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Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and Developing a

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

BECOMING AN INNOVATIVE TEACHER EDUCATOR: DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING A SUCCESSFUL HYBRID COURSE

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES Success in Mathematics Education Caroline B. Baumann 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-299-6 Mentoring: Program Development, Relationships and Outcomes Michael I. Keel (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-287-3 Mentoring: Program Development, Relationships and Outcomes Michael I. Keel (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60876-727-4 (Online Book)

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Expanding Teaching and Learning Horizons in Economic Education Franklin G. Mixon, Jr. and Richard J. Cebula 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-971-6 New Research in Education: Adult, Medical and Vocational Edmondo Balistrieri and Giustino DeNino (Editors) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-873-3

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Challenges of Quality Education in Sub-Saharan African Countries Daniel Namusonge Sifuna and Nobuhide Sawamura 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60741-509-1 Collaborative Learning: Methodology, Types of Interactions and Techniques Edda Luzzatto and Giordano DiMarco (Editors) 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60876-076-3 Handbook of Lifelong Learning Developments Margaret P. Caltone (Editor) 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60876-177-7 Virtual Worlds: Controversies at the Frontier of Education Kieron Sheehy, Rebecca Ferguson and Gill Clough (Editors) 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60876-261-3 Health Education: Challenges, Issues and Impact André Fortier and Sophie Turcotte (Editors) 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60876-568-3

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Reading in 2010: A Comprehensive Review of a Changing Field Michael F. Shaughnessy (Editor) 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60876-659-8

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Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course Qiuyun Lin 2010. ISBN: 978-1-60876-465-5

Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

BECOMING AN INNOVATIVE TEACHER EDUCATOR: DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING A SUCCESSFUL HYBRID COURSE

QIUYUN LIN

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

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ISBN:  (eBook) Lin, Quiyun. Becoming an innovative teacher educator : designing and developing a successful hybrid course / Quiyun Lin. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60876-465-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Teachers--Training of. 2. School improvement programs. 3. Teacher effectiveness. I. Title. LB1723.L56 2009 370.71'1--dc22 2009044334

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Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

CONTENTS

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Preface

xi

Chapter 1

Introduction

1

Chapter 2

Rationale of Hybrid Learning

25

Chapter 3

Theoretical Foundations

41

Chapter 4

Hybrid Learning Environment

57

Chapter 5

Hybrid Course Implementation

79

Chapter 6

When Learners Are Online

103

Chapter 7

Changing Roles

133

Chapter 8

Assessment of Hybrid Learning

147

Chapter 9

A Final Word

181

Appendices

185

Index

195

Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PREFACE The context of teacher education is changing. The convergence of social, technical, and intellectual forces has pushed it to the tipping point of a significant transformation (Hartley, Woods, & Pill, 2005). The forces of change have raised serious concerns about the quality of the educational experience in teacher education. These concerns and changing expectations of the quality of learning have focused attention on preserving and enhancing the basic values of traditional teacher education while recognizing and adopting the enormous potential of new media such as internet and communications technology (Bonk, Kim, & Zeng, 2006). The new media have precipitated a contextual shift toward engaging students in deep and meaningful approaches to learning (Edmonds, 2007). These realities have opened the door to significant pedagogical redesigns that involve integrating innovative communications technologies (i.e., online learning) into conventional classrooms, a new pedagogy called ―hybrid‖ teaching and learning (Gouge, 2009). The word ―hybrid‖ implies a mixture or combination with the technology as an enabling tool. Because hybrid learning is an approach and design that has the potential to merge the best of traditional and web-based learning experiences to create and sustain vital communities of inquiry (Gouge, 2009), many teacher education programs are now quietly repositioning themselves to harness its transformational potential (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). However, while online or distance courses have become legitimate mode of course format in most of the teacher education programs, hybrid courses have been largely treated as a subset of distance education and are seldom regarded as a unique method of course delivery. Although numerous books and resources are available on online learning, very few books, tutorials or resources can be found

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for hybrid learning. This is what happened to me when I just started out as an elementary teacher educator. Ten years ago, when I was just out of graduate school with an Ed.D. degree in Curriculum and Instruction, and accepted a position as an assistant professor in an elementary teacher education program at a Northeast college in USA, I was very interested in the concept of ―hybrid‖, but could find very few books and resources in this area to guide and help me. Although instructional technology is not my expertise area, I still ventured into it. Bit by bit I tried several course management systems such as WebCT, Blackboard, Angel, and watched this niche of the market grow. The technology has been catching up to the potential of the online delivery medium, and these ―virtual classrooms‖ are becoming not only accepted but expected as part of traditional teacher education course offerings. Using knowledge I gained piece by piece from technology trainings and self-learning, I had designed over four dozen hybrid courses in elementary teacher education programs so far. Once started, once some benefits are reaped, my love of it just couldn‘t stop. However, the lack of direction in this area still frustrates me. The thinking of integrating technology in a traditional face-to-face course also thwarts many of the instructors who are immigrants to today‘s technology tools. Often, I heard my colleagues say, ―I‘m not an expert at technology.‖ ―I never use the smartboard. It‘s useless in my classroom.‖ ―A teacher‘s job is already demanding enough. I want to know how to simplify my job, not to make it more complicated—by adding some fancy technology tools.‖ If you‘re one of them, don‘t worry, this book will not dazzle you with new technological skills to learn—it is more about learning and teaching than technology. The purpose of this book is to explore a new educational paradigm that integrates the strengths of face-to-face and online instruction—hybrid learning—a design approach whereby both face-to-face and online learning are made better by the presence of the other (Stine, 2004). This book offers not only the possibility of recapturing the traditional values of teacher education, but a careful analysis of what educators could expect from ―hybrid learning‖. It is about using hybrid learning as an opportunity to recognize talent, harness potential, push the boundaries of personal development, and provide learning that transcends any individual or organization. It covers the research, but also draws on the experiences of practitioners to address issues in hybrid learning. The primary audience for this book is faculty in teacher education who are struggling to find the time and means to engage their students in meaningful learning activities. It will help both novices and those who are looking to extend their hybrid practice further, offering guidance on how to change existing

Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

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Preface

xiii

practice, with clear directions into design and implementation procedures and insights into key issues and what may appear to be daunting challenges. In addition, faculty in all disciplines in higher education who are trying to integrate the Internet and communications technology into their courses will find the book of considerable value. Certainly faculty developers and instructional designers will find a coherent approach and specific techniques for designing hybrid learning courses. Finally, graduate students and administrators will find this book useful to gain an understanding and appreciation for the potential of hybrid learning designs. Those with more background in instructional design or those who are working on staff development projects in this area will also find the book useful as a resource for designing all levels of hybrid education. Reasonable or not, those who embark on hybrid teaching do so because they want to do something that is educationally progressive, is innovative and beneficial, and adds an extra dimension to the traditional courses taught in classrooms. But, without careful deliberation and intentional focus on the needs to understand pedagogy, they run the risk of producing a cohort of students who pass through the educational process but missing out on true opportunities for inspirational and meaningful learning. Teaching in a hybrid environment is an art that can—and should—be informed by empirical research and sound educational principles. First, teaching a hybrid course is teaching. Some of the qualities that make a gifted teacher effective in face-to-face contexts also apply to hybrid courses, even as the hybrid course requires new teaching skills. Second, teaching a hybrid course is an art. Whether hybrid learning resources are created by individuals or multidisciplinary teams, they require artistry and creativity. Finally, in order to be effective, teaching hybrid courses must be informed by research and theory. It is in the domains of research, theory, and their application in teacher education that this book makes its contribution.

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REFERENCES

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Bonk, C., Kim, K. J., & Zeng, T. (2006). Future directions of blended learning in higher education and workplace learning settings. In C. J. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 550-567). San Franscisco: Pfeiffer. Edmonds, C. (2007). Continuous quality improvement: Integrating best practice into teacher education. International Journal of Educational Management, 21, 232-237. Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Frameworks, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Gouge, C. (2009). Conversation at a crucial moment: Hybrid courses and the future of writing programs. College English, 71, 338-362. Hartley, P., Woods, A., & Pill, M. (Eds.). (2005). Enhancing teaching in higher education: New approaches for improving student learning. London., UK: Routledge. Stine, L. (2004). The best of both worlds: Teaching basic writers in class and online. Journal of Basic Writing, 23, 49-69.

Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

Chapter 1

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INTRODUCTION At no other time in the history of higher education have there been so many inquiries into accountability for student learning, progress, and degree program viability. Funding for higher education has, in many states, been sharply reduced and any funding increase in the future may be linked to accountability. In the context of this changing environment, students today are not steeped in tradition about the infallibility of instructors. They already have many ways to access information. They want instructors who are guides. They look for interesting, engaging, and timely courses. Generally, they are media savvy and many expect to use technologies such as e-mail and the World Wide Web in their classes (Kim & Baylor, 2008). To meet these changing needs, instructors have to be more than information suppliers. In the field of teacher education, the change is marked by a ―juxtaposition of new technology and old pedagogy.‖ (as cited in Garrison & Vaughan, 2008, p.7). For the traditional campus- and field-based teacher education programs, the breakthrough came when online learning was no longer regarded as a separate but an integral and valued component to address the need for a new pedagogy. This was the watershed moment for teacher education programs. Fundamental redesign for teaching and learning represents the means to address the challenges associated with providing a quality learning experience (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Importantly, we have seen the value of adding online components into our courses, a type of class called ―hybrid‖. Some educators consider the hybrid to be the best of both worlds, as it facilitates the learning process and enhances both student-student and faculty-student communication (Stine, 2004). In other words, it provides the real time face-to-face (FTF) contact, with the convenience and

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flexibility of online method of learning (Bender, 2003). We are all familiar with the situation of being immersed in a terrific discussion in an FTF class, and then having to stop as it is the end of the scheduled class time. Rather than having to wait for the next FTF class, by which time the idea might have lost some of its vitality and freshness, in hybrid courses the discussion can continue online. Furthermore, the online environment can be used for preparation of materials for the next FTF class. In this way, the hybrid class can be thought of as ―pushing back the classroom walls.‖ (Bender, 2003, p.xvii) It is emerging as the organizing concept in transforming teaching and learning while preserving the core values of teacher education.

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WHAT IS HYBRID LEARNING? There have been many terms that describe different ways of learning such as experiential learning (Kolb & Fry, 1975), cooperative learning (Slavin, 1983), project-based learning (Blumenfeld et al., 1991), open learning (Rowntree, 1993), and most recently, hybrid learning (Young, 2002). Hybrid learning, also known as blended learning (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004), mixed mode (Strambi & Bouvet, 2003), is a relatively new term and is gaining acceptance and being adopted at college campuses throughout the US. Although hybrid learning is something of a hot topic nowadays, everyone has a different understanding of what it means. Some may consider a course which uses a web-site or a course management system plus a classroom experience to be hybrid learning; some may prefer defining hybrid as simply the combination of online (mostly asynchronous) learning with FTF learning environments. In a more sophisticated definition, a hybrid learning program can be described as a learning program where more than one delivery mode is being used with the objective of optimizing the learning outcomes and cost of the program delivery. However, it should be emphasized that it is not the mixing and matching of different learning and delivery modes by itself that is of significance, but the focus on the learning and education outcomes. Recognizing true hybrid learning is not obvious. True hybrid learning is the organic integration of thoughtfully selected and complementary FTF and online approaches and technologies (Bonk & Graham, 2006). It focuses on optimizing achievement of learning objectives, by applying the ―right‖ learning technologies to match the ―right‖ personal learning style, to transfer the ―right‖ skills to the ―right‖ person at the ―right‖ time (Kaleta, Skibba, & Joosten, 2007). Embedded in this definition are the following concepts:

Becoming an Innovative Teacher Educator: Designing and Developing a Successful Hybrid Course : Designing and

Introduction     

3

Fundamentally rethinking the course design to optimize student engagement; Thoughtfully integrating FTF and online learning; Restructuring and replacing traditional class contact hours; Focusing on the learning objective rather than the method of delivery; Supporting different learning styles to reach broad audiences.

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In many cases, the most effective learning strategy is ―just-what-I-need, justin-time‖ (Kaleta et al., 2007). Some educators define hybrid learning approaches as finding a harmonious balance between online access to knowledge and FTF human interaction (Mortera-Gutiérrez, 2006). Thus, a brief, refined definition is: hybrid learning is the thoughtful fusion of FTF and online learning experiences. The basic principle is that FTF oral communication and online written communication are optimally integrated such that the strengths of each are integrated into a unique learning experience congruent with the context and intended educational purposes (Ogusthorpe & Graham, 2003).

OVERVIEW OF HYBRID LEARNING Hybrid learning is not new. However, in the past, the ingredients for hybrid learning were limited to physical classroom formats, books, or handouts. Today teacher education programs have myriad learning approaches to choose from. The new approaches, stemming mainly from the ubiquity of easy-to-use technology, are changing how teacher educators deal with information. Teacher educators who begin their attempts to deploy instructional technology with only the use of e-mail as a communication tool, then move on to develop course supportive Websites, will likely soon attempt to use synchronous or asynchronous classroom discussions. And, various educational technologies allow communication among students and teachers working at the same time (synchronously) or at different times (asynchronously); in the same place (e.g., a classroom) or a different place (on-campus or off-campus); in the same or a different geographical location, in the same or a different time zone or country. For example, teacher education programs usually include a pre-student teaching field experience that can be examined in the context and definition of hybrid classes. Each student goes to a classroom and observes the teacher-class processes, often using a list that guides

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what he or she is required to see. At the end of the day after each observation, students discuss their individual experiences online through discussion boards or blogs. Since it‘s not easy for the students to meet as a whole class when they‘re in the field, online meetings become an ideal way for the students to share with each other‘s diverse experience, and to reflect on what they observed and arrive at meaningful conclusions that will assist them as they move toward student teaching.

Models

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An instructional design model for hybrid learning must provide patterns and guidelines that enable us to go from the design of content to the design of environments geared toward teaching and learning. The mere distribution of content does not imply the creation and building of knowledge. Designers must take into account the kind of learning they would like to foster and for whom the materials are intended, taking into consideration what roles the teacher educator, the learner, and the contents or resources play in the learning process.

Model One: WisCom An interesting, emerging model, called WisCom (Gunawardena et al., 2006), which stands for ―wisdom communities,‖ suggests that educators should focus on developing engaged communities of practice with existing technologies. Grounded on socio-constructivist and sociocultural philosophies of learning (Vygotsky, 1978), the WisCom model offers a new perspective on the importance of creating a supportive context within which learners can navigate the process of learning, collaborate, and become collectively wise. Unlike early models of independent study that stressed individual learning, the goal of WisCom is to create a wise community that shares a common mission, engages in reflection and dialogue, believes in mutual trust and respect, cares for the common good, and empowers its members. The community provides the opportunity for participants to interact, receive feedback, and learn and grow together. In other words, the WisCom model provides the design framework for developing a wisdom community supported by knowledge innovation, mentoring, and learner support that allows for perspective transformations as the end goal, which occurs at both the individual and community levels.

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Introduction

5

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Model Two: Adventure Learning Another model, called ―adventure learning‖ (Doering, 2006; Doering & Veletsianos, 2008), contends that hybrid education can be designed as an alternative approach to supplement face-to-face education (Doering & Veletsianos, 2008). Adventure Learning (AL) provides students with opportunities to explore real-world issues through authentic learning experiences within collaborative learning environments. It is grounded in two major theoretical approaches—experiential learning (Kolb, 1984) and inquiry-based learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). The AL approach to design, development, and learning is based upon the understanding that experience guides meaningful learning experiences. The model has been supported by other researchers (Beldarrain, 2006; Bernhard, Bonk & Zhang, 2006; Frey, 2008) whose research all demonstrated that greater involvement with active, relevant projects enhances the learning experience. Puntembekar (2006) also demonstrated that using Web-based technologies can facilitate collaborative knowledge building— development of new ideas by bringing people with divergent views together. Model Three: Instructional Systems Design (ISD) The ISD model was designed to assist teacher educators restructure courses with technology, so that student teachers experience the value of technology in teaching and learning. Ultimately, the goal is, through these redesigned learning environments, to prepare preservice teachers become technologically or IT competent, that is, able to use the computer as a learning tool for enhancing their teaching practices, and not just as a delivery vehicle. As it is widely accepted, the field of instructional technology is filled with ISD models (Figure 1.1). For the most part, these models offer structured guidelines and procedures for teacher educators. The model is applicable or transferable to different disciplines, and aims at aligning content, pedagogy, and technology as these relate to a specific discipline. It has been constructed based on insights from years of experience with training K-12 teachers to integrate computer-based technologies in their classrooms. Based on these experiences, teachers‘ two main concerns with technology are (a) how technology can help them teach topics that they find hard to teach or present due to their abstractness or complexity, and (b) how technology will be integrated in the classroom. The following cases are examples to address these concerns.

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Identify topics students find difficult to understand because they are too abstract or complex, and for which teachers have difficulty teaching or presenting effectively with traditional means

Select topics/content to be taught with technology

Select instructional tools with appropriate features to afford content transformations, and support learnercentered teaching strategies

Integrate learning activities with appropriate discipline-specific pedagogy in the classroom

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Reflect

Transform and represent content into forms that are pedagogically powerful

Tailor representations to student characteristics (e.g., learning preferences, prior knowledge)

Assess student performance during learning (formative evaluation)

Revise

Figure 1.1. An ISD Model for Integrating Technology in Teacher Education.

Cases Case One: Online Virtual Field Experience To make the diverse field experiences into shared experiences and structured reflection, Brush et al. (2003) developed a virtual field experience, delivered by desktop videoconferencing systems. Desktop videoconferencing does not require satellite studios and specialized classrooms. This technology, which is becoming increasingly affordable and reliable, uses familiar equipment in computer lab settings, thus making the opportunity more and more available to students at all levels of education. In Frey‘s (2008) study, teacher education students meeting in a variety of locations participated in a shared learning experience. The live videoconference was rebroadcast with a different group of student participants, such as students whose employment allow only evening sessions. The videoconferences followed a specified format. First, there was a segment of teaching done by a cooperating teacher at his or her own site. Second, there was

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an opportunity for the school children in the observed classroom to ask questions of the observers. Third, there was the time for teacher education students to ask questions of the children. Steps four and five involved questions back and forth between teacher education students and the cooperating teachers who just taught the segment. All these steps were completed online. Newman, Falco, Silverman and Barbanell (2008) suggested that holding videoconference both before and after FTF sessions enhanced the experience. They stressed that this reinforced student reflection and provided them with the opportunity to build upon experiences of the other student teachers. Using this videoconference system, they were able to introduce students in their teacher education programs to teachers and teaching circumstances in a variety of grade levels, economic situations, and social settings. Students shared their experience with other preservice teachers. They may even revisit segments to see how a particular teacher used a teaching technique. Discussions may continue asynchronously with students and their college supervisor on aspects of the shared classroom observation experience as the supervisor sought to assist students in reflecting and linking practice with theory.

Case Two: Online Discussion Groups Another example of this approach is my hybrid human development course to childhood education majors, which illustrates some of the technology integration possibilities. Like many teacher education faculty, I faced the challenge of engaging students in a subject that many consider to be both dry and intimidating. I was searching for a way to make better use of the classroom sessions, and, at the same time, to redistribute more of the learning activities outside of class. Here is the technology integration solution that I created to address these challenges: 1. Replace 25% of classroom seat time (mostly lectures and homework review) with online discussion groups and team projects that extend across the entire week. 2. To encourage learning by discovery, develop online discussion assignments in which students find, summarize, and evaluate a recent article on an issue. 3. Students are asked to read and reflect on several case studies online, using theories they have learned to defend their viewpoints. The results of their views are further discussed in the face-to-face classes. 4. Students work in online discussion groups to solve collaboratively the homework problem sets. This strategy makes better use of classroom

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Quiyun Lin time because I know before class those problems that are most difficult for students and therefore need to be reviewed in class.

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Case Three: Blackboard Course Supplements In two other courses that I taught (Course A: Multicultural Issues in Education and Society; Course B: Applied Strategies for the Exceptional Learners), I used Blackboard Course Management System to fully supplement learning as well as to replace some of the seattime online. Both courses were undergraduate 300-level courses. Course A focused on issues and conceptual understandings, Course B on practice and strategies. The Blackboard component included three major areas: 1. Main content area—This area includes announcements, syllabus, staff information, and course information. In the course information section, I gave students access to course lecture notes, PowerPoint, grading rubrics, sample assignments, and other information related to course assignments and procedures. 2. Main communication area—This area includes a discussion board, chat rooms, e-mail, and a class roster. 3. Main assessment area—In this area students can take tests and practice simulated tests. They can also submit written assignments and review a paper that has been graded. 4. Student course-management area—All students had access to the checkgrade function and several other tools to assist them in the management of course requirements, including the ability to create and edit a personal home page, a calendar function, a personal profile, and contact information. I designed these courses to include both FTF and online classroom time with roughly 70% of formal class meetings in traditional classrooms and 30% online. Synchronous sessions such as online tests and chat rooms were usually held during normal class time. On the days when there were synchronous online classes, I would remain at the office, monitoring and directing online activities, ready for assistance to anyone who experienced difficulties. After class, I would archive all the discussion boards in PDF format and posted the documents in Blackboard for further reference and discussion in FTF classrooms. For both FTF and online sessions, an emphasis was placed on students coming to class after having learned the material on their own. Attendance and participation were tracked not only in FTF classes but online as well.

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Tools Learning Management Systems Learning Management Systems (LMS), also known as Course Management Systems (CMS), or learning portals, are software packages built to support the administrative functions and learning objectives of course delivery, whether in online, FTF, or hybrid learning environments (Woods, Baker, & Hopper, 2004). Typical functionalities of an LMS include Web course design, Web course collaboration tools, and Web course management feature. LMSs allow teacher educators to start by experimentation, easily enabling them to create hybrid instructional environments, often initially for simple distribution of classroom materials, and later for the purpose of increasing student reflection on those course materials, eventually to foster student engagement through more complex classroom interactions that are typical in a traditional instructional setting (Woods et al., 2004). Software to support administrative and learning goals spans a broad spectrum of features and capabilities, but an LMS in this context refers to an enterprisewide system, accessed through the Web by course administrators, moderators, and participants. Common features include the ability to upload and share course resources and maintain student grades. They also include collaboration tools, more notably asynchronous discussion boards. The market leaders in LMS implementations are Blackboard/WebCT LMS and Desire2Learn, which are closed source, commercial LMS tools. Other popular products include Sakai, Moodle, and .LRN, which are free, open-source LMS. Open source software is normally developed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL is the most popular and well-known example of the type of strong copyleft license that requires derived works to be available under the same copyleft. Universities, educational institutions and every interested person may use the system free of charge and contribute to its further development. Most LMS can be categorized into either open source or closed source software. Open source software (Table 1.1) encourages learning, the exchange of knowledge and information, and project improvements that rely as much on its users, and its developers‘ colleagues, as it does the developer. It‘s not unlike education. Ideally, learning is a continuous cycle of taking in, processing, and giving back, with modifications. However, the adoption of open-source software has been relatively slow in teacher education. The ―free as in cost‖ concept, however, holds very little significance in the decision to use open source software. One reason perhaps is because of lack of customer support when something goes wrong.

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Quiyun Lin Table 1.1. Highlights of Selected Open Source LMS (Non-Commercial) LMS

ATutor

Features

Major Developer(s)

Designed with accessibility and adaptability in mind, ATutor conforms with international accessibility standards and Open Social standard. It allows learners to configure the environment and content to their specific needs and ensures assistive technology users to participate fully.

1. The Adaptive Technology Resource Centre (ATRC) at the University of Toronto 2. The Learning Disabilities Resource Community (LDRC)

Website: http://www.atutor.ca

Claro-line

An Open Source software based on PHP/MySQL. Its collaborative learning environment allows teachers or education institutions to create and administer courses through the web. Translated into 35 languages, Claroline has a large worldwide community.

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Website: http://www.claroline.net/

COSE

COSE (Creation of Online Study Environments) is an open source e-learning platform from UK. It facilitates active and collaborative learning for a wide variety of learners (traditional, distributed and distance), with a particular focus on approaches such as problem-based learning and cognitive apprenticeship.

1. Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium 2. Haute Ecole Léonard de Vinci, Belgium 3. Universidade de Vigo, Spain 4. Université du Québec à Rimouski, Canada 5. Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile Staffordshire University

Website: http://www.staffs.ac.uk/COSE/

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Table 1.1. (Continued) LMS Didactor

Features Didactor is a low-threshold and open source E-learning platform developed from a didactic perspective, based on the methodology of learning objects. Educators can define and create pieces of knowledge and group them into separate objects. Didactor consists of over 23 didactic components, like e-portfolio, assessment, competence management, group discussion, chat etc.

Major Developer(s) 1. The Dutch Open University 2. The Mediator Group, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Website: http://www.didactor.nl/static.php?text_name= english

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Docebo

Docebo is an e-Learning platform from Italy, used in corporate and higher education markets. The platform supports 18 languages and can support different didactic models including blended, self-directed, collaborative and social learning through chat, wiki, forums and 53 other different functions.

Docebo SRL

Website: http://www.docebo.com/doceboCms/

Drupal

Adopted by the Whitehouse as their standard web platform, Drupal allows an individual or a community of users to easily publish, manage and organize a wide variety of content on a website. The built-in functionality, combined with dozens of freely available add-on modules, will enable features such as blogs, collaborative authoring environments, forums, peer-to-peer networking, newsletters, podcasting, etc.

Drupal Association

Website: http://drupal.org/

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Quiyun Lin Table 1.1. (Continued) LMS

eFront

Features eFront includes a wide variety of components that help a user create lesson structure and add content, build online-tests, communicate with others, conduct surveys, assign projects, and create certifications, etc.

Major Developer(s) Epignosis Ltd, Athens, Greece

Website: http://www.efrontlearning.net/

Fle3

Fle3 (Future Learning Environment) is designed to support learner and groupcentered work that concentrates on creating and developing expressions of knowledge. Fle3 contains three learning tools and several administration tools including Fle3 WebTops, Fle3 Knowledge Building tool groups, and Fle3 Jamming tool.

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Website: http://fle3.uiah.fi/

Going-On

GoingOn is designed for educational and corporate environments. GoingOn communities can be deployed as a stand-alone environment for both online and hybrid learning, or can be tightly integrated with existing LCMS/LMS systems.

1. UIAH Media Lab, University of Art and Design Helsinki, Finland 2. Centre for Research on Networked Learning and Knowledge Building, Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, Finland.

GoingOn Technologies, Inc., San Francisco, CA

Website: http://www.goingon.com

ILIAS

ILIAS allows users to create, edit and publish learning and teaching material in an integrated system with their normal web browsers. Tools for cooperative working and communication are included.

1. Faculty of Economics, Business Administration and Social Sciences at the University of Cologne, Germany

Website: http://www.ilias.de/index.html

2. LEIFOS GmbH, Cologne, Germany

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Table 1.1. (Continued) LMS LAMS

Features LAMS can work as a stand-alone e-learning system or be integrated with other educational software. In 2005, LAMS was integrated with Sakai. This integration allows teachers and professors to benefit from Sakai‘s highly scalable learning platform combined with the unique ―digital lesson planning‖ approach of LAMS.

