ique l i gh t o n C har les t he Ba ld . The ma ter ia l r ema ins f ro m h is r e ign a re s l igh t i ndeed .

H owever , we c an

s how t ha t h e i nher i ted p ar t o f a n Emp ire t ha t h ad j us t e xper ienced , o r was i n t he p rocess o f e xper ienc ing , t he d em ise o f a t l eas t t wo impor tan t t rad ing n e tworks .

We a re s t i l l , s ad ly , v ague a bou t t he p rec ise s ign i f icance o f t hese

s pas mod ic , c o m mercia l c on tacts w i th t he Fr is ians , Danes a nd Ang lo-Saxons , b u t we c an d e mons tra te t ha t C har le magne a nd L ou is t he P ious h ad p laced g rea t emphas is o n t he ir o pera t ion .

These mus t h ave b een impor tan t t o t he

g enera t ion o f ar eg iona l c o m merce wh ich , i ts ee ms , was b eing f ormu la ted i n t he mind o f t he Caro l ing ian emperors .

H ow C har les t he Ba ld a nd h is

b ro thers c oped w i th t he d em ise o f t h is t rade r ema ins a rchaeo log ica l ly o bs cure , a l though h istor ica l ly i ti s c ons idered e lsewhere i n t h is v o lume. ( We migh t d o we l l t o l i ken t he p rob le m t o t he o i l c r is is o f 1 973 a nd i t s v ar iable i mpac t o n t he wes tern wor ld ). H owever , i ti s f ar f ro m c lear t ha t t here was a p lanned r eg iona l e cono my emergen t i n l a te n in th-cen tury Wes t F rancia , a s s ee ms t o h ave b een t he c ase i n Wessex b y 9 00 A .D .

I ndeed , w i th t he d ec l ine o f t he l ong-d is tance t rad ing

s ys te ms t he i n f luence o f t he ' core a rea ' o n i t s p er ipher ies s ee ms t o h ave waned .

N one the less , Hassan . a nd H i l l ( 1 970 ) h ave made a s trong c ase f or

a Wes t F rank ish mode l b eing i n A lfred 's mind when h e d es igned h is s yste m o f b urhs e i ther i n t he 8 80s o r 8 90s . Ye t , we h ave a t te mp ted t o s how t ha t A l fred migh t h ave b een e qua l ly i mpressed b y t he ambi t ious s er ies o f o ld a nd n ew f or ts c ons truc ted a t a bou t t h is t ime a long t he F le m ish c oas ts .

And , i n

a ny c ase , t he ma ter ia l e v idence f ro m t he emergen t u rban West S axon i ndust r ies o f t he l a te n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies i s s tr ic t ly d er ived f ro m n a t ive t rad i t ions , u n l ike t he n ew i ndus tr ies i n t he Dane law t owns wh ich , i n f act , r evea l s trong c onnec t ions w i th n or thern France . Ih ave d iscussed t he a rchaeo log y o f t he t en th c en tury e lsewhere ( Hodges , 1 980b , c h . 9 ) , a nd h ave a rgued t he c ase f or a v ery s low r ev iva l o f i n ternat i ona l t rade .

I n p ar t , t h is s low r ev iva l

may h ave b een i nduced b y t he e cono m ic

c ol lapse o f t he Caro l ing ian h ear t land i n t he Rh ine , Meuse , Mose l le , S e ine a nd L o ire v a l leys , o r a t l eas t , b y t he f a i lure t o b r ing p er iphera l a reas l ike n or thern France a nd F landers w i th in t he n ew e cono m ic s ys te m ( c f . Me tca l f , 1 979 d iscusses t he c o inage o f F landers w i th t h is v ery much i n mind ).

S t i l l ,

we mus t a wa i t t he r esu l ts o f more f i e ldwork b e fore we c an p lace much emp has is o n t h is p ar t icu lar e xp lana t ion . T he n in th c en tury , t herefore , marks t he c r i t ica l d iv is ion b e tween t he G er man ic wor ld a nd t he med ieva l wor ld i n e cono m ic t erms .

I n as tr icter

s ense i td iv ides t he e cono m ics o f c en tra l s ys te ms ( red is tr ibu t ion :

2 28

P olanyi ,

1 957;

Ear le 1 977 ) f ro m t hose f ocused f ir m ly o n c en tra l p laces ( i n ag eo-

g raph ic s ense ) ( Po lanyi , 1 957;

Sm i th , 1 976 ).

C har les t he Ba ld 's i mpor tan t

r e ign s i ts a s tr ide t he n exus o f c hange , a s d oes t he r e ign o f A l fred i n Wessex . I ti s p oss ible , o f c ourse , t ha t we h ave emphas ised t he ir p o l i t ica l s ign if icance t o t he d e tr imen t o f o ther n in th-cen tury l eaders ;

i ti s a lso p oss ible t ha t t he

s amp le o f d ocumen ta t ion i s s i mp ly b iased , j us t a s t he a rchaeo log ica l s amp le b e ing s o s l igh t may b e f orc ing u s t o b e b iased i n a n e n t ire ly d i f feren t f ash ion . Wha t emerges , h owever , a re a n u mber o f i n tr igu ing i ssues t ha t n ecess i ta te ag rea t d ea l more r esearch a t t he d e ta i led l eve l .

Ye t , a t t he s ame t ime ,

a t t he l eve l o f g enera l isa t ion t he p rocesses r evea led b y h is tor ica l a rchaeo logy a ppear t o c on for m t o r egu lar i t ies o f h uman b ehav iour k nown f ro m o ther p ar ts o f t he wor ld , a t o ther t imes .

U n ivers i ty o f S hef f ie ld

A cknowledge men ts T hanks a re d ue t o t he e d i tors f or t he ir t hough t fu l c r i t ic is ms o f t he f irs t d ra f t o f t h is p aper .

Is hou ld a lso l i ke t o e xpress my g ra t i tude t o J ane Hassa l l ,

Dr . J . Tr impe Burger a nd K ei th Wade w i th who m Ih ave h ad v a luable c onvers a t ions o n t he i ssues r a ised i n t h is e ssay.

F ina l ly , Iam g ra te fu l t o D oro thy

C ruse a nd my w i fe , D ebbie H odges , who t yped t he r espec t ive v ers ions o f t h is p aper .

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2 30

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Dark-Age e cono m ics :

a n a rchaeolog ica l e ssay o n t he

o r ig ins o f t owns a nd t rade A .D. 6 00-1000 , L ondon , f or thco m ing . H odges , R ., f or thco ming .

P o t tery , p o t ters a nd markets , A .D. 7 00-1000 ,

S ussex Archaeolog ica l C ol lect ions , f or thco m ing . H odges , R ., e t a l ., 1 978.

Por ts o f t rade i n e ar ly medeiva l n or thern Europe ,

Norweg iar l Archaeolog ica l Rev iew , 1 1, 9 7-117. H o ldswor th , P . E ., 1 976.

S axon S ou tha mp ton - A n ew r eview , Medieva l

Archaeo logy , XX , 2 6-61. H o lwerda , J . H ., 1 930.

O pgravingen v an Dores tad , Oudheidkund ige Mede-

d eel ingen , 9 , 3 2-93 . H umphreys , S . C ., 1 969 .

H is tory , e cono mics a nd a n thropology:

t he work

o f Kar l Polanyi , H is tory a nd Theory , 8 , 1 65-212. H urs t , J . G ., 1 976.

The p ot tery , i n Wi lson , D . M. ( ed .) ,

The a rchaeology

o f Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , 2 83-348 , L ondon . J ankuhn , H ., 1 976.

E in Hande lsp la tz d er Wik ingerze i t , Neu münster ( 3rd .

e d .). 2 31

J annsen , W., 1 976.

S o me ma jor a spects o f Frank ish a nd med ieva l s et t le-

men t i n t he Rh ine land , i n S awyer , P . H ., Med ieva l S et t lemen t , 4 1-60 , L ondon . J e l le ma , D ., 1 955. J ohn , E ., 1 966.

Fr is ian t rade i n t he Dark Ages , S pecu lum , 3 0 , 15 -36.

Orbis Br i tann iae a nd o ther s tud ies , L e icester .

Lauer , P ., 1 964.

( Ed i tor ) , N i thard :

h is toire d es f i ls d e Lou is l e P ieux ,

Par is . L obbedey , U ., 1 977. t owns :

Nor thern G ermany , i n Bar ley , M. W. ( ed .) , European

t heir a rchaeo logy a nd e ar ly h is tory , 1 27-157, London .

L yon , S ., 1 976.

S o me p roble ms i n i n terpret ing Ang lo-Saxon c o inage ,

Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , 5 , 1 73-224. Mer tens , J ., 1 977.

Oudenburg a nd t he n or thern s ec tor o f t he c on t inen ta l

L i tus S axon icu m , i n J ohnson , D . E . ( ed .) , The S axon S hore , 5 1-62, L ondon . Metcal f , D . M., 1 972 .

The b ird a nd b ranch s cea t tas i n t he l igh t o f af ind

f ro m A bingdon , Oxon iens ia , 3 7, 5 1-65. Metca l f , D . M., 1 979.

C o inage a nd t he r ise o f t he F le mish t owns , i n

Mayhew , M. J . ( ed.) , C oinage i n t he L ow C oun tr ies ( 880-1500 ) , B . A. R . S S .5 4 Ox ford , 1 -24. O lsen , 0 ., a nd S ch mid t , H ., 1 977. Parkhouse , J ., 1 976.

F yrka t ;

e n j ysk v ik ingeborg , Copenhagen .

The D ores tad q uerns tones , B er ich ten v an d e R i jksd ienst

v oor h et Oudheidkund ig Bode monderzoek , 2 6 , 1 81-188. Po lanyi , K ., 1 957.

The e cono my a s i ns t i tu ted p rocess , i n Polanyi , K . e t a l .

( eds .) , Trade a nd marke ts i n t he e ar ly Empires , 2 43-27 0 , G lencoe. Pr ice , B . J ., 1 97 8 .

S econdary s ta te f or ma t ion :

a n e xp lana tory model ,

i n C ohen , R ., a nd S erv ice , E ., ( eds .) , The o r ig ins o f t he s ta te , 1 61-186, Ph i lade lph ia . Randsborg , K ., 1 980 .

The V ik ing Age i n Denmark :

t he f or ma t ion o f t he S ta te ,

L ondon . Ra th je , W. L ., 1 97 8 .

Me lanes ian a nd Aus tra l ian e xchange s ys te ms :

av iew

f ro m Mesoa mer ica , Mank ind , 1 1, 1 65-174 . Rauch , C . H . R . a nd J acob i , J . H ., 1 976.

D ie Ausgrabungen i n d er Kön igspfa lz

I ngelhe im , 1 909-1914 , Ma inz. R en frew , C ., S ys te ms c o l lapse a s s ocia l t rans for ma t ion :

c a tas trophe a nd

a nas trophe i n e ar ly s ta te s ociet ies , i n Ren frew , C . a nd Cooke , K . L . ( eds .) , Transforma t ions ;

ma the ma t ica l a pproaches t o c u l ture c hange ,

4 81-506. R igold , S . E ., 1 975.

The S u t ton H oo c oins i n t he l i gh t o f t he c on te mporary

b ackground o f c oinage i n Eng land , i n Bruce- M i t ford , R . L . S ., The S u t ton H oo s tud ies , 16 53-677, L ondon . S ah l ins , M., 1 972.

S tone Age e cono m ics , L ondon .

2 32

S awyer , P . H ., 1 977.

K ings a nd merchan ts , i n S awyer , P. H . a nd Wood ,

I . N ., ( eds .) , Ear ly med ieva l k ingsh ip , S ten ton , F . M., 1 971. S teuer , H ., 1 974.

1 39-158 , L eeds .

Ang lo-Saxon Eng land , Ox ford ( 3rd . e d .).

D ie S t ids ied lung v on Ha i thabu , Neumt ins ter .

Tr i mpe Burger , J . A ., 1 973 .

O os t-Souburg , Prov ince o f Z ee land :

ap re-

l im inary r epor t o n t he e xcava t ion o f t he s i te o f a n a ncien t f or tress , ( 1969-1971) , B er ich ten v an d e R i jksd iens t v oor h e t Oudhe idkund ig Bodemonderzeok , 2 3 , 3 55-366. Van Es , W. A ., 1 969 .

Excava t ions a t D ores tad :

ap re-prel im inary r epor t :

1 967-68 , Ber ich ten v an d e R i jksd iens t v oor h et Oudhe idkund ig B ode monderzoek , 1 9 , 1 83-207. V an Es , W. A . a nd V erwers , W. J . H ., 1 975.

C eram ique p e in te d 'epoque

c arol ing ienne t rouvee a Dores tad , B er ich ten v an d e R i jksd iens t v oor h et Oudheidkundig B ode monderzoek , 2 5 , 1 33-164. V an Es , W. A . e t a l ., 1 978 . Vercau teren , F ., 1 935-36.

Dores tad , R .O . B. Overdrukken 1 05 , Amersfoort . C o m men t s 'es t-on d efendu , a u I Xe s ièc le d ans

Pe mp ire f ranc c on tre l es i nvas ions n ormandes?

Anna ls d u XXXe c ongr s

d e l a f edera t ion a rcheolog ique e t h is tor ique d e B e lg ique , 1 17-132. Wade , K ., 1 980.

Excava t ions i n I pswich , 1 974-1977 , East Ang l ian Archaeo logy,

f or thco ming . Wes t , S . E ., 1 963.

Excava t ions a t C ox l ane ( 1958 ) a nd a t t he t own d efences ,

S h ire Ha l l Yard , I pswich , Proceed ings o f t he S u f fo lk I ns t i tu te o f Archaeology , XX IX , 2 34-303 .

2 33

1 2

F ALSCHER U NTER S ICH :

Z UM S TREIT Z WISCHEN H INKMAR V ON

R EIMS U ND H INKMAR V ON L AON H orst Fuhrmann

N ach W ilhelm L evison w ar d as 9 . F alschungen', s ei

1

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2 37

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1 2

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2 38

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2 7

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( nach C od.

1 7

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P aris

7 5 v76 r u nd C od.

2 96,21-30

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2 39

1 9

q uae s ub a na-

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2 94,

1 7-18 et20

e t e go e t o mn es c atho lici

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2 40

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K arl

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H inkmar v on 8 69 d en

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B efehl

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8 69 v on d er l assen.

2 2

U nterschriftenwerk s chli et s ich d er P ittaciolus a n, h at E rzbischof H inkmar v on

2 41

N iemand

i n e inem W erk g estanden

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a ut c ontra

p raesumpserit.

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u nd

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D iese

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g egen d as,

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2 5.

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8 68 a n i n G egensatz

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i hm e ine a usführliche R echtsbelehrung

e a,

D er

L aon g eladen w orden w ar u nd v on d er d ieser n icht

h atte e rhoffen

V erberie,

l assen?

d en W ortlaut

8 69 e ine V ersamm lung n ach V erberie e inberufen,

B ischof v on

M etz).

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2 1

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v on

k ommen

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e r

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K irchenguts

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l oquuntur.

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s entiunt a ut

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e ine w irk lich s chlimme T extverbiegung d es j ungeren

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( detruncasti

e t p ervertisti)

d enn e r h abe w egge lassen: H ier d em B ischof v on L ächerliche,

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r edigierten Z w ischenquelle, d och w ie • d er a ltere H inkmar k reidet d em j ungeren H inkmar e ine

i mmer:

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T extverunstaltung a n,

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s einer v erkürzten F orm ) p robatum s i

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2 4

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2 5

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I . B rief a n T heoctista

i n

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E in w eiterer V orwurf d er V erfä lschung, d en H inkmar v on R e ims e rhebt,

b etrifft d as W eglassen e ines e inzigen W ortes,

P ersonalpronomens. 3 71)

N ulli

2 6

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..

2 7

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c onstituta t uos e sse c anones e t o b N u lli

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l iceat c anones N on

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d e v erbis C aelestini. U nd i n h öhnischem T on s chreibt d er • R eimser w enig s pater: 28 S ed f orte h aec e t e a, q uae d icimus e sse c anones,

t enere n on v is p ro c anonibus,

2 42

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t en - m ußten d ie P riester k ennen. H inkmars v on R e ims V orwurf e rscheint ü berspitzt, H altung d es E rzbischofs

r ückt

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2 9

W ohl

S atzes

s acerdotum s uos

l ice[a]t c anones

Q uesnelliana,

a ber

w eist d ie D ionysiana b zw .

i gnorare),

d ie

( Nulli

e benso d ie

i n d en v on d er H ispana s ich a bleitenden

S ammlungen s teht s uos n icht, P seudoisidor.

L icht,

i n e inigen

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3 1

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3 2

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3

H inkmar v on R eims d ie D ionysio-Hadriana a ls N ormsamm lung a nz usehen,

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l assen w o llte.

O b e r m it d er B ehauptung,

3 4

g ren T ext g ehöre,

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d ag

' suos'

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i nte-

d ie v om N effen v ielleicht b enutzte p seudoisi-

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d ie d en W ortlaut s o b ringen, w ie H inkmar v on L aon

i hn v ortragt. G ehen w ir d ie h ier a ngeführten S te llen d urch, R e ims

s einem N effen a ls V erunstaltungen,

f ä lschungen v orgeworfen h at:

w enn n icht g ar V er-

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d ie H inkmar v on

d er E inigkeit,

I . a uf d ie e igene S ituation,

u nd d ie v erkurzende K ontam ination d es

d ie

d ie

B riefes

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A uslassung d es " suos" z u " canones". g latte V erfä lschungen

E s g ibt o ffensichtlich

( w ie d en E inschub

i n d en G regorbrief )

u nd

••

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u nberechtigte V orwürfe.

F orm

( detruncasti

I n v erstümme lter u nd p ervertierter

e t p ervertisti)

h at H inkmar v on R eims s elbst

j ene P assage d es G regorbriefes z itiert, h at,

u nd u nfair

E s g ibt a ber

d ie d er N effe a ufgenommen

i st d ie B ehauptung d es R eimser M etropo liten,

2 43

" sups"

z u " canones"

i m B rief C oelestins

I . " dUrfe n icht

o der a usgelassen w erden".

W er d en

H ispana-Version o der e iner

i hrer A bleitunnen z itiert,

o hne " suos"

z u " canones"

u nd

C oelestin

h at n ichts

g etilgt

r ief z .B.

i n d er

t ut d ies

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s en". W enn d ies a lles

i st,

w as

d er E rzbischof H inkmar v on

s einem L aoner S uffragan v orzuwerfen H inkmar s o s chlecht n icht a b. F älschung

s o s chneidet

d er d ie V isio B ernoldi

P rivilegien d er P äpste H ormisda + 2 411)

p lausibel

f ür R emigius

f inden,

d er f jngere

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u nd V erfälschung s toßen w ir b eim ä lteren

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( JE.

h at,

R eims

u nd

( JK .

H inkmar s elbst.

k onzipierte, + 8 66 )

u nd

d er

d ie

H adrian

fr T ilpin a ufsetzte,

I .

w ird m an

s olange n icht g egen d ie v orgebrachten V erdachts-

g runde n eue A rgumente a uftauchen.'2 5 E s

b edeutet e ine M ohren Zsche,

. 14

m achtigen,

a ber v on m ancherlei

H inkmar v on F alschung

R eims

s chuldig e rklart d och d er e inen

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u m

K urzformel

n immt

3 8

u nd d em

m etropolitanus

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d en

3 7

d er

K irchen-

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f ur U n-

s o b leibt e r

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l au -

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p rovinciae u sw .

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w ie d er E rzbischof v on R eims m it d en T exten

s ich d as V erhalten

w eise h arm los a us.

v erhielten

i hn

d ie G efahr e iner U nterordnung a bzuwenden

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u mspringt,

s elbst w enn m an

I . u m e in " non" v ermehrt

i ntentio s tatt

s einem W erk u ber

K leinmeister d er V erunstaltung,

u nterschiebt;

i llaudabilis

f reien

d er E rfindung g anzer S tucke,

f ingerfertige

v ater A ugustin e ine

b ei

i n

v on j edem V erdacht e iner

D enn

3 6

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K onfusion n icht

s einen H eiden

b efreien m ochte.

w enn J ean

H inkmar v on D ieb"

s eines S uffragans

R eims v erfo lgte

- u nd h atte E rfo lg.

s ich z eitkonform,

e ine a bweichende M entalität

u nd m an s uchen.

2 44

i hn

v ergleichS n ach d er

B eide H inkmare

s ollte b ei

i hnen

n icht

F OOTNOTES 1W .

L evison,

D ie P o litik

M ittelalters, a bgedruckt

i n :

E .

' Approaches

( 1948)

B runner, S eckel,

S .

2 36.

t o M edieval 1 3

( 1921)

A us

S .89,

r heinischer u nd

i n:

J ournal

o f t he

S .378.

D eutsche R echtsgeschichte B d.1 s .v.

f rühen

A hnlich J ugerte s ich C .N.L.

F orgery',

( 1968)

' Pseudo isidor',

p rotestantische T heo logie u nd

3M .

v on B ezold

i n d essen A ufsatzsamm lung:

S ociety o f A rch iv ists 2H .

J enseitsv isionen d es

F estgabe F .

f rank ischer F rühzeit B rooke,

i n d en

i n:

(2 1 906)

S .557,

v gl.

R ealencyk lopädie f ür

K irche

31 6

( 1905)

S .284,27.

B loch, A po logie d er G eschichte o der d er B eruf d es H istori-

k ers

( 1949;

d eutsch

1 974)

S .100f.

4D ie b isherige F orschung i st z usammengefabt u nd d er U mkreis d er p seudo isidor ischen F ä lschungen u mschrieben b ei E inf V on

H .

F uhrmann,

9 u nd V erbreitung d er p seudo isidorischen F ä lschungen. i hrem A uftauchen b is

M GH 2 4,1,

1 972).

i n d ie n euere Z eit B d.1

A uf z wei

E rgänzungen e rschienen: H andschriften u nd

( Schriften d er

F eldern s ind b emerkenswerte

i m N achweis n euer P seudoisidor-

i n d er F rage d er a us d er p seudoisidorischen

W erkstatt o der m it

i hr

i m Z usammenhang s tehenden T exte.

P seudo isidorüberlieferungen b rachten v or a llem J .H. ' New P seudo-Isidore M anuscripts', C anon L aw N .S.

S chafer W illiams', ( 1978)

C halkedon b e i

H inweis B .

i n:

A uf P aris,

( 1976)

B ibl.Nat.lat.

S chon,

P seudoisidor u nd

B ischoffs,

B ib liotheken

A rchiv f ur k atho lisches

v erweist K .-G.

D eutsches A rchiv 3 2

' Codices

A ddenda z u d em g leichnam igen B uch v on

S .473 f f.

J ahrhundert)

E rickson,

B ulletin o f M edieval

5 ( 1975 ) S . 115 f f. u nd H . M ordek,

P seudo-Isidoriani.

1 47

i n:

N eue

1 557 ( 10.

' Exzerpte a us d en A kten v on

i n d er 7 4-Titel-Samm lung',

S .549 A nm .18.

W ichtig

D ie s Udostdeutschen

i n d er K aro lingerzeit B d.2:

o sterreichischen D iozesen

K irchenrecht

( 1980)

S .230,

i n:

i st e in

S chreibschulen u nd D ie v orw iegend

d aA i n d er M unchener

H andschrift c lm 2 940 a us A ltomUnster s ich F ragmente e iner P seudo isidor-Handschrift b efinden, 9 .Jahrhunderts w ohl

d ie

i m d ritten V iertel

i n O beritalien g eschrieben w urde.

2 45

E in

d es

w eiteres

B eispiel

d er F rUhrezeption b ietet d ie H andschrift

L eiden,

U niversitätsbibl.

( um 8 50

i n F ulda g eschrieben)

D ekretalen e nthalt.

C od.Voss.

Q .

1 08,

d ie a uf f o l.68 r81

E xzerpte a us d en F alschen

N ach d en U rteil

B .

B ischoffs k onnte

H rabanus M aurus d ie A uszüge z usammengestellt h aben, d e M eyier, q uarto

C odices V ossiani

( 1975)

S .241.

r

L atini

P ars

I:

v gl.

C odices

K .A.

i n

-A ussehen u nd Z usammenhang p seudo isi-

d orischer T exte s ind n och v erw ickelter a ls b isher a ngenommen. J .

R ichter,

' Stufen p seudoisidorischer V erfä lschung.

s uchungen z um K onzilsteil i n:

U nter-

d er p seudo isidorischen D ekreta len',

Z eitschrift d er S avigny-Stiftung f ür R echtsgeschichte,

K anonistische A bteilung 6 4 d eutlich,

d a j2 p aralle l

( 1978)

S .1

b es.

S .46

f . m achte

z ur V erfä lschung d er H ispana G a llica z ur

H ispana G allica A ugustodunensis D ekretalen s ich z um indest

' schon m ehrere e rdichtete

i m E ntstehungsstadium b efanden',

a lso d ie f rüher v ertretene M einung, e ine V orstufe,

f f .,

d aß

d ie A ugustodunensis s ei

a n d ie s ich d ie F alschen D ekretalen a nsch lossen,

d as P roblem v erkürzt. u berlappt h aben.

B eide F ä lschungsvorgänge k. d r Inten s ich

E s z eigt s ich

u nd A rt d er p seudoisidorischen

i mmer d eutlicher,

d aß A usma

F ä lschungen u ngenl igend b e-

s chrieben s ind, w enn m an - w ie e s d ie f rühere F orschung g etan h at - a uf d ie H ispana G allica A ugustodunensis, A ngilramni,

d ie F alschen

d ie C ap itu la

K apitularien d es B enedictus L ev ita u nd

s chlieg lich d ie p seudoisidorischen D ekretalen v erweist. n ur d aA d iese T exte u ntereinander s tark v erfilzt s ind:

N icht e s

g ibt Z eugnisse p seudoisidorischen W irkens a ußerhalb d ieser g enannten F ä lschungen, h aben s chon

i m U rsprung e in v erschiedenes A ussehen.

H inkmar v on L aon T exte e ines C orpus

u nd m anche p seudo isidorischen T exte

l i9

s ich n achweisen,

F rühstadiums

i n U m lauf w aren,

t ung B d.1

II,

e rhärtet K .-G.

1 97 ) 4)

S chon,

le p seudoisidorische

u nd a4erhalb d es p seudoisidorischen v gl.

H .

( w ie d iese A nm .oben)

d er M GH 2 4,

B ei

F uhrmann, S .138 f f.

S .679 f .,

7 23 f .

E influß u nd V erbreiu nd B d.3

( Schriften

D iesen B efund

' Zur E ntstehungsgeschichte d er

p seudo isidorischen D ekretalen',

d emnächst i n : D eutsches Archiv :

e ine S amm lung d es B erner C odex 4 42,

2 46

d ie e r n ach d em f rüheren

B esitzer d er H andschrift C o llectio D anieliana n ennt, u nbekannte T exte p seudoisidorischer V erfä lschung, d rei

e nthalte

u nd m indestens

v erschiedene H andschriftenk lassen d er L angversion d er

p seudoisidorischen D ekretalen g ingen s elbst z uruck '.

D er S chlug b ietet s ich a n:

s e lbst h atten m ehrere F ormen a hnliche D ivergenzen

II',

i n:

K uttner,

' Universal

t he C anonists,

P apal

R evue d e d ro it c anonique 3 0

k i irzlich

a ufmerksam g eworden,

t his g oes

t o s how w hat a n e normous

e dition o f P seudo-Isidore '.

t ragen, w ie

A uf

P ope o r

T itles,

a nd

( 1980)

u nd e r v ermerkt m it R echt: t ask

l ies a head

I n d er T at:

s chon v erschiedene V ersionen v orlagen, e ines A rchetyps

' die F älscher

i hrer F ä lschung v erbreitet'.

i st a uch S .

S ervant o f G od 's S ervants: I nnocent

' auf d ie F ä lscherwerkstatt

W enn

' A ll

i n a n ew

i m U rsprung

d ie a lle d en C harakter

i st d ann z u e dieren?

H ier z eigt

s ich d ie R ealitätsferne d er L achmannschen E ditionsmethode. 5A us d em u mfangreichen S chrifttum ü ber H inkmar v on R eims z wei

W erke h eraus:

d as d urch s eine R egesten

u nentbehrliche B uch v on H . R eims.

S chrörs,

S ein L eben u nd s eine S chriften

d reibä ndige M onographie v on J . R eims 8 45-882 7 6),

H inkmar, ( 1884)

D evisse,

i mmer n och E rzbischof v on u nd d ie

H incmar,

a rchevAque d e

( Travaux d 'histoire 6 thico-po litique 2 9,

d essen A usführungen a llerdings d arunter

r agen

l eiden,

1 975/

d aß s ie -

v or a llem a uf q uellenkundlichem G ebiet - m it z ahlreichen F ehlern u nd V ersehen d urchsetzt s ind,

v gl.

d es H erausgebers d er B riefe H inkmars R . D eutsches A rchiv 3 4 Z eitschrift 2 29

d ie B esprechungen

S chieffer,

( 1 978 ) S .279 f f. u nd i n:

( 1979)

i n:

H istorische

S .85 f f.

6N achdem e s a ls b iographischen V ersuch b islang n ur d ie u ngedruckte D issertation v on W . L aon,

p hil.

D iss.

B uch v on P .R . ( 1978) v on

v or,

H alle

M cKeon,

1 924,

H inkmar,

g egeben h at,

B ischof v on

l iegt j etzt d as

H incmar o f L aon a nd C aro lingian P o litics

d as a llerdings m ehr e ine b uchbinderische E inheit

E inzelstudien d arstellt,

A rchiv 3 6

D e lius,

( 1980)

S .267 f .

v gl.

W .

H artmann,

i n:

D eutsches

D as B uch w ird e rgänzt d urch e ine

R eihe v on D etailuntersuchungen M cKeon's,

d ie

L iteraturverzeichnis d es B uches g enannt s ind:

2 47

i n d em h inzu k ommt

n och M cKeon's k urzer A ufsatz P seudo-Isidore',

i n:

R evue B gnedictine 8 9

( s.dazu u nten A nm .15). J ahrhundert

t o 9 30.

Ia nd

( 1979)

-U ber d as g eistige L eben

i nform iert J .J.

L aon f rom 8 50

' A N ote o n G regory

C ontreni,

t he

S .305 f f. i n

L aon

T he C athedral

I ts M anuscripts a nd M asters

S choo l

N icolas

If or S t.

t ine 7 1

( 1961)

( 1966)

C alais:

S .287 f f.

A N ew T heory ', u nd d ers.,

o f

( Münchner

B eitrage z ur M ediäv istik u nd R enaissance-Forschung 2 9,

7Z ur S ynode v on V erberie v gl. W . G offart,

i m 9 .

1 978 ).

' The P rivilege o f i n:

R evue B 4nedic-

T he L e M ans

F orgeries

S .78 f f.

8V gl. d ie e twas z ufä llige S childerung b e i M cKeon, H incmar o f L aon

( w ie A nm .6)

V erbreitung B d.3

S .132

f f.;

f erner F uhrmann,

( w ie A nm .4)

b es.

S .669 f f.

E inf luß und u nd w eiter

i m

R egister S .1122 s .v .

9Z u d iesen A nk lagepunkten v gl. F uhrmann, E inf luß u nd V erbre itung B d.3

( w ie A nm .4)

S .670 f . m it A nm .139;

v on L aon u nheilvo llen

' Verfä lschungen'

d ie b eiden f ür H inkmar s ind e benda S .657 f f.

b ehande lt. 1 0 H inkmar v on L aon h atte m it d er A ufforderung v on E ph. s olliciti

s ervare u nitatem s pir itus

4 ,3:

i n v inculo p ad s d ie

G eistlichkeit s einer D iözese z ur L eistung e iner U nterschrift u nter e ine v on

i hm v erfabte R echtssamm lung b ringen w o llen,

H inkmar v on R eims t u

f uhr

i hn a n:

Q uod a b a posto lo r ecte d ictum

i n q uadam p raesumptiosa s ubscriptione t ua

( Migne P L

1 26,

( w ie A nm .4)

S p.308 D ),

v gl.

i ncongrue p osuisti

E inf 1 4 u nd V erbreitung B d.3

S .658.

1 M it e iner v on L eo

I .

( JK 4 02)

g enommenen F ormulierung w o llte

H inkmar v on L aon s eine G eistlichkeit z ur S o lidar ität m it z w ingen.

u nd

A us d er P önformel

L eos

( ein U bertreter M öge w issen)

n ec c ommunionis n ostrae f uturum e sse c onsortem,

q ui

n o luit d isciplinae w urde b eim j U ngeren H inkmar:

S i

s ecus n o lentes

f ieri

s ocii

h u ius d iscip linae,

p artic ipes c ommunionis n ostrae E influi 3 u nd V erbreitung B d.3 1 2 D ie d ramatischen V orgänge h äufig b ehandelt,

v gl.

( Migne P L

( w ie A nm .4 )

1 26,

z uletzt P .R .

s ocius e sse a liqu i

n ec h abeantur S p .466 C ), v gl.

S .658 f .

i n A ttigny 8 70 s ind

2 48

i hm

M cKeon,

i n d er L iteratur

' Le c oncile

d 'Attigny

( 870)',

H incmar o f L aon

H .

S .517 f f. E influ

( 879)',

a usgemacht, I , 6 27 f .

S .85 f f.;

S .401

F uhrmann,

d ers.

E influ

D eutsches A rchiv 2 7

I nhaltsanalyse d es P ittacio lus

S .417,9-14.

v gl.

f f.;

u nd

S .667 f .

i n:

u nd V erbreitung B d.3

1 4 M GH P oetae 3 ,

( 1970)

' Zur U berlieferung d es P ittacio lus B ischof

L aon

E ine

6 )

( w ie A nm .4)

F uhrmann,

H inkmars v on

L e M oyen A ge 7 6

( w ie A nm ,

V erbreitung B d.3 1 3 V gl.

i n:

( w ie A nm .

4 )

i st g egeben

i n:

S .713 f f.

D ie V or lagen s ind h ier n och n icht

e twa z u V ers 4 A rator,

( CSEL 7 2

( 1971)

[ 1951]

S .50):

..

D e A ctibus A posto lorum

q uibus a dfuit a lmus

( Spir itus). 1 5 J E

1 8 17;

R egister G regors

D ieser B rief, e nthalten

d er

I . X I,27

( MGH E pp.2,

i n m ehreren F ormen d es

i st, w urde d urch P seudo isidor

S .289 f f.).

R egisters G regors

I .

i n d ie k anonistische

T radition e ingeschleust.

E r t auchte g leichzeitig

d er b eiden H inkmare a uf.

E ine A ufreihung d er e ntsprechenden

S tellen v ersuchte M cKeon,

' A N ote o n G regory

S .305 f f.

z u g eben,

d och

d urcheinander g eraten. g en

i st

I '

i m S chrifttum

( w ie A nm.6)

i hm m anches e ntgangen,

V or a llem a ber

a nderes

ret . e r d ie V erä nderun-

i m W ortlaut b eiseite.

1 6 D reimal

h at H inkmar v on R eims

v orgeworfen,

e r h abe d en G regorbrief

v erfalscht z itiert: ( Sp.367 B ;

i m 5 5-Kapitel-Werk s einem N effen

c .

d ie S telle

1 5

( JE

1 8 17)

( M igne P L 1 26,

i m P ittacio lus

S p.333 C );

i st o ben a ngefUhrt);

c .32

( Sp.

c .

2 2

4 15 A ).

U nd z war h abe d er B ischof v on L aon d iese V erfä lschung n icht n ur i m P ittacio lus a ngef l ihrt, L ibellus,

d er a m 8 . J uli

s ondern a uch

i n d essen V orlage, e inem

8 69 v on d er L aoner G eistlichkeit h at

u nterschrieben w erden m ussen,

s .oben

S .241

m it A nm .

1 7 H inkmar v on L aon b enutzte, w ie d ie L esarten a nzeigen, C o llectio P au li

a us

C orbie,

i m .

d ie

d er G regorbriefe u nd z war e ine H andschrift,

d ie d en C odices d er G ruppe P a B iblioteka

2 2.

M .E.

( = L eningrad,

P ublichnaja

S altykova-Shchedrina F .I.7,

u nd B amberg,

S taatsbibl.

P atr.23,

8 .Jahrhundert

1 0.

J ahrhundert)

n ahestand. 1 8 F ür d en f o lgenden T extvergleich s ind d ie b eiden h auptsächlichen u nd n och a us d em z eitlichen U mkreis H inkmars v on L aon

2 49

s tammenden T extzeugen, B ibl.

M un.

3 51,

C odex S alzburg

S .

P eter a . I X v gl.

( w ie A nm.

1 3)

S .373 b d ruckt

f uerit.

h äufig,

S p.

u m e ine

o ffenbar s i

a us

' Zur U berlieferung

S .519

S irmond,

H incmar i

h at,

u nd e s

K onjektur h andeln.

S p.58 1

B ,

s .unten A nm .

a nathematizaverit,

D ekretalen

w ohl

- I n d en

M un.

4 73,

i n

V at.lat.631, ( S.296,25)

2 2),

S .744

b ei

( aus

S peyer),

P seudo-Isidor, I .',

i n:

s chaften

z u G öttingen,

E rzbischof v gl.

S chrörs,

2 2 H inkmar v on s einen

R eims

L aon

L aon g egen

' Si

E r

q ui

G renoble,

a estimant i n d en d er

i st z weifelsfrei

L aon A uslese a us P abstes

G esellschaft

K lasse

s einen

H inkmar

1 912,

d er W issen-

S .225

i n

B d.3

D ouzy

l ibello,

m isit,

v ero s unt q ui

K önig

h ielt

S .22

f f.

u nd

s einen

S .324

( w ie A nm .4)

f f .;

S .651

S .64

f f.;

f f.

i n s einer A nk lageschrift L aon

s ed e t

i n

v erbis

b eati

d icunt,

2 50

u nd

( wie A nm.5)

D iOzesanbischof H inkmar v on

m ihi

( z.B.

a nathe-

d och f ehlt ü berall

K .

( w ie A nm .6)

h at d ies

d e q uo a gitur

W enilonem d icit:

d er

E influß u nd V erbreitung

H incmar o f

S irmondsche

i st d er

f ür e ine Z utat d es j üngeren H inkmar.

v on

F uhrmann,

B edeutung, w ie

d er p seudo isi-

S chreiben d es

p hil.-hist.

Z um K ampf H inkmars H .

1 26, I . h at

7 45 b f .)

' Ueber H incmar's v on

N achrichten

F olgende z u U nrecht

P L

H inkmar.

I ngilram u nd a us

N icolaus

b ehilft

P seudoisidor - a uch

- p raesumpserit.

M eyer

S irmond

( Migne

V at.Reg.lat.976); i st

d ie

R eims

C odices

E inschub a ut

i n e o,

( Paris

a ber G regor

b u nd

- v erbreitet,

e ine Z utat d es j jngeren

b ei

i n m edialer

ä ltesten H andschriften c ontra e a

w ie

H andschr iften

( Hinschius

f uerit a uch

s tatt e x istimant

g egen

d es

- a nathematizatus

s chreibt

v erschiedenen

M cKeon,

1.

B d.2

H inkmar v on

m atizatus

d as

o pera

d urfte s ich,

S o b egegnet d as

2 0 W .

u nd M etz,

f .

W ortlaut w eit g estreut.

B ibl.

5 095

d em b eginnenden

h ier - s innfä lliger

i n d er V ulgata.

d orischen

2 1

3 2

i ndem e r s e a nathematizaverit

3 67 C u nd

s chon

l at.

S eine V orlage w ar d ie P ariser H andschrift,

a nathematizaverit

s ich,

N at.

e ine S onderstellung n immt d er

F uhrmann,

1 9 D er E rstherausgeber J . 1 643)

B ibl.

h erangezogen;

J ahrhundert e in, P ittaciolus'

P aris,

i llo,

q uia

b ehauptet:

E t

q uem p er

G regorii c ompulsus

q uibus q uispiam

n ecessitate s e a nathematizaverit, t enetur '

v erbis s uis

c ontra e a,

i mposuit,

a nathematis v inculo n on

i mm ittens e t s uperadiciens

q uae s ub a nathemate p rohibita s unt,

( Libe llus e xpostulationis c .12,

M igne P L 1 26,

' aut

p raesumpserit' S p.581

B ).

E s

i st f ast w ört lich d er V orwurf v on c .22 d es 5 5-Kapitel-Werks w iederho lt

( M igne P L

W enilos v on R ouen

1 26,

S p.367 C ).

D urch V erm ittlung

( per W enilonem

v on R e ims a uf d er V ersamm lung P ittaciolus e rhalten.

m ihi

m isit)

i n G ondrev ille N ovember 8 69 d en

D avor s pricht H inkmar

i n d em o ben

a ngeführten Z itat v on d em U nterschriftenwerk, B eschreibung d es

L ibe llus,

h at H inkmar

s o d a(

s ich d ie

' Zber d en g ehandelt w ird',

a uf

d ieses b eziehen d urfte. 2 3 M igne P L

1 26,

S p.129 C -D:

s anctus G regorius

a d T heoctistam p atriciam d icit:

..

S i

q ui

s unt

i n e pisto la i gitur,

s ub n om ine c hristiano h aec a ut p raedicare a udent a ut a pud s emetipsos

t enere,

t raria s entiunt e t c ontraria 2 4

t aciti

e os e t e go e t o mnes c atho lici

a tque u niversa e cclesia a nathematizamus,

q ui

e piscopi

q uia v eritati

c on-

l oquuntur.

I n n icht v erunstalteter F orm z itiert H inkmar v on R eims d en B rief G regors D ouzy

I . a n T heoctista i n d er A nk lageschrift v on

( Libellus e xpostulationis c .34,

M igne P L 1 26,

S p.628

A -B). 2 5 M igne P L

1 24,

2 6 S irmond b ringt 1 9)

S p.1041

B .

i n s einer A usgabe d es P ittacio lus

S .368b e inen T ext,

d er v on d er P ariser

5 095 f o l.7 1

v)

n icht v o ll

b estätigt w ird.

C ae lestini

p apae.

l iceat c anones s it s i

u nd M etzer H andschrift

N ulli

M un.

D ort s teht f o lgendes:

s acerdoti

Q uae e nim a n obis

( a liquorum S irmond)

l ibitu

N at. 3 51

l at.

f o l.92

r)

E x d ecretis

( sacerdotum S irmond)

d ecretalium n ormam c onstitutorum

f rangatur?

( B ibl.

i gnorare n ec q uicquam f acere,

r egu lis o bviare .

a liorum

( Bibl.

( w ie A nm .

q uod p atrum p os -

r es d igna s ervabitur,

( constitorum M etz)

p ro

l icentia p opulis p erm issa

D er W ortlaut d er b eiden H andschriften w ird d urch

H inkmar v on R eims b estätigt. 2 7 O pusculum L V c apitulorum c .32, 2 8 E benda c .32, M igne P L

1 26,

M igne P L

S p.414 D .

2 51

1 26,

S p.414 B .

2 9 Z ur w eiteren V erbreitung d es C ö lestinbriefes J K 3 71 v orpseudo isidorischen

K irchenrechtssamm lungen v gl.

i n d en F .

M aassen,

G eschichte d er Q ue llen u nd d er L iteratur d es c anonischen R echts i m A bendlande

( 1870)

S .252 f .

f ;279 n r.3 u nd H . W urm,

S tudien

u nd T exte z ur D ekretalensamm lung d es D ionysius E xiguus ( Kanonistische S tudien u nd T exte 3 0 V gl.

1 939)

d en A bdruck d er P ithou 'schen A usgabe

M igne P L 6 7,

6 242 f o l.

1 97 v .

D ie V ersion

S p.58 1

N ulli

1 20 r , c lm 6 355 f ol.

( 1721)

S p.689 C )

O sterreichische N ationalbibl. u bere in:

S .425 b ei

P .

1 78 r , c im

C oustant,

S p.1072 B b erücksichtigt.

A .

( Migne P L 8 4 ,

3 2 H ispana

( 1609)

i st a uch b ei

E pisto lae R omanorum p ontificum M igne P L 5 6,

S .142.

S p.277 C u nd d ie M ünchener H andschriften d er

D ionysio-Hadriana c lm 3 860a f ol.

3 1

1 6,

s acerdoti

u nd H ispana G allica

l at.411

f o l.265 v ) s timmen

l iceat c anones

i gnorare.

3 V gl. H ispana G allica A ugustodunensis ( Vat.lat.1341 u nd d ie F alschen D ekretalen

( Migne P L

( W ien,

1 30,

f o l.160 r b )

S p.758 A ).

D ie

a ltesten H andschriften d er p seudoisidorischen D ekretalen ( Vat.lat.630, V at.Ottob.lat.93, B einecke L ibr. c anones 3 4 V gl.

4 42)

N ew H aven,

s timmen ü berein:

Y ale U niversity,

N ulli

s acerdoti

l iceat

i gnorare .

F uhrmann,

E influ

u nd V erbreitung B d.1

( w ie A nm .4)

S .215.

3 5 Z u H inkmar v on R eims a ls w ahrscheinlichem F N 1scher o der V erfertiger d er g enannten S tUcke v gl.

A .

P oensgen,

G eschichtskonstruktionen d es f rühen M itte lalters z ur L egitimi erung k irchlicher A nspruche S .73 f f.;

F uhrmann,

S .113ff .;

H .

3 6 V gl.

D evisse,

‘ rudite),

a H incmar"), t otal,

i n:

H incmar

S .590

R eims

u nd T rier

E influA u nd V erbre itung B d.1

Z immermann,

R egestentechnik ',

i n M etz,

( 1973)

( w ie A nm .4)

' Zu F lodoards H istoriographie u nd

F estschrift H . ( w ie A nm .5),

B eumann

S .27

( 1977)

S .2 13

f .

( hypercritique

( Hla v oie t raditionnelle d 'une v ive h ostilite'

S .657-66 1,

s ow ie z usammenfassend S .790

•e p H incmar n e m e/ rit as l aquelle o n

l 'accusation d e f alsification

d es

t extes s ous

q ue

l 'on p uisse s ans d iscussion

d 'Horm isda 1 S aint-Remi")

( "Au

l 'a a ccab le : l ui

u nd S .1098

2 52

l e s eul

a ttribuer e st

f aux t otal l e p rivilege

( Hnous s ommes e n m esure

d e d ire,

a ujourd'hui,

q ue n ous n 'avons j amais

7

f ication d e liberee d u c aptation d u s ens r ejeter e n b loc p ortee,

t exte,

p ar m odification,

t rouv‘ d e f alsi7

a lteration,

o u

..

N ous e stimons g tre e n m esure d e / . l 'accusation d e f alsification s ystematique

t ant e n A llemagne q u 'en F rance,

s i

s ouvent,

c ontre

H incmar").

D evisse ' V ersuch s teht i n e iner T radition • a hnlicher V orschlage, v gl. F uhrmann, S tudien z ur G eschichte m ittelalter licher P atriarchate

2 ,

i n :

Z e -; tsc l -r 4 r ' t

g esch ch ic

K en. A ht.

b reitung

( w ie A nm .

A nm .

G erade d er V ersuch v on D evisse,

1 62.

(-_ ?5;,40 A nm . 4 )

S .68f.

1 26;

m it A nm .

1 5;

r Ur R echts—

E influig und V erS .95;

S .115f.

m it

d ie G estalt d es

R eimser E rzbischofs v on d em G eruch e ines F ä lschers g anz f rei z u h alten,

i st

i n v erschiedenen B esprechungen s eines W erkes

a uf K ritik g estogen;

v gl.

S chieffers s ow ie J .L.

N elson,

c al

S .282;

H istory 3 0( 1979),

S .744; S .441

H .

D ickerhof,

u nd D .

G anz,

d 'histoire 5 7

i n:

i n:

S .113 f f.,

i n: T h.

5g enannten R ezensionen R . T he J ournal

G rog ,

i n:

o f E cclesiasti-

F rancia 6 ( 1 978 )

H istorisches J ahrbuch 9 6

( 1976)

R evue b eige d e p hilo logie e t

( 1 979 ) S .7 11 f f.

3 7 V gl. F uhrmann, E influ j

3 8

d ie A nm .

b es .

u nd V erbreitung B d.1

( w ie A nm .

4 )

S .117 f f.

I n d er S irmondschen A usgabe d er Q uaterniones v on 8 68 s teht a n d er e ntsprechenden, e ntnommenen S telle P L

1 25,

S p.

d em C odex T heodosianus X VI,2,41

i llaudabilis

1 046 A ),

u nd m it T h.

E influf 4 u nd V erbreitung

B d.1

i ntentio

( w iederho lt M igne

M ommsen h abe

( w ie A nm .

i ch

4 ) S .120 m it A nm .174

e ine R edaktion v on d er H and H inkmars a ngenommen. S achverhalt R .

A ber d er

i st, w ie m ich d er H erausgeber d er H inkmarbriefe

S chieffer a ufk lärt,

d ramatischer. Q uaterniones

i n

v erw ickelter,

E ntgegen S irmond s teht l audabilis

i ntentio w ie

u m n icht z u s agen i n d en H andschriften d er i m C odex T heodosianus

A ber d ie A rbeitshandschriften d es C odex T heodosianus a us d em R eims d es ä lteren H inkmar P hillipps

1 741

( Berlin,

f o l.184 r u nd P aris,

1 9 vb ; z u

i hnen v gl.

S .54 f f.

u nd p assim )

J .

D ev isse,

D eutsche S taatsbibl. B ibl.

N at.

H incmar e t

l a

z eigen e ine V erä nderung:

2 53

l at.

1 2445 f o l.

l o i,

1 962,

i n b eiden

R eimser C odices v erbessert. S chrift,

l audabilis n achträglich z u

H inkmar s elbst z itiert n un

i nlaudab ilis

i n e iner s pgteren

i n D e p resbyteris c rim inosis v on 8 76/77,

r edigierte F orm P hillipps

i st

i nlaudabilis

1 769 f o l.3 v ) .

p räpariert?

( Ber lin,

d ie

D eutsche S taatsbib l.

W er h at d en C odex T heodosianus

W ar e s H inkmar v on R eims?

2 54

1 3

Z U D EN B EZIEHUNGEN Z WISCHEN H INKMAR V ON R EIMS U ND H RABANUS M AURUS R aymund K ottje

M it

Hinkmar von

( 78o-856)

R eims

haben

r agendsten

f ast

( ca.8o6-882) e in Jahrzehnt

G estalten

des

K arls

a ls

d es

Erzbischof

Kahlen,

Mainz

S ie

gehörten n icht

von

nur

i hre

hohen

u nd

geistigen Lebens

war

zwar

S .Denis ( 822) d es

s ie

i n

g eworden,

h aben,

i n

nach

uns

v ität bezeugt,

und

k eine

die B ühne

noch

aus von des

d em Kahlen verdankte.

seit merowingischer

d es

hl.

i n den Jahren z en gelernt

s ehr Karl s eines

Deutschen.

S tellung

a ls

Me-

Bistümer, zu

politischen

erhielten.

gewe-

Hinkmar

etwa

d em

i n

1 6.Lebensjahr

im Dienste Kaiser Ludwigs des

Kahlen

gelebt.

im Hintergrund gewirkt keine

ihm verfaßte

Er

z u

größere Akti-

S chrift bekannt.

k irchlichen und politischen Lez um Erzbischof,

Z eit

l äßt

die

er Karl

d ie Übertragung

im Frankenreich

a ls

die-

S itz

angesehenen Bischofsstuhles

der Kahle

H inkmars

" stillen Dienstes"

Fähigkeiten

offenbar

s chät-

hatte.

H rabanus Maurus h ingegen war k annter Mann

des

i hr Lebensweg

j enen Jahren

R emigius besonders wie

s eit

Immerhin

s es

Reich

S chüler und dann Mönch

8 4o König Karls

d och

H inkmar

a ls Erzbischof

k irchlichen,

a llerdings

erst mit d er Erhebung

e rkennen,

d es

9 .

Zeit.

aber

am Hofe

dieser Z eit

i st

E r betrat

hatte

im

g eistigen Qualitäten

j ugendlichem Alter

Frommen,

i hrer

i hren Bischofsstuhl

vorwiegend

s cheint

b ens

i hrer

unterschiedlich war bevor

8 47-856

traditionsgeprägter

einflußreichsten Männern

s en,

der heraus-

g ewirkt:

R eich Ludwigs

d en

R echt

zwei

im westfränkischen

Maurus

auf Grund

und Vorsteher

a uch durch

B ischöfe

R eims

im o stfränkischen

t ropoliten s ondern

a ls

Hrabanus

v on

l ang

f ränkischen Episkopats

J ahrhundert g leichzeitig 8 45-882

und Hrabanus Maurus

a ls

e in bereits weithin

zum Mainzer Erzbischof

2 55

erhoben worden.

beEr

war

ebenfalls

bereits

im Kindesalter K losterschüler und

s päter Mönch g eworden,und Bonifatius. Alkuins

Eine

verbracht,

s anctae

i n

Z eitlang hatte war

s chon

vielbeachtetes Werk über de

zwar

c rucis)

e r

a ls

i n Tours

d es

der

h l.

( 818-822)

aufgestiegen.

S owohl

und weiterhin

z ugleich

s eine

außerordentlich

mentare s ich

z u

f ast

s ein Wirken

a ls

Lehrer

s ämtlichen

Büchern

- z .B.

S trabo von der Kaiser,

Lupus

Reichenau,

Könige,

besonders

f anden

B ischöfe

nen Rat.

I n den

d es

durchzogen,

Klosters

Abt

( 822-842)

vor

a llem K om-

d er B ibel, e rworben.

s ich Mönche

durch

hatte Von

a ls

gehörte

S chüler

Walahfrid

Otfrid von Weissenburg/Elsaß und Äbte

baten

i hn um

der Herrschaft Ludwigs ebenso wie nach

,

Schriften,

um S tellungnah-

kirchlichen Lebens wie

er

er

v ielen

auch u m s ei-

politischen Auseinandersetzungen,

l etzte Jahrzehnt

lau-

bekannt

i n Fulda wie

von Fern eres,

( De

a ls Leiter d er

a ls

Erklärungen biblischer Texte,

z u Problemen

des

Schüler

Kreuzes

d ieses

z ahlreichen Werke,

auch von weither,

i n Fulda e in

das

zum Abt

im Frankenreich hohes Ansehen

Orten,

men

durch

a ls

Klostermauern

geworden u nd nach e iner kurzen Tätigkeit Fuldaer Klosterschule

der Gründung

j unger Mann durch e in

das Lob

außerhalb

Fulda,

d ie

des

Frommen

d em Tode

Ludwigs

z u d en entschiedenen Verfechtern der R eichseinheit u nd dankte wahrscheinlich d eshalb nach d er Niederlage L othars gegen

s eine

( 842).

Brüder Ludwig

Aber

i hm Ludwig i ndem er

d er D eutsche

i hn

z um Bischof

Hrabans.

von

Fulda

die

ab

erwies

höchste ä ußere Anerkennung,

des

räumlich größten

und

kirchlich bedeutendsten ostfränkischen

berief.

Unterschiedlich wie s en und

a ls Abt

s chon nach wenigen Jahren der Muße

politisch wie Bistums

und Karl

i hr Lebensweg waren

- i n manchen Punkten Von

Begabung und

s einer Wesensart

ausgeprägtem R echts-

I nteres-

- d ie Meinungen Hinkmars

s einem Lebensgang,

a llem politischer Kopf.

a uch die

Er war

vielleicht

a uch

her war Hinkmar obendrein

2 56

ein v or

e in Mann mit

und Autoritätsbewußtsein.

h ingegen war vor a llem Lehrer,

s einer

Hraban

auch i n den meisten

und

s einer s ter

S chriften,

Zeit

besaß

deutlicher

a llerdings

erkannte

k eiten

z ur Organisation,

s eines

umfangreichen

a ufgaben

a ls Abt von

Mainz

nachzukommen.

h aben

beide

d ie

e s

und

I nfolge

a uch

zu e inem brieflichen

mit der PraedestinationsG ottschalk H inkmars,

s owie mit Ebo,

n ach

dann

d er Rechte

- c a.844)

d er

des Mönches

a ls

Erz-

gespendeten K leriker-

Erhebung

der C horbischöfe

f ührten:

der vom Vorgänger

z um B ischof

h ierarchischen

i n wesentlichen Punkten

g leich-

a ngingen u nd

s einer Wiedereinsetzung

Längst v or H inkmars

von

z wei Angelegen-

s ie beide

d er Gültigkeit

( 84o

z u der Frage

nur mit

i hres

u nd Trinitätslehre

weihen. H raban

R eims

Erzbischof

Kontakt miteinander

von

trotz

s einen Leitungs-

a ls

Z eitraums

d ie

b ischof

j üng -

i hres Altersunterschieds

s ich während d es

befassen brauchen,

i n

i hm ermöglichten,

g eistigen Wirkens Fulda

- e rst

- bemerkenswerte Fähig-

z eitigen bischöflichen Wirkens h eiten

auch

hatte

S tellung und

e ine Meinung g eäußert,

im G egensatz

z u H inkmars

die

s päter

i n heftigen Auseinandersetzungen vertretenen Auffassung en

stand,

d iesem aber

a nscheinend n icht

bekannt

g ewesen

i st. E s war

offenbar

z u Hraban

g esucht hat,

d em Vorsitz s einer a us

H inkmar,

Hrabans

Orbais,

er

hänger

i n d em

nun

s ollte,

hatte,

erbat

eine

Quierzy i n

ausgewiesen

da das

l ag.

z umal

d ieser wohl z ugunsten Hrabans

Hinkmar Hrabans

von Karl d em Kahlen

dem i n

u nd H inkmar von

Heimatkloster Gott-

Hinkmar wandte

d ie Hinkmar

Gottschalk

verurteilt,

z ur Kirchenprovinz

Wir k ennen d ie Antwort

Erneut 8 49

R eich

a nscheinend n och unsicher war,

behandeln

u nter

d en Mönch Gottschalk wegen

ausgeliefert hatte,

g en Bistum Soissons

t en.

z u Mainz

unorthodoxen P raedestinationslehre

s chalks,

weil

nachdem ein Konzil

8 48

dem o stfränkischen

R eims

der d ie Verbindung

Rat,

s ich wie

e inige

2 57

a n Hraban,

er Gottschalk r ührige An-

l eider nicht.

nachdem

e inberufene

R eims

gehöri-

Gottschalks bedräng-

e benfalls verurteilt

d er Diözese

Reims

im Frühjahr Synode

z u

hatte und d ieser

gelegenen Kloster

Hautvilliers

d ie

Auch h ier blieb i hn t e

i hm auferlegte Haft v erbringen mußte. Gottschalk unbeugsam.

l öste überdies

im Westfrankenreich e ine

D iskussion der Fragen

s tellt waren. e iner

aus,

I nsbesondere

d ie

g ing

S eligkeit,

Als

er

s chon

und

i n d ieser

e s

H inkmar

d er Verworfenen

a n Hrabans

z ur

D iskussionsstand vor Augen

z u

g elegen.

f ühren,

s einem Brief

j üngster

Gottschalk

Z eit:

vorgelegte d ie

f iliis

das

von

G laubensbekenntnis,

" einfachen Gläubigen s implicibus

t ümer Gottschalks

huius s owie

S eite Gottschalks. Ostern Male

8 5o)

nur kurz,

a ber urteilte

s chalk

s einem

Kommunion

s tützte

Quierzy

er

von Verona D ie

auf

Schrift

s edis")

über die

I rr-

von

Troyes

Corbie - beide

auf

d er

a ntwortete

z unächst

e ntschieden: abschwört,

( vor

S olange

darf

auch n icht

a llem auf Bibel

e r

a ls

zur

und Kirchenväter,

z u beweisen.

die

a uch von

D er Mainzer

S tellungnahmen bei,

Gottschalk

verbreitete,

Gott-

nicht

um dem Konzil

zwei

beide

i n Todesgefahr.

d ieselben Autoritäten,

z uvor,

s eine Lehre

( " dilectis

von

s einer Antwort

i n Oberitalien

f ür Bischof Noting

u nd Markgraf Eberhard von Friaul verfaßt i n

i hnen

z usammengestellten Argumente

kirchlichen Tradition Urteil

s eine Hinkmars-

Prudentius

R echtgläubigkeit

Z eit

S ynode

aus

Quierzy

s ich bemüht hatte,

f ügte

e inige

predigend

hatte.

f ür

s eine

Erzbischof

s ehr

s ich vor a lso

Dokumente

d ieser Auseinandersetzung

z ugelassen werden,

s ich

Gottschalk

er

e inige

d er

nach Ostern ausführlicher,

I rrtum n icht

Hraban berief

die

Hraban

ü bersandte

d er

B ischofs

Rathramnus

war

z u

s anctae

g ewidmeten Schriften des und des Mönchs

erkrankte

Um Hraban d en

s einer D iözese"

d ie

z ur

ewigen Verdammnis.

e rnsthaft

R eimser Erzbischof mit

v on

d er Guten

d ie Kommunion v erlangte,

S tellungnahme

l ebhaf -

um s eine Lehre

nach knapp einem Jahr S ituation

r echt

durch Gottschalk g e-

d oppelten Praedestination Gottes:

ewigen

a n

Das Vorgehen g egen

s ollten

z usätzliche Beweiskraft

Welchen Einfluß

Hrabans

dernde Äußerungen

s einem j etzt

der

a bgegebenen

verleihen.

unmißverständliche,

auf Hinkmar gehabt haben,

2 58

a us

Härte

f or-

wissen wir

n icht.

Nachgegeben hat d er Erzbischof von R eims

l angen

Gottschalks

r ende

Geister

u nd

Rathramnus,

die beiden

f ür

über d en Tod Hrabans

B eginn

der

5 oer Jahre R eiches

b efaßt

i st.

G ottschalk verteidigte die Hinkmar n icht

sah

darin

s tändliche, v eranlaßte

i hn,

t en kirchlichen s onen

i n

weiter a lten

8 53

l egenheit

e ine

nend ganz

auf

ganz

Hinkmar

Hinkmar

unberührt

e inen

von

l ieß,

d ie

d en

d ie

l öste

er

deswegen und hatte

8 35

a ls

d ie

d en überlieferi n drei

Streit

P er-

danach

zu

S ynode

umstrittene Formel

auch

i n

e inem i n

i n d ieser Ange-

a ber ebenfalls

des westfränkischen

a nschei-

R eiches

begrenz-

aus. l ieß

hingegen Hraban

Ebo war

verschärfte

Ludwig

8 33/34 den

Erzbischof von

f olgenden Jahre

Gefangener verbringen müssen, Abt Hraban.

S ie

" trina d eitas"

die Gültigkeit der Klerikerweihen,

gegen

Die-

n eue u nd mißver-

i hm e inberufene

Formel

e ntfachte - zumindest

hatte.

e rfahren.

a ber gleichzeitig

l angdauernde,

der Opposition

z u

gewesen

r echtgläubig h ielt. Auch

s uchte

Da er

ä nderte,

T eile

Ebo g espendet

deitas"

Gott

te Auseinandersetzung Nicht

von

unnötige

den

s eit

S treit über d ie

G lauben

a n

Die

d er Angelegenheit

auf

l iturgischen Text

s chon

häretische Formulierung.

v erbieten

d eitas"

j edoch

e rneut nachdrücklich

zu gebrauchen.

" sancta

d er

d er

ganz

dem e r durch die

z u S oissons

Prudentius

l ange h ingezogen,

" trina

e ine

Abt Lupus

e intraten.

er Hrabans Meinung

s chon

hinzuweisen.

beenden,

f ür

z .B.

f üh-

a ndere Theologen des

s cheint

j edoch nur

nicht

hinaus,

Formel

z u d ieser Frage wollte s er

s ich noch

n icht mehr mit

Von geringerer B edeutung

s ein,

Reiches,

s elbst

s chon Genannten,

ebenso wie

o stfränkischen gewesen

obwohl

d en g efangenen Mönch

A useinandersetzungen haben weit

nicht,

d es westfränkischen

v on Fern eres w ie

j edenfalls

d em Ver-

die

- S treit über

s ein Vorgänger

eines

Frommen R eims

d er unter

d er Häupter

g ewesen,

war

abgesetzt worden

an verschiedenen Orten z unächst

i n

a ls

Fulda unter

Das Vorgehen g egen Ebo weckte nicht nur

Leidenschaften,

s ondern

a uch 2 59

theologische

und kirchen-

r echtliche Fragen.

Umstritten war nicht

durch

s chuldig

s ein Handeln

offensichtlich I nhaftierung Freunde

umstritten,

g eworden war; ob

r echtmäßig war.

u nd Anhänger

s uchte

wieder

Vor

s etzung wurde

b zw.

durch

Ebo nach d em Tode Kaiser Lothars ( b. Mainz)

i n

e in weiteres

i st

e rteilt,

a ber

der von

kam zwar bald

- e ndgültig

Hildesheim erhielt, n end unangefochten Kleriker

f ür

s eines

in

f rüheres Amt

Auseinander-

8 4o

a ls

auf

Betreiben

z u

Ingelheim

S ynode

s einer Amtsaufgaben

Sprengels

s eine

s ondern

Von

k lerikale

d en Gegnern Ebos

R estitution a uch die

in

s ein

Gültigkeit

aus

d er Schußlinie,

das

B istum R eims

Ämtern

z u e ntfernen

Synode

I n d ieser S ituation d es

zu

erleben,

z u

das

s einem Tode

daß

dung Hinkmars

c henprovinz

8 51

i hm geweihten

und d aß 8 53

er

aus

s ie

durch Be-

ihren

kirchlichen

s ich wieder

c ausa Ebonis,

e s

n icht e inige

K leriker,

H inkmar,

der Auto-

die

R eims

z u

äußern.

Hraban

i n den Anfängen

Entscheiveranlaß-

in d er Kir-

Vielleicht dachte man

d em Ausgangspunkt d es

durch den bei

und bat

sondern

d er von d er

z u einer Auseinandersetzung

er mit

a nschei-

s ein Nachfolger H inkmar

erinnerte man

betroffenen

von

B istum

s uchte.

vielleicht

s ich erneut

er -

verzichten

Papstes

Die von

S oissons

D iesmal war

" einige Brüder",

daß

er bis

da

o stfränkischen Erzbischofs von Mainz

i hn um Hilfe.

s chon

wo

ungültig hielt

e iner

daran,

e in

r estituiert worden war.

g ewirkt hat.

s chluß

Ebo

auf

a ber mußten

i hre Weihen

ten,

e iner

u nd nun mit Unterstützung des

r ität

ob

i hm g espendeten Klerikerweihen bestritten worden.

8 44

mußte

D ie

Frommen

a ls Teil

nur

s ein

d eshalb

Problem belastet,

zum Presbyter.

B istum bekämpft,

s elbst

wohl

z .B.

daraufhin n icht

f rüheres

Ebo

er

auch wieder Klerikern

Weihen

d es

B istum R eims

S elbstverständlich hat nun

z u d er Frage,

dürfe.

durch Beschluß

s ein

seiner

und verbreitete man

behalten

Ludwigs

o b er

viel mehr war

a llem s eitens

S chuld gefallener Geistlicher e rhalten

s ehr,

s eine Amtsenthebung u nd

Texte d er k irchlichen Tradition s chwere

so

i hm i n Fulda

Streites,

d er

i nhaftierten

unmittelbar konfrontiert worden

2 60

war.

Eine

Zusammenstellung

d ie wahrscheinlich noch i st,

bezeugt

s ion

und

von Texten

z ur

Z eit Hrabans

s eine Anteilnahme

l äßt

e rkennen,

a n

hatte.

S o

t en

Reimser Kleriker Grund

f ür

sie bei

grundsätzlichen

die von Ebo geweih-

Hinkmar verwenden werde.

H inkmar g eschrieben,

offenbar

K leriker.

den

Ob Hinkmar

i hn Hrabans

damaligen D iskus-

z u hoffen,

Synode

i n Fulda erfolgt

Bedenken gegen d ie Wie-

hatten

Hraban bald nach der

n icht.

der

daß . er keine

r echtlichen oder theologischen d ereinsetzung Ebos

z u d ieser Frage,

z u

daß

S oissons

e inen Brief

an

z u Gunsten d er betroffenen

Brief beantwortet hat

D ie Auseinandersetzung war 8 56

s ich

Tatsächlich hat

Argumente beeindruckt haben,

b eim Tode Hrabans

Hraban

oder

ob

wissen wir

i n der R eimser Kirche

ebensowenig beendet wie

die Ange-

l egenheit Gottschalks. D aß

Hrabans

e indruckt

Einsatz

hat,

f ür die

d arf man wohl

s cheinlich halten. Hrabans

n er Diözese

die durch

s itzende s chalk

s ich

z uvor

Rat und Urteil Gottschalk

d ersetzungen begonnen er habe

zumindest

Einige Jahre

s einerseits

k en,

R eimser Kleriker Hinkmar

hatten.

an Hraban

d er Mainzer

Synode

z uerst verurteilt

n icht

a ls

weil

gewesen war, Aber

er d ie

F ormel

dürfte

" trina d eitas".

Es

a lso vor

gewesen

s ein,

s einen

bewogen

hat.

a uch

durch

a n

i hn

die F eststellung

ü brigen k ein

Z eugnis

nämlich um Rat B ischof g ibt.

f ür

t end

gemacht werden,

f rüh

drei Bände mit Werken

Erklärungen K orinther

daß

nicht mit

a llem s eine z u

daß

ä hnliche Bitte a n

e inen

e s

im

H inkmars, anderen

i n diesem Zusammenhang gel-

zur Bibliothek Hinkmars Hrabans,und

der Königsbücher,

( 1. u.2.),

nur

Diese Annahme wird

u nd Meinungsäußerung, Außerdem kann

Gott-

s ich

die Hinkmar

unterstützt,

e ine

8 48

unorthodox verdächtigten

Wertschätzung Hrabans Briefen

den-

der Vor-

s ie hatte

mit Gottschalks Praedestinationslehre befaßt, a ls

s ei-

kann man daran

gewandt,

d er von H inkmar e benfalls

i n

j a

ausgelösten Auseinan-

Gewiß

hatte.

f ür unwahr-

hatte Hinkmar

erbeten,

be-

z war mit

s einen

der Paulus -Briefe

a n die

Galater und Epheser

2 61

s chon

s owie des

2 .

bis

5 .Buches

d es

Pentateuch

Bearbeitung Walahfrid wertesten

i st

unter

der Königsbücher. Adam s chon vor weise darauf, Glossen von So machen

a lso

wie

s ehr

auch

Am bemerkens Erklärung

e inem R eimser Kanoniker

i hn

g elesen hat

Hinkmars

und B enutzung

e nthält H inund daß

er den

a n Hraban d er Werke

ä lteren

e inige

zwischen

Hrabans a n-

s chätzte.

d en beiden werfen

i nteressantes Licht a uf

und k irchlichen Verhältnisse

zusammen

und weithin

im o stfränkischen Mainz

Kontakte

e in wohl

gehört haben.

in d er

s tammen.

Briefe

Besitz

Deut)

der Band mit Hrabans von

H inkmar

d ie

Die brieflichen

Num u .

g eschrie ben worden und

gesehenen Amtsbruder

überdies

i st

s einer Hand

mit H inkmars deutlich,

daß

Lev,

S trabos

i hnen

Es

8 53

( Cx,

d ie geistigen

im Frankenreich nach d em

Vertrag von Verdun. H istorisches S eminar d er R heinischen F riedrichW ilhelms-Universität, B ONN

g UELLEN U ND L ITERATUR

1 )

Hincmari 3 9

und

VIII 2 )

archiepiscopi

Remensis

epistolae Nr.21,22,

8 1 ( MGH E pp.

1 ,

1 939,

S .7

f .,

2 4

u .

Hrabani Mauri epistolae Nr.

4 o) 2 2

u .

( Monumenta Germaniae H istorica, S . 3 )

4 28

u .

R eims,

5 )

Cambridge,

6 )

Franz

7 )

Brunhölzl,

Jean Devisse, . ,

I ,

1 899,

Geneve

i n:

ad Heribaldum c .34 Sp.

4 94

A-C)

u .13o Ms.3o8

l ateinischen Litera-

München

1 975

ed.

John ' McCulloh

Cont. Mediaevalis

( Cor-

XLIV),

Turnhout

R eims

8 45-882,

Hrabanus Maurus

Hincmar,

Raymund Kottje,

D ers.,

Epistolae V ,

Geschichte der

p . XI-XXIV:

niae"?,

Archeveque

de

1 975-1976 Hrabanus Maurus

D eutsches Archiv

- " Praeceptor Germa-

3 1

( 1975)

Die Bußbücher Halitgars von

Hrabanus Maurus.

11)

1 29

P embroke College,

Christianorum,

3 vol

l o)

Mss.

d es Mittelalters

1 979,

9 )

Bibl. Munic.,

h o,

Rabani Mauri Martyrologium, pus

8 )

Paenitentiale

Patrologia Latina

4 )

tur

- 4 5

4 81 - 5 00)

Hrabanus Maurus, ( Migne,

4 2

Ihre

Überlieferung

S .534-545

Cambrai und des und

i hre Quellen

( Beiträge

z ur Geschichte und Quellenkunde des Mit-

telalters

8 )

Klaus

B erlin-New York

Vielhaber,

s torische

1 98o

Gottschalk der

Forschungen

5 ),

2 63

Bonn

Sachse

1 956

( Bonner Hi-

1 4 . AV ISUAL E P ITOME OF THE EUCHAR IST IC ' ORDO ' FROM THE ERA OF CHARLES THE BALD : THE I VORY MASS COVER OF THE p ROGO SACRAMENTARY Roge r E . R eyno ld s I n memo ry o fa no the r C ha r le s* T he c orona t ion o f C ha r le s t he B a ld i n Me tz , 9S eptembe r 8 69 , h a s o f ten b een s e en a s t he f i na l e p i sode i nt he r i se o ft he c i ty o f S t A rnu lf t o t he p innac le o fl i turg ica l p rac t ice a nd s cho lar sh ip i n t he C a ro l ing ian r ea lm . '

A lmo s t f rom t he m idd le o f t he e i gh th c en tu ry a nd

t he a scens ion o f P ipp in t he S hor t , t he n ame o f Metz h ad b een s ynonymou s w i th t he b es t i n t he p rac t ice o f an ew l i turg ica l r i te t ha t h ad g r adua l ly b een p ene tra t ing t he F rank i sh r ea lm . F o r s o me t ime p r ior t o P ipp in ' s r e ign , e l emen t s o f ar i te c e leb ra ted i nt he a nc ien t i mper ia l c i ty o f Rome h ad b een f i l te r ing a cro s s t he A lps .2 T hese e l emen t s h ad s l ow ly b een c omb ined w i th t he i nd igenous Ga l l ican r i te t o f o rm ah yb r id , n e i ther p u re ly G a ll i can n o r R oman . W i th t he M es s ine b i shop Ch rodegang a nd h i s p a tron P ipp in t he re b egan i n e arne s t as y s te m a t ic Roman iza t ion o f t he G al ican l i turgy .

C hrodegang h imse l f p erhaps v i s i ted Rome where

h e s aw a t f i r s t h and t he R oman r i te , a nd when P ope S tephen I s o journed i n F rank i sh t e r r i t o r ie s f rom 7 53 -55 i t w a s C hrodegang who w a s h i s c ompan ion .3

Mo reove r , i t w a s u nde r

C h rodegang a nd h i s s ucces sor Ang i l ramnu s t ha t as t a t iona ll i turgy s o me th ing l i ke t he o ne u s ed i n Rome w a s f u l ly d eve loped f o r t he c hu rches o f Me tz , 4 A nd f i na l ly , f rom l a te r w r i ter s w e h ave i tt ha t i t w a s C h rodegang who i n t roduced Roman c hant ' a nd c u s tom s a nd a Roman o rdo o f l i turg ica l c e leb ra t ion i n to t he c hu rch o f Me tz .5 S o r enowned d id t he c u ltua l i n t he c i ty b ecome i n t he e i gh th a nd n in th c entur ie s

u sage

t h a t c l er ics w e re s en t t he re f r om a s f a r

a way a s E ng land t o l ea rn t he R oman l i turgy ,6 a nd Me tz w a s d i s t ingu i shed a s h av ing p rov ided l i tu rg ica l p rac t i t ione r s f or c i t ie s t he l i ke s o f L yons , wh ich t hemse lve s h ad l ong t r ad i t ion s o f l i tu rg ica l e xce l lence .

7

S ymbol i c o f t he p o s i t ion a nd p re s t ige a t ta ined b y Me tz a s al i turg ica l

c en tre d ur ing t he C aro l ing ian p er iod w a s t he p resence o f Ama la r iu s , t he c rea t ive l i turg ica l g en iu s who se i n te rpreta t ion so ft he l i tu rgy r ema ined t he n o rm f o rl i turg ica l e xpo s i t ion t h roughout t he M idd le A ge s a nd t he t ouch s tone t o wh ich l a te r l i tu rg io log i s t s r e tu rned t ime a nd t ime a ga in . 8 E xcelence i n l i turg ica l p rac t ice a nd s cho la r sh ip i n a ny C a ro l ing ian c en tre wa s d ependen t o n l i turg ica l b ook s , a nd M e tz u ndoubted ly h ad a n a bundance o f t hese , s o me made i n Metz i t s e lf , o ther s i mpor ted . A f ew o f t hese s t i l l s u rv ive a nd a r e c ounted among t he mo s t p re c i ous t r easure s o f l i brar ie s t h roughou t E u rope .

T her e i sf o r e xamp le , f rom t he l a te e i ghth

c en tu ry t he w e l l -known Me tz Mar tyro log ium , M s . B ern , B u rge rb ib l io thek 2 89 , w i th i t s f r ag* Th i s p ape r i s d ed ica ted t o C har les McCur ry ( f1980 ) , t a len ted a nd g rac ious y oung membe r o f t he I n s t i tu te o f Med ieva l C anon L aw ( Be rke ley , C a l ifo rn ia ) a nd r e search s pec ia l i s t o n M e tz .

2 65

men t o f t he O rdo Romanus P r imu & .9 S l igh t ly l a ter a r e t he Me tz P a s s iona l, MS Mon tpe l l ier , B ib l . Un ive r s i ta i r e ( Med . ) 5 5 , w r i tten p robab ly i n Me tz i n t he b eg inn ing o ft he n inth c en tury .1 0 a nd t he a lmo s t c on tempo rary Gospe l b ook , P a r i s , BN L a t . 2 68 , w i th i t s ` c ap i tu la ' a nd f amous l i s t o f M es s ine s t a t iona l c hurche s !1

Two o ther Me s s ine Go spe l b ook s a r e d a ted s l igh t ly l a ter ,

a nd f orm p ar t o f t he s o -ca l led D rogo g roup o f manu scr ipt s . P ar i s , BN L a t . 9 383 9 388 ,

1 3

1 2

a nd

T hen t here a r e t he i lus tra ted c omput i s t ic manua l , Mad r id , B ibl ioteca N ac iona l

3 307 , ac opy o f a mode l made a t t he c our t o fC ha r lemagne ,1 4 Me tz , B ib l . mun , 3 51, w i th i t s b i l ingua l l aude s r eg iae . 15

a nd t he i lus tr ious Me tz T onar ,

a nd O rd ina l o f C hr i s t .1 6

A f te r t he

m idd le o f t he n in th c entury Me tz w a s t he r e c ip ien t o f s o me o f t he mo s t l a v i sh ly i lu s t ra ted C a ro l ing ian l i turg ica l b ook s s t i l l i n e x i s tence .

I t i st hough t t ha t t he B ib le o f C oun t V iv ian ,

P a r i s , BN L a t . 1 ,w a s p e rhap s g i ven b y C ha r les t he B a ld t o M et z o n h i s c o rona t ion 1 7 a nd t ha t t he L iuthard P sa l ter , P a r i s , BN L a t . 152 , l i kew i se w a s s en t t he re i nc e lebra t ion o ft ha t e ven t .1 8 T h ere i s , moreov er , t he d azz l ing S acramen ta ry o f Me tz , P a r i s , BN L a t . 14 1 , w r it ten i nt he s e c ond h a lf o f t he n in th c entu ry p e rhaps i n C o rb ie , b u t k ept i n t he c a thedra l t r ea sury a t Metz u n t i lt he e i gh teen th c en tu r y .

