Birds of a Feather: Osteological and archaeological papers from the South Pacific in honour of R.J. Scarlett 9780860540625, 9781407349367
226 8 188MB
English Pages [308] Year 1979
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
RONALD JACK SCARLETT
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
THE TYPES OF W. R. B. OLIVER'S MOAS AND NOTES ON OLIVER'S METHODS OF MEASURING MOA BONES
A DECEPTIVE TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE FOSSIL SITE ON THE WAIPARA RIVER, NORTH CANTERBURY, NEW ZEALAND.
AVIFAUNAL COMPOSITION OF SKELETAL MATERIAL COLLECTED FROM SKUA MIDDENS AND BEACHES AT SO MEAUSTRALASIAN SUB-ANTARCTIC ISLANDS
THE BREEDING ECOLOGY OF MOAS
TAMENESS AND MYSTICAL ASSOCIATIONS OF WILD BIRDS
AVIFAUNA AND MAN
SOME OSTEOGRAPHIC CONTEMPLATIONS ON MAORI AND KAKAPO IN EAR LY WELLINGTON
MAXIMIZING MINIMUM NUMBERS: AVIAN REMAINS FROM THE WASHPOOL MIDDEN SITE
ISLAND AND COASTAL FOWLING STRATEGIES OF THE PREHISTORIC MORIORI
PREHISTORIC EXPLOITATION OF CRAYFISH IN NEW ZEALAND
THE ROLE OF THE DOG IN THE ECONOMY OF THE NEW ZEALAND MAORI
ARCHAIC MIDDENS OF THE COROMANDEL REGION:
TAI RUA: A MOA -HUNTER SITE IN NORTH OTAGO
THE NEW ZEALAND OCTOPUS LURE: FACT OR FICTION
AXE HEADS AND ZOO MORPHS IN THE SOLOMON ISLANDS
CULTURAL PROCESSES LIMITING DIVERSITY IN NEW ZEALAND PREHISTORY
MAORI GODSTICKS AND THEIR STYLISTIC AFFINITIES
Citation preview
Birds of a Feather Osteological and archaeological papers from the South Pacific in honour of R. J. Scarlett edited by Atholl Anderson
New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 11
B A R lnternational Series· 6 2 1 979
B.A.R.,
B.A.R.
122
Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GL\""ER ..\L EDITORS A. R. Hands, E.Se., )I. ..\., D.Phil. D. R. \\.alker, :-I.A.
B. A.R. -S62, 1979: ''Birds of a Feather ." © The Individual Authors, 1979. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540625 paperback ISBN 9781407349367 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540625 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
CONTENTS Page Preface a nd A cknow ledge men ts Rona ld J ack S car le t t
i ll
L ist o f C on tr ibu tors
v i
Papers : J . C . Ya ldwyn
The Types o f W . R . B . O l iver ' s Moas a nd N o tes o n O l iver ' s Me thods o f 1
Measur ing Moa B ones T . H . V . R ich , P . V . R ich ,
A Decep t ive Te n a stria l Ver tebra te
R . E . F ordyce , P . Ga tehouse
F ossi l S i te o n t he Waipara R iver ,
a nd R . J . S car le t t
N or th C an terbury , N ew Z ea land
G . F . v an T e ts
Avifauna l C o mposi tion o f S ke le ta l
2 5
Ma ter ia l c o l lected f ro m S kua middens a nd b eaches a t s o me Austra lasian S ub-
G . E . Ha me l R . Bu l mer
An tarct ic I s lands
5 3
The B reed ing E co logy o f Moas
6 1
Ta meness a nd Myst ica l A ssocia t ions o f Wi ld B irds
6 7
R . J . S car le t t
Avifauna a nd Man
7 5
E . W. Dawson
S o me O steograph ic Con te mp la tion o n Maor i a nd Kakapo i n Ear ly We l ling ton
B . F . L each
9 1
Maximis ing Min i mu m Numbers: Avian R e ma ins f ro m t he Washpoo l Midden S i te
D . G . S u t ton
1 03
I sland a nd C oasta l F ow ling S tra tegies o ft he Preh istoric Mor ior i
1 23
A . J . Anderson
Prehistor ic Exp lo i ta t ion o f C rayf ish i n New Z ea land
1 41
J . A l b oBay-Pe tersen
The R o le o f t he Dog i n t he E cono my
B . F . L each a nd
o ft he N ew Z ea land Maor i J . M. Davidson
1 65
Archaic Middens o ft he C oro mande l Region : A R eview
M. M . Tro t ter
Ta i Rua :
a Moa-hun ter s i te
i n n orth O tago
1 83 f or th 2 03
Page H . M. L each
The New Z ea land Octopus L ure : F act o r F ict ion '
J . S pech t a nd S . S pech t
Axe Heads a nd Zoo morphs i n t he S o lo mon I s lands
G . L aw
2 47
Cu l tura l Processes l imi t ing D iversi ty i n New Z ea land Prehistory
P . Gathercole
2 31
2 65
Maori Godst icks a nd t heir S tyl ist ic A f f in it ies
2 85
PREFACE AND ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS
I n 1 975 a s uggestion t ha t f riends a nd c o l leagues o f Ron S car let t might c ont r ibu te t o av o lu me i n h is h onour was r eceived w i th a n e n thusias m q ui te u nref l ected i n t he t ime i th as t aken t o b r ing t h is work t o f ru i tion .
I n i tia l ly o n ly
a rchaeo log ists were p ar ty t o t he p repara t ions, b u t s oon R on ' sc o l leagues i n o ther f i e lds f ound o u t a nd were d e ligh ted t o p ar ticipa te . t ha t t his p ub lica tion wou ld mark R on ' sr e tire men t ; w i th p leasure b y a l l o fu s.
We migh t h ave e xpected
t ha t i td oes n ot i s r egarded
Iwou ld l i ke t o t ake t hi s o ppor tun i ty t o t hank Ann Harrison a nd Michae l Tro t ter f or a ssistance i n v ar ious a spects o f t he p repara tions a nd t he C ounci l o f t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo log ica l A ssocia t ion f or i t s c on t inued i n terest i n t he p ro ject a s we l l a s t he i nclusion o ft his v o lu me i n t he A ssocia t ion ' s monograph s eries.
To t he a u thors Ic an o n ly e xpress my a d mira t ion o f t heir p a t ience a nd
c our tesy i n wa i t ing s o l ong t o s ee t heir c on tr ibu tions p ub lished . Edi tor
R ON S CARLETT Canterbury Museum 1 979
RONALD J AC K SCARLETT
R on was b orn i n 1 911 a t S toke , av i l lage n ear N e lson a nd , f o l low ing a n a l most i t ineran t p rimary e duca t ion , s pen t t he u ncer ta in y ears o ft he 1 920s a nd 1 930s a t f arm ing , l abouring , g arden ing a nd min ing
A t t he a ge o f 2 6 h e e nro l led
f or a B .A . d egree a t C an terbury U n iversi ty C o l lege a nd t hen , u pon g radua t ion , s tud ied An thropo logy u nder H . D . S k inner a t O tago .
H is i n terest i n t h is f i e ld ,
c oup led w i th a b oyhood e n thusias m f or n a tura l h istory a nd a n i nvi ta t ion t o j oin t he P yra mid Va l ley e xcava tions i n 1 949 , f or med t he f ounda tion o f h is s ubsequen t c areer .
I n 1 950 h e was a ppo in ted t o t he Can terbury Museu m a s t he Recorder o f
C o l lect ions a nd l a ter b eca me O steo log ist . most r ecen t ly a t t he R oya l On tar io
Apar t f ro m s hort p er iods a broad ,
Museu m a s aR esearch A ssocia te, h e h as
made C an terbury Museu m h is p rofessiona l h o me . The s tudy o f a vi fauna l o steo logy h as a lways b een Ron S car let t ' s ma in f i e ld , a nd t h is h as p roved a v ery f or tuna te c ircu mstance i ndeed f or a rchaeo logists i n t he S ou th Paci f ic ;
most p ar ticu lar ly i n New Z ea land where b irds were a n u nusu-
a l ly i mpor tan t c o mponen t o f p rehistoric e cono m ies.
F or t hir ty y ears R on h as
p rovided a p ro mp t , p a instak ing b one i den t if icat ion s erv ice a nd , wha t i s more, a ssisted a t n u merous e xcava t ions t hroughou t N ew Z ea land a nd O cean ia .
Nor d oes
h is c on tr ibu t ion t o a rchaeo logy s top t here , f or h e was a f ounda tion me mber o f t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo logica l A ssocia t ion a nd t he f irst e di tor o ft he A ssociat ion ' sN ewsle t ter .
Amongst h is c on tr ibu tions i n t his l at ter c apaci ty , h is a d mon i-
t ions t o a rchaeo logists o n t he s ub ject o f r e ta in ing f auna l r e mains a re s ti l l wor th r eca l ling .
More w ide ly , h is a c t ive i n terest i n o rn i tho log ica l a nd a n thropo logica l
f i e ldwork h as d e monstra ted a c oncern n o t j ust f or b ones, b u t f or t he b irds t he ms elves a nd t he ir r e la tionships t o p eop le o f t his a nd o ther a ges. The c on tr ibu tors t o t his v o lu me w ish t o e xpress t heir r espect f or Ron ' s t a len ts a nd d evo tion t o h is p rofession , t he ir g ra t i tude f or h is e ver-wi l ling a ssistance a nd t heir a pprecia t ion o f h is c o mpany i n t he f i e ld . S cien ti f ic Pub l ica tions 1 953 A S ub-fossi l Hawk f ro m N ew Z ea land R ecords o f t he Can terbury Museu m 6( 3 ) :245-252 1 955
F ur ther R epor t o n B ird Re mains f ro m Pyra mid Va l ley
Records o ft he
Can terbury Museu m 6 (4) :261-264 1 955
AN ew R a i l f ro m S ou th I s land Swa mps i n N ew Z ea land
Records o ft he
Can terbury Museu m 6 (4) :265-266 1 955 1 957
F a lcon i n C ha tha m I slands F or mer F auna l Areas:
N otorn is 6 (3 ) :57
s o me s ub-fossi l e vidence
Z ea land E co logica l S ocie ty 4 :17-18
l ii
Proceed ings o ft he New
1 958 A Den ta liu m S he l l N eck lace Workshop J ourna l o ft he Po lynesian S ocie ty 6 7 (1) :75 1 960 Excava tions a t P ari Whaka tau , C laver ley
N ew Z ea land Archaeo logica l
A ssocia t ion N ewsle t ter 4 (1) :2-7 1 962 S ub-fossi l Records o f t he L i t t le Grey K iw i i n t he N or th I s land
No tornis
1 0 (2 ) :84-85 1 962 I n ter im L ist o f Moa S pecies f ro m N or th I sland Archaeo log ica l S i tes N ew Z ea land Archaeo log ica l A ssocia t ion N ewsle t ter 5 (4) :2 ,45-246. 1 963
C o m men ts o n Excava t ions a t S ou th B ay
New Z ea land Archaeo log ica l
A ssocia t ion N ewslet ter 6 (3) :159-160 1 964 Austra lian S tragg lers i n N ew Z ea land , w i th F irst R ecord o f t he F anTai led C uckoo 1 964
N o torn is 1 1(2 ) :107-109 ( w i th E . G . Turbo t t )
F ur ther Heaphy R iver Excava tions
N ew Z ea land Archaeo logica l A ssocia-
t ion N ewsle t ter 7 (3) :128-132 ( w i th 0 . R . Wi lkes) 1 966 A Pe lican i n N ew Z ea land
N o torn is 1 3 (4) :204-217
1 967 Excava tion o f a Moa-hun ter s i te a t t he Mou th o f t he H eaphy R iver Records o ft he C an terbury Museu m 8 (3) :181-212 ( wi th 0 . R . Wi lkes) 1 967 Adzes a nd C h ise ls f ro m t he H eaphy R iver
R ecords o ft he Can terbury
Museu m 8 (3 ) :213-234 1 967 B irds o ft he H eaphy R iver Area
N o torn is 1 4(1) :31-33
1 968 An Ow le t-n igh t jar f ro m N ew Z ea land
N o torn is 1 5(4) :254-266
1 964 . . ,A S econd N or th I s land L oca li ty f or P achyornis e lephan topus ( Owen ) No torn is 1 5(1) :36 1 969 The O ccurrence o f t he Musk Duck , B iziura l oba ta ( Shaw ) i n N ew Z ea land No torn is 1 6( 1 ) :57-59 1 969
Moas a nd O ther Ex t inct B irds I n G . A . K nox ( Ed ) o f Can terbury :565-568
1 969
The N a tura l H istory
Reed , We l l ing ton
On t he A l leged Queens land Moa , D inornis q ueens land iae d e v is
Me moirs
o ft he Q ueensland Museu m 1 5(3 ) :207-212 1 970 The G enus C ape l lira l lus
N o torn is 1 7 (4) :303-319
1 970 The Auck land I s land Merganser
Wi ldfo ls 2 1:78-86 ( w i th H Jane t K ear )
1 970 The Auck land I sland Merganser
Wi ld fow l 2 1 :78-86 ( w i th J ane t K ear )
1 970 A Sma l l Woodhen f ro m N ew Z ea land
N o torn is 1 7 (1) :68-74
1 972 Bone o f a Presu med Odon top terygian B ird f ro m t he Miocene o f New Z ea land N ew Z ea land J ourna l o f G eo logy a nd G eophysics 1 5(2 ) :269-274 1 972 Bones f or t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo log ist 1 974
Moa a nd Man i n New Z ea land
1 975
Thyroid B ones o f Moas
1 976
K ing Pengu ins a t C ha tha m I sland
Can terbury Museu m Bu l le tin 4
N otorn is 2 1(1) :1-12
Records o ft he Can terbury Museu m 9 (3) :247-258 N o torn is 2 3(4) :355 i v
Th is v olu me : AD ecep t ive Terrestr ia l Ver tebra te F ossi l S i te o n t he Waipara R iver , N or th Can terbury , N ew Z ea land ( w i th T . H . V . R ich , P . V . R ich , R . E . F ordyce a nd P . G a tehouse) Th is v o lu me : Avi fauna a nd Man
V
L IST OF CONTR IBUTORS
J . A l b oBay-Pe tersen , Aarhus, Den mark . A . J . Anderson , An thropo logy D epar t men t , Un iversi ty o f O tago . R . Bu l mer , An thropo logy Depar t m en t , U n iversi ty o f Auck land . J . M. D avidson , Auck land I nst i tu te a nd Museu m . E . W. Dawson , Eastbourne , We l ling ton . R . E . F ordyce , Z oo logy Depar t men t ,
U n iversi ty o f C an terbury .
P . G a tehouse , Christchurch Train ing C o l lege . P . Ga thercole , Un iversi ty Museu m o f A rchaeology a nd An thropology , Ca mbr idge. G . E . H a me l , An thropo logy Departmen t , Un iversi ty o f O tago . G . L aw , Gow ing Dr ive , Auck land . B . F . L each , An thropo logy Depart men t , U n iversi ty o f O tago . H . M . L each, An thropo logy Depar tmen t , U n iversi ty o f O tago . P . V . R ich , Na t iona l Museu m o f V ic tor ia , Austra lia . T . H . V . R ich , Na t iona l Museu m o f V ictor ia , Austra lia . R . J . S car let t , Can terbury Museu m , C hr istchurch . J . S pech t , The Austra l ian Museu m , S ydney . S . S pech t , Rosev i l le , N ew S ou th Wa les. D . G . S u t ton , An thropo logy Depar t men t , U n iversi ty o f Auck land .
M. M . Trot ter , Can terbury Museu m , Christchurch . G . F . v an Te ts, D ivision o f Wi ld life Research , C SIRO . J . C . Ya ldwyn , Na t iona l Museu m , We l lington .
THE TYPES OF W. R . B . OL IVER 'S MOAS AND NOTES ON OL IVER 'S METHODS OF MEASUR ING MOA BONES J . C . Ya ldwyn
I n troduc t ion W. R . B . O l iver ( b . 1 883 , d . 1 957) was t he l as t o f al ong l ine o f N ew Z ea landers p ub l ish ing o n t he s ys te ma t ics o f moas t o d escr ibe n ew g enera , s ubgenera a nd s pecies o f t hese e x t inc t b irds .
H is N ew Z ea land p redecessors
a nd c on te mporar ies i n t h is f i e ld , J u l ius v on H aas t , J a mes H ector , F . W. H u t ton , A ugus tus Ham i l ton , T . J . Parker , H . 0 . F orbes a nd G i lber t Archey , p ub l ish ing b e tween 1 863 a nd 1 941 , b u i l t u p a nd r e f ined a s ys te ma t ic s tructure f or t he moas f ro m R ichard Owen 's b as ic s che me o f t wo g enera a nd 1 9 s pec ies ( as s u m mar ized i n Owen , 1 879, 1 883 ) , t o t he s ix g enera a nd 2 0 s pec ies ( severa l d i f feren t f ro m Owen 's 1 9 s pp .) , o f Archey 's Auck land Museu m monog raph o f 1 941.
Owen 's f e l low c oun try men R . L ydekker a nd W. R othsch i ld ,
d escr ibed ( i n 1 891 a nd 1 907 r espec t ive ly ) a n a dd i t iona l n ew g enus a nd 1 2 n ew s pec ies o f moas f ro m ma ter ia l i n t he Br i t ish a nd o ther Un i ted K ingdo m Museums , b u t n one o f t hose n a med " spec ies" a re r ecogn ized u nequ ivoca l ly t oday ( see S car le t t , 1 972;
C racra f t , 1 976) .
O l iver i n h is 1 949 D om in ion Museu m b u l le t in o n moas " in t he ma in a dopt ed Archey 's s che me o f c lass i f ica t ion" ( i b id ., 5 6) b u t a dded a n ew g enus , t wo n ew s ubgenera a nd s ix n ew s pecies t o t he e x is t ing s ys te ma t ic s tructure . H e h ad a lready d escr ibed a n ew s pec ies o f Euryapteryx i n h is 1 930 b ook , N ew Z ea land B irds .
H is n ew moa t axa c an b e l i s ted a s f o l lows :
Z e lorn is O l iver , 1 949 ( t ype s pecies Euryapteryx e x i l is Hu t ton ) -a g enus c lose t o Euryapteryx Haas t , 1 874 Mau iorn is O l iver , 1 949 ( t ype s pecies P achyorn is s ep ten tr iona l is O l iver ) -a s ubgenus o f P achyorn is L ydekker , 1 891 P ouna mua O l iver , 1 949 ( t ype s pecies P achyorn is mur ihta i O l iver ) as ubgenus o f P achyorn is L ydekker , 1 891 P achyorn is ( Mau iorn is ) s epten tr iona l is O l iver , 1 949 Pachyorn is ( Pouna mua ) mur ih iku O l iver , 1 949 Pachyorn is ( Pachyorn is ) a us tra l is O l iver , 1 949 Euryap teryx t ane O l iver , 1 949 Euryap teryx k uranu i O l iver , 1 930 - r egarded b y Archey ( 1941) a nd O l iver ( 1949 ) a s as ynony m o f E . g rav is ( Owen , 1 870 ) D inorn is g aze l la O l iver , 1 949 D inorn is h ercu les O l iver , 1 949 1
I n t he s econd e d i t ion o f h is N ew Z ea land B irds i n 1 955 , O l iver made n o c hange t o t he moa s ys te ma t ic s tructure ( now 7 g enera a nd 2 8 s pec ies ) b u t d id n o t u se t he Pachyorn is s ubgenera .
R . J . S car le t t i n h is 1 972 C an terbury
Museu m b u l le t in B ones f or t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo log is t was t he n ex t N ew Z ea lander t o r ev iew moa s ys te ma t ics .
H e a ccepted , w i th s o me d oub ts , a l l
o f O l iver 's 1 949 s pecies e xcep t E . t ane ( wh ich h e c ons idered a s ynony m o f E . g erano ides Owen ) , b u t d id n o t u se Z e lorn is ( he s ynony m ized i tw i th Euryap teryx ) , o r t he P achyorn is s ubgenera .
S car le t t a lso , i t s hou ld b e
n o ted , l i s ted ( i b id ., 2 1) b u t d id n o t n a me a n ew s pec ies o f D inorn is ( "known
..fro m o ne u npub l ished t i b iotarsus" ) a nd a n ew s pec ies o f Euryap teryx ( " av ar iab le sma l l f or m ...fro m S tewar t I s land a nd t he Mur ih iku a rea o f t he S ou th I s land" ) .
I n t he l a tes t r ev iew o f moa s ys te ma t ics k nown t o me ,
C racra f t ( 1976 ) d id n o t r ecogn ize a ny o f O l iver 's t axa ( speci f ic o r g ener ic ) , a nd r educed t he s ys te ma t ic s truc ture t o s ix g enera a nd 1 3 s pec ies - t he l owes t n u mber o f s pec ies r ecogn ized s ince b efore 1 879 . As t he s ta tus o f s o me ( S car le t t , 1 972 ) o r a l l ( Cracra f t , 1 976 ) o f O l iver 's n ew s pec ies i s n ow q ues t ioned i ti s impor tan t t o u nders tand c lear ly j us t wha t t ype ma ter ia l h is n ew n a mes a re b ased o n . monograph
O l iver c lear ly s ta tes i n h is 1 949
wha t t he " type" o f e ach o f h is n ew s pec ies i s , b u t i n s o me c ases
t hese t ypes c an n o t b e r ecogn ized f ro m h is t ex t w i thou t a dd i t iona l i n for ma tion . I n s o me s pec ies , p ho tograph ic f igures p ub l ished i n 1 949 , wh ich a r eader migh t j us t i f iably a ssu me t o b e o f t ype ma ter ia l , a re n o t o f t ype ma ter ia l a t a l l a nd i n f ac t a re n ot r ecogn izab le a s t o l oca l i ty , c o l lec t ion o r r eg is tered s ke le ton f ro m O l iver 's t ex t a lone .
I ti s impor tan t t hen t o g o t hrough e ach o f O l iver 's
n ew moa s pec ies a nd f ir m ly i den t i fy t he a c tua l t ype ma ter ia l a nd t hen t o i dent i fy t he a c tua l f igured ma ter ia l o f e ach o f t he n ew f or ms . p ted i n t he f irs t p ar t o f t h is p aper .
Th is t ask i s a t te m-
I t s hou ld b e p o in ted o u t h ere t ha t R eco m-
menda t ion 7 3C o f t he I n terna t iona l C ode o f Z oo log ica l N o menc la ture ( I CZ N , 1 964 ) s ta tes t ha t t he " fu l l l oca l i ty , d a te , a nd o ther d a ta o n t he l abe ls a cco mp anying t he h o lo type" a s we l l a s " the c o l lec t ion i n wh ich i ti s s i tua ted a nd a ny c o l lec t ion - o r r eg is ter - n u mber a ss igned t o i t " s hou ld b e p ubl ished where p oss ib le. Anyone u s ing O l iver 's works o n moas i s a ware o f t he g rea t i mpor tance h e g ave t o t he measure men t o f moa b ones , e spec ia l ly l eg b ones .
I n 1 930 h e
p rov ided ( i b id ., 3 5 ) a n " ar ti f ic ia l k ey t o t he g enera o f moas , b ased o n t he p ropor t ions o f t he l eg b ones ...
T o u se t he k ey , i ti s n ecessary f irs t t o t ake
t he f o l low ing measure men ts o f e ach b one ..." .
B y 1 949 , O l iver , h ad a bandoned
( i b id ., 5 6) t he " ar t i f icia l k ey f or t he i den t i f ica t ion o f l eg b ones" , b u t p rov ided " tab les o f measuremen ts ...under e ach g enus , i n wh ich a ny b one c an b e i dent i f ied b y i nspect ion" .
H e d id n o t e xpla in a nywhere i n h is 1 949 monograph
j us t wha t t he f our l eg b one measure men ts L , P , M a nd D u sed i n t hese t ab les ( e .g . i b id ., 8 6 ) r epresen t , t hough i ti s c lear f ro m h is e ar l ier work ( 1930 : 3 5 ) a nd f ro m Archey ( 1 941:13 ) t ha t t hey mus t b e " leng th" , " prox i ma l w id th" , "m idd le w id th" a nd " d is ta l w id th" r especi tve ly .
I n t he 1 955 e d i t ion o f N ew
Z ea land B irds , O l iver d id n o t u se p ropor t ions o r w id th measure men ts f or moa l eg b ones b u t g ave max i mu m a nd m in i mu m l eng ths f or t he t hree ma in l eg b ones o f e ach s pec ies ( i b id ., 5 74 e t s eq .).
I n 19 30 h is d i mens ions w ere i n
c en t i metres ( i b id., v i i i ) f or " b irds" ( i nc lud ing h is moa b one measure men ts, s ee i b id ., 3 7 ), b u t i n m il l i metres f or e ggs !
I n 19 4 9h e u sed m il l i me tres i n
h is moa b one a nd e gg measure men t t ables t hough t h is i s n ot c learly s ta ted 2
a nywhere b u t merely i n ferred f ro m t ex t r eference ( e .g. i b id ., 4 6 ) a nd f ro m f oo tnotes t o t ables ( e .g. i b id ., 8 5 ).
B y 1 955 O l iver was u sing m il l i metres
f or " b irds a nd t heir e ggs" ( i b id ., 1 5 ) i nc lud ing moa e ggs, b u t h ad r everted t o c en t i metres f or moa b one measure men ts ( i b id ., 5 74 ).
Both A rchey ( 1941:
1 3 ) a nd S carlet t ( 1972 ) u se c en t i metres c ons isten t ly t hroughou t t he ir ma in works o n moas a nd b ird b ones. A s t he LP MD s ys te m o f moa l eg b one measure men ts i s u sed t hroughou t O l iver 's 1 949 monograph a nd was a pp l ied b y h im t o t he l arge u npub l ished c o l lec t ions o f moa r e ma ins t hen a va i lab le i n t he " Do m in ion"
( now N a t iona l )
Museu m , i ti s i mpor tan t t ha t t he me thods O l iver u sed t o o bta in t hese meas ure men t s hou ld b e r ecorded .
T he s econd p ar t o f t h is p aper g ives a n o u t l ine
o f O l iver 's me thods b ased o n t he i n for ma t ion g iven i n h is 1 930 b ook a nd o n s o me d e ta i ls p rov ided b y h im i n al e t ter t o W. B . B enha m i n 1 932.
B enha m
( 1 934 ) , Archey ( 1941 ) a nd S car le t t ( 1 972 ) e ach p rov ide a dd i t iona l d e ta i ls u sef u l i n u nders tand ing O l iver 's me thods . " Do m in ion Museu m" r eg is ter n umbers f or moa b ones were p re f ixed b y t he l e t ters " D M" .
Wi th t he c hange o f n a me t o N a t iona l Museu m o f N ew
Z ea land t he p ref ix h as b een c hanged t o " NMNZ S ' : , w i th " Sr r eferr ing t o t he S ub foss i l B ird R eg is ter . THE TYPE S PEC I MENS OF OLIVER 'S MOA S PECIES Fa m i ly EMEIDAE ( E meidae B onapar te , 1 854 , p reda tes Ano ma lop teryg idae O l iver , 1 930 - s ee B rodkorb , 1 963 :208 ) G enus P achyorn is L ydekker Pachyorn is s ep ten triona l is O l iver , 1 949 ( Figs. 1 ,1, 1 .2 ) Pachyorn is ( Mau iorn is ) s ep ten tr iona l is O l iver , 1 949 :61 , f igs . 2 9 ( l e f t ) , 3 0-34 , 3 5 ( l e f t ) , 3 6, 3 7 ( l ef t b one o f e ach p a ir ) . Pachyorn is s epten tr iona l is O l iver , 1 955 :574 , u nnu mbered f ig . ( repea t o f f ig . 3 4 o f 1 949 ) . T ype ma ter ia l A ccord ing t o O l iver ( 1949 ) t he h o lotype i s a" por t ion o f s ke le ton o f i nd iv idua l b ird" f ro m a l imestone c ave a t P ohue , H awke 's B ay , c ol lec ted b y H . H i l l , i n t he " Do m in ion" Museu m w i th r eg is tra t ion n umber DM 1 29 ( now t o b e r e ferred t oa s NMNZ S . 1 29 ) .
" Pohue" i s p resu mably T e P ohue o n t he Nap ier -
Taupo r oad , a t ah eigh t o f a bou t 1 465 f t a bou t 2 9 mi les n or th-wes t o f Napier . H . H i l l ( 1914 :345 ) i n ap aper o n moa r e ma ins f ro m t he G isborne-Hawke 's Bay a rea r e fers t o "many s pec i mens o f t he moa" a s h av ing b een f ound " a t P ohu i , o n t he N ap ier-Taupo R oad ...a mong t he l imes tone r ock- masses a nd c aves t ha t o ccur a long t he e as t v a l ley a nd d eep g orges a t t he f oo t o f t he Te Waka Range" .
T he s pe l l ing " Pohue" i s u sed o n h is map ( i bid ., 3 31) a nd t able
( i b id ., 3 50 ) where " severa l s ke le tons" a re l i s ted a s h av ing b een c o l lec ted a t P ohue b y Mr . C raw ford , Mr . K ing a nd H i l l , i n"1890 a nd o nward" . An o te b y Augus tus Ha m i l ton among t he Ha m i l ton p apers o n moas i n t he Na t iona l Museum r ecords t h is i nco mple te h o lo type s ke le ton a s " so me b ones o f a sma l l Pachyorn is f ound w i th s evera l i nco mp lete s ke letons o f Ano ma lop teryx when c u t t ing a r oad i n t he Pohu i Bush , 1 909.
The b ones were i n ac ave e xposed
d uring t he c u t t ing o f ar oad r ound a s pur t o g et t imber o u t. w en t t o s ee t he p lace t he c ave h ad b een f i l led i n . 3
When Mr. H il l
Pachyorn is s e t en tr iona l is O l iver .
Cq
F ig. 1 .2
Pachyorn is s ep ten tr iona l is. o f h olo type.
D istal p ar t o f r ight t i b ia
T he h o lo type h as b een c a ta logued a s " 9 b ones" , t hough t he t ag l abe ls a t tached h ave t he words " 7 b ones" i nexpl icably wr i t ten o n t he m , a nd t hese a re a s f o l lows :
s ternu m ( w i th l e f t l a tera l p rocess miss ing b u t x iphoid p rocess
c o mp le te ) , p e lv is ( damaged p os ter ior ly , w i th b o th p ubes a nd l ef t i sch iu m miss ing , b u t w i th r igh t i sch iu m p resen t a nd d e tached ) , r igh t a nd l e f t f e mora ( l e f t w i th t rochan ter c res t a longs ide h ead s heared o f f i n ar ecen t b reak ) , r igh t a nd l e f t t i biae ( l e f t mos t ly c overed w i th a t h in c oa t ing o f l ime) , af ibu la , r igh t a nd l e f t meta tars i ( i .e . 9b ones i n 1 0 p ieces ) .
T he b ones a re s o mewha t
im ma ture b u t , e xcep t f or p ar ts o f t he p elv is , i n av ery s o l id c ond i t ion . c olour i s o f fwh i te t o p a le y e l low b rown .
T he ir
The s ternu m , b o th f e mora a nd t he
r igh t t i bia h ave a n o ld a nd f aded l abe l wr i t ten i n s cr ip t o n t he s ur face o f e ach r ead ing " H i l l P ohue HB" . T he p r inc ipa l l eg b ones h ave a n u mber wr i t ten o n t he s ha f t ( s ee f ig . 1 .1 ) wh ich a ppears t o b e t he t o ta l l eng th i n i nches a nd d ec ima ls o f a n i nch .
A l l 1 0 p ieces h ave t he f o l low ing modern l abe l p r in ted o n
t heir s ur face i n i nd ian i n TYPE" .
" DM 1 29 Pachyorn is s epten tr iona l is O l iver HOLO-
Mos t h ave i n a dd i t ion ab rown " Do m in ion Museu m" t ag l abe l a t tached
w i th t he words " No . 1 29 P achy . s epten tr iona l is TYPE H . H i l l 7b ones" i n O l iver 's h and o n i t s p r in ted f ron t f ace a nd , i n t he c ase o f t he l eg b ones o ther t han t he f i bu la , measure men ts o n t he b ack f ace .
The r igh t t i b ia i s f igured
h ere e n t ire ( f ig . 1 .1 ) a nd w i th t he d is ta l p or t ion s hown i n g rea ter d e ta i l ( f ig . 1 .2 ; c f . Archey , 1 941: f ig . 9 a ) . T he measure men ts o f t h is b one a s g iven b y O l iver o n t he l abe l i n t he s ys te m e xp la ined i n t he s econd p ar t o f t h is p aper , a re a s f o l lows : t o ta l l eng th 3 20 m m ( c f . " 12 .5" p resu mab ly i n i nches , wr i t ten o n s ha f t" , p rox i ma l w id th 8 5 mm , midd le w id th 2 8 mm , d is ta l w id th 4 8 mm . There a re s o me i rregu lar a nd t h in l ime p a tches o n t he s ha f t o f t h is b one a s s hown i n f ig . 1 .2 . As O l iver i ncluded o n ly t he P ohue s ke le ton u nder h is h ead ing o f " type" ma ter ia l , n one o f t he o ther s pec i mens h e r e ferred t o P . s ep ten tr iona l is o n p p . 6 1 a nd 6 3 c an b e c ons idered a s p ara types . Or ig ina l f igures The f igures o f t h is s pec ies p ub l ished b y O l iver i n 1 949 a re a s f o l lows : f ig . 2 9 ( l e f t ) l ower mand ib le d orsa l v iew p ho tograph ; v iew p ho tograph ;
f ig . 3 0 s ku l l d orsa l
f ig . 3 1 s ku l l l a tera l v iew p ho tograph ;
f ig . 3 3 p reorbi ta l p la te d raw ing ;
f ig . 3 2 p a la te d raw ing ;
f ig . 3 4 s ternu m v en tra l v iew p ho tograph ;
f ig . 3 5 ( l e f t ) p e lv is d orsa l v iew p hotograph ;
f ig . 3 6 p e lv is v en tra l v iew p ho to-
g raph ; f ig . 3 7 ( l ef t b one o f e ach p a ir ) r igh t f e mur , l e f t t i b ia , r igh t me ta tarsus , a n ter ior v iews p ho tographs . The o rig ins o f t hese f igures a re a s f ol lows : F igs . 3 0-34 o f s ku l l a nd s ternu m a re n o t a t tr ibu ted t o a ny s peci mens i n t he ir c apt ions a nd a ssocia ted t ex t , b u t t he o r ig ina l p ho tographs a nd d rawings o f t hese f igures a re l abe l led AM . 8 4 ( a s ke le ton f ro m Wa ikare moana i n t he Auck land
Museu m ) i n O l iver 's manuscr ip t n o tes o n moas i n t he N a t iona l Museum .
D e ta i ls o f t h is s ke le ton a re g iven o n p age 6 1 o f O l iver ( 1949 ), a nd f i g. 3 4 o f t he s ternu m i s c apt ioned a s f ro m "Wa ikare moana Auck land Museu m" when r epub l ished i n O l iver ( 1955 ) u nnumbered
o n p age 5 74 .
F ig . 2 9 o f t he l ower mand ib le i s p robab ly f ro m t he s a me Auck land Museu m s peci men b u t i s n o t a t tr ibu ted i n t he c ap t ion a nd i s n o t i den ti f ied i n O l iver 's manuscr ipt n o tes . 6
F ig . 3 5 o f ap e lv is l abel led w i th t he l e t ter " R" i s n o t a t tr ibu ted i n t he c ap t ion b u t i s l abe l led Wanganu i Museu m o n t he o r ig ina l p hotograph .
O l iver 's
manuscr ip t n o tes i mp ly t ha t t he l et ter " R" may s tand f or t he l oca l i ty " R iverl ands" . F ig . 3 6 i s d e f in ia te ly t he h o lotype p e lv is a nd i s l abe l led a s s uch i n t he c ap t ion . I n f ig . 3 7 t he f e mur a nd t i bia c an b e r ecogn ized a s h o lotype b ones f ro m c haracter is t ic marks o n t he b ones t he mse lves , a nd t he meta tarsus i s p robab ly h o lo typ ic a s wel l b u t t h is c an n o t b e d e mons tra ted w i th c er ta in ty . P resen t s ta tus O l iver d is t ingu ished P . s ep ten tr iona l is f ro m P . mapp in i Archey b y i t s sma l ler s ize ( e .g . f e mur l eng th 1 61-192 m m c o mpared w i th 1 81-224 r am ) a nd b y t he " leg b ones u sua l ly b e ing p ropor t iona te ly more s lender" ( 1 949 :61 , 5 9 ).
S car le t t ( 1972:21 ) l is ts P . s ep ten tr iona l is a s as epara te s pec ies b u t
s ugges ts t ha t i t may r epresen t mere ly t he sma l ler me mbers o f t he e ar l ier d escr ibed P achyorn is mappin i . a s as ynony m o f P . mappin i .
C racra f t ( 1 976:197) r egards P . s epten tr iona l is H e s hows s ta t is t ica l ly t ha t t he l eg b ones o f
" P . s epten tr iona l is" a re sma l ler , b u t a re n o t r e la t ive ly more s lender , t han t hose o f P . mappin i .
C racra f t c ons iders t ha t t he t wo s kele ta l g roup ings c ov-
e red b y t hese t wo n ames " probably r epresen t d i f feren t s exes" a nd c ons iders t he s epara t ion o f P . s ep ten tr iona l is f ro m P . mapp in i Archey a s " unwarran ted .. u n t i l f irm e v idence c an b e o f fered t ha t t hey a re d is t inc t" ( i b id ., 1 98 ) . Pachyorn is mur ih iku O l iver, 1 949 Pachyorn is s orensen i O l iver , 1 944 , D om in ion N ewspaper , Wel ling ton , 1 7 May 1 944 ( i nva l id p ub l ica t ion o f n o men n udu m ) . P achyorn is ( Pouna mua ) mur ih iku O l iver , 1 949 :67 , f ig . 4 1-46 . Pachyorn is mur ih iku O l iver , 1 955 :574 . T ype ma ter ia l The h o lo type i s d escr ibed b y O l iver a s a" fu l l-grown b u t n o t q u i te ma ture .. s ke le ton f ro m G reenh i l ls , n ear B lu f f H i l l , S ou th land" ( 1949 :67 ) f ound b y "Mr . B lack i n 1 939 among s and-dunes" ( 1 949:14 ) a nd n ow i n t he S ou th land Museu m , I nvercarg i l l .
The s ke le ton c ou ld n o t b e f ound i n t he S ou th land
Museu m i n t he r ecen t p as t ( f ide S car le t t , 1 972:21 , r epea ted i n C racra f t , 1 976: 1 96) b u t i s n ow c on f ir med ( Augus t 1 977) a s p resen t i n t he c o l lec t ions o f t he Museum w i th t he r eg is tered n umber E 7 3210 .
G reenh i l ls i s al oca l i ty o n t he
I nvercarg i l l-B lu f f r oad a nd r a i lway a t t he h ead o f B lu f f h arbour , 1 2 mi les f ro m I nvercarg i l l , 5 mi les f ro m B lu f f , w i th a n a l t i tude o f 2 0 f t a bove s ea l eve l . N o o ther b ones were r e ferred t o t h is s pecies b y O l iver i n 1 949 o r 1 955 . T he n a me Pachyorn is s orensen i u sed f or t h is s kele ton b y O l iver i n s o me o f h is manuscr ipt n o tes , a nd o n s o me p ho tographs , i n t he N a t iona l Museu m i s d e l ibera te ly p ub l ished h ere s o t ha t i t s s ta tus c an b e d iscussed . I t was u sed i n an ewspaper a r t ic le o n t he G reenh i l ls s ke le ton p ub l ished i n t he D om in ion o n 1 7 May 1 944 , s o i t migh t b e r egarded a s h av ing p r ior i ty o ver t he n a me 7
P . mur ih iku u sed f or t he s a me s ke le ton b u t p ub l ished f irs t i n 1 949 .
U nder
Ar t ic le 8 ( 2 ) o f t he I n terna t iona l C ode o f Z oo log ica l N o menc la ture ( I CZN , 1 964 ) , h owever , i ti s c lear t ha t t he 1 944 u se o f t he n a me P . s orensen i was n o t av a l id p ub l ica t ion a s t he n ewspaper was c lear ly n o t " issued f or t he p urp ose o f s c ien t i f ic , p ub l ic , p er manen t r ecord" .
R egard less o f whe ther t he
1 944 p ub l ica t ion i s v a l id o r n o t , t he n a me was a n o men n udu m ( under Ar t ic le 1 3 ( a ) o f t he C ode ) when i ta ppeared i n 1 944 a s i t was n o t a cco mpan ied b y a n i nd ica t ion o f c haracters d i f feren t ia t ing i tf ro m o ther s pec ies a nd a s s uch was n o t a va i lab le f or s ys te ma t ic u se . D eta ils o f o r ig inal d iscovery N o d e ta i ls o f t he o r ig ina l f ind ing o f t he G reenh i l ls s ke le ton h ave b een p ub l ished .
O l iver was s o c oncerned a bou t t he c o mb ina t ion o f c harac ters i n
t h is s ke le ton t ha t h e wro te t o t he D irec tor o f t he S ou th land Museu m ( Mr . J . H . S orensen ) o n 2 8 J une 1 940 ( Na t iona l Museu m f i le 9 /1/8 ) t o s ay t ha t i t " con ta ins f ea tures q u i te d i f feren t f ro m t hose o f a ny o ther d escr ibed s pec ies . I ta grees mos t ly w i th Emeus ; o f a ny o ther s pec ies o f Moas .
b u t t he s ternu m i s q u i te d i f feren t f ro m t hose T he p e lv is , t oo , i s d i f feren t , h av ing a n arrow
e scu tcheon s loping o u twards o n e i ther s ide . v ery s teep ;
The u pper mand ib le , t oo , i s
b u t Id o n o t r egard t h is a s a n impor tan t c harac ter ... I s t here
a ny d oubt a bou t t he s ternu m b e long ing t o t he r es t o f t he s ke le ton?
A s f ar
a s Ic an j udge f ro m o ther s pec ies o f Moas , t he b road s terna a re a ssoc ia ted w i th b road b i l ls" .
S orensen r ep l ied o n 2J u ly 1 940 s ay ing " I h ave i n ter-
v iewed t he f inder [ o f t he G reenh il ls s keleton ] a nd h e i s q u i te d e f in i te i n h is s ta te men t t ha t t he b ones a re f ro m o ne b ird o n ly.
H e c a me a cross t he p e lv is
s how ing o u t o f t he s and a f ter a h igh w ind , c arefu l ly r e moved t he l arger b ones , n o ted t ha t t he v er tebrae were c o i led b ack o ver t he r es t o f t he s ke le ton , a nd w ish ing t o s ave a l l t he sma l ler b ones , c ons tructed a f ra me c overed w i th f ine n e t t ing a nd s o s ieved t he b a lance o u t . A s a lready men t ioned , t he b ones o f as ea l were l y ing v ery c lose t o t he moa , a nd t h is a ccoun ts f or t he p resence o f af ew f ore ign b ones w i th t he r es t .
Ih ave n o r eason t o d oub t a ny p ar t o f t he
s tory a t a l l a nd n ow k now t he f inder f a ir ly we l l ... F ro m my k now ledge o f t he f inder , l oca l i ty , a nd t he s tory o f t he f ind ing Iam o f t he o p in ion t ha t t he s ternu m b elongs t o t he b ird i n q ues t ion". Or ig ina l f igures The f igures o f t h is s pec ies p ub l ished b y O l iver i n 1 949 a re a s f o l lows : f igs . 4 1-42 s ku l l d orsa l a nd l a tera l v iews ;
f ig . 4 3 s ternu m v en tra l v iew :
f igs 4 4-46 p e lv is d orsa l , l a tera l a nd v en tra l v iews .
A l l a re p hotographs
a nd a l l a re a t tr ibu ted i n t he ir c apt ions t o t he h olo type s ke le ton f ro m G reenh i l ls. Presen t s ta tus O l iver c ons idered t ha t " the s kele ton p ossesses s uch d is t inc t ive f ea tures i n t he s ku l l , s ternu m a nd p e lv is , t ha t Ih ave n o h es i ta t ion i n g iv ing i tb o th as ubgener ic a nd s pec i f ic n a me" ( 1949 :67) .
I n s ize r ange o f l eg b ones P .
mur ih iku f i t ted b e tween t he sma l ler N or th I s land P . mappin i A rchey a nE lt he l arger S ou th I s land P . e lephan topus ( Owen ) , b eing d is t inc t ly c loser t o t he f or mer s pec ies ( 1949:59 ) .
S ear le t t l i s ts P . mur ih iku w i thou t s ys te ma t ic
c o m men t ( 1972 :21 ) , wh i le C racra f t ( 1976:196 ) p laces i tf ir m ly a s as ynony m
8
o f P . e lephan topus r egarding i ta s o n ly " s l igh t ly sma l ler" t han t he k nown r ange o f t ha t s pec ies . A s t he s pec ies was b ased o n as ing le " i m ma ture i nd iv idua l" , C racra f t d oubted whe ther t he d escr ibed morpho log ica l d i f ferences b e tween t he t wo n a med f or ms c ou ld b e a ccepted a s v a l id w i thou t a dd i t iona l s pecimens . P achyorn is a us tra l is
O l iver , 1 949
Mesopteryx s pec ies b P arker , 1 893 :4 , p l . 1 . Mesop teryx s pec ies B Parker , 1 895 :378 , p l . 6 0 f igs . 2 0 , 2 1. Emeus ( n o t s peci f ica l ly i den ti f ied ) O l iver , 1 930 :
t wo u nnu mbered f igs , o n
p . 4 7. Pachyorn is p ygmaeus ( Hu t ton ) .
Archey , 1 941:41.
P achyorn is ( Pachyorn is ) a us tra l is O l iver , 1 949:70 , f igs . 4 7-52 , ? f ig . 5 3. P achyorn is a us tra l is O l iver , 1 955 :575 . T ype ma ter ia l The h o lo type i s a" sku l l a nd 2 0 v er tebrae f ound b y A . McKay i n 1 879 i n ac ave o nt he S a lisbury T ab le land , h ead o f Takaka R iver , N e lson" i n t he N a t iona l Museu m , r eg is tered n umber DM 2 6, n ow t o b e k nown a s NMNZ S . 2 6 ( O l iver , 1 949:70 ) .
The " Sa l isbury T able land" i s c o m mon ly r e ferred t o
a s t he "M t . Ar thur T ab le land" , t hough n ei ther n ame a ppears o n p ub l ished L ands a nd S urvey maps o f t he a rea . The l oca l i ty i s al imes tone mesa a t t he e as tern e nd o f t he P ee l Range , n or th-wes t o f M t . Ar thur o n t he Ar thur Range , l y ing b etween M t . Ar thur a nd t he C obb R eservo ir .
T ab le land i s at r ig
s ta t ion a t 4 086 f ta nd t he S al isbury Hu t i s o n o ne o f t he n or th-f low ing tr ibu tar ies o f t he u pper Takaka R iver . McKay ( 1879 :131 ) d escr ibes t h is s pec i men a s " part o f as ke le ton , c o mpr is ing t he h ead , n eck a nd f ore p ar t o f t he t runk , i n af ine s ta te o f p reserva t ion" b u t d oes n o t g ive a ny f ur ther d e ta i ls o f i t s d isc overy . The h o lo type s ku l l a nd l ower mand ib le a re l abe l led " HOLOTYPE DM . 2 6" i n s evera l p laces b u t n o v er tebrae a re n ow a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is s peci men . T here a re n umerous u n labe l led a nd u n loca l ized moa v er tebrae i n t he Na t iona l Museum c o l lect ions b u t n one a re o bv ious ly t he miss ing s et f ro m t he h o lotype o f P . a us tra l is . The s ku l l i s i n g ood c ond i t ion b u t h as a d is t inc t ive ly-shaped d ark s car ( v is ib le i n a l l p ho tographs ) r epa ired w i th s o me waxy ma ter ia l i n t he c en tre o f t he d orsa l s ur face o f t he c ran ium . The g enera l c olour o f t he b one v ar ies b etween o f fwh i te a nd y el lowish-brown . Two c ran ia i n t he S ou th land Museum ( one f ro m G reenh i l ls ) , a re r e ferred t o P . a us tra l is b y O l iver a nd s o me o f t he sma l ler l eg b ones l i s ted u nder P . e lephan topus i n t he t ab les o f measure men ts a re r egarded a s " poss ib ly" b el ong ing t o t he n ew s pecies ( O l iver , 1 949:74 ) . A s ternum f ro m t he S ou th land Museum a nd ap e lv is f ro m t he N e lson Museu m a re l i s ted a s P . a us tra l is w i th aq ues t ion mark i n T able 2 ( i b id ., 8 5 ) . As O l iver r egarded o n ly t he S a l isbury T ab le land s ku l l a nd v er tebrae a s " type" ma ter ia l n one o f t he o ther s pec i mens c an b e r egarded a s p ara typ ic .
9
P ub l ished f igures The h o lo type s ku l l , d escr ibed b y O l iver ( 1949:72 ) a s " one o f t he o n ly t wo p er fec t s ku l ls o f moas t ha t Ih ave e ver s een" , was f igured i n t hree d i f feren t p ub l ica t ions b efore O l iver b ased h is s pec ies P . a us tra l is o n i t .
Parker
( 1893 :p l . 1 ) g ave a d orsa l v iew p ho tograph t o s how t he p a t tern o f p i ts o n t he c raniu m wh ich h e i n terpre ted a s i nd ica t ing t he o r ig ina l p resence o f af ron ta l f ea ther c res t , ap oss ib le ma le-on ly f ea ture . H e l a ter ( 1895 :p l . 6 0 f igs .20 , 2 1) p ub l ished v ery f ine , n a tura l s ize , d orsa l a nd v en tra l v iew e ngrav ings ( t he b es t f igures a va i lab le o f t h is s pec i men ) i n ag enera l work o n moa c ran ia l morpho logy .
P arker c ons idered i t" one o f t he mos t p er fec t"
s ku l ls " ever
d iscovered" ( 1895 :378 ) a nd t hough t t ha t i t mus t " be long t o as pec ies t he s ku l l o f wh ich h as n o t h i ther to b een d escr ibed" a s i td id n o t c orrespond w i th a ny o f t he f igures o r d escr ip t ions h e h ad me t w i th . p teryx s pecies b i n 1 893 a nd s pec ies B i n 1 895 .