Major Developer(s) 1. Macquarie E-learning Centre of Excellence (MELCOE) 2. LAMS Foundation, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia 3. LAMS International

Website: http://lamsfoundation.org/

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.LRN

.LRN (pronounced ―dot learn‖) is a global community of educators, designers, and software developers who partner together to drive educational innovation. Originally developed at MIT, .LRN can be used to support a range of applications, including course management, e-learning, and research communities.

.LRN Consortium

Website: http://www.dotlrn.org/ Mambo

Mambo is a full-featured content management system that can be used for everything from simple websites to complex corporate applications. The Mambo Developers Network is a free listing service available to all Mambo developers to offer their products and services to a global network of Mambo users.

SiteGround web hosting

Website: http://www.mamboserver.com/index.php?opti on=com_frontpage&Itemid=1

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Quiyun Lin Table 1.1. (Continued) LMS

Manhattan Virtual Classroom

Features The Manhattan Virtual Classroom is webbased virtual classroom system that includes a variety of features to support online teaching. It is a fast, stable and effective course management system that runs on Linux and other Unix-like systems. It‘s written entirely in the C programming language and is 100% database-free.

Major Developer(s) Western New England College, Springfield MA

Website: http://manhattan.sourceforge.net/

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Moodle

Moodle is an Open-Source e-learning system, currently in use at 987 sites in 74 countries, and has been translated into 34 languages. These systems are also designed to support broad learning objectives. Moodle touts its commitment to constructivist learning through its use of collaborative technologies.

1. Remote-Learner.net LLC 2. ClassroomRevolution.com 3. Moodlerooms, Inc. 4. NewSchool Learning

Website: http://moodle.org/

MySource Matrix

MySource Matrix is an open source, enterprise-class Content Management System (CMS). MySource Matrix runs some of the world‘s largest intranet, web, e-commerce and publishing platforms such as Oxford University and the University of Greenwich.

Squiz UK, London, UK

Website: http://www.squiz.co.uk/mysourcematrix-open-source-cms

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Table 1.1. (Continued) LMS OLAT

Features OLAT (Online Learning and Training) is open source, available in 17 languages and completely free of charge. The development of OLAT started in 1999 at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, where it is the strategic learning management system and deployed on the main OLAT server.

Major Developer(s) University of Zurich, Switzerland

Website: http://www.olat.org/website/en/html/index.ht ml

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OpensourceCMS

opensourceCMS.com was created with the goal of giving the user the opportunity to ―try out‖ some of the best free and open source software systems. Each system is deleted and re-installed every two hours. This allows the user to add and delete content, change the way things look, basically be the admin of any system here without fear of breaking anything

The Open Source Collective, Inc.

Website: http://www.opensourcecms.com/

Plone

Plone is ideal as an intranet and extranet server, as a document publishing system, a portal server and as a groupware tool for collaboration between separately located entities. It has 200 core developers and more than 300 solution providers in 57 countries and has the best security tract record of any major CMS.

Plone Foundation

Website: http://plone.org/

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Quiyun Lin Table 1.1. (Continued) LMS

RCampus

Features RCampus is developed for educators, students and academic groups with the following components:  Learning & Course Management  Website builder  Campus communities  Tutor connection  E-portfolios  Rubrics  Book exchange

Major Developer(s) Reazon Systems, Inc.

Website: http://www.rcampus.com/

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Sakai

The Sakai Project, formerly CourseWork by Stanford University, is designed both for faculty with little Web experience and for expert Web-users. It is developed by an active community of educational institutions working together to solve common problems and share best practices.

1. Stanford University 2. University of Michigan 3. Indiana University 4. MIT 5. uPortal Consortium 6. Open Knowledge Initiative (OKI)

Website: http://www.sakaiproject.org

Sloodle

SLOODLE (Simulation Linked Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is an Open Source project which integrates the multi-user virtual environment of Second Life® with the Moodle® learning-management system.

School of Library & Information Science, San José State University, San José, CA

Website: http://www.sloodle.org/moodle/

Closed source software (Table 1.2) like Blackboard, Inc. is currently the heavyweight of the course management software field—a majority of American colleges use its software as their platforms. The software is closed by nature,

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which is certainly limiting for many insitutions. There are signs that open source alternatives are starting to gain ground. According to some observers, Blackboard is heading for a showdown with the free software movement. Table 1.2. Highlights of Selected Closed Source LMS (Commercial) LMS Angel

Features The Angel Learning Management Suite includes Angel Course Management and Angel ePortfolio. In May 2009, Angel joined the Blackboard. Website: http://www.angellearning.com/

Blackboard

Blackboard is the largest commercial e-learning company, after merging WebCT and Angel. With more than 1,000 people in the company, it serves over 5,000 institutions and millions of users worldwide.

Major Developer(s) 1. Indiana U-Purdue U, Indianapolis (IUPUI) 2. ANGEL Learning, Inc. 3. Blackboard, Inc.

Blackboard Inc.

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Website: http://www.blackboard.com

Criterion

Criterion Learning delivers eLearning and online community solutions to universities, corporations and professional associations. The Criterion Learning Product Suite includes Create, Instance Access, and Assessment.

Criterion Learning, LLC

Website: http://www.criterionlearning.com/

Desire2 Learn

Founded in 1999, Desire2Learn product offers Enterprise eLearning Suite, which is comprised of the web-based Learning Environment, ePortfolio, Learning Repository, and LiveRoom. Its focus is on research and development and service and support for its clients.

Desire2Learn Incorporated

Website: http://www.desire2learn.com/

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Quiyun Lin Table 1.2. (Continued)

LMS eCollege

Features Pearson eCollege was created in 1996 by the world‘s leading education technology company—Pearson. It offers integrated technology, content solutions and multi-level user support including Software as a Service (SaaS) platform.

Major Developer(s) Pearson, Inc.

Website: http://www.ecollege.com/index.learn

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Epsilen

Epsilen environment features includes ePortfolio, Showcase, Learning Matrix, Global Learning System (GLS), Group and Course Collaboration, Blog, Wiki, Messaging, Resume, Social and Professional Networking, etc. Epsilen Environment is the result of six years of research and development at the Purdue School of Engineering and Technology at IUPUI. Epsilen Products and Services became commercially available in August 2007 through BehNeem, LLC. In March 2008, The New York Times Company purchased a majority ownership interest of BehNeem, LLC.

1. Indiana U-Purdue U, Indianapolis , IN 2. New York Times BehNeem, LLC

Website: http://www.epsilen.com/LandingSite/Home.aspx Timecruiser

Since 1995, Timecruiser Computing Corporation has provided an affordable and scalable on-demand (SaaS) solution suite including CampusCruiser®, Custom Portal CourseCruiser™, Learning Management System CruiserEval™, Course Evaluation Solution CruiserAlert™, and High Priority Notification System

Timecruiser Computing Corporation

Website: http://www.timecruiser.com

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Table 1.2. (Continued) LMS

Features

Turnitin

Founded in 1996 by a group of researchers, teachers, mathematicians and computer scientists from University of California, Berkeley, iParadigms set out to create a new model for the protection of written work from misappropriation on the Internet. At the heart of Turnitin‘s easy-to-use service is iParadigms‘ proprietary and complex document source analysis technology. This technology helps prevent and detect plagiarism.

Major Developer(s) University of California, Berkeley iParadigms, LLC

Website: http://turnitin.com/static/index.html

Scholar360

Scholar360 is the premier Learner Management System that combines Online Courses with an Integrated Social Network System. Its product includes five components: Create, Teach, Collaborate, Grade and Track.

Scholar360, LLC, Norfolk, VA

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Website: http://www.scholar360.com/

There are a variety of learning portals available for selection. However, you should be careful when selecting these tools. The portal has an important role—to simplify the process of learners finding and enrolling in the appropriate content. You must work with your IT department to integrate your program into the appropriate internal portal. The portal can give learners information about why, when, and how to enroll in your hybrid program and provide supporting information such as what PC standard software they need, how to schedule the live events, and so forth. One of the biggest challenges you will face is recruiting learners to enroll in and complete the network-based parts of your program. The portal plays a critical role in attracting learners and easing their transition into your events. The use of web-based courseware to supplement traditional instruction would not only increase students‘ perception that learning was occurring in the course, but would also enhance their camaraderie with others in the class and bolster their overall satisfaction with the course. In Lin‘s (2008) study, students said that the teacher educators‘ use of Blackboard helped to create a friendly and relaxed classroom environment and allowed them to interact more

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about course content and in ways they didn‘t expect. Furthermore, students who used Blackboard more often and in a greater variety of ways reported learning more and perceiving the course as more effective than those who used Blackboard less often and with less variety. Most students, however, regardless of their classroom performance, had an expectation that Blackboard would be used in some way to support the traditional classroom activities.

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CHALLENGES Adopting hybrid courses is a challenging task. My own experience is that the planning and design of hybrid learning programs is more challenging than that of traditional programs, as it is likely to bring together a wider range of people, resources and technologies. Another challenge is the lack of information and not knowing where to find supports. Some faculty might be teaching hybrid courses but others do not necessarily know who these faculty are or what they actually are doing in these courses. Programs focusing on the new technology are springing up, but how do you find out who is offering what and, perhaps more important, who will offer the right services for your course? Using hybrid solutions is still a relatively new approach for many institutions and like any new initiative it takes time to introduce it. With hybrid learning there is an additional consideration of having the right infrastructure to support it. It is therefore not just a matter of identifying the right institution to deliver a program of development. It will need a coherent and integrated plan, drawing together a number of different components (Sharma, 2007).

CONCLUSION Hybrid learning is a complex weaving of the face-to-face and online communities so that participants move between them in a seamless manner—each with its complementary strengths. Communication in such a community is multidimensional, both academically and personally. The concept of hybrid learning is rooted in the idea that learning is not just a one-time event—but that learning is a continuous process. Its basic assumption is to open the educational mind to a full range of possibilities. Hybrid learning brings into consideration a range of options that require revisiting how students learn in deep and meaningful ways. Its design illustrates how teacher educators can revisit and strengthen the

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fundamental values and practices that have been seriously compromised over the last half-century. Hybrid learning is not new, however. What is new is the recognition of its potential to help fundamentally redesign the learning experience in ways that can enhance the traditional values of teacher education. Hybrid learning redesign is a catalyst; it means to fundamentally reconceptualize and restructure the teaching and learning transaction. If well designed, it can address the ideals and core values of teacher education in terms of creating and sustaining communities of inquiry. The challenge teacher educators face, however, is how to merge the distinct approaches and properties of face-to-face and online learning. This challenge is the focus of the book.

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REFERENCES Beldarrain, Y. (2006). Distance Education Trends: Integrating new technologies to foster student interaction and collaboration. Distance Education, 27, 139153. Bender, T. (2003). Discussion-based online teaching to enhance student learning: Theory, practice and assessment. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. Bernhard, E., Fischer, F., & Mandl, H. (2006). Conceptual and socio-cognitive support for collaborative learning in videoconferencing environments. Computers & Education, 47, 298-315. Blumenfeld, P., Soloway, E., Marx, R., Krajcik, J., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26, 369-398. Bonk, C. & Zhang, K. (2006). Introducing the R2D2 Model: Online learning for the diverse learners of this world. Distance Education, 27, 249-264. Bonk, C. J., & Graham, C. R. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of blended learning: Global perspective, local designs. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Brush, T., Glazewski, K., Rutowski, K., Berg, K., Stromfors, C., Van-Nest, M. H., et al. (2003). Integrating technology in a field-based teacher training program: The PT3@ASU project. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51, 57-72. Doering, A. (2006). Adventure learning: Transformative hybrid online education. Distance Education, 27, 197-215.

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Doering, A., & Veletsianos, G. (2008). Hybrid online education: Identifying integration models using adventure learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41, 23-41. Frey, T. (2008). Determining the impact of online practicum facilitation for inservice teachers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 16, 181210. Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7, 95-105. Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Frameworks, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Gunawardena, C. N., Ortegano-Layne, L., Carabajal, K., Frechette, C., Lindemann, K., Jennings, B. (2006). New model, new strategies: Instructional design for building online wisdom communities. Distance Education, 27, 217–232. Kaleta, R., Skibba, K., & Joosten, T. (2007). Discovering, designing, and delivering hybrid course. In A. G. Picciano (Ed.), Blended learning: Research perspectives. Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Kim, C. M., & Baylor, A. L. (2008). A virtual change agent: Motivating preservice teachers to integrate technology in their future classrooms. Educational Technology & Society, 11, 309-321. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975) Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of group process. London: John Wiley. Lin, Q. (2008). Student views of hybrid learning: A one-year exploratory study. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 25, 57-66. Mortera-Gutiérrez, F. (2006). Faculty best practices using blended learning in elearning and face-to-face instruction. International Journal on E-Learning, 5, 313-337. Newman, D. L., Falco, J., Silverman, S., & Barbanell, P. (Eds.). (2008). Videoconferencing technology in K-12 instruction: Best practices and trends. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference/IGI Global. Ogusthorpe, R. T., & Graham, C. R. (2003). Blended learning environments: Definitions and directions. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4, 227233.

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Puntambekar, S. (2006). Analyzing collaborative interactions: Divergence, shared understanding and construction of knowledge. Computers and Education, 47, 332-351. Rowntree, D. (1993). Teach yourself with open learning. London: Routledge. Sharma, R. C. (2007). Cases on global e-learning practices: Successes and pitfalls. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Slavin, R. E. (1983). Cooperative learning. New York: Longman. Stine, L. (2004). The best of both worlds: Teaching basic writers in class and online. Journal of Basic Writing, 23, 49-69. Strambi, A., & Bouvet, E. (2003). Flexibility and interaction at a distance: A mixed-mode environment for language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 7, 81-102. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.), Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Woods, R., Baker, J., & Hopper, D. (2004). Hybrid structures: Faculty use and perception of web-based courseware as a supplement to face-to-face instruction. Internet and Higher Education, 7, 281-297. Young, J. R. (2002, March 22). Hybrid teaching seeks to end the divide between traditional and online instruction. The Chronicle of Higher Education, p.A33A34.

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Chapter 2

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RATIONALE OF HYBRID LEARNING In today‘s field of teacher education, many faculty have begun to question passive teaching and learning approaches such as the lecture. The lecture is a method of disseminating information that emerged before the advent of the printing press. Yet complex topics require more in-depth engagement for students to construct meaning than what is possible in a typical lecture (Edmonds, 2007). Further, teacher candidates want to be actively and collaboratively engaged in relevant learning experiences that have meaning and practical implications. They want to see technology used in educationally appropriate ways—not just for its own sake. This represents a serious challenge for teacher educators in meeting these expectations. The necessity for a change is getting more and more imperative: Faculty are being encouraged to adopt new approaches, incorporate collaborative tasks, and develop technological skills. Institutions are being asked to provide attractive and welcoming common spaces for individual and collaborative inquiry. Classrooms will need to become more open, and learning space will need to become more flexible (Bullen, 2007). The good news is that the availability of online technologies like course management systems, the recognition that the Internet is a valuable communication tool, the convenience and flexibility of having fewer FTF meetings, and research on how we learn all seem to support the growth of hybrid learning. Some scholars argue that hybrid learning could be more powerful than other forms of learning (Kaleta, Skibba, & Joosten, 2007) and transformative for teacher education (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). Although for many this change is barely visible in the horizon, the transformation has begun.

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THE NEED FOR CHANGE

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Strengths and Limitations of Face-to-Face Instruction In traditional, face-to-face (FTF) classrooms, the greatest advantage is human interaction and reciprocal caring expressed through relationship listening. Research (Teven, 2001) indicates that ―perceived caring‖ on the part of the students enhances the students‘ attitudes toward the class and their perception of what they learn, and that frequent student-faculty contact in and out of class is an important factor in student motivation and involvement. Knowing a few faculty members well enhances students‘ intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about their own values and plans (Edmonds, 2007). Conventional classroom-based instruction, nevertheless, is constrained to a large extent by its fixed time and space in being able to situate learning in realistic contexts (Tutty, & Klein, 2008). Printed text, while it affords transportability, is limited by its inability to incorporate anything other than text, pictures and illustrations (Sharma, 2007). Furthermore, as we all know, we‘re entering into a new era of engagement. One of the goals of this era is to prepare teacher candidates for participation in socially organized activities (Seels, Campbell, & Talsma, 2003). Thus, more indepth student engagement in all levels of learning is required. However, in traditional settings, particularly with large enrollments, the interaction between the teachere educator and the teacher candidates is highly circumscribed and usually voluntary (Bullen, 2007). Most teacher candidates only participate in the learning process when they are assigned to work in teams or groups and required to submit a paper or project together. Although the traditional setting does allow for more face-to-face interaction between students, this doesn‘t necessarily mean that the interaction takes place between students; it is normally led by the teacher educator and purposefully integrated into the course in order to make sure it happens in a constructive manner. Also, historically, the ―traditional‖ classroom model requires students and faculty be in a particular place at the same time. In a face-to-face class, generally the whole class proceeds through the course content at the same pace, regulated by the teacher educator. This teacher-paced classroom occurs regardless of the interest, prior experience, or scheduling demands of students or teachers. Such rigid mode of learning greatly impedes student engagement.

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Strengths and Limitations of Online Instruction Online communications seem to compensate for some of the limitations in traditional settings. In online communication systems, learners and faculty communicate in virtual time, and yet the learners cannot hide from participation. The distributed classroom model is similar, except students may physically attend class from several locations. For instance, there might be a group of students at another site with Web-based synchronous communication used to link the classrooms. The Web, used as a supplement to classroom activities, could be used for the distribution of documents including lecture notes, test reviews, etc., as a resource for information, or for asynchronous computer conferencing to allow interaction among and between students at different sites and to do it at convenient times. Empirical studies and theoretical considerations indicate that collaborative learning online seems to provide a relevant theoretical basis for collaborative models of learning (Marra, 2004). Thus, to compensate for the limitation of FTF learning, more and more students turn to online classes. One of the major benefits of taking an online or distance education course is the control students have over the time, pace, and place of the instruction (Sharma, 2007). Certainly this flexibility is an extremely important advantage for many students. However, distance/online education is not without its caveat. One concern among educators is the side effect of this flexibility. There is the likelihood that students will not be able to find a convenient time to work on lessons. In fact, initial efforts to provide online course were often deemed ineffective because large numbers of students failed to complete the courses they started (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Unfortunately, the design and administrative practices of some online courses tend to facilitate and even encourage students to complete courses without necessarily learning anything. Another concern among educators is the loss of personal contact between teachers and students (Cole, 2000). Often, effective learning is the result of enthusiastic teachers who inspire their students to make exceptional learning efforts. When the teacher is removed as the director of learning and students are required to learn more independently, they are no longer able to rely on the regulated learning controls and motivations that the traditional classroom previously provided. The act of simply providing quality instructional materials, online or otherwise, is not always enough to promote learning. A student‘s intentions for the expected learning determine whether learning will occur and how long that learning will last. We know that some students who study exclusively online (meaning asynchronously) suffer feelings of isolation and

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falling motivation. Indeed, the importance of establishing relationships, through both formal and informal interactions, in contributing to social and academic integration, is well documented as critical for student retention (Seels, Campbell, & Talsma, 2003). The third obstacle in online learning is the boundary in online interactions (Bersin, 2004). In the virtual classroom where eye contact, tone of voice, body language, facial expressions, and other types of non-verbal communication are missing, how to break through the boundary of ―distance‖ and develop a close personal relationship with students becomes a big challenge in the design of online/distance courses (Cole, 2000). Indeed, some of the most important processes in human communication, like creation of mutual understanding or shared values and goals, are hard to reproduce in virtual communities (Marra, 2004). A great deal of information conveyed by face-to-face interaction is derived from such things as tone of voice, facial expressions and appearance. Therefore, asynchronous interaction without immediate social interaction has many challenges to overcome because the communicating parties are continuously faced with the task of constructing a mutual cognitive environment or common ground.

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Needs of Adult Learners Student learners at the college level are in fact adult learners with learning needs that are more purpose-driven and self-directed (Kvavik, 2005). Adult learners don‘t necessarily progress along a linear path from assessing needs to evaluating learning (Blankson & Kyei-Blankson, 2008). Because of the nature of adult learning, self-directed learning may occur by design, change, or be a combination of the two, but adult learners still need guidelines for the selfdirected learning experiences. The hybrid-based learning environment allows for a great deal of flexibility and freedom within a very supportive framework (Swenson & Evans, 2003). Students can access the material on the Web at any time of day and review it as needed, gaining increased flexibility. Because many students, particularly graduate students, are older and working, hybrid courses provide them with the flexibility they need to juggle jobs, school, and family. To them, hybrid learning seems to be the most logical and natural evolution (Blankson & Kyei-Blankson, 2008). It suggests an elegant solution to the challenges of tailoring learning and development to the needs of individuals. It represents an opportunity to integrate the innovative and technological advances offered by online learning with the interaction and participation offered in the best of the traditional learning.

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Forces of Changes in Teacher Education Concurrent with the recognition of the importance of interactive and engaged learning experiences is the shifting of teacher education from a passive teachercentered approach to a transactional collaborative approach. Three forces of change have been largely responsible for this transformation. The first profound change in teacher education is the unprecedented advances in communications technology. In particular, the Internet has made possible a wide range of teaching and learning innovations associated with accessing educational opportunities and information (Wang, 2007). Online learning was the first step in this process of providing increased access and convenience to students. The second change is that in the next twenty years the teaching force will be transformed. The ―Generation Y‖ children who are growing up with cell phones and instant messaging will be running our schools. They are comfortable and adept with technology. They understand and want to use it when it makes sense and when it can enhance the collaborative learning experience. Changing student characteristics and expectations create the condition and reason for adopting hybrid approaches to course design. However, they have high expectations—and will drive us to improve the learning experience more and more. The third change is the dissatisfaction with the quality of the learning experience in teacher education. It is becoming clear to many that traditional methods are unable to address the need for higher-order learning experiences and outcomes demanded of a changing knowledge and communication-based society. Teacher educators know there has to be change in how we design educational experiences. The convergence of these forces of change has created the conditions under which it is imperative that teacher education seriously consider new approaches to teaching and learning. This convergence started to take shape at the beginning of the 21st century. Most recognizes that the convergence of the classroom and communications technology has the potential to transform teacher education for the better. These forces are flattening the educational worlds, not dissimilarly to the way the rest of society has been flattened. Hybrid learning is about flattening the hierarchical control of the classroom with increased interaction and engagement. Thus, the seeds for transforming teacher education have been sown. Those seeds are hybrid approaches to learning. The forces of change that drive the growth and development of hybrid learning are summarized as follows: 

The weaknesses of both FTF and online learning and the frustrations of learners in such single-mode learning environment.

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



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

The changing expectations of learning from teacher-centered to student-centered, from teacher lecture to student engagement. The demand from adult learners for more flexible environment and equitable access to educational opportunities and services. The belief among many educational institutions that the application of information and communications technology will enable them to increase their share in an increasingly competitive educational market. The increasing accessibility and communications technology to support and enrich conventional educational practices through resource-based learning and synchronous and asynchronous communication. The need, among educational institutions, to be seen to be ―keeping up with the times‖ in order to attract the attention of students who grow up in the information age. The need for flexible access to learning opportunities from distributed venues such as the home, workplace, community center, and the conventional educational institution.

NEED FOR MORE ENGAGED LEARNING EXPERIENCES The need to provide more engaged learning experiences is at the core of the interest in hybrid learning. Kvavik (2005) argues that interactive and collaborative learning experiences are more congruent with achieving higher-order learning outcomes. When students become comfortable with the instructor and their peers, they become more involved with the course materials. In this regard, hybrid learning, a method of delivery designed to increase student engagement through integration of online learning, focuses on how to connect both face-to-face and online learning experiences to provide interactive and engaged learning experiences. A recent study on students and technology stated that students want to be linked in the network, but they also want a lot of face-to-face time (Kvavik, 2005). Moreover, students want this interaction not as an ―extra‖ tagged onto the ―normal‖ workload. To be purposeful and meaningful, such interaction must be integral to learning activities that allow reflections. Net Geners or Millennials are also much more predisposed to collaborative learning experience (Dziuban, Hartman, Juge, Moskal, & Sorg, 2005). This emphasis on shared, interactive and

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social construction of knowledge and new learning environments clearly set demands for developing new pedagogical models, tools and practices to support collaborative learning in both traditional and virtual environments (Swenson & Evans, 2003). For both conventional and online instruction, too often their designers place little emphasis on the fact that each learner approaches an educational opportunity with an assortment of abilities, interests, expectations, habits, and preferences. Their view of the learner tends to follow a largely passive model of individual functioning. The more we look closely at actual learning behavior, however, the more we are impressed with the complexity of factors influencing it. The time, therefore, has come to reject the dualistic thinking that seeks to demand choosing between conventional face-to-face and online learning, a dualism that is no longer tenable, theoretically or practically. There is a better approach. With the increased awareness and adoption of the Internet and communications technology to connect learners, a more sensible way forward would be to better understand the potential of these technologies and how they might be integrated with the best of the face-to-face learning environment to accommondate diverse learning needs. Underlying all this is the growth of a new mode of learning—hybrid learning—to enhance the learning experience. Classroom sessions plus web-based learning necessitate students being in a particular place at a specified time less frequently, while a portion of the instructional goals and objectives can be met online. Ownership of learning is given more to the learners, and they are encouraged to reach new levels of understanding (Skill & Young, 2002).

BENEFITS OF HYBRID LEARNING Hybrid learning offers an approach and a way of thinking about the educational experience that avoids either/or choices and the downsides of online and face-to-face experiences (Stine, 2004). On one hand, hybrid learning provides an acceptable means to question traditional face-to-face learning experiences in terms of not fully capitalizing on the opportunities of the Internet, or recognizing the potential of sustained online communities of inquiry; on the other, online learning was perceived as isolating and did not fit well with the ethos of the campus- and field-based teacher education. In contrast, hybrid learning seems to offer a way to maximize the educational experience in a more effective and efficient manner. As Garrison and Kanuka (2004) have noted about the affordances and constraints of hybrid learning, the classroom experience affords a

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rich dynamic of fast-paced, spontaneous verbal communication, whereas the largely text-based online experience affords reflection and precision of expression. In small-group work, for instance, it may be advantageous for groups to initially meet face-to-face, or when reaching a consensus. In contrast, discussing a complex case study that requires reflection and negotiation may be better accomplished through an online discussion board. When the two environments are thoughtfully integrated, the educational possibilities are logically multiplied (Stine, 2004). Curtis Bonk and his colleagues have documented the strong and growing interest in hybrid learning (Bonk & Graham, 2006). They concluded in a recent survey of higher education that respondents clearly expected a dramatic rise in their use of hybrid learning approaches in the coming years (Bonk, Kim & Zeng, 2006). In another survey, Garrison and Vaughan (2008) revealed that 80 percent of all higher education institutions offer hybrid learning courses. It seems that there are many reasons that a teacher educator might pick hybrid learning over other learning options. Garrison and Vaughan identified several benefits in a hybrid learning system. These include: (1) student and faculty satisfaction, (2) higher rate of interaction, (3) increased sense of community, (4) more choices for teacher educators and (5) greater flexibility for learners.