1 9

A r t h i s tor ians h ave l ong b een f am i l ia r w i th s o me o f t he i v ory c over s made t o e nfo ld t hese l i turg ica l g em s , a nd t hey h ave c a refu l ly t r aced t he e normou s i n f luence o f t wo n inth cen tury s choo ls o f Me ss ine i vo ry c ar ver s . j ec t s ,2 °

T oge ther w i th a n umber o f i v ory p iece s f or l i tu rg ica l o b -

t he s ur v iv ing b ook c ove r s o ft he Me tz s choo l s n ow g race t he c olec t ion o f many aE uro -

p ean l i b rary a nd mu seum r ang ing a l l t he w ay f rom f amou s p i ece s i n P ar i s a nd B er l in t o l e s ser k nown i t em s i n F rankfur t , Wu rzburg a nd C obu rg C a s t le .2 1 Wh i le a l t hese C a rol ine manuscr ip t s a nd i vor ies o nce c onnec ted w i th Me tz r e ta in t he i r s pe c i a l p lace f o rh i s tor ians o f a r t a nd l i tu rgy , n one i s mo re p rec ious t han aMas s b ook made d ur ing t he t ime o f C ha r les t he B a ld .

T he S ac ramen tary , n ow P ar i s , BN L a t . 9 428 , w as w r i t ten a nd

d eco ra ted s o met ime a f ter 8 44 f or a r e la t ive o f C ha r les a nd a n i l eg i t imate s on o f Cha r lemagne , B i shop o f D rogo o f Me tz . 22

N o t o n ly d oes i tc on ta in a magn i f icen t ly i lum ina ted t ex t , b u t i t

i se nca sed i n ap a i r o ft he mo s t r emarkab le i v ory c ove r s made i n t he M idd le A ges . The l i tu rg ica l t ex t o f t he S ac ramen tary s eems t o h ave b een c omp i led s pec if ica l ly f o r b i shop D rogo , who wou ld h ave u sed i t o n t he mos t s o lemn o cca s ion s i n Me tz .

S equence s o f Mas s

p raye r s f or o n ly t he mo s t i mpor tan t f ea s ts a re c onta ined i n t he S acramen tary , b u t u nde r ly ing t he t ext s a s a who le i st he mos t w ide ly d i s tr ibuted o f t he F rank if ied Roman Ma s s b ook s , t he s o ca l led G regor ian o f An iane .

T h i s w a s as ac ramen ta ry b a sed o n t he a nc ient Roman G regor i -

a n s acramen tary s en t b y P ope H adr ian It o Char lemagne t ha t h ad b een q u ick ly F rank i f ied b y t he a dd i t ion o fG al ican , V i s igoth ic , a nd o the r Roman t ext s b y B ened ic t o f An iane . 2 3 Th roughou t t he t ex t s o f t he D rogo S acramentary t here a re i lum ina t ion si lus trat ing t he e vent s c om memora ted o n s e lec ted f ea s ts a nd c on tempo ra ry n in th cen tury l i tu rg ica l c e leb ra t ion s o f

2 66

P l . 4 :

I vory b ack c over o f t he Drogo S acramen tary Par is , B ibl . Na t . l a t . 9 428 :

a c tua l s ize 1 93 x 1 52 m m .

t he se e ven t s .

T hu s , n o t o n ly e p i sode s i n t he l i v es o f C h r i s t a nd t he s a in t s a r e d ep ic ted , b u t a l -

s o s cene s o ft he M a s s , b apt i sm , a nd o ther l i turg ica l r i tes . 24 T he t wo i v ory c ove r s f or t he S acramentary a r e , a s i tw ere , ap i c to r ia l d i rec t ive a s t o h ow t he r i te s w r i t ten a nd i lum ina ted w i th in t he b ook i t se lf w e re t o b e p er formed .

T he f ron t c over p o r -

t r ays i n as e r ies o f s i x s ma l l p ane l s s o me o f t he n on -euchar i s t ic c e remon ies b i shop D rogo wou ld h ave b een c a l led u pon t o p e r form , i n c lud ing b ap t i sm , o rd ina t ion a nd t he d ed icat ion o fc hurches . T he t hree r ema in ing p ane l s o f t h i s c ove r d ep ict ing i n i t ia t ion r i tes s howeven t s f rom C h r i s t 's l i fe . S ome t ime s i nc e t he n in th c en tury , p erhap s d ur ing t he r eb ind ing o r r epa ir o f t he c over , t h e s e p ane l s w e re j u mb led among t he s acramen ta l s c ene s a nd t oday r ema in s queezed t oge ther i n t he u ppe r r i gh t h and c orne r o f t he c over .

A n umber o f s cho lar s h ave a t temp ted t o i n terpre t t he i n i t ia t ion

s c ene s o f t h i s c over i n t e rm s o f t he s cene s f r om C hr i s t ' s l i f e -t ha t i s , t hey h ave a t tempted t o r ea r rang e t he s cene s i n t he i r o r ig ina l o rder .2 5

N o t a l l o ft he se a t temp ts h ave b een e qua l ly s ucce s s -

f u l a nd f ur the r e xam ina t ion i sn ece ssary , b u t f or o ur p urpos e s t he i n terpre ta t ion o ft he i n i t iat ion o r f r on t c over c an b e l e f t t o o ne s i de , a nd w e c an c oncen tra te o n t he b ack o r Mas s c over o f t he D rogo S acramen tary .

I n i tt here i sn o t o n ly o ne o f t he mos t s t r ik ing v i sua l e p i tome s o ft he e a r ly

med ieva l Ma s s , b ut a l so o ne o f t he mo s t d rama t ic p or traya l s o f t he Roman e ucha r i s t i c o rdo a s i tw a s u sed a tt he t ime o fC ha r le s t he B a ld .

l a ) I n t he u ppe r l e f t -hand p ane l w es ee i nt he c ent re ac i bor ium o r a l ta r c anopy who se c o lu mns a re e nw rapped w i th v e i l s a nd f r om wh ich h ang s ac orona o f l i gh t s .

B e low t he c ibor ium i sa n a l ta r

w i th wha t may b e ab ook o n i t , a nd b eh ind t he a l ta r a r e t h r ee f a ce s . T o t he l e f t o ft he c ibor ium h ang wha t h ave b een d e scr ibed a s p hy lac ter ie s w i th r el ic s , 26

b u t wh ich a re a lmo s t c er ta in ly

t he s even l amp s s uch a s B ened ict o f An iane g ave t o h i s mona s te ry t o h ang b efo re t he a l ta r . 27 B e low t he l amps a r e t h ree c and le s b e ing h e ld b y s even t on su red f i gur es d re s sed i n a l b s . I m med i a te ly b efo re u s s i t t h ree f i gur es w i th t he i r b ack s t o u s .

T o t he r i gh t al a rge t onsured b i shop s i t s

o n h i s t hrone u nder a c onch shaped a p se , w ear ing a c ha sub le a nd am ice a round h i s n eck . 27 a T o t he b i shop ' s r ea r s t and t wo t onsured f i gu res w i th l ong s leeved d a lma t ics o r t un ic s .

I n t he

l b ) s econd p ane l o f t he u ppe r r eg i s te r t here a r e s t and ing o n t he l e f t h and e ight t on sur ed , a lbed f i gure s , o ne o f wh ich h o ld s at hur ib le . o u r b i shop .

I n t he c en tr e b ow ing t owa rd a n a l ta r w ith ab ook o n i ti s

T o h i s l e f t a r e t wo t onsu red f i gures a nd t o h i s r i gh t a r e t h ree s ma l l i nd iv idua l s w i th

l ong s leeved d a lma t ic s . I mmed ia te ly t o o ur r i gh t h and a tt he a l ta r a r e t hree s ma l l f i gu re s , o ne w ith l c )

at hur ib le a nd t wo w i th c and le s .

Mov ing t o t he t h i rd p ane l i n t he u ppe r r eg i s te r , w e f i nd o n

t he r i gh t h and a n a l ta r w i th a b ook o n i ta nd a c o rona o f l i gh t s a bove . af i gure d re s sed i n ac ha sub le a nd am ice s t and ing t o h i s r i gh t h and .

Our l a rge b i shop k i sse s

Two f i gures i n l ong s leeved

d a lma t ic s s t and b eh ind t he b i shop , a nd t here i sa no the r i nd iv idua l b eh ind t he a l tar f ac ing h im .

2 68

2 a )

I n t he s e cond r eg i s t er t he r e i si n t he f i r s t p ane l o ur a l ta r w ith c orona a bove i t . B eh ind t he

a l tar o n o ur r i gh t h and a r e s e ve ra l d amaged f i gur e s , t he n eare s t o ne w ear ing al ong s leeved d a lma t i c o r p e rhaps a man ip le . I n t he c ent re t he l a rge b i shop b ow s t o k i s s ab ook h e ld b y ac l er ic w i th d a lma t ic . 2 b )

B eh ind t he b i shop s e ven o r p e rhaps e i gh t f i gure s s t and , t he o ne i nt he f oreg round w i th

d a l rna t ic .

I n t he c en tr e p ane l w e s e e i nt he u ppe r l e f t -hand c orne r wha t i si n a l l i ke l ihood a

v e i led c ibor ium a bove a n a l ta r .

S ur round ing t he a l ta r a re s even s ma l l t on sured f i gur e s .

I mmed i -

a t e ly i n f ron t o f t hem a r e s even f i gur e s , f ou r o f wh ich i n t he f o reg round w ea r d a lma t ic s . On t he r i gh t h and a b i shop w i th f o lded h and s f a ces h i s c a thedra u nde r ac onch shaped a p se . T he t h ird 2 c )

p ane l i n t he s e cond r eg i s ter s how s o ur l a rge b i shop o n t he l e f t h and w i th ac l er ic i n d a lma t ic

t o h i s r i ght .

Two l a rge f i gure s i n t he b ack l ook t oward h im wh i le o ne f a ce s a way . T hree s ma l ler

f i gure s i n t he f or eg round l ook t oward wha t i sp robab ly a n a l ta r o ver w h ich h ang s ac orona , wh i le b eh ind t he c o lumn i so ne f i gu re a nd b eh ind t he a l tar af a ce . 3 a )

Mov ing t o t he l owe s t r eg i s ter w e f i nd i n t he l e f t -hand p ane l t wo s c enes .

T o t he l e f t o ft he

c o lumn d iv id ing t he s cene s o ur b i shop t oge the r w i th ac l er ic i n d a lma t ic r ece ive s s o me th ing f rom av e i led f i gure who s t and s a t ab ar r ie r w i th t h ree o r f our f i gure s b eh ind i t , a no the r h av ing av e i l . I n t he r i gh t -hand s c ene , t he b i shop f a ce s t he a l ta r w i th a r ound l oa f o n i t . T o h i s r i gh ti s ac l er ic 3 b )

i n ac ha sub le , a nd t o h i s r ea r a r e t wo a dd i t iona l c l er ic s .

I n t he l owe s t c en tre p ane l t her e

s t and o n t he l e f t h and e i gh t t onsured f i gures , o ne c ar ry ing a t hur ib le , a nd i mmed ia te ly i n f r on t o f t hem a re f i ve c l e r ic s i n d a lma t ics .

T o t he r i gh t h and a b i shop s tand s b efo re t he a l ta r w i th a

c ha l ice o n i t wh i le a f i gure t o h i s l e f t h o ld s ab ook o pen . B eh ind t he a l ta r a r e t hree f i gure s f ac ing t he b i shop . 3 c )

F ina l ly , i nt he l owe s t r i gh t -hand p ane l t o o ne s i de o f as t ruc ture o f s ome s or t s t and s ab i shop

g i v ing s ome th ing t o ab ow ing c l e r ic i n ac ha sub le . g round a nd f our t o h i s r ea r .

B eh ind t h i s c l er ic i so ne f i gure i n t he b ack -

On t he f a r l e f t -hand s i de a re s i x t on sured f i gures i n a lb s w i th t he i r

mou th s w ide o pen . These p ane ls , wh ich s o o bv ious ly d ep ic t t he c eremony o f t he Mas s , h ave b een r eproduced s i ng ly a nd a s a who le d ozen s o f t ime s i ns t ud ie s b o th a r t -h i s tor ica l a nd l i turg ica l . T o s ur vey s ome o f t he mu l t ip le c on tex t s i n wh ich t he p ane l s h ave b een r eproduced a nd d escr ibed i si nd ica t ive n o t o n ly o f t he p i c tor ia l w ea l th i n t he i nd iv idua l p ane l s , b ut a l so o f t he a s ton i sh ing a r ray o f i n t erpre ta t ion s a s s igned t o e ach d ep ic t ion o ft he Mas s c yc le i nt he p ane l s . S tud ie s d ea l ing w i th l im i ted a spect s o f l i turg ica l a nd a r ch i tectura l h i s tory h ave t r ad i t ionaly u sed t he D rogo Ma s s p ane l s a s i lus t rat ion .

J oseph B raun i n h i s d e scr ip t ion o f a l ta r a ppa ra tus ,

f o r e xa mp le , u sed ar ever s e i mage o f p ane l l a t o i lus tra te a l tar v e i l s .2 8 o f t he Chr i s t ian a l ta r c i ted t he Ma s s c over t o p or tray a t a n a l tar w i th n o r e redo s o r r e l iqua ry o n i t . 29

t he

c e leb ran t

C yr i lP ocknee i n as tudy

t ak ing a n e a s tern p os i t ion

C aro l H e i tz r eproduced t he c omp lete c ove r t o

s how t he Metz a l ta r s u rmounted b y ac ibo r ium a nd t he b i shop 's t hrone a ga in s t t he b a se o f t he a p se w a l l . 3°

And t he p re sen t

a u tho r

h a s

2 69

u sed

t he

c ove r

t o

i lu s tra te t he l i turg ica l

f unc t ion s o ft he v ar ious e cc le s ia s t ica l g rades i nt he e a r ly M idd le A ge s .3 1 Much more i n ter es t ing t han t he se o cca s iona l o r m inor c i ta t ion s o f t he D rogo Ma s s c over h ave b een s t ud ie s t ha t a t tempt t o a s s ign a n i n terpre ta t ion t o e ach p ane l a nd t o r ear range t he p ane l s a cco rd ing t o wha t may h ave b een t he i r o r ig ina l s equence . I n t he n ine teen th c en tury t here w ere a n umber o f d esc r ip t ion s o f t he e n t ire g roup o f p ane ls , b u t t he mo s t c omp le te w a s t ha t o f C ha r les Rohau l t d e F leury ( who w a s f olowed i n mos t d e t a i l s b y F r . X . K raus )

3 2

( 1a ) P repara t ion f o r Ma s s . C e leb ran t h a s c ome f r om s a cr i s ty f o r s e cond v es t ing . On t h rone t he c ha sub le v i s ib le . C ler ic b e h ind c e lebran t a nd o the r s o n b ench . C ur ta in s o fc i bo r ium p u l led . Cho r i s ter s w i th c and les . Vo t ive c rown h ang s f rom c i bo r ium t ol e f t o f wh ich a f e f i ve o r s i x c o ronae .

( lb ) C e leb ran t f olowed b y a co ly tes a nd c l er ic s b ow s t o a l ta r t o r ec i te C onf i teo r . F i r s t c en s ing h a s t aken p l ace .

( lc ) P r ie s t g oes t o a l ta r a nd k i s se s d eacon . Co rona s us p ended b y t h ree c ha in s a nd o rnamen ted w ith h ang ing p rec ious s t ones .

( 2a ) K i s s o fb ook o n a l tar h e ld b y d eacon . B eh ind ac l er ic w i th h ands f o lded . Two o the r s s eem t o p re s en t h o ly b ook s . Mg r . d e Mon tau l t t h ink s t h i s s c ene w ent b e fore ( lc ) .

( 2b ) C e lebr an t w i th f o lded h and s g oes t o t hrone wher e h e r ema ins u n t i l O f f e r to ry . C e leb ran t f o l lowed b y c l er ics .

( 2c ) P r ies t c o mes t o a l ta r where o b la t ions a r e r e ady . C ler ic s a s s i s t h im a nd l i f t c or ne r s o f h i s c ha sub le .

( 3a ) P r ie s t r ece ive s o f fe r ing f r om f a i thfu l . T ake s b read f r om wo man , who k i s se s h i s h and . P r ie s t r e turn s t o a l ta r t o p l ace b read o n i t . A s s i s tan t k i s se s h i s h and .

( 3b ) Mg r . d e Mon tau l t s ays t h i s i st he o b la t ion o f w ine o ff a i thfu l f o l low ing p raye r s o fO f fer tory . C ha l ice i so n a l ta r . D eacon h o lds o pen m i s sa l . C ler ic s k nee l b eh ind . C en s ing h a s b egun .

( 3c ) C ommun ion o f a p r ies t . C e lebrant b eg in s w i th s uper ior o rder s a nd c on t inues t o m inor o rder s .

F rom d i scu s s ions w i th Mg r . B arb ie r d e Mon tau l t , d e F leury w a s a war e t ha t s o me o ft he p ane l s m igh t h ave b een r ea r ranged , b u t i n h i s d e sc r ip t ion h e ma in ta ined t he p re sen t s equence a nd t h i s c l ear ly i n f luenced h i s i n terpr e ta t ion , e spec ia l ly i n p ane l s l a , 2 b a nd 2 c .

I n l a , i ti sn o t c l ea r

why t he c e leb ran t i ss i t t ing f or t he s e cond v e s t ing ; i n 2 b why t he c e leb ran t , who i sr e turn ing t o h i s t h rone u nt i l t he O f f er tory , s t ands f a c ing t he t hrone ; a nd why i n 2 c t here i sn o e v idence o f t he o b la t ions , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce t hey a r e y et t o b e g i ven i n 3 a .

Moreove r , f rom s ome o f

t he i nd iv idua l d e scr ipt ion s i t wou ld s e em t ha t d e F leury h ad a mo re modern Mas s c er emon ia l i n m ind t han o ne c ontempo rary w i th D rogo .

F o r i n s tance , i n l b i ti sn o t c l ear why t he p rayer

i st he C onf i teor when o ur e a r l ie s t e v idence o f t he C onf i teor p er s ei sf rom t he e ar ly t en th c en t ury ,3 3

And i n 3 b , w hy s hou ld o ne h ave t o p r esuppo se a m i s sa l , when a s acramen tary o r

l i be l lu s w i th t he c anon wou ld more l i ke ly h ave b een u sed? One o f t he f i r s t a utho r s i n t he t went ie th c en tu ry t o a t temp t a n i n terpre tat ion o f t he Mas s c over w a s C ha r le s P f i s ter , who d e scr ibed t he S ac ramen tary a s a who le i n h i s i mpo r tan t a r t ic le o n D rogo ,3 4

H e ( and H enr i L ec le rcq , who r epea ted h i s d esc r ip t ion i n D ic t ionna i re d 'A rcheo 3 5 l og ie Ch r4 t ienne e t d e L i turg ie) " p o inted o u t f i r s t t ha t t he o r ig ina l s equence o f p ane l s mus t s u re ly h ave b een mod if i ed , a nd t hen h e d e sc r ibed t hem a s :

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( 1a ) B i shop l e ave s t he s a cr i s ty .

( lb ) B i shop i nc l ines t oward t he a l ta r .

( lc ) B i shop g i ve s t he p ax t o a n a s s i s t ing p r ies t .

( 2 a ) B ishop k i s se s t he Gospe l b ook .

( 2 1 1 ) B i shop l i s ten s t o t he E p i s t le .

( 2c ) B i shop t u rn s e a s t t o h ea r t he Gospe l .

( 3a ) B ishop r e ce ives o b la t ion s f r om t he c l e rgy .

( 3b ) B i shop c on secra te s w ine i n ac ha l ice .

( 3c ) B i shop g i ve s t he a rch d eacon t he p a in b 6n i t .

A n e xam ina t ion o f t he p ane l s a nd P f i s ter ' s b r ief i n terpre ta t ion s l e ave s t he r eade r r a the r p uz z l ed .

I n p ane l l a i ti sq u i te u nc lea r h ow a s i t t ing b i shop c ou ld b e e n ter ing t he c hu rch . I n 2 b

o ne wonde r s why t he b i shop i ss t and ing f o r t he E p i s t le when i tw as a n a lmos t u n iver sa l r u le t ha t h e s i t . e a s twa rd .

I n 2 c i ti ss t range t ha t t he Go spe l b ook l i e s c l osed o n t he a l ta r a st he b i shop t urns And f i na l ly , i n 3 c o ne w ou ld l i ke more i n fo rma t ion a s t o whe ther t he p a in b en i t i s

r ea l ly l i ke t ha t u sed i n r e cen t F rench l i tu rg ica l u sage ,3 6 o r s imp ly t he c on secra ted Hos t . What h a s r ema ined u n t i l t oday t he mos t t horough d esc r ip t ion a nd a ccu ra te r e ar rangemen t o f t he p ane l s ( he re s i gn if i ed b y n umbe r b efo re d escr ipt ion ) w a s p ubl i shed i n 1 913 b y L ou i s Webe r i n h i s v o lume o n M e tz l i tu rg ica l manu scnpt s . 37 ( la ) 6 . R ead ing o f E p i s t le . B i shop w i th c ha sub le a nd p a l l ium s i t s o n h i s c a thed ra i n a pse w i th c onch shaped c over b eh ind t he a l ta r . A l tar c over ed b y c ibor ium f r om wh ich h ang s ac orona o fl i gh ts . C ur ta in s h ang f r om c o lumns D eacon s s t and t o b i sh o p ' s r i gh t a nd t hree p r ie s ts i n f o reg round s i t o n ab ench . B e t w een t he c o lumn s o f t he c i bor i um a r e t hree s ubdeacon s . On t he l e f t f o reg round a r e t h ree a co lyte s w i th c and le s . B eh ind t hem i st he s cho la . I n l e f t -hand c orne ri sa n a ppa r atus , p e rhap s ab eam f o r l i gh t s .

(l b ) 2 .V enera t ion . C lergy b ow i nv enera t ion a nd r ema in u n t i l S icu terae .To r i ght o fb i shop a r e t h ree d eacons a nd t o l e f t a r e t wo d eacon s . B e s ide a l ta r a r e t wo t aper s a nd ac l er ic w i th i ncen se . Ano ther t hu r if er i sb eh ind t he b i shop , a sw el a s ab earer o ft he Go spe l . T he s cho la i st o t he r ea r .

( lc ) 3 . B i shop k i s se s c l er ics . One p r ies t a t b i shop 's r i gh t r ece ives k i s s a nd a nothe r move s u p a t l e f t . Two d ea c ons v i s ib le o n r i gh t a nd o ne o n l e f t . Go spe l i s o n a l tar . T here i s n o a l ta r c lo th , a nd c u r ta ins a nd c o r ona a r e v i s ib le .

( 2a ) 4 .B i shop k i s ses Go spe l b e f o r e t he Kyr ie . P r ie s t s a r e b eh ind t he b i shop . One d eacon b ear ing man ip le i n l e f t h and k i s ses t he c o rne r o ft he a l ta r . Ano ther b ea r s Go spe l f o r t he k i s s .

( 2b ) 5 . Kyr ie . S even d eacon s i n d a lma t ic s a nd s ubdeacons d re s sed a sa co lyte s s t and b e h ind t he b i shop w ho f a ces e a s t a th i s t h rone o n ap od i um . L ef t i s ac i bo r ium w i th c ur ta ins .

( 2c ) 1 . P roce s s ion o f b i shop t o a l ta r . B i shop w i thout p a l l i um i sl ed t o t he a l ta r f rom t he s acr is ty b y a r chdeacon i nc ompany o fc l e rgy .

( 3a ) 7 .O ffe r ing b y l a ity a nd c l e rgy . L ef t : b i shop a tc ho i r s c r een r ece ive s b read f r om w oman , who k i s ses h i sh and . O the r f a i thfu l i nb ackg round w a i t t o g i ve o f fer i ng s . A rchdeacon w i th t r am i te s o nv e s tmen t w a i t s t o r e ce ive w ine . R igh t : a f ter b i shop w a she s h i s h and s , h e g oes t o a l tar t o r e ce ive o f f er ing o fc l e rgy . Al oaf o fb read i sa l ready o n a l ta r . Ap r ie s t w i th f anon g i ves b read t ot he b i shop w i th ah and k i s s .

( 3b ) 8 .B le s s ing s o fo f fer ing ( 3c ) 9 . D i s tr ibu t ion o f c om d ur ing C anon . B i shop s t ands mun ion t o c l e rgy . B i shop t o a tt he a l tar a nd b l es se c ha l - l e f t o f a l tar g i ves Hos t t o i c e w i th h and le s . Ac l er ic p r ies t who k i sse s h i s h and . h o lds as a cramen ta ry . S ub N ext t o t wo p r ie s ts o the r d eacons a r e t ol e f t o ft h i s c l e r ic s a re v i s ib le . T o l e f t i n c l er ic . D eacon s a nd p erhap s f o reg round a r e t h ree s ub a n a r chdeacon a r e b eh ind d eacons a nd t he l e ader o f t he b i shop . Two t hu r if e r sa rethe s cho la . b eh ind . T hree p r ie s t s w i th c ha sub les c on secr a te w i th b i shop . C ler ic i n b ackg round i sp erhap s l e ader o ft he s cho la .

A s w i l l b e s een , t he i n te rpr e ta t ion o f t he p ane l s b y Weber i sr emarkab ly a ccura te , p robab ly b ecau se i ti sb a sed o n c arefu l r ead ing o f t he work s o f Ama la r iu s o f Me tz a nd t he O rdo Roma-

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l u l l .

F rom t he p er spec t ive o f c ur ren t s cho la r sh ip , t he o n ly o b jec t ion t o Weber 's a na lys is i s

t ha t h e u sed t he t hen s t andard Mab i l lon e d i t ion o ft he O rdo R omanus , n ow s uperseded b y Mg r . Andr ieu ' s mang if icen t s t ud ie s a nd e d i t ion . The y ea r a f ter t he a ppea rance o f Webe r 's w ork , Ado lf Go ldschm id t , i n h i s monumenta l s tudy o f C a ro l ing ian i v or ie s , n o t o n ly d e scr ibed mo s t o f t he p ane l s b ut a l so a t temp ted ar ear r angemen t a ccord ing t o wha t h e t hough t w a s t he o r ig ina l s equence ( he re a r ranged a ccord ing t o n umbe r s r epre sen t ing h i s s equence ) .3 8 ( la ) 3 .I n t he c ho i r o f t he c hu rch t he b i shop a nd c l ergy s i t f o r t he E p i st le wh i le t hree d eacon s a r e s een f r om t he r ea r . O ve r t he a l ta r i s ac i bor ium a nd v e i l s . T o t he l e f t i s ar ow o fc ande lab ra a nd a bove ab eam h ung w i th many c and les . T he c onch o ve r t he a ps e i st urned a t9 0 d egree s .

( lb ) 2 .A f ter t he ' G lor ia p a tr i ' t he b i shop g oe s b efo re t he a l tar a nd b ow s . I n f r on t a nd b eh ind h im a r e a co ly tes w i th t hu r ib les a nd c and le s . B e s ide t he b i shop a r e d ea c on s .

(l c ) 1 .A t t he e nd o ft he c on f e s s io t he b i shop t u rn s a nd g i ves a n a s s i s t ing p r ie s t t he p ax . T here i s a Go spe l b ook o n t he a l tar t ha t t he c e le b rant w i l l k i ss . A bove t he a l tar h ang l amps .

( 2a ) No t d e scr ibed .

( 2b ) 4 . B i shop a nd a s s i s tan t s ( 2c ) No t d e scr ibed . r i se a nd t urn t o t he e a s t f o r t he Gospe l . S even d eacon s a nd s even s ubdeacon s . T he c on text i st he s ame a s3 ,b u t w i th amor e r i ch ly e ndowed c ibor ium .

( 3a ) 5 . One l e f t : b i shop r e ce ives o b lat ion f rom awoman , who k i s s e s h i s h and . On r i gh t : b read i s l a id o n t he a l tar wh i le t he p r ie s t k i s se s t he b i shop ' s h and .

( 3b ) 7 .B i shop g i ves ap r ie s t t he b read a nd h e k i s ses t he c e leb ran t 's h and . The c ho i r w i th o pen mou th s s i ng s t he c ommun ion a n t iphon .

( 3c ) 6 . B i shop b l e s se s w ine i n a c hal ice o n t he a l ta r wh i le a n a s s i s tan t h o ld s a b ook .

A l though n o t a s c omp le te a s Webe r 's , Go ld schm id t ' s d e sc r ip t ion a nd a r rangemen t o f t he p ane l s i s ad i s t inc t i mp rovemen t o n P f i s ter ' s , b u t a ga in t h ere a r e q ue s t ion s . One wonde rs , f o r e xamp le , wha t s c ene s e xa ct ly d o p ane l s 2 a a nd 2 c r epre sen t , a nd why 3 b a nd 3 c h ave b een r ever sed . A lmo s t a s u nusua l ad e scr ip t ive i n terpre ta t ion f o r t he p ane l s a s Go ld schm idt 's w a s t ha t o f Maur ice V lobe rg , who c i ted P e l t ' s monu men ta l wo rk o n Me tz a sh i s a utho r i ty : 39 ( la ) B i shop a nd a s s i s tan ts l i s ten i ng t o t he E p i s t le .

( lb ) I nt ro i t . B i shop a nd a s s i s tan t s b ow t o t he a l tar w i th ac i bor ium .

( 1c ) B i shop g oe s t o t he a l t a r a nd k i s ses c l er ic s .

( 2a ) B i shop k i s ses Go spe l s .

( 2b ) B i shop t u rn s e a s t f o r ' G lor ia i ne xce l s i s ' .

( 2c ) B i shop w ithou t p a l l ium t urn s t o t he a l ta r w i th t he a rchdeacon a nd s e ven d ea c on s .

( 3a ) O f f er to ry . Woman o f f er s b r ead , a nd b i shop b l es se s ac ha l i ce w i th t wo h and les . D eacon sk nee l b eh ind t he b i shop .

( 3b ) No t d e scr ibed .

( 3c ) B i shop g i ve s H os t t o a p r ies t , w ho k i s se s h i s h and . O the r p r ies ts w a i t t o r e c e ive t he E uchar i s t .

Th e l i tu rg i s t b eg ins t o

s ense t ha t V loberg , as pec ia l i s t i n e ucha r i s t ic i c onog raphy , h a s af i rm

u nde r s tand ing o f t he mean ing o f e ach p ane l u n t i l h e r eache s 2 c .

H er e i ti sn o t c l ea r why t he

b i shop i sw i thou t p a l l ium a nd why h e t u rn s t o t he a l ta r . Mor eover , i n V loberg 's d escr ipt ion o f p ane l 3 a t here s eems t o b e ac on f la t ion w i th 3 b .

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I n 1 950 Dom Theodo r B og le r , who w a s l a ter t o a t temp t ar e con s t ruc t ion o f t he i n i t ia t ion c over o f t he D rogo S ac ramen ta ry

w ro te a n a r t ic le , 'Ws B i ld l i n D ien s te d e r Me sska techese 4 1 i n wh ich h e d ea l ti n as om ewha t p opu lar v e in w i th t he Mas s c ove rp ane l s l a , 2 a , 3 b a nd 3 c . I n 4 0

t he s ame v o lume c on ta in ing B og ler 's a r t ic le t here a ppeared a s as upp lemen t ar eproduc t ion t o g e ther w i th a b r ief a nd n ove l d e scr ipt ion a nd r ea r rangemen t o f t he p ane l s ( he re a s s igned t he n umber s o ft he s ugge s ted s equence ) . ( la ) 2 . L ec t ion . ( 2 a ) 4 . K i s so f Go spe ls . ( 3a ) 7 . R ecept ion o fo f f er ing s .

4 2

(l b ) 5 .E nt rance t o a l ta r . ( 1c ) 1 .P ax ( 2b ) 3 .C o l lec t o rs i ng ing o f ( 2c ) 6 .L avabo . G lor ia b y t he b i shop s t and ing e a s t t oward t h rone . ( 3b ) C anon . ( 3c ) 9 .C ommun ion .

T h e u nu sua l f ea ture i n t h i s d escr ip t ion a nd r ear rang emen t i st he i n terpre ta t ion o f p ane l 2 c a s t he l avabo .

Unfor tuna te ly , t he re i sn o e v idence o f al a vabo b ow l i n t he i vory ; a ccord ing t o

n in th -cen tu ry p ract ice t he b i shop a lmos t a lways s a t f o rt he l a vabo ;a nd s uch a n a c t ion , a ccord i n g t o n in th -century p rac t ice , wou ld l og ica l ly h ave c ome b e tween t he r ecept ion o f t he o b la t i ons f rom t he women a nd t he i r p lacemen t o n t he a l ta r -t ha t i s , t he l avabo wou ld h ave s pl i t t he t wo s cene s i n p ane l 3 a .

F u r ther , a s w i l l b e s een l a ter , t here i s amuch s imp ler e xp lana t ion

f o rt h i s p ane l . Ano ther r a the r r ecen t a t temp t t o d escr ibe a nd r ear rang e t he p ane l s h a s b een made b y O t to Nu s sbaum i nh i s f undamen ta l s tudy o ft he p os i t ion o ft he a nc ien t C h r i s t a l ta r .

4 3

( la ) 3 . B i shop s ea ted o nh i s t h rone h ea r s t he l e c t ion w i th d eacons s tand ing t o h i sr i gh t a nd p r ie s ts s ea ted t oh i sl e f t .

( lb ) 1 .V ene ra t ion o ft he ( 1c ) No t d e scr ibed . a l ta rf rom t he f ron ta f te r t he e n trance .

( 2a ) Not d e scr ibed .

( 2b ) 2 .A t t he Ky r ie a nd ( 2c ) No t d e sc r ibed . G lor ia t he b i shop s tand s t o wa rd t he e a s t a th i s t h rone w i th h i sb ack t o h i s a s s i s tant s a nd t he p eop le .

( 3a ) 4 . O f f e r ing : B i shop r e ce ives g i f t s a t t he a l ta rr a i l ;b i shop r e c e ive s o f fe r ing s f r om ap r ie s t t op lace t hem o nt he a l ta r .

( 3b ) 5 .C on sec rat ion : B i shop ( 3c ) 6 .C ommun ion . s tand s b efo re t he a l ta r . Aco ly te may h o ld ' c anon e p i scopa l i s ' . S ubdeacon s a r e b eh ind t he a l ta r .

A l though Nu s sbaum d id n o t p r e sen t ad esc r ipt ion a nd r ea r rangemen t o fa l l t he p ane l s , i ti st he g r eat me r i t o fh i s wo rk t ha t h e , l i ke Weber b efore h im , s ensed t ha t b eh ind t he p o s i t ion s t aken b y e ach o f t he v a r ious c l e r ic s t her e l ay t he r ubr ica l d i r ec t ion s o f t he O rd ine s Roman i .

More -

o v e r , b y t h i s t ime t he p rec i s ion s o f Mg r . Andr ieu r ega rd ing t he d a te s o f t he O rd ine s Roman i w e re we l l k nown . P e rhaps t he mos t r ema rkab le r ecen t d esc r ip t ion a nd i n te rp reta t ion o ft he D rogo Mas s p ane l s c ome s i nA .G . Ma r t imo r t ' sg r eat h andbook o n t he l i turgy , L 'Eg l i se e n p r ie re . ( l a ) E n trance o fb i shop . ( 2a ) V enera t ion o f Gospe l . ( 3a ) O f fer to ry .

( lb ) V ene ra t ion o fa l ta r . ( 2b ) Du r ing t he E p i s t le? ( 3b ) C on sec ra t ion .

4 4

( lc ) K i s s o fp eace . ( 2c ) Dur ing t he Gospe l? ( 3c ) C ommun ion .

H e re t here s eem s t o h ave b een n o a t tempt a t r ea r rang ing t he p ane l s ;o n ly a n a r t if ic ia l l abe ll ing

2 73

o fe ach p an e l w i th many o ft he c ur iou s r e su l t s f ound i nP f i s ter ' s e a r l ier d e scr ip t ion . T ha t t he d eco ra t ive p ane l s o f as acramen tary a s a nc ien t a nd a s s u mptuou s a st he D rogo S acra men tary h ave r ece iv ed s o much a t ten t ion f rom a r t h i s tor ian s a nd l i tu rg i s ts i sn o t s u rpr i s ing , b u t t ha t t hey h ave a s s igned t o t hem s o w ide a r ange o f i n te rp re ta t ive d esc r ip t ion s b o rde r s o n t he r ema rkab le .

B u t a s o ne b eg in s t o e xam ine c lo se ly t he d a ta u pon w h ich t he se d iv ergen t o p in ion s

h ave b een b ased , i ts oon b ecome s a pparen t i n mo s t c a ses t ha t t he o p in ions h ave r es ted o n v ague n o t ions a s t o h ow t he Ma s s s hou ld h ave b een c e lebra ted i n C a ro l ing ian t ime s .

I st he re , h owever ,

a ny e v idence a s t o h ow t he Ma s s w a s c e leb ra ted i n Me tz i n t he p e r iod i n wh ich t he S ac ramen tary w a s made?

I n t he w r i t ten t ex t o f t he S acramen ta ry i t se lf t here i sp rec ious l i t t le i n fo rma t ion

b eyond t he p rayer t ex t s .

Moreover , i n mo s t c on temporary s a cramen ta r ies t he s a me h o ld s t rue .

There a r e , h oweve r , t wo s ou rce s t ha t h ave b een v i r tua l ly i gno red a s k eys t o t he i n te rpr e ta t ion o f t he Ma s s p ane l s .

The se a r e , f i r s t , t he c on tempora ry c ommen ta r ie s o n t he Mas s 45 a nd ,s e cond

a nd much mo re i mpor tan t , c on tempora ry O rd ine s Roman i t ha t w e re i n u se b o th i n M e tz a nd t h roughou t t he C aro l ing ian Emp i re . And i ndeed , i fo ne r ead s t he se s ou rce s c a refuly a s o ne e x am ine s t he p ane l s o f t he i vory Ma s s c over , ap roper i n terpre ta t ion o f e ach p ane l a nd i t s o r ig ina l s equence i nt he who le c ove r a lmo s tl e aps o u t a tt he v i ewer . B u t wha t w e re t he c on tempora ry Ma s s e xpos i t ione s a nd o rd ines t ha t m igh t h ave i nf luenced t he i vory c arve r so ft he D rogo c ove r? Among t he e xpos i t ione s , t hose o f Ama lar ius o f Me tz c l ea r ly s pr ing t o m ind . 46 e spec ia l ly h i s E c logae , 4 7

A s w e s ha l l s ee , t he p ane l s p ar t ialy r e f lec t t he work o f Ama la r ius ) b u t much mo re c l ea r ly t hey r e f lec t t he O rd ine s Roman i .

T he se l a tter

t ex t s w e re , b a s ica l ly , c olect ion s o f r ub r ic s o r s t age d i rec t ion s f or t he p er formance o f t he Mass . The Gal ican r i te i n t he s even th a nd e i ghth c entur ies wou ld a lmo s t ' c er ta in ly h ave h ad i t s own o rd ines , b u t b y t he s econd h a lf o ft he e i gh th c entu ry i tw a st he R oman o rd ine s t ha t w e re s w eep ing t h rough C a ro l ing ian t e r r i tor ie s , t here t o b e u sed a nd mod if i ed b y t he i n tru s ion o f G a l i le an e le men t s .

I n f ac t , as urv iv ing manu scr ipt o f t he e arl ies t Roman o rdo , O rdo R omanu s ( he reaf ter

OR ) P r imu s w a s w r i t ten i n Me tz i t se l f :

B ern , Bu rge rb ib l io thek 2 89 . 48

A s w i l l b e s een ,h owever ,

i ti sn o t s o much OR I t ha t i sr e f lec ted i n t he D rogo Mas s p ane l s , 49

b u t l a ter F rank i sh mod i -

f i ca t ion so ft he O rd ine s Roman i . O f t he Roman Ma s s o rd ine s t ha t m igh t h ave b een mod if ied a nd u sed a s as ource b y t h e i vory c arve r s t he re a re , p os s ib ly :

OR I ( wr i t ten c .750 ) ; 5° OR I I ( wr it ten c . 7 50 -780 ) ;5 1

OR I V

( the O rdo o f S t Amand , w r i t ten p erhap s a s e ar ly a s t he l a te s eventh c en tu ry i n R av enna mo re l i ke ly c . 760 -770 i n F rance) , 53

OR V I ( wr i t ten p erhap s i n Me tz a f te r 8 50 ;5 5

9 50 )

o r OR X ( wr i t ten c . 9 00 -95 0 ; 57

t en c . 7 90 ) .59

o r

OR V ( Mab i l lon ' s OR I w r i tten c .8 50 -900 , u sed b y We -

b e r ) ; 54 5 6

2

f ore runne r s o f OR I X ( wr i t ten c . 8 80 -

OR XV ( w r i t ten b efore 7 87 ) ;5 8

a nd OR XV I I ( wr i t -

Al o f t he se o rd ines w e re b a s ica l ly Roman , b u t t hey a l l h ad t ext s a dap ted t o

t r ansa lp ine l i turg ica ls en s ib i l i t ie s .

2 74

K eep ing i n m ind t hese p o ss ib le s ources , l e t u s n ow l ook a t t he p ane l s a nd s e e h ow t hey r e f lec t n ot o n ly t he n in th cen tury Mas s e xpo s i t iones , b u t a l so t he O rd ines Roman i . I n a s s ign ing i n te rp re tat ion s t o t hem , i ti sa l so n ece s sa ry t o s ugges t t he i ro r ig ina ls equence , as equence wh ich mo s t p robab ly r epr esen t s t h e O rdo Romanus i n u se a t Me tz d ur ing t he t ime o f D rogo a nd C ha r le s t he B a ld . I

Wha t w a s a lmos t c er ta in ly t he o r ig ina l f i r s t s cene , t ha t i s , t he o ne o r ig ina l ly i n t he u p -

p e r l e f t -hand c o mer , i sn ow 2 c . I ta ppea r s t o b e t he e n trance o ft he b i shop . The a nc ien t OR I r e f lec t ing a c ompl i ca ted Roman s i tua t ion , h ad s a id t ha t t he p on t i f f made h i s e n t rance t o t he Ma s s s uppor ted b y a n a rchdeacon a nd a no ther d eacon ' ad c apu t s co lae ' . 6° b i shop t o p roces s ' p er med iam s co lam ' s imp ly w i th d eacons 6 1 s ee i n o ur p ane l 2 c ) .

OR V ,l i ke Ama lar ius ' E c logae

i n t h e p roces s ion b y s even d eacon s ,

a nd

O RI X

6 2

OR I V d i rec ts t he

( a t l e a s t o ne o f wh ich w e c an

s t a te s t ha t t he b i shop i st o b e p receded

a nd X ( both p o s tda t ing t he D rogo c over )

s pec i fy t ha t t he b i shop move t h rough t wo l i ne s o f s even d eacon s , t hree o n o ne s i de a nd f our o n t he o ther . 64

Th i s i s s im i la r t o Ama la r ius ' d e sc r ipt ion i n t he L ibe r O f f ic ia l i s , whe re h e s t a te s

t ha t t he b ishop may p roce s s t h rough t he m id s t o fs even d eacon s , 65 a nd i ti sa lmo s t p rec i se ly t he d ep ic t ion f ound o n t he D rogo i vory p ane 1 . 66 I

T he s econd p ane l i n t he o r ig ina l s equence w a s mos t p robab ly t he o ne i n wh ich t he 6 7 b i shop t urn s t o t he p r ie s t i n ac ha sub le f or t he i n i t ia l p ax ( 1c ) . I n t he a nc ient OR I "( wh ich

f o rmed t he b a s is f or t he l a ter OR I V , V I a nd XV )

6 8

t he p ope a f ter b ow ing t o t he a l ta rg ave t he 6 9 p ax t o t he h ebdomada r ian b i shop , a rchp re sby ter a nd d eacon s , a nd i n OR V "nd Ama lar ius ' E c log 0 t ae 7 h e b i shop a f ter e n te r ing a nd s a lu t ing t he S anc ta g ave t he p ax t o t he p r ie s ts a nd d eacon s .

OR I V , h oweve r , s t ates t ha t t he p ax i sg iven t o t he b i shop , p r ies t a nd d eacon b efore

.7 t he v ene rat ion o ft he a l ta r 1 I I

T he t h i rd p ane l i n t he o r ig ina l s equence i s , a rguab ly , t he p resen t s econd p ane l( lb ) . The

amb igu i ty a r ise s b ecau se i ti sn o t c l ear i fi tr epresen ts t he v ene rat ion o f t he a l ta r o r t he f i r s t s i len t p rayer b efo re t he a l tar . T he d i f f icu l ty i st ha ti n t he a nc ien tn OR It he s equence o fe ven t s w a s f i r s t , t he v ene ra t ion , t hen t he p ax , t hen p rayer ' s upe r o ra to r ium ' . 72 Moreover , t he ` Me s 7 3 s i ne ' OR V I s pec if ied t ha t t h e b i shop i nc l ine i n s i len t p raye r . B u t i n OR I V i ti ss a id t ha t a f te r t he p ax t he b i shop s t ands w i th h ead b owed ,

7 4

a nd i n t he l a te r OR I X a co lyte s b ea r ing

c and le s a nd t hur ib le s a re ment ioned a s p resen t wh i le t he b i shop p ray s. l i k e t he p ic tu re w e f i nd i n p ane l l b o f t he D rogo Ma s s c over .

7 5

Th i s i ss o me th ing

H ence , p ane l l b may s t i l l

b e i n i t s o r ig ina l p o s i t ion , b u t c on tempora ry n in th -cen tu ry Ma ss o rd ine s s ugge s t t ha t i t may v ery w el h ave b een t he t h i rd i nt he u ppe rr eg i s ter . I V •T he f ou r th p ane l s t i l l s e ems t o b e i n i t s o r ig ina l p o s i t ion , t ha t i s2 a , a nd h a s b een f o r b o th a r t h is to r ian s a nd l i turg i s t s o ne o f t he mo s t e as i ly r ecogn izab le s c ene s .

2 75

I n mo s t o f t he

e ucha r i s t ic O rd ines Roman i t he b i shop a ccompan ied b y d eacon s k i s se s t he Go spe ls , p r ec i se ly o u r s c ene h e re . 76 V

Ag rea t v a r iety o f i n terpre ta t ion s h a s b een g i ven , a s w e h ave s een , t o wha t wa s a nd s t i l l

r ema in s t he f i f th p ane l , 2 b . B ut a ga in , ar ead ing o ft he O rd ine s R oman ii lum ina tes t he m ean ing o f t he s c ene .

I n . 9 1 ta t he p on t i f f s imp ly w en t f r om t he a l ta r t o h i s t hrone f o r t he Kyr ie a nd • 7 7 G lor ia i n e xce ls i s . , B ut i n t he l a ter OR I V t he b i shop w en t f r om t he r i gh t h and o f t he a l ta r ( a s h e d oe s t o o ur r i ght i n t he D rogo p ane l ) a nd s tood f ac ing e a s t b efo re h i s t h rone f o r t he Kyr ie .

H e t hen t urned t o t he p eop le t o i n tone t he G lo r ia , a f te r wh ich h e a nd h i s d eacon s 7 8 t urned e as t f o r t he r ema inde r o f t he h ymnus a ng e l icus . Mo r eover , i n OR V a nd t he c o rn 7 9 men ta ry o f Ama lar ius - i ti s s pec if ied t ha t when t he b i shop t hu s s tood a t h i s t h rone , t he d eacons w e re t o s t and b eh ind h im , ` p lure s a d d ex teram , p auc io r e s a d s i n i s tram a l tar i s ' -t ha t i s , a n a r rangemen t n o t d i s tan t ly r emoved f rom t ha t i n t he f i f th p ane l o f o ur D rogo Ma s s c over . V I

T he p re sen t p ane l l a wa s p robab ly o r ig ina l ly t he s i xth p ane l , a nd l i ke t he f i f th , i th a s

c aused s ome r ema rkab le p rob lems o fi n terp re ta t ion f or l i turg i s t s . o f t he O rd ine s Roman i wou ld h ave h e lped t o c l ear u p ma t te r s . t he r ead ing o f t he E p i s t le .

8 0

B u t h e re a ga in , ar e ad ing

Wha t w e h ave i n p ane l l a i s

A ccord ing t o t he c ompl ica ted d i rec t ion s o f OR I ,t he a co ly te s f i r s t

p laced t he i r c and les i n al i ne t h rough t he m id s t o f t he c hu rch , t he d eacon s s tood a round t he p ope , a nd t he s ubdeacon s s tood a round t he a l ta r . p r ies t s t o s i t .8 1

T he p ope t h en n odded f or t he b i shops a nd

I n OR I V , h oweve r , t he a co ly te s f i r s t p laced t he i r c and les t icks b efo re t he

a l tar ( a s t hey h ave i n t he D rogo p ane l ) , a nd w i th h i s d eacon s s t and ing a bout h im t he b i shop s a t .

The s ubdeacon s w ere t o c ome u p a round t he a l ta r a nd t he p r ies ts w ere t o s i t .

d i rect ion s w e re made much mo re s pec if ic i n s o me o f t he l a ter O rd ines Roman i .

8 2

T he se

I n OR V i t

3 m OR XV t he d eacon s w ere d i rec ted w a s s pec if ied t ha t t he b i shop s i t t owa rd t he p eop le 8 t o s t and t o t he b i shop ' s r i gh t a nd l e f t h and ;

8 4

b eh ind t he a l ta ra nd t he p r ies ts a re n ea rt he a l ta r .

a nd f i na l ly , i n OR XV I I t he t h rone i sp i c tu red 8 5

A l though t he a r t h i s tor ian Go ld sch rn idt a nd t he i conog rapher V lobe rg s eem t o h av e b een s omewha t c onfu sed a bou t t he t hr ee p ane l s o f t he l owe s t r eg i s ter o f t he D rogo c ove r , mos t c ommen ta tor s h ave o b serv ed c o r rec t ly t ha tt hey a r e i n t he i r o r ig ina ls equence a nd r epre sen t t he o rdo o ft he Ma s s f rom t he o b la t ion t ot he c ommun ion . V I I

I n t he l e f t -hand s cene o f t he f i r s t p ane l o f t he l owe r r eg i s ter ( 3a ) t he b i shop i sr e ce iv ing

o b lat ion s f r om a woman b eh ind a b ar r ier , e xac t ly a s h e d oe s i n OR I V a nd

j.

d i rec t t ha t h e i st o b e a ccompan i ed b y d eacon s .

Q&

8 7

. ! ,

I V ,

2 a ,j X

a nd .X .

8 6

( The b ar r ier s een h e re i s ,

i nc iden ta l ly , s ometh ing l i ke a c l osu re s l ab f or a C aro l ing ian s cho la i n Me tz , s t i l l e xtan t i n t he Me tz Mu sg e c en t ra l .

8 8

I n t he r i gh t -hand p or t ion o f p ane l 3 a , t he re i sd ep ic ted a s c ene t ha t

t ook p lace a t s ome p o int a f ter t he o b la t ion s h ad b een r ece ived f rom t he women .

A ccord ing

t o t he O rd ine s Roman i t he b i shop a f te r h e h ad r ece ived t he w omen 's o b la t ions h ad g one t o

2 76

h i s s e a t f or t he l a vabo . a cco rd ing t o OR I V , 90

T h e rea f te r h e w en t ' a d a l ta re ' a ccord ing t o OR I, 8 9 or a n te a l ta re ' t her et o r ece ive t he o b la t ion s o ft he c l ergy a nd p lace t hem o n t he a l tar .

Wh i le QR . Ia nd V s t a te t ha tt he o b la t ion s o f t he c l ergy a re g i ven t o t he p on t i f f b y p r ie s t s ( such a s w e f i nd i n p ane l 3 a )

a nd d eacon s , OR I V s pec if ie s t ha ti ti st he a r chdeacon who p re sen t s

9 1

t he o b la t ion s . 92 V I I I T he e igh th p ane l , o u r 3 b ,i sa lmos tu n ive r sa l ly d e scr ibed a st he b i shop ' s s ay ing t he C anon o f t he Mas s a t a n a l ta r o n wh ich s t and s ac ha l ice .

Wh i le t h i s d e scr ip t ion i sn o t i n cor rec t , i ti s

n o t a s c o mp le te a s i t m ight b e , a nd a c a refu l c ompar i son o f t he s cenes w i th t he t ex t s o f t he O rd in e s Roman i h e lps t o b r ing t he p i ctu re i n to s harp f ocu s . A ccord ing t o OR It he p ope h ad s tood b efore t he S u r sum c o rda o r i n troduc tory d ia logue t o t he C anon . B eh ind h im w ere t he 9 3 b i shop s , a nd l ook ing a t h im f r om b eh ind t he a l tar w e re s ubdeacons . L a ter O rd ine s R oman i w e re mo re s pec i f ic a nd r e f le c t t he s cene i n t he D rogo p ane l .

They a lmo s t a l l d e scr ibe t he 9 4 s ubdeacons a s b e ing b eh ind t he a l ta r l ook ing a cro ss a t t he b i shop , b u t i n OR I X i ti ss pec i f i ed t ha t t hey s t and t her e a s t he S anc tus i sb e ing s ung wh i le b eh ind t he b i shop s t and d eacons a nd a co lyte s .

9 5

t he

Th i s l a t ter o rdo , OR I X , d a t ing t o a lmo s t p rec i se ly t he t ime o f t he

D rogo i vory , g i ve s u s ac eremony o ft he n inth c en tury , b ut OR X , a n o rdo o ft he t en th c entu ry , mod if ie s t he s c ene i n as t r ik ing way .

T he s ubdeacon s r ema in i n t he c ho i r f ac ing t he b i shop u p

t o t he S anc tu s , b u t t hey t hen move d own i n f ron t o f t he a l ta r whe re t hey s t and b eh ind t he d eacons b u t b efo re t he a co ly te who h o ld s ap a ten a nd l i turg ica l s t raw .

9 6

I n s um , i np ane l 3 b

o f t he D rogo c over we s ee t he b i shop a nd h i s c l ergy a r ranged f rom t he i nt roduc tory d i a logue o f t he C anon a lmo s t p rec i se ly a s t hey wou ld h ave b een a ccord ing t o n in th cen tury F rank if ied Roman Ma s s o rd ine s . I X

S t range ly , t he n in th a nd f i na l s cene i n p ane l 3 c , c l ea r ly d ep ic t ing t he b i shop g i v ing a

p r ies t c om mun ion , i so ne o f t he mos t d i f f icu l t s cene s t o h armon ize w i th e x tan t n in th cen tury O rd ine s Roman i .

The d i f f icu l ty a r i ses f rom t h ree amb igu i t ies .

t o t h e b i shop t he c orner o f t he a l ta r o r t he b i shop ' s c athed ra?

I s t he r i g id s t ruc ture n ex t Moreover , a re t he n ow mu te

s ma l l i v ory f i gure s w i th t h e ir mouths o pen s i ng ing t he A gnus D e i o r , a s Go ldschm id t c l a imed , t h e c ommun ion a n t iphon?

And f i na l ly , wh ich o f t he c ommun ion s equence s i n t he h igh ly

d ive rg en t t ext s o f t he O rd ine s Roman i i st he i vory p ane l d ep ic t ing ? t h e re i sc l ear ly r oom f or l eg i t ima te d i f fe rence s o f i n terpre ta t ion .

G iven t he se amb igu i t ie s ,

One wou ld s eem f a i r ly s a fe ,

h oweve r , i n s ay ing t ha t d e sp i te t he s i lence o f o u r i vo ry c ho ir member s t hey a re n o t s i ng ing t he c ommun ion a n t iphon .

T h i s i s b ecaus e t he b i shop d ur ing t h i s c han t c ommun ica te s t he 9 7 p eop le , n ot t he c l ergy , a ccord ing t o mos t o rd ine s . R a the r , t he c ho i r i s mo re l i ke ly s i ng ing t he A gnus De i , wh ich a ccord ing t o OR I V , t hey s i ng ' i n p resb i ter io i n p ar te s i n i s tra ' .

9 8

A c -

c o rd ing t o mo s t O rd ine s Roman i i ti st he b i shops a nd p r ie s t s who c ommun ica te f r om t he h and

2 77

o f t he p ope o r b i shop d ur ing t he Agnu s , b u t a lmo s t a lways t he b i shop i sa t ( does t h i s mean s i t t ing o n? ) h i s t hrone .

There i s , h oweve r , i n t he ` Mes s ine ' OR V I t he d i rec t ive t ha t t he

9 9

p r ies t s c ome t o t he a l ta r t o c o mmun ica te .

1 00

I t may b e t h i s a c t ion t ha t p ane l 3 c i lu s tra tes .

I n s um , ar ead ing o f t he O rd ines Roman i a va i lab le i n F rank i sh t e r r i tor ies d ur ing t he t ime o f Char le s t he B a ld s ugges t s t ha t t he p ane l s o n t he D rogo M a s s c ove r s hou ld b e a r ranged s o t ha t i n t he u ppe r r eg i s te r t here wou ld o r ig ina l ly h ave b een f i r s t 2 c , s econd l c , a nd t h i rd l b . I n t h e s econd r eg i s ter t here wou ld h ave b een f i r s t 2 a , s econd 2 b , a nd t h i rd l a . r eg is ter t he p ane l s w ere a r ranged a s t hey a r e t oday .

I n t he t h i rd

G iven , h owever , t he p o s s ib i l i ty s ugges ted

e a r l ie r t ha t t he b ow b e fore t he a l tar p receded t he i n i t ia l p ax , i ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t ha t t h e o n ly m i sar rangemen t h a s b een t he r ever sa l o f p ane ls l a a nd 2c . I n t he r ea r rangement a nd i n terpr e ta t ion s o f t he s c ene s s ug ges ted i n t h i s p aper t he r e a re a dm i t ted ly s ome d i f f icu l t ies .

T he re i s , f i r s t , t he f a c t t ha t t he p ane l s o f t he m idd le r e g i s ter

a l l a ppea r t o b e s l ight ly t aler t han t ho se o f t he u ppe r a nd l owe r r eg i s ter s a nd t o r e ar range t hem s o a s t o m ix t he s hor ter u ppe r w i th t he t a l le r m idd le p ane l s wou ld i mp ly a n o r ig ina l s i ze a nd v i sua l i mba lance .

T her efo re , u n t i l t he p ane l s c an b e r emoved f r om t he me ta ll i c b ind -

i ng s t r ip s t ha t h ide t he ir e dges a nd t hen b e mea su red a nd e xam ined f o r a l terat ion , a ny s ug g e s ted r ea r rangemen t w i l l r ema in n o t t o ta l ly c onv inc ing .

N one the le s s , e ven i fi tw e re f ound

t ha t t he re wa s n o s hor ten ing o f t he u ppe r ( and l owe r? ) p ane l s , s evera l a l terna t ive c onc lus ion s wou ld b e p os s ib le :

1 ) i tw a s n o t f e l t n eces sary t o h ave a l l t he p ane l s , o f e ach r eg i s ter o f e qua l

h e igh t , a nd t he o r ig ina l b ind ing w a s c ons truc ted a ccord ing ly ; 2 ) when e i ther n in th -cen tu ry o r l a ter a r t i san s c ame t o a f f ix o r r ea ff ix t he p ane l s )t hey h e ld c ons idera t ions o f s i ze more i m p or tan t t han c on s i s ten t l i tu rg ica l s equence a nd f or c onven ience m i sarranged t he p ane l s . Another d i f f icu l ty i n t he i n terpre ta t ion s s ugges ted i n t h i s p aper a r i ses b ecau se w e a re n o t a b so lute ly c er ta in t ha t a t D rogo ' s t ime i n Me tz OR I V , V , I X o r X o r e ven wha t m igh t b e c aled OR I Va , Vb o r I Xc w e r e b e ing u sed .

And f i na l ly , t he c arver o f o ur i vo ry p ane l s w a s l im i ted b y h i s me -

d ium s o t hat h i s t i ny f i gure s a nd a rch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re s c anno t a n swe r a l l o ur q uer ies s a t i s f ac to r i ly .

None the le s s , wha t i sc l ea r i st ha t t he c ove r i so n e o ft he mo s t s t r ik ing v i sua l e p i tomes

o f t he Roman Ma s s o rd ines mod if ied t o c onfo rm t o t he e ucha r i s t ic c e leb ra t ion i n t he i mpor tan t l i turg ica l c en tre whe re Cha r le s t he B a ld w a s c rowned i n 8 69 .

2 78

I :l c

I I :l b

O F B I SHOP

B I SHOP R ECE IVES P AX

B I SHOP B EFORE A LTAR

IV :2 a

V :2 b

V I :l a

I:2 c

E NTRANCE

B I SHOP

B I SHOP S TANDS

K I SSES G OSPELS

A T T HRONE

R EAD ING O F E P ISTLE

VII :3 a

V III :3 b

I X :3 c

B I SHOP

B I SHOP G I VES

R ECE IVES O BL AT IONS

P l . 5 :

C ANON O F M ASS

P R IEST C OMMUN ION

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE MASS COVER

Please note that pages 281 and 282 were not included in the original publication.

NOTES 1 S ee , e . g . , O t to G erha rd O ex le , ' D ie K aro l inge r u nd d i e S tad t d es h e i l igen A rnu l f s ' , F i uih m i t te la l terl i che S tud ien i( 1967) , 3 60 . 2 S ee J ean D eshus ses , ' Sur q ue lque s a nc ien s l i v re s l i turg iques d e S a in t -Th ie rry : d 'une t r ans forma t ion d e l al i turg ie ' , i n S a in t -Th ie r ry :

u ne a bbaye d u V Ie s i ec le :

l e s e tape s A c te s d u

C oRoque i n te rna t iona l d 'H i s to i re mona s t ique , R e im s -Sa int -Th ie r ry , 1 a u 1 4 o c tobre 1 976 ( Sa in t -Th ie r ry 1 979 ) , 1 34 . 3 C y r i l le Voge l , ' S t C hrodegang e t l e s d ebu t s d e l ar oman i sa t ion d u c u l te e n p ay s f r anc S a in t Chrodegang :

i n

C ommun ica t ion s p re sen tees a u c oloque t enu a Me tz ä l ' occa s ion d u

d ouz ieme c en tena i re d e s a mor t( Me tz 1 967 ) , 9 6 -98 . 4 T heodor K lau ser , ' E ine S ta t ion s l i s te d er Me tzer K i rche a us d em 8 . J ah rhunder t , w ahr sche in i rchen l i ch e i n We rk Ch rodegang s ' , i n h i s G esamme l te A rbe i ten z u r L i tu rg iege sch ich te , K g e sch ich te u nd c hr i s t l ichen A rchao log ie

e d . E rn s t D as smann ( Jah rbuch f ur An t ike u nd

C h r i s ten tu m , E rganzung sband 3 , Müns te r /W 1 974 ) 3 8 -43 . 5 Voge l , a r t .c i t . , p .99 ;a nd O ex le , a r t .c i t . , p .289 . 6 O ex le , a r t .c i t . ,p .290 . 7 I b id . , p p .290 f . S igu lf t he Ang lo -Saxon w a s s ent t o Me tz f o r l i turg ica l t r a in ing , a nd C .8 00 L e id rad a sked f or a s s i s tance f r om Metz i ne s tab l i sh ing t he o rdo p salend i a t L yon s . 8 F o r a sma l l i nd ica t ion o f t he e normous i n f luence o f Ama lar iu s s ee Alen C aban i s s , Ama la r i u so f Metz -( Ams terdam 1 954 ) , 9 1-95 ;R e inhard Möncheme ier , Ama lar v on Metz , s e in L eben u nd s e ine S ch r if ten :

E in B e i trag z ur t heo log i schen L i t tera tu rge sch ich te u nd z u r G esch ich te

d e r l a te in i schen L iturg ie i m M it te la l te r i n K i rchenge sch ich t l iche S tud ien , 1 . 3 -4 , ( Mün s te r /W 1 893) ; a nd Roge r E . R eyno lds , ' L i tu rg ica l S cho la r sh ip a t t he T ime o f t he I nve s t i ture C on t r ove r sy : P a s t R e sea rch a nd F uture Oppor tun i t ies ' , H arvard T heo log ica l R ev iew l xx i ( 1978 ) , 16f . 9 S ee M iche l And r ieu , L es ' Ord ines Roman i ' d u H au t Moyen A ge ( hereaf te r And r ieu ) I .l e manu scr i ts ( Sp ic i leg ium s acrum l ovan ien se :

4 tudes e t d ocumen t s 1, L ouva in 1 931) 9 0 ;

a nd K laus Gamber , C od ice s l i turg ic i l a t in i a n t iqu io re s 2 nd e d . [ hereaf ter CLLA ] ( Sp ic i l e g i i F r iburgen s i s S ub s id ia , F re iburg /S 1 968) , n r . 1 065 . 1 0S ee B ernha rd B i schof f , ' P anorama d er Han d sch r i f tenüber l ieferung a u s d er Z e i t K ar ls d e s G ro s sen ' , K ar l d e r G ro s se :

L eben swe rk u nd N ach leben , 2 . Da s g e i s t ige L eben , e d . B e rnha rd

B i schof f( Düs se ldor f 1 965) , 2 35 , n . 12 . 1 S ee CLLA n r . 111 . 1 2S ee D rogo -Sak ramen tar , Manuscr i t L a t in 9 428 , B ibl io theque N a t iona le , P ar i s : Vol s t. a . n d ige F ak s im i le -Au sgab e i m O r ig ina lforma t :

Kommenta r , W i lhe lm

K a ro l ing i sche

F lorent ine

M in iaturen

3 ,

e d .

2 83

Koeh le r ( + ) , Auszug a u s

Mü ther ich

( Graz

1 974) ,

1 .

1 3J . Hube r t , J . P o rche r , W .F . Vo lbach , T he C a ro l ing ian R ena i s sance ( The A r ts o f M ank ind : N ew Yo rk 1 970) , 2 35 . 1 4F loren t ine M i i the r ich a nd J oach im E . G aehde , C arol ing ian P a in t ing ( New York 1 976 ) , 8 8f . 1 5E rn s t H . K antorow i cz , L aude s R eg iae :

A S tudy i n L i tu rg ica lA cc lama t ions a nd M ed iaeva l

Ru le r Wor sh ip ( Berke ley 1 946 ) , 2 7 , 7 3 . C f . O ex le , a r t .c i t . , p .303 . 1 6 Roge r E . R eyno ld s , The O rd ina l s o f C hr i s t f rom t he i r O r ig in s t o t he Twe lf th C en tury ( Be i • . t r age z u r G esch ich te u nd Quelenkunde d es M i t te la l te r s 7 ,B er l in 1 978) , 7 5f . 1 7 Oex le , a r t .c i t . , p .356 . 1 8 Hube r t ,C a ro l ing ian R ena i s sance , p . 356 , n rr . 2 3 1f . 1 9S ee i b id , p .351, n r . 1 40 ; CLLA n r . 7 71, a nd t he f a c s im i le e d i t ion i n S ak ramenta r v on M e tz : MS . L a t . 141 , B ibl io theque N a t iona le , P ar i s .

Vol sf änd ige F ak s im i le Ausg . , I n t ro . b y F .

M i i the r ich ( Cod ices S e lec t i 2 8 , G raz 1 972 ) . 2 0 Among t he se o b jec t s a r e t he c omb o f S t H er iber t i nt he S chn uit g en Mu seum , t he B run sw ick c a ske t , a nd t he s i de p ane l o f ac a ske t i n t he Kof le r C o l lec t ion , L ucerne , o n wh ich s e e H u b e r t ,C a rol ing ian R ena i s sancg , p p .233 -39 . 2 1 S ee Huber t , C aro l ing ian R ena i s sance , p p .233 -39 ; a nd J ean -Bap t i s te P e l t , ' La b ib l io theque d el ac a thed ra le ' ,i n L a c athd d ra le d e Metz , e d . Ma rce l Aube r t( Pa r i s 1 931) , 3 13f . 2 2The e xac t d a te o f t he S acramen tary i si n d i spu te , o n wh ich s e e Hube r t , C a ro l ing ian R ena i s s ance , p . 160 ; Koeh le r , Au szug ( no te 1 2 a bove ) , p . 17 ; a nd F ranz Un terk i rcher , Z ur I kono g raph ie u nd L i tu rg ie d e s D rogo -Sak ramen ta r s [ Par i s , B ib l io theque n a t iona le , M s . L a t . 9 428 ] ( In terpre ta t iones a d Cod ices 1 : G raz 1 977) , 1 0f . 2 3S ee R oge r E . R eyno lds , ' The P or tra i t o f t he E cc les ia s t ica l O f f ice r s i n t he R agana ldu s S ac ra men tary a nd i t s L i turg ico -Canon ica l S ign if icance ' ,

S pecu lum

x l v i ( 1971) , 4 37f .; a nd J ean

D e shus se s , L e s ac ramen ta i re g re gor ien , s e s p r inc ipa le s f orme s d ' apres l e s p lu s a nc ien s manu s c r i ts ( Sp ic i leg ium F r ibu rg ense 1 6 , F r ibou rg iS 1 971) , 6 6 -70 . 2 4F o r ad e scr ipt ion o ft he m in ia tu res s ee Un te rk i rcher , Z u r I konog raph ie , p p .13 -23 . 2 5S ee , e . g . , T heodo r B og , ler , ` Ö s te r l iche S zenen a uf d em E lf enbe indecke l d e s D rogo -Sak ramen t a r s ' , i n y a schal i s S o l lemn ia :

S tud ien z u O s te rf e ier u nd O s ter f röm m igke i t , e ds . B a l tha sa r

F i scher a nd J ohanne s Wagner ( Ba se l 1 959 ) , 1 08 19 a nd p l s . 1 7 . 2 6C a ro l H e i tz , ' Le g roupe c a thedra l d e Me tz a u t emps d e s a int Ch rodegang ' , i n S a in t C hrode g ang , p .126 . 2 7C f . D .R . D endy , The U se o f L ight s i n C hr i s t ian Wor sh ip ( A lcu in C lub C olect ions 4 1 , L on d on 1 959 ) , 2 0 . 2 7a F or a c onven ien t d e scr ipt ion o f l i turg ica l v e s tmen t s s e e J o seph B raun , D ie L i tu rg i sche Gewandung i m O cc iden t u nd O r ien t ( F re ibu rg /Br . 1 907) . 2 8J o seph B raun , D er c h r i stl iche A l ta r i n s e iner g e sch ich tl ichen E n tw ick lung ( Mun ich 1 924 ) , 1 34 a nd p l . 1 44 .

2 84

2 9

C yr i l E . P ocknee , T he Ch r i s t ian A l ta ri nH i s to ry a nd T oday ( London 1 963) , 9 4 .

3 0

H e i tz , ' Le g roupe c a thed ra le d e Me tz ' , p . 126 a nd p l .

3 1

R eyno lds , ' Por t ra i t o ft he E cc le s ia s t ica l O f f ice r s ' , p .433 , n .9 a nd f i g . 6 b .

3 2

C h . Rohau l t d e F leu ry , L a Mes se : 1 883) , 6 6f .

t udes a r ch4o log ique s s u r s e s monumen t s 1( Par i s

F o r t he d e scr ipt ion o f K rau s s e e L ou i s Webe r , E inbanddecken , E lf enbe in ta -

f e ln , M in ia tu ren , S ch r i f tenp roben a u s Me tze r l i turg i schen H and sch r i f ten I : j e tz ige P ar i ser H andschr if ten ( Me tz -F rankfur t /M 1 913) , 7 10 . 3 3

O n t he e a r l ie s t C onf i teo r f o rmu la s e e J oseph A . J ungmann , T he Ma s s o ft he Roman R i te : i t s O r ig in s a nd D eve lopmen t [ M i s sa rum S o l lemn ia ] t r s . F ranc i s A . B runner , ( New York 1 955) , i .2 99 , c i t ing t he t en th -cen tury MS , P ar i s BN l a t . 9 432 ; o n wh ich s e e CLLA , n r . 9 10 .

The S acramenta ry o f S t G a t ien , w i th i t s C onf i teor d a ted t o t he n in th ten th c entury

b y J ungmann , I ,p .299 , n . 6 , i si n r ea l i ty f r om t he e ar ly e l even th c en tu ry ; o n wh ich s ee A ime -Geo rge s Mar t imor t , L a D ocumen ta t ion l i turg ique

d e d om E dmond Mar tene : E tude

c od i co log ique ( S tud i eT e s t i 2 79 : V a t ican C i ty 1 978 ) , 2 18 , n r . 3 23 . 3 4

C h . P f is te r ,

L 'a rcheveque

d e Metz D rogon ' , i n M4 langes P au l F ab re ( Par i s 1 902 ) . 1 42f .

3 5

DACL X I .867f .

3 6

J ungmann , Mas s o ft he R oman R i te , 4 54 .

3 7

W eber , E inbanddecken i .7 10 .

3 8

S ee Ado lf G o ld schm id t , D ie E lfenbe insku lp tu ren a u s d e r Z e i t d e r k aro l ing i schen u nd i ch s i schen Ka i ser i( Be r l in 1 914 ) , 4 2 , who p ra i ses t he d esc r ip t ion o f t he s cene s b y D e la r oche , Dupon , a nd L enorman t .

3 9

M au r ice V lobe rg , L 'Eucha r i s t ie d an s P ar t ( Grenob le 1 946) , 5 6 , 6 2f . , a nd 1 39 , n . 3 8 .

4 0

S ee a bove , n .25 .

4 1

T heodor B og ler , 'W s B i ld i m D ien s te d e r Mes ska teche se ' , i n D ie Me s se i n d er G lauben1.

s v erkund igung :

K erygma t i sche F ragen , e d s . F ranz X aver A rno ld a nd B a l thas ar F i scher

( Fr e iburg /S 1 950 ) , 2 53 . 4 2

D ie Me sse p l s . 1 5 .

4 3

O t to Nus sbaum , D e r S tandor t d es L i tu rg en am c hr i s t l ichen A l tar v or d em J ah re 1 000 : E ine a rc li aeo log i sche u nd l i turg iegesch ich tl iche Unter suchung ( Theophane ia :

B e iträge z ur

R el ig ionsund K irchenge sch ich te d e s A l ter tums , B onn 1 965) , i .3 10 , 3 59 , 4 34 , n . 8 8 , 4 22 ; i . p l . x xx i i w i th d raw ing s o f t he Ma s s c ove r t aken f r om R . R ohau l t d e F leury , L a m e s se i( Par i s 1 883 ) , p l . 4 . 4 4 •A .G . Mar t imor t , L 'Eg l i se e n p r ie re : p p .256 -57 .

• I n troduct ion a l a l i tu rg ie(Pa r i s 1 961) , p l . b e tween

A l so c f . t he E ng l . t r s . T he Church a t P rayer :

T he E ucha r i s t ( Shannon 1 973) ,

p l . b etween p p .26-27 . 4 5

F or

s ome

o f

t he se

c ommenta r ie s

s ee

R eyno lds ,

2 85

' L i tu rg ica l

S cho lar sh ip ' ,

p p .110f .

4 6

F or t he Ma s s c ommen ta r ie s a t tr ibu ted t o Ama la r ius s ee Ama la rü e p i scop i Opera l i turg ica omn ia 3 v o l s . , e d . J ean M iche l H an s sens ( S tüd i eT e s t i 1 38 -40 :

V a t ican C i ty 1 948 -50) ,

i . 2 53 -81 ( M i s sae e xpo s i t ion i s g em inu s c odex ) ; 2 83 -338 ( Canon i s m i s sae i n te rpre ta t io) ; 9 565 , e sp . 2 55 -372 ( L ib er o f f ic ia l i s ) ; i i . 2 25 -65 ( Ec logae d e o rd ine r o mano ) ; 2 96 -315 ( Ord in i s t o t ius m i s sae e xpos i t io p r ior ) ; 3 16 -21 ( Ord in i s t o t ius m i s sae e xpo s i t io a l te ra) . 4 7

H an s sens l i . 2 25 -65 .

4 8

S ee a bove , n . 9 .

4 9

O ther n in th cen tury MSS o f OR I b es ide s B e rn BB 2 89 l i s ted b y Andr ieu 1 . 3 a r e : B ib l . R ochegude 4 2 ( ex . IX s . :

S . F rance ) , C o logne , Domb ib l . 1 38 ( i n . IX s . :

A lb i ,

C o logne?) ,

Mon tpe ll ie r , B ib l . Un iv . ( Mid ) 4 12 ( i n . I) ( s : v i c . o f T our s ) , Mun ich , C lm 1 4510 ( 826 -27 : R egen sbu rg ) , P a r i s , BN L a t . 1 4088 ( s . IX : C orb ie ) , V a t ican , P a l . l a t . 4 87 ( i n . IXs . : L or sch ) , S i . Ga l l , S t i f tsb ib l . 6 14 ( 2 /2 I X s . :

S t G a l l ) , V e rona , B ib l . c ap . XC I I ( i n . IX s . :

V e rona ) , Wo lfenb i i t te l , H erz . -Aug . -B ib l . 4 175 ( i n . IX s . : We i s senburg ) , a nd Z ur ich , Z en t ra l b ib l . C ar . C 1 02 ( s . IX /X : Uppe r Rh ine? ) . 5 0

T he o n ly n in th -cen tury MS o f t h i s o rdo l i s ted b y Andr ieu 1 . 4 , i sS t G al 6 14 ( on wh ich s ee a bove n .4 9 ) .

5 1

T he re a re a t l e a s t f i ve e igh th - o r n inth -cen tu ry MSS o f t h i s o rdo l i s ted b y Andr ieu 1 . 4 : B ru s se l s , B ib l . R oy . 1 0127 -44 ( s .V I I I / IX :

NE F rance ) , C o logne 1 38 , S t . G al 6 14 , V erona

XC I I a nd Wo lfenb l i t te l 4 175 ( on wh ich s ee a bove n .4 9 ) . 5 2

K lau s G ambe r , ' De r O rdo Romanus I V :

e i n Dokumen t d er r avenha t i schen L i tu rg ie d e s 8

J h . ' , Röm i sche Quar ta l schr if t l xv i ( 1971) ,

1 54 -70 ; r epr in ted a s ' D ie Mes sl i turg ie v on

R avenna n ach d em O rdo Romanus I V ' , i n L i turg ie u nd K i rchenbau :

S tud ien z u r G es -

c h ich te d er Mes s fe ie r u nd d es Go t te shause s i n d er F r Uze i t ( S tud ia p a tr i s t ica e t l i turg ica 6 : R egen sburg 1 976) , 1 20 -39 . 5 3

T he o n ly MS o f t h i s o rdo l i s ted b y A ndr ieu 1 . 5 , i sP ar i s , BN L a t . 9 74 , an in th -cen tury MS whose p rovenance i sS t Amand .

5 4

And r ieu l i s ts n o MSS o ft h i s o rdo b efor e t he t en th c en tury .

5 5

A l l o f t he MSS o f t h i s Mes s ine o rdo a re l a te a nd c on ta in t he t ex t p r in ted b y G eo rge C as s ander , O rdo R omanu s d e o f f ic io m i s sae :

L ibe ll i a l iquo t p erve tus t i e t a u thent ic i . .( Co -

l ogne 1 561) , f o l s . 1 6v -24 r . Andr ieu 2 .236 , g i ves s evera l r e a sons , n o t a l l e qua l ly c onv inc ing , f or a s s ign ing t he o rdo t o Me tz . 5 6

T he o n ly MS o f t h i s o rdo l i s ted b y Andr ieu 1 .7 i sS t Ga l l 6 14 ( on wh ich s ee a bove n .49 ) .

5 7

And r ieu 1 . 8 , l i s t s n o n inth cen tury MSS o ft h i s o rdo .

5 8

Andr ieu 1 . 11 , l i s t s f i ve e i gh th - a nd n in th cen tury MSS o f t h i s o rdo :

H ague Mus . M ee rm . -

Wes t . 1 0 .B .4 ( s .V I I I 2: N . F rance /Bourge s?) , Mon tpe l l ier 4 12 a nd Wo lf enb l it te l 4 175 ( on

2 86

w h ich s ee n . 4 9 ) , V a t ican , R eg . l a t . 127 ( 2 /4 I Xs . : 3 49 ( 2 /2 V I I Is . :

S t . Ga l l ; C .L .A . 9 38) .

F rance ) , a nd S t . Ga l l , S t if t sb ib l .

T he re i sa l so al o s t L aon MS o ft he n in th c en tury

c on ta in ing t h is o rdo g i ven i n B ugn ie tre 's c a ta logue o f L aon MSS , o n w h ich s e e J ohn J . C on tren i , ' A n ew d e scr ip t ion o f t he l o s t L aon manusc r ip t o f t he " Colect io H i spana G a l l i ca" , Bu l le t in o f Med ieva l C anon L aw n . s .vü ( 1977 ) , 8 9 , n .4 , c i t ing MS 3 6; a nd Huber t Mordek , K i r chenr ech t u nd R efo rm i m F rankenr e ich :

D ie C olec t io V e tus G a l l ica , d i e

ä l te s te s y s tema t i sche K anone s samm lung d es f r änk ischen Ga l l ien :

S tud ien u nd E d i t ion

( Be i träge z ur G esch ich te u nd Quelenkunde d e s M i t te la l te r s 1 ,B er l in 1 975) , 5 5f . , n . 8 1 . 5 9

A ndr ieu 1 . 12 l i s t s t wo e i gh th - o r n in th -cen tu ry MSS o ft h i s o rdo : Gotha , F or schung sb ib l . Mbr . 1 . 85 ( s . V I I I / IX

E l sa s s? ; C .L .A . 1 209 ) a nd V a t ican P a l . l a t . 5 74 ( s .V I I I / IX :

Upper

R h ine; C .L .A . 9 6) . 6 0

OR I .4 5-49 ; Andr ieu 2 .8 1-3 .