H e r e ferred t o i ta s MesoO l iver ( 1930 :47 ) u sed a
d orsa l a nd a l a tera l v iew p ho tograph o f t h is s a me s pec i men t o i l lustra te t he s ku l l f or m o f t he g enus Emeus b u t h e d id n o t s pec i f ica l ly i den t i fy t he s ku l l i n c apt ion o r t ex t . The f igures p ubl ished b y O l iver i n 1 949 a re a s f o l lows : p ho tographs o f s ku l l d orsa l , l a tera l a nd v en tra l v iews ;
f igs . 4 7-49
f igs . 5 0-52 d raw ings
o f p a la te , p reorb i ta l p la te a nd j unc t ion o f a n torbi ta l a nd l acry ma l ( l a tera l a nd f ron t v iews o f j unct ion o n o ne f ig .) ;
f ig . 5 3 ap ho tograph o f t he d orsal
v iew o f ap e lv is c apt ioned a s " Pachyorn is a us tra l is ( ?)" .
F igs . 4 7-49 a re
c apt ioned "S al isbury T ab le land" a nd t he o r ig ina l p ho tographs o f f igs . 4 7-49 a nd t he o r ig ina l d raw ings o f f igs . 5 0-52 i n O l iver 's manuscr ipt n o tes a re a l l l abel led a s f ro m t he h o lotype s kul l .
I n t he o r ig ina l p ho tograph o f f ig . 5 3
t he p e lv is i s l abe l led " Ne lson Museu m" i n O l iver 's manuscr ip t n otes a nd i s c lear ly n o t t ype ma ter ia l .
I ti s p resumab ly t he p e lv is whose measure men ts
a re l i s ted a s P . a us tra l is w i th a q ues t ion mark i n T ab le 2 o n p age 8 5 o f O l iver ( 1949 ) . Presen t s ta tus S car le t t ( 1972 :21 ) r egarded P . a us tra l is a s ap oss ib le v ar ian t o f t he S ou th I s land P . e lephan topus ( Owen ) t he "mos t v ar iab le o f a l l Moas" .
I ti s f ir m ly
s ynony m ized w i th P . e lephan topus " one o f t he more c o m mon s pecies o f moas" b y C racra f t ( 1976:196 ) .
C racra f t c o mpared t he h o lo type s ku l l o f P . a us tra l is
w i th " a l arge s er ies o f s ku l ls o f P . e lephan topus a nd c an f ind n o s ign if ican t d i f ferences t ha t c an b e r egarded a s b eing o f s pec i f ic v a lue" .
H e c ou ld ma tch
t he d is t inc t ive c harac ters a t tr ibu ted b y O l iver t o t he s ku l l o f " P a us tra l is" w i th in a s er ies o f s ku l ls o f P . e lephan topus i n t he Na t iona l Museum c o l lec t ions a nd s evera l s ku l ls i n t he c o l lec t ions r eferred b y O l iver t o P . e lephan topus were o f c o mparab le s ize ( i .e . a t t he l ower e nd o f t he s ize r ange o f P . e lephant opus ) . C racra f t f ound t ha t c ran ia o f t h is c om mon S ou th I s land moa s pec ies e xh ibi ted c ons iderab le v ar iabi l i ty i n s hape a nd i n t he d eve lop men t o f p rocesses a nd musc le s cars . G enus
Euryap teryx Haas t
Euryap teryx t ane O l iver , 1 949 Euryap teryx e x i l is Hu t ton . Archey , 1 941:57 ( par t ) . 1 0
Euryapteryx tane Oliver, 1949 :105, figs. 7 3-7 8. Euryapteryx tane Oliver, 1955:577. Type material The holotype is a skeleton from Doubtless Bay in the Auckland Museum, "registered number AM. 3. Doubtless Bay is in the north of the North Auckland Peninsula, north-east of Kaitaia. The bone deposits in the consolidated sands of the sandhills are described in some detail by Archey (1941:93) and to a lesser extent by Oliver (1949:16). The holotype skeleton includes at least the following parts: skull (but no lower mandible), sternum, pelvis; femur, tibia and metatarsus (both right and left). Descriptions and measurements of these elements are given Ill Archey (1941:49, table H) and Oliver (1949:105, tables 8-10). The bones are labelled "3" as can be seen in Oliver's photographic figures. As Oliver included only the one skeleton under his heading of "type" material none of the other specimens he referred to E. tane on p. 105 can be considered as paratypes, especially as he thought some could possibly belong t0 the species he considered to be "Zelornis exilis". Original figures The figures of this species published by Oliver in 1949 are as follows.:.. figs. 73-7 5 skull dorsal, lateral and ventral view photographs; fig. 76 pel vis ventral view photograph; fig. 77 sternum dorsal view photograph; fig. 7 8 preorbital plate drawing. All the photographs are attributed to the Doubtless Bay holotype in their captions and the original of the drawing in Oliver's manuscript notes in the National Museum is labelled as being made from the holotype specimen. Present status Oliver considered that "the characters of the type specimen II of E. tane are just those of E. curtus, the only difference being in size, E. tane being larger, though the size difference is less marked in the skull than in the remainder of the skeleton" (1949:105). He placed four species in the genus Euryapteryx. In order of increasing size these were E. curtus (Owen) and E. tane (both known from the North Island only), E. geranoides (Owen) and E. gravis (Owen) both known from both North and South Islands. In his closely similar genus Zelornis, Oliver placed two species - the smaller North Island Z. exilis (Hutton) and the larger South Island z. haasti (Rothschild). ':le saw "a kind of parallel evolution in the two genera 11 (ibid., 103) with the only constant differences between them being in the form of the premaxilla and mandible of the skull (ibid., 101), each genus consisting of a series of species of different sizes forming an "evolutionary line" (ibid., 118) with the largest species of each genus (E. gravis and Z. haasti ) showing close resemblances from "what appears to be covergence" (ibid., 103). He was 'quite unable to give a definition either by form or measurements to -se parate the leg bones of E. gravis from those of Z. haasti" (ibid., 110)_. 11
S car le t t ( 1972 :21 ) r egarded Z e lorn is a s as ynony m o f Euryap teryx a nd l i s ted f ive o f t he s ix s pec ies r ecogn ized b y O l iver - E . c ur tus , E . e x i l is , E . g erano ides ( i nc lud ing E . t af le a s as ynony m ) , E . g rav is a nd E . h aas t i ( wh ich migh t b e ab road-bi l led s ubspec ies o f E . g rav is ) .
H e t hough t t he f irs t
t hree " species" wou ld b e u n i ted e ven tua l ly a s t he g aps i n t he s ize r anges b et ween t he m were c losed , b u t a dded a s ix th " var iable sma l l f or m" o f Euryapt eryx a s a n u nna med n ew s pec ies f ro m S tewar t I s land a nd t he "Mur ih iku a rea" o f t he S ou th I s land . C racra f t ( 1 976:198-199 ) r educed t h is s ys te ma t ic g rouping o f s ix s o-ca l led " spec ies" t o t wo s exua l ly d i morph ic s pec ies — Euryap teryx c ur tus ( w i th Z . e x i l is a nd E . t ane a s s ynony ms ) f ro m t he N or th I s land a nd E . g erano ides ( w i th E . g rav is a nd Z . h aas t i a s s ynony ms ) p resen t o nb o th N or th a nd S ou th I s lands . H e c ou ld n o t d is t ingu ish c ran ia l ma ter ia l r e ferred b y O l iver t o Z e lorn is f ro m Euryap teryx a t t he g ener ic l eve l , a nd a s E . t af le o n ly d i f fered f ro m Z . e l i l is i n c ran ia l f ea tures t he t wo c ou ld b e c ons idered c onspeci f ic . Mu l t ivar ia te a na lys is o f l eg b one measure men ts s ubs tan t ia ted t he s epara t ion o f a n E . e x il is ( i nc lud ing E . t af le ) p opu la t ion f ro m a n E . c ur tus p opu la t ion b u t t he s ta t is t ics o f t he c o mbined s a mp le g ive c oe f f ic ien ts o f v ar ia t ion f or b one l eng ths wh ich i nd ica te t o C racra f t t ha t ( as i n t he c ase o f P achyorn is mappin i/sep ten tr iona l is a nd E . g erano ides/grav is ) t he d i f ference i s o ne o f s exua l s ize d i morph is m . Euryap teryx k uranu i O l iver , 1 930 Emeus c rassus ( Owen ).
Hu t ton , 1 906:66.
Euryap teryx k uranu i O l iver , 1 930 :52. Euryap teryxgrav is ( Owen ) .
Archey , 1 941:54 ,
5 6.
Euryap teryx g rav is ( Owen ) .
O l iver , 1 949 :108 , f ig . 8 5 .
Euryapteryx g rav is ( Owen ) .
O l iver , 1 955 :578 .
Type ma ter ia l The h o lo type i s " a c o mp le te s kele ton d iscovered a t C as t le P oin t b y Mr . Mer ide th-Kaye i n 1 905 , a nd n ow i n t he C an terbury Museu m" ( O l iver , 1 930 : 5 2 ) .
The f ind ing o f t he s ke le ton a nd a d escr ip t ion o f t he ma in e le men ts p re-
s en t i s g iven i n ap aper b y Hu t ton ( 1906:66 ) .
H e d escr ibes i ta s " an i mper-
f ec t s ke le ton o f a moa ... r ece ived f ro m Mr . C . K . Mered i th-Kaye ...found i n s and b y Mr . Mered i th-Kaye 's s on , o n h is r un , a bou t e igh teen mi les s ou th o f C as t le P o in t , o n t he e as t c oas t o f Wel l ing ton Prov ince.
Wi th t he e xcep t ion
o f t he l egs a nd f ee t , t he b ones a re b r i t t le a nd much b roken ...i t was a f u l lg rown b ird , b u t t he t wen ty-e igh th v ertebra was n ot a nchylosed t o t he p elv is .. The s ternu m i s much b roken ... The p e lv is i s v ery imco mp le te ... The t h ird a nd u ngua l p ha langes o f t he r igh t o u ter t oe a re d iseased a nd t here i s a n o sseous g row th a t t he d is ta l e nd o f t he r igh t f e mur" . R . J . S car le t t i n for ms me ( l a l i t t ., 4 A ugus t 1 977) t ha t t he s ke le ton i s r eg is tered i n t he C an terbury Museu m a s AV 9 285 a nd n ow c ons is ts o f t he f o l lowing b ones :
c ran iu m , p re max i l la , 1q uadra te , 1 9 v er tebrae ( nos . 1 0-28 ,
f ide Hu t ton , 1 906) , 7c auda l v er tebrae , p ygos ty le , 7 6 t rach ia l r ings , s ternu m , 1 2
1 8 ( p lus 4 b roken ) r ibs , p e lv is ; me ta tars i ;
r igh t a nd l ef t f e mora , t i b iae , f i bu lae a nd
f ron t t oes c o mp le te a nd a r igh t h a l lux .
Af ew g izzard s tones
a nd 3 p ieces o f e gg s he l l were f ound w i th t he s ke le ton a nd a re i n t he C an terbury Museu m .
H u t ton r egarded t he p resence o f t he l a t ter a s " show ing t ha t t he
b ird was a f e ma le , f or t he p lace i n wh ich t he s ke le ton was f ound p rec ludes u s f ro m s uppos ing t ha t i tm igh t h ave b een a ma le s i t t ing o n a n e gg" ( 1906:66 ). S car le t t a nd t he p resen t wr i ter r egard t he s ex o f t he s ke le ton , i n t he a bsence o f a dd i t iona l e v idence , a s i n d oubt . C as t lepo in t ( now wr i t ten a s o ne word ) i s o n t he e as t c oas t o f t he Wa irarapa , 4 5 mi les n or th-eas t b y r oad f ro m Mas ter ton .
Moa b ones a nd e gg s he l l h ave
o f ten b een f ound i n c oas ta l s and d unes a long t h is p ar t o f t he e as t c oas t o f t he N or th I s land (e .g . B rod ie , 1 950 ) . A s O l iver s ta tes i n 1 930 t ha t E . k uranu i i s " founded" o n t he C as t lepo in t s kele ton a nd r e fers n o o ther i nd iv idua l ly i den t i f iab le b ones t o t h is s pec ies , t here i s n o p ara typ ic ma ter ia l .
The l eg b one measure men ts g iven u nder t he
h ead ing ' B ' a re d escr ibed a s H u t ton 's " average measure men ts" o f l eg b ones f ro m T e Au te ( i b id ., 5 4 ) r a ther t han measure men ts o f i nd iv idua l b ones f ro m t ha t s wa mp s i te .
I n 1 949 O l iver r e fers t o t he C as t lepo in t s kele ton a s t he
" type s ke le ton" ( i bid ., 1 08 ) a nd c a l ls t he s ku l l f ro m t h is s ke le ton t he " type o f E . k uranu i" i n t he c ap t ion t o f ig . 8 5 .
H e g ives measure men ts o f t he
s ku l l , s ternu m , p e lv is a nd l eg b ones o f t he h o lo type o n p ages 1 13 , 1 14 a nd 1 16. P ub l ished f igure The o n ly p ub l ished f igure o f a ny p ar t o f t he h o lo type s ke le ton o f E . k uranu i i s O l iver 's f i g. 8 5 o f 1 949 wh ich i s ap hotograph o ft he s ku l l i n l a teral v iew . Presen t s ta tus B o th Archey ( 1941) a nd O l iver ( 1949 , 1 955 ) l i s ted E . k uranu i a s as ynony m o f t he l arges t s pec ies o f Euryap teryx t hey r ecogn ized , E . g rav is ( Owen ) . Archey p laced a l l S ou th I s land s pec i mens o f t h is g enus i n E . g rav is b u t c ons idered t ha t " an o ccas iona l e xa mp le h as b een o bta ined i n t he s ou th-eas tern p or t ion o f t he N or th I s land" ( i bid ., 5 4 ) , wh i le O l iver r ecorded E . g rav is f ro m t he s ou thern N or th I s land a nd f ro m " throughou t" t he S ou th I s land ( 1 949:112 ) . B o th a u thors were c onsc ious o f t he r e la t ive ly sma l l s ize o f t he C as t lepo in t s ke leton w i th in t he r ange t hey a ccep ted f or E . g rav is . Archey t hough t t ha t " E. k uranu i O l iver m igh t p erhaps h ave b een r egarded a s a more s lender N or th I s land f or m" o fE . g rav is " bu t i ti s ma tched- i n s lenderness b y t he S tewar t I s land s pec i men" o f h is t ab le H ( 1 941:56) .
O l iver ( 1949 :110 ) s aw E . g rav is
a s c onsis t ing o f s pec i mens s howing " two d is t inc t s izes o f s ku l ls" .
T o t he
sma l ler s ize r ange " belong t he t ypes o f E . g rav is , E . b oo th i a nd E . k uranu i" , t o t he l arger b e long P yra m id V a l ley Euryapteryx ma ter ia l s uch a s s ke le ton XXD ( now i n t he N a t iona l Museum ) s tud ied a nd measured b y O l iver . N e i ther S car le t t ( 1 972 ) n or C racra f t ( 1976) men t ion O l iver 's " E. k uranu i" . A s e xp la ined i n t he " Presen t s ta tus" s ect ion o f E uryapteryx t ane , C racra f t r ecogn izes o n ly t wo s pec ies i n t he g enus Euryap teryx , t he l arger b e ing E . g erano ides ( Owen ) , wh ich i nc ludes b o th E . g rav is a nd Z e lorn is h aas t i a s s ynony ms .
1 3
F am i ly D INORN ITH IDAE G enus
D inorn is Owen
D inorn is g aze l la O l iver , 1 949 D inorn is g azel la O l iver , 1 949:166 , f ig . 1 36 ( l e f t ) . D inorn is g azel la O l iver , 1 955 :585 . T ype ma ter ia l T he h o lo type i s a" pe lv is f ro m T e Au te" i n t he N a t iona l Museu m , r eg ist ered n umber DM 1 07 n ow t o b e k nown a s NMNZ S . 1 07 , "much sma l ler t han t ha t o f n ovaezea land iae" ( O l iver , 1 949 :166 , 1 64 ;
n o te , h ere a nd e lsewhere
i n t h is p aper t he s peci f ic n a me n ovaezea land iae h as b een c orrec ted u nder t he I n terna t iona l C ode . o f Z oo log ica l N o menc la ture t o r ead a s o ne word ) .
T he
l oca l i ty " Te Au te" r e fers t o t he s wa mp d epos i t i n Hawke 's Bay , i nves t iga ted b y Ham i l ton ( 1889 ) a nd d escr ibed b y O l iver ( 1 949:8 ) .
T h is d epos i t was s o me-
where t o t he e as t o f T e Au te C ol lege o n t he Woodv il le-Nap ier r oad a bou t 1 8 mi les s ou th o f H as t ings .
T he e xac t p os i t ion o f t he d epos i t i s u nknown t o t he
wr i ter , b u t P ark ( 1888 , ar eference n o t i nc luded i n t he s tandard moa b ibl iog raph ies ) a nd B u ick ( 1931 ) l oca te t he s i te i n ad ra in c u t t hrough t he P a tanga ta s wa mp n ear t he wes t b ank o f t he Tuk i tuk i ( or Wa ipawa ) R iver . T he h o lo type p e lv is i s s hown o n t he l e f t o f O l iver 's f ig . 1 36.
T he b one
i s s trong a nd f ir m , d ark b rown i n c o lour w i th t races o f g rey mud i n a l l b roken s ur faces .
I n t he h and t he b one a ppears " heavy a nd s em i- m inera l ised" a s
O l iver d escr ibes b ones f ro m t he T e Au te s wa mp i n h is manuscr ipt n otes . B o th p ubes a re b roken o f f , t he med ian i l iac c res t i s b roken a way a nd t he p os ter ior p ar t o f t he e scu tcheon i s i rregu lar ly b roken o nb o th s ides .
On t he
r igh t d orsa l s ur face o f t he e scu tcheon ( v is ib le i n O l iver 's f ig . 1 36 ) t here i s a n o ld d a maged p aper l abe l a t tached r ead ing " D inorn is s p . T e Au te , Nap ier" i n f aded s cr ip t .
On t he v en tra l s ur face t here i s a modern l abe l " Dinorn is
g azel la HOLOTYPE DM . 1 07 TE AUTE" p r in ted o n t he b one i n i nd ian i nk . F ina l ly t here i s ab rown " Do m in ion Museum" t ag l abe l a t tached w i th t he words " No . 1 07 D inorn is g aze l la O l iver HOLOTYPE T e Au te . A . Ham i l ton 1 888" , A s O l iver i nc luded o n ly t he T e Au te p e lv is u nder h is h ead ing o f " type" ma ter ia l n one o f t he o ther s peci mens h e " assoc ia ted" w i th D . g aze l la o n p ages 1 66-167 c an b e c ons idered a s p ara types . O r ig ina l f igure The o n ly p ub l ished f igure o f t he h o lotype p e lv is i s i n O l iver 's 1 949 f ig . 1 36.
A l though n o t r e ferred t o a s t he t ype , t he l e f t h and p e lv is i n t h is p ho to-
g raph i s c ap t ioned " D inorn is g aze l la , T e A u te" a nd i s c lear ly a d orsa l v iew o f S . 1 07 f ro m t he o bv ious a nd d is t inc t ive d a mage a nd t he o ld l abe l o n t he r igh t s ide o f t he e scu tcheon . P resen t s ta tus O l iver ( 1949 :164 ) r ecogn ized e igh t s pec ies i n t he g enus D inorn is w i th t he N or th I s land D . g aze l la d is t inc t ly sma l ler t han a l l t he o thers . I t s p e lv is was d escr ibed b y O l iver a s " a min ia ture o f t he t ypica l p e lv is o f t he l arger 1 4
s pecies o f D inorn is" a nd t he l eg b ones r e ferred t o i t ( espec ia l ly f e mur S . 1 08 f ro m T e A u te ) a s b eing " in f orm ...exact ly l ike t ha t o f D inorn is n ovaezea land iae b u t much sma l ler" ( i b id ., 1 66 ) .
I n s pi te o f t h is c o mp le te r e l iance o n s ize
r ange f or s pec ies l im i ts , O l iver f ir m ly b e l ieved t ha t " no t u n t i l g ood s er ies o f i nd iv idua l s kele tons , i nc lud ing t he s ku l ls , a re a va i lab le , w i l l we b e a ble s a t is fac tor i ly t o d e f ine t he s pec ies o f D inorn is a nd t he ir d is tr ibu t ion" ( i bid ., 1 64 ) .
We s t i l l move t owards t h is " sa t is factory" s tage .
S car le t t ( 1972 :21 ) l i s ted O l iver 's e igh t s pec ies o f D inorn is a nd a dded a n u nna med n ew s pec ies f ro m t he S ou th I s land " known a s y e t f ro m o n ly o ne u np ub l ished t i b iotarsus" .
I n c on tras t C racra f t ( 1 976:201 ) r educed t h is c o mp lex
o f s pec ies t o f our , o ne r es tr ic ted t o e ach i s land a nd t wo f ound o n b o th i s lands . These were ( i n o rder o f i ncreas ing s ize ) , t he N or th I s land D . s tru tho ides Owen ( w i th D . g aze l la a s as ynony m )
t he S ou th I s land D . t orosus H u t ton ,
D . n ovaezea land iae Owen ( w i th D . i ngens Owen , D . r obus tus Owen a nd D . h ercu les O l iver a s s ynony ms ) , f ro m b oth N or th a nd S ou th I s lands , a nd D . g igan teus Owen ( w i th D . max i mus a s as ynony m )
a lso f ro m b o th i s lands .
C racra f t ( 1 976:202 ) f ound t ha t t he s ize d i f ference b etween t he f ew b ones O l iver p laced i n D . g aze l la a nd ma ter ia l o f D . s tru tho ides ( re ferred t o b y O l iver a s " D . n ovaezea land iae" ) were " s l igh t ...and t he v ar ia t ion e xh ibi ted b y t he c o mb ined s a mp le o f s tru tho ides a nd g aze l la i s e as i ly w i th in t he r ange o f as ing le s pc ies" .
T he sma l l s er ies o f D . g aze l la l eg b ones f ro m T e Au te
were " near ly e qua l i n l eng th" t o as a mple o f D . s tru tho ides b u t h ad " th inner s ha f ts" .
T h is C racra f t b el ieved t o b e " en t irely r e la ted t o a ge" a s t he D .
g azel la b ones were o f im ma ture i nd iv idua ls ( i b id ., 2 02 ) . D inorn is h ercu les O l iver , 1 949 ( f ig . 1 .3 ) D inorn is h ercu les O l iver , 1 949 :174 , f ig . 1 40 ( 2nd f ro m l e f t ) , 1 41 ( 2nd a nd 3 rd f ro m l e f t ) , 1 42 ( 2nd f ro m l e f t ). D inorn is h ercu les O l iver , 1 955 :588 , u nnu mbered f ig . ( repea t o f p ar t o f f ig . 1 41 o f 1 949 ) t i bia o n r igh t . T ype ma ter ia l T he h o lo type i s d escr ibed b y O l iver ( 1949:174 ) a s b eing " a t i b ia f ro m C oonoor ( DM . 2 17 ) i n t he Do m in ion Museu m . L eng th 7 47 , b read th p rox i ma l 1 79 , mid 5 9 , d is ta l 1 10 m m" . I n f ig . 1 41 t he t h ird t i b ia f ro m t he l e f t i s d escr ibed i n t he c apt ion a s " D . h ercu les , C oonoor" b u t n o t l abe l led a s " type" . I ti s ar igh t t i bia w i th wr i t ing s howing a cross t he s ha f t wh ich c an n o t b e r ead i n t he p ub l ished p hotograph ic f igure. P r in ts o f t h is p ho tograph i n O l iver 's manuscr ip t n otes i n t he Na t iona l Museu m , a nd t he f igure o f t h is t i bia i n O l iver 's 1 955 v olu me ( 1955 :588 ) , s how t ha t t he l abe l r eads " COONOOR CAVE N I NZ 1 914 DM. 2 17" . Th is r igh t t ib ia i s t hus t he h o lo type . When e xa m ined i n t he Museum 's c ol lect ion b y t he wr i ter i n 1 959 t he h o lo type was f ound b roken c o mplete ly i n t wo a bou t o ne t h ird o f t he way d own t he s ha f t a nd s o mewha t more worn a t b o th e nds t han s hown i n t he o r ig ina l p ho tograph . The b reak was c aref u l ly r epa ired w i th p las ter a nd a s t he who le b one was r a ther c ha lky i t was g iven a c oa t ing o f s yn the t ic r es in .
I n t he p rocess o f c lean ing a nd r epa ir t he
o r ig ina l wr i t ten l abe l was r e moved a nd a n ew l abe l wr i t ten a long t he s ha f t i n i nd ian i nk r ead ing
" HOLOTYPE D inorn is h ercu les O l iver 1 949 COONOOR
1 5
D inorn is h ercu les O liver .
CAVE 1 914 D . M. 2 17/a" ( now t o b e k nown a s MNNZ S . 2 17/a ). was p a in ted o n t he s ha f t j us t b e low t h is l abe l .
y e l low b u t i s n ow l igh t y e l lowish-brown i n c o lour . s hows t he h o lo type a s i tn ow a ppears .
A r ed s quare
The b one was o r ig ina l ly p a le F ig . 3i n t he p resen t p aper
I ts measure men ts ( t aken b y t he wr i ter )
a re n ow l eng th 7 40 , b read th p rox i ma l 1 72 + , mid 5 8 , d is ta l 1 08 m m . There i s a lso a l e f t t i bia i n t he Na t iona l Museu m c o l lec t ions l abe l led DM 2 17.
I ti s i den ti f ied a s D . h ercu les a nd c o mes f ro m t he C oonoor C ave .
I t
i s n ow l abe l led DM 2 17/b a nd h as O l iver 's measure men ts o n t he t ag l abe l 7 41 , 1 76 , 5 7 a nd 1 05 + m m .
A s O liver i nc luded o n ly t he r igh t C oonoor t i bia
u nder h is h ead ing o f " type" ma ter ia l" t h is l ef t t i bia a nd t he o ther b ones O l iver " assoc ia ted" w i th t h is s pec ies i n 1 949 ( p . 1 74 ) c an n o t b e c ons idered a s p arat ypes . S o me o f t he b ones i n t he Museum c o l lec t ions l i s ted b y O l iver i n 1 949 a s D . h ercu les h ave t he manuscr ip t n a me " coonoorens is" wr i t ten i n p enci l i n O l iver 's h and o n t heir t ag l abels . Th is n ame i s d e l ibera te ly p ub l ished h ere , i n an on-b ino m ia l f ash ion a nd w i thou t " ind ica t ion" s o t ha t i ti s n o t a n a va i lab le n ame u nder t he I n terna t iona l C ode o f Z oo log ica l N o menc la ture .
Th is a l lows
i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o t he s peci f ic n a me h ercules O l iver t o b e f ir m ly e s tab l ished . I ti s c lear t ha t " coonoorens is" was c ons idered , b u t n o t a dopted , b y O l iver a s ap oss ib le s peci f ic n ame f or t he t axon h e v a l id ly n a med D inorn is h ercu les i n 1 949 . C oonoor C ave i s o n p roper ty h e ld b y Mr . M . C onway i n 1 914 a t C oonoor o n t he wes tern s ide o f t he Puketo i Range i n t he n or thern Wa irarapa , a bou t 1 5 mi les b y r oad s ou th o f Dannev irke .
F or a d escr ipt ion o f t he s i te a nd a n
a ccoun t o f t he s pec ies f ound i n t he 1 914 e xcava t ions s ee O l iver ( 1949:14 , f igs . 1 1 , 1 6) . Or ig ina l f igures The f igures o f D inorn is h ercu les p ubl ished b y O l iver i n 1 949 a re a s f o l lows :
f ig . 1 40 ( second f e mur f ro m l e f t ) r igh t f e mur p os ter ior v iew ;
f ig .
1 41 ( second a nd t h ird t i bia f ro m l e f t ) l e f t t i bia ( w i th p rox i ma l e nd miss ing ) a nd r igh t t i b ia , b o th a n ter ior v iew ; r igh t me ta tarsus a n ter ior v iew .
f ig . 1 42 ( second meta tarsus f ro m l e f t )
A l l a re p ho tographs .
The f e mur i n f ig .
1 40 h as t he n u mber DM 2 16 wr i t ten o n i t ( c lear ly v is ible i n ap r in t o f t h is p ho tograph i n O l iver 's meanuscr ipt n o tes ) a nd c o mes f ro m C oonoor C ave ; i t s measure men ts a re g iven i n Table 3 1
( i b id ., 1 80 ). The b roken l e f t t ib ia
i n f ig . 1 41 c an b e r ecogn ized a s DM 1 14 i n t he N a t iona l Museu m c o l lec t ions a nd c o mes f ro m T e Au te a s s ta ted i n t he c apt ion .
T here a re t wo h o les d r i l led
t hrough t h is f igured s pec i men , o ne p rox i ma l ly a nd o ne d is ta l ly ( t he l a t ter c lear ly v is ib le a s ab lack s po t i n f ig . 1 41 ) .
There i s a n o bv ious o pen l ong i-
t ud ina l c rack o n b o th a n ter ior a nd p os ter ior f aces a long t he c en tra l h a l f o f t he s ha f t .
T he measure men ts o f t h is t i bia a re g iven i n O l iver 's t ab le 3 1.
T he r igh t t i b ia i n f ig . 1 41 i s t he h o lo type a s e s tab l ished a bove .
The meta tarsus
i n f ig . 1 42 c an b e r ecogn ized a s ab one l abe l led DM 2 16 i n t he Na t iona l Museu m c o l lec t ions ( t here a re s ix D inorn is b ones f ro m C oonoor r eg is tered u nder t he s a me a u mber DM . 2 16) .
The f igured meta tarsus i s c lear ly l abe l led a s f ro m
C oonoor o n i t s s ha f t a nd i n t he f igure c ap t ion . i n O l iver 's t ab le 3 1.
I t s measure men ts a re g iven
T he t hree " associa ted" l eg b ones d iscussed h ere a re
1 7
n ow l abe l led a s " f igured" s pec i mens o f D . h ercu les . A l l r eg is ter n umbers a re n ow t o b e p re f ixed b y MNNZ S . i ns tead o f DM i fu sed i n p ub l ica t ion . Presen t s ta tus A s o u t l ined a bove i n t he D inorn is g aze l la s ec t ion , O l iver r ecogn ized e igh t s pecies i n t he g enus D inorn is .
H e g ives h is r easons f or d escr ibing
D . h ercu les a s an ew s pe Les a s f o l lows ( 1949:164 ) :
" A s tudy o f t he s er ies
o f b ones i n t he D om in ion Museu m s hows t ha t b o th g igan teus [ t he b iggest N orth I s land s pec ies i n O l iver 's s yste m ] a nd max i mus [ t he b iggest S outh I sland s pec ies] a s g enera l ly u nders tood a re p robab ly c o mpound . Each c ons is t o f t a l l b irds w i th s tra igh t-sha f ted t i biae a nd o f s hor ter b irds w i th c urved-sha f ted t i b iae .
I n max i mus t h is d is t inct ion i s n o t we l l- marked ;
b u t i n g igan teus ,
a s s hown i n f ig . 1 41 , t he d i f ference i s s o g rea t t ha t Ih ave t hough t i ta dv isab le t o f ound a n ew n a me f or t he s hor ter b ird a nd t rus t t ha t i nd iv idua l s ke le tons s o meday w i l l t urn u p t o s uppor t my c onc lus ions .
H u t ton ' än a me e xce lsus
was a pp l ied t o at a l lb ird [ and i s t hus a s ynony m o f e an teus s ensu s tr ic tu ] s o Ih ave f ounded a n ew s peci f ic n a me , h ercu les , w i th a t ib ia f ro m C oonoor a s t ype" .
H e e xp la ins h is t er m " curved-sha f ted" t i bia a s s aying o n p age 1 74
t ha t t he s ha f t i n D . h ercu les " is s tra igh t o n t he o u ts ide b u t c onspicuous ly c urved o n t he i ns ide" ( s ee O l iver 's f ig . 1 41 a nd f ig . 3i n t he p resen t p aper ) . I n O l iver 's v iew D . h ercu les was t he s econd t o b igges t o f t he f ive N or th I s land D inorn is s pec ies ( i b id ., 1 64 ) .
I t was l arger o n a verage t han t he r e la-
t ive ly c o m mon N or th I s land D . n ovaezea land iae Owen ( N .B . O l iver u sed t he n a me D . i ngens f or t h is s pec ies b u t a s e xp la ined i n S car le t t , 1 972:20 , a nd C racra f t , 1 976:202 , t he n a me D . n ovaezea land iae mus t b e u sed f or b irds r e ferred b y Archey a nd O l iver t o D . i ngens , a nd t he n a me D . s tru tho ides f or b irds r e ferred b y t hese a u thors t o D . n ovaezea land iae ) .
L arge s pec i mens
o f t ha t s pec ies ( r e ferred t o a s " long t ype" i n t able 3 0 , i b id . : 1 79) o ver lap t he D . h ercu les r ange b u t were " very much more s lender t han t he s a me b ones o f D . h ercu les" ( i b id ., 1 71 ) .
D . h ercu les was sma l ler ( by d e f in i t ion ) t han
t he l arges t N or th I s land s pec ies , D . g igan teus Owen . S car let t ( 1 972 :21 ) t hough t D . h ercu les m igh t " pr ive t o b e o n ly ab owl egged v ar ian t o f D inorn is g igan teus" , wh i le C racra f t ( 1976) f ir m ly s ynony m ized i tw i th h is D . n ovaezea land iae ( see d iscuss ion u nder " Presen t s ta tus" s ec t ion o f D . g azel la ) . D . g igan teus .
H e f ound i tc loser i n s ize t o t ha t s pec ies t han t o t he b igger H e was a ble t o c o mpare t he t ype o f D . h ercu les t o o ther s pec ies
o f D inorn is a nd i n h is o p in ion ( 1 976:203 ) " the d i f ferences i n s tou tness a nd t he c urva ture o f t he s ha f t o f t he t ype a re a t tr ibu tab le t o i nd iv idua l v ar ia t ion". S um mary o f p resen t s ta tus o f t he moa s pec ies d escr ibed b y W. R . B . O l iver ( f o l low ing C racra f t , 1 976) Pachyorn is s ep ten tr iona l is i s as ynony m o f P . mappin i Archey . Pachyorn is mur ih iku a nd P . a us tra l is a re s ynony ms o f P . e lephan topus ( Owen ).
Euryap teryx t ane i s as ynony m o f E . c ur tus ( Owen ) . Euryap teryx k uranu i i s as ynony m o f E . g erano ides ( Owen ) . D inorn is g aze l la i s as ynony m o f D . s tru tho ides Owen . D inorn is h ercu les i s as ynony m o f D . n ovaezea land iae Owen .
1 8
NOTES ON OL IVER ' S METHODS OF MEASUR ING MOA BONES T he O r ig in o f t he LP MD S ys te m u sed b y O l iver ( 1949 ) The f irs t e x tens ive p aper p ubl ished o n moa measure men ts i n N ew Z ea land a ppeared i n t he f irs t v o lu me o f t he T ransac t ions o f t he N ew Z ea land I ns t i tu te i n 1 869.
I n i t , Haas t u sed t he f o l low ing f our measure men ts ( i n
i nches a nd d ec i ma ls o f a n i nch ) when d iscuss ing l eg b ones :
" Leng th o f b one/
G r i th o f p rox i ma l e nd/G ir th o f s ha f t , t h innes t p ar t/G ir th o f d is ta l e nd" ( i bid . 8 2 ) .
Th is i s t he l oca l f orerunner o f O l iver 's LP MD s ys te m , t hough i tu ses
g ir ths r a ther t han w id ths . Owen i n h is 1 879 me mo ir r e-presen ted t he moa measure men ts h e h ad p ub l ished s ince t he 1 840s .
A l ter ing t he o rder s o mewha t , t he f irs t s ys te m
h e u sed ( i bid . 7 8 ) was a s f o l lows " Leng th/Bread th o f midd le o f s ha f t/Th ickness o r a n tero-posterior d ia meter o f d i t to/C ircu mference [ o f m idd le ]/Bread th/of d ista l e nd" , wh i le t he l a test i b id ., 2 53 ) was "Leng th/Bread th , t ransverse, o f p rox i ma l e nd/Bread th o f m idd le o f s ha f t/C ircu m ference o f midd le o f s ha f t/ Bread th , t ransverse , o f d is ta l e nd". The l a t ter i s a LP MD s ys te m w i th t he g ir th ( or " c ircu m ference" ) a t t he midd le a dded . I n 1 875 H u t ton p resen ted measure men ts o f " two o r t hree h undred" moas f ro m t he Ha m i l ton s wa mp i n O tago a rrang ing t he m " accord ing t o t he d i mens ions g iven b y P ro fessor Owen" ( i b id . 2 74 ) i n h is p apers . Hu t ton u sed t he s econd s ys te m q uo ted h ere f ro m Owen 's me mo ir a dd ing " Th ickness midd le" t o g ive a s ix measure men t s ys te m . I n t he 1 880s A . H am i l ton , work ing i n N apier , h ad s pecia l l abe ls p r in ted wh ich h e g lued o n t o moa l eg b ones f ro m T e Au te a nd o ther s i tes i n t he s ou thern N or th I s land .
They were i nd iv idua l ly p r in ted f or f e mur , t ib ia a nd meta tarsus
w i th s paces l e f t f or a s er ies o f measure men ts . L abe ls f or t he l a t ter e le men t r ead "METATARSUS OF [ b lank f or n a me l/Leng th/C irc i imf ./ Bread th , d is ta l/ Bread th , midd le/Th ickness , midd le/Bread th , p rox ." w i th in a n o blong b order. These a re s t i l l p resen t o n s evera l b ones i n t he ma in N a t iona l Museu m c o l lect i ons a nd o n o ther b ones t rans ferred t o t he Na t iona l c o l lec t ions f ro m t he Nap ier Museu m i n t he 1 950s .
Ham i l ton wro te t he l oca l i ty a long t he b o t to m o f t he
l abe l o u ts ide t he b order b u t t he i nk u sed h as f aded b ad ly a nd t hese l abe ls a re n ow f rag i le a nd d i f f icu l t t o r ead . Hu t ton i n 1 892 u sed a l eg b one r a t io c ons is t ing o f " the l eng th ( L ) d iv ided b y t he g ir th ( G ) a t t he midd le o f t hs s ha f t" ( i bid . 1 06 ) , a nd l a ter ( 1897 : 5 45 ) g ave l eg b one measure men ts u nder t he h eadings " Leng th/Prox . Wid th/ M id . Wid th/D is tal Wid th".
These a re c learly t he LP MD h ead ings o f O l iver 's 1 949
moa b u l let in . I n t he f irs t e d i t ion o f N ew Z ea land B irds ( 1930 :35 ) , O l iver u sed t he f o l lowi ng measure men ts f or moa l eg b ones : " to ta l l eng th b e tween p ara l le ls ... g rea tes t w id th o f p rox i ma l e nd ...grea tes t w id th a t m idd le o f s ha f t ...grea tes t w id th a t d is ta l e nd" a nd t hese d escr ip t ions c an b e t aken a s i nd ica t ing h is me thods o f o bta in ing h is f igures .
F or t he k ey b ased o n l eg b ones p ropor t ions ,
P . M a nd D were " expressed i n t er ms o f t he l eng th t aken a s 1 00" ( i bid . 3 5 ) . I n al e t ter t o P rofessor W. B . B enha m d a ted 2 1 J anuary 1 932 ( a ctua l ly d a ted " 1931" b u t i ti s c lear t ha t t h is i s at yp ing e rror — t he l e t ter i s i n a nswer t o t wo f ro m Benha m d a ted 4 a nd 1 8 J anuary 1 932 ) , i n t he N a t iona l Museu m f i les , O l iver g ives f ur ther d e ta i ls o n h is me thods o f t ak ing l eg b one measure men ts " In t he measure men t o f f e mora o f moas ... It ake t he measure men t a long t he
1 9
a x is o f t he n eck , t ha t i s t he g rea tes t measure men t t ha t c an b e t aken a t t he p rox i mal e nd o f t he b one . Ih ave b een a ble t o t ake t h is measure men t i n moun ted s pec i mens b y means o f ac ran io me ter ...I am r ecord ing b o th t he t ransverse a nd a n tero-pos ter ior measure men ts o f a l l t he l eg b ones ." B enha m ( 1934 :91 ) f ol lowed O l iver a nd u sed t he LP MD s ys te m ( "Leng th/ P rox i ma l B read th/M idd le B read th/D is ta l B read th" ) a dd ing "G ir th a t M idd le" ( re ferred t o b e low a s "G" ) .
H e c o m men ts o n t hese measure men ts b y s ay ing
" The b read th a t t he p rox i ma l e nd o f f e mur i s t aken a long t he a x is o f t he h ead , a s Owen measured i t .
The d i mens ions o f a l l t he b ones were t aken b e tween
t wo v er t ica l u pr igh ts .
H u t ton d oes n o t men t ion h ow h e t ook h is measure men ts ;
i n e ar l ier d ays , a t a ny r a te , h e s ee ms t o h ave u sed a t ape , a nd g iven h is f igures i n i nches .
T he g ir th i s l iab le t o v ary w i th t he p ersona l e qua t ion , i .e.
w i th t he p rec ise p o in t a t wh ich i ti s measured" .
B enha m u sed " percen tage
o f b read th t o l eng th" f or t he p ropor t iona l d i mens ions o f l eg b ones a s d id O l iver . O l iver 's F igures o n Tag L abels I n h is 1 941 monograph o n moas ,
Archey u sed t he LP MDG s ys te m o f
O l iver a nd B enha m b u t i n troduced o n p age 1 3 an ew way o f p resen t ing t hese f igures a nd t he p ercen tage o f w id th t o l eng th f igures .
Th is c ons is ted o f
p lac ing t he f igures i n t wo l i nes w i th t he u pper l ine g iv ing t he measured d imens ions a nd t he s econd l ine g iv ing t he w id ths a s p ercen tages o f t he l eng th . F or e xa mp le t he f igures f or o ne o f t he t i biae o f t he h o lo type s ke le ton o f E urya pteryx t ane O l iver ( AM . 3 ) a s g iven i n Archey 's t ab le H ( under t he n ame E . e x i l is ) wou ld b e p resen ted a s f o l lows ( i n mm ) : M 3 37
9 8
D
2 8
2 9 .1
8 .4
5 6
7 4
1 6.6
2 1.9
I ti s impor tan t t o k now j us t wha t Archey mean t i n h is p resen ta t ion b ecause O l iver u sed a s im i lar b u t d i f feren t me thod o f p resen t ing measure men ts o n t he b ack o f t he b rown , " Do m in ion Museum" , t i e-on t ag l ebe ls u sed t hroughou t t he Na t iona l Museum moa c o l lect ion .
H e d id n o t u se t he LP MD h ead ing a nd d id
n o t t ake t he measure men t G . An e xa mp le o f O l iver 's d i f feren t p resen ta t ion wou ld b e t he l e f t t i bia f ro m Nuhaka , H awke 's B ay , i den ti f ied b y O l iver a s Ano ma lop teryx d id i for m is ( Owen ) , f ro m a n i nco mp le te s ke le ton c o l lec ted b y A . H am i l ton i n 1 913 ( N MNZ S . 2 09 ). On t he b ack o f t he t ag l abe l a re t he f o l low ing f igures i n O l iver 's h and : 3 50
9 9
3 1
5 9
2 1
6 0 5 8 5 1
The t op l i ne i s LP MD w i th P , M a nd D a l l b e ing O l iver 's " grea test w id ths" ; Pi s t aken more o r l ess d iagona l ly t o t he t ransverse p lane o f t he b one , wh i le M a nd D a re b o th " transverse" measure men ts .
I n t he s econd l ine P i s
" transverse" , M i s t he " an tero-pos ter ior" measure men t ( t he l eas t " w id th" ; i .e . d ep th ) a nd D i s t he " an tero-pos ter ior" d ep th o f t he i nner ( and l arger ) c ondy le .
Di n t he t h ird l ine i s t he " an tero-pos ter ior" measure men t o f t he
o u ter ( and sma l ler ) c ondy le .
Th is t hreel ine me thod o f p resen t ing measure men ts
2 0
c an b e f ound o n ag rea t many o f t he b ones e xa m ined b y O liver i n t he Na t iona l Museum . S o met imes O l iver a dded a f our th l ine t o t h is p resen ta t ion t o g ive t he p ercen tage o f w id th t o l eng th .
T hus t he r igh t t i b ia o f t he h o lo type s ke le ton
o f P achyorn is s epten tr ion l is ( shown i n f ig . 1 .1 ) s hows O l iver 's f igures o n t he b ack o f t he t ag l abe l a t t he ir mos t c o mp l ica ted . I gnor ing a n a l tera t ion , a nd e xpress ing t he measure men ts i n mi l l i metres r a ther t han i n c en t i me ters a s t hey a re wr i t ten , t he l abe l h as t he f o l low ing f igures i n O l iver 's h and : 3 20
8 5
2 8
5 2
1 9
4 8 4 8 4 3
2 6.4
8 .7
1 4 .3
T he f irs t t hree l ines a re a s e xp la ined f or t he N uhaka t i b ia wh i le t he f our th l ine g ives p ercen tages o f w id th t o l eng th f or t he t op l ine ( f igures s urpr is ing ly i naccura te !) . Archey 's a nd S car let t 's Me thods o f measur ing Moa B ones Archey ( 1941 :13 ) s ta tes t ha t h is "measure men t h ave a l l b een made b et ween u pr igh ts a nd , t o measure w id th , t he b ones h ave b een p laced a t r igh t a ng les t o t he d irec t ion o f t he measur ing s l ide" .
H is f ig . 1( i bid . 1 4 ) s hows
t he d is ta l e nd o f a moa l eg b one w i th i t s w id th b e ing measured b e tween t he u pr igh ts o f t he measur ing " appara tus" . I n B ones f or t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo log is t , S car le t t ( 1972 :2 ) e xp la ins h is me thods o f measur ing b ird b ones a s f o l lows : b e g iven f our measure men ts .
" A l l b ird l imb b ones s hou ld
L eng th , w id th a t p rox i ma l ( t op ) a nd d is ta l
( bo t to m ) e nds , a nd w id th o f t he s ha f t .
These a re e xpressed a s L ., P ., M .,
D . M . i s t aken b y s o me workers a t t he e xac t c en tre ( M idd le ) o f t he s ha f t . O thers , myse l f i nc luded , measure a t t he n arrowes t p o in t . Th is u sua l ly d i f fers l i t t le f ro m t he w id th o bta ined a t t he c en tre a nd f ac i l i ta tes c o mpar ison w i th b roken b ones , where t he e xac t l eng th i s u nknown , a nd i s much q u icker .
I t
d oes n o t ma t ter wh ich me thod i s u sed , p rov ided t ha t o ne s ta tes where t he measure men t i s t aken .
..In t he f i e ld , a n a pprox i ma te l eng th f or l arger
b ones , s uch a s t hose o f Moa o r A ptorn is c an b e o bta ined w i th a s tee l t ape . Much g rea ter a ccuracy c an b e o bta ined w i th a measur ing d ev ice c ons is t ing o f ab ase w i th r u le , af ixed u pr igh t a nd a s l id ing b ar a nd u pr igh t ( see i l lust ra t ion ) .
T h is i s u se fu l f or measur ing a dzes , a s we l l a s b ones" .
The
i l lus tra t ion r e ferred t o s hows a moa b one b e ing measured o n as l id ing s ca le b e tween u pr igh ts a s d escr ibed .
The a ppara tus S car le t t u ses i s t he s a me o ne
u sed b y D r . ( l a ter S ir G i lber t ) A rchey i n h is work o n moas a t t he Auck land Museum . T o t est O liver ' s me thod o ft ak ing measure men ts a ga inst S car let t ' s , t he wr i ter a sked S car le t t t o r e measure t wo moa l eg b ones o n Archey ' ss l id ing s ca le w i th t he f o l low ing r esu l ts :
2 1
MNNZ S . 2 09 , l e f t t i b ia Ano ma lopteryx c l id i for m is , N uhaka L
P
M
D
O l iver
3 50
9 9
3 1
6 0
S car le t t
3 50
9 7
2 9
6 0
NMNZ S . 7 8 , l e f t f e mur P achyorn is mappin i f ro m Eke tahuna , Wa irarapa , c o l l . J ohn G o lder , 1 1 May 1 894. O l iver
2 11
7 9
3 3
9 2
S car le t t
2 12
7 8
3 4
9 0
The ma in d i f ference wou ld a ppear t o b e i n M wh ich O l iver t ook a cross t he "m idd le o f t he s ha f t" a nd R on S car le t t t akes a cross t he " narrowes t p oin t" . T he P a nd D d iscrepancies i n t he f e mur a re p robably d ue t o a bras ion s ince O l iver measured t he b one . When t hese b ones were b e ing r e measured , S car le t t c o m men ted o n s hr inka ge a nd warp ing i n moa b ones a s f o l lows ( i n l i t t . 1 6 F ebruary 1 962 ) : c an s hr ink a f ew m m .
" bones
A ptorn is b ones a nd moa b ones t ha t Ih ave measured
s oon a f ter t hey c a me o u t o f P yra m id Va l ley , a nd r e- measured af ew y ears l a ter , a f ter t hey h ad we l l d r ied , d id s hr ink l ong i tud ina l ly a l i t t le , n ot v ery much ...so meth ing l i ke 3 -4 m m f or s o me o f t he D inorn is t i bia , b u t l ess f or A p torn is .
T ransverse ly t he s hr inkage was n eg l ig ib le .
warp i n d rying u n less t here i s t oo much h ea t .
Mos t b ones d on 't
H ave h ad warped b ones o cca-
s iona l ly f ro m C aves a nd s wa mps where p ressure s ee ms t o b e t he c ause". S u m mary o f W. R . B . O l iver 's Measure men t Me thod When r ecord ing d i mens ions o f moa l eg b ones O l iver u sed t he f o l low ing measure men ts : L -t o ta l l eng th b e tween u pr igh ts ; P -g rea tes t w id th a t p rox i ma l e nd ( e .g . a long a x is o f n eck i n f e mur ) ; M- g rea tes t w id th a t m idd le o f s ha f t , a nd D -g rea tes t w id th a t d is ta l e nd . When wr i t ing measure men t o n t ag l abe ls i n t he N a t iona l Museu m c o l lec t ions , O l iver r ecorded LP MD i n o ne l i ng a dd ing o n as econd l i ne a t ransverse w id th a t P , al eas t " w id th" ( i .e . d ep th ) a t M , a nd a g rea tes t d epth a t D .
I n at h ird
l ine h e g ave t he d epth o f t he l esser c ondy le a t D ( i .e . n o t t he l eas t d ep th p oss ib le a t D , wh ich wou ld b e t hrough t he i n tercondy lar g roove ) .