Student and Faculty Satisfaction While there is much variation in hybrid courses (and in face-to-face courses as well), one apparently consistent finding is student and faculty satisfaction with this modality. In Lin‘s study (2008a, 2008b), both students and faculty are positive regarding the flexibility and convenience and the perceived increase in interaction they have with hybrid courses. Students rate the quality of their hybrid experience as high as or higher than their face-to-face courses. They also report high satisfaction with instructor interaction. Weaknesses often refer to problems with technology, including difficulty with course management systems. In a case study (Blankson & Kyei-Blankson, 2008) of 15 preservice teacher candidates enrolled in an undergraduate Educational Psychology course, students indicated that they were generally satisfied with their learning experience when the online discussion was integrated with the face-to-face instruction. Students reported that the hybrid format impacted their ability to understand the course content. Murphy and Lick (2005) also reported high student and faculty satisfaction with hybrid learning. In their survey the researchers found that 94 percent of teacher educators

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believed that hybrid learning was more effective than classroom-based teaching alone.

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Higher Rate of Interaction A benefit often reported in hybrid classes is an increase in interaction over what students and faculty typically perceive in face-to-face courses. Web resources, and course management systems offer easier access to both students and faculty through discussion groups and e-mail, and they also allow access to materials as well as experts that might not be available otherwise. The end result is a learning environment in which students can be actively engaged, and potentially learning more than in a traditional on-campus classroom. Studies show that combining face-to-face work with computer-mediated communication might be a way of improving the level and sustainability of the discussions in traditional classrooms (Kaleta et al., 2007). Face-to-face discourse can play an important role in managing organized activities in projects and courses alongside the Web-based activities. Face-to-face discussions can be thought of as a metadiscourse channel whereby the students can have an opportunity to direct their future activities—for example, in monitoring the progress in their knowledge advancement and sharing their emergent problems. In a study comparing the collaboration of two groups of primary school pupils in a science project (Barton, 2008), the group that was engaged in both face-to-face and Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) interactions showed more reflective activity than the group that only had face-to-face contact. The complementary types of discourse seemed to enhance monitoring and reflection among the students.

Increased Sense of Community Garrison et al. (2008) believed in the experience of genuine community and continuous inquiry in the sense of being connected as well as persistent. Being connected and persistent gives participants the means to shape the discourse and be fully engaged. Empirically, hybrid courses produce a stronger sense of community among students than either traditional or fully online course (Stine, 2004; Swenson & Evans, 2003) and that community of inquiry is associated with higher levels of perceived learning (Swenson & Evans, 2003; Teven, 2001).

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In Robson and Turner‘s study (2007), faculty find an increased sense of community in the hybrid format because their pedagogical strategy has been to address varying learning styles, increase interactivity, promote community, and meet the special needs of online students. Other researchers (Seels et al., 2003) use the hybrid format to compensate for student differences in experience with content, realizing that some students had prior experience with the material and, thus, might not have to review the material as much as other novices. Providing online material for review as often or as much as needed can be a strategy by which faculty address students‘ varying styles and skills. Senn (2008) compared three education graduate courses—traditional, hybrid, and fully online—and found that students in the hybrid course measured highest in a sense of community, similar to those students in the face-to-face section, but higher than those in fully online section. Students in the hybrid courses praised the benefits of the online portion of the course which allowed them the freedom to perform some of the course activity at their own discretion. The flexibility was important for these students, as many of whom needed to work. However, many of them also mentioned the value of the face-to-face component which they felt helped them both academically and in building professional relationships and a strong sense of community. In addition, some students in the fully online course misread the teacher educator‘s comments as being ―sharp and frank,‖ while students in the hybrid and fully online courses did not convey such impressions, possibly because of the opportunity for face-to-face discussions which allowed everyone to become acquainted.

More Choices for Teacher Educators Hybrid learning has shown an advantage for teacher educators to choose an effective method of communication (online versus face-to-face), depending on the type of task (Smith, & Kurthen, 2007). For instance, face-to-face communication appears to support more coherent discussion and the solution of problems that required collaboration and the sharing of knowledge. On the other hand, face-toface seminars seems to create more new ideas while online conferences can produce more important, justified, and linked ideas; that is, there is deeper critical thinking in online discussion (Allan, 2006). Dziuban et al. (2005) states that online discussion were often more thoughtful, more reasoned, and drew evidence from other sources. Asynchronous written communication is an effective tool for promoting critical thinking through collaborative work (French, Olrech, Hale, & Johnson, 2003).

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Another advantage is that the different phrases of learning can occur in different environments, which has important implications on instructional design. The FTF class might be the most suitable environment for gaining an experience (such as watching a film, seeing an exhibit, or hearing a reading) and possibly might also be the best place for planning, whereas sandwiched in between, the online class, might be the most appropriate forum for reflection and conceptualization. Therefore, educators have the options to consider which phases of an educational task are best communicated in a hybrid setting than either FTF or online environment (Kumar, 2003). For example, more individual and reflective phase might be better served by employing an online context (Rossett, 2002).

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Greater Flexibility for Learners An advantage of the hybrid class is that different learning styles and methods can be accommodated (Kvavik, 2005). For example, some students might be shy or reluctant to speak in front of a group on campus, yet open up more freely when in front of their computer screen, and the reverse might be true for other students. Some students do not learn well from lectures, and many students actually discover their own voice for the first time when working online. Furthermore, providing the means of communicating information through a variety of media and environments might help students to be able to engage in more class activities than if it was solely one type of environmental forum (Skill & Young, 2002). As a professor at Ohio State says, ―You can make the best roast beef that you can, but a vegetarian is not going to have a good meal. I think the best mode is to provide a really good buffet‖ (as quoted in Bender, 2003, p.20). A single delivery mode inevitably limits the reach of a learning program or critical knowledge transfer in some form or fashion (French et al., 2003). For example, a physical classroom meeting limits access to only those who can participate at a fixed time and location, whereas a virtual classroom event is inclusive of a remote audience, and when followed up with recorded knowledge objects, can extend the reach to those who could not attend at a fixed time and location. In sum, hybrid courses offer teacher educators the opportunity to select the best modes for delivering instruction and then use them. They also allow adapting schedules to meet the needs of the teacher educator and students (Tutty & Klein, 2008). For instance, learners are allowed a variety of options that may assist them to excel: reflection is encouraged in the asynchronous discussions; projects can be started FTF and continued online; presentations can be developed in many

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formats, and offered online or FTF; materials are available online and easily accessed; pre-tests and tests can be taken online and feedback can be immediate. This opens a wide range of possibilities for redesign that goes beyond enhancing the traditional classroom lecture.

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CHALLENGES There are issues and challenges related to hybrid learning. One issue is student or end-user expectations, as individuals who sign up for a course may have certain expectations about the types of learning experiences that they are going to engage in, and if these are not met then they may be disappointed. Other issues may arise in terms of access to and availability of appropriate technologies. Sometimes issues may arise as a result of unrealistic expectations of stakeholders, e.g., administrators may expect hybrid learning to be a cheap way of delivery courses and there is little evidence to suggest that this is so. However, the biggest issue is: How much is too much and what is appropriate? On one hand, the blending of ―real‖ and ―virtual‖ domains is challenging for most teacher educators as it adds a degree of complexity to educational development and curriculum design, yet it is becoming an essential skill for effective teaching. On the one hand this new way of teaching and learning opens up a range of opportunities. The key to success is to move away from merely adding different sorts of content resources and towards developing appropriate ways to mix face-to-face with online interactions. When we decide to renovate part of our homes, we understand that we can only go so far. We can add a new room or a sun deck, we can finish the basement, we can even add a new floor to our house, but at some point, the underlying structure becomes unable to handle all the additions. This is true with hybrid learning. Simply adding structure of elearning to our existing ways of teaching without much consideration will put undue stress on the underlying structure of our traditional education courses and ultimately leading to collapse. Overworked teacher educators will not be able to handle the additional requirements of learning how to use the new technology. They will not have the time to deliver their typical 3-5 lectures a week and also develop online learning resources and moderate online discussions. Students will be left struggling between the traditional educational system and the stresses and potentials of new technologies in their classrooms, whatever the delivery choices. A balance has to be sought (Christensen, 2003).

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CONCLUSION The teacher education that will succeed in the 21st century will recognize that there is a need to do things differently. As Edmonds (2007) states that rules are changing, and there is increased pressure on teacher education to evolve, adapt, or desist. To paraphrase Rogers (2002), we must ask ourselves: would we, knowing what we now know, design learning experiences as we do with 200 and 300 students in a lecture hall? With what we know about the potential of hybrid learning, the need to create communities of inquiry, and the vast array of accessible and affordable communications technology, the answer has to be that there must be a better way. Hybrid learning eschews being constrained by traditional approaches but considers and adopts the enormous potential of information and communication technologies. We must begin to break down notions of what is ―real‖ and what is ―virtual.‖ The reality of the face-to-face classroom is that much of the discussion becomes vapor. On the other hand, ironically, the written discourse of the socalled ―virtual‖ online classroom offers permanency and perhaps more opportunity for reflective and rigorous thought. Understanding the strengths of both face-to-face and online learning is the first step to being truly open to new approaches and technological possibilities. Notwithstanding the transformative effects of hybrid learning, there will come a time when the hybrid learning distinction will dissolve as a useful label. The reason is that all learning will be hybrid to some degree. Hybrid learning will just be the way learning occurs. In the meantime, however, the concept of hybrid learning is a rallying call and a powerful concept to mobilize innovation to address the challenges of engagement and access in teacher education.

REFERENCES Allan, B. (2006). Blended learning: Tools for teaching and training. London: Facet Publishing. Barton, A. C. (2008). Creating hybrid spaces for engaging school science among urban middle school girls. American Educational Research Journal, 45, 68103. Bender, T. (2003). Discussion-based online teaching to enhance student learning: Theory, practice and assessment. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.

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Bersin, J. (2004). The blended learning book: Best practices, proven methodologies, and lessons learned. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Blankson, J., & Kyei-Blankson, L. (2008). Nontraditional students‘ perception of a blended course: Integrating synchronous online discussion and face-to-face instruction. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 19, 421-438. Bonk, C. J., & Graham, C. R. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of blended learning: Global perspective, local designs. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Bonk, C., Kim, K. J., & Zeng, T. (2006). Future directions of blended learning in higher education and workplace learning settings. In C. J. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 550-567). San Franscisco: Pfeiffer. Bullen, M. (2007). Making the transition to e-learning: Strategies and issues. London: Information Science Publishing. Christensen, T. K. (2003). Finding the balance: Constructivist pedagogy in a blended course. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 3, 235-243. Cole, R. A. (Ed.) (2000). Issues in web-based pedagogy: A critical primer. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Dziuban, C. D., Hartman, J., Juge, F., Moskal, P. D., & Sorg, S. (2005). Blended learning enters the mainstream. In C. J. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 195-208). San Franscisco: Pfeiffer. Edmonds, C. (2007). Continuous quality improvement: Integrating best practice into teacher education. International Journal of Educational Management, 21, 232-237. French, D., Olrech, N., Hale, C., & Johnson, C. (Eds.). (2003). Blended learning: An ongoing process for internet integration. Austin, TX: e-Linkages. Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7, 95-105. Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Frameworks, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Kaleta, R., Skibba, K., & Joosten, T. (2007). Discovering, designing, and delivering hybrid course. In A. G. Picciano (Ed.), Blended learning: Research perspectives. Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Kumar, S. (2003). An innovative method to enhance interaction during lecture sessions. Advances in Physiology Education, 27, 20-25.

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Kvavik, R. (2005). Convenience, communications, and control: How students use technology. In D. Oblinger & J. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the net generation (pp. 7.1-7.20). Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE. Lin, Q. (2008a). Student satisfactions in four mixed courses in elementary teacher education program. Internet and Higher Education, 11, 53-59. Lin, Q. (2008b). Student views of hybrid learning: A one-year exploratory study. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 25, 57-66. Marra, R. M. (2004). An online course to help teachers ―use technology to enhance learning‖: Successes and limitations. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 12, 411-429. Murphy, C. U., & Lick, D. W. (2005). Whole-faculty study groups: Creating professional learning communities that target student learning (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Robson, S., & Turner, Y. (2007). ‗Teaching is a co-learning experience‘: Academics reflecting on learning and teaching in an ‗internationalized‘ faculty. Teaching in Higher Education, 12, 41-54. Rogers, P. L. (2002). Designing instruction for technology-enhanced learning. Hershey, PA: IRM Press. Rossett, A. (Ed.). (2002). The ASTD e-learning handbook. New York: McGrawHill. Seels, B., Campbell, S., & Talsma, V. (2003). Supporting excellence in technology through communities of learners. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51, 91-104. Senn, G. J. (2008). Comparison of face-to-face and hybrid delivery of a course that requires technology skills development. Journal of Information Technology Education, 7, 267-283. Sharma, R. C. (2007). Cases on global e-learning practices: Successes and pitfalls. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Skill, T. D., & Young, B. A. (2002). Embracing the hybrid model: Working at the intersections of virtual and physical learning spaces. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 92, 23-32. Smith, G. G., & Kurthen, H. (2007). Front-stage and back-stage in hybrid elearning face-to-face courses. International Journal on E-Learning, 6, 455474. Stine, L. (2004). The best of both worlds: Teaching basic writers in class and online. Journal of Basic Writing, 23, 49-69. Swenson, P. W., & Evans, M. (2003). Hybrid courses as learning communities. In S. Reisman, J. G. Flores, & D. Edge (Eds.), Electronic learning communities:

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Issues and practices (pp. 27-71). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Teven, J. J. (2001). The relationship among teacher characteristics and perceived caring. Communication Education, 50, 159-69. Tutty, J. L., & Klein, J. D. (2008). Computer-mediated instruction: A comparison of online and face-to-face collaboration. Educational Technology Research Development, 56, 101-124.

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Chapter 3

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THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS To understand learning in a hybrid environment we need to know the theoretical foundations on which it is based. This begins with an understanding of several underlying and interrelated questions: how learning occurs generally, how it occurs among adult learners, and how it occurs in technology-mediated environments. Among the frequently asked questions are: ―How do my adult students learn since everybody has a different learning style?‖ ―What is the best way to teach in a hybrid course?‖ Answering these questions is no small task. There is a great deal we do not know about each of those underlying questions. But we do have some knowledge—we know for example that learning is, in many ways, a social activity; we know that it must also be viewed as a cognitive activity. We know that students learn better in environments that attend to or support certain principles or pre-conditions. So, in order to understand hybrid learning in teacher education, it is beneficial to consider what we know in each of these arenas: What we know about learning generally from contemporary learning theories; what consitutents good teaching; what we know about adult learning, and what we know about technology-mediated teaching and learning.

THEORIES AND PERSPECTIVES OF LEARNING Theories help us make sense out of the world and provide a framework for behaving intelligently. Learning theory helps students to learn more efficiently and more effectively. It is used to guide our daily teaching. That is why

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professional teaching really means ―using research to guide practice‖ (Picciano, 2007). Different educational psychologists view the concept of learning differently. For instance, behaviorists believe that learning is nothing but change in behavior; cognitive theorists view learning as a process; and social learning theorists view learning process as interaction and observation within social contexts. One thing they have in common is that they all assume that ―instruction will bring about learning‖ and, based on this assumption, instructional designers use theories as guidance to design effective instruction to bring about maximum learning (Karagiorgi & Symeou, 2005). Although learning theories and models proliferate, there are two basic categories of educational theory that are the foundation of instructional design models—behaviorism and constructivism. Behaviorism corresponds to twentieth century theoretical developments in general. Like modernism, they react against nineteenth century traditionalism, but also assume that there is only one single unified objective approach. Constructivism, on the other hand, parallels postmodern theory in general, which is based on the idea that there is no underlying order in history, just a complex web of counter-forces. These models and their perspectives are further discussed below.

Behaviorism Transmission Perspective A transmission approach emphasizes the importance of the content and suggests that instructors are subject matter experts who transfer their knowledge to their students. The main responsibilities of an instructor teaching from a transmission perspective include offering well-conceptualized lectures, leading thoughtful discussions, and giving students information through answering questions and correcting mistakes. The transmission perspective is based on the behavioral theories, broadly termed as behaviorism. Behavioral psychology is interested in the study of changes in manifest behavior as opposed to changes in mental states. Learning is conceived as a process of changing or conditioning the observable behavior as a result of selective reinforcement of an individual‘s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. The mind is seen as an empty vessel, a tabula rasa to be filled with or as a mirror reflecting reality. Learning occurs when stimuli in external environment are present. The purpose of education is to produce behavioral

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change in desired direction. The educator‘s role is to arrange an environment to elicit in the desired response (Staddon, 2001). Behaviorism is a model for teaching that elevates the instructor‘s role in designing a complete learning environment while the learner responds to stimuli, feedback, rewards. Observable behavioral changes are the basis for learning and repetition of behavioral patterns, first instigated by stimuli and reinforcement and, should, over time, become internalized. Using this pattern, knowledge can be simplified, broken down into small blocks of data when properly sequenced (Staddon, 2001). An important contribution of behaviorism to instructional design is the emphasis on observable and measurable outcomes (Staddon, 2001). In order to accurately measure learning, the instructor is required to be able to consciously discriminate among small trunks of knowledge, analyzing prior knowledge, measuring correct knowledge in order to reinforce it, and proving mastery before moving to the next stage of knowledge acquisition. These methods depend upon very small steps of information, with pacing determined by the individual student, and information arranged sequentially from simple to complex in a linear fashion. Instructors who approach teaching from a transmission perspective focus on a mastery of the content. Emphasis is on teaching, knowledge reproduction, and independent learning. Engagement for instructors teaching from this perspective consists of helping students to come to know and understand correctly. Instructors want to ensure that their students clearly understand what they are learning and that the information is accurate. Suggested pedagogical strategies that instructors operating from this perspective might find useful in hybrid learning environments include the following:    

Face-to-face (FTF) meetings consist mainly of lectures. Posting a course syllabus and calendar online. Using the quiz or test capabilities of the learning management system to test student knowledge and provide feedback. Directing students to text and course text web site; and developing learning materials in conjunction with an instructional design team during course development.

The transmission perspective has been the dominant perspective toward teaching in the past. It is based on the philosophical belief that there is an external reality and that learning consists of coming to know that external body of knowledge. Until recently, this approach has held sway as the dominant traditional approach to teaching in teacher education.

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Constructivism Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Constructivists believe that learners must construct their own understanding of phenomena through absorbing information, making connections with previously existing knowledge, and working with their new knowledge. Constructivists (Bruner, 1961; Piaget, 1950; Vygotsky, 1978) regard learning as an active process and believe that students must be given opportunities to construct knowledge through their own experiences in a meaningful context because learners learn best when they actively construct their own understanding. In their view, learning should be whole, authentic, and real. Constructivists believe teaching is an active and learner-centered process. This philosophy recognizes that students build their own understanding of the world by using what they already know to interpret new ideas and experiences. Constructivists emphasize not only what students know, but also what they do. According to constructivists (Bruner, 1961; Piaget, 1950; Vygotsky, 1978), hands-on experience is necessary for learning, but it is not sufficient. Mental activities are also important because learning is a mental process involving thinking, using intelligence, making judgments, and looking for meaning, connections, and possibilities. Constructivists view motivation as a key component in learning. Therefore, in a constructivist learning environment, learners are independent and motivated. Their role changes from passive to active. Higher order skills such as problem-solving, reasoning, and reflection are taught in the classroom. Learners are enabled to learn how to learn and more open-ended evaluation of learning outcomes is used (Christensen, 2003). A constructivist orientation to teaching proposes that knowledge is subjective. Each of us generates our own ―rules‖ and ―mental models,‖ which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences (Edmonds, 2007). Several guiding principles of constructivism are detailed below:  

Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts, and parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.

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In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just to memorize the ―right‖ answers and regurgitate someone else‘s meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Instructors also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students. Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students‘ prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes handson problem solving (Bruner, 1961). Here, the learner has the benefit of integrating previous experiences, perceptions, and internal representations of knowledge with every new learning opportunity. The learner uses existing cognitive structures to select and modify information, build hypotheses, and make sound decisions (Christensen, 2003). Constructivism is often articulated in stark contrast to the behaviorist model of learning. Behaviorism centers on students‘ efforts to accumulate knowledge of the natural world and on teachers‘ efforts to transmit it. It therefore relies on a transmission approach which is largely passive, teacher-directed and controlled. Major differences are outlined below in Table 3.1. Table 3.1. A Comparison of Behaviorism and Constructivism Behaviorism

Constructivism

Instructor as lecturer Education as an individual effort

Instructor as guide and facilitator Education as both individual and group effort Learner-centered The goal of instruction is concept development or deep understanding Assessment by the process

Teacher-centered The goal of instruction is desired behaviors or improved skills Assessment by the end product

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Behaviorism

Constructivism

Professor and books are major sources of information All learners in the same place

Wide range of educational media including print, Web, video Learners may be anywhere

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In contrast to behaviorism, constructivism has evolved in different directions. This includes developmental perspective, apprenticeship perspective, nurturing perspective and social reform perspective.

Developmental Perspective Constructivism underpins the developmental perspective on teaching. Instructors who teach from this perspective aim to support their students as they develop ever-more complex comprehension of concepts. Instructors use the experiences and interpretations that their students bring to the learning situation as starting points for building understanding. Instructors who teach from a developmental perspective place learning, knowledge construction, collaboration, and reflection at the heart of what they do. Their emphasis tends to be learner-centered, and they conceive of their role as a facilitator and coach. Engagement for instructors teaching from this perspective means that hybrid learners need to be given time and place to explore the meaning of what they are learning. Hybrid learners need to share their prior knowledge, to enable the instructor to post questions and comments that move them to a deeper level of understanding. Hybrid learning strategies that instructors teaching from a developmental perspective could use include the following:     

Developing learning teams whose members are expected to support one another as they work through projects and assignments. Using case studies and real-world examples to help learners move from simpler to more complex understandings of concepts. Developing a discussion board thread and posing a problem which students are expected to consider, discuss, and try to solve. Expecting students to share Web-based resources they discover throughout the course; and Integrating interactive activities valuable in terms of student learning.

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Apprenticeship Perspective Instructors who teach from apprenticeship perspective believe that student learning is supported when students work on authentic tasks in real-life environments, such as pre-service teachers in field placements. The notion of mentor is a critical one in this perspective on teaching. Murphy and Lick (2005) defines mentoring as ―a reciprocal and collaborative learning responsibility between two individuals who share mutual responsibility and accountability for helping a mentee work toward achieving clear and mutually defined learning goals‖ (p.50). A rich learning experience occurs when students have opportunities to gain guidance, advice, support, and feedback from their mentor. Instructors who approach teaching from an apprenticeship perspective help their students work within their ―zone of proximal development‖ (Vygotsky, 1978). Instructors scaffold activities and tasks so that students move from an apprenticeship perspective see engagement as a matter of learners working on authentic tasks. The notion of authenticity applies both to the hybrid learning context, and to the tasks that hybrid learners are asked to perform. Instructors who have this teaching perspective might use the following hybrid learning strategies:

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

 

Requiring students to engage in reflection on their learning. The reflections can be a particularly powerful form of learning if students are asked to share these reflections with their peers via the discussion board when they are out in the field. Modeling appropriate responses to a variety of problem-based learning scenarios. Designing collaborative activities so that all members of the team must participate for the team to achieve success.

Nurturing Perspective Instructors who teach from a nurturing perspective believe that it is of critical importance to establish supportive learning environments in which students are able to take risks without fear of failure. The establishment of this atmosphere of confidence and respect is essential for learning to occur. Instructors therefore attempt to enhance learners‘ perceptions of self-efficacy, offer successful learning opportunities, and challenge students‘ thinking, in a milieu supporting their growth as learners. Instructors with a nurturing perspective focus on providing encouragement and support and getting to know their students in a deeper, richer way, which strikes a balance between challenging and caring in their work with students.

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Instructors who approach teaching from a nurturing perspective affirm the efficacy of learning demonstrated by students in their courses. They expect students to learn and provide whatever support and guidance is required for this to occur. Engagement for instructors who are teaching from a nurturing perspective focuses on providing high levels of instructor support and ensuring that every learner will succeed. Hybrid learning strategies used by instructors who have a nurturing perspective could include the following: 



 

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

Developing a strong welcome activity/message to the course for incoming students. Instructors could also share personal experiences with students. Recognizing and dealing effectively with problems learners are experiencing. This requires close attention to student engagement with learning materials and with other students. Using individual e-mail messages to let students know when they are doing well or when they are not meeting course expectations. Providing advice about study skills if this is required for particular students. Establishing an active discussion board, and participating in discussions. Ensuring that students are aware of support services available to them online.

Social Reform Perspective Instructors who teach from a social reform perspective believe that the critical examination of all assumptions, concepts, and values is an essential component of learning. The role of the instructor teaching from a social reform perspective is to enable students to see the world around them with new eyes. The instructor expects students to raise critical questions, to challenge the status quo, and to not accept at face value whatever is said or done. There is always an action component to this perspective, because the goals of education is not simply to learn about the world as it is understood today, but to act to change that world for the better. Instructors who work from a social reform perspective expect students to become agents of change. The development of critical perspectives is essential. Instructors who are teaching from a social reform perspective view engagement as challenging hybrid learners to review their ways of thinking, working, and perceiving their world. In order to accomplish this in online environments, instructors could implement these learning strategies:

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Developing discussions, both online and in the classroom, that address issues of privilege and power. Forming teams to develop presentations on the issues addressed in the course. These presentations can be shared online or in the classroom, with other students expected to respond and critique the issues and ideas raised. Requiring students to develop critical reflections on discussions and texts. Asking students to interrogate their own approach to their work/learning/social surroundings.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING

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Regardless of an instructor‘s theories and perspectives on teaching, there are certain common characteristics of good teaching and learning principles. Good practice regards learning as social practice and respects diverse talents and ways of learning. It uses active learning techniques to communiate high expectations, encourage contact or communication between students and faculty, facilitate discussions, and provide flexible access to information and resources.

Good Practice Regards Learning as Social Practice Learning as a social practice involves learners operating as part of a community of practice. All of us are part of many different communities at any given moment in time. Community members may interact face-to-face or independently of space and time, while using a range of media that is appropriate to the community type (Psencik, 2009).

Good Practice Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning To accommodate the varying needs of learners, instructors can integrate online technologies to enhance learning through visual, auditory, and kinesthetic channels. If we really think about what is happening during a hybrid course, it seems that instructors and learners have access to a variety of tools and materials for thinking, learning, and teaching (Weimer, 2002). Some of these are internal,

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others external. But all of them are available to everyone concerned and all contribute to learning.

Good Practice Uses Active Learning Techniques Good practice actively engages learners in learning. For instance, teacher education students have been traditionally provided with field experience to allow active, hands-on learning in the real life context. With the incorporation of technology in the traditional courses, more active learning techniques can be made available. For instance, online learning e-portfolios can provide more effective comments and direction to students (Lin, 2008). Videos of student efforts can afford another effective medium for feedback via email or discussion board (Rains & Scott, 2006). Inquiry projects based on online simulations or virtual field trips are also examples (Rogers, 2002).