6 1

OR I V . 1 4 ; And r ieu 2 . 159 .

6 2

I I .1; H an s sens

6 3

OR V . 1 5 ; Andr ieu 2 .211 .

6 4

OR I X . 3 , 4 , X .6; Andr ieu 2 .330 , 3 52 . I n OR V I 2 1, Andr ieu 2 .244 , t he b i shop c ome s i n t o t he t r ibuna l o f t he c hurch a f te r h e h a s p a s sed t h rough l i nes o ft h ree a nd f our t aper s ( a s w a s t he c a se i n OR 1 . 49 , Andr ieu 2 .83) .

I n OR XV .13 , Andr ieu 3 .98 , t he p ope i ss up -

p or ted b y d eacon s , a nd i n OR XV I I .21 , And r ieu 3 . 178 , d eacons s t and t o t he p r ie s t 's r i gh t a nd l e f t . 6 5

I I .v .13; H an s en s 1275 .

I t may a l so b e f i ve o r t hree d eacons a ccord ing t o I I .v .14 , 1 5 ;

H an ssens 1 .275f . 6 6

On t he l a vabo a t t he o b la t ion c f . OR I7 5f . , ( i n j Y .36 t he l a vabo i sb efo re t he r e cep t ion o f o b la t ions , b u t t he i mpl i ca t ion i st ha t t he b i shop i ss ea ted ) , V .47 , V I 4 2f ( where t he b i shop s i t s f o r t he l a vabo o f t he a rchdeacon ) , I X .24 , X .41-44 , XV 2 6f . ( where t he b i shop s i ts a nd w a shes h i s h and s ) 3 0 , a nd XV I I .36f . ( whe re t he b i shop s i t s a f ter t he O remu s t o w a sh h i s h ands ) ; Andr ieu 2 .92 , 1 61, 2 19 , 2 47 , 3 33 , 3 58f . ; 3 . 100f . , 1 80 . T o a rgue , a sw a s d one i n t he v o lume D ie Me sse , t ha t t he re i sd ep icted h ere t he l a vabo i si mp lau s ib le i nl i gh t o f t he se s ame O rd ine s R oman i , wh ich s pec i fy t ha t a f ter t he g i f t s a r e r ece ived f rom t he w o men ( a s i n p ane l 3 a , l e f t ) a nd b efore t hose o f t he c l e rgy a r e p l aced o n t he a l ta r( pane l 3 c , r i gh t) , t he b i shop g oe s t o h i s s ea t f o r t he l a vabo . S ee a bove , n o te 4 2 .

6 7

OR I . 49 ; And r ieu 2 .83 .

6 8

OR I V .15 , V I .21, XV .14 ; A ndr ieu 2 . 159 , 2 44 ;3 .98 .

6 9

OR V .17 ; And r ieu 2 .212 .

7 0

V I .1 ;H an s sens 1 1 .234 .

C f . OR D C .6 , X .13 , XV II , 2 4 ; Andr ieu 2 . 330 , 3 54 ; 3 .178 .

2 87

7 1

OR I V .15f . ; And r ieu 2 . 159 .

7 2

OR I . 49f . :

P er trans i t p on t if ex i n c apu t s co lae e t i nc l ina t c apu t a d a l ta re . .e t d a t p acem

Qua r tu s u ero s co lae p raeced i t a n te p ont i f icem u t p ona t o ra tor ium a n te a l tare e t a c c eden s p ont ifex o ra t s uper i p sum . . ') ; Andr ieu 2 .83 .

OR V .17 , And r ieu 2 .211f . , c l o se ly

r e semb les OR 1 . 49 , b u t t he re i sn o p a ra l le l t o 1 . 50 . I n OR X .12f . ; Andr ieu 2 .353f . , t he r e i s ad epr eca tory p rayer b e fore t he p ax .

I n OR XV .14f . ; a nd XV I I .98 , 1 78f . , t he p on t if f

b ow s i n p raye r b e fore t he p ax , a nd o n r each ing t he a l ta r h e p ro s tra te s h imse lf i n p rayer . 7 3

OR V I .21f . ; Andr ieu 2 .244 .

7 4

OR I V .15f . ; And r ieu 2 . 159 .

7 5

I n OR I X .8 , Andr ieu 2 .330 , t he b i shop i sl ed t o t he a l ta r b y d eacon s whe re h e p rays , t he a co ly tes r ema in ing where t he b i shop w a s i n I X .6 , b u t i n o ur p ane l t he a co ly te s w i th c and le s a nd t hu r ib le a re n ex t t o t he a l ta r , a l though o ne d oes s t and b eh ind t he e p i scopa l p a r ty .

7 6

OR 1 . 51, I V .17f . , V .21, V I .23 , I X .10 , X .18 , a nd XV I I .26 ; And r ieu 2 .83 , 1 59 ,213 , 2 45 , 3 31 ,355 ;3 .179 .

7 7

OR 1 . 51; And r ieu 2 .83 .

7 8

OR I V .18 -21; And r ieu 2 . 159f .

N us sbaum ( s ee a bove , n .43 ) h a s a rgued t ha t t he c a thedra

i sa ga in s t t he e a s t w al o f t he a pse i n OR Io n t he b a s i s o ft he D rogo c ove r . I n t he D rogo p ane l 2 b i t wou ld a ppea r t ha t t he c a thedra may b e a t t he b a se o ft he a pse b ut t h i s i sn o t a b so lu te ly c e r ta in .

C yr i l le Voge l , ' Ve r sus a d o r ientem :

R oman i d u h au t moyen

L 'or ien ta t ion d ans l e s O rd ine s

S tud i med ieva l i 3 rd s e r . i( 1960 ) , 4 61f . , a rgues f rom OR V .

2 1 t ha t t he c a thed ra , wh ich w a s o r ig ina l ly a tt he a p se b ase , w a s moved t o t he r i gh t h and o f t he a l ta r .

Wh i le OR V .21, Andr ieu 2 .2 13 , d oes n o t s t a te t h i s s pec if ica l ly -i ts ays o n ly t ha t

t he b i shop g oes ' a d d ex teram s edem s uam ' -i tc anno t b e d en ied i n o ur p ane l 2 b t ha t t he c a thed ra i st o t he r i gh t h and o f wha t may b e t he a l ta r w i th c i bor ium . 7 9

OR V .21; And r ieu 2 .213; E c logae X .1; H an s sen s ü i .238 .

I n OR V .24 , V I .25 , I X .10 12 ,

X .18 -22 ( wh ere t he b i shop ' s t h rone i s` dex tro c ornu a l tar i s ' ) a nd XV .123 , Andr ieu 2 . 213 , 2 45 , 3 31 , 3 55 ; 3 . 121, t he r e i sn o d i rec t ion t ha t t he b i shop t urn e a st f or t he G lo r ia .

I n

OR XV .16f . , Andr ieu 3 .98f . , t he p ope g oes ' po s t a l ta re a d s edem ' a nd t urns e a s t f o r t he K yr ie a nd G lor ia .

I n OR XV I I .27f . , Andr ieu 3 . 179 , t he p r ies t g oe s ` r e tro a l ta re ' a nd

t urn s e a s t f or t he Kyr ie a nd G lor ia . 8 0

S ee a bove , n n . 3 4f . a nd 4 4 .

8 1

OR 1 . 53-55 ( i n S t Ga l l 6 14 ) ; Andr ieu 2 .84 -86 .

8 2

OR I V .23 -26 ; And r ieu 2 . 160 .

8 3

OR V .26-28 ; Andr ieu 2 .214 .

2 88

8 4

OR XV .18 -21 ; Andr ieu 3 .99 .

8 5

OR XVI I .31, 3 3; Andr ieu 3 . 179 .

8 6

OR 1 , 75 , 1 3 _ 7 .41, V I .41 , I X .21, X .38 ; Andr ieu 2 .92 , 1 62 , 2 47 , 3 32 , 3 58 .

I n OR V .45 ,

XV .28 , a nd XV I I .38 , And r ieu 2 .219 ; 3 . 101 , 1 80 , t he b i shop o r p r ies t r ece ives o b la t ions f r om t he p eop le . 8 7

OR I V .41, I X .21; Andr ieu 2 . 162 , 3 32 .

8 8

C f . Hube r t , C a rol ing ian R ena i s sance , p .29 , p l . 2 4 . F or as egmen t o f ac lo sure s l ab t ha t i s l e s s s im i lar t o t he D rogo s c ene s e e H uber t , p .276 , p l . 2 66 .

8 9

OR 1 . 82 ; And r ieu 2 .93 .

Th i s i s a l so t he c ase i n OR V .53 , V I .48 , a nd I X .28 ; And r ieu

2 .220 , 2 47 , 3 33 . 9 0

OR I V . 4 9 , Andr ieu 2 . 163 .

Th i s i s a l so t he c a se i n OR XV .32 , a nd XV I I .42 ; And r ieu

3 . 102 , 1 81 . 9 1

OR 1 . 84 , V .53 ; And r ieu 2 .93 , 2 20 . T h i s i sa l so t rue i n OR V I .48 ( a l so men t ion ing ` p r im i c e r i i ' ) a nd XY .32 ( a l so ment ion ing b i shop s ) ; Andr ieu 2 .247 ; 3 . 102 .

9 2

OR I V .49 ; And r ieu 2 . 163 .

9 3

OR 1 . 86 -88 ; Andr ieu 2 .95 .

9 4

OR V I .53 , XV .42 ( i n S t G a l l 6 14 ) , XV II .44 ; Andr ieu 2 .248 ; 3 . 104 , 1 81 .

9 5

OR L X .31; Andr ieu 2 . 334 .

I n t h i s o rdo t he a co ly te s h o ld p a ten s , b u t i n t he D rogo p ane l

3 b t hey h o ld t hu r ib les . 9 6

Q & .49

( ' cho ro . .c oram a l tar i r e t ro d i aconos ' ) ; And r ieu 2 . 360 .

9 7

E .g . , OR 1 . 117 , I V .76 , V .91; Andr ieu 2 . 105 , 1 66 , 2 26 .

9 8

OR I V .62 ; Andr ieu 2 . 165 .

I ts hou ld b e n o ted i n I V .57 , And r ieu 2 . 164 , t ha t t he b i shop

` u ad i t a d s edem s uam ' , b u t t here i sn o p rec i se s t a temen t t ha t h e s i ts . 9 9

OR 1 . 108 , I V .67 , V .83 , I X .42 ( the p on t i f f h a s r i sen f r om h i s s ea t a nd g i ve s p r ie s ts t he Ho s t ) , XV .57 ; Andr ieu 2 . 102 , 1 65 , 2 25 , 3 35 ; 3 . 109 .

1 00

OR V I .68; And r ieu 2 .249 .

2 89

V I L ITERATURE AND LEARN ING

2 91

1 5.

LATIN POETRY UNDER CHARLES THE BALD AND CAROL ING IAN POETRY P e ter G odman

La t in P oetry u nder C har les t he Ba ld T he La t in p oe try o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r e ign i s v irg in t err i tory .

T here

e x is ts n o b ook i n a ny l anguage d evo ted t o ac r i t ica l s tudy o f t he p oe try o f t h is p er iod , o r o ft he C aro l ing ian R ena issance a s awho le . A lthough a va i lab le f or t he b es t p ar t o f ac en tury i n s erv iceab le , i fn ot who l ly s a t isfac tory , e di t ions , t hese n eg lec ted t ex ts h ave e xerc ised o n ly ap assing a t trac t ion . 1 T he s ub jec t l i es b efore u s , l arge a nd i nv i t ing ; a nd y e t i t sv ery b readth a nd f reshness d eny a ny h ope o f t horough p ene tra t ion i n t he b r ief p assage o f as ing le p aper .

T he

f o l low i rg p ages t herefore s e t o ut o n ly t o d ef ine an u mber o fp rob l ems o f a pp roach t o L a t in p oe try i nt he l i fe t i me o f C har les t he Ba ld , a nd t o s igna l wha t i s d is t inc t ive a nd b es t a bou t i t . e n ter ing i ti n d ep th .

They w i l l t ouch u pon t he s ub jec t , w i thout

P opu lar a nd s cho lar ly v iews o f L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he B a ld a re j oined i n r are h ar mony , a nd t he t renchant r emarks o f P . S . A l len , wr i t ing a bou t C aro ling ian v erse , i l lus tra te t he ir c h ief p oin ts 'o f c oinc idence : Imay n ot s peak f or a nother , b ut Ib e lieve t he i nev i tab le s ensa t ion wh ich c o mes f ro m f i rs t r eading i n t he v o lu mes o f t he P oe tae a ev i Karo lin i i s o ne o fb it ter d isappoin tmen t .

I ti s p erhaps a s i fo ne 's

h and h ad r eached o ut h a lf u nconsc ious ly f or ab ook o fp oems a nd h ad p icked u p at ab le o f l ogar i thms i nstead .

2

I ti s t herefore n o a cc iden t t ha t , when we t urn f ro m works o fp opu lar isa t ion t o t he s tandard l i terary h istor ies o f Medieva l L a t in i n t h is p er iod , w e f i nd t ha t o ut f ocus i s t oo p rec ise .

A l l o ne h as a re t he s u m mary a ccoun ts wh ich g enera l

s urveys o f fer . T he n eg lec ted s tudy b y A do lf E ber t i s aw ork o f i ns igh t , a nd o f amp le , u na cknow ledged d eb ts t o t he H istoire l i t tera ire d e l a F rance .

3

R aby 4 a nd Ghe l-

l inck 5 h ave n o t ime t o l i nger o ver t he r e ign o f o ne Caro ling ian :

a n e n t ire

mi l lenn iu m i s g r is t t o t he ir mi l l . I n t he s ame v e in , a l though a t g rea ter l eng th , a re t he r ecen t h is tor ies o fJ . S zöverf fy 6 a nd F ranz B runhö lz 1 .7 Man it ius 8 r e ma ins o ur p rop a nd s tay .

T he f actua l g rasp o f Medieva l L a t in

h is w r i t ing d isp lays a t e very t urn r e ma ins u nequa l led .

B ut t he l earning masks

af undamenta l d isorder . Man i t ius ' a ccoun t s tands u neas i ly b etween c onven t iona l , c hrono log ica l l i terary h istory a nd wha t t he G er mans c a l l Ga t tungsgesch ich te : t he h is tory o f l i terary g enres .

H e d iv ides Medieva l L a t in l i tera ture i n to

p er iods , a nd t hen i n to c a tegor ies :

h is tory , t heo logy , p h i lo logy .

T he d rawback

o f t h is a pproach i s t ha t e ar ly medieva l p oe ts d id n ot r espec t Man i t ius ' c a teg or ies . A l l t he ' un iversa le S chr if ts te l ler ' l i s ted i n t he C aro l ing ian s ect ion 2 93

o f Man i t ius ' b ook were p oe ts o r , a t l eas t , v ers if iers , a s were many o f t he wr i ters who m Man i t ius c lass if ies a s t heo log ians a nd g ra mmar ians . O ne c ann ot f o l low Man i t ius ' h istory a s ag uide t o L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld b ecause more t han h a lf t he p oe ts o ft ha t r e ign a re c lassif ied e lsewhere : u nder h istory , p h i lo logy—even g eography . F ro m E ber t o ne c an g lean i deas , f ro m Man i t ius i n forma t ion a nd , f ro m t he r es t , s upp lemen tary o pin ion . Ba ld i s y e t t o b e wr i t ten .

B ut a s tudyof L a t inpoe try u nder C har les t he

Ap anorama o f Medieva l L a t in l i terature i s n o l onger t he c on tex t i n wh ich t he p oe try o ft h is p er iod c an b e u nders tood a nd a pprec ia ted . There i s n eed f or ad if feren t k ind o f s tudy , o ne t ha t e xamines t he v erse o f C har les t he B a ld 's r e ign i n i t s C aro ling ian c on tex t , a nd c ons iders i t s l i terary h istory i nt he l i gh t o f i t s t extua l t rans m iss ion . L et me a t tempt b r ief ly t o i l lus tra te a nd s uppor t t hese c on ten t ions , b eg inn ing w i th a s urvey o f t he p r imary , manuscr ip t , e v id ence wh ich w i l l d irec t o ur a pproach t o L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld .

T he t rans m iss ion o f t he L a t in p oe ts a t w ork i nt he r e ign o f C har les t he Ba ld , a nd o f C aro ling ian p oe ts i n g enera l , t akes a n e ssen t ia l ly d i f feren t f orm f ro m t ha t o f t he ir mos t i m media te c o m mon mode l , t he Merov ingian b ishop , c our t ier a nd g our me t , V enan t ius F ortuna tus . F ortuna tus , i n t he s ix th c en tury , was s t i l l w r i t ing i n t he l i terary t radi t ions o ft he l a te A n t ique wor ld . T h is i s a pparen t n ot o n ly f ro m t he s ty le a nd g enres o f h is p oe try , b ut a lso f ro m i t s s urv iva l i n m a nuscr ip t .

9

T here s urv ive c odices

wh ich p reserve , s epara te ly f ro m F ortunatus ' me tr ica l V i ta S . Mar t in i , c o mp le te o r n ear-co mp le te w i tnesses t o t he e leven-book c o l lec t ion o f h is o ccas iona l v erse .

A manuscr ipt s uch a s Va t ican B ib l ioteca A pos to l ica R eg . l a t . 3 29 ( s .

I X med . )t rans m i ts , t oge ther w i th s o me A ldhe lm a nd S ymphos ius , mos t o f F ortunatus ' o ccas iona l p oe try a s ac ol lec t ion , s pec ify ing i t s a uthorsh ip a nd s et t ing o u t a' t ab le o f c on ten ts ' .

An u mber o f manuscr ipts , o f wh ich [ Paris ]

B [ ib liotheque ] N [a t iona le ] l a t . 9 347 ( s . D ( 1/4 , R e ims )is r epresen ta t ive , a ss im i la te t h is c o l lec t ion a s awho le t o t he C aro ling ian c anon o f l a te A nt ique B ib l ica l e p ic . 1 0 I n a n a pprec iab le n u mber o f manuscr ip ts , t he o ccas iona l p oe try o f V enan t ius F ortuna tus s urv ives a s ad is t inc t a nd c o mp lete e n t i ty . N o C aro ling ian p oe t

i s t rans mi t ted i n t h is way .

1 1

A c o mp le te manuscr ip t

c o l lec t ion o f A lcuin 's o r H rabanus Maurus ' o r H e ir ic o f A uxerre 's v erse — to men t ion o n ly men o f eminence—has n ever b een r ecorded .

C aro l ing ian p oe try ,

u n l ike t he o ccas iona l v erse o f F ortuna tus , i s more of ten t rans mit ted i n manus cr ip ts wh ich r ange o ver t he v erse o f s evera l h undred y ears , c o mb in ing a nd o f ten c on f la t ing C aro l ing ian w i th La te A n t ique a nd e ar ly Med ieva l L a t in p oe try , o r w i th p rose . G enera l ly t rans m i t ted w i thou t n o t ice o f a u thorsh ip a nd s eldom o n i t s own , t he c o mp leteness o f a ny g iven Caro l ing ian p oe t 's work i sd i f f icu l t t o a ssess , a s c an b e s een f ro m t he t ex tua l t rad i t ion o f ap oet who m Is ha ll d iscuss l a ter i n t h is p aper , Ermo ldus N igel lus . E r mo ldus N ige l lus t I n H onore m H ludow ic i P u is urv ives i n t wo manuscr ip ts : V ienna ö [sterre ich ische ] N [a t iona l ] b[ i b l io thek ] 6 14 ( s . I X ) a nd [ London ] Br i t ish L ibrary , H ar ley 3 685 , af if teen th-cen tury c opy o f a( probab ly ) Ang lo2 94

S axon e xe mp lar , wh ich i s a lso t he s o le w i tness t o E r mo ldus ' p anegyr ics o n K ing P ippin . 1 2 T here i s n o c o mpe l ling r eason t o b e lieve t ha t t he p oe try c ont a ined i n t hese t wo c od ices , c enturies a par t i n d a te , i s a l l t ha t E rmo ldus N ige l lus e ver wro te . T he t hread o f s urv iva l i s t enuous , a nd , a f ter t he p aneg yr ic o n L ouis t he P ious i n V ienna Ö . N . B . 6 14 ( f . 6 6 v) , aq uire i s l ack ing . Were t he p oems I n L aude m P ippin i R eg isnow p reserved o n ly i n H ar ley 3 685 o r ig ina lly c on ta ined i n V ienna U . N .B . 6 14 w i th , p erhaps , more o f E r mo ldus ' v erse? P ossib le l acunae a re ma tched b y d ef in i te g aps .

E inhard was c ounted a s a

l ead ing c on te mporary p oe tb y Moduin o f A utun a nd o thers ,

1 3

b u t n ot a l i ne o f

e x ta n t Caro ling ian p oe try c an b e a t tr ibuted t o h im w i th c er ta in ty .

1 4

T he p re-

v a i l ing i ndif ference o r n eg l igence o f medieva l c opy ists a bout t he a uthorsh ip o f C aro ling ian p oe t ic t ex ts h as p roduced modern misa t tr ibut ions :

f or more

t han t hree h undred y ears , o ne o f A lcuin 's b est l yr ics h as b een a ss igned t o h is p up i l F redug is ,1 5 a nd t he a don ic v erses a d F ido liu m w r it ten b y a Caro ling ian C o lumbanus h ave l ong b een c onsidered t he w ork o f t he f ounder o f L uxue i l a nd B obb io .

1 6

A manuscr ipt d evo ted t o as ing le C aro l ing ian p oe t , s uch a s Va t ican R eg . l a t . 4 69 ( s . DO , S t . Ga l len ) , 1 7 w h ich c on ta ins v erse o n ly b y Wa la fr id S trabo , C har les t he Ba ld 's t u tor , i s t he r are e xcept ion r a ther t han t he r u le . O f T heodu lf 's e igh ty p oe ms , f if ty-one a re p reserved o n ly i n t he e di t io p r inceps o f S irmond , o ur s o le w i tness t o al os t medieva l manuscr ip t . 1 8 S ir mond 's c orpus r evea ls n o c lear p rinc ip le o f o rgan isa t ion , e i ther a ccording t o g enre o r b y d a te o f c o mpos i t ion . 1 9 T he n earest o ne c o mes i n t he e xtan t t rans mission t o am isce l lany o f e xc lus ive lyCaro ling ian v erse i s Va t ican R eg . l a t . 2 978 ( c . 8 00 , R e ims ) , 20 wh ich c o mb ines p oe try b y T heodu lf a nd ' H ibern icus E xu l ' w i th p oetry v ar ious ly a t tr ibuted t o B ernow in a nd A ng i lber t .

E ven i n t he u n-

u sua l c ase o f t ha t manuscr ipt , t he C aro ling ian p oe ts a re c omb ined w i th A id h e im , A lc i mus Av itus a nd P ruden t ius .

F or many i mpor tan t t ex ts we r e ly o n

ac odex u n icus . B r i t ish L ibrary , A ddi t iona l MS . 1 1034 ( s . E X )2 1 i s o ur o n ly s ource f or Moduin o f A utun 's E g loga , a nd i ts urv ives i n t he c o mpany o f A ra tor .

We h ave manuscr ip ts , b oth e x tan t a nd r econs truc t ib le , wh ich t rans-

mi t an u mber o fp oems b y i ndiv idua l wr i ters , a nd we h ave manuscr ip ts wh ich t ransm it a l l t ha t s urv ives o f ag iven p oe t 's w ork . B u t n o manuscr ip t c onta ini ng C aroling ian v erse c lear ly p resen ts a nd i den t if ies t he c o mp le te p oe t ic c orpus o f a ny s ing le a u thor a s B . N . l a t . 9 347 p resen ts a nd i dent if ies t he c o mp le te o ccasiona l p oe try o f F or tuna tus . O ur e xtant w itnesses t o t he t radi t ion o f C aro ling ian p oe try , e ven i fi nc omp le te ,a re , Ib e lieve , r epresen ta t ive . We h ave n o g ood r eason t o s uppose t ha t g rea t c o l lec t ions w ere made a nd h ave b een l os t ; o ur manuscr ipt e v idence p o in ts t o d ispersed a nd s ca t tered p roduc t ion , o ccas iona l ly g a ther ing p oems t oge ther i n g roups w i th n o t ice o ft he ir a u thorsh ip , most of ten n ot . t uré t o b e s e tb efore t he mind 's e ye ,

' The p ic-

a s H ous man wrote o f t he t ex t o f L ucan ,

' i s t he E gyp t ian De l ta , an e twork o f wa tercourses a nd c ana ls . ' 2 2 I n wr i ting a bout La t in p oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld o ne mus t b e a ware o f t he l im i ta t ions o fo ur manuscr ipt s ources .

T here i s ar isk o f wr i t ing a bout a r ivu le t a s i f

i tw ere a s trea m , a nd s ee ing o n ly d eser t where o nce t here was a l ake .

2 95

T he L a t in p oe try o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r e ign c an b ec onsidered a s p ar t o f at radi t ion , d iscon t inuous b ut s t i l l p owerfu l , wh ich r eaches b ack t o t ha t o f h is g randfa ther , C har lemagne . F or t h is r eason , i ti s u nprof i tab le t o a t te mp t t o s epara te t he p oe try wr it ten d ur ing h is l i fe t i me f ro m t he v erse c o mposed wh i le h e was k ing . R egna l y ears ma t ter l ess t han t he w ider Caro l ing ian a nd i n te l lectua l c on tex t f or t h is b ody o fp oe try , wh ich Iw i l l n ow o ut line .

I n t he y ears 7 80-814 , a t t he c our ts o f C har lemagne , emerges a l arge b ody o f p oe try t ha t c an b e c ons idered a s a n i n tel l ig ible , i fd ivers if ied , w ho le. 23 I n t he n in th c en tury , u n t i l t he e nd o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r eign , t h is t rend c ont inues . U nder C har le magne , a nd i n t he Caro l ing ian p er iod a f ter C har les t he Ba ld , t he d om inan t c en tres o f l i terary p roduc t ion a re l oca l i ns t i tu t ions o f t he C hurch . The p oetry wr i t ten i n t he m , b efore a nd a f ter t he C aro l ing ians , i s d is t inc t ive ly r eg iona l .

U nder C har lemagne a nd , a ga in , i n t he r e ign o f h is g randson , t here

a ppears a n i mpor tan t a ddi t iona l f ocus f or p oe t ic a c t iv i ty i n t he u n i fy ing c en tres o f t he r oya l a nd i mper ia l c our ts . T he v erse c omposed a t t hese c our ts a nd i n c en tres a ssoc ia ted w i th t hem p rov ides j us t if ica t ion f or t he t arn ished l abe l ' Caro l ing ian R ena issance ' .

B efore C har lemagne a nd h is d escendan ts —s ince ,

i n f ac t , t he t ime o f V enant ius F ortuna tus —no s izeab le b ody o f La t in p oe try c en tred u pon ama jor c our t c irc le h as s urv ived o r a ppears t o h ave b een p rod uced .

2 4

I ti s c o m mon p rac t ice t o s peak o f t wo ' Caro ling ian R ena issances '; o f o ne t ha t t ook p lace u nder C har lemagne a nd o f a no ther i n t he r e ign o f h is g randson , C har les t he Ba ld .

O ur l i terary s ources s eem t o warran t t he h ab i t .

Heiric o f

A uxerre , c o m mending h is me trica l L ife o f S t . G er manus t o Char les t he Ba ld , c o mpares t he emperor w i th h is g randfa ther C har lemagne ( Louis t he P ious , s ign if ican t ly , i s n ot men t ioned ) : .. You w i l l n ever b e f orgot ten : f or y ou n ot o n ly embody t he e nthusi as m o fy our f a med g randfa ther C har lemagne f or t he immor ta l d isc ip l ines , b ut e ven s urpass i tw i th i ncomparab le z ea l . ; wha t h e f ormed f ro m t he l i fe less a shes , y ou c on t inue t o p ro mote a nd t o k ind le i n a mu lt i tude o f ways b y y our p a tronage a nd a uthor i ty .. 2 5 I ti s p oss ib le t o d is m iss H e ir ic 's c o m menda t io a s mere r hetor ica l f l a t tery : a man i s n o t o n h is o a th i n ad edica t ion t o ap a tron .

N one the less , t h is c om-

p ar ison b e tween C har les t he B a ld a nd C har lemagne h as a c erta in v a l idity . A sH e ir ic i mp l ies , p oe try ,u nder C har les t he Ba ld c an b e j udged , a s i tj udged i t se lf , i n t er ms o fC har le magne 's a ge . L e t u s l ook more c lose ly a tp oetry o f t he ' f irst ' C aro ling ian R ena issance . O ne o f t he r easons why t he ' f irst ' C aro l ing ian R ena issance makes s uch a n i mpress ion i s i t s c oncentra t ion . By 7 82 t here g a thers a t Char lemagne 's c ourt a l i terary e l i te o f i n terna t iona l e x trac t ion . B y 7 96 , t he c irc le i s d isp ersed : t he L o mbards , P e ter o f P isa , P au l inus o f Aqui le ia a nd P au l t he Deacon h ave r e turned h o me , A lcuin i sa t T ours , A ngi lber t i s i ncreasing ly b ased a t S t . R iquier , a nd T heodu lf , r a ther l a ter , a t O r leans . s o me o f t he m ma in ta in c on tac t w i th t he c our t .

2 6

N a tura l ly ,

B u t t he f a mous n ames we

a ssoc ia te w i th t he l i terary c irc le o f C har lemagne were c oncentra ted t ogether f or n o more t han f our teen y ears , o n ly t wo o f wh ich ( 794-96) were s pent a t

2 96

Aachen .

2 7

A s au n i ted e n t i ty , t he s o-ca l led ' pa lace s choo l ' f ormed b y t he

mos t c e lebra ted c our t p oe ts was a s p ro l if ic a s i t was s hor tl ived . E ven d ur ing t he y ears 7 82-96 t h is c irc le 's u n i ty i n t ime a nd p lace was q ua l if ied b y f ac t iona l r iva lr ies , b y t he i t inerancy o f t he c our t a nd b y t he p ubl ic r espons ib i l i t ies o f i n div idua l p oe ts .

F ew o ft hem r e ma ined c on t inuous ly

i n C aro ling ian F ranc ia , l e t a lone Aachen .

Mos t h ad p rofess iona l d u t ies a s

s cho lars , c ler ics a nd a d min istra tors . N one the less , t he ir v erse , wr i t ten a ga ins t ab ackdrop o f war a nd r efor m , i s t he p roduc to f as e lf-consc ious l i terary e l i te , wh ich c omposed n ot o n ly f or ap a tron b ut a lso f or ( and a ga inst ) i t s own members . T he d is t inc t ive e xpress ions o f i t s s hared l i terary l i fe a re p anegyr ica l p oe ms i n tended f or r ec ita t ion a t c our t o r v erse-ep ist les s en t t o c o l leagues a nd f r iends . I n t h is mi l ieu f l ourish A lcuin 's c u l t o f am ic i t ia a nd T heodu lf 's z est f or t he p r iva te f eud . 2 8 E ven a f ter t he me mbers o ft h is c irc le h ave l e f t t he c our t , i t s i nf luence a nd memory p ers is ti n t he u nbroken t rad it ion o ft he C aro l ing ian v erse-ep is t le , a nd i n t he n os ta lg ia t ha t c o lours A lcuin 's l yr ic p oe try o ft he l a te 7 90s .

2 9

T he e xc lusiveness o ft h is c u lt iva ted a nd r ancorous c irc le i s a ccompan ied b y as tress o n t he k now ledge o f L a t in a nd a c e lebra t ion o fp oetry i t se lf .

When

Pau l t he Deacon c on tras ted C har lemagne w i th t he V ik ing S ig ifr id, h e l i sted t he b arbarian k ing 's mora l f a i l ings . B ut h is f i rs t a nd g ravest c harge was S ig ifr id 's i gnorance o f L a t in . By c ontras t , P au l 's i n i t ia l p oin t a bou t C har lemagne was t he L a t in-based c u ltura l s uper ior i ty o ft he emperor . " F or p oe ts o f t h is c irc le , k now ledge o f L a t in a nd t he c o mposi t ion o f L a t in p oe try were more t han t he l i terary a cco mp lishmen ts o f al earned e l i te .

T hey were a c t ive

e xpressions o fa n a nc ien tc u lture wh ich t hey s ough t t o r enew , ac u lture t ha t n ot o n ly s e t t he m a par t f ro m t he u n learned , b ut a lso s e t t hem a bove t he b arbar ians . P oetry , u nder C har le magne , b eco mes a n i mpor tan t t oo l o f c u l tura l r enova t io .

A measure o f i t s s tanding i s t he a t tr ibut ion ( af l a t ter ing c onven-

t ion , n ot a c redib le f ac t ) o f L a t in v erse t o t he emperor h imse lf .

3 1

P oe try i s

p ol i t ic ised . I n o ne o ft he p roudes t man ifes tos o f t he p ower o f v erse t ha t Caro l ingian l i tera ture h as t o o f fer , ' H ibern icus E xuP , i n h is f ragmentary p oem o n t he i nsurrec t ion o f T ass i lo o f Bavar ia i n 7 87 , t e l ls u s why : T he a r to fp oe try w i l l e x ist f orever . I n p oe try a re f amed t he d eeds o f a nc ien t k ings , i n p oe try t he d eeds o fp resent monarchs a re t o ld t o p os ter i ty a nd i n p oe try i sp ra ised t he w or ld 's c rea tor .

3 2

Poe try h as a c o m memora t ive p urpose : i ti s s ui ted n ot o n ly t o s pir i tua l b ut a lso t o p rofane s ub jec ts ; i tc e lebra tes t he p resen t a s much a s t he p as t . T he s a me p oint i s made b y Moduin o f A utun .

3 3

I n t h is a t mosphere , t he w idespread d eve lop men t o f p anegyr ic , w i th i t s r oo ts i n t he p oe try o f F ortunatus , was n a tura l .

3 4

A n e qua l ly n a tura l , b ut

much more o r ig ina l a ch ieve ment , i s t he r ise o f s ecu lar e pic i n av ar ie ty o f f orms , t he mos t f a mous o f wh ich i s t he f ragmen tary p oem , Karo lus Magnus e t L eo Papa . 35 T o t he l i terary c irc le o f C har lemagne 's c our t , p oets wri t ing u nder L ouis t he P ious a nd C har les t he Ba ld owed a c oncept ion o fp o l i t ica l ly 2 97

mo t iva ted , V irg i linsp ired p oe try , r ooted i n t he ir p resen t , s uch a s E urope h ad n ot k nown s ince A n t iqui ty . T he v ar ie ty o f l i terary f orms p roduced i n t h is c irc le—idy l l , e legy , f ab le , e c logue , h ag iography , mora l-didac t ic v erse a nd v erse e p is t les , ' p oes ie i n t i me ' —g ive f ur ther s ubs tance t o ' l ibern icus E xuPs ' b oas t .

F irst i nt he c irc le o f A lcuin a nd T heodu lf , a nd l a ter i n C har le-

magne 's r e ign , b o th a t c our t a nd i n monas t ic c en tres a ssoc ia ted w i th i t , was p roduced ab ody o fp oe try t ha t i n i t s s ize , v ar ie ty , a nd q ua l i ty e stab l ished t he s tandard b y wh ich l a ter n inth-century p oe ts measured t he ir own w ork . T h is e xp la ins s o me th ing o f H e ir ic o f A uxerre 's c oncern t o s ee l i tera ture u nder C har les t he Ba ld i n t er ms o f h is g randfa ther 's r e ign . B u t why i s L ouis t he P iousg iven s uch s hor t s hri f t? T hegan , i n h is b iography o f L ou is t he P ious , i ndirec t ly e xp la ins much a bout t he c harac ter o f L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld 's f a ther : [ The emperor ] r e jec ted t he p agan p oems wh ich h e h ad l earn t i n y outh , r efusing t o r ead o rh ear o r l earn t hem .

3 6

H e a dds : [ Lou is t he P ious ] n ever s howed h is wh i te t ee th i n a smi le ...

3 7

T hese a re n o t t he i dea l p recondi t ions f or p oe t ic j ov ia l i ty . T he c oncentra ted f i rs t p hase o ft he l i terary r ena issance t ha t t ook p lace b etween 7 82 a nd 7 96 e xerc ised a n i nf luence a ga inst wh ich L ouis t he P ious r ea c ted a nd wh ich C har les t he B a ld a t te mpted t or ev ive .

T he C aro ling ian t radi-

t i on i n wh ich A lcuin 's i mpac t was f e l t i s p ar t ly a h istory o f t he i n i t ia l r e jec t ion a nd l a ter r ecep t ion o f t he w ork o fp oe ts a t C har lemagne 's c our t . T h is c an b e s een i n a n o u t line o ft he wr i t ing o f an u mber o f ma jor p oe ts , b eg inning w i th t he r e ign o f L ou is t he P ious . T he emperor 's a t t i tude , a s d escr ibed b yT hegan , i se choed b y men who were i n ap os i t ion t o i n f luence t he k ind o fpoe try t ha t was t o b e wr i t ten d ur ing h is r e ign .

H rabanus Maurus r eco mmends t ha t p rof a ne p oe try s hou ld b e t rea ted

l i ke t he c ap t ive w o man a t Deuterono my XX I : ..thou s ha lt b r ing h er h o me t o t h ine h ouse ; a nd s he s ha l l s have h er h ead , a nd p are h er n a i ls;

a nd s he s ha l l p u t t he r a imen t o f h er c ap-

t i v i ty f ro m o f f h er ... A nd i ts ha l l b e , i ft hou h ave n o d e ligh t i n h er , t hou s ha l t l e t h er g o wh i ther s he w i l l ...because t hou h as t h umb led h er .

3 8

T he p oe t r epresen ta t ive o f L ouis t he P ious 'r e ign i s Hrabanus h imse lf , a uthor o fd evout a nd u ninspired p as t iche o f h is mas ter , A lcuin . 39 H is ma jor p oe m , t he d e L audibus S anc tae C ruc is , 4 °wr i t ten a s av erse c oun terpar t t o h is p rose work o ft ha t t i t le , p oin ted t he way t o an umber o f l a ter i m i ta tors , s uch a s C andidus/Bruun i n h is V i taAe ig i li ,4 1 t he me tr ica l h a lf o f at wo p ar t b iography o ft he a bbot o f F u lda ( 8 18-22 ) , t he o ther h a lf o f wh ich was i n p rose . I n H rabanus ' w ork , l i ke t ha t o f h is c on te mporar ies u nder L ouis t he P ious , t here i s a marked s tressupon s acred t he mes , o n h ymnody a nd h ag iograph ica l t op ics , a nd a c orresponding d ec l ine i n s ecu lar i n terest .

Ad ist inc t c irc le o f

p oe ts i n t he emperor 's i m media te e ntourage , w i th t he v igorous i n terchanges , f ac t iona l r iva lr ies a nd a ir o f e xc lus iveness a bou t l i terary l i fe u nder C har lemagne , n ever emerges i n t he r e ign o f h is s on . 2 98

P oe ts l i nked w i th t he c our t

wr i te , a nd ma t ter , l ess t o o ne a nother t han t o t he emperor , h is f a mi ly a nd h is magna tes . The s o-ca l led ' cour t p oe try ' o f L ou is t he P ious ' r e ign i s s e ldom t he w ork o f al i terary c irc le a t c our t . I ti s most of ten t he p roduc t o f i nd iv idua l wr i ters i n d i f ferent monas ter ies , o ccas iona l ly l i nked b ut n ot u n ited . L udov ic ian p oe try h as c o m mon t he mes b u t n o r ea l u n ifying c en tre , a nd i t s a t ten t ion i s s e ldo m o n t h is wor ld .

I ti s s ig n if ic a n tt ha t t wo o f t he most g if ted

p oe ts i n t he r e ign o f L ou is t he P ious—Ermo ldus N ige l lus a nd T heodu lf o f Or leans —wrote i n e x i le , b an ished f ro m c our t . W i th E r mo ldus N ige l lus ' f our-book n arra t ive p oem , t he I n H onore m H ludow ic i P i i ,4 2 t he e p ic g enre o f C har lemagne 's r e ign i s l i nked t o L ou is t he P ious ' . A nd w i th t he I n H onorem H ludow ic i P u iC har les t he B a ld makes h is f i rst a ppearance i n L a t in p oe try . T he h un t ing s cene , mode l led o n b oth t he A ene id a nd o n Karo lus Magnus e t L eo P apa , i n wh ich E rmo ldus d ep ic ts Char les a s ab oy , w i l l i lustra te s o me o f t he a f f in i t ies b e tween t he e p ic a nd p anegyric g enres i n C aro ling ian p oe try . I nt he d escr ipt ion o f i so la ted i nc iden ts a nd a s e nco m iu m , t he I n H onorem H ludow ici P u, l i ke K aro lus Magnus e t L eo P apa , a ch ieves a n i n term i t tent p ower wh ich a s s us ta ined n arra t ive i tl acks .

L ong p assages o f p anegyr ic ,

wh ich l i st t he mora l q ua l i t ies o f L ou is t he P ious , b reak u p i t s a ccoun ts o f s uccess ive e ven ts ;

a nd i n t he a l terna t ion o f d escr ipt ion a nd e nco m iu m t here

emerge s hor t v ignet tes a nd f u l l-sca le e u log ies , b ut n oth ing more c oherent . A s i ng le p assage c an t herefore s how E rmo ldus t o b es t a dvan tage , a nd It ransl a te f ro m B ook I V , v v . 5 01-534 :4 3 A t t he h ounds ' c la morous b ay ing t he e n t ire wood r esounds , w i th t he u proar o f men 's c r ies a nd b las t a f ter b last o n t he h orn . The w i ld b easts b ound a way , f l ee i n to t he t horny w i lds ; f or t he m f l igh t h o lds n o s a fe ty , n or t he woods a ny r efuge . Among t he a n t lered s tags i s s la in t he b aby d oe , t ransf ixed b y t he s pear , t he t usk6d b oar f a l ls t oo . J oyous ly , L ouis t he emperor t akes many aw i ld b east a s g ame , w i th h is own h and s tr ik ing t hem d own; wh i le L othar , sw if t a nd s trong , i n t he f l ower o fy outh , l ays l ow many ab ear . F or t he r est , h is t hronged r e t inue , i n t he meadows a l l a bout s lays many ab east o f e very k ind . The h ound-pack i n d ire p ursui t , t he l i t t le d oe f l ees t hrough t he s hady g lades , l eaping o ver t he w i l lows , u nt i l , o f as udden , s he c o mes t ot he s pot where s tands a migh ty t hrong , t he empress J udi th a nd y oung C har les . De ter mined , s he p resses o n , h er o n ly h ope i n f l igh t , f or i ff l ee ing d oes n o t s ave h er , t hen d oo med s he i s . Char les c a tches s igh t o f h er .

H e l ongs t o c ourse t he d oe , l i ke h is f a ther .

A f ire w i th e xc i te men t , h e d e mands , h e b egs f or a h orse . Earnes t ly h e a sks f or a r ms , aq u iver a nd s w if t a rrows; h e l ongs t o r ide i n t he c hase , a sh is f a ther d oes . He p leads a nd p leads a ga in , b ut h is g rac ious mother f orb ids h im t o g o , w i l l n ot l e t h im h ave h is way .

2 99

Had n ot h is t utor a nd h is mo ther h e ld h im b ack , t he b oy wou ld h ave r aced o f f o n f oot , a s b oys w i l l . O ther y oung l ads s peed a way , c ap ture t he l i t t le d oe a s i tf l ees , a nd b r ing i tb ack t o C har les , u nhar med . T hen , t aking u p a r ms s ui ted t oh is t ender y ears , h e s truck t he b east i n t he b ack a s i ts tood, t re mb l ing . Ap aragon o fb oyhood was C har les i n e very r espec t , e ndowed w i th h is f a ther 's v ir tue , e nnob led b y h is g randfa ther 's f ame , L ike A po l lo , r esp lenden t i n p rogress t hrough t he h e igh ts o f D e los , b r ing ing g rea t j oy t o L a tona , h is mother . T here a re t wo s ources f or t h is p assage :

t he f a mous h un t ing s cene o f

Aene id I V , 1 29f f ., a nd K aro lus Magnus e t L eo P apa 1 37f f . ,44 t i on o f t he c hase .

a ga in ad escr ip-

F ro m E r mo ldus we a re t augh t t o e xpec t o n ly a h ackneyed

r e-work ing o f t hese f am i liar s cenes :

h is most r ecen t e di tor s peaks w i th d is-

d a in o f ' l e n a il a r t isan d e l e t tres ' .

L e t u s c ons ider h ow h e u ses h i s c las-

4 5

s ica l a nd C aro ling ian mode ls . T he d escr ip t ion o f t he h un t i n K aro lus Magnus e t L eo P apa , E rmo ldus ' most i m media te s ource , d raws o n much more t han t he f our th b ook o f t he Aeneid .

I tb eg ins w i th a l ocus amoenus , as cene o f t ranqui l ity u pon w h ich i s

i nterposed t he ma jes t ic a rr iva l o f C har le magne .

T he c on tras t i s b etween

n a tura l s imp lic i ty a nd t he t u mu ltous e xc i te men t o ft he c hase .

I ts d escript ion

i s l e isure ly , dwe l ling o n t he c oun trys ide , t he emperor a nd h is e n tourage . I n E rmo ldus , t he d escr ip t ion o f t he n a tura l s e t t ing i s c onc ise , r ea l i ntere st b e ing c oncen tra ted o n t he a c t ions o f L ouis t he P ious a nd h is s on . s ing le h in t i n V irg i l ,

4 6

Ba ld a t i t s c en tre t ha t y ou h ave b efore y ou . i s i nc luded i n t he h un t ing e xped i t ion . e ye i s o n h is f a ther .

F ro m a

E r mo ldus b u i lds u p t he e n t ire s cene w i th C har les t he A t A ene id I V , J ulus , A eneas ' s on ,

L i t t le a t ten t ion i s p a id t o h im .

V irg i l 's

E r mo ldus t akes V irg i l 's a lmos t c ursory r eference t o

J u lus a nd b u i lds u pon i ta n amusing a nd i ndiv idua l p or tra i t o f C har les :

h is

a nx ious d es ire t o g o t o t he h un t , t hwar ted ( un like J u lus ') a nd r estra ined o n ly b y h is t utor a nd h is mother ; t he min ia ture p rey ( best io lam . ) , s ui ted t o h is s ize , c augh t f or h im b y o ther b oys a nd s truck d own b y t he p rince a f ire w ith e nthus ias m f or t he h un t . emperor 's s on .

E r mo ldus dwe l ls c om ica l ly a nd t ouch ing ly o n t he

I ti s a mark o f h is i n terest t ha t t he l i keness wh ich V irgi l

d raws b e tween Aeneas a nd A po l lo a t Aene id I V , 1 43-50 , i s t aken o ver b y E r mo ldus a nd a pp l ied n o t t o t he emperor L ou is b u t t o h is s on C har les .

I n

e xpanding V irg i l 's b r ief a l lus ion t o J u lus , a nd c oncen tra ting o n t he s on r a ther t han t he f a ther , E r mo ldus h as c rea ted a n i magina t ive v igne t te o f h is own .

T he

s h if t o fp erspec t ive f ro m t he w ood t o t he f l ee ing d oe t o t he t hwarted w ishes o f t he b oy , t he d e l ibera te p lay o f c onf l ic t ing s y mpa th ies f or t he f righ tened b east a nd f or t he c h i ld 's l ong ing t o i m i ta te h is f a ther : Er moldus ' s ources .

n one o f t h is i s t o b e f ound i n

H is a b i l i ty t o r ecrea te i n al earned l anguage at radi t iona l

s ub jec t o f c lass ica l a nd C aro ling ian L a t in e p ic , t o c as t i n t he manner o f p aneg yr ic a s ing le e p isode i n t he s hap ing p erspec t ive o f al arger whole , h as n ot b een u nderstood o r e ven r ecogn ised .

' L 'e t ' a c aro l ing ia ... c om 'e s enza e pos

a nche e s upra tut to s enza g io ia ' , wr i tes G ustavo V inay .

4 7

He e xpresses

e loquen t ly a f a i lure o f i mag ina t ion t ha t h as b eco me c onven t iona l .

T he C aro-

l i ng ians a dap ted t he c lass ica l a nd e ar ly medieva l e p ic a nd p anegyr ic g enres 3 00

t o c rea te a n ew l i terary f or m o f t he ir own . a t ten t ion .

T he ir work mer i ts s ympa thet ic

Here , a t t he e n try o f C har les t he Ba ld i n to L a t in l i tera ture , i s a

p lace t o b eg in . T he work o f Wa lah fr id S trabo , C har les t he B a ld 's t u tor , marks a p oin t o f t ransi t ion f ro m t he p oe try o f L ou is t he P ious ' r e ign t o t ha t o f h is s on 's , a nd t o s o me e xten t s hapes i t s c ourse .

Wa lah fr id 's most amb i t ious p oe m a bout

h is own t imes i s t he d e Imag ine T e tr ic i ,

4 8

a n a t tack o n t he s ta tue o f Theodor ic

t ha t C har le magne h ad s e t u p b efore h is p a lace a t Aachen i n801 .

T h is e n ig ma-

t ic p oe m h as s t imu la ted much d iscussion , b ut wha t s ee ms t o me i t s ma in p oin t a s al i terary a r tefac t— i ts g enre—has n ot b een made .

T h is p oin t w i l l i l lus tra te

s o me o f t he ma jor t rends i n L a t in p oe try f ro m t he r e ign o f C har lemagne t o t he l i fe t ime o f C har les t he B a ld . D e Imag ine T e tr ic i i s wha t P rofessor S cha l ler c a l ls a ' Vor trags- u nd Z irku largedich t ' : ap oe m i n tended t o b e r ec i ted a loud i n al earned c irc le a t c our t , o n t he s ub jec t o ft he emperor a nd h is e ntourage .

I ti s mode l led o n t he

g rea t p oe ms i n t he s ame g enre wr i t ten b y T heodu lf , A ng i lbert a nd A lcuin a t Char le magne 's c our t .

Wa lahfr id 's c hoice o fg enre i s s tr iking , a nd l ends h is

4 9

p o lem ic a n a dded s ign if icance .

F or a n a t tack u pon t he A r ian T heodor ic a nd

a n i mp lied r e jec t ion o ft he i ndiscr im ina te ly c lass ic ising e n thus ias ms o f C har le magne , Wa lah fr id c hose t he s ame g enre t ha t C har le magne 's p oe ts h ad d eve loped t o c e lebra te h is c our t . T h is s tance h as marked e f fec ts o n Wa lah fr id 's own w r i t ing a nd o n p oe try o f t he n ex t g enera t ion .

Wa lah fr id p roduces ab ody o f o ccas iona l p oe ms , v erse

e p is t les t o p a trons , a nd a n u mber o f h ymns .

B ut h is l arge-sca le p oe t ic works ,

w i th t he c har m ing e xcept ion o f t he d e C u l tura H or toru m ,

5 0

where h e r e trea ts

i n to t he p r iva te wor ld o f t he c lois ter , a re s a ints ' l i ves a nd a me tr ica l a ccoun t o f ac onte mporary v is ion . 5 1 T h is mistrus t o f p rofane v erse , wh ich i s r ef lec ted i n Wa lah fr id 's o euvre , f oreshadows much i n t he t ime o f C har les t he Ba ld .

T he

d om inant f or m o f l arge-sca le p oe try , i n works s uch a s H e ir ic o f A uxerre 's V i ta S . Ger man i5 2 o r i n Mi lo 's V i ta S . Amandi , wr i t ten a s av erse c oun terpar t t o p rose .

5 3

i s t he s a in t 's l i fe , o f ten

T he f i rst a nd t he g rea test c on t inu i ty

b e tween L a t in p oe try u nder L ouis t he P ious a nd L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he B a ld l ay i n t he p re-e m inence o ft he h ag iograph ica l a nd mora l-didac t ic g enres .

And t h is , a s t he d e I magine T e tr ic i s ugges ts , i nvo lved ap ar t ia l r e-

j ec t ion o f t he s ecu lar emphas is i n L a t in p oe try u nder C har le magne . T he p o l i t ica l d iv is ions o f t he C aro l ing ian emp ire u nder L ou is t he P ious 's s uccessors a re r ef lec ted i n p oe try o f C har les t he Ba ld 's r e ign : i n t he l a men t o n t he d iv is ion o f t he emp ire b y F lorus o f L yon ,

5 4

i n v erse c e lebra t ions o f

t he F rank ish p ast , a nx ious ly emphas ising u n i ty s uch a s t he d e E xordio G en t is F rancoru m 5 5

a nd , a bove a l l , i n t he s ca t tering o fp oe ts n ot o n ly t hroughou t

Char les t he Ba ld 's r ea lm b ut a lso i n t he k ingdo ms o f h is b rothers . p oe t s uch a s S edu l ius S cottus 5 6 makes h is h o me a t L iege ; i s t he c ourt o fb ishop H ar tgar . a nd t o L ouis t he G er man .

A ma jor

h is e ssen t ia l c irc le

H e a ddresses p oe ms b oth t o C har les t he Ba ld

G o t tscha lk 's e x i le n eeds n o men t ion h ere .

I n

Char les t he Ba ld 's r e ign , t he f ocus o f c our t p oe try i s n ot s o much t he c our t a s t he k ing , a nd n ot o n ly C har les t he Ba ld b u t a lso h is b rothers . I n L otharing ia a nd G er many , t he ( l oose ly-ter med) h u man is t ic t radi t ions wh ich d eve loped i n C har le magne 's r e ign c on t inue , a l though s pas modica l ly . 3 01

I n Wes t F ranc ia , p oe try t akes o n at heo log ica l a nd p o le m ica l c harac ter . T he i nf luence o ft he S cot t i , emphas ised b y S edu l ius S co t tus a nd H e iric o f A uxerre , i s a n i mpor tan t f ac tor i n p oe try o f C har les t he B a ld 's r e ign .

C on temporary

p o l i t ics a nd t heo log ica l d eba te a re mos t e x travagan t ly r epresen ted i nt he h erme neut ic p edan try o f J ohn S co ttus E r iugena .

B u t t he s h if t , o ut lined e ar lier ,

5 7

u nder L ou is t he P ious f ro m a c ourt c irc le t o t he e cc les iast ica l c en tres a ssoc iat ed w i th i t , t he s ubsequen t f rag men ta t ion o f l i terary l i fe d ur ing h is r e ign a nd t ha t o f C har les t he Ba ld must make o ne wary o f g enera l is ing f ro m t he p oetry o f ac our t s cho lar , s uch a s J ohn S co ttus , t o ac our t c irc le a bout h is p a tron . I tr ema ins t o b e p roved t ha t al i terary mi l ieu t ru ly c o mparab le , i n s i ze , d ivers i ty a nd a cco mp l ishmen t , t o t ha t o f C har lemagne 's e ar ly c our ts e ver e x is ted i n t he r e ign o f h is g randson .

5 8

O ne l i terary t as te C har les t he B a ld s hared w i th h is g randfa ther was a l i k ing f or p arody . We k now t ha t t he C ena C ypr ian i , ap arodic b anque t w ith B ib l ica l p ersonages a s g ues ts , was r ec i ted b efore h im . 5 9 D ur ing h is r e ign was c omposed p erhaps t he b es t p arody i n e ar ly Medieva l L a t in p oe try : 6° S edu l ius S cot tus ' mock-e legy o n ag e lded r am .

6 1

T h is p oem w i l l i l lustra te

t he l i gh ter s ide o f L a tin p oe try u nder C har les t he B a ld . T he p oem b eg ins g randi loquen t ly : When G od i n H is l o f ty p ower c rea ted t he a n ima ls i n t he wor ld ... t o we thers H e g ranted h onour u pon h onour , a nd made t he m l eaders among s heep .

6 2

T he e ven ts i tc om me mora tes a re s imp le ; ag e lded r am , l eader o fb ishop Har tgar 's f l ock , was s na tched a way b y ar obber , h imse lf p ursued b y ap ack o f w i ld d ogs wh ich t hen s avaged t he r am t o d ea th . af u l l p anop ly o f mock-ep ic a l lus ions :

T o t h is s ub jec t i s a pp lied

l i kenesses t o C acus , t o T i tyrus , l a men ts

o fn ymphs a nd s hepherds , e ven a e u logy o n t he r am 's p ur i ty o f l i fe w h ich i s f i l led w i th r eferences t o S cr ipture a nd s ends u p t he d ic t ion o f e ncom iu m a nd h ag iography s o d o minan t u nder C har les t he B a ld : D id h e d eserve t h is , aj ust , s imp le we ther , w i thout ma lice o r d ece i t? H e n ever t ouched w ine , n or d rank c ider .

6 3

• • H e d id n o t l ust w i th g reed a f ter r a imen t o f s car le t o r p urp le , b u t was c on ten t w i th h is w oo l ly t un ic . H e d id n ot r ide h is h orse i n p r ide t hrough t he g reen p leasances , b u t j ourneyed o n h is own f our f ee t , a s h e s hou ld . S pot less was h e , n or emp ty were h is w ords1Baa '

o r ' bee ' , mys t ic were h is u t terances .

6 4

T o t he e nd o f h is p oe m S edu lius a ppends a n e p i taph o n t he r am : F or y ou , Ic onfess , h ave Il onged;

a nd Id es ire y our b eref t mother

a nd Is ha l l a lways l ove y our b rothers .

F arewe l l .

6 5

C r i t ics h ave s poken o f h is t one o f c ontr i t ion a nd e ven— ludicrous ly—of a h in t o f s exua l d es ire i n t h is mock e pi taph .

Wha t h as n ot b een s uf f ic ien t ly emphas ised

3 02

i s t he c o mic amb igu i ty i nt he f i na l l i nes . S edu l ius makes s o much o f t he f a te o ft he g e lded r am , a nd o f h is l ong ing f or more l i ke i t , b ecause s heep i n g ene ra la nd r a ms i n p ar t icu lar—as h e makes c lear e lsewhere i n h is p oe try 6 ° — were o ne o f H ar tgar 's c h ief f or ms o f p a tronage . b u t i ti s n ot d is interes ted :

T he g r ief may b e g enuine , b ut

t he p oem e nds n e i ther w i th c on tr i t ion n or w i th i n-

n uendo , b ut w i th a h eavy h in t f or ap ay-cheque . N o a ccoun t o f L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld w ou ld b e c o mp le te w i tho u t ment ion ing H ucba ld o f S t . Amand ' s d 'espr i t ', t he E g loga d e C a lv is ,6 7 ap oem o f 1 46 h exame ters o n t he s ub jec t o fb a ldness , e ach word o f wh ich b eg ins w i th t he l e t ter c . Ab r ief e x trac t e nab les o ne t o s avour t he f u l l q ua li ty o f H ucba ld 's work : Carmina , c lar isonae , c a lv is c an ta te , C amoenae . C omere c ondigno c onabor c arm ine c a lvos , C on tra c irros i c rines c onfundere c o l li .

6 8

A n teceden ts h ave b een s ough t f or t h is s ty le i n t he wr i t ing o f H ucba ld 's u nc le , Mi lo o f S t . Amand .

B u t i tw ou ld b e u nfa ir t o p ress t he a na logy .

Ii magine

t ha t M i lo o f S t . Amand , o n p erusing H ucba ld 's E g loga d e C a lv is , must h ave f e l t r a ther l i ke S in when s he g ave b ir th t o Dea th . Y et t here i s as ub t le ty e ven h ere . emphasises t he v a lue o fp a tronage .

I nh is p reface t o H a t to o f Ma inz , H ucba ld

' Wha t h appens ,

h e a sks , ' when p oe ts n o

l onger r ece ive t he ir d ue r eward ? ' Ha t to 's b a ldness i s p ra ised a nd 1 46 h exame ters o n t he s ame s ub jec t f o l low , many o f wh ich make s ense .

I td oes n ot

r equ ire a n e xpert k now ledge o f n in th-century t heor ies o fb a ldness t o s ee t ha t 1 46 g rotesque ly a l l i tera t ive l i nes p ra is ing s o meone 's l ack o f h a ir a re i n tended t o b e al ef t-handed c o mp liment .

I n t he E g loga d e C a lv is , Is uggest , H ucba ld

p resen ted h is p a tron w i th a t errib le t hrea t : a ge i s n ot f or thco ming .

' more o f t h is w i l l f o l low i fp a tron-

I t was menace t o wh ich n ot o n ly H a tto o f Ma inz b ut

a lso C har les t he Ba ld h ad r eason t o b e s ensi t ive .

T here i s n o c onc lus ion t o t h is p aper ; t here a re o n ly b eg inn ings . L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld i s t o b e s e t i n aC aro ling ian t radi t ion t ha t a r ises i n t he a ge o f C har lemagne , a nd r ema ins a cute ly a ware o f i t s o r ig ins . T he l i terary amb i t ions o f t he r e ign were f ormu la ted , t ime a nd a ga in , i n r e lat i on t o Char les t he Ba ld 's g randfa ther . I ti s as e lf-image t ha t l arge ly i gnores t he l i fe ti me o f L ouis t he P ious , b ut b y n o means a voids i t s i nf luence . T he c o mp lex d eve lop men ts i np oe t ic f or m , t he c hang ing c ondi t ions o fp oe t ic c o mp os i t ion a nd t he p lace a nd v a lue o fp oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld a re p rob lems t ha t e nco mpass t hree g enera t ions .

Ah is tory t ha t e xp lores L a t in p oe try u nder

t he C aro ling ians a s a n e n t ire d ynasty i st he p roper c on tex t t o c onfron t t hese p rob lems . T ha t t ask l i es b efore u s . B ut , a s S t . A ugust ine s a id o f ten , ' when It a lk a bout i t , In ever w an t t o s top . t 6 9 P e mbroke C o l lege , O xford 3 03

FOOTNOTES

1 .

e d . E . D t tmm ler , M[onu men ta ] G [er maniae ] H [ istor ica ] P [oe tae ] L ra t in i ] A [Ev i ] C [aro lin i ] I ( Ber lin , 1 884 : i ( Ber l in 1 906 :

r epr . 1 964 ) .

r epr . 1 964 ) a nd L . Traube , i b id . I I , T he mos trecen t c o m mentary o n a

ma jor p oe t u nder C har les t he Ba ld i s b y R . S eine D ich tungen ( Mun ich , 1 968) . o f t h is p er iod i nc lude :

D t icht ing , S edu l ius S cottus .

R ecen t s tudies wh ich d iscuss t he p oe try

H . J . K amphausen , T rau m u nd V ision i n d er

l a te in ischen P oes ie d er K aro lingerze i t , L a te inische S prache u nd L iterat ur d es Mi t te la lters 4 ( Bern/Frankfur t , 1 964 ) ; A . E benbauer , C ar men h is tor icu m .

U n tersuchungen z ur h istor ischen D ichtung im k aro l ing ischen

E uropaI P h i lo log ica G er man ica 4 ( V ienna , 1 978) a nd G . V inay , A l to Med ioevo L a t ino , C onversazione è No . ( Nap les , 1 978) .

The s tandard

b ib l iograph ica l g u ide t o L a t in p oe try u nder C har les t he Ba ld ( and t o L a t in p oe try b efore t he y ear 1 000 A .D . )i s t he n ew B onn i nc ip i tar iu m :

D .

S cha l ler a nd E . K önsgen , I n i t ia [ Car minum L a t inoru m S aecu lo U ndec i mo An t iqu ioru m ] ( Göt t ingen , 1 977 ) , r eferences t o wh ich a re p rov ided b e low . A l l t rans la t ions a re my own . 2 .

T he R o manesque L yr ic ( New Y ork , 1 929 ) p . 2 14 .

O ne may c ompare

A l len 's r e marks o n t he ' enor mous p i le o fp oe t ic s lag ' a nd t he ' Leyden j ar ' ( p . 2 15f f . ) . 3 .

A l lge meine Gesch ich te d er L i tera ture d es A bend landes im Mi t te la lter b is z um B eg inne d es X I J ahrhunder ts , v o l . 1 2 ( Le ipz ig , 1 889 ) , I ( 1880 ) , I I ( 1887) .

( Eber t u sed b oth t he Maur is t H is to ire l i t te ra ire d e l a F rance ...

[ 1735f f .] a nd J .J . Ampere 's H istoire l i t te ra ire d e l a F rance s ous C har le magne e t d uran t l es Xe e t X Ie s iec les 3 [ Par is , 1 870 ] . ) 4 .

AH istory o f C hr is t ian L a tin P oe try f ro m t he Beginnings t o t he C lose o f t he Midd le A ges 2 ( Oxford , 1 957) a nd A H is tory o f S ecu lar L a t in P oetry i n t he Midd le A ges 2 I ( Oxford , 1 967 ) .

5 .

L i t te ra ture l a t ine a u moyen ä ge I , B ib l iotheque c a tho l ique d es s c iences r e l ig ieuses 8 5 , 8 6 ( Par is , 1 939 ) .

6 .

We l t l iche D ichtungen d es l a tein ischen Mit te la l ters;

e in Handbuch I , D ie

l yr ische D ich tung d es Mi t te la lters ( Ber l in , 1 970 ) . 7 . 8 .

Gesch ich te d er l a te in ischen L i tera tur d es M i t te la lters I( Mun ich , 1 975 ) . Gesch ich te d er l a tein ischen L i tera tur d es M i t te la l ters I , Von J us t inian b is z ur Mi t te d es z ehn ten J ahrhunder ts ( Mun ich , 1 911 ) .

Handbuch d er

k lassischen A lter tu msw issenscha f t I X , 2 . 9 .

S ee F . L eo , M . G . H . A uc tores An t iqu iss im i I V 1( Ber lin , 1 881 ) p . Vf f .; W . Meyer , ' Über H andschri f ten d er Gedich te F ortuna ts ', Nachr ich ten v on d er k ön ig l ichen Gese l lscha f t d er Wissenscha f ten ( Göt t ingen ) , p hi l . h is t . K lasse ( 1908) p p . 8 2-114 ;

R . K oebner , V enan t ius F ortuna tus , s e ine

P ersön lichke i tu nd s eine S te l lung i n d er g e is t igen Ku l tur d es Merov inger e iches ( Zur ich , 1 964 ) p p . 1 25-43;

G . G lauche , S chu l lekt t lre i m Mit te l-

a l ter , Münchener B e i träge z ur Mediäv ist ik u nd R ena issance-Forschung 5( Mun ich , 1 970 ) p p . 5 -6, a nd K . L angosch , Gesch ich te d er T ex tf i berl i eferung I , p . 4 0 a nd n ote 8 9 . 3 04

1 0 .

Th is c anon i s d iscussed b y R . H erzog , D ie B ibe lepik d er l a te in ischen S pä tan t ike ... I , T heor ie u nd G esch ich te d er L i tera tur u nd d er s ch t inen K t inste 3 7 ( Mun ich , 1 975 ) p . = f f . a nd b y G lauche , S chu l lekt t tre ... .5 f f .

1 1 .

An i mportan t h and lis t t o t he t rans m iss ion o fC aro ling ian p oe ts i s E . D t 1mm ler , ' D ie h andscr if t l iche U ber lieferung d er l a te in ischen D ich tungen a us d er Z e i t d er K aro linger ', NA I V ( 1 879 ) , p . 9 8f f .

S ee f ur ther t he

b ib liography l i s ted b e low . 1 2 .

S ee T raube , K aro ling ische D ichtungen , S chr if ten z ur g er man ischen Ph i lo log ie I( Ber lin , 1 888) p . 6 2 .

1 3 .

Moduin , E g loga 9 1-2 ( ed . D t imm ler , M . G . H . P oe tae . I , p . 3 87 ) .

1 4 .

T he t heory o f E inhard 's a uthorsh ip o f K aro lus Magnus e t L eo P apa h as b een r ev ived b y D . S cha l ler , F r t ih m i t te la lter liche S tudien 1 0 ( 1976) p . 1 63f f . 1 63f f .

O n t he a scr ip t ion t o E inhard o f t he ' Pass io Marce l lin i e t P e tr i '

( M . G . H . P oe tae . I , p p . 1 26-35 ) , s ee M . B ondois , L a t rans la t ion d es s a in ts Marce l lin e t P ierre , B ib l iotheque d e l 'Eco le d es Hautes E tudes CLX CLX ( 1907) p p . 9 -13 . 1 5 .

' A lcuin 's P oe t ic S ty le a nd t he A uthen t ic i ty o f0 mea c e l la ' , S tudi Medieva li 3 a S er . XX I I ( 1980 ) , p p. 5 55-583.

1 6 .

S ee M . L apidge , ' The A uthorsh ip o f t he A don ic V erses a d F ido liu m a ttr ibuted t o C o lu mbanus ', S tudi Medieva l i 3 a S er . XVII I , 1 1 ( 1 977) p p . 2 51-314 .

1 7 .

S ee A . O nnerfors , ' Ph i lo log isches z u Wa lafr id S trabo ' , Med ieva lia . Abhand lungen u nd A ufsä tze , L a te inische S prache u nd L i tera tur d es Mi tt e la lters 6 ( Frankfur t am Ma in/Bern/Las V egas , 1 977 ) p . 6 8f f . a nd Langosch , Gesch ich te d er T ex t t iber l ieferung ... I , U ber l ieferungsg esch ich te d er mi t te la lter lichen L i tera tur , e d . H . H unger a nd 0 . S teg m t i l ler ( Zt ir ich , 1 964 ) p . 5 1f f .

1 8 .

T heodu lf i Aure l ia nens is E p iscop i Opera , J acob i S IRMONDI S .J . p resb yteri c ura e t s tudio e di ta , n ot isque i l lus tra ta a nno 1 646 ( repr in ted i n P . L . CV ) .

T he a uthen t ic i ty o f t h is c orpus i s e xamined b y S cha l ler ,

Ph i lo log ische U ntersuchungen z u d en Gedich ten T heodu lfs ( d iss . p h i l . Heide lberg , 1 956) , whose c onc lus ions a re p ub lished i n a n a r t ic le o f t he s a me t i t le i n D .A . 1 8 ( 1962 ) p p . 1 3-91 . 1 9 . 2 0 .

S cha l ler , a r t . c i t ., p . 2 7 e t p ass im . B . B ischof f i n K ar l d er Grosse .

L ebenswerk u nd N ach leben I .

Das

g eist ige L eben ( D t isse ldorf , 1 965 ) p . 2 38 . 2 1 .

S ee A . P . McK in lay , Ara tor .

T he C odices , Medieva l Acade my o f

Amer ica , n o . 4 3 ( Ca mbr idge , Mass ., 1 942 )pp . 4 3-44 ( w i th b ib liography ) . 2 2 .

M . Annae i L ucan i Be l li ' C iv i l is L ibr i Dece m ( Oxford , 1 926) p . v i i .

2 3 .

O n t he c our ts o f C har le magne , s ee mos t r ecen t ly J . F leckens tein , d er G rosse u nd s e in H of ' , Kar l d er G rosse . I , P ersön l ichke i t u nd G esch ich te , p p . 2 4-51 .

3 05

' Kar l

L ebenswerk u nd Nach leben The e n t ire f our-vo lume

s er ies o f t ha t t i t le i s f undamen ta l t o t he s tudy o f Caro l ing ian p oetry. S ee t oo W. L ev ison , Eng land a nd t he C on t inen t i n t he E ig L r t h C en tury _ ( Oxford 1 946 ) , e spec ia l ly c hap ter V I , p . 1 32f f ., J . F leckens te in , D ie B i ldungsreform Kar ls d es G rossen a ls V erw irk l ichung d er n or ma r ec t i tud in is ( B igge , 1 953 ) p . 9 4f f ., W . U l l mann , The Caro l ing ian R ena issance a nd t he I dea o f K ingsh ip ( London , 1 969 ) c hap ter I , p p. 1 -20 a nd H . F ich tenau , Das Karo l ing ische I mper iu m ( Zür ich 1 949 ) p . 5 6f f .

Among t he o lder d isser ta t ions , s ee E . R ieber , D ie B edeu tung

a l t tes tamen t l icher V ors te l lungen f ür d as K errscherbi ld Kar ls d es G rossen u nd s eines H ofkre ises a nd H . F r iedr ichs ,

( d iss . h is t . masch . Tübingen , 1 949 )

D ie G e lehr ten um Kar l d en G rossen

( d iss.

h is t . B er l in , 1 931 ). T o t he w orks o f g enera l b ib l iography c i ted a t n ote 1 a bove may b e a dded t he f o l low ing i mpor tant c ontribut ions : D ie ter S cha l ler , ' Ph i lo log ische U ntersuchungen z u d en Gedich ten Theod u lfs v on O r leans ' , D . A . XV II I ( 1962 ) p p . 1 3-91;

' Vortrags- u nd Z ir-

k u lardichtung am H of K ar ls d es G rossen ' , Mi t te l la te in isches J ahrbuch 6( 1969 ) p p . 1 4-36 [ ab r iefer E ng lish v ers ion i s p rin ted a s ' Poet ic R iva lr ies a t t he C our t o f C har le magne ' i n C lass ica lI nf luences o n Europ ean C u lture , 5 00-1500 , e d . R . R . B o lgar ( Ca mbr idge , 1 973 ) p p .

1 51-

5 7 ] ;' D ie k aro ling ischen F igurengedich te d es C od . B ern . 2 12 ' i n Mediu m AEvu m V ivu m , F es tschr if t f ür W . B u lst , e d . H . R . J auss a nd D . S cha l ler ( He ide lberg , 1 969 ) p p . 2 3-47;

' Der j unge " Rabe" am H of Kar ls d es

G rossen ' , F estschr if t B . B ischof f , e d . J . A utenr ie th a nd F . B runhö lz 1 ( S tut tgar t , 1 971 ) p p . 1 23-41 , ' La tein ische T ierdich tung i n f rühkaroling ischer Z e i t ' , Das T ier i n d er D ich tung , e d . U . S chwab ( He ide lberg , 1 970 ) p p . 9 1-113;

' Das Aachener E pos fn . Kar l d en Ka iser ' , FMS 1 0

( 1976) p p . 1 34-68;

I n terpre ta t ionsprob leme i m Aachener K ar lsepos ' ,

R hein ische V ier te l jahrsb lä t ter 4 1 ( 1977)pp . 1 60-79 ;

B . B ischof f ,

' Car i tas —L ieder ' i n ' L iber F lor idus ' ... P au l L ehmann , e d . B . B ischof f a nd S . B rech ter ( S t . O t t i lien , 1 950 ) p p . 1 65-86, r epr inted i n h is Mi t te la l ter liche S tudien I ( S tut tgar t , 1 967 ) p p . 5 6-76 , a nd i n t he s ame v olu me ( pp . 1 9-25 ) B ischof f 's ' Theodu lf u nd d er I re C adac-Andreas '; a nd W. v on d en S teinen , ' Kar l u nd d ie D ich ter ' , K ar l d er G rosse ... I , p p . 6 3-94 . 2 4 .

T here a re f ew s urveys o f L a t in p oe try b etween F ortuna tus a nd t he C aro ling ians .

Among t he mos t u sefu l a ccoun ts o f t he e ar lier p er iod a re

P . C ource l le , H is toire l i t tera ire d es g randes i nvas ions g erman iques ( Par is , 1 964 ) a nd F . E r min i , S tor ia d e l lale t tera tura l a t ina medieva le d a l le o r igin i a l la f i ne d e l s eco lo V I I ( Spo le to , 1 960 ) . 2 5 . 2 6 .

e d . T raube

M . G .H . P oe tae.

I I , p . 4 29 .

P e ter o f P isa r eturns t o I ta ly b efore 7 90 ; P au linus b eco mes p a tr iarch o f Aqu i le ia i n 7 87; 7 87 .

P au l t he Deacon r e turns t o Mon te Cassino b efore

I n 7 96 A lcuin moves t o T ours a nd , a t a bout t ha tda te , T heodulf i s

made b ishop o f O r le a ns . 2 7 .

S ee F leckens te in , ' Kar l d er G rosse u nd s e in H of ', KG I , p . 3 0 a nd f ur ther , F . K reusch , K irche , A tr iu m u nd P or t ikus d er Aachener P fa lz , Do m z u Aachen .

2 8 .

Be i träge z ur Baugesch ich te V ( D t isse ldorf , 1 965 ) .

O n A lcuin a nd am ic i t ia , s ee A . F iske , ' A lcuin a nd Myst ica l F r iendsh ip ' , S tudi me c l ieva l i 3 a s er ie 1 1 , i ( 1961 ) p p . 5 51-75 .

3 06

F or Theodu lf s ee

h is p oe m XXV , 2 05f f .

( D t i mm ler , M . G . H . P oetae I , p . 4 88); o n wh ich

c onsu lt S cha l ler , ' Poe t ic R iva lries a t t he C ourt o fC har le magne ', C lassica l I nf luences o n E uropean C u lture , AD 5 00-1500 , e d . R . R . B o lgar ( Cambr idge , 1 971) p . 1 51f f . 2 9 .

S ee ' A lcuin 's P oe t ic S ty le a nd t he Authent ic i ty o f 0 mea c e l la ', S tudi medieva l i 3 a S er ie XX I ( 1979 ) p p . 5 73-74.

3 0 .

D üm m ler , M . G . H . P oe tae I , p p . 5 1-52 .

3 1 .

I b id ., p p . 9 1-92 .

c f . Karo lus Magnus e t L eo Papa , 7 Of f .

( i bid ., p . 3 68) ,

ap oe m d iscussed b e low . 3 2 .

I b id ., p . 3 97 ( I I , 3 3f f . ) . An e xce l lent b ib l iography t o t h is p oe m i s p rov ided b y S cha l ler-Könsgen , I ni t ia ..., n o . 4 049 , p . 1 87 .

3 3.

E g loga I2 4-27 ( D t I mm ler , M. G .H . P oe tae I )o n wh ich s ee A . E benbauer , ' Nasos E k loge ', Mit te l la teinisches J ahrbuch 1 1 ( 1976) p p . 1 3-27, a nd B . B ischof , ' D ie Abhäng igkei t d er b uko lischen D ichtung d es Modoinus , B ischofs v on A utun , v on j ener d es T . C a lpurnius S icu lus u nd d es M . A ure lius O lymp ius N e mesianus ' ( Ser ta Ph i lo log ica Aen ipon tana I[ I nnsb ruck 1 962 ] =I nnsbrucker Be i träge z ur K u lturw issenscha f t 7 -8, p p . 3 874 23 ) .

C f . Pau lus D iaconus XV 1 2-13 ( D t imm ler , M . G . H . P . I , p . 5 3

[ -K . Nef f , D ie Gedich te d es Pau lus D iaconus ( Mun ich , 1 908) XV II I , p . 85] ) . 3 4 .

O n Caroling ian p anegyr ic , s ee F . B i t tner , S tudien z um H errscher lob i n d er mi t te l la tein ischen D ich tung , d iss . p h i l . Wt trzburg ( Vo l lkach , 1 962 ) a nd A . Georg i , Das l a tein ische u nd d eutsch P re isgedich t d es Mi t te la lters ( Ber lin , 1 969) .

3 5 .

O n t he p oe m 's g enre a nd d a ting , s ee D . S cha l ler , a rt . c i t . 1 0 ( 1976) , e spec ia l ly p . 1 34f f .

( n . 2 3) , FMS

T he most r ecent e dit ion i s b y H . Beu mann ,

F . Brunzhö lz l , H . Winke l mann , Karo lus Magnus e t L eo Papa .

E in

Paderborner E pos v om J ahre 7 99 ( Paderborn , 1 966 ), w ith c r i t icis ms b y S cha l ler , Rhein ische V ierte l jahrsb lä t ter 4 1 ( 1977) p . 1 6Of f .

Ag ood

s ys te ma t ic g uide t o t he o lder b ib liography i s i n R eper tor iu m f ont iu m h is tor iae med i i a ev i I I ( Ro me , 1 970 ) p . 1 32.

T o C aro ling ian h istorica l

p oe try i n g enera l anew , a nd u neven ,b ib liograph ica l s urvey h as a ppeared i n E benauer 's C ar men h istoricu m ... 3 6.

e d . H .