T he p ercen tages
o f w id ths t o l eng th f or t he t op l ine measure men ts , i fg iven , a ppeared a s a f our th l ine. SUM MARY T he h o lo type o f P achyorn is s epten tr iona l is ( synony m ized b y C racra f t ( 1976) w i th P . mappin i ) , i s a n i nco mp le te s ke le ton f ro m T e P ohue , H awke 's Bay .
O l iver f igures t he p e lv is a nd l eg b ones o f t h is t ype .
The h o lo type o f
P . a us tra l is ( syn .w i th P . e lephan topus ) , i s as ku l l a nd 2 0 v er tebrae f ro m t he S a l isbury T able land , N e lson . a re f ro m t he t ype .
On ly O l iver 's f igures o f t he s ku l l o f t h is s pec ies
T he h o lo type o f D inorn is g aze l la ( syn . w i th D . s tru tho ides ) , 2 2
i s ap e lv is f igured b y O l iver f ro m T e Au te , H awke 's Bay . The h o lo type o f D . h ercu les ( s yn . w i th D . n ovaezea land iae ) , i s at i bia f ro m C oonoor , Wa irarapa , f igured b y O l iver b u t s ince b roken a nd r e labe l led .
These f our s pec ies were
d escr ibed b y O l iver i n 1 949 a nd t he t ype ma ter ia l , e xcep t f or t he P . a us tra l is v er tebrae , a re i n t he Na t iona l Museu m .
The h o lo type o f P . mur ih iku O liver ,
1 949 ( syn . w i th P . e lephan topus ) i s as ke le ton f ro m B lu f f i n t he S ou th land Museum , a nd t ha t o f Euryapteryx t ane O l iver , 1 949 ( syn . w i th E . c ur tus ) i s as keleton f ro m D oub t less B ay , N or th Auck land , i n t he Auck land Museu m . O l iver 's f igures o f b o th t hese s pec ies a re f ro m t heir t ype s ke le tons .
The
h o lo type o f E . k uranu i O l iver , 1 930 ( syn . w i th E . g erano ides ) i s as ke le ton f ro m C as t lepoin t , Wa irarapa , i n t he C an terbury Museu m . was f igured b y O l iver i n 1 949 .
The t ype s ku l l
N o p ara types were d es igna ted b y O l iver f or
a ny o f h is s pec ies . O l iver 's LP MD h ead ings f or moa l eg b one measure men ts i n 1 949 r efer t o l eng th b e tween u pr igh ts ,
g rea tes t w id th a t p rox i ma l e nd , t ransverse w id th
a t midd le o f s ha f t , a nd g rea tes t w id th a t d is ta l e nd .
L i tera ture C i ted Archey , G ., 1 941.
T he moa a s tudy o f t he D inorn i th i for mes .
Bu l l . Auck land
Mus . 1 :1-119. B enh 4n , W. B ., 1 934.
The s ke le ton o f a sma l l moa , Emeus h u t ton i Owen .
T rans . R oy . S oc . N . Z.6 4:87-104. B rod ie , J . W., 1 950 . R ev iew 8 :87-88 .
Moa r e ma ins a t C as t lepo in t .
B rodkorb , p ., 1 963.
N ew Z ea land S c ience
C a ta logue o f f oss i l b irds P ar t 1( Archaeopteryg i for mes
t hrough Ardei for mes ) , Bu l le t in F lor ida S ta te Museu m B io log ica l S c iences 7: 179-293 . B u ick , T . L ., 1 931.
T he mys tery o f t he Moa :
N ew Z ea land 's a v ian g ian t .
Tho mas A very a nd S ons , N ew P ly mou th . C racra f t , J ., 1 976. O lson , S . L .,
The s pec ies o f moas ( Ayes :
D inorn i th idae ) .
I N :
( ed .) , C o l lec ted p apers i n a v ian p a leon to logy h onor ing
t he 9 0 t hb ir thday o f A lexander Wet more . P a leobio logy 2 7:189-205 . F le m ing , C . A ., 1 977.
Sm i thson ian C on tr ibu t ions t o
( Rev iewed i n F le m ing , 1 977) .
Wishbones f or We t more .
N o torn is 2 4 :144-146.
( Rev iew o f C racra f t , 1 976 ) . Haas t , J ., 1 869 ,
On t he measure men ts o f D inorn is b ones , o b ta ined f ro m
e xcava t ions i n as wamp , s i tua ted a t G lenmark , o n t he p roper ty o f Messrs . K er mode a nd C o ., u p t o F ebruary 1 5 , 1 868 . ( 2nd E d . 1 875 :21-30 ) . Ham i l ton , A ., 1 889. Hawke 's Bay. H i l l , H ., 1 914 .
Trans . N . Z.I ns t . 1 :80-89
N o tes o n ad epos i t o f moa-bones i n t he T e Au te Swa mp ,
T rans . N . Z.I ns t . 2 1:311-318 .
The moa — l engendary , h is tor ica l , a nd g eo log ica l :
a nd when t he moa d isappeared .
Trans . N . Z.I ns t . 4 6:330-351.
2 3
why
Hu t ton , F . W., 1 875 .
On t he d i mens ions o f D inorn is b ones .
T rans . N .Z .
I ns t . 7 :274-278 . Hu t ton , F . W., 1 892 . 2 4 :93-172.
T he moas o f N ew Z ea land .
T rans . N .Z . I ns t .
Hu t ton , F . W., 1 897.
The moas o f t he N or th I s land o f N ew Z ea land .
Trans . N .Z. I ns t . 2 9:541-557. Hu t ton , F . W., 1 906. I s land . I CZN , 1 964 .
On a s ke le ton o f Emeus c rassus f ro m t he N or th
T rans . N . Z.I ns t . 3 8 :66-67. I n terna t iona l C ode o f Z oo log ica l N o menc la ture a dop ted b y t he
XV I n terna t iona l C ongress o f Z oo logy.
I n terna i ona l T rus t f or Z oo log ica l
N o menc la ture , L ondon . L ydekker , R ., 1 891. C a ta logue o f t he f oss i l b irds i n t he B r i t ish Museu m ( Na tura l H is tory ) , C ro mwe l l R oad , S .W . B r i t ish Museu m , L ondon . McKay , A ., 1 879 .
The Ba ton R iver a nd Wangapeka D is tr ic ts , a nd Moun t
Ar thur Range .
R epor ts o f G eo log ica l Exp lora t ions d ur ing 1 878-79 , w i th
Maps a nd S ect ions .
C o lon ia l Museu m a nd G eo log ica l S urvey o f N ew
Z ea land , We l l ing ton . O l iver , W. R . B ., 1 930 .
N ew Z ea land B irds .
F ine Ar ts , We l l ing ton .
O l iver , W. R . B ., 1 949 .
The moas o f N ew Z ea land a nd Aus tra l ia .
D om .
Mus . B u l l . 1 5 :1-206. O l iver , W. R . B ., 1 955 . We l ling ton . Owen , R ., 1 879 .
N ew Z ea land B irds .
A . H . & A . W. R eed ,
2 nd E d i t ion . Me mo irs o n t he e x t inc t w ing less b irds o f N ew Z ea land ;
w i th a n a ppend ix o n t hose o f Eng land , A ustra l ia , N ewfound land , Maur i t ius , a nd R odr iguez. Owen , R ., 1 883 .
J ohn Van Voors t , L ondon .
On D inorn is ( Par t ) (X IV ) :
2V o ls .
c on ta in ing a d escr ip t ion o f t he
h ead a nd f ee t , w i th t he ir d r ied i n tegu men ts , o f a n i nd iv idua l o f t he s pec ies D inorn is d id inus , Owen . Park , J ., 1 888 . T e Au te .
Trans . Z oo l . S oc . L ond .
1:257-261 .
On t he e xp lora t ion o f moa-bone d epos i t a t P a tanga ta s wa mp ,
C o lon ia l Museu m a nd G eo log ica l S urvey o f N ew Z ea land R epor ts
o f G eolog ica l E xp lora t ions 1 9 :88-90 . Parker , T . J ., 1 893 . o f moa .
On t he p resence o f ac res t o f f ea thers i n c er ta in s pecies
Trans . N . Z.I ns t . 2 5 :3-6.
Parker , T . J ., 1 895 .
On t he c ran ia l o s teo logy , c lass i f ica t ion a nd p hy logeny
o f t he D inorn i th idae . R o thsch i ld , W., 1 907.
T rans . Z oo l . S oc . L ond . 1 3 :373-431.
Ex t inc t b irds .
An a t te mpt t o u n i te i n o ne v o lu me a
s hor t a ccoun t o f t hose b irds wh ich h ave b eco me e x tinc t i n h is tor ica l t imes — t ha t i s , w i th in t he l as t s ix o r s even h undred y ears .
T o wh ich a re a dded
af ew wh ich s t i l l e x is t , b u t a re o n t he v erge o f e x t inc t ion .
H u tch inson ,
L ondon . S car le t t , R . J ., 1 972 . B ones f or t he N ew Z ea land a rchaeo log is t . Mus . Bu l l . 4 :1-69 .
2 4
C an terbury
A DECEPTIVE ON THE
TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE
WAIPARA R IVER,
FOSSIL S ITE
NORTH CANTERBURY ,
NE W ZEALAND .
T . H . V . R ich , P . V . R ich , R . E . Fordyce, P . Ga tehouse, a nd R . J . S car le t t*
I n troduc tion A s s tuden ts f ro m t he Un iversi ty o f C an terbury , Chr istchurch , t wo o f u s ( PG i n 1 972 , RF i n 1 973) u nbeknown t o e ach o ther , f ound a f ew f ossi l b ones n ear t he H orseshoe ( Fig . 2 .1) i n t he l ower Waipara G orge, Nor th Can terbury , N ew Z ea land .
I n Apri l 1 974, t he b one-producing d eposi t , al ens, was l oca ted .
The n a ture o ft he l i tho logy o f t he l ens was s uch t ha t , e ven af ter i th ad b een l oca ted b y u se o f t he u nderwa ter s iev ing t echn ique d escr ibed b y McKenna ( 1965) , e xa m ina tion o ft he e xcava ted s urface s howed n o e vidence o fb one .
On ly af ter
t he ma tr ix was s ieved was b one n o ticeab le . Mimio moko Pocke t , t he n a me g iven t o t he f ossi l d eposi t , was l oca ted o n t he s ou th o r r igh t b ank o ft he Wa ipara R iver n ear t he Horseshoe ( F ig . 2 .1)a t 4 3° 0 6 ' 3 0" S ., 1 72° 4 6 ' 2 7" E .,
g r id r eference S 68/137074 , N ew Z ea land
Mapp ing S erv ice ( N .Z .M .S. )1 , S hee t S 68 a nd S 69, Amber ley a nd Mo tunau , 3 rd e d ., 1O ct . 1 964 , r epr in t 1 970 ; N . Z.M .S . 2 60 ( 1975) .
me tr ic g rid r eference N34 :917887 ,
I t was a bou t 1 2 me tres a bove r iver l eve l .
The word
"M i mio moko", t he Maor i n a me f or a n earby h i l l , means " Sleep ing L izard" ( Hawk ins, 1 957 ) .
The a ppe l la t ion "Pocke t" i s a ppropr ia te, a s t he p roductive
u n i t was a l ens o f l imi ted d i mensions 1 .0 x 0 .3 x 0 .1 me tres. Mim io moko Pocke t o ccurs i n a n e xposure o f t he Double C orner S hel l-beds ( Gregg , 1 959) 1 8 me tres b e low t he c on tact w i th t he o ver ly ing Greenwood F orma t ion ( F ig . 2 .2 ) .
Gregg r egarded t he Double Corner S he l l-beds a s
Wa iauan i n a ge i n t he f ra mework o f New Z ea land Ter tiary S tages ( i bid .) ( l a te midd le Miocene , 1 0 .5-14 mi l lion y ears b efore p resen t [ Berggren , 1 972 ] ) . Ow ing t o af au l t , t he u pper Doub le C orner S he l l-beds a nd l ower p ar t o ft he G reenwood F orma t ion a re r epea ted i n t he v icini ty o f M i mio moko P ocke t , t he f ossi l s i te b e ing o n t he d own throv vn b lock i m med ia te ly e ast o f t he f au l t , which i s c lear ly i ndica ted i n Gregg ' sf i g . 2( i bid .) . Two f ea tures i n p articu lar d ist inguish t he p roduct ive l ens f ro m t he s urr ounding r ock : t he p resence o f g reywacke g ranu les a nd b ones o ft errestria l a n ima ls.
O n ly w i th d i f f icu l ty c ou ld t hese t rai ts b e d e tected i n t he f i e ld .
Bo th
t he p roduct ive l ens a nd t he s urround ing r ock a re s he l l-rich c a lcareous q uar tza ren i tes w i th t he v enerid b iva lve , Tur i n waiauensis Marw ick , f orm ing t he b u lk o ft he s he l ls. The N ew Z ea land f ossi l r ecord f i le n u mbers f or c o l lections f ro m Mi miomoko P ocke t a re 5 68/ f1258 , S 68/ f1258A , a nd S 68/ f1258B . P ub l ished w i thou t S car let t k now ing where i t wou ld a ppear . 2 5
Ed .
4 3°
T he H orseshoe , l ower Wa ipara G o rge
L OCAL ITY
• Amber ley
Wa ipa ra R i ve r
MAP
0
k m
4 0 4 4° 1 7 3°
1 7 2°
F ig. 2 .1
G eneral l oca t ion o f l a te Qua ternary t etrapod s ide , M im io moko P ocket ( 43° 0 6' 3 0" S 1 72° 4 6 ' 2 7" E ).
2 6
m e te rs G rey , i n du ra ted s ands tone w i th f r agmen ts o f s he l l a bundan t A l te rna t ing s o f t a nd i n du ra ted b eds o f b rown s ands tone r i c h i n m o l luscs
F i ne , b rown s ands tone w i th s e ve ra l b ands o f mo l luscs
1 0/ /,
/
•
', ) ,
S HELL - B EDS
I
/ 1 1 1
, . . _ _ _. . . . 20 \
I •. /
/
/.•
I n du ra ted s he l l b ond F i ne , b rown s ands tone w i th s eve ra l b ands o f mo l luscs , s ome b onds i ndu ra ted , . , I n du ra ted s he l l b ond Tw ig- r i ch l a ye r ‚ j« , 1,1 01 4 10K0 P OCKET
t -1
\
,
F i ne ,b rown s ands tone w i th o ne p rom inen t a nd a f ew o bscure b ond s a t m o l luscs -I ndu ra ted s he l l b and
iii- /1, /
1 .- % , "
30— F i ne , b rown s ands tone w i th s e ve ra l b onds o f mo l luscs
0
I n du ra ted s he l l b ond
— 1
i n
40— _
,
F i ne ,b rown s ands tone w i th s eve ra l b ands o f mo l luscs
C onc re t iona ry l a ye r
50 —
F ig. 2 .2
F i ne , b rown s ands tone ( bo t tom n o t s een )
S tra t igraph ic s ec t ion s how ing p osit ion o f Mi m io moko P ocket . Drawn b y R . S uddarth.
2 7
Abbrevia t ions AV
Can terbury Museu m , C hristchurch , B ird C a ta logue
C SIRO B S
C o m monwea l th S cien ti f ic a nd I ndustria l Research Organisa t ion , Wi ld li fe Research , C anberra
DM
Na tiona l Museu m o f N ew Z ea land , We l ling ton
NMV
Depar t men t o f Orn i tho logy , Na t iona l Museu m o f V ictor ia ,
Rep
Can terbury Museu m , Christchurch , Rep ti le C a ta logue
Me lbourne g rea ter t han s l igh t ly g rea ter t han a pprox i ma te ly C o mpara t ive Ma ter ia l Ava i lab le R ep ti lia : s tudy .
O steo logica l s pecimens o f t he f o l low ing t axa were a vai lab le f or
The n u mber i n p aren theses a f ter e ach t axon i ndica tes t he n u mber o f
i ndividua ls a vai lab le :
L eiope l ma s p . ( 1 ) , S phenodon p uncta tus ( 2 ) , N au l t inus
e legans ( 1 ) , H op lodacty lus d uvauce l i ( 1 ) , a nd L eio lopis ma i n frapuncta tu m ( 1 ) . Ayes:
The g enera l a vian o steo logica l c o l lection a t t he Na t iona l Museu m
o fV ictor ia was a vai lab le , which c on ta ins a t l east o ne r epresen ta t ive o f e very Austra lasian n on-passer ifor m a v ian f a mi ly e xcep t Rhynoche t idae a s we l l a s most p asseri for rn f a mi l ies. were s tud ied . p aren theses :
More s peci f ica l ly , t he f o l low ing a ppropr ia te t axa
N u mbers o f i nd ividua ls i n e ach t axon a vai lab le a re i ndica ted i n Ap teryg idae : Ap teryx a ustra lis ( 1 ) ;
Proce l lar i idae :
Macronectes
g igan teus ( 3 ) , F u l marus g lacia lo ides ( 7 ) , Tha lassoica a n tarc tica ( 1 ) , Dap t ion c apense ( 17 ) , P terodro ma macrop tera ( 46) , P . l esson i i ( 30) , P . b revirostr is ( 1 ) , P . i nexpecta ta ( 2 ) , Ha lobaena c aeru lea ( 32 ) , Pachyp ti la v i t ta ta ( 2 ) , P . s a lv in i ( 26) , P . d eso la ta ( 51) , P . b e lcher i ( 31) , P . t ur tur ( 42 ) , Proce l la-r ia c in .erea ( 2 ) , P . a equ inoct ia lis ( 1 ) , P uf f inus c arneipes ( 21) , P . p aci f icus ( 1 ) , P . g riseus ( 20 ) , P . t enu irostr is ( 17 ) , P . g avia ( 32) , P . h ut ton i ( 1 ) , P . a ssimi lis ( 3 ) , Hydroba t idae :
O cean i tes o cean icus ( 5 ) , Pe lagodro ma mar ina ( 28 ) ;
P e le-
c ano id idae : P e lecanoides u r ina tr ix ( 18 ) , P . g eorg icus ( 3 ) ; Ra l l idae : C ape ll i ra l lus k aramu ( 2 ) , D iaphorap teryx h awk insi ( 2 ) , Neso l imnas d ief fenbachi ( 1 ) , N esopha lar is c ha tha mensis ( 1 ) , Tr ibonyx v en tra lis ( 6 ) , T . mor t ier i i ( 4 ) , P orphyrio p orphyr io ( 11) , N o tornis man te l l i ( 1 ) , Ra l lus p hi l ippensis ( 18) , P orzana p usi l la ( 1 ) , P . f l um inea ( 1 ) , P . t abuensis ( 1 ) , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis ( 8 ) , F u l ica a tra ( 12 ) ;
Rhinoche tidae :
R h inoche tos j ubatus ( 1 ) .
C lassif ica t ion f or t he r ep t i les f o l lows R o mer ( 1956) , whi le t ha t f or t he N ew Z ea land b irds f o l lows K insky ( 1970 ) w i th modi f ica tions s uggested b y O lson ( 1975) . Age o ft he A sse mb lage The f o l low ing e v idence h as a b ear ing o n t he a ge o f Mi mio moko P ocke t . 1 .
The l ens a ppears t o b e c o mfor mab le w i th in t he s equence .
I t s d ip ( 35°
west ) a nd s tr ike ( 15 ° )p ara l le ls t ha t o ft he i m media te ly s urround ing D ouble C orner S he l l-beds.
2 8
2 .
N one o ft he p lan t a nd i nver tebra te f ossi ls f ound i n t he P ocke t i s e xclusive ly
ap ost- Wa iauan f or m , a nd s o me , e .g . Tun a waiauensis, a re k nown t o b e n o y ounger t han Waiauan . 3 .
The p resen t p osi t ion o ft he P ocket r e la t ive t o t he n earby Waipara R iver , a nd
t he d irect ion a nd e x ten t o f r iver e rosion a ppear i nco mpa t ib le w i th emp lacemen t o ft he P ocke t b y s cour ing , u ndercut t ing , o r c ave i n f i l l ing b y t he r iver i n r ecen t t imes. I fi ti s s upposed t ha t as ha l low c ave was f ormed d ur ing Q ua ternary t ime b y a ct ion o ft he r iver when i t was 1 2 me tres h igher t han a t p resen t , i ti s n ecess ary t o i n fer t ha t t he b ank h as n o t r eceded a s igni f ican t d istance h or izon ta l ly d ur ing t he t ime o fd own c ut t ing t o t he p resen t l eve l . O therw ise , t he c ave d eposi t wou ld h ave b een t o ta l ly d estroyed a s t he b ank r eceded u n less t he o r ig ina l c ave was q ui te d eep . T oday , n o s uch d eep c aves a re d eve loped i n t he o u tcrop o f t he D oub le C orner S he l l-beds where M i mio moko P ocke t was f ound . 4 . Dr . R . J . Weston o ft he C he mistry D ivision , D epar tu ien t o f S cien ti f ic a nd I ndustr ia l R esearch , P e tone , N ew Z ea land , c arr ied o u t a n a na lysis o ft hree s amp les o ft e trapod b ones f ro m M im io moko P ocke t a nd o ne o n af ragmen t o f av er tebra o f a mar ine ma mma l c o l lected a bou t s ix teen me tres o n s trike f ro m t he l ens.
The b ones f ro m Mimio moko P ocke t were r ich i n c o l lagen i ndica t ing
a n a ge , "l ess t han 1 0 ,000 y ears o ld a nd p robably o n ly a bou t 1 000 y ears o ld ;" whi le i n c on trast , t he mar ine ma m ma l v er tebra l f ragmen t c on tained n o d e tecta b le c o l lagen , ar esu l t c onsisten t w i th a Wa iauan a ge f or t ha t s pecimen ( Weston , p ers. c o mm . ) . Weston , R epenn ing , a nd F lem ing ( 1973 ) d escr ibed t he t echnique o f c o l lagen a na lysis u sed . 5 .
The p resence o f sma l l, s ubangu lar g raywacke p ebb les i n Mimio moko
Pocke t b u t n o t i n t he s urround ing D ouble C orner S he l l-beds s uggests a s ed imen t s ource f or t he l ens n o t a ct ive when t he Double C orner S he l l-beds were d eposi ted . 6 .
Tua tara , o ne o ft he most a bundan t t e trapods i nt he f auna , h ad d isappeared
f ro m t he ma in land b y t wo h undred y ears a go ( Crook , 1 975) . Th is c oup led w i th t he a bsence o f a ny t e trapods i n troduced b y man s uppor ts a p robab le min imu m a ge o ft wo c en tur ies f or t he s i te . E va lua t ing t he a bove e vidence , u n less s o me mechanis m c an b e i nvoked t o e xp la in t he p reserva t ion o f c o l lagen i n t he b ones f ro m Mimio moko P ocke t s ince t he Miocene , t he most l i ke ly i n terpre ta t ion i s t ha t t he l ens r epresen ts a l a te Q ua ternary d eposi t a ccu mu la ted i n as ha l low c ave .
I ft his was t he c ase , t he
c ave was s coured o u t o r e xcava ted a s ab urrow s i te b etween r esistan t b eds when we l l a bove r iver l eve l , wh ich r esu l ted i n t he l ens b e ing i nc lined p ara l le l t o t he s urround ing D oub le C orner S he l l-beds.
This c oup led w i th t he c ave b e ing s ub-
s equen t ly f i l led p r imari ly b y a ma tr ix r eworked f ro m t he i m med ia te s urroundi ngs r esu l ted i nt he a pparen t c on for mi ty b e tween t he l ens a nd t he Doub le C orner S he l l-beds. I n t h is r eworked ma ter ia l were t he mar ine i nver tebra tes n o t k nown f ro m r ocks y ounger t han t he Waiauan S tage . Dur ing t he t ime t he c ave was b e ing f i l led t e trapods were p resen t a nd g reywacke p ebbles e n tered t he a rea o f d eposi t ion ; e ven ts t ha t t ook p lace a t l east t wo c en turies a nd p ossib ly more t han a t housand y ears a go . Th is s i te was o r ig ina l ly t hough t t o b e o f Miocene a ge . I t was t he b asis f or ap ersona l c o m mun ica tion b y o ne o fu s ( TR ) c i ted i n Crook ( 1975) t ha t t he t uat ara was k nown f ro m Miocene d eposi ts. 2 9
F lora a nd Non-Te trapod F auna I n t he f o l low ing l i st o ft axa r epresen ted f ro m t he Mi mio moko Pocke t , D . Mi ldenha l l i den ti f ied t he p lan ts ;
R . H . H osk ins, t he f ora min ifera ;
a nd I . W.
K eyes, t he c hondr icthyians. P lan ts:
P yrrophy ta ( d inof lage l la tes) , Eu mycophy ta ( t rue f ungi ) , P ter idophy ta
An ima ls :
F ora m ini fer ida :
G lob iger ina b u l loides, G . c iperoensis,
G . f a lconensis, G . f o lia ta , G .q u inqueloba, G . wood i d ecoraper ta , En tosolen ia s p ., Tri far ina b radyi , G lobocassidu l ina s ubg lobosa , C ibicides s p ., C . mo lestus, No torota lia s p . Anne l ida :
T erebe l lidae?
( agg lu tina ted t ubes, n o t d e termin-
a b le t o g enus) C irr ipedia :
Ba lanus s p .
E ch inoidea :
Arachnoides s p ., C idaroides ? ( sma l l , s tubby
s p ines) Mo l lusca :
C horda ta :
T ur i n wa iauensis, Barysp ira s p ., P o l in ices s p .
C hondr ich thyes:
Hypopr ion s p ., Dean ia s p ., ?Da la t ias s p . ,
Prist iophorus l anceo la tus, ? Trygon s p ., My lioba tus s p . O ste ich thyes :
T e leostei
S yste ma tics o f T e trapods C lass R ep t i lia S ubc lass L ep idosaur ia Order R hynchocepha lia F a mi ly S phenodon t idae S phenodon S phenodon p uncta tus Ma ter ia l :
Two r igh t ( Rep . 4 01-402) a nd t wo l ef t ( Rep . 4 03-404) h u mer i ,
n ear ly c o mp le te b u t l ack ing e p iphyses. e piphysis, R ep . 4 05 . Rep . 4 06 .
P rox ima l h a lf o f l ef t h u merus l ack ing
R igh t f e mur , n ear ly c o mp le te b u t l ack ing e p iphysis,
L ef t t i bia , n ear ly c o mp le te b u t l ack ing e piphysis, R ep . 4 07 .
h a lf o f r igh t f i bu la , l ack ing o n ly e piphysis, R ep . 4 08 . c oracoid , R ep . 4 09 . Rep . 4 11 .
Par t ia l r igh t c oracoid , R ep . 4 10 .
Two t ee th o n b one f rag men t , R ep . 4 12 .
v er tebra , Rep . 4 13 .
Par tia l l ef t s capu la ,
C en tru m o f a n ter ior c ervica l
Two c en tra o f c auda l v er tebrae, Rep . 4 14, 4 15.
o neth ird o f l ef t r ib , R ep . 4 16. f our th p ha langes, R ep . 4 19-430 .
F irst p ha langes, Rep . 4 17 , 4 18 . Termina l p ha lanx , R ep . 4 31.
3 0
D ista l
Par t ia l l ef t s capu la a nd
Prox i ma l
S econd t hrough
Measure men ts ( i n mi l l i me tres) : L eng th o f D iaphysis
Min i mu m D iame ter o f
o r Midshaf t
D iaphysis o r Midshaf t
H u mer i i R ep . 4 01
2 1 .5
2 .0
R ep . 4 02
> 21 .9
2 .8
R ep . 4 03
> 20 .7
2 .3
R ep . 4 04
2 1 .8
2 .3 1 .7
R ep . 4 05 F e mur R ep . 4 06
3 5.9
2 .7
2 3 .8
2 .3
T ibia R ep . 4 07 F ibu la 1 .3
R ep . 4 08
D orsoven tra l D iame ter o f C en tru m L eng th
C en tru m , An ter ior End
An ter ior C ervica l Ver tebra R ep . 4 13
5 .0
5 .0
C auda l Ver tebrae R ep . 4 14
1 .5
R ep . 4 15
1 .3
S econd t o F our th P ha langes
L eng th
F irst Pha langes
L eng th
R ep . 4 19
4 .2
Rep . 4 17
>7 .3
R ep . 4 20
>2 .9
Rep . 4 18
>5.7
R ep . 4 21
>3 .1
R ep . 4 22
5 .0
R ep . 4 23 R ep . 4 24
>4.5 4 .1
R ep . 4 25
5 .1
R ep . 4 26
4 .6
R ep . 4 27
>4 .3
R ep . 4 28
>3 .8
R ep . 4 29
>3 .5
R ep . 4 30
4 .6
Termina l p ha lanx Rep . 4 31
3 .4
D iagnosis ( Sa me a s f or g enus, o n ly k nown s pecies) :
L arger t han a ny o ther
me mber o ft he S phenodon tidae e xcep t t he g enera Mon jurosuchus a nd An isodon tos aurus ( Broi l i , 1 925 ; 1 947 ) .
Endo , 1 940 ;
G i l more , 1 909 ;
Hof fstet ter , 1 955 ; We l les,
D ist ingu ished f ro m Mon jurosuchus b y h aving amphicoe lous r a ther t han
o p isthocoe lous d orsa l v er tebrae a nd b road b ased r a ther t han a cu te ly c on ica l t ee th ( Endo , 1 940) .
D ist inguished f ro m An isodon tosaurus b y p osterior mand ibu lar
3 1
t ee th t ha t a re a sy m me tr ica l i n l a tera l v iew , t he a n terior s ide o ft he t ee th b eing n ear ly v er t ica l a nd t he p oster ior s lop ing a t a bou t 4 50 r a ther t han b o th s ides s lop ing a t a bou t t he s a me d egree a nd t he i ncl ina t ion o ft he s ides i ncreasing p rogressive ly a n ter ior ly f ro m 4 5° t o v er t ica l b y t he midd le o f t he t oo th r ow ( We l les, 1 947 ) .
D ist inguished f ro m a l l C enozoic r ep ti les e xcep t G ekkon idae
a nd s ome d orsa ls o f C he lon ia b y amphicoe lous v er tebra p erfora ted f or p assage o f n o tochord i n a du l t ( Ro mer , 1 956) . D ist inguished f ro m amph icoe lous d orsa ls o f C he lon ia b y w id th o f c en tru m g rea ter t han , r a ther t han l ess t han o ne-ha lf t he l eng th .
D ist inguished f ro m amph icoe lous G ekkon idae b y a bsence o f p a ired
f ora m ina s ubcen tra lia ( Hof fstet ter a nd G asc, 1 969) .
D ist inguished f ro m a l l
o ther C enozo ic r ep ti les a nd r hynchqsaurs b y t he p resence o f a n e n tep icondy lar f ora men o n t he h u merus ( Ro mer , 1 956) . D iscussion : S phenodon p unctatus i st he s o le s urviving r hynchocepha lian a nd s tructura l ly , o ne o ft he most p r imi tive l i v ing r ep t i les.
Many o f t he o steo-
l og ica l f ea tures o ft his s pecies a re d up lica ted n owhere e lse among l i v ing r ep ti les b u t a re c o m mon t o e n t ire o rders o f e x t inct o nes. N o s ing le b one o fS phenodon p uncta tus c an b e d ist inguished f ro m t he s ame e lemen t i n e very o ther r ep ti le . O n ly b y e xamin ing d i f feren t b ones k nown t o b e p ar ts o fo ne i nd ividua l c an a s pecimen b e u nequ ivoca lly d iagnosed a s b e longi ng t o t h is s pecies.
H owever , i ti s p oss i b le t o d ist inguish i sola ted v er tebrae
a nd h u mer i i o fS . p uncta tus f ro m a l l o ther k nown C enozoic r ep t i les.
I n l i gh t o f
t he f ac t t ha t M imio moko P ocke t i s p robab ly l a te Q ua ternary i n a ge a nd c er ta in ly n o o lder t han M iocene , a more l imi ted d iagnosis f ro m C enozoic r ep ti les i s u sefu l , f or i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t t his ma ter ia l r epresen ts a l a te C enzoic e xa mp le o f s o me t axon p rev iously t hough t r estricted t o t he Mesozoic o r Pa leozoic .
Order S quama ta S uborder L acer ti lia I nfraorder I ndet . Ma ter ia l :
P rox ima l e nds o ft wo r igh t h u mer i , Rep . 4 32 , 4 33 .
D ista l e nds
o ft wo h u mer i , r igh t a nd l ef t r espect ive ly , R ep . 4 34, 4 35. T oo th i n r igh t maxi lla f ragmen t , R ep . 4 36 . T ee th i n b one f ragmen ts, R ep . 4 37 , 4 42 . R igh t mand ib le f ragmen t w i th b ases o ft he most a n terior s even t ee th p reserved , R ep . 4 38 . D iscussion : T he p resence o f e piphyses o n t he h umer i f ragmen ts s uppor ts t he a ssign men t o ft hese s pecimens t o t he l i zards. O ther t han l i zards, o n ly i n S phenodon p uncta tus a nd c rocodi les, p lus s o me o ther r are c ases, a re e p iphyses d eve loped among r ep ti les ( Ro mer , 1 956) . T hese s pecimens a re much t oo sma l l t o b e r eferrab le t o e i ther a du l t S . p uncta tus o r c rocodi les ( see F ig . 2 .3 ) . I nfraorder N yctisaur ia ( Gekko ta ) F am i ly G ekkon idae G enus e t s pecies i nde t . Ma ter ia l :
Two d orsa l v er tebrae , R ep . 4 39 , 4 40 .
4 41.
3 2
C auda l v er tebrae , R ep .
F ig . 2 .3
A .
Midsha f t o f r ight h u merus o f Hop lodac ty lus d uvaucel i , modern s pec i men.
B .
Prox i ma l e nd o f r ight h u merus o f smal l l i zard , Mi m io moko P ock et , Rep . 4 32.
C .
D ista l e nd o f r ight h u merus o f smal l l i zard , Mi m io moko P ocket , Rep . 4 34.
D .
L ef t h u merus o f L eiolop is ma i n frapuncta tu m , modern s pec i men.
S cale, e ach d iv ision e quals 1 m m .
1 1 1 1 11
F ig . 2 .4
A .
1
N eura l a rch o f modern s pec i men o f H op lodacty lus d uvauce li ,
p oster ior v iew .
B .
Poster ior v iew o f G ecko v er tebra f ro m
Mi mio moko P ocke t , Rep . 4 39 .
N eura l a rch o f H . d uvauce li
f igured h ere i s f ro m t he s a me i nd ividua l a s t he h u merus midshaf t i l lustra ted i n f i g . 3 A.
C loseness o ft he n eura l c ana ls i n s ize
i nd ica tes t he s im i lar i ty i n s ize o ft he H . d uvauce l i s pecimen a nd t he Mim io moko G ecko f igured , whereas t he t wo l imb f rag men ts f ro m Mi mio moko a re f ro m a much sma l ler a du l t a n ima l t han t his s peci men o f H . d uvauce li .
S ca le , e ach d ivision e qua ls 1m m .
II i l if t il i t iv i v i i i i l i t t i ll
F ig. 2 .5
A , c f . Ap teryg idae, p halanx , AV28667 ; Procel lar i idae: B , t arso metatarsus, AV28665; C , u lna ( prox i ma l ) AV28662; D , u lna ( d istal ), AV28663; a nd E , c oracoid , AV28671. S cale, e ach d iv ision e quals 1 m m.
:1 4 7 4 v " . " r i1 < t rli n ,
F ig. 2 .6
Pelecano ides s p. f ro m Mi m io moko Pocket : AV28650 ;
A , t arso metatarsus,
B , c oracoid , AV28647 ; C , s capu la , AV28652; D ,
s ternu m , AV28657 ; E , t i biotarsus ( d istal ), AV28654; F , h u merus AV28645; G , u lna , AV28653; a nd H , c arpo metacarpus , AV28648. S cale, e ach d iv ision e quals 1 m m.
Measuremen ts ( i n mi l l ime tres) : D orsoven tra l D ia me ter N eura l C ana l H eigh t
C en tru m
Wid th
L eng th
Wid th
o f C en tru m An ter ior End
D orsa l V er tebrae R ep . 4 39
1 .0
1 .3
1 .5
0 .6
R ep . 4 40
0 .8
1 .0
1 .3
0 .9
1 .4
1 .0
0 .7
C auda l V er tebrae R ep . 4 41 D iagnosis:
0 .8
Many me mbers o ft he f a mi ly i nc lud ing t h is ma teria l d ist inguished
f rom a l l o ther C enozoic r ep t i les e xcep t s o me t ur t les a nd S phenodon p uncta tus b y amph icoe lous v er tebrae p erfora ted f or p assage o fn o tochord i n a du lt ( Ro mer , 1 956) . D ist inguished f ro m S . p uncta tus b y p resence o f p aired f ora m ina s ubc en tra lia o n amph icoe lous f orms ( Hof fstet ter a nd Gasc, 1 969) .
D ist inguished
f rom amph icoe lous d orsa ls o f C he lon ia b y w id th o f c en tru m g rea ter t han r a ther l ess t han o ne-ha lf t he l eng th . D iscussion : T he l i zard h u mer i men t ioned p reviously a re much t oo sma l l t o b e c onspeci f ic w i th t hese g ecko v er tebrae .
Ow ing t o t heir f ragmen tary n a ture ,
i th as n o t b een p ossib le t o g ive mean ingfu l measure men ts o ft hese h u mer i .
Bu t
c o mparison w i th a c o mp le te h u merus o f a modern s k ink ( Le io lop is ma i nfrap unc ta tus) t oge ther w i th a midshaf t o f ag ecko ( Hop lodacty lus d uvauce li ) i ndica tes h ow sma l l t he f ossi ls a re , p robab ly n o more t han h a lf t he l eng th o ft he modern s pecimens b efore b e ing b roken ( see F ig . 2 .3) .
The l argest d orsa l v er tebrae
a ssocia ted w i th t he modern g ecko h u merus f i gured h ere were o n ly s l igh t ly l arger t han t he Mir nio moko P ocke t d orsa l v er tebrae ( see F ig . 2 .4) .
Because
t he e p iphyses a re f used t o t he d iaphyses o nt he f ossi l h u mer i , t hey p resu mab ly b e longed t o a du l t i ndividua ls.
Therefore , a t M imio moko P ocke t , t here a re
g ecko v er tebrae t he s ize o f a modern s pecimen o f H . d uvauce li a nd h u mer i o f a much sma l ler a du l t l i zard .
Order ? cf . Ap terygi formes F ami ly ? cf . Ap terygidae Ma teria l :
?Lef t p ha lanx 1 , d igi t I I ( AV28667 ) ( see f i g . . 2 .5) .
Measuremen ts ( i n mi l l ime tres) :
L eng th ( max imu m ) , 1 4 .6 ; max i mu m
p rox ima l w id th , > 6 .6 ; max i mu m d ista l w id th , 4 .6 ; max imu m p rox i mal d ep th , >4 .9 ; d ep th , i n terna l c ondy le , 3 .8 ; d ep th , e x terna l c ondy le, 3 .9. D iagnosis:
F ir m i den ti f ica tion o ft h is s ing le p ha lanx i s f ar f ro m c er ta in ,
b u t a f ter c arefu l c o mpar isons a cross a b road r ange o f a vian f a mi lies, AV28667 was most c lose ly a l lied t o t he Ap teryg idae f or t he f o l low ing r easons: i n p roxima lv iew , p rox i ma l e nd o f p ha lanx h as c onvex s ides where b roadest p ar t o ccurs s o mewhere b etween d orsa l a nd v en tra l b orders, n ot a long e i ther d orsa l o r
v en tra l b order ;
i nv en tra l v iew , v en tra l s haf t s urface n o t g rooved ,
3 5
i n f act o ver most o f e x ten t c onvex v en tra l ly ; a rea f or a t tachmen t o f f l exor t endon o n v en tra l s ur face a t p rox ima l e nd b u lbous, p ro trud ing v en tra l ly w i th t wo s hor t , d ist inc t r idges e i ther s ide o f mid line p resen t ;
i nv en tra l v iew ,
p rox ima l b order o fp ha lanx V -shaped , w i th p rox ir aa lmost e x tension j ust a bou t a t medio la tera l midpo in t ; p ha lanx e xpanded a t b o th p rox ima l a nd d ista l e nds, w i th n arrower s haf t i n b e tween ;
e x terna l c ondy le e x tends s l igh t ly f ur ther d ista l
t han i n terna l c ondy le . D iscussion : S o me d i f ferences o f u nknown s ign if icance c an a lso b e s een b e tween AV28667 a nd p ha lanx 1 , d ig i t I I o ft he l i v ing k iw i Ap teryx a ustra l is: AV28667 h as a p ro m inence , p resumab ly f or t endona l o r l i gamen ta l a t tach men t , a long t he media l p ar t o ft he s haf t n ear t he p rox ima l e nd , wh ich A . a ustra lis ( N MV B 9127 ) d oes n o t p ossess :
AV28667 a lso f l ares more b road ly a t t he
p rox ima l e nd a nd h as a more n ear ly p ara l le l-sided s haf tb e tween d ista l a nd p rox ima l e nds; e xcava t ions o n t he media l a nd l a tera l s ides o ft he i n terna l a nd e x terna l c ondy les r espect ive ly a re d ecided ly s ha l lower i n AV28667 ;
a nd AV
2 8667 i s o n ly s l igh t ly g rea ter t han h a lf t he s ize o f A . a ustra lis ( where p ha lanx l eng th = 2 3 .2 m m f or NMV B 9127 ) . F ur ther c o mpar isons t o o ther k iwi s pecies ( L i . oweni , A . h aast i ) n eed b e made b efore a ny f i na l c o m men t o r a ssignmen t o ft h is s pecimen s hou ld b e a t te mp ted .
On t he b asis o f as ing le p ha lanx , h owever , a ny f i na l a ssignmen t
wou ld h ave t o b e t en ta t ive , e ven o nce t he a bove c o mparisons h ad b een made . O rder P roce llar i i for mes F a mi ly P roce llar i idae Ma ter ia l : ( AV28663 ) ;
Prox i ma l e nd o f r igh t u lna ( AV28662 ) ; d ista l e nd , r igh t u lna
d orsa l f ragmen t o f r igh t c oracoid ( AV28671) , i nc lud ing most o f
b one t o j ust v en tra l o f c oracoida l f enestra ; p rox ima l e nd o f r igh t t arso metat arsus w i th a n a braded h ypo tarsus ( AV28665) ( see F ig . 2 .5) . Measure men ts ( i n mi l l i me tres) :
U lnae .
AV28662
max imu m w id th a cross
c oty lae , 6 .2 ; max imu m d ep th a cross c o ty lae a nd o lecranon , 6 .3 ; max imum d ep th o f i n terna l c o ty la , 4 .5 ; maximu m d ep th o f e x terna l c o ty la , 3 .5.
AV28663
max imu m w id th o fd ista l e nd measured p ara l le l w i th a ppropr ia te s haf t s urface , 6 .6 ; max imu m w id th a cross c ondy les, 4 .1 ; d ep th o f i n terna l c ondy le , I, 3 .6 ; d ep th o f e x terna l c ondyle , > 4 .6 ; w id th o f s haf tj ust p rox ima l t o e xpansion f or d ista l a r t icu lar s urfaces, 4 .0 ; d ep th j ust p rox ima l t o e xpansion f or d i sta l a r t icu lar s urfaces, 2 .9 .
C oraco id .
AV28671 , l eng th f ro m p rox ima l most
e x tension t o p rocoracoid , 8 .1 ; maximu m w id th a cross p rocoracoid ,
>5 .2 ;
a n ter iorposterior d ep th o f c oracoida l s haf t a t d orsa l e nd , 4 .4 ; a n teroposterior d ep th o f c oracoida l s haf tj ust d orsa l t o e xpansion f or p rocoracoid , 3 .7 . T arso me t a tarsus . AV28665, max imu m w id th o f p rox ima l e nd , 4 .5 ; max imum d ep th o f i n terna l c a lcanea l r idge f ro m b ase o f i n terco ty lar p rocess, >4 .7 ; l eng th o f i n terna l c a lcanea l r idge @ ,4 .4 . D iagnosis a nd D iscussion :
B ecause o ft he i nco mp le teness o f t he t wo u lnae
o f p roce l lari forms p resen t i n t he Mimio moko s amp le , which migh t e ven b e o pposi te e nds o f t he s a me b one , a nd t he l ack o f c o mpara tive ma ter ia l o f P agod roma Pr ioce l la , Bu lwer ia among o thers, a ssignmen t o ft hese s pecimens ( AV28662 a nd AV28663) h as b een made o n ly t o f am i ly . Bo th u lnae r epresen t b irds t he s ize o fo r s l igh t ly l arger t han P uf f inus g av ia , t he F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter , whereas t he t arso me ta tarsus ( AV28665) i s f ro m a much sma l ler p roce ll ar id . The c oracoid f ragmen t ( AV28671) i s s l igh t ly smal ler t han , a l though 3 6
p erhaps w i th in t he s i ze r ange o f , P . g avia .
Thus a t l east t wo , p ossib ly t hree ,
t axa i n t he P roce l lar i idae a re p resen t i n t he Mi in io moko a vifauna . ULNAE.
T he t wo u lna f ragmen ts were p laced i n P roce llar iidae b ecause
t hey p ossessed t he f o l low ing c o mb ina t ion o f c haracter s ta tes : u lna n o t mediol a tera l ly c o mpressed , u n like t ha t i n P e lecanoid idae ;
s haf t t r iangu lar i n c ross-
s ect ion n ear p roxima l e nd ; o lecranon e longa te b u t p ro ject ing a ncona lly , n o t p rox ima l ly , a nd t r iangu lar i n s hape when v iewed p rox ima l ly , l oca ted o n ly s l igh t ly mediad o f medio la tera l midpoin t o f p rox ima l e nd ; p a l mar s urface o f s haf t n ear p rox ima l e nd w i th t wo modera te ly d eep c hanne ls, s epara ted b y a d ist inc t r idge ; c o ty lar s urfaces o r ien ted n ear ly p erpend icu lar t o p a l mar s urf ace o f s haf t , n o t a t a l l a pproach ing s ame p lane ; p rox ima l e nd o f s haf t ( v iewed p a l mar ly ) n o t e xpanded much t o a cco mmoda te a r t icu lar s urfaces, t hus n o t b road ly s p layed ;
s haf t n ear ly s traigh t , n o t h igh ly c urved i n a ny v iew ;
o n
d ista l e nd , p ro m inen t p rocess p resen t l a tera l t o t end ina l g roove , p resu mab ly f or f ur ther s tabi l iza tion o ft he t endon p assing a cross t his a rea ;
i n terna l a nd e x terna l
c ondy les n o t b road ly s epara ted f ro m o ne a no ther ; c arpa l t uberosi ty a n e longa te, p ro m inen t p rocess ; d ista l e nd o f s haf t s o mewha t p a l moancona l ly c o mpressed ( when v iewed d ista l ly ) ; i n l a tera l v iew , l i t t le e xpansion o ver s haf t w id th o ccurs a t d ista l e nd ; e x terna l c ondy le q u i te "s quared o f f " ,n o t r ounded , w i th a bou t a n e qua l, s l igh t amoun t o f e xpansion i n b o th p a l mar a nd a ncona l d irections ; t end ina l p i t d eep a nd l oca ted j ust d istad o f p rocess o n l a tera l s ide o f t end ina l p i t . CORACO ID .
A lthough o n ly a sma l l f ragmen t o f t he c oracoid ( AV28671)
was p reserved , i tc an b e a ssigned t o P roce llaridae b ecause o f t he f o l low ing c o mb ina t ion o f c haracter s ta tes:
s haf t o f c oracoid b etween p rocoracoid a nd
d orsa l e nd , when v iewed med ia lly , n o t d eep a n teroposterior ly a nd o f e qua l d ep th f ro m p rocoraco id t o h ead , n ot i ncreasing i n d i mensions i n e i ther d irect i on ; v en tra l b order o f c oracohu mera l s urface , a long which l i es b rachia l t uberosi ty , f orming s tra igh t l i ne t ha t i s t i l ted s l igh t ly p oster iorwards a nd n o t u ndercu t ; p rocoraco id we l l d eve loped , p o in t ing o n ly s l igh t ly d orsa l ly , b u t ma in ly media l ly , n o t p r imari ly d orsa l ly o r a n ter ior ly ; a nd V-shaped , n o t b road o r s quared-of f ;
p rocoracoid d e lica te
c oracoida l f enestra p resen t a nd
s epara ted f ro m , y e t c lose t o , media l marg in o f s haf t ; b rach ia l t uberosi ty n o t e longa te , p oin t ing p r imari ly med ia l ly ; p rocoracoid a nd b rachia l t uberosi ty e x tend ing a bou t a n e qua l d istance med iad ; d orsa l e nd o f c oracoid n o t n o t icea bly p neu ma t ized ;
a rea b e tween b rach ia l t uberosi ty a nd p rocoracoid b road ly
C -shaped w i th s epara t ion o ft wo s tructures w ide , n ei ther c lose ly a pposed , a nd f orm ing a n ear ly c losed-0 ; g lenoid f ace t d ecided ly more e x tensive i n a rea t han s capu lar f ace t , s emicircu lar i n s hape , w i th s tra igh t s ide b order ing media l marg in o f c oracoid ; g lenoid f ace t n o t p ro trud ing a brup t ly b eyond l a tera l marg in o f c oracoida l s haf t ; i n a n ter ior v iew , d orsa l e nd o f c oracoid n o t b u lbous, b u t o n ly s l igh t ly b roader t han s haf t t ha t o ccurs b e tween p rocoracoid a nd d orsa l e nd . O f a l l t he p roce l lar i id ma ter ia l a vai lab le f or c o mpar ison , t he c oracoid o f P terodro ma s eems most s i mi lar t o AV28671 . I ts hou ld b e n o ted a ga in , h owever , t ha t Pr ioce l la , P agodro ma , a nd B u lweria , a l l f orms n ow k nown i n t he New Z ea land r egion , were n o t a va i lab le f or c o mparison , s o a ny o f t he f o l low ing c o mmen ts may n eed t o b e r evised i n l i gh t o f f ur ther s tudy i nvo lving t hese g enera .