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Good Practice Communicates High Expectations It seems to be human nature to rise to expectations. If expectations are low, then performance will be lackluster. If, however, expectations are high, then most learners will strive with great energy to achieve those expectations (Weimer, 2002). To maximize learning from students, good teachers hold high expectations from all learners and support them in every way to meet the high standards the teacher sets for them.

Good Practice Encourages Contact between Students and Faculty The contact or communication between students and faculty has been considered as one of the key practice in fostering learning. With the incorporation of online technology in hybrid learning, the instructor gets to communicate with students not only in classes, but outside classes as well. The technologies of the Internet, including e-mail, Web-based chat, and bulletin board discussions, when properly integrated into the classrooms, can facilitate improved communication between instructor and students. For instance, E-mail from instructor to learners can provide timely feedback on questions or assignments.

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Good Practice Faciliates Discussion This is based on the idea that students learn through discussing ideas with others. Hybrid courses can benefit from discussions both within and outside classrooms (Psencik, 2009). For instance, discussion has been highly encouraged in most learner-centered, FTF classrooms. When meeting online, students can take part in a text-based discussion, including instant messaging, blogs and online forums or mailing lists. Some of these allow discussions to take place in ‗real time‘ (synchronously) or over a period of time without all participants being present at the same time (asynchronously). The decision whether to discuss in synchronous or in asynchronous mode depends on whether students are all available at the same time and whether they require time for reflection before responding.

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Good Practice Provides Flexible Access to Information and Resources Providing flexible access to information and resources is the key attribute of the incorporation of online educational technologies in hybrid courses, and learner choice is at the heart of the concept of flexible access. Such learner-centered learning environment emphasizes the importance of anchoring or situating instruction in meaningful, problem-solving contexts (Weimer, 2002).

HOW ADULTS LEARN IN TECHNOLOGY-MEDIATED ENVIRONMENT With the advent of Internet technology, understanding students as learners becomes even more important. Since both teaching and learning are human performances, the outcome of any given learning opportunity may vary dramatically with the diversity of individuals participating and interacting in distinctive learning situations. Let us consider my own experiences. I am enthusiastic about learning about and from the Internet. A long-time teacher and teacher educator, I am energized as I grow personally and professionally by becoming a more proficient user of the Internet. Recognizing that the Internet can make so much of my work easier, I have not had to be dragged kicking and screaming to the web! As are many academics, I am fairly self-directed. Thus, I

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have lots of ideas about what I want from the Internet for teaching and why. One of my main learning goals as a teacher educator is to be able to increasingly augment course content and enhance my teaching strategies through use of the Internet. The Internet is breathing new life into my professional development. One of the greatest advantages is that I can participate untethered to one space and as my schedule permits, from office or from home, and while on the road. I also know that I learn best when someone shows me the answer when I ask ―stupid questions,‖ and then allows me time to fiddle around and engage in trial and error. As long as I can call on someone within actual or virtual reach to help troubleshoot, I will be more successful than if I engage in ―lonerism‖—trying to figure it all out by myself. I know how to take advantage of the intelligence distributed in the environment around me. In other words, collaboration is an essential learning strategy. I also know that to be an efficient and effective learner, I need the best possible learning strategies, beginning with metacognitive awareness and control. That is, I need to know myself as a learner including knowing how I learn best, and monitoring when I am reaching my learning goals and when I am not, i.e., the awareness aspect. If I find that I am not reaching my learning goals I need to know what to do to get back on track, i.e., the control aspect. Thus, via metacognitive awareness, I realize that I need to know what I want from the Internet during a given search session, be fairly decisive about locating it, elicit what I need when I find it in the form that I need, and then move on. Without the strategy of self-monitoring or vigilance, the Internet is apt to make me not more, but less productive and effective as a learner. The use of technology assists in creating a flexible environment and making those adaptations fluid for the learner. However, as a tool, online technology extends good learning only to learners who are motivated, collaborative, selfdirected with metacognitive awareness and self-control. In contrast, a learner who does not know how to employ an effective learning strategy will not be likely to benefit from this immensely useful tool. The technology is embedded into proven methods of learning and instruction. The important thing is to find out what the proven methods of learning and instruction are.

How Net Geners Learn In the instructional design process, it is essential to ascertain what exactly we know about today‘s adult learners—the Net Geners. What is their profile? Understanding the needs of the learners is a fundamental instructional design

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concept. While many researchers have attempted to create profiles of the Net Geners, this task has proved daunting simply because, the students themselves are also an ever-changing, dynamic population. Traditionally, learners are assumed to be adults with various levels of personal and professional commitments. Today, the expectations are changing from what we have become accustomed to in the past. The Net Geners learn differently from previous generations. The latest research indicates that these students (1) learn by inductive discovery, (2) are intuitive visual communicators, (3) crave social face-to-face interaction, (4) are emotionally open, (5) respond quickly and expect rapid responses in return, and (6) shift attention rapidly from one task to another (Dede, 2005). They function at ―twitch‖ speed, thanks to their video game experiences, mastering complex tasks and making decisions rapidly (Dede, 2005). However, in school, nearly 50% of college freshman report that they are ―frequently bored in class‖ (NEA Higher Education Advocate, 2008). Unless your course content or activity is on their radar screen, you‘re not able to get into their minds. They live in a complicated remixed, digital, mobile, always-on media environment, albeit, a world of media overstimulation. Instructionally, these students eschew traditional ―talking head,‖ lecturedriven, text-book-based teaching methods. Instead, they want interactivity, team work with active, participative, visual, collaborative, fast moving, quick thinking, rapid responding, emotionally freeing, spontaneous, combustible experiences (NEA Higher Education Advocate, 2008). A learning environment with anything less will be borrrrring.

CHALLENGES Educators learning to teach in hybrid courses may encounter challenges that stretch across theory and practice. Varying interpretation of what should be categorized as hybrid learning and which theories should explain it precedes the discussion of what represents best practice (Masalela, 2009). Without sound philosophical foundation on which to build the practice, both learners and instructors might suffer poor teaching-learning experiences as they engage in hybrid learning for the first time (Masalela, 2009). Evidence of this is all around us in the form of innumerable university course Web sites which contain little more than the schedule, a brief outline of the course content, PowerPoint slides of lecturer‘s notes, and sometimes, sample examination papers. Instead of exploiting the unique attributes of information and communications technologies, such practices replicate the concept that ―education is equal to the transmission of

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information‖ model of teaching that is so common in conventional classroom practice. Regardless of the capabilities of the delivery medium, the nature of the subject matter content and learner needs, much of the educational practices continue to be teacher-directed and delivery-centered. Rarely have we paused to think about why we are teaching the way we teach, whether our instructional approaches are based on sound educational principles of cognition and learning. The challenge is to reexamine the core values of teacher education so that they will be enhanced and not lost. The goal is to create, enhance, and sustain the vitality of communities of inquiry. Frankly, teacher education has to do better to improve the design, the facilitation, and the direction of meaningful learning experiences. There is no longer any reason to use the lecture to simply transmit information. Students can and should come to ―class‖ armed with the most current information and be ready to engage in the critical and creative process of making sense of the information, followed by an exploration of the implications and applications.

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CONCLUSION The best practices and learning theories suggest that the pendulum of personal learning responsibility is moving closer to the student learner and farther away from the course instructor. This change in responsibility means that educators must be willing to let go of the traditional education structure that gave most of the learning responsibility to the teacher. Harnessing each individual‘s creativity and imagination and encouraging innovation is becoming an increasingly important focus. Thus, instructors must be more than information suppliers. Students today already have many ways to access information. They want instructors who are guides. They also seek classes offered in places and at times that fit their lifestyles. Students are canny and concerned consumers. This often requires educators to acquire new perspectives—philosophical orientation to guide their teaching and learning. In the case of hybrid learning, many educators are considering constructivist principles within the context of technology-mediated teacher education (Bielawski & Metcalf, 2003; Christensen, 2003; Karagiorgi & Symeou, 2005; McCombs & Vakili, 2005). Constructivists argue that learning is a process whereby we actively construct knowledge based on our past experiences. This kind of learning perspective will guide the growth and development of hybrid learning and help educators reflect on the learning process, a process which is consistent with the goal of hybrid learning.

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REFERENCES Bielawski, L., & Metcalf, D. (2003). Blended eLearning: Integrating knowledge, performance, support, and online learning. Amherst, MA: HRD Press. Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21– 32. Christensen, T. K. (2003). Finding the balance: Constructivist pedagogy in a blended course. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 3, 235-243. Dede, C. (2005). Planning for ‗neomillennial‘ learning styles: Implications for investments in technology and faculty. In D. Oblinger & J. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the Net Generation (pp. 15.1-15.22). Boulder, CO: Educause. Edmonds, C. (2007). Continuous quality improvement: Integrating best practice into teacher education. International Journal of Educational Management, 21, 232-237. Karagiorgi, Y., & Symeou, L. (2005). Translating constructivism into instructional design: Potential and limitations. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 8, 17-27. Lin, Q. (2008). Preservice teachers‘ learning experiences of constructing ePortfolios online. The Internet and Higher Education, 11, 194-200. Masalela, R. K. (2009). Potential benefits and complexities of blended learning in higher education: The case of the University of Botswana. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 10, 66-82. McCombs, B., & Vakili, D. (2005). A learner-centered framework for e-learning. Teachers College Record, 107, 1582-1600. Murphy, C. U., & Lick, D. W. (2005). Whole-faculty study groups: Creating professional learning communities that target student learning (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. NEA Higher Education Advocate. (2008, April). Techniques that connect with Net Geners, 25(4), 6-8. Piaget, J. (1950). The Psychology of Intelligence. New York: Routledge. Picciano, A. G. (2007). Blended learning: Research perspectives. Needham, MA: Sloan Center for Online Education. Psencik, K. (2009). Accelerating student and staff learning: Purposeful curriculum collaboration. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Rains, S. A., & Scott, C. R. (2006). Virtual teams in the traditional classroom: Lessons on new communication technologies and training. In S. P. Ferris & S. H. Godar (Eds.), Teaching and learning with virtual teams. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

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Rogers, P. L. (2002). Designing instruction for technology-enhanced learning. Hershey, PA: IRM Press. Staddon, J. (2001). The new behaviorism: Mind, mechanism and society. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Vygotski, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Chapter 4

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HYBRID LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Transforming a traditional teacher education class into a hybrid learning environment requires a shift in an instructor‘s teaching paradigm. Instead of preparing the necessary materials for the off-line setting of a traditional classroom, the hybrid learning instructor now must also organize and maintain the on-line, virtual classroom. The time, planning, and organization needed to restructure a hybrid classroom requires the instructor to, in essence, plan and organize a class in two settings, which complement each other to better meet the course goals.

UNDERSTANDING THE DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENT It‘s important that you fully understand the two learning environments before making choices. Virtual learning environments and face-to-face situations have different characteristics. The two contexts allow different types of interactions when conducting complex cognitive tasks. The difference is the nature of the communication—that is, verbal versus text—as well as the physical presence of a teacher. Face-to-face discussion is fast-paced and fleeting, and structuring the discussion is a particular challenge. The facilitator must be cognitively agile by identifying important contributions, being energetic, moderating participation, identifying issues, and, since time is of the essence, knowing when to summarize and move on. Online discussion, in contrast, is more accessible, more specific and detailed, more open to critical challenges and disagreement, and has increased potential for integration and resolution (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007). Greater emphasis is placed on the facilitator to thread discussion, sustain commitment,

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encourage a conversational approach, provide relevant information links, and resolve issues.

FTF Learning Environment The hybrid learning environment is influenced by several factors. A predominant part of classroom education is face-to-face interaction, which provides an environment where the delivery of instruction is instantaneous and synchronized with interactions between students and faculty. This allows the instructor to know whether the intended message is clearly communicated to the students. The message-response-feedback is usually iterative and complete, and any breakdown in communication can be corrected immediately. Similarly, the pace and scope of course material coverage can be adjusted accordingly. Furthermore, factors like facial expression and body language all help to bring about more effective communication between instructor and student. Thus, courses that require constant interaction and effective two-way communication, like case-based classes, are ideally suited for classroom education.

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Online Learning Environment An online education environment is unlike a face-to-face classroom because of the amount of physical and psychological separation between students and instructor. The intent of instruction is to have students involved in the learning process rather than merely learning to use or adapt to technology delivering the instruction. However, an online learning environment creates a special challenge because instructors and students are separated physically and psychologically. When the online student reads the words of a lecture or discussion, that student coconstructs the meaning in a process that involves changing these symbols that appear on the screen into something meaningful by interpreting them in the light of experience. This is why, when any two people read the same material, they interpret it in different ways. Thus, it‘s important to recognize the reasons why you are using online component of learning. It should be giving the learner a richer experience than simply reading flat text. If all you put up on the Web is text, however well created, you need to ask whether this is the best way of presenting your information. On the other hand, if you create space that is full of animation or

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illustrations your learner may simply find it a distraction. Because Web-based instruction has so many variables that differ from traditional instruction, consideration must be given to approaches framing the design of the instruction so that successful learning can occur (Chang, Chou, Chen, & Chan, 2004).

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY HYBRID LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

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Quality learning is the backbone of hybrid learning. Quality hybrid learning environment is characterized by these characteristics: learner-centeredness (Weimer, 2002), knowledge-centeredness (Hansen, 2008) and communitycenteredness (Seels, Campbell, & Talsma, 2003). Learning environments that are characterized by these qualities are considered to be more effective in promoting learning (McCombs & Vakili, 2005). Instructors and designers involved in creating a learner-centered, knowledge-centered and community-centered hybrid environment concentrate on understanding what students know—that their approach to learning may vary, and that it is possible and desirable to help learners understand how they learn through strategic guidance.

Learner-Centeredness For instructors and designers to achieve quality in a hybrid learning environment, energy and activity need to be applied to understanding who students are, learning about their abilities, passions, and goals and creating hybrid learning activities that align with these. The key to a successful education for all students is to place students‘ needs at the heart of the design process and to take their backgrounds into consideration. Swan (2005) explains that the more relevant the education is to the individual, the more meaningful the learning and retention process; the farther the events are from the inner perceptions of the students, the less effect they have on the learning process. To make education meaningful, Swan suggests personalization of curriculum or student-centered design. Studentcentered design should account for students‘ social characteristics, communication styles, personality, cognitive ability, linguistic style, and academic background. The challenge of student-centered design is to develop curriculum that is flexible and adaptable to individual students‘ inner perceptions. It requires enormous preparation time, appropriate teaching models, diverse tools,

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and an in-depth knowledge about the diverse personal backgrounds of all students. However, as technology advances, especially the Web with its uniquely flexible interactive and adaptive characteristics, curriculum personalization is becoming a reality.

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Knowledge-Centeredness For hybrid environments to meet the second condition of ―knowledge centeredness‖, they must be designed to leverage the affordances of online and face-to-face settings in ways that support understanding and subsequently transfer to new settings (Vaughan & Garrison, 2005). To accomplish this we need to know first what knowledge learners bring to learning environments. A theory of hybrid learning should account for mechanisms by which online and face-to-face instruction can be combined to effectively and efficiently determine and build upon incoming abilities. Knowledge-centered learning environments also seek to enhance understanding rather than memorization; it is frequently recommended, therefore, that learners be encouraged to ―do‖ the work of the discipline rather than memorize facts about it. A theory of hybrid learning should account for how such environments encourage the development of active learning that focused on depth rather than primarily on breadth. Hansen (2008) states that ideas are best introduced when students see a need or a reason for their use—this helps them see relevant uses of knowledge to make sense of what they are learning. Understanding how environments can be designed to introduce ideas when they are most needed is a useful element for a theory of hybrid learning from this perspective.

Community-Centeredness Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000) approached the understanding of hybrid learning designs through the framework of a Community of Inquiry (CoI). The CoI framework was generated from the literature grounded in the larger field of education. In particular, the framework was grounded in a critical, collaborative learning community consistent with the ideals of teacher education. The generic nature of the framework and its resonance with both face-to-face and online education make it a useful guide to understand and design hybrid learning environments.

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The CoI framework (Figure 4.2) has shown considerable promise and has been widely cited in the literature (e.g., Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Seels et al., 2003). One reason for this is that it is a comprehensive yet parsimonious and intuitively understandable framework. Another reason is that it builds upon two ideas that are essential to teacher education—community and inquiry. Community, on the one hand, recognizes the social nature of education and the role that interaction, collaboration, and discourse play in constructing knowledge; inquiry, on the other hand, reflects the process of constructing meaning through personal responsibility and choice.

Source: Adapted from Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Frameworks, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Figure 4.2. Community of Inquiry Framework.

The CoI is a recursive model in that each of the core elements supports the others. The elements of the framework are social presence, cognitive presence, metacognitive awareness and teaching presence. Each of the presences reflects categories and indicators that operationalize the elements used to study and design

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the teaching and learning transaction. It is important to note the interdependence across and within the presences (So & Brush, 2008). For example, teaching presence will have a significant influence on cognitive presence, and social presence will influence cognitive presence. Overlap does not have to be symmetrical. Emphasis can be on any one of the presences.

Social Presence Social presence is defined as the extent to which a communication medium allows the actual physical presence of the communicating partners to be conveyed. When people communicate, they exchange both task-oriented and interpersonal messages. The level of social presence is determined by the degree to which interpersonal messages can be exchanged. The formal categories of social presence are open communication, cohesive responses, and affective and/or personal connections. These categories are progressive in the sense that they establish, sustain, and develop a community of inquiry (Reisman, Flores, & Edge, 2003). So and Brush (2008) recognized that there was a deep human need to respond to others and to work together jointly toward an objective. Such need of the students is described as the social side of learning, or the psychosocial environment of the classroom. Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. When designing instruction one should remember that the importance of a learning climate that reflects social presence cannot be overemphasized. Students in a community of inquiry must feel free to express themselves openly in a risk-free manner. They must be able to develop the personal relationships necessary to commit to, and pursue, intended academic goals and gain a sense of belonging to the community (Swenson & Evans, 2003). Cognitive Presence Social relationships create a sense of belonging, support freedom of expression, and sustain cohesiveness, but they do not structure and focus academic interests among the students. Communities of inquiry are more than social groups. Higher levels of learning inevitably require purposeful discourse to collaboratively construct, critically reflect, and confirm understanding (Vaughan & Garrison, 2005). This is what is referred to as cognitive presence. Cognitive presence is basic to the practical inquiry process. Practical Inquiry Model consists of four phases—triggering event, exploration, integration and resolution or application (Garrison et al., 2000). As such, cognitive presence is reflective of the purposeful nature of collaborative knowledge construction

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inherent in constructivist educational experiences. The model has been successful in measuring the developmental nature of the learning process across disciplines. In comparison to other cognitive taxonomies, Bielawski and Metcalf (2003) found the Practical Inquiry Model to be the most relevant to the analysis of the cognitive dimension and present a clear picture of the knowledge-building process. If students are to assume increased responsibility for their learning, it‘s essential they‘re aware of the inquiry process. The process may well be introduced and explored in an FTF context or an online learning environment. Online learning activities can be designed to provide an opportunity for students to reflect on learning tasks and strategies. For instance, online reflection that requires a model of inquiry can be used to assess learning strategies and judge effectiveness. Ultimately the goal is for students to become self-directed and to have learned how to learn. Achieving this goal necessitates the development of metacognitive awareness.

Metacognitive Awareness The practical inquiry model that operationalizes cognitive presence can serve to increase metacognitive awareness. Metacognition is simply thinking about thinking, or monitoring one‘s own learning (Halpern, 1996). Monitoring one‘s own learning is essential for survival in a hybrid-based environment, even more so than in a traditional environment. Most students engage in metacognitive regulation when confronted with an effortful cognitive task. Those with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful in their cognitive endeavors (Halpern, 1996). Metacognition enables students to benefit from instruction and influences the use and maintenance of cognitive strategies. Many cognitive strategies can be embedded within a hybrid course, along with tips and ideas for time management and independent learning. For example, a notetaking guide can be included in a hybrid course to assist learners in determining what is important. The intent of this notetaking guide is to be used as a companion to the FTF lectures provided weekly in a graduate seminar course. Simply providing knowledge without metacognitive control does not seem to be sufficient for the development of reflective learning (Harford & MacRuairc, 2008). Teaching Presence The binding element in creating a community of inquiry for educational purposes is that of teaching presence. Appropriate cognitive and social presence, and ultimately, the establishment of a critical community of inquiry, is dependent upon the presence of a teacher (Garrison et al., 2000). Teaching presence is an

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essential and challenging responsibility, especially in a hybrid learning environment where students are not always in direct contact. Teaching presence establishes the curriculum, approaches, and methods; it also moderates, guides, and focuses discourse and tasks. It is the means by which to bring together social and cognitive presence in an effective and efficient manner. In an educational context, teaching presence is essential to bring all the elements together and ensure that the community of interest is productive. Through teaching presence, interaction is shaped into reflective and critical discourse (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). Shea, Pickett and Pelz (2003) found that the presence of an active instructor moved online discussions to more advanced stages of inquiry compared to discussions led by students. Shea, Li and Pickett (2006) also found that teaching presence to be a strong predictor of perceived learning and satisfaction with the delivery medium. In these research, students clearly attribute a successful learning experience with teaching presence. The unifying force of teaching presence with teaching creates and sustains a community of inquiry in a hybrid environment when students are shifting between FTF and online communication.

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REDESIGN PHASES To transform a course from a face-to-face (FTF) format to a hybrid one, extensive planning is necessary. Courses that can be easily adapted to the onlinelearning environments are likely to be well received as a hybrid class. For example, because of the need for constant two-way interaction, case-based courses are generally not well suited for the online environment. But, courses where concepts and examples can be easily constructed and presented using software tools may be better suited for online-based education. Such courses allow students to learn through interactivity and repeatability at their own pace, thus satisfying diverse student learning needs. The decision process involves a series of redesign phases. 1. Analysis Phase—Understanding the big picture and identifying what you want to preserve and transform in your course redesign. Questions: 

What do you want your students to know when they have finished taking your hybrid learning course (e.g., key learning outcomes— knowledge, skills, and attitudes)?

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What do you want to preserve from your existing course format? What would you like to transform?

2. Design Phase—Identifying learning activities, assessment plans, and key components for your course. Questions:   

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

What types of learning activities will you design that integrate faceto-face (FTF) and time-out-of-class (TOC) components? What means will you use to assess these integrated learning activites? What are your expectations for student participation within and outside of the classroom? How will you configure and schedule the percent of time between the FTF and TOC components of your course? How will you use your course outline to communicate the learning outcomes, activities, assessment plan, schedule, and key content topics to your students?

3. Development Phase—Creating the learning activities, assessment plan, and content for your course. Questions: 

 

How will you use a learning management system (e.g., Blackboard) to create a structure for your course (e.g., content modules, key topic areas)? What existing resources can you use for your hybrid course (e.g., existing handouts, digital learning objects)? What new learning activities and/or content do you need to develop for your course?

4. Implementation Phase—Actual course delivery, i.e.,―where the rubber hits the road‖.

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

Have you contacted the Registrar‘s Office about scheduling and approving the format of your hybrid course? When students are involved in TOC activities within a hybrid course, they frequently have problems scheduling their work and managing their time. What plans do you have to help students address these issues? Students sometimes have difficulty with Blackboard and other educational technologies. What proactive steps can you take to assist students to become familiar with these forms of technology? If students need help with technology in your course, how will you provide support?

5. Evaluation Phase—Determining the effectiveness of the hybrid learning course and disseminating the results. Questions:

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





What kind of assessments and data collection are you planning in order to effectively evaluate your project and inform efforts to improve the course in future offerings (e.g., midterm evaluations, peer-observation and feedback, journal, teaching assessments, evaluations of student learning, student ratings of instruction)? Assuming evaluation activities yield information to suggest your hybrid learning course should continue, what measures will you and your faculty or department take to ensure the continuation and improvement of the course? How will you share what you learn with others in your faculty?

Table 4.1 presents a sample hybrid course redesign schedule:

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Table 4.1. Sample Hybrid Course Redesign Schedule Week

Plan

One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight

Identifying key learning outcomes Designing integrated face-to-face and online learning activities Developing a course assessment strategy Creating a learning-centered course syllabus (redesign plan) Developing a course module prototype Developing online learning portal Facilitating and directing face-to-face and online learning Piloting and course evaluation strategies

LEVELS OF TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

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Analyzing levels of technology integration to see what should be done faceto-face or synchronously, and what could be done as well or better online, is an important first step in redesigning a traditional face-to-face course and creating hybrid learning environment.

Level One A level one outcome is like an Online Filing Cabinet (OFC). It is a starting point for instructors to begin the change process, and it assists them to learn the basics of using an LMS to support their teaching. They also begin to see the possibilities of using the Web in their teaching. A typical level one example would have the following available on the web:    

Weekly announcements. The course timetable with key events highlighted, maybe linked to the calendar. Copies of the assessments/assignments for the course, maybe an exemplar or two, certainly the marking schedules. The program handbook in PDF, containing all important information about the processes and regulations.

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    

Static course materials arranged logically—probably copies of the lecture slides for each session, handouts, links to recommended Web sites, and further readings if available. These are often built up as the course progresses. A glossary of common terms. FAQ discussion set up for assignments or other issues. Maybe access to grades. E-mail used for communication. Assignment submission and collection via dropbox or email.

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In Level one, most of the active or interactive learning still occurs in the faceto-face sessions. OFCs supplement the teaching but do not replace it. For consistency in student experience, faculty may collectively decide on the look and feel for their set of courses across the department. They can decide on aspects to be used as standard in all courses in their programs: menu items, consistent navigation, and information. This standardization allow faculty, like their students, to operate in a structured, familiar environment. OFCs can be thought of as informational, supplemental, or naïve, and attempts should be made as soon as possible to move on through the next level of this model—level two—in order to actively utilize the advantages of the technology to maximize the interaction between students and instructors.

Level Two More sophisticated skills are required for instructors to embark on level two. At level two, student-to-content, student-to-student, and instructor-to-student interactions will now move more toward computer-supported features. Interactivity is a multifaceted concept and understanding, it is critical to the success of online learning. It is also important to consider the kind of scaffolding that can be built in as a guide for learners: conceptual (what to consider), metacognitive (how to think about the topic), procedural (how to use the information), and strategic (how to analyze and strategize). The degree of effort required for a level two development has to be justified by more than just student convenience. Time has to be spent on the why: instructors must see credible evidence of how the integration of technology can enhance learning outcomes for students, examples of good practice, and models to enable professional judgments to be made on how to best use technology for their

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subject. These discussions are also the time to explore faculty beliefs about teaching and learning. An example of Level Two would contain the aspects of Level One, with perhaps the following extras:  

  

Online assessments for both formative and summative purposes. Some grouped resources designed to be accessed in outside class mode with readings, activities, and discussions, complied with guidance on access and use. Extensive use of virtual interactions—discussions, possibly chat sessions, group work. Small group tasks to be completed via swapping of files, discussion, chat. Quizzes, crosswords, jigsaws, animations, or other constructed learning objects to support and progress the learning process at appropriate points.