( # ) _ p . c i t . n . 1 ) .

Pertz , M. G . H . S S I ( Hanover , 1 829) e sp . X IX , p . 5 9 .

F or a

v a luab le s hor t a ccoun t o f L ouis ' c ourt , s ee R . Bezzo la , L es o r ig ines e t l a f or ma t ion d e l a l i t tera ture c our toise e n Occ iden t , 5 00-1200 , B ib l iotheque d e l 'Eco le d es Hautes E tudes 1 86 ( Par is , 1 944 ) p . 1 47f f . 3 7 .

M. G .H . ,S S I , p . 5 95 .

3 8.

De I nst itut ione C ler icoru m I I , x v i i i , e d . A . K nöpf ler , V eröf fent lichungen a us d em k irchenh is tor ischen S em inar M t inchen 5 ( Mun ich , 1 900 ) p . 2 25 .

3 9 . 4 0 .

e d . D t imm ler , M. G .H . P oe tae I , p p . 1 59-214 . S ee H . G . Mi l ler , ' Hrabanus Maurus ' De l audibus s ancta [e ] c ruc is ', Be ihef te z u m Mi t te l la teinischen J ahrbuch 1 1 ( Ra t ingen/Düsse ldorf , 1 973 ) .

4 1 .

e d . D ümm ler , M. G .H . P oetae I , p p . 9 6-117 . 3 07

4 2 .

e d . D t imm ler , M . G . H . P oe tae I , p p . 4 -79 , a nd E .

F ara l, P oe me s ur

L ouis l e P ieux e t E pi ires a u r oi P epin , L es C lassiques d e l 'H istoire d e F rance a u Moyen Age 1 4 ( Par is , 1 964 ) p p . 2 -201 ( w i th French t rans lat i on ) .

Most r ecen t d iscussion a nd b ib l iography i n E benbauer , Car men

h istor icu m ..., p p . 1 01-49 . 4 3 .

D t imm ler , p p . 7 2-73 ( -Fara l [ vv . 2 380-2415 ] p p . 1 82-85 ) .

4 4 .

D t imm ler , p p . 3 69-70 .

4 5 .

Fara l , p . X XV i i .

4 6 .

Aeneid I V , 1 40 , 1 56 .

4 7 .

V inay

4 8 .

e d . D t imm ler , M .G . H . P oetae I , p p . 3 70-78 .

c i t ., n . 1 ) p . 1 92 . B ibl iography i n S cha l ler-

K önsgen , I n i t ia ..., n o. 3 226 , p . 1 51 . 4 9 .

T heodu lf XXV , Ang i lber t I , A lcuin XXV I ; d iscussed b y S cha l ler , Mit te l la te inisches J ahrbuch 6( 1970 ) p . 1 4f f .

5 0 .

e d . D t i mm ler , M. G . H . P oetae I , p p . 3 34-50 .

5 1 .

T he most r ecen t e di t ion o f Wa lahfr id 's V isio We t tin i i s b y D . A . Tra i l , Wa lah frid S trabo 's V isio Wet t ini :

t ext , t rans la t ion a nd c o m men tary ,

L a tein ische S prache u nd L i teratur d es Mi tte la lters 2 ( Bern/Frankfurt , 1 974 ) . 5 2 .

e d . L . T raube , M . G . H . P oetae I I , p p . 4 28-517 .

5 3 .

i b id . ,p p . 5 61-609 .

5 4 .

e d . D t imm ler , M . G . H . P oe tae I , p p . 5 59-64 .

The b est s urvey o f

F lorus ' work i s s t i l l t ha t o f Man i t ius , Gesch ich te ..., p p . 5 60-68 .

There

i s s t i l l n o a dequa te a ccount o f h is p oetry . 5 5 .

i b id ., p p . 1 41-45 .

Man i t ius , Gesch ich te ..., p . 5 99 .

5 6 .

M . G . H . P oe tae I I , p p . 1 51-238 .

5 7 .

e d . T raube , M. G . H . P oetae m l , p p . 5 27-53 .

On E r iugena 's p oet ic

s ty le ( and t enth-century Ang lo-La tin ), s ee M . L ap idge , ' L 'Inf luence s ty list ique d e l a p oesie d e J ean S cot ', i n J ean S cot E rigene e t l 'H istoire d e l a P h i losoph ie ( Par is , 1 977) , C o l loques i n terna t ionaux d u C . N . R . S . N o . 5 61 . 5 8 .

L aon 7 -12 J u ly 1 975 ( Paris , 1 977) p p . 4 43-52 .

C ontrast P . R iche , ' Char les l e C hauve e t l ac u lture d e s on t e mps ', i bid ., p p . 3 7-46 , a nd R . McK i t ter ick , ' Char les t he Ba ld ( 823-877) a nd h is l i brary :

t he p a tronage o f l earning ', EHR CXV ( 1980 )pp . 2 8-42 .

A d if-

f eren t v iew o f t h is q uest ion i s s e t o ut i n af or thco ming a r tic le i n c o llabo ra t ion w ith Dr . J . Mar e nbon . 5 9 .

e d . K . S trecker , M . G .H . P oe tae I V i ( Ber l in , 1 923) p p . 8 57-900 . Man i t ius , G esch ich te ..., p . 6 91f f . ;A .

S ee

L apotre , ' Le S ouper d e J ean

D iacre ', Me langes d 'archeo log ie e t d 'h istoire d e l ' eco le f ranQa ise d e R o me 2 1 ( 1901) a nd G . Arna ldi , ' Giovanni I m monide e l a c u ltura r o mana a l t e mpo d i D iovann i

Bo l le t t ino p er l ' Ist ituto S tor ico I ta l iano per

i Medio E vo e Arch iv io Mura tor iano 6 8 ( 1956) . 3 08

6 0 .

A s urvey o f Medieva l L a t in p arody , n ow i n n eed o f r ev is ion , i s p rov ided b y Pau l L ehmann , D ie Parodie i m Mit te la lter 2 ( S tut tgar t , 1 963) . r e marks i n U . K inder mann , S a tyra . l a tein ischen .

Recen t

D ie Theor ie d er S a t ire im Mi t te l-

V orstudien z u e iner Ga ttungsgesch ich te .

E r langer Be i-

t rage z ur S prache u nd K unstw issenschaf t 5 8 ( Nürnberg , 1 978 ) . 6 1 .

e d . T raube , M .G .H . P oetae I I , p p . 2 04-7 . Könsgen , I n i t ia ..., n o . 3 011, p . 1 42 .. S cottus ...

B ib liography i n S cha l ler-

C o m mentary i nD t ich ting , S edu lius

( n . 1 )p p . 1 35-42 .

6 2 .

v v . 1 , 3 -4 .

6 3 .

c f .

6 4 .

v v . 1 05-6, 1 11-16 .

6 5 .

v v . 1 39-40 .

6 6 .

S ee , e specia l ly , p oe m I , x( Traube , p p . 1 78-79 ) a nd c f . I , x xxv i , 4 ff .

6 7 .

L uke 1 , 1 5 .

( i b id ., p p . 2 00-201 :

a d R otbertu m ) .

e d . P . v . Winterfe ld , M . G . H . P oetae I V ( Ber lin , 1 909) p p . 2 67-71 . S cha l ler-Könsgen , I n i t ia ..., n o . 1 949 , p . 9 3 .

6 8 . 6 9 .

v v . 4 -6 ( p . 2 67) . As a c ounterwe igh t t o t he a ppara tus o f n otes , Ih ave r e ta ined t he e pid eict ic f lavour o ft he o r igina l p aper .

Wi thout t he f r iendly i n terest o f

o ther p ar t ic ipants i nt he c onference , t h is p aper wou ld n ot h ave b een p ub lished .

3 09

1 6.

RAG . READS PR ISCIAN Margare t G ibson

T he s tuden t k een who 's r ead t h is b ook C o mes b ack t o h ave a no ther l ook ; T he man who 's s ucked a l l s ources d ry R eme mbers , H ere 's t he p lace t o t ry ! I t 's l i ke a s ea w i thou t as hore O nce y ou f a l l i n , y ou r ise n o more . ' So s a id RAG . when h e h ad f in ished r ead ing P r isc ian . ' 1

T o ' read ' h ere

means t o s tudy w i th a mas ter , a s f or e xamp le Anse lm 's p ro tege Maur ice was a dv ised t o ' read ' V irg i l w i th t he f u ture P r ior Arnu l f a t C hr is t C hurch , Can terbury ,

2

a nd G i lber t Murray ' read ' A eschylus w i th S idgw ick .

Those

o f u s w i th a s u f f ic ien t ly o ld-fash ioned e duca t ion s tud ied V irg i l i n much t he s ame way:

l i ne b y l i ne—syn tax , e ty mo logy , h is tor ica l r e ferences — le t t ing

n o th ing s l ip . RAG . i s k nown o n ly f ro m h is a nno ta t ion o f MS Par is , B ib l io th que Na t iona le , l a t . 7 503 , af ine f ol io v o lu me o f P r isc ian 's I ns t i tu t iones G ram mat i cae wr i t ten i n t he m id-n in th c en tury i n n or thern France .

There i s a

p a laeograph ica l c ase f or a t tr ibu t ing t he b ook t o S t G erma in-des- P rs , t he wea l thy a nd a c t ive h ouse o n t he l e f t b ank o f t he S eine o ppos i te t he c i ty o f Par is .

3

Bu t e ven w i th t h is a ss is tance we c anno t i den ti fy RAG . h i mse l f :

' Rag ina ld ' ,

' Reg inber t '—whoever h e was , h e mus t s tand f or a ny o f t he a nony-

mous French s choolmas ters who e xpounded P r isc ian i n t he l a ter n in th c en tury a nd who b e l ieved i n w ha t t hey were d o ing , a nd d id i tc heer fu l ly.

I ti s wor th

a sk ing why t hey d id s o , a nd h ow . i .

Why r ead P r isc ian? P r iscian h i mse l f was a p rov incia l Ro man who made g ood .

B orn i n t he

l a ter f i f th c en tury i n w ha t i s n ow C herchel i n A lger ia , ap rov ince s o f ar wes t a s t o b e v ir tua l ly b eyond t he Emp ire , h e f ound emp loy men t a s as choo l mas ter i n C ons tan t inop le t each ing La t in t o ( among o thers ) a sp ir ing c iv i l s ervan ts whose f irs t l anguage was G reek .4

H e was work ing w i th in a n e s tabl ished

t rad i t ion o f L a t in s tud ies a nd h e s t i l l h ad a ccess t o t he f u l l r ange o f La t in a nd G reek a u thors n orma l ly a va i lable i n t he s choo ls o f t he l a ter Emp ire . H is p up i ls a lready k new s o me o f t h is ma ter ia l b y h ear t :

5

P r isc ian c ou ld

a ssu me t ha t ' S pir i tus i n tus a l i t ' wou ld b e p laced , a nd c apped , a t o nce .

Wha t

h e o f fered i n h is I ns t i tu t iones G ra m ma t icae was a c o mprehens ive g u ide t o t he d e ta i ls o f L a t in u sage : n a t ive ;

t he s cans ion a lready s hows ' sp ir i tus ' t o b e n om i-

r e me mber t ha t i ti s f our th d ec lens ion n o t s econd ( I ns t . v i . 7 1 ) ;

' i n tus ' i s a n a dverb l i ke ' i n tra y ,

' i n tro ' , ' i n ter ' ( I ns t . x v . 1 6 ) ;

t h ird c on juga t ion i rregu lar v erb ( I ns t . x . 3 6 ).

' a l i t ' i s a

T he r eader n eeds p a t ience

a nd a g ood me mory , f or t here i s n o i ndex t o t he I ns t i tu t iones G ram ma t icae ; Pr isc ian i s s ys te ma t ic o n ly t o t he p o in t o f amass ing a l l h is ma ter ia l o n t he n oun i n b ooks i -v i i a nd c lass i fying t ha t u nder t he f ive t ime-ha l lowed h eads

3 11

o f ' species ' , ' g ender ' , ' nu mber ' , ' s tructure ' , ' c ase '. N e i ther s hou ld t he r eader b e t oo c ur ious a s t o t he r easons f or t he w ear iso me v ar ie ty o f f orms a nd i rregu lar i t ies t ha t P r iscian l i s ts :

a t b es t P r isc ian w i l l e xp la in a L a t in

f or m b y c i t ing i t s G reek p ro to type , wh ich p ushes t he p rob le m b ack a s tage w i thou t r ea l ly s olv ing i t . Bu t h e n e i ther d we l ls a t l eng th o n t he a bs trac t d e f in i t ions o f t he n oun o r t he v erb , n or d oes h e p ropound a t heory o f l anguage a s s uch .6

T ha t was p erhaps P r isc ian 's s treng th .

wh ich h e me t e xac t ly ;

H e h ad a l im i ted o b ject ive ,

h e o f fered a h and l is t o f f ac ts a bou t t he e n t ire v ocabu lary

o f L a t in a nd , o n a much more r es tr ic ted s ca le , b as ic i n forma t ion o n s yn tax . Th is c o mple ted t he s tuden t 's s tudy o f g ram mar :

f i rs t t he a pproved a u thors ,

t hen P r iscian 's g u ide t o t he a ccep ted n orms i n t he ir v arying ( and s o me t imes i nde fens ib le ) u sage . F or RÄG . a nd h is p up i ls t he p a t tern o f s cho larsh ip was f undamen ta l ly t he s ame .

They t oo h ad b egun w i th V irg i l , l earn ing b y r o te e ven p erhaps

b efore t hey c ou ld r ead .

T he ir r ange o f a u thors was n arrower , b u t i t s t i l l

7

i nc luded l i t t le t ha t h ad b een u nknown t o P r iscian , t hough t he C hr is t ian P rud en t ius a nd S edu l ius may h ave b een a dded t o t he c anon .

8

B u t when we r e-

me mber t ha t C har le magne 's c our t l i brary i nc luded n ear ly a l l C laud ian ,

9

t here c an b e n o q ues t ion o f C hr is t ian a u thors o us t ing t he c lass ica l p oe ts . Aga in t he w ide d i f fus ion o f t he p lays o f T erence , s o me w i th i l lus tra t ions t ha t p resumab ly e ncouraged t heir d rama t ic u se i n t he c lassroo m ,

1 0

i s e n t ire ly

i n l i ne w i th t he c ho ice a nd u se o f a u thors i n P r iscian 's C ons tan tinop le : e xerc ised t he s tuden t i n f l ex ib le , s poken La t in . was t he f a i lure o f C aro l ing ian G reek .

t hey

T he o ne ma jor d i f ference

E ven i n C har le magne 's t ime s o me

s cholars k new s o me G reek , a nd a s l a te a s t he 8 20s a f ew L a t in s cr ibes c ou ld wr i te i t we l 1 ;1 1

b u t b y t he l a ter n in th c en tury , d esp i te t he e xa mp le o f J ohn

t he S co t , G reek was f ad ing , a t l eas t n or th o f t he A lps .

1 2

T o t he o rd inary

s choo lmas ter P r isc ian 's e xp lana tory G reek p ara l le ls were i naccess ib le a nd i ndeed r ap id ly b eco m ing mean ing less i n t he h ands o f e qua l ly i gnoran t s cr ibes . Bu t i n a l l o ther r espec ts t he I ns t i tu t iones G ram ma t icae p rov ided RAG . ' s p up i ls w i th t he s a me g u idance , a t t he s a me s tage , a s t he p upi ls o f P r iscian h ad b een g iven 3 50 y ears b e fore. t he r es t ;

F irs t t he s tuden t me mor ised V irg i l a nd T erence a nd

t hen h e t urned —a s hade r e luc tan t ly , w e may h azard —to t he s o l id

A leve l g r ind o f t he I ns t i tu t iones G ram ma t icae .

I fh e s urv ived a l l t ha t , h e

c ou ld wr i te t he c orrect , h eavy-foo ted Caro l ing ian L a t in , i n wh ich t he r ange o f v ocabu lary i s a s w ide a s t he s yn tac t ica l i nven t ion i s l im i ted . i .

H ow t o r ead P r isc ian I n B ook I V o f t he I ns t i tu t iones G ram ma t icae P r iscian d e f ines a nd l i s ts

wha t h e t er ms ' deno mina t ives ' :

t ha t i s , n ouns a nd a d ject ives wh ich d er ive

f ro m a no ther n oun o r a d jec t ive o r , l ess f requen t ly , av erb .

1 3

Thus :

' sol i tudo ' ( f ro m t s olus ' ) , ' cae les t is ' ( f ro m i cae lum t ) , ' scr iba ' ( f ro m ' s cr ibo ' ). The n o tor ious e xamp le i n t he l a ter e leven th c en tury was t o b e ' gram ma t icus ' i t se lf .

Was ' knowing g ram mar ' , a sked S t . Anse lm , at h ing i n i tse l f o r a

q ua l i ty o f t he i nd iv idua l man? 1 4

Bu t t ha t q ues t ion was a sked , a nd a nswered ,

e ssen t ia l ly i n t erms o f l og ic , whereas RÄG , a nd h is c o l leagues were c onc erned , l i ke P r isc ian h i mse l f , w i th t he p rac t ica l i t ies o f L a t in g ram mar . Wha t i n teres ted t he m were t he c a tegor ies w i th in wh ich P r isc ian o rgan ised h is ma ter ia l , whe ther h is wordl is ts were c o mp le te , a nd t he mean ing o f u nusua l o r i n teres t ing words w i th in t hese l i s ts . 3 12

RAG . ' s manuscr ip t o f P r iscian a lready h ad a t l eas t o ne l ayer o f a nony mous a nno ta t ion , wh ich s pe l t o u t wha t t he d eno m ina t ive was ,

a nd t hen c o m men ted

e xuberan t ly o n t he w ords w i th in t ha t c a tegory. ' A w ord i s t er med d eno m inat ive , Pr isc ian wrote , ' when i tt akes i t s n ame f ro m a no ther word —wha tever i t s t ype , t ha t h o lds g ood .

D eno m ina t ive i s g enera l ly a pp l icab le t o a ny word

t ha t d er ives f ro m a n oun : mos t p a trony m ics ( I ns t . i . 3 2-9 ) , p ossess ives ( i i . 4 0-64 ) , c o mpara t ives ( ii .1-17) , s uper la t ives ( ii .18-25 ) a nd d im inu t ives ( i i i . 2 6-44 ) , u n less t hey a re v erba l o r a dverba I , a re d eno m ina t ives , i .e . t hey d er ive f ro m n ouns ' ( I ns t . i v . 1 , s l igh t ly a br idged ) . g lossa tor s tressed g enera l ly:

H ere t he a nony mous

' For p ossess ives a nd d im inu t ives a nd t he r es t

h ave a s pec ia l ised mean ing ' ( f o l . 3 1) . H e wen t o n t o c on tras t t he f orma l v ar ie ty o f n ouns w i th t h is b lanke t t erm , d eno m ina t ive , a nd t o c o m men t b r ief ly o n p a trony m ics , p ossess ives a nd t he r es t .

Bu t h e i s f ar more i n teres ted i n ,

s o t o s ay , t he c oncre te words t han i n s uch a bs tract c a tegor ies .

I n t he c lass

e nd ing i n ' -a ' p receded b y ac onsonan t , P r isc ian 's f i rs t s ubd iv is ion ( -la ) c on ta ins s ix d eno m ina t ives b ased o n an oun a nd t wo b ased o n av erb. RAG . i n h is t urn r epea ts t he e n t ire l i s t i n t he marg in— Jcau t Ma t , ' t u t2 la ' , ( p lus a d oub le t ,

' cu te la ' ) ,

' acu tJ la i ,

' cus tode la ' , ' manda te la ' , ' c l ien te la ' , ' cande la ' ,

' Suade la ' —w i thou t d is t inct ion ( f o l . 3 2 ) ;

mos t o f t he m a re words h e wou ld

s carce ly e ver f ind e lsewhere , s o i ti s c onven ien t t o i ndex t he m . S o met i mes aw ord w i l l b r ing t o m ind i t s o pposi te . P r iscian 's l i s t o f d eno m ina t ives e nd ing i n

i ncludes ' s trad es ' ( I ns t . i v . 2 ) , e xp la ined h ere i n a n a nony mous

i n ter l inear n o te a s ' a mu l t i t ide o f men k i l led ' ( f o l . 3 1v ) .

RAG . o bserves i n

t he marg in , ' When t ha t mu l t i tude o f men i s a l ive , i ti s c a l led a l eg ion ' ( f o l . 3 1v ) .

Pr isc ian n ever d r if ts s o f ro m t he ma t ter i n h and , n or d oes h e y ie ld

t o t he s irens o f e ty mo log y a nd a n t iquar ian is m .

' Laqueus ' ( a s nare ) , g iven

a s t he s ource o f t he d eno m ina t ive l aquear ' ( I ns t . i v .18 ) , g ives RAG . t he o ppor tun i ty t o d iscuss t he h ar lo t , ' so c a l led b ecause o f t he r apaci ty w i th wh ich s he s na tches ( ' rapere ' ) o r s eizes u nhappy men . h e c on t inues ,

Ab ro the l ( ' pros t ibu lu m ' ) , '

r eca l l ing a word a f ew p aragraphs e ar l ier ( I ns t . i v . 1 3 ) , ' der ives

i ts n ame f ro m t he t hea tr ica l p er formances t ha t s uch wo men e nac t ' ( f o l . 3 4 ) . Aga in S hakespeare was n o t t he f irs t t o e xplo i t t he f eas t o f Luperca l ( I ns t . i v . 1 1) .

RAG . g ave h is s tuden ts a s p ine-ch i l l ing q uar ter-hour — Lupercus was t he n ame o f t he s upre me g od o f Arcad ia , who t urned men i n to wo lves . i ts f l esh ;

Ac er ta in man s acr if iced a c h i ld t o h im , a nd a te

t he g od t urned h im i n to a wo lf a t o nce.

p re fers h u man f l esh t o a nyth ing e lse .

T ha t i s why a wo l f

The G reek Tuch ios ' i s

Tupercus t i n L a t in , a nd t he G reek l ichos ' t he La t in ' l upus '. i s at e mp le b u i l t i n h onour o f L upercus .

Luperca l

Ano ther e xp lana t ion i s t ha t

i ti s a ssocia ted w i th R o mu lus a nd R e mus , o r e lse t ha t i ti s ad efence a ga ins t wo lves , o r t ha t ag oa t ( caper :

c od . c apro ) was s acr if iced

t here . Or e lse t he p lace h as t h is n a me b ecause t he g od Pan was worsh ipped t here w i th g ames . ' Luperci ' was t he n a me g iven t o p eop le who , when t hey h ad e a ten c er ta in s acr i f ica l mea t , were t urned i n to ' l ychos ' ( see a bove ) , i .e . wo lves , f or t he G reek l ycos ' i s r endered a s ' l upus ' i n La t in ( f o l . 3 3 )

3 13

H ere S erv ius ' n o tes t o t he A ene id h ave b een h eav i ly o ver la id w i th t he med ieva l werewo lf ,

1 5

a nd— the e ssence o f RAG . ' s k ind o f c om men tary —a t tached t o a

r ando m word , c i ted b y P r iscian f or q u i te a no ther p urpose . men tary e very word wou ld h ave t h is d egree o f e xpos i t ion : a f f i l ia t ion , i i .

I n a n i dea l c o mi t s mean ing , i t s

i t s f ixed p lace i n t he f i r ma men t o f k now ledge .

RAG . ' sp lace i n h is tory We n eed n o t s uppose t ha t RAG . t augh t g ra m mar f ro m t he I ns t i tu t iones

G ram ma t icae a lone .

T he man i n ah urry c ou ld , a nd d id , f ind t he b as ic d e f i-

n i t ions i n D ona tus , t he f our th c en tury g ram mar ian who h ad t augh t S t J ero me a nd who was c o m men ted b y t wo o u ts tand ing n in th c en tury mas ters , S edu l ius S co t tus a nd R e mig ius o f A uxerre .1 6 Aga in t he C aro l ing ian s choo lmas ter was n o t t each ing L a t in l anguage a nd l i tera ture s o le ly f ro m b ooks ;

i ft he l a te

An t ique s cho lar ly t rad i t ion e ndured i n s ou thern G au l l ong e nough f or A ldhe lm t o k now i ti n t he mid-seven th c en tury ,

1 7

we s hou ld p robably a l low t ha t i t was

s t i l l a va i lable i n t he mid-e igh th t o Theodu l f a nd P e ter o f P isa , a s t hey f ounded t he ' Pa lace-School '.

N ever the less P r isc ian was u nquest ionab ly t he

p r incipa l a u thor i n g ram mar f or RAG , a nd h is c o l leagues i n t he l a ter n in th c en tury;

a nd i t was t hey who made t he I ns t i tu t iones G ram ma t icae t horough ly

f am i l iar t o t he C aro l ing ian s tuden t . a nd more :

T he ir work e ndured f or a g ood c en tury

F rou mund o f T egernsee was ma in ta in ing t he s ame t rad i t ion i n t he

t ime o f O t to I I , a nd t he monk H ar tw ig b rough t e xac t ly t he s a me t ype o f mat er ia l h o me t o R egensburg f ro m C har tres i n t he l a ter y ears o f Rober t t he P ious .

1 8

T he v o lu me o f P r isc ian t ha t F u lber t s en t t o t he b ishop o f F ünfk irchen

i n n ew ly c onver ted H ungary c an s carce ly h ave b een d i f feren t .

1 9

S o l ong a s

t he s tuden t was s a t is f ied w i th P r iscian 's s tra igh t forward a nd u nspecu la tive t ex t , h e was s a t is f ied w i th RAG . ' s s tyle o f e xpos i t ion .

2 0

B y Anse lm 's t ime ,

h e was t horough ly u neasy , a nd t he n ew e f for ts t o e labora te a g ra mmar t ha t was s ys te ma t ic , a bs trac t a nd s pecu la t ive ly t igh t s pe l t t he e nd o f t he t ype o f c o m men tary t ha t h ad f irst b een s ecure ly e s tab l ished ' regnan te ' ( I ns t . x i ) ‚K aro lo '

( I ns t . i )

luo t ( I ns t . i , b u t c f . x .13 ) .

The U n ivers i ty o f L iverpoo l

NOTES 1 . RÄG .QVANDO F IN IT / LEGENDO HVNC D IX IT , Vu l t a u idus l ector c anas q u i s c ire l oque las A tque n ouas r e lega t :

h unc s imu l a ss idue

S i f on tes a l iqu is c unctas s iccare b ibendo , I pse u a le t h u ius e sse me mor i ug i ter E s t e ten im f undo s im i l is p e lagoque c aren te — L apsus i n h oc f uer i t s urgere u ix p o tent . MS P ar is , B ib l . Na t ., l a t 7 503 , f o l. 2 38 ( f ree ly r endered ). 2 .

Anse lm i E pp . 6 4 :

Anse 1m i O pera , e d . F . S . S ch m i t t ( Ed inburgh 1 946 ) ,

i i . 1 80-1.

3 14

3 .

F or a more d e ta i led d escr ip t ion o f t he manuscr ip t s ee M. T . G ibson , P r iscian i n t he Wes t ( f or thco m ing ).

Professor J ean Vezin , o f t he E cole

d es Hau tes E tudes k ind ly t e l ls me t ha t t he h and i s i n i m ita t ion o f t he s cr ip t o f Tours , s uch a s i s f ound a t S t G erman-des-Prgs a nd S t Amand i n t he mid- a nd l a ter n in th c en tury.

F or t he d eve lop men t o f t he S t

G er ma in-des- Pr s s cr ip t i n t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies s ee B . B ischof f , D er S tu t tgar ter B i lderpsa l ter , f acs i mi le e di t ion b y B ischof f , F . Mü t ter ich a nd B . F ischer ( S tu t tgar t 1 965 ) , i .21-6.

F or a ppropr ia te ly-named monks

a t S t G erma in-des-Pr6s i n t he n in th c en tury s ee A . Mo l in ier , d e l a Prov ince d e S ens ( Par is 1 902 ) , I . i .250

O bi tua ires

Raga mfred , monk ) , 2 51

[ Raga mfred , p r ies t ] ,2 65 [ Ragenard , monk ] a nd A . Wi l mar t ,

' Un s acra-

men ta ire a l ' usage d e S a in t-Germa in-des-P r6s' , Revue Mabi l lon x v i i ( 1 927) , 3 85 [ Ragengaud ] 4 .

Much t he b es t a ccoun t o f P r isc ian 's l i fe a nd work i s R . H el m 's e n try i n P au ly- W issowa , R ea lencyclopäd ie d er C lass ischen A l ter tumswissenscha f t ( S tu t tgar t 1 954 ) , x l iv .2328-46.

La t in r e ma ined t he l anguage o f imper ia l

a dmin is tra t ion , e ven i n t he Eas t , u n t i l t he mid-six th c en tury. 5 .

P . Le mer le , L e P re mier h uman is me b yzan t in ( Par is 1 971 ) , c ap.I I I , w i th r eferences.

6 .

S ee R . H . Robins , Anc ien t a nd Med ieva l G ra m ma t ica l Theory i n Europe ( London , 1 951) , p p . 6 1-8 e t p ass i m.

7 .

Manuscr ip ts o f s o me s tandard c lass ica l a u thors ( e .g . V irg i l ,

H orace ,

S ta t ius ) a nd o f Mar t ianus Cape l la a nd B oethius h ave c er ta in p assages marked w i th n eu mes , a s t hough f or r eci ta t ion o r c han t . n eeds f ur ther i nves t iga t ion ; L agor io ,

The s ub ject

s ee meanwh i le t he u ' sefu l n o te b y V . M.

' Three Va t ican manuscr ip ts c on ta in ing n eu mes ' , Manuscr ip ta

x i i i ( 1969 ) , 4 0-1. 8 .

S ee t he w ide r ange o f e ar ly manuscr ip ts u sed b y J . Hue mer , S edu l i i O pera Omn ia ( V ienna 1 885 :

CSEL x ) , p p. l i -l i i , a nd M. P . Cunn ingha m ,

A ure lii Pruden t i i C le men t is Car mina ( Turnhou t 1 966: p p . x -xx . 9 .

CCSL c xxv i ) ,

S ee t he f ragmen tary c a ta logue o f c lassica l a u thors i n t he c our t l i brary p reserved i n MS B er lin ( Wes t ) , S taa tsb ibl . Preuss . Ku l turbesi tz , D iez. B . S an t.66 , p p. 2 18-9 :

f acs im i le e di tion b y B . B ischof f , G ra m ma tici

L a t in i e t Ca ta logus L ibroru m ( Graz 1 973 :

C od ices S elec t i x l i i ) , p p .

3 8-9. 1 0.

L . W. J ones a nd C . R . Morey , The M in ia tures o f t he Manuscr ip ts o f T erence p r ior t o t he Th ir teen th C en tury

2v ols . ( Pr ince ton/London/

L e ipzig 1 931). 1 1.

T he mos t s tr ik ing i l lus tra t ion t ha t Ik now i s t he G raeco-La tin Pau l ine E p is t les wr i t ten i n R e ichenau C . 8 20 , n ow MS Ca mbr idge , Tr in i ty C o l l ., B .17.1 ( 412 ) :

f acs imi le i n W.

P . Ha tch , The Pr incipa l Uncia l

Manuscr ip ts o f t he N ew Tes ta men t ( Ch icago 1 939 ) , p l . L . 1 2.

J ohn t he S cot 's c o mmand o f G reek i s e v iden t n o t o n ly i n h is t rans la tion o f t he work o f P s . D en is b u t i n h is u se o f G reek ma ter ia l i n h is own D e D iu is ione Na turae : l i b.i-i i , e d . I . P. S he ldon- W i l liams ( Dubl in

3 15

1 968-72 :

S cr ip tores L at in i H ibern iae v i i , i x ) , w ith r eferences .

S co t tus , o n t he o ther h and , d id n o t g o much b eyond t he B ible :

S edu l ius F .

Brunhö lzl , G esch ich te d er l a te in ischen L i tera tur d es M i t tela l ters ( Mun ich 1 975 ) , i .4 52-3 , w i th r e ferences .

F or t he whole i ssue o f G reek

i n t he West s ee B . B ischo ff , ' Das g r iech ische E le men t i n d er a bend ländi sche B i ldung d es M it tela l ters ' , M i t te la l ter l iche S tud ien ( S tu t tgar t 1 967) , i .2 46-75. 1 3.

E d. M . H er tz: iii .

1 4.

G ram ma t ici La tin i , e d . H . K ei l ( Leipzig 1 855-9 ) , v ols .

Pr iscian i n f act t rea ts a d ject ives a nd n ouns a s as ing le c lass.

De G ram ma t ico I : i .145.

Ansel mi O pera , e d . F . S . S ch m i t t ( Seckau 1 938 ) ,

S ee f ur ther D . P . H enry , The L og ic o f S t Anse lm ( Ox ford 1 967) ,

p p. 3 1-116. 1 5 .

I n Aen v i i i .342-4:

S ervi i g ra m ma t ici q u i f erun tur i n Verg i l i i c ar mina

c o m men tar i i , e d . G . Th i lo a nd H . H agen ( Le ipzig 1 883 ) , I .i .249-50 . ( ' Serv ius ' i s t he b es t w i tness t o t he e xpos i t ion o f V irg il i n t he s choo ls o f La te An t iqu ity ) .

S ee t oo Ov id , Fas t i i .3 81-452 , a much r arer t ex t

t han t he A eneid a t t h is t ime , b u t p oss ibly a lso a va i lable a nd a nnota ted . For t he werwo lf s ee K . F . Sm i th , ' An h istor ica l s tudy o f t he w erewo lf i n l i tera ture ' , PMLA i x ( 1894 ) , 1 6.

1 -42.

S edu l ius S cot tus , I n Dona t i Ar te m Ma iore m , e d . B . L öfs ted t ( Turnhou t 1 977:

CC C on t . Med . x 1B ) a nd Re m ig i i Au t issiodorensis i n A r te m Dona t i

M inore m C o m men tum , e d . W. Fox ( Leipzig 1 902: 1 7.

T eubner ).

S ee M. Win terbo t to m , ' A ldhe lm 's p rose s tyle a nd i ts o r ig ins ' , Ang loS axon Eng land v i ( 1977) , 3 9-76.

1 8 .

S ee r espect ive ly C . E . Eder , ' D ie S chu le d es K los ters Tegernsee im f rühen M i tte la l ter im S piegel d er Tegernseer Handschr if ten ' , S tud ien u .M i t tei lungen z .G esch ich te d es B ened ik t iner-Ordens l xxx i i i ( 1 972 ) , 3 9-41 , n o . 1 4 ;

a nd B . B ischof f , ' L i terar isches u nd k üns t ler isches

L eben i n S t . Em mera m ( Regensburg ) während d es f rühen u nd h ohen M i t te la l ters ' , M i ttela l ter l iche S tudien ( S tu t tgar t 1 967) , i . 8 0-4 . 1 9.

F . B ehrends , The L et ters a nd P oe ms o f Fu lber t o f C har tres , n o. 8 2 ( Ox ford 1 976:

2 0

Ox ford Med ieva l Tex ts ) , p p . 1 48-9.

Much work r e ma ins t o b e d one o n t he t ransi t ion f ro m Carol ing ian t o t wel f th-cen tury s cholarsh ip .

For a n e xa mina t ion o f s o me o f t he p roble ms

s ee M. T . G ibson , ' The c on t inu i ty o f l earning c . 8 50-c . 1 050 ' , V ia tor v i ( 1975 ) , 1 -13.

3 16

1 7.

CAR OL ING IAN A STR OLOG ICAL MANUSCRIPTS Pa tr ick McGurk

Caro l ing ian Manuscr ip ts

Wa lahf id S trabo k ep t as chool b ook f ro m h is e arly d ays a t Re ichenau i n 8 25 t o af ew w eeks b efore h is d eath i n 8 49. 1

Among t he s chool t ex ts i n t h is

b ook w as a c opy o f t he w ork o f h is t eacher a t Fu lda : pu tus o f Rhabanus Maurus.

t he t rea t ise o n t he c o rn-

Rhabanus ' t rea t ise d eal t w i th t he move men ts o f

t he s un a nd t he moon a nd t he p lanets i n t he z od iac , a nd i n c hap ter 4 8 i tg ave , i n a nswer t o ap up il 's q ues t ion , p rac t ica l d e mons tra t ion o f t h is e xper t ise : " a t t h is mo men t , o n J u ly 9 , 8 20 , t he s un i s i n t he 2 3rd p art o f C ancer , t he moon i s i n t he 9 th p ar t o f Taurus , S a turn i s i n t he s ign o f Aries , J up iter i n L ibra , Mars i n P isces , wh i le i t i s n ot c lear i n wh ich s ign Venus a nd Mercury s tay b ecause t hey a re n ear t he s un i n d ay l igh t". 2

Appended t o t he t rea t ise

i n many c op ies i s a n a nc ien t t ex t o n t he h eaven ly s pheres wh ich o pens w ith t he w ords " duo s un t e x tre m i v er t ices mund i" a nd wh ich o f ten r ecurs i n n in thc en tury c o mp ila t ions o n a strono my a nd t he c o mpu tus. 3

When S trabo wen t t o

Aachen t o t u tor Char les t he Bald i n 8 29 , h e a dded t o h is n o tebook e xcerp ts f ro m , o r r ela ted t o , t wo works wh ich must h ave b een a va i lable a t t he p a lace : t he f amous c a lendar o f 3 54, wh ich s urvives t oday o n ly i n s ix teen th- a nd s even teen th-cen tury c op ies , a nd t he l arge a strono m ica l-co mpu t ist ica l c o mp i la t ion o f 8 10 , wh ich was f i rst e d ited a nd p roduced a l most c erta in ly a t t he c our t o f Char le magne. 4

I n S trabo 's n otebook , t herefore , a re f ound , e ither

c o mp le te o r e xcerp ted , t hree t exts d eal ing w i th t he c a lendar k nown t o t he Caro l ing ians :

Rhabanus

t he c omp ila t ion o f 8 10. v ives a f our th t ex t :

a ccoun t o f t he c o mpu tus, t he c a lendar o f 3 54 a nd I n s o me c op ies o f Rhabanus ' c o mpu tus t here s ur-

t he t rea t ise Duo s un t .

T he n u mber o f s uch t ex ts i n S trabo 's n otebook r ef lec ts t he k nown i n terest o f C aro l ing ian p r inces a nd s cholars i n t he c ourse o f t he s tars.

I n t he V iv ian

B ible p roduced b y t he s cr ip tor iu m o f Tours f or p resen ta t ion t o Char les t he Ba ld i n 8 45, t he D i n i t ia l wh ich o pens J ero me 's p rologue t o t he Pen ta teuch h as t en s igns o f t he z od iac s hown i n t he f ra me o f t he i n i t ia l , a n e leven th , P isces , b e ing s et b eh ind t he r epresen ta t ion o f S ol a nd L una i n t he i n it ial ' s b ow. 5

On t he i vor ies o n t he t hrone o f S t . Peter , wh ich was p robably made

a t ac ourt c en tre , a nd wh ich may h ave b een t aken b y C har les t he Ba ld t o Ro me o n t he o ccasion o fh is i mper ial c orona t ion , t here a re i l lustrat ions o f many c onstel la t ions wh ich We itz mann h as a rgued were d er ived f ro m a t l east t wo C arol ing ian c yc les. 6 Whether o r n ot t ha t c ase i s p roven , c er ta in ly s evera l a strolog ica l c yc les a re k nown f ro m t he Carol ing ian p eriod a nd t hey f or med e asi ly t he l argest b ody o f s ecu lar imagery i n t he n in th c en tury . T here were t wo r easons f or t h is. F irst , t here was t he g rea test i n teres t among t he Carol ing ians i n t he Greek p oe m o n t he h eavens , t he Phaeno mena

3 17

o f Ara tus , wh ich h ad b een r endered i n to L a t in i n s evera l v ersions , a nd t hese Ara tean t ex ts w ere o f ten i l lustra ted.

S econd , a s was s een i n Rhabanus ' w ork

o n t he c o mpu t-u s , a strono my a nd t he c o mpu tus w ere a l l ied i n teres ts a nd t he mu l t ip l ica t ion o f c o mpu t ist ica l t ex ts mean t t ha t a strono m ica l t ex ts , a nd s o met imes w ith t he m a strono m ical i l lustra t ions, wou ld b e r eproduced .

I .

ARATUS

— PHAENOMENA

The p oe m o f Ara tus , t he Phaeno mena , wh ich d a tes f ro m t he t h ird c ent ury B . C ., i s i n p ar t ar ender ing i n v erse o f t he l os t d escrip t ion a nd a na lys is o f t he c elest ia l s phere o f E udoxus o f Cn idus, a n a strono mer o f t he e arly f our th c en tury B . C .

I tg ives a p opu lar n on- ma the ma t ica l e xpos it ion o f t he c h ief

f ea tures o f t he c elest ia l g lobe , d escr ibes t he ma in c onstel la t ions , i nd icates wh ich s tars r ise o r s et w i th t he z od iaca l c onstel la t ions a nd e nds w ith a n u mb er o f wea ther p rognost ica t ions b ased o n c eles t ial a nd meteorolog ica l p henomena .

I t was e x tre mely wel l k nown i n a n t iqu ity a s t he n u merous c o m men tar ies

a nd i n terpre ta t ions make p la in . L a t in :

7

Three v erse t ransla t ions h ave s urv ived i n

t he e arl iest t ha t b y C icero , t he s econd t ha t a t tr ibu ted t o G er man icus

Caesar a nd t he t h ird , f ro m t he f ourth c en tury , b y Av ienus .8

I n d escr ibing

t he p os i t ion o f t he c onstel la t ions i n t he s ky , t he p oe m o f Ara tus o n ly o ccas iona l ly d iscussed t he my ths o f t he s tars o r r eferred t o t he n u mber a nd l oca t ion o f t he s tars i n e ach c onstel la t ion , b u t b o th t he my ths a nd t he s tar c ata logues were t he mselves t he s ub jec t o f as er ies o f works i n Greek a nd i n L a t in .

Hyg inus i n h is De Astrono m ia d evoted o ne b ook t o t he my ths o f t he

s tars a nd a no ther t o ac a ta logue o f t he s tars i n e ach c onstel la t ion .

By t he

t h ird c en tury a t t he l a test , s o me s chol ia o n t he G er man icus t rans la t ion o f Ara tus were p roduced wh ich g ave t he my ths a nd t he s tar c a talogue f or e ach c ons tel la t ion .

9

A t a n u ndeter m ined d a te , aL a t in p rose v ers ion o f A ra tus ,

wh ich was c learly a d irec t t ransla t ion o f t he Greek was p roduced :

i n t h is

v ers ion , t he t ransla ted p oe m , i t sel f i n terspersed w ith s chol ia o n t he f ables a nd c a ta logues o f t he s tars, was p receded b y as er ies o f t ex ts d ea l ing w ith t he l i fe o f Ara tus a nd w ith s o me a strono m ica l ma t ters.

The e ar l ies t manu-

s cr ip ts o f t h is p rose v ers ion , wh ich i s k nown a s t he Arra tus La t inus , d a te f ro m t he e arly n in th c en tury.

Another c lue t o t he d a te o f i t s c o mpos i t ion i s

t he b arbar ic L a t in wh ich i s o ne o f t he r easons f or a t tribu t ing i tt o t he s even th c en tury .

By t he e ar ly n in th c en tury , t h is Ara tus L a t inus h ad b een r e-

1 °

v ised b y s o meone who h ad r ecourse, n ot t o t he o r ig inal Greek , b u t t o t he t h ird-cen tury s chol ia o n t he t ransla t ion b y Ger man icus wh ich h as j ust b een men t ioned.

1

T h is v ers ion i s s o me t i mes k nown a s t he r ev ised A ra tus L a t inus

a nd i t s d a te o f c o mpos i t ion i s u ncerta in , t hough t h is i s n ot l i kely t o b e much e arl ier t han t he e ar l iest s urv iv ing w i tness wh ich d a tes f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he n in th c entury .

1 2

A l l t hese Ara tean t ex ts — t he t hree L a tin v erse t rans-

l a t ions o f C icero , German icus a nd Av ienus ,) the a strono m ical h andbook o f Hyg inus , t he Ger man icus s chol ia w ith f ables a nd s tar c a talogues, a nd t he t wo p rose e d i t ions o f Ara tean t ex ts ( t he Ara tus L a t inus a nd t he r ev ised Ara tus L a t inus ) — were k nown t o t he Carol ing ians a nd s o me s urv ive i n n u merous c op ies.

O f t hese t ex ts , t hree were n o t i l lus tra ted i n t he Carol ing ian p er iod :

t he Hyg inus, t he Ara tus L a t inus a nd t he Av ienus. 1 3

3 18

The o thers w ere , a s

t he f o l low ing l i st o f s urviv ing i l lustra ted Carol ing ian manuscr ip ts s hows : 1 .

C ICERO 'S TRANSLAT ION WITH HYGINUS S CHOL IA

L ondon , BL , MS. Har ley 6 47 A p icture b ook w ith o ne i l lustra t ion a nd t he a ppropr ia te v erses o n e ach p age. The b ody o f e ach i l lus tra t ion i s made u p o f s chol ia t aken f ro m Hyg inus, g iv ing t he f able a nd c atalogue o f e ach s tar , a nd wr it ten i n r ust ic c ap i ta ls , t he e xt re m i t ies o f t he f i gure b e ing p a in ted a nd t he s tars c arefu l ly s hown .

I th as

b een a t tr ibu ted t o b e tween 8 20 -850 , t o t he a rea wh ich b eca me t he Midd le K ingdo m , b e ing p roduced f or a p a tron who was a ble t o a cqu ire e xe mp lars a t t he p a lace.

1 4

I t i s w r i t ten o n as tout , t h ick s k in

o f ad ist inc t ive k ind.

L upus o f Fern eres h ad s een c op ies o f C icero 's t ransla t ion , t hough n ot n ecess ar ily t h is manuscr ip t . 2 .

GER MAN ICUS CAESAR 'S TRANSLATION WITH S O ME L INES FRO M AVIE NUS

L e iden , UL , MS. Voss. l a t. q u . 7 9 An e qual ly f a mous p icture b ook , i t s i l lustra ted p ages a re i n terspersed w ith p ages o f a ppropria te v erses f ro m Ger man icus a nd v ery o ccas iona l ly f ro m Av ienus.

Reproduc ing t he p a in t ing s ty le, f or ma t a nd s ub jec t ma t ter o f i t s

e xemp lar , i th as b een a t tr ibu ted t o t he a rea a nd c irc le o f i nterests r espons ible f or 1 .

a bove , a nd h as b een l inked t o t he l ost Carol ing ian c opy o f t he

Ca lendar o f 3 54, a lso a p roduc t o f t ha t c ircle, b y t he meda l l ions o f t he i l lust ra t ions o f t he mon ths w h ich i tb orrowed f ro m t he Ca lendar f or i t s p lan isp haer iu m. 3 .

1 5

GER MAN ICUS CAESAR 'S TRANSLAT ION WITH S CHOL IA

Basel , UL , MS . A . N . I V. 1 8. C ons tel la t ions d rawn w ith s tars c areful ly marked a nd b elong ing t o ac ycle w ith e very s ign o f a n t iqu i ty a nd s im ilar i n many r espec ts t o t he r ela ted c yc les i n 1 . a nd 2 . a bove. 4 .

E arly n in th c en tury , f ro m Fu lda. 1 6

REVISED ARATUS LAT INUS

I n c on trast t o t he s ingle s urv iv ing c op ies o f t he t hree p reced ing t ex ts , s ix i l lus tra ted c op ies o f t h is s chool t ex t s urvive.

I n a l l t hese c op ies e xcep t f or

4. ( v i ), t he s tars a re n o t i nd ica ted o n t he f i gures.

A l l t he f i gures a re p la in

l ine d raw ings w ith t he e xcep t ion o f4 . ( i ) . ( i ) C ologne , Do mb. MS. 8 3. Par t I C o logne, c . 8 05.

The most b eau t ifu l o f t he g roup , i t s q ual i ty a nd i t s e ar ly

d a te s uggest t hat i tm igh t b e c lose t o a n e xe mp lar a t t he p a lace.

On ly s o me

o f t he c onstel la t ions a re i l lustra ted a nd p a in ted. 1 7 ( i i ) P ar is, BN , MS. n ouv. a cq. l a t. 1 614 West F ranc ia , p oss ibly t he T ours r eg ion , e arly n in th c en tury. f eren t f ro m t ha t u sed i n 4 ( i ).

18

S ee p la tes III I b elow.

3 19

A c ycle d if-

( i i i ) Dresden , L andesb., MS. Dc. 1 83 West F rancia , e arly n in th c en tury .

1 9

( i v ) Par is , BN , MS. l a t . 1 2957 An e arly n in th c en tury West F rank ish b ook .

A t C orb ie i n t he n in th c en tury . 20

( v ) S t . Gal l , S t if tsb., MS. 9 02 S t . Ga l l , m id-n in th c en tury. ( v i ) S t . Gal l , S t if tsb., MS. 2 50 C op ied f ro m 4.( v ) a t S t . Ga l l i n t he l a ter n in th c entury. 2 1

There a re t hree

a strolog ica l c ycles i n t he a bove r evised Ara tus L a t inus b ooks :

o ne i n4 .( i ),

as econd i n 4. ( i i ) a nd a t h ird i n 4 .( ii )(v i ), t he l ast f our b e ing c losely r el a ted t o e ach o ther.

Maass, t he e d itor o f t he t ex ts , u sed 4.( i ) a nd 4. ( ii i )-

( v i ) a nd s howed t ha t 4. ( i ) ,( i v )-(v i ) s hared many r ead ings.

I t i s l i kely t ha t

t he r ev ised Ara tus L a t inus, wh ich was a r ev ision o f t he p robably o r ig inal ly u n i l lustra ted Ara tus L a t inus, b orrowed i t s c yc les o f i l lustra t ions f ro m e lsewhere.

S uch b orrow ing m igh t e xp la in b o th t he v ar ia t ions i n t he c yc les a nd

t he m isunderstand ings a nd i naccurac ies i n t he i l lustra t ions t he mselves. 23 I .

THE COMPUTUS

T he s econd c on tex t f or a strolog ica l i l lustrat ions was t he c o mpu tus. i n t he Carol ing ian a ge t here was t he i nheri tance f ro m t he p ast :

Here

n o t merely

t he works o f Bede b u t al arge n u mber o f a nony mous c o tnpu t ist ical c o mp i lat i ons. 2 4

There was a lso a d r ive , f or wh ich t he c ap itu lar ies o f Charle magne

p rov ide s o me e v idence , t o p rov ide n ew s erv iceab le t exts . 2 5

Tha t s o me s or t

o f of ic ia l c o mpu tus was p roduced a t t he e nd o f t he f i rst d ecade o f t he n in th c en tury i s s ugges ted b y at ex t wh ich a ppears t o d escr ibe a c ol loqu ium o f a strono mers a nd c o mpu t ists h eld i n 8 09 , a nd b y t he l arge n umber o f c op ies o f t he a strono m ical-co mpu t is t ical c o mp ila t ion o f 8 10.

One v ersion o f t h is

c o mp ila t ion i s i n t hree p arts, t he s econd i n s even b ooks, b o th v ers ions s har ing a l arge n u mber o f t ex ts a nd e xcerp ts a nd r ely ing o n e arl ier ma ter ia 1 .2 6 I n a dd i t ion t o t hese , t he e arly n in th c en tury s aw t he wr it ing o f many c o mpu t i b y many i nd iv idua ls a t many p laces.

One s uch c o mpu tus was t he w ork which

t he I r ish man D icu il t r ied t o f orce o n t he a t ten t ion o f L ou is t he P ious :

r a mbl ing

a nd p erverse, i n terest ing a nd c razily o r ig ina l , i td oes n ot s ee m t o h ave h ad w ide d isse m ina t ion . 27

The c o mpu tus o f Rhabanus was a g ood t ex tb ook wh ich

e n joyed f ar g rea ter r enown. 28

Pac if icus o f Verona i n t he e ar ly n in th c en-

t ury p roduced a t ex t w ith mne mon ic v erses a t tached . 29

Among o thers were

t he c ol lec t ion p reserved i n a Mon te Cassino manuscr ip t , a nd t he c o mp ila t ion e n t it led S en ten t iae i n l aude c o mpot i t hough t h is may b e p re-Carol ing ian i n o r ig in . 30 A l l t hese t ex ts , b oth t hose c en tral ly p roduced a nd i ssued , a nd t hose p u t t ogether i n t he p rov inces, were a r esponse t o an eed , a nd s o me c ame t o b e c op ied n o t j us t i n t he n in th c en tury , b u t a lso i n t he t en th a nd e leven th , p rov id ing a f ounda t ion f or t he c o mpu tus wel l i n to t he t wel f th c en tury. 3 1

A l l

made t he i nev i table n od t o a strono my a nd s o me i nc luded , a s as ign o f t h is 3 20

r espect , c a ta logues o f s tars w h ich w ere , f or t he b asic r equ ire men ts o f t he c o mpu tus, s uperf luous .

I t h as b een s een t ha t s tar l i sts a nd c a talogues w ere

f ound i n t ex ts l i ke Hyg inus a nd t he Ara tus L a t inus. 3 2

I n Carol ing ian c o mpu t i

t here were t wo s tar c a talogues wh ich c ircu la ted i ndependen t ly o f f ables : t he f i rs t was a pparen t ly t aken f ro m t he t h ird-cen tury s chol ia o f Ger man icus o f wh ich 3 .a bove was a n i l lustra ted c opy ;

t he s econd , s o met i mes wrongly

a t tr ibu ted t o Bede, s ee ms t o h ave b een d er ived f ro m t he r ev ised Ara tus L a t inus. 33

I ti s w orth n ot ing t ha t s o me o f t he manuscrip ts i n wh ich t hese

s tar c atalogues a ppear a re c o mpend ia o f r ela ted t ex ts a nd i l lustra t ions :

i n

t hese c ases , a s i n many o thers, t he p rac t ice o f i nclud ing a s many r ela ted t ex ts a s p oss ible i n o ne c odex was c ons iderably a dvanced i n t he n in th c en3 4 t ury . T he i l lustra ted s tar c a ta logues i n Carol ing ian c o mpu t i a re : 5 .

COMPILATION o f 8 10

Ca ta logue t ha t a pparen t ly d er ived f ro m Ger man icus s chol ia .3 5 A .

E d it ion i n t hree p arts :

( i ) Mun ich , Bayer. S taa tsb MS. C lm . 2 10 8 18 .

A t Regensburg i n t he n in th c en tury.

S tars c arefu l ly p a in ted a nd i nd i-

c a ted. ( i ) V ienna , N a t iona lb. MS. 3 87 c . 8 15-20. B .

S a lzburg.

C op ied f ro m s a me o rig ina l a s l ay b eh ind 5 .A( i ). 3 6

E d i t ion i n s even b ooks :

( i ) Madr id , B ibl . N ac. MS. 3 307 c . 8 40.

Me tz. Pa in ted i l lustra t ions d er iv ing f ro m a p alace e xe mp lar.

S tars n ot i nd ica ted. 37 ( i i ) Monza , B ibl . C ap i t . MS. f . 9 .176 Mid-n in th c en tury .

T he Annales L aubacenses o n f . 2 r-4v i nd ica te t he b ook 's

p resence a t L obbes a t a n e ar ly d a te.

Very c lose t o 5 .B( i ). 38

S ee p la te I .

( ii ) F reiburg i m-Bre isgau , E rzb ischdf l iches Ord inar ia t MS. D . 1 442 Mid-n in th c en tury .

P rovenance u nknown .

F rag men t f ro m t he 8 10 c o mp i-

l a t ion i nclud ing i l lus tra t ions c lose t o t hose i n 5. B( i )( i i ).

There a re s o me

v ar ian ts h ere i n t he o rder o f t he t ex ts. 39 ( i v ) Va t ican , B ibl . Apost . Va t., MS. l a t. 6 45 Mid-n in th c en tury .

Provenance u nknown .

Belongs t o t he s a me i l lustra t ive

c yc le a s t he t hree p rev ious manuscr ip ts. 4° ( v ) Va t ican , B ibl . Apost. Va t ., MS . Reg. l a t . 3 09 Th ird q uar ter o f t he n in th c en tury .

S t . Den is.

Has S t. Den is a nna ls.

A

d if feren t c ycle f ro m t he p revious f our, a nd , u nl ike t he m, h as s tars i nd ic a ted . 41

3 21

6 .

COMPUTIST ICAL COMPILAT ION

Mon te C ass ino , B ibl . a bbaz ia le MS. 3 8 74-92.

Mon te Cassino.

Draw ings d er ived , l i ke t he c a talogue t hey i l lus-

t ra te , f ro m t he r ev ised A ra tus L a t inus.

The c yc le i s v ery c lose t o t hat i n

4( i i i ) -( v i ). 4 2 7 .

THE S TAR CATALOGUE OF THE 8 10 COMP ILAT ION FOUND S EPARATELY

( i ) B er l in , D eu tsches S taa tsb. MSS. 1 29 & 1 30 ( Ph i l l ipp . 1 830 & 1 832 ) Ear ly n in th c en tury.

A t L aon b y t he m id-n in th c en tury.

I l lustra t ions l ike

t hose i n 5 .B( i )-( iv ). 43 ( i i ) Par is , B ibl . N a t ., MS . n ouv . a cqu. l a t . 1 614 Ear ly n in th c en tury.

West Franc ia , p oss ibly t he T ours r eg ion.

Draw ings

l ike t hose f ound i l lustra t ing t he r ev ised Ara tus L a t inus i n t he s a me b ook ( see 4 .[ H i ) , b u t w i th s tars i nd ica ted.

S ee p la tes

S o me g enera l c o m men ts c an b e made a bou t t he a s trolog ica l c yc les l i sted a bove.

D eriva t ion f ro m a n t iqu i ty i s o bv ious i n t he b eau t ifu l ly p a in ted b ooks

l ike 1 . a nd 2 . a nd i n t he d raw ings o fb ooks l i ke 3 .

On ly i n s o me c ases i s i t

p oss ible t o s uggest Carol ing ian i n terven t ion o r i n terpreta t ion i n t he i l lustrat i ons :

t he p lanetar iu m a t tached t o 2 . s ee ms t o b e a made-up p ic ture , d e-

r ived f ro m v ar ious s ources, o ne o f wh ich was t he c alendar o f 3 54;44

f or t he

r igh t a rm o f Boo tes , t he r ev ised Ara tus L a t inus manuscr ip ts ( 4 .[ ii ][v i ] ) s how a s equence f ro m b eaver 's s k in o ver t he a rm , t o aw ing , wh ich e s tabl i shes t h is p ar t icu lar misunderstand ing a s Carol ing ian ;

c learly t oo t he Caro-

l i ng ians b orrowed c ycles f ro m c on tex ts d if feren t f ro m t hose i n wh ich t hey were u sed , t he r ev ised Ara tus L a t inus a nd t he s o-ca l led Bede c a ta logue b e ing p oss ible e xa mp les.

There were Carol ing ian i n i t ia t ives a nd i n terven t ions

h ere a nd t here , b u t t he mass o f c yc les s tuck c losely t o t he ir e xe mp lars. The l arge n u mber o f s tars i nd ica ted i n 2 . s ugges ts k nowledge o f t he P tole ma ic s tar c a ta logue o f wh ich t here i s n o o ther t race a t t h is e arly d a te, a nd t he s tars marked i n 1 . r ef lec t t he Ara tus L a t inus s tar c a ta logue, wh ich i s n o t u sed i n t he t ex t o f t he manuscr ip t. 45

The c on fus ion h ere s uggests f i del ity t o l a te

a n t ique c onfusion , a nd t he v ar iety o f c yc les s i mp ly r ef lec ts t ha t o f l a te a nt ique a s trolog ica l i l lustra t ion . The c yc les s o f ar c ons idered a re o f s ingle c onstel la t ions a nd d if ferences a ppear among t he m f or t wo r easons :

ad if feren t i conography h as b een f ol-

l owed o r s o me t i mes t he c onstel la t ions h ave b een made t o f ace d if feren t d irec t ions.

I t i s p oss ible t ha t t he d i f feren t d irec t ions i n wh ich t he s tars

f ace i nd ica te t he u l t i ma te d eriva t ion o f t hese images e ither f ro m c elest ial g lobe r epresen ta t ions wh ich s how t he s tars s een f ro m t he o u tside, o r f ro m s tar maps wh ich s how t he m a s t hey a ppear f ro m t he i nside l ook ing u p , a s i t were , f ro m t he e arth.

S uch d if ferences w ou ld a f fec t t he p rac t ica l u t i l i ty o f

t hese i l lustra t ions a s ag u ide t o s tar v iewers, p ar t icu larly a s s o me c yc les a re n o t c ons isten t i n t he d irec t ions t he ir s tars f ace, a nd t here must a lways b e c ons iderable d oub t o f t he v alue o f t hese p ic tures f or s tar-gaz ing.

3 22

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1 . 1 1111

Monza , B ibl . Capi t ., MS f .9 1 76, f ol. 6 7 S ee s ec t ion 5 B2. 3 23

n in th-cen tury manuscr ip ts t here e x ist s o me maps o f t he s k ies a nd s o me g lobes.

I t i s p ossible t ha t t he p oe m o f Ara tus c ircu la ted i n a n t iqu ity w i th a

map o f t he h eavens , a nd s o me o f t he Carol ing ian maps may b e c op ies o f t hese. Exa mp les o f C arol ing ian g lobes a re f ound i n 3 . a nd 7 .( i ) a nd o f s tar maps i n 5 .B( i ) a nd i n t he t en th-cen tury c opy o f 2 . 46

The r ev ised A ratus L a t inus

b ooks ( 4 .[ ii i -[v i ] ) a lso h ave t wo v isua l a ids c learly d er ived f ro m a n t iqu i ty : t he ' sphaera s ol ida ' , wh ich s hows a s ol id s phere s uppor ted o n as tand , a nd ap a ir o f h em ispheres, p resen ted a s t wo h a lves o f ag lobe s een f rom t he t op . 47 I n b o th d iagra ms t here a re m isunderstand ings p ecu l iar t o t h is g roup a nd i t may wel lb e t ha t t hese a re C arol ing ian i n o r ig in. 48 I n terest i n t he Ara tea a nd i n t he c o mpu t i h ad c aused t he d iffus ion o f t hese a strolog ica l c yc les.

The c ycles were t o b e m ixed t oge ther , f ur ther m isunder-

s tood a nd a dded t o i n t he f ol lowing c en tur ies, b u t t hey were t o s ur v ive a s t he p ic toria l g u ide t o t he s tars i n t he e leven th a nd t wel f th c en tur ies.

T he a rr iva l

o f o r ien tal i mages a nd t he g rea ter p rec ision o f a strono m ica l o bserva t ion c hal lenged t he d om inance o f t h is a n t ique p ic tor ia l t rad it ion , t hough i n t he f our teen th a nd f i f teen th c en tur ies i tw as t o b e r ev ived a ga in w i th p a ins tak ing e xac tness :

i n I ta ly b o th t he r evised A ra tus L a t inus a nd t he C icero-Hyginus

t ex t were t o b e c op ied. 49

The Carol ing ians h ad o pened u p f or t hemselves

a nd t he ir i nher i tors t he whole c o mp lex t rad i t ion o f a nc ien t a strolog ica l i mag ery .

A f ter t he a bove h ad b een wr it ten , Miss A l ison Wh ite k indly d rew my a tt en t ion t o t he i mpor tan t Ox ford B . L it t . t hes is ( 1969 ) o f Mr. V. H . K ing , An i nvest iga t ion o f s o me a strono m ica l e xcerp ts f ro m P l iny 's Na tura l h istory f ound i n manuscr ip ts o f t he e arly Midd le Ages.

T hree o f my s ta te men ts h ave

b een mod if ied a f ter r ead ing t he d isserta t ion wh ich e d its t he P l iny e xcerp ts , s tud ies t he ir d istr ibu t ion p a t terns a nd a na lyses t he c o mp i la t ion o f 8 10.

S ee

a lso An ton io Del l 'Era , Una r ielaboraz ione d el l 'Arato L a t ino , S tud i Med ieva l i , 2 0 ( ( 1979 ), 2 68-301 wh ich a ppeared a f ter t he a bove p aper was c o mp le ted.

I t

c on ta ins a n e d i t ion o f t he s tar c a talogue u sed i n n o. 6 a bove ( Mon te C assino , B ibi . a bbaz ia le MS. 3 ) , wh ich r ep laces t ha t i n Maass , 1 898 , p p . 5 82-94.

B irkbeck Col lege , T he Un ivers i ty o f L ondon .

3 24

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P l . 7 :

r b pr c e -r . .-e7

Par is , B ib l . Na t ., n ouv .acq .la t . 1 614 , f .85 : S erpen tar ius o n S corp io :

s ee s ec t ion 4 .ü .

S erpen tar ius i s s hown , a s t he c a ta logue a nd p oe m o f Ara tus d irec t , s tand ing o n S corp io. I n s o me c yc les ( e .g . 4 .i , a no ther manuscr ip t i n t he s a me g roup , o r t he 8 10 g roup a ssoc ia ted w i th 5 . B.i ) S erpentar ius i s s epara ted f ro m S corp io.

3 25

NOTES

1 .

B ischof f , 19 67 ;

S tevens , 19 72.

T he a bove s urvey i s c onf ined t o s ur-

v iv ing Carol ing ian e xa mp les o f a s trolog ica l i l lustra t ion a nd d oes n ot c ons ider t he many l a ter manuscrip ts ( e .g. Par is , BN , MS. l a t . 5 543, ab eau t ifu l p a in ted c opy o f t he s o-ca l led B ede c a ta logue , Madr id , B ibl . N ac. MS. A . 1 6, a s p lend id German icus b ook , o r t he whole g roup o f S ic il ian Ara tus manuscrip ts ) wh ich migh t q u i te wel l h ave Caro l ing ian a n teceden ts.

Iam e x tre mely g ra tefu l t o Miss E l izabeth O 'Connor f or

h elpfu l d iscuss ions o n t he p aper ;

a nd t o t he e d itors, Dr. Margaret

G ibson a nd D r. J ane t N elson f or c areful a nd b enef ic ia l c r it ic is m o f i t s p resen ta t ion .

Ia lone am r espons ible f or e rrors wh ich r e ma in a nd f or

t he o p in ions e xpressed. 2 .

S tevens, 19 79 , q uoted o n p . 1 55.

3 .

S tevens , 1 972, p p . 1 6-7.

4 .

B ischof f , 19 67 , p p . 3 9-41.

S trabo c er ta in ly u sed a strono m ica l works

w ith t he a nnus p raesens o f 8 09 , wh ich c ou ld wel l h ave b een t aken f ro m t he c o mp ila t ion o f 8 10. 5 .

A lexander, P l . 7 .

6 .

We itz mann , 1 978 , P l . 7 .

7 .

Maass , 1 898;

8 .

Buescu , 1 941;

9 .

Breysig , 1 867 , p p . 5 5104; Mart in , 19 56, p p . 3 7-41.

Mart in , 19 56. Breysig , 1 867 ;

Breys ig , 1 882;

1 0.

Maass, 1 898, p p . x xxv i-x l iv , 9 9-306.

1 1.

Maass , 1 898, p p . 1 72-306;

1 2.

S ee n o. 4 .( i ) b elow.

1 3.

McGurk , 19 66, p p . x x i iiv ;

Ga in , 19 76.

B reys ig , 1 867 , p p . 1 05-232.

McGurk , 19 81.

I t i s l ikely t ha t t he t ext

o f Hyg inus was n o t i l lustra ted i n a n t iqu ity : a t l east t h is i s h ow Iwou ld i n terpret t he e v idence f ro m s urv iv ing i l lus tra ted Hyg inus manuscr ip ts o f W h ich t he e arl iest a re e leven th c en tury. L a t inus

Whether o r n ot t he Aratus

o r t he Av ienus t ransla t ion ( o f wh ich t he e arl iest c o mp lete

c opy i s t en th-cen tury ), were i l lus tra ted i n a n t iqu i ty c annot b e t o ld . 1 4.

K oeh ler , 1 971 , p p . 7 7-9 , 1 01-7 , P ls . 6 1-74 .

1 5.

K oehler , 1 971, p p . 7 9-82, 1 08-16, P ls. 7 5-96.

1 6.

Th ie le , 1 898 , f igs . 2 3 &2 6 ;

Maass , 1 893 , u nnu mbered p la te a t t he

e nd o f t he b ook ; Breys ig , 1 867 , p p . Byvanck , 1 949 , n o. 4 1.

3 26

Xiii-XV;

L eh mann , 19 41, p . 2 17 ;

1 f

P l . 8 :

"noon ' , m el ee , ( Ag ed/

ne

lbL imm i ri r ,

•

Par is , B ibl . Na t ., n ouv .acq.la t . 1 614 , f .81v He m ispheres :

s ee p . 3 29.

3 27

1 7.

Kar l d er Grosse , 1 965 , n o . 4 43 ;

J ones , L . W., 1 932 , p p . 3 7f f .;

Th iele, 1 898, f i g. 6 9. 1 8.

Byvanck , 1 949 , n o. 7 4;

Del isle , 1 884, p p . 13-20;

Del isle , 1 888,

p p . 6 2-7. 1 9.

Byvanck , 1 949 , n o. 6 9 ; Th iele, 1 898, f i gs. 7 & 7 1.

2 0.

Byvanck , 1 949 , n o. 6 7.

2 1.

T h ie l , 1 898 , f igs . 7 0-71 ;

S cr iptor ia Med i i A ev i He lvet ica , 1 938 ,

P l . 3 8. 2 2.

Maass, 1 898, p p . 1 80-217 c ons idered 4 . ( i ) ,

2 3.

e .g .

t he t ransfor ma t ion o f t he s k in o n Bootes 's a rm i n to a w ing emer-

g ing f ro m t he r igh t s houlder ( see Par is, BN , MS. l a t . 1 2957 , f .65v ) o r t he misunderstand ings i n t he r epresen ta t ion o f t he ' sphaera s ol ida ' o r t he e rrors i n t he h em ispheres ( see b elow P late I I ). 2 4.

J ones, C . W., 1 943, p p . 6 -122;

J ones, C . W., 1 975, p p. x i i-x iv.

2 5.

Boret ius, 1 883, p p . 6 0 , 1 21 ( cap itu laries : ' ad mon it io g enerals ', a nd ' cap itular ia missoru m i n Theodon is v i l la ' ) .

2 6.

Mick , 1 888;

S axl , 1 915, p p . 7 1-6;

McGurk , 1 966, p p . 5 2-61;

J ones, C . W., 1 963. 2 7.

E spos ito , 1 907;

2 8.

S tevens , 1 979 , p p . 1 48-68 .

2 9.

Meersse mann-Adda , 1 966.

3 0.

Cordol ian i , 1 943;

3 1.

McGurk , 1 966, p p . x v i-x ix .

3 2.

E spos ito, 1 920; Cordol ian i, 1 960.

J ones, 1 937 , p p . 2 13.4;

J ones, 1 939 , p p . 4 8-51.

S ee a bove , n otes 9 -12 .

3 3.

Kauf f mann , 1 888 ; Maass , p p . 5 82-94. c a talogues r eferred t o i n p repara t ion .

Ih ave a s tudy o f t he s tar

3 4.

Dresden , L andesb. MS. Dc.183 h as Hyginus , C icero 's Aratus , t he r ev ised Ara tus L a t inus a nd a s epara te s tar c a talogue.

Par is, BN MS .

n ouv. a cqu . l a t. 1 614 wh ich i s p art o f ad is me mbered Tours Publ ic L ibrary manuscr ip t ( see Del isle r eferences i n n ote 1 8 a bove ) h as t he r evised Ara tus L a t inus, e x trac ts f ro m t he 8 10 c o mp i la t ion , t he S entent iae i n l aude c o mpo t i a nd t he r eport o f t he 8 09 c o mpu t ist ical c ol loqu iu m . 3 5.

Kauf f mann , 1 888 , p p .

3 6.

Byvanck , 1 949 , n os. 8 1-2; 1 974, p . 4 62;

S axl , 1 927 , p p . 7 9-81, P l . I ;

B ischof f ,

N or th , 1 975, p p. 3 86-8.

3 7.

Koeh ler , 1 960 , p p . 1 00-1 , 1 19-27 , P ls . 5 3-60 ; n o. 8 7.

3 8.

Koehler, 1 960, p . 1 21;

B yvanck , 1 949 ,

McGurk , 1 966, p p . 5 2-61.

3 28

3 9 .

Iam much i ndeb ted t o t he k indness o f Miss Ade lhe id He i mann f or o bt a in ing a m icrof i lm a nd p hotographs o f t h is manuscr ip t.

K oeh ler, 19 60 ,

p . 1 21 n ote 8 7 . 4 0 .

Byvanck , 19 49 , n o. 8 9 ; S ax l , 19 15, p p . 7 1-6, P ls. I , XX I.

4 1.

Byvanck , 1 949 , n o . 8 6 ; S ax l , 1 915 , p p . 5 9-66 ; V ie i l lard-Tro iekourof f , 19 66. Iam much i ndebted t o Mr. J ean Vez in f or c on f ir m ing t he p rov enance o f t h is manuscr ip t a nd f or n arrow ing d own i t s d a te.

4 2.

Byvanck , n o. 9 2; 18 74;

4 3.

McGurk , 19 66, p . 1 51;

B ibl iotheca Cas inensis ,

L owe , 19 29 , P l . XX IV.

Byvanck , 1 949 , n o. 8 8 ;

Th iele , 1 898 , f i g. 6 7 ;

C on tren i , 1 978 , p assi m ,

d iscusses t he e v idence f or i t s p resence i n L aon i n t he n in th c en tury. 4 4.

Koeh ler , 1 971, p p . 8 0-1.

4 5.

G . Th iele, D e a n t iquoru m l i bris p ic t is, Marburg 1 897 , c o m men ted o n t he l arge n umber o f s tars s hown i n t he L e iden German icus i l lustra t ions, f ar i n e xcess o f t hose k nown i n a ny s urv iv ing Carol ing ian s tar c a ta logue. McGurk , 19 81, d iscusses t he d istr ibu t ion a nd n u mber o f s tars i n BL MS. Hari . 6 47 . These t a l ly i n s o me c ases w i th t hose i n t he A ra tus La t inus a nd d o n ot c orrespond t o t hose u sed i n t he Hyg inus s chol ia i n t he b ody o f t he i l lus tra t ions.

4 6.

To t he r eferences i n McGurk , 1 973 , p p . 2 00-1, 2 15 a dd N orth , 1 975, p . 3 87.

4 7 .

For r eproduc t ions o f ' sphaera s ol ida ' i n 4. ( i i i ) , s ee Th iele , 1 898 , f ig. 7 , a nd i n 4 .(v ), s ee S cr ip tor ia Med ii Aev i Helvet ica , 1 938 , P l . 3 8. For r eferences t o r eproduc t ions o f h em ispheres , s ee McGurk , 19 73 , p p . 2 15-6.

S o me d iscuss ion i n S tevens, 19 79b , p p . 4 7-9 ( pag ina t ion

f ro m t he o f fprin t );

t he v iew r eferred t o i n n ote 5 8 o f t h is a r t icle t ha t

t he s o-ca l led n or thern a nd s ou thern h em ispheres s hou ld p roperly b e r egarded a s t he l ef t a nd r igh t t op s ides o f as phere s hou ld b e a t tr ibu ted t o Miss E l izabeth O 'Connor. 4 8.

S o me o f t hese a re d iscussed i n C u mon t , 1 916 .

4 9 .

McGurk , 19 66, p . 8 2;

McGurk , 1 981.

T h i s i sn o t t he p l ace t o r ep roduce a ga in t he magn if icent p a inted a s t ro log ica l i mage s o f t he C a rol ing ian p e r iod .

T he t h ree f i gu re s c ho sen ( p 1 .6 -8 ) s how t wo

s i ng le c on s te l la t ion s a nd o ne p a i ro fh em i sphe re s . T he h em i sphe re s a r e s hown o n af l a t p ro jec t ion , b ut w i th t he n or th o fe ach h em i sphe re a tt he t op o fe ach s ect ion . I n te re s t ing i nt he t op s phe re i st he r ep re senta t ion o ft he c on ste l la t ion o f B e ren ice ' s h a i r a s al e af o r aj a r .

T he c on ste l la t ion D e l to ton i sl e f t o u t o f

t he a r c a bov e t he z od iac b and i nt he t op s phe re . I n t he l owe r s phe re , C orona , L yra , C ygnu s a r e om i t ted , Aqu i la l ook s r a the r l i ke C ygnu s a nd , i nt he z od iac b and , S erpenta r iu s -w h ich i so f ten a s soc ia ted w i th S corp io ( s ee P 1 .7 ) -h a s b een l e f t a s az od iac s i gn a nd S co rp io om i t ted .

3 29

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A lexander , J . J . G ., 19 78.

The Decorated L et ter , L ondon .

B ibl iotheca Casinens is, 1 874.

B ibl iotheca Casinensis s eu c od icu m manus-

c r ip toru m q u i i n t abu lar io Casinensi a sservan tur I , Mon te C ass ino. B ischof f , B ., 1 96 7 .

E ine S a m me lhandschr if t Walahfrid S trabos ( Cod . S anga l l .

8 78 ), i n Aus d er Wel t d es Buches :

F estgabe Georg L eyh ( Le ipz ig , 19 50 ),

r epr. w ith a dd i t ions i n h is Mi t tela l terl iche S tud ien I ( S tu t tgar t , 19 67 ),

p p . 3 4-51. B ischof f , B ., 19 74.

D ie s üdostdeu tschen S chre ibschulen u . B ibl . i n d er

K arol ingerze it I , Wiesbaden . Bore t ius , A ., 1 883.

MGH. 2 . L eges i n q uar to , B . L egu m S ec tio I :

Cap i-

t u lar ia Regu m Francoru m I , Hanover. Buescu , V ., 1 941.

C iceron . L es Ara tea , e d. V . Buescu , Buchares t , 19 41,

r epr . H ildeshe im , 19 66. Breys ig , A ., 1 867.

Ger man ic i Caesar is Ara tea c um s chol i is, e d . A . Breys ig ,

Berl in , r epr. 19 67 . Breys ig , A ., 1 884.

Av ien i Ara tea , e d. A . Breys ig.

Byvanck , A ., 19 49 .

De p la ten i n d e Ara tea v an Hugo d e G root ( Mededeel ingen

d er K on ink l i jke N eder landsche Akade m ie v an Wetenschappen , A fd. L e tt erkunde , N ieuwe Reeks , C on tren i , J ohn J ., 19 78.

Deel 1 2, n o. 2 , 19 49 ) p p . 2 13-9.

The Ca thedra l S chool o f L aon f ro m 8 50 t o 9 30.

I ts Manuscr ip ts a nd masters , ( Münchener B e itrage z ur Med iNv ist ik u nd Rena issance Forschung , 2 9 ), Mun ich. C ordol ian i , A ., 1 943.

Une e ncyc loped ic c arol ing ienne d e c o mpu t :

l es

" Sen ten t iae c arol ing ienne d e c o mpu t" , BECH, C IV ( 1943 ), p p . 2 37-43. C ordol ian i , A ., 19 60.

L e C o mpu t d e D icu il , Cah iers d e C iv il isa t ion Med ie-

v a le I I ( 19 60 ), p p . 3 25-37. Cu mon t ,F.,

19 16.

Del isle , L ., 1 884.

Astrolog ica , Revue Archeo log ique, 5 e s er ie I I ( 19 16). N ot ice s ur l es manuscr i ts d isparus d e l a B ibl . d e Tours ,

N o t ices e t e x tra its d es manuscr its XXX I I ère p ar t ie ( 1883). Del isle , L ., 1 888.

Ca ta logue d es manuscr its d es f onds L ibr i e t B arro is,

Par is. E spos ito , M., 19 07 .

An u npubl ished Astrono m ical T rea t ise b y t h e I r ish

monk D icu il , Proceed ings o f t he Royal I r ish Acade my ) 0 (VI ( 1 907 ). E spos ito , M., 1 920.

Modern Ph ilology XVI I I ( 1920 ) p p . 17 7-88.

3 30

Ga in , D . B ., 19 76.

T he Ara tus a t tr ibu ted t o Ger man icus C aesar, e d.

D . B . Ga in , L ondon . Karl d er Grosse , 19 65.

Karl d er G rosse. Werk u nd Wirkung.

Z ehn te Aus-

s tel lung u n ter d er Ausp iz ien d es E uropara tes, Aachen . Kauf fmann , G ., 1 888.

D e Hyg in i me moria s ehol i is i n C iceron is Ara tum

Harle ian is s erva ta , e d. G . Kau f fmann , B reslau . K oeh ler, W., 19 60.