3 7
Wi th c oracoids o f P terodro ma , AV28671 s häres t he f o l low ing c haracter s ta tes: d ist inc t a nd p ro m inen t musc le s car p resen t a long media l b order o f c oracoida l s haf tj ust media l t o c oracoida l f enestra ;
i n media l v iew , d orsa l most p ro ject ion
o f c oracohu mera l s urface a t a n ter ior e nd a d ist inct b u lge w i th s urface t i l ted g en t ly v en trad t owards p oster ior e nd ;
i n s a me v iew , media l s urface o f s haf t
b etween c oracohu mera l s urface a nd p rocoracoid n o t d eep ly e xcava ted ;
v iewed
d orsa l ly , c oracohu mera l s urface c o mpact , b oxy , w i th media l a nd l a tera l marg ins p ara l le l , p oster ior marg in p erpendicu lar t o t hese , whi le a n terior marg in f orms a cu te a ng les a t i n tersect ion w i th med ia l a nd l a tera l marg ins ;
p oster ior
e nd o f c oracohu mera l s urface p ro trudes a s ad ist inct p rocess ; a bou t s ize o f P terodro ma mo l lis; s l igh t ly sma l ler , b u t p erhaps e ven w i th in t he s ize r ange o f P uf f inus g avia . TARSO METATA R SUS.
The t arso me ta tarsus f rag men t ( AV 2 8665) was
a ssigned t o P roce l lar i idae b ecause i tp ossessed t he f o l low ing c o mbina tion o f c haracter s ta tes : t hree c a lcanea l r idges p resen t , i n terna l l onger t han e x terna l t wo ;
s haf t d eep , w i th marked c hanne l l ing o n a n ter ior p ar t ;
c hanne l l ing p resen t
o n p oster ior s urface o f s haf t , b u t much s ha l lower t han t ha t o n a n ter ior ;
i n terna l
c a lcanea l r idge s e t a long i n terna l b order o f s haf t , n o t d isp laced t owards midl i ne o f s haf t ;
i n terco ty lar p ro minence p ro jecting f ar p roxima l o f c o ty lae ;
p rox i ma l e nd n o t p layed b road ly .
B ecause t he t arso me ta tarsus i s o n ly r epre-
s en ted b y t he p roxima l moie ty , a nd e ven t ha t i s r a ther worn , p ar ticu lar ly i n t he a rea o f t he h ypo tarsus, i ts ee ms r a ther p o in t le t t t o a t te mp t a ssign men to f t hi s f or m , wh ich i s a bou t t he s ize o f Ha lobaena c aeru lea ( bu t d ef in i te ly n o t t ha t t axon ) , t o a ny c a tegory more s pecif ic t han Proce l lar i idae . F a mi ly P e lecanoid idae P e lecanoides s p . Ma teria l : S terna ( AV28657 , AV28658 ) , f rag men ts o f a n ter ior p ar t i nclud ing c oracoida l s u lci a nd most o f t he a n terior marg in o ft he k ee l w i th r e ma inder o f e lemen t c o mp le te ly e roded ;
s capu lae , r igh t ( AV28651) a nd l ef t ( AV28652 ) ;
c oracoids , r igh t ( AV28646, AV28647 ) , b o th l ack ing s ternocoracoida l p rocesses ; h u mer i , r igh t ( AV28644, AV28645) ; ( AV28653) a nd l ef t ( AV28659) ; ( AV28649) ;
? rad ius, l ef t ( AV28661) ;
u lnae , r igh t
c arpo me tacarp i i , r igh t ( AV28648) a nd l ef t
f e mur , r igh t ( AV28664) , l ack ing p rox i ma l e nd b u t most o f s haf t
a nd d ista l e nd p resen t ;
? t ibio tarsus, r igh t ( AV28654) ; t arso meta tarsus, r igh t
( AV28650) ( see F ig . 2 .6) . Measure men ts ( i n mi l l i me tres) :
S ee T ab le 2 .1.
D iagnosis : t he f o l low ing d iagnosis i s a ppropria te a t b oth f am i lia l a nd g ener ic l eve l , b ecause P e lecanoides i s t he o n ly g enus i n t ha t f a mi ly . HUMERUS .
H ead p a l moancona l ly c o mpressed , n o t i n f la ted o r e ven
smoo th ly r ounded ( P ,H ) ;
1
h ead d eep ly u ndercu t i n t wo a reas t ha t a re s epara ted
b y ap oin ted p ro ject ion f ro m t he h ead i nstead o f h av ing a s ing le , l arge u nderc u t ( P ,H ) ; b icip i ta l c rest f or m ing a n a ng le a pproach ing 9 0° w i th i n terna l margin o f s haf t , r a ther t han a l arge , o btuse a ng le ( P ,H ) ;
d e l toid c rest n o t p ro minen t ,
l ow
( P ,H ) ; s haf t marked ly medio la tera l ly c o mpressed , p ar t icu lar ly n ear d ista l
1 .
P , P roce l lar i idae ;
HH ydroba tidae .
I n i t ia l g iven i n p aren theses a f ter a
c haracter i nd ica tes t hose f am i ly( ies) wh ich d i f fer (s) i n t ha t c haracter f ro m t he t axon b eing d iagnosed . 3 8
Tab le 2 . 1 Measure men ts ( i n mm ) o f Pe lecan .oides f ro m Mi mio moko Pocke t , n or th Can terbury , N .Z . a nd modern s pecies E le men t/Measure men t
F ossi l Ma teria l
Recen t Ma ter ia l
P . u rina tr ix CORACO ID 1 . 2 .
AV28646
L eng th
2 3 .7
AV28647 2 1.4
n
Range
n
2 2 .9-25. 8
1 4
5 .5-6. 2
' 1 4
5.2 -5. 8
3
6 .4-7 . 0
1 4
5 .9-6. 7
2
2 1. 2 -22 . 8 3
Wid th a cross p rocoracoid
S CAPULA 1 .
P . g eorgicus
Range
5 .5 AV28651
Width a cross h ead
HU MERUS
6 .3 AV28644
AV28652 6 .2 AV28645
1 .
To ta l l eng th
4 4.0
4 1.8
2 .
Prox i ma l w id th
8 .8
8 .7
9 .2 -11 . 8
1 6
8 .6-9. 3
3
3 .
D ista l w id th
4 .3
4 .2
4 .4-4. 8
1 6
4 . 1 -4. 6
3
AV28659
AV28653 3 3 . 8 -37 .1
1 6
ULNA 1 .
Tota l l eng th
3 4.5
3 5.0
4 1. 7 -45.6
1 6
3 8 .6-41. 7 3
2 9 . 2 -31. 8 3
2 .
Prox i ma l w id th
4 .0
4 .1
4 .0 -4. 5
1 6
3 .8 -4. 1
3
3 .
D ista l w id th
4 .8
5 .1
4 . 7 -5. 7
1 6
4 .3 -4. 6
3
CARPO METACARPUS
AV28648
AV28649
1 .
L eng th
2 .
Prox ima l w id th
2 4.7
2 4.1
2 3 . 7 -26.7
1 5
2 1.4-22 . 2 3
5 .5
5 .8
5 . 7 -6. 3
1 5
5 .5-5.6
3
( across c arpa l t roch leae t o me tac arpa l Ip rocess) TARS OMETATARS U S
AV28650
1 .
Tota l l eng th
2 4 .9-28 .8
1 3
2 1.9-23 .4
3
2 .
Prox ima l w id th
2 4.3 3 .8
4 .2-5.1
1 3
3 .9-4. 2
3
3 .
D ista l w id th
3 .7
4 .2-4. 8
1 3
3 . 7 -4. 1
3
4 .
Min i mu m s haf t w id th
1 .8
1 .7-2 .3
1 3
1 .4-1 . 8
3
3 9
end (P. H); viewed distally, distal end square, not rectangular in outline (P.H); brachia! depression shallow, not deep (P); development of attachment for pronator brevis slight (H); olecranal fossa deeply excavated, forming deep pit in distal end (F); 2 entepicondyle projects far ventrally (F). ULNA. Prominent process projecting dorsal to elecranon and lying between cotyla (P, H); entire bone markedly mediolaterally compressed, rather than being more gently rounded in cross-section (P,H); robust process projecting dorsodistally and lying lateral to tendinal groove (less well developed in most P,H). CARPOMETACARPUS. Process of metacarpal I elongate proximodistally but abbreviate dorsoventrally, giving a "snub-nosed" appearance (P,H); deep, elongate excavation present on internal surface of head just dorsal to attach ment for pisiform process (P,H); attachment of pisiform process not promin ent, only slightly indicated (prominent in most Pu); 3 lacking or with only slight development of indentation in dorsal margin of internal carpal trochlea (F); entire proximal end and shaft markedly compressed dorsoventrally (P,H). TARSOMETATARSIB. Intercotylar prominence not as well developed as that in most :Procellariidae; posterior surface of shaft planar and oriented at nearly right angle to lateral and medial shaft surfaces, not tiled otherwise or rounded (P); distal end does not flare much beyond nearly parallel medial and lateral margins of shaft (most P, although Daption approaches this condi tion); posterior surface between trochleae highly excavated (most P). STERNUM. Deep excavation present at base of manubrial spine (P,H); flange present along ventral margin of coracoidal sulcus at lateral edge (H); in ventral view, angle formed at manubrial spine by margins of two coracoidal sulci large, obtuse, approaching 180°, not 90° or less (meaning that ventral ends of coracoids articulating here are directed mediolaterally, rather than anteromedially-posterolaterally (P) ). CORACOID. Brachia! tuberosity not protruding far medially, and thus head of coracoid more in line with main shaft axis (P,:I); procoracoid not protruding far dorsally, and thus entire medial margin of shaft and head be tween brachia! tuberosity and procoracoid much less highly curved (P,H); coracoid much more slender and elongate than in Hydrobatidae, not flaring into broad sternocoracoidal process as far proximally as in Hydrobatidae, thus flaring only very near distal end, and producing a straight lateral margin over much of coracoidal length (H); width of sternal facet about equal to width across proximal end of bone at level of procoracoid, not decidedly more (H). 1
· SCAPULA. Proximal articular facet dumbell-shaped with slight expansions at both medial and lateral ends, rather than being broadest laterally (H) or having a marked medial constriction as well as a marked lateral expansion (Pu). Discussion: Although several bones (femur, tibiotarsus, and radius) other than those diagnosed above have been tentatively assigned to Pelecanoides, they have not been diagnosed due to incompleteness and thus some uncertainty of their identity. The single femur lacks a proximal end and thus is difficult to assign with any high certainty. As with most of the hind limb elements, the 1. F, Fulmarinae: see footnote 1 on previous page. Pu, Puffininae: see footnote 1 on previous page. 3. 40
t i bio tarsus i s r a ther g enera lized a nd a ssigned t o t he P e lecanoididae p r i mari ly o n t he b asis o f s ize a nd p ropor t ions, a most u nsa tisfactory b asis. A ssign men t o f t he P e lecanoides f ro m Mimio moko P ocke t t o a ny o ne o ft he l i ving s pecies, b ased o n t he modern s amp les a va i lab le i n t his s tudy i s p robl e ma t ica l .
Three o ft he l i v ing s pecies l i sted i n P e ters ( 1931) were u navai lable
f or c o mpar ison .
N o c onsisten t q ua li ta t ive d i f ferences c an b e f ound t o a l low
d ist inct ion o ft he t wo modern New Z ea land s pecies f ro m o ne a no ther o r t he Mi m io moko f or m (s) .
Based o n al imi ted modern s a mp le , P e lecanoides u r ina-
t r ix a nd P . g eorg icus c an b e d ist inguished i n many c ases o n t he b asis o f s ize , P . g eorgicus b eing c onsisten t ly sma l ler .
F or s o me b ony e le men ts t here i s
o ver lap i n s ize , where o n ly s peci mens o n e i ther e x tre me c an b e c onf iden t ly a ssigned t o o ne o r t he o ther s pecies ( see Tab le 2 .1) . A s Tab le 2 .1 i lustra tes, t he Mimio moko P e lecanoides d o n o t c onsisten t ly f i t i n to e i ther s pecies.
Cer-
t a in measure men ts f a l l o n ly w i th in t he r ange o f P . u r ina tr ix ( coracoida l l ength , u lnar l eng th , u lnar d ista l a nd p roxi ma l w id ths, c arpo me tacarpa l l eng th) . O ther measure men ts f a l l o n ly w i thin t he r ange o f P . g eorg icus ( scapu lar w id th , p rox ima l a nd d ista l h u mera l w id ths, d ista l t arso me ta tarsa l w id th ) .
Yet s o me
measure men ts f a l l w i th in t he r ange o f o ver lap o f P . g eorg icus a nd P . u r ina tr ix ( w id th a cross p rocoracoid , h u mera l l eng th , p rox ima l u lnar w id th , p rox i ma l c arpo metacarpa l w id th , min imu m t arso me ta tarsa l s haf t w id th) .
One measure-
men t ( t arso me ta tarsa l l eng th ) l i es i n ter media te b e tween t hose o f t he t wo e x tan t s pecies, a nd a nother ( prox i ma l t arso me tatarsa l w id th ) i s sma l ler t han measuremen ts o fb o th s pecies. Measure men ts t ha t a re o n ly i n t he r ange o f t he l arger P e lecanoides u r ina tr ix t end t o b e t he l eng th measure men ts o fb ones, whereas w id th measure men ts t end t o more c lose ly a pprox i ma te P . g eorgicus, t hus, p erhaps s uggest ing t he p resence o f at h ird s pecies w i th more s lender e le men ts, b u t t end ing t o b e a bou t t he s a me o vera l l s ize a s P . u r ina tr ix .
Perhaps, h owever , i f modern s a mp les were
l arger , t he Mimio moko f orm wou ld s imp ly r eside i n t ha t i n termed ia te "n o- man ' s l and" where P . u r ina tr ix a nd P . g eorg icus c anno t b e d ist inguished .
F or t he
mo men t , t hen , t he Mi mio moko ma ter ia l w i l l b e a ssigned o n ly t o P e lecanoides s p .
F a mi ly Ra l lidae G a l lira l lus c f . minor ( ? =a ustra lis) Ma ter ia l :
L ef t c arpo me tacarpus ( AV28672 ) ;
l ef t r adius ( AV28656) ;
l ef t
p rox ima l a nd d ista l f rag men ts o f u lna ( AV28660 a nd AV28655) ( See F ig . 2 .7 ). Measure men ts ( i n mi l lime tres) :
Carpo me tacarpus.
T ota l l eng th , 2 8 .6 ; w id th o f p rox ima l e nd , 3 .9 ;
maximu m p a l moancona l d ep th o f p rox i ma l e nd , 2 .3 ; 1 .2 .
U lnae F rag men ts.
4 .1.
D ista l e nd , max i mu m w id th , 4 .4 ; D iagnosis:
S ee T ab le 2 .2 .
min imu m s haf t w id th ,
Prox ima l e nd , max i mu m w id th , 4 .4 ;
CARPO METACARPUS.
R adius
w id th o f d ista l e nd , 3 .4 ; max i mu m d ep th
maxi mu m d ep th , 4 .1. P laced i n t he Ra l lidae b ecause o f
t he f o l low ing c o mb ina t ion o f c haracter s ta tes: marked ly f ur ther p rox i ma l t han t he o thers;
n ei ther t roch lea e x tend ing
t roch leae n o t c o mpressed p rox i-
modista l ly w i th r espect t o d ep th o f p rox i ma l e nd ( =d istance a cross i n terna l c ondy le a nd p rocess o f me tacarpa l I ) ;
d eep p i t p resen t b e tween a nd a t d ista l
4 1
1 1 1 11 11 11 1 M11 1111 1 11111
F ig. 2 .7
Carpo metacarp i o f f ossi l Ra l l idae f ro m t he N ew Z ealand r eg ion . A , D iaphorap teryx h awk insi , AV6711; B , Ga l l iral lus c f . minor , AV28672, f ro m Mi m io moko Pocket ; a nd C , Capel l ira l lus k ara m AV20615.
S cale, e ach d iv ision e quals 1 m m .
! IL
F ig. 2 .8
P asser ifor m b irds f ro m Mi m io moko P ock et : A , U lna ( d istal ) , AV28669. D ista l t i b iotars i : B , AV28668 ; a nd C , AV28670. S ca le , e ach d iv ision e qua ls 1 m m.
b ases o f e x terna l a nd i n terna l t roch leae , j ust p rox i ma l t o where me tacarpa l I I j o ins r emainder o fb one ; me tacarpa l I I o r ig ina t ing p rox ima l ly p r imari ly o f f me tacarpa l I r a ther t han f ro m b ase o f c arpa l t roch leae ;
p rocess o f me ta-
c arpa l Ib road ( or e longa te) p rox imodista l ly, n o t n arrow a nd n o t t remendously e longa te ;
l i g men ta l a t tach men t o f p isi form p rocess s e t b ack t owards me ta-
c arpa l I I , n o t s e t t owards b ase o f metacarpa l Ip rocess; i n terme tacarpa l t uberosi ty t ha t i n s o me a v ian g roups a pproaches o r j oins me tacarpa l I I l ack ing ; i n c ross-sect ion , me tacarpa l Ih as r ounded o u t l ines, n o t a ngu lar ; f ace t f or d ig i t Ie x tend ing f ur ther d istad t han t ha t f or d igi t I I ; me tacarpa l I I c lose ly o pposed t o me tacarpa l I , n o t b road ly b owed away f ro m i t , t hus mak ing t he i n terme tacarpa l s pace r e la t ive ly n arrow ; me tacarpa ls I a nd I I f used d ista l ly o ver b road a rea ( e longa te p rox imodista l ly) . RAD IUS . a cter s ta tes :
C onsidered r a l l id b ecause o ft he f o l low ing c o mbina t ion o f c hari n p rox ima l v iew , s hape o f h u mera l c o ty la r ectangu lar ;
c o mpressed p a l moancona l ly , n o t medio la tera l ly ; t r iangu lar i n s hape .
c oty la
sma l l c api ta l p rocess p resen t ,
B icip i ta l t uberc le l oca ted v ery n ear p rox ima l e nd ,
merg ing d irect ly i n to i t , n o t d isp laced d ista l ly ; d ista l e nd s l igh t ly , n o t b road ly s p layed ; s p lay ing , a l though s l igh t , b eg inn ing n ear p rox imodista l midpoin t o f s haf t s o t ha t s haf t n o t p ara lle l-sided o ver d ista l h a lf ; c urved p a l mar ly ;
d ista l e nd n o t h igh ly
i n p a l mar v iew , d ista l e nd n o t d eep ly u ndercu t , d ista l marg in
o f r adius r ounded ( curved) , n o t s tra igh t ;
i n d ista l v iew , s capho lunar f ace t n o t
e x treme ly s lender p a l moancona l ly , p ar ticu lar ly i n f la ted o n s ide o f l i ga men ta l p rominence , whi le e i ther s ide t apers t o ap o in t ; c ona l ly a bou t e qua l ;
e xpansion p a l mar ly a nd a n-
s haf t o f r ad ius r a ther r ounded , n ot h igh ly c o mpressed ;
s haf t s hor t a nd s tra igh t , n o t s ign if ican t ly c urved i n a ny d irection . ULNAE .
A ssigned t o t he R a l lidae b ecause o ft he f o l low ing c o mb ina tion o f
c haracter s ta tes:
Prox ima l e nd .
O lecranon a b road-based , t r iangu lar p rocess,
n o tn arrow ; i n p rox ima l v iew , p rox i ma l e nd t riangu lar i n s hape ; e x terna l c o ty la n o t p ro ject ing a brup t ly l a terad , marg ins n ear ly , i fn o t e n t ire ly , s tra igh t , n o t i rregu lar i n o u t line ;
e x terna l a nd i n terna l c o ty la e x tend ing a bou t s a me
d istance p a l mar ly , o ne n o t p ro jec t ing d ecided ly f urther t han t he o ther ; n o p rox ima l ly p ro ject ing p rocesses p resen t o n p rox ima l e nd , p a l mar t o o lecranon ; i n l a tera l v iew , e x terna l c o ty la h igh ly r ecurved p roxima l ly , g iv ing h ooklike a ppearance t o c o ty lar marg in ; i np a l mar v iew , p rox ima l a r t icu lar s urface s o mewha t u ndercu t , s haf t n ot g radua l ly merg ing i n to p roxima l e nd ; p ro minence f or a n ter ior a r ticu lar l i ga men t n o t we l l d eve loped ; p rox ima l e nd o f s haf t s ign if ican t ly medio la tera l ly c o mpressed .
D ista l e nd .
C arpa l t uberosi ty l ow a nd
r ounded, n o t s lender a nd p ro m inen t , n o t f or m ing n arrow p rocess t ha t p ro jects d ista l ly ; d ista l p art o f s haf t c o mpressed s o mewha t medio la tera l ly ; e x terna l c ondy le s hor t p rox imodista l ly a nd l ack ing a ny p rocesses o n l a tera l s ide ; i n l a tera l v iew , e x terna l c ondy le smoo th ly r ounded , n o t f l a t tened d ista l ly ;
d is-
t i nct t end ina l p i t p resen t o n p a lmar e dge o f e x terna l c ondy le ; n o marked e xcav a t ions p resen t o n p a l mar s ur face o f s haf t a t p rox ima l b ase o f i n terna l c ondy le ; i n d ista l v iew , d ista l e nd t riangu lar i n s hape , g radua l ly d iverg ing f ro m a c arpa l t uberosi ty a pex , l ack ing i rregu lar o u t lines o r a brup t c hanges i n d irect i ons o ft he marg ins;
i n d ista l v iew , g roove b etween i n terna l a nd e x terna l
c ondy les, p ar t icu lar ly o n a ncona l s urface , n o t d eep .
4 3
D iscussion :
When c o mpared w i th b ones o f o ther r ai ls, b o th f ossi l a nd
r ecen t , f ro m N ew Z ea land a nd n earby i s lands, AV28672 a ppears t o most c lose ly a pproach t he morpho logy o f Ga l lira l lus.
The Mi mio moko c arpo me ta-
c arpus i s as hor t , r obust e le men t ( see T ab le 2 .2 ) w i th a n e n larged p rox ima l . e nd r e la t ive t o t he r e ma inder o f t he b one . T his c o mbina tion o f c haracters r u les o u t i nc lusion o f t h is f or m i n P orphyr io ( L . p orphyr io ) , Ra llus ( R . p ectora l li s, p h i l ippensis) , P orzana ( P . p usi l la , P . t abuensis) , G a l linu la ( G . t enebrosa , G . c h loropus) , F u lica ( F . a tra , F . c ha tha mensi s [ -Nesopha laris p r isca ]) , T r ib onyx v en tra lis, a nd p robab ly T . h odgen i ( na mes o f r ai ls o f N ew Z ea land f o l low O lson , 1 975) .
On t he o ther h and , t he Mimio moko c arpo me tacarpus i s
n o t n ear ly s o r obust a s i s t ha t o f D iaphorap teryx h awk insi s ligh t ly more e longa te .
wh ich i s o n ly
The Mi m io moko b one i s t w ice t he s i ze o f Cape l lira l lus
k ara mu a nd f ur ther d i f fers i n h aving a more a ngu lar o u t l ine o f t he i n terna l c arpa l t roch lea , n o t b e ing smoo th ly c urved o ver much o f i t s c ircu mference , h av ing a much more p ro m inen t p rox ima l me tacarpa l Ip rocess, a nd h av ing me tacarpa l I I o r igina te o f ft he s haf t o f me tacarpa l I r a ther t han smooth ly g rading i n to t he b ase o ft he c arpa l t roch leae .
I td if fers f ro m N o tornis man te l li
i n b eing l ess t han h a lf t he s ize, i n t ha t t he p rox i ma l e nd o f t he M imio moko b one i s much l ess d orsoven tra l ly c o mpressed , a nd i n t ha t t he p isi for rn p rocess i s much more p ro minen t .
A l though a pprox ima te ly t he s a me s ize, t he M imio-
moko Ga l lira l lus d if fers f ro m t he C ha tha m I s land G . ( = -N esol i mnas) d ief fanbachi i i n t ha t me tacarpa l I I o r ig ina tes p rox ima l ly o f f me tacarpa l I a nd n o t o f ft he b ase o ft he c arpa l t roch leae a nd i s t hus r e la t ive ly s hor ter ; more r obust ;
me tacarpa l I i s
t he c arpa l t roch leae a ppear t o b e more e n larged r e la t ive t o t he
r est o ft he b one ; s ed .
a nd t he f ace t f or d igi t I i s much more d orsoven tra l ly c o mpres-
I n a l l t he a bove- men tioned c haracters, t he c arpo me tacarp i i o f Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis a nd t ha t f ro m Mimio moko P ocke t a re i den tica l .
The o n ly d i f ferences
b e tween t he t wo t ha t c an b e n o ticed a re : AV28672 i s s o mewha t sma l ler t han a ny o ft he G . a ustra lis i n o ur measured s a mp le , a nd t he l ong a xis o f t he me tac arpa l Ip rocess o f AV28672 i s n o t s h if ted a s f ar p roxima l ly a s i n most G . a ustra l is . B ecause o ft he modi f ica tions o ft he f ore l imb a ssocia ted w i th l oss o f f l igh t s o c o m mon i n r ai ls, b ones o f t he w ing a re o f l imi ted u se i n d e ter min ing r e lat i onships w i th in many o f t he Ra l lidae .
C er ta in ly t he r a l lid c arpo metacarpus
a nd r ad ius f ro m Mimio moko P ocke t i nd ica tes a b ird o f a t l east r educed f l ying a bi li ty .
T he c arpo me tacarpus s hows t he g rea test n u mber o f s i mi lar i ties t o
G a l lira l lus a ustra lis, b u t i s sma l ler t han a ny we h ave b een a ble t o measure ( see Tab le 2 .2) .
P erhaps i f Ga l lira l lus minor i s i ndeed d istinct f ro m G . a us-
t ra lis ( see O lson , 1 975, f or a d iscussion o ft h is p roble m) , t he M imio moko r a l lid b e longs i n t he f or mer s pecies.
T his q uest ion , a s O lson ( 1975) p o in ts
o u t , i s y e t t o b e r eso lved , h owever .
T hus , f or t he p resen t , u n ti l more c o m-
p rehensive work i s c arr ied o u to n N ew Z ea land f ossi l r ai ls, a ssign men t o f t he Mimio moko r ai l materia l w i l l t en ta t ive ly b e made t o Ga l lira l lus c f . minor . Order P asseri formes Ma ter ia l : D ista l e nd o f l ef t u lna ( AV28666) ; t wo d ista l e nds o f r igh t t ibio t arsi ( AV28669 , AV28670 ) ;
d ista l e nd o f l ef t t i biotarsus ( AV28668 ) ( see F ig .
2 .8 ) . 4 4
C q • 1 ‘ ,1 C q C . 0
0 7 : 1 ; • 1
s r I • , , , 4 . . )
• • I • C O C q I . e I • L . r ) C q
4 5 0 0
LC
▪ • c 3 )
r-1
• c : n e n
C D
0 f 2 4
C Z •
C 2 _ ) C . 0 el
C D
In ' C I '
• C D el
s ri
t s -
( 3 )
e
• C O C Z
CZ • C n
•
NMV W6813) ( 1 )
C4
C \ 1•
No tornis man te l li
e l C D I C \ I .
2 5.8-27 .9
0 0
0 0
G a l lira l lus a ustra lis
C ' D . C Y ;
( N MV W6821)( 1 )
1 1
Ga l linu la t enebrosa
Wid th a cross d ista l
Ca rpo me tac ar p i
C \ 1
•
F u lica c ha tha mensis
Measure men ts o f
a nd e x tan t o r f ossi l r a i ls
C e J
xh awk insi
Measure men ts
C . )
C V • C ' D
C 5 3
C '
t -
A
er
•
c o
C . )
C Y 3
C ` I •
• •4
C 7 3
c l
C O
G O
• r • 1
C l
C l
C . Z 7 t,
L -
C Z
Tab le 2 .2 ( con td .)
C Z C Z.
I r j
C l )
•m • I . • • • • ••
C . 0 C C ) C I D
C t ; 4 0 C . )
4 6
0 0.
Measure men ts: S ee Tab le 2 .3 . D iagnos is: T he f o l low ing d iagnoses a re a ppropr ia te o n ly t o t he o rd ina l l eve l .
More r ef ined d iagnoses w ere n o t a t temp ted ow ing t o l ack o f a vai labi li ty
o f ac omp le te s ui te o f s ke leta l ma ter ia l o f New Z ea land p asseri for m f am i l ies. The c omb ina t ion o f c haracter s ta tes, a nd n o t n ecessari ly a ny s ing le c haracter , i s d iagnost ic . ULNA . k nobs ;
Sma ll s ize ; p api l lae o f s econdaries we l l d eve loped a s p ro m imen t
c arpa l t uberosi ty s lender , c o ming t o ap oin t i n terna l ly , n o t s quared
o f f a s i n A lcedin idae o r b u lky a s i n C ucu lidae , a nd n o t p ro ject ing p rimari ly d ista l ly a s i n T urn icidae ; d ista l r adia l i mpression d eep ; s haf t n ear d ista l e nd s tra igh t , l ack ing a ny c urva ture b etween i ta nd d ista l e nd ; i n d ista l v iew , d ista l a r t icu lar s urface n ei ther e x tre me ly d eep n or medio la tera l ly c o mpressed ; l a tera l t o e x terna l c ondy le l i es s hor t f l ange p roducing d eep c hanne l b etween i t a nd e x terna l c ondy le f or p assage o f t endon . T IB IOTARSI .
Sma l l s ize ; c ondy les d eep a nd o f s ubequa l d ep th a nd l eng th ;
i n l a tera l a nd med ia l v iews, marg ins o f c ondy les d escr ib ing a h a lf c irc le ;
c on-
d y les s ubpara l le l t o l ong a xis o f s haf t , n o t a ng led , a nd n o t d isp laced t o o ne s ide o f s haf t ; i n d ista l v iew , c ondy les n ear ly s ubpara lle l, o n ly s l igh t ly d iverg ing a n ter ior ly ; c ondy les p ro ject ing f ar a n terior t o s haf tb u t o n ly s l igh t ly p osterior ; s upra tend ina l b r idge " broad" p rox imodista l ly ( e longa te ) , l y ing n ear ly , i fn ot , p erpend icu lar t o l ong a xis o f s haf t ;
i n tercondy lar f ossa we l l e xcava ted b u t
r aised a rea p resen t c onnect ing p roxima l e nds o f c ondy les o n a n ter ior s ur face ; d ista l o pen ing o ft end ina l c ana l l oca ted c en tra l ly , n o t n o ticeab ly l a tera l ly o r med ia l ly d isp laced , o pen ing j ust p rox ima l t o b ar c onnect ing c ondy les. D iscussion : A s many a s t hree d i f feren t k inds o f p asser i forms may b e r ep resen ted b y t he 3t i biotarsi , b u t much b et ter c o mpara tive ma teria l i s n eeded t o a scer ta in t ha t t hose f ew d i f ferences n oted c anno t b e ma tched b y v ariabi li ty w i th in o ne s pecies. AV28668 h as a more s lender s haf t a nd i s t he sma l lest o f t he t hree t i bio tarsi ; t he l ong a xes o ft he d ista l c ondy les a re t w isted a t as l igh t a ng le l a terad o ft he l ong a xis o ft he s haf t , t hus n o t l y ing p ara l le l w i th i t ;
i tt hus
d i f fers f ro m AV28670 w i th wh ich i ts hares a b road ( prox imodista lly ) s upra tend ina l b ridge . AV28670 a nd AV28669 , a l though v ery s i mi lar i n s ize , d i f fer i n t ha t AV28670 h as a v ery b road s upra tendina l b r idge whi le AV28669 h as a much n arrower o ne . Addi t iona l ly , t he t endina l c ana l i s c en tra l ly l oca ted i n AV28669 b u t d isp laced l a tera l ly i n AV28670 . I n s ize AV28668 i s c o mparable t o t ha t o f Z osterops l a tera ls ( t he S i lvereye) , wh i le AV28669 a nd AV28670 a re s o mewha t l arger . The u lna ( AV28666) , o n t he c on trary , i s marked ly sma l ler t han t ha t o f Z . l a tera ls.
Thus, u n less l imb
p ropor t ions o f t he f ossi l f orm a re d ist inct ly d i f feren t t han t hose e xh ibi ted b y Z . l a tera l is ( and t hey we l l c ou ld b e) , a s many a s 3o r 4d i f feren t s pecies o f p asseri forms c ou ld b e r epresen ted i n t he Mim io moko s amp le . B ias o f M imio moko S amp le The s amp le o fb ones f ro m M imio moko P ocke t b y n o means r epresen ts a l l , o r e ven n ear ly a l l , e le men ts p resen t i n av er tebra te s ke le ton .
T o d e monstra te
t his, Tab le 2 .4 i s at abu la t ion o ft he t etrapod s amp le b y ma jor c a tegor ies o f e le men ts.
Ow ing t o t he sma l l s amp le s ize, o n ly b road g roup ings o f e le men ts
were t abu la ted .
Many e le men ts u sed i n t h is t abu la tion were t oo f rag men tary 4 7
Tab le 2 .3 Measure men ts ( i n mm ) o f Passeri for mes f ro m M i mio moko Pocke t , n or th Can terbury , N ew Z ea land ULNA 1 .
AV28666 Wid th a cross 1 .6
c ondy les 2 .
Dep th o f e x terna l c ondy le
3 .
1 .2
Wid th o f s haf t a t b ase o f e x terna l c ondy le
T IB IOTARSUS 1 .
0 .8 AV28668
AV28669
AV28670
Wid th a cross d ista l e nd o f c ondy les
2 .
2 .4
Dep th o f i n terna l c ondy le
3 .
@1 .9
@2 .3
Dep th o f e x terna l c ondy le
4 .
>2 .3
L eng th o f i n terna l c ondy le
5 .
>2 .2
1 .7
L eng th o f e x terna l c ondy le
2 .0
1 .9
Tab le 2 .4 Te trapod E le men ts Represen ted a t Mi miomoko Pocke t S ku l l a nd R ib
Mand ible
L i mb Ver tebrae
G ird les
L imbs
Pha l2nges
Rep ti lia N u mber
3
4
%o f r ep ti les
4 .7
6 .3
Nu mber
0
1
%o fb irds
0
1 .3
7
4
2 1
2 5
6 .3
3 2 .8
3 9 ,1
6
1 6
2 8
2 9
7 .5
2 0 .0
3 5 .0
3 6 .2
1 0 .9
B ird
4 8
t o b e i den t i f ied more p recise ly o ther t han a s b ird o r r ep ti le , h ence t he d iscrep ancy b e tween t he n u mber o f s pec i mens l i sted i n t he s yste ma tics s ect ion a nd e nu mera ted h ere . O ft he 1 99 b ones o r b one f ragmen ts i nt he t e trapod s a mp le , 5 5 c ou ld n o t b e i den ti f ied t o e i ther C lass o r e le men t . P erusa l o f Tab le 2 .4 r evea ls a marked b ias t owards r od-shaped o ver s pher ica l o r d isc-shaped e le men ts. This i ss tr ik ing ly e viden t i n t he c ase o f t he l imb g ird le e le men ts.
Among t he r ep ti les, t hese e lemen ts a re p r imari ly
d isc-shaped a nd o ccur i n frequen t ly i n t he s a mp le .
B y c on trast , b irds h ave
many r od-shape/ . l l imb g ird le e lemen ts s uch a s t he c lavic le, s capu la , a nd c oracoid a nd t hese o ccur t hree t imes a s f requen t ly a s i nt he r ep ti l ian c ase . S uch p ost- mor te m s or t ing o n t he b asis o f s hape was most l i ke ly ow ing t o mechan ica l a ct ion b y e i ther f l ow ing wa ter o r w ind . C onclusions Excep t f or t he p oss ible p resence o f ak iw i , t he t e trapod s amp le f ro m Mim iomoko P ocke t c ou ld b e d up lica ted o n S tephens I s land i n C ook S trai t , N ew Z ea land , t oday .
B efore t he d rast ic a l tera t ion o f t he main land New Z ea land
f auna b y t he e xo tic r oden ts a nd c arn ivores i n troduced b y man , t his s ame s ui te o ccurred t here a s we l l . The s amp le a ppears t o r epresen t a n a ccu mu la t ion i n as ha l low c ave o r b urrow . T he b est r epresen ted t axa i n t he s a mp le a re t he v ery o nes t o b e e xp ected i nb urrows where t he t ua tara a nd s eabirds l i ve a longside o ne a nother a t t he p resen t t ime .
B e tween t he d ea th o ft he t e trapods a nd t heir f i na l b ur ia l ,
e i ther w ind o r f l ow ing wa ter b rough t a bou t mechan ica l s or t ing o f t he b ones s o t ha t r od-shaped e lemen ts were p referen tia l ly p reserved o ver s pherica l o r d isc-shaped o nes. Tua tara h ad d isappeared f ro m ma in land N ew Z ea land b y 2 00 y ears a go . Wi th t his i n mind t oge ther w i th t he f act t ha t n one o ft he t e trapods i n troduced b y man a re r epresen ted i n t he c o l lection f ro m Mimio moko P ocke t , i ti s l i ke ly t o b e s ti l l o lder , p ossib ly more t han o ne t housand y ears. T he h igh c oncen trat i on o f c o l lagen i n t he b ones a rgues a ga inst a s igni f ican t ly g rea ter a ge t han t ha t . Mimio moko P ocke t was o r ig ina l ly b e l ieved t o b e c o mformable w i th in t he M iocene D oub le C orner S he l l-beds. Pr imar i ly t he p resence o f a n u nexpected ly l arge c oncen tra tion o f c ol lagen i nt he t e trapod b ones makes t his i n terpre ta t ion n ow u naccep tab le .
Wi thou t t ha t c ri tica l p iece o f e vidence , t he s i te wou ld s t i l l
b e r egarded a s M iocene .
U nfor tuna te ly , t he t e trapods t he mse lves a s y et d o
n o t p rovide a s afeguard t o p reven t as i mi lar e rror i n t he f u ture . Wi thou t s o me we l l d a ted p re-P le istocene f ossi l t e trapod a ssemb lages a s s tandards f or c o mp ar ison , i ti s u nreasonab le t o r u le o u t ap re-P le istocene a ge f or a modernl ook ing s ui te o ft errestr ia l v er tebra tes. Sma l l t e trapods i n N ew Z ea land may h ave b een a l l ied w i th l i v ing g enera b y t he Miocene o r e ven e ar l ier i n t he Ter tia ry . Modern g enera o fb irds a nd r ep ti les e lsewhere i n t he wor ld f requen t ly h ave r ecords e x tend ing we l l b ack i n to t he Ter t iary , q u i te i n c on trast t o t he mam ma ls where o n ly a f ew l i ving g enera a re k nown b efore t he P liocene .
4 9
Af terward T he o r ig ina l i mpe tus f or t wo o fu s ( TR & PR ) t o work o n t his p ro ject was t he p ossibi li ty t ha t i tr epresen ted t he f i rst p re-P liocene t errestr ia l v er tebra te f auna i n N ew Z ea land .
N ew Z ea land h as au n ique p o ten tia l t o t est t he i deas o f
MacAr thur a nd Wi lson ( 1 . 967 ) o n t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween i s land a rea a nd f auna l d iversi ty o ver a n e x tended p er iod o fg eo log ic t ime.
The a l most c on t inuous
r ecord t here o ft errestr ia l s ed i men ts f rom t he C re taceous t o t he H olocene h as t he p o ten t ia l f or y ie ld ing t e trapod r e ma ins ( R ich , 1 975 ) . T he l imi ted d iversi ty o ft he N ew Z ea land t e trapod f auna i s ow ing i n p ar t , n o d oub t , t o i t s l ong i so la t ion f ro m o ther l and masses s ince t he C retaceous ( Gr if f i ths a nd Varne , 1 972 ) .
However , as econd f actor c ou ld h ave h ad a l ong
t er m e f fec t o n t he d iversi ty o ft he f auna . D ur ing t he L andon ( O l igocene ) , a w idespread mar ine t ransgression o ccurred t ha t p robab ly r educed N ew Z ea land t o a n a rch ipe lago o f l ess t han o ne-th ird i t s p resen t a rea ( S tevens, 1 973 ) . I nd irec t e vidence o f ad ecrease i n d iversi ty a t t h is t ime i s f urnished b y t he marked t urnover i n t he N ew Z ea land f l ora d ur ing t he O ligocene ( F le m ing , 1 963) . I n l i gh t o ft h is "A t lan tis F actor" i n N ew Z ea land ' sh istory , b eyond a ssum ing t ha t t he h igh ly e nde mic g roups were p resen t , o n ly t he d iscovery o f p re-transgression f ossi l a sse mb lages w i l l p rovide a n a dequa te b asis f or a c haracter isa t ion o ft he t e trapod f auna t here p r ior t o t he O l igocene . Acknow ledge men ts Many p ersons a nd i nsti tu tions a ssisted i nv arious p hases o ft his p ro jec t . S ir C har les F leming , N ew Z ea land G eo log ica l S urvey , L ower H u t t g ave h is u nst in t ing s uppor t t hrough a l l p hases o ft h is p ro ject , s upp ly ing much u sefu l a dv ice , t echn ica l a ssistance a nd c o mpara t ive ma ter ia ls. C o mpara t ive ma ter ia ls was a lso s upp l ied b y Dr . I an Crook , New Z ea land Wi ld li fe S erv ice , We l l ing ton ; Mr . A lan McEvey , Na tiona l Museu m o f V ictoria , Me lbourne ; Dr . J erry Van T ets, Wi ld li fe R esearch , C .S.I .R .O . C anberra ; E co logy D iv ision , D .S .I .R ., L ower Hut t .
a nd Dr . An thony H . Wh i taker ,
T echn ica l a ssistance was p rovided b y s evera l p ersons i den ti f ied i n t he a ppropr ia te p laces o ft he t ex t . To t he m w e w ish t o e xpress o ur t hanks. Dr . R oger Duf f , D irector o ft he Can terbury Museum , Chr istchurch , made a va i lab le t he f aci li t ies o ft he i nst i tu t ion , a nd many me mbers o ft he s taf fp rov ided many n eeded s ervices, which g rea t ly f aci li ta ted t he work . Mr . a nd Mrs. A l lister S chroeder a nd f a mi ly , Amber ley , were most g racious h osts d ur ing t he t ime when t he c o l lections were made, p ermi t t ing t he u se o f t heir mote l f or t he s o mewha t u nusua l d e mands o f p rocessing o ft he ma tr ix s amp les a s we l l a s a ssist ing i n t he f i e ldwork . T he f i e ldwork r e la ted t o t his p ro ject was s uppor ted b y ag ran t n o . 1 276 f ro m t he Na t iona l G eograph ic S ocie ty . S ubsequen t s tudy was c arr ied o u t i n p ar t u nder t he a usp ices o ft he Austra lian-A mer ican Educa t iona l F ounda tion a nd t he M . A . I ngra m Trust . ' Mr . R ober t S uddar th , G eosciences Depart men t , T exas Tech U n iversi ty , d raf ted F ig . 2 .2 . Mrs. Mary L ee V ickers a nd Miss K aye lene Voege s ki l lfu lly t yped t he manuscrip t . 5 0
B IBL IOGRAPHY
B erggren , W. A . 1 972 .
A C enozoic t ime-sca le -so me i mp lica t ions f or
r egiona l g eo logy a nd p a leob iogeography . B ro i li , F . 1 925.
L e tha ia 5 :195-215 .
Beobach tungen a n d er Ga ttung Ho moeosaurus H . v . Meyer .
S i tz.-Ber . b ayer . Akad . Wiss. 1 925, Hef t 2 :81-121 . C rook , I . G . 1 975.
The Tua tara .
E co logy i n New Z ea land . Endo , R . 1 940 .
I n :
G . K usche l, ( ed .) B iogeography a nd
W. J unk , The Hague .
3 31-352 .
An ew g enus o f T hecodon t ia f ro m t he L ycop tera B eds i n
Manchoukuo .
Bu l l . Cen t . Na t . Mus. Manchoukuo 2 :1-14.
F le ming , C . A . 1 963 .
Pa leon to logy a nd s ou thern b iogeography .
Paci f ic S cience C ongress. G i l more , C . W. 1 909 .
B ishop Museu m Press, Hono lu lu .
I n :
T en th
3 69-385.
An ew r hynchocepha lian r ep ti le f ro m t he J urassic o f
Wyo m ing , w i th n o tes o n t he f auna o f "Q uarry 9 ."
Proc . U .S. Na t . Mus.
3 7 :36-52 . Gregg , D . R . 1 959 . b ury .
S tra tigraphy o f t he L ower Waipara G orge , N or th Can ter-
N ew Z ea land J our . G eo l . G eophys. 2 :501-527 .
Gr i f f i ths, J . R . a nd R . Varne . 1 972 . R idge a nd A lp ine F au lt . Hawk ins, D . N . 1 957 .
E vo lu t ion o ft he Tas man S ea , Macquar ie
N ature Phys. S ei . 2 35 :83-86.
B eyond t he Wa i makar ir i :
A Reg iona l H istory .
Whi t-
c o mbe a nd To mbs, Christchurch . H of fste t ter , R . 1 955.
Rhynchocepha l ia .
p a leon to log ie, To me V .
Hof f stet ter , R . a nd J . P . Gase . 1 969 . I n :
I n : J . P iveteau , ( ed .) Tra i te d e
Masson , Par is.
5 56-576.
Vertebrae a nd r ibs o f modern r ep t i les.
C . Gans, ( ed .) B io logy o f t he R ep t i lia .
Acade mic Press, N ew York a nd L ondon . K insky , F . C . 1 970 .
Vo l . 1 .
Morpho logy A .
2 01-310 .
Anno ta ted C heck list o ft he B irds o f New Z ea land .
A . H .
a nd A . W. R eed , We l ling ton . MacAr thur , R . H . a nd E . 0 . Wi lson .
1 967 .
The t heory o f i s land b iogeography .
P rince ton U n iv . Press, N ew J ersey. McKenna , M . C . 1 965 . . s creen ing .
I n :
Techn iques.
W. H . F ree man a nd C o ., S an F rancisco .
O lson , S . L . 1 975 . ( Ayes:
Co l lect ing microver tebra te f ossi ls b y washing a nd
B . K u m me l a nd D . Raup , ( eds.) Handbook o f Pa leon to log ica l 1 93-203 .
A r eview o ft he e x t inct r ai ls o ft he N ew Z ea land r eg ion
Ra l lidae) .
P eters, J . L . 1 931 .
Na t . Mus. N ew Z ea land , R ec. 1 :63-79 . Check list o f B irds o ft he Wor ld , 1 .
Harvard U n iversi ty
Press, Ca mbr idge . R ich , T . H . V . 1 975 . Z ea land .
P o ten tia l p re-P leistocene f ossi l t e trapod s i tes i n N ew
Mauri Ora 3 :45-54 .
R o mer , A . S . 1 956 .
O steo logy o f t he Rep t i les.
Ch icago . 5 1
U n iv . Chicago Press,
S tevens, G . R . 1 973 .
The p a laeogeograph ic h istory o f N ew Z ea land .
N ew
Z ea land En to mo log ist 5 :230-239 . We l les, S . P . 1 947 .
Ver tebra tes f ro m t he u pper Moenkopi F or ma t ion o f
n or thern Ar izona .
U n iv . Ca l if . P ub l ., Bu l l . Dep t . Geo l . S ci . 2 7 :241-289 .
Weston , R . J ., C . A . Repenn ing , a nd C . A . F le ming . 1 973 .
Modern a ge o f
s upposed P liocene s ea l , Arctocepha lus c an inus B erry ( = P hocarctos h ookeri Gray) , f ro m N ew Z ea land .
N ew Z ea land J our . S ei . 1 6 :591-598 .
5 2
AVIFAUNAL CO MPOS IT ION OF SKELETAL MATER IAL COLLECTED FRO M SKUA M IDDENS AND BEACHES AT S O ME AUSTRALAS IAN SUB-ANTARCT IC I SLANDS G . F . v an T e ts
I n troduc t ion S ke le ta l ma ter ia l o f b irds t ha t h ave d ied r ecen t ly f ro m n a tura l c auses c an h e lp i n e va lua t ing t he s ta tus o f t he s pec ies f requen t ing a n a rea .
I tc an
a lso i nd ica te t he f ood o f p reda tors , g ive a measure o f r e la t ive a bundance a nd h abi ta t p reference , a nd r evea l t he p resence o f s pecies n o t o therw ise r ecorded . Wi th t he a ss is tance o f me mbers o f t he 1 972/73 Auck land I s lands , 1 973/74 Macquar ie I s land a nd 1 975/76 C a mpbel l I s land Exped i t ions Ic o l lec ted s kele ta l ma ter ia l o f b irds a t Enderby I s land , D isappoin t men t I s land a nd S ugar L oa f R ocks i n t he Auck land I s lands ;
H asse lborough Bay , Macquar ie I s land a nd a t
Campbe l l I s land a nd n earby D en t I s land .
The ma ter ia l h as b een d epos i ted i n
t he c o l lection o f t he Na t iona l Museu m o f N ew Z ea land , We l l ington , a nd t he Austra lian N a t iona l Wi ld life C o l lection , t he D iv ision o f Wi ld life R esearch , C SIRO , Canberra .
L og ist ic s uppor tf or r each ing t he i s lands was p rovided b y
t he Wi ld li fe S ervice a nd t he D epar t men t o f L ands a nd S urvey o f New Z ea land , a nd b y t he An tarctic D ivision o f A ustra lia .
The i s lands a nd t he ir b irds a re
d escr ibed i n B a i ley a nd S orenson ( 1962 —Ca mpbe l l I s land ) ; ( 1956 — Macquar ie I s land ) ;
L aw a nd B ursta l l
a nd Ya ldwyn ( 1975 —Auck land I s lands) .
p apers o n t he b irds o ft he i s lands a re i n p repara tion . b ased o n Condon ( 1975) a nd K insky ( 1970 ) .
F ur ther
The n o menc la ture i s
Me thods f or p rocessing t he ma ter ia l
were a s d escr ibed i n Mest jens e t a l . ( 1975) a nd S car le t t ( 1972 ) . R esu l ts Mos t o f t he ma ter ia l ( see T able 3 .1 ) , was o f b irds t ha t h ad b een e a ten b y s kuas a l though i t was n o t p oss ible t o d e ter m ine h ow many o f t hese h ad a c tua l ly b een k i l led b y s kuas . C o lour-band ing o f s kuas h as i nd ica ted t ha t s o me o f t he m h ave a d a i ly f orag ing r ange o f a t l eas t 8 km .
S o me o f t he ma ter ia l was e xposed
b y e ros ion a f ter b ur ia l i n s and d unes a nd a l l t he ma ter ia l h ad b een e xposed t o s un a nd r a in . I fi th ad b een l e f t i n s i tu i t wou ld h ave d is in tegra ted w i th in a bou t ay ear a nd may t here fore b e mos t ly r egarded a s l ess t han ay ear o ld . P engu ins The d is tr ibu t ion o f p engu in ma ter ia l r e f lec ts t he n es t ing d is tr ibu t ion o f t he s pecies r epresen ted .