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MAKING THE TRANSITION Where is the tipping point from doing supplements to face-to-face instruction and actually going to a hybrid course? The process generally follows a pattern: a) from technology integration in a traditional classroom to web-enhancement course with some online work; b) from a web-enhancement course with some online work to a hybrid course with more frequent and larger online work. Figure 4.1 shows that somewhere around the middle of the continuum, we have what is called hybrid or mixed-mode teaching, where significant amounts of the face-to-face element are replaced by technology-mediated online learning. As we move from the full face-to-face end of the continuum, more and more technology is used to replace the face-to-face elements. Initially, this has very little impact on how teaching is organized because the technology is used primarily to enhance the face-to-face teaching. But as we move further along the continuum (from left to right) the nature of teaching and how it is organized is affected by the technology. Once we reach the right end of the continuum there is no longer any face-to-face teaching. The last box on the right represents fully online learning in which all teaching is technology mediated.

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Figure 4.1. Continuum of Learning from Fully Face-to-Face to Fully Online

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Some Technology Integration in FTF Classrooms More and more instructors nowadays integrate technology into their traditional courses such as teaching in a smart classroom. Instructors who use a smart classroom may find themselves showing students Websites that are related to the course. Students may be seen furiously copying the URLs for Websites into their notes so they may refer to them later. Often the instructor notes this and begins to write the URLs on the whiteboard. This may lead to his distributing a list. As the list becomes longer and longer, the instructor determines that he will save paper and create a linked list on his Website to which he can refer students who wish to review the links. These links become numerous and essentials to the course materials. Many are so well done that the instructor begins to use them as if they were text materials, giving assignments to be completed outside class. He starts posting outlines for each upcoming lecture. Soon the instructor is assigning group projects based on the Website content. He begins looking for ways to have these groups communicate at times other than the class period. Then he checks with his colleagues, some of whom may be using discussion boards or other technologies. This may lead to his next step—redesigning this course as a webenhanced one.

From Technology Integration to Web-Enhanced Courses To go from a traditional classroom model that integrates technology to one that is web-enhanced, the instructor first will need to decide the purpose of web enhancement and what types of enhancements will best meet those needs. Then he will need to consider whether the enhancements will necessitate the purchase of outside tools. In the web-enhanced classroom, most of the instruction occurs in the classroom and the web enhancement supplements face-to-face instruction. For

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example, the instructor may put the course syllabus online, as well as the week‘s assignments or announcements, to further communication with students. There also may be weekly self-paced learning elements such as PowerPoint presentations, online quizzes or Internet links to websites to extend the learning day and provide additional resources. In this model, there will be minimal use of more advanced interactive online elements such as discussion boards. To teach in a web-enhanced classroom, some faculty use Learning Management Systems (LMS) such as Blackboard or Moodle, some use personal websites to supplement traditional classroom teaching. Aggarwal (2000) found that uses of the Web-enhanced courses can be grouped into three general categories: communication supplements, course management aids, and course content supplements, with course content supplements to be the most popular. Web-enhanced courses are sometimes confused with hybrid courses. While talking with some teacher educators about hybrid learning at an international conference, I found that some teacher educators are teaching what is referred to as ―web-enhanced‖ courses, not hybrid ones. A web-enhanced course has a smaller online component and may ask students to complete a few discussions or projects online, whereas the hybrid course is infusing a traditional classroom (FTF) with a larger online learning component.A hybrid is different from a web-enhanced course as it replaces approximately 25-50% of the FTF classroom meetings with online work. The key component of the hybrid course is the reduction in the quantity and an increase in the quality of FTF interaction, as illustrated below.

From Web-Enhanced Courses to Hybrid Courses The next logical step from the ―web-enhanced‖ course is the hybrid course. The hybrid classroom goes a step beyond the web-enhanced model in its use of online elements because here instruction takes place partly online and partly faceto-face. Because of this split, students will have less face-to-face classroom meeting time in order to balance the requirement for online time. For instance, a literacy education instructor supplements her face-to-face course with writing and study guides, suggested sites, course syllabus, a dictionary of terms, and recommended readings online. Some instructors from content areas such as math and science have links to problems, simulations, in addition to extensive reading lists, assignments, and homework answers. The range of options, from posting course syllabi to using threaded discussions is becoming an increasingly appealing way to supplement traditional courses. Instructors who have no intention of abandoning face-to-face courses are finding these options useful.

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With commonly available course-management tools such as Blackboard and Moodel, instructors have a large compliment of tools and options for designing an online environment. They can use the online environment to make information available to students and more effectively administer classroom procedures. Course outlines, PowerPoint presentations, and streaming video clips are typically posted. Links to course-related websites, professional and academic journals, and other news items and current events are also made available. In addition, faculty can use the online environment to improve assessment of student learning. Rather than waiting until students arrive to class to take a quiz or begin discussions, instructors can mandate online activities and then review the results prior to the face-to-face class and make ―just in time‖ instructional changes (Bielawski & Metcalf, 2003). These assessments benefit both themselves and their students: Faculty benefit because such exams are typically graded by the computer, thus sparing them this tedium; students benefit because they can receive immediate results and detailed feedback on incorrect answers rather than waiting until the next scheduled class when the material may not be as fresh (Allen & Seaman, 2005). However, as mentioned above, hybrid courses should not be confused with web-enhanced courses. Hybrid courses differ from web-enhanced courses in that a substantial portion of the course discussion or other activity is online. In hybrid courses, online discussions, assessments, and assignments are more frequent than web-enhanced courses, which aim to increase student preparedness for the FTF component of the course.

CONNECTEDNESS AND COALESCENCE Hybrid teaching is not just a matter of transferring a portion of your current course to the Web. Instead it involves developing, challenging and engaging learning activities that occur within and outside of the classroom. The key in designing the learning environments is making connections between learning activities within and outside the classroom. Students and faculty should not view the face-to-face aspect of a hybrid course and the online element as separate components. Coordination between these two communication channels is crucial (Smith & Kurthen, 2007). Renniger and Shumar (2002) state that the ―boundary between the physical and virtual communities is permeable,… making it difficult to conceptualize either form of community as a completely separate entity‖ (p.8). The movement towards hybrid learning motivated an educational paradigm shift between single fixed classrooms and multiple, flexible online classrooms. Theories of constructivism suggest that learning is more effective when students

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are able to move between multiple learning modes (Karagiorgi & Symeou, 2005). This means teacher educators need to plan learner flexibility and choice in the ways they interact and communicate while, at the same time, structuring student learning. This requires careful effective planning of teaching methodologies. Questions that we need to address include how we can promote the development of a sense of connectedness, collaboration, and a sense of safety through the integration of online and offline learning activities (Skill & Young, 2002). Table 4.2 summarizes the key principles of planning and designing hybrid learning environment. Table 4.2. Checklist for Planning of Hybrid Learning Environment

Does the learning environment that I have created: 



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   

Treat the learner with respect, clarifying what information is confidential and what may be shared with other users, for example surveys, norm data, shared discussions? Seek to engage the learner in an experience that is relevant, inspiring, fun and different? Provide learning experiences that are stimulating, interesting and use the right medium for the learning, rather than technology for its own sake? Use language that is jargon-free, clear and engaging for the learner? Make the connections between offline and online learning and the working environment, so that the learner is able to put the learning into practice? Build opportunities and capacity for online discussion with others in a safe and secure environment?

CHALLENGES There are challenges with designing hybrid learning environment. The first challenge for hybrid course designers is how to utilize online environment to create learning experiences that are innovative and stimulating and which complement the traditional forms for learning. The second challenge is difficulties in deciding where activities should take place and whether communication should be synchronous or asynchronous. When students can meet in the same location, it can be difficult to decide on the best forms of interaction. The free flow of FTF,

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synchronous communication may be an effective way of expressing ideas and getting fast feedback. On the other hand, asynchronous technologies allow time for reflection and can mean that students are more likely to receive betterconsidered feedback from instructors and peers. A potential solution is to map learning activities that can support them and, at the same time, place learners in control and allow them to choose the tools and activities. The last challenge is how to ensure that students are meaningfully engaged. The premise is that the ultimate goal is to create a community of inquiry in which learners are fully engaged and responsible. This means to extend the learning community over time and enhance the depth of engagement. Facilitating discourse requires the weaving of both social and cognitive presence, and effective facilitation of both social and cognitive presence requires teaching presence. The challenge is to sustain social presence while creating cognitive presence. This necessitates a strong teaching presence to know when and how to question and challenge students, and to know how to collaboratively guide discussion. In a word, designing a hybrid learning experience entails taking special consideration of social, cognitive and teaching issues at the front end—issues that go well beyond deciding what content will be covered.

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CONCLUSION With the advances of new communications media, access to information is not the challenge any more; how we integrate real and virtual communities is the new challenge. The challenge is to design the context of hybrid learning to approach the full potential of blending collaborative and reflective learning. At the core of this process is a community of inquiry that supports connection and collaboration among learners, and a learning environment that integrates social, cognitive, and teaching elements in a way that will precipitate and sustain critical reflection and discourse. A community of inquiry would benefit from the integrated strengths of hybrid face-to-face and online learning and capitalizing on their inherent strengths. The challenge is to design such hybrid learning experience that can have a positive effect on the participants and the learning outcomes. Hybrid learning provides an opportunity for an evolutionary transformation of teaching and learning. However, transformational growth can only be sustained with a clear understanding of the nature of the educational process and intended learning outcomes. The integration of physical and online spaces means that communities can form and interact in ways that were previously unimaginable.

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This in turn allows exploration of different forms of dialogue and new types of learning. At the heart of hybrid learning redesign is the goal to engage students in critical discourse and reflection. The goal is to create dynamic and vital communities of inquiry where students take responsibility to construct meaning and confirm understanding through active participation in the inquiry process. These elements of hybrid learning will have a profound influence on how we approach teaching and learning within teacher education.

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REFERENCES Aggarwal, A. (Ed.). (2000). Web-based learning and teaching technologies: Opportunities and challenges. Hershey, PA: IDEA Group Publishing. Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2005). Growing by degrees: Online education in the United States. Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Bielawski, L., & Metcalf, D. (2003). Blended eLearning: Integrating knowledge, performance, support, and online learning. Amherst, MA: HRD Press. Chang, L., Chou, C., Chen, Z., & Chan, T. (2004). An approach to assisting teachers in building physical and network hybrid community-based learning environments: The Taiwanese experience. International Journal of Educational Development, 24, 383-396. El Mansour, B., & Mupinga, D. M. (2007). Students‘ positive and negative experiences in hybrid and online classes. College Student Journal, 41, 242248. Garrison, D. R., & Arbaugh, J. B. (2007). Researching the community of inquiry framework: Review, issues, and future directions. The Internet and Higher Education, 10, 157-172. Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Frameworks, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a textbased environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2, 87−105. Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hansen, D. E. (2008). Knowledge transfer in online learning environments. Journal of Marketing Education, 30, 93-105.

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Harford, J., & MacRuairc, G. (2008). Engaging student teachers in meaningful reflective practice. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 24, 1884-1892. Karagiorgi, Y., & Symeou, L. (2005). Translating constructivism into instructional design: Potential and limitations. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 8, 17-27. McCombs, B., & Vakili, D. (2005). A learner-centered framework for e-learning. Teachers College Record, 107, 1582-1600. Reisman, S., Flores, J. G., & Edge, D. (Eds.) (2003). Electronic learning communities: Issues and practices. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Renninger, K. A., & Shumar, W. (Eds.) (2002). Building virtual communities: Learning and change in cyberspace. Boston: Cambridage University Press. Seels, B., Campbell, S., & Talsma, V. (2003). Supporting excellence in technology through communities of learners. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51, 91-104. Shea, P. J., Pickett, A., & Pelz, W. (2003). A follow up investigation of ‗teacher presence‘ in the SUNY learning network. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Network, 7, 61-80. Shea, P., Li, C. S., & Pickett, A. (2006). A study of teaching presence and student sense of learning community in fully online and web-enhanced college courses. The Internet and Higher Education, 9(3), 175−190. Skill, T. D., & Young, B. A. (2002). Embracing the hybrid model: Working at the intersections of virtual and physical learning spaces. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 92, 23-32. Smith, G. G., & Kurthen, H. (2007). Front-stage and back-stage in hybrid elearning face-to-face courses. International Journal on E-Learning, 6, 455474. So, H., & Brush, T. (2008). Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors. Computers & Education, 51, 318-336. Swan, K. (2005). A constructivist model for thinking about learning online. In J. Bourne & J. Moore (Eds.), Elements of quality online education: Engaging communities (pp.13-30). Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Swenson, P. W., & Evans, M. (2003). Hybrid courses as learning communities. In S. Reisman, J. G. Flores, & D. Edge (Eds.), Electronic learning communities: Issues and practices (pp. 27-71). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

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Vaughan, N., & Garrison, D. R. (2005). Creating cognitive presence in a blended faculty development community. Internet and Higher Education, 8, 1-12. Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Chapter 5

HYBRID COURSE IMPLEMENTATION

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Implementing a hybrid course is a complex process. The use of both FTF and technology-based modes requires attention to greater detail, scheduling and coordination than for a totally online or traditional course. To assure the best possible hybrid course, questions like these must be addressed:         

What are the goals and objectives of the course? Who is the audience? What are the specific needs of the students who will take this course? What are the resources? How can the resources be best arranged to meet the needs of the students? Are the requirements of the course consistent with the hybrid elements being used? What training is available to the instructor? What level of support will the instructor have to make the technology work? When students have difficulty with the technology, who do they call?

Whether you‘re creating your first hybrid course or you want to further develop your existing hybrid course, many factors need to be considered: the type of students enrolled; the technology available to your students; and the course characteristics, etc. An instructor must reexamine course goals, develop new online and FTF learning activities, utilize new types of assessment, integrate FTF

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and online learning activities, and interact with students in new ways. Table 5.1 summarizes steps needed: Table 5.1. Steps for Creating Your Hybrid Course

1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

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6.

7.

8. 9.

Select learning goals, outcomes, competencies, and issues of importance, in the subject you teach or area of study. Select readings/texts—they need to be focused and purposeful. a. What kind of information will students find useful? b. How can this benefit them? Develop and post your course syllabus. The instructor‘s syllabus and discussion postings need to give students the road map to what the important concepts are for the course. Think, how can you embed Web-based tools? Explore and examine what tools are available to you. Create lessons, units, or modules (sometimes chapters in books can be module topics). Each unit focused around a different topic and/or competency. Create five to ten units based on the length of the course and content. Identify what would be a useful application of the desired knowledge for students. Answer, does the learner have to ―produce‖ anything? What would be the most effective way for students to demonstrate the information they have learned? Provide forum for interaction. Create discussion questions for activities. Elicit performance. Create activities to practice new skills or behaviors and to apply understanding and improve retention. Provide learning guidance with locally relevant examples, case studies, and graphical representations. Plan for assessment. Design effective and meaningful assessments in which the students take the concepts and theories they have been learning and investigating and apply them to open ended questions or project based assignments that are authentic and can be applied to real world situations.

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ANALYZING INSTRUCTIONAL SETTINGS AND STUDENTS Before analyzing the instructional settings and students, several concerns need to be considered and addressed. Generally, faculty omit this step, making the assumption that any course that is taught in the classroom is suitable to be taught on the Web. However, consideration must be given to the environment that has changed. Required facilities and resources also need to be considered. What is needed is an analysis for the course online selection criteria that would include: (1) the number of students who may take the course, and (2) whether the course is required or an elective. The number of the students who may take this course is of primary consideration in the selection process. In both cases, a student-driven model is used. Creating a course for only a few students is a waste of resources, time, and energy. The return on investment (ROI), which educators are generally not concerned about but found in business, is an important consideration. ROI simply means that the number of hours and resources it takes to design the hybrid course will be offset by the number of students who enroll to take the course. It takes many more hours and resources to design a course for the Web than it would for the classroom. If the analysis of the student population discloses that an adequate number of students will enroll in this course on a regular basis, the course can be considered for hybrid. Second, whether the course is required or elective must be considered. To some extent, this is an extension of the first requirement: a student population large enough to justify the online portion of the course. If the course is a required course and the student population is large enough within the department, then the course can be easily justified. If, however, the course is an elective within the curriculum, a careful analysis of previous course enrollment must be performed. Trends of student enrollment in a course can change over a few years or even in a few semesters. A decline in student population available for the course will also impact the course selection.

Course Levels We are familiar with two basic types of courses found in the curriculum: Lower-division courses and graduate-level courses. Lower-division courses, in which students learn the fundamentals of a given discipline, are generally those courses that are introductory courses and are taken first. These courses may not require an extensive prior knowledge in the field of education but require general

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knowledge skills of reading, vocabulary, and writing. However, lower-level students may have more of a difficult time adjusting to a course that is taught by a teacher who is not present. They also may have problems with delayed feedback and the additional responsibility of independent learning. As students progress in their field of study, courses tend to become more abstract as various theories are introduced. In graduate-level courses, there is a preponderance of theory, since graduate-level courses are built on previously learned concepts. Logically, more student discussion is required as the course content becomes more abstract. It must be determined if the type of class interaction is appropriate for hybrid learning, especially in seminar courses where there is ample student participation.

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Instructional Goals One of the primary steps in the design process is to determine the instructional goals for the course. These course goals are the general and very broad statements of what the students will be able to do or perform by the end of the instruction. These learning goals describe ―what ought to be.‖ This list directs you to focus on what students are to learn in the course. For example, in an educational technology course, one of the goals for the course could be that students will be able to properly select and integrate various forms of mediated instruction that will reinforce the performance objectives. When designing these goals, you probably will also want to determine the existence of national goal standards, state standards, professional standards, or school standards for your course. If applicable, these standards need to be included in your goal statements.

Instructional Materials This stage of instructional design deals with some very practical issues. First, the selection of the textbook for the course to be developed is of crucial importance. Multiple texts are available and must meet very specific criteria within the department. Criteria may include:   

Compatibility with the curriculum; The accuracy and currency of the content; Motivation of students;

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Availability of an instructor manual; and Clarity of organization

The second consideration is additional material students may need for the course, for example, a workbook or a calculator, detailed instruction of the use of a Web site, and so on. Third, a general knowledge of the technology requirements used to deliver the instruction is required, which includes an explanation of the use of Blackboard or other delivery systems. You will also want to inform the students of all computer requirements before they enroll in the course.

Scheduling and Organizational Task

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To create one seamless course, the hybrid instructor‘s role needs to expand to include unique scheduling and organizational tasks. Managing hybrid courses adds additional scheduling challenges as courses meet both online and face to face. However, this does not mean that hybrid course needs more time for instruction. Bersin (2004) calculated the time involved in both FTF teaching and online teaching. Their chart is reproduced with an additional column representing a hybrid course that is equally divided between FTF and online (Table 5.2). Table 5.2. Time Comparisons for Three Models During a One Week Period Instructor Activity Preparation

FTF class

Online Class

Hybrid Class

2 hours per week to:  Review assigned reading  Review lecture materials  Review and prepare in-class activities

2 hours per week to:  Review assigned reading  Prepare discussion questions and ―lecture‖ material in the form of a paragraph or two

2 to 2.5 hours per week to:  Review assigned reading  Review lecture materials for FTF and/or prepare online discussion questions.  Review and prepare in-class activities.

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Instructor Activity Class time

FTF class

Online Class

Hybrid Class

2.5 hours per week of assigned class time

2 hours daily to:  Read student posts  Respond to student posts

1.5 hours per week of assigned class time. 1 hour daily to:  Read posts  Respond to posts

Follow-up

2 to 3 hours per week for:  Individual contact with students  Reading student assignment

2 to 3 hours per week for:  Individual contact with students via email and phone  Reading student assignments

Totals for the week

6.5 to 7.5 hours per week

6 to 7 hours per week

2 to 3 hours per week for:  Individual contact with students in person or by email and phone  Reading assignments 6.0 to 7.5 hours per week

The chart suggests that hybrid course has similar time as both FTF and online courses. When developing their first hybrid courses, some instructors tend to ―add-on‖ to their traditional courses instead of rethinking their course‘s objectives with the hybrid model in mind. It is important not to overload your hybrid course. Instead you must rethink your course goals and learn to achieve those goals in new ways. Simply inserting all the work you have always wanted to accomplish in the traditional course as an additional online component in the hybrid course will not work!

The Students Student Attitudes An additional consideration is the attitude among the students at various educational levels. Undergraduate students, especially at the lower levels, are experiencing for the first time in their education a certain amount of freedom in

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their course selection, the time the course will meet, the instructor for the course, and the amount of time spent preparing for each class and preparing for examinations. Responsible students find this to be a rewarding challenge, while the less responsible students may find this to be difficult in time management and preparation. For some students whose academic lightbulb has not yet been turned on, the notion of having an online meeting creates an emotional feeling of abandonment. Students may find themselves disorganized and confused. For the most part, undergraduate students are trying to learn how to learn. Graduate-level students, however, have a different attitude toward learning. They tend to be highly motivated, independent, and responsible, since they have elected to work on an advanced degree and are now paying more for their education than they did as undergraduates. Class and assignment preparation usually is more thorough, more class participation is exhibited, and greater care is taken in the completion of class assignments and taking examinations. Depending upon the graduate program, there may be major and minor exams over all the course material taken by graduate students that increases their motivation to learn course content. Graduate students have the incentives to spend time learning course content and to earn the graduate degree.

Learning Styles Learning style refers to a group of psychological traits that determine how a student perceives, interacts, and responds to the subject content and learning environment. For the most part, you are probably unaware that the way you design your content is the way you learn. Each of us has our own way in which we learn cognitive material and motor skills. Each of us has developed our own way of learning, and we use what works best for us. However, our own unique learning style may not be the way our students learn. The literature on learning styles emphasizes that the vast majority of faculty who design instruction design the way they themselves learn. To the instructor, this is an acceptable way to design instruction. However, this procedure completely overlooks the learning styles of the majority of students. To know your students learning style, you can measure it with a learning style inventory. A great number of formal learning style inventories have been developed in recent years, and the reliability of these inventories is quite high. Here is an informal learning style inventory (Table 5.3) that has been successfully used in many classes by the author. Try this first on yourself and then administer it to your students. Table 5.3. Sample Learning Style Inventory

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1.

As a child, I liked to play with puzzles in my free time. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

2.

When taking a test, I can ―see‖ the answer in my head as it appeared in my notes or textbook when I studied. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

3.

I learn best when physical activity is involved. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

4.

I find myself talking out loud when studying by myself. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

5.

As a child, I liked to engage in physical activities during my free time. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

6.

I would rather listen to a book on tape than read it. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

7.

I like solving crossword or word search puzzles. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

8.

I tend to doodle" during lecture by drawing on my notebook pages. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

9.

When trying to remember a phone number, I ―let my fingers do the walking,‖ i.e. my fingers seem to remember the number on their own. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

10. I would rather listen to a lecture than read the material in a book. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 11. I can use a map effectively to get myself to a new location. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 12. As a child, I liked to listen to stories told to me, or stories on tape, record player, or radio. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

Table 5.3. (Continued)

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13. When learning a new skill, I would rather watch someone demonstrate the skill than listen to someone tell me how to do it. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 14. When trying to remember a phone number, I can ―see‖ the number sequence in my head, or I ―see‖ the way the numbers look on the phone. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 15. When trying to remember how to spell a word, I spell the letters with my finger in the air or on a table top. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 16. If I have to learn how to assemble something, I would rather look at a diagram than listen to someone tell me how to put it together. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom

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17. When trying to remember a phone number, I ―hear‖ the number sequence in my head in the way someone told me the number, or in the way I previously recited the number out loud. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 18. I would rather have written directions than oral directions. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 19. When trying to remember how to spell a word, I say the letters or sounds out loud until I think I've got the spelling right. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom 20. I learn better by doing than observing. □ Often □ Sometimes □ Seldom Adapted from Jester, C. (2000). A learning style survey for college. Retrieved June 18, 2009 from http://www.metamath.com/ multiple_choice_questions.html

multiple/

After having the class complete this informal learning inventory, review each category and ask your students to indicate their learning style. When finished, conduct a class discussion and have your students summarize what they have learned about learning styles. Students should recognize that no two students have exactly the same learning style. Therefore, you can conclude from this very

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informal learning style exercise that when designing instruction, a variety of teaching strategies must be used to accommodate various learning styles.

CONSTRUCTING THE HYBRID COURSE SITE

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Option 1: Personal Course Web Site Once you have created your syllabus and decided on your competencies and the topics you will cover, you have several options to prepare your online component of the hybrid course. One of them is to create your Web site. This Web site is important to students because it will be a place that they go to for information about meeting times, assignment topics, guidelines, resources, and due dates—a place of consistency. Instructor pages need to be well designed and contain consistent design elements because flaws and non-intuitive variations create learner frustration. Content needs to be chunked and organized meaningfully and demonstrated with rich media, visual metaphors, and/or mental models. Screen objects need logical order placement. Be consistent in visual cues, and use media choices that add clarity and are consistent with objective. However, limit peripheral images. Use animation, background noise, and audio sparingly. Written text on the Internet needs to be ―chunked‖, that is, it needs to be brief, one to two paragraphs per concept. Use bulleted, boldface, highlighted, and/or underlined text where necessary to draw out the key points. Research (e.g., Allen & Seaman, 2005) shows that people scan Web pages on the Internet; they do not read. When placing text on the screen, try not to have long sentences that run the full width of the screen. Instead, use only half the screen by creating large left and right margins. This will make the text easier to read, and important points will be recognized more easily. When I taught a hybrid course ―Technology in Education‖ to preservice teachers in elementary education, I created a course website to support one of the course projects—ePortfotlio (Figure 5.1). The home page contained menus and submenus about the requirements, guidelines, resources, and samples students needed in order to complete the project. When the ePortfolios were posted, every student got to see each others‘ online ePortfolios as well. This encouraged peer review, collaboration, self-learning and continual reflections.

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Figure 5.1. Sample Course Web Site

Menus on your Web site should be well organized for an easy navigation. Buttons need to be easily found and grouped based on a particular function. Be sure that each button has a function and is not obsolete. Any screen messages that you have on your site need to be friendly, polite, and informative. Text needs to be consistent throughout the site, including any special headings, fonts, and size changes. Consistency is the key to a functional and visually appealing Web site that is easy to navigate and leaves viewers with an overall feeling of being successful in obtaining the information they seek. Include on your Web site some short- and long-term project or assignment options in multiple formats that allow the students some flexibility and choice. A range of resources, reading options, audio and visual clips, animation, music, and video should also be included if appropriate. There should also be access to exemplary student projects and assignments from past classes for current students to view and investigate. Students should also be encouraged to initiate additional resources that you should include on your site, such as guest speakers and other

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issues. One last thing to remember to include is a ―mail to‖ link or a way for students to be able to contact you through your Web site. Table 5.4 includes some criteria for designing your course web site. Table 5.4. Criteria for Web Design

      

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

Content should be high quality and interesting. Less equals more: remember your learner will potentially be reading off a screen. Think about print options: some information can be printed off to read rather than scrolling through a screen. Use a journalistic, conversational style rather than an academic approach. You can refer people to other sites for articles, resources. Ideally use a designer to enhance your words on screen. Recognize that many people may be viewing your material on laptops or smaller screen. Make careful use of illustrations and animation.