D ie Karol ing ischen Min ia turen I I :

Wiener Kronungsevangel iars K oeh ler , W., 1 971. W:

D ie Gruppe d es

Metzer Handschr if ten , Ber l in .

( w ith F . Mi i ther ich ).

D ie Karol ing ischen Min ia turen

D ie Hofschu le Ka iser L othars — E inzelhandschr if ten a us L otharin-

g ien , B erl in . J ones , C . W., 19 37 .

T he L ost S ir mond Manuscr ip t o f Bede 's C o mpu tus ,

EHR, L I T ( 193 7 ) , p p . 2 13-4. J ones, C . W., 19 39 .

Bedae Pseudep igrapha :

s c ien t if ic wr it ings f a lsely

a t tr ibu ted t o Bede, I thaca. J ones, C . W., 1 943.

Bedae Opera d e t e mpor ibus , Ca mbr idge, Mass.

J ones , C . W., 1 963.

An e arly med ieva l l i cens ing e xa m ina t ion , H istory o f

Educa t ion Quarter ly , I I ( 1963 ), p p . 19 -2 9 . J ones, C . W., 19 75.

Bedae v enerab il is Opera , p ars IOpera d idasca l ica ,

Corpus Chr ist ianoru m S er ies L a t ina , Turnhou t . J ones , L . W., 1 932. The s cr ip t o f C ologne f ro m H ildebald t o Her mann , Ca mbr idge , Mass. L ehmann , P ., 1 941 .

D ie a l te I üosterb ib l iothek F u lda a nd i hre B edeu tung ,

E rforschung d es M i t te la lters , I , L e ipz ig , 1 941 , r epr . S tu t tgar t 1 959 , p p . 2 13-30 . L owe , E . A ., 19 29 .

S cr ip tura Beneven tana , Ox ford.

Maass, E ., 1 893.

A ra t i Phaeno mena , e d . E . Maass, Ber l in , r epr . 1 955.

Maass, E ., 1 898.

C o m men tar ioru m i n Ara tu m Rel iqu iae , e d . E . Maass ,

Berl in , r epr. 1 958. McGurk , P ., 19 66.

C atalogue o f a strolog ica l a nd my tholog ica l i l lu m ina ted

manuscr ip ts o f t he L a t in Midd le Ages I V Astrolog ical Manuscrip ts i n I tal ian L ibrar ies ( o ther t han Ro me ), L ondon . McGurk , P ., 19 73.

G er man . ic i Caesar is Ara tea c um s chol i is.

A n ew i l -

l ustra ted w itness f ro m Wa les , The N a t iona l L ibrary o f Wales J ournal XVII I ( 1973 ), p p . 19 7-216. McGurk , P ., 19 81.

F acs i mi le e d i t ion o f Br it ish L ibrary Manuscr ip t C ot ton

T iberius B . V . Par t I .

I n troduc t ion ( Early Engl ish Manuscr ip ts i n

Facs im i le ), L ondon-Copenhagen . Mar t in , J ., 1 956.

H isto ire d u t ex te d es Phenord enes d 'Ara tos , Paris.

Meersse mann , G . G ., Adda , E ., 1 966.

Manua le d i c o mpu to c on r i t mo

mne motecn ico d e l l ' a rc id iacono Pac if ico d i Verona , Padua.

3 31

N or th , J . D ., 19 75.

Monast ic is m a nd t he f irs t monast ic c locks, T he S tudy

o f T i me I Proceed ings o f t he s econd c on ference f or t he S tudy o f T i me , e d. J . T . Fraser , N . L awrence , B erl in-He ide lberg-New York , p p . 3 81-398. Robert ,

C ., 1 878.

E ratosthen is Ca tas ter is moru m Rel iqu iae , e d. C . Rober t ,

Berl in , r epr. 1 963. Ruck , K ., 1 888.

Auszüge a us d er Na turgesch ich te d es C . P l in ius S ecundus ,

Mun ich . S ax l , F ., 1 915. Verze ichn is a strolog ischer u nd my tholog ischer i l lustr ierter Handschr if ten d es L a tein ischen M it telal ters i n Rö m ischen B ibl iotheken , He ide lberg. S ax l , F ., 1 927.

Verze ichn is a s trol . u . my th. i l lustr. Handschr if ten d es

L a te in . Mi ttela l ters -I :

D ie Handschr if ten d er N a t iona l-Bibl io thek i n

Wien , He ide lberg. S cr ip toria Med ii Aev i Helvet ica , 1 938.

S cr ip tor ia Med i i Aev i Helve t ica.

S chre ibschu len d er d iozese K onstanz :

S . Gal len I , e d . A . B ruckner ,

Geneva . S tevens , W. M., 1 972.

Wa lahfr id S trabo- a s tuden t a t Fulda, H istor ical

Papers 1 971 o f t he Canad ian H istor ica l Assoc ia t ion , e d. J . A ther ton , O t tawa. S tevens , W. M., 19 79.

H raban i L iber d e Co mpu to , Corpus Christ ianoru m

C on t inua t io med ieval is XL IV, e d . W. M. S tevens , Turnhou t . S tevens, 19 79b.

C o mpot is t ica e t a strono m ica i n t he Fu lda s chool , S a in ts

S cholars a nd Heroes.

S tud ies i n med ieval c u l ture i n h onour o f

Charles W. J ones, e d. Margot H . K ing- Wesley M. S tevens , I ( Coll egev il le , Minneso ta ) 1 979 , p p . 2 7-65. T h iele , G ., 1 898.

An t ike H i m melsb ilder , Ber l in .

V iei l lard-Tro iekourof f , M., 19 66.

Ar t C arol ing ien e t Art Ro man P ar isiens ,

Cah iers Archeolog iques XVI ( 19 66 ), p p . 7 710 6. We i tz mann , K ., 1 971.

T he I conography o f t he C arol ingian I vor ies o f t he

Throne , A t t i d el la Pon t if ic ia Accade m ia Ro mana d i Archeolog ia S erie I I Me morie X , L a Ca t tedra l i gnea d i S . P ietro i n Va t icano, p p . 2 16-45.

3 32

1 8 .

MASTERS AND MED ICINE I N NORTHERN FRANCE DURING THE REIGN OF CHARLES THE BALD J ohn J . C on tren i

A s h istor ians o f s c ience a nd c u lture t race t he l egacy o f l a te a n t ique s cience i n to t he Ear ly M idd le A ges , s tuden ts o f t he t we lf th-cen tury s cien t if ic r ena iss ance h ave b egun t o a cknow ledge t he E uropean c on tr ibu t ion t o t ha t r ena issance p repared d ur ing t he E ar ly M idd le Ages.

I th as b eco me i ncreasing ly a pparen t

t ha t t he Caro l ing ian p er iod was a c rucia l o ne f or Western s cience , p ar t icu lar ly f or med icine . A s i n a r t , s p ir i tua l i ty , s ta tecraf t , e duca t ion , a nd a l most e very f i e ld o f h u man e ndeavor , t he C aro ling ians p laced t heir s ta mp o n med ieva l med ic ine .

Ir efer n ot o n ly t o t he p reserva t ion o f p rec ious L a t in t ex ts o r t o

t ex ts t rans la ted f ro m G reek i n to L a t in , i mpor tan t t hough t hey may b e.

Ra ther ,

i ti s t he a ct iv i ty o f C aro l ing ian s cho lars a nd s tuden ts t ha t s ee ms o f p r i mary impor tance t o me. B r ian L awn , i n h is s tudy o f med ieva l med ica l p rob le m l i terature f ro m S a lerno, h as o bserved t ha t t he q uest ion o r t he d ia logue method o f p rob le m s o lv ing was n ot u nknown t o C aroling ian E urope :

"R eason ing b y i nduct ive a na-

l ogy , t he p rocess o f d ef in i t ion a nd r eso lut ion , a nd c on f ir ma t ion o f t heory b y e xper i men t , w ere w ide ly t augh t , i n p r incip le , b y t he d idact ic q uaest iones e t r esponsiones f ound i n manuscr ip ts d a t ing f ro m a bout t he n in th c en tury o nwards — l ong b efore t he ir r e in troduct ion t o t he L a t in West i n t he Ga len ic t ransla t ions o f C onstan tinus." I Med ica l o r s cien ti f ic t heory was n ot o n ly t augh t i n p rincip le . L oren Mac K inney p roved l ong a go t he e x ten t a nd q ua li ty o f e ar ly med ieva l p ract i ca l med ic ine.

2

Mac K inney d rew s pec ia l a t ten t ion t o t he med ica l h istory o f

t ha t b en igh ted c en tury , t he t en th , w i th h is w ork o n R icher o f Re i ms, F u lber t o f C har tres , a nd t he s chool o f C har tres.

3

I nt h is p aper Ih ope t o s hed s o me d if feren t l i gh t o n t he h istory o f med icine d ur ing t he C aro ling ian p er iod b y f ocussing o n med ica l s tud ies a nd t he i nd iv id ua ls who u nder took t he m i n o ne p ar t icu lar c orner o f t he C aro ling ian wor ld . Iw ould l ike t o make t he c ase t ha t p erhaps t he g rea test c on tr ibut ion t he Carol ing ians made t o med ica l s tud ies , g rea ter e ven t han t he p reserva t ion o f t ex ts , was t o make t he s tudy o f med ic ine , l ike t he s tudy o f t he l i bera l a r ts , i n tell ec tua l ly r espectab le . 4 There a lways w ere masters o f t he h ea ling a r ts a t c our t :

l ay men , s o met i mes J ews, most t i mes med ici whose n a mes a lone h ave

s urv ived.

5

The s ign if ican t d eve lop men t i n t he n in th c en tury i s t ha t s cho lars

s uch a s Wa lah fr id S trabo ,6 L upus o f F err ieres, 7 a nd Abbot D ido o f S t-P ierrel eV if ,

8

were we l l a cqua in ted w i th med ica l l earn ing a nd p ract ice.

B u t , f irst , aw ord a bout my c hronologica l a nd g eograph ica l l im i ts.

Any

n ew h istory o f e ar ly med ieva l med ic ine w i ll , Iam c onvinced , h ave t o b e wr i t ten af ter e x tensive c od ico log ica l i nvest iga t ions. Much o f t he b asic work — t he i den t if ica t ion o f med ica l manuscr ip ts — h as a lready b een d one b y

3 33

Augusto B eccar ia a nd E rnes t Wickershe i mer .

B eccar ia h as c o mp i led a c a ta-

l ogue o f E uropean med ica l manuscr ip ts wh ich d a te f ro m t he n in th t hrough t he e leven th c en tury . r icher .

9

W ickershe i mer ' sf ocus i s n arrower , b ut h is y ie ld i s

Wickershe i mer i n h is i nvest iga t ion o f F rench manuscr ip t h o ld ings

f ound med ica wh ich h ad e luded B eccar ia — e spec ia l ly f rag men ts t ucked h ere a nd t here i n n on- med ica l manuscr ip ts.

1 0

C o l la t ing t he r esu lts o f B eccar ia ' sa nd W ickershe i mer ' sr esearch r evea ls s o me impor tan t a nd i n terest ing i n for ma t ion .

B eccar ia d escr ibed a t o ta l o f

1 58 n in th- t o e leven th-cen tury med ica l manuscr ip ts f ound t hroughou t E urope. O f t hese , 8 2 , o r al i t t le more t han o ne-ha lf , d a te f ro m t he n in th c en tury. W ickershe i mer ' st o ta l f or F rench n in th- t o e leven th-century manuscr ip ts c o mes t o 19 , o f wh ich s l igh t ly l ess t han h a lf , 5 8 , a re f ro m t he n in th c entury . These f i gures r epresen t m in i ma .

J ust a s Wickershe i mer w as a b le t o f ind

a l most a s many manuscr ip ts i n F rance, 1 19 , a s B eccar ia f ound t hroughout E urope , 1 58 , f ur ther r esearch i n l i brar ies w i l l t urn u p a dd i t iona l med ica c onc ea led f ro m b oth s cho lars b y v ague c a ta logue d escr ip t ions. Wha t w ork h as b een d one t hus f ar impress ive ly s uggests t ha t p r i mary r esp onsib i l i ty f or t he p roduct ion o f i nstru men ts o f med ica l s tudy i n t he E ar ly M idd le Ages must b e g ran ted t o n in th-cen tury s cholars a nd c opyists .

These

men a nd w o men p roduced a nd d isse m ina ted a n a l most b ew i lder ing v ar iety o f med ica l r ecipes , d ie tary r egula t ions, med ica l e xp lana t ions, a s we l l a s n umerous c i ta t ions a nd l eng thy e x tracts f ro m H ippocra tes, Ga len , Or ibasius, D ioscor ides, S oranus , A lexander o f Tra l les , Theodorus P r iscianus , P l iny , Q uin tus S erenus, C ass ius F e l ix , a nd Marce l lus Emp ir icus, among t hose most f requen t ly c i ted .

1

We c an d raw a s econd c onclusion f ro m t he t wo manuscr ip t c ata logues. Wh i le s o me k now ledge o f med ic ine c ou ld b e f ound a l most u n iversa l ly i n Ca r ol ing ian E urope — e spec ia l ly a t c our t a nd i n r e lig ious c o m mun it ies — t here d id emerge d ef in i te c en tres o f med ica l s tudy i n t he n in th c en tury a s t he o r ig ins a nd p rovenances o f t he manuscr ip ts a t test .

I fo ne w ere t o e stab lish a map

s how ing t he o r ig ins o f t hose n in th-century med ica l manuscr ip ts whose o r ig ins a re k nown a nd a s econd map i l lustra t ing t he p rovenances o f t he manuscrip ts , t he t wo maps w ould s how r ough ly o ver lapp ing a reas o f c oncen tra t ion .

They

wou ld r evea l t ha t n or thern I t a ly , n or thern F rance — t hat i s , t he r eg ion i nc lud ing R e i ms , L aon , C orb ie , a nd S t . Amand — a nd t he R h ine Va l ley , i n p ar t icu lar t he monaster ies a t Re ichenau a nd S t . G a l l , were impor tan t c en tres o f med ica l s tudy d uring t he n in th c en tury .

O f t hese r eg ions, Iam most f am i-

l iar w i th t he manuscr ip ts a nd s choo ls o f n or thern F rance a nd c an t hus b et ter p lace t he manuscr ip ts t here i n t he p roper c on tex t . A s f or t he c hrono log ica l l im i ts, t he r eign o f C har les t he Ba ld ( 8 40-877 ), t hey a re d e ter m ined n ot o n ly b y t he t he me o f t h is c o l lect ion o f e ssays , b ut a lso b y t he s ources.

E ven t hough C aro ling ian e duca tors a t t he e nd o f t he

e igh th a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he n in th c en tury s uch a s A lcu in a nd Rhabanus Maurus c lose ly a l lied med ic ine w i th t he l ibera l a r ts a nd a l though e ar ly Carol ing ian l eg isla t ion c a l led f or med ica l s tud ies,

1 2

w e c an o n ly b eg in t o d iscern

t he a pp l ica t ion o f t hese i dea ls d ur ing t he r eign o f C har le magne ' sg randson l a ter i n t he n in th c en tury .

3 34

I n n or thern F rance d ur ing t his p er iod , ag roup o f s cho lars a nd s o me h igh ly p laced e cc lesiast ics, a l l k nown t o e ach o ther , e xh ib i ted a more t han p ass ing i n terest i n med ic ine .

I n f act , o n ly o ne i nd iv idua l i n t h is r eg ion i s s pecif ica l ly

d esigna ted a s a med icus .

C har les t he B a ld ' sc har ter f or N otre-Da me o f R ei ms

o f 8 45 men t ions a c er ta in J ohannes med icus.

O ther t han t h is s o le r eference

1 3

t o a med ica l "s pecia l is t ," med ica l s tud ies a nd p ract ice w ere u nder taken b y n on-spec ia l ists, t ha t i s , i nd iv idua ls f or who m med ic ine was b ut o ne a spec t o f t he ir e xper t ise . O ne o f t he many med ica l r ecipes f ro m t he p er iod , p reserved i n manuscr ip ts a t L aon , p oin t .

1 4

Avranches ,

1 5

t he V a t ican ,1 6

a nd C o logne 1 7 w e l l i l lustra tes t h is

The r ecipe , t he f u l l t ex t o f wh ich f o l lows a s Append ix I , i s f or a med i-

c ine w h ich , a s t he r ecipe c onc ludes, "n ot o n ly r e moves h a ir , a s h as a lready b een s a id , b ut e ven r epresses t he o nset o f n ox ious h u mors.

B oth B ishop

Pardu lus a nd F ergus t he G ra m mar ian u sed i tf requen t ly . . . . Moreover , t he l earned Greeks, a s Ih eard J ohn s ay , u sed t h is med ica men t ag rea t d ea l."

1 8

There i s n o c lue t o t he i den t i ty o f t he r ecipe ' sc o mp i ler , h owever t he men t ion o f B ishop Pardulus a l lows u s t o d a te t he o r ig ina l c o mposi t ion o f t he r ecipe b etween 8 48 a nd 8 56 when P ardulus was b ishop o f L aon .

1 9

F ergus was a n

I r ish master w ho was a c lose f r iend o f S edu l ius S cot tus, a c o mpa tr iot .

F ergus

t augh t Greek a t S a in t-A mand a nd h ad c on tacts a t L aon among t he I r ish s cholars who g a thered t here .

2 9

I nt he c o mpany o f F ergus a nd o f P ardu lus — who, b y

t he w ay , made t he f i rst r ecorded r eference t o J ohn S cot tus when h e a sked t he I r ish man ' so p in ion i n t he c on troversy o ver p redest ina t ion — t he J ohn who i s q uoted a s c it ing Greek med ica l p ract ices c an o n ly b e J ohn S cot tus. 2 1 A dd i t iona l e v idence l i nks P ardu lus a nd J ohn t o med ica l s tud ies . l et ter t o my k now ledge s urv ives f ro m P ardulus ' sc orrespondence .

On ly o ne Th is l e t ter ,

l i t t le-known b ecause i ta ppears o n ly i n t he 1 645 e d i t ion o f t he w orks o f H inc mar o f R e i ms, d ea ls p r i mar i ly w i th med ica l ma t ters. 2 2 I n h is l e t ter t o H inc mar , h is me tropol i tan a nd c lose f r iend , P ardu lus o f fered a dv ice f or a n i l lness a ff l ict ing t he a rchb ishop o fR e i ms.

T o j udge f ro m t he c on ten ts o f t he l e t ter , H inc mar

s uf fered f ro m a s evere d igest ive p rob le m . t ary i n n ature.

Most o f Pardu lus ' sa dv ice i s d ie-

We l earn t ha t H inc mar was a dd icted t o e a t ing t iny f i sh , a

f ondness a gainst wh ich P ardu lus warned h im .

H e a lso l oved g reens wh ich t he

b ishop o f L aon t o ld h im w ere d if f icu lt t o d igest . t o f ast e xcessive ly .

H inc mar , h owever , was n ot

Mea t a nd f ow l c ou ld b e e a ten b ut o n ly o n t he s a me d ay

t hey w ere k i l led a nd o n ly a f ter c arefu l p repara t ion . Un t i l h e was w el l , Pardu lus u rged u pon H inc mar t he p la in , s i mp le, a nd more moderate mea ls o f monks. F ina l ly , h e g ave H inc mar a r ecipe f or a p ot ion , ab oi led m ix ture o f g reens a nd o i l , wh ich h e a dv ised t he a rchb ishop t o t ake t o b reak d own a nd e xpe l b i le. A l l o f t h is s ounds l ike a m ix ture o f c o m monsense a nd h o me r e med ies c haract er ist ic o f many p r im i t ive s oc ie t ies.

Y et , i n P ardu lus ' sc ase we c an p oin t t o

a more s oph ist ica ted s ource f or h is med ica l k now ledge .

Among t he l ibrar ies

o f n or thern F rance , P ardu lus ' sl ibrary a t L aon h ad o ne o f t he most impor tan t c o llec t ions o f med ica l t ex tbooks a nd manua ls , w orks b y Greek o r l a te a n t ique R o man a uthors , c ra m med w i th t he k ind o f a dvice a nd r e med ies h e p resen ted t o H inc mar .

P ardu lus h i mself i n h is l e t ter t o H inc mar a l luded t o al earned

t rad i t ion o f med ica l s tud ies when , a t o ne p oin t , h e o f fered a Greek e ty mo logy ( "E t i deo p lur i mu m a d c on t inenda m s an i ta te m , q uasi h yg ia Graecoru m , p rof i cere n on i gnora tur" )a nd a t a nother when h e s upp le men ted h is c ounsel w i th ac lar i f ica t ion "s ecundu m p h i losophos." 3 35

B efore Id escr ibe t he c on ten ts o f P ardu lus ' sl i brary , s o me o f w h ich e sc aped t he c a ta logues o f W ickershe i mer a nd B eccar ia , Iw ou ld l ike t o p resen t e v idence wh ich It h ink m igh t i nd ica te more t han a p assing i n terest i n med ica l s tud ies o n t he p ar t o f J ohn S cot tus.

R ecen t s tud ies o f J ohn ' sc areer h ave

b egun t o emphas ize J ohn t he t eacher a nd t he s tuden t o f t he l i bera l a r ts r ather t han t he "g rea t" J ohn , t he g rand i sole- o f t he n in th c en tury , t he me taphysician , t he t rans la tor o f Greek , a nd c rea tor o f t he P er iphyseon .

2 3

S o me o f t he e v i-

d ence u sed t o p a in t af u ller p icture o f J ohn ' sa c t iv i t ies i s o f a med ica l n ature . C laud io L eonard i i n 1 961 p ub l ished t wo s hor t p oe ms b y J ohn S cot tus.

B oth

a re o f as a t ir ica l a nd i ron ica l n a ture i n s harp c on trast t o h is p anegyr ica l a nd t heo log ica l p oe ms p ub l ished i n t he Monu men ta G er man iae h istor ica .

I n teres-

t ing ly , f ro m o ur p oin t o fv iew , b oth e v ince a f am i l iar i ty w i th med ica l c onc erns.

The f i rst i s :

"I f ad octor c uts o pen o ur v e ins , h e o ugh t t o s ee t o i t

t ha t h is h and d oes n ot t re mb le ."

The s econd d it ty r eads, "Bacchus i s a bsen t

f ro m t he p arched t hroa ts o f t he I r ish men a nd u nwholeso me wa ter f i l ls o ur s to machs."

2 4

These t wo wh im isica l p oe m s, o f c ourse , c annot s tand a longe a s p roof o f ad eep i n terest o n J ohn ' sp ar t i n med ica l s tud ies.

They must b e s een i n c on-

j unct ion w i th o ther s ources s uch a s t he r eference t o J ohn , B ishop P ardu lus, a nd F ergus t he Gra m mar ian a lready men t ioned .

A lso, we migh t a sk whether

t wo o ther r eferences t o med ica l i n terest b y aJ ohn c oncern J ohn S cot tus.

A

f l y leaf a t tached t o an in th-cen tury manuscr ip t f ro m S a in t G er ma in-des-Pres b ears a med ica l r ecipe ( Pul men tu m p ro h ydrop ic is e t p ro d iversis a egrotan t ib us ) a t tr ibuted t o aJ ohannes med icus.

2 5

The med ica men t , a mix ture o f t he

l eaves o r r oots o f p ars ley o r c e lery , f enne l, wa tercress, a nd a l i t t le measure o f mercury m ixed w i th s a l t a nd o i l o r g rease , p ro m ise 's t o c ure a l l t ypes o f i n test ina l a nd d igest ive p rob le ms. Another , o r p erhaps t he s a me , J ohannes med icus a ppears i n C har les t he Ba ld 's c har ter f or N otre-Da me o f Re i ms.

2 6

I n h is c har ter , g ran ted when

H inc mar o f R e i ms b eca me a rchb ishop o f t he c i ty , C har les r estored t o t he c hurch o f R e i ms p roper ty wh ich h e h ad p reviously d istr ibuted t o h is f a i thful a l l ies a s b enef ices when t he e p iscopa l s ee a t R e i ms was v acan t . t urn ing t he p roper ty , C har les l i sted t he i nd iv idua ls h e e ndowed :

I n r eAmong t he

c oun ts , t he c ler ics, a n a bbess , a nd u n t i t led b enef ic iar ies, w e r ead t he n a mes o f P ardu lus a nd J ohn t he med icus. k nown .

2 7

Pardulus ' st i es w i th t he c our t a re we l l

Apparen t ly , J ohn med icus was a lso b e fr iended b y Char les a nd h ad

c onnect ions a t c our t .

N ow , t he f i rst a ppearance o f J ohn S cot tus i n t he h istor i-

c a l r ecord c an b e d a ted a pprox i ma te ly t o t he s a me p er iod a s t h is c har ter when P ardu lus r epor ted t ha t h e s ough t h elp o n t he p redest ina t ion c on troversy f ro m "t ha t I r ish man n a med J ohn a t t he p a lace." 2 8 Were J ohn t he med icus a nd J ohn S cot tus , b oth a t tached t o C har les t he B a ld 's c our t a t a pprox i mate ly t he s a me t ime , t he s a me p erson? I tw ould b e r eck less o n t he b asis o f mere h o mony my t o r espond t ha t t he J ohn S cot tus o ft he t wo p oe ms d iscovered b y C laud io L eonard i a nd t he J ohn S cot tus who w i th B ishop P ardu lus a nd F ergus r eco m mended a med icamen t i s t he s a me a s t hese J ohns e xp lici t ly d esigna ted a s med ic i.

T he most

t ha t c an b e s a id i s t ha t J ohn S cot tus was i n terested i n med ica l s ub jects. S evera l p assages f ro m t he c o m men tary o n Mar t ianus C ape l la a nd f ro m t he P er iphyseon r e inforce t h is p oin t . 3 36

I n J ohn ' sc o m men tary o n t he De n up t i is P h i lo log iae e t Mercur i i ( wh ich h as n ot y e t r ece ived a c o mp lete e d i t ion ) , a pprox i ma te ly a s core o f med ica l r ef erences o r n otes i nd ica te med ica l l earn ing . r eferences c annot b e p ressed .

2 9

O f c ourse , s o me o f t hese

"AESCULAPIUS f i lius Apo ll in is a r t is med ic ine

max i ms r eper tor ," i s o ne o f t hese. "

S o t oo, p erhaps , i s J ohn ' se xp lana-

t i on o f "EPI MEL IA : c ura s a lut is s ed n on c ura i l la q uae p er t ine t a d s ol ic itud in em , s ed a d s an ita te m ."

3 1

B ut wha t i s o ne t o make o f a n e xp lana t ion o f

M inerva ' sb e jewe lled a nd s acred c loak t ha t s tresses t he impor tance o f t he c hest w h ich h ouses t he l ungs a nd t he h ear t a nd r egula tes b rea th ing?

The c loak

i s c oloured r ed , J ohn n oted , b ecause h u mors a re d rawn i n to t he c hest t hrough h idden p ores , g a thered a round t he h ear t , a nd t hen i gn i ted b y t he a ct ion o f t he l ungs i n c on tact w i th t he f i erce ly b urn ing h ear t t hus f or m ing b lood c oloured f la mes .

3 2

The p oin t i s n ot whether J ohn ' sa na to m ica l u nderstand ing i s c orrect

o r n ot , b ut r a ther t ha t h e d oes c hoose a n e xp lana t ion r equ ir ing s o me med ica l k now ledge .

We c an p oin t t o a nother b i t o f med ica i n t he Annota t iones — u nca l led

f or b y t he p assage u pon wh ich J ohn c o m men ted — i n an ote o n t he o pen ing l ine o f Mar t ianus C apel la ' sa l legory i n wh ich J ohn e xp la ined why Mar t ianus r ef erred t o t he wedd ing s ong a s t he H y menaeus: I fy ou w ish t o k now t he mean ing o f t he n oun H y menei , y ou s hou ld k now t ha t t here a re t hree me mbranes i n a n i ma l b od ies , o f wh ich t wo a re f ound i n t he ma le s ex a nd t hree i n t he f e ma le s ex a s med ica l s c ience h as e stab lished .

O f c ourse , t he c erebra l me mbrane , wh ich t he Greeks

c a l l men ica , f ro m wh ich t he v ar ious f i stu la o f t he f i vefo ld s enses p roc eed , a re c o mmon t o a l l r a t iona l a nd i rra t iona l a n i ma ls.

Aga in , t he

me mbrane wh ich s epara tes t he i n test ines, t ha t i s , t he v iscera o f t he l ower s to mach a nd t he u pper c hest , t he l i ver a nd t he w indp ipe , wh ich t he Greeks c a l l f renos ( f ro m wh ich t he w ord f renet ici c o mes ) , i s c o mmon t o a l l s exes.

H owever , t he me mbrane i n t he w o mb where c h i ldren

a re c onceived i s f ound o n ly i n t he f e ma le a nd i s c a l led h y men b y t he Greeks — f ro m whence we d er ive t he H y menaeus wh ich c on trols c onc ep t ion a s t he p oe ts ' t a les w ou ld h ave i t .

3 3

B ook One o f t he P er iphyseon c on ta ins y e t a nother med ica l l esson v ery s im il ar i n s ubstance t o t hese l as t t wo c o m men ts f ro m t he Annota t iones.

H ere ,

J ohn made t he p oin t t ha t " in t he c o m mon u sage o f mor ta ls" ,p red ica tes o f s ub jec ts a re c on fusing ly a pp l ied : F or e xa mp le: a ir c on ta ins l i gh t , a nd t herefore a ir f i l led w i th l i gh t i s c a l led l i gh t ; t he e ye i s c a l led s igh t o r v ision a l though i n r espect o f t he p roper ty o f i t s n a ture i ti s n e ither s igh t n or v is ion .

F or who d oes n ot

k now t ha t t he e ye i s ac orporea l p ar t o f t he h ead a nd t ha t i ti s moist , a nd t ha t i ti s t ha t t hrough wh ich t he s igh t p ours f or th f ro m t he b ra in l ike r ays o ut o f t he men inx , t ha t i s , me mbrane.

The men inx , h owever ,

r ece ives t he n a ture o f t he l i gh t f ro m t he h ear t , t ha t i s , f ro m t he s ea t o f f ire .

F or s igh t i s t he em iss ion o f n atura l l i gh t i n t he s ense o f s eeing

o f h i m who p ossesses i t , b urst ing f or th i n t he manner o f r ays, wh ich , when i ts urrounds t he c o lours a nd f or ms o f s ensib le b od ies w i thout , w i th marve llous s w if tness t akes o n t he f or m o ft hose c o loured v isib le s hapes.

3 4

3 37

J ohn ' sd iscussion h ere a nd i n t he Annota t iones o ft he men ica a nd t he me mb ranu lae h ave b een l i nked o n n ot q u i te s a t isfactory g rounds w i th G a len .3 5 Wha tever t he u lt i ma te s ource o f h is w ords , t he c ho ice a nd d eta i l o f h is e xa mp les c oup led w i th t he d ep i la tory r ecipe s uggest t ha t h is a cqua in tance w i th med ica l s tud ies was n ot l im i ted t o t he w or ld o f b ooks.

A t t he i nst i tut ions w i th wh ich

J ohn ' sc areer i s a ssoc ia ted i n n or thern F rance a nd among h is c on te mporar ies i n t he s a me r eg ion , t here i s amp le e v idence t ha t med ica l s tud ies a nd p ract ice were w ide ly p ursued b y s cholars . S evera l c lues p oin t i n t he d irect ion o f R e i ms a s ac en tre o f med ica l s tud ies. AR e im s manuscr ip t f ro m t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he n in th c en tury c on ta ins a c har t a cco mpan ied b y i nstruct ions t o a ssign n u mer ica l v a lues f or t he l e t ters i n t he n a me o f a n i l lness o r d isease.

3 6

The t ota l n umer ica l v a lue f or t he n ame .

when l oca ted o n t he c har t wh ich c on ta ins a s er ies o f n u mbers, w i l l p red ict t he o utco me o f t he d isease.

I ft he n u mber l i es i n ap ar t icular q uadran t o f t he

c har t , t he o utco me w i l l b e h appy ; n a te p rognosis.

a nother q uadran t w i l l i nd ica te a l ess f or tu-

I t was p erhaps b ecause o f t h is k ind o f med icine t ha t H inc mar

c onsu lted P ardu lus o f L aon a bou t h is i l lness.

There i s , h owever , a more

r epresen ta t ive s ource f or med ica l s tud ies a t Re i ms.

A l eaf f ro m a manuscr ip t

o r ig ina lly f ro m S a in t R em ig ius i n R e i ms c on ta ins d irect ions f or a med ica l r ecipe , P o t io c on tra f i cu m .

The s a me l eaf o n wh ich t h is r ecipe a ppears a lso

c on ta ins a n ote o n Mar t ianus C ape l la a t tr ibuted t o a Duncah t t augh t a t S a in t R em ig ius.

3 7

a n I r ish man who

P erhaps t he med ica l n ote a nd Duncah t ' sn ote, a l-

t hough n ot b y t he s a me h and , c a me f ro m t he s a me s ource: t he s choo l a t Rei ms. Among n or thern c u l tura l c en tres i n g enera l , t he c a thedra l c i ty o f L aon , Pardu lus ' ss ee a nd t he s i te o f a n impor tan t g roup o f I r ish s cholars i n c on tact w i th J ohn S cot tus a nd t heir c o mpa tr iots i n t he Rh ine v a l ley , was t he most imp or tan t c en tre o f med ica l s tud ies . med ica l i n terests.

We h ave a lready d iscussed Pardu lus ' s

There i s a dd i t iona l e v idence o fv arying q ua l ity o f L aon ' s

s ign if icance a s a med ica l c en tre .

S o me o f t h is e v idence c ons ists o f c harts

l ike t he o ne j ust d escr ibed f ro m R ei ms .

3 8

S evera l L aon manuscr ip ts c on ta in

med ica l r ecipes f or v ar ious p ot ions a nd med ica l i n for ma t ion .

L aon ' sc opy

o f P a l lad ius ' s Opus a gr icu lturae ( Laon , B ib l. min ., 4 26b is ) c on ta ins s evera l r ecipes a nd a c a lendar i nd ica t ing wha t k ind o f f ood a nd wa ter a re t o b e t aken d ur ing p ar t icular mon ths.

3 0

An in th-cen tury manuscr ip t owned b y B ishop

D ido o f L aon ( . 8 83-895 ) , b ut c op ied a t S a in t-A mand ( Laon , B ib l. mun ., 1 99 ) , b ears a r ec ipe o n af rag men t o f p arch men t a dded t o t he e nd o f t he manuscr ip t . 40 Another L aon manuscr ip t , n ow a t P ar is, c on tains a n e xcerp t f ro m I s idore o f S ev i l le ' s Or ig ines o n t he h ea l ing q ua l i t ies o f v ar ious b od ies o f wa ter . 41 S o met i me d ur ing t he f i rst q uar ter o f t he t en th c en tury , A de le lm o f L aon , master i n t he s chool a nd l a ter b ishop o f t he c i ty ( 921-930 ) , i nc luded a med ica l r ecipe among t he d ocu men ts h e c o mp i led f or t he L aon F ormulary . 42

Impor tan t t hough

t hese t ex ts a re f or med ica l p ract ice a nd s tud ies a t L aon , t hey a re i nc iden ta l t o t he r ea l monu men ts o f med ica l h istory t here.

I n a dd it ion t o t he s craps,

f rag men ts , r ecipes , a nd c i ta t ions j ust men t ioned , L aon p ossessed t wo ma jor med ica l manuscr ip ts o f l a te a n t ique t ex ts , Marce l lus ' s De med ica men t is ( Laon , B ib l. mun ., 4 20 ) 43

a nd a manuscr ip t b ear ing a l arge p or t ion o f

Or ibas ius ' s med ica l w ork ( Laon , B ib l . mun ., 4 24 ). 44

The s ign if icance o f

t hese manuscr ip ts h as l ong b een a cknow ledged , b ut t hey h ave n ever b een d isc ussed i n t er ms o f med ica l s tud ies a t L aon . 3 38

T he Or ibasius c odex was c op ied i n n or thern I t a ly d ur ing t he s econd q uar ter o f t he n in th c en tury .

T h is manuscr ip t i s b ound w ith t wo f l y leaves f ro m a n

e igh th-cen tury manuscr ip t f ro m C orb ie. 45 L aon v ia t ha t monastery .

P erhaps t he manuscr ip t c a me t o

I n a ny e ven t , t he manuscr ip t was a t L aon d ur ing

t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he c en tury a s marg ina l n otes b y Mar t in H ibern iensis ( 8198 75 )

t he most impor tan t L aon master , a t test .

The s a me c an b e s a id f or

L aon 's c opy o f Marce l lus wh ich was c op ied d ur ing t he f i rst q uarter o f t he c ent ury s o mewhere i n n or theastern F rance.

Th is manuscr ip t h as b een a nnota ted

b y t wo h ands , o ne o f wh ich c an b e p osi t ive ly i den t if ied a s t ha t o f Ma r t in .4 6 Mar t in was a t t he c en tre o f t he s chool o f L aon .

H e h as b een r eputed f or

h is w ork o n aG reek-La t in g lossary a nd g ra m mar , s ubstan t ia l p or t ions o f wh ich h e c op ied .

Mar t in was a f r iend o f L upus o f F err ieres, c o lleague o f

J ohn S cot tus , p a tron ized b y H inc mar o f L aon , a nd h ad c on tacts a t C har les t he Ba ld ' sc our t .

H is s cr ip t i s f ound t hroughout many o f L aon ' ss urv iv ing n in th-

c en tury manuscr ip ts . 47 O ne i s r ap id ly p ersuaded , i n r eading h is n otes i n t he L aon O r ibasius a nd Marce l lus, t ha t Mar t in w as y e t a nother C aro l ing ian s cho lar f or who m med ica l s tud ies were more t han a n i n te l lectua l o rna men t .

Many o f Mar t in ' sn otes

p rov ided e xp lana t ions o f med ica l t er m inology f ound i n h is t ex ts ; t here i s ar ec ipe.

o ccasiona l ly

Most s tr ik ing , h owever , a re Mar t in ' sc o m men ts o n t he

u t i l i ty o f v ar ious r e med ies , c o mmen ts b orn o bv iously o f p ract ica l med ica l e xper ience. 48 Wha t i s p erhaps more s ign if ican t i s t ha t Mar t in ' s med ica l i nt erests were i n tegrated i n to h is c oncep t o f e duca t ion a nd l earn ing .

Mar t in ' s

d ef in i t ion o f w isdo m , o r p h i losophy , wh ich we c an r ead i n t he s chool manua l c o mposed under h is d irect ion ,i s e ssen t ia l ly t ha t o f I s idore o f S ev i l le ' sD iff eren t iae a nd i nc ludes t he med ica l a r ts. 49 I n h is c opy o f Or igen ' sH om i lies o n N u mbers , Mar t in was e specia l ly impressed b y Or igen ' sa rgu men t t ha t a l l l earn ing , e spec ia l ly med ic ine , t he s cience o f h ea l th , c o mes f ro m G od . 5° I n h is s tudy a nd p ract ice o f med ic ine , t hen , Mar t in was o f c ourse p ursu ing a d isc ip l ine wh ich h ad o bv ious p ract ica l b enef i ts.

I n a dd i t ion , med ica l s tud ies

were f or Mar t in a c onst i tuen t p ar t o f w isdo m , e spec ia l ly o f C hr ist ian w isdo m . T h is c oncep t , a nnounced i n t he e igh th a nd e ar ly n in th c en tur ies, l ends g rea ter mean ing t o t he med ica l i n terests o f C aro l ingian c ul tura l l eaders s uch a s L upus o f F err ieres , Wa lah fr id S trabo, D ido o f S t-P ierrele V if , a nd t hose " new " n a mes who h ave b een t he s ub ject o ft h is p aper :

F ergus , Pardulus,

J ohn S cot tus , a nd Mar t in H ibern iensis. 5 1 When we r eca l l t ha t Mar t ianus C ape l la ' se duca t iona l h andbook — i n wh ich h e t r ied t o s yn thesize a n t ique l earn ing f or h is s on — d e l ibera te ly e xc luded t he s tudy o f med ic ine , t he s pect acu lar p rol ifera t ion o f med ica l t ex ts , t he p ursu i t o f med ica l s tud ies b y a n i n te l lectua l e l i te , a nd t he i ncorpora t ion o f med ica l s tud ies i n to t he e duca t iona l p rogra m me d ur ing t he n in th c en tury a ssu me g rea ter s ign i f icance. 52 Wha t we a re w i tnessing i n t he n in th c en tury i s n ot s i mp ly a "r ena issance" o f med ica l s tud ies , b ut r a ther t heir e stab l ish men t o n n ew p rinc ip les a nd i n an ew c on tex t .

P urdue U n ivers i ty

3 39

NOTES

* Th is s tudy i s ar ev ised a nd e xpanded v ersion o f my " The S tudy a nd Pract ice o f Med ic ine i n N orthern France Dur ing t he R e ign o f C harles t he B a ld ," wh ich a ppeared i n J ohn R . S o m merfeld t a nd E . R ozanne E lder e ds., S tud ies i n Med ieva l Cu l ture, V I a nd V I I ( Ka la mazoo , 1 976) :

4 3-54.

Iwan t t o t hank

t he o rgan izers o f t he C harles t he Bald c ol loqu ium f or t he o ppor tun ity t o i nc lude my p aper i n t h is v olu me e ven t hough Ic ou ld n ot p ar t ic ipate p ersonal ly i n t he c ol loqu iu m .

Research f or a nd wr it ing o f t h is r ev is ion was s upported

b y a1 979 Gran tin-Aid f ro m t he Amer ican C ounc il o f L earned S oc ie t ies. I nd iv iduals a nd l i brar ies who g enerously h elped me a re a cknowledged i n t he a ppropr ia te f ootno tes t o my t ex t.

Io we a g enera l d ebt o f g ra t i tude t o t he

I nst itu t d e Recherche e t dnisto ire d es T ex tes i n P ar is.

1 .

T he S a lern i tan Quest ions :

An I n troduc t ion t o t he H istory o f Med ieval

a nd Rena issance Proble m L i terature ( Ox ford , 19 63 ), x iv. 2 .

E arly Med ieva l Med ic ine w i th S pec ia l Reference t o F rance a nd Chartres ( Ba l t i more , 1 937 );

a nd , "Med ical E duca t ion i n t he Midd le Ages" ,

Cah iers d 'h istoire mond ia le 2 ( 1955 ): 8 35-61. 3 .

" Ten th C en tury Med ic ine a s S een i n t he H istor ia o fR icher" , Bu l let in o f t he I nst itu te o f t he H istory o f Med ic ine 2 ( 1934 ):

3 47-75;

i de m ,

B ishop FuIber t a nd Educa t ion a t t he S chool o f C har tres ( No tre D a me , 1 957 ), p p . 3 1-34, 4 5;

a nd , t he a ppropr ia te s ect ions o f Ear ly Med ieval

Med ic ine. 4 .

For t he c hr ist ian iza t ion o f t he a r ts, s ee Mar ie-Therese d 'Alverny , " La S agesse e t s es s ep t f i l les :

Recherches s ur l es a l legor ies d e l a

p h ilosoph ie e t d es a rts l i beraux d u D (e a u Xle s ièc le" , Melanges d ed ies l a me mo ire d e Fel ix Gra t , 2v ols. ( Par is , 1 946 ), 1 :

2 45-78 ;

a nd

Gerard Ma thon , "Les f or mes e t l a s ign if ica t ion d e l a p edagog ie d es a r ts l i beraux a u m i l ieu d u D (e s iecle :

L 'ense igne men t p ala t in d e

J ean S co t Er igene" , Arts l i beraux e t p h i losoph ie a u Moyen-Age ( Par is 1 967 ) , p p . 4 7-64. For med ical s tud ies, s ee P ierre R iche, L es e coles e t P ense igne men t d ans POcc iden t c hre t ien d e l a f in d u Ve s ièc le a u m il ieu d u X I s iècle ( Par is , 19 79 ), p p . 2 76-80. 5 .

E rnest Wickershe i mer 's D ic t ionna ire b iograph ique d es medec ins e n F rance a u Moyen Age , 2v ols. ( Paris , 19 36 ) l i sted 1 8 n a med d oc tors p r ior t o t he e leven th c en tury .

Wickershe imer d id n o t l i st r eferences

t o a nony mous med ic i n or , o f c ourse, d id h e c a tch e very n a med p hys ic ian f or t hose c en tur ies. 6 .

S ee MacK inney , E arly Med ieva l Med ic ine , p p . 3 6-3 8 , f or Wa lahfr id S trabo 's Hortu lus.

3 40

7 .

L oup d e F ern eres, C orrespondance , L eon L ev il la in e d., 2 v ols. ( Paris , 1 92 7 -35 ), 1 :

2 42 ( no. 6 5 ), 2 :

2 4 ( no. 6 8 ), f or med ica l d iscuss ions

i n L upus 's l e t ters. 8 .

I n t he s econd o f t he t wo l e t ters c i ted i n t he p rev ious n ote , L upus a sked D ido, who was a bbo t f ro m 8 47 t o 8 69 , t o c ure a f r iend w ho m L upus 's o wn p hys ic ians h ad b een u nable t o h ea l .

9 .

Ic od ic i d i med ic ina d el p er iodo p resa lern itano ( secol i I X , X , eX I ) ( Ro me , 1 956 ).

1O .

L es manuscr its l a t ins d e medec ine d u h au t Moyen-Age d ans l es b ibl iot heques d e France ( Paris , 1 966 ).

1 1.

B eccar ia , p p . 4 39-91 ( " Ind ice d e i T est i" ).

1 2.

S ee MacK inney ,

E ar ly Med ieval Med ic ine , p p . 9 4-96, e spec ia l ly where

h e c o mp la ined t ha t " throughou t t he e arly m idd le Ages med ic ine was s o c o mp letely s ub merged i n t he l i bera l a rts t ha t i tf a iled t o r ece ive t he s pec ia l a t ten t ion t ha t i td eserved ." c lassify med ic ine a s a n a r t.

I s idore o f S ev il le was t he f i rs t t o

S ee Manuel C . D iaz y D iaz , " Les a r ts

l i beraux d 'apres l es e cr iva ins e spagnols e t i nsu la ires a ux V I Ie e t V I I Ie s iecles" , i n Ar ts l i beraux e t p h ilosoph ie a u Moyen-Age, p p . 3 7-46. 1 3.

S ee b elow , n . 2 6, f or t h is r eference.

1 4.

L aon , B ib l . mun ., 4 03f f ., 1 66r-166v . Th is t we l f th-cen tury c odex b elonged t o t he a bbey o f Va lro i. I ts p r inc ip le c on ten ts a re p seudoHeges ippus's h is tory ;

Pa l lad ius , Opus a gricu l turae, f . 1 19 v160r ;

a nd , e xcerp ts b ear ing o n a rch i tec ture , f . 1 61r-164v.

F or a d escr ip t ion ,

s ee J a mes Corbe t t , Ca talogue d es manuscr its a lch im iques l a t ins, v ol . 2 :

Manuscr i ts d es b ibl io theques p ubl iques d es d epar te men ts f ran9a is

a n ter ieures a u XVI I Ie s ièc le ( Par is, 1 951 ), p p . 6 6-6 7 ( no. 1 9 );

a nd ,

F el ix Rava isson , "Manuscr i ts d e l a b ibl iotheque d e L aon" , i n Catal ogue g enera l d es manuscr i ts d es b ibl io theques p ubl iques d es d epartemen ts , s er. 1 , 7v ols. ( Par is, 1 849-85 ), 1 : 2 07. Iam o bl iged t o t he B ibl iotheque mun ic ipa le o f L aon f or a m icrof ilm o f t he p er t inen t f o l ios. 1 5.

Avranches, B ibl . mun ., 2 35f f ., 5 1r-51v. ( no. 3 ).

c en tury manuscr ip t . 3 4 ( 19 60 ) :

S ee C orbe t t , p p . 1 0-13

C laud io L eonard i f urn ished t he b est d escr ip t ion o f t h is t wel f th3 -4.

S ee h is " I c od ic i d i Marz iano Capel la" , Aevu m

I t s p rovenance i s Mon t-Sa in t-Michel .

S ee M.

Bourgeo is-Lechart ier, " Quelques a spec ts d es m in ia tures e t l et tres o rnees d es manuscri ts d u Mon t-Sa in t-Michel" , Ar t d e Basse N or mand ie 4 0 ( 19 66 ) :

4 4;

a nd , G . N ort ier, L es b ibl io theques med ievales d es

a bbayes b ened ic t ines d e N or mand ie ( Caen , 1 966 ) :

1 43, n . 5 3;

1 62.

The 7 9 f ol ios c on ta in , i n a dd it ion t o t he r ec ipe , 2 7 t ex ts b ear ing p r imar ily o n a strono m ica l s ub jec ts. 1 6.

Va t ican , Reg. l a t ., 1 274ff ., 4 9v-50r.

Th is e arly t h irteen th-cen tury

c odex b elonged t o C laude Fauche t ( d . 1 601).

I t c on ta ins i n a dd i t ion

t o t he med ica men t , t he Opus a gr icul turae o f Pal lad ius ( l ack ing Book X IV ) a nd a n e xcerp t f ro m Vege t ius 's Ep ito ma r e i mil i tar is.

3 41

Iam

u naware o f ap ubl ished d escr ip t ion .

Typescr ip t n o tes p repared i n

S ep te mber, 1 965 b y Franca De Marco a re c onserved a t t he I ns t i tu t d e Recherche e t d 'H isto ire d es T ex tes.

The B ibl ioteca Aposto l ica Va t icana

k ind ly p rov ided me w i th a p ho tocopy o f i f . 4 9v-50r. 1 7.

C ologne , S chnü tgen-Museu m , L udw ig Ms. X I I I 5 .

Th is manuscr ip t

was f or merly i n t he p ossess ion o f Rober t B . Honey man , J r . ( s ee C . U . Faye a nd W. H . B ond.

S upp le men t t o t he C ensus o f Med ieva l

a nd Rena issance Manuscrip ts i n t he Un i ted S ta tes a nd Canada [ New York , 1 962 ] , p . 1 9 ) f ro m w hence i tw en t t o S otheby 's b efore i t c a me t o Dr. L udw ig.

S otheby 's 2 May 1 979 s ales c a ta logue c on ta ins a d e ta iled d e-

s cr ip t ion o f t h is Engl ish manuscr ip t wh ich w as wr it ten i n t he e arly t wel f th c en tury w ith a dd it ions b y l a ter h ands. e arl iest p ar t o f t he manuscr ip t a t f . 5 r-v.

T he r ec ipe o ccurs i n t he

T h is i mportan t s c ien t if ic

a n thology i nc ludes a strono m ica l , musical , a nd c o mpu t is tica l t exts , s o me o f wh ich a lso a ppear i n t he Avranches manuscr ip t .

Iam i ndeb ted

t o P rofessor J ohn F . Ben ton f or a ler t ing me t o t h is e x traord inary manus cr ip t a nd f or d iscussing i t s p roble ms w ith me. 1 8.

J ames F . K enney , The S ources f or t he Ear ly H is tory o f I re land , Ecc les iast ica l :

An I n troduc t ion a nd Gu ide ( New York , 1 929 ), p . 5 88 ( no.

3 98 ) , a l luded b r ief ly t o t he med ica men t.

I t was p araphrased i n French

b y S uzanne Mart inet i n t he a r t ic le c i ted i n t he n ex t n o te. r efer o n ly t o t he Avranches manuscr ip t.

B o th a u thors

L ynn T hornd ike a nd P earl

K ibre , c i t ing Corbet t 's c a ta logue , l i sted t he Avranches a nd L aon manus cr ip ts i n t he ir A C a ta logue o f I nc ip i ts o f Med iaeva l S c ien t i f ic Wr it ings i n L a t in , r ev, a nd a ug m . e d., The Med iaeva l Acade my o f Amer ica , Publ ica t ion n o. 2 9 ( Ca mbr idge, Mass., 1 963 ) p . 147 . 1 9 .

S ee S uzanne Mar t ine t , " Pardule , eV eque d e L aon , am i d e C harles l e Chauve , medec in d e n o tre v il le" , F edera t ion d es S oc ietes d 'h isto ire e t d 'archeolog ie d e l 'Aisne , Me mo ires 1 6 ( 1970 ) :

1 59-69 ;

a nd ,

J ohn J . C on tren i , The Ca thedra l S chool o f L aon f ro m 8 50 t o 9 30 :

I t s

Manuscr ip ts a nd Masters , Münchener Be i trage z ur Med iav ist ik u nd Rena issance Forschung , 2 9 ( Mun ich , 1 978 ) , p p . 1 9-20 , 1 23. 2 0.

S edu l ius d escr ibed Fergus a s ac lose f r iend . man iae h istor ica , Poe tae l a t in i , 3 : 1 99 , 5 18.

S ee Monu men ta GerF ergus 's n ame a lso

a ppears i n t he margins o f a n importan t n in th-cen tury manuscr ip t a long w i th t he n a mes o f o ther I r ish mas ters. p p . 5 59-60.

S ee b elow , n ote 5 1, a nd Kenney ,

Bernhard B ischof f p ubl ished a r eference t o Mag is ter

Fergus wh ich h e f ound i n Va lenc iennes, B ibl . mun ., 8 1, f rom S a in t S a in t-A mand .

S ee ' Das g riech ische E le men t i n d er a bendländ ischen

B ildung d es Mi t tela l ters" , Mi t tela l terl iche S tud ien , 2v ols. ( S tu ttgart , 1 966-67 ), 2 : 2 67. I n t he s a me s tudy ( note 1 07 ) , B ischof f a lso b rough t t o l i gh t a nother r eference t o Fergus f ound i n Par is , B . N ., l a t. 1 0307 , a manuscr ip t w i th c lose a t tach men ts t o t he c a thedral s choo l o f L aon . S ee my " A p ropos d e q uelques manuscr its d e P ecole d e L aon a u D (e D ecouver tes e t p roble mes" , L e Moyen Age 7 8 ( 1972 ) : 2 8-37 .

3 42

2 1.

S ee F lorus o f L yons, D e t r ibus e p istol is l i ber, i n Migne , Pa trolog ia l a t ina ( = MPL ), 1 21: 1 052a f or t he L aon b ishop 's r eference t o J ohn . Both J a mes F . K enney , i b id ., a nd Ma ieu l Cappuyns , J ean S cot E r igäne : S a v ie , s on o euvre , s a p en see ( Brussels , 19 33 ), p p . 5 , 6 5, a ccep ted t he i den t if ica t ion o f J ohn S cot tus w ith t he J ohn o f t he r ec ipe.

2 2.

Pardu lus 's l e t ter , i n terest ing f ro m s evera l p o in ts o f v iew , i s r eproduced i n Append ix I .

F or a r ecen t c o mmen t o n i t , s ee J ean Dev isse , H incmar :

Archeve ‘que d e Re i ms , 8 45-882, 3 v ols., Travaux d 'h isto ire e th icop ol it ique, 2 9 ( Geneva , 1 975-76 ), 1 : 6 8-69 . 2 3.

S ee e spec ial ly t he p aper b y Gerard Ma thon c i ted i n n . 4a bove a nd my " The B ibl ica l G losses o f Ha i mo o f Auxerre a nd J ohn S co t tus E r iugena" , S pecu lu m 5 1 ( 19 76 ) : 4 11-434.

2 4.

"Nuove v oc i p oet iche t ra s eco lo I X eX I" , S tud i med ieva l i , s er. 3 , 2 ( 19 61) : 1 48 :

" Qu isqu is X E L poupyog

v idea t n e s ua d ex tra t re ma t".

n ostras i nc idere f l ebas/Audet , p re-

" Bacchus a bes t s icc is S cot toru m f auc ibus

e stu/Et v en tres n ostros morbida r ep let a qua" . 2 5.

For t he r ec ipe i n P ar is , B .N., l a t . 1 3013f ., i v ( f ro m S a in t-Germa ind es-Pres ), s ee Wickershe i mer , L es manuscr its l a t ins , p . 1 26. Wickershe i mer d a ted t he s cr ip t o f t h is t ex t t o t he n in th c en tury .

It h ink

t ha t i t must b e e leven th c en tury . 2 6.

Georges Tess ier e t .a l ., e d., Receu il d es a c tes d e Charles I l e Chauve , r o i d e France , 3v ols. ( Par is , 19 43-55 ), 1 : 2 10-13.

The c har ter ( no.

7 5 ) i s d a ted 1October 8 45. 2 7 .

S ee L upus o f F ern eres , C orrespondance , 2 : 9 -1 0 ( no. 7 1) : " Cu m r ep eto me mor ia i n t i mas v os e sse r eg i..." L et ters 6 6 , 7 2, a nd 7 3 i n t he s a me c ol lec t ion i l lus tra te Pardu lus 's t i es t o t he c ourt.

2 8 .

MPL , 1 21: 1 052a : " ... S co tu m , i l lu m q u i e st i n p ala t io r eg is , J ohanne m n om ine..."

2 9 .

I ohann is S cot t i Anno ta t iones i n Marc ianu m , Cora E . L u tz e d., The Med iava l Acade my o f Amer ica , Publ ica t ion n o. 3 4 ( Ca mbr idge , Mass., 1 939 ) : 8 2, 2 0 ; 1 8;

3 , 5 ;

5 , 7 ; 5 , 2 0 ;

8 3, 1 2;

2 85, 1 4;

3 0.

I bid., 5 , 2 0.

3 1.

I bid., 6 2, 1 5.

3 2.

I bid., 7 , 1 8 :

8 3, 2 0 ;

4 94, 4 ;

7 , 1 8; 1 21, 7 ;

4 93, 5 ;

5 8 , 3 ;

5 8 , 4 ;

1 74, 1 0 ;

6 2, 1 5;

2 08 , 1 1;

6 3, 1 4;

2 41, 1 2;

2 78 ,

4 93, 7 .

" COCCUM e t AMICULUM h oc e st am ic tus s acra t i p ec tor is

Minerve , o rna tum mun i men s ap ien t is c ons il i i q uo r a t iona l is a n i ma u nd ique ambi tur, n on i ncongrue s ign if ica t.

U t e n im c or e t p u lmones

i n tra s ep ta p ec tor is t u ta m p oss iden t s ede m , i t a v i tal is r ec tor s p ir itual ib us f l abr is i ncensus, n on s olu m c orporal ibus s ensibus v eru m e t ia m r a t ionab i l ibus a f fec t ibus , v elu t i i n a rce q uada m c u iusda m c iv ita t is p raes idet .

P u lcre e t ia m p ec tus c occo i ndu tu m a dd id it , q u ia h u mores q u ibus

n a tura n u tr i tur e t a uge tur c orporea , n a tura l i a dm in istra t ione p er o ccult os p ec tor is p oros , c irca p record ia p ri mo c ol l igun tur , i b ique , a rden-

3 43

t i ssi mo c ord is i gne q u i p u l monu m a f f la t ibus s ine i n ter m ix t ione v ivens v elu t i i n a rden tes s usc itatur f la m mas , i n s angu ineu m c olorem i nstar f la m maru m q uae c occ ineae q ua l i ta t is s un t m ira q uada m r ub id ine t ingunt ur". 3 3.

I b id., 3 : 5 :

" S i a u te m v is n osse a e th i molog ia m n om in is Hy mene i , c og-

n osce t res me mbranu las i n c orpor ibus e sse a n i man t iu m , q uaru m q u ide m d uas e sse i n v ir il i s exu , t res v ero i n f em ineo , med ic ina l is p hys ica c o mproba t .

Me mbranu la q u ippe c erebr i q ua m Grec i

v

d icun t ,

e x q ua d iverse f i s tulae q u inqueper t i t i s ensus p rof luun t , c o mmun is e st omn ibus s ive r a t ional ibus s ive i nra t ionab i l ibus a n i man t ibus.

I t e m me m-

b ranu la q ue d iv id i t i n ter i l ia , h oc e st i n fer iora v en tr is v iscera e t s up er iora p ec tor is , i ecur c or e t a r ter ias , q ua m G rec i r . p dv d icun t , e x q ua f rene t ic i v ocan tur , omn i s exu i c o m mun is e st.

Me mbranu la a ute m

v en tr is i n q ua p uerper ia c onc ip iun tur e t f em ine i s exus p ropr ium e st , e t aG rec is 4 ,ry v oca tur, i nde Hy meneus q u i c orpora l ibus p res ide t c oncep t ion ibus u t p oet icae f abu le f i ngun t." 3 4.

I ohann is S cot t i E r iugenae P er iphyseon ( De D iv is ione N a turae ) :

L iber

p r i mus, I . P . S heldon-Wil l ia ms e d ., S cr ip tores l a t in i H ibern iae, V II ( Dubl in , 1 968 ) , p p . 1 23-25 ( = MPL

1 22: 4 80c-481a ),

The t ransla t ion

i s t ha t o f S heldon- W i l l ia ms. 3 5.

I b id., S heldon- W il l iams e d., p . 2 36, n . 1 34, f or Ga len 's Greek t ex t a nd t he e d itor 's c o m men ts.

Ml le. Mar ie-Therbse d 'Alverny d oub ts t he

p ert inence o f Ga len t o J ohn S co t tus's t ex t ( l e t ter , 1 March 1 977 ). Edouard J eauneau c a me c loser t o t he mark when h e t raced J ohn 's d isc uss ion t o Gregory o f N yssa 's De h om in is o p if ic io.

S ee "Le c o m men-

t a ire e r igen ien s ur Mart ianus Capel la ( De n up t iis , L ib. I )d 'apr8s l e manuscr i t d 'Oxford ( Bod l . L ibr. Auc t. T . 2 . 1 9 , f ol . 1 -31 )" , i n Quatre t he mes e r igen iens , Conference A lber tle-Grand 1 974 ( Mon trea l a nd Par is , 1 978 ), p . 1 03, n . 5 . 3 6.

L aon , B ibl . mun., 4 07f ., 1 36v.

S ee Wickershe i mer , L es manuscr i ts

l a t ins , p . 3 5 ( no. XXV ). 3 7.

L ondon , Br i t ish L ibrary, Reg. 1 5. A . = M I , f . 3 r-3v. F or t he t ex t o f t he p ot ion , wh ich b o th Wickershe i mer a nd Beccar ia missed , s ee Mar io E spos i to , " Ir ish

C o m men tar ies o n Mar t ianus Capel la" , Z e it-

s chr if t f t .& k el t ische Ph ilolog ie u nd Volksforschung 9 ( 1913) : 1 59-63. 3 8.

L aon , B ibl . mun ., 4 45f., l v.

3 9.

Wickershe i mer , L es manuscr i ts l a t ins , p p . 3 9-41 ( no. =

4 0.

F o l io 1 38r :

" Po t io p igmen tar ia a d omnes i n f irm i ta tes .

d r [ag mae ] x i i ; q u incunx (? );

E u forb io d r[ag mae ] x i i ;

C inna mo q u incunx ( ? ); P iper l ongu m ;

P iper n igru m ;

C roco;

Tus d r [ag mae[ v i ;

S p ico s im il i ter ;

B agas;

C orale;

Dragan to ; * Reupon t ico ;

Er modac t ila ;

Amon iaco

C osto , q u incunx ( ? );

G ing iber , q u incunx ( ? );

Z adoar; D ip ta men ;

I I I ).

S camon ia

A lon , s im il i ter;

Grano mast ice, q u incunx ( ? );

C ariof i lo ; Pere tro; s im i l i ter ;

Wickershe i mer d id n o t k now t h is c har t.

Ar istoloz ia ;

G a lenga ;

Carpara r ad ices ,

Mirra d r [ag mae l v i;

Fen icu lu m s e men t ia c a l ice m i".

T he s y mbo l f or

t he measures o f amon iacu m , g rano mas t ix , c ostu m , c inna monum , a nd 3 44

g ingiber i s d if f icu l t t o d ec ipher. c er ta in .

I tm igh t b e " qu incunx ," b u t Iam n o t

A l though a t tached t o aS a in t-A mand manuscr ip t , t he s cr ip t o f

t he f rag men t b ear ing t he a bove r ec ipe c losely r ese mbles k nown L aon h ands. 4 1.

Par is, B . N ., l a t . 2 024f f ., 4 1r-42r. s cr i ts l a t ins , p . 5 3 ( no. XL I ).

S ee Wickershe i mer, L es manu-

The p resence i n t h is manuscrip t o f

marg ina l n o tes made b y Mar t in H ibern iens is l i nks t he c odex t o L aon . F or Mar tin , s ee b elow , n . 4 7. 4 2.

P ar is B .N., l a t . 1 1379 , f . 2 v . Th is p or t ion o f t he manuscr ip t h as b een e x tre mely d amaged b y wear a nd c he m ical r eagen ts. On ly a p ort i on o f t he med icamen t i s v is ible : c am c oqu is i n l ac te c apr [ . .. 1 .

" [ . .. 1I ONEM VENTRIS . Proba tu m e st".

Beton i-

For t he a t tribu t ion

o f t h is t ex t a nd t he L aon F or muL ary t o Adelelm , s ee my " Le F or mu la ire d e L aon :

S ource p our l ' h isto ire d e P ecole d e L aon a u d ebu t d u Xe

s iècle" , S cr ip toriu m 2 7 ( 1973 ):

2 1-29 ;

a nd , my T he Ca thedra l S chool

o f L aon , p p . 1 53-56. 4 3.

S ee Wickershe i mer , L es manuscr i ts l a t ins, p p . 3 5-36 ( no. ) 0 (VI ). F ol io 9 9v b ears a r eference t o B ishop Rodu l fus wh ich Wickershe i mer m issed :

" Rodu l fus e p iscopus v ivat i n a eternu m".

p . 1 30 , r ead i uva t f or v iva t.

B eccar ia , Ic od ic i ,

There w ere t wo B ishop Rodul fuses i n t he

l a te n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies t o w ho m t h is i nscr ip t ion m igh t r efer. One p res ided o ver t he s ee f ro m 8 94 t o 9 21, wh ile t he o ther was b ishop f ro m 9 36 t o 9 48. 4 4.

Wickershe i mer , L es manuscr its l a t ins, p p . 3 6-39 ( no. XXVI I ).

4 5.

E l ias Avery L owe , C od ices l a t in i a n t iqu iores , p le men t ( Ox ford , 1 934-71), 6 :

4 6.

1 1 v o ls . w i th a S up-

n o. 7 67.

Wickershe i mer , L es manuscr i ts l a t ins , p . 3 9 , a t tr ibu ted t he n o tes i n t he Or ibas ius t o t he e leven th c en tury.

The s econd h and i n t he Marcel lus

c odex c op ied a n i n teres t ing s er ies o f n o tes a t f . 1 6r , 4 4v-45r , 5 1v , 6 9v , 9 7v , 1 52v , 1 57v.

Wickershe i mer, i b id., p . 3 6, p ubl ished a n ote

o n d ysen tery b y t h is a nnota tor f ro m f . 1 57v.

M me. Mart inet i den t if ied

t he a nno ta tor a s B ishop P ardu lus ( see a bove , n o. 1 9 ), b u t s ee my T he C a thedra l S chool o f L aon , p . 1 23, n . 2 8. 4 7 .

F or Mar t in , s ee my The Ca thedra l S chool o f L aon , p ass i m.

4 8.

I n L aon , B ibl . mun ., 4 24, Mart in 's a nno ta t ions c an b e r ead o n f . I r1 7v, 4 7r , 5 9v-60r , 6 9r , 7 0r, 12r, 1 27v , 1 43r , 1 45v , 1 62r-162v , 1 86v.

The a nnota t ions o n f . 1 45v a nd 1 63v a re i n T iron ian n otes.

I n L aon , B ibl . mun ., 4 20 , among many n otes , we r ead a t f . 1v , " puIchra r a t io d e f ebr ibus" ; " u t il iter s inap i".

a t 1 3r , " pulchra r a t io d e o cul is";

a t 1 9v ,

Mar t in .h as n oted " u t ile" t hroughou t t he marg ins o f

t h is manuscrip t a nd , i n p laces, h as c op ied r ec ipes, f or e xamp le, f . 1 33v :

" Ad u r inam p rovocanda m p roba t iss i mu m r e med iu m e st p ot io

c lara d e p etro s i lo e t a p io e t s ax ifr ica c um p ipere e t mel le."

3 45

4 9.

L aon , B ibl . mun ., 4 68, f . 9 r :

" O mn is p h i losoph ia i n t res s pec ies

d iv id itur , i d e st i n p h is ica m , a eth ica m , l og ica m.

F isis e n im n atura ,

Aeth is mos , l ogos v erbu m v el r a t io , q uod e s t i n n a turale m , morale m , r a t iona le m .

Ph isica a u te m i n q ua t tuor d iv isiones p art itur, i d e st

a r i th met icam , g eo metr ica m , mus icam , a s trono m ia m q u ibus a dhaeren t a strolog ia , e t med ic ina , e t e t ia m minores a r tes q uas a ra tores , e t f u ll ones , e t c i men tar i i e xercen t."

F ro m t he s ources o f t h is n o te , s ee

I s idore o f S ev il le , D if feren t iae 2 , 3 9 ( MPL , 8 3: 9 3-94 ), a nd J ero me , E p is tu la L I TT , 6i n S anc t i E usebi i H ieronym i Ep istu lae , I sidorus H i lberg e d., 3 v ols., Corpus s cr ip toru m e ccles ias t icoru m l a t inorum , v ols. 5 4-56 ( Le ipz ig , 1 910-18 ), 1 : 4 52, 1 0-13. 5 0.

I n L aon , B ibl . mun ., 2 98 , Mart in g ave a c lose r ead ing t o Or igen 's e igh teen th h om ily wh ich a rgues t ha t a l l w isdo m i s f ro m God . 8 7r , Mar t in marked t he f ol low ing p assage : s c ien t ia n ec d ub i tar i p u to.

A t f .

" Ia m v ero d e med ic inae

S i e n im e st u l la s c ien t ia a Deo , q uae mag is

a b e o e r it q ua m s c ien t ia s an ita t is , i n q ua e t ia m h erbaru m v ires , e t s uccorum q ua l ita tes, a c d if feren t iae d ignoscun tur ? "

S ee Migne , Pa t-

r olog ia Graeca 1 2 :715. 5 1.

The a nony mous I r ish master who a nno ta ted Bern , Burgerb ibl io thek 3 63 i l lustra tes p erfec t ly t he i ncorpora t ion o f med ica l l earn ing i n to t he s chool c urr iculu m.

H is manuscr ip t , c op ied l a te i n t he n in th c en tury p robably

i n n orthern I t aly , emana tes u l t i ma tely f ro m t he e duca t ional w orld o f S edu l ius S cot tus a nd J ohn S cot tus.

I ti s f a mous b oth f or i t s g ra m ma-

t i ca l t ex ts a nd f or t he h undreds o f marg ina l r eferences t o n in th-cen tury masters c op ied i n to i t s marg ins.

S ee Her mann Hagen , Codex B ernens is

3 63 p ho totyp ice e d i tus ( Le iden , 1 897 ) f or a f acs im ile e d it ion ; p p . 5 59-60 ( no. 3 64, v i i ) f or ab r ief d escrip t ion ;

K enney ,

a nd , my f or thco m ing

" The I r ish i n t he Western C arol ing ian Emp ire Accord ing t o J ames F . K enney a nd C odex Bernens is 3 63" , f or a n a na lys is o f t he s ign i f icance o f t he marg ina l a nno ta t ions. Apparen t ly u nno t iced among t he margin a l ia wh ich r efer t o t heolog ical a nd g ra m ma t ica l t op ics a re t en n o t ices " De med ic ina" i nscr ibed a longs ide t he f ol low ing p assages i n S erv ius is c o m men tary o n t he Bucol ics a nd G eorg ics :

Buc. I . 1, 6 5;

G eorg. I .

5 8 , 7 8 , 1 93 , 2 15; I I. 4 15, 4 59 , 5 26; I V. 3 96 ( Georg ius T h ilo a nd Her mannus Hagen e ds., S erv il G ra m ma t ic i q u i f erun tur i n V erg il i i c ar m ina c o m men tar i i , v ol .

I n Bucol ica e t Georg ica c o mmen tar i i

[ Le ipz ig , 1 887 ] , p p . 1 9-20 , 1 26, 1 47-48 , 1 52, 1 76, 1 81, 3 09 , 3 12, 3 17 , 3 51 ). 5 2.

S ee Mart ianus Capel la , Ado lfus D ick e d ., J ean P r6aux r ev . ( S tu ttgar t , 1 969 ), p p . 4 71, 2 3-472, 6 .

3 46

APPEND IX I

Ih ave e xpanded s i len t ly e -cauda ta o r e t o ae where a ppropr ia te.

I

h ave a lso s ilen tly r ep laced c- b y t- i n words s uch a s t erc io a nd s pac io t o c on for m t o t he o rthography o f t he e ar l iest manuscr ip ts. s ee a bove, n o tes 1 417.

F or t he manuscr ip ts ,

T he ir s igla a re :

A = Avranches, B ibl . mun., 2 35, i f .

5 1r-51v.

C =C ologne, S chnü tgen-Museu m , L udwig Ms. X I I I 5 , f .

5 r-5v.

L=L aon , B ibl . mun ., 4 03 , f .

1 66r-166v.

V =Va t ican , Reg. l a t ., 1 274, f .

4 9r-50v.

Ps ilo tru m a d n ox ios q uosque h u mores e x tr insecus d es iccandos e t p i los q u i d isp l icen t e x t irpandos

Ca lce m a refac tam e t i n p u lvere m r edac ta m s ub p ondo l i braru m d uaru m i n n ovu m p on i to l ebete m e t s ta tue a d i ocu m e t t an to s pa t io i n ibi 5

e sse p er m i t te.

D onec i psa f ervesca t i n o l la.

F ia t e t ia m a poz i ma e x

un i s em ine e t u v is ma lvae r ad ice e t ma lvae c um f ol i is s u is e x f urfuribus q uoque t r it ice is e t p one in c acabu m c um a quae mod io p end ing s upra r egu m u t i n e ode m c o mm ix ta p ar i ter e bu l l ian t e t e x inde c andescen te m i n e ade m o l la r el inquab is c a lce m. 1 0

Den ique h abeto a ur ip ig men t i p u lvera t i u nc ias

t res q uaru m u nam mox a dm isceb is c a lc i p ost r el iqua t ione m s ua m.

E t

c um m iscuer is c on t inue c o m moveb is n e n im is d ense tur a u t t enue tur , e t S i u na m n on v ider is s uf f icere , a dh ibe a l tera m. s uf f ic i t a dh ibeb is e t t ert ia m .

S i h aec q uoque m in i me

E t i n h oc a gnosces s uf f ic iend i modu m .

S i q ua ml ibe t p enna m h irsu ta m miser is e t i n e arn t inxer is e t c um e x1 5

t raxer is e t e xcusser is n ich il p iloru m i n e a p ar te r e manser i t q ua t inct i o i l la m mad idam f ec i t.

Quae e xper ien t ia t i b i e r it e x e ode m a urip ig-

men to ma jor minorve a ddend i mensura.

E t h oc f ac to s i t t i b i b alneu m

a ssu m c on fes t im p ara tu m e t i n tro ibis i n i psu m .

I n q uo c um c eper is

s udare, s in t t i bi d uo min istr i q u i t i bi u bi v is p a lpando l en iss i me c orpus 2 0

h oc p erungan t med ica m ine.

E t S i h aec p rocesser it u nc t io a d i n ter iores

a scel laru m p ar tes , i psas a scel las i n terea t eneto s ursu m e x tensas e t e xpansas d onec l aven tur e x i l la q ua m d ix i mus d ecoc t ione a poz i mae. E t c ave to omn i mod is n e a n tea r em i t tas , n e f orte a l teru tru m p rae mendo e t i psa m c arne m a ssu ma t. S ta t im v ero u t h aec u nc t io f acta f uer it t ota 2 5

a blua tur i l lo l o men to a quae q ua m s uper ius p raecep i c um q u ibusda m h erb is e xcoquenda m.

S i t e t ia m t i bi s eorsu m i n q ua l ibet o l la e x s ol is

f urfur ibus t ri t ice is f acta d ecoc t io e t e x e a d enuo v ice s ua l avaber is. 3 47

Quo f acto e t mel le u nger is g ra t ia a blu t ion is e t s uav itat is e t s i n ecesse v ider is n ov iss i me v ino i n q uo m icae p an is r esolu tae s un t a bluer is. 3 0

S i

a u te m p i los i l los q u i t ol lun tur i am n olueris r enasc i, f el c aprae a l bae e t s angu ine m v esper t il ion is c omm isce h incque p erun .gere e t e x t irpabun tur p erpetuo.

P raeterea i l lo d ie q uo h aec f i en t , c on ten tus e ns a sso b a lneo

n on i nsuper a quar io.

N on s olu m a u te m u t s uper ius d ic tu m e s t p i los

d elet , v eru m e t ia m n ox iu m h u moru m i mpe tu m r epr im it. 3 5

q uen ter Pardu lus

Q uo e t f re-

u teba tur e p iscopus e t Fregus g ra m mat icus q u i e t

d iceba t q u icunque h oc t ert io u sus f uer i t i n mart io , n on o pus e st e i f eb r iu m molest ia m t imere i n a nno i l lo.

Graec i q uoque s ap ien tes u t

a ud iv i aI ohanne h oc max i me u tun tur med ica m ine n ec a l iquando f ortass is a l tera m p ro d es iccand is h u moribus c uran t a cc ipere p o t ione m.

1P si lotru m l P rops ile tru m C d es iccandos ] d iss icandos VA 3 e t ] om . A 4n ovu m l n ova m ACV i n ib i l i b i L 5p er m it te ] p er mu te A a poz i ma l i d e st l ex iva a dd.

C 6s em ine ] e t e v isc i r ad ice e t c um f o l i is s u is e x f urfur ibus

h ab. L 7q uoque l om . V s upra ] s uper L 8 i n ] om. V e ode m ] e adem C c o mm ix ta l c om ix ta V c andescen te m ] s canden te m K 9°Ha ] om. A a ur ip ig men t i ] a ur ip ig men tu m A a ur ip ing men t i V a ur ip i men t i Cp u lvera t i ] om. A om . V

1 1 c o m movebis ] r e moveb is L

c ognosces V i l leg. A

1 3 a dh ibebis ] a d ibeb is V

1 0 mox ]

1 3 a gnosces ]

1 6 f ec i t ] f ecera t Ci l leg. A a urip ig men tol a ur ip i men to

C

1 7 E t ] _ om . A 1 9 t i bi u bi v is ] u bi v is t i bi _ h ab. L p erungan t ] p erunguan t CV 2 1 e t e xpansas ] om. C 2 2 d ecoc t ione l c oc t ione A d iscoc t ione C 2 4 a ssu ma t l c onsu mas A 2 5 q ua m ] q ua C e xcoquenda m ] e x q uo q uenda m AC d ec oquenda m L 2 6 S i t ] S ic A q ua l ibet ] q ua l ibus C s o l isl f o l is A t r it ice is] t r ic e is C

2 7 d ecoc t io ] d iscoc t io AC

3 0 j am ] _ om . A

2 8 u nger is] u nguer is C

2 9 s un t ] s in t A

3 1 h incque ] h isque A p erungere l p erunguere C

n ox ioru m L Pardulus l Bardu lus C

3 4 n ox iu m ]

3 5 Fregus] Fr igus L 3 5-36 h oc t er iot

u sus ] h oc u nguen t° t er t io K h oc u sus t er t io L 3 6 n on o pus e st ] n on e st o pus A e s t _ om . Lf ebr iu m m ilest ia m ] mi lest ia m f ebr iu m C 3 8 f ortass is ] f ort as is C a l tera m ] a l ia m L d esiccand isl s iccand is V .

3 48

APPEND IX I Pardu li E p iscop i L audunens is a d H incmaru m R e mensem n unc p r imu m e x C odice s anc t i R em ig i i R emensisl

P a tr i r everen t iss i mo H incmaro A rch iep iscopo Pardu lus E p iscopus i n Do m ino s a lute m .