N o ma ter ia l was f ound o f s pecies wh ich a re p resen t ly
r are i n t he i s lands, e .g . t he Erec t-crested P engu in ( Eudyp tes s c la teri ) .
Most
o ft he K ing P enguin b ones were f ound , s ub-fossi l , i n a n e rod ing s and d une a t t he Macquar ie I s land Base Ca mp .
Ma ter ia l o f a t l east s even Rockhopper P en-
g u ins was f ound a t Enderby I s land where t he s pecies d id n o t b reed a nd was n o t s een a shore a t t he t ime o ft he 1 972/73 Expedi tion 5 3
A lba trosses C ons ider ing t he p resence o f h uge n es t ing c o lon ies o f s evera l s pec ies o f a lba trosses a nd mo l ly mauks i n t he i s lands , v ery l i t t le ma ter ia l o f t he m was f ound .
T he R oya l A lba tross ma ter ia l was f ound ma in ly b es ide t he ir n es t
s i tes o n C a mpbel l I s land a nd s ubfoss i l i n t he s and-dunes o f Enderby I s land . B eside s kua n ests o n Ca mpbe l l I s land were f ound b ones o fv ery sma l l a lba tross o r mo l ly mauk c hicks which were i ndeter minab le t o g enus a nd s pecies.
P e tre ls Except f or s pecies o f wh ich o n ly t races w ere f ound t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he ma ter ia l r ef lec ts t he b reed ing d is tr ibu t ions o f s pec ies p resen t ly r epresen ted o n e ach i s land . I t was n o t p oss ib le t o d e ter m ine t o s pec ies a l l t he G ian t P e tre l ma ter ia l . Probably mos t o f t he ma ter ia l c o l lec ted a t Macquar ie I s land i s o f Macronectes g igan teus , a nd t ha t c o l lec ted a t t he o ther i s lands o f M . h a l l i . L arge n umbers o f Wh i te-headed P e tre l , S oo ty S hearwa ter a nd C o m mon D iv ing P e tre l were f ound t o h ave b een k i l led b y s kuas .
N o t race was f ound o f t he
S ou th G eorg ian D iv ing P e trel ( Pe lecano ides g eorg icus ) , wh ich may h ave f ormer ly b red o n Enderby a nd Macquar ie I s lands , i n s and-dunes. The ma ter ia l o f t he S hor tta i led S hearwa ter wh ich was f ound a t Macquar ie I s land may b e o f n on-breed ing b irds f orag ing i n t he S ou thern O cean d ur ing t he a us tra l s um mer ( see S hun tov 1 974 ) .
N o t race o f t h is s pec ies was f ound a t
C a mpbe l l a nd Auck land I s lands , wh ich a re s i tua ted f ur ther n or th , b u t a re p resumab ly o u ts ide t he f orag ing r ange o f t he b irds b reed ing a round Tas man ia a nd s ou th-eas tern Aus tra l ia . B ones o f p r ions were much more a bundan t i n s kua r egurg i ta t ion p e l le ts a t Enderby t han a t t he o ther i s lands .
Broad-b i l led ,
a nd Mediu m-bi l led
P r ions , a nd t he s o mewha t s im i lar B lue P e tre l , h ave n o t b een p rev ious ly r epor ted i n t he Auck land I s lands .
The Mo t t led P etre l a nd t he L i t t le S hearwa ter
h ave b een r epor ted b reed ing i n t he Auck land I s lands b u t were n o t s een d ur ing t he 1 972/ 73 Expedi t ion . N o ma ter ia l was f ound o f t he C ape P igeon ( Dapt ion c apense ) , wh ich was f ound b reed ing i n t he Auck land I s lands f or t he f irs t t ime d ur ing t he 1 972/73 Exped i t ion .
I t was s uspec ted o f b reed ing a t C a mpbe l l I s land d ur ing t he 1 975/
7 6 Exped i t ion . t he i s lands.
I t was c o m mon ly s een f o l low ing s h ips a nd f ish s chools a round
S hags The s hag ma ter ia l ma in ly c ons is ted o f l oose b ones o nb eaches a nd i n n es t ing c o lon ies .
The s pec ies were L eucocarbo c o lenso i a t Enderby I s land , L . c a mp-
b e l l i a t C a mpbel l I s land , a nd L . a lbiven ter a t Macquar ie I s land .
Ma ter ia l was
n o t f ound o f t he B lack C or moran t , ( Pha lacrocorax c arbo ) wh ich o ccurs i n t he i s lands a s av agran t , n or o f t he L i t t le P ied C or moran t ( P . me lano leucos ) , o f wh ich t here was a sma l l b reed ing p opu la t ion o n C a mpbe l l I s land .
5 4
Ducks C ons ider ing t he sma l l p opu la t ions s urv iv ing o f t he Auck land I s land T ea l ( Anas a . a uck land ica ) a nd t he C ampbe l l I s land T ea l ( Anas a . n es io t is ) , ar a ther l arge n u mber o f f resh r e ma ins were f ound t o h ave b een e a ten b y s kuas .
The
ma ter ia l o f t he t ea l h as b een u sed i n t he p repara t ion o f ar ev is ion o f t he Aus tra las ian T ea l t ha t i s b e ing d ra f ted b y Russ , R ober tson a nd v an T e ts . P rev ious ly k nown ma ter ia l o f t he C a mpbel l I s land T ea l c ons is ted o f o n ly t wo museu m s k ins . G rey Duck , Ma l lard a nd t he ir h ybr ids o ccur i n sma l l n u mbers o n mos t o f t he p onds a nd i n le ts o f t he i s lands , b u t o n ly a c oup le o f b ones o f t he m were f ound . Ra i ls N o ma ter ia l was f ound o f t he Auck land I s land Ra i l ( Ra l lus mue l ler i ) wh ich may s t i l l b e e x tan t o n A da ms I s land a nd e lsewhere i n t he Auck land I s lands , b u t was n o t f ound d ur ing t he 1 972/73 E xped i t ion . On ly f our b ones o f a t l eas t t wo b irds were f ound o f t he Weka , ( Ga l l ira l lus a us tra l is ) , a t Macquar ie I s land where i t was f r equen t ly s een a nd h eard d ur ing t he 1 973/74 Exped i t ion . Waders The o n ly wader ma ter ia l f ound was o f t he I s land S n ipe a t Enderby I s land . Th is s pec ies was s een a ga in o n Enderby I s land d ur ing t he 1 972/73 Exped i t ion a f ter n o t h av ing b een s igh ted t here s ince 1 891 ( Tay lor i n Ya ldwyn 1 975 :239 ) . Waders a re u nco m mon i n t he i s lands a nd o n ly a t Enderby I s land were t hey r egu lar ly s een .
Mos t n u merous were Turns tones ( Arenar ia i n terpres ) i n
sma l l f locks o f u p t o f or ty b irds a long t he s hores , a nd Banded Do t tere ls ( Charadr ius b ic inc tus ) , d ispersed i n p a irs o n t he u p land h ea ths . S kuas , G u l ls a nd T erns Re la t ive ly l i t t le ma ter ia l was f ound o fg u l ls a nd t erns.
N o ma ter ia l was
f ound o ft he t wo g u l l s pecies a t C a mpbe l l I s land where t hey o ccur i n t he i n lets a nd a long t he s hores.
I t was n o t p ossib le t o i den t ify t he t ern ma teria l t o s pecies
The An tarct ic Tern ( S terna v i t ta ta ) b reeds i n t he i s lands a nd was t he s pecies most of ten s een .
The Arct ic T ern
p aradisaea ) i s ar are v isi tor t o t he
i s lands, a nd t he Wh i te-fron ted T ern ( S terna s tr ia ta ) b reeds i n t he Auck land I s lands a nd i s ar are v isi tor f ur ther s ou th .
A l l t hree s pecies a re s i mi lar i n
s ize . L and-birds O f t en s pec ies o f l and-birds s een a t Enderby I s land d ur ing t he 1 97 2 /7 3 E xped i t ion , ma ter ia l o f o n ly t hree s pec ies was f ound i n s kua r egurg i ta t ion p e l lets .
I n p ar t icu lar i t was s urpr is ing t ha t n o ma ter ia l was f ound o f t he
R ed-crowned P arakee t ( Cyanoramphus n ovaeze land iae ) wh ich was c o m mon o n Enderby I s land .
5 5
D ISCUSS ION As a s urvey method t he c o l lec t ion o f s ke le ta l ma ter ia l o f b irds h as a d i f feren t b ias i n t he q ua l i ta t ive r epresen ta t ion o f t he s pec ies c o mpos i t ion o f a n a rea f ro m t ha t wh ich i s o bta ined b y v isua l o r a ura l c ensusses , o r b y c apt ure o r c o l lect ion o f l i v ing b irds . I n t h is s tudy t he c o l lec t ion o f s ke le ta l ma ter ia l f a i led t o r ecord t he p res ence o f s evera l s pecies o f waders a nd l andbirds . missed t he p resence o f g u l ls a nd d ucks .
I n s o me l oca l i t ies i t
I td id , h owever , r ecord t he p resence
o ft hree s pecies o f p e tre ls a t t he A uck land I s lands which h ad n o t b een r ecorded t here b efore , a nd t wo s pecies wh ich w ere n o t o therw ise f ound d ur ing t he 1 972/ 7 3 Exped i t ion .
The d i f ferences may b e d ue ma in ly t o t he p ropens i ty o f t he
s pec ies t o b e p reyed o nb y s kuas , t o wash u p d ead o nb eaches a nd t o b e f ound d ead i n o pen , e xposed s i tua t ions . The r esu l ts o f t h is s tudy may p rov ide s o me h e lp i n t he e va lua t ion o f t he r epresen ta t iveness o f t he a vi fauna l c o mpos i t ion o f ma ter ia l f ound i n p reh is tor ic d epos i ts .
B IBL IOGRAPHY Ba i ly , A . M., a nd S orensen , J . H ., 1 962 .
S uban tarc t ic C a mpbe l l I s land .
Proc . N o . 1 0 Denver Museu m o f N a tura l H is tory. Condon , H . T ., 1 975 .
C heck l is t o f t he B irds o f Aus tra l ia , I . N on-passer ines .
RAOU Me lbourne . K insky , F . C . ( Convener ) , 1 970 . Z ea land .
Annota ted C heck l is t o f t he B irds o f N ew
A . H . &A . W. R eed We l l ing ton .
Law , P . G . a nd B urs ta l l , T ., 1 956.
Macquar ie I s land .
A .N .A .R .E.
I n ter im R epor ts 1 4 . S car le t t , R . J ., 1 972 .
B ones f or t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo log is t .
C an terbury
Mus . B u l l . 4 . S hun tov , V . P ., 1 974.
S ea B irds a nd t he B io log ica l S truc ture o f t he O cean .
N a t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion Wash ing ton .
( Trans la ted f ro m Russ ian ) .
V es t jens , W. J . M ., D 'Andr ia , A . H . a nd v an T e ts , G . F ., 1 975 . t he P repara t ion o f O s teo log ica l S peci mens .
N o tes o n
C S IRO D iv is ion o f Wi ld l i fe
R esearch , T ech . Me mo N o . 1 0 . Ya ldwyn , J . C . ( Ed .) , 1 975 . Exped i t ion 1 972-1973 .
Pre l im inary R epor t o f t he Auck land I s lands D ep t . o f L ands a nd S urvey , We l l ing ton .
5 6
4 3
57
X
•
z
0
X
S hy Mo l ly mauk
b e l l I s land u ar ie I s land
X X X
Wander ing A lba tross
D io med ia e xu lans
Ye l low-eyed P en
Auck land I s lands
X - ma ter ia l o f o ne o r t wo b irds ,
X X X X X
X
C l )
5 8
An tarc t ic P r ion
P . d eso la ta
Med iu m-bi l led P r ion
P . s a lv in i
B road-bi l led P r ion
t i la v i tta ta
B lue P e tre l
Ha lobaena c aeru lea
Mo t t led P e tre l
P . i nexpecta ta
Wh i te-headed P etre l
P terodro ma l esson i
F u l marus l ac ia lo ides An tarc t ic F u l mar
L igh t- man t led A lba tross
Phoebe tr ia
T able 3 .1 ( Con t .) Auck land I s lands
b e l l I s land u ar ie I s land
Proce l lar ia a e u inoc t ia l is
P . ;
P . 4
5 9
C o m mon D iv ing-Petre l
P e lecano ides u r ina trb c
B lack-bel l ied S tor m-Petre l
Frefe t ta t ro
Wh i te-faced S tor m-Petre l
P e la mdro ma mar ina
G rey-backed S torm-Pe tre l
G arrod ia n ere is
L i t t le S hearwa ter
a ss im i l is
S hor tta i led s hearwa ter
t enu iros tr is
S oo ty S hearwa ter
Wh i te-ch inned P e tre l
X X X
X X X
X X X
Auck land I s lands
b e l l I s land
u ar ie I s land
Sturnus vulgaris Starling
Anthornis melanura Bellbird
Turdus merula Blackbird
Sterna sp. Tern
L. scopulinus Red-billed Gull
Larus dominicanus Southern Black-backed Gull
Stercorarius skua lonnbergi Southern Skua
Coenocor,y:pha aucklandica Island Snipe
Gallirallus australis Weka
A. aucklandica ssp. Island Duck
A. superciliosa Grey (Black) Duck
Species
Table 3 .1 (cont.)
XX
X
XX
X
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
Enderby Island
X
XX
Disappointment Island
Auckland Islands
X
X
Sugar Loaf Rocks
X
X
X
X
XX
Campbell Dent Island Island
Cam12bell Island
X
XX
X
Hasselborough Bay
Macquarie Island
THE
BREED ING ECOLOGY OF
MOAS
G . E . Ha mel
F ro m t he ir s keletal a nato my i ti s a pparen t t ha t moas o ccup ied i n N ew Z ealand t he e colog ical n iches o f l arge h erb ivores a nd o f t he l arger c ursor ial b irds, i .e.
b irds whose l oco mot ion i s most ly o r whol ly b y wa lk ing.
The
c oncep t o f n iche i s u sefu lb ecause w ith in i ta n o rgan is m 's morphology , p hysio logy a nd b ehav iour a re s een a s a n i n tergrated s yste m d irec ted t owards e nabl i ng t he a n i ma l t o make a l i v ing i n n ature i n t he f ace o f c o mpet i t ion f ro m o ther s pec ies.
N iche s hou ld b e d ist ingu ished f ro m h ab i ta t wh ich i s t he p lace where
a n o rgan is m l i ves, whereas i t s n iche i s i t s o ccupa t ion o r w ay o f l i fe ( Odu m 1 959 ). Accord ing t o n iche t heory a p art icu lar morphology s uch a s t ha t o f ac urs orial b ird w i l l t end t o b e l i nked t o p art icu lar b reed ing a dap tat ions s uch a s t he t ype o f n es t ing d ispersion a nd c lu tch s ize.
F or t he p reh istor ian , b reed ing
e cology i so f i n terest n ot o n ly b ecause o f i t s r ela t ionsh ip t o p opu la t ion d yna mi cs, b u t a lso f or t he r eason t ha t t he a n i mals t aken b y h un ters a nd g atherers a re more v u lnerable d ur ing t he b reed ing s eason t han a t o ther t imes.
H ence
a ny d educt ions a bou t moa b reed ing e cology f ro m what w e k now o f t heir b ones, s et w i th in t he c on tex t o f n iche t heory , may b e ap rof itable e xerc ise f or New Z ealand p reh istor ians. L ack ( 1968 ) h as d ocu men ted t he ways i n wh ich b reed ing a dap ta t ions i n b irds a re i n tegrated i n t he ma jor e co log ica l g roup ings o f l i t tora l , mar ine , f reshwa ter , w ad ing a nd c ursor ial b irds.
H e c o mp iled d a ta f or most o f t he
b ird f am il ies o f t he w orld , l ook ing f or r egu lar it ies b etween f eed ing h ab its a nd b reed ing p at terns, a s w el l a s s eek ing f unc t iona l e xp lana t ions o f t hese r egu lar i t ies.
I n t h is p aper Is ha l lb r ing t ogether t he a va ilable emp ir ical d ata
o n moa n est ing a nd , u sing t hese w i th in t he f ramework o f L ack 's d educ t ions, s uggest r ela t ionsh ips b etween moa b reed ing p at terns a nd Polynesian h un t ing t echn iques.
B reed ing d ispers ion i n c ursor ial b irds Among t he c ursor ial b irds , L ack i nc ludes 4 30 s pec ies b elong ing t o 2 5 f am i l ies. Two o f t he most importan t o rders o f c ursor ia l b irds a re t he Ga l l if or mes, wh ich i ncludes p heasan ts, t urkeys a nd h ens , a nd t he Charadr ifor mes, wh ich i ncludes t he p lovers.
The s even f am i l ies o f r a t ites ( Tab le 4 .1) wh ich
a re n ow c onsidered t o c onst itu te a monophy let ic g roup ( Lack 1 968 :99 ), a re a l l c ursor ial b irds. S ix o f t hese f am il ies s t il l h ave l i v ing r epresen ta t ives b u t t he f am i ly t o wh ich t he moas b elonged i s whol ly e x t inc t. O ther N ew Z eal and c ursor ia lb irds a re t he k iw i , w ek a , t ak ahe , N ew Z ealand d ot terel , b ande d d o t terel , w ryb il l , s hore p lover , t he e x t inc t N ew Z ealand q ua il a nd s everal 6 1
Table 4 .1
The g enera o f r at ites
Cassowary
Casuar ius
Emu
D ro m ice ius
K iw i
Ap teryx
Moas
D inorn is Pachyorn is Euryap teryx Emeus Ano malop teryx Megalap teryx
Ostr ich
S tru th io
Rhea
Rhea
Ti na mous
Cryp turel lus N othoproc ta N othocercus Rhynchotus
Table 4 .2
S c ien t if ic n a mes o f N ew Z ealand b irds men t ioned i n t he t ex t
Banded d ot terel
Charadrius b ic inctus
B el lb ird
An thorn is melanura
B lack-backed g u l l
L arus d om in icanus
Ex t inc t e agle
H arpagorn is moore i
N ew Z ealand d ot terel
Charadr ius o bscurus
N ew Z ealand f alcon
F alco n ovaeseeland iae
N ew Z ea land q ua i l
C oturn ix n ovaezealand iae
S hore p lover
Th inorn is n ovaeseeland iae
Ta lmhe
N otorn is man tel l i
Tu i
P rosthe madera n ovaeseeland iae
Weka
G al l ira l lus a ustral is
Wryb i l l
Anarhynchus f ron tal is
6 2
n on-breed ing m igran t d ot terels ( s ee Tab le 4 . 2 ) . Most c ursor ia l s pec ies a re s ol itary n esters, t he ma in f unc t ion o f t h is d ispers ion b eing c onceal men t o f t he n est a nd t he s i t t ing b ird f ro m p reda tors. The f ew c ursor ial b irds wh ich a re c olon ia l ( pra t incoles, s and g rouse a nd a s eed-sn ipe ) b reed i n l oose c olon ies i n wh ich t he n ests a re d ispersed a nd t he c ryp t ic e ggs h ard t o f i nd ( Lack 1 968 :100 ).
The c h icks a re n id ifugous, i .e.
l eav ing t he n est s oon a f ter h a tch ing a nd of ten p ick ing u p f ood f or t he mselves f ro m t he ir f i rst d ay . L ack a rgues t ha t t hese a dap tat ions a re t he b est s tra tegy f or r a is ing t he max i mu m n u mber o fy oung g iven a c ursor ial h ab i t , g round n est ing , ap lan t d iet a nd t he p resence o fe gg a nd c h ick p reda tors. L ack c i tes p lan t d iet a s af actor b ecause h erb ivorous b irds g eneral ly r equ ire l arger v olumes o f f ood t han i nsec t e aters a nd s o h ave a l og ist ical p roble m i n f eed ing t he ir c h icks.
They s olve t h is e i ther b y ac hange o f d iet ( t u is a nd b ellb irds
f eed i nsects t o t he ir n est l ings ), o r b y t he n id ifugous a dap ta t ion i n wh ich t he n ew ly h a tched c h ick i s a ble t o move i t self t o t he f ood s upp ly i nstead o f h av ing t he f ood b rough t t o i t .
A l l t he l i v ing r at i tes a re s ol itary n esters a nd n id ifugous,
e ven t he k iw i , wh ich i s n ot p r i marily a h erb ivore. Moas a s h erb ivores Morpho log ical ly moas w ere w el l a dap ted t o l i v ing o n t he g round .
B esides
b e ing f l igh t less a nd h eavy b oned , t hey h ad t he metatarsi s hortened a nd s trengt hened a l most t o t he p roport ions t yp ica l o ft he Gal l ifor mes ( Owen 1 879 :107 ) , p resu mably f or efect ively s cra tch ing i n t he s oi l f or f ood , r a ther t han j ust f or w eigh tb ear ing.
The h erbivorous h ab i t i s e v iden t i n t he h eavy c rush ing b il l ,
t he l ong n eck a nd l egs t o a id b rowsing , t he o veral l p achyder ma l p ro p ort io n s a nd f ro m t he f ew g izzard c on ten ts c o mpeten t ly a na lyzed. I den t if iable g izzard c on ten ts h ave b een f ound i no n ly a f ew swa mp d eposi ts a nd most h ave c on ta ined f ru its o f f orest a nd s hrubland s pec ies ( O l iver 1 949 , F al la 1 941, Gregg 1 972 ) . F our o f t he g izzards f ro m Pyra m id Val ley c on ta ined s eeds o f ma ta i ( Podocarp us s p ica tus ) , at ree wh ich r arely f ru i ts w ith in f i ve metres o f t he g round , b u t wh ich d oes d rop f ru i t ing t w igs v ery r ead ily. A f ter s trong w inds i n s u m mer a nd a u tumn , t he g round u nder a ma ta i t ree i s l i ttered w ith t w igs, a nd a moa s cra tch ing t here w ou ld f i nd a l ayer o f h al f-rot t ing l eaves a nd s eeds , e qu ivalen t t o ap oor q ual i ty s i lage, a s w el l a s ad ense mat o f n odu l iferous r oots o f t he mata i a nd o f a ny o ther n earby p odocarps. h igh-ca lor ie f ocus f or a h erb ivore.
S uch a n a rea r epresen ts a r elat ively
I th as a lso b een p lausibly a rgued t hat t he
u nusua l ly h igh p ropor t ion o f d ivar icat ing s hrubs i n N ew Z ea land i s a n e volut i onary r esponse t ob rowsing b y moas who a re t hough t t o h ave f ed i n ad if feren t way f ro m ma m mals , p robably p u l l ing a nd b reak ing more t han n ipp ing a nd c hew ing ( Greenwood a nd A tk inson
1 977 ) . A s h erb ivores t hen , moas c ou ld
h ave efect ively b rowsed s hrubs a nd t he l ower b ranches o f t rees, t he t a l ler s pec ies r each ing u p t o f our o r f i ve metres a bove t he g round . They c ou ld a lso h ave b een ef ic ien t s cra tchers o f t he l i t ter l ayer o n t he f orest f l oor. B reed ing d ispersion i n moas The emp ir ical e v idence t hat moas w ere s ol i tary n esters i s s l i m. Ambr ose ( 1970 ) d escribed n atura l d epos its o f moa b one ( most ly Megalap teryx ) ,
6 3
e gg s hel l , d ropp ings a nd n est ing mater ial i n smal l r ock s hel ters a t B enmore, Wa i tak i Val ley. Each r ock s hel ter c ou ld h ave h eld a t t he most o n ly a f ew n est ing b irds a t o ne t ime. Hartree ( i n F a l la 1 962 ) was a ble t o r ecogn ize t he r e ma ins o f s ol i tary n ests o f Ano ma lop teryx o n l edges a nd i n s hel tered c av i t ies i n l imestone c oun try t ha t o nce c arr ied f a irly h eavy f orest i n H awkes Bay. A s h erb ivorous c ursor ial b irds i ti s l ikely t ha t t he moa c h icks l e f t t he n est s oon af ter h a tch ing.
I n ac oun try l ack ing smal l ma m mals i td oes n ot
s ee m l ikely t hat b irds a s l arge a s moas w ou ld h ave s olved t he l og ist ics o f f eed ing c h icks b y s upp ly ing t he m w i th a n i mal p rote in . I n t he emu , t he c h icks a re l ed a bou t b y t he ma le who e stabl ishes a smal l t erri tory w i th p len ty o f o pen g round a s d ense u ndergrow th i s d if f icu l t f or t he y oung emu c h icks t o s cra mble t hrough ( East man 1 969 ).
The b ones o f emu c h ick s a re w el l o ssif ied
when t hey h a tch a nd t he c h icks l eave t he n est a s s oon a s t he l as t o f t he c lu tch h as h a tched .
H ector ( 1871) was a ble t o c o mpare t he d r ied embryo o f a moa
c h ick i n a whole e gg f ound a t C ro mwel l w ith a n emu c h ick a t t he s a me s tage o f d evelopmen t a nd f ound t ha t t he p a t terns o f o ssif ica t ion o f t he b ones w ere v ery s im ilar. I f , a s t h is s uggests, t he moa c h ick was n id ifugous, moa a du l ts may a lso h ave h ad t o e stabl ish sma l l c h ick f eed ing t err i tor ies i n ar ecogn izable t ype o fo pen f orest , ab ehav iour p at tern wh ich c ou ld h ave b een l earn t a nd u ti l ized b y t he h u man h un ter. Though ma m mal ian p redators w ere a bsen t f ro m N ew Z ealand b efore man a rr ived , we c annot a ssu me t ha t t here was n o p reda t ion p ressure o n n est ing moas. The e x t inct e ag le , t he N ew Z ea land f a lcon , t he b lack-backed g u l l a nd t he weka ( Tab le 4 .2 ) were a l l p ossib le c hick p reda tors, t he l ast t wo b eing c apab le e gg p reda tors a lso . O n ly t he e ag le was l arge e nough t o h ave a t tacked t he s i t t ing a du l t . I n t he e vo lu t ion o f n est a nd c hick d ispersion t hen , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t moas were s ub jec ted t o s i mi lar p ressures a nd e vo lved s i mi lar a dap ta t ions t o c ope w i th t hose p ressures a s o ther c ursor ia l b irds. C lu tch s ize i n c ursorial b irds L ack h as d eveloped t he a rgu men t t hat i n n id icolous b irds , where t he y oung a re f ed i n t he n est , c lu tch s ize h as e volved t hrough n atural s elec t ion t o c orre spond w ith t hat b rood-size f ro m wh ich o n a n a verage most s urv iv ing y oung a re p roduced , t he l im i t n or mal ly b e ing s et b y t he amoun t o f f ood t ha t t he p are n ts c an c ol lec t f or t heir n est l ings ( Lack 1 968 :165 ). N id ifugous b irds a re r e l eased i n p art f ro m t h is l im itat ion a nd r a ise s o me o f t he l argest c lu tches k nown . A male r hea h as b een k nown t o i ncuba te 6 0 e ggs , l a id i n h is n est b y s everal f e ma les, a nd h ens o f v arious s pec ies o f t he Phasian idae ( pheasan ts a nd p artr idges )l ay u p t o 1 7 e ggs i n ac lu tch .
A t t he o ther e x tre me , t here a re s ev-
e ral c ursorial s pec ies wh ich l ay o n ly o ne e gg , t he k iw i b eing a w el l-known e xa mp le. S ince f l edg ing s uccess i s n ot afec ted b y t he f ood wh ich t he p aren ts c an b r ing t o t he b rood , L ack s uggests t hat t he c r i t ical f actor may b e t he f ood a va i lable t o t he l ay ing b ird , wh ich s he may u se t o p roduce e i ther o ne l arge o r s everal smal ler e ggs.
I ng eneral , e ggs o f n id ifugous b irds a re l arger t han
t hose o f n id icolous s pec ies, s ince t he y oung must b e l arger a t h a tch ing s o t ha t t hey c an f end f or t he mselves ( Lack 1 968 :199 ). O striches , emus a nd r heas wh ich l i ve o n t he o pen p lains l ay a verage
6 4
c lu tches o f 8t o 3 0 e ggs a nd t end t o b e p olyga mous, w ith s everal h ens l ay ing i n a nest g uarded a nd i ncubated b y o ne ma le.
The f orest r a t i tes , h owever ,
( t he c assowar ies, k iw is a nd s o me t ina mous)lay sma l l c lu tches o f o ne t o e igh t e ggs a nd t end t o b e monoga mous.
The f unct ional v alue o f t h is c orrelat ion b et-
ween c lu tch s ize a nd h ab i ta t p resu mably h as t o d o w i th t he h un t ing t echn iques o f c h ick p reda tors. The l i t t le emp ir ical e v idence a va ilable o n c lu tch s ize i n moas s uggests t hat t hey f ol low t he f orest r at ite p at tern .
I n t he n ests o f Ano malop teryx f ound
b y Hartree i n Hawkes Bay , t here t ended t o b e t he r e ma ins o f o n ly o ne e gg o r o ne c h ick ( i n Fal la 1 962 ).
An e n t ire s keleton o f D inorn is r obustus f ound i n a
c ave n ear T iger H i l l , A lexandra was i n ac rouch ing p osi t ion o ver t he b ones o f f our c h icks ( E wen 1 895 ).
A lso t he e ggs o f moas s ee m t o h ave b een l arger
r ela t ive t o b ody s ize t han t hose o f o str iches, s uggest ing t ha t t he moa f e male may h ave p u t t he a va i lable e nergy i n to l ay ing f ewer, l arger e ggs t han d o o str iches.
L ack e st i ma ted t ha t l arge moa e ggs wou ld h ave weighed a bou t 7 .0 k g
whereas o str ich e ggs weigh o n ly a bou t 1 .6 k g ( Lack 1 968 :208 ).
C erta in ly o ne
wou ld e xpect p reda t ion p ressure i n t he N ew Z ealand f orests t o b e l ess t han o n t he A fr ican s avannah , a nd h ence i t wou ld b e b et ter s tra tegy f or a moa t o u se t he a va i lable e nergy i n h atch ing f ewer a nd l arger c h ick s who wou ld h ave ab et ter c hance o f s urv ival .
D iscus i on Though t he f ac tors o f s ol itary n est ing , smal l c lu tches a nd n id ifugous c h icks s uggest t hat moa a du l ts , c h ick s a nd e ggs wou ld n ot b e a n e asy o r p red ic table h arvest f or Polynesian man t o g a ther d uring t he b reed ing s eason , t here must h ave b een s uf f ic ien t r egu lari t ies i n moa b reed ing b ehav iour t o e na ble man t o g ather t heir e ggs. h un ter s i tes.
Moa e gg s hel l i s r elat ively c o mmon i n moa
The e v idence f ro m Hawkes Bay a nd Ben more s hows t hat a t l east
s o me moas f avoured s hel tered c rev ices a nd r ock s hel ters a s n est ing s i tes. S uch l oca t ions t end t o b e l im i ted i n n u mber i n most N ew Z ea land l ow lands where moa p opu lat ions w ere l argest , a nd t hose a ccessible t o moas wou ld a lso h ave b een a ccessible t o man .
K now ing t he f avoured s i tes a nd t he t im ing o f
n est ing , i t may h ave b een a r e la t ive ly s uccessfu l h un t ing t echn ique t o v isi t c l if fed a nd r ocky a reas a t t he r igh t s eason .
Fa ithfu lness t o n est ing s i tes a nd
t o p art icu lar t ypes o f t erra in a s c h ick r earing t err itories c ou ld h ave made moas r ela t ively v u lnerable t o h u man p reda t ion a nd c ou ld h ave b een p art o f t he p a t tern o f e ven ts l ead ing t o t he ir e x t inc t ion .
REFERENCES Ambrose, W., 1 970.
A rchaeology a nd r ock d raw ings
Rec. Can terbury Mus.
f ro m t he Wa itak i Gorge.
8 :383-437 .
East man , M., 1 969.
The l i fe o f t he Emu .
Ew en , C . A ., 1 895.
On t he d iscovery o f moa r e ma ins o nR iverton Beach .
Trans.
N . Z .
I nst.
2 8 :651-654.
6 5
Angus a nd Robertson , S ydney.
Fal la , R . A ., 1 941. Mus:
The Av ian Re ma ins ( Pyra m id Val ley ).
4 :339-353.
Fal la , R . A ., 1 962. Assn .
The moa , z oolog ical a nd a rchaeolog ical.
N ewslet ter
Greenwood , R . M.
a nd A tk inson , I . A . E ., 1 977.
Proceed ings o f t he
2 4:21-29.
Holocene s trat igraphy a nd moas a t Pyra m id Val ley,
N orth C an terbury , N ew Z ea land. Hector , J ., 1 871.
Arch.
Evolu t ion o f d ivaricat ing
p lan ts i n N ew Z ealand i n r elat ion t o moa b rowsing.
Gregg , D . R ., 1 972.
N . Z .
5 :189-191.
N ew Z ealand Ecolog ical S oc iety.
I nst.
Rec. Can terbury
Rec.
Can terbury Mus.
On r ecen t moa r e ma ins i n New Z ealand.
9 :151-158.
Trans.
N . Z .
4 :110-120.
L ack , D ., 1 968.
Ecolog ical a dap tat ions f or b reed ing i nb irds.
Metheun a nd
Co., L ondon . Odu m , E . P . ,1 959.
Funda men tals o f Ecology.
O l iver, W. R . B ., 1 949. Mus.
Bu l l .
Owen , R ., 1 879.
S aunders, Ph iladelph ia.
The moas o f N ew Z ealand a nd Austral ia.
Do m.
N o.15. Me moirs o f t he e x t inc t w ingles ,,b irds o f N ew Z ealand.
J ohn v on Voorst , L ondon .
6 6
TA ME NESS
AND
MYSTICAL A SSOCIATIONS
OF
WILD
B IRDS
Ralph Bu l mer
One o f Ron S carlet t 's many e ngag ing q ua l it ies i s h is b ound less i n ter est i n a l l a spec ts o f n a tural a nd h u man h istory.
He i s i n n o s ense
t he n arrow s pec ial ist i n o steolog ical r e ma ins; f or h im t he l i v ing men a nd l i v ing b irds a re a c onstan t s ub jec t o f o bserva t ion , i n teract i on , a nd e n thusiast ic c o m men t .
The a u thor r eceived t wo l e tters
f ro m Ron d escr ib ing h is p art ic ipat ion i n Dav id Cole 's 19 67 e xcavat i ons i n t he Eastern H ighlands o f Papua N ew Gu inea.
These p ortray
b rief ly b ut most g raph ical ly i nd iv idua l H igh lands workmen o n t he s i te a nd i nhab i tan ts o ft he n earby v i l lage , among who m h e c learly f ound k indred s p ir its.
They a lso d escribe s o me o f t he f am il iar b irds
a nd ma m mals o f t he g rasslands a nd g ardens , a s o bserved i n l i fe, o r , i n s o me c ases , o n t he ir way t o t he l c3 a 1 d inner menu .
I n p resen t ing
t h is e ssay t o h im , Ih ope i t may r efresh h is me mories o f t he e xperi ences h e h ad t hen a nd c reatures h e e ncoun tered .
L andsborough Tho mson ( 19 64 :802-3 ) d ef ines t a meness a s " tolera t ion b y b irds o f t he c lose p resence o f h u man b e ings, i n s o me i nstances amoun t ing t o ap os i t ive t endency t o s eek s uch p resence". There a re n o r eal ly t a me w i ld b irds i n t he Papua N ew Gu inea H igh lands, f or o bv ious r easons.
Adu l t h u mans ( so met i mes o n ly wo men ) a re p repared t o
e a t most , a nd i n s o me s oc iet ies a l l , b ird s pec ies , a nd e ven where d ietary r estric t ions a nd p roh ib it ions o f a myst ical k ind o n i n terference g ive a meas ure o f p ro tec t ion , a ny marked ly t a me i nd iv idual b ird wou ld s t il l b e a t h igh r isk f ro m c h i ldren , d ogs a nd , i n r ecen t d ecades, c a ts.
Further more, Papua
N ew Gu inea H igh landers d o n ot s hare t he w idespread c usto m o f t he Eng l ishs peak ing p eop les o f f eed ing w i ld b irds —excep t o ccas iona l ly a s ad ev ice t o f ac il i tate t heir c ap ture. N evertheless d if feren t H igh lands s pec ies c haracterist ical ly s how v ery d if feren t d egrees o f t olerat ion o f man .
The r ela t ively t a me P ied Cha ts
( Sax ico la c apra ta ) i n t he sweet p otato g ardens, Wil l ie Wag ta ils ( Rh ip idura l eucophrys ) b y t he s trea ms a nd a round t he h o mesteads, a nd F riend ly Fan ta ils ( Rh ip idura a lbol i mbata ) a nd Wh i te-w inged Th icket F lyca tchers ( Peneothel lo s ig i l la tus ) i n t he f orest , a re a l l p repared t o c o me p eri lously c lose t o h u mans, whereas t he Tawny G rassb irds ( Megalurus t imoriens is ) i n t he g rass a t g ard en e dges, P apuan L ories ( Char mosyna p apou ) a nd S latey Th icket F lyca tchers ( Peneothel lo c yanus ) i n t he f ores t a nd Moun ta in Ducks ( Salvador ina
wa ig iuensis )
i n t he s trea ms a nd r ivers, a re e x tre mely s hy. The K a la m p eop le o f t he K a ironk Val ley d isda in t o e a t a du l ts o f a ny o f 6 7
t he sma l l i nsec t ivores a round t he h o mesteads a nd i n t he g ardens, o n a ccoun t o f what t hey r egard a s t heir d irty f eed ing h ab i ts, b u t t here i s n o s i mp le c or relat ion b etween t h is p rotec t ion a nd t he t a meness o f t he s pec ies c oncerned , s ince t hese i nclude n ot o n ly t he P ied Cha t a nd t he Wil l ie Wag ta i l , wh ich a re modera tely t a me , b u t t he Tawny G rassb ird a nd S chach S hrik e ( Lan ius s chach ), wh ich a re n ot . I ti s , h owever, t he c ase t hat t he e ggs a nd n est l ings o f t he Chat a nd Wi l l ie Wagta i l a re a lso g iven s o me p ro tec t ion , f or myst ica l r easons; whereas c h i ldren a re n ot d iscouraged f ro m t ak ing a nd e a t ing e ggs a nd y oung o f t he G rassb ird a nd t he S hrike.
Conversely , t he Wh i te-w inged Th icket F ly-
c atcher a nd F r iend ly F an ta i l o f t he f orest a re f reely k i l led a nd e aten , e xcep t t ha t as erious h un ter w ou ld n ot n or mal ly b other t o s hoot a t t he m , i n p art , i n t he c ase o f t he F an ta ils, b ecause o f t he r isk t hat t hey w i l l d isturb more s hy a nd v a luable g a me. The b ehav iour o f t he Th icket F lycatcher , k nown i n K ala m a s w lme i i s aky , t he " Fool ish ( o r mad ) P ied Cha t" ( i t c losely r ese mbles t he P ied Cha t i n p lu mage ), wh ich s pon taneously a pproaches h un ters, s ee ms t o ta l ly n on-adap t ive. Yet s o mehow t he b ird s urv ives a nd r e ma ins c o m mon , p erhaps i n p art b ecause i ti s o n ly c asual ly h un ted , a nd ma in ly b y smal lb oys. I n c on trast , t he n a tural s hyness o f s o me o f t he f orest b irds mos t p r ized f or t heir p lu mage o r t heir f l esh , i s c learly h igh ly a dap t ive.
These i nc lude
t he l ories, e spec ial ly t he Papuan L ory , v ery h igh ly v alued f or i t s p lu mes; c erta in o f t he b irds o f p arad ise; c erta in o f t he p igeons a nd d oves, e spec ial ly t he f ru i t d oves ( Pt i l inopus
r ivol i e tc ); a nd t he h awks.
Bu t t he c h ink i n t he
h awks ' a r mour i s t he b oldness ( wh ich L andsborough Tho mson ( i dem ) a ppropr ia tely d ist ingu ishes f ro m t a meness ) w i th wh ich a t l east s o me s pec ies ( e .g. t he g oshawk s Acc ip iter f asc ia tus a nd A . melanoch la mys ) r eturn t o t he n est t o d efend t heir y oung a ga inst i n truders. O f water b irds, t he s hyness o f t ha t f asc ina t ing c rea ture t he Moun ta in Duck i s a lso q u ite e v iden t ly i t s s a lva t ion ; wh ile t ha t o f t he T orren t-Lark ( Gra l l ina b ru i jn i ), a s c o mpared w i th t ha t o f i t s c ous in t he Austral ian Magp ie-Lark ( G . c yanoleuca ) , may o r may n ot b e a dap t ive , b u t c erta in ly h as r elevance t o t he s pec ial myst ica l s ta tus t he K a la m a ccord i t . My t hesis i s t ha t , f or t he K a la m , a s Ib el ieve many o ther s oc iet ies, b oth u nusual ly t a me s pec ies a nd u nusual ly s hy s pec ies, p rov ided t hat t hey a re r ead ily i den t if iable, t end t o b e g iven s pec ial myst ical v a lues, wh ich i n t urn a f fect man 's i n terac t ion w ith t he m . The o rig ins o f s uch b ehav iour p resen t i n terest ing p roble ms, t hough o nes Ic an o n ly s pecu late a bou t i n aq u i te amateur way. Bu t a lso i n terest ing a re t he h u man r eac t ions a nd i n terpretat ions t hat s uch b ehav iour p rovokes; a nd t he a dap t iveness, f or b oth b irds a nd h u mans , o f t hese p art icu lar a v ian-hu man i n terac t ions. O f t he v arious v ar iet ies o f t a meness ,
I
t he o ne If ind mos t i n trigu ing i s
t ha t o fb irds wh ich s how , i n L andsborough Tho mson 's p hrase , " a p os i t ive t endency t o s eek ( hu man ) p resence" .
My K alam c ol labora tor , S ae m Ma jnep
( Ma jnep & Bu l mer , 1 977 ) , d escribes i n s o me d eta il K ala m r eac t ion t o t he f i ve l ocal s pec ies t ha t d o t h is : t he P ied Cha t , Wil l ie Wagta il , F r iend ly Fant a i l a nd Wh i te-w inged Th icket F lycatcher a lready men t ioned , a nd t he Moun ta in Mouse- Warbler ( Crateroscel is r obusta ). O f a l l t hese t he P ied Chat i s much t he most i mportan t , a s Ib el ieve i ti s q u i te w idely i n h igh land N ew Gu inea. Th is b ird i s p resen t a t a l l s easons i n t he ir g ardens a nd , t o ,a l esser e x ten t,
6 8
i n t he g rasslands, p rov ided t ha t af ew b ushes r e ma in t here; c uous b y i t s v isib i l i ty a nd b y i t s s ong.
a nd i ti s c onsp i-
I tu sual ly n ests i n t he s ides o fb anks
a nd d i tches a t t he e dges o f t he g ardens, b u t s o met i mes a ctua l ly i n among t he sweet p otato c rop .
A part f ro m t he c onsp icuous s ing ing o f t he ma le b ird , g en-
e ral ly f ro m a f ree-stand ing b ush o r d ead t ree, b u t s o met i mes a lso d el ivered p art ly i n f l igh t , t he b irds a lso o ccas iona l ly a pproach h u man b eings w ith a lar m n otes o r s hort c hal leng ing b ursts o f s ing ing , when t hey i n trude i n to t heir t err it ory.
When o ne d oes s o, t h is i s i n terpreted a s t he g host o f ad ead f a ther o r
b rother b r ing ing messages, e i ther g ood n ews o f i mpend ing v is i ts o f k in , o r w arn ings o f t he a pproach o f e ne m ies.
K ala m s ay , " I t i s o ur r ad io".
s tress t ha t t hese a pproaches a re n o t e very-day o ccurences. s uspect t ha t t he messages wou ld b e d eva lued .
Imust
I ft hey w ere, I
Un fortuna tely my f i eld n otes
d o n ot i nd icate t o what e x ten t t hey a re s easonal a nd c orrela ted w i th t he b reed ing c ycle, b u t t he ir f requency c an b e g auged f ro m t he f act t ha t Ih ave o n ly o nce i n t wo y ears ' f i eldwork r eceived a message f ro m a Cha t.
That was o n as o me-
wha t embarrassing o ccasion when Iwas s quat t ing i n al a tr ine h u t a nd a h en b ird a ppeared o n t he d oor-screen a nd b r ief ly a ddressed me.
Hav ing n o K ala m
i n terpreter w ith me , Iwas u nable t o d ecode t he message. L ike t he Engl ish Rob in , t he Chat f eeds o n i nsec ts d isturbed b y t he g ardener , a nd i tw i l l a pproach p igs c losely , a s w el l a s h umans. K a la m i nterpret t h is a s ag host t ak ing a h elpfu l i n terest i n t he welfai, o f t he p igs.
S im ilarly , t he
p rotec t ion a f forded t he Wil l ie Wag ta i l , wh ich a lso a ssoc iates w ith p igs, , i s i n p art r a t iona l ised i n t er ms o f t h is b e ing a g ood b ird wh ich h elps l ook a f ter t hese v a luable b easts.
Bu t t he Wil l ie Wagta i l 's r epet i t ive s ong d oes n ot , i ts ee ms,
l end i t sel f t o i n terpreta t ion a s h u man u t terance.
Both t hese s pec ies a re v ery
s uccessfu l i nvaders o f t he man- made e nv ironmen t o ft he H igh lands v al leys; t he Chat , wh ich h as a w ide d istr ibu t ion i n A sia , b eing p resu mably a r ather r ecen t i mm igran t t o N ew Gu inea.
Wh i le t heir p resence must b as ica l ly r ef lec t
b oth s pec ies ' c apac i ty t o e xp lo i t t he c hanged p hysical e nv iron men t , t he d ensit i es o f t heir p opu la t ions i n c erta in a reas , s uch a s t he K a ironk , must , It h ink , a lso r ef lec t h u man p a tronage.
Rec iprocal ly , whether o r n ot t hese t wo b irds
r eal ly " help t he p igs" , t hey d o , p resu mably , a long w ith t he o ther p art ial ly p rotected smal l i nsec t ivores i n t he g ardens, p erfor m a s ign if ican t r ole i n k eep ing i nsect p opu la t ions, i nc lud ing g arden p ests , i n s o me k ind o f e qu il ibr iu m . I n t he f orest i ti s t he Mouse- Warbler t hat h as s o meth ing o f t he s a me s ign if icance a s t he P ied Chat , r ather t han t he Th icket F lyca tcher t hat t he K a la m c al l t he " Fool ish P ied Chat".
Th is n ondescr ip t l i t t le b rown ish b ird s ku lks i n
t he u ndergrow th a nd d oes n ot o pen ly a pproach man .
However i tt ends t o r e-
ma in c lose, i fl argely h idden , a nd t o c al l i n r esponse t o i n truders.
I t s b uzz-
i ng c al ls a nd b r ief b u t v aried b ursts o f wh ist led s ong ( Rand & G il l iard ,1967 : 3 38 ; D ia mond ,1972 :233 ) c an b e i n terpreted b y K ala m e ither a s messages f ro m g hosts , i n for m ing t he m t hat a g a me ma m ma l i s n earby o r c augh t i n at rap , o r a s a n i n terfer ing warn ing t o g a me a n i ma ls t ha t t he h un ter i s a pproach ing. The f an ta ils, e spec ial ly t he F r iend ly Fan ta il ( so n a med , v ery a ppropr iately , b y To m G i l l iard ( Rand & G il l iard ,1967 :387 ) )a re e ven more amb iguous; t heir o verfa m i l iar i ty a nd a l leged c apac ity f or d isturb ing b igger a nd more importan t b irds w i th t he ir a lar m n otes a nd a n t ics , a re n o t welco med , a nd t hey may b e i den t if ied w ith w i tches.
Bu t t heir d ancel ike p os tur ings a nd move men ts , w ith
6 9
s pread ing w ings a nd t a il , a re a dm ired , a nd t he ir s ongs, i n t he K ala m v ersion , a re i ncorpora ted i n to male b eau ty r i tual . The p oor Wh i te-w inged Th icket F lycatcher h as, i n s p ite o f i t s e ndear ing a t te mp ts a t f am il iari ty , n oth ing g o ing f or i t .
K ala m r egard i t s b ehav iour a s
r ather p athet ic , a s e v idence b y t he e p i thet " fool ish" ( or p erhaps "mad" o r " w ild" ) i n i t s n a me.
Is uspect t hat wha t t he u n fortunate b ird l acks i s ar ep-
e rto ire o f c al ls t ha t l end t he mselves t o t ransla t ion i n to K ala m. I n r e lat ion t o h u mans , o r a t l east K ala m h u mans , who a re p repared t o e at a l most a ny f or m o f v er tebrate l i fe f ro m t he f orest , t he b ehav iour o f a l l t hese f orest s pec ies s ee ms n on-adap t ive. c o m mon .
Yet t he o nes Ih ave d escr ibed a re
Ih azard t he g uess t hat wha t t hey a re d o ing i s r espond ing t o man
i n t he s a me way a s t hey r espond t o o ther a nd more c on t inuously r esiden t l arge f auna ( cassowar ies , p erhaps wal lab ies, a nd l a t terly , p igs ) a nd may p erhaps r elate t o t he d isturbance o f i nsects b y t hese c reatures.
Ih ave b een l ed t o
t h is s pecu la t ion b y wa tch ing N ew Z ealand F an ta ils ( Rh ip idura f u l ig inosa ) i n tera ct w i th c a t t le ,
b y r ead ing D av id L ack 's ( 1953:195) i n terpretat ion o f t he g en-
e s is o f European Rob in t a meness i n t he a dvan tages f orest-dwel l ing b irds o bt a in i n w in ter f ro m d isturbance o f g round c over b y man a nd p erhaps o ther a nimals, a nd b y my b r ief r ead ing o f t he l i terature o n t he t a meness o f s uch N ew Z ealand f orest s pec ies a s t he N ew Z ea land Rob in ( Pe t ro ica a ustral is ) , ( e .g . , Bu l ler, 1 967 :27-8 ). The o ther v ar iety o f t a meness t ha t Iw i l l r efer t o i s man ifested i n t he c lass ic c ase b y t he European Swal low ( H irundo r us t ica ) , c ohab i t ing s easonal ly w i th man , a nd r ec iprocat ing h is p atronage b y ar e markable d egree o f i nd if fe rence t o h is p resence, t hough n o t u sua l ly a pproach ing h im o r s ol ic i t ing h is a t ten t ion .
To s o me d egree t 2-c a Greater Wood Swal low ( Arta mus max i mus )
e n joys t h is k ind o f r elat ionsh ip w ith t he K ala m.
This h andso me b ird n ests ,
of ten i n v ery v is ible l oca t ions, h igh i n t he d ead c asuar ina t rees i n K ala m g ardens, s o met i mes q u i te c lose t o h ouses.