Option 2: Learning Management Systems Another option is to use a Learning Mangement System as your online learning component. Many higher education institutions have adopted learning management systems (LMS) such as Angel or Blackboard. Because LMSs are versatile, many instructors are beginning to migrate the materials they have had on personal course Websites to an LMS. LMSs are more secure and materials that copyright holders might not allow on a public Website often may be used within a password-protected course. The following two figures (Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3) are sample pages from Blackboard portal. The use of LMS provides opportunities for the students to explore and reflect on course-related activities. For instance, common complaints from students about group work are lack of time and difficulty in arranging meetings between the face-to-face sessions. The group tools within an LMS can be used to overcome this challenge. This tool set usually comprises a group discussion area, a file exchange system, e-mail links, and a synchronous chat feature. Students can use these tools to communicate and share files with other group members. In addition,

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synchronous communication applications such as Elluminate Live! can be used to support student collaboration outside of the classroom. These applications allow students to participate in real-time online group meetings over the Internet. Within the meetings, students can use a whiteboard to brain-storm, a common browser to explore and review Web sites, and a shared desktop application that includes word processing, spreadsheets, and graphics software from one group member‘s computer to create and refine documents together. These sessions can also be recorded and archived for group members unable to attend a meeting.

Figure 5.2. Sample Blackboard Course Survey Page.

After you finished designing your course portal on an LMS, it‘s important that you provide some navigation instruction. Table 5.5 is a sample Blackboard navigation instruction.

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Figure 5.3. Sample Blackboard Course Assignment Page.

Table 5.5. Sample Blackboard Navigation Instructions 

   

The first page has Announcements. Only the professor can add announcements; however, I will be glad to post announcements from students. Course Information links to the syllabus and other information when posted. Staff information has information about me. Course Documents are empty at this time. Assignments have links that allows a web page to come up inside Blackboard. External links creates a separate window. You can bookmark the site which comes up in a separate window.

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 

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Communication has several important functions: e-mail to single users or multiple users; student roster; student page (each of you will have your own homepage on and I will put it in the external links section); discussion board is for our forums; group pages may be used if we divide into groups. External links provide for direct access to a site which can be bookmarked. Student tools will be used to change information.

By now, it seems that you‘re well on your way to a successful hybrid course implementation. But don‘t forget to give a final check. Table 5.6 can be used as a checklist of the implementation of your hybrid course, through answering the questions below: Table 5.6. Final Checklist for Your Hybrid Course 

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     

Have I planned hybrid learning with consideration to course settings, levels, goals, materials and learning styles? Have I designed a variety of learning activities to meet diverse learning styles Have I designed activities to connect FTF and online learning? Have I made use of the strength of each of the learning modes? Have I raised awareness of the learning potential? Have I carefully planned stages of developing personal ownership to encourage learners to take responsibility for their own learning? Have I tested or run a pilot of the materials?

DESIGNING LEARNING ACTIVITIES As noted previously, hybrid learning is framed by an inquiry approach to learning. Inquiry learning is problem or question-driven learning involving critical discourse, self-direction, research methods, and reflection throughout the learning experience. An inquiry approach supports and enriches the teaching, learning, and research process, and actively engages students in responsible learning activities. The following activities are suitable for both online and FTF situations.

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Sample Activities

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It is in both your and your students‘ interests to design a first discussion topic that is so enticing, so intriguing, and so marvelous that they really do not want to miss out on it. In other words, by providing a meaningful challenge from the start, you are giving students an opportunity for engagement. Ask students to discuss relevant experiences in their personal introductions. You might want to not only ask students to introduce themselves, but also to ask a few questions that are relevant to the context of your course and define its parameters. For example, if you are teaching a writing method class, you might ask what students have already written; or in a literacy course, you ask what else they have read in this particular genre. You might choose to ask students to freely associate and write anything that comes to mind as stimulated by a word or words in your course name. Below are examples of activities that could be used as icebreakers.

Completing a Sentence An idea is to start a sentence and ask students to complete it. For example, write, ―I was riding the subway today, when I…‖ students generally love to see what others have written and enjoy interacting with each other immediately. Your sentence prompt could be about anything, but it might be helpful to tailor it, even subtly, to the subject matter of your course. Interview and Introduce Each Other Some instructors ask students to confess a secret that they have cherished, and the conversation can actually become quite amusing. Others ask students to interview each other, especially with questions related to the course topic, and then present an introduction about the interviewee. Providing a Hook One instructor, as an icebreaker, asked students to tell about the ―weirdest gift‖ they had ever received. She later used this as an analogy to some aspect of their course content, which was on special education services. Other instructors, myself included, like to tell just a snippet of a personal anecdote, as this can provide a hook onto which students can tell related stories.

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Table 5.7. Examples of Learning Activities in Hybrid Courses

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Activity

Characteristics

Advantages

Potential Problems

Icebreaker

Relatively short activities that enable learners to get to know each other, become familiar with the technology and environment, and start the learning process.

Give individuals an opportunity to become familiar with each other. In online learning individuals can join in as they access the technology (making it easier for late arrivals to get going).

Debates

Structured or unstructured discussion based on two or more different perspectives.

The best debates are lively, based on real-life issues and concerns. Involve all learners.

Discussion groups

Structured or unstructured discussions. May be based on a specific issue or set of ideas.

The best discussions are lively, based on real life issues and concerns. Involve all learners.

 People don‘t join in.  A few participants may dominate.  Quieter group members may feel intimidated.  Some people may find it a waste of time, i.e., they want to get started with the content of the course.  Debate may become a match.  Use of abusive language.  A few participants may dominate and quieter group members may feel intimidated.  Discussion peters out or is unfocused.  Learners don‘t participate or hijiack discussion.  Individuals dominate.  Not inclusive.

Applications Work well in both FTF and online situations.

Work well in both FTF and online situations.

Work well in both FTF and online situations. In online situations may take place over an extended period of time, e.g., 2+ weeks.

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Table 5.7. (Continued) Activity

Characteristics

Advantages

Problem -based learning

Learners work on a real live problem that doesn‘t have a simple right solution.

Enables individual learners to apply their knowledge and skills to complex problems. A preparation for learning in the workplace.

Project groups

In co-operative groups individuals work on their own task, share ideas and, feedback, and give each other support. In collaborative groups the group works on a wholegroup project. Individuals, small groups or a whole group work through a series of questions.

Can be highly motivating and satisfying experiences. Individuals learn from each others. Products may be of higher quality than if produced by individuals.

Quizzes

Familiar tool. Can be highly motivating. Can be used to add interest and excitement to a program. Provide useful feedback to the instructor.

Potential Problems

Applications

 Lack of engagement with the activity.  May be time-consuming.  May be difficult to anticipate the learning outcomes of this type of activity.  Time needs to be spent on working out how to work together.  Individuals may opt out.

Work well in both FTF and online situations.

 Time-consuming to develop.  The level of the questions must be appropriate, otherwise the quizzes may be too easy or too hard and can reduce motivation

Work well in both FTF and online situations.

Work well in both FTF and online situations.

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Table 5.7. (Continued)

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Activity

Characteristics

Advantages

Reflective practice

Individuals or small groups reflect on their learning experiences.

Particularly useful as a means of improving performance and motivation.

Role play

Individuals take on a specific role in either an FTF workshop or a virtual environment. They then explore the role and the consequences of selected kinds of action. A group takes part in an activity that involves everyone. The discussion and reflection on the activity is more important than the actual activity.

Provides practical experience in handling particular situations. Time to reflect and learn from experiences.

Teambuilding activities

Learners can learn about themselves and how they work in or lead a team. Learners can develop online netiquette skills and experience good practice in online learning environment.

Potential Problems

Applications

 Students need to be introduced to this approach to learning.  Works best if the reflective process is structured by the instructor.  May be time-consuming.  Many people dislike role play and the use of this phrase may turn them off.  Individuals don‘t engage with the role play.

Work well in both FTF and online situations.

 Individuals don‘t engage with activity and may perceive it as a waste of time.  Learners don‘t participate or individuals dominate.

Work well in both FTF and online situations. In online situations may take place over an extended period of time, e.g., 2+ weeks.

Work well in both FTF and online situations.

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Table 5.7. (Continued) Activity

Characteristics

Advantages

Potential Problems

Virtual visitor or guest speaker

Typically an instructor invites an experienced practitioner or someone with specialist expertise to visit the group either in a classroom context or as a virtual visitor. A virtual visitor may visit the online group either synchronously or asynchronously for a set period of time.

Provides excitement and difference. Provides additional ideas, experiences, perspectives. Guest speaker can be recorded and recording presented as an embedded audiofile or podcast so that the students can listen to the talk again and it can be reused on other courses.

Case Studies

Learners are presented with a particular situation and are typically asked to explore it and develop ‗solutions‘.

Case studies can be closely related to workplace situations. Can be used to prepare learners for future situations.

 Time involved in organizing the guest speaker.  Technical issues, e.g., problems with access to site.  Guest speaker doesn‘t prepare for visit and misreads culture or tone of group.  Guest speaker ‗hijacks‘ session and leads it into unwanted arenas.  Unrealistic expectations (instructor, virtual visitor or learners).  Can be very time-consuming to develop.  May not be perceived as ‗real‘ and therefore not valued.  Individual learners may not engage with the activity.

Applications Work well in both FTF and online situations.

FTF—paper-based studies work well. Online— documentation may be uploaded into an online environment. Case study may be augmented by podcasts.

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Adapted from Thorne, K. (2003). Blended learning: How to integrate online & traditional learning. London, UK: Kagan Page Limited.

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Playing a Game Another idea that I have seen used to good effect is to immediately involve students in playing a game. One such example is the game of the sinking ship, in which there is only one lifeboat left, with a capacity of twelve passengers, yet there are twenty passengers left on the ship. The instructor gives detailed descriptions of nineteen passengers, and with an added flourish, says the 21th passenger is you! The challenge is to determine who should be allowed on the lifeboat. As you can imagine, a game of this nature immediately captures the imagination and appeals to the sense of excitement and adventure. The game could be used as an example of a concept taught later in the class, such as, by analogy, a school board decision on downsizing. Table 5.7 lists more examples of icebreaker and other learning activities for your hybrid course.

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CHALLENGES From the learning environment to course design and delivery, Web- and classroom-based education provides faculty and students with different challenges. First, managing hybrid courses forced instructors and students to be ―more organized‖ and ―prepared‖. The hybrid environment also adds additional scheduling challenges as courses meet both online and face to face. Although most faculty and students normally enjoy the ―flexibility‖ and the increased ―personal contact,‖ navigating these dual-learning spaces may cause some challenges and confusion. Second, it is important not to overload your hybrid course. Instead you must rethink your course goals and learn to achieve those goals in new ways. Third, choosing the best learning experiences to support each learning goal is a complex process. While teaching online, faculty have often turned traditional lectures into text notes, video lectures, or narrated PowerPoints, keeping to a structure based on giving information and testing, rather than seeing the online environment as an opportunity to completely overturn their teaching methods into collaborative or cognitive models (Karagiorgi & Symeou, 2005). Finally, in the case of designing learning activities, a major factor influencing this decision is how the purpose and usefulness of the activity are valued by the participant—that is, learner motivation. FTF and online socialization is most successful when participants are motivated by carrying out authentic tasks that are meaningful and valuable to them, and that can directly benefit from connections with others. Thus, the challenge is how to design activities that can support learning processes and the needs to the learners in a learning community, and to

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motivate the learners to succeed in the hybrid environment (Harford & MacRuairc, 2008).

CONCLUSION When implementing your hybrid course for either face-to-face or online experience, there are many tools available to maximize the strengths of verbal and text communication for the particular experience. If well done it will enable the students to develop more in-depth and thoughtful discussions and ideas. Based on the assumption that students learn best when exposed to a rich variety of learning experiences, teacher educators need to accept and adjust to the strengths and weaknesses of the medium. The course redesign should emphasize how to integrate the face-to-face teaching with the out-of-class work. The benefit of a hybrid learning approach is using human and technological components to overcome the respective limitations of FTF and hybrid learning. The connection between what occurs in class and what is studied online is essential.

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REFERENCES Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2005). Growing by degrees: Online education in the United States. Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Bersin, J. (2004). The blended learning book: Best practices, proven methodologies, and lessons learned. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Harford, J., & MacRuairc, G. (2008). Engaging student teachers in meaningful reflective practice. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 24, 1884-1892. Karagiorgi, Y., & Symeou, L. (2005). Translating constructivism into instructional design: Potential and limitations. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 8, 17-27. Thorne Thorne, K. (2003). Blended learning: How to integrate online & traditional learning. London, UK: Kagan Page Limited.

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Chapter 6

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WHEN LEARNERS ARE ONLINE In hybrid courses, online learning environments and synchronous discussions have the potential for being the most innovative learning tool in technology to date, yet somehow, it seems much more difficult to make learning activities successful in an online environment than it is in a classroom. Of course, in the classroom you can always shut the door, so that your students are less likely to escape before the end of the session. In an online environment you can never be entirely certain that your students will walk through the door in the first place. And within a hybrid strategy there are often alternatives for students, who may decide that they prefer contact by other routes: they didn‘t, after all, sign up for a completely online experience. While some students will participate enthusiastically without much encouragement, others may give up or never attempt to begin. When learners are online, the learning community takes on new proportions in this environment and consequently must be nurtured and developed so as to be an effective vehicle for education. In this chapter, we‘ll explore what we can do to design interactive online experiences, what techniques can be used to enhance the online community and how to overcome lack of participation online.

FIVE TYPES OF INTERACTIVE ONLINE EXPERIENCE Learning in the online class is very different from FTF class. In the online classroom, students access the course website using Web browser software over an Internet connection. Course lectures may be presented as text, as PowerPoint presentations or as streaming audio/video presentations. Simulation software often allows students to manipulate variables in the simulation, affecting the outcome of

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the demonstration. Student assignments and projects may be returned to the instructor as in a dropbox in LMS, in an e-mail attachment, or through online Web forms. Communication, questions and discussion between students and faculty and among students can be facilitated through the use of asynchronous (delayed) and synchronous (real-time, simultaneous) communication tools. In the following pages we will explore five types of online activities that are derived from traditional class projects. These activities are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

the transformation of the term paper to hypertext papers, the evolution of public presentations to Web presentations, the transfiguration of library research assignments into WebQuests, the alteration of journal assignments into blogs, and the evolution of class discussions into online discussions.

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Hypertext and Hypermedia Papers One of the most venerable assignments in the traditional classroom is the written report. The term paper or short report is an activity adopted in a wide variety of courses. Students are assigned to conduct independent research and to submit a formal report on their findings. Papers may be informative, seeking to report on independent research findings or to synthesize the findings of others, or persuasive, seeking to argue a specific point of view on a controversial topic. The rubric for the term paper typically includes specifications of length, format, and mechanics of the paper, and often includes an indication of which style guide to employ in references and citations. The rubric for term papers also references the expectations about the content and structure of the paper, and may include specific expectations about organizational form or topics to be covered by the report. The advent of the Internet- and computer-based publishing has introduced the concepts of hypertext and hypermedia. Hypertext allows the writer to link text to other pieces of information, either in other documents or in other parts of the same document, so a reference to a term may be linked to a callout that defines the term, or to another section of the report that details that term. Hypermedia allows links and displays of other media, so an icon of a microphone may be linked to a sound file to illustrate the audio. With hypertext and hypermedia papers, students are encouraged to go beyond the traditional, linear written report. Students writing hypermedia pages can easily include visual application of images, charts and graphs in their print reports. Going beyond the printed report, students can also

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include audio and video material in the form of prerecorded audio or video files to illustrate or amplify their points. In short, student papers can become as mediarich as the professor‘s presentations. The rubrics for these reports must be modified from the traditional term paper. For example, page or word counts may not be appropriate indicators of hypermedia or hypertext papers. Instead, the rubric must include assessments of the adequacy, clarity, relevance, and functionality of the hypermedia and hypertext links to enhance the information in the report.

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Web Presentations Another common assignment in the traditional classroom is the oral presentation. Students are often expected to do class presentations reporting on an assigned topic. These assignments, like the written report, call upon the students to present material in an organized and lively manner. The assignments may include a requirement to use presentation aids such as overheads, models, or computer generated slides. They also often involve a requirement to answer questions from the audience. The rubrics for oral presentations usually include elements of development and organization, auditory and visual delivery, and assessment of the supporting materials used in the presentation. Mechanical aspects such as grammar and time limits may also be incorporated in the rubric for an oral presentation. In online learning, live presentations may be prohibited by the limited equipment available to students and by the bandwidth available for transmitting visual and auditory presentations. However, such reports can be produced in the form of a narrated slideshow converted to a Web presentation. In a narrated slide show, students can record audio background for the slides they have created. The rubric for a Web presentation can utilize all of the criteria for evaluating a classroom presentation except for those pertaining to visual delivery, such as eye contact and gestures.

WebQuests Developed in 1995 by Bernie Dodge and Tom March in San Diego State University, the WebQuest is a modernization of the traditional library treasure hunt. WebQuests make use of currently available sources related to the student‘s ability to search effectively for specific information relevant to the course. The

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WebQuest is defined as ―an inquiry-oriented activity in which most or all of the information used by learners is drawn from the Web. WebQuests are designed to use learners‘ time well, to focus on using information rather than looking for it, and to support learners‘ thinking at the levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation‖ (Dodge, 1997). According to Dodge (1997), WebQuests of either short or long duration are deliberately designed to make the best use of a learner‘s time. There is questionable educational benefit in having learners surfing the net without a clear task in mind. To achieve that efficiency and clarity of purpose, WebQuests should contain at least the following parts: 1. An introduction that sets the stage and provides some background information. 2. A task that is doable and interesting. 3. A set of information sources needed to complete the task. Many (though not necessarily all) of the resources are embedded in the WebQuest document itself as anchors pointing to information on the World Wide Web. Information sources might include Web documents, experts available via e-mail or realtime conferencing, searchable databases on the net, and books and other documents physically available in the learner‘s setting. Because pointers to resources are included, the learner is not left to wander through Webspace completely adrift. 4. A description of the process the learner should go through in accomplishing the task. The process should be broken out into clearly described steps. 5. Some guidance on how to organize the information acquired. This can take the form of guiding questions, or directions to complete organizational frameworks such as timelines, concept maps, or causeand-effect diagrams. 6. A conclusion that brings closure to the quest, reminds the learners about what they‘ve learned, and perhaps encourages them to extend the experience into other domains. Figure 6.1 included a student Webquest sample that was completed for one of my education courses Strategies for the Exceptional Learners. In this assignment, students were asked to do an internet search for a topic of interest in special education and to submit the WebQuest to me for publishing online. The assignment required them to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the information from the Web with the focus on synthesizing information rather than merely retrieving it.

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Figure 6.1. Student Webquest Sample.

Web Logs (Blogs) The blog is a relatively new concept. Blog is short for Web log and consists of an online journal that may be frequently accessed and updated chronologically. Many blogs are more like diaries than journals; that is, they are unstructured recordings of emotions and reactions rather than focused descriptions and reflections. However, the idea of the blog as an online journal is being adapted by many professors who have traditionally used journal assignments. Furthermore, because the blog is a Web document, students can take advantage of the mediarich possibilities of the Web. For example, field recordings can be made and included in the blog entry. Students can upload video examples of school observations, and respond through audio entries or a more traditional written record. Blogs can also be used to support self-reflection and peer review of course assignments. At the beginning of the semester, the instructor can require each student to create his or her own blog. There are many free blog sites available

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such as blogger.com, edublogs.org, or blogspot.com. The following two examples were student teachers‘ blogs completed for my course Method of Teaching Elementary Math (Figure 6.2 and Figure 6.3). The student teachers in this course were required to keep journal entries about their student teaching experience in their blogs (created on blogspot.com) every week. These entries were shared and reviewed among their peers and course instructor.

Figure 6.2. Elementary Student Teachers‘ Blog (Sample I).

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When Learners Are Online

Figure 6.3. Elementary Student Teachers‘ Blog (Sample II).

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In another assignment for my course The Art of Effective Teaching, students were asked to submit their teaching philosophy to the course blog for peer review. Once students received assessment feedback, they then posted responses to questions such as the following on their blogs:  

What did you learn in the process of completing this assignment? How will you apply what you learned from peer review to the improvement of your philosophy?

For blogs to support peer review, students can attach drafts of specific course assignments to their blogs. Other students in the class can then either randomly or voluntarily select to review these documents and post responses to the author‘s blog. Guiding questions for this peer review process could include:

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  

What did you learn from reviewing this document? What were the strengths of the document? What constructive advice or recommendations could you provide for improving the quality of this document?

While this digital version of the journal assignment can be used as a private communication between the student and professor, most blog assignments take advantage of the public nature of the Web to encourage other students to learn from the observations of others. The rubric for the blog is similar to that of the journal assignment. Students are assessed both on the mechanics and substance of their blog entries. Because the blog is a Web document, there may be additional assessments of the hypertext and hypermedia included in the blog pages.

Online Discussions There are two types of online discussions: synchronous and asynchronous discussions. Asynchronicity—the temporal distance between interactions—is an aspect of transactional distance. Anyschronous online discussions that extend classroom conversations throughout the week or address topics omitted in the FTF class meeting time increase the opportunity for student interaction (see Figure 6.4 for an example). Synchronous—chat activities—is a real-time discussion. Realtime discussions are becoming one of the most popular teaching methods for encouraging online interactions between students.

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Figure 6.4. Sample Asynchronous Discussions Using Angel Discussion Forum.

The online environment has the distinct advantage of providing a permanent record that students can use to reflect upon. Written, text-based formats also provide the opportunity for deliberate reflection and editing rather than impulsive outbursts. With traditional classroom groups, it is possible for only about 35 percent of the participants to converse and have input during an average one-hour, FTF discussion. However, online everyone can speak and discuss at the same time. The Internet gives us the opportunity to engage more learners in discussion. Having the opportunity to reflect before contributing to the discourse adds one more important critical dimension. Well-designed online learning also demands that learners accept increased responsibility for their learning. Integrating the distinct strengths of FTF and online interactions may well optimize collaborative performance as well as promote individual reflection and critical dialogue between the FTF sessions. For example, a series of online discussion forums can be created by the instructor within an LMS, related to the

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key modules or topics for the course. Groups of students (three to five) can then select a module based on course readings, previous experience, interest in the topic, or all three. Each group is responsible for moderating and summarizing its selected online discussion for a set time (often one or two weeks). In one of my undergraduate courses Human Development, for instance, students were required to post a group response online to the case being discussed every two to four weeks. The cases (up to a total of five in a 15-week semester) were used to provide formative feedback to the learners regarding their understanding of course content materials. A wiki (collaborative online writing tool) was used to make draft notes and a final summary (synthesis and analysis) of the online discussion based on questions or additional guidelines that were cocreated by the students and the course instructor. Table 6.1 provides some tips for synchronous online discussion. Table 6.1. Tips for Synchronous Discussion

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For the Instructor:          



Provide time boundaries. Be specific about the anticipated outcome. Allow participants to reflect on peer responses. Be sensitive to time differences. Plan to end your synchronous class on or before the scheduled end time. Create contact list with the names and phone numbers of your class participants. Make sure your participants have all necessary materials for class. Have participants complete a ―tech check‖ at least one week prior to the synchronous event. Offer ―virtual office hours‖ or individual synchronous coaching. Make sure to reduce the FTF activities or other course requirements to allow time for learners to participate in the discussion activities.

If asynchronous discussion is to be used in a hybrid course, the task needs to have aspects that can be best achieved by learners actually working online and not by other methods, such as over the telephone.

For students: 

When ―speaking‖, use a leader (e.g., ―…‖) at the end of a statement when not finished with a thought. Anything in excess of three lines of

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When Learners Are Online Table 6.1. (Continued)







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



 



text will be too much, so you must divide up your discussion comments into smaller segments, so you do not lose the audience while they are waiting for you to type it in. Also, you run the risk that it will be lost as other comments come pouring in right after, comments that were waiting in the queue while yours was being typed and sent. This makes the discussion more fragmented. Stay on topic and share only messages that are relevant to the subject of the discussion group until everyone that wants to say something about that topic has spoken. Do not perpetuate off topic comments. If someone makes an inappropriate comment, do not add more noise by replying to it in the discussion. If you have specific ideas, resources, or questions you want to share during a discussion, type them into a word-processing document and then copy and paste them into the discussion. Most people can copy and paste faster than they can type. Don‘t worry about spelling. We will assume that all of your misspellings and grammatical mistakes are type errors, so don‘t try to go back and correct them. Use common abbreviations acronyms and symbols to simplify your typing. If you are going to use an abbreviation often that may not have a common understanding, define it the first time you use it. Remember that it is easy to misinterpret words when you have no accompanying facial, body, or tone expressions to give additional meaning to those words. Try not to assign a tone to the person speaking. You can use smiley face to indicate that you‘re smiling and CAPS to make a strong points. If you do not understand what someone else is trying to say or think you may be misinterpreting what they have said, state your interpretation with a question, ―Mary, are you saying that..?‖ You can add adjectives and/or descriptors of emotions in the text, too. Use page numbers when referring to books to help others find the place of a graphic, quote, or idea quickly. Be civil. Please refrain from inappropriate comments and personal attacks. If you disagree with something someone has said, do not become emotional; instead, politely justify your position. Remember that every person comes to this environment at different levels of ability and comfort. Be patient and encouraging to create a comfortable learning experience for everyone.

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For a quality online discussion, the discussion tasks should require learners to produce a product so that they will devote their time to discussions. Koontz and Compora (2006) provide examples of the types of questions that can be used by students to create reflective discussion summaries or ―discussion audits‖. These questions can be modified for online discussions. For example:     

What are the one or two most important ideas that emerged from this week‘s online discussion? What remains unresolved or contentious about this topic? What do you understand better as a result of this week‘s online discussion? What key word or concept best captures our discussion this week? What are some resources (e.g., Web sites, articles, books) that could be used to find further information/ideas about this topic?

Table 6.2 provides a summary of guidelines for indicators of quality online discussion.

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Table 6.2. Indicators of Quality in an Online Discussion

Responsibilities are shared. The students encourage and support the development of ideas and the use of civility. Students take responsibility to extend the learning done in the FTF sessions into the online sessions. Leadership in a discussion may come from a range of reasons including being the first to post, a recent experience with what is being discussed, an insight from the readings, a reflection connecting multiple sources, or access to additional resources. Unlike an FTF discussion, leadership is not the previlige of the frequent talker. Participants learn to question and suggest without being negative. Interaction is primarily student-to-student and it becomes increasingly collaborative. Students build on the response of others. They ask each other questions. They confirm, compliment, and encourage. They develop consensus without discouraging other possibilities. The instructor remains in the background, seen, but not dominating. From time to time, the instructor will enter in to encourage or draw the discussion back to the central issues, but, if the discussion questions are well cast and the resources relevant, as the community develops, the

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Table 6.2. (Continued) instructor‘s need to guide decreases. Social learning can and does occur within these discussions. Asynchronous discussions can be as caring and humane as FTF discussions. Within the learning community, asynchronous discussion enhances the opportunities for all students to participate and learn. Collaboration, understanding, and even social skills can be improved within these discussions.