G lor ia i n e xce ls is D eo , p er q uem mih i s ani ta tem v es tra rn

omn ibus p rofu tura m r edd i tam g audeo :

s ine q ua n ih i l b on i me h ab i turu m

s perabam , q uia p os t D eum v os h abeo i n omn i t r ibu la t ione c er t iss imu m a d iut orem , e t i n omn i n ecess i ta te p i iss imu m e t b en ign iss imum c onso la tore m . Neque e n im a b e a d ie q ua v os h aec i n f irm i tas t e t ig i t , ac orde meo e xcedere p otu i t h ab itus n ostrae S ynodi ;

s ed n eque q ui s imus i n e adem p raesiden tes ,

a ut c ons iden tes , q uidve i n e a p rof icere s o le mus , o b l iv isc i p otui . U nde s i c on t ig isse t mih i c e ter isq ue f i de l ibus v es tr is , modo , q uod Deus a ver ta t , p lus a liquid c ontrar ie ta t is i n h ac v es tra i nf ir m i ta te , o p tabam me a ut c i to v os s ecu turu m , a u t n u l la tenus i n a l iquam S ynodu m u l ter ius i ngressuru m . Q uap rop ter , s i more s o l i to v os d esp ic i t is , e t c orpor is s an i ta tem v es tr i c ausa min ime c ura t is , h oru m r em in isc i d ebe t is , e t r eddi tam v ob is p er d iv inam g ra t iam s an i ta te m s tudios ius c us todire , e t ac unc t is q uae h u ic i nf ir m i ta t i c on trar ia e sse v iden tur p en i tus a bs t inere; a n im io s c i lice t i e iun io , e t ap isc icu l is minut is , q uibus l i ben ter v esc i s o le t is , a b omn ibus q uoque r ecen t ior ib us c ib is , a b h is s c i l ice t , q u i e ade m d ie , q uando c o Medi d eben t , a b a quis l evan tur ;

a ut , s i d e v o la t i libus a ut q uadrupedibus c ibus e f f ic itur , e adem

q uando o cciduntur d ie min ime s u man tur . Q uae o por te t p rimu m e xin terare , e t d i l igen t i c ura s a le h u mores e xsiccare , e t s ic p os tea q uemque , q u i s an i tat ern h abere c up i t , s a lubr i ter s u mere .

S ed n eque a l ardo , s ive q uadrupedibus

a bs t inere , q uon iam s ine h is s to machu m d if f ic i le q u i l ibe t p o tent r eparare . Abs t inea tur p rae terea a b omn ibus q uae c ruda c o medi p ossunt , e t a b i pso a pp io q uo s aepe u t i s o le t is , d onee v ob is a D o mino r eddi ta s an i tas p lurimu m c onf ir me tur , e t s ic a d s iccos , e t miseros , t ardioresque monast icos c ibos r edea tur . I n u lt imo , a n tequam s urga tur a mensa , f aba p urga t iss i ma c um p ur issimo p ingui a d mensuram d ecoc ta s u ma tur; q uae l i ce t s ecundu m p h i losophos s ensum o btundere d ica tur , t a rnen p h legma ta e t d eponere e t e xs iccare c red itur , e t r e l iquum c ibu m q uas i d or m ien te m e xc i ta t , e t i t er e i q uas i n esc ien t i q uo a b a nfrac t ibus e t c ircu mvo lut ion ibus e x toru m e gredi d ebea t , n on s ine s on i tu d oce t . E t i deo p lur i mu m a d c on t inendam s an i ta tem , q uas i h ygia G raecoru m , p rof ic ere n on i gnora tur . V inu m q uoque n on v a l idiss imu m , n eque d eb i le , s ed mediocre s u mendu m e s t : h oc e s t n on d e s u mm i ta te mon t is , n eque d e p rofundit a te v a l liu m , s ed q uod i n l a ter ibus mon t iu m n asc itur , s icut i n S parnaco i n mon te E bon is , e t i n C a lm ic iaco a d R ubr idu m , e t i n R emis d e Mi ls iaco a tque Ca lm ic iaco .

C e tera a utem , a ut r am is f ort ia , a u t v a lde d eb i l ia , e t h u mores

n u tr ien t ia e sse v iden tur .

D e c on locut ione v ero mutua , d e q ua mandast is ,

p lur imu m d o leo q uon iam h is d iebus n u l la tenus v ob iscu m me l oqui p osse s pero , e o q uod a d a sper iora l oca i nfra R igas iu m s i ta , e quoru m s o la t io max ime d es t it utus , v os v is i tare n on p ossu m , e t a d q uem l ocu m p lan ior is v iae v os v ocare 3 49

a udeam , i gnoro .

P rout t a rnen c i t ius D om inus p osse d ederi t , v os u b icu mque

f uer it is r equ iram , e t v ob iscu m v e lu t i c u m De l A nge lo d es iderant iss ime e t l i bent iss i me l oquar .

I t iner is a u te m n ostr i d ispos i t io h aec e s t :

x v i i K a lendas

I anuar ius a d V irdunacu m D om ino miseran te v en ire v o lu mus , e t i b i x v i s tare , x v p er v ia m i ux ta montes R e moru m q uae v oca tur B arbar ia i re , e t p er I uncarac um s ive B ro i lu m t rans ire , e t i t a a d G lannam , u nde i n c ras t ina mon te m a scendere s pera mus .

D o minus v os a b omn ibus a dvers i ta t ibus e rep tum me m-

o riam me i i n o ra t ion ibus v es tr is s e mper h abere f ac ia t , e t f ac ie m v es tram p rospere v idere c i t iss i me mih i c onceda t .

N ote 1 .

H inc mar i i a rch iep iscop is R e menses O pera , I acobus S ir mond e d ., 2 ‘ o ls . ( Par is , 1 645 ) , 2 : 8 38-39 .

Ih ave e xpanded t he ampersands p r in ted i n

S ir mond 's e di t ion o f t he l e tter .

3 50

V I I THE S CHOLAR I N SOC IETY

3 51

1 9 .

THE DEBATE ON PREDESTINATION Dav id G anz

' T i ne f au t p as d ire q u 'i l y ac e q u 'o n v ol t p as.

I lf aut d ire

c o m me l es a utres , ma is n e p as p enser c o m me e ux .' Pasca l , P ensees 2 66 D iscussions a bout p redest ina t ion were a lways a n i ssue i n C hr ist ian h ist ory , a s r eaders o f B ede w ere aware.

On t he o ne h and was d iv ine f a i th , o n

t he o ther s ide h u man p resu mp t ion , o n t he o ne s ide p iety , o n t he o ther p r ide.' I Wha t must b e e xp la ined a re t he s pecif ic f eatures o f t he n in th c en tury d eba te : why d id p redest ina t ion o n ly b eco me a n i ssue i n 8 48 , a l though H rabanus Maurus h ad c o mp lained a bout i ti n 8 40? mod ify , ap ar t icular s tance?

Wha t made t he p ar t icipan ts t ake u p , a nd

Wha t l i gh t c an t he d eba te s hed o n t he

c r isis o f

t he C aro ling ian R ena issance ' ?2 Theo log ica l d eba tes r evea l ac er ta in a cade m ic ma tur i ty , b ut t hey a lso i nvo lve t he e xpress ion o f v iews o n t he r e la t ions b etween man a nd G od wh ich make u p d a i ly l i fe.

T he t ex ts c oncern ing p redest ina t ion

may n ot b e e xp l ic i t o r d ecodab le s ta te men ts a bout s ocia l o rder ; b ut t he men who w rote t he m a lso wrote o f r oya l a nna ls, p anegyr ic, t rea t ises o n c anon l aw a nd a dv ice t o m iss ionar ies.

B ecause i ti s t hrough t he s ources wh ich t hey

wrote t ha t w e s ee t he r e ign o f C har les t he B a ld , t heir t heolog ica l p reconcept ions a re d irect ly r e levan t t o o ur i n terpreta t ion o f t h is r e ign . T he p rob le ms o f P redest ina t ion were d eba ted a t C har les ' c our t , i n h is p resence , b y men who m h e h i m se lf a cknow ledged a s t eachers. was a lso a bout t each ing .

The d eba te

'Y ou a re n ot u nder t he l aw , y ou a re n ot c h i ldren ,

b u t p erfect — a s when at eacher t e lls a b oy , d on ' tmake m istakes i n y our s ent ences , y ou h ave g ot b eyond l earn ing g ra m mar .'

3

S edu lius S cot tus, c o m-

men t ing o n S t . P au l , u sed t he c lassroo m a s t he image o f p rogress , wh i le S t . G ot tscha lk ' se xaspera t ion i s p reserved f or u s:

G ive me t he b ook , a nd

Iw i l l s how y ou ' .4 T he d eba te c oncerned t he v ery n a ture o f l earn ing i t sel f , f ue l led b y G ot tscha lk ' su se o f t he s y llog is m , t he r esu lt o f i nsp ira t ion d ur ing h is r ead ing o f J ero me o n Ga la t ians,

5

a nd p olar ised b y E r iugena ' su se o f a

d ia lec t ic wh ich d rew o n A ugust ine ' se ar ly d ia logue .

Th is was a t tacked a s

s oph istry , 't he q uadr iv iu m o fv an i ty ' .6 The c orrect r esponse t o u ncer tain ty a bou t d octr ine was n o t n ove l a rgu men t b ut t he c areful a sse mb ly o f t ex ts. I t i s n o a cciden t t ha t L yons , C orb ie , F err ieres a nd Rhei ms w ere t he c h ief c en tres. Ra tramnus o f C orb ie n o ted t ha t C ass ian was n o t a lways r el iab le ,

7

F lorus

o f L yons a nd L upus o f F err ieres d iscussed C icero ' sv iews o f f ree w i l l a nd t he s earch f or G od ,

8

a nd a n u nknown I r ish man was t o a t tack t he t each ings o f

G ot tscha lk , Ra tra mnus a nd E r iugena i n t he marg ins o f S ervius ' c o m men tary o n V irg i l .

9

The v ery r ange o f c r i t ica l r esponse s hows h ow d isturb ing were

t he i ssues wh ich G ot tscha lk h ad r a ised . 3 53

L upus o f F err ieres ' s er mon o n S t . J udoc e nab les u s t o s ee h ow o ne o f t he p ar t icipan ts i n t h is d eba te d escr ibed h is s ocie ty :

'We s ee t he f a l l o f n ob le

c i t ies , t he l eaders c annot a gree w i th t heir e qua ls , t he p eop le i s n ot a s g rea t a s i t was, t he g enera ls a re n ot a s many o r a s f ine a s t hey w ere. r e jected o rder .'

1 0

We h ave

Another h u man ist , who h ad b een i nvolved i n t he r ebel lion

a ga inst L ouis t he P ious , was e ven more p ess i mis t ic :

'N ow a l most a l l o ur

w or ld l i es u ncu l t iva ted , f or a l l t he r ules o f l aw a re v io la ted , g ood a nd e v i l a re m ixed , a nd e ven i ft here i s p eace n o r eg ion i s k ep t s afe , t he b onds o f c onsang uin i ty , n a me a nd l oya l ty a re a b jured , i nconstancy t ouches e very th ing a nd n o k now ledge o f g ood r e ma ins. p roper ly .

Wha t w e d o i s c on trad ic ted , s carce ly a nyone l i ves

The c oun try i s r avaged b y c iv i l war , w e a re l ashed f ro m a l l s ides

b y t he e ne my s word , a nd y e t t here i s n o e nd t o o ur g reed a nd g u i lefu l a cqu isit i veness , a s i f ap o t a f la me w i th V u lcan ian f i re h ad k ind led t he h ear ts o f men a nd w o men a l ike , a nd s carce ly a ny a ge o r a ny r ank i s e xe mp t .

1 1

D a i ly we

s ee b rothers a nd n eighbours e ngaged i n s uch c iv i l a nd more t han c iv i l wars, w e e ndure t he e x ter m ina t ion o f men b y b arbar ian a nd p agan e ne m ies , a nd t he d eso la t ion o f c i t ies, a nd w e c an d o n oth ing more t han d a i ly t o awa i t o ur e nd , g roan ing . And y e t , a s t he w ord o f t he L ord s ays, t he e nd i s n ot y e t ' 1 2 Audradus Mod icus , b au lked o f ab ishopr ic , s aw a v is ion o f G od d iv id ing Europe among t he s ons o f L ou is t he P ious , a nd g iv ing e ach o f t he m a p eop le t o c onver t . B ecause C har les h ad n o t k ep t h is s ide o f t he b arga in , h e was d efea ted b y t he Bretons , a nd a t tacked b y t he V ik ings . 1 3 A udradus h ad n o i l lus ions a bou t t he ' r 6g ime d e l a c on fra tern i t& . I n L upus ' w ords . c r i mes , t he s tronger y our p un ish men t '. 1 4

' The more s tubborn y our

F or t he ma jor i ty o f t he West F rank ish i n tel l igen tsia , t he e ven ts o f 8 33 t o 8 43 r evea led h ow s tubborn t he c r i mes h ad b een . T he d eposi t ion a nd p enance o f L ouis t he P ious was a t urn ing p oin t i n t he d eve lop men t o f s ociety b ecause i ts howed t he i n te l l igen ts ia t ha t as oc ie ty r egu la ted b y p enance c ou ld n o t a lways f ind f avour i n G od ' ss igh t .

Thegan , t he A strono mer , t he S t . B er tin

1 5

a nna l ist a nd P aschasius Radber tus a l l u se J ob a s a mode l f or t heir a ccoun ts o f t he c r isis , 1 6 w h i le N i thard emphasises t he r esen t men t o f t he 'p opu lus ' .1 7 Thegan ' sr esen t men t was d irected a t E bbo o f Rhe i ms. 'I fs o meone w ere t o l i st a l l y our c r i mes i n ap oe m , h e w ou ld o u tdo t he s eer o f Smyrna , o ld H o mer , Maro o f M inc io a nd O vid t oo.'

L othar s uppor ted E bbo, G ot tscha lk 's p atron

1 8

a nd H inc mar ' se ne my , u n t i l 8 47 , a nd H inc mar c on t inued t o a t tack h is f o ll owers u n t i l 8 68 .

B u t n o o ne d isputed t ha t E bbo h ad e very r igh t t o i mpose

p enance o n L ouis t he P ious, b ecause L ouis ' c r i mes h ad b een c o mm i t ted i n h is d iocese .

E igh t o f C har les ' b ishops h ad s igned a l e t ter i n 8 40 c a l l ing f or

E bbo ' sr est i tut ion , a nd t hey i ncluded s uch i nf luen t ia l c anon ists a s T heuder ic o f C a mbra i a nd R o thad o f S oissons.

1 9

I n t he f i rst d ecade o f h is r eign , C har les t he B a ld h ad n ot o n ly t o c onquer h is k ingdo m . h e a lso h ad t o s ecure t he l oya lty o f h is c ler ics. p oss ib le t o e stab lish h ow t hese B oy n e twork ' was u sed .

I nsofar a s i ti s

w ere a ppo in ted , i ti s e viden t t ha t o f a n 'o ld

O f t he s ix teen c ler ics a t t he S ynod o f Q uierzy i n 8 53 ,

s ix were s uppor ters o f E bbo , f our were r oya l c hap la ins, t hree c hap la ins p res en t were s ubsequen t ly t o b eco me b ishops, a nd t hree owed t heir a ppoin t men ts t o H inc mar o f Rhe i ms.

2 0

O f t he f or tytwo b ishops a t t he S ynod o f T usey i n

8 60 , e leven were r oya l a ppoin t men ts, s even b e ing c hap la ins, a nd a f ur ther s ix were a ppoin ted b y H inc mar .

2 1

I ti s n ot s urpr is ing t ha t t he s even th c anon 3 54

o ft he s ynod o f Va lence ( 8 55 ) a t tacked i gnoran t b ishops, c areer b ishops who d espoi led t he c hurch f or t he s ake o f g a in , a nd emphasised t he n eed f or c anon ic a l e lect ion . p os i t ion . 2 3

H inc mar s aw t h is c anon a s ad e l ibera te a t tack o n h is own

2 2

B u t i nf luence n eeded t he s uppor t o f o r thodoxy . We h ave o n ly H inc mar ' s w ord t hat G ot tscha lk wan ted t he j ob o f a rchb ishop o f Rhei m s, 2 4 y e t P ruden t ius o f T royes i nsisted t ha t t he r oya l n otary A eneas c ou ld n ot b eco me b ishop o f P ar is u n less h e s ubscr ibed a d ec larat ion o f o r thodoxy d ef in ing h is p osi t ion o n p redest ina t ion a nd r ede mp t ion .

2 5

f ac t ions among t he c ler ica l e l i te.

V iews o n p redest ina t ion s erved t o d ef ine I n d escr ib ing h ow t h is e l i te l eg i t i ma ted i t s

n eeds Is ha l l s ketch t hose t rends i n t he p ole m ic wh ich b ear u pon t he p reoccup a t ion o f t he i n tel ligen ts ia , n ot w i th t he ir p a tr ist ic i nher i tance a nd t he t rad it i on o f r e lig ious p o le m ic , b ut w i th t he t hrea ts t o t he ir own u nderstand ing o f t he w ay i n wh ich t he w or ld was t o b e o rdered a nd e xp la ined .

B y t rea t ing s uch

v iews a s i deo logy w e a re a b le t o s ee h ow t he c ler ica l e l i te d ef ined i t s r o le a s a' He i lsar istokra t ie ' . T he p ess im is m o f h u man is ts s uch a s L upus , F lorus a nd Radber tus was a ccen tua ted b y e ven ts. t o R adber tus ;

T he V ik ing s iege o f P ar is i n 8 45 s ee med i ncred ib le

a nd i n t he s a me y ear t he S aracens a t tacked S t . P eter ' s , 't he

mo ther c hurch o f t he C hr ist ian West ' ,k i l l ing t he many who h ad t aken r efuge t here ,

q uod s ine g rand i merore n u ll i d icendu m v e l a ud iendu m e st ' .2 6

These

e ven ts c ha l lenged t he d estiny o f t he Emp ire , a nd t he i nst i tu t ions o f i t s s a lvat i on , e ven t he f east-days o f t he h eaven ly i n tercessors w ere n o l onger s acred f es t iva ls, b ut w ere t he market d ays when V ik ings c hose t o a t tack t owns a t t he ir mos t w ea lthy .

2 7

The s a in ts r ose f ro m t he ir g raves a s w i tnesses t o u nbe l ief ,

a s i fa t c ockcrow , a s as ign n o t t o b e l ievers b u t t o u nbel ievers . i n al as t e f for t t o s ee i ft hey m igh t b e a wakened t o t he t rue l i gh t wh ich i s C hr ist . 2 8 M irac les were r ep laced b y G od ' ss courges. T o Hrabanus Maurus G o t tscha lk s ee med o ne s uch s courge .

A t t he a ge o f

t wen ty-one h e h ad a rgued h is way o u t o f H rabanus ' monastery o f F u lda , where h is f a ther h ad i nsta l led h im a s a n o b la te .

O ther me mbers o f t he f am i ly c lan

were t o b eco me b ishops o f H i ldeshei m a nd Werden ,

2 9

b ut G o t tscha lk a rgued

t ha t f ree men h ad n o r igh t t o make t he ir s ons s laves o f G od , a nd t ha t monast ic is m was a h u man i nst i tut ion wh ich c ould , a nd s hou ld , b e c orrected . H rabanus l abe l led t h is a s h eresy , a nd i mp l ied t ha t G o t tscha lk h ad c ons iderable S axon s uppor t .

3 0

T he s ynod o f Ma inz a l lowed h im t o l eave F u lda , a nd h e w en t t o

Orba is a nd C orbie.

Al e t ter i n aP ar is manuscr ip t c op ied a t Rhei ms wh ich

h as b een s een a s h is w ork , imp l ies t ha t i n 8 33-4 h e a ppea led t o E bbo f or h e lp a ga inst me mbers o f h is r et inue who a ccused h im o f p lot t ing a ga inst E bbo a nd t he emperors.

Th is may r ela te t o t he 8 49 c harge t ha t h e was d isturb ing

'c iv i l ia e t e cc lesiast ica n ego t ia ' ;

l i nks w i th E bbo c anno t h ave e ndeared h im

t o H inc mar .3 1 F ro m R hei ms G ot tscha lk moved t o R o me, a nd i n 8 45-6 h e was a t t he c ourt o f C oun t E berhard o f F r iu l i , who m S edul ius S cot tus c a l led ' t utor Fcc les iae '. 3 2 Here G o t tscha lk was t each ing p redest ina t ion , a nd f i gh t ing b eside Tr ipe m ir , t he C hr ist ian k ing o f C roa t ia .3 3 O n G ot tscha lk ' sr e turn h is t each ings w ere c onde mned a t t he s ynod o f Mainz , i n 8 48 , a nd A rchbishop H rabanus s en t h im b ack t o A rchb ishop H inc mar , w ith a l et ter :

'He d ec lares t ha t p redest ina t ion i s d irected b oth t o g ood a nd e vi l , a nd 3 55

t ha t t here a re p eop le i n t h is w or ld who s ince t hey a re c o mpe l led b y t he p red est ina t ion o f G od t o g o t o d ea th , c annot c orrect t he mse lves o f e rror a nd s in . A s Ih ear h e h as a lready s educed many , a nd t hey a re l ess a t ten tive t o t heir s a lva t ion , f or t hey s ay "Wha t s ha l l i tp rof i t me t o s tr ive t o s erve G od , f or i f Iam p redest ina ted t o d ea th Is ha l l n ever e scape i t , b ut i f , o n t he c on trary , I b ehave b ad ly a nd am p redest ined t o l i fe , w i thout a ny d oub t Is ha l l g o t o e terna l r est" .3 4

A t Q u ierzy , i n 8 49 , C har les t he B a ld p resided o ver t he c onde m-

n a t ion o f G ot tscha lk a nd t he b urn ing o f h is wr i t ings.

H e was impr isoned i n

t he monastery o f H autvi l l iers, where A eneas t he r oya l n otary t old h im t ha t h e c ou ld n ot u nderstand wha t A ugust ine t augh t a bout t he p redest ina t ion o f t he w icked t o d ea th .3 5 'P ondus meu m amor meus , e o f eror q uocu mque f error ' a c p er h oc a l ib i c ar i ta te m d ic i t e sse i psu m o num C hr ist i '. L ike A ugust ine , G ot tscha lk s aw p redest ina t ion t o g race a s a n e arnes t o f G od ' sl ove , a nd o f o ur l ove f or t he v is ion o f G od who i s H i mse lf t he r eward o f o ur l ong ing . G race was t he i nstru men t o f G od , a nd g race was omn ipoten t .

3 6

Na ture a lone

was impoten t , a nd man s hou ld n ot d e ligh t o r t rus t i n f ree w i l l , b ut i nt he g race o f G od wh ich was p roved o n t he t ree o f l i fe. 37 I fG od h ad w i l led t ha t e veryone s hould b e s aved t hen h e w ould h ave s aid s o, b ut H e d id n ot s ave t he w icked , a nd s o H e d id n ot d ie f or t he w icked . j udged , t ha t i s , h e i s n ow d oo med .

F or h e who d oes n ot b e l ieve i s n ow

3 8

F or G ot tscha lk , t o d eny p redes t ina t ion

was t o d eny g race , t he f rag i le l i nk b etween t he e lec t a nd t he s a lva t ion o f wh ich t hey c ou ld n ever b e s ure .

G ot tscha lk ' s wr i t ings r ecord h is d oub t , h is f ear

o f d a mna t ion , h is i nab i l i ty e ven t o weep .

H e k new t ha t a ppearances w ere

d ece i tfu l , ' just a s ab ough i n as trea m s ee ms b roken a nd y our f ingers s ee m s hor ter s een i n wa ter—try i to u t i n t he b a th—so v er is im il itude o f ten d ece ives t hose who a re c are less, n ot o n ly i n s ecular l earn ing b ut a lso i n s acred s cr ipt ure ' .3 9 Af ter t he s ynod o f Q u ierzy H inc mar wrote a t rea t ise t o t he 'r ec lusos e t s i mp l ices ' o f h is d iocese .

I n i th e warned t he m a gainst t he f a lse p rophet

who was p reach ing t o h is f o l lowers t he a bandon men t o f f a i th a nd g ood w orks. " We k now t ha t G ot tscha lk was i n c on tact w i th C orb ie , a nd was c onsu l t ing b ishops , a nd a ccord ing t o Archb ishop Amolo o f L yons h e a sked t he m t o p reach p ub l ic ly t ha t t hose who h ad b een p redest ined t o d a mna t ion c ou ld n ot e scape.

4 1

H inc mar s ees h im a s l ike t he d evi l t ransfor med i n to a n a ngel o f l igh t , o ne o f t he f a lse p rophe ts , who m h is r eaders w i l l k now , a nd whose wr i t ings may c o me i nto t he ir h ands. 42 H e emphas izes t ha t s inners a re p roud f o l lowers o f t he d ev i l , who r ebe l led a ga inst h is L ord a nd was d eposed f or h is d isobed ience. G od i s p repared t o s ave t he l os t s heep , f or C hr ist w i l l c onver t s inners t o j ust ice , a nd s o b r ing men t o j oin t he a nge ls i n h eaven . d eny t he r ede mp t ion .

S inners, h owever ,

L ike A da m a nd E ve , t hey n eg lect t heir own l i ves a nd

b la me t he ir c reator f or t heir own n eg lect , c on fusing f oreknowledge a nd p red est ina t ion , a nd ma in ta in ing t ha t s o me men a re c reated f or h e ll .

B u t G od

o n ly l e ts t hose who a bandon H im , b y u nbe l ief o r a postasy , g o t o h e ll .

J esus

o f fered h is s acra men ts t o a l l t he a post les , t ha t a l l m igh t b e r edee med , a nd h is p redestina t ion i s a lways t o g ood . Those who r efuse h is s acra men ts a nd d eny h is i ncarna t ion a nd p assion h ave p referred d ea th t o l i fe e terna l , j ust a s i ft hey h ad r efused t o d r ink t he med icine wh ich i s a n a n t idote t o a l l i l lnesses , b oth p resen t a nd f u ture. j ust ice a nd h is g race . 43

Wha t H inc mar emphas izes i s t he b ond b e tween God ' s Weber w ou ld h ave c harac ter ized t h is a s ab ureau-

3 56

c ra t ' sc reed , emphasiz ing o rder a nd o f fer ing a s acra men ta l g uaran tee. 44 H inc mar ' sa u thor i t ies w ere t hose o f Hrabanus a nd A lcu in45 De I n dura t ione C ord is P haraon is.

a nd t he P e lag ian

B ut h e a lso c onsu l ted L upus o f F err ieres

a nd P r u .den t ius o f Troyes , b oth o f who m t ook a s trong August in ian s tand .4 5a l upus i n troduced t he n ot ion o f aw i thdrawa l o f g race ( 'g ra t iae s ub tract io ' , c f . H eb . w i l l .

1 0 .39 ) , b ut a f f ir med t ha t t he w icked w ere c onde mned b y t heir own

Pruden t ius d en ied t ha t G od w ished t o s ave a l l mank ind a s o therw ise H is

omn ipotence w ould b e l im i ted , a nd h e s uppor ted t h is p osi t ion w i th a c o l lect ion o f b ib l ica l a nd p a tr ist ic i nstances. A t t he s a me t i me , C har les t he B a ld was a sk ing l upus a bout p redest ina t ion , f ree w i ll , a nd t he r ede mp t ion , a nd h e i nvi ted Ra tra mnus t o p rovide h im w i th a p a tr is t ic d ossier o n p redest ina t ion .

A f rag men tary l e t ter o f P ardulus o f L aon

r efers t o f i ve wr i ters i nc lud ing Ama lar ius o f Metz who t rea ted t hese q uest ions. 46 C har les ' p ersona l i nvo lve men t s hou ld c o me a s n o s urpr ise.

I t was a p ar t o f

h is r oya l f unct ions a s t hey were s et d own a t t he c ounc i l o f Meaux-Par is : 47 h e w as r a l ly ing t o t he d efence o f t he v isib le C hurch a t at i me o f a t tack o n t he v a l id i ty o f i t s s acra men ts a nd t he i n terpre ta t ion o f i t s s cr ip tures, when t he C hurch was c a l led u pon t o p rov ide a j ust if ica t ion o f d ivine p un ish men t . B o th L upus a nd Ra tra mnus, t hough t hey w ere monks t rained i n l ead ing Carol ing ian monasteries, s ee C har les a s t he a rb i ter o f t he d ispute.

L upus s uggests

t ha t , i fh is a nswer s hou ld f a i l t o s a t isfy , C har les may w ish t o h o ld a c ounci 1 ; 47 a wh i le Ratra mnus p laces t he K ing i n t he t rad i t ion o f David , S o lo mon , H ezek iah , J os iah , Char le magne a nd L ou is t he P ious , a l l o f who m s ough t t o u nderstand d iv inae s ap ien t iae mys ter ia ' .48

H e a ppea ls t o C har les a s 'p robator e t i udex '

a nd a ccep ts t ha t h e w i ll b e a b le t o c orrect t he t rea t ise . K ing i s more t han a n a ppea l t o t he o bvious p a tron : k eep ing w i th h is

v ir tus e t s ap ien t ia '.

Th is emphasis o n t he

i ta ssigns t o ar o le i n

I n t he o pen in g p aragraph o f h is L iber

d e T r ibus Q uaest ion ibus L upus e xpresses h is c oncern f or t he p eace o f t he C hurch , wh ich h as b een d isturbed i n I t a ly a nd i n G au 1. 49

I n a ppea ling t o

J ero me a nd August ine , t he p aren ts o f e cc lesiast ica l p h i losophy , h e d epends l ess o n a nu nw ie ldy a sse mb ly o f q uotat ions f ro m t heir w orks t han d o s ubseq uen t p ar t ic ipan ts i n t he d eba te .

H is message i s t ha t d esp ite t he t ruth o f

p redest ina t ion man n eed n ot d espa ir .

N o C hr ist ian s hould f a l l i n to t he t rap

o f t h ink ing h i mse lf o ne o f t he n u mber o f t he d a mned , a nd o f b e l iev ing t ha t h e c annot b e t urned f ro m e vi l a nd s aved b y G od ' sc le mency .

C hr ist ' sr ede mp-

t i on , a nd t he s inner ' sown b ap t is m , s hould e ncourage h im t o t urn t o G od , f or He w i l l s pare t he h u mb le a nd s ubdue t he p roud . Dav id a nd P e ter :

5°

E veryone s hou ld r e me mber

o ne w ho r epen ted o f h is a du ltery a nd h om ic ide , a nd t he o ther

who d en ied C hr ist .

And i ft hose t wo l ead t he s inner t o d espa ir , r a ther t han t o

im i ta te t he m , t hen h e i s t o t h ink o f t he t h ief o n t he c ross, who f ound l i fe i n t he m idst o f d ea th .

5 1

'Ma lui t e n im e x ma us b onos v e l b ona f acere , q ua m

ma la n ul la e sse p er m i t tere ' .52

The p un ish men t o fu nconver ted s inners r e-

d uces t he e xa lta t ion o f t he p roud , i ncreases t he d evot ion o f t he h u mb le , a nd b y b o th o f t hese i ta ug men ts t he p ra ise o f G od .5 3 i tp its h u man j ust ice t o s ha me .

G od ' sj ust ice i s d efended ,

H e i s n ot t he a uthor o f t he F a l l , f or men f a l l

e i ther b y t he mse lves o r b y t he i n f luence o f t he d evi l .

B ut a s i n Ada m a l l h ave

f a l len , t hose p r iests who a re r epe l led b y G od ' se xc lusion o f s o me f ro m h eav en h ave f a i led t o u nderstand i n wha t H is f oreknowledge c onsists 5 4 . T hus

3 57

L upus , f ro m t he s tandpoin t o f aC hr ist ian h u man ist , p reserves t he p essi m is m o f h is s er mon a nd o f a n A ugust in ian t rad i t ion i n w h ich t he s acra men ts d o n ot b ypass t he l im i ted n a ture o ft he e lect C hurch . R a tramnus ' t rea t ise , embod ies a c hange i n f or m . P ardu lus h ad a l l wr i t ten l e t ters.

L upus , Amo lo a nd

H inc mar ' sA d R ec lusos e t S i mp l ices t hough

i tc on ta ined a l arge n u mber o f p a tr ist ic e x tracts, w as d esigned a s ag uide f or t he p erp lexed . B u t R a tra mnus a sse mb led a uthor i t ies , b oth f ro m s cr ip ture a nd f ro m p a tr ist ic s ources, t o f or m a d ossier d es igned t o c onv ince b y i t s b ulk a nd a uthor i ty . The s peed w ith wh ich p a tr ist ic t ex ts w ere a ccu mula ted i n l ib rar ies t hroughou t t he C aro ling ian emp ire made i tp ossib le t o e ngage i nt heol og ica l c on troversy o n ar eg iona l s ca le . B ut i n c on trast t o t he p o le m ics o f August ine , t hese t rea t ises o n p redest ina t ion were n ot w ide ly c op ied ; most a uthors q uote s o e x tensive ly f ro m t he w ork wh ich t hey a re r efuting a s t o imp ly t ha t t he ir r eaders w i l l n ot h ave a ccess t o ac opy .

The d eba te d er ived i t s

mo men tu m f ro m t he n u mber o f p ar t icipan ts, n ot f ro m t he d isse m ina t ion o f t rea t ises .

T hese t rea t ises w ere i ndeed wr it ten n ot f or w ide c ircula t ion b ut

a s d ossiers f or k ings , b ishops o r c ounc i ls .

A t C orb ie i ti s p ossib le t o t race

Ra tra mnus a s h e e xcerp ted t he p a tr ist ic t ex ts wh ich f or med h is d oss ier , a nd i n t he p a tr ist ic f l or i leg ium o f Hadoard o f C orb ie t here i s a n a t te mp t t oo rder s uch ma ter ia l i n to a s yste ma t ic e xposi t ion o f G od ' sn a ture a nd H is p lan f or man 's s a lva t ion .5 6 R a tra mnus ' own e xposi t ion i s c haracter ized b y h is d esire t o s how h ow G od d isposes a l l . I n H is r esponsib i l i ty f or o ur a ct ions t h ere i s ad ist inct ion b etween H is f unc t ion a s a uctor e t o rd ina tor ' o f g ood p ro jects, a nd mere ly a s

o rd ina tor ' o f e vi 1 .

The s nares o ft he e ne my c an o n ly p re-

5 7

v a i l a ga inst H is s a in ts a s f ar a s H e h as d ecreed .

I n a n e xcerp t f ro m S a lvian

Ra tra mnus a sks why t he c ond i t ion o ft he b arbar ians i s s o mich b et ter t han o urs , a nd a nswers t ha t man c an o n ly k now t ha t G od d isposes a l l t h ings . We c annot k now why o ne man i s g reater t han a nother , o ne wretched a nd a nother h appy , o ne w eak , a nother s trong , b ut t here i s n o n eed f or h u man a rguments t o j ust i fy H is a c ts . 58 B ut H e i s n ot r esponsib le f or e v i l a cts, t hey r esult f ro m t he d es ires o f r a t iona l men . We a re n ot t o a sk why f a ith i s n ot g iven t o a l l. I n d iscuss ing p redest ina t ion R a tramnus a f f ir ms t ha t i td oes n ot c o mpe l man t o s in , f or men a re n ot j udged b ecause t hey were p redest ined b ut t hey a re p red est ined t o p un ish men t b ecause t hey were a lready k nown t o b e s inners. 59 B y h is own e f for ts man i su nab le t o g a in s a lva t ion e xcep t b y g race, w h ich r emoves t he b l indness o f h is h eart a nd g ives h im t he f u lness o fv ir tue , s o t ha t t he l i gh t o fj ust ice s h ines o n h im a nd h e who p erce ives i ti s a b le, b y f o l low ing t he p a th o fv ir tue , t o a dhere t o i t .

6°

G od k new f ro m e tern i ty t he s ins o f Ca in ,

o ft he w or ld b efore t he f l ood , a nd o f S odo m , b ut h e d id n ot p redestine t he m t o c o mm i t t hese c r i mes , n or were t hey s inners b ecause o f H is f oreknow ledge. S im i lar ly a l l d iv ine j udge men t r evea ls H is f oreknow ledge a nd p redest ina t ion , t o d eny wh ich wou ld b e t o d eny G od 's j udge men t o ft he w or ld .6 1 Ra tra mnus ' w ork e nds w i th a n a f f ir ma t ion o ft he l ast j udge men t a nd t he p un ish men t o f t he f o llowers o f An t ichr ist , n ot b ecause t hey were p redest ined , b ut b ecause t hey were s inners . B ecause G od ' sf oreknow ledge d oes n ot c o mpel a nyone t o s in , t he o rder ing o f t he w or ld , i t s c a la m i t ies a nd i t s f i na l j udge men t , r e ma in w i th in t he f ra me o f G od ' sj ust ice.

B oth L u .pus a nd R atra mnus h ad t aken u p

ap osi t ion c lose ly a k in t o G o t tscha lk 's ; Ra tramnus i ndeed s en t G ot tscha lk a b a t tery o f q uota t ions f or u se i n h is q uarre l w i th H inc mar a bou t t he T r in ity . ,62

3 58

T he i n terven t ion o f J ohn t he S cot , b ecause i te x tended t he n ot ion o f d iv ine u n i ty b eyond t he o pposi t ion o f G od a nd man , a roused d eep ly f e l t h ost i li ty .

6 3

J ohn ' sDe D ivina P raedest ina t ione s tar ts f ro m t he d iv isions o f p h i losophy , wh ich e nab le h im t o s et o ut -t he t rea t men t o f h is t he me .

H e d escr ibed h eresy

a s ab oon t o t he C hurch i n t ha t i tn ecessi ta tes a more a t ten t ive a nd c arefu l d ef in i t ion o f c a tho l ic d octr ine .6 4

G ot tscha lk ' st each ing o f d oub le p redest i-

n at ion , s tu l t issi ma c rude liss i maque i nsan ia ' r efutes d iv ine a uthor i ty a nd a nnu ls t he r u les o f r eason .6 5 Y e t i n a t te mp t ing t o d ef ine t he d iv ine a t tr ibutes J ohn a ppeared t o e xceed t he r equire men ts o f r efuta t ion .

F or h im , t he u n i ty

o f G od p rec ludes a ny p lura l i ty o f H is a t tr ibutes, s uch a s ad oub le p redest inat ion i mp l ied .6 6

Tak ing u p G ot tscha lk ' su se o f ac lassic p assage f ro m I s idore ' s

S en ten t iae , J ohn d ist inguished b etween 'g em ina ' a nd

d up lex ' a nd a rgued t ha t

Got tscha lk ' sb lasphe mous d oc trine l ed h im t o af ur ther b lasphe my a gainst c har i ty : 67

h e d en ies t ha t g race a ids man t o d o j ust ice .

68

Emp loy ing t he d ia-

l ect ica l f igure o f a podeix is J ohn s hows t ha t t he s a lva t ion o f t he w or ld d epends o n g race , a nd t ha t t he j udge men t o f t he w or ld imp l ies man 's f ree w i l l. J ust ice d epends o n f reedo m , a nd c orrect j ust ice ,

6 9

s u i c uique t r ibuere ' ,d e-

mands t ha t man k eep G od ' sc o mmand men ts , wh ich i s p ossib le o n ly i fh e h as f ree w i ll .

G od must c o m mand wha t l i es w i th in man ' sp ower . "

o n t o d eny t ha t G od c an p redest ine s in , d ea th , o r p un ish men t . p un ish wha t He h as c rea ted?

7 1

J ohn g oes H ow c an H e

A s C r is t ian i h as s hown , J ohn l i nked p redes t i-

n at ion a nd l aw i n t heir f unct ion o f d ef in ing t he l im i ts o f h u man a ct ion .

7 2

I ti s

b y p redest ina t ion t ha t G od e nab les H is c rea t ion t o f i l l i t s b ounds , wh ich were c rea ted b y H is w isdo m .

E vi l c ons ists o f a n i nab i l i ty t o e x ist w i th in t he b ounds

o f t he l aw , wh ich c annot h owever b e t ranscended .

The w icked f ind t he ir p un ish-

men t i n t heir i nab i l i ty t o e scape f ro m t hese l aws b y t he ir imp iety .

7 3

S o t he

s a me l aw r epresen ts e terna l l i fe f or t hose who a ccep t i t , a nd p un ish men t f or e vi ldoers.

L ike t ransi tory h u man l aw , t h is l aw n ever c o mpe ls man t o s in ,

b ut i te nsures t ha t t he g ui l ty a re p un ished . i n wh ich j ust ice d e mands f ree w i l l .

7 4

S o J ohn c reates au n if ied s yste m

I n t he o n ly k nown manuscr ip t o f h is work

a n a nno ta tor who h as c arefully f o l lowed J ohn ' sa rgu men ts , n ot ing t he u naccept ab le d octr ines o n t he F a ll , f ree w i l l , h u man n ature , p un ish men t a nd r eward , p oin ts o ut t he e nor m i ty o f h is d en ia l o f e terna l p un ish men t : d ic i t ' .7 5

'N ec p aganus h oc

B u t h is s yste m was t o e arn a more p ub l ic r ebuke.

P ruden t ius o f Troyes made a p rolonged a nd e labora te r efuta t ion , i n wh ich p assages f ro m J ohn 's t rea t ise —preceded b y ac onde mna tory t heta—were e ach f ollowed b y ar efu ta t ion b acked u p b y e x tens ive p a tr is t ic e xcerp ts . The s urv iv ing manuscr ip t s hows t ha t t hese t ex ts were s t i l l b eing a sse mb led wh i le i t was b e ing c op ied , f or s o me o f t he m w ere s queezed i n to t he marg ins t o e x tend s ec t ions .

7 6

P ruden t ius b eg ins b y a t tack ing J ohn 's s oph is try , wh ich i s c on trary

t o t he method o f t he D e D oc tr ina Chr is t ian; h e n o tes h ow S t . J ero me was d iv ine ly c has t ized f or r ead ing C icero .

G od i s t he s ource o f a l l w isdo m , a nd P rudent ius

r epea ted ly a t tacked J ohn f or r ely ing o n h is own r eason ; a nd i ns is ted t ha t o ur u nders tand ing o f t he wor ld i s l im i ted ; we c anno t u nders tand why t he j us t man r e turns f ro m c our t c onde mned , o r why t he man who p rocures t he d ea th o f h is n eighbour l ives , w h i le t he man w ho b enef i ted t he l i ves o f many d ies . uncer ta in p rocess.

7 7

Even c onvers ion i s a n

Al ong s ect ion , s how ing P ruden t ius ' s mastery o f t he

De Dece m C a tegor i is , i s c oncerned w i th t he e ssence o f G od a nd man .

3 59

7 8

Man ' se ssence i nvolves t he n a tura l p roper t ies o f w i l l , u nderstand ing a nd me mory ;

b u t t he k now ledge wh ich e nab les h im t o w i l l g ood o r e v i l c o mes

a s ag if t f ro m G od .

The c on tr i t ion o f P e ter , a f ter h is d en ia l o f C hr ist , d e-

7 9

p ended o n C hr ist l ook ing a t h im , t h is s hows t ha t t he s pur t o c onfession i s n ot i n man , b ut f ro m G od .

S im i lar ly Mat thew was t o ta l ly b ound u p i n w or ld ly

c ares, b ut C hr ist 's l ook im med iately c onver ted h im .

F or P ruden t ius, g race

c rea tes t he w i l l t o g ood , t urn ing P au l f ro m a p er secut ing w olf i nto al a mb.

8 0

J ohn t he S cot h as d en ied t h is p ossib i l i ty o f c onvers ion , a nd s o h e d en ies God ' s p ower t o t ransfor m t he e veryday wor ld .

I n o rder t o e stab l ish d iv ine i n ter-

v en t ion i n h istory P ruden t ius r efers t o t he wars b etween K ing Rehoboa m a nd h is b rothers.

T he p un ish men t o f r u lers i s n ot f or tu i tous , i tr esu l ts f ro m

G od ' sp redest ina t ion . t he m t o s in .

8 2

I ti s f ear which makes men r epen t o r d a i ly c o mpels

8 1

Pruden t ius r e jects J ohn ' so p t im is m a bout h u man n a ture;

a s

h e k nows t ha t most men , t hough C hr ist ian , f i xed i n t he d a mnab le m ire o f v ice , d o n ot w an t ap ious l i fe.

8 3

h ave b een p un ished b y G od . w i th h u man l aw .8 4

H e i nsists t ha t h u man h istory r ecords h ow men And h e s trengthens t he a rgu men t b y a n a na logy

I n c onc lusion , P ruden t ius a sser ts t he r ea lity o f H el l a nd

i t s p un ish men ts , a nd o f fers a r ecap i tula t ion o f t he w ork .

I tf or ms a s yste ma t ic

c oun tera t tack , b urdened b y p a tr ist ic q uota t ions, w h ich s ough t t o e xp la in h ow G od w orked i n t ime , r edee m ing o r p un ish ing a s H e c hose. Archb ishop Amo lo o f L yons wrote t o G ot tscha lk o ut o f f ra terna l d u ty, u rg ing h im t o s ub m i t t o j udge men t .

H e r egarded t he a f fa ir a s as y mp to m o f t he a ge

p red icted b y t he Apos t le , f u l l o f i gnorance a nd d iseases o f t he s ou l , a nd h e r em inded G o t tscha lk o f t he b ib l ica l p ena l t ies f or t hose who c ause God ' sc h i ldren t o s in .

8 5

H e e xpressed c oncern a t G ot tscha lk ' sa t tack o n t he s acra men ts a nd

t he p r iests a nd r ectors o f t he C hurch , a nd h is a buse o f s cr ip ture .

D enying

p redest ina t ion t o p un ish men t , h e e xp la ined t ha t t he d a mned w ere c onde mned b ecause t hey d id n o t wan t t o p erfor m w orks o f s a lva t ion . 8 6 How h as t he h u man r ace s inned a ga inst y ou , h ow h as t he C hurch s inned a gainst y ou, a nd s o many n eighbours a nd b rothers i n t ha t C hurch , t ha t y ou wan t t o o bstruct a nd c lose t he g rea t a nd o pen d oor o f G od 's a f fect ion? '

B ut t he f orce o f t he

L yons i n terven t ion c a me f ro m F lorus, p robab ly t he most w ide ly r ead o f Carol ing ian t heo log ians a nd a n e xper t i n l aw a nd l i turgy .

8 7

H e h ad b een s ecretary

t o Archb ishop A gobard , a nd h ad a sse mb led a p a tr ist ic c o m men tary o n t he P aul ine e p ist les.

L yons manuscr ip ts p reserve h is a nnota t ing marks f or f ur-

t her p a tr ist ic c o l lec t ions , a s w el l a s a marg ina l c o m men tary o n Augustine ' s ' De Gra t ia e t L ibero Arb itr io ' a nd ' De D ono P erseveren t iae '.

I t was h e who

p repared t he c ol lect ion o f A ugust in ian e x tracts wh ich a cco mpan ied Amolo ' s l et ter t o G ot tscha lk . H is own a nswer t o J ohn t he S cot d epended o n as et o f e x tracts a lready u sed b y Pruden t ius, 8 8 n ever the less i th as a n impos ing c lar i ty .

F lorus , wr i t ing

i n h is max i me p er icu losiss im is e t e x tre m is t ein-

p or ibus ', f ound i td isturb ing t ha t J ohn f ound s o many a dm irers.

8 9

H e w ished

t o d efend G od ' sj us t ice , wh ich S cr ip ture d escr ibes a s t he b est r eward f or t he f a i thfu l , a nd wh ich a l l t he C hurch a ccep ts a nd p ra ises. " H e c lear ly d ist inguishes t he imp l ica t ions o f 's c ien t ia ' , p raesc ien t ia ', a nd 'p raedestina t io ' . J ust a s t he s un s h ines o n j ust a nd u n just a l ike , s o t here i s o ne p redes t ina t ion f or a l l , b ut w i th t wo e f fects. c ular ly impressive .

9 1

F lorus ' c ar efu l a na lys is o f ' opera t io ' i s p ar t i-

L ike P ruden t ius, h e s ees s courges, t oi ls a nd t r ibu-

l a t ions a s t he n ecessary c o mpu lsion t o make men k eep G od ' sl aw .

3 60

T hus t he

d eba te i s a bout G od ' sj udge men t a nd p un ish men t o f t he w or ld . a nd n ot , a s J ohn a sser ts , s i mp le.

Man i s mutab le ,

A lthough h u man h istory r ecords t he

9 2

p un ish men t o f s infu l mank ind , F lorus r eca l ls t ha t G od a l lowed o ne h undred a nd t wen ty y ears f or r epen tance b efore t he F lood .

9 3

The c r i mes o f t he

w icked must b e p un ished , a nd f a lse k ings a nd p re la tes w i l l b e s tr ipped o f t heir i ns ign ia.

9 4

L ike h u man l aw , G od ' sl aw d oes n ot c o mpe l men t o d o e vi l i n

t ha t i tp un ishes e v i l .

F loras a sser ts t he r ea li ty o ft he t wo c i t ies a nd h opes

t ha t p resen t e ven ts may s erve t o s ecure G od ' sl aw a nd t o t urn men t o r epent ance .

The a nnota t ions i n t he C orb ie c opy o f F lorus ' t rea t ise A duersus

J ohanne m S co t tu m a re c oncerned w i th t hese a spec ts o f h is w ork .9 5 A t t he s ame t i me F lorus " De T r ibus Ep isto lis ; o n t he o ther h and was wr i tten a s ac r i t ique o f H inc mar t sl et ter t o t he c hurch o f L yons w i th t he l et ter o f Pardu lus o f L aon a nd t he t rea t ise R abanus h ad s en t t o N ot ing o f V erona , wh ich H inc mar e nc losed . H inc mar e x trac ted f i ve p roposi t ions f ro m G ot tscha lk ' s wr it ings, a nd o f fered i n r efu ta t ion a d octr ine o f as ing le p redest ina t ion o f t he j ust t o s a lva t ion , a nd o f man ' sf reew i ll .

The ' , De Tr ibus Ep istol is ' was wr i t ten b y

F lor us o ut o f c oncern f or h is s i mp ler b rethren .

9 b

H e e xpressed a lar m t ha t

G ot tscha lk s hould h ave p reached t o t he h eathen a bout s uch d if f icul t t op ics. E stab lish ing s even r u les o f f a i th , h e a f f ir med t he p redes t ina t ion t o d amna t ion o f p agans, J ews a nd h ere t ics a nd p ersecutors o f t he C hurch .

9 7

H e a rgued

t ha t G od d oes n ot a ct b y c hance , b ut e very th ing i s d one b y H is e terna l w isdo m . Chr ist d id n ot d ie t o s ave u nbe l ievers: p ro muf t is ' .9 8

' non p ro omn ibus mor tuus e s t s ed

Though F lorus o pposed G ot tscha lk ' st each ing o n f reew i l l , h e

s uppor ted h is v iew o f p redest ina t ion a nd a t tacked H inc mar ' sc onde mna t ion o f t rea t ises wh ich d eserved d iscussion a nd n o t b urn ing .99 I I T he d eba te h ad d epended u pon t he d iv ision o f mank ind i n to o n ly t wo c a mps, t he e lect a nd t he r e jected .

I n b oth , n a ture h ad b een t ransfor med b y g race .

The a l l-e mbrac ing f ormu la a l lows d iscussion a s t o whether p agans c an c ross t h is a bsolute f ron t ier .

I tb eco mes a p ar t o f ac os mology .

L aw mak ing , f or

J ohn , i s e n l igh ten men t ; o f fer ing t he o n ly means o f d ispe l ling man ' sown d arkness.

S uch a na log ies s ecure t he s yste m : d iv ine l aw f unct ions l i ke a

s uper ior f or m o f h u man l aw ;

man r edee med r ep laces t he a nge ls who f e l l .

B u t a ny i n terpre ta t ion o ft hese c orrespondences s o a s t o p rovide a p a t tern f or man ' sr ede mp t ion i gnores t he g u lf b etween t he p resen t w or ld a nd t he e x trate mpora l c iv i tas D e i wh ich August ine h ad c har ted .

B ecause t he d eba te

o n p redest ina t ion i s c oncerned w i th man ' su nderstand ing o f h is r ede mp t ion , i ta ppears i rre levan t t o t he c oncerns o f t he s aecu lu m , a nd i s d iscussed o n ly i n h istor ies o f r e lig ion . i nhab i tan ts.

B ut t h is d en ies t he v a lid i ty o f t he c iv i tas De i f or i t s

The p recond i t ions o f a l l s ocia l a c t ivi ty were a t s take .

A s t he

d oc tr ine o f p redest ina t ion d en ies a ny r ede mp t ive f unct ion t o t he C hr ist ian c o mmun i ty , a nd a ddresses i t se lf t o t he i nd iv idua l , i to f fers n o r eassurance t o t hose who s ough t t o d ef ine t ha t s oc ie ty o r i t s n or ms.

G ot tscha lk makes

t h is c lear i n h is d iscuss ion o f h ow r ust ic a nd d iv ine s peech c an d eny t he a cc ep ted v a lues o f p ower .

A l l t he V enet ians who d o t heir b usiness i n t he

k ingdo m o f t he L a t ins c a l l t he ir l ord , t ha t i s , t he emperor o f t he Greeks , n o t 'l ord ' b ut 'l ordsh ip '

F or t hey s ay

a nd w e were b efore t he l ordsh ip ' a nd

K ind l ordsh ip h ave mercy o n u s '

t he l ordsh ip s a id t h is t o u s '

3 61

B u t

b efore y ou c onde mn t he ir r ust ic s peech , s ee wha t h appens i n h eaven ' .1 00 T he c oncerns o f l ordsh ip f or m p ar t o f a n a l l embrac ing p a t tern , i n wh ich e ven o dd i t ies o f s peech c an b e s o e xp la ined , b ut t he s pec if ic e xa mp les a ler t u s t o t he f unct ion o f t he g enera l c oncern . S t . Ambrose i n h is De o f f ici is t e l ls a p rof i tab le s tory o f G igas ' r ing , o n P la to ' sa uthor i ty , w h ich t ruly makes me v ery much amazed t ha t t he w isdo m o f G od of ten w ishes t o o f fer s o s a lutary a ma t ter i nt he mouth o f ap agan . G igas, a s h e s ays , w as a r oya l s hepherd i n ac er ta in l and . G oing d own i n to ac lef t h e s aw a r ing o n t he h and o f ad ead man b ur ied i n a n a ncien t p lace wh ich h e h ad b roken i n to , a nd t ook t he r ing , g reedy f or g o ld .

B u t when h e w en t u p

o u t o ft here a nd r e turned t o h is c o mpan ions , f or s o me r eason h e t urned t he r ing i nwards t o h is p a lm . Thus h e s aw t he o ther s hepherds , b ut n ot o ne o f t he m c ou ld s ee h im . S k i l led i n t he u se o ft he r ing h e e n tered t he p a lace , r av ished t he q ueen , k i l led t he k ing , a nd g a ined t he k ingdo m . B ut n ow h ear t he f ru i t o f t he s tory . "G ive" ,s ays P la to "t he r ing t o aw ise man s o t ha t h e may b e h idden when h e s ins", a nd t hen h e s ays s o meth ing much more r e markab le a nd i n e very way more u sefu l a bou t aw ise man . i fi tc ou ld a lways b e h idden".

"H e d oes n ot w ish t o s in e xcep t

Marvel w i th me a t t h is most w onderfu l o p in ion

o f ap agan , a nd , l est y ou b e d a mned b y t he L ord , i m i tate i ta s i s f i t t ing , f or i ti s wr i t ten i n t he g ospe l , " un less h e f orsakes a l l h e p ossesses, h e c annot b e my d isc ip le" ( Luke 1 4 :33 ) .

P la to t he p agan d id n o t w ish t o s in , e ven i fi t

c ou ld b e h idden , a nd h ow s ad i ti s t ha t P la to t he C hr ist ian d oes n ot f ear t o s in d amnably a nd f a ta l ly when c er ta in ly i tc annot b u t b e r evea led . May a lm igh ty G od who s ays t hrough h is a post le: "Is ha l l g ive t he m a h ear t t o k now me , a nd e ars t o h ear ( J ere m iah 2 4:7 ) make y ou r ead , u nderstand a nd f u lf i l t h is o p in ion w i th e yes a nd h ear t i l lu m ina ted , a nd n ot e xcuse 'y ourse lf b efore C hr ist ' s j udge men t . May a lm igh ty G od "t ake away f ro m y ou a h ear t o f s tone a nd g ive y ou a h ear t o f f l esh" ( Ezek 3 6:26 ) a nd n ot a l low y ou t o d ie , b ut may h e g ran t y ou h is p i ty n ow a nd i n t he d ay o f wrath . And i fy ou d o n ot s ee "t he s word wh ich i s g irded o n t he t h igh o fo ur most p owerfu l k ing a nd a l lpowerful l ord" ( Ps. 4 4:4 ) why d o y ou n ot f ear t ha t sword wh ich g oes f or th f ro m h is mouth , l est h e s w if t ly c has t ise y ou a ccord ing t o y our d eser ts? ' 1 01 I n p assing f ro m t he myster ious c orpse i n t he c lef t t o C hr ist i n t he j udgemen t s ea t t h is p assage s hows G ot tscha lk ' sc oncern w i th t he l eve ls o f omn ip resen t s in , a nd h is p reoccupa t ion w ith p ower a nd w i th t he w or th lessness o f e ar th ly p ower . T he f ru it o f t he t a le i s t he a na lys is o f t he w i l l t o s in . G ot tscha lk ' si n tense a nd a phor ist ic s ty le e stab lishes a d ia logue o f c on fess ion w ith G od , wh ich l i es o utside t he c onven t ions o f C aro l ing ian t heology , i n a s earch f or t he marr iage o f f or m a nd mean ing . I V O f f icia l c oncern a bou t t he d eba te o ver p redestina t ion d a tes f ro m 8 51 . A t t he s econd Meersen c on ference L ouis, L othar a nd C har les a greed t o a l ly a ga ins t 't he e ne m ies o f G od ' p robab ly r eferr ing t o G ot tscha lk . 1 02 B u t t he d ivers i ty o fo p in ions, a nd t he s trong h ost i l ity p rovoked b y E r iugena ' s c our t ' i n terven t ion , may h ave e ncouraged C har les t o a ct r a ther l ess p ub l ic ly t han Meersen h ad imp l ied .

I n 8 53 a s ynod me t a t S oissons t o s et t le t he t roub leso me

p rob le ms o f H inc mar ' se lect ion a nd t he s ta tus o f t hose c ler ics who m E bbo 3 62

h ad o rda ined . 1°3 I ta lso s e t u p a n e nquiry i n to monast ic l i fe a nd s ough t t o s ecure e cc lesiast ica l immun i t ies. F or ty-four b ishops w ere p resen t o n t ha t o ccasion , b u t a ccord ing t o Pruden t ius o f Troyes , o ne o f t hose who h ad j udged H inc mar ' se lect ion , o n ly a f ew b ishops a nd a bbots met a t Q u ierzy i n May 8 53, t o c onde mn G ot tscha lk a nd h is a l l ies.

1 04

H inc mar was l a ter t o a dm it t ha t p ro-

c eed ings a t Qu ierzy h ad b een h asty .

1° 5

The a sse mb ly d rew u p f our c ap i tu la ,

wh ich C har les h i mse lf s ubscr ibed .

They a sser ted a s ing le p redest ina t ion ,

f reew i l l, G od ' sd esire f or u n iversa l s a lva t ion , a nd t he u n iversa l v a lid i ty o f Chr is t ' sp assion .

I ts ee m s p robab le t ha t P ruden t ius was o ne o f t hose p resen t .1 °6

T he Qu ierzy mee t ing s ee ms t o h ave e nded t he d eba te i n C har les ' k ingdo m f or t wo y ears , t hough t he impossib il i ty o f d a t ing a ny o f G ot tscha lk ' s own wr i t ings makes i td if f icu lt t o e stab l ish t h is d ef in i t ive ly .

B ut t he c hurch o f

L yons , wh ich h ad o b ta ined a c opy o f t he Q uierzy c ap i tula b y 8 54 , was c oncerned t o r efu te t he m .

The De T enenda I m mob i l i ter S cr ip turae V er i ta te wh ich a ga in

was t he work o f F lorus , r egarded t he n ove l t ies o f t he c ap i tu la a s as ign o f t he d angers a nd c a la m i t ies w h ich were a ff l ic t ing t he C hurch ; 1" t hese w ere e xp lic i t ly l inked t o t he d iv ision o f t he u n i ty o ft he k ingdo m .

1°8

The r efuta t ion

o f t he c ap itu la d epended o n t he a uthori ty o f s cr ip ture a nd o f t he f a thers, a nd emphas ized t ha t t he H ypo mn .est icon q uoted b y H inc mar was n ot t he w ork o f Augus t ine.

1°9

I n J anuary 8 55 a p rovincia l s ynod meet ing a t Va lence a cknow-

l edged t he p a tr ist ic l earn ing a nd t he b rev i ty o f t h is t rea t ise .

I tc onde mned

t he Q u ierzy c ap itu la a nd s ough t t o r efor m t he e p iscopa te.

The k ingdo m o f

1 10

L othar ing ia , aware o f t he moun t ing p rest ige o f C har les, was a sser t ing i t s i nd ependence o f West F rank ish t heology .

F or H inc mar t he f act t ha t Ebbo o f

Rhe im s ' n ephew E bbo o f Grenob le was t he p r i me mover b eh ind t he c ounci l o f Va lence , wh ich s o e ffect ive ly c onde mned n ot mere ly Q u ierzy b at h is own e p isc opa te , was e specia l ly g a l l ing . I fb e tween 8 55 a nd 8 59 t he d eba te a ppears t o h ave b een d or man t , t h is imp ress ion i s i ncorrect ;

i ti s o n ly t ha t n o c opy s urv ives o f H inc mar ' ss econd

t rea t ise o n P redest ina t ion . H e wro te t h is work a f ter t he a pparen t v o l te f ace o f Pruden t ius, who h ad a t te mp ted t o e n force a p redest inar ian v iewpoin t o n A eneas a s ap recond i t ion o f h is e lec t ion t o t he s ee o f P ar is .

H inc mar ' sw ork c on-

s isted o f t hree b ooks , a nd i nvolved a p ole m ic a ga inst G ot tscha lk , P ruden t ius , Ratramnus a nd o thers who a greed w i th t he m .

1 11

N o o ther s urv iv ing work o f

H inc mar ' si s d iv ided i n to b ooks, s o t here i s ap ossib i l i ty t ha t t h is was h is l onges t c on tr ibut ion t o t he d eba te.

B ut i ti s l ost .

I tw as n ot u n t i l a f ter t he i nvasion o f C har les ' k ingdo m b y L ouis t he G er man i n 8 58 t ha t a n a t te mp t was made t o r econci le t he d if feren t s tandpoin ts.

On 1 4th

J une 8 59 , a t S avonn ieres , C har les a sse mb led a g enera l s ynod i n t he p resence o f f or tytwo b ishops a nd t he k ings o f P rovence a nd L orra ine.

I n May o ft he

s a me y ear Char les a nd L othar h ad p ardoned L ouis ' s ed i t ion a t t he s ynod o f Metz , s pecif ica l ly a sser t ing t ha t t he c onfession o f s ins s hould r esul t i n t he ir f org iveness.

The S av ionn iAres s ynod h ad b een p receded b y a meet ing o f

1 12

t he L othar ing ian e p iscopa te a t L angres, i n e ar ly J une.

They i ssued a s er ies

o f d ecrees o n p redest ina t ion , wh ich e xp l ic i t ly a t tacked E r iugena . These w ere av ersion o f t he d ecrees o n t he s ynod o f Va lence w i thout t he c onde mna t ion o f t he s ynod o f Qu ierzy , a nd r estr ic ted t he ir a tte mp t t o r efor m t he e p iscopa te t o L o thar ing ia .

1 13

I t was t he L angres d ecrees t ha t Re m ig ius o f L yons p re-

3 63

s en ted t o t he s ynod o f S avonn ieres.

H ere t he f i rst s ix c ap itula w ere c on-

c erned w i th p redest ina t ion , f o l lowed b y c ap i tu la a bou t e cclesiast ica l c ounci ls , t he o rd ina t ion o f b ishops , t he v isi ta t ion o f monas ter ies a nd t he d efence o f t he ir immun i t ies, t he r estora t ion o f c hurches , s choo ls a nd h osp i ta ls , a nd a c ensure o f p r inces f or t heir t hef ts. The s ynod w as c oncerned w i th t he r es tora t ion o f

c ar i tas f ra terna e t c oncord ia p acis ' b etween L ouis a nd C har les ,

wh ich t he e nd ing o f t he s ch is m i n t he C hurch was t o s ecure. a ny d iscussion o f R em ig ius ' c ap i tu la was p os tponed .

1 15

14

B u t i n f act

C har les r eques ted

t ha t H inc mar r espond t o t he m , a nd H inc mar ' st h ird t reat ise o n P redest ina t ion was t he r esu lt . T he D e P raedest ina t ione b eg ins b y r eca l ling t ha t t h is i s a n a ge o f c on trov ersy . H inc mar s tresses t ha t G ot tscha lk was c onde mned a t Q uierzy , a nd h e l i sts t he b ishops who were p resen t . H e a t tacks t he c ap i tu la o f Va lence, t he w ork o f F lorus , t he c ap i tu la o f P ruden t ius f or A eneas ' e lect ion , a nd h e a tt e mp ts t o e stab lish t ha t p redest inar ian is m i s a n o ld h eresy , wh ich t he Church h as a lready r efuted .

The a uthor i ty o f R o me mus t b e f o l lowed .

F or H inc mar ,

t he a rgu men t i s a bout a u thor i t ies , a nd h e a sse mb led o ver 100 e xcerp ts f ro m o ver 1 50 w orks. 16 H e s ough t t o d efend Q u ierzy , a nd t he t reat ise makes i t c lear t ha t h is own p rest ige was a t s take .

H e d escr ibed h is e ne m ies a s p a ltry

wretches who d id n ot d are t o a t tack h im o pen ly .

17

i n t urb ine t u mul tuoso, q ui n uper h u ic r egno a ccid i t , c um a l i is s uis p erd id i t , a e mul i n ostr i d icun t n os d icere , q uia l i beru m a rb i tr iu m f und i tus i n h om ine p r i mo p eccan te s i t p erd i tu m .

1 18

The j ux taposi t ion o f t he r e l ig ious a nd t he p o li t ica l c r ises was n ot a cc iden ta l. H inc mar was c oncerned t o r efu te a ny s ugges t ion t ha t G od i s t he a u thor o f s in . G od c rea ted man , b ut i t was man who c rea ted s in . 19 G od ' sj ust mercy a nd mercifu l j ust ice a re o f fered t o a l l . B ap t is m a nd t he e uchar ist a re t he means o f s a lva t ion . 1 20 P enance c an r edee m t he s inner . 1 21 N e i ther Chr ist n or P au l a sser ted t ha t G od h ad p redest ined s inners t o d ea th a nd t o p un ish men t . 1 22 H inc mar i s d efend ing f ree w i l l , a nd h e s ets i tw i th in t he whole f ramework o f t he 1 13 p rov inces o ft he C hurch , e ach w i th i t s

c atho lic i d octores t ,

1 23

whose

d octr ine was a t tacked b y men who h ad c raw led o ut o f t heir c aves l i ke m ice. These men were s p li t o f f f ro m t he C hurch b y t he ir 'n ove lt ies ' . B u t G ot tscha lk ' sy east t hrea tened t he C hurch . Deser t ing G od , h e h ad b een d es er ted b y G od .1 24 H inc mar t ook h is s tand o n t he d oub le c onde mna t ion o f h eresy , a nd h is d isp lay o f c anon l aw was o verwhe lm ing . The Theodosian c ode was e xper t ly d ep loyed . 1 25 H e h oped t o f i nd t he t ime t o p repare a n e xp lana t ion o f t he c anons. 1 26 The D e P raedest ina t ione d efends t he C hurch a ga inst t hose who s trove t o make i t s s acra men ts v oid .1 27 I ta ccep ts t he c o mp lex i ty o f G od ' sc rea t ion ;

as of t wh ist le w i l l c a l m ah orse b ut w i l l e xcite a c a t .

1 28

Wi th in t h is d iversi ty t he f a thers, a nd more e specia l ly t he c anons, o f fer a g u ide i n t he s earch f or p ax e tu n i tas ' .1 29 I ti s a lso a d efence a ga inst t he imp l ica t ions o f t he s even th c ap i tu lu m o f t he V a lence s ynod , w ith i t s s uggest ion t ha t i gnoran t men h ad b een a ppoin ted t o b ishopr ics. 1 30 H u man a s w e l l a s d iv ine l aws w ere u nder a t tack .

1 31

And s o t he d eposi t ion o f Ebbo w as v ind i-

c a ted o nce a ga in , t o d efend t he a uthor i ty o f p re la tes a nd o f p rinces. 1 32 The p rob le ms o f i nd ividua l s a lva t ion h ad b een e x trapola ted s o a s t o s ecure t he c reed o f t he b ureaucra t .

3 64

B u t t he s ynod o f T usey , wh ich met i n O c tober 8 60 , b egan w i th a r e turn t o t he d i le m ma o ft he i nd iv idua l , i t me t t o: 'Tractare d e s ta tu t e mpor is n ostr i e t d e p er icu lo p ereun t is p opu l i s ub manu n ostr i c onst i tut i .. e t q uo modo p ecca t is n ostr is a gen t ibus omnes l eges t am d iv inae q ua m h u manae c on te mp tae s un t omn isque o rdo r el ig ion is c on fusus ' .1 33 T he s ynod w as t o r eso lve t he s ins o f t he p eop le , t hose s ins wh ich h ad c aused many p laces c onsecra ted t o G od t o b e b urned a nd r avaged b y e vi l C hr ist ians a nd t he c rue l r ace o ft he N or th men .

1 34

The T usey c ounci l , mee t ing f our

mon ths a f ter Char les , L ouis a nd L othar h ad a t te mp ted t o r estore t he c oncord w h ich t he i nvasion o f 8 58 h ad s ha t tered , c o mb ined a s ta te men t o n p redestinat i on w i th a d efence o f C hurch p roper ty . G od c rea ted man a nd e ndowed h im w i th f ree w i l l . B y t he F a ll man was c onde mned t o p erd i t ion , b u t b y G od ' s mercy many were s aved .

1 35

Y et t he e lect were m ing led w i th t he mass o f t he

d a mned , a nd t he e ndow men ts o f t he C hurch , g iven f or t he s a lva t ion o f s ou ls , f e l l i n to t he w rong h ands. C hr ist h ad s ough t t o r edee m a l l b y h is s acra men ts , a nd t o a sse mb le t he m i no ne f l ock , l ed b y h is s a in ts. The r u les o f t he C hurch a re v a lid f or a l l , a nd n ot , a s s o me ma in ta in , s i mp ly f or c ler ics . 1 36 S ad ly i t h as b eco me n or ma l t o r egard t he t hef t o f C hurch l ands a s ac usto m , a l though P au l a sser ted t ha t t h ieves s ha l l n ot e n ter t he k ingdo m o f G od . I t was b y e nd ow ing t he C hurch t ha t men b eca me t he h e irs o f G od a nd t he c oheirs o f C hr ist . 1 37 T hus a t T usey t he i s sue was s ubsu med , a nd p redest ina t ion b eca me a n emb arrass men t t o t hose c oncerned w i th t he r efor m o f t he C hurch .

A l though

G ot tscha lk s t i l l c on t inued t o wr i te , a nd s t i l l h ad s upporters i n 8 66, t he d ebate h ad b eco me a n u isance t o t hose c oncerned w i th t he ma in tenance o f as yste m o fp enance a nd C hurch e ndow men ts. I tn o l onger s erved t o d ef ine t he b r it t le i den t i ty o f p ar t ies c om ing t o t er ms w i th t he ir own i nab i li ty t o r eso lve o r u nderstand t heir own d i le m mas.

The a uthor i ty wh ich G ot tscha lk a nd h is a s-

s oc ia tes h ad f ound i n a n i nco mprehensib le d ivin i ty h ad r e turned t o t he F rank ish r ea l ms.

The p ersona l b onds b etween G ot tscha lk a nd h is C rea tor , e xpressed

i nt he o r ig ina l ity o f h is mov ing l yr ics a s w el l a s i n t he a phor ist ic f i re o f h is t heo log ica l a nd g ra mma t ica l wr i t ings, 'd er G laube r el ig iösen V ir tuosen tu ms ', w ere o f l i t t le r e levance t o t he n ew e p iscopa te . H enceforth t he i n tel l igen tsia

1 38

w ou ld n ot imp inge o n s o d ra ma t ic a nd f unda men ta l ac oncern o f t heir s ociety . H e ir ic o f Auxerre i s ad i f feren t s or t o f s cho lar :

t he g loss h ad r ep laced t he

v ision o f s y l log is ms w h ich r esolved t he mystery o f man ' sp lace i n t he c os mos. T he d eba te o n p redest ina t ion e xpressed d oc tr ines o f p ower a nd w i th o rder. 1 39 I ts prang f ro m t he r equire men ts o f as oc iety i n c r is is, i n wh ich s o me o f t he e duca ted e l i te were t est ing t he ways i n wh ich t heir p a tr ist ic l earn ing , t heir g ra m mar o rt he ir d isc ip line o f d isputa t ion m igh t a ch ieve a n u nderstand ing o f t he ir a pparen t h e lp lessness. T he C hurch h ad b r ief ly c eased t o s erve a s t he s ole f ocus f or t heir u ncer ta in t ies .

F or G ot tscha lk t he j ud icia l o rdea l o f fered

t he c hance o f a nu l t i ma te p roof o f d iv ine j udge men t , a nd t he o rdea l was a n a p t d escr ip t ion o ft he way i n wh ich F rank ish s oc iety was b e ing t ransfor med . T he o rder wh ich , a ccord ing t o l upus, h ad b een r e jected h ad t o b e r ep laced ; a nd a b e l ief i n p redes t ina t ion s erved t o p are d own t he a l terna t ives. I n 8 49 N om inoe, r u ler o ft he B re tons , h ad b een t o ld b y t he West F rank ish e p iscopate: 3 65

But i fy ou d esp ise o ur f r iend ly a dv ice , l e t i tb e c lear t ha t y ou w i l l h ave n o f uture p lace i n h eaven ;

f or y our c r i me w i l l d iv ide y ou f ro m o ur c o mpany a nd

t ha t o f t he a post les b y t he v engeance o f a na the ma , a nd y ou w i l l h ave y our p lace , may G od a vert t h is , i n h el l .'

1 40

Dur ing t he n ex t d ecade t he r igh t o f t he

F rank ish e p iscopa te t o make s uch s tate men ts w as c ha llenged , a s w ere t he ir s acra men ts a nd t he who le i dea o f ap r iest ly C hurch .

The d eba te o n p redest i-

n a t ion i nvolved t he n a ture o f h u man f reedo m , a nd w i th t he s tructure o f t he C hurch e lect , aq uest ion ing o ft he most f unda men ta l o f C aro ling ian v a lues. I t was t hese v a lues t ha t g overned t he i deo logy o ft ha t s ocie ty , a l l t oo a ware o f i t s s ins , a l l t oo u ncer ta in o f t heir f org iveness : 'H oc t an tu m s cio q uia m ih i ma le e st p rae ter t e n on s olu m e x tra me s ed e t i n meipso, e t o ran is m ih i c op ia q uae d eus meus n on e st e gestas e st .'

14 1

U n ivers i ty o f N or th Carol ina , C hape l H i l l

3 66

NOTES

1 .

B ede , H istor ia E cc les iast ica Gen t is Ang loru m , I 1 7 ( ed . C o lgrave a nd Mynors p . 5 6).

2 .

T . S ch ief fer , D ie K r ise d es Karo l ing ischen Imper iu ms, i n : Aus M itt e la lter u nd Neuze it F es tschri f t G . Ka l len ,Bonn 1 957 , p . 1 -15.

3 . 4 .

S edu lius i n Ep isto las P aul i , PL . 1 03 , 6 2 .

Ro m . 6 : 1 4.

O euvres Theologiques e t Gra m ma t ica les d e Godesca lc d ' Orba is e d .

_

C . La mbot , S p ic i leg iu m S acru m L ovan iense 2 0 , L ouva in 1 945 , p p . 1 56-7 , 2 06-7 , 4 18-9. 5 . 6 .

P ruden t ius , De P raedes t ina t ione C on tra J oanne m S cotu m , PL. 1 15 , 1 352. J . Devisse, I , p . 2 06-243 .

C . C har lier , L es Manuscr ip ts p ersonne ls

d e F lorus d e L yons e t s on a c t iv i te l i t tera ire, Me langes E . P odechard , L yons 1 945, p p . 7 1-84.

B . B ischoff , Hadoard u nd d ie K lassikerhand-

s chr if ten a us C orb ie , M ittela l ter liche S tud ien I , S tut tgar t 1 966, p p . 4 96 3. 7 .

R atra mnus ' a utograph a nnota t ion i n B . N . L a t , 1 2240 f . 1 19r :

Q uod

c assianus n on s i t s equendus i n omn ibus. 8 .

F lorus, L iber Adversus J oanne m S cotu m , PL 1 19 , 1 40.

L upus, De

T r ibus Q uaestion ibus, PL 1 19 , 6 42-4. 9 .

1 0 .

Ms Berne 3 63f , 6 1v :

S erv ius 1 , 3 9 ;

f 65v :

f 88v :

S erv ius I 1 61 ;

f 63r :

S erv ius 1 , 7 4 ;

( Go t tscha lk ) ,

I , 5 00-1 ( Ra tra mnus ).

W. L evison , E ine P red ig t d es L upus v on F err ieres, Aus Rhein ischer u nd Fränk ischer F r e thze i t , D t isse ldorf 1 947 , p . 5 63.

1 1.

P aschasius Radber tus , I n L a men ta t iones H iere miae , PL 1 20 ,

1 212.

1 2 .

P aschasius Radber tus, Exposi t io i n Ma t thaeu m , PL 1 20 , 8 00-1 ( Mat t . 2 4 , 6 ) .

1 3.

A udradus Mod icus , L iber R eve lat ionu m e d . L . Traube , ' 0 Ro ma Nobi l is ' A bhand lungen d er Akade m ie d er Wissenschaf ten z u M f Inchen Phi l-H ist . K l . 1 9 , 2 , 1 891 , p p . 3 83-6.

1 4.

L evison , o p .c i t . ,p . 5 64 .

1 5.

S ch ieffer , a rt . c it ., J . Ne lson , EHR 9 2 , 1 977, p p . 2 43-4.

1 6.

T hegan i V ita H ludovic i c . 4 4 , MGH S S I , 6 00 ; I , 6 34 , AB e d . Gra t , p . 1 1 ;

Astron , c . 4 6, MGH S S

Paschasius Radber tus, Ep itaph iu m Arsen i i

e d . E . Due m m ler , Abhand lungen d er K ön ing lichen Akade m ie d er Wissens chaf ten z u Ber lin P h il . H ist . K 1. 1 900 , p . 9 1.

3 67

1 7 .

N i thard H istor iaru m L ibr i I V , I , 4 .

1 8 .

Thegan c . 4 4, p . 6 00 .

1 9 .

Devisse p , 9 2-3.

2 0 .

D . d e S t . Mar the ,

G a l l ia Chr is t iana I -XV I :

A eneas o f Par is V I I , 3 3-5 ; 3 40 ;

Pardu lus o f Laon I X , 5 14 ;

Noyon I X . 9 88 ;

I saac o f Langres , I V , 5 31-6;

H incmar o f R ei ms , Ro thad o f S o issons I X , Lupus o f C hä lons I X , 8 66;

H i l merad o f Am iens , X , 1 158 ;

Ama lr ic o f Tours X IV , 5 8-9 . o f Ca mbra i , I I , 1 1 ;

The s uppor ters o f Ebbo were Theuder ic

Rothad o f S oissons , L upus o f Ch ' ä lons , Em mo o f

Noyon , Ragenar ius o f Am iens , Erpoin o f S en l is , X , 3 85; Therouanne X , 1 533.

Em mo o f

Wen i lo o f S ens X I I , 2 1-4 ;

F o lcu in o f

The b ishops a t Qu ierzy a re i den t if ied f ro m

H inc mar ' sl i st PL 1 25, 8 5. 2 1.

The Tusey b ishops a re i den t if ied b y P . R . McKeon , The Carol ingian C ounci ls o f S avonn ieres ( 859 ) a nd Tusey ( 8 60 ) a nd t he ir Background , RB 8 4 , 1 974 p . 1 09-110 Roya l a ppoin t men ts were Franco o f T ongres I I , 8 34 ;

Re m ig ius o f L yon I V , 5 9-65.

G odelsandus o f C hä lons I V , 8 75 ; o f Par is V I I , 3 1-5; V I I I , 1 424-6;

I ssac o f Langres I V , 5 31-6;

Bredu icus o f Macon *V ,

G iselber t o f Char tres V I I I ,

1 107;

H inc mar o f Laon , Weni lo o f R ouen , X I , 2 2;

o f Avranches X I , 4 73-4 ;

Wen i lo o f S ens , X I I , 2 1-4 ;

1 045 ;

Aeneas

Ag ius o f Or leans A nsegaudus

Dodo o f A ngers X IV ,

5 52-4 , H inc mar ' sa ppoin t men ts were I saac o f L angres, H i ldegard o f Meaux , Erchanrad o f Chä lons.