A s f ar a s Ik now i ti s n ot s pec if i-
c al ly p rotec ted , o r r estr icted a s f ood ; b u t many K ala m men a nd y ouths a re s uperb t ree-c l i mbers , a nd i f mo t ivated t o d o s o c ou ld u ndoubted ly r ob a l most e very n est.
Yet t hey d o n ot d o s o.
N or d o t hey c hop d own t rees t o g et t he
f l edg l ings, a s Ih ave s een t he m d o i n t he f orest t o g et ma m mals a nd e ven , o n o ne o ccasion , f l edg l ing Dusky L or ies ( Pseudeos f uscata ). a t t itudes t o Wood Swal lows a re v ery p osi t ive.
Their b as ic
Accord ing t o S ae m Ma jnep
( Ma jnep a nd Bu l mer ,1977 :106-8 ) t he v ery c onsp icuous f am ily l i fe o f t h is s pec ies e p ito m ises d o mest ic v irtue.
Good h ousew ives who a bundan t ly a nd u nself-
i sh ly p rov ide f or t he ir f am il ies a nd k in a re l ikened t o t h is b ird ; a nd a r itual p erfor med o ver a n ew ly- marr ied c oup le i nvolves b urn ing o f Wood Swal low f eathers i n t he f i re b y wh ich t hey s i t , a nd p resen tat ion t o t he b r ide o f t he b eak a nd o ther p lu mage o f t he b ird , f or h er t o k eep i n h er n et-bag .
The b ird 's
a l leged c apac i ty t o d ist ingu ish u n fa m il iar f ro m f am i l iar h u mans a s t hey a ppr oach , a nd r eac t w ith e xc i te men t t o t he m , i s i n terpreted a s a warn ing o f d anger t o p eop le who l ive n earby.
Th is a lso i s i n i t s f avour.
A l though t h is i s n ot , It h ink , r eported i n t he l i terature , my s usp ic ion i s t ha t t he Greater Wood Swal low a lso n ests i n d ead t rees w ith in t he f orest. Bu t whether o r n o t t h is i s s o , i t s v ery s uccessfu l c olon isa t ion o f t he g arden l ands o f t he H igh lands may , Iwou ld a rgue , r ef lec t h u man p atronage a s w el l 7 0
a s t he c onven ience o f t he c hanges man h as made t o t he l andscape. A s i n many o ther r eg ions, i n t he H igh lands many more b irds a re s hy t han t a me.
Ic an h ere r efer o n ly b r ief ly t o t he s pec ial i n terpreta t ions t hat K ala m
p u t o n t he b ehav iour o f af ew o ft hese s pec ies. The l or ies, s everal s pec ies o f wh ich a re c o m mon i n t he f orest b u t g eneral ly v ery s hy , a re i n many c ases j ust b irds , b u t c an a lso b e t he s ou ls o f men ( i .e. a du l t males ), e i ther a s t hey l eave t he ir b od ies i n &ea r ns o r , i f Iu nders tand c orrect ly, a f ter d eath.
The
l ongta iled b irds o f p arad ise , S tephan ies ( Astrap ia s tephan iae ) a nd S ick le-b il ls ( Ep i machus f astosus , a nd E . meyer i )a re s im ilarly , t hough a pparen t ly n ot s o c ons isten t ly , i den t if ied w i th t he s ou ls o f wo men . L ack ( 1956 :110 ) p oin ts o u t t hat " ... ( European )... b ird b ooks w rit ten e arl ier t han a c en tury a go s tarted w i th t he e ag le, f or h e was t he K ing o f B irds. Bu t a bou t t he t ime when monarchs w ere t u mbled f ro m t heir t hrones b y b lackc oated r epubl ican i n tel lectuals , t he b ird b ooks f ol lowed s u it , b an ish ing t he e agles t o ab ack p age a s p r im it ive a nd g iving l eadersh ip t o t he c rows".
S ae m
Ma jnep , i n h is l i st ing o f K a ironk b irds , g ives f i rst p lacc t o t he T or ies . b u t a l lows t he e agle a nd h is r e la t ives a p osi t ion o f a l most e qual p ro m inence, a t t he r ear o f t he p rocess ion .
There i s n o d oubt t ha t t he s hyness a nd e lus iveness
o fb oth g roups g rea t ly e nhance K ala m i n terest i n t he m . I n c on trast , t wo s pec ies wh ich c o mb ine s h yness w i th i n ter m i tten t b u t f l eet ing c lose a pproaches t o h u mans a re i den t if ied a s w i tches.
These a re t he
Torren tlark a nd t he S latey Th icket F lyca tcher ( wh ich i s r e markably d if feren t i n i t s b ehav iour f ro m i t s c ongenor , t he Wh ite-w inged Th ick et F lycatcher ). B oth h ave l oud a nd s o met i mes s tart l ing c al ls, s o o nce a ga in v o ice a s w el l a s p hys ica l move men t i s s ign if ican t . o un ters w i th t hese b irds.
Peop le a re g enu inely s cared b y t heir e nc-
The e lusive Moun ta in Duck i s a lso a ssoc iated w i th
w itches a nd w i tchcraf t. F inal ly Imust n ote t ha t a ny b ird , b u t e xpec ial ly a r are a nd s hy b ird , s een o r h eard i n a n u nusual p lace, t ends t o b e g iven a mys t ical i den t if icat ion b y K a la m .
When Il ast r ev isi ted t he K a ironk , i n Apri l- May 1 976 , my g reatest
f r iend , Wpc o f G obne m , t he o ld B ig Man a nd f or mer war l eader , h ad d ied f our mon ths p rev iously.
On my f i rst d ay Is ad ly walked u p t he h i l l , t hrough
h is g ardens , t o v isi t h is g rave.
A s w e c a me c lose t o h is s et t le men t —he h ad
b een b ur ied v ery c lose t o h is h ouse —a b ird c al led. My c o mpan ions a nd Ia rg ued a s t o wha t i t was. It hough t i t was a S hr ike, f or t here was o ne i n t he t rees b elow t he h ouse, a nd S hr ikes a re g rea t m im ics , p roduc ing a n a ston ish ing r ange o f c al ls.
N o, s a id t he Counc il lor , i t was a k abay k l ( f e male o r i m ma ture
male S uperb B ird o f Parad ise, L ophor ina s uperba ) . Th is s ee med t o me h igh ly d oubtfu l , a s t h is s pec ies i s n ot n or mal ly f ound o u tside t he s econdary f orest , t he b oundary o f wh ich was n early h al f am ile away , a nd e ven t here i ti s q u i te r are.
Bu t l a ter t he C ounc il lor s a id , " D idn 't y ou r eal ise , It h ink t ha t was t he
O ld Man g reet ing y ou". There a re, o f c ourse , many o ther d i mens ions o fb irds ' b ehav iour wh ich , f or a ny p art icu lar h u man s oc iety , i n p art d ete m ine t he a t t itudes t owards t he m a nd myst ical v alues p laced u pon t he m.
I n p art icu lar, a s Ih ave i nd icated i n
t h is p aper , b irds ' c al ls a nd s ongs a re v ery f requen t ly g iven s ign if icance b y man .
Bu t what Ih ave a t te mp ted h ere i s merely t o s uggest t hat , importan t
7 1
a s a dap t ion t o h u man i nduced c hange t o t he ma terial e nv iron men t s o c learly i s t o a nu nderstand ing o ft he s tatus o fb ird p opu la t ions t oday , t he r e markable c apac ity o f many s pec ies o fb irds t o a dap t t o man h i mself may a lso b e af eat ure o f s o me s ign if icance. And o n t he h uman s ide , t here a re p erhaps g eneral t endenc ies , p resen t i n many , p erhaps most h u man s oc iet ies , t o r espond a s p a trons t o t hose b irds t ha t s ucceed i n i n i t ia t ing h u manl ike i n teract ion w i th man , a nd t o d evelop s pec ial a t t itudes a nd v alues i n r espect o fb oth c onsp icu ously t a me a nd c onsp icuously s hy , b u t i den t if iable, b ird s pec ies ( c f .
A r m-
s trong 1 958 ).
AC KNO WLEDGE MENTS Iam g ratefu l t o E . G . Turbot t , D . S . B lake a nd J . M. D ia mond f or h elpf u l s uggest ions o n an u mber o f p o in ts; t o A thol l Anderson f or h is e d itor ia l p a t ience , f or t h is p aper was p lanned a nd p ro m ised t wo y ears b efore i tw as w ri t ten ; a nd t o Chr ist ine Hel l iwel l f or g et t ing me t o c o mp lete i ti n t ime f or t he 1 979 ANZAAS C ongress, where i t was d el ivered t o t he " Ethno-orn i thology i n Melanesia" s ess ion o fS ec t ion 2 5 o n 2 4 J anuary , a nd t hus j ust i n t ime t o b e i ncluded i n t h is v olu me.
NOTE 1 .
A s a pp lied t o t he b ehaviour o f w i ld c rea tures, " ta meness" i s ac ur ious, a n thropocen tr ic c oncep t , a nd t o d a te i t s ma in i n terest t o o rn i tho log ists a ppears t o l i e i n t he i n terest ing p rob le ms i tp oses r egard ing t he i n teract i on o fg ene t ic f ac tors a nd l earned t ra i ts i nb ird b ehaviour ( e .g . H ux ley 1 947 a nd o ther a u thors c i ted b y Tho mson 1 964) . As yste ma t ic t rea tmen t o ft h is t op ic i s n o t h ere a t te mp ted , b u t i fi t were , t he f o l low ing f actors migh t n eed c onsidera t ion : q ua li ty , i n tensi ty a nd i m media te c on tex ts o f i n teract ion o r c lose c oexistence w i th man ; d istr ibu tion o f s uch b ehaviours i n t he s pecies a nd i n l oca l p opu la t ions; a pparen t o r p u ta tive mo tiva t ions ( e .g . a ccess t o f ood o r n est ing s i tes ; c ur iosi ty ; d efense o ft err i tory , n ests o r y oung ) ;
a dap t ive f unct ions ( aga in , a dvan tageous a ccess t o o ther-
w ise u nexp lo i tab le f ood , s he lter o fb reed ing s i tes) ;
e t io logy ( e .g . p rist ine
f ear lessness o f many b ird p opu la t ions t ha t h ave n o t p reviously e ncoun tered man o r a ny h u man-sized t errestria l p reda tor , o r , t ha t i n c er ta in c on tex ts o ft heir l i fe , h ave n ever b een f orced t o r ecogn ise t ha t h e i s at hrea t ; t ransference t o man o fb ehaviour e ar lier d eve loped i n r e la t ion t o o ther l arge a n ima ls) ; e x ten t t o wh ich , d e libera te ly o r o therw ise , t his b ehav iour i s s t imu la ted b y man ; a nd t he e x ten t t o which s uch h u man p a tronage i s e l ici ted b y t he b ird ' s own b ehaviour a nd morpho logica l c harac ter .
7 2
REFERENCES Ar mstrong , E . A ., 1 958. Bu l ler , W. L . ,1 967.
The F olk lore o f B irds. Col l ins, L ondon .
B irds o f N ew Z ealand , ( ed ) E . G . Turbot t.
Wh i tco mbe
& To mbs , Christchurch . D ia mond , J . M. , 1 972, Av i fauna o f t he Eastern H igh lands o f N ew Gu inea. Nu t ta l l O rn i tholog ical C lub , Ca mbr idge ( Mass.). Hux ley , J . S . ,1 947 , "Notes o n t he p roble m o fg eograph ica l d if ferences i n t he t a meness o fb irds" , I b is 8 9 :539-52. L ack , D . ,1 953, The L i fe o f t he Rob in , P enguin . L ack , D . ,1 956 , Sw if ts i n a Tower.
Har mondswor th .
3 rd Edn .
Methuen , L andon .
Ma jnep , I . S . &R . Bu l mer, 1 977 , B irds o f my K a la m Coun try.
Auck land
Un iversi ty Press & Ox ford Un ivers i ty Press , Auck land . Rand , A . L . &E . T . G il l iard , 1 967 , Handbook o f N ew Gu inea B irds.
Weid-
e nfe ld & N icolson , L ondon . Tho mson , A . L . ,1 964 , " Ta meness" , i n A . L . Tho mson ( ed ) A N ew D ict ion a ry o f B irds.
N elson , L ondon .
7 3
AV IFAUNA AND MAN R . J . S car let t* ( The s l igh t ly r evised t ex t o f ap aper p resen ted a t t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo logica l A ssocia t ion C onference, Duned in , 1 7-23 May , 1 969 . Ya ldwyn )
S u m mary a dded b y J . C .
A t t he 3 9 th ANZAAS C ongress i n Me lbourne , 1 967 , Ip resen ted a p aper o n "Moa a nd Man i n N ew Z ea land" ( Scar let t 1 974) , a nd t herefore Iomi t a d e ta i led a na lysis o f Moa r ema ins a t t he s i tes d iscussed i n t he p resen t p aper , mere ly n o t ing where t hey a re p resen t .
The t rea tmen t g iven h ere
i s
s e lect ive .
F rom t he many s i tes a ssocia ted w i th Man f ro m which Ih ave n ow d e termined b ird r ema ins, Ih ave s e lected s o me f ro m e ach a rea , b eg inn ing i n t he f ar n or th a nd e nd ing i n S tewar t I s land . A t t he o u tse t , Iw i l l men t ion t he d i f f icu l ty , w hen d ea l ing w i th "wea thered o u t" middens i n s and-dunes a nd b each a reas, o fb e ing c er ta in t ha t e very b one r epresen ted i s c on te mporaneous w i th t he midden , a s b irds s ti l l d ie o n b eaches, o r a re washed u p a s d ead b odies. I n t he l i sts, Ih ave i nc luded f ro m s uch s i tes o n ly t hose s pecies o f wh ich t here i s r easonab le c er ta in ty t ha t t heir p resence was d ue t o t he a ct ivi ty o f Man . b one .
This c an of ten b e i n ferred f ro m t he s ta te o f t he
Mam ma l ian r e ma ins a nd f i sh a re a lso l i sted .
S yste ma tic n a mes a re
g iven o n ly t he f i rst t ime a s pecies i s l i sted a nd f o l low t hose u sed b y t he C heckl i st C om m it tee ( 1970 ) . The r eader i s r eferred t o "Bones f or t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo logist" ( Scar let t 1 972 ) f or c o mmen ts o n t he i den ti f ica t ion o f a rchaeo lo gica l b ones i n N ew Z ea land . Ib eg in i n N or th land .
F ro m S pir i ts Bay i n J anuary 1 961 B ob J o l ly c o l lected
b ones o f : S oo ty S hearwa ter , Puf f inus g riseus N or th I s land Weka , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis g reyi B lack-backed G u l l, L arus d o min icanus N or th I s land K aka , N estor mer idiona l is s ep ten triona lis a s we l l a s af ew u nde term ined b ones o fo ther b irds, Moa a nd s ea l . J ack G ran t- Mack ie i n J anuary 1 966 c o l lected b ones o f : Nor thern B lue P engu in , Eudyptu la minor s ubsp . F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter , P uff inus g avia T o t his l i st Ia dded i n F ebruary 1 968 : Moa , Euryap teryx e xi lis S ea l , ( probably S ou thern F ur S ea l ) , ? Arctocepha lus f orster i
* Published w i th S car le t t ' sg enera l p ermission , b u t w i thou t h im k now ing where i t wou ld a ppear . Ed . 7 5
F ro m To m B ow l ing Bay Trevor Hosk ing i n 1 965, J ack G ran t- Mack ie a nd o thers i n 1 966 a nd 1 967 , a nd J ack a nd myse lf i n F ebruary 1 968 , h ave g a thered many b ones. A c o mposi te l i st o f s pecies f o l lows : t hose w i th a n a ster isk J ack a nd Ia lso g a thered a t t he a d jacen t Wa ikuku B each . * Nor th I s land K iw i , Ap teryx a ustra lis man te l li L i t t le S po t ted K iw i , Ap teryx owen i ( ex t inct i n N or th I s land ) * Nor thern B lue P engu in A lba tross, D io media s p . ( uncerta in i f Roya l o r Wander ing ) *Mo l ly mawk , D io med ia c au ta s ubsp . C ook ' sP e tre l , P terodro ma c ooki * Fa iry P r ion , Pachyp ti la t ur tur Broad-bi l led P r ion , Pachyp ti la v i t ta ta Var ious o ther p r ions ( Pacyp ti la s pp . )n o t d e term inab le t o s pecies * Soo ty S hearwa ter B u l ler ' sS hearwa ter , P uf f inus b u l ler i * F lut ter ing S hearwa ter * Shor ttai led S hearwa ter , P uf f inus t enuirostr is L i t t le S hearwa ter ( ? Nor th I sland s ubsp .) P uf f inus a ssim i lis ? h aurak iensis D iving P e tre l , P e lecanoides u r ina tr ix G anne t , S u la b assana s erra tor P ied S hag , Pha lacrocorax v arius B lack S hag , P ha lacrocorax c arbo n ovaeho l land iae *Whi te Heron , Egret ta a lba modesta * Roya l S poonbi l l , P la ta lea l eucorodia r egia ( associa t ion w i th midden u nc er ta in ) Grey Duck , Anas s uperci liosa O ther d ucks, n ot d e ter mined * Large Harr ier , t he N or th I s land f orm o f C ircus e y lesi ( ex tinct ) * N .Z . Q uai l , C oturn ix n ovaezea landiae ( recen t ly e x t inct ) * Nor th I sland Weka L i t t le Weka , G a l lira l lus minor ( ex t inc t ) F a l la ' s Ra i l , C ape l lira l lus k aramu ( ex t inct ) N or th I s land Takahe , N o torn is man te l l i man te l li ( ex t inct ) * Var iab le Oysterca tcher , Hae ma topus u n ico lor Banded Dot tere l , C haradr ius b icinc tus * B lack-backed Gu ll * Red-bi l led G u l l , L arus n ovaeho l landiae s copu linus Casp ian Tern , Hydroprogne c asp ia Wh i te-fron ted Tern , S terna s tr ia ta * N .Z . P igeon , H e miphaga n ovaesee land iae *Kakapo , S tr igops h abrop ti lus Nor th I s land K aka R ed-crowned Parakee t , C yanora mphus n ovaeze land iae Morepork , N inox n ovaesee landiae Barn Ow l , Ty to a lba s ubsp . ( severa l i nd ividua ls, a ssocia tion w i th midden u ncer ta in ) B e l lbird , An thornis me lan .ura Prosthe madera n ovaesee land iae * Nor th I s land K okako , Ca l laeas c inerea w i lson i
7 6
* N .Z . C row , P a laeocorax mor ioru m ( ex t inct ) Moa , D inorn is s tru thoides Moa , Euryap teryx e xi lis Moa , Euryap teryx c ur tus ( o ther s pecies o f Moa h ave a lso b een f ound a t T o m Bow l ing Bay) Po lynesian Dog o r K ur i , C an is f a mi liaris * Po lynesian R a t o r K iore , Ra t tus e xu lans * Tua tara , S phenodon p uncta tus S ea l a nd f i sh n o t d e termined Th is g ives a t o ta l o f4 2 p lus b irds, o ther t han Moa , a ssoc ia ted w i th Man , f or To m B ow l ing B ay . To t hose a lready l i sted f or Wa ikuku B each c an b e a dded : Bu l ler ' s Mo l ly mawk , D io medea b u l ler i Harr ier , C ircus a pproximans g ou ld i ? Eastern Bar-ta i led Godw i t , ?L imosa l appon ica b auen i ? Skua , ? Stercorarius s p . B lack-fron ted T ern , Ch lidon ias h ybrida a lbostr ia tus at o ta l o f 2 6 c er ta in a nd t wo p robable s pecies. F ro m t he i mpor tan t s i te o f Houhora
N 6/4, where f or f i ve e n joyable weeks
Ih elped w i th t he e xcava t ion , t he n u mber o f s pecies was l ess n u merous. A s I h ave n o t e xa mined t he b ones, o ther t han t he Moa , i n d e tai l, Iw i l l men tion o n ly t he New Z ea land Swan C ygnus s u mn .erensis ( t he p resence o ft his e x t inct b ird a t Houhora e x tended t he k nown r ange g rea t ly a s t he f ur thest n or th i th ad b een f ound p rev iously was i n Hawkes Bay ) a nd t he e x t inct N .Z . C row . The noas a t H ouhora were Ano ma lop teryx d idi form is ( rare) , Euryap teryx c ur tus a nd E . e x i lis ( bo th a bundan t ) , E . g eranoides ( rare ) , D inorn is s tru thoides a nd D . g igan teus ( rare a s b ones, b u t many o ft he f i sh-hooks were made f ro m D inornis) . C 14 d a tes r ange f ro m 5 56 ± 5 5 y ears B .P . ( abou t 1 394 A .D . )t o 7 96 . ±5 6 y ears B .P. ( abou t 154 A .D .) . Moving d own t o t he C oro mande l Pen insu la , t he s pecies r epresen ted a t t he v ar ious s i tes a t Op i to a nd S arah 's Gul ly a re : ( 0 =O p i to ; S .G . =S arah ' sG u l ly) L i t t le S pot ted K iw i ( ex t inct i n N or th I s land )
O .
Nor thern B lue P engu in
0 .
S .G .
A lba tross, D io medea s p .
O .
S .G .
Mo l lymawk , D iomedea c au ta s ubsp . Mo l ly mawk , D io medea s p .
0 . 0 .
S .G . S .G .
Grey-faced P e tre l , P terodro ma macrop tera g ou ldi F a iry Pr ion
S .G . 0 .
Pr ion , Pachyp ti la s p . F lesh-foo ted S hearwa ter , P uf f inus c arneipes h u l lianus
O .
S oo ty S hearwa ter
0 .
F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter
O . 7 7
S .G . S .G .
S .G .
O ther s hearwa ters, Puf f inus s pp .
O .
S .G .
Wh i te-faced S tor m p e tre l , Pe lagodro ma mar ina maor iana
0 .
N or thern D iv ing P e tre l
0 .
S .G.
O ther p e tre ls, n o t d e ter m ined
0 .
S .G .
Var ious s hags, n o t s pecif ica l ly i den t if ied
0 .
Paradise Duck , Tadorna v ar iega ta Grey Duck
S .G . S .G .
0 .
N .Z . S hove ler , Anas r hyncho tis v ar iega ta
0 .
Duck , Anas s p .
O .
Nor th I sland Weka
0 .
S t i lt , H i man topus s p .
S .G . S .G . S .G . S .G .
B lack-backed Gu l l
O .
N . Z.P igeon
O .
North I s land Kaka
0 .
S.G . S .G .
P ip i t , An thus n ovaesee landiae
S .G .
Tui
S.G .
Nor th I sland K okako
S.G .
N .Z . Crow ( ex t inct )
0 .
S .G .
Moa , D inorni s g igan teus
0 .
S .G .
Moa , D inorn is s tru thoides
O .
S .G .
Moa , Euryap teryx g eranoides
O .
Moa , Euryap teryx e xi l is
0 .
E lephan t S ea l , Mirounga l eon inus
O .
S ou thern F ur S ea l
0 .
Kur i
O .
S .G .
K iore
O .
Tua tara
O .
S .G .
S napper , C hrysophrys a ura tus
0 .
S .G .
Wha le , n o t d e ter m ined t o g enus
O .
At ota l o f 2 0 b irds, o ther t han Moa , f or t he Op i to s i tes a nd 2 3 f or S arah ' s G u l ly . F or S k ipper ' s midden , Op i to ( N 4 0/3) , we h ave a C 14 d a te o f 6 54 ± 5 0 y ears B .P . ( abou t 1 296 A .D . )a nd f or t he ma in s i te a t S arah ' s Gu l ly , ( N 4 0/9) , a bou t a mi le away o ver a h i l l, d a tes o f 6 21 ± 5 0 y ears B .P . ( abou t 1 329 A .D . ) a nd 6 64 + 5 0 y ears B .P . ( abou t 1 286 A .D . )s how ing t ha t t he t wo ma in s i tes were c on te mporaneous. F or Taranak i , Ic hoose s i te N 1 28/3 , Kaupokonui , e xcava ted b y A l istair Buist a nd a ssocia tes.
N 1 29/77 , Ohawe , a lso e xcava ted b y A listair a nd t he
a d jacen t Te Ranga tapu s i tes, a lso c on ta ined much b ird b one , i nclud ing Moa , b u t t ime n ecessi ta tes t heir omission . Nor th I s land K iw i L i t t le S po t ted K iw i ( ex t inct i n Nor th I s land ) Nor thern B lue Pengu in ( ? Fa iry) Pr ion D iv ing P e tre l (?B lack ) S hag S hag , Pha lacrocorax s p . S po t ted S hag , S tictocarbo p uncta tus p uncta tus Grey Duck 78
B lue Duck , Hy meno la i mus ma lacorhynchos F our o ther d ucks ( one a t ea l o r s caup ) n o t i den t if ied t o s pecies L arge Harr ier ( ex t inc t ) G ian t Ra i l , Ap torn is o tidi for mis ( ex t inct ) Hodgen t s Ra i l , Cape l lira l lus h odgen i ( ex t inct ) N or th I s land Takahe ( ex t inct ) B lack-backed Gu l l ( ? Red-bi l led) G u l l ( i t i s i mpossible t o s epara te t he Red a nd B lack-bi l led G u l ls o n a ny b ones o ther t han t he b i l l ) N . Z .P igeon Kakapo Nor th I sland K aka R ed-crowned Parakee t Tu i Huia , He tera locha a cu tirostr is ( recen t ly e x t inct ) Nor th I s land K okako N .Z . C row ( ex t inct ) Moa , D inorn is g igan teus Moa , D inornis s tru thoides Moa , D inorn is g aze l la Moa , Pachyorn is mapp in i Moa , Pachyorn is s ep ten triona lis Moa , ? Euryap teryx g eranoides K ur i K iore S ou thern F ur S ea l F ish ( no t i den ti f ied ) At o ta l o f 2 8 b irds, o ther t han Moa . Ap torn is, a nd H uia . n or thern s i tes.
The Ohawe s i te a lso c on ta ined Takahe,
No te t ha t f ewer s pecies o f P e tre ls were f ound t han i n more
There i s aC 14 d a te f or Kaupokonu i o f 5 70 y ears B .P . ( abou t
1 380 A .D .) . The f ina l N or th I sland s i te i s N 1 60/50 , Pare ma ta , o n t he We l l ing ton c oast , e xcava ted b y J ane t Davidson a nd E . D . S inc la ir a nd a sma l l amoun t b y t he l a te Wa l ter Carkeek .
The b ones a re i n t he Na t iona l Museu m , We l l ing ton .
Nor th I sland K iw i L i t t le S po t ted K iw i ( ex t inct i n Nor th I sland ) Nor thern B lue Penguin F iord land C rested P engu in , Eudyp tes p achyrhynchus p achyrhynchus ( ?Erect-crested ) P engu in , Edyp tes p achyrhynchus ? sc la teri S ou thern C rested Grebe , Podiceps c rista tus a ustra lis
( t his i s t he t hird
o ccurrence k nown t o me o ft his i n a ssocia t ion w i th Man .
Trevor
Hosk ing h ad i ti n h is Whaka moenga C ave s i te , Taupo ( see L eahy 1 976) , a nd i t was f ound a t Marfe l l Beach , L ake Grass mere ) Mo l ly mawk , D io media c au ta s ubsp . ( ? Bu l ler 's ) Mo l ly mawk ( ?Broad-bi l led) Prion F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter ( bo th P . g avia a nd t he c lose ly a l lied Hut ton 's S hearwa ter P . h u t ton i a re f ound o n t he We l l ing ton c oast )
7 9
S hearwa ter , P uf f inus s p . B lack S hag ( ?L i t t le ) S hag , P ha lacrocorax ? me lano leucos S hag , P ha lacrocorax s p . S pot ted S hag N .Z . Swan , C ygnus s u mnerensis ( ex t inct ) N .Z . G oose , Cnemiornis c a lci trans ( ex t inct ) Grey Duck B lue Duck Duch ( t ea l o r s caup ) , Anas s p . Duck , Anas s p . Harr ier L arge Harr ier ( ex t inct ) F a lcon , F a lco n ovaesee land iae Banded Ra i l, Ra l lus p h i lippensis Nor th I s land Weka L i t t le Weka ( ex t inct ) ( ? F a l la ' s ) Rai l ( ex t inct ) Nor th I s land Takahe ( ex t inct ) G ian t Ra i l ( ex t inct ) Oysterca tcher , Hae ma topus s p . ( ? An tarct ic) S kua , S tercorar ius s kua ? maccor mick i B lack-backed Gu l l N . Z .P igeon Kakapo Nor th I s land K aka Red-crowned Parakee t Parakee t , C yanora mphus s p . L augh ing Ow l , S ce log laux a lbi facies ( probab ly e x t inc t ) Tu i Nor th I s land K okako N . Z.Crow ( ex t inct ) Moa , Eurap teryx g ravis ( represen ted b y a "r ee l ,'p ossibly i mpor ted f ro m Wa irua Bar ) Moa , Euryap teryx g eranoides Moa , D inorn is g :yan teus Moa , Di norn is s tru thoides Moa , D inornis n ovaezea land iae Moa , Pachyornis mapp in i Moa , Ano ma lop teryx d idi formis K ur i K iore S ou thern F ur S ea l ( probab ly o ther s ea ls a re r eprese ted a lso ) C e tacean , n o t d e ter m ined Tua tara To ta l b irds, o ther t han Moa , 4 3 .
There i s aC 14 d a te o f 5 47 ± 4 8 y ears
B .P . ( abou t 1 413 A .D .) f or Pare ma ta .
J udg ing f ro m t he v arious l eve ls r e-
p or ted b y J ane t Davidson , t he s i te was p robab ly o ccup ied o ver a c onsiderab le p er iod , a nd t his s ing le d a te i s n o t t o b e t aken a s i nd ica t ing e i ther t he e ar l iest o r l a test o ccupa tion o ft he s i te . 8 0
Turn ing n ow t o t he S ou th I sland , Marfe l l B each , S2 9/8 , i s a n a rea o f s evera l a cres o f s and d une a t t he n or th-east c orner o f L ake Grass mere , Mar b orough .
Ar t ifacts o f a pparen t ly e ar ly Maor i manufacture were c o l lected b y
C . H . R obson , a s we l l a s Moa b ones, i n t he v icin i ty i n t he 1 870s.
Much o f
t he c oastline west f ro m C ape C a mpbe l l was o ccup ied b y b o th e ar ly ( Moah un ter ) a nd l a ter Maor i s e t t le men ts.
I n t he 1 940s J i m Ey les a nd R oger Duf f ,
a nd l a ter E l lio t Dawson , L ew G urr , a nd J ack a nd Ruby Bri t ton c o l lected b one• f rom t he d unes a t Marfe l l B each . I n J u ly 1 952 , Iwas, s o f ar a s Ik now , t he f i rst t o u ncover p ar t o ft he a ctua l a sh midden l ayer . Br ief ly t he s equence i s a s f o l lows: a d a mp f i ne s ea-grave l l ayer , o n wh ich when e xposed b y w ind e rosion , r o t ten s ke le tons o f Moa a re o ccasiona l ly f ound .
These c rumb le a t
t he t ouch . O ver t his t he d unes a re f ormed . B e tween t he g rave l a nd t he e ar l iest o ccupa tion l ayer , o ccasiona l b ones o ccur i nclud ing t hose o fD inorn is r obustus, wh ich a pparen t ly d ied o u t b efore man c a me t o t he d istr ict , a s s o f a r e ma ins o ft h is s pecies h ave n o t b een f ound i n t he h u man o ccupa tiona l l eve ls. The midden v ar ies, f ro m a s ha l low 6 o r 8i nches i n t he p ar t where If i rst e xcava ted ( here t he b ones were i n "p ocke ts" ,w i th l arge a reas o f s ter i le a sh b e tween t he m ) , t o a much more h eavi ly c oncen tra ted d eposi t , t wo t o t hree f ee t t h ick , w i th a n u neven b ase, b u t al eve l t op .
Above t his a re d unes o fv ar :
i ng h eigh ts n ow l arge ly o vergrown b y Marra m g rass.
These c on ta in b one ,
h aangi a nd a r t ifacts. S ome a t l east o ft he o vens a re o f Moa-hun ter o r ig in , a s i ndica ted b y t he Moa b ones f ound a round t hem. I n t he f o l low ing l i st Ih ave i nc luded b ones f ro m t he s and a bove t he midden which Ic onsider t o h ave b een d er ived f ro m t he o ccupa tion l ayer b y w ind p lant a t ion . S ou th I s land K iw i , Ap teryx a ustra lis a ustra lis N or thern B lue P engu in F iord land Crested P engu in S ou thern C rested Grebe N .Z . Dabch ick , Podiceps r ufopectus Mo l ly mawk , D io med ia s p . Wh i te-headed P e tre l , P terodro ma l esson i P e tre l , P terodro ma s p . F a iry Pr ion Pr ion , P achyp t i la s p . S oo ty S hearwa ter F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter S hor ttai led S hearwa ter S hearwa ter , P uf f inus s p . Wh i te-faced S tor m p e tre l D iv ing P e tre l N .Z . P e lican , P e licanus c onsp ici l la tus n ovaezea land iae ( ex t inct ) B lack S hag L i t t le S hag , Pha lacrocorax me lano leucos b revirostr is S hag , P ha locrocorax s p . K ing S hag , L eucocarbo c aruncu latus c aruncu latus S pot ted S hag N .Z . Swan ( ex t inct ) N .Z . G oose ( ex t inct ) 8 1
Paradise Duck Grey Duck Grey Tea l , Anas g ibberi frons g raci lis Brown Tea l, Anas a uck landica c h loro tis N .Z . S caup , Ay thya n ovaesee lan .d iae F insch ' s Duck , Euryanas f ins c h i ( ex t inct ) Austra lian Musk Duck , B iziura l oba ta Merganser , Mergus s p . ( ex t inct ) s evera l o ther d ucks, Anas s pp . N .Z . E ag le , Harpagorn is moorei ( ex t inct ) Harr ier L arge Harr ier , C ircus e y lesi ( ex t inct ) F a lcon N .Z . Q ua i l ( recen t ly e x t inct ) B anded R ai l Weka , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis s ubsp . L i t t le Weka ( ex t inct ) Hodgen t s Rai l ( ex t inct ) S ou th I sland Takahe, Notorn is man te l l i h ochste t teri G ian t Ra i l ( ex t inct ) s evera l sma l l r ai ls, Ra l lus s p . ( ex t inct ) N .Z . C oo t , Nesopha lar is c ha tha mensis ( ex t inct ) ( ?Asia t ic) Wh i mbre l , Nu men ius p haeopus ? v ar iega tus Eastern Bartai led Godw i t S n ipe , C oenocorypha s p . P ied S t i l t , H i man topus h i man topus l eucocepha lus S kua , S tercorar ius s kua s ubsp . B lack-backed G u l l Red-bi l led Gu l l Casp ian Tern Wh i te-fron ted Tern Tern , S terna s p . N . Z.P igeon Kakapo S ou th I s land K a .ka , N estor merid iona lis mer id iona lis Sma l l K aka , Nestor s p . ( ex t inct ) Red-crowned Parakee t Parakee t , C yanora mphus s p . Morepork L augh ing Ow l ( probably e x t inct ) S ou th I s land R ob in , Pe troica a ustra lis a ustra lis Tu i S add leback , Phi lesturnus c aruncu la tus S ou th I s land K okako , Ca l laeas c inerea c inerea S ou th I s land Thrush , Turnagra c apensi s c apensis N .Z . C row ( ex t inct ) Moa , Emeus c rassus Moa , Euryap teryx g ravis Moa , Ano ma lop teryx d idi for m is Kur i 8 2
K iore S ou thern F ur S ea l E lephan t S ea l Tua tara F ish , u niden ti f ied At o ta l o f 7 1 p lus b irds, o ther t han Moa .
The g rea t n u mber o f wa ter
f ow l i s e asi ly e xp lained b y t he p rox imi ty o f t he L ake , b u t t he n u merous b ush b irds i ndica te e x tensive f orest c over much c loser t o t he s i te t han i s t he c ase t oday . By c on trast w i th t his e x tensive l i st , t ha t f ro m t he o n ly S ou th I s land West C oast s i te s o f ar e xcava ted , t he Heaphy R iver e nca mp men t ( S 7 /1) i s v ery s hor t , wh ich i s r a ther s urprising when o ne c onsiders t he l arge n u mbers o f s ubfossi l s pecies i n t he a d jacen t l imestone c aves. K iw i , Ap teryx s p . S ou thern B lue P engu in , Eudyp tu la minor minor F iord land C rested P enguin Mo l ly mawk , D io media c au ta s ubsp . A l lied S hearwa ter , Puf f inus a ssimi lis s ubsp . ( one b one) P ied S hag ( s ma l l) S hag , Pha lacrocorax s p . N . Z.P igeon S ou th I s land K aka Sma ll K aka ( ex t inct ) Tu i Moa , Ano ma lop teryx d idi formis Moa , ?D inorn is r obustus K ur i S ou thern F ur S ea l The a bsence o f Ra t i n t he midden was s tr ik ing . There was p len ty o f i ti n t he a d jacen t c aves. E leven b irds p resen t , a par t f ro m Moa . Our o ne C 14 d a te f ro m t he s i te , 5 73 ± 7 0 y ears B .P . ( abou t 1 377 A .D . )which c a me f ro m a s he l l s a mp le , r epresen ts n ei ther t he e ar liest n or t he l a test p hase o f o ccupa tion , b u t , It h ink , s omewhere a bou t t he midd le o f i t . S i te S 4 9/20 , Wha ler ' s Bay Cave , K aikoura , e xcava ted b y t he Can terbury Museu m Archaeo logica l S ocie ty main ly i n 1 968 , i s o f f a ir ly l a te o ccupa t ion . f auna l c on ten t was i den t if ied a s f o l lows: S ou th I s land K iw i L i t t le S po t ted K iw i B lue P engu in , Eupyp tu la minor s ubsp . F iord land C rested P engu in A lba tross, D io medea s p . Bu l ler ' s Mo l ly mawk Mo l ly mawk , D io medea c au ta s ubsp . Pe tre l , P terodro ma ? h ypo leuca s ubsp . Wh i te-ch inned P e tre l, Proce l lar ia a equinoctia lis s teadi S oo ty S hearwa ter ( ? H u t ton 's ) S hearwa ter , P uf f inus? h u t toni
8 3
The
D iving P e tre l ( ?B lack ) S hag L i t t le S hag S po t ted S hag Swan , C ygnus s p . ( t h is i s ap uzz le , i ti s n ei ther t he e x t inct C . s u mnerensis n or t he B lack Swan C .a tra tus) Paradise Duck Grey Duck Grey Tea l Harr ier N .Z . Quai l ( recen t ly e x t inct ) Weka , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis s ubsp . Pukeko , Porphyr io p orphyr io me lano tus B lack-backed Gu l l ( ? Red-bi l led) Gu l l B lack-fron ted Tern Wh i te-fron ted Tern S ou th I s land K aka L augh ing Ow l ( probably e x t inct ) S ou th I sland Rob in Tu i Moa , f rag men ts o f s ubfossi l ma ter ia l , n o t i den ti f ied t o g enus K ur i K iore S ou thern F ur S ea l F ish , v ar ious s pecies At o ta l o f 3 0 b irds.
L ess c er ta in ly a ssocia ted w i th t he midden were b ones
o ft he Reef Heron , Egre t ta s acra c o l lec ted b y Owen Wi lkes i n 1 963 . S i te S 8 4/46, Bro m ley , Chr istchurch , a sma l l Moa- h un ter o ccupa t ion a rea ( It h ink f a ir ly l a te) e xcava ted b e tween 1 963 a nd 1 965 b y t he C an terbury Museu m Archaeo log ica l S ociety, h ad b ones o f t he f o l low ing s pecies r epresen ted . s i te l i es o n t he n or th s ide o ft he Hea thco te e stuary , i n d unes. n o d ucks o r p e tre ls were p resen t . ( ?B lue o r Whi te-f lippered) Penguin , E udyp tu la s p . ( ?Erect-crested ) Pengu in B lack S hag S po t ted S hag N .Z . Quai l ( recen t ly e x tinct ) Weka , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis s ubsp . Austra lian Coo t , F u lica a tra a ustra lis N . Z.P igeon ?Fernbird , ?Bowd ler ia p uncta ta Moa , Euryap teryx g ravis K ur i S ou thern F ur S ea l C e tacean , b ones n o t d e ter mined a s t o g enus At o ta l o f n ine b irds o ther t han Moa .
8 4
The
Ra ther s trange ly,
S i te S 1 11/1, Dash ing Rocks, T imaru , c on ta ined t he f o l low ing s pecies: A lba tross, D io media s p . ( ?F lu t ter ing ) S hear v va ter B lack S hag Grey Duck sma l l Duck ( at ea l o r s caup ) , Anas s p . N . Z .Q uai l ( recen t ly e x t inct ) Sma l l K aka ( ex tinct ) ? Tu i Moa , t oo b roken f or i den t i f ica t ion K ur i S ea l , n o t i den t if ied At o ta l o f e igh t b irds, o ther t han Moa . An i n land r ock s he lter , n ow u nder t he wa ter o f B en more Da m , S1 09/9, S hepherd 's C reek I , Wa i tak i G orge , was e xcava ted b y Grae me Mason a nd myse lf i n l a te 1 964 .
J an H ja m 4 a ssisted f or t wo d ays.
Mo t t led Pe tre l , P terodro ma i nexpecta ta Parad ise Duck G rey Duck B lue Duck Duck , Anas s p . F a lcon N .Z . Quai l ( recen t ly e x t inct ) Weka , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis s ubsp . L i t t le Weka ( ex t inct) B lack-backed Gu l l B lack-fron ted Tern Whi te-fron ted Tern S ou th I s land K aka Sma l l K aka ( ex t inct ) R ed-crowned Parakee t P arakee t , Cyanora mphus s p . L augh ing Ow l ( probably e x t inct ) P ip i t S ou th I sland R ob in S add leback S ou th I s land K okako S ou th I sland Thrush Moa , Euryap teryx g ravis, e ggshe l l o n ly , ma in ly i n t he moa n ests we f ound . P ossibly a n te-da tes Man , a l though i ta ppeared t o b e c on te mporaneous w i th t he l ower o ccupa t ion . Moa , Mega lap teryx d id inus, b one a nd e ggshe l l K ur i K iore Ba t , s pecies n o t y e t d e ter m ined F ish , n o t d e ter m ined The p aradise Duck , Whi te-fron ted Tern , a nd B lack-backed Gu l l were s ti l l p resen t d ur ing o ur v isi t .
Even i fs o me o ft he b ush b irds f ound were b rough t 8 5
f ro m e lsewhere a s i s p ossib le , t he c lima te must h ave d if fered v ast ly f ro m t he a r id , d essica ted r eg ion i ti s t oday .
S parrow , Go ldf inch , S ong Thrush ,
a nd B lackbird h ad d ied i n t he r ock s he l ter a lso , a nd t heir b ones were p resen t o n t he s urface a nd j ust i n to l ayer 1 . B ones o fS k ink a nd G ecko were a lso p resen t , b u t t hey were p len t ifu l a s l i v ing a n i ma ls i n t he r ocks n ear t he s i te , a nd t heir p resence may h ave n o th ing t o d o w i th Man .
I t i s p ossib le t ha t Man 's
o ccupa t ion was s easona l a nd t ha t t he c onsiderab le d ep th o f Euryap teryx n est ma ter ia l , which c on ta ined much d ung a nd b roken e ggshe l l , was d eposi ted d ur ing a p er iod o ft he y ear when Man was a bsen t . S i te S 1 36/2 , O to tara , af ew mi les f ro m t he s ea n ear T esche maker ' s , N or th O tago , e xcava ted b y Michae l Tro t ter , h ad b ones o ft he f o l low ing s pecies: Ye l low-eyed Pengu in , Megadyp tes a n t ipodes Pr ion , Pachyp ti la s p . D iv ing Pe tre l (?B lack ) S hag S hag , Pha lacrocorax s p . N . Z.Swan ( ex t inct ) N .Z . Goose ( ex t inct ) Paradise Duck Grey Duck Duck ( t ea l) , Anas s p . Duck , Anas s p . N . Z.S hove ler Harr ier F a lcon N .Z . Q uai l ( recen t ly e x t inct ) Pukeko S ou th I s land Takahe B lack-bi l led G u l l Wh i te-fron ted Tern N . Z.P igeon Red-crowned Parakee t Morepork L augh ing Ow l ( probably e x tinct ) Moa , Euryap teryx g ravis Kur i K iore At ota l o f 2 3 b irds, o ther t han Moa .
The C 14 d a te f or t he s i te i s 5 61 ±
3 2 y ears B .? . ( abou t 1 389 A .D . ) . Duckwor th Midden , L ong I s land , Dusky S ound , i n wha t a ppears t o h ave b een a n o ccasiona l s i te u sedby c oast ing Maori , was s i tua ted o n ar ock p la tfor m . The midden was p ract ica l ly a l l a long t he l i p , among t rees which h ad s ince g rown t here , a bou t 5 0 f ee t u p f ro m t he s ea , w i th f orest b e low a nd s he l tered b y ah igh c li f f a t t he b ack .
I t was f ound b y J ohn Ha l l-Jones o n N ige l Duckwor th ' s
March 1 965 t r ip , when a f ew b ones were r e moved , a nd i n March 1 966 , o n Duckwor th ' ss econd e xpedi t ion , was e xcava ted u nder my s upervision . The b ones r epresen ted were :
8 6
S ou thern B lue P engu in F iord land Crested Pengu in F a iry P r ion Pr ion , Pachyp ti la s p . F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter D iving P e tre l P ied S hag L i t t le S hag N .Z . Q ua i l ( recen t ly e x t inct ) Western Weka , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis a ustra l is N . Z.P igeon S ou th I sland K aka S ou th I s land K okako Moa , Euryap teryx g ravis, o ne p iece o f f e mur a nd t wo p ieces o ft ibio-tarsus, p robably a h aunch t aken r ound f ro m S ou th land . K uri K iore S ou thern F ur S ea l F ish , n o t i den ti f ied At ota l o f 1 3 b irds, e xc lud ing t he Moa .
Most o f t he m , e xcep t t he Quai l ,
wh ich b eca me e x t inct l ast c en tury , c an b e f ound i n Dusky S ound t oday .
F ro m
t he a ppearance o f t he b ones, t hey migh t h ave b een k i l led a f ew d ays b efore e xcava t ion . The Na tive I s land midden , S1 89/1 , S tewar t I sland , h as n o t y e t b een e xc ava ted .
The f o l low ing b ones were s urface c o l lected b y myse lf i n 1 954 a nd
b y Baden Norris i n 1 961 a nd 1 963 .
They i ndica te t he r ich p o ten tia l o f t he s i te .
S ou thern B lue P engu in Ye l low-eyed P enguin Mo l ly mawk , D io media c au ta s ubs p . ( ?Bu l ler ' s ) Mo l ly mawk Mo l ly mawk , D io media s p . Broad-bi l led Pr ion S oo ty S hearwa ter F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter S ou thern D iv ing P e tre l , P e lecanoides u r ina trix c ha tha mensis L i t t le S hag S tewar t I s land S hag , L eucocarbo c aruncu la tus c ha lcono tus B lue S hag , S t ictocarbo p uncta tus s teadi N . Z.Swan ( ex tinct ) ( ?Brown ) Tea l S tewar t I s land Weka , Ga l lira l lus a ustra lis s cot ti L i t t le Weka ( ex t inct ) B lack-backed Gu l l R ed-bi l led Gu l l Sma l l K aka ( ex t inct ) L augh ing Ow l ( probably e x t inct ) N .Z . C row ( ex t inct ) Moa , Euryap teryx g ravis K ur i S ou thern F ur S ea l 8 7
K ur i S ou thern F ur S ea l The b irds t ota l 2 1 s pecies, p lus t hree more n o t a sy e t i den t if ied . The f i na l s i te i s O ld Neck , S1 89/4, S tewar t I s land .
The f o l low ing b ones
were s urface c o l lected f ro m midden ma ter ia l wea thered o u t f ro m t he s and d une b y myse lf i n 1 954, Baden N orr is i n 1 962 , O lga S anson i n 1 964 a nd b y L es L ockerbie i n 1 959 .
Ih ave n ot s een L es ' se xcava ted b ones a s y e t , e xcep t t he
Moa , b u t e xpect t ha t t hey w i l l a dd s t i l l more s pecies t o t he l i st . S tewar t I s land K iw i , Ap teryx a ustra lis l awryi S ou thern B lue P engu in Ye l low-eyed P enguin F iord land C rested P engu in Mo l ly mawk , D io media s p . F a iry Pr ion Broad-bi l led Pr ion S oo ty S hearwa ter F lu t ter ing S hearwa ter S hearwa ter , P uf f inus s p . S ou thern D iv ing P e tre l L i t t le S hag S tewar t I s land S hag B lue S hag ( ?Brown ) Tea l Duck , Anas s p . B anded Ra i l S tewar t I s land Weka L i t t le Weka ( ex t inct ) Var iab le Oysterca tcher B lack-backed Gu l l N . Z.P igeon S ou th I s land K aka Sma l l K aka ( ex t inct ) S ou th I s land K okako Moa , Euryap teryx n .s p ., a bundan t , f ound a lso i n t he Murih iku a rea o f t he S ou th I s land K ur i K iore S ou thern F ur S ea l S ea L ion , O tar ia h ookeri L ockerbie ' se xcava ted Moa c on ta ined s o me Eurap teryx g ravis, a bundan t ma ter ia l o ft he n ew sma l l Euryap teryx a nd o ne f e mur o f Ano ma lop teryx d idif ormis. The t o ta l o fb ird s pecies, o ther t han Moa , i s 2 5, p lus s ix o thers n o t a s y e t i den ti f ied . Ab ird r are ly f ound i n a ssocia tion w i th Man , t he G ian t Rai l , Ap torn is o tid iformis, was r ecorded b y v on Haast a t Moa P o in t Cave , Redc li f f s. A f ew b ones o ccurred i n middens a d jacen t t o t he Cave , a nd Michae l Tro t ter f ound 8 8
s ome i n h is K a tik i e xcava t ions.
Thus we h ave a p icture o f man e xp loi t ing a l l
t he a n ima l r esources o f h is e nviron men t , i nclud ing s he l lf ish , n o t men t ioned i n t his p aper , b u t a bundan t i n many o ft he s i tes.
The c o mp le men tary r esources,
s uch a s f ru i ts a nd b erries, a s we l l a s v ege tab les, r are ly l eave t races, e xcep t i n t he f orm o fp i ts, wh ich i n many c ases were p resu mab ly f or s torage .