However, simply designing good discussion tasks does not mean that learners will actually participate in asynchronous discussions. Research shows undergraduate learners, in particular, fail to take full advantage of the opportunities provided by online discussion activities (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007). Learners must see the value in participating in the discussion. The activities must have a clear purpose or specific task and involve content resource materials that foster controversies or the consideration of a range of opinions. Techniques that would enhance learner participation online are discussed below.

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TECHNIQUES IN ENHANCING THE ONLINE COMMUNITY There are a number of techniques that can be used to create and enhance online community such as setting a good beginning, clearly defining your expectations for discussion, effective online instruction rules, transferring FTF thinking and verbal strategies online, and encouraging learner-to-learner interactions.

A. Setting a Good Beginning The first few weeks can lay the groundwork for group collaboration later in class. Ask students to begin with introductions and state their name, school, where they grew up, and a memorable (positive) learning experience that influenced them. As the instructor, you could describe one of the most stimulating learning experiences you have participated in. An agenda including introductions among participants and leaders, course overview, philosophy, etc., may be given. One possible beginning-of-the-semester online activity is shown below (Table 6.3):

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1. 2. 3. 4.

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18.

Create student teams. Pair students within teams. Assign students to e-mail their partner, the goal of which is to learn about the other person. Student A writes a summary of what is learned about Student B. Summaries are shared with each other before sharing publicly. Summaries are shared in a team space for review. Students C & D are assigned to read summaries of A & B; Students A & B are assigned to read summaries of C & D. Students are assigned to reflect on process. Each team is assigned to decide on a team name, motto, and logo. Each team posts its name, motto, logo, and summaries for other teams‘ review. Know which medium is appropriate. Respond quickly but thoughtfully. Focus on content and emotion. Use personal tone. Use keyboard shorthand carefully. Acknowledge assumptions you make. Read message, your response, and previous dialogue carefully, several times. Eliminate  Redundant information  Ambiguous jargon  Inflammatory comments  Sarcasm Give appropriate credit for ideas.

In many FTF classes, for instance, I take time during the first class session to explore ―assumptions‖ about learning and teaching. Most of the dialogue has centered around the ideas on the subject of ―traditional teaching and learning.‖ I then use these ideas and others to ―reorient‖ my students toward a much more active learning, participative learning, and community-building approach for FTF. I try extending this dialogue and reshaping it a bit for the orientation for hybrid classes. To develop an understanding of the online students, it is recommended that the instructor participate in some kind of ―icebreaker‖ activities alongside the students. In your community, this will help to create a warm, inviting course

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environment. Participation in these activities will show you as a real person, a mentor, a friend, a confidant, a moderator and not just the ―instructor.‖ Communication from you must be clear, precise, and most importantly openended. Icebreakers are a fun way to begin developing a sense of community in your online classes. It can be challenging to get students to interact asynchronously, and icebreakers give them a chance to get to know one another in a non-threatening manner. Icebreakers are most helpful for all learning styles when they connect students to the topic as well as to one another. They reduce isolation and are a key factor in connecting people and content. Some activities below might assist in effective group or team building. These getting-to-know-one-another icebreakers can be used in group settings for forming relationships that will last throughout the length of the course and beyond. Some of these icebreakers can be used in the initial FTF meeting, and others can be adapted for use online (Table 6.4).

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Table 6.4. Sample Icebreaking Activities Seven nouns activity—Introduce yourself using seven nouns and explain why you chose each noun. Opening and closing ceremony—Provide an opportunity for all class participant (sitting in a circle) to express what they are feeling in the group. Field definition activity—Students interview someone working in the field— via email if necessary. As a class, pool interview results and develop a description of what it means to be a professional in the field. Favorite quotation—Choose a quotation and discuss why it is favorite. Look at the profiles of people in your cooperative group or team—In particular, read their ―favorite quotation‖ and then share a comment about the quotations with the other members of your cooperative group. This will give you practice holding a discussion with your group members. Human knot—Students clasp one another‘s hands in the center of a circle. To untangle themselves, they must work together. Train wreck-community shuffle—Give students one question. All who can answer it run to change to another open seat. Students cannot stay in their seats each time if their response is ―yes‖ to the question. Cartoon—Find a Web site that has cartoons and have students link their introductions or stories to a particular cartoon URL. Story-telling is a good way to communicate. Scanvenger hunt/Internet hunt—Find information on Web or around class site.

Table 6.4. (Continued)

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Two truths, one lie—List three items, and the class votes on which one is a lie. Coffeehouse—Everyone posts two or three expectations, and the instructor summarizes and comments on how they may be met. Peer interviews—Share introductions of one another and/or find or create Web object inspired by your peer and share it with the larger class and why you made your decision. Round robin—Select a topic, then respond to it and pass the answer to the next person in the group; keep passing until everyone contributes or ideas are exhausted. Summarize or report findings.

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B. Clearly Defining Your Expectations for Discussion Frequency of Participation State at the beginning of the course how often you want your students to log on and participate. I emphasize that students should participate, because just logging on is not sufficient. Unless you ―hear‖ from your students in their responses, there is little you can know about them. Also provide students with a clear idea as to how often they can expect you to be in class. Stipulating the approximate frequency of logging on to class without specifying time slots allows you, if you have an inspirational thought at 3 A.M., to grab it while it is still fresh and exciting, and enter it into your class. Similarly, you are not disappointing students if a sudden meeting comes up at the same time you told students you would be online. Making explicit that the frequency of your participation in class helps students to anticipate when they will be hearing from you. Try to be realistic about how frequently you can participate in your online class. Participation Counts toward the Final Grade You can make participation count significantly toward the final grade, but it should not only be a quantitative measure. After all, you cannot measure the success of a certain dish by the number of times the chef enters the kitchen. So the quality of response has to count as well. A student who logs on five times over two days only to say, ―I agree with you,‖ for example, is obviously not contributing as much as another student who logs on only once during that time period, but contributes a thoughtful, substantive, insightful response. Generally I have found that as the semester progresses, the class gathers a momentum of its

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own as certain topics heat up, and at these times some students participate several times a day! If participation in discussion counts significantly toward the final grade, then it would be fair to let students know how they are doing at specific intervals throughout the semester, rather than leaving this a mystery until the end. Timing, however, is crucial. You do not want to grade the discussion of a particular topic until you are sure it is completed, as otherwise it will stifle further responses. If you let students know that you will be grading discussion topics, it might be a helpful incentive to motivate them to discuss the topic in a timely manner, rather than entering a discussion too late.

Style of Online Responses Let students know that online discussion should have the feeling of a seminar. In one of the first hybrid classes I taught, I had a student with whom I had spoken on the phone at the beginning of the semester, and was immediately struck by how articulate, enthusiastic, and intelligent she sounded. Yet five days elapsed and there were no online responses from her. Surprised by this, I called her again. She explained her silence by saying that she thought she had to write something very formal in the online discussion, complete with an outline and footnotes. I told her the time for that sort of polish was in the written papers and exams. The online discussion, I informed her, was just that—an opportunity for bouncing intelligent, informative ideas off each other in a spontaneous stream of consciousness. Of course the hope is that student responses will not be full of grammatical and spelling mistakes, but I think it advisable that they feel that they are ―talking‖ rather than composing an essay. Once I clarified my expectations both with her and the rest of the students, the class positively exploded with responses from everyone.

C. Effective Online Instruction Guidelines Quick Response Quick response time to individual messages is very important. Each faculty must establish and communicate their own timeframe goals for answering student e-mail questions. Some faculty may have an eight-hour response expectation, while others may be much longer. However, because the electronic environment is based on rapid response to inquiry, make it clear to students how soon they can expect responses to e-mails, and encourage student to re-send their message if they have not received a timely answer.

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Discuss Rules for Civility Freedman (2003) tells his students at the start of the semester that the class is like a ―family‖ for a semester, and just as in a family, everyone should be ―positive, sensitive, considerate, polite and tolerant.‖ Often the sounded learning is brought about through passionate argument, but this should be accompanied by mutual respect and toleration of differing viewpoints. Guidelines for this type of respectful debate are essential not only for the smooth functionality of the online class, but also because learning civil behavior is ultimately crucial for the student‘s survival in a pluralistic society, and for them to learn how to participate in rigorous challenges and exchange of ideas. Once guidelines of civility are drawn up, it is important for faculty not to tolerate if rude or inappropriate behavior is occurring in the class, as this would imply that they are condoning this behavior. Furthermore, it would be good idea for faculty to include a wide variety of teaching methods and learning activities, so that students with diverse skills and learning styles have a more equitable chance for full involvement. Instructors should learn student names and show an interest in each of them by responding frequently and thoughtfully to their comments.

D. Transferring FTF Verbal Strategies Online Language norms used in FTF interactions should be observed in the online environment as far as is possible (Hansen, 2008). For example, educators should begin initial online conversations with a greeting and strive to establish communication reciprocity. Instructors can learn how to communicate support and expressions of interest in order to increase the likelihood of engaging students in the learning process and promoting positive online experiences.

Extensive Vocabulary An extensive vocabulary is necessary for communicating effectively especially in some cross-cultural situations. The online educator can introduce a wide variety of terms to express meanings. The wider the range of vocabulary the instructors uses, the more positive the students‘ impression of the instructor. Because responses to learners‘ questions are asynchronous, the educator generally has time to create messages that convey depth beyond spontaneous reactions.

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Active Participation Language Active participation language strategy calls for the online educator to actively participate in contentious learning situations. The educator must be able to post convincing responses that cause appropriate student participation. Reciprocity between the educator and learners should be the aim for this active participation. Active Listening Active listening involves placing yourself in the speaker‘s shoes. The goal of active listening is to improve shared meaning with limited interference of preconceived ideas. What does it mean to be an active listener in a computermediated communication (CMC) environment? How can you improve CMC? First and foremost is to read the message carefully. I sometimes do not take the time to fully comprehend an email message. I have read a message and quickly responded to it, only to find out that I had misinterpreted what was written.

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E. Transferring FTF Thinking Strategies Online Many FTF classroom strategies for teaching students to think about course content can be used just as effectively online. Some are best suited for student responses as public postings in conference threads and bulleting board forums; some are more effective as private homework or formal writing assignments. Here are the recommended strategies: 1. Conduct opinion polls/surveys before assigned readings to arouse interest in topics and to tap into students‘ prior knowledge. 2. Design self-testing quizzes and tutorials to prepare students for wellgrounded discussions. 3. Conduct interactive asynchronous discussions. 4. Pose well-designed questions for asynchronous discussions. 5. Create cognitive dissonance: provoke discomfort, unsettle confirmed notions, uncover misconceptions, inspire curiosity, pose problems. 6. Assign writing-to-learn tasks as homework and/or discussion. 7. Present activities that require considering opposing views. 8. Assign a mediatory argument promoting a resolution acceptable to both sides. 9. Adopt collaborative and cooperative learning techniques, simulations, and role-plays to online uses. 10. Ask students to evaluate Internet resources.

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F. Encouraging Learner-to-Learner Interactions Interaction is considered key to effective learning (Weimer, 2002). Chang, Lim and Zhong (2008) delineated three levels of learner interaction—student-tocontent, student-to-instructor, and student-to-student. It is this last type of interaction between one learner and another, individually or in groups, and with or without the presence of an instructor that has become an important dimension in online learning of a hybrid course, because it facilitates collaboration and deeper learning (Chang et al., 2008). In an increasingly resource-stretched higher education environment, the corner stone for successful hybrid-learning is promoting learner-to-learner interaction. Effective interaction requires not only the careful design of hybrid-learning activities, but more importantly, the empowerment of the learner to engage collaboratively with others. Table 6.5 provides some tips for enhancing student-student interaction. Table 6.5. Tips for Enhancing Learner-Learner Interaction

      

Focus on learner-learner interaction as early as possible. Emphasize the importance of learner-learner interactions in promoting individual learning. Focus on the development and maintenance of swift trust. Frame feedback in a way that helps students believe they can accomplish the tasks. Identify learners who are not interacting and help them feel as though they are a part of the group. Plan learning materials to emphasize a collective identity instead of an individual identity among learners. Monitor and encourage full and complete information exchange and minimize biased discussions.

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Table 6.5. (Continued)



    

Encourage communication that confirms information receipts as well as provides information about local contextual constraints on other learners. Develop electronic communication norms that emphasize mutual interaction and minimize affective conflict. Foster strong relational links among learners to promote positive outcomes. Confront negative emotion or affective conflict among learners quickly in order to maintain effective processes. Convey enthusiastic messages encouraging collective effort. Act as gatekeepers for all team members and avoid misinterpretations of silence and member non-responsiveness.

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Wozniak (2007) outlined stages of development in which learners will experience online (Figure 6.5). The stages of learner participation is divided into four stages from gaining access and getting involved to obtaining the ability to evaluate one‘s own participation and supporting new comers.

OVERCOMING LACK OF PARTICIPATION ONLINE Many inexperienced hybrid instructors were concerned about a ―loss‖ of personal connection with students when they moved to the hybrid format because of less time spent face to face. They are afraid that replacing seat time with online is going to diminish the quality of the relationship—whether it is teacher-student or student-student. However, the advice from literature revealed that online communication can provide more socially intimate communication than sometimes can be achieved in FTF situations. Dettori, Giannetti, & Persico (2006) also suggest that interactivity with technologies enhances the learning experience. For example, on-demand whiteboards between online participants facilitate the exploration of concepts. A user-friendly interface to Web-based tools that engage students in collaboration, problem-solving activities, and exploration can support virtual communities and is one effective solution for online learning (Esnault, 2008). This requires that faculty know how to create respectful and meaningful

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online discussions that provide a safe place to share ideas. While these skills take experience, hybrid course instructors can design meaningful hybrid format to extend personal relationship from both environments to establish presence and create an integrated and positive community of learners.

Figure 6.5. Stages of Development for Online Participations.

A. Understand Reasons behind Lack of Participation The best way to know why students do not participate is asking them. From my experience I would like to suggest the following reasons why certain students are not participating in an online discussion: 

The absence of visual and oral cues can initially confuse some students.

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 

 

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

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The asynchronous format could make the discussion feel disjointed if there is a time lag between responses. They are not highly motivated students. A student might feel moved by certain responses, but nevertheless, for reasons of time constraints, laziness, discomfort, or possibly inertia, remains silent. Your class has not engaged them, perhaps because your questions are too vague, or your class does not yet feel safe to them. Students are confused by the tangled threads of the threaded discussion format. At best, they can only see the immediate message to which they are responding, but what about the buildup of conversation leading to this last response? And, if they read through all new responses before adding any responses of their own, they might be lost and unable to find their way back to the key messages to which they wanted to respond. Student postings are excessively long and therefore create a disincentive for discussion. Some students might not own computers, and are therefore at a disadvantage, as they might need to endure long waits for an available machine in a computer lab, whereas those who own a computer can happily click into their class at any time. If the class is relatively large, if you have required students to respond in every forum, is this possibly introducing an artificial element into the normal evolution of conversation? In the traditional class, does every student join in with discussions on every topic? If there are over twenty students, for example, might it become repetitive, as there is nothing original left to say about a topic?

B. Circumvent Problems before They Occur If you are teaching a hybrid class, students should be clear from your course description that the course will include a Web component. I would advise that students be told they need a computer if they want to take a hybrid course. Studies are increasingly showing that students who do not own a computer enjoy the online class less than those who own one, although certain exceptions apply—one of the most enthusiastic students in my hybrid class does not own a computer. At registration, students also should be informed that if they are taking a hybrid course, it is not a ―soft option‖; the course requires independence and maturity in reaching goals. It might also be fair and honest to let students know

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that participating in a hybrid class takes more, not less, time than a class on campus or online.

C. Design High-Level Questions

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You should attempt to promote the right conditions for constructive thinking in the hybrid class. As mentioned in Chapter 3, this is thinking that 1) construct knowledge from personal experience and prior learning, and 2) subsumes concept formation, creative problem solving, and shared social meaning through collaboration among the class group. In so doing, you should attempt to design high-level questions that are as interesting as possible, with topics that are controversial, and stimulate thought and a variety of ideas. In other words, your aim should be to make the class an incredible experience, one that the student would not want to miss. Many types of good questions can initially stimulate online discussion. They can be thought provoking and hypothetical (if you were ______, what would you see?) or evaluative (what do you think is better, x or y?). They could tie into whatever is topical at that time. They can be controversial. They can involve a case study, role-play, or synthesis of elements already learned.

D. Types of Questions to Avoid Avoid asking questions that are too vague. If the class has not yet become a safe place, an open-ended question such as ―What do you think?‖ or ―Who wants to start us off?‖ or, ―Are there any questions‖ could be met with no response. I think this might especially be the case in the hybrid class, when at the beginning of the semester every aspect of the class feels so new. A student might fear asking a question, in case it seems too stupid, and then the stigma seems indelible. Avoid questions that require a yes or no answer or that ask for one specific fact. I once worked with a social studies professor who asked a question, ―When was the Battle of Waterloo?‖ and then was disappointed that he had very little student participation. So he redesigned his class to include higher order questions that, given certain facts, asked students to make comparisons, make predictions, and suggest causes. This provoked constructive thought and opened the gates for meaningful discussion. Avoid, too, asking students for their opinions, as this is a

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lower order of thinking; but if the student is asked to substantiate why he or she feels this way, this would entail constructive thought.

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E. Be Encouraging to Students Who Remain Quiet If you have tried these strategies and the student is still not participating, then you could try to lure him or her into the discussion forum, never by nagging, but instead trying to encourage responses by a friendly word privately expressed through e-mail, phone, or in person. Remember that students have a variety of learning styles and so might feel comfortable with different activities and at different rates. I suggest that you refrain from calling on a particular student or students who have been quiet for some time, as the objective is not to embarrass anyone, and, furthermore, they might not be online to see they are being called. A few students might continue to hold back and barely participate, even after you have sent encouraging e-mails or made enthusiastic phone calls. As Fisher (2001) asks, how much should you continue to try to encourage a quiet student to participate? Does this expose the student‘s lack of knowledge causing him or her psychological harm, or will it enhance learning? Practically speaking, if students continue not to participate and prefer to ―lurk‖, should we continue to do anything about this? After all, are not our students responsible, mature adults who should be aware of the consequences, as long as you have spelled out your expectations and requirements at the start of the class? If a student did not appear in the traditional classroom, would we be as concerned? Why should this be different? For most students, though, free of many of the constraints of the campus class, the online environment truly pushes back the classroom walls. Furthermore, whereas in a FTF class, the spoken word can evaporate into the air, the online class, by contrast, has a perfect written record of all that has transpired. In this way, every student has a complete and thorough set of class notes.

F. Using Humor Online Humor can reduce stress and help students feel comfortable to respond. It can minimize frustration and promote a healthy atmosphere in which to enhance learning and increase students‘ receptivity. Furthermore, humor can unite students, decrease the potential for prejudice, and give the class a genuine feeling of camaraderie, as trust and rapport can result and everyone can share the universal experience of laughter. Instructors who are fun, energetic, and

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imaginative have the potential to motivate students and tap into their creativity. Perhaps many of us have attended a class that we anticipated would be dull, maybe because of the subject matter or the time of day, but instead felt energized and engaged because the instructor used an amusing and imaginative presentation style. What of the silent, sightless online class, in which laughter cannot be heard and people cannot be observed? What of the fact that good timing is often crucial in relating something funny? How can this work in an online, asynchronous setting? I am sure many of you have had the experience of trying to tell a funny incident to someone, and, on finding that it could not be explained well, resorted to saying, ―You had to be there to appreciate it!‖ Does this imply that the online class has to be devoid of humor? I do not think it does. Just as there can be amusing books, so too can there be effective use of humor in online classes. And just as in the campus class, it also can energize and it can unite. It can draw students to log on to the class. It can ease them over stressful situations. Knowing how one of the biggest potential problems of the online class is feeling overwhelmed by numerous and lengthy new responses, just think how much easier it would be to read good, content-rich materials that is sprinkled with relevant humor, rather than screens and screens of dry, stuffy text. Words of caution are needed, however. As we know, the group dynamic is different each semester, so something that amused students in a previous semester might promote a different reaction next time. This points to the importance of knowing your students and being sensitive to their ideas. This could be a problem whether online or on campus, but there are additional concerns about the use of humor in an online class. For example, it might be even more possible to misinterpret written words that are meant to be amusing, than it would be if these same words were heard. Furthermore, it might be harder in an asynchronous setting to detect if someone was inadvertently offended, and it might be more difficult to do some timely backpedaling or offer quick remediation. Remember, as Allen and Seaman (2005) warn, an instructor should not use humor just to make students like him or her, as the primary function of the instructor is, of course, to teach. I recommend that you be yourself, and let humor spring naturally from your thoughts. It might be wise to pause a little before submitting your response, to anticipate the impact of your words on each of your students, but I would not recommend that you thrash it around in your head for so long that it has lost all of its humor, even to you. The goal is to create a positive atmosphere in your class, and being naturally funny might be a good way of achieving this. Remember,

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good humor is contagious, and if you set this tone, students might feel that they can do so, too.

CHALLENGES Online learning environments are not barrier-free. While there is awareness among instructors that students require help with technical skills for online learning, there is less clarity over the new learning processes that are required. New online pedagogies can be especially confusing for many hybrid course students, who, unlike distance learners, are not as familiar with autonomous, flexible and reflective learning, especially if there are contributing social and educational disadvantages (Bender, 2003). The increased use of networks and digital resources has brought with it several concerns and barriers in the areas of communication, student participation and online knowledge acquisition.

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Communication Barriers There are at least five types of communication barriers that can negatively affect student performance and satisfaction in an online environment that must be overcome. These are: 1) the barrier of social distance, resulting from overly formalistic instructor communication that reinforces student-instructor status differences; 2) the barrier of conceptual confusion, resulting from poorly organized and presented course materials; 3) the barrier of fear and mistrust, resulting from instructor communication that is perceived by students as nonsupportive, indifferent to student needs or, in extreme cases, overtly hostile; 4) the barrier of isolation and disconnectedness, resulting from insufficient speed and frequency of instructor communication; and 5) the barrier of lost efficacy, due to instructor rigidity in applying course rules, procedures and policies.

Obstacles to Participation in Online Discussion Despite freedom from the constraints mentioned, there can still be inadequate participation in online discussion in some classes. We should first consider what is meant by silence online. To an instructor, a question thrown out to the students only to be met by silence is a pretty scary thing, and often gives the instructor the feeling that things are not going well. Often the instructor overcomes the

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discomfort by filling in the silence and answering the questions himself/herself instead of waiting to see if a student will do so. I think it is important to remember that silence does not necessarily mean a lack of student interest, but could, instead, mean that students are thinking and constructing their ideas, and what the instructor should do is to allow more time for thought, such as a day perhaps, if it is a large class.

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Deterrents to Knowledge Acquisition Online What are the deterrents to knowledge acquired online? One is the feeling of being overwhelmed, brought on by a large class, lengthy lectures or online responses, or numerous responsibilities outside the class. This might lead to the situation in which some students might not read everything that is contributed to the discussion. Perhaps one can argue that they are being selective, but they might be leaving out the most pertinent points. A second deterrent involves technical difficulties, without timely and helpful technical support. During the class, the students who experiences technical difficulties can feel panic or frustration. Many other factors also affect whether students feel they have insider or outsider status. Access to the Internet, for example, has a big impact, on those who only have a computer at work and not at home, and on those who have significantly high phone charges for Internet hookup. Additionally, some students find it easier to write online than others, and for some it is quite frightening, especially if they feel unsure about a particular topic. Without a doubt, the medium itself has an impact on communication.

CONCLUSION Hybrid learning is about fully engaging students in the educational process, providing students with a highly interactive succession of learning experiences that lead to the resolution of an issue or problem. In the traditional face-to-face classroom, the quality and intensity of social relationships is simply not as much of an issue. However, online there is greater possibility for a sense of loss among learners—loss of contact, loss of connection, and a resultant sense of isolation. Bersin (2004) cautioned that when hybrid learners are online, it may take longer to develop shared cognition, leading to difficulties in early learner-learner interaction.

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The primary challenge in a meaningful educational experience is to create and sustain a sense of community. Building community in a hybrid environment requires an understanding of the properties of synchronous verbal and asynchronous text communication and how to integrate these forms of communication to achieve desired objectives. Attention needs to be given to the opportunity for students to reflect on and monitor the construction of meaning, as well as to collaborate and manage the learning process. Allen and Seaman (2005) have shown that reflective thinking is perceived to be enhanced through collaboration. Hybrid learning offers the opportunity for all students to be cognitively engaged and feel that they are learning individually by participating in, and contributing to, a community of inquiry.

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REFERENCES Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2005). Growing by degrees: Online education in the United States. Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Bender, T. (2003). Discussion-based online teaching to enhance student learning: Theory, practice and assessment. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. Bersin, J. (2004). The blended learning book: Best practices, proven methodologies, and lessons learned. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Chang, K. T. T., Lim, J., & Zhong, Y. Z. (2008). Web-based interface elements in team interaction and learning: Theoretical and empirical analysis. In L. Esnault (Ed.), Web-based education and pedagogical technologies: Solutions for learning application. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Dettori, G., Giannetti, T., & Persico, D. (2006). SRL in online cooperative learning: Implications for pre-service teacher training. European Journal of Education, 41, 397-414. Dodge, B. (1997). Some thoughts about Webquests. Retrieved March 27, 2009 from http://webquest.sdsu.edu/about_webquests.html El Mansour, B., & Mupinga, D. M. (2007). Students‘ positive and negative experiences in hybrid and online classes. College Student Journal, 41, 242248. Esnault, L. (Ed.) (2008). Web-based education and pedagogical technologies: Solutions for learning applications. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Fisher, M. (2003). Designing courses and teaching on the Web: A “how-to” guide to proven, innovative strategies. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Education.

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Freedman, S. C. (2003). Strategies for improving instructor-student communication in online education. In F. Albalooshi (Ed.). Virtual education: Cases in learning and teaching technologies. Hershey, PA: IRM Press. Hansen, D. E. (2008). Knowledge transfer in online learning environments. Journal of Marketing Education, 30, 93-105. Koontz, F. R., Li, H., & Compora, D. P. (2006). Designing effective online instruction: A handbook for web-based courses. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wozniak, H. (2007). Empowering learners to interact effectively in asynchronous discussion activities. In M. Bullen & D. Jane (Eds.). Making the transition to e-learning: Strategies and issues (pp.210-224). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

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Chapter 7

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CHANGING ROLES Designing an effective hybrid course and learning to teach in new ways involves significant pedagogical changes that require instructors to gain new skills and assume multiple roles. For example, a hybrid instructor‘s roles change week to week as she traverses the in-person and online environments. One day she may have lectured or led group discussions in the classroom, and the next day she may have facilitated online discussion, activities, and assessments or even solved technology issues (Swenson & Evans, 2003). She needs to learn to be responsive when necessary and quiet when she is not needed. She is an active hybrid learning community builder and an excellent communicator. The roles of her students are also changing. They were no longer passive listeners and consumers of education who are in the classroom to take notes and learn from the expert. In the new approach, students are expected to be active in their own learning, to collaborate with others, to monitor their own learning, and to be coconstructors of knowledge. As Bonk, Kim, and Zeng (2006) note, hybrid learning highlights the need for instructional skills in multiple teaching and learning environments. These changing roles require instructors to consider how they might address the varying needs for learners who enroll in their courses. In fact, Carter (2007) suggests that before instructors attempt to develop more flexible teaching styles, they must be receptive to the idea of change, beginning with a change in their beliefs about the student‘s role in the learning environment.