H er men fr id o f Am iens, Hu m fr id o f

Therouanne a nd Ama lr ic o f T ours. A c lear r em inder o f c hancery t ra in ing i s f ound i n 'the e p iscopa l s ubscr ipt i ons t o t he c ounci ls o f A res a nd S oissons i n Mab il lon , De R e D ip lo mat ica Tab . 5 , p . 5 53, a nd i n t he N ouveau Tra its d e D ip lo ma t ique I V , p l . 7 5, p . 7 49 , V p l . 8 9 , p . 4 65 t oo l ong i gnored b y p a laeographers . 2 2 .

Mansi XV , 7 -8 .

2 3 .

H inc mar , De Praedestina t ione PL 1 25, 3 82-93 .

2 4.

H inc mar , De Una e t N on Tr ina De i ta te PL 1 25, 6 13.

2 5.

Pruden tius PL 1 15, 1 365-8 .

2 6 .

Anna les Xan tenses , MGH S SRG p . 1 5.

2 7 ,

Iowe t h is p oin t t o Dr . A . Smy th .

2 8 ,

Ep i taph iu m Arsen i i e d . c i t . p . 6 1-2 .

2 9 .

R . Wenskus , S ächs ischer S tam mesadel u nd Fränk ischer Reichsadel , Abhand lungen d er Akade m ie d er Wissenschaf ten z u G ät t ingen , 3 .

Folge

9 3 , 1 976, p p . 1 07-8 , 1 11, 1 30 . 3 0 .

Hrabanus, De Ob la t ione P ueroru m , PL 1 07 , 4 19-21, 4 31-2 , 4 35, 4 38-9 .

3 1.

PL 1 25, 8 3-4, C . L a mbot .

L et tre i n d i te d e G odesca lc d ' Orba is .

RB

6 8 , 1 958 , p . , 4 1-51. 3 2.

S edul ius,

Car men XXXVI I I , MGH P oetae I I , p . 2 02.

L ouis t he P ious ' s on i n l aw .

3 68

Eberhard was

3 3 .

L a mbot , o p .c i t ., p . 1 69 , 3 25.

3 4.

MGH E pp V . p p . 4 81-2 .

3 5.

L a mbot , p . 1 56-7 .

3 6 .

L a mbot , p . 5 2-5 , 1 85.

3 7 .

L a mbot , p . 1 56.

3 8 ,

L a mbot , p . 1 57 ,

3 9 .

L a mbot , p . 3 75, c f . L a mbot p . 2 29 .

4 0 .

H inc mar , Ad Rec lusos e t S i mp l ices e d . W. G und lach Z ei tschr if t f ür K irchengesch ich te , X ,

1 889 , p p . 2 58-309.

4 1 .

Amolo, MGH E pp KA I I p p . 3 68-78 .

4 2 .

Gund lach , p . 2 62-3 + S cr ip ture r efs.

4 3 .

I b id ., p . 2 89 , 2 91-2.

4 4 .

M . Weber , Wir tschaf t u nd Gesel lschaf t , Tab ingen 1 972 , p . 3 06-7 .

4 5.

Gund lach p . 2 62 , Devisse p . 1 34-8 .

4 5A .

Lupus I , p p . 3 6-42 , n o. 7 9 .

4 6 .

'P lures i nde a pud n os s cr ipserun t .

E t c um q uinque e x e is n om inasset ,

i n ter q uos e t ia m Ama lar ius s cr ipsisse me moravi t ' Pardulus o f L aon a s q uoted i n t he L iber d e Tr ibus Ep isto l is PL 1 19 , 1 052 . 4 7 .

MGH C ap . I , p p . 3 88-421 , e sp . 3 95-6.

4 7A .

Lupus I , p . 3 6.

4 8 .

Ratra mnus, De P raedest ina t ione PL 1 21, 1 3.

4 9 ,

L upus , PL 1 19 , 6 23.

5 0 ,

L upus, PL 1 19 , 6 27-34,

5 1 .

L upus , PL 1 19 , 6 41 .

5 2 .

L upus , PL 1 19 , 6 29 ,

5 3.

L upus, PL 1 19 , 6 29-30 .

5 4 .

L upus, PL 1 19 , 6 35.

5 5.

E .g . Ms Oxford B od le ian L ibrary Laud Misc .106f . 4 8v, 4 9r , 5 0r ; Ms S t . Ga ll 4 8 , p . 2 63, 3 67 ; Par is B . N . L a t , 9 604f . 5 8r ; 2 1v ;

5 6.

Ms Dresden A , 1 45f , 4 v , 8 8v,

9 0v ;

Würzburg M p Th f 1 2 f 2v , 4 v , 5 r , 1 4v,

L yons Ms 6 08 , a nd Char lier a r t . c i t .

B . N . L a t . 1 3381 ( I am p repar ing a s tudy o f t he c on ten ts o f t his f l or il egiu m ) .

5 7 .

Ratra mnus, PL 1 21, 1 5.

5 8 .

Ratra mnus, PL 1 21, 3 8 .

3 69

5 9 .

Ra tra mnus, PL 1 21, 5 5.

6 0 .

Ra tra mnus, PL 1 21, 6 3.

6 1 .

Ra tra mnus PL 1 21 , 7 6 ' negar i n on p otest p raedestina t p raedest inatu m n isi f or te j ud ic iu m , q uo j ud icandus e st mundus, a l iquis d ic i t o pus De l n on e sse '.

6 2 .

H inc mar De u na e t N on Tr ina De i ta te PL 1 25, 5 12 .

Traces o f t his c o l-

l ect ion may b e f ound i n B . N . L a t . 2 166 F austus De Gra t ia , 6 3 .

M . C r ist ian i , L a N ot ion d e L oi d ans l e ' De P raedest ina tione l d e J ean S cot S tudi Med ieva l i 3S er ie XV I I 1 976 , p p . 8 1-114.

6 4.

J ohann is S cot t i , De D iv ina Praedest ina t ione Eber e d . G . Madec C orpus Chr ist ianoru m C on t inua t io Med ieva lis L ., Turnhol t 1 978 , p . 6 -7 q uot ing A ugust ine De Vera Rel ig ione '

8 , 1 5.

6 5.

Madec , p . 9 .

6 6.

Madec, p . 1 6-17 .

6 7 .

Madec, p . 2 1-4 q uot ing I s idore I

6 8 .

Madec , p . 3 9-40 .

6 9 .

Madec, p . 2 8 c f . A u lus Ge l lius 1 7 , 5 , 5 .

7 0 .

Madec, p . 4 0 .

7 1.

Madec, p p . 8 6-110 .

7 2 .

C r ist ian i , p p . 1 08-111.

7 3.

Madec, p . 5 1.

7 4 .

Madec, p . 1 15.

7 5.

6 , 1 ,

Ms Par is B . N . L a t . 1 3386f , 1 45v ; Madec p . 9 7 .

A l l t he a nnota tions

a re p r in ted b y Madec, t hough h e i gnores t he N otae s y mbols o f t he a nnot a tor. 7 6.

B . N . L a t in 2 445, PL 1 15, 1 016, 1 023-4, 1 026, 1 029 ( on a n i nser ted s crap ) 1 044, 1 051-2 , 1 053 , 1 057 , 1 057-8 , 1 095, 1 096, 1 139 , 157 , 1 167 , 1 169 , 1 189 , 1 195, 1 207 , 1 208 , 1 211 , 1 260-1, 1 274 , 1 275, 1 288 , 1 303 a re a l l a dd it ions.

7 7 .

Pruden t ius, PL 1 15, 1 027-9 q uot ing Gregory Mora lia .

7 8 .

Pruden t ius, PL 1 15, 1 037 ,

7 9 .

PL IS , 1 051 .

8 0 .

Pruden t ius, PL 1 062-3.

8 1,

Pruden tius, PL 1 15, 1 045.

8 2.

Pruden t ius, PL 1 15,

8 3.

Pruden tius, PL 1 15, 1 085, 1 095, 1 190 .

8 4.

Pruden tius, PL 1 15, 1 201.

1 081 .

3 70

8 5.

A mo lo PL 1 16, 8 6

V ide mus t e mpora n ov issi ma e t p er icu losissi ma ,

a b Aposto lo o h m p raed ica ta , p lena i gnoran t iae '. 8 6.

Amolo PL 1 16, 9 2 .

8 7 .

C . C har lier , F lorus d e L yon , D ic t ionna ire d e S pir i tua l i té V ,

1 964 , p p.

51 4-526. 8 8 .

I ti s a ssu med t ha t t he L iber Adversus J oanne m S cottu m p recedes t he De Tr ibus Ep isto lis, c f . M . Cappuyns J ean S cot Er igene: o euvre, s a p ensee , L ouva in 1 933 , p . 1 17;

s a v ie, s on

B . Lavaud , La c on troverse

s ur l a p rk ies t ina tion a u I Xe s ièc le , D ic t ionna ire d e Theo log ie Ca thol ique X I I, 1 935, p . 2 915.

Bu t t his h as n ot b een p roved , a nd Ms B . N . L a t .

28 59 h as t he De Tr ibus Ep isto l is f irst . 8 9 .

Devisse p . 1 88-9.

9 0 .

F lorus PL 19 , 1 03.

9 1 .

F lorus PL 1 19 , 1 06 q uot ing Reve la t ion X I ,1 6-18 .

9 2 .

F lorus PL 1 19 , 1 16.

9 3 .

F lorus PL 1 19 , 1 50 .

9 4.

F lorus PL 1 19 , 1 70 .

9 5 .

F lorus PL 1 19 , 1 82 Ms B . N . L a t . 1 2292f , 2 8r , 3 7r , 3 9v , 4 0v , 4 1r , 4 4r , 4 4v, 4 5r , 4 8r , 5 8v , 6 4v, 6 7r . e .g .f 3 9v

D ici t q uod p raedest ina t io n ih il e st a l iud q ua m d ecretu m e t

p raef in it io d iv in i j ud ic i i PL 1 19, 1 74f , 5 8v D i et F lorus i n p r i mo h o mine t ota m n atura m p eccasse e t t ota m p er isse PL 1 19 , 2 08 ,

Th is w ork a lso

s urvives i n F lorus ' a utograph Ms a nd i n a Va t ican Ms p erhaps f ro m Fu lda Reg . l at . 2 40 . 9 6.

F lorus ( not R em ig ius a s M igne s upposed ) De Tr ibus Ep istol is PL 1 21, 9 87 .

9 7 .

F loru .s PL 1 21, 9 89-992 .

9 8 .

F lorus PL 1 21, 1 021.

9 9 .

F lorus PL 1 21 , 1 030 'n ec i gn ibus d a mn .and i s ed p ia e t p acif ica f uer in t i nquisi t ione t ractandP .

1 00 .

Madec p . 3 ,

U t e n i m max i ma c lar issi maque mund i l um inar ia s te l laru m

l ubr ica t iones n on d esp ic iun t , s ed a d e xpe l landas omn iu m t enebraru m c a l ig ines

e aru m r ad i is a d p erfect ione m s ui s p lendor is u tun tur t.

1 01 .

L a mbot p p . 4 76-7.

1 02 .

La mbot p . 2 08 .

1 03 .

J . Ca l met te p . 2 0 .

1 04 .

Mansi XIV 9 77-989 .

1 05. 1 06 .

AB p . 6 7 . H inc mar , De Praedest ina t ione PL 1 25, 2 95, 3 68 .

3 71

Devisse p . 2 00-2 0 1.

1 07 ,

De Tenenda Im mob i l iter S cr ip turae Ver ita te PL 1 21 , 1 083-1134.

1 08 .

PL 1 21, 1 083 ' U t r egn i u n i tas s i t d iscussa a c d i lacerata '

1 09 .

PL 1 21, 1 108 .

1 10 .

Mansi , XV p p . 1 -14, c f . Mc Keon a r t . c i t . p . 1 03 , / I . 3 .

1 11 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 8 5-93.

1 12 .

MGH C ap . I , p p . 4 41-6.

1 13.

Mansi XV , p p . 5 37-40.

1 14.

MGH Cap . I , p . 4 47 ,

1 15.

McKeon p . 9 4-7 , Devisse, p . 2 23.

1 16.

Dev isse , p . 2 28 .

1 17 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 2 09.

1 18 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 2 09.

1 19 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 2 15 ,q uot ing A ugustine i n J oanne m .

1 20 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 1 62-5 ;

1 21,

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 2 41-2 .

1 22.

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 1 18 .

1 23.

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 3 52-3.

1 24.

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 3 81-2 .

1 25.

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 3 94, 4 01.

1 26.

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 4 13.

1 27 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 3 65.

1 28 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 2 27 .

1 29 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25

4 19.

1 30 .

H inc mar , PL 1 25

3 87 , Dev isse p . 2 51-2 , McKeon p . 9 8-105.

1 31.

H inc mar , PL 1 25

3 89 .

1 32 .

Dev isse p p , 2 55-6.

H inc mar , PL 1 25, 3 86 'Q uis e p iscopus n on s i t a nnu l latus, q u is p rinceps n on r eprehensus, q uis a rch iep iscopus n on s i t c onfuta tus '

1 33 .

Mans i XV ,p . 5 57 .

1 34 .

I b id ., c . 5 .

1 35 .

1.n c mar , PL 1 26, 1 22 .

1 36.

H inc mar, PL 1 26, 1 31.

1 37 .

H inc mar , PL 1 26, 1 26.

1 38 .

Weber o p. c i t .,

p . 3 48.

F or G ot tscha lk 's p oetry c f . B . B ischof f

G ot tscha lk ' sL ied f ar d en Re ichenauer Freund , Mit te lal ter liche S tud ien

3 72

2 , S tu t tgar t 1 967 p p. 2 6-34 ; c ustos i E ine C on fessio? 3 0 ;

P . v on Moos G ot tscha lk 's G ed ic t ' 0 mi

Früh m i t te la l ter l iche S tud ien 4 , 1 970 , p p . 2 01-

5 , 1 971 , p p . 3 17-358.

1 39 .

L a mbot p . 2 81.

1 40 .

Mansi X IV ,p . 9 25 = L upus Correspondence I l ,6 5.

1 41 .

L a mbot p . 4 75 q uot ing Augustine , C onfessiones X I I I ,8 .

3 73

2 0 .

WULFAD , CHARLES THE BALD AND JOHN S COTTUS ERIUGENA J ohn Marenbon

T he p ages o f J ohn S cot tus ' s masterp iece , t he P er iphyseon , a re f u ll o f t he n a mes o f t he i l lus tr ious t h inkers o f t he p as t ; a re a l most e n t ire ly a bsen t .

b ut t hose o f h is c on te mporar ies

A l mos t — b ecause a t t he v ery e nd o f t he f ina l

b ook , J ohn d ed ica tes h is work , f i rst o f a l l t o G od , a nd t hen t o h is

most b e-

l oved b rother i n C hr ist ' a nd 'c o llabora tor i n p h i losoph ica l p ursu i ts ' s tud i is s ap ien t iae c oopera tor ' ) , Wulfad .

( 'i n

T he man who managed t o e arn s uch

r espect f ro m Er iugena im med iate ly a rouses t he h istor ian ' sc ur iosi ty . Wu lfad , h e w i l l s oon f i nd , i s a n e lusive f i gure :

B u t

f a mous a s t he o b ject o f a

q uarre l b etween C har les t he Ba ld a nd H inc mar o f R ei ms, t he o n ly wr i t ing o f h is w h ich h as s urv ived i s ap astora l l et ter , i n c on ten t q u ite u nexcep t ionab le a nd t o ta lly b ana l .

1

I ti s o n ly b y e xa m in ing Wu lfad ' sr ela t ions w i th J ohn S cottus

a nd w i th C har les t he B a ld , p ursuing e very h in t wh ich t h is e v idence a f f ords, t ha t a n impress ion o f h is i n tel lec tua l p ersona l i ty may b e g a ined .

The t ask i s

aw or thwh i le o ne , n o t o n ly b ecause i th e lps t o s et E r iugena , s o h is tor ica l ly e lus ive a p h i losopher , among h is c on te mporar ies , b ut a lso b ecause i ti l lust ra tes h ow c lose were t he l inks b etween C har les t he Ba ld a nd t he most e xci t ing m inds o f h is a ge .

I n 8 51 ( t he e ar liest t ime h is n a me i s men t ioned ) J ohn S cot tus i s ar esiden t a t C har les 's p a lace , a man who h as w on a g rea t r eputa t ion f or h is l earn ing , a nd most p robab ly , was e ngaged i n t each ing .

2

Wulfad , i n t he m id-850 ' s , was

c er ta in ly a t eacher . C har les h ad e n trusted t o h im t he e duca t ion o f h is s on , K ar lo mann ,3 a nd h e a t tended t o h is r oya l c harge c arefully . S o me s ee m t o h ave t hough t t oo c arefu lly : i n ab r ief , v ivid l yr ic, a s cho lar c o mp la ins t ha t , wh i le h e f reezes i n ar oo m w i th o n ly o ne f i rep lace , K ar lo mann h as a g low ing f i re t o war m h im .

And t he p oet a dds , i ron ica l ly :

t ha t o ur f ire i s r oar ing ; h ear th .'

'I t ' s Wu lfad who s ees t o i t

w i th h is s tocks o f w ood , h e i s t he g uard ian o f t he

4

D id J ohn a nd Wul fad t each s ide b y s ide i n aP a lace S chool r un u nder C har les ' s p a tronage?

There i s g ood e vidence t ha t Er iugena h ad p up i ls, a nd t ha t Wu lfad

i ns truc ted y oung men o ther t han K ar lo mann . B ut p roof i s a bsen t o f t he e x ist enceso f aP a lace S chool , f i xed i n o ne p lace , a t t h is t i me ; a nd a lthough h e f requen ted t he C our t , Wu lfad m igh t h ave d one a ll h is t each ing a t S o issons , where h e was a bbo t o f S t . Medard . Wha t i s c er ta in i s t ha t Wu lfad , J ohn ' s ' co l league i n p h i losoph ica l p ursu i ts ' , e n joyed t he c losest c on tact w i th t ha t a spect o f Er iugena ' sw ork wh ich i s o f t he g rea test i nterest : t he c onstruct ion o f a n o r igina l a l l-e mbracing s yste m o f t hough t wh ich a ch ieved i t s f u llest e xp ress ion i n t he P er iphyseon .

3 75

I n h is d ed ica t ion o f t he P er iphyseon t o Wu lfad , J ohn g ives t wo s ign i f ican t p ieces o f i n for ma t ion .5 H e s ays t ha t i t was a t Wu l fad ' si nst iga t ion t ha t t he w ork was b egun a nd b y h is c oncern t ha t i t was b rough t t o c o mp le t ion . a lso o f fers t he w ork t o Wu lfad f or e xa m ina t ion a nd c orrect ion .

J ohn

H e a sks h is

f r iend t o n ote d own a ny i nstances where h e h as f a i led t o r eturn t o at op ic wh ich h e p ro m ises , e ar lier i n t he w ork , t ha t h e w i l l t rea t .

W ith Wulfad 's l i st i n

h and , J ohn s ays t ha t h e w i l l g o t hrough h is w ork , c orrect ing i tc hap ter b y c hap ter .

The s econd , most s pecif ic r e mark c o mp le men ts t he f irs t .

B y i t se lf ,

E r iugena ' sp ra ise o f Wu lfad f or i nst iga t ing a nd e ncourag ing h is masterp iece m igh t b e t aken a s mere f l at tery d irected t owards a p erson o f i nf luence.

B u t

J ohn 's d eta i led r equest t o Wu lfad s hows t ha t t he t wo men r ea l ly d id c o-opera te , j ust a s s cho lars t oday w i l l p ass t heir f i rst d raf ts r ound t o t heir f r iends, f or c r it icis m a nd c o m men t . The P er iphyseon i s o ne o f t he f ew e ar ly med ieva l works f or wh ich t here i s c lear manuscr ip t e v idence o f a u thor ia l r ev ision . I ti s p ossib le t o i so late t hree s epara te r ev isions , t wo o f t he m a l most c er ta in ly made u nder t he a uthor ' s a eg is.6

'D o J ohn 's i nstruct ions t o Wu lfad c orrespond t o o ne o f t hese s tages

o f r ev is ion?' o ne

a sks immed ia te ly .

Iw ould a nswer t h is q uest ion b y s ug-

g est ing a d if feren t , b ut e qua l ly i n terest ing p ossib i l i ty .

N one o f t he s urv iv ing

r evis ions s uggests t he p rocess o f mak ing g ood ' unfu lf i l led p ro m ises ' wh ich t he d ed ica t ion d escr ibes.

The f i rst i s t oo e x tens ive : J ohn u sed i ta s a n o p-

p or tun i ty t o mod ify a nd d eve lop s o me o f h is k ey a rgu men ts. The s econd , b y c on trast , i s t oo s l igh t ; a nd t he t h ird r ev ision , s l ighter s t i l l , was p robably n ot made b y Er iugena h i mse lf .

The p rocess o f r ev ision f or wh ich J ohn r equires

Wu lfad ' sa ss istance s ee ms, t herefore, t o b e long t o as tage i n t he c o mposi t ion o ft he P er iphyseon b efore a ny o f t hose p reserved i n e x tan t mar n iscr ip ts.

N o t

o n ly i s t h is a n impor tan t p iece o f e v idence i n f avour o f t he t heory t ha t e ven t he e ar liest s urv iv ing manuscr ip t ( Rhe i ms 8 75 ) d oes n o t c on ta in t he v ery f i rst v ers ion o f J ohn ' s work ;7 i ta lso t est if ies t o Wu lfad ' sv ery c lose i nvo lve men t i n t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he Per iphyseon . A no ther p iece o f i n for ma t ion p oin ts t o t he s a me c onclusions. Wu l fad , whose wr i t ings s ee m t o h ave d isappeared a l most w i thou t t race , h as n ever the less l ef t o ne v ery r evea ling r ecord o f h is i n te llectua l l i fe: h is l i brary .

8

al i st o f t he b ooks i n

A s o ne w ou ld e xpect , h is c ol lect ion was e spec ia l ly r i ch i n t he

w ork o f h is f r iend , J ohn S cot tus. I ti nc luded t he E r iugen ian t rans la t ions o f t he p seudo-D ionysius a nd o f Max i mus t he C on fessor ' s A mb igua a nd h is Ad Tha lassiu m . f i seon . e n try a s

Most impor tan t , t hough , i s t he e n try wh ich r eads:

I . I . " .

"L ibri p er i-

E r iugena ' sb iographer , Ma ieul C appuyns, i n terpre ted t h is

t he P er iphyseon i n t wo v olu mes '.

Yet i tw ou ld b e u nusua l i n an in th-

c en tury l ibrary c a ta logue f or a f i gure af ter t he t i t le o f a work t o r epresen t t he n u mber o f v o lu mes o ccup ied b y as ing le c opy o f i t .

9

n a tura l i n terpreta t ions f or t he e n try i n Wu lfad ' sl i st :

There a re t wo f ar more e i ther t ha t t he l i brary

c on ta ined t wo who le c op ies o f t he P er iphyseon ; o r t ha t l i br i r efers t o t he i nd iv idua l b ooks o f J ohn ' s work , a nd t ha t a t t h is s tage Wu lfad p ossessed c op ies o f o n ly t wo o f t he m . w i th t he p h i losopher .

B oth p ossib i l i t ies w ould emphasize Wu lfad ' si n t i macy The f or mer s uggests t ha t h e p ossessed c op ies o f t wo

r ecensions o f t he P er iphyseon ; wh i lst t he l a t ter — l i ke t he d ed ica t ion — a ssigns a r ole t o Wu lfad i n t he e ar liest s tages o f E r iugena ' sp rocess o f c o mp os i t ion . 3 76

Wulfad ' sb ooklist i s wr it ten o n t he p enu lt i ma te f ol io o f h is c opy o f J ohn ' s t rans la t ion o f Max i mus ' s Amb igua.

The f ina l p age o f t h is manuscr ip t c on-

t a ins s o me n otes wh ich h ave f or med t he s ub ject o f ar ecen t , f ascina t ing s tudy b y E douard J eauneau.

1 0

Three o f t he m — a d ef in i t ion o f 's co liae ' ,a q uota t ion

f ro m J ohn C hrysosto m a nd a q uo ta t ion wh ich , i n f act , d er ives f ro m Ambrosius Au tper tus , b ut i s a t tr ibuted b y t he s cr ibe t o ' the s a me J ohn ' — h ave n othing i n e specia l t o l ink t he m t o E r iugena .

B u t t he f our th , p robab ly wr i t ten a t a

d i f feren t t i me f ro m t he o thers, p resen ts t he s or t o f i mag ina t ive e x tension o f J ohn ' st hough t wh ich i s t yp ica l o f h is b est f o l lowers. t he f our d i mensions o f G od : t ure t o t he l owest ; t h ings ;

The p assage d escr ibes

h is l eng th , wh ich s tretches f ro m t he h ighest c rea-

h is w id th , wh ich i s h is a ppearance i n v is ib le a nd i nv isib le

h is h eigh t , b y wh ich h e e xce ls a l l t ha t may b e s a id o ru nderstood ;

a nd h is d ep th , b y wh ich , a s t he e ssence o f a l l t h ings, h e e x ists i nco mprehens ib ly i n h is c rea tures.

These metaphysica l , e p iste mo log ica l a nd o n to log ica l

c haracter ist ics a re a l l t o b e f ound a t tr ibu ted t o G od i n t he P er iphyseon ;

b ut

t he u se o f t he c oncei t a bout G od ' sd i mens ions t o e p i to m ize t he m i s o r ig ina l . A l l t hese n otes must h ave b een wr it ten b y s o meone i n Wu lfad ' sc irc le ; a nd t he i n te ll igen t E r iugen ian is m o f t he f our th i s e xact ly wha t o ne w ou ld e xpect o f Wu lfad h im se lf . T he n on-Er iugen ian c on ten ts o f Wu lfad ' sl i brary f i l l o ut t he p icture o f a s cholar c apab le o fu nderstand ing a nd h e lp ing t he most b r i l l ian t t h inker o f h is c en tury .

Wi th o ne e xcep t ion , ac opy o f P e tron ius, t hey d o n ot i nc lude t he

c lass ica l r ar i t ies wh ich were h oarded b y t he b ib lioph i le p h i lolog ist , l upus o f F err ieres.

N or i s i t at each ing l i brary , l i ke t ha t o f Mar t in o f L aon .

1

Ra ther , Wul fad ' sl i st r ecords t he p ersona l l i brary o f a man whose ma in i nt eres t was t heo logy : t he c o l lec tion i s impressive , n öt s o much f or t he r ar i ty o f i nd iv idua l w orks , a s f or t he v ar iety a nd w eigh t iness o f Wu lfad ' sc hoice. F or i nstance , L upus — l ike Wu lfad — owned a c opy o f Augus t ine 's C onfessions; a nd Mart in p ossessed w orks b y b oth August ine a nd Or igen : b u t o n ly Wul fad i s c o l lec t ion c on ta ined August ine ' s De Tr in i ta te a nd Or igen ' sC o m men tary o n G enesis, b oth o f t he m p h i losoph ica l w orks o f t he f i rst o rder a nd importan t s ources f or t he P er iphyseon .

F rag men tary t hough t he e v idence i s , It h ink t ha t Ih ave s ketched t he o utl i nes o f ap icture o f Wu lfad a nd h is r e la t ions w ith E r iugena .

I ti s n ow p ossib le

t o f i l l i n s o me o f t he d e ta i ls b y l ook ing a t t wo f igures who a cted a s i n ter med iar ies b etween Wu l fad a nd J ohn S cot tus.

One o f t he m , H eir ic o f Auxerre ,

n eeds n o i n troduct ion ; b u t t he o ther — who g oes b y t he s o mewha tu nd ign if ied n a me o f 'i2 ' — c an b e d escr ibed w i thout e xaggera t ion a s p er i lous ly o bscure. F or h is n a me h as n ot b een t he o n ly i nd ign i ty wh ich i2 h as s uffered a t s cho lars ' h ands: u n t i l r ecen t ly , h istor ians c la i med t ha t i2 d id n ot e x ist a t a l l i n h is own r igh t — h e was s i mp ly J ohn S cot tus.

When Traube e xa m ined

t he e ar liest e x tan t manuscr ip t o ft he P er iphyseon , h e was e xci ted t o d iscover i n i te x tensive marg ina l r ev is ions wr it ten i n I r ish s cr ip t .

2

H e c a lled t h is

h and ' , a nd j u mped t o t he c onc lusion t ha t i tb elonged t o Er iugena h i mse lf . B u t w hen Traube ' sp up i l , E . K . Rand , c a me t o r e-exa m ine t he manuscr ip t , h e w as f orced t o r evise h is master ' so p in ions. 3 77

1 3

The marg ina lia i n I r ish

s cr ip t were t he w ork o f n ot o ne , b ut t wo h ands — i1 a nd i2 ; a nd , f or a h ost o f r easons wh ich R and e xp la ins, n ei ther o f t hese i s a t a l l l ikely t o b e long t o J ohn S cottus.

R and ' sa r t ic le was wel l a rgued , b u t h is c o l leagues t ook l i t t le

n ot ice o f i t ; a nd s cholars c on t inued t o b e lieve t ha t e i ther i1 o r , i n most c ases , . 2 I was t he h and o f t he I r ish p h i losopher , l uck i ly , my p resen t p urpose d oes n ot r equire me t o d iscuss t he whole , v exed q uest ion o f J ohn 's a u tograph , b ut mere ly t o s how t ha t i 2 w as n ot h is h and . And a tt he 1 975 Er iugena c onference , T . A . M . B ishop r ead a p aper wh ich d e monstra ted , t o t he s at isfac t ion o f a ll t he e xper ts p resen t , j ust t hat . 1 4 1 2 c er ta in ly worked a s as cr ibe f or E r iugena , e n ter ing marg ina lia f or b oth t he f i rst a nd s econd a uthor ia l r ev isions o f t he P er iphyseon . t hat h e w orked f or Wu lfad t oo.

t he Amb igua makes t h is p robab le ;1 5 p ression .

There i s e vidence

Ab r ief e n try b y i 2 i n Wul fad ' s manuscrip t o f a nd o ther t est i mony b ears o u t t h is im-

One o f t he i n terests wh ich emerges f ro m Wu lfad ' sb ookl ist , i n

a dd i t ion t o t heology , i s s acred h istory :

h is l i brary c on ta ined b oth t he

C assiodorean t rans la t ion o f J osephus, a nd t he H istor ia o f ' Hegesippus l, wh ich i s i n f act a n a bbrevia ted p araphrase o f J osephus , a nd a lso t he H istor ia t r ipar t ita wh ich was c o mp i led u nder C assiodorus ' sd irect ion . works was c o mmon i n t he n in th c en tury . f or s acred h istory .

N one o f t hese

1 2 a pparen t ly s hared t his e n thusias m

A t t he e nd o f a work o f Mar ius V ictor inust s , h e a dds a

n ote ( f ro m J ero me ) o n t he a u thor ' sl i fe.

1 6

Another o f i 2 sh istor ica l n otes

i s e ven more r evea ling , s ince i ti s t aken f ro m t he H istor ia t r ipar t i ta a nd d isc usses t he l i ves o f Gregory o f Nyssa a nd G regory N az ianzen , t wo o f E r iugena ' s f avour i te s ources.

1 7

F ina l ly , t here a re s o me g rounds f or b el ieving t ha t t he

manuscr ip t c on ta in ing t he s econd r ev ision o f t he P er iphyseon ( Ba mberg Ph i l . 2 /1 ) , i n wh ich i 2 c on tr ibutes marg inal g losses a nd l e m ma ta , b elonged t o Wu lfad .

A l though o ne c annot p resu me, a s C appuyns d oes , t ha t t h is i so ne o f t he

manuscr ip ts i nd ica ted i n Wu lfad ' sb ookl ist , t he c odex d oes b ear a s tr ik ing r ese mb lance t o h is c opy o f t he Ambigua .

A nd t he i n f luen t ia l Abbo t o f S t .

Medard w ou ld b e a most p lausib le owner o f t h is c arefu lly wr it ten a nd e d ited c opy o f h is f r iend ' sg rea t w ork .

1 8

H e ir ic o f A uxerre ' sc onnect ion w ith Wu l fad i s f ar b et ter , i fl ess d irect ly , d ocu men ted t han i 2 s .

R iccardo Q uadr i h as s hown t ha t H eir ic s pen t t he y ears

8 63 t o 8 65 a t S o issons, where Wu lfad was Abbot ;1 9

a nd J ohn C on tren i h as

n ot iced a d e ta i l wh ich c onf ir ms t ha t t he t wo men w ere i n s cholar ly c on tact : H e ir ic i s t he o n ly wr i ter o f t he e ar ly M idd le Ages t o s how a k now ledge o f P etron ius, a nd Wu lfad p ossessed a c opy o f t h is e xceed ing ly r are w ork . " N ow t ha t i ta ppears improbab le t ha t H e ir ic s tud ied i n L aon a t t he b eg inn ing o f h is c areer , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t i t was Wu l fad who i n troduced h im t o J ohn ' s p h i losophy .

O f H eir ic ' sE r iugen ian is m t here c an b e n o d oub t .

J eauneau h as

b rough t t o l i gh t as er mon i n wh ich H eir ic u ses b oth t he P er iphyseon a nd E r iugena ' sH om i ly o n t he P rologue t o S t . J ohn ;2 1

wh i lst H eir ic ' su se o f t he

P er iphyseon i n h is L ife o f S t . G er manus h as b een c o m mon k now ledge s ince Traube ' se d i t ion .

Iw ou ld l ike t o d raw a t ten t ion t o a nother a rea i n wh ich i t

was most p robab ly H e ir ic who was J ohn S cot tus ' sb enef ic iary. The e ar ly med ieva l g losses t o t he p seudo-August in ian p araphrase o f Ar istot le ' s Categ or ies a re t he most impor tan t e xa mp les t o h ave s urvived o f Er iugena ' s i nf luence o n h is im med ia te f ol lowers.

3 78

A t t heir b est , t hese g losses t ack le

t he v ery s a me o n to log ica l p rob le ms wh ich h ad b een d iscussed i n t he P er ip hyseon , u sing J ohn ' si deas a s t he b eg inn ing , n ot t he e nd , o ft heir i nvest igat ion .

S ince Haure-a u ' st ime , t hese g losses h ave b een a t tr ibuted t o H e ir ic o n

t he r a ther u nsa t isfactory b asis o f an ote i n a n e ar lyten th c en tury manuscr ip t . Ho wever , an in th-cen tury manuscr ip t , wh ich c on ta ins a f ar r icher c ol lect ion o f Er iugen ian g losses t o t he p araphrase , s hows d ef in i te s igns o f h av ing b een c o mp i led i n A uxerre a nd , Ib e l ieve , h as p a laeograph ica l l inks w i th H e i de ' s c irc le .

And s o , wh i ls t i ti s impossib le t o b e s ure t ha t H e ine wrote g losses

t o t he p seudo-August in ian C a tegor ies, o r q ui te wh ich h e wrote i fh e d id , i ti s v ery p robab le t ha t h e was b eh ind t he c o mp i la t ion o f t he s et wh ich most d ist inc t ly s hows t he i nf luence o f t he P er iphyseon . I fs o, t hen Wu lfad must b e c red i ted w i th h av ing won f or E r iugena h is most d iscr im ina t ing d isc ip le. 2 2 A f t

I tw as n o t o n ly a c o mmun i ty o f i deas w h ich b ound t ogether Wu lfad a nd J ohn , b ut a lso a c o mmun i ty o f f or tune.

B oth men e n joyed t he c on f idence a nd r espect

o f C har les t he B a ld ; b oth owed t he s uccess o f t he ir c areers t o h is p a tronage a nd p rotect ion .

C har les ' sh igh o p in ion o f J ohn ' sa b i li t ies c an b e g a thered

f ro m t he f act t ha t h e g ave h im t he d if f icu lt a nd p rest ig ious j ob o f t ransla t ing t he w orks o f t he p seudo-D ionys ius i n to L a t in . s een more d irect ly . h is

H is e st i ma te o f Wu lfad c an b e

Wr i t ing t o t he P ope , C har les c o m men ts t ha t Wu lfad a lone,

f a i th fu l m in ister ', h as t he q ua l it ies n ecessary f or t he d i f f icu lt j ob o f c on-

t ro ll ing t he a rchd iocese o f B ourges.

I fh e h ad n ot s uch a man i n h is own

k ingdo m , h e w ou ld h ave t o b orrow o ne f ro m a broad .

I fy ou k new Wul fad ' s

l i fe a s we ll a s Id o, C har les a ssures t he P ope , y ou wou ld make h i m ab ishop e ven i fh e d idn ' twan t t o b e o ne .

2 3

C har les ' sl av ish p ra ise h as a p urpose:

h e w an ts t o p ersuade t he P ope t o make Wu l fad a rchb ishop o f B ourges.

B u t

b eh ind t h is p urpose t here l i es f ur ther e vidence o f C har les ' st rust i n Wu lfad ' s c o mpetence. The Emperor 's s on , C har les, was b y n ow s er iously i l l , a nd h e n eeded a p owerfu l , f a i thfu l a dm in istra tor i n Aqu i ta ine t o r ep lace h im .2 4 C har les t he Ba ld was J ohn S co t tus ' sp atron .

B u t a t o ne c rucia l p oin t t he

K ing s ee ms t o h ave g one f ar b eyond t he d ispensa t ion o f p a tronage a nd t o h ave e x tended t o J ohn t he p rotect ion o f h is a uthor i ty when a dversar ies t hrea tened t he p h i losopher ' sc areer a nd p erhaps h is v ery l iber ty.

I n 8 51 Er iugena h ad

b een a sked t o wr i te a r efuta t ion o f G ot tscha lk ' sh eret ica l v iews o n p redestin .at i on .

2 5

I n r esponse , h e p roduced a b r i ll ian t b ut t act less t rea t ise , wh ich was

d angerously o pen t o b e ing m isin terpreted a s ar e ject ion o f d iv ine p redest ina t ion a l together .

G ot tscha lk ' ss upporters r ushed t o a t tack s o e asy a t arget ;

a nd

e ven h is o pponen ts s ee med u nan i mous, t ha t J ohn ' sw ork was f ar more v icious t han t he d octrines h e h ad s et o ut t o r efu te.

And y et J ohn s uf fered n o more

t han v erba l a buse, whereas G ot tscha lk , d esp i te t he p opu lar i ty o f h is v iews i n s o me q uar ters, d ied impr isoned a nd d egraded .

R oya l p rotect ion a lone o ffers

a n a dequa te e xp lana t ion o f why , a s a n e ne my a ngr i ly o bserved , J ohn , s o f ar f ro m b eing c o mpe l led t o k eep s i lence , was g iven p ra ise a nd g rea t h onour.

2 6

T he c ourse o f Wul fad ' sc areer was s im i lar ly marked o ut b y t he e xercise o f C har les ' si nf luence , i n s p i te o f t he o bstac les wh ich H inc mar o f Rhe i ms a t te mp ted t o p ut i n i t s way.

2 7

Wu lfad h ad b een o rda ined p r iest b y E bbo,

3 79

H inc mar ' sp redecessor i n t he s ee o f Rhe im s.

H inc mar was u t ter ly u nw i l l ing

t ha t a ny o f E bbo t so rd ina t ions s hou ld b e h e ld v a l id ; e xcep t ion .

a nd Wu lfad c ou ld b e n o

When t he k ing r evea led h is i n ten t ion t o make Wul fad a rchb ishop

o f B ourges , H inc mar ' so ppos i t ion was imp lacab le.

B u t C harles w as w il ling

t o s trugg le t o t he u t most o n h is p rotege ' sb eha l f .

E ven tua l ly , H inc mar w as

28

f orced t o s ub m i t b y p ressure f ro m t he P ope , w ho m C har les h ad d ef t ly won t o h is s ide o f t he q uarre l.

When , i n 8 66, Wul fad t ook u p t he a rchb ishopric o f

B ourges , h e was t hus f u lf i l l ing b oth h is own a nd C har les ' sl ong-he ld amb i t ion . H e was a lso, f ina l ly , c ut t ing l oose t he i n t i ma te l i nks w h ich h ad b ound h im t o h is c ol league , J ohn S cot tus.

Tr in i ty C ol lege, Ca mbr idge . ,

3 80

NOTES

1 . 2 ,

Mi onu men ta ] G [erman iae ] H [istor ica ] Ep istolae V I , p p . 1 88-192 . C f . De t r ibus e p isto l is ([a trolog ia ] L [a t ina ] 1 21 , 1 052 A ) ; at eacher , s ee M . C app ayns J ean S cot E r igene:

F or J ohn a s

s a v ie, s on o euvre , s a

p ensee ( Louva in/Par is, 1 933 ), p p . 5 9-66. 3 .

C f . J . Mansi S acrorum C onc i l ioru m ... c o l lec t io ( Ven ice , 1 770 ) , XV , 7 99 DE.

4 .

MGH Poe t [ae L a t in i A ev i C aro lin i ], I l , p . 6 90 : H ic d uo s un t f ra tres, a rdens a st a ngu lus u nus: N on s a t is e xpel li t f r igora l usca d or ms. K ar lo mannus, t u is a rr idet p ar t ibus i gn is: N os v ero g e l idos u r i t i n iqua h ie ms. Vu lfadus p raestet n ostru m f l agrare c am inu m D ives l i g r ioru m , p rovidus i pse r og i . Is hou ld l i ke t o t hank M iss C . Ro th f or s ugges t ing t he p oss ib i l i ty o f i n terpre t ing t he p oe m i n t h is way.

5 .

P er iphyseon V , PL 1 22 , 1 022 AB.

The t ranslat ion o f t h is p assage b y

C appuyns ( op .c i t ., p . 1 88 ) i s s o mewha t mis lead ing , s ince i t i gnores t he f ac t t ha t Wu lfad i s a sked t o p resen t J ohn ' s om issions c ol lected i nu nu m , wh i lst J ohn w i l l make h is r ev isions c ap i tula t im — i n t h is c on tex t , p res u mab ly , 6 .

c hap ter b y c hap ter '.

F or t he d i f feren t r ecensions o f t he P er iphyseon , s ee C appuyns, Op , c it ., p p . 1 94-6;

I . P . S heldon- W i l l iams e d . P er iphyseon I ( Scr ip tores

L a t in i H ibern iae V I I ) ( Dub l in , 1 968 ), p p . 1 0-26 ;

P . L ucen t in i , "L a n uova

e d izione d e l ' De d iv isione n a turae ( Per iphyseon ) ' d i G iovann i S coto E r iugena", S tud i Med ieva l i , 3 a S er ie , 1 7 , 1 976, p p . 3 93-414 . 7 .

E . K . Rand ( " The s upposed a utographa o f J ohn t he S cot", Un iversi ty o f C a l iforn ia P ub lica t ions i n C lassica l Ph i lo logy , 5 , 1 920 , p p . 1 35-141 , e sp . p . 1 36 ) g ives a n u mber o f i nstances where t he t ex t o f Rhe i ms 8 75 c an b e most c onv incing ly e xp la ined a s t he r esu lt o f m istaken t ran script i on f ro m a n e ar l ier manuscr ip t .

8 .

S ee M. C appuyns , "L es B ib li Vu lfad i ' e t J ean S cot Er igene", Recherches d e t heolog ie a nc ienne e t med ieva le , 3 3 , 1 966, p p . 1 37-139 . C f . P . L eh mann , "Z ur K enn tn is u nd G esch ich te e in iger J ohannes S cot tus z uges chr iebener Werke", i n h is Erforschung d es M it tela l ters I ( S tu t tgar t , 1 959 ), p p . 1 45-156 , e sp . p p . 1 52-4 ; a nd L . Brix , "N ote s ur l a b ib l iot heque d e Wu lfad d e Rhe i ms", R evue d es E tudes August in iennes, 1 4 , 1 968 , p p , 1 39-141 .

3 81

9 .

The f ol low ing a re t he g enera l p ract ices o f n in th-cen tury l i brary c a tal ogues, a s i ta ppears f ro m t hose p r in ted i n G . B ecker Ca ta log i B ib l iot hecaru m An t iqu i ( Bonn , 1 885 ) , n os. 5 -27 .

These i nc lude o ne o r more

c a ta logues f ro m t he monaster ies o f S ta f fe lsee , R eichenau, F on tanel la , S t . R iquier , F u lda , S t . G a l l , C ologne , We issenberg , Werzburg , F re ising , Ov iedo a nd C ysoing , a nd r ecords o f b ooks i n t he p ossession o f Everard , C oun t o f F r iau l , S ervab as L upus, a nd — i n a l l p robab i l ity — C harle magne ( Ber lin D iez 6 6 ): The n u mber o f v o lu mes a s ing le c opy o f ag iven w ork o ccup ies i s u sua l ly i nd ica ted b y t he p hrases i n c od ice/vo lum ine u no e tc ; s o met i mes n o s uch i nd ica t ions a re g iven ( Becker , n os. 9 , 1 2 , 1 4, 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 7 ).

Mul t ip le c op ies o f t he s a me w ork a re u sua l ly i nd ica ted

b y t he p hrases v o lu m ina d uo/duo v olu m ina e tc .;

b ut i n s o me c ases t he

w ord v olu m ina i s o ccasiona l ly o r a lways om i t ted ( Becker , n os. 8 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 5, 1 6 ). L iber i s g enera l ly u sed t o mean ' book ' i n t he s ense o f s ect i on o f aw ork ( e .g . B ecker , n o. 6 : 4 6:

"d e t r in ita te l ibr i XV i n c od ice

u no" ) ; b u t t he w ord i s a lso u sed t o mean 'c odex ' — t he v o lu me a s a p hysica l e n t i ty — b oth i n t he i n troduc t ions t o l i brary c a ta logues ( f req uen t ly ) a nd i n t he l i sts t he mselves ( Becker , n os. 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 4, 1 7 , 1 9 ). 1 0 .

"Q uisqui l iae e Mazar ineo c od ice 5 61 d epro mp tae", R echerches d e t heol og ie a nc ienne e t me-d ie-v a le , 4 5, 1 978 , p p . 7 9-129 .

Th is a r t icle a lso

c on tains a v ery f u l l d escrip t ion o f Mazar ine 5 61 — t he manuscr ip t o ft he Amb igua — a nd a c o mprehens ive s tudy o f t he h istory o f t h is c odex. 1 1 .

F or d eta i ls o f t he l i brar ies o f L upus a nd Mar t in , s ee E . P e l legrin , "L es manuscr i ts d e L oup d e F err ieres", BEC 1 15, 1 957 , p p . 5 -31, a nd J . C on tren i The C a thedra l S chool o f L aon f ro m 8 50 t o 9 30 :

i ts manu-

s cr ip ts a nd masters ( Menchener B e i trgge .zur Med i f iv ist ik u nd Rena iss ance Forschung 2 9 ) ( 1978 ) , p p . 9 6-7 & f ., r espect ively. 1 2 ,

"Pa laeograph ische F orschungen V . A utographa d es J ohannes S cot tus", Abhand lungen d er k . b ayer ischen Akade m ie d er Wissenschaf ten , p h i l . p h i l . u . h ist . K lasse , 2 6 , 1 , 1 912 .

1 3 . 1 4 .

Op . c it „ n ote 7a bove. "A utographa o f J ohn t he S cot", J ean S cot E r igene e t 1 'H istoire d e l a Ph i losoph ie , e d . R . R ogues ( Par is, 1 977 ) , p p . 8 9-94.

1 5.

J eauneau , Op .c i t ., p . 1 04.

1 6 .

I n B a mberg Pa tr . 4 6. f o l . 4 /R .

1 7 .

Par is BN 1 4088 , f o l . i v

1 8 .

The most i n terest ing p iece i n t he h and o f i 2 ,i s f ound o n t he f l y leaf o f Laon 5 5 f o l .

f r v .

I ti s ap h i losoph ica l p assage o f marked ly E riugen ian

t one a nd a rgu men ts , v ery p oss ib ly t he w ork o f i 2 h i mself .

I th as b een

p r in ted a nd a na lyzed i n B . B ischof f &E . J eauneau , " Ein n euer Tex t a us d er G edankenwel t d es J ohannes S co t tus" , J ean S cot Er i ene e t l 'H is to ire d e l a P h i losoph ie ( c i t .), p p . 1 09-116. 1 9 .

IC o llectanea d i E ir ico d i Auxerre ( Sp ic i leg iu m Fr iburgense 2 ) , ( Fr ibourg , 1 966 ) , p p . 1 8-24 .

3 82

2 0 .

Op .ci t . ,n ote 1 1 a bove , p . 1 46.

2 1.

S ee J eauneau , "Dans l e s i l lage d e l 'Er i ene" S er ie, 1, 1 970 , p p . 9 37-955;

,S tud i Med ieva li , 3 a

& "I nf luences e r igen iennes d ans u ne

h o me l ie d ' Her ic d ' Auxerre" i n The M ind o f Er iugena , e d. J . 0 ' Meara & L . B ie ler ( Dub l in , 1 973 ), p p . 14-124. 2 2 .

F or t he a uthorsh ip a nd c on ten t o f t hese g losses, a nd a n e d i t ion o f t he mos t impor tan t e xamp les , s ee J ohn Marenbon , F ro m t he C irc le o f A lcu in — t o t he S choo l o f Au xerre ( Cambr idge ,

2 3 . 2 4.

2 5.

1 981 ).

Mansi , e d. c it ., 7 07C-709D. S ee F . L ot , "Une a nnee d u r egne d e Char les l e C hauve" , L e Moyen

Age ,6 ,

1 902 , p p . 3 93-438 , e sp . p p . 4 11-413 .

The b est a ccoun t o f J ohn ' si n tervent ion i n t he c on troversy o n p redest ina t ion i s g iven b y Cappuyns, J ean S cot Er igene ( c i t.), p p , 1 02-127 .

2 6.

S ee i b id., p . 1 27 , n , 2 , where Cappuyns q uotes f ro m F lorus ' st reat ise o n p redest ina t ion ( PL 1 19 , 1 26B ).

2 7 .

The l a test a ccoun t o f C har les ' se f for ts t o h e lp Wu lfad a ga inst H inc mar i s p rovided b y J . Devisse i n H inc mar , Archeveque d e Rei ms 8 45-882 ( Geneva , 1 975 ), p p . 9 1-100 , 6 03, 6 11-628 . H ink mar , Erzb ischof v on Rei ms 2 92 , a nd o f F . LA , o p . c i t .,

2 8 .

( Freiburg

The a ccoun ts o f H . S chr e irs im B reisgau, 1 884 ), p p . 2 73-

p p . 4 07-418 , s t il l r e main v a luab le.

On t he c loseness o f Char les ' sc on tacts w ith Wu lfad , wh ich g o b ack t o 8 50 , s ee MGH Ep istolae V I I I , p p . 2 18 :37-219:2 ; Dev isse , o p. c i t . ,p . 6 21 &x i . 3 65;

a nd S chrdrs, o p . c i t . ,p . 2 74,

3 83

2 1 .

THE PALACE S CHOOL OF CHARLES THE BALD R osamond McK i t ter ick

B etween 8 73 a nd 8 77 , H e ir ic o f Auxerre a ddressed h is V i ta S anct i G er man i t o C har les t he Ba ld , a nd i n h is p reface n ot o n ly p ra ised C har les, t he 'w ise S o lo mon ' f or h is l earn ing a nd e n ligh tened g enerosi ty t o s cho lars, b ut a lso r ef erred t o t he w ise who w en t t o h is c our t a nd t he p a lace wh ich mer i ted t he n a me o f a s chool ' b ecause e very d ay o ne m igh t d evote o nese lf t o s cho lar ly a s w e l l a s t o mi l i tary e xercise .

1

H e ir ic ' sr eference t o t he

p a la t iu m i a s a' scola '

i s o ne o f t he f ew s peci f ic p ieces o f i n for ma t ion c oncern ing t he e x istence o f a' pa lace s chool ' ,b ut i tt el ls u s l i t t le a bout e i ther t he n ature o f t h is ' school ' o r who b e longed t o i t .

H inc mar o f Rhei ms ' si dea o ft he c our t a s as choo l

where 'd isc ip lina ' i n i t s w idest s ense w as a cquired , e xpressed i n al e t ter t o

L ou is t he G er man i n 8 58 , i s a lso t an ta lizing ly v ague. 2 The meagre e vidence f or s cholar ly a ct iv i ty a t t he c our t o f C har les t he Ba ld i s o f l i t t le a ssistance t o t hose who w ish , o n t he a na logy o f wha t l i t t le i s c er ta in ly k nown a bout t he c our t s choo l o f C har le magne,

3

t o e nvisage a c ircle o f s cholars a t t he p a lace

( wherever t ha t was ) e ngaged i n l i terary a nd p h i losoph ica l d isputa t ion a nd e nj oy ing a h igh l eve l o f c u lture.

N everthe less, i ti s c lear t hat a 'p a lace s choo l '

o f s o me k ind e x isted d ur ing t he r eign o f C har les t he B a ld . Iwan t i n t his p aper t herefore t o c oncen tra te o n s o me o f t he d i f f icul t ies e ncoun tered i n d ef in ing t he p a lace s choo l a nd i t s c on tr ibu t ion t o C aro l ing ian c u lture.

The p ro-

b le m o f t he p a lace s choo l s hou ld moreover b e c onsidered a s p ar t o f ab roader q ues t ion , n a me ly , t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he r oya l c our t a nd t he k ing h i mse lf p layed a c en tra l o r e ven p ro m inen t p ar t i n t he p ro mot ion o f C aro l ing ian e ducat i on a nd l earn ing i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he n in th c en tury . The e ar l iest r eference t o t he c u lture a t t he c our t o f C har les t he Ba ld i s t he p oe m b y G ot tscha lk a ddressed t o Ra tra mnus o f C orb ie i n 8 49 , i n wh ich h e r efers t o t he n u mber o f masters who r eside a t t he p a lace , i nclud ing L upus ( o f F err ieres ), J onas ( o f Autun ) a nd a c er tain Matgauc lus. 4 T o t h is may b e a dded t he i nd ica t ions i n t he l et ters o f l upus o f F err ieres t ha t e ducated men o f s o me s tand ing s erved C har les i n h is 'c ape l la ' o r c hancery , o r were s i mp ly c lose t o t he K ing : S t . Den is,

6

s uch a s Pardu lus, b ishop o f L aon ,

E broin , b ishop o f P oi t iers,

7

5

I nu is, a bbot o f

a nd H i ldu in , a bbot o f S t . Mar t in a t

T ours a nd S t . G er ma in-des-Pres, d escr ibed b y L upus a s 'mag ister e cclesiast i coru m '

8

J ohn S cotus Er iugena a lso s pen t s o me t i me a t t he c our t .

Pardu lus o f L aon i n h is l et ter t o t he c lergy o f L yons i n 8 51 o r 8 52 men t ions ' the I r ish man c a l led J ohn a t t he p a lace '

9

a nd i n 8 58 J ohn was a sked t o r e-

t rans late t he Opera o f p seudo-D ionysius t he A reopag i te a nd may we l l h ave b een r equ ired t o s tay a tt he p a lace t o d o s o, r a ther t han b orrow ing t he b ook ( n ow Par is BN g r . 4 37 ) wh ich c on ta ined t he D ionysian c orpus.

C appuyns

c on tended t ha t J ohn S cotus was master o f t he p a lace s chool , b ut t here a ppears t o b e n o e v idence t o s uppor t e i ther t h is v iew o r t he t rad it ion t ha t h e was master o ft he s choo l a t 1 20n .

1 0

J ohn S cotus a ppears t o h ave h ad a ssoc ia t ions

w i th a n u mber o f o ther c en tres, s uch a s Rhe i ms a nd S o issons, b es ides t he 3 85

c our t a nd L aon .

A s w e l l a s L upus a nd J ohn S cotus, a l l t he s cho lars who

1

d ed ica ted t heir w orks t o C har les t he Ba ld , t ha t i s , F reculph o f L is ieux , N i thard , Ra tra mnus a nd Paschasius o f C orb ie , H inc mar o f R hei ms , M ilo o f S t . A mand , U suard o f S t . G er ma in-des-Pres, J onas o f Or leans a nd s o me who r e ma in u ni den t if ied , may w el l h ave v isi ted t he c our t ; b ut t here i s l i t t le i nd ica t ion t ha t a ny o ft he m , a par t f ro m l upus, J ohn S cotus a nd H inc mar , d id s o. N ever the less t he n u mber o f w orks c o mposed f or o r d ed ica ted t o t he K ing , t he b eau t ifu l b ooks t ha t w ere p resen ted t o h im s uch a s t he De Ar i th me t ica o f B oethius a nd t he V iv ian B ib le f ro m T ours,

1 2

t he S an P ao lo B ib le p ossib ly f ro m Rhe i ms,

t he s o-ca lled S econd B ib le o f C har les t he Ba ld f ro m S t . Amand ,

1 4

1 3

o r

a nd t he e v i-

d en t i n terest t ha t C har les t ook i n t he i n tel lectua l i ssues o f h is d ay , d o i ndica te t ha t t here was s o me k ind o f l earned f o llow ing a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c ourt a nd t ha t t he k ing a nd t he p ossib i l i ty o f h is p a tronage w ere b eco m ing t he f ocus o f i n te l lectua l a nd a r t ist ic a ct iv i ty .

1 5

C har les t he B a ld ' sl i brary o n t he o ther h and d oes n ot s ee m t o h ave f u lf i lled t he s a me f unct ions a s C har le magne ' sl i brary o r t he l i brar ies o f t he monast ic a nd e p iscopa l f ounda t ions o f t he West F rank ish k ingdo m .

Char les

1 6

t he B a ld ' sb ooks ( or a t l east t hose Ih ave b een a b le t o a ssoc ia te w i th h im ), wh i le p rov id ing a r epresen ta t ive s a mp le o f t he p r incipa l emphases a nd g enera l p reoccupa t ions o f C aro l ing ian s cholarsh ip i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he n in th c ent ury , r e ma in a p ersona l c o l lect ion a nd r ef lect t he more l im i ted i n terests o f t he k ing h i msel f .

H e p ossessed F recu lph o f L is ieux ' sw or ld h istory , N ithard ' s

h istory , E inhard ' sl i fe o f C har le magne a nd t wo a nony mous w orks o n t he h ist ory o f t he F ranks.

H is i n terest i n c on te mporary t heo logy i s e videnced b y

L upus o f F erneres ' sDe Tr ibus Q uaest ion ibus, Ra tra mnus o f C orb ie ' st wo t rea t ises o n p redest ina t ion a nd h is w ork o n t he E uchar ist , P aschas ius R adber tus o n t he E uchar ist , H inc mar o f Rhei ms 'on t he n a ture o f t he s ou l a nd J onas o f Or leans o n t he c u lt o f images.

C har les a lso p ossessed a n u mber o f

s a in t ' sl i ves a nd t he v o lu m inous Mar tyrology o f U suard o f S t . Ger ma in-desP res wr i tten s pec ia l ly f or t he k ing.

H inc mar o f Rhei ms a ddressed C har les o n

many d if feren t a spects o f g overn men t a nd t he k ing a lso p ossessed a c opy o f t he C ap i tu lary c o llect ion o f Anseg isus.

Most o ft he e x tan t manuscr ip ts wh ich

c an b e a ssoc ia ted w i th C har les t he Ba ld , h owever , a re l i turg ica l a nd b ibl ica l b ooks , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f B oeth ius ' s De Ar i th met ica , V eget ius ' s Ep i to ma r e i m i l i tar i , t he Anseg isus c ap i tulary c o l lect ion , ac opy o f t he d ecrees o ft he S ynod o f Par is o f 8 25 a nd s o me o f t he m inor w orks o i August ine.

1 7

Thus t he

c on ten ts o f C har les t he B a ld ' sl i brary c ould n ot h ave s erved t he n eeds o f a s choo l , f or t he t rad i t iona l s chool t ex ts a re a bsen t.

1 8

The p ossib i l i ty r e ma ins ,

h owever , t ha t C har les i nher i ted s o me o f t he b ooks f ro m t he p a lace l i brar ies o f h is f a ther a nd g randfa ther , a nd t ha t t hese b ooks e n joyed more p ub l ic u se.

1 9

Wh i le e vidence o f s cholars a t t he c our t o f C har les a nd o f w orks b eing d ed ic a ted t o h im f i rst a ppears e ar ly i n h is r eign , r eferences t o t he p a lace a s a p lace where y ounger s cholars migh t f ur ther t heir e duca t ion a re r a ther l a ter a nd i tr e ma ins u nc lear h ow o rgan ized o r g enera l ly a va i lab le s uch t eaching was.

A ccord ing t o t he G esta e p iscoporu m A ut issiodorensiu m o f Ra inoga la

a nd A lagus o f Auxerre , s o me t i me a f ter 8 67 H erefr id — who i s d escr ibed a s e x n ob i l issi ma Ar mor ican i t ractus p rosap ia d er iva tus ', a nd who b eca me b ishop o f Auxerre i n 8 87 — was s en t t o t he p a lace b y h is u nc le , B ishop Wa lter o f Or leans, i n o rder t o c o mp lete h is e duca t ion , f or a t t he p a lace s choo l b oth

3 86

n ob le y ou ths a nd t hose d est ined f or e cc lesiast ica l o f f ice c ould s tudy t he l i bera l a r ts .2 0 Th is i s ar a ther more p recise a ccoun t o ft he p a lace s chool t han H eir ic o f A uxerre p rovided i n t he p reface t o h is V ita S anct i G er man ! ,

2 1

The L i fe o f

Radbod , b ishop o f U trech t ( 899-917 ) , r e la tes h ow R adbod a nd h is c o mrades S tephen a nd Mancio ( l a ter t o b eco me b ishops o f L iege ( 901-20 ) a nd e talonss ur-Marne ( 893-908 ) r espec t ively ) , wen t t o t he p a lace s o me t ime a f ter 8 64 2 2 a nd w ere t here t augh t b y Manno, 'p h i losophus /.

The L i fe r e lates t ha t R adbod

c a me t o t he c ourt 'b ecause a t t ha t t ime t he s tudy o f t he s even fo ld w isdo m f l our ished b etween t he w a lls o f C har les ' sh o me ' .2 3

H is b iographer r ecords

t ha t R adbod l e f t t he c our t o n C har les t he B a ld ' sd ea th i n 8 77 . Who was Manno?

H e was a d isc ip le o f Mart in H ibern iensis o f L aon a nd

c e lebra ted a s a master o f L aon b efore h e b eca me a master a t t he p a lace. C on tren i h as s uggested t ha t i t was Mar t in who e n tered f or t he y ear 8 43 i n t he Anna ls o f L aon t he n ote' Manno s co last icus T audunensis n asci tur i .2 4

The

Anna ls o f S t . Max im inus o f Tr ier a lso r ecord Manno ' sb ir thda te , a nd b eside t he y ear 8 76 a h and , p ossib ly t ha t o f Manno h i msel f , h as n oted t hat i n t h is y ear Manno was o rda ined p r iest o n t he 1 6th K a lends o f J u ly . c lues Manno r e ma ins a n e lusive f i gure.

Desp ite t hese

2 5

B ecause h e w ou ld o n ly h ave b een

t wen ty-one i n 8 64 , t he e ar l iest y ear i n wh ich Radbod c ou ld h ave g one t o t he p a lace s chool , i ti s p ossib le t ha t Manno was master a nd Radbod h is p up i l t here r a ther l a ter , i n t he 8 70 ' s .

Traube s ta ted f i rm ly t ha t Manno was a t c ourt f ro m

8 64 t o 8 93 b ut Ih ave b een u nab le t o e stab l ish h ow h e a rr ived a t t hese d a tes; t here s ee ms t o b e n o j ust if ica t ion f or t he m .

2 6

To c on fuse t he i ssue a nother

Manno t urns u p a t as ynod p resided o ver b y Ado o f V ienne i n 8 70 ; t h is Manno i s d escr ibed a s t he ' praeposi tus ' o f S t . Oyan ( S t , C laude ) i n t he J ura .

2 7

Th is Ma r ino d ied b etween 8 80 a nd 8 93 a nd l ef t s o me o f h is b ooks , s ix o f which a re e x tan t , t o t he monastery o f S t . Oyan . Manno o r t wo r e mains u ncer ta in ,

2 9

2 8

Whether o r n ot t here was o ne

b ut o ne f ina l p iece o f e v idence a bou t h im

wh ich i s o f g rea t s ign i f icance i s t he l etter f ro m 'A ' t o 'E ' e xtan t i n aL eiden manuscr ip t a nd d a ted b y De mra ler t o t he e ar ly 8 70 '

s .

3 0

, A , s tates t ha t h e

met Manno a t t he p a lace a t C o mp iegne a nd a sked h im a bout t he mechan ica l a r ts.

I n o ther words, t he

p a lace s choo l ' a t wh ich Manno was a master was

a t C o mp iegne . One o f t he ma jor p rob le ms a bout C har les t he B a ld ' sc our t i s t ha t i tr arely , o r a t l east t he k ing r are ly s tayed i n o ne p lace f or more t han a f ew d ays, o r a t most a f ew w eeks, s o t ha t t o a t te mp t t o d escr ibe a n i t ineran t c our t a s a c en tre o f l earn ing i n a ny s ense w ou ld s ee m f u t i le.

What B rüh l c a l ls C har les

t he B a ld ' s Gastungspol i t ik ' was i n marked c on trast t o t he i t inerary o f h is p redecessors.

C har les moved f ro m p a lace t o p a lace , t own t o t own a nd monas-

t ery t o monastery , most ly w i th in t he I l e d e F rance r eg ion .

3 1

B rüh l ' ss tudy

o f C har les ' si t inerary s hows t ha t t he k ing h ard ly e ver s tayed i n o ne p lace f or a s l ong a s t wo o r t hree months, a nd t ha t t he e xcep t ions were t he w in ters h e s pen t a t h is p a laces a t Qu ierzy a nd C o mp iegne , a lbei t h e u sua l ly moved o n s o mewhere e lse t o c e lebra te Easter .

I n c on trast t o t he s ing le v is i ts p a id

d ur ing h is r e ign t o p laces l ike N i j mwegen , C ologne , H ersta l , V ienne , C ler mon t a nd many o thers, h e made s evera l v isits t o p ar t icu lar monaster ies o r p a laces s uch a s S t . Medard d e S o issons ( 7v isits ) , S t . Mar t in o f Tours ( 8 ) , S t . Quen t in ( 8 ) , Rhei ms ( 13 ), S ervals ( 14 ) , A t t igny ( 14 ) , a nd S t , Den is ( 16 ).

3 87

B efore 8 67

S t . D en is i s o n ly men t ioned i n t he i t inerary t hree t imes, i n 8 44, 8 45 a nd 8 64 , b ut a f ter C har les b eca me a bbot t here i n 8 67 h e o f ten s pen t t he who le o f t he L en ten s eason a nd E aster a t S t . Den is:

E aster 8 68 , 8 69 , 8 71, 8 72 , 8 74, 8 75

a nd 8 76 a re r ecorded a t S t . Den is i n t he Anna ls o f S t . B ert in .

I n 8 70 a nd 8 77

h owever , C har les c e lebra ted E aster a t C o mp iegne , a nd t he Anna ls o f S t . B er t in a nd r oya l c har ters r ecord C har les a t C o mp iegne o n n o l ess t han t h ir ty-f ive s epara te o ccasions, t he n ex t most f avoured r es idence b eing Quierzy w ith t h ir ty v isi ts .

A f ter a bou t 8 66, h owever , C o mp iegne s ee ms t o h ave b een t he most

f avoured w in ter r esidence , a nd i t was a t t h is p a lace t ha t h e s pen t more t i me t han a nywhere e lse t hroughou t h is r e ign , b ut more e specia l ly i n t he l at ter p ar t o f i t .

I t was a t C o mp iegne f ur ther more t ha t C har les t he Ba ld h ad a p a la-

t ine c hape l b ui l t i n i m ita t ion o f t he .chape l C har le magne h ad h ad b ui lt a t Aachen a nd w i th t he i n ten t ion t ha t C o mp iegne w ou ld t ake t he p lace o f Aachen i n t he Western k ingdo m , o nce a l l h ope o f r egain ing Aachen h ad b een l ost a f ter 8 76.

3 2

A l though C o mp iegne h ad b een b oth a Meroving ian a nd Caro l ing ian r oya l p a lace , i t was o n ly a f ter C har les t he B a ld ' sc oronat ion a s Emperor t hat h e f ounded t he p a la t ine c hape l a nd t he monastery o f S t . Mary 's a t C o mp iegne. 3 3

I n t he

f ounda t ion c har ter o f 5 th May 8 77 , h e f i rst d escr ibes h ow C harle magne h ad c onstructed a c hape l a t Aachen i n h onour o f Mary , t he mother o f G od , a nd f or t he s a lva t ion o f h is s oul a nd t he d ign ity o f h is imper ia l c rown .

C har le magne

h ad g iven t he c hape l r e l ics, a nd embel l ished i tw i th p recious o rna men ts. C har les t he B a ld t hen s ta tes: 'We h ave a lso d es ired t o im itate o ur a ncestors; a nd a s t ha t p ar t o f t he Emp ire i s n o l onger a va i lab le , i n t he p a lace o f C orn, p iegne wh ich i su nder o ur a uthor i ty we h ave f ounded i n h onour o f Mary t he g lor ious mother o f G od a nd a lways v irg in , t he monastery t o which w e h ave g iven t he r oya l t i t le , a nd w e h ave e ndowed i t , w i th G od ' sh e lp , w i th a s many g i f ts a s p ossib le ;

a nd w e h ave d ecided t hat t he c lergy , ' o ne h undred i n n u m-

b er , s hould b eseech t he mercy o f G od t here f or t he ma in tenance o f t he c hurch o f G od , f or o ur p aren ts a nd g rand-paren ts , f or o ur w i fe a nd o ur c h i ldren a nd f or t he s tab i l i ty o f t he Emp ire ' .3 4

The monastery was e ndowed w i th l and ,

o b jec ts o f g o ld , s i lver a nd p rec ious s tones , r el ics a nd v es t men ts .

3 5

Noth ing

was t o b e c hanged a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he n u mber o f a n h undred b rethren t ha t C har les h ad d e ter m ined was n ot t o b e r educed .

The Anna ls o f S t . B ert in

r ecord f or 8 77 t he s a me s o le mn c onsecra t ion o f t h is c hurch. 36

A d escr ip-

t i on o f t he p a la t ine c hape l h as a lso s urvived , f or t he i den t if icat ion o f S t . Mary 's o f C o mp iegne w i th t he c hurch d escr ibed i n t he p oe m Au lae S iderae a t tributed t o J ohn S cotus E r iugena a nd e x tan t i n C orpus C hr ist i C ollege , Ca mbr idge MS 2 23 , p p . 3 42-4 , s ee ms r easonab ly c er tain . 37 T he p oe m d escr ibes a p olygona l c hurch , d ed ica ted t o S t . Mary , w i th c o lu mns o fv ar iegated marb le , g lass i n t he w indows, many a l tars, p or t icos a nd f ine a rches , where l a mps g lea med a nd where t he p a in t ings, p aving a nd s tone w ork w ere a s ource o f w onder men t . The who le was magn if icen t ly r ea l ized f or t he h undred b rethren f or who m t he b ui ld ing was i n tended , a nd h ere w e may r eca l l t he e xp l ic i t p rovision f or a n h undred c ler ics i n t he f oundat ion c harter o f C har les t he B a ld .

3 8

I tw as more-

o ver a t C o mp iegne i n 8 77 t ha t C har les r eceived t he ambassadors o f P ope J ohn V II I .

3 9

A t Q uierzy i n J une o f t he s a me y ear h e i ssued t he f a mous c ap i tulary

i n wh ich h e made p rovision f or h is k ingdo m , l ands a nd p ossessions i n t he e ven t o f h is d eath . 40

Three c lauses i n t ha t c ap i tulary make p art icu lar r e-

f erence t o t he p a lace a nd monastery a t C o mp iegne , a nd i t was t o S t . Mary ' s , C o mp iegne , t ogether w i th S t . Den is a nd h is s on L ou is t ha t C harles b equeathed 3 88

P l . 9 :

P ar is , B ibl . Na t ., l a t . 1 152 , f .3v ( f ig . 1 ) a nd l a t . 1 141 , f .2v a nd 5 ( f ig . 2 -3 ).

3 89

h is l i brary . 41

C har les ' se f for ts t o make C o mp iegne h is c ap ita l w ere r e-

me mbered i n t he e leven th c en tury , f or t hen C o mp iegne was d escr ibed a s h is 'C ar lopol is t .42 C er ta in ly C o inp iegne r e ma ined i n t he l a te n in th a nd i n t he t en th c en tury t he p r incipal r esidence o f s o me o ft he l ast C aroling ians. L ou is t he S ta m merer was c onsecra ted a nd c rowned a t C o mp iegne i n 8 77 a nd b ur ied t here t wo y ears l a ter . 43 Odo was p roc la i med k ing t here i n 8 88 , a nd b oth S t . D en is a nd C o mp iegne w ere t he most importan t r oyal n ecropo lises f or t he l a ter C arol ing ians. I n v iew o f t he i ncreasing impor tance o f C o mp iegne f ro m t he m id-860 ' s o nwards b oth a s t he f avoured r esidence o f t he k ing a nd a s t he s ubst i tu te f or Aachen , a nd t he e vidence f or t he p a lace s choo l w h ich a lso d a tes f ro m t he m id-860 ' sa nd t he 8 70 ' s , t he s tate men t o f t he w r i ter o f t he l e t ter t o E ' t ha t t he p a lace s choo l was a t C o mp iegne a t l east makes s ense h istor ica l ly . 44 I s t here a ny o ther e v idence t ha t c an b e b rough t t o b ear o n t he c u ltura l impor tance o ft he c our t o f C har les t he B a ld? C har les t he B a ld ' sP rayerbook , n ow i nt he S cha tzka m mer d er R esidenz i n Mun ich ,4 5 u sua lly d a ted 8 60 , i s o ne o f t he e ar liest o f ag roup o f t we lve r ich ly-decorated a nd d ist inct ive manuscr ip ts a scr ibed b y Wi lhelm K oehler t o t he 'H ofschule K ar ls d es K ah len ' .46

S even o ft he manuscrip ts p roduced

b y t h is s t i l l u n iden t if ied a te lier may b e a ssoc iated d irect ly w ith t he k ing. They a re: t he P rayerbook , t he P sa l ter o f C har les t he Ba ld ( Par is BN l a t . 1 152 ) , t he C o mp iggne An t iphonary ( Par is BN l a t . 1 7436 ) , aP sa l ter i n Wol fenbe tel ( Herzog A ugust B ib . MS 3 025 ) wr i t ten a l most e n t ire ly i n g old a nd s i lver T iron ian n otes, a s acra men tary f rag men t ( Par is BN l a t . 141 ), t he 'G ospe l B ook o f C har les t he B a ld ' ( Par is BN l at . 3 23 ) a nd t he C odex Aureus n ow i n Mun ich ( Cl m 1 4000 ) . 47

K oeh ler d iv ided t he manuscr ip ts o f t he

H ofschule '

i n to t hree g roups a ccord ing t o b oth s ty l ist ic a nd c hronologica l c onsiderat ions; h it h e s tressed t hat t he s choo l was v ery s hor t l i ved , t ha t t he t ex to f t he G osp els s o me o ft he manuscr ip ts c on ta in i su nre markab le, a nd t ha t t here was n ever a t rad i t ion d eve loped i n t he p or traya l o f t he E vange l ists.

O f t he p erhaps

e igh t r epresen ta t ions o f C har les t he B a ld s urviv ing , 48 t hree o r p ossibly f our a ppear i n c od ices p roduced b y t he ' Hofschu le ' .4 9 The p or trai t i nt he Mun ich P rayerbook , t he o n ly me mber o f K oeh ler ' s Group I( t he e ar l iest s urviving manuscr ip ts o ft he 'H ofschu le ' )wh ich c an b e a ssoc iated d irect ly w i th Char les t he B a ld , d ep ic ts t he k ing k nee ling i n p rayer whereas t he o ther manuscr ip t p or tra i ts s ea t t he k ing o n at hrone. 5° The p a in ted b order r ound t he Prayerb ook p or tra i t s i mu la tes g o ld a nd p recious s tones ;

i ta nd t he c olour ing , w i th

t he d eep b lue b ackground , t he way t he l i nes o f t he k ing ' sc loak a re p icked o ut i n g old a nd wh i te a nd t he l avish u se o f g o ld a re c haracteristic o f t he H ofschu le ' s ty le, a lbei t t he f i gure i t se lf i s s a id t o s how s o me s igns o f Rhei ms i n f luence. C har les t he B a ld ' sP sa l ter o n t he o ther h and , w i th i t s c har m ing p or tra i t o n f .3 v o f C har les e n throned , b elongs t o K oeh ler ' s Group I , a nd i s d a ted b efore 8 69 , f or i n t ha t Y ear C har les t he B a ld g ave i tt o t he c a thedra l c hurch o f Metz o n h is c orona t ion a s k ing o f L othar ing ia. 5 1 Aga in t he c haract er ist ic c olour ing i s e viden t : b rown , r ed a nd g reen p redo m inate a nd t he i nscr ip t ion i n g old i s wr i t ten o n ap urp le p a in ted p ane l. T here i s p erhaps a r em in iscence o f t he T ours p a in t ing s ty le i n t he d ecorat ion i n t he s pandrels a nd t he a can thus l ea f c ap ita ls ( P l . 9 , F ig . 1 ) , b u t t he l ea fwork o rnamen t i n t he r idge o f t he a rch ( P l . 9 , F ig . 1 ) i s ap ar t icu lar mo t if o f t he 'H ofschu le ' . I tc an 3 90

b e s een more c lear ly i nt he p icture o f Dav id t he P sa lm ist a nd h is p rancing music ians f ro m f .i ' ,52

where t he g rea ter e nr ich men t o f t he b orders, w i th

t he l i nes o f t he l eaves p icked o ut i n wh i te, i s m u .ch more e v iden t .

The d is-

t inct iveness o f t h is s ty le w i l l b e a pparen t i fi tb e c o mpared t o t he s ty les r ep resen ted i n t hree o f t he c od ices p resen ted t o C har les t he B a ld t hat w ere p roduced i n o ther a te liers . Ba ld f or e xa mp le,

A l arge p ar t o f t he Th ird B ib le o f C har les t he

w as wr it ten b y t he s cr ibe I ngobert u .s, p ossib ly a t Rhe i ms

5 3

b ut t he magn i f icen t d ecora t ion c o mbines r em in iscenses o f t he w ork o f a l l t he ma jor a tel iers o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury — T ours, Rhe i ms, t he f ranco-saxon s choo l a nd t he 'H ofschu le ' .5 4 t he B a ld ( f .

I r )

The l arge p or tra i t o f C har les

a lso i nc ludes b y h is s ide h is q ueen , p robab ly R ich ild is ,

5 5

wh ich i s t he o n ly k nown c on te mporary r epresen tat ion o f aF rank ish q ueen . C har les t he B a ld ' sF irst B ib le ( Par is BN l a t . 1 , a lso k nown a s t he V ivian B ib le ) was p resen ted t o t he k ing b y C oun t V iv ian , a bbot o f T ours, i n 8 45 o r 8 46 , a nd i s p erhaps t he most b eauti fu l o f a l l t he b ooks p roduced a t T ours. C har les t he B a ld i s d ep icted o n f .4v r eceiv ing t he g i f t o f t he B ib le f ro m t he b re thren o f T ours. 5 6

T he c on trast b etween t he s ty le o f T ours a nd t hat o f t he

H ofschu le ' i s e ven more a pparen t when t he T ours v ersion o f David a nd h is r nusicians f ro m f .2 15v i s c o mpared w ith t he ' Hofschu le ' v ersion .

5 7

The

f ranco-saxon s tyle i s r epresen ted b y t he S econd B ib le o f C har les t he B a ld ( Par is BN l a t . 2 ) ;

t h is s p lend id b ook was wr it ten a t S t . Amand a nd p resented

t o t he k ing b etween 8 70 a nd 8 75.

I tc on ta ins n o h u man f i gures b u t s i mp ly

s even ty-four l arge a nd i n tr ica te ly p at terned i n i t ia ls, o f wh ich t he b eginn ing o f t he B ook o f G enesis f ro m f . 1r i s af ine e xa mp le. 58 T he a r t ist L iu thard was r esponsib le f or t he p a in t ing i n C har les t he Ba ld ' s P sa l ter , a nd h is w ork i s t o b e s een i n t wo o ther manuscr ip ts o f t he

H ofschu le ',

Dar mstad t L andesb ib l iothek 7 46 a nd t he Mun ich C odex A ureus, ( where h e i s d escr ibed , w i th B erengar , a s t he s cr ibe ) t he f or mer e ar lier a nd t he l at ter l a ter t han t he P sa lt er .