A t
S arah 's G u l ly , f or i nstance , we f ound c o mpara t ive ly s ha l low r ectangu lar p i ts, w i th d ra ins, a nd t he b o t to ms c overed w i th f i ne whi te s he l l s and f ro m t he b each , which p robab ly s erved s uch a p urpose . The b e l l s haped Rua a re more o bviously s torage p i ts. Wha t i s c er ta in , f ro m t he f auna l r e ma ins, i s t ha t t he P o lynesian p opu la tion o ft hese i s lands f ound a l most e very b ird a nd a n ima l e d ib le . Ih ave n o t a t te mp ted i n t h is p aper t o d ea l w i th t he p ropor tions o ft he d if feren t b irds i n t he r espect ive s i tes, e ven where Ih ave s uch d a ta , wh ich i s n o t a lways t he c ase .
I n Wha ler 's
Bay C ave , f or i nstance, t here a re f ar more A lba tross a nd Mo l ly mawk r epres en ted t han a ny o ther b ird . A t H ouhora , more S napper a ppear t o h ave b een e a ten t han a ny o ther f or m o f a n i ma l f ood .
Various s hags a re p len t ifu l i n s o me
s i tes. C ook 's s ai lors f ound s hags p a la tab le f ood . I n most middens, s ome s pecies a re r epresen ted b y o ne o r af ew b ones. The c hances o f s urviva l o ft he b ones o ft he sma l ler b ush b irds a nd t iny p e tre ls, s uch a s P e lecanoides, a re l ess t han t hose o ft he b igger b irds.
The p resence o f a Tui h umerus i nd ica ted t he
u se o f a t l east o ne b ird , a nd many more may h ave b een e a ten , w i thou t a ny t race s urviving . A t s o me s i tes, e xcava ted a t s evera l p eriods, l a ter ' d igs , h ave p roduced a n u mber o fb ones o fs pecies n o t r epresen ted a t a l l i n t he f irst e xc ava t ions . F or s uch r easons, Ic onsider i n t he p resen t s tage o f o ur k now ledge t ha t s ta t ist ics a re r a ther u nre l iab le f or many s i tes. SUM MARY B ird , ma m ma l a nd Tua tara b one i den t if ica t ions f ro m 1 9 New Z ea land a rchaeologi ca l s i tes ( 9 i n t he N or th I sland a nd 1 0 i n t he S ou th I s land ) a re l i sted s i te b y s i te .
F if teen moa s pecies, 1 11 o ther b ird s pecies a nd s ubspecies, a nd
f i ve mamma ls a re n amed i nt he l i st . Ex t inct n on-ra t i te b irds a re r ecorded a s f o l lows:
N .Z . Pe lican f ro m a
s i te n ear t he S ou th I s land c oasta l L ake Grass mere ; N .Z . Swan f ro m N or th Auck land , Pare ma ta n ear We l l ing ton , t he L ake Grass mere s i te , Nor th O tago , a nd S tewar t I s land ; N .Z . G oose ( Cne miorn is) f ro m Pare mata , L ake Grassmere , a nd N or th O tago ; F insch ' s Duck ( Euryanas) a nd Merganser f ro m L ake Grass mere ; L arge Harr ier ( Nor th I sland f orm ) f ro m f our s i tes b e tween N or th Auck land a nd Parema ta ; L arge Harr ier ( Circus e y lesi ) a nd .N .Z . Eag le ( Harpagorn is) f ro m L ake Grass mere ; N .Z . Quai l f ro m N or th Auck land t o Dusky S ound ( n ine s i tes) ; N or th I sland Takahe f ro m f our s i tes b etween N or th Auck land a nd Pare ma ta ; L i t t le Weka ( Ga l lira l lus minor ) f ro m N or th Auck land t o S tewar t I s land ( s ix s i tes) ;
G ian t Rai l ( Ap torn is) f ro m Taranak i , Parema ta ,
a nd L ake Grass mere ; H odgen ' s Rai l ( Cape l lira l lus) f ro m Taranak i a nd L ake Grass mere ; F a l la ' s Rai l ( 9 _ . k aramu ) f ro m N or th Auck land a nd p ossibly f ro m Parema ta ; a sma l l e x t inct r a i l a nd N .Z . Coo t ( Nesopha lar is) f ro m L ake Grassmere ; sma l l e x t inct Kaka f ro m s ix S ou th I sland s i tes b e tween L ake Grass mere a nd S tewar t I s land ; Hu la f ro m Taranak i ; a nd N .Z . Crow ( Pa laeocorax ) f ro m e igh t s i tes b e tween N or th Auck land a nd S tewar t I s land .
8 9
Moa r ecords a re a s f o l lows: Ano ma lop teryx d id i formis f ro m Nor th Auck land , P are ma ta , L ake Grass mere , West C oast S ou th I s land , a nd S tewar t I s land ; Mega lap teryx d id inus f ro m Wai tak i Gorge ; Pachyorn is mapp ini f ro m Taranak i a nd Parema ta ; P . s ep ten tr iona l is f rom Taranak i ; Emeus c rassus f ro m L ake G rass mere ; t he sma l l Euryap teryx c ur tus f ro m N or th Auck land ; E . e xi lis f rom N or th Auck land a nd C oromande l ; t he l arger E . g eranoides f ro m f our N or th I s land s i tes b etween N or th Auck land a nd Parema ta ; t he l arge , c harac ter ist ic "moa-hun ter" s pecies E . g ravis f rom Parema ta i nt he Nor th I s land ( worked i n to a r ee l ) a nd f ro m s even S ou th I s land s i tes b e tween L ake Grass mere a nd S tewar t I s land ( represen ted b y e ggshe l l a t Wai tak i Gorge a nd b y as ing le l eg i n D usky S ound ) ;
a n u ndescr ibed sma l l s pecies o f Euryap teryx
f ro m S tewar t I s land ; D inornis g aze l la f rom Taranak i ; D . s tru thoides f ro m s ix N or th I s land s i tes b e tween Nor th Auck land a nd P are mata ; D . n ovaezea land iae f ro m Parema ta ; D . g igan teus f ro m f i ve N orth I s land s i tes b e tween Nor th Auck land a nd Parema ta ; a nd D . r obustus p ossib ly f ro m t he West Coast o ft he S ou th I s land . O ther i n terest ing r ecords i nc lude : L i t t le S po t ted K iw i ( now e x t inct i nt he N or th I s land ) f ro m f our N or th I s land s i tes b etween Nor th Auck land a nd Parema ta ; c rested p engu ins ( now n ot b reed ing n or th o f s ou th West land ) f ro m Parema ta a nd L ake Grass mere a s we l l a s s i tes f ur ther s ou th ; S ou thern Crested Grebe ( now b reed ing o n ly i n t he S ou th I s land) f ro m Pare ma ta a nd L ake Grassmere ; Mot t led Pe tre l f ro m t he i n land Wa i tak i G orge s i te ( d id i tb reed n earby?) ; a swan d i f feren t f ro m t he e x t inct N .Z . Swan a nd t he Austra l ian B lack Swan f ro m ac ave s i te a t K a ikoura ; Austra lian Musk Duck ( no t k nown i n N .Z . i n p ostEuropean c on tac t t imes) a nd S ou th I sland T akahe f ro m L ake Grass mere ; Austra l ian C oo t ( on ly k nown a s as tragg ler i n N .Z . i n p ost-European c on tact t imes) f ro m a s i te n ear Chr istchurch ;
K akapo f ro m f our Nor th I s land s i tes
b e tween N or th Auck land a nd Pare ma ta , a nd f ro m L ake Grass mere a nd N or th O tago i nt he S ou th I s land ;
L augh ing Ow l ( probab ly e x t inct ) f ro m Paremata ,
a nd f ro m f i ve S ou th I s land s i tes b e tween L ake Grass mere a nd S tewar t I s land ; Barn Ow l ( t he Austra lian s ubspecies i s ar are s tragg ler t o N .Z .) f ro m Nor th Auck land ; S ou th I s land Thrush ( possib ly e x t inct ) f ro m L ake Grass mere a nd Wai tak i Gorge ; a nd Tua tara r e ma ins f ro m N or th Auck land , C oro mande l , Parema ta , a nd L ake Grass mere . B ib liography C heck list C o m mi t tee ( F . C . K in .sky c onvener ) , 1 970 .
Anno ta ted c heck list o f
t he b irds o f N ew Z ea land i nclud ing t he b irds o ft he Ross D ependency . A . H . &A . W. R eed ( f or Orn i tho logica l S ocie ty o f N .Z . ) , We l ling ton . L eahy , A ., 1 976 .
Whaka moenga C ave , Taupo , N 94 /7 ,a r epor t o n t he e co logy,
e cono my a nd s tra t igraphy .
Rec. Auck land Mus. 1 3 :29-75 .
S car le t t , R . J ., 1 972 . Bones f or t he N ew Z ea land Archaeo log ist . Mus. Bu l l . 4 :1-69 , 3 29 f i gs. S car let t , R . J ., 1 974 .
Moa a nd Man i n N ew Z ea land .
9 0
C an terbury
No torn is 2 1 :1-12 .
SO ME
O STEOGRAPHIC CO NTE MPLATIONS ON MAORI AND KA KAPO I N EAR LY WE LL INGTON E l l iot W. Dawson
" The f ind ing o fb ird b ones i n m iddens d oes n ot n ecessari ly mean t ha t t he b irds were c augh t e ven w ith in s o me m iles o f t he s ite a nd a ny a t te mp t a t s tudy ing t he e cology o r d istr ibu t ion o fv arious s pec ies o fb irds b y e xa m in ing t he c on ten ts o f m iddens i s t herefore u nrel iable. I ts ou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t t he Maori o f ten c arr ied l arge s upp l ies o f p ot ted o r p reserved b irds o ver g rea t d istances .." W. Carkeek , 1 966. " The K ap it i C oast" , p .107.
I n troduct ion The r ev iew g iven b y Wi l l ia ms i n 1 956 o f p ast a nd p resen t d istribu t ion o f t he K a l eapo ( Str igops h abrop t i lus Gray ) , d ef ined f or t he f i rst t ime t he l im i ts o fo ccurrence o ft h is l arge g round-parrot a s al i v ing b ird o r a s af ossi l. The p resen t c on tribu t ion a dds a no ther l ocal i ty t o t he d istribu t ion map g iven i n t ha t a ccoun t , s uggests t ha t t h is i nd icates t he s urv ival o f t he K a l eapo t o al a te d a te i nt he Wel l ington d istr ic t i n wh ich i th as b een r ecorded o n ly a s s ubfossil b ones i n v ar ious c ave d eposits , s uggests a lso f i rst-hand k now ledge o ft he K akapo b y c erta in Maoris u p t o 1 846 , af ir ms t he importance o ft he c orrec t i n terpreta t ion o f a rchaeolog ica l s i tes i n wh ich m idden d ebris may o verl ie e arl ier n atural d ep os i ts a nd n otes , i n a dd it ion , t he b iogeograph ical imp l ica t ions o ff or mer d istr ib u t ions o f s pecies n ow r estr icted t o s pec ial ized h ab i ta ts. H istor ica l S o me y ears a go , Ii den t i f ied i n t he D epartmen t o f P alaeon tology , Brit ish Museum ( Na tural H istory ), s o me 1 0 ,000 b ones o f s ubfoss il a nd e x t inc t b irds f ro m New Z ea land a nd t he Chatha m I slands, f or merly p art o ft he l a te L ord Rothsc h i ld 's c ol lec t ion a t Tring ( Dawson , 1 958 ). Most o f t hese b ones were a cqu ired b y D r. H enry 0 . Forbes when h e r eturned t o Eng land i n 1 893 af ter r el inqu ish ing h is p ost a s c urator o ft he Can terbury Museu m ( Rothsch i ld , 1 907 ). N o e xa m ina t ion o ft h is c ol lec t ion h ad b een made s ince t he Museu m o bta ined i t , much o f t he ma ter ia lb e ing j ust a s Forbes h ad l ef t i t , ag rea t j u mble o fb ones, many o f wh ich were l abel led i n F orbes ' h and i no n ly b rief a nd t an tal ising d eta i l i n terpret ab le o n ly b y t hose f am il iar w ith Forbes ' b iography. I n p assing , i t may b e ment i oned t ha t F orbes ' p rior c areer a s ar enowned t ravel ler, e thnolog ist a nd n a tu ra l ist i nt he I ndones ian a nd N ew Gu inea r eg ions, a nd , p art icu larly , t he d eta il o ft he c ircumstances o fh is d eparture f ro m t he Can terbury Museu m a re t he s ubj ec t o f c urren t r esearch b y myself a nd b y my a ssoc iate Dr. R . F . E l len ( c f . E l len 1 978 ) . 9 1
I n ap rel im inary a ccoun t o f h is c ol lect ions, F orbes ( 1892) l i sted t he s ources o f h is mater ial , amongst wh ich w ere b ones o fb irds c ol lected " in t he n otor ious Rauparaha 's K i tchen- m iddens , b y Mr. A . H am il ton".
N o s pec if ic
i nd icat ion was g iven o ft he k inds o fb irds o ccurring a t t h is s i te n or o ft he g eog raph ic l oca l i ty . Augustus Ha m il ton ( 1854-1913) , D irec tor o ft he D om in ion Museum f or 1 0 y ears ( 1903 t o 1 913 ) , i s f a med f or h is Maor i A rt amongst many o ther a ch ieve men ts. An o b i tuary i nt he Wel l ington n ewspaper The Even ing P ost o f 1 3 October 1 913, p age 8 , s a id o fh im : " He was a n i nsat iate s tuden t , ap ersisten t c ol lector a nd c lass if ier. Up a nd d own t he t wo i s lands h e h as marched i n h is q uest o ff ac ts a bou t t h is c oun try 's a nc ien t a nd modern f auna a nd f l ora , a nd i n t h is g reat h un t ing g round n o g a me was t oo b ig o r t oo l i t t le f or h is c apac ious b ag.
The r ange o f h is s earch was f ro m moa b ones t o moths , f ro m
f erns t oc o ins, f ro m p ostage s ta mps t o Maor i war c anoes.
Many o f
t he t roph ies o ft h is f erven t c hase w il lb e i n t he Nat ional Museu m b y a nd b y — material w ith a message a bou t N ature 's wondrous ways , a nd ma t ter i n wh ich t he work ings o f t he Maor i m ind a re embod ied ." Augustus Ha m il ton was Reg istrar o fO tago Un ivers i ty f or 1 3 y ears a nd h ad p rev iously b een a t eacher i n s chools i n Wel l ing ton a nd Hawkes Bay. During t h is p er iod i n wh ich t hese b ones were c ol lec ted , n a mely 1 888 , h e was t each ing a t Petane S chool , Hawkes Bay , a nd h ad c o me i n to c on tact w ith Forbes when t he moa b one d eposi ts i n Te Au te swa mp were d iscovered , a lso i n 1 888 , a nd h ad s en t c ol lec t ions t o h im a t t he Can terbury Museu m wh ich were e ven tual ly t aken b y Forbes t o England f ind ing t heir way e ven tual ly t o t he Br it ish Museu m ( Na tu ra l H istory ) i n wh ich Iwas a ble t o r e-d iscover t he m. D iscussing H am il ton 's p rowess a s ac ol lec tor o f Maori mater ial , Sk inner ( 1914 : v i ) s a id o f h im : " The f oundat ions o f h is Maor i c ol lec t ion were l a id i n t he e arly y ears o fh is r esidence i n New Z ea land .. To t h is p eriod b e long h is f i rst f i eld e xped i t ions among t he a nc ien t v il lage s i tes o f t he East Coast a nd a bou t Porirua." The Rothsch i ld c ol lec t ion i n L ondon c on ta ins s everal h undred b ones l abel led ( i n c u mu lat ive d eta il ) a s b eing f ro m Te Rauparaha 's p a a t Pare mata , n ear Wel li ng ton , c ol lected o n 1 8 may 1 888 b y A . Ha m il ton . A n umber o f s pec ies o fb irds
a re r epresen ted , f ro m t he s o-cal led e x t inc t swan ( Cygnus s u mnerens is ( Forbes ) ) t he e x t inc t c oot ( Nesophalaris c hatha mens is ( Forbes ) —syn . Pa laeol i mnas , s ee Brodkorb a nd Dawson , 1 962, a nd O lson , 1 975 ), r ecorded b y Dawson ( 1962 ) f ro m t h is c ol lec t ion a s t he f i rst N orth I s land r ecord , a nd t he e x t inc t r aven ( Palaeoc orax mor ioru m F orbes ) t o t he d o mest ic f ow l ( Gal lus s p . )a nd t he g oose ( Anser s p .) a s wel l a s d ucks, h awk s , p igeons , wekas, k akas , k iw is , ow ls , K oka lm, Hu ia , s hags , g u l ls, p etrels a nd p engu ins. D iscussion o f Probable S i tes The s i te o f " Rauparaha 's K itchen- m iddens" (exp lored b y Ha m il ton s ee ms most l ikely t o h ave b een e i ther n ear t he " Por irua" p a ( Angas , 1 874b :247 ) c lose t o t he s ite o f Tho m 's whal ing s ta t ion a nd t o t he r e ma ins o ft he Pare mata f ort o n
w h a t i sn ow
c al led t he Ngat i Toa Do ma in , o r p ossibly t he " Taupo" p a o n t he 9 2
p resen t s i te o fP l i mmerton ( see map i n Cowan , 1 922:110 , a nd b y Best e t a l., 1 916 ). I l lustra t ions o ft hese p a h ave b een g iven b y Angas ( 1847a ,b ) a nd Brees ( 1848 ).
The Taupo p a was b u i l tb y t he N gat i Toa u nder T e Rang ihaeata ,
n ephew o f Te Rauparaha , i n 1 843 a nd 1 844 f ol low ing t he Wa irau a f fray i n April 1 843 ( Wakef ield , 1 845 ) a nd was o ccup ied a t l eas t u n t i l t he a rrest o f Te Rauparaha o n 2 3 J u ly 1 846 ( c f. Ward , 1 912 ). I ti s l ikely , h owever , t ha t b oth t h is a rea o f P l i mmerton b each a nd t he Pare ma ta f l at ( i .e. t he Ngat i Toa D o ma in ) h ave b een Maori o ccupat ion s i tes f or a g reat many y ears , c erta in ly l ong b efore t he e stabl ish men t o ft he whal ing s tat ion ( c f . B rees , 1 848 : f i gs 1 4 , 2 9 , 5 2 ) a nd t hat t he m idden d ebr is may r epresen t a na ccu mu la t ion o ff ar g rea ter a n t iqu ity t han 1 843. Angas ( 1847 1 2 , I :2 47 ) v isited t h is p lace a nd t he impression i s g iven t hat t he Por irua p a t hen o ccup ied b y Te Rauparaha h ad b een e x ist ing f or s o me t ime, whereas t he Taupo p a i n wh ich Te Rang ihaea ta l i ved was " a n ew a nd v ery s ubs tan t ial s tockade."
( Angas , 1 847a : p late 4 8 ).
B es t ( 1918 :215 ) s tated : " Th is s ee ms t o h ave b een o ne o f t he o ldest o f n at ive-v i l lage s i tes i n t he Porirua d istr ic t , t o j udge f ro m t he f ac t t ha t b ones o f t he moa h ave b een t here f ound , a lso f ro m t he amoun t o f v il lage d ebris f or merly v is ible.
Th is s et t le men t was s i tua ted o n t he e astern s ide o f t he r a ilway-
l i ne, a l i t t le way n orth o f t he b ridge." O ther d eta ils o f Maor i o ccupa t ion a nd a rchaeolog ical n otes w ere a lso g iven b y Best ( 1914 ) i n h is s er ies o f a rt icles e n t i t led " Porirua : a nd t hey who s et t led i t ." Christ ie, i n a nu npubl ished a ddress d el ivered t o t he H istor ical S oc iety o fV ic tor ia C ol lege [ n ow V ic toria Un ivers i ty o f Wel l ing ton ] a bou t 1 914, r e mark ed : " ... t he Pare ma ta d istr ict h as e xper ienced many c hanges o fo ccupan t a nd t he Pare ma ta p eop le h ave c hanged many t imes a lso." The f l at west o f wha t i s n ow c al led Mana ( f or merly " Dol ly Varden" ) h as b een s hown c learly t o b e a n e arly o ccupa t ion s i te , a nd Adk in ( 1950 :11-12 ) h as d iscussed i t s a ge a nd p robable h istory.
Du f f ( 1956 :276 ) c ons idered " Pare mata , i n Porirua Harbour [ a s among ]
t he f ew N orth I s land s i tes t ha t c an b e s a t isfac tor ily d e monstra ted a s o f Moah un ter o ccupa t ion ." Th is c onc lus ion was b ased o n Christ ie 's u npubl ished manu scr ip t q uoted a bove ( t he d ate o f wh ich Du ff e rroneously g ave a s " 1943" , t he t ime o fh is own p ersonal c o m mun ica t ion w ith t he a u thor; i n ternal e v idence i nd icates a d a te r ather l a ter t hen 1 914 ).
H owever , Du ff r e marked t hat Christ ie 's
d escrip t ion o ft he m ix ing o f ma ter ial f ro m v arious s trata a f ter w ind a ct ion " clearly s ub jec ts t he p r i mary a ssoc ia t ion o ft he Moa a nd h uman r e ma ins t o t he d oub ts r a ised b y Archey." Adk in ( 1950 :12, f ootnote ) h as e xtended Ha m i l ton 's ( 1896 :181) r eference t o " an o ld e
a t Pare mata" t o o ne " s ituated o n t he e astern
s ide o f Pare mata F lat ," b u t t here i s n o e v idence o ft he e xact l oca t ion f ro m Ha m il ton 's a ccoun t a l though t h is, i n f act , may b e t he s i te o f wh ich h e c ol lected t he b ones u nder d iscussion .
Ya ldwyn ( 1959 ) l i sted i den t if icat ions o f moa r e ma ins
f ro m t h is a rea. B ecause o ft he l ink ing o fT e Rauparaha , c h ief o f t he N ga t i Toa , w i th t he s i te v isited b y Ha m il ton , i tm igh t a ppear more p robable t ha t h is " Parema ta" p a was a t Taupe P o in t , P l i mmerton, w i th m iddens e x tend ing o ver t he p resen t P l i mmerton b each , t he a rea marked " C" i n Ad ld .n 's ( 1921:152 ) f igure 3 , ( c f . a lso h is p late ) 00 (V wh ich s hows t he n orthern a spect o ft he p a s i te o n Taupo Po in t ). B ecket t ( 1955 ) e xa m ined t he m idden o ft he Taupo p a d ur ing 1 9101 914 a nd f ound moa e gg s hel l , Tua tara j aw b ones , a nd " very o ld moa b one f ragmen ts" a s w el l a s b ird b ones.
9 3
The K akapo B ones Among t he b ones f ro m H a mi l ton ' s Pare ma ta s i te a re n ine t i biotarsi a nd e igh t t arso me ta tarsi o ft he K akapo ( S tr igops h abrop t i lus) . These were i den tif i ed f ro m amongst a mixed c o l lect ion o f l imb b ones o fv ar ious b irds, a s ment ioned a bove , a nd t hey were l abe l led i n i nk o r p enci l o n t he b ones t hemse lves: Pare ma t ta , New Z ea land ," "Pare mat ta Pa ," o r , i n F orbes ' wri t ing , "Ha mi l ton ' sp a ."
The measure men ts o ft he b ones a re s hown i n Tab le 7 .1 .
T ibiotarsus: S tr igops h abrop ti lus, Parema ta
1 16.5
2 0 .7
1 4 .6
6 .4
1 23 .0 1 13 .0
2 0 .5
1 5 .0
6 .2
1 8 .3
1 3 .7
6 .0
1 15 .4 1 27 .0
2 0 .0 1 9 .2
1 4 .7 1 6 .0
6 .6 6 .0
1 14 .0
2 0 .0
1 4 .5 1 3 .8
6 .5 6 .5
1 18 .0
2 0 .4
1 5 .6
6 .5
1 29 .0
2 3 .6
1 6 .0
7 .5
Tarso me ta tarsus: S tr igops h abrop ti lus, Pare ma ta 5 2 .8
1 6.2
1 9 .2
6 .8
5 1 .3
1 8 .2
1 9 .6
6 .5
4 5.7
1 4 .5
1 5.6
6 .0
-
1 9 .0
7 .0
4 7 .5
1 4 .7
1 6 .4
5 .8
5 0.5
1 5 .1
1 7 .3
6 .6
4 8 .3
1 4 .7
1 6 .4
5.9
1 8 .3
6.9
-
Key :
L =t o ta l l eng th ;
-
P =b read th o fp oster ior e nd ; D =b read th o fd ista l e nd ;
M =bread th o f midd le o f s haf t ( as i n L arson , 1 930 )
The b ones s eem t o s how a v ar ia tion i n s ize amongst t he mse lves c o mparable w i th t ha t f ound i n c o l lect ions o fs ubfossi l a nd a rchaeo log ica l K akapo b ones n ow a vai lable i n N ew Z ea land museu ms ( par t icu lar ly many a dded s ince Wi l l iams ' ( 1960 :226) r ecord o ft he" r a ther f rag men tary s ubfossi l ma ter ia l ...lodged i n New Z ea land museu ms...." ) . S ke le ta l r e ma ins o f r ecen t l i v ing b irds a re s ti l l n o t c o m mon i n museu m c o l lect ions b u t , d esp i te a t temp ts a t e stab l ish ing s ubs pecies b ased o n s k ins ( see Wi l lia ms, 1 960 :219 ) , n o d iscre te p opu la tions o r s ubspeci f ic g roup ing c an b e s een r eadi ly amongst t he b ones e xam ined .
I t migh t
b e t hough t u nw ise ( a l though t e mp t ing i nv iew o ft he l arge q uan ti ty o fb ones, e sp ecia l ly c ran ia a nd h u mer i , n ow a va i lab le ) , t o make d e tai led s ta tist ica l a na lyses o fb ones f ro m i ndividua l s i tes a nd e xpect t o b e a ble t o e qua te t hem w i th t hose f rom o ther s i tes which may d i f fer c hrono log ica l ly t o ad egree o f s igni f icance t ha t c anno t b e d e monstra ted e xcep t b y u navai lab le p recision d a t ing t echniques. However , as ta t istica l e xamina t ion was made o ft he f o llow ing s er ies o ft ibiot arsi f ro m v ar ious l oca li t ies a s l i sted w i th t abu la ted measure men ts b e low : 9 4
1 .
t he Parema ta b ones ( Bri t ish Museu m ( Na t . Hist .) ) ; 2 .
p ar t o f al arge
s er ies o fb ones f ro m R uakokopatuna Cave 1 , n ear Mar t inborough ( i n which i n it ia l i nvest iga t ions y ie lded a t l east 7 4 c ran ia , s ee Ya ldwyn , ( 1956 :3 ) , c o llected b y E . W. Dawson a nd J . C . Ya ldwyn i n 1 952 ( Na t iona l Museu m o f N .Z . ) ; 3 .
r epresen ta t ives o f a t l east 2 6 K akapos f ro m t he s pe l wo l c 2gica l s i te Harwood
H o le , C anaan , n ear Takaka , c o l lected b y 0 . R . Wi lkes, 1 960 ( Can terbury Museu m ) : 4 .
as er ies o f i so la ted b ones f ro m Nor th a nd S ou th I s land l oca li t ies,
i nc lud ing b ones o f as ing le r ecen t ly d ead b ird c o l lected b y T . H i tch ings i n F iordl and , J anuary 1 955 ( Can terbury Museu m ) . T ab le 7 .2
The r esu l ts a re s hown i n Tab le 7 .2 .
T ibiotarsus: S tr igops h abrop t i lus
Pare ma ta N= Mart inborough Harwood Hole
P T ) N= ( Z ) N=
1 19.4
2 0.3
1 4.8
6 .4
( 8 ) 1 25.1
( 8 ) 1 9.6
( 9) 1 6.3
( 9) 6 .8
( 15 ) 1 15.0
( 15 ) 1 7.4
( 15 ) 1 4.1
( 15) 5 .8
( 16 )
( 14 )
( 14 )
( 25)
S ou th I . l ocs : AV 5 957
1 33 .0
2 0.8
1 5.5
6 .7
AV 1 1144
1 20.8
1 9.9
1 5.4
6 .9
AV 1 1145
1 08.3
1 6.8
1 3.2
5 .9
AV 1 1392
1 11.7
1 6.3
1 2.9
5 .7
AV 1 2647
1 21.0
-
1 3.2
6 .9
AV 1 5042
1 18.6
2 0.2
1 4.6
6 .4
AV 1 5706
1 38.5
1 8.9
1 4.6
6 .1
N orth I .
l ocs :
AV 1 7353
1 06.3
1 7.3
1 2.8
6 .4
AV 1 7354
1 06.9
1 8.8
1 3.7
6 .7
1 27.0
2 0.1
1 5.4
6 .3
Recen t : AV 1 3782
K ey : AV 5 957 , P yra m id Va l ley , 1 939/40 ; AV 1 1144-5, Marfe l l Beach , Mar lb orough , 1 952 ; AV 1 1392 , K ara mea c ave , 1 952 ;
AV 1 2647 , Mt . S o mers,
1 923 ; AV 1 5042 , Pyra m id Va lley, 1 957 , AV 1 5706, Marfe l l Beach , 1 958 ; AV 1 7353-4, Briar 's c ave , Te K u i t i , 1 961 ; AV 1 3782 , F iord land , 1 955.
The Pare mata b ones a ppear t o f al l w i th in t he s ize r anges r evea led b y t h is c o mpara t ive ma ter ia l .
Morpho log ica l ly , t hey a re i nd ist ingu ishab le f ro m a ny
s ke le ta l ma ter ia l a vai lable f or e xam ina t ion .
However , s ta t istical ly, s o me d i f-
f erences a re e viden t b e tween t he p opu la tions r epresen ted b y t he s a mp les meas ured a s o u t l ined i n Tab le 7 .3 .
9 5
e l ce c9 r c o
•
•
C)
•
00 00
LO C
•
•
•
+I
00 (7> LO •
+ 1 + 1
o o
•
•
L o
m
•
•
•
C T >
CO
0
I LO
N
e 4
0 0
C Z
N
CO
C
4 0
t • > •
+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 c y > o o 0 0 CO •
•
'4
E l O
0
T ibio tarsus: S tr igops h abrop t i lus
. 9 4
0%
o z oo
•
•
00
GO C \ I •
•
•
C T> L O
b -
C
•
0
00
0
H
00
a>
00
C \ 1 •
•
•
-1 1
•
1 N
•
c o
. 41
• a> a> • •
e i
"I
u z
a C ) 9 1 O
•
G I
. 4 . 1
c eCo
Cq
1
" ,4 1
rD IC-• •
o o
nI
N
1 0 •
c e c o
. 9 . 1
•
t " ' •
C o
O LO • •
N
e
•
Co
GO •
•
0
" T •i
•
c ,
00
W N co N C \ I • • .
H
O
00
•
0
•
0
0
e l
+ 1 H
0
•
•” . 1
+ I H
•
N
e l
•
•
1
0
e
+ 1 + 1 C9
CO
•
Co
. , ic . i, t — •
•
• , 11
Co
0
CI
•
+ 1
+ I + I
M U D
•
Ce .. .4 M C I) • • _• •
0
•
LO
1 25 .14 k 1 .75
Co
i n
0
•
C> 00 t L C )
4
LO
• 0
P4
N •
-
H
+I
•
r n
N C
• r-f
C \ 1
LO
e . 1 1
•
Cl •
e f •
t . . .
5 .81 t 0 .09
m c y )
CO •
t s.
t oCo •
C a ) g
C \ 1
,I
1
1
1
•
1
CV C\ I C T> L O • • • •
c o c r ) c • 1
0 . f I
• . 1
. r . I
S =s tandard d evia t ion ; V =c oef f icien t o fv ar ia t ion ;
LO C • 1
LO
•O S
3 U 1 42 0 I •
P 4
0
0 C ) C D
Z
LO 11
LO eI
LO
,v I
LO
00
,r I
00
C>
C>
w
n -4
e •i
e
44
•' b l )
In
C l )
$ .4
Cq
0
CD
CD
>
60
a rzr zZ
ap ,nZ
. 4a ic a
4 .4
4. 1
CD
0
g I c p
t o O
=
O
t . z
13
e = 0
p 4
0
•1
4: 4 4
e0 0 z 0i I
.0
g
l
O
a )0 r ne -
a )
r : 1
• . x
Z
C .)
The c oef f ic ien ts o fv ar iab i l i ty f or t he t hree s a mp les h ave t hese r anges : L , 5 .4 -6.3; P , 7 .5 -9.5; D , 5 .3 -8.4; M, 5 .4 -8.0. The Pare ma ta s a mp le i s 9 1.2% a s v ar iable a s t he o ne f ro m Harwood H ole a nd 6 .45% more v ariable t han t hat f ro m Mart inborough wh ich i s 9 3.9% a nd 8 5.75% a s v ar iable a s t hose f ro m Pare mata a nd H arwood H ole r espect ively.
Overal l , t herefore , t hese
f i gures i nd icate r ela t ively u n ifor m s a mp les w ith g ood a verage v a lues o f v ariab il ity .
The r elat ive d if f icu l ty o f c onsisten t ly measur ing t he d i mensions P , D
a nd M may b e r ef lec ted i n t he r a ther h igher v ar iab i l i t ies s hown .
The c oef f i-
c ien t o f v ar iab i l i ty , i nc iden tal ly , i s au sefu l g u ide f or t he s elec t ion o f c haract ers t ha t a re r ela t ively l i t t le v ar iable w i th in a t axono m ic g roup a nd h ence a re o fg ood t axono m ic v a lue. I n t h is i nstance, t he d i mension ' 1 , ' , o n i t s own , may b e a s r el iab le a d ist ingu ish ing c haracter a s a ny l imb b one d i mension . The c oef f icien ts o f d ivergence s how t ha t t he Pare ma ta b ones d if fer l ess ( c . 8 % ) i nt he ch arac ter o ft otal l ength f ro m b oth t he Mart inborough a nd Harwood s a mp les t han t he l a t ter d o f ro m e ach o ther ( 2 .
1 7% ).
S ta t ist ical t t ests f or
t he s ign if icance o f t he d iference o f means a pp l ied t o e ach p a ir o f s a mp les s how t ha t b etween t he Pare ma ta a nd b o th Mart inborough a nd Harwood means P > 0 .05; h ence n o r ea l d iference c an b e e stabl ished. However , b etween t he Mart i nborough a nd Harwood means , P •r i
1 2 4
+C ))
a . ; 1 0 C d •
7di
4 O
•e c d
•
P T 2
c i )e
c l ) c 4 1 c 4 1 C l e r . • 1
Ex t inct Weka ( Ga l lira l lus minor )
e e
G rey T ea l ( Anas g ibberfrons g raci lis)
34 c . )
G rey Duck ( Anas s . s uperci liosa )
u a ) ' i)
Paradise Duck ( Tadorna v ar iega ta )
c i ) z 4 , e
E x t inct Swan ( Cygnus s u mnerensis)
c n a ) m s . , . o g
t-
C \ I
•
c \ I
•
c e )
c \ i . 0
• — f
I : -
c e
▪L C V
I
Lfi
C l
I
4 4
I
I
L f
c d
c d
c d
c d
c d
C l )
c d 0
c d
0 c d „ C !
4 > C l )
0 C . )
c d 2
•, 1 C f) C2 4 1 2 1
" 0 C )
0 C )
0 C . ) 0
0
C . 7)
c d
0 4
•
c d
C f )
C D
•
4: 2
•
n .
0
7 r :: 1
r d
g • 0
0
C ID
131
i s : 2 C . ) I C l ) " 0
I
C l ) Z .= C : 2 4
e c , , . , = O. . , c dc „
C . ) C l ) . . _ , . .
K aka ( Nestor mer idiona lis)
r d C . ) • , t " C I
n ovaesee land iae
I
Wh i te-fron ted T ern ( S terna s tr ia ta)
E x t inct S n ipe ( Coenocorphya c ha tha mica )
e I
c ha tha mensis)
C l
c . o
1 1
Tab le 9 .2 ( con td .)
L f3
c q
c . o
4 ) C D
. C d
0
. . , . r o C l )
4 › 0 0 4 4 0 r e
c d =
C l i 4 C ) c d 2 ,
0 c d
5 3
C d
41 4 g i c r i . = ,0 c g d P . 0 C )C • c p
0 4 c . ) 7 15 I N " 0 a ) c • d CD
.• • C . )
c t )
4 a C . ) ) Z 4 1 . E 0
0 . 1 "4
=
a ) e
. ) 5C , , . C . ) -
c d
d .14
c d h i ) C ;
C .0
H Z
C C
c d
c d •
c d
Tab le 9 .2 ( con td .)
c d
ecd
•
C 3
▪
7 1 ) ( i )
•
c p
c d
C ) 4
c d
• C . ) 1 32
I NLAND S ITES 1 00-
8 0-
CHA
CHB
n= 148
n :635
6 0-
4 0 -
2 0 -
C oas ta l
F o res t e dge
C oas ta l
We t land B road lea f M anne f ores t
F o res t e dge
We t land B nx idea f Manne f o res t
P ERCENTAGE
O F T OTAL
M IN IMUM
N UMBERS
COASTAL S ITES 1 0 08 0-
CHC
T E NOA 10
n =20
n =16
6 0-
4 0
2 0
7
C oas ta l
C oas ta l
F o res t We t land B ru id lea f M anne e dge f o res t
F o res t e dge
We t land B road lea f Mar ine f o res t
1 00-
8 0-
OH INE MAMAO
POK IAK I0
n= 24
n =4 1
6 0-
7 2 0
z C oas ta l
F o res t e dg e
Z) :777 7/ C oas ta l
We t land B road lea f M ar ine f o res t
H AB ITAT
F ig. 9 .3
•
7/ T YPES
F o res t We t la nd B road lea e dge f o res t H AB ITAT
M ar ine
T YPES
Percen tage o f B irds Represen ted f ro m d if feren t Habi tat Types.
1 33
b ones , r epresen t ing d ea ths d ur ing t he f l edg l ing s tage ( Su t ton a nd Marsha l l , 1 977:8 , F igure 6 ;
T ab le 9 .2 ) .
I ti s emphas ised t ha t t hese p ropor t ions a re
min i mu m f igures d ue t o t he d i f feren t ia l d es truc t ion o f sma l l , f ragmen tary a nd im ma ture b ones . The s econd s tra tegy r epresen ted i s f ow l ing i n t he b road lea f f ores t .
The
l arge , s low a nd c onsp icuous C ha tha m I s land P igeon wou ld h ave b een t aken o u t o f t he l ow c anopy o f l oca l b road lea f f ores t ( Cockayne , 1 901 ) w i th s pears ( v ide S k inner's ( 1 923 :78 f ) s ect ion , " I mple men ts U sed i n F ow l ing" ). Broad lea f f ores t was ma in ly c on f ined t o an arrow a nd i rregu lar c orr idor o n s he l tered a spects o f t he c oas ta l t errace ( Begg , 1 977; 1 978 ) .
D odson a nd K irk ,
T he o ther s pec ies f ro m t he b road leaf f ores t ( Kaka a nd T tu ) may h ave
b een s peared , n e t ted o r s nared .
The f requency w i th wh ich t he t hree s pecies
o ccur i s c lear e v idence f or s e lec t ive h un t ing o f p igeon . The f ores t-edge a nd b ogshrub land b ird s pecies r epresen t at h ird d iscrete f ow l ing s tra tegy .
I t was , h owever , c lear ly l ess impor tan t t han e i ther o f t he
t wo men t ioned a bove .
S nares a nd t raps were p robab ly u sed a s t he P o lynes ian
d og h as n ot b een i den t if ied i n ap reh is tor ic c on tex t f or t he C ha tha m I s lands ( Su t ton , n .d .) . N o d eta i led e thnograph ic d escr ip t ion i s a va i lab le f or r a i l h un t ing ( v ide S hand , 1 911:6) , n or h ave a ny Mor ior i a r te fac ts b een a ssoc ia ted w i th i t .
The a bsence o f d og may a ccoun t , a t l eas t i n p ar t , f or t he r e la t ive
u n i mpor tance o f r a i ls i n t he i n land a nd o ther middens , d esp i te t he p resence i n t he i s lands o f 7r a i l s pec ies ( O lson , 1 977) , i nc lud ing a n e nde m ic g enus ( D iaphorapteryx ) . We t land a nd c oasta l f ow ling were b o th s imi lar ly u n impor tan t a t t he i n land s i tes. The a bsence o f o pen we t lands n earby ( Begg , 1 977 ) may a ccoun t f or t he f or mer . The a bsence o ft he d og i s n o t s uf f icien t e xp lana t ion a s a sma l l midden n ear L ake Huro ( F igure 9 .1) c on ta ined a t o ta l min imu m n u mber o f 2 33 b irds o f wh ich a l most 6 3 p ercen t a re Anseri for mes ( Su t ton , n .d . ) . The f ew c oasta l b irds p resen ta t CHA a nd CHB r ef lect t he h igh ly s pecia lised n a ture o f most Mor ior i s et t le men ts.
This p o in t i s d eve loped b e low .
E v idence o f d is t inc t ive f ow l ing s tra teg ies i s much l ess c lear i n t he c oas ta l middens .
The a pparen t c oncen tra t ion o n mar ine b irds a t a l l f our
s i tes i nc ludes l i t t le , i fa ny , im ma ture b one , s ugges t ing t he r ecovery o f s tranded a du lts , p oss ib ly d ur ing h un t ing o r g a ther ing a long t he s hore .
D iv ing
P e tre ls were t aken a t P ok iak io ( Tab le 9 .2 ) b u t t he min i mum o f 8i nd iv idua ls r epresen ted t here wou ld b e av ery sma l l p ropor t ion o f t hose t hen a va i lab le i n t he Wa i tang i T u f f c l i f fs ( Hay e t a l ., 1 970 :
F ig . 6 ) a bove t he s i te .
i n t he c ase o f c oas ta l b irds , t he s even P i t t I s land S hags a t CHC
Aga in ,
( Tab le 9 .2 )
may h ave b een t aken when t he c hance a rose o r h ave b een i nc luded i n t he g u t c on ten ts o f t he many s ea ls ( n =1 53 ) b u tchered a t t he s i te ( Sm i th , 1 977) . S im i lar ly , t he f ew r a i ls r epresen ted i n t he c oas ta l s i tes may h ave b een t aken a s t hey c a me o n t o t he s hore l ine t o f eed o n c arr ion . There i s , t herefore , n o c lear e v idence o f s pec ia l isa t ion i n f ow ling a t t he c oas ta l s i tes .
F ow l ing was i nc iden ta l t o t he ma in e cono m ic a ct iv i ty a t t hese
s i tes , whe ther s he ll f ish g a ther ing a t T e Nga io , Oh ine ma mao a nd P ok iak io ( McI lwra i th , 1 976) o r s ea l s laugh ter a s a t CHC ( Sm i th , 1 977). I ta ppears t o h ave c ons is ted o n ly o f t he o ppor tun is t ic c ap ture o r r ecovery o f l i ve o r s trand ed b irds f ro m a r ange o f s pecies. 1 34
S easona li ty S eason o f o ccupa t ion c an b e a ssessed f or b oth i n land a nd c oas ta l s i tes . The j ux tapos i t ion o f h igh p ropor t ions o f im ma ture b one f ro m Ta iko , D iv ing P e tre l a nd Broad-bi l led P r ion c an b e u sed t o e s tab l ish s easona l i ty a t CHA a nd CHB .
Broad-b i l led P r ion f l edg l ings a re a va i lab le i n Dece mber ( F le m ing ,
1 939 ; R ichda le , 1 944 ). D iv ing P e tre l f l edg l ings a re a va i lab le i n J anuary ( R ichda le , 1 943a ) . T he b reed ing s eason o f Ta iko h as n o t b een e s tabl ished f ro m l i ve b irds ( Imber , 1 976 ). H owever , i t s p resence i n CHA a nd CHB i n t he a bsence o f im ma ture b one o f t he Wh i te faced S tor m P e tre l , S oo ty S hearwa ter a nd Mot t led P e tre l whose f ledg l ings a re a va i lab le i n March , A pr i lMay a nd May r espec t ive ly ( R ichda le , 1 943b , 1 963 , 1 964 ) s ugges ts T a iko f ledg l ings were a va i lable i n t he i n terva l D ece mber t o J anuary a nd t ha t t he i n land s i tes were o ccup ied i n t ha t s hor t s u mmer s eason . The s easona l i ty f or t he c oas ta l s he l l f ish middens c anno t b e c lear ly a sc er ta ined .
H owever , we k now t ha t t hey were o ccup ied i n t he 1 6th c en tury ,
a nd t ha t t h is was t he p er iod o f g rea tes t s ever i ty o f t he L i t t le I ce Age ( Leach , H . M., 1 976).
Fur ther , t he e f f ic iency w i th wh ich i n ter t ida l s he ll f ish c an
b e g a thered i s d ependen t o n s ea a nd w ind c ond i t ions ( Anderson , 1 973 ) . C urren t w ind d a ta f or Cha tha m I s land i nd ica tes t ha t a ny e xacerba t ion o f t he c r i t ica l s ou ther ly a nd wes ter ly w inds t o t he d egree t hough t t o h ave b een a ssoc ia ted w i th t he L i t t le I ce Age ( Leach , H . M., 1 976;
L a mb , 1 977) , wou ld
h ave l im i ted e f f ic ien t a nd s us ta ined s he l l f ish g a ther ing t o i n terva ls w i th in t he c a l mer mon ths o f O c tober t o F ebruar y , a nd o ccas iona l d ays i n o ther s easons . Sm i th ( 1977:72-78 ) h as e s tabl ished o ccupa t ion o f t he CHC s i tes d ur ing s u m mer , mos t p robab ly i nw in ter a nd p oss ibly f or o ther s easons o f t he y ear . I n terpre ta t ion The s easona li ty d a ta s uggest s trong ly t ha t s he l lf ish g a ther ing a t a reas o f max i mu m i n ter t ida l e xposure a nd mu t tonbirding a t Taiko b reed ing c o lon ies were b o th s u m mer a ct iv i t ies.
B ody p ar ts r epresen ta tion f or t he Taiko a t CHA
a nd CHB ( Su t ton a nd Marsha l l , 1 977 :10-12 ;
F igure 6 ) s uggest t he u se a t b o th
s ta t ions o f as ing le b u tcher ing p a t tern i n which w ing t ips a nd l ower l eg were b roken o f f a nd d iscarded , p robab ly o n t he c o lony where t he b irds were t aken . The mea tier i nner p or tions o fw ing a nd t he t h igh were k ep t . were d iscarded i n al arge p ropor tion o ft he b irds.
Heads a nd n ecks
Th is g enera l p a t tern i s
a lso e viden t i n t he Broad-bi l led P r ion a nd D iv ing P e tre l r e ma ins ( i bid .) .
I t
i s c onsisten t w i th o ne o ft he me thods o f p reserva tion o f t he S oo ty S hearwa ter d escr ibed b y R ichda le ( 1948 ) . Mea t f ro m b o th s he l l f ish g a ther ing a nd f ow l ing was e v iden t ly t aken b ack t o ac en tra l ly l oca ted v i l lage s e t t le men t f or s torage a nd t hen c onsu mpt ion i n t he c o lder w in ter mon ths .
Th is p a t tern o f c o mp le men tary e xp lo i ta t ion o f a
r ange o f r esources a t s easona l s ta t ions s o me d is tance f ro m t he v i l lage a ccoun ts f or t he v ery h igh r a t io o f sma l l a nd s ha l low middens t o c o mplex " V i l lage" s i tes i n t he C ha tha ms ( S i m mons , 1 964 ) a nd f or t he v ery s pecia lised n a ture o f t he middens s i tes . F or i ns tance , t he P ok iak io m idden c on ta ined t he r e ma ins o f o ver 2 1 ,000 s ee l l f ish d rawn f ro m t he l arges t a nd mos t e cono m ic o f C ha tha m mo l lusca ;
p aua ( Ha l iot is i r is ) , l impe t ( Ce l lana s tr ig i l is c ha tha mens is ) a nd 1 35
and Cookia sulcata (Mcilwraith, 1976: Tables 7 and 8). However, there were no structures, and only a few portable artefacts present. The central place village site type is represented in the Durham area by the Waihora mound site. This is known to be contemporary with Mcllwraith' s (1976) coastal middens (Sutton, 1977) and the CHC site. The contemporaneity of CHC and Waihora is based on Nitrogen determination (Smith, 1977) pending availability of C14 dates. There are positive indicato·rs in the faunal ass em ·blage for occupation during all seasons of the year and materials present from areas throughout the Chathams archipelago. These include bone of albatross chicks evidently from offshore breeding colonies (Dawson, 1973) and a total of over 15 different stone materials (Sutton, n.d.). The site is central to the s patial distribution of resources discussed above. However, the nearby Fur Seal breeding colony, exploited from CHC, does appear to have been the only one on this stretch of coast at the time of occupation of these sites (Smith, 197 7 ). It was a major source of meat, fat, bone and presumably skins for the Waihora site. The seals there were the only large meat source available all year round to the Moriori. The location of the seal colony is thus seen as the principal factor effecting location of the v illage. A similar pattern is likely to apply throughout sea coast settlements in the Chathams. Chathams and has been reconstructed for the Foveaux Strait Coast of Southern New Zealand (Sutton and Marshall, n.d.). Conclusion The prehistoric Moriori were coastal hunter-gatherers occupying a medium-high latitude environment. Prehistoric horticulture was never possible. The limitations of the terrestrial resources (McCartney, 197 5) brought about a dependence on the marine resources of the area. The most important of these were seals (the only accessible and perennial mammal present, apart fiom man) and marine birds. The seals taken were: Southern Fur Seal (Arctocephalus forsteri), Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina), Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) and the New Zealand Sea Lion (Neophoca hookeri). The total population of Fur Seals present before European sealing must remain a matter of conjecture. However, a figure of 20,000 animals for the whole archipelago seems reasonable as the basis of Wilson's (197 4) data for the few remaining colonies. The other, larger seals all bred on the Subantarctic Islands (Gaskin, 1972) and visited the Chathams where they would haul out for varying periods. The marine birds exploited were: 3 species of penguin, at least 3 Diomedea species, 4 Pterodroma species, 2 Prions, a Procellaria species, 3 Shearwaters, a Storm Petrel and the Diving Petrel (Marshall, Scarlett and Sutton, n.d. ). This unique concentration or' marine birds (Bourne, 1967 ) is explicable on biogeographical grounds (Heather, 1966). The birds present formed a year-round succession of species coming ashore to breed for 6-8 weeks in the case of the smaller ones, then departing. The bird bone assemblages discussed above result from the very successful adaptation (Richards, 197 2) of Polynesian man to the "utter limits of (their) 136
c o lon isa t ion" ( Be l lwood , 1 978 :416 ) .