O f as im i lar d a te t o t he P sa l ter , b ut w i th r a ther more

e labora te p resen ta t ion o f t he f igures a nd d ecora ted b orders i s t he S acra ment ary f rag men t , n ow P ar is BN l a t . 1 141 , wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een d est ined t o mark t he c orona t ion o f C har les a s k ing o f L othar ing ia i n 8 69 , b u t was n ever c o mp leted .

5 9

On f .2 v ay oung F rank ish p r ince , f l anked b y t wo b ishops, i s

b e ing c rowned . 6 ° The f i gures h ave b een v ar iously i nterpreted a s C lovis b et ween S a in ts R em ig ius a nd Arnul f ( . ) o r C har les t he B a ld b etween b ishops Adven t ius o f Metz a nd H inc mar o f Rhei ms, a nd t he f act t ha t a ll t hree f i gures a re n i mbed h as b othered many a r t h istorians.

The l et ter ing i n t he b ot to m

p ane l o f t h is p icture ( a ga in p a in ted p urp le ) h as i n f act c o me t hrough f ro m t he o ther s ide o f t he l eaf ; i ti s ag rea t p ity t he i nscr ip t ion i n tended f or t h is s cene was n ever a dded .

The c haracter ist ic d ecora t ive mot i fs a re emp loyed.

There

i s t he a can thus l eaf b order ( P l . 9 , F ig . 2 ) a nd t he v ery d ist inct ive u se o f c o lour : b rown ish r ed , g reen a nd b lue p redo m inate , t he d eta i ls o f t he l obes i n t he a can thus l eaves, o ft he r oset tes a t t he c en tre o f e ach b order , a nd o f t he f ans i n t he c orners a re a ga in p icked o u t i n wh i te a nd g o ld ( F igure 2 ) .

The c louds

a bove a nd b e low t he f i gures a nd t he d eep b lue b ackground a re s ingu lar f eat ures o f t h is manuscr ip t ; z oned l ike i vory p ane ls.61

K oeh ler h as n oted h ow s o me o f t he p ictures a re On f .5 r a re s tr ik ing h a l f f i gures o f s ain ts a nd

a nge ls, wh i le t he b order i s a gain r ich ly d ecora ted w ith t he c haracter ist ic l eaf p at tern b ut w i th a n a ddi t iona l b e jewel led g o ld b and l i ke t ha t i n t he P rayer-

3 91

b ook ( P 1 . 1 0 , F ig . 4 ) . T he most r esp lenden t o f t he H ofschu le ' manuscr ip ts , h owe ver , i s t he C odex A ureus. 6 2 I ti s d a ted c . 8 70 a nd r epresen ts t he c u lm ina t ion o ft he ' Hofschule ' s ty le .

E very s quare m i l l im e tre o n t he d ecora ted p ages i s

f i l led w i th r ich c o lour a nd o rna menta l d e ta i l . 63

The p or tra i t ( f .5 v )o f t he

k ing e n throned a nd f l anked b y f a i thfu l r e ta iners a nd a nge ls g l it ters w ith g old l eaf .6 4 T he d ecora ted b orders t hroughou t t he b ook v ary c onsiderab ly i n i nt r icacy , w i th s equences o f p at terns b eing emp loyed a nd g o ld u sed t o p ick o u t e very d e ta i l .

T he o rna men ted i n it ia ls, o f wh ich t he M o n f .4 4Y ( p 1 .9 , F ig . 3 ) i s

o n ly a m inor e xa mp le , a re c a l ligraph ic masterp ieces; t he s crip t o f t he t ex t i s ar egu lar s ta te ly u ncia l , t hough s o me e legan t m inuscule i su sed a s we ll . The d ist ingu ishing f eature , i fo ne c an c a l l i tt ha t , o f t he ' Hofschu le ' g roup a s a who le i s i t s e c lect icis m : t he p a in t ing a nd d ecora t ion r ef lect s ty l ist ic i nf l uences f ro m v ar ious c en tres, t he most importan t o f wh ich a re t he s ty les o f R hei ms , T ours a nd Metz .

T his v ery e clect ic is m s ee ms t o me t o b e wha t o ne

m igh t e xpect f ro m ag roup o f a rt ists f ro m d i f feren t c en tres g athered t ogether b y ap a tron i no rder t o p roduce b ooks f or h is p ersona l u se.

The ' Hofschule '

s ty le , moreover , was n ot o n ly a s hor t l i ved p heno menon — n one o f t he manus cr ip ts c an b e d ated p ost-877 — i ta lso a ppears t o h ave h ad l i t t le i nf luence o n s ubsequen t p a in t ing s ty les, a par t f ro m t he i conography o f J ero me i n Char les t he B a ld ' sP sa l ter wh ich s ee ms t o h ave i nf luenced t he O t ton ian s chool o f b ook p ain ters a t C ologne. 6 5 There may a lso h ave b een i vory c arvers, g o lds m i ths a nd s i lver-s m i ths w ork ing i n c on junct ion w i th t he H ofschule ' a rt ists. P roducts o f t hese c raf tsmen a re , a ccord ing t o We i tz mann , t he i vory b ook c overs o f C har les t he Ba ld 's P sa l ter 6 6 ( d ep ict ing s cenes s a id t o b e t aken f ro m t he U trech t P sa l ter ) a nd i t s b orders o f l ea ther s tudded w i th p rec ious s tones a nd d ecora ted w i th s eed p ear ls a nd g o ld f i ligree ; p ossib ly t he i vory b ook c overs o f P ar is BN l a t . 3 23; t hose o f t he P rayerbook ; a nd t he magn i f icen t meta lwork o f t he C odex A ureus b ind ing . 67 T he f a mous t hrone t ha t C har les t he B a ld i s t hough t t o h ave p res en ted t o t he P ope o n h is c orona t ion a s Emperor i n 8 75 i s d ecora ted w ith i vory c arv ings ( i nc lud ing a p or tra i t o f t he k ing ) w h ich h ave b een a t tr ibu ted t o t he s a me w orkshop a s t he i vory b ook c overs o f t he P sa l ter a nd P rayerbook . 68 E clect icis m a lso a ppears t o b e af eature o f t hese i vor ies: r em in iscences o f b oth t he R he i ms a nd T ours s ty les h ave b een d etected , h it t heir s trongest a f f in i t ies a re w i th t he H ofschule ' manuscr ip ts. I fi vory c arvings, meta lw ork a nd d ecora ted manuscr ip ts o f s uch h igh q ua li ty were p roduced i n t he s a me a te lier , t hen we a re d ea l ing w i th a c en tre t ha t c ould d raw o n t he b est t a len t a va i lab le i n t he k ingdo m . There h ave b een a n u mber o f a t te mp ts t o l oca te t he a t e lier wh ich p rod uced t he 'H ofschule ' manuscr ip ts. There a re n o s trong p a laeograph ica l c lues t o t heir o r ig in ; d iscussing t he s cr ip t o f C lm 1 4000 B ischof f s ays merely t ha t t he c od ices o ft he

H ofschule ' u sed t o b e a scr ibed t o 'C orb ie t a nd t ha t

S t . Den is i s n ow f avoured. 6 9

S t . Den is may wel l b e ap ossib i l i ty , b ut t he

a rgu men ts i n i t s f avour a re u nconvincing . " o n p a laeograph ica l g rounds.

C orb ie may a lso b e r e jected

I n 1 968 B ischof f e xpressed t he o p in ion , i n c on-

v ersa t ion , t ha t Dar mstad t 7 46, o ne o f t he e ar liest o f t he ' Hofschule ' manus cr ip ts, m igh t h ave b een wr it ten a t S oissons; b u t h e d oes n ot s ee m t o h ave e xtended t h is a t tr ibut ion t o c over t he o ther manuscr ip ts i n t h is g roup .

3 92

7 1

P l . 1 0 :

F ig . 4 .

I n i t ia l M f ro m t he Codex Aureus

Mun ich , S taa tsb ibl ., C lm 1 4000 , f .44 : a c tua l s ize 1 03 x 1 08 m m .

3 93

On a r t-h istor ica l g rounds t he ' Hofschu le ' manuscr ip ts c an b e a ssigned d ef i n ite ly n ei ther t o Rhe i ms n or t o T ours n or t o Metz. I n 1 957 N orden fa lk made t he t en ta t ive s uggest ion t ha t t he 'H ofschule ' s hould b e l oca ted a t C o mp iegne.

7 2

The o n ly a rgu ment , a s d ist inc t f ro m d oub t , p roduced a ga inst h is v iew was t ha t a s t he monastery o f S t . Mary ' sa t C o mp iegne w as n ot f ounded u n t i l 8 75 o r 8 77 , t hen t he p ossib il i ty o f C o mp iegne h ad t o b e r u led o u t .

7 3

B u t t his r ests

o n t he u nwarran ted a ssu mp t ion t hat o n ly monks i n a monastery c ou ld p a in t b ooks, a nd i gnores t he s ign i f icance o f t he e c lec t icis m o f t he 'H ofschu le ' c od ices.

T he

H ofschule ' a te l ier w as a ct ive f ro m , a t t he v ery e ar l iest , t he

e ar ly 8 60 ' su n t i l 8 77 . 8 60 ' sa nd t he 8 70 ' s .

The e v idence f or t he p a lace s choo l d a tes f ro m t he m idC o mp iegne i t self was t he p a lace most f avoured b y

C har les t he B a ld , p ar t icu lar ly f ro m t he m id-860 ' so nwards.

Is hou ld l ike,

t herefore , t o r ev ive N orden fa lk ' ss uggest ion w i th r egard t o t he manuscr ip ts a nd l oca te t he

H ofschule ' a te l ier , a s w el l a s t he p a lace s choo l , a t C o mp iegne .

The e v idence f or t he w ork o f t he p a lace s choo l a nd

H ofschule ' t hat Ih ave

e xa m ined i n t h is p aper i nd ica tes h ow p ro m inen t ap osi t ion t he r oya l c our t e nj oyed i n t he p ro mot ion o f C aro l ing ian c u lture.

Y et t he a bundan t e v idence f or

i n te l lec tua l a nd a r t ist ic a ct ivi ty i n c en tres o ther t han t he c ourt , i n clud ing t hose p ar t icu lar ly f avoured b y C har les t he B a ld , s uggest s t ha t i t was r oya l p a tronage t ha t was o f f unda men ta l impor tance f or C aro l ing ian c ul ture , a t l east i n t he Western k ingdo m , i n t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he n in th c en tury.

Ra ther t han

C har les t he B a ld ' sf avour b eing r eserved f or t hose who may h ave b een a t c our t , t he w eb o f r oya l p atronage e xtended f ar a nd w ide i n t he k ingdo m .

N ewnham C o l lege , Ca mbr idge

3 94

NOTES

I .

H eir ic o f Auxerre , '

i t a u t mer i to v oci tetur s cola p a la t iu m c uius

a pex n on minus s colar ibus q ua m m i l itar ibus c onsuesci t c ot id ie d iscip l in is ': V i ta s anct i G er man i MGH P oet , i f i p . 4 29 .

The d a t ing i s

a ccord ing t o R . Q uadr i , Ic ollectanea d i E ir ico d i Auxerre , S p ici leg iu m F r iburgense I ( Fr ibourg 1 966 ) . 2 ,

H inc mar o f Rhei ms, ' Et i deo d o mus r eg is s cola d ici tur , i d e st d iscip l ina ;

q uia n on t an tu m s co last ici , i d e st d iscip lina t i e t b ene c orrect i ,

s un t , s icut a l i i , s ed p ot ius i psa s co la q uae i n terpretatur d iscip l ina , i d e s t c orrec t iod ic i tur , q uae a l ios h ab i tu , i ncessu , v erbo e t a c tu a tque t o t ius b on i ta t is c on tinen t ia c orriga t ' : MGH C ap . I , p . 4 36.

These r e-

f erences a nd t heir imp lica t ions h ave r ecen t ly b een d iscussed b y P ierre

C har les l e C hauve e t l a c ul ture d e s on t e mps ', J ean

S cot E r igene e t l 'histoire d e l a p h i losoph ie , C ol loques i n terna t ionaux d u C . N . R . S . N o. 5 61 ( Par is 1 977 ) . 3 .

On t he s chool a t C har le magne 's c our t s ee F . B runh e ilz 1 , ' Der B i ldungs auf trag d er H ofschu le ' , Kar l d er G rosse L ebenswerk u nd Nach leben Ie d . B . B ischof f ( Düsse ldor f 1 965 ) , p p . 2 8-41 ; ' Kar l u nd d ie D ich ter ' , i b id ., p p . 6 3-94 ;

W. v on d en S teinen ,

a nd D . S cha l ler ,

' Poet ic

r iva lr ies a t t he c our t o f C har le magne ' , C lass ica l I n f luences o n Europ ean Cu l ture A .D . 5 00-1500 , e d . R . R . Bo lgar ( Cambr idge 1 971 ) p p . 1 51-7. 4 . 5 .

MGH P oet . I I , p . 7 36 , 1 1 1 07-118 . L . L ev i l la in , L oup d e F err ieres , C orrespondance ( Par is 1 964 ) , Ep . 6 6, p . 2 42-4.

6 .

I b id., Epp . 1 4-16, 2 5, 3 0 , 4 5, 4 9 ,

7 .

I b id ., Ep . 2 3.

8 .

I b id. E pp . 8 9 , 9 0.

On t he c apel la o f C har les t he Bald s ee J . F leckenstein ,

D ie H ofkapel le d er d eutschen K ön ige I( S tu t tgar t 1 959 ) p p , 1 42-51. 9 . 1 0 .

R em ig ius o f L yon , De Tr ibus e p is tol is l i ber PL 1 21 c ol , 1 052 A . M . C appuyns

J ean S cot E r igene , s a v ie , s on o euvre, s a p en see [ Lou-

v a in 1 933 ] p . 6 6 a nd c o mpare J ohn J . C on tren i , The C a thedra l S chool o f L oon f ro m 8 50 t o 9 30 . p p . 8 3-5.

I t s Manuscr ip ts a nd Masters ( Mun ich 1 978 )

1 1 .

C on tren i i b id .; p . 8 7 ,

1 2.

N ow B a mberg S taa t liche B ib l iothek C lass. 2 ( wr itten c . 8 45 ) a nd BN l at . 1( 9 _ . 8 46 ) r espect ive ly . T ours.

S ee H . K essler , The I l lustra ted B ib les f ro m

S tud ies i n Manuscr ip t I l lu m ina t ion 7 ( Pr ince ton 1 977 ) a nd

W. K oeh ler ,

D ie K aro l ing ische M in iaturen I .

( Ber lin 1 935 ) . 3 95

D ie S chu le v on Tours

1 3.

The B ible i n t he c hurch o f S an Paolo f uori l e mura i n Ro me.

S ee

J . E . G aehde i n Fr i th m i t tela l terl iche S tud ien 5 , 1 971 p p . 3 59 -4 0 0 , 1 3 8 , 1 974 , p p . 3 51-84 a nd 9 , 1 975 , p p . 3 59-89. 1 4.

BN l a t . 2( 2 _1 .8 70-1 ).

1 5.

R . McK i t ter ick ' Charles t he Bald ( 8 23-877 ) a nd h is l i brary : t ronage o f l earn ing" , EHR , XCV , 1 980 , p p . 2 8-47.

1 6.

B . B ischof f ' D ie Ho fbibl iothek K ar ls d es Grossen ( Kar l d er Grosse. L ebenswerk u nd N achleben ) I e d. B . B ischof f ( Düsseldorf 19 65 ) p p .

t he p a-

4 2-62 , ' Panora ma d er Handschr if ten U berl ieferung a us d er Z e i t K arls d es Grossen ' , i b id ., p p . 2 33-54, a nd ' D ie B ibl iothek i m D ienste d er S chu le ' , L a S cuola n el l ' occ iden te l a t ino d el l ' a l to Med ioevo I S et t i mane d i S tud io d el c en tro I t a l iano d i s tud i s u l l ' a l to Med ioevo X LX ( Spoleto 19 72 ) p p . 3 85-415. 1 7.

Ih ave d iscussed a l l t hese i n d e ta il i n my a rt icle c i ted a bove n . 1 5.

1 8.

G . G lauche,

S chu l lek ture im Mi t tela l ter .

E n tstehung u nd Wandlungen

d es L ek turekanons b is 1 200 n ach d en Que l len d arges tel l t ( Mun ich 1 970 ). 1 9 .

On t he p ossible f a tes o ft he l i brar ies o f C harle magne a nd L ou is t he P ious s ee B . B ischof f , ' D ie Hofb ibl iothek u n ter L udw ig d e m Fro mmen ' , Med ieval L earn ing a nd L itera ture.

E ssays p resen ted t o R ichard

Wil l ia m Hun t e d. J . J . G . A lexander a nd M. T . p p . 3 -22. 2 0.

MGH S S X I II , p . 4 00.

G ibson ( Ox ford 19 76 )

On t he a u thorsh ip s ee P . J an in ' He ir ic d 'Auxerre

e t l es Gesta p on t if icu m Au t iss iodorens iu m ‚,Fränc ia 4 , 1 976 , p p . 8 9-106. 2 1. 2 2.

V ita s anc t i German i c i ted a bove n . 1 . T he y ear 8 64 i s t ha t i n wh ich Radbod t su ncle , a rchb ishop G un ther o f C ologne, who t augh t h im , was d eposed.

2 3.

V ita Radbod i Tra iec tens is e p iscop i MGH S S XV, p . 5 69 .

2 4.

Annales L audunenses, MGH S S XV, p . 1 29 4.

2 5.

Anna les s anc t i Max im in i T rev irens is, MGH S S I V, p . 6 , a nd s ee J ohn J . C on tren i , The Ca thedra l S chool o f L aon , p . 1 37 , n . 9 .

2 6.

L . Traube , ' Zur Uberl ieferung d er E legien d es Max im ianus ' , Vorlesungen u nd Abhand lungen , I I ( Mun ich 1 92 0 ) p p . 3 8-42.

2 7 .

L uc d 'Achery , S p ic ileg iu m X I I ( Par is 1 665 ) p . 1 35, o r i n t he f acs im i le r epr in t f ro m t he 17 23 e d i t ion I I ( Farnborough 19 67-9 ) p . 3 .

2 8.

L . Del isle , ' Notes s ur t ro is manuscr its ä d a te c er ta ine', BECH 2 9 1 868 , p p . 2 17 -9 , a nd ' La b ibl io theque d e l ' abbaye d e S a in t-Claude d e J ura :

2 9.

e squ isse d e s on h isto ire ' , i b id., 5 0 , 1 889 , p p . 3 01-54.

Bo th D i i mmler ( see b elow n . 30 ) a nd Man i t ius , Gesch ichte d er L a te in isc hen L i tera tur d es Mi t te la l ters ( Mun ich 1 9 11 ) p p . 2 52 a nd 4 89 , t hough t t here was o ne Manno.

3 96

3 0.

E . D l imm ler e d . MGH Epp V I, P . 1 84, a nd ' Br iefe u nd Verse d es n eun ten J arhunder ts t , NA

X II I 1 888 , p p . 3 47-63, f ro m L e iden Voss

l a t . 8° 8 8 , i f2 0 v24 v . S ee t oo J ohn J . C on tren i , ' Three C arol ing ian t ex ts a t tr ibu ted t o L aon .

Recons idera t ions ', S tud i Med ieva l i s er. 3 .

1 7. 1 976, p p . 7 97-813. 3 1.

C . Br i lh l , F odrum , g istu m , s erv it iu m r eg is ;

S tud ien z u d en W ir t-

s cha f t l ichen Grundlagen d es K ön ig tu ms i m Frankenre ich u nd i n d en f rank ischen N achfo lgestaa ten D eu tschland , F rankre ich u nd I ta l ien , v on 6b is z um m i t te d es 1 4 J ahrhunder ts ( Cologne 19 68 ) p p . 39 -4 8 . 3 2.

Tha t i s , a f ter t he Ba t t le o f Andernach i n 8 76.

On C o mp iegne 's i m-

p or tance s ee E . Ew ig , ' Res idence e t c ap itale p endan t l e h au t moyen a ge ' , Revue H istor ique , 2 30 , 19 63, p p . 6 8-9.

S ee t oo

P . R ichd ,

' Les r ep resen ta t ions d u p a la is d ans l es t ex tes l i t tera ires d u h au t moyen a ge ' , F ranc ia 4 , 19 76, p p. 1 61-71, 3 3.

Accord ing t o s o me manuscrip ts , a monas t ic f ounda t ion b y Charles t he Bald a t C o mp iegne , i t s l eader b e ing H edenu lf o f L aon , i s d ated 8 65, MGH S S T V,

P .

6 , a nd a ccord ing t o o thers , MGH S S I ,

1 26 , c o l . 2 70 ) , t he d a te i s 8 77.

P .

2 13, o r PL

The f ounda t ion o f t he monas tery c ou ld

we l l h ave p receded t ha t o f t he p a la t ine c hape l b y a t l eas t t wo y ears . Hedenu l f 's a ppo in t men t i s af ur ther e xa mp le o f t he ' i n terdependence o f L aon a nd t he p a lace ' d escr ibed b y J ohn J . C on tren i, The Ca thedra l S chool a t L aon , p p . 8 4-5. 3 4.

G . T essier e d. Recue il d es Actes d e Char les I l e C hauve , r o i d e France ,I ( Par is 19 52 ) N o. 4 25, p p . 4 51-3. ,

3 5.

The d ip lo ma o f 8 77 d oes n ot men t ion e xp l ic i t ly t he g if t o f t he r el ics o f Cypr ian a nd C ornel ius.

Accord ing t o a n a dd it ion t o t he martyrology

o f U suard , Charles t he Ba ld a cqu ired t he r el ics o f C ornel ius i n Ro me i n 8 75, a nd g ave t he m t o Co mp iegne , AA S S S ep t . I V, 1 4th S ep te mber P . 1 83.

I t i s o n ly i n ad ip lo ma o f 9 17 o f C har les t he S i mp le t ha t

Cornel ius, C ypr ian a nd Mary , t he t hree p a tron s a in ts o f C o mp iegne , a re a ssoc ia ted f or t he f i rst t ime , a nd i n 9 21 t he h is tory o f t he t ransl a t ion o f t he b ody o f C ornel ius t o C o mp iegne was p roduced , e x tan t i n BN l a t . 1 8297 f 7 -14 . 3 6.

AB ,

3 7 .

M. F oussard , ' Au lae s idereae , v ers d e J ean S co t a u r o i Char les ' ,

P .

2 12 .

Cah iers Archeo log iques X ) C I , 1 971 , p p . 7 8-89 , M . V ie i l lard-Trofekourof f , ' La c hapel le d u p a la is d e Charles l e Chauve ', i b id ., p p . 8 9-1 0 9 , a nd Y . Chr iste , ' S a in te-Mar ie d e Co mp iegne e t l e t e mp le d 'Hezech iel ', J ean S cot E r igene e t l 'Histo ire d e l a p h i losoph ie ( Par is 19 77 ), p p . 4 77-81.

On t he model t he p a la t ine c hapel p rov ided f or l a ter c hurches

s ee A . Verbeek ' D ie a rch i tek ton ische N achfo lge d er Aachener k apel le , KG, I V ( Düsseldorf 19 65 ) p p . 13-56. 3 8.

MGH Poet. I I p p . 5 50-2.

3 9 .

AB , p . 2 12 .

3 97

P falz-

4 0.

MGH C ap . I , N o. 2 81, c aps. 2 , 1 2, 2 6, p p . 3 55-61.

4 1.

E t l i br i n ostr i q u i i n t hesauro n ostro s t in t , a b i l l is , s icn t d ispositu m h abe mus , i n ter s anc tu m D ionysiu m , e t S ancta m Mar ia m i n C o mpend io , e t f i l iu m n ostru m d isper t ian tur.

One o f t he b ooks C o mp iegne r e-

c e ived was t he Hofschu le An t iphonary , n ow BN l a t . 1 7436. 4 2.

MGH S S XV p . 2 71.

D ietr ich L ohr mann h owever t h inks t he t rad it ion

i s an in th c en tury o ne , ' Tro is p a la is r oyaux d e l a v a l lee d e P Oise d 'apres l es t ravaux d es e rud i ts maur istes:

C o mp iegne , C ho isy-au-

Bac e t Qu ierzy t, Franc ia 4 , 19 76, p p . 1 21-40 a t p . 1 26. 4 3.

AB , p p . 2 19 a nd 2 35 . And s ee P . B ernard 'U ne c ourte h isto ire d es r o is d e France d e Charles l e Chauve a L ou is V ' , B ibl iot heque d e l 'Ecole d es C har tes

4 4.

8 4, 19 23, p p . 2 57-64.

Whether t here i s a ny c onnec t ion b etween t he e stabl ish men t o f t he p a lace s chool a nd L upus o f Ferr i res ' s p ro jec t f or r ev iv ing l earn ing a nd t he t each ing o f t he l i bera l a r ts — a p ro jec t a pparen t ly r ece ived b y Char les w ith p leasure a nd wh ich L upus d escr ibed i n al e t ter t o Aeneas , b ishop o f Par is , d a ted b y L ev i lla in t o 8 56-62 ( Correspondance Ep . 1 22 ) — r e ma ins a ma t ter o f s pecu la t ion.

4 5.

P . E . S chra m m a nd F . Mi i ther ich , Denkma le d er d eu tschen K t in ige u nd Ka iser ( Mun ich 19 62 ) N o. 4 3, p p . 1 30-1 a nd P la te 4 3, p . 2 49. The i vory b ook c over o f t h is manuscr ip t i s n ow i n t he Landesmuseu m , Z ür ich.

4 6.

W. K oehler , Buch ma lere i d es f rühen Mi t tela l ters.

Frag men te u nd

E n twurfe a us d em N achlass e d . E . K i tzinger a nd F . Mi ither ich ( Mun ich 19 72 ) p p . 1 58-70.

The f i f th v olu me o f D ie k arol ing ische

Min ia turen , o n D ie Hofschu le Karls d es Kahlen , e d i ted b y F . M i l ther ich , i s i n t he p ress. 4 7.

On a l l t hese manuscr ip ts , s ee S chra m m a nd Mi l ther ich , Denkma le.

4 8.

S ee H . K essler , The I l lustra ted B ibles o f T ours.

S tud ies i n Manu-

s cr ip t I l lu m ina t ion 7 , ( Pr inceton 19 77 ) p . 1 25. 4 9 .

T he c orona t ion p ic ture i n BN l a t. 141, f .2v c annot d ef in i tely b e d es cr ibed a s o f C harles t he Ba ld , a lbe it i ts ee ms v ery l ikely.

5 0.

Wi th t he e xcep t ion a ga in o f BN l a t . 141, f .2v.

5 1.

C olour r eproduc t ion i n J . Huber t , J . Porcher a nd W. Volbach , Carol ing ian Ar t ( London 1 970 ) P la te 1 35, p . 1 47.

5 2.

Colour r eproduc t ion Huber t , Carol ing ian Ar t , P la te 1 34, p . 1 46.

5 3.

Colour r eproduc t ion , Huber t , Carol ing ian Ar t , P la te 1 30, p . 1 40 , a nd c o mpare t he f ron t isp iece t o Proverbs d ep ic t ing S olo mon f ro m t h is B ible i n F . Mü ther ich a nd J . G aehde , Carol ing ian Pa in t ing ( London 19 77 ) P la te 4 4.

5 4.

S ee G aehde 's a r t ic les o n t he p ic tor ia l s ources f or t he i l lustra t ions i n Früh m i t tela l terl iche S tud ien , c i ted a bove n . 1 3.

3 98

5 5.

On t he i den t if ica t ion a nd d a te o f t he manuscr ip t s ee E . Kan torow icz , ' The Carol ing ian k ing i n t he B ible o f S an Paolo f uor i l e Mura ' , L a te C lass ical a nd Med ieva l S tud ies i n h onour o fA lbert Ma th ias Fr iend J nr ( Pr ince ton 1 955 ) p p . 2 87-300.

5 6. 5 7 .

C olour r eproduc t ion , Huber t , C arol ing ian Art , P la te 1 29 , p . 1 39. C olour r eproduc t ion , Huber t , Carol ing ian Ar t , P late 1 28, p . 1 38 o r Mf f ther ich a nd G aehde , Carol ing ian Pa in t ing P la te 2 2.

5 8.

C olour r eproduc t ion , Ml i ther ich a nd Ghaede , Carol ingian Pa in t ing , P la te 4 8.

5 9 .

A f u l l f acs im ile was p ubl ished b y F . Mi i ther ich , S akramen tar v on Me tz , F rag men t : ms l a t 141 B ibl iothbque N a t iona le Paris. C od ices S elec t i p ho totyp ice impress i 2 8 ( Graz 19 72 ).

6 0.

C olour r eproduc t ion , Hubert ,

C aro l ing ian Art , P la te 1 40 , p . 1 52.

6 1.

C olour r eproduc t ion , i b id., P la te 1 41, p . 1 52.

6 2.

Fu l l f acs im ile e d. G . L e id inger , Der C odex Aureus ( Mun ich 1 921-5 ).

6 3.

S ee f or exa mp le t he o rna men ted i n i t ia l r eproduced b y J . J . G . A lexander , T he Decora ted L et ter ( London 19 78 ) P la te 1O .

6 4.

C olour r eproduc t ion Huber t , C arol ing ian Art , P la te 1 37 , p . 1 49 o r M i i therich a nd G aehde , C arol ing ian Pa in t ing P la te 3 7.

6 5.

Car l N ordenfa lk , a nd A . G rabar , Ear ly Med ieva l Pa in t ing ( Lausanne 1 957 ) p p . 1 95 a nd 2 03, a nd H . S chn itzler , ' Hierony mus u nd G regor i n d er o t ton ischen Kölner Buch ma lere i ' , Kuns tgesch ich tl iche S tud ien f ir Hans Kau ffmann e d. W. Braun fels ( Berl in 1 956 ) p p . 1 1-1 8 .

6 6.

C olour r eproduc t ion , Huber t , C arol ing ian Ar t , P la tes 2 31 a nd 2 32, p p . 2 52 a nd 2 53.

6 7 .

Colour r eproduc t ion , i b id., P la te 2 35, p . 2 5.

T here i s r eason t o

b el ieve h owever t ha t t he meta lwork a t l east was p roduced a t S t. Den is. 6 8.

K . We i tz mann , ' The i conography o f t he Carol ing ian i vor ies o f t he t hrone ' , L a c a t tedra l i gnea d i S . P ietro i n Va t icano ' , A t t i d el la P on t if ic ia Accade m ia Ro mana d i Archeolog ia s er ie I I Me mor ie X , ( Va t ican 19 71 ) p p . 2 17-45.

S ee t oo t he p apers b y P . E . S chra m m a nd F .

Mt i ther ich i n t h is v olu me. 6 9 .

B . B ischof f , D ie s üdostdeu tschen S chre ibschu len u nd B ibl io theken i n d er Karol ingerze i t I( W iesbaden 19 74 ) p . 2 25.

7 0.

Ih ave d iscussed my r easons more f u l ly i n my a rt icle c i ted a bove n . 1 5.

7 1.

C i ted b y L . E izenhofer a nd H . Knaus , D ie l i turg ischen Handschr if ten d er Hess ichen L andes- u nd H ochschu lb ib l io thek b aden 19 68 ) p . 9 3.

3 99

Dar mstad t 2( W ies-

7 2.

C . N orden fa lk a nd A . Grabar , E arly Med ieva l Pa in t ing ( Lausanne 1 957 )

P .

1 54, ( he d id , h owever, s ay ' t he c our t monas tery i n C o mp iegne '

s o e arns s o me o f t he c r i t ic is m l evel led a t h im ). 7 3.

F or e xa mp le, M. V iei l lard-Tro lekourof f , a rt. c i t . a bove n . 3 7 , p . 9 6.

4 00

I NDEX

Aachen , 1 5 ,16 ,154 ,180 ,297 ,301 , 3 17 ,388 ,390 ;

1 21 :n .32 , 1 22 :n .32 .

Abbo , a bbot o f S t . Mar t ia l ' s , 7 .

A lzau , 2 02 . Ama lar ius o f Metz , 2 65 ,273 ,276-8 , 3 57.

Abd a r-Rah man I , 1 78 .

Ambros ius Autpertus , 3 77.

Ab la incourt , 7 7.

Am iens , 7 3 ,199 ,214 ,218-9 .

Acfred , c oun t o f Carcassonne , 1 72.

Amo lo , a rchb ishop o f L yons , 3 56 ,358 ,

Acfr id , l ay-abbot o f S t . H ila ire , 1 16-17 ;

3 3 :n .85 , 1 26 :nn .77-79 ,

3 60 . Andorra , 1 82 . Angers , 2 6 ,64 ,72 .

1 27 :n . 8 1. Ada lard , s enescha l , 1 53-5 .

Ang i lber t , 2 95-6.

Ade le lm , b ishop o f L aon , 3 38 .

Ang i lrarnnus , b ishop o f Metz , 2 65 .

Ade mar o f Chabannes , 3 -9 ;

Ang lo-Saxon Chron ic le , 2 9 ,139-140 ,

1 0-14 :

1 59 .

n n . Ade mar , c oun t o f P o itou , 6 .

Ang lo-Saxons , 1 9 ,76.

Ado o f V ienne , 3 87.

Angou le me , 3 -9 ;

Anna ls o f , 4 ,6 ,8 ,9 .

Aelf f laed , 1 44. Aelf thryth , d augh ter o f A lfred , 1 39 ,225 :

Angou mo is , 2 01 ;

1 21 :n .28 .

An jou , 8 7-8 , 1 98 .

1 51 :n .77.

Aeneas , b ishop o f P ar is , 3 55-6 ,

Anseg is , a bbot o f F on tene l le a nd J um ieges , 4 1 ,386.

3 63 . Aethe lba ld , k ing o f Merc ia , 1 40 ;

Anseg is o f S ens , 2 6-7. Aqu ita ine , 3 -7 ,9 ,19-20 ,22 ,39-40 ,42 ,

1 49 :n .5 5. Aethe lba ld o f Wessex , 1 37 ,142-5 ; 1 50 :nn .67 ,70 , 1 51 :nn .70 ,78 . Aethe lf laed , d aughter o f A lfred ,

4 5 ,53 ,56 ,64-5 ,68 ,72 ,81 ,109-10 , 1 12-17 ,139 ,154-5 ,175 ,177,200 ,203 , 3 79 ;

1 0 :n . 8 ;

8 3 :n .2 7 ;

1 18-127 :nn .

Chron ic le o f , 3 -9 .

1 39 . Aethe lred I , 1 39 ,144 ;

1 51 :n .7 4 .

Aethe lsw ith , s ister o f A lfred , 1 39 ,143 ;

1 45 ,221-2 ;

Arabs , 1 70 ,180 ,221. Aragon , 1 69 ,173 ; Ara tus , 3 17-324 ;

1 50 :nn .6 0 ,65 .

Aethe lwu lf o f Wessex , 1 9 ,1371 50 :nn .6 0 ,68 ,70 ,71 ;

Ardennes , 1 54 ,196-7.

Arnac , 2 00.

Agen , 7 2 .

Ar to is , 1 97.

A lcu in , 1 37-8 ,140 ,256 ,294-8 , 3 01 ,334 ,357 ; 1 23 :n .44 ;

1 46 :

3 06 :n .26 .

A ssebroek , 7 3. Asser , 1 40-4 ,153 . A strono mer , 5 -7 ,9 ,92 ; n .2 9 ;

A ldhe lm , 2 95 ,314 . A lfred , k ing o f Wessex , 2 9 ,137 , 1 39 ,144-5 ,223-9 ;

3 28 :n .3 4.

Ar les , 6 5 .

1 51 :n .7 6.

1 47 :n .23 ;

1 84 :n .24 . 3 26 :n .13 ;

Ar isto t le , 3 78 .

Age ltruda , empress , 1 41 .

n .15 ;

1 3 :n .52 ;

1 50 :n .6 7 ;

1 51 :n .7 0 . A lts ig , a bbot o f York , 1 37-8 .

1 6 ,23 ;

1 02 :n .2 5 ;

1 22 :nn .33 ,35 ;

1 24 :n .51 ;

1 3 :n .39 ;

1 18 :n .4 ;

3 0 :

1 20 :nn .

1 23 :n .43 ;

1 27 :n .8 3.

A the lstan , 1 39 ,143 ;

1 50 :n .68 .

A tt igny , 5 8 ,158 ,238(Counci l o f ) , 3 87 ; 4 9 :n .6 ,121 :n .3 2 .

Audradus Mod icus , 3 54.

B odo , 1 9 .

Aun is , 1 21 :n .28 .

B oeth ius , 3 86.

Aur i l lac , 7 .

B onnevaux , a bbey o f , 6 4-5 .

Austrasia , 1 93 ,199 ,214 .

B ordeaux , 4 ,5 ,6 ,72 ;

Autun , 6 5-6 ,174 ,197 ;

1 26 :n .75.

1 0 :n .12 ;

8 3 :n .27.

B orre l l , c oun t o f Ausona-V ic , 1 73.

Auvergne , 2 00-1.

B orre l l , c oun t o f B arce lona , 1 73.

Auxerre , 1 97 ;

Boso , c oun t , u nc le o f R ich i ld is , 1 54 .

1 27 :n .81 .

B oso , k ing o f P rovence , b rother o f

Auzev i l le , 6 4 .

R ich i ld is , 1 53-5 ,174-5 ,177.

Ava l lon , 4 3 . Avenay , c onven t o f , 1 58 .

B ou logne , 1 96 ,203 .

Av ignon , 6 5 .

B ourges , 7 ,58 ,64-5 ,72 ,114 ,116-7 ;

B a ldw in o f F landers , 1 39 ,224 ; 1 1 :n .16 ;

1 51 :nn .73 ,77.

Ba ldw in I o f F landers , 2 25-6. Ba lth i ld , 1 59 .

B ourges , s ee o f , 2 2-3 ,26. B ourgmeuf , 6 6. Bourgogne , 1 97 ,199 ,200 ,204 . Bretons , 4 6 ,87-8 ,92 ;

Barce lona , 1 74 ,178 ,180-1 ;

1 22 :n .3 3 .

Br ioux , 6 4 .

1 22 :n .3 4 . Bar-sur-Aube , 4 3 ,62 ,66 ;

1 24 :n .4 8 .

8 2 :n . 9 .

B eau l ieu , a bbey o f , 7 ,200 ;

1 3 :

n .46 .

Br it ish I s les , 1 5 ,20 ,53,56 ,87. Br it tany , 6 4 ,66 ,74 ,87-8 ,90-3 ,99 ,154 , 2 01-2 ,204 ; 1 04 :n .69 ;

B eaune , 1 97. B eauva is , 1 97 ,199 . B ede , 1 38 ,214 ,320-2 ,353 . B e lg iu m , 7 3-7. B e llus , c oun t o f Carcassonne , 1 74 .

1 00 :n .3 ;

1 01 :nn .1 8 ,22 ;

1 46 :n .4.

Bruges , 6 8 ,73 ,226. B urgred , k ing o f Mercia , 7 7 ,139 ,143 ; 8 3 :n .38 ;

1 50 :nn .60 ,65.

Burgundy , 4 0 ,56 ,58 ,62 ,65-6 ,68 ,154 , 1 77.

B ened ict o f An iane , 2 66 ,268 .

Carbades , 2 02.

B ened ict I I , p ope , 1 38 .

Caedwa l la , 1 44 .

B eor tfr ith , 1 44.

Caesar G er man icus , 3 18-21 ;

B erga mo , 4 4 .

Caesar J u l ius , 1 99 .

B ernard , b ro ther o f Emeno , 6 .

Ca mbra i , 6 0 ,197.

B ernard , c oun t o f Tou louse , a nd

Can terbury , 4 3 ,222 .

3 26 :n .1.

Narbonne , s on o f B ernard o f

Carcassonne , 1 77 ,181 ,202-3 .

S ep t i man ia , 1 74 ,176.

Car lo man , k ing , 7 ,27 ,65 ,155-6 ,172 ,

B ernard o f Goth ia , c oun t o f

1 74 ,375 .

Barce lona , Narbonne a nd

Casnu m , 4 0 .

Rosse l lo a nd G irona , 1 74-5 .

Cassiodorus , 3 78 .

B ernard o f S ep t i man ia , 1 12 ,174 ; 1 20 :n . 2 0 . B erry , 1 17 ,201 ;

Caste lsarrasin , 6 4. Ca ta lon ia , 1 69-182 ;

1 27 :n .8 1.

1 19 :n .13 ;

1 82-4 :

n n .

B ertha , 1 41.

Caux , 1 97.

Besancon , 4 3 .

C eo lwu lf , b ro ther o f Coenwu lf , 1 44.

Bess in , L e , 1 97.

Cha lon , 1 9 ,42 ,43 ,58 ,65-6.

Bez iers , 6 5 .

Cha lons-Sur- Marne , b ishop o f , 4 0-1 ,

B irka , 2 16-7. B iv in , c oun t , f a ther o f R ich ild is , 1 54 . B l igny , 6 6 ,73 ,77.

1 58 . Cha mpagne , 7 3 ,193 ,196-7 ,199 . Channe l p or ts , 6 0 ,73. Char le magne , v , 3 ,7 ,15-16 ,23 ,28 ,39 ,

B lo is , 6 2 ,64 ,66.

4 2 ,44 ,87 ,110 ,112 ,114 ,117 ,137,140 ,

Bobb io , 1 93 .

1 70 ,173 ,177,179 ,180 ,182 ,215-20 ,

C har le magne ( con td .)

2 24 ,228 ,266 ,

Chrodegang , b ishop o f Metz , 2 65.

2 96-300 ,312 ,317 ,320 ,334 ,385 ,

C icero , 3 18-9 ,324.

3 86 ,388 ;

C la iro ix , 6 2 ;

n .1 ;

1 3 :n .52 ;

1 18 :n .3 ;

1 4 :n .55 ;

1 19 :n .10 ;

4 9 :

1 21 :

n .30 ;

1 22 :n .34 ;

1 24 :n .58 ;

n .33 ;

1 49 :n .50 ;

1 87 :n .58 .

1 48 :

C ler mon t , 6 4-5 ,14 ,387. C lov is , 2 5 ,391. Cnu t , 1 44 ;

C har les t he B a ld :-

8 2 :n .8 .

C laud ian , 3 12 .

1 51 :n .74.

A lfred , 2 27 ;

C oenred , k ing o f Merc ia , 1 44.

a r t , 2 65-6 ;

C oenwu lf , k ing o f Mercia , 1 44 ,219 , 2 21 ;

a stro logy , 3 17 ; C a ta lon ia :

d ip lo ma t ic a ct iv ity i n ,

1 46 :n .6 ;

1 49 :n .60 ;

1 50 :n .61.

C o logne , 4 4 ,68 ,222 ,335 ,387. C o mp iegne , 5 8 ,60 ,62 ,73 ,77 ,387-8 ,

1 78sqq r ebe l l ion o f c oun ts , 1 74sqq . r egu lat ions f or s uccess ion t o v acan t c oun t ies

1 76 ;

c har ter t o N otre D a me o f Rhe i ms ,

3 90 ,394. C on f len t , c oun ty o f , 1 69 ,174. C onstan t inus A fer , 3 33. Corb ie , c onven t o f , 1 58 ,266 ,321 ,334 ,339 3 39 ,353-8 ,361 ,392 .

3 35-6 ; c o inage , 3 9-51 ;

C osne , 8 0 ,197 ;

1 25 :n .66 .

C o mp iegne , p a lace o f , 3 88-390 ;

C ou la ines , a sse mb ly o f , 2 0.

c oronat ion , 2 65 ;

C ourban ton , 6 2 ,66.

c ourt t eachers , 3 53 ;

C ourde manche , 1 98 .

c urrency h oards , 5 3-84 ;

C u ixa , monastery o f , 1 69 .

d ip lo mas , 1 94-8 ,200 ;

C ynethry th , w ife o f O f fa o f Mercia ,

e p iscopate , 2 2-3 ,26-7 ;

3 1 :n .44 ;

E r mo ld , i n h onore m H ludow ici P i i , 2 99-300 ; f am i ly , 5 -6 ,16 ,18-19 ,21-2 ,27-8 , 6 8 ,109 ,114 ,137-151 , 1 53-167 , 1 69 ; G o t tscha lk a nd p redest ina t ion , 3 56-364 ; H inc mar o f Rhe i ms , 3 75 ; H ofschu le Mss ', 3 90 ; i t inerary , 3 87 ;

D agober t I , 1 77. D anege ld , 1 7 ,26 ,29 ,45-8 ,56 ,60 ,73-4. D ax , 7 2. D ido , a bbot o f S t . P ierre-le -V if , 3 33 , 3 39 . D ido , b ishop o f L aon , 3 38 . D i jon , 4 3 ,65-6 ,77 ,197. D inan t , 7 6-7 ;

8 3 :n .34 .

D ionys io-Hadr iana , 2 43 . D o mburg , 6 8 ,72 .

l i brary , 3 86 ,389 ; l i turgy o f r e ign , 2 78 ; manor ia l a nd d e mesne s yste ms , 1 93 ; p a lace s choo l ', 3 75 ,385sqq .; t rade a nd e cono my , 2 24 ; works d ed icated t o , 3 86 ,396 ;

D ona tus , 3 14. D orestad , 6 6 ,68 ,72 ,80 ,214-8 ,220 . D ouzy , 1 54 ;

s ynod o f , 2 37 ;

1 60 :n .4.

D rogo , b ishop o f Metz , 1 8-9 ,266-8 ; S acra men tary , 2 65-282 . D üsse ldorf , 4 4 . Eadba ld , k ing o f K en t , 1 44.

Wu lfad , 3 79 . Char les t he C h i ld , 1 14-5 ; 1 19 :nn . 1 21 :n .29 ;

1 49 :n .56.

p s- D ionys ius , 3 76-9 .

J ohn S cotus , 3 79 ;

9 ,11 ;

1 42 ;

1 25 :n .67.

C har les t he F a t , 1 41 ,174 . Char les t he S i mp le , 4 9 :n .1.

Eadburh , w ife o f B eorh tr ic , 1 44 ;

1 49 :

n .5 3 . Eadgy th , d augh ter o f Edward t he E lder , 1 39 .

C har tres , 6 2 ,333.

Ea lhstan , b ishop o f S herborne , 1 43 .

C hamoux- Marci l ly , 6 4 ,66 ,80.

Ea lhsw ith , w ife o f A lfred , 1 39 .

C he l les , c onven t o f , 1 58 .

Earnwu lf , e a ldor man o f S o merset , 1 43.

F ergus t he Gra m mar ian , 3 35-6 ,339 ;

E bro , 2 05 .

3 42 :n .20 .

E bbo , a rchb ishop o f Rhe i ms , 1 6 ,18 , 2 2 ,237 ,257-261 ,354 ,379-80 ;

F es mpy , 1 94.

3 2 :

F landers , 7 3 ,193 ,196-7 ,203 ,224-6 ,228 .

n .61. E bro in , b ishop o f P o it iers , 1 9 ,385.

F leury , 1 37 ;

E berhard , margrave o f F r iau l ,

F lorenges , 1 54.

1 46 :n .4.

F lorus o f L yon , 3 01 ,353 ,355 ,360-1 ,364 ;

2 58.

3 43 :n .2 1 ;

E cg fryth , k ing o f Mercia , 1 42 ; 1 49 :n .56.

3 71 :n .9 5 ,99 .

F o lco , a rchb ishop o f Rhei ms , 1 59 ; F on tenoy , 3 ,6 ,19 ,112 ;

1 50 :n .70 .

1 2 :n .33 ;

1 21 :

•• n .27.

Edward t he E lder , 1 39 .

F ortuna tus , V enan t ius , 2 94-6.

Edward t he C on fessor , 1 59 . E dward I , 4 3 ;

1 66 :

n .81.

E cgberh t , k ing o f Wessex , 1 44 , 2 21-2 ;

3 67 :n .8 ;

8 3 :n .33 .

F osses , 1 58 .

E dward I , 8 3 :n .33 .

F ra isse , 2 02 .

E ife l Moun ta ins , 2 15 ,220 .

F rancia , 1 5 ,28 ,40 ,53 ,55-6 ,58 ,60 ,62 , 6 4-6 ,68 ,72 ,4 ,76 ,7 ,80 ,87 ,91 ,99 ,137 ,

E ig i l , a rchb ishop o f S ens , 2 3.

1 39 ,142 ,144-5 ,153 ,158 ,173-5 ,177-8 ,

E inhard , 2 95 ,386. Emeno , c oun t o f P o it iers , 6 ; n .34 ; ;

1 2 :

1 81. F ranks , 3 ,47 ,87-8 ,170 ,175 ,182 ;

1 3 :n .40 .

Em ma o f N or mandy , 1 39 ,144 ;

n .22 . F recu lph o f L is ieux , 3 86.

1 51 :n .74. Em ma , w ife o f L ou is t he G er man ,

F redekar , 3 ,92 ;

1 19 :n .14 .

F resque l , 2 02 .

1 53 . Enge lburga , empress , 1 58 .

F r idug is , 1 37 ,295.

Enge lra mn , c ha mber la in , 1 58.

F r is ia , 1 6 ,19 ,49 ,56 ,72 ,80 ,217.

Eng land , 2 9 ,46 ,53 ,55 ,60 ,62 ,

F r is ians , 2 15-8

7 3-4 ,80 ,137-142 ,145 ,213-229 ; 8 1 :n .4 ;

Er ispoA o f Br it tany , 8 7-8,90-1 ,99 , 1 01 :n .19 .

Er men trude , q ueen , 4 0 ,141-2 , 1 48 :nn .46 ,47 ;

n n .1 4 ,21 ;

1 63 :n .36 ;

1 61 :

1 64 :n .45 ;

1 65 :n .6 0a . E r mo ld , 1 5 ,92 ,114 ,218 ,294-5 , 2 99-300 ;

2 9 :Ü .5 ;

1 27 :n .79 . F u lco , a rchchap la in , 1 6 ,18 ,24 ;

3 2 :n .61 .

F u lcr ic , 2 3 .

E r mengarde , w ife o f L othar , I , 1 53 . 1 53-60 ;

1 26 :n .72 ,78 ;

P u lber t o f Char tres , 3 14 ,333 .

s ur- Marne , 4 0-4 . 1 00 :n :3 ;

F rotar ius , a rchb ishop o f B ordeaux , t hen o f B ourges , 1 16 ;

1 46 ;nn .4 ,12 .

E rchenraus , b ishop o fC ha lons -

1 40 ;

1 01 :

1 22 :nn .33-4 ;

1 24 :n .50 . t ta mpo is , 1 97. t tap les , 1 38 . E trechy , 8 0 . E udoxus o f C u idus , 3 18 .

F u lda , 2 56-7 ,259 ,261 ,317 ,319 . Ga len , 3 38 . Ganna t , 6 4 . Gascony , 1 8. Gau l , 1 8 ,53-4 ,55 ,177. Gauzber t , c oun t o f L e Mans , 5 ,87. Gauz l in , 8 7. Geof frey , c oun t , 2 00 . Gera ld , c oun t o f Auvergne , 6 . G era ld , c oun t o f B ourges , 1 16-7. Ger m igny , a sse mb ly o f , 2 0 . Ghen t , 6 8 ,137.

F are mou t iers , 1 38 ,158 .

G l isy , 7 3 ,77.

F echa in , 7 7.

Gondrev i l le , 1 54 ;

F el ix , s cr ibe t o A ethe lwu lf , 1 37-9 .

Gorze , 1 53-4 ,159 .

F err ieres , 1 38-9 , 1 58 ,353 .

a sse mb ly o f , 2 38.

Got tscha lk , 2 2-26 ,257-261 ,301 ,3533 65 ,379 ,385 ;

3 0 :n .39 ;

3 1 :n .44.

Gregory I , p ope , 2 39 ,241-2 ; l et ters , 2 43 .

3 26 :n .13 . I le d e F rance , 5 8 ,193 ,196-7 ,387. In ge lhe im , 1 9 ,216 ;

Gr i mba ld , 2 9 ,137 ,225 .

s ynod , 2 60 ;

1 22 :

n .32 .

Gr ippo , 1 39 .

I ngober tus , 3 91 .

Gurhana t ,9 0 . Guy , c oun t o f Vannes , 8 7. Hadr ian I , p ope , 2 44 ,266. Hagano , 2 5. Ha ithabu , 2 16-7. Ha mw i l )

Hyg inus , d e A strono m ia , 3 18-9 ,324 ;

2 19-222 ,227.

I psw ich , 2 14 ,217 ,220 ,226-7. I re land , 2 0 ,99 ,139 . I s idore o f S ev i l le , 3 38-9 ,359 ;

3 41 :n .12 ;

p s-Is idore , 2 43 ; 1 27 :n . 8 3. I ta ly , 1 6 ,20 ,26 ,158 ,170 ,176 ;

1 21 :n .30 .

Hartgar , b ishop o f L iege , 3 01-3 .

J ohn t he

Harvey , s on o f Ra ina ld , c oun t o f

J ohn t he S cot , 1 57 ,302 ,312 ,335-9 ,

Herbauge , 6 ;

1 2 :n .33 .

3 53 ,359-363 ,375-380 ,385-6 ,388 ; 3 15 :n .12 ;

Hautv i l l iers , 2 58 ,356 . Hcvr t isason ien ,

H ispanus ', 1 80.

6 2 ,65 ,66 ,68 ;

3 70 ;n .6 4 ;

3 71 :n .88 .

J ohn V I I I , p ope , 1 56-7 , 3 88 . J onas o f Autun , 3 85 .

7 0 :n .2 Heccardus , c oun t o f Autun , 1 16.

J onas o f Or leans , 3 86.

Heine o f Auxerre , 2 8 ,294 ,296 ,

J ouv igny , c onven t o f , 1 58 .

2 98 ,301-2 ,365 ,377-9 ,385 ,387. Her ibo ld , b ishop o f Auxerre , 1 57.

J ud icae l , 9 0 ,92 . J ud ith , empress , mother o f Char les t he Ba ld , 1 9 ,112 ,141 ,153 ,159 .

Hersfe ld , 1 37.

J ud ith , d augh ter o f Char les t he Ba ld ,

Hersta l , 1 9 ,387. H ildu in , a rch-chap la in , 1 6 ,24.

1 37 ,139 ,140-145 ,157 ;

H ildu in , a bbot o f S t . Mar t in , Tours

5 2 ,53 ;

a nd S t . Ger ma in-des- P res , 3 85. H inc mar , b ishop o f Laon , 2 6 ,2372 62 ,339 . H inc mar , a rchb ishop o f Rhe i ms , 9 ,21-9 ,46 ,140 ,141 ,153-4 ,

1 49 :nn .5 0 ,

1 51 :nn .71,73 ,77 ;

1 63 :n .43.

J u l ian o f To ledo , 1 77. Kaupang , Norway , 2 16. Ken t , 1 43 ,144 ,214 ;

1 50 :n .68 ;

1 51 :

n .70 .

1 57-160 ,196 ,237-262 ,335-8 ,

L a G il ler ie , 7 2 .

3 49-50 ,354-358 ,361-364 ,375 ,

La mber t , c oun t o f Nan tes , t hen o f

3 79-80 ,385-6 ,391 ;

2 9 :n . 8 ;

An jou , 5 , 87-8 ;

1 2 :nn .3 2 ,33.

3 1 :nn .52 ,56 , . 5 9 ; 3 2 :nn .6 1 ,66-7 ;

L andevennec , 8 7 ,201-2 ;

3 3 :n .90 .

Languedoc , 2 01 ;

H ispan i , t he , 1 78-181 .

L angon , 7 2 .

Hrabanus Maurus , 1 37 ,246 ,255-

L angres , 6 2 ,197 ;

1 02 :n .26.

1 19 :n .13 . d ecrees o f , 3 63 .

2 62 ,294 ,298 ,317-20 ,334 ,353 ,

Laon , 4 2 ,58 ,197 ,202 ,322 ,334 ,338-9 .

3 57 ,361.

Laprade , 2 02.

Huber t , a bbot o f S t . Maur ice ,

L a Rochel le ,72 . L e Mans , 6 2 ,64 ,198.

Agaune , 1 54 . Hucba ld o f S t . Amand , 3 03 .

L eos , 2 38 ,244.

Hugh , c oun t o f Tours , 1 53 .

L e V ignob le , 1 58.

Hugh , s on o f L othar I , 1 54 .

L i moges , 4 -7 , 1 09 ,114 ; 1 18 :n .5 ;

Hugh t he Great , 1 39 . Hu m fr id , c oun t o f Barce lona , Pa l lars , Tou louse , Carcassonne , Narbonne ,

Rossel lo

a nd A utun , 1 74-5.

Empur ies

1 19 :n .9 .

L i moges , Anna ls o f , 4 ; L i mous in , 2 01 ; 1 24 :n .58. L isieux ,

1 3 :n .46 ;

6 2 .

1 3 :n .48 ;

1 4 :n .60 . 1 20 :n .25 ;

Mart ianus Cape l la , 3 36-9 .

L iu thard , 3 91.

Mart in , H ibern iens is ( o f L aon ) , 3 39 ,

L obbes , 3 21. L o ire , 6 2 ,87 ,196-9 ,203-4 ,228 . L ondon , 4 3 ,222 .

3 45 :n .48 ;

3 46 :n .50.

Max i mus t he Con fessor , 3 76-7.

L ope i bn Moha m mad , l ord o f

Meersen , 2 0-1 , 7 3 .

Tude la , 1 73 .

Me l le , 4 0 ,42 ,58 ,64-5,68 ,72 ,77.

L orra ine , 1 54 ,193 .

Mercia , 1 39-144 ,219-222 ;

L othar I , 1 6 ,19 ,22 ,66 ,68 ,72 ,

Metz , v , 1 8-9 ,25 ,66 ,154 ,265 ,321 ,

2 56 ,260 ,354. L othar I , 2 7 ,40 ,66 ,141 ,154-6 ,158 . L othar ing ia , 2 7 ,66 ,68 ,72 ,73 ,80 ,1541 54-5 ,159 ,301 ,390-1. L ou is I , t he P ious ,k ing o f Aqu ita ine a nd Emperor , 3 ,6-7 ,16 ,18-9 , 2 8 ,39 ,48 ,54 ,64 ,72 ,87 ,109-10 , 1 12-4 ,117 ,137-40 ,153 ,170 ,174 , 1 77,180 ,215-6 ,220 ,224 ,228 ,255-6 , 2 59-60 ,294-5 ,296-301 ,354 ,357 , 3 62 ,365 ;

4 9 :n .2 ;

1 18 :n .4 ;

1 24 :nn .;

1 46-149 :nn .

1 20-

L ou is t he Ger man , 2 0-3 ,68 ,139-141 , 1 53 ,158 ,255-6 ,301 ,385 ;

1 19 :n .7.

L ou is I o f I ta ly , 1 55. L ou is t he S ta m merer ( Lou is I , I c ing o f t he West F ranks ) , 2 7 ,58 ,140 , 1 27 :n . 8 0 ;

1 50 :n .70 .

Merev i lle-S t- P ere , 8 0.

1 12 ,140 ,153 ,155 ,158 ,173 ,

1 56 ,159 ,390 ;

3 77, 3 87 ;

Maur ienne , 1 58 .

1 63 :

n .39 . L ou is I I , k ing o f t he West Franks 5 8 ,174 .

3 90 ,392 ,394. Meung , 1 58 . Meuse , 6 6 ,68 ,73 ,228 . Mi lan , 4 4 ,72. Mi lo o f S t . Amand , 3 86. Miro , c oun t o f C on f len t a nd Rossel lo , 1 72 ,174-5. Modu in o f Autun , 2 95 ,297 . Mont L asso is , 4 3 ,66. Monte Cassino , 3 20 ,322 . Mon t ierender , 1 96-7 ,203 . Mon tr ieux-Courban ton , 6 2 . Morvan , 9 2 ,197. Mose l le , 6 6 ,68 ,228 . Mu lc ien , 1 97. Mu lhe im , 4 4. Musa i bn Musa , 1 78 . Mus l i ms , 1 70 ,178 . Na mur , 7 7. Nan tes , 5 ,87,88 ,92 ,202 ;

L ou is V , 1 73 .

o f , 8 8 ,91 ;

c hron ic le

1 01 :n .19 .

L ou is , a bbot o f S t . D en is , 3 85 .

Narbonne , 4 2 ,64 ,169 ,174 ,180 .

L u l l , 1 37.

Navarre , 1 73 ;

L upus o f F err ieres , 9 ,18-20 ,137-

Nether lands , 4 4 ,77.

9 ,157 ,256 ,259 ,319 ,333 ,339 ,3538 ,365 ,377 ,385-6 ;

1 1 :n .24 ;

n n .5 ,8 ;

1 27 :n .8 3 ;

3 0 :n .3 3 ;

1 47 :n .14 ;

2 9 :

3 41 :n .8 .

L yon , 4 3 ,201 ,265 ,353 ,360 ,363 . Mach t iern ', r o le o f , 9 3-4 ,96-9 ; 1 02 :n .3 7 ;

1 04 :nn .6 9 ,75 ,80 ,83 .

Mäcon , 1 97. Ma inz , 6 8 ,355 ;

c ounc i l , 2 57 ;

s ynod , 2 61. Mann

p h ilosophus ', 3 87.

Marce l lus , 3 38 . Mar ius V ietor inus , 3 78 . Marsa l , 6 6 . Marse i l les , 1 93 .

1 84 :n . 2 0 .

N eustr ia , 1 6 ,40 ,47 ,53 ,56 ,58 ,62 ,64 ,72 7 2 ,77 ,80 ,87,193 ,197 ,199 ,214 ,227 . N evers , 4 3 ,64 ,65. N ibe lungen , 1 53. N icho las I , p ope , 2 2 , 2 3 ,27 ,140,157. N i j megen , 3 87 ;

1 60 :n .5.

N i mes , 2 01. N ithard , 9 ,1 9 , 2 8 , 1 12 , 1 53 , 2 22 , 3 54 , 3 86 ;

3 0 :n . 2 5 ;

1 19-121 :nn .

N ive l les , 1 57 No m inoe , 8 7,88 ,90-1 ,92 ,99 ,201-2 ; 1 01 :nn .18 ,19.

•

P ipp in I , K ing o f Aqu ita ine , 4 ,6 ,4 5, 6 4 ,109-10 ,112-116 ;

Normandy , 1 93 ,227.

1 18-126 :nn . P i tres , Ed ict o f , 3 9-45 ,48 ,60 ,73 ,76 ,

Nor thu mbr ia , 1 42 . Not ing o f Verona , 2 58 ,361.

7 7 ,80 ,224 ;

Notre-Da me d e Mor ienva l , 1 58 .

4 9 :n .10.

Nourray , 6 2 .

P it tac io lus , 2 41-2.

Noyon , 5 8.

P l iny , 3 24. P o it iers , 6 ,16 ,19 ,64 ,72 ,114 ,116 ;

Udo , c oun t o f Troyes , 2 1 ,22 .

1 18 :n .5 ;

Udo , k ing o f t he West F ranks , 7 .

1 2 :n .33 ;

O l iba I , c oun t o f Carcassonne ,

1 21 :n .2 8 :

1 0 :n .10 ;

1 26 :n .77.

P on th ieu , 1 97.

1 72 ,176 ,177,181.

P on torson , 1 97.

Oos t-Souburg , 2 25 ,226.

P orchester Cast le , 2 22 , 2 5 , 2 26.

Orba is , 2 57,355.

P r isc ian , 3 11-4.

Ordofo , k ing o f t he A stur ias , 1 78 .

Provence , 2 7 ,58 ,65 ,154 ,177.

Or ibas ius , 3 38-9 .

Pruden t ius , Aure l ius C le mens , 3 12 .

3 46 :n .50 .

Pruden t ius , b ishop o f Troyes , 9 ,18-25,

Origny , c onven t o f , 1 58 .

2 7 ,46 ,137 ,139 ,160 , 2 58-9 , 3 55-7 ,

Or leans , 5 ,42 ,62 ,64 ,66 ,68 ,72 , 7 7 ,101 1 97 ,222 ;

1 23 :nn .44 ,47-8 .

P o itou , 1 13 ,115 ,199 ,201 ;

O ffa o f Merc ia , 1 42 ,218 ,219 .

Or igen , 3 39 ,377 ;

8 2:n.12 ;

3 59-60,363-4 ;

1 18 :n .5 ;

4 4 ,56 ;

1 24 :n .5 8.

3 0 :nn .18,36 ;

3 1:nn .

1 46 :n.7.

Quen tov ic , 4 2 ,58 ,60 ,64 ,66 ,68 ,73 ,77 ,

Osber t , e a ldor man , 1 51 .

8 0 ,137 ,138 ,139 ,214-5 ,218-9 .

Osce l lus , i sland o f , 4 6.

Qu ierzy , 4 8 ,176 ,387-8 ;

Oswa ld , 1 37.

n .90 ;

O tto I , 1 39 .

1 25 :n .69 ;

3 1 :n .44 ;

3 3 :

1 26 :n .72 ;

S ynods o f , 2 57-8 ,354 ,356 ,363 . Qu i mper , 8 7.

Pac if icus o f V erona , 3 20 .

Qu in t i l l ian , 1 38 ;

Pa l lars- Ribagoria , 1 73-6.

1 46 :n .15.

Quen tov ic , 4 2 ,58 ,60 ,64 ,66 ,68 ,73 ,77 ,

Pa mp lona , Basque c oun ts o f , 1 73.

8 0 ,137 ,138 ,139 ,214-5 ,218-9 .

Pardu lus , b ishop o f L aon , 1 57 ,

Radbertus , Paschas ius , 2 37 ,354-5 ,

3 35-339 , 3 49-50 ,357-8 ,361 , 3 85 .

3 86. Radbod , b ishop o f U trech t , 3 87.

Par is , 2 1,42 ,45-7 ,58 ,64 ,66 ,72-3 , 7 7 ,156 ,214 ,222 ;

Radu lf , b rother o f Wifred a nd c oun t

s ynod o f , 3 86.

o f B esa lu , 1 72 .

Pascwethen , 9 0 ,92 . Pau l t he D eacon , 2 96-7 ;

3 06 :n .26.

RAG 3 11-314.

Pav ia , 6 4 ,72 .

Ragnar , 4 5.

Penda . , k ing o f Merc ia , 1 44 .

Ra ina ld , c oun t o f H erbauge , 6 ;

Perche , 1 97.

Ra lph , s ee Rodo lfus.

Peronne , 1 58 . Perp ignan , 6 4 ;

Ra mnu lf I , c ount o f P o itou , 3 ,6 ; Ra mnu lf o f P o it iers , 1 16 ;

P er tho is , 1 97.

1 26 :nn .7 7-9 ;

1 27 :n .7 9 .

Petron ius , 3 77 ,378 .

Rancogne , 8 .

P icardy , 1 93 ,196 ,197.

Razes , 1 77.

P il l igerheck , 6 6 ,68 ,72 .

Ra ther , c oun t o f L i moges , 6 .

P ipp in I , K ing o f Aqu i ta ine , 5 -6 , 1 5 , 6 8, 7 2, 1 12-4 , 1 17 , 1 53 , 2 95 ; 8 2 :n .12 ;

1 2 :

n .3 3.

8 2 :n .9 .

Peter o f P isa , 2 96 ,314 :306 :n .2 6.

1 2 :nn .33, 3 5 ;

1 2 :n .33.

Ra tra mnus o f C orb ie , 2 58-9 ,353 , • 3 57-8 ,363 ,385-6.

1 18-126 :nn .

Ray mond , c oun t o f L i moges , 6 ,7 ;

S t . Aub in , Angers ;

1 3 :n .47. R edon , 9 0 , 9 2 , 2 01 ; c artu lary o f 9 3 ;

S t . Anse lm , 3 11 , 3 12 , 3 14.

1 00-05 :nn .

3 3 :n .85 .

S t . August ine , 2 44 , 3 03 , 3 53 ,3 56 , 3 57 , 3 60 , 3 61 , 3 63 , 3 77.

R egensburg , 3 14 , 3 21.

S t . Benoi t

R e ichenau , 3 17 ,3 34.

S tun t-Ber t in , monastery o f , 1 96, 2 25 ,

4 ;

1 26 :n .75.

3 54.

R em ig ius o f A uxerre , 3 14. Rennes , 6 2 ,6 4 ,6 6 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 2 . Rhe i ms , 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 2 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 9 ,4 2 , 5 8 , 6 4 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 7 , 1 59 , 2 22 , 3 34 , 3 38 , 3 53 , 3 55 , 3 76 , 3 86 , 3 87 , 3 91

S t . B er t in , a nna ls o f , 1 5-6 , 1 8-29 , 5 4 , 8 7 , 9 0 , 9 2 , 1 16-7 , 1 37, 1 40 ,144, 1 54 ,160 1 60 , 3 88 . S t . B on iface , 1 37 , 1 40 , 2 56 ;

1 49 :n .55 .

S te . C ro ix d e P o it iers , 1 58 ;

3 92 . Rh ine , 1 9 ,6 6 ,6 8 , 7 2 , 8 0-1 , 2 14 ,

S t . C ybard ,

2 17-8 , 2 28 .

1 1 :n .16 ;

1 23 :n .41.

Angour e me , 4 ;

1 0 :n .6 ;

1 2 :n .34 , 3 5.

Rh ine land , 2 14-8 , 2 20-1 , 3 34.

S t . C yr-en-Ta l monda is , 7 2 .

Rhone Va l ley , 6 5 , 8 0 .

S t , D en is , 7 3 , 1 53 , 1 94 , 2 55 , 3 26, 3 87-8 ,

R ichard , b rother o f R ich ild is ,

3 92 ;

1 54 , 1 55.

1 27 :n . 8 1.

S t . D unstan , 1 37.

R icharda , empress , 1 41.

S t . Em i l ion , 7 2 .

R icher o f Rhe i ms , 3 33.

S t . Ga l l , 3 20 , 3 34.

R ich ild is , q ueen , 1 41 , 1 53-160 ,

S t . G era ld o f Aur i l lac , 7 ;

3 91 ;

1 48 :n .46 ;

1 60 :nn .4 -5 ;

1 63 :nn .3 6 ,44 ;

1 65 :n .72 ;

1 3 :n .45.

S t . G er ma in , Auxerre , 1 58 .

1 66 :nn .

8 1-2 .

S t . G erma in-des-Pres , 3 11 ,3 36. S a in t-Guy d e Ca mbra i , 1 96 .

R ingar t , w ife o f P ipp in Io f Aqu ita ine , 1 53 .

S t . Gregory o f N yssa , 3 78 . S t . H i la ire , P o it iers , 1 6 , 1 16 ;

3 3 :n .85 ;

R ipo l l , monastery o f , 1 69 , 1 72 , 1 82 .

1 26 :nn .7 7-78 .

Rober t , b rother o f c oun t Odo , 1 55.

S t . J ero me , 4 3 , 1 38 , 3 14 , 3 17 , 3 53 , 3 57 ,

Rober t t he S trong , 4 6-7 , 1 55 ;

1 26 :

Rodo lfus , a rchb ishop o f Bourges , 7 , 1 16 , 2 00 ;

3 59 , 3 92 ;

1 46 :n .15.

S t . J ohn C hrysosto m , 3 77.

n .7 8 . 1 3 :n .47 ;

1 26 :n .64 .

S t . J udoc i n P icardy , 1 37 ,138 , 3 54 ; 1 46 :n .12 .

Roer mond , 7 2 .

S t . Mar t ia l , L i moges , 4 ,5 ,7 ;

Roger , c oun t o f Ma ine , 1 40 .

S t . Mar t in , T ours , 1 54 , 3 87 .

Ro me , 1 9 , 2 3 , 9 1 , 1 37 , 1 38 , 1 40 , 1 43 ,

S t . Mary ' so f C o mpiegne , 3 88 , 3 94.

1 44 , 1 57 ,3 46 ;

3 55 ;

1 47 :n .23 ;

S t . Maur ice , Agaune , 1 54 ;

3 3 :n .85 .

S t . Max i mus o f T r ier , Anna ls o f , 3 87.

1 50 :n .6 9 . Roth i ld , d aughter o f Char les t he

S t . A / I dard , S oissons , 3 75 ,378, 3 87 ; 1 19 :n.7 ;

B a ld , 1 40 , 1 59 . Rouen , 2 2 ,4 1 ,5 8 ,6 0 , 6 2 ,6 4 ,6 6 , 7 3 ,

1 21 :n .29.

S t . Omer , 2 25. S t . Quen t in , 1 9 , 6 8 , 1 58, 3 87.

7 7 , 8 0 , 2 14 , 2 18-9 . Rouergue ,201 .

S a inte Petron il le , 6 2 ;

Rothad , b ishop o f S oissons , 3 54. Roya l F rank ish Anna ls , 3 ,5 ,1 5-6 , 1 8

S te . Radegund , P o it iers , 1 58 .

1 8 , 2 0 , 2 4 , 2 9 , 8 7 , 9 2 , 1 60 ; 1 02 :n .26 ;

1 0 :n .6 .

2 9 :n .3 ;

1 22 :nn .3 2-3 , 3 5.

S t . Amand , 3 34-5 , 3 38 , 3 86 , 3 91. S t . Ambrose , 3 62 . S t . Andoche o f Au tun ,

3 2 .

8 2 :n .9 .

S t . P o l , 8 7. S a int-Re m i , 1 96 , 3 38 , 3 49 . S t . Re m ig ius , 2 44 . S t . Wandr i l le , 1 39 . S t . Wil l ia m o f Tou louse , 1 74 , 1 75. S a in tes , 5 ,6 .

S a in tonge , 4 ,201 ;

1 21 :n .28 .

S a lo mon , d uke o f Br it tany , 4 6 ,87-8 , 9 0-1 ,92 ,99 ; 1 00 :n .3 ;

3 3 :n .8 5 ;

5 0 :n .2 7 ;

1 101 :nn .1 6 ,19 .

S a lone , a bbey o f , 1 59 .

S an J oan d e l as Abadesses , 1 72 . S aöne, 1 97.

Thegan , 3 54. Theodu lf o f Or leans , 2 95-9 ,301 ,314 ;

S arrusac , 2 00 . 8 2 :n .10 .

S avonn ieres , S ynod o f , 3 63 ,364. S axons , 1 99 . S cand inav ia , 5 6 ,76 ,80 ,221. S cot land , 9 9 .

3 06 :n .2 6. Theuder ic o f Cambra i , 3 54 . Th iber t , c oun t o f Madr ie , 1 53 . Th ierache , 2 04. T ou louse , 2 5 ,56 ,68 ,64-6 ,72 ,77,112 , 1 80 ,201 ;

S edu l ius , 3 12 . S edu l ius S cot tus , p oet o f C har les t he Ba ld a nd L ou is t he G er man , 3 01 ,302 ,314 ,335 ,355 ;

3 42 :n .20 ;

3 15 :n .12 . S e ine , 6 2 ,73 ,197 ,198 ,204-5 , 2 25 ,228 .

n .14 ;

1 2 :n .3 3 ;

1 20 :n .18 ;

8 2 :n .12 ; 1 23 :n .43 ;

1 19 : 1 24 :

n n .4 8 ,56. Tonnerrois , 1 97. T oura ine , 1 98 ,203. Tours , 2 0 ,58 ,62 ,64 ,72 ,88 ,222 ,256 , 3 17 ,319 ,320 ,322 ,386 ,390-4 ;

3 28 :

n .3 4.

1 19 :n .7.

Tresson , 1 98 .

S enona is , 1 97.

Trev iso , 7 2 .

S enonches , 1 97.

Tr ier , 2 22.

S ens , 4 2 ,72 . S ep t i man ia , 1 77 ,179 ,201 ,204 ; 1 25 :n .62 . 3 16 :n .15 ;

3 46 :n .5 1. S igu in , c oun t o f Bordeaux ,4 -5 ;

S isenand , c oun t , 1 77. S oissons , 1 6 ,45 ,155 ,378 ,385 , S ynod o f , 2 57-261 ,362 .

S o lo mon , c oun t o f Barce lona , 1 69 . S pa in , 1 8 ,20 ,74 ,170 ,177 , 2 03. S pan ish Marches , 2 01 ;

1 22 :n .33 .

S tod i lo , b ishop o f L i moges , 7 . S trabo , Wa lafr id , 2 8 ,256 ,262 ,295 , 3 01 ,317 ,333 ,339 ;

2 36 :n .4.

S tur m io , c oun t o f Narbonne , 1 80 . S un ifred , c oun t , f a ther o f Wifred , 1 72 ,175. S un ifred , a bbot o f Ar les , b rother o f Wifred 1 72 ,175.

Troyes , 2 0 ,21 ,43 ;

3 0 :n .36 .

Tude la , Banu Kas im o f , 1 78 . Turp io , c ount , 6 . Tusey , 2 42 ,354 ,365 ;

3 68 :n . 2 1. . ,

U lster , Anna ls o f , 2 0. U suard o f S t . G er ma in-des-Pres ,

1 1 :n .2 4 . S ih tr ic , k ing o f York , 1 39 .

3 92 ;

T eu tberga , w ife o f L othar I , 1 54 ,158. Theodefred , 1 80 .

S aracens , 2 0 ,355.

S erv ius , 3 14 ,353 ;

T egerno ma lus , 9 3 . T erence , 3 12 .

S an C uga t d e Va l les , 1 73 .

S au meray , 6 2 ,77 ;

Rosse l lo , 1 72 . S urdo ire , 2 00 .

T er , v a l ley o f , 1 81.

S a lzburg , 3 21.

S en l is , 4 2 ;

S un ifred , f a ther-in-law o f Wifred , 1 72 . S unyer I , c oun t o f Empur ies a nd

S a lerno , 3 33 .

3 86. Vabres e n Rouergue , 2 01. Va lence , S ynod o f , 3 55 ,363 ,364 . Va lenc iennes , 6 2 ,68 . Vannes , 8 7 ;

1 00 :nn .3 ,10 .

Ve lay , 2 01. V egennes , 2 00 . Ver , S ynod o f , 2 0. Verber ie , S ynod o f , 2 37 ,241 . V erdun , 6 6 ,77 ;

1 20 :22 ;

T rea ty o f ,

1 54. Vex in , 1 94. V ienne , 4 3 ,387. V ik ings , 1 9-20 ,26-7 ,43 ,45-7 ,55-6 , 6 0 ,68 ,73-4 ,87 ,91 ,137 ,139 ,140 ,145 , 2 2 . 0-2 ,223 ,225 ; 1 46 :nn .1 2

1 1 :n .16 ;

1 2 :n .3 3 ;

V i la ine , 8 7. V i meu , 1 97. V irg i l , 3 00 ,312 . V ise , 5 8 . V is igoth ic K ingdo m , 1 77-9 . V iyara is , 2 01. V iv ian , l ay-abbot o f T ours , 2 66 ,391. Vorgeb irge H i l ls , 2 15 ,216. Vor t igern , 9 3. Vou lpa ix , 2 03. Vu lgr in , c oun t , 7 ; 1 2 :n .34 ;

1 1 :n .16 ;

1 3 :n .52 .

Waerburh , q ueen o f Merc ia ; 1 49 :n .5 5. Wa lcheren , i s le o f , 6 8 . Wa ldrada , 1 41 ,155 ;

1 48 :n .45.

Wa les , 9 9 ,143 . Wa lter , b ishop o f Or leans 3 86. We lfs , 1 53 . Wen i lo , a rchb ishop o f S ens , 1 8 ,21 ,22 . Wen i lo , a rchb ishop o f Rouen , 2 38 . Wessex , 1 38-145 ,153 ,219-229 ; 1 50 :n .7 0 . Wido , 1 41. Wifred , f a ther o f Wifred t he Ha iry , 1 69 . Wi f red t he Ha iry , 1 69-178 ,181-2 ; 1 1 :n .16 ;

1 82 :n .4 ;

1 84 :n .15.

Wigber t , a bbot o f F r itz lar , 1 37. Wigmund , a rchb ishop o f York , 1 37 ,138 ;

1 46 :n .6 ;

1 47 :n .23.

Wi jk-b i j-Duurstede , 6 6 ,72 ,215. Wi l l ia m , b rother o f Er men trude , 1 55. Wi l l ia m , s on o f B ernard o f S ept i man ia , 1 74. Winchester , 2 22 ,225. Win id i ld is , c oun tess , w ife o f Wifred , 1 72 . Wu lfad , a rchb ishop o f Bourges , 2 2 ,26 ,375-380 . York , 1 38 . Yronde , 6 4 . Z aragoza , Banu Kasi m o f , 1 78 .