A s im i lar p a t tern o f c oas ta l a dapta t ion
i s k nown t o h ave o ccurred , w i th l oca l mod i f ica t ions , o n o ther s ou thern h igh l a t i tude c oas ts ( v ide J ones , 1 971; n .d .;
P ark ing ton , 1 976;
S tuar t , 1 977;
Anderson ,
S u t ton a nd Marsha l l , n .d .)
B IBL IOGRAPHY Anderson , A . J ., 1 973.
Archaeo logy a nd B ehav iour , M. A . t hes is , An thro-
p o logy , Un ivers i ty o f O tago . Anderson , A . J ., n .d .
S ou thern Hun ters :
mode ls f or t he s tudy o f p reh is tor ic
c o m mun i t ies i n S ou thern N ew Z ea land .
Paper r ead t o 4 9 th A .N .Z. A .A .S .
C on ference , Auck land , J anuary 1 979 . B egg , A ., 1 977.
Deve lop men t o f t he O tonga Landblock , S ou thwes t C oas t ,
C ha tha m I s land .
Work ing P apers i n C ha tha m I s lands Archaeo logy 1 7.
An thropology D ep t ., Un ivers i ty o f O tago . B e l lwood , P ., 1 978 .
Man 's C onques t o f t he P aci f ic .
Bourne , W. R . P ., 1 967.
C o l l ins , L ondon .
S ub foss i l P e tre l B ones f ro m t he C ha tha m I s lands .
I bis 1 09:1-7 . Bowd ler , S ., 1 974 .
An A ccoun t o f a n Archaeo log ica l R econna issance o f
Hun ter 's I s les , N or thwes t Tas man ia , 1 973/1974 .
R ecords o f Queen
V ic tor ia Museu m , L aunces ton , 5 4 :1122. Cockayne , L ., 1 901. A S hor t A ccoun t o ft he P lan t Cover ing o f C ha tha m I sland . Trans. N . Z.I nst . 3 4:243-325. Dawson , E . W., 1 973 .
A lba tross P opu la t ions a t t he C ha tham I s lands .
N o torn is 2 0 :210-230 . Dodson , J . R . a nd K irk , R . M ., 1 978 .
The I n f luence o f Man a t a Quarry
S i te , N a irn R iver Va l ley , C ha tha m I s land , N ew Z ea land .
J . R oy . S oc .
N .Z. 8 :377-384 . Dodson , J . R . a nd K irk , R . M., n .d .
H o locene Tecton is m a nd P a lyno logy
o f Wa ihora , S ou thwes t C oas t , C ha tha m I s land . Dept ., Un ivers i ty o f C an terbury . F le m ing , C . A ., 1 939 . G ask in , D . E ., 1 972 . Hame l , G ., 1 977.
Manuscr ip t , Geography
The B irds o f t he C ha tha m I s lands . Wha les , Do lph ins a nd S ea ls .
Emu 3 8 :380-409.
H e ine mann , Auck land .
V ege ta t ion a nd Archaeo log y o n C ha tha m I s land .
Papers i n C ha tha m I s lands Archaeo logy 6 .
Work ing
An thropology D ep t ., Un ivers i ty
o f O tago . Hay , R . F ., Mu tch , A . R . a nd Wa i ters , W. A ., 1 970 . G eology o f t he C ha tha m I s lands . Bu l le t in o f N ew Z ea land G eo log ica l S urvey n .5 . 8 3 . G overnmen t P r in ter , We l l ing ton . H ea ther , B . D ., 1 966.
I mber , M. J ., 1 976.
A B io log y o f B irds . The Ta iko .
Un i ty , Auck land .
Wi ld l i fe - A R ev iew , 7 :35740 .
1 37
J ones , R ., 1 971.
R ocky Cape a nd t he P rob le m o f t he Tas man ians . Ph .D .
d isser ta t ion , An thropo logy , Un ivers i ty o f S ydney. La mb , H . H ., 1 977.
C l i ma te :
p resen t , p as t a nd f u ture .
V o lume 2 .
Metheun , L ondon . L each , B . F ., t h is v o lu me .
Max im izing M in i mu m Nu mbers :
a v ian r e ma ins
f ro m t he Washpoo l M idden S i te . L each , H . M., 1 976. H or t icu l ture i n P reh is tor ic N ew Z ea land . D isser ta t ion , An thropo logy , Un ivers i ty o f O tago . Marhsa l l , Y . M ., S car le t t , . R . J . a nd S u t ton , D . G ., n .d .
Ph .D .
B ird S pec ies
P resen t o n t he S ou thwes t C oas t o f C ha tha m I s land i n t he S ix teen th C en tury A .D. Paper s ub m i t ted f or p ub l ica t ion . McCar tney , A . P ., 1 975 . Mar i t i me A dap ta t ions i n C o ld Arch ipe lagoes . P p . 2 81-337. I n W. F i tzhugh ( ed .) , Preh istor ic Mar i t i me Adapta t ions o f t he C ircu mpo lar Z one . McI lwra i th , M. A ., 1 976.
A ld ine , The Hague .
Archaeo log y , M iddens a nd P eop le.
M. A . t hes is ,
An thropo logy , Un ivers i ty o f O tago . Mo l loy , B . P . J ., 1 977. C hr is tchurch .
Pa laeobo tan is t , B o tany D iv is ion , D .S .I .R .,
P ers . c o mm ., 1 977.
O l iver , W. R . B ., 1 955 . O lson , S . L ., 1 977.
N ew Z ea land B irds .
R eed , We l l ing ton .
AS ynops is o f t he F oss i l Ra l l idae .
R a i ls o f t he Wor ld , S . D . R ip ley. Park ing ton , J ., 1 976 .
Pp . 3 39-374 I n
G od ine , B os ton .
C oas ta l S et t le men ts B etween t he Mou ths o f t he B erg
a nd O l i fan t R ivers , C aper P rov ince .
S ou th A fr ican Archaeo log ica l
Bu l le t in 3 1:123-124 a nd 1 27-140 . R ichards , R ., 1 972.
AT en ta t ive P opu la t ion D is tr ibu t ion Map o f t he Mor ior is
o f C ha tha m I s land , c irca 1 790 , J . P o lynes . S oc . 8 1(3 ) :350-374 . R ichda le , L . E ., 1 943a .
The Kuaka o r D iv ing P etre l ( Pe lecano ides u r ina tr ix )
Emu 4 3 :24-48 a nd 9 7-107. R ichda le , L . E ., 1 943b .
The Wh i tefaced S tor m P e tre l o r t ak ih i-kare- moana ,
P e legodro ma mar ina maor ian .a ( Ma thews ) . T rans . R oy. S oc . N .Z. 7 3 :97-115 , 2 17-232 a nd 3 35-350 . R ichda le , L . E ., 1 944. T he P erara o r B road-b i l led P r ion , Pachypt i la v i t ta ta Emu 4 3 :191-213 . R ichda le , L . E ., 1 948 .
Maor i a nd Mu t tonbird .
O tago Da i ly T i mes a nd
O tago Wi tness , Duned in . R ichda le , L . E ., 1 963.
B io logy o f t he S oo ty S hearwa ter .
Proc . Z oo l . S oc.
L ond . 1 41:1-117. R ichda le , L . E ., 1 964 . B iology o f t he B irds o f Whero I s land , w i th S pecia l r e ference t o t he D iv ing P e tre l a nd t he Wh i teface S tor m P etre l . T rans . Z oo l . S oc . L oud .
3 1:1-87.
1 38
S hand , A ., 1 911.
T he Mor ior i P eop le o f t he C ha tha m I s lands .
P olynes ian S oc ie ty 1 1. S i m mons , D . R ., 1 964.
Me mo ir o f
A very , N ew P ly mou th .
C ha tha m I s land Archaeo log ica l S urvey .
N . Z . Arch .
Assn . N ews le t ter 6 :51-69. S i mpson , K ., 1 972 .
B irds i n B ass S tra i t .
S k inner , H . D ., 1 923 .
The Mor ior is o f t he C ha tha m I s lands .
Museu m B u l le t in 9 (1) . Sm i th , I . W. G ., 1 977.
B .P . B ishop
B ishop Museu m P ress , H ono lu lu .
P reh is tor ic Fur S ea l Exp lo i ta t ion o n t he S ou thwes t
C oas t o f C ha tha m I s land . 7 .
R eed , We l l ing ton .
Work ing P apers i n C ha tha m I s lands Archaeo logy .
An thropo logy D ept ., U n ivers i ty o f O tago .
S tuar t , D . E ., 1 977.
S easona l P hases i n Ona S ubs is tence , T err i tor ia l D is-
t r ibu t ion a nd O rgan isa t ion :
imp l ica t ions f or t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord .
P p . 2 51-281 I n F or t heory Bu i ld ing i n Archaeo logy , ( ed .) L . R . B in ford , A cade m ic P ress , N ewYork . S u t ton , D . G ., 1 976.
Rad iocarbon Da tes f ro m t he Wa ihora Mound S i te N Z.
Arch . A ssn . N ews le t ter 1 9 :195-196. S u t ton , D . G ., 1 977.
R ad iocarbon Da tes f ro m C ha tha m I s land - I .
N .Z .
Arch . Assn . N ews le t ter 2 0 :127. S u t ton , D . G ., n .d .
P o lynes ian C oas ta l Hun ters i n t he C ha tham I s lands .
isser ta t ion , i n p rep. Ph .D . D S u t ton , D . G . a nd Marsha l l , Y . M ., n .d . Z one .
C oas ta l Hun t ing i n t he S uban tarct ic
I n Press N . Z. J . Archaeo logy .
Wa l lace , R . T ., 1 977.
The Land a nd Freshwa ter Mol lusca o f t he C ha tham
I s lands. Work ing Papers i n Cha tha m I slands Archaeo logy 1 5. o gy Dep t ., U n iversi ty o f O tago .
An thropo l-
Wa l lace , R . T ., n .d . L andsnai ls a nd P a laeobo tan ica l R econstruction . t hesis , U n iversi ty o f O tago . Wi lson , G . J ., 1 974 .
M .A .
D is tr ibu t ion , A bundance a nd P opu la t ion C haracter is t ics
o f t he N ew Z ea land Fur S ea l ( Arc tocepha lus f ors ter i ) M .S c . t hes is , Z oo logy , Un ivers i ty o f C an terbury .
1 39
PREH ISTOR IC EXPLO ITATION OF CRAYFISH I N NE W ZEALAND B . F oss L each a nd A tho l l J . Anderson
I n troduc t ion I fp resen t d ay e xp lo i ta t ion i s a ny th ing t o g o b y , i t wou ld b e s urpr is ing i f c rayf ish ing h ad n o t b een a n impor tan t a spec t o f p reh is tor ic f ish ing i n N ew Z ea land . Ye t i ti s a n a spec t wh ich h as b een a l l b u t i gnored b y a rchaeo log is ts . B as ic i ssues s uch a s t he r ecogn i t ion a nd i den t i f ica t ion o f c ray f ish s pecies f ro m midden r e fuse , a nd t he r econs truct ion o f b ody we igh t f ro m c o m mon a nat om ica l s urv iva ls o f t hese a n i ma ls h ave n o t p rev ious ly b een i nves t iga ted , a nd i ti s o ne p urpose o f t h is p aper t o make a s tar t i n r ec ti fy ing t h is s i tua t ion .
The
s econd g enera l i n teres t l i es i n i n terpre ting t he r o le o f c rayf ish i n p reh is tor ic e cono m ies .
S peci f ica l ly , wha t e f fec ts d oes p referen t ia l s elec t ion f or l arge
s ize h ave o n l oca l c rayf ish s tocks o ver l ong p er iods o f t ime?
An o bv ious p lace
t o b eg in t he c ons idera t ion o f t hese q ues t ions i s w i th t he E uropean o bserva t ions o f Maor i c ray f ish ing d ur ing t he 1 8 th a nd 1 9th c en tur ies . Ear ly H is tor ic R ecords o f C ray f ish i n N ew Z ea land The r e levan t e thnograph ic l i tera ture i s n o t p ar t icu lar ly r evea l ing o f t he r o le o f c ray f ish i n t he e cono my a t European c on tac t .
One r eason i s b ecause
t he mos t d e ta i led s tud ies were o f i n land c o m mun i t ies , a nd t here fore r eferences t o c ray f ish were mos t c o m mon ly t o t he f reshwa ter s pec ies . These were r eg arded a s ad e l icacy , a nd were c o mpara t ive ly e as i ly c augh t . H am i l ton c o mmen ts u nder ' crus taceans ' i n h is work F ish ing a nd s ea f oods o f t he Ancien t Maor i ( 1908 :13 ) a s f o l lows : " The p r incip le i t em i n t he b i l l o f f are t aken i n t h is g roup was t he k oura— the l arge r ed c ray f ish ( Pa l inurus o r J asus) —and t he f reshwa ter k oura o f t he l akes a nd s trea ms ( Paranephrops ).
An umber o f
t raps a nd p o ts o f v ar ious k inds were b a i ted a nd s e t f or t hese d a in t ies , a nd t hey were a lso , i n t ime o f p len ty , s l igh t ly smoked a nd d r ied , a nd s trung o n as tr ing o f f lax" . S o me q u i te r evea ling o bserva t ions c oncern ing mar ine c rayf ish ing a re t o b e f ound i n t he j ourna ls o f t he v is i tors who c a me t o N ew Z ea land i n t he 1 8 th c ent ury w i th Capta in C ook . C ray f ish were a pparen t ly o f ten b rough t t o t he b oa ts a s g i f ts a nd i t e ms o f t rade , a nd were c lear ly v ery we lco me. Anderson r emarked d ur ing F ebruary , 1 777 t ha t : " The i nd ians l i kew ise s o met i mes b rough t u s c raw f ish e qua l t o o ur l arges t l obs ters , wh ich a re v ery f ine" ( Anderson , 1 967:808 ) .
1 41
Furneaux n o ted i n h is j ourna l f or N ove mber 4 , 1 772: "We a ga in g o t i n s hore n ear C ape P a l l isser a nd was v is i ted b y a n umber o f t he N a t ives i n t he ir C anoes w i th a g rea t q uan t i ty o f C ray f ish , wh ich we b ough t o f t he m f or n a i ls a nd O tahe i te C loa th ...." ( Furneaux , 1 969:741 ) . Banks h ad e ar l ier r e marked o n s im i lar t ransact ions ( 1963 V o l . 1 :422 ) I n N ove mber 1 1 769 when t hey were s o mewhere n ear Wh i te I s land i n t he Bay o f P len ty . t he m .
H e n o ted t ha t p eop le were t rad ing b oth musse ls a nd c rayf ish w i th The me thod f or c a tch ing t he m was v iv id ly d escr ibed a s f o l lows : " Dr . S o lander who was t oday i n ac ove d i f feren t f ro m t ha t Iwas i n • [ i n Mercury May ]
s aw t he n a t ives c a tch many l obs ters i n a mos t
s i mple manner : t hey wa lked among t he r ocks a t l ow wa ter a bou t midd le d eep i n wa ter a nd s t i l l f e l t a bou t w i th t heir f ee t t i l l t hey f e l t o ne , o n wh ich t hey d ived d own a nd c ons tan t ly b rough t t he m u p.
Id o
n o t k now whe ther Ih ave b efore men t ioned t hese l obsters b u t we h ad t he m i n t o lerable p len ty i n a l mos t e very p lace we h ave b een i n a nd t hey a re c er ta in ly t he l arges t a nd b es t Ih ave e ver e a t"
( Banks , 1 963
V o l . 1 :434 ) . Th is was t he e n try f or N ove mber 1 4 ,
1 769 a nd s hows we l l j us t h ow =neces-
s ary e labora te f ish ing e qu ip men t was f or c a tch ing t he a n i ma ls a t t h is p er iod . Banks was v ery impressed w i th t h is i t em o f f ood , a nd made s o me g enera l c o mmen ts o n t he m i n March 1 770 : " Bu t a bove a l l l uxur ies we me t w i th t he l obs ters o r s ea c raw f ish mus t n o t b e f orgo t , wh ich a re p oss ib ly t he s ame t ha t i n L ord Ansons Voyage a re men t ioned t o b e f ound a t t he I s land o f J uan F ernandes; t hey a re l arge t ho n o t q u ite s o l arge a s t hose a t J uan F ernandes a nd d i f fer f ro m o urs i n Eng land i n h av ing many more p r ick les o n t heir b ackes , a nd b e ing r ed when t aken o u t o f t he wa ter .
O f t he m we b ough t g rea t
q uan t i t ies o ft h e n a t ives e very where t o t he N or thward , who c a tch t he m b y d iv ing n ear t he s hore , f ee l ing f irs t w i th t he ir f ee t t i l l t hey f ind o u t where t hey l i e" ( Banks , 1 962 V o l . 2 :7) . The r e ference t o Anson was e xpanded b y B eag leho le i n af oo tno te t o t h is p ass age a s f o l lows : "Wa l ter i n h is a ccoun t o f Anson 's v oyage , p p . 1 25-6 , wr i tes , ' we f ound h ere o ne d e l icacy i n g rea ter p er fec t ion , b o th a s t o s ize , f lavour , a nd q uan t i ty , t han i s , p erhaps , t o b e me t w i th i n a ny p ar t o f t he wor ld : t h is was a s ea-era-f ish ; t hey g enera l ly we ighed
e igh t o r n ine p ounds
a -piece , were o f a mos t e xce l len t t as te , a nd l ay i n s uch a bundance n ear t he wa ter 's e dge , t ha t t he b oa t-hooks o f ten s truck i n to t he m , i n p u t t ing t he b oa ts t o a nd f ro m t he s hore " ( i bid .) . The s pecies f ound a bou t J uan F ernandes I s land i s J asus f ron ta l is ( Waugh 1 973 : 2 56) a nd s pec i mens a re i ndeed s o me t i mes l arger t han t hose o f J asus e dwardsü
1 42
a l though t hey a re s urpassed b y e xa mp les o f t he N ew Z ea land ' packhorse c rayf ish ' J asus v erreaux i . These l a t ter c rayf ish c an r each e nor mous s ize , a nd may h ave b een t he s pec ies r e ferred t o b y P ark inson who s poke o f o bta in ing c ray f ish u p t o 5k g .
H is r e marks r e la ted t o T olaga Bay a f ter h is v is i t t here 2 3 t o 3 0
O ctober 1 773 ! " Th is b ay a bounds i n av ar ie ty o f f i fh , p ar t icu lar ly f he l l a nd c rayf i fh ;
f o me o f t he l a t ter , wh ich we c augh t , weighed e leven p ounds ;
t he fe a re f ound i n g rea t p len ty , a nd f ee med t o b e t he p r inc ip le f ood o f t he i nhabi tan ts , a t t h i f f ea fon o f t he y ear , t hough t hey h ave a k ind o f f ern , t he r oo ts o f wh ich , r oa f ted , make a g ood f ubf t i tu te f or b read , e fpecia l ly when t he ir k oo marra i s y oung a nd u n f i t f or u fe" ( Park inson , 1 773 :99.
B eag leho le n o tes t ha t " a p enc i l s ke tch o f a sma l l s peci men
o f t he c rayf ish i s o n t he b ack o f P la te 1 2 i n Park inson I" i n B anks , 1 963 V o l . 1 :422 ). B es t r ecorded s evera l me thods o f c a tch ing c ray f ish ( 1929 :52-59 ) .
On t he
s ub jec t o f d iv ing f or t he m h e n o ted t ha t t he Maor i , u n l ike t he p akeha , a lways d ived f eet f i rs t , s o me t i mes t o ad ep th o f 3f a tho ms ( 5 .5 m ) .
A pparen t ly s o me
Maor is c la i med t ha t wo men were a c tua l ly more e xper t i n t he a r t o f c ray f ish d iv ing ( t h is i s a lso men t ioned b y Banks , 1 963 V o l . 2 :33 ;
a nd t he s a me c o m men t
h as b een made o f Tas man ian A bor ig ina l wo men , q .v . J ones , 1 977).
H oop.
s haped d rop n e ts were r ecorded i n wh ich e i ther p aua ( Ha l io t is i r is ) o r k ina ( Evech inus c h loro t icus ) were u sed a s b a i t i n a sma l l s uspended n e t ted b ag . Th is i s s t i l l ac o m mon n on-co m mercia l me thod t oday .
One g a ins t he impres-
s ion f ro m B es t 's r ecords t hough , t ha t t he b a i ted w ickerwork t rap was t he c o mmones t e ar ly Maor i me thod o f c a tch ing t he m .
Aga in t he b a i t was mos t o f ten
p aua , b u t h e a lso r ecorded t he u se o f s tar f ish wh ich i s u nusua l .
C o lenso n o ted
t ha t c rayf ish i t sel f was a n e s tee med b a i t f or c a tch ing g roper ( Tay lor ,
1 959 :6) .
Freshwa ter c rayf ish were t aken b o th b y h and a nd w i th a d redge n et , a nd a lso b y a n i ngen ious me thod wh ich i nvo lved s ink ing b und les o f b racken f ern a nd a l low ing t he m t o r e ma in o n t he b ed o f s t i l l wa ter f or a t ime.
The c ray f ish
wou ld h ide i n t he b und les a nd i ft hese were g en t ly r a ised t he c rus taceans c ou ld b e s haken o u t i n l arge n umbers . Many a pocrypha l s tor ies a re t o ld o f c rayf ish ing , a nd t hese h ave b eco me p rod iga l s ince t he g rea t c rayf ish b oo m i n t he l a te 1 960s i n t he C ha tha m I s lands . H owever , t wen t ie th c en tury f isher men h ave n o monopo ly o n e x travagan t f ishy f o lk s tor ies. The g rea t s ize o f c rayf ish i n t he Cha tha m I slands i s a ne stab lished f ac t , a nd B aucke r e marked t ha t t he n ow d e func t Mor ior i o f t he C ha tha m I s lands e xce l led i n t he a r t o f c rayf ish d iv ing a nd t ha t : " a d iver who a ppeared w i th t hree —one i n e ach h and a nd o ne h e ld b y t he a n tennae b e tween t he t ee th , was a cc la i med a t ch im ' t chaka t ' me ' k ye [ possib ly t enei t anga ta mahi k a i ( af ood p rovider o f r enown ) ]n ( Baucke , 1 928 :360 ) . Wha t S urv ives Archaeo log ica l ly? C ray f ish p resen t ad aun t ing e x ter ior t o wou ld-be p reda tors , b u t i n f ac t t h is s truc ture i s n o t v ery s trong , a nd r o ts q u ick ly i n r easonab ly mo is t a erobic
1 43
c ond i tions.
The b asic ma teria l o ft he e xoske le ton i s c a lciu m c arbona te which
i s p recip i ta ted f ro m t he d er ma l l ayers o ft he a n ima l .
I ti s d eposi ted i n l ayers
i n terspersed w i th a mucopro tein s ecre tion d ur ing a p rocess s i mi lar t o t he b ui ld u p o fn acreous s he l l i n mo l luscs.
I n t he c ase o f c rayf ish , h owever , t he
f i na l s tructure i s n o t o n ly more f l imsy b u t t he p rocess i s p ar t ly r eversib le . J ust b efore t he mou l t , s o me o ft he c a lciu m c arbona te i s e x tracted f ro m t he e xoske le ton a nd s tored a s g astro li ths i nt he c ase o f t he f reshwater c rayf ish ; s pecia l s torage b odies, which p rovide t he mater ia l f or t he r apid h arden ing o f t he n ew s he l l . Crayf ish a lso p ossess sma l l g izzard r aspers wh ich a re q ui te d urab le i n a ppearance a nd migh t b e e xpected t o s urvive a rchaeo logica l ly , a lt hough t h is h as y e t t o b e d emonstrated . T he mar ine s pecies, h owever , u n like t he ir f reshwa ter c oun terpar ts a nd mar ine c rabs, d o n o t p ossess c he lae o r p incers.
The e nds o ft hese a re v ery d ense , a nd a re t he p rincipal c o mponen t
o f c rab r e mains which a re f ound i n midden s i tes ( f or e xa mp le s ee Anderson , 1 973 :Append ix E ) . A l l t hese a n ima ls h ave o ne h ard p ar t i n c o m mon , a nd t his i s t he p a ir o f mand ib les. S tr ict ly s peak ing , t hese a re t he f i rst o ft he n u merous p a ired a ppendages, a l though c lear ly i n t his c ase t hey a re h igh ly s pecia lised i n f orm. They o ccur a t t he v en tra l a n ter ior e nd o f t he a n ima l i m med ia te ly i n f ron t o f t he mou th .
T hey a ppear t o b e more d urab le t han o ther p ar ts o f t he b ody .
Modern r ubbish d u mps o f c rayf ish b odies s how t ha t most o ft he e xoske le ton d eco mposes r a ther r apid ly i n to a g ranu lar c o mposi t ion , a nd t ha t t he o n ly e asi ly i den ti f iab le p ar ts a re t he v ery e nds o f t he s econd a n tennae , a nd t he d ensest c ap p or t ion o ft he mand ib les. The t ips o ft he a n tennae a re s o me t imes s een a rchaeo logica l ly , b ut t he mand ib les a re more c o m mon . I n a ppearance , c rayf ish mand ib les c lose ly r ese mble r a ther wea thered a nd u n iden ti f iab le f rag men ts o f s he l lf ish , a nd t his f act i s d oubt less t he r eason t hey h ave b een s o s e ldo m d ocu men ted b y a rchaeo logists u n ti l r ecen t ly . The midden e xcava tions i n P a l liser B ay s uggested t ha t a rchaeo log ica l s urviva l may b e h igher i n d eposi ts where t here a re s ubstan tia l q uan t i t ies o f a sh , p ossib ly b ecause a n a lka l ine e nvironmen t may b e more f avourab le t o t he ir p reserva tion t han a n a cidic o ne .
Most N ew Z ea land s oi ls a re a cid ic, a nd wh i le s he l l midden
d oes r a ise t he pH s l igh t ly ( Park , 1 969 :26) , t his may n ot b e s uf f icien t t o make much d if ference t o t he p reserva t ion o f c rayf ish p ar ts. A sh , o n t he o ther h and , i sv ery r ich i n p o tash , a nd migh t b e e xpected t o r aise t he pH c onsiderab ly i n i t s n ear v icin i ty . I n a ddi tion , t he f i ne t ex ture a nd h ygroscop ic n a ture o f a sh may h e lp t o c rea te l oca l ly d ry a naerobic c ondi tions which wou ld b e most s ui ta b le t o t he s urviva l o f c rayf ish mand ibles. D esp i te t he g ood c hance o fp reserva tion o f c rayf ish mand ib les t he f i rst p ub lished r eference t o t hese r e mains i n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes was i n 1 955 , af ter n ear ly a c en tury o f N ew Z ea land a rchaeo logy .
This was f ro m a s i te n ow
k nown a s t he Washpoo l S tone Wa l l F or t ( N168/27 ) , a nd t he d iscovery was b y Adk in i n 1 952 .
I ti s wor th q uo t ing a p assage f ro m Adk in i sa r t ic le i n f u l l :
"Ano ther i t e m was a n u mber , 1 2 s pecimens i n a l l , o f l imy b onelike o b jects, t he l argest o ne i nch , o thers d own t o 5 /8 i n . i n l eng th , o ne s ide s l igh t ly c onvex , t he o ther s haped s o mewha t l i ke a h u man e ar . These h ave n ot b een e xact ly i den ti f ied , b u t Dr . R . A . F a l la , D irector D om in ion Museu m , t en ta t ive ly r egards t he m a s 'l i ke t he g r ind ing 1 44
mou th-par ts o f al arge k ind o f c rayf ish o r s o me r e la ted mar ine c rustacean .'
He f ur ther r e marks:
'..i t s ee ms r a ther s trange
t ha t t here s hou ld b e s o many o f t he m [ t he l imy e ar-shaped o b jects ] i n t he a bsence o f a ny o ther p ar ts [ of t he p resu med c rustacean ]. P erhaps t hey h ave s urvived ow ing t o t he q uan t i ty o f l ime i n t heir c omposi t ion ' " ( Adk in , 1 955 :469) . An e xcava t ion b y t he p resen t a u thors i n 1 970 i n t he s a me s po t a s Adk in h ad worked r evea led a no ther d ozen o ft hese f rag men ts, a nd t hese were l a ter p osit i ve ly i den t if ied a s p or t ions o f t he mand ib les o f J asus e dwardsi i ( see B . F . L each , 1 976 :241) . Th is l ack o f r ecovery o f r e mains o f c rayf ish o r l obsters f ro m a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i s n o t c on f ined t o N ew Z ea land .
A f ter a n i n tens ive s earch,o f
a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture o n ly o ne we l l d ocumen ted c ase c ou ld b e f ound . Th is was f ro m a midden-cave s i te a t B on teberg , 3 0 km s ou th o f C ape town i n S ou th A fr ica , a nd t he e xcava t ions r evea led 3 38 mand ibles ( bo th l e f t a nd r igh t ) o f J asus l a lande i , wh ich i s c lose ly s im i lar t o t he c o m mon N ew Z ea land s pecies , J asus e dwards i i ( Kens ler , 1 967b , n o tes t ha t t hey a re s ynony mous ) .
G r ind ley ,
who s tud ied t hese r e ma ins ( 1967 ) , p er for med Van Wisse l ingh 's t es t o n t he mand ib les wh ich s howed t ha t t he p o lysacchar ide c h i t in was s t i l l p resen t , b u t i n r educed q uan t i ty c o mpared w i th modern s pec i mens .
H e e xp la ined t he
d i f feren t ia l s urv iva l o f mand ib les a s b eing d ue t o t he h igher c h i t inous c on ten t i n t he r es t o f t he e xoske le ton , a nd h igher c a lci f ica t ion i n t he mand ib les . I n N ew Z ea land , l arge n u mbers o f mand ibles h ave n ow b een r ecovered i n e xcava t ions i n P a l l iser B ay , t he C ha tha m I s lands , a nd t he F iord land a rea ( however , t he l a t ter h ave n o t b een s tud ied ; s ee C ou t ts , 1 975 :28 ) .
The min i-
mu m n u mbers f or t he P a l l iser a nd C ha tha m f inds a re g iven i n Table 1 0 .1. I ti s i n teres t ing t ha t c o mpara t ive ly f ew were f ound i n t he e x tens ive e xcava t ions i n t he C ha tha ms , b ear ing i n m ind t he v as t q uan t i t ies o f c rayf ish r ecovered c o m merc ia l ly d ur ing t he p as t d ecade ( q .v . Waugh , 1 973 :278 ).
I ti s n o t k nown
whether c ray f ish a re p rone t o ma jor f luctua t ions i n n a tura l a bundance i n s peci f ic a reas o ver c en tur ies , b u t t he r e la t ive l ack o f mand ibles i n p reh is toric s i tes o f t he e ar ly 1 6th c en tury i n t he C ha tha ms , c oup led w i th t he ir g rea t a bund ance i n l a ter p er iods , m igh t a rgue f or t h is .
Curren t h ypo theses r egard ing
e nv iron men ta l c hanges d ur ing t he p as t mi l lenn iu m ( H . L each , 1 976 :
C hap ter
8 ) s ugges ts t ha t t hese were o f i nsu f f ic ien t s ca le t o h ave wrough t t he e f fec ts wh ich a ppear t o b e i nd ica ted f ro m t he C ha tha ms e xcava t ions .
B es ides , t he
P a l l iser Bay c rayf ish f inds a re we l l d ocu men ted f ro m t he 1 2th t o 1 7th c en tur ies ( Anderson , 1 973:
A ppendix E ;
B . F . L each , 1 976 :432 ) .
The I den ti f ica t ion o f A rchaeo log ica l R e ma ins There a re f our s pec ies o f c rayf ish i n N ew Z ea land ; t wo mar ine.
t wo f reshwa ter a nd
T he f reshwa ter s pec ies a re v ar ious ly g rouped , b u t t he c o m mones t
v iew i s t ha t o ne p redo m ina tes i n t he Nor th I s land , a nd t he o ther f ur ther s ou th ( q .v . H opk ins , 1 970 ) .
The N or th I s land s pec ies , P aranephrops p lan i frons
( Figure 1 0 .1A ) h as a s o mewha t f u l ler c arapace a nd more s lender c he lae t han t he o ther s pec ies .
I te x tends i n to Mar lborough i n i t s d is tr ibu t ion .
The S ou th
I s land s pecies , P aranephrops z ea land icus h as a much n arrower c arapace , b u t i s mos t n oted f or i t s v ery h a iry c he lae ( see F igure 1 0 .1B ) . Un for tuna tely 1 45
1 46
N ew Z ea land Freshwa ter C ray f ish .
sz ea land icus
( 3 ,e . . , . , . . _ , . , . „ . . „ , . . I r
J asus e dwardsi i ;
, . .
1 47
F ig . 1 0 .3
New Z ea land Cray f ish Mand ib les A =Paranephrops p lan i frons B =Paranephrops z ea land icus C =J asus e dwardsi i D =Jasus v erreaux i ML = Mand ib le L eng th a s measured
1 48
t he mand ib les o f t hese t wo s pec ies a re v ery s im i lar , a nd p robably imposs ible t o d is t ingu ish r e l iably .
F or l arge s peci mens , t he mand ibles a re o n ly a bou t
5m in a cross t he o cc lusa l s ur face , a nd a l though t hey a re q u i te d is tinc t ive i n s hape , a re l i able t o b e o ver looked u n less midden r e fuse i s v ery c are fu l ly e xamined . The t wo mand ible f or ms a re s hown i n F igure 1 0 .3 , a nd t hese s how t he s ame b as ic s hape a s f or o ther c ray f ish , e xcep t t ha t t he o u ter e dge i s more d en t icu la ted , a nd t here a re t wo s ensory p ads a long t he i nner e dge o f e ach mand ib le.
S pec i mens o f f reshwa ter c ray f ish h ave y e t t o b e r ecovered
f ro m N ew Z ea land a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , a nd when t hey a re p or t ions o f t he c he lae may we l l b e f ound t o b e p resen t a lso . Mar ine c rayf ish p ossess mand ib les o f a bou t 6t o 3 5 mm i n s ize , a nd a re r ead i ly i den t i f ied d ur ing midden a na lys is . Aga in , t here a re t wo s pec ies wh ich may b e d is t ingu ished - J asus e dwards i i ( Figure 1 0 .2A ) , t he c o m mones t s pec ies , a nd J asus v erreaux i ( Figure 1 0 .2B ) , t he p ackhorse c rayf ish , wh ich may r each ac ons iderably l arger s i ze . I tc an b e s een f ro m t he t wo f igures t ha t J asus v erreaux i h as a l ess s cu lp tured a nd s piky t a i l , a nd a lso t he c arapace i s more r ounded i n a ppearance. I n a dd i t ion ,t he f ore mos t r os tra l s pine i s much l arger t han f or J asus e dwards i i . T he g enera l morpho logy o f t he mand ibles i s s im il ar f or t he t wo s pecies w i th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne impor tan t f ea ture. A t t he mos t a n ter ior p ar t o f t he o u ter e dge o f t he mand ib le t he s ur face h as a r a ised r ounded c usp . I n J asus e dwards i i ( F igure 1 0 .3C ) t h is c usp i s q u i te smoo th , a nd many a rchaeo log ica l s pecimens s how c ons iderable a t tr i t ion i n t h is z one. H owever , a sma l l s ensory p ad i s f ound i n t he s ame r eg ion i n s pec i mens o f J asus v erreaux i ( F igure 1 0 .3D ) , a nd t h is p ad b eco mes d e tached d ur ing d eco mp os i t ion t o l eave a sma l l r egu lar s haped p i t i n i t s p lace . Th is d i f ference wou ld b e e as i ly d e tec ted o n a rchaeo log ica l s peci mens , a l though a c arefu l s earch o f t he many f ragmen ts f ro m b o th P a l l iser B ay a nd t he C ha tha m I s lands f a i led t o r evea l as ing le e xamp le . I ti s q u i te c er ta in , t here fore , t ha t a l l t he r e ma ins e xa m ined f ro m t hese s i tes a re t hose o f J asus e dwards i i . P reh is tor ic C rayf ish R e ma ins f ro m N ew Z ea land G r ind ley 's s tudy o f c rayf ish mand ib les f ro m t he B on teberg e xcava t ion i n S ou th A fr ica ( 1967 ) i nc luded a n a ssess men t o f t he c orrespond ing c rayf ish b ody s ize a nd we igh t u s ing i n for ma t ion f ro m modern e xa mp les o f J asus l a landei . These d a ta were t hen c o mpared w i th t hose f ro m modern c o m merc ia l c a tches i n t he r eg ion . The c o m merc ia l s izefrequency d is tr ibu t ion i s s evere ly t runc a ted a t t he sma l ler e nd d ue t o a min i mum s ize r egu la t ion . D espi te t h is , t he p reh is tor ic s izefrequency d is tr ibu t ions r ese mb le t hose o f t he modern c a tches more c lose ly t han t hose o f t he modern n a tura l p opu la t ion .
G r ind ley a rgues
t ha t t h is i nd ica tes a p a t tern o f r e la t ive ly h eavy p reh is tor ic e xp lo i ta t ion ( 1 967: 9 9 ) , a nd t ha t t he p eople o ccupy ing t he s i te c onsumed a t o ta l o f a bou t 2 000 k g o f c ray f ish ( 589 k g o f wh ich wou ld b e t a i ls ) .
Th is f igure s hou ld b e r ev ised t o
a bou t h a l f t he s ta ted v a lue , s ince t he c a lcu la t ion was n o t b ased o n min i mum n umbers , b u t o n t he t o ta l c oun t o fb o th l e f t a nd r igh t mand ibles . Moreover , t he v iew t ha t t he s i ze f requency d is tr ibu t ion i nd ica tes h eavy p reh is tor ic e xp lo i ta t ion i s o ne wh ich c ou ld .b e c ha l lenged .
T he modern d is tr ibu t iona l f igures
i nc lude v ery l arge n umbers o f t iny s peci mens , a nd t h is i s t ypica l o f n a tura l p opu la t ions . H owever , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t p reh is tor ic p eop le wou ld s e lec t l arger s peci mens , a s a ppears t o b e t he c ase w i th o ther mar ine r esources f ound i n
1 49
archaeologicaCsites (see Anderson, n.d.). In such cases initial and moderate exploitation would not show the dominance of-tiny specimens, apparent in modern samples but in fact be similar to the distribution figures found in the site. Indeed, it might well be argued that under conditions of sustained heavy predation, the archaeological remains should eventually show a bias to ever smaller examples. The Bonteberg figures appear to show a pattern of mod erate exploitation without the imposition of a 'minimum size'. The Palliser B ay excavations produced remains of nearly 15 times as many crayfish as those from Bonteberg, and it was thought that the sample recovered would be useful to compare with some modern New Zealand figures. In addition, the excavations were of sites which covered much of the span of New Zealand prehistory, and any long term effects of human predation upon crayfish populations might be revealed from such a numerical study. To facilitate this, it was first necessary to undertake a survey of the modern crayfish in the region. During several periods of archaeological fieldwork in Palliser Bay and the Chatham Islands opportunities arose to measure live or freshly killed Jasus edwardsii and to extract their mandibles for further study. For a number of reasons it was not always possible to weigh or sex all of the speci mens, but sufficient records were obtained to enable reasonable regression formulae to be calculated. Most of the larger specimens were from the Chatham Islands and some very small examples were measured alive and returned to the water. The main aim of the study was to establish the num erical relationship between mandible length (ML) and tail length (tL), since regression formulae linking most other measurements (see Table 10. 2), were already well documented in the literature. Some basic statistics from the present study are given in Table 10.3. Correlation between mandible length and tafl length was high, but noticeably lower in the case of females. This is probably a reflection of the smaller sample size in this case. In Figure 10.4 a scatter plot is presented which shows the cluster of values about the regression lines predicting tail length from mandible size. The various equations obtained are given below: tLM = 9.9425 x MLLM + 4.75 (±. 14.6, r = 0. 93).•.••1 tLM = 9.7057 x MLRM + 5.71 (±. 15.0, r = O.93).•...2 tLF = 4.8458 x MLLF + 78.38 (±. 5.4, r = 0.77)••..•3 tLF = 4.9589 x MLR F + 74.94 (±.5.2, r = 0.79)•••.. 4 tLB = 9.2205 x MLLB + 17.86 (±. 12.2, r = 0. 95).•. •5 tLB = 9.1206 x MLRB + 16.18 (±. 12.3, r = 0. 95)•..• 6 Other Jasus edwardsii measure-i:nents have been subjected to regression analysis, and amongst these studies that of Sorensen (1970) is especially use ful (see also Kensler, 1967a). Using a sample of nearly 500 crayfish, he established the relationships between total length (TL) and tail length, and als o between total length and rostrum to carapace length (RC L). Unfortunately, he does not give the equation for total length from tail length. Although it is not strictly legitimate, a fair approximation may be made by transposing his formulae for the reverse relationship (Sorensen, 1970:13), viz: 150
TL m = ( tL m - 4 .98 )/0 .571 ( r =0 .989 )
7
TLF = ( tLF + 0 .81)/0 .604 ( r =0 .991 )
8
TLB = ( tLB - 2 .31)/0 .586 ( r =0 .989 )
9
T he a dd i t iona l f or mu lae f or p red ic t ing r os tru m t o c arapace l eng th f ro m t o ta l l eng th a re a s f o llows : RCL m = 0 .389 x TL m - 3 .33 ( r =0 .989 )
1 0
RCLF = 0 .352 x TLF + 2 .90 ( r =0 .989 )
1 1
RCLB = 0 .372 x TLB - 0 .61 ( r =0 .984 )
1 2
I th as b een s ugges ted s evera l t imes ( f or e xa mp le S orensen , 1 970 :17) t ha t a p referab le c arapace measure men t i s n o t f ro m t he r ostru m , wh ich i s v ar iab le i n l eng th , a nd s o me ti mes b roken , b u t f ro m t he p la tfor m b e tween t he s econd a n tennae .
F ie lder ( 1964 :78 ) h as d ocu men ted a s i mp le c onversion f actor b e-
t ween t he t wo measure men ts r egard less o f s ex f or Austra lian J asus l a landei , a nd t h is i s u n like ly t o b e much d i f feren t f or New Z ea land J asus e dwardsi i . S orensen ( 1970 :18 ) g ives a b lanke t c onversion f actor o f 4 .8 m m f or J asus e dwardsi i , which i s e quiva len t t o F ie lder ' sc onversion f or a modera te s ized s peci men o f TCL = 1 18 m m . TCL = RCL x 1 .042
1 3
As i s we l l k nown , p red ic t ing l i ve b ody we igh t f ro m b ody d i mens ions i s u sua l ly d i f f icu l t , p robably more s o f or a n i ma ls l ike c ray f ish where d ehydra t ion c an b e a mos t s ign i f ican t f ac tor .
N ever the less , t he s tudy b y F ie lder ( 1964 )
o f n ear ly 6 00 Aus tra l ian J asus l a lande i r esu l ted i n f a ir ly r e l iab le c ub ic f unct i ons f or t h is s pec ies .
I n t he a bsence o f s im i lar d a ta f ro m N ew Z ea land ,
t he f or mu lae u sed h ere a re b ased o n F ied ler 's r esu l ts , a nd a re t here fore s ub jec t t o s o me s ca l ing f ac tor .
Th is i s n o t r egarded a s as er ious p roble m
s ince i ti s t he c o mpara t ive r esu l ts wh ich a re impor tan t e spec ia l ly i n t he s hape o f s ize f r equency d is tr ibu t ions .
The we igh t e s t i ma t ion f or mu lae a re a s f o l lows :
W m =a n t i log ( 2 .7389 x l oge ( TCL m/10 ) -0 .2609 ) ....14 W F =a n t i log ( 2 .7449 x l og e ( TCLF / 10 ) -0 .2760 ) ....15 WB =a n t i log ( 2 .7419 x l og e ( TCL B / 10 ) -0 .2682 )....16 The f orego ing e qua t ions a l low f or t he e s t i ma t ion o f a l l t he ma in v ar iables wh ich a re u sed i n modern c ray f ish s tud ies d irec t ly f ro m t he r e ma ins o f mand ibles i n a rchaeolog ica l s i tes . i nd irec t ;
S o me o f t he c a lcu la t ions a re o bv ious ly r a ther
h owever , r esidua ls were c a lcu la ted f or t he 1 26 J asus e dwards i i
c o l lec ted d ur ing f ieldwork a nd e ven f or t he we igh t d e ter m ina t ion t hese s howed t ha t t he f or mu lae a re r easonab ly p rec ise . As a n e xa mple o f t he a pp l ica t ion o f t hese e qua t ions c ons ider t he r igh t mand ib le f ro m a ma le c ray f ish w i th ML = 1 7.44 m m . p red ic ted u s ing e qua t ion 2 g iv ing a v a lue o f 1 75.0 m m .
Tha t a i l l eng th c an b e The t o ta l l eng th may
n ow b e c a lcu la ted u s ing e qua t ion 7 , a nd t h is g ives a v a lue o f 2 97.7 m m . A pp l ica t ion o f e qua t ion 1 0 y ie lds a v a lue o f 1 12 .5 m m f or t he r os trum t o c arap ace l eng th , a nd t h is c an b e c onver ted t o t he a l terna t ive t o ta l c arapace l eng th
1 51
TABLE 1 0 .1 NE W ZEALAND CRAYFISH RE MAINS
S i tes A
Min i mu m N u mbers
Pa l l iser Bay B lack R ocks BR3 ( N168/77)
4 81
B lack Rocks BR4 ( N168/77 )
9 47
B lack Rocks BR2 ( N168/77)
1 01
Washpoo l Midden ( N168/22 )
6 9
S tone Wa l l F or t ( N168/27)
3 2 519
TOTAL : B
Cha tha m I s lands CHB ( C240/680 )
3 1
Wa ikora ( C240/283)
1 1
Te N ga io ( C240/277 )
3
TOTAL :
4 5
1 52
TABLE 1 0 .2 MODERN CRAYFISH MEASURE MENTS
TCL
= T o ta l C arapace L eng th :
Fro m t he p os ter ior marg in o f t he c arapace
t o t he u n ion o f t he s econd a n tennae . TL
= T o ta l L eng th :
F ro m t he t i p o f t he r os tra l s pine t o t he e x tended t ip
o f t he t e lson . RCL
= R os tru m t o C arapace L eng th :
Fro m t he t ip o f t he r os tra l s p ine t o
t he p os ter ior marg in o f t he c arapace . t L
= Ta i l L eng th :
F ro m t he e x tended t i p o f t he t e lson t o t he c a lci f ied b ar
o n t he v en tra l s ide o f t he t a i l . Un less o therw ise s ta ted a l l measure men ts g iven a re i n mm o r gm , a nd t he d i f feren t s ubscr ip ts u sed a re a s f o l lows : L =L e f t
M = Ma le
R =R igh t
F =F e ma le
B = Bo th s exes p oo led
TABLE 1 0 .3 SOME BAS IC S TAT ISTICS FRO M MODERN CRAYF ISH S TUDY
MLL
Mean SD
MLR
Mean SD
t L
Mean SD
S a mple S izes
Ma les
Fe ma les
Bo th
1 7.05
1 3 .74
1 5 .43
3 .83
1 .36
3 .85
1 7.37
1 4 .12
1 5 .79
3 .91
1 .36
3 .89
1 74 .29
1 44 .97
1 60 .15
4 0 .80
8 .56
3 7.57
7 2
1 53
3 1
1 26
e
c l •
N e
C e
•
o o C D C
0
•
t C O D e
e •
0 C Z L C Z
0 0 •
C D
•
o C C L CD L n i n
e l c o c e t . ' " 0 • • • • • • e C O C Z e 0 0 N C . - 0 e 0 0 c .o t- t- C- CO
c . D
•
c o L C Z I n
0
•
e l 0 e
•
c o
C l C D
i
c o e t Cl c o r z • • • • • C l N M N e 0 0 N N CI M CO M . 4 1
C O C N C l c C \ 1 0 0 0 0 • • • • • • • • • N c o 0 t - 0 0 e N C l C l C l • • 4 N
N
0 0 • c z N
•
0 0
• • • 4 O D C D
t (
C . C . C . • • • • u p N e cn e 1 C Z • e-4 . 4 I . 9 1
0 0 • N N
•
•
N • C . O e e I
. 4 1
O D C O
0
i n •
•
C D C T > N
C D e
0 0 N
•
•
• L 1 0 C l 0 0 r e ) Cl
O D M N
I n 0 C
I c t
C • M e " e 1
O D
0
. 4 I
C i
C l
•
N
C D
— 4 e • • • M OD co e l 0 \ 1 0 0 v 4
t • • N C c e • • • • i n c o N C g C e t r ,
• e N
•
•
ie e N c o e 1
•
0 0
V )
•
•
•
N CO 0 0 0 0 C C
N C C C
0 0
0 0 •
L I Z N N
-. ' Z i l • C D C Y D
c z . 1 . 1 L o i r j e , . . 1 ,1 4 t • • C\ I • • • • • • • • . . , • ., . c m t o C \ I t - C e e O D L C D e l g C M C D M e l e e l e C D N C. 0 N L i z C . . . c m • • • o c : 7 ) N M c ep t -. 1 . f . r
, i C O • . ,1 i n 0 0 t. 1 . i
e
C e D • • L t 0 O N N N
N • C O N N
c o • • t - e OD C1 . 1
C D 0 0 c . 0 N 0 0 C ) 0 t • • C O • • • • • • • • • C • e D C I L n e e
c q
. 4
L f D • M N N
e
I ( 3. J . O D i n
•
e c q c e z
• , 4 o o g m C . - 0 0 C V C D C - 0 0 • • • • • • • • • • • C D CM C - 00 C O N CI CI OD C• 1 C \ I N C • I N e1
e
N N
0 L C D
0 L f D
-
" e 4
C D
c o
e
0
0 L " -
0 L C D c s i • 1
c e z
c n .4 N C
c \ I L O
0
C D L C D t o
C D L C D
N i n
c c >
c r ) N • • • C , 0 C . 0
0 0 N 0 0 e 0 0 C Z 0 0 C D 0 • • • • • • • • • C I 0 0 C D I n C I D C N N
E 1
I n
•
•
•
0 0 t - N M t Ce • • • • • • • 0 0 L C D C > C \ 1 M G O 0 • 4 • 4 4 o e . 4 I • 4 4
•
e I
0 I n
c e )
0 0
L C D . C YZ
• L C D
N o o N
N L c z
0 C . 0 c o
Al l A Z A A A A A A < < < < < < < < <