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CHANGING ROLES OF THE STUDENTS Hybrid learners need to master different kinds of skills necessary to add value to how they learn. Learning how to think creatively and critically, and gaining insight into the subject matter or a future teaching profession at intellectual, structural, emotional and creative levels would mean gaining value-adding attributes. This would imply, for example, skills needed to work/learn with others. Just as a hybrid course requires instructors to rethink their teaching roles and adjust to its student-centered format, it demands that the students assume more responsibility for their own learning. Being subjected to such hybrid learning events will be conducive to mastering thinking strategies, methods and skills needed for competence in problem solving in teams (interdependently), and as an individual (independently). This includes determining one‘s role in the individual or collaborative learning process, what is important to learn, how it must be learned, and what must be done to achieve set outcomes under certain circumstances (Compton, 2009). In the process of collaborative teamwork, for instance, learners are becoming metacognitively aware of how they learn and how they manage their learning. The most significant change for learners in a hybrid course (in comparison to an FTF course) is that they will be expected to study online for part of the time (see Table 7.1 for the tips for successful online participation). This often requires more independence and self-directed study than they may be used to. This can be difficult for some students who are accustomed to a passive learner role. To become such an independent learner, hybrid learners should, on one hand, take responsibility for their own development and develop a sense of lifelong learning (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007); on the other, learn to coordinate their efforts with a team of colleagues in the hybrid environment. Strategies to help learners learn how to work in both face-to-face (FTF) and online teams include effective modeling by the instructor, allowing time for development and practice, and engaging in team building activities before beginning an actual project. The Illinois Online Network (2009) describes the characteristics of successful online students:    

Able to communicate through writing Able to think ideas through before responding Self-motivated and self-disciplined Willing to ―speak up‖ if problems arise

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Accept critical thinking and decision making as part of the learning process Have access to a computer and internet and have at least some minimal ability to use them Open-minded about sharing life, work, and educational experiences as part of the learning process Feel that high-quality learning can take place without going to a traditional classroom

What are the implications of this shift to a new view of the role of learners? The following suggestions are offered as a basic outline of the roles and expectations of hybrid learners: 



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 



Learners need to recognize that they are responsible for their own learning. They also have a responsibility to contribute to the learning community in the hybrid learning environment. As a minimum level of participation, learners can share ideas, personal news, and comments on the work of their peers. Learners should either possess or develop strong organizations, selfregulation, and time management skills in order to learn effectively. Learners can attempt to connect their learning with their prior knowledge and with their personal life experiences. Learners need to accept that the instructor in a course is one of a number of experts in the learning community and not the sole source of information. This means that students will need to agree to learn from their peers. As well, learners must trust their instructors to intervene if incorrect, misleading, or confusing information is posted online. To be effective online contributors, learners must know what is expected of them, learn about small group development, communicating online, conflict resolution, and problem solving. It is important for students to learn how to work cooperatively online in several ways—by gaining knowledge about teamwork, observing others modeling effective teamwork behavior, and receiving feedback on how well they are doing (Freedman, 2003).

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Table 7.1. Tips for Student Participation in Asynchronous Discussion

1. Quality posts are more helpful than quantity posts. Posts of ―way to go‖ or ―I agree‖ should be sent to the individual personally rather than posted in the threaded discussion area. 2. Stay on topic and share only messages that are relevant to the subject of the discussions of the group. Do not perpetuate off-topic comments. If someone makes an inappropriate comment, do not add more noise by replying to it in the discussion. Instead, model appropriate, inoffensive ways to correct people. 3. Students should be encouraged to remember that when they are posting, they should be trying to move the conversation forward in a positive manner. 4. Students should remember to sign their name to what they write and remember to spell and grammar check what they write before they send it to the group. Don‘t say anything online you wouldn‘t want to say in the public. 5. Always use a clear subject. Erase the default one that is created for you and type a new one that really does say something about your message. If everyone does this, you can quickly skim the titles of the messages and then jump in where you find something interesting. This enables you and other students to locate discussion topics and follow the threads of the discussion easier for later reference. 6. Use common abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols to simplify your typing. If you are going to use an abbreviation that may not have a common understanding, define it the first time you use it.

CHANGING ROLES OF THE INSTRUCTORS There are many different ways in which an instructor can be attentive to students and this will depend on the role an instructor might take. Mazzolini and Maddison (2003) researched the role of the instructors in hybrid courses. The role can be viewed on a continuum:

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Figure 7.1. Changing Roles of Instructors from Visible to Invisible.

These roles can expand in the hybrid courses to include pedagogical, social, managerial, and technological roles.

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Pedagogical Role In order to create interesting and interactive hybrid courses, Swenson and Evans (2003) cautioned that hybrid instructors must be more than information suppliers, since students can easily access information. Many faculty need to change significantly the way they teach, as students want instructors who are guides, who can navigate the various technologies available to foster broader student engagement through more complex classroom interactions than are typical in a traditional instructional setting. This new role includes both the design and the delivery of instructional learning activities for the in-person and online environments. Instructors design the course structure and assignments and assume the roles of facilitator and teacher, asking questions, offering feedback, summarizing student comments, providing instructions, presenting information, and giving advice. In the case of hybrid instructions, this includes in-class and online learning activities.

Social Role Even though a course structure is developed to promote online interaction, it does not necessarily follow that students will engage in constructive dialogues. Social role involves creating a friendly and nurturing environment that supports a community of learners. This role also involves communication between the instructor and students and among students within the course. Actions include personalizing communication, incorporating humor, and displaying empathy to create a sense of community and humanize instructor-student and student-student interactions. One common suggestion for instructors is that dispersed group members be allowed time early in their development to interact socially and to

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build interpersonal relationships in FTF environments. Sharing personal information at the beginning of team formation influences the liking of group members, boosts member satisfaction and communication, and increases feelings of social cohesion.

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Managerial Role The managerial role relates to overseeing course structure and tasks. Managing a hybrid course requires balancing the organization of both the online and FTF environments. This includes all aspects of coordinating a course, including scheduling online and in-person interaction, setting due dates, and managing assignments, discussions, assessments, and student roles. Expert teachers are excellent managers of their classrooms. They understand the fundamentals of good curriculum design and can translate that into day-to-day learning outcomes for their diverse students. They understand student-centered teaching and learning—placing learners at the heart of the learning process and meeting their needs (Shea et al., 2006)—and they have a range of strategies they can call upon to facilitate the learning process. They unconsciously alter their behavior in the classroom based on the feedback they are receiving during the teaching and learning process. The philosophy underpinning this is that expert teachers are planners and organizers of interactive learning and facilitators of the ongoing process rather than didactic transmitters of information.

Technological Role New possibilities in the teaching and learning transaction in hybrid course begin with the flexibility of using and merging synchronous and asynchronous communication technologies. Technical knowledge includes instructors easily utilizing a course management system to organize course content and assisting students with user or system technology issues. In the hybrid course model the instructor must make participants comfortable with the system and the software required by the course. Perhaps the biggest change in the instructor roles is that they‘re required to teach part of the courses online. Table 7.2 provides a summary of new instructor roles in the online sessions.

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Changing Roles Table 7.2. Instructor Roles in the Online Sessions

Pedagogical 



Create interactions and have participants do something every three to five minutes. This could mean interactions with people, technology, or a participant workbook. It could also mean thinking or writing! It is important to re-engage your participants as often as possible. While much of this is built into the course design, there will be time when you will need to create interactions on the spot. Doing this keeps participants focused on the program and helps to ensure that the audience is still present. Vary your instructional strategies to maximize engagement. Chances are that a one-hour lecture will not be successful in a virtual classroom. Instead, consider also incorporate discussions, breakout session, brainstorming…the options are endless.

Social

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



Be a team player. Your success depends on your ability to work with a variety of people during a synchronous learning experience, including technical supports, and geographically dispersed participants. This type of learning is a group effort, and successful facilitators work with all members of ―the show‖—behind the scenes, during the learning session, and after the event. Keep a human touch. Make sure the design does not take the participants out of the process. Learning is a social activity, and participants need a personal touch. Do not fall into the trap of talking to your computer screen instead of to your participants. Use participants‘ names, recall things they said earlier, and develop relationships.

Managerial 



Plan your program. Create a detailed facilitation plan that includes planned anecdotes, instructional strategies, technical tips, and other pertinent information. Remember that there is a lot to manage in a virtual classroom, so be prepared for anything. Implement and model ground rules. Ground rules are critical to the success of any hybrid learning experience. As an instructor, you should set the group rules, model them, and maintain their usage throughout the class.

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Quiyun Lin Table 7.2. (Continued)

Technological 



Design with available technological tools in mind. There are many tools available in virtual classrooms that are not available in traditional classrooms, like chat, web browsers, and application sharing. Learn these tools and use a variety of them. Variety helps to keep your participants engaged. Plan for technology gaps. When launching an application or setting up breakout rooms, there is often a gap of up to thirty seconds while the technology is being prepared. This ―dead air‖ is enough to make your less secure participants wonder whether they are experiencing technical difficulties and prompt your less tolerant participants to jump into an unrelated task. Anticipate that gap, and design a meaningful personal or chat activity to fill the time.

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Facilitator Role The last but not the least important role is as facilitators. Faculty needs to learn how to teach in new ways, such as facilitating online interaction and integrating the online and face-to-face environments. The facilitator must make participants enaged in learning. Weimer (2002) identifies several roles as a facilitator, all of which can be applied to hybrid teaching. These facilitator roles can be used for different purposes and at different times in the semester.

Facilitation of Communication The essence of any learning environment is communication, for it is through the accurate exchange of information, ideas, questions, and criticism, that learning occurs. Communication is particularly important in collaborative learning and team building because learning and successful group development can only happen through ongoing dialogue. In the traditional classroom, communication is multi-channel by the spoken word through lecture and discussion, and the written word, through textbooks, overhead transparencies, handouts, exam answers, and term papers. In addition, communication occurs nonverbally. A change in facial expression, a hand raised momentarily, a shake of a head, and a quizzical look, are cues an instructor uses to

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gauge student understanding and may prompt additional dialogue. A question can be posed to a ponderous-looking student. Instructors and students can ask immediate questions for clarification. And, there are opportunities for FTF interaction before and after class, or during a break or office hours. As a collaborative community of inquiry moves online, the sense of community becomes more fragile and facilitation becomes increasingly important to ensure that student contributions are acknowledged and constructive. For many students, online discussion forums are a new form of communication. Students will need encouragement and guidance to engage in the discussion. ―Lurking‖ or vicarious participation may be an issue. Although participants can benefit from actively following the discussion, overt participation provides much more benefit from a critical thinking perspective. When discussions are fragmented or floundering for lack of insights, students value input. A direct teaching presence may be required to reinforce collaboration and a cohesive community of inquiry. It is especially important to intervene in a timely manner when inevitable tensions threaten the cohesiveness of the community.

Facilitation of Direct Instruction Direct instruction has a legitimate place in a hybrid learning environment to ensure that the discourse, verbal or written, evolves in educationally appropriate directions. In a recent study, Shea, Li and Pickett (2006) found that learners were more likely to report higher levels of connectedness and learning when their instructors provided more ―directed facilitation‖ toward the accomplishment of educational objectives. A key feature is the timely movement from discourse to resolution. Ths does not just happen by chance; it requires leadership and management. In both FTF and online environment, diagnosing misconceptions and providing explanations constitute an essential educational responsibility. Students must not be allowed to become frustrated to the point that they disengage. Direction may be needed to help students become aware of the nuances of the content knowledge. It may mean providing a deeper explanation. Confirmation of understanding often requires direct intervention. Moreover, appropriate intervention ensures that students experience success. However, as with most aspects of teaching, it is important to find the right balance. Although students expect strong teaching presence, too much direct intervention will most assuredly reduce discourse and collaboration (Shea, Pickett, & Pelz, 2003). In an FTF environment, the risk is that too much focus and responsibility shifts to the instructor. As a result, students‘ first choice inevitably will be to turn to the instructor for answers (Shea et al., 2006). This is a difficult balancing act for the facilitator because, on the one hand, students need to assume

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some control or ownership of the discussion; on the other, students want direction, and there are times when direct teaching presence is required. From a facilitation perspective, it is important to recognize when to provide feedback to encourage the group to assume responsibility for purposeful discourse (Shea et al., 2003). The facilitator must also be cognizant of potential conflict or tension that may undermine the cohesion of the group.

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Facilitation of Community of Inquiry Students must feel they are contributing members of the community and must feel a sense of accomplishment. The goal is to create a community of inquiry where students are fully engaged in collaboratively constructing meaningful and worthwhile knowledge. From both theoretical and empirical perspectives, there is little question as to the necessity and effectiveness of interaction and collaboration to achieve deep and meaningful learning outcomes (Bersin, 2004). A key aspect of developing your community is establishing the importance of respect and trust. Instructors can convey to students that they are respected; that their unique concerns, uncertainties and pressures are understood; and that the instructor is willing to work with them as individuals to solve both anticipated and unexpected problems that arise over the course of a semester. These more subtle, often indirect, messages from instructor to student may be conveyed through FTF meetings, the exchange of e-mails, and discussion board postings. Respect can also be exhibited by learning to understand viewpoints with which you do not agree. The barrier of fear, mistrust, disconnectedness and lost efficacy may be reduced through more personalized, supportive, complete and timely communication with students. Help the group understand that not everyone will agree all the time, and mistakes will be made in following the group norms, but respect is key to maintaining a virtually perfect world. Make it clear that as an instructor, you will need to be made aware if there is a larger issue in the group that cannot be resolved, but, for the most part, the instructor is not and will not be a policeman, and the group is responsible for constant, effective, and respectful communication. In addition, the facilitator must have good interpersonal skills if the community of inquiry is to be sustained.

Facilitation of Active Participation Encouragement of active participation from the students, as they contribute to the evolving dialogue, stimulates student learning. If students work too independently, then the class will take on the tone of a one-on-one type

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correspondence course and will lack the potentially exciting group dynamic. To encourage interactive discussion, the instructor should make every student feel recognized and included. As Reisman, Flores, and Edge (2003) advised, ―The key is to establish inclusion.‖ (p.16) Inclusion is the awareness of learners that they are part of an environment in which they and their instructor are respected by and connected to one another. As with demonstrating respect, establishing a sense of inclusion takes more time, effort, and sensitivity that might otherwise be required in more sensory-rich environments. However, it is important to draw the right balance between a class that is too much of an ―ivory tower‖ and one that slips into an excessive amount of personal, anecdotal discussions. Freedman (2003) believes that a personal narrative is acceptable, as long as it is accompanied by critical thinking, in which the student can perhaps understand his or her experience from a new perspective. In some skills-based classes, students might already be working in the field, and it could be beneficial to ask them to relate their experiences, and also to make comparisons between what they have learned in the classroom and what they are doing in practice. In such cases, it would be worthwhile to encourage students to interact with each other, see if anyone has vastly similar or different experiences. In sum, these roles hallmark instructors‘ moving away from being oracles and didactic presenters of information to being consultants and resource providers, from being providers of answers to being askers of expert questions, from being designers of content to designers of learning (Table 7.3). Table 7.3. Characteristics of Best Instructor Roles in Hybrid Courses

The instructor seeking to be effective in a hybrid course:    

  

Establishes himself/herslef as a guide, facilitator, and planner; Organizes the course with a schedule for all elements; Provides training for students in the use of the LMS and for doing Webbased research; Offers clear expectations regarding postings, participation, assignments, reading, including consideration of time to be spent and/or products to be created; Designs engaging activities, especially those online; Involves himself/herself, but does not dominate; Provides frequent feedback using online replies, private e-mails, meetings with students, or calls;

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

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           

Gives students rubrics and other tools for self-evaluation and assessment; Adjusts or changes the course to take advantage of the media; Establishes what will be online and what will be in other media; Emphasizes interaction and participation; Encourages mentoring and support among students; Varies discussion questions to require depth or breadth; Requires research and readings to be cited in some responses; Develops and nurtures the electronic learning community; Sets the course pace; Establishes collaborations that mirror real world applications; Provides periodic summaries of FTF classes and online discussions; Conducts ongoing assessment of the course; Compares the quality of the hybrid course with the FTF and online classes at the end of the course.

CHALLENGES Many researchers (Bersin, 2004; Reasons, Valadares, & Slavkin, 2005; Reisman et al., 2003) cautioned that the learner-centered nature of the hybrid environment is not an easy transition because both faculty and students need to make significant adjustments. One of the potential obstacles is a reluctance to move away from classroom activity, and it is important to acknowledge and recognize the value of what happens in the classroom or workshop environment (Reisman et al., 2003). Another unintended consequence in hybrid course is the choice it offers. Students are exposed to the rich and extensive resources of the web and to the opinions of fellow students and experts in the field. While this could encourage students to study in a more self-directed way than they have previously been used to, it does not necessarily lead to reflective learning if students are not equipped to cope with it. For many students and teachers, the transitions to online learning has involved moving from a form of communication that is synchronous, real-time, and FTF, to one that is asynchronous, in delayed time, and text-based (Koontz & Compora, 2006). This transition has resulted in flexibility related to any-time any-

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place learning, increased opportunities for reflection, of communications. Likewise, the transition has been accompanied by challenges such as loss of nonverbal cues, possible decrease in social presence, lack of interaction, lack of spontaneity and immediacy in communication, and feelings of isolation. In particular, motivating and engaging the students in a Web-based virtual environment remains a major challenge. This is especially true when groups are working on an unfamiliar task. When there is ambiguity in roles, group members may not act as others anticipated, because they did not know it was their job to get something done (Reisman et al., 2003). This creates frustration for learning partners. In such a situation, it‘s very important for clear roles and leadership structures to minimize ambiguity about who decides what, especially in those teams that are physically separated.

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CONCLUSION Instructor roles change as they move from a traditional format to a hybrid course format. First, they need to be prepared to leave their traditional roles of teacher as a lecturer behind and to anticipate how the new model redefines them, their course, and their students. Second, instructors as facilitators of hybrid learning should constructively align the curriculum, their approaches to facilitating hybrid learning and their assessment practice with the principles of learning style flexibility. It‘s particularly important to align between the ways in which they facilitate learning and those in which their learners learn. Third, instructors must describe the students‘ responsibilities repeatedly, in the syllabus and in person, explaining why an active role will improve students‘ abilities to learn course content more effectively than a more passive listening-to-lecture mode of learning. Finally, instructors not only need to support learners as they explore implications of their new role in the educational enterprise, but to challenge hybrid learners to work beyond their comfort zones.

REFERENCES Bersin, J. (2004). The blended learning book: Best practices, proven methodologies, and lessons learned. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Bonk, C., Kim, K. J., & Zeng, T. (2006). Future directions of blended learning in higher education and workplace learning settings. In C. J. Bonk & C. Graham

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(Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 550-567). San Franscisco: Pfeiffer. Carter, P. M. (2007). Designing a certificate program for preparing faculty for online teaching and hybrid course development. Distance Education Report, 11(21), 5-7. Compton, L. K. L. (2009). Preparing language teachers to teach language online: A look at skills, roles, and responsibilities. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22, 73-99. El Mansour, B., & Mupinga, D. M. (2007). Students‘ positive and negative experiences in hybrid and online classes. College Student Journal, 41, 242248. Freedman, S. C. (2003). Strategies for improving instructor-student communication in online education. In F. Albalooshi (Ed.), Virtual education: Cases in learning and teaching technologies. Hershey, PA: IRM Press. Illinois Online Network (2009). Pedagogy and learning: What makes a successful online student? Retrieved April 28, 2009 from http://illinois.online.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/StudentProfile. asp Koontz, F. R., Li, H., & Compora, D. P. (2006). Designing effective online instruction: A handbook for web-based courses. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Mazzolini, M. & Maddison, S. (2003, April). Sage, guide or ghost? The effect of instructor intervention on student participation in online discussion forums. Computers & Education, 40, 237-253. Reasons, S.,Valadares, K., & Slavkin, M. (2005). Questioning the hybrid model: Student outcomes in different course formats. Journal of Asynchronous Learning, 9, 83-94. Reisman, S., Flores, J. G., & Edge, D. (Eds.). (2003). Electronic learning communities: Issues and practices. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Shea, P. J., Pickett, A., & Pelz, W. (2003). A follow up investigation of ‗teacher presence‘ in the SUNY learning network. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Network, 7, 61-80. Swenson, P. W., & Evans, M. (2003). Hybrid courses as learning communities. In S. Reisman, J. G. Flores, & D. Edge (Eds.), Electronic learning communities: Issues and practices (pp. 27-71). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Chapter 8

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ASSESSMENT OF HYBRID LEARNING Changing perspectives on teaching and learning combined with new demands in society on students‘ knowledge and abilities are gradually reshaping learning cultures. While assessment in teacher education in the past has primarily been a means of teacher certification and accountability, a much wider range of purposes of assessment are now advocated. A new vision for assessment for the new millennium integrates learning and assessment and redefines the roles of students and teachers in the assessment process. Assessment for learning is now gaining importance over assessment of learning. Assessment of teacher candidates‘ learning provides information to make an informed judgment about whether the teacher candidate needs additional opportunities to achieve mastery of a particular learning objective. Its focus on that single objective helps teacher educators to pinpoint the differences between work that is already at least ―good enough‖ and work that is not—and thus helps us to know what feedback to students, or changes in course or assignment design, are most likely to lead to learning that meets or exceeds our intended outcome on a particular learning objective. Beyond its acknowledged importance in judging the quality of students‘ work (i.e., assessment of learning), assessment has powerful formative potential in helping students learn (i.e., assessment for learning) (Craddock & Mathias, 2009). In this chapter, we‘ll talk about aspects of assessment in hybrid learning including the types and process of assessment, assessment criteria, advantages and disadvantages of various assessment tools, and challenges of assessment, with a focus on the assessment as learning (i.e., assessment for learning).

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ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING Assessment and learning are two sides of the same coin, that is to say, assessment can play dual roles of measuring and scaffolding learning (Stiggins, 2001). The use of assessment in scaffolding learning—assessment for learning— involves designing assessments in ways that foster learning. In hybrid courses, assessments are related to the ways in which online and FTF environments are orchestrated. Blending face-to-face (FTF) and online learning environments provides appropriate and constructive assessment venues (Carroll, Morrell, & Eifler, 2007). For example, FTF classrooms may use presentations and tests to gauge learning, as well as assess daily attendance; while the online classroom can use discussion forums and surveys to measure student learning. The immediacy of FTF discussions may have an advantage in exploring false assumptions, concepts, or connections, while the online learning environment provides for reflection. Thus, a hybrid learning environment provides additional options for effective assessment that can match learning activities and goals, if well designed. If a hybrid course is designed around learning activities, then it is important that the students undertake those activities in order to engage with the learning process and derive benefit from the course. Students need to be in no doubt that any activities which you regard as critical do indeed form an important part of what they study. The maxim ―assessment drives learning‖ is as true in this context as it has always been in more traditional education, and the trick is to create learning opportunities that students will find difficult to resist. Below are some examples of assessment for learning, i.e, assessments that are integrated with learning activities. Through assessment of learning activities such as interaction, reflective learning, self-assessment and peer review, students may also learn important skills in these areas.

Interactions Interaction is the almost universally named assessment tool for a technologyenhanced course such as hybrid learning. It is not just interaction between the student and the instructor, but interaction among other students in the course and interaction with the content of the course that are important as an assessment tool. Inarguably, interaction is the most important component of a hybrid course and learning (Tan & Towndrow, 2009).

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Feedback and Reflective Learning Whether in an online or FTF environment, feedback on learning may be provided through contact with an instructor or peers, and of course the online environment may offer the option of automated formative assessment packages. Feedback on learning can have positive effect on supporting student learning such as reflection (Miller, 2009). There are many useful lessons in the literature on the design of assessment for developing reflective learning. For example, Wolsey (2008) summarizes seven sensible principles of good feedback practice which can contribute to the development of self-direction and a reflective approach in learners (Table 8.1). By conceptualizing learning activities and feedback on them as part of the learning defined by an assignment, you help students to complete the reflective learning cycle. In this context it is important to articulate in course learning outcomes the processes that students are expected to undertake if their development is to be supported during the course. You can provide practice in the development of skills, and incremental support and feedback over assignments. While some students are happy to undertake activities on their own, it is important for many students to have a ‗guide on the side‘ who will provide feedback on their learning and encouragement to continue (Wolsey, 2008).

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Table 8.1. Seven Principles of Good Feedback Practice

Good feedback: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Helps clarify what good performance is. Facilitates the development of self-assessment in learning. Delivers high-quality information to students about their learning. Encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning. Encourages positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem. Provides opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance. Provides information to teachers that can be used to help shape the teaching.

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Self-Assessment Skills If a course employs a hybrid teaching strategy, then students will need to develop self-judgment and critical abilities. For instance, self-assessment can be used to determine if a student is prepared to take an online exam. This will contribute to the student‘s involvement in his or her own learning. When students take on the responsibility of analyzing their own contributions, it is likely to lead to increased participation (Lund, 2008). Stiggins (2001) asked students to assess their own work to have benefits on their metacognitive development, as they have to examine the high points of their contributions. Such a notion is consistent with the literature on metacognition. Another use of self-assessment relates to modeling or having sample of assignments by which a student can determine the expectations of the instructor and the instructor can gauge a student‘s work and guide him or her in completing assignments (Chang, 2008). Self-assessment should be consistently used to determine understanding of the course materials.

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Peer Review Skills One of the areas where collaborative working in hybrid courses can be particularly helpful is in the review of peers‘ work, so that students can learn to develop a critical approach to each other‘s work (Gillies, 2007). Peer review can be built as an interim stage into assignment submission, through which students can receive feedback from their peers and may have an opportunity to assess their own work before they hear from the instructor (Vu & Dall'Alba, 2007). However, many students appear to have difficulty in commenting constructively on a fellow student‘s work. Indeed we have commonly seen vague comments from them such as ‗that all looks very good‘. They may need help in learning how to do this appropriately, including some discussion on the assignment criteria if they are to apply them consistently. You might find it helpful to give them a framework to work from. In the following example, students are required to analyze and evaluate their own contributions in online discussions, as well as what they have learned from reading and responding to the postings of other students. This is demonstrated with a reflection paper. Students are required to describe the extent to which they 

Posted messages to demonstrate critical analysis of course concepts;

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Read and responded thoughtfully to the messages of others to support or challenge the content of the posts; asked critical questions or extended and elaborated their ideas; Learned from others and changed or enhanced understanding.

In order to complete this assignment, students are required to cut and paste examples from their postings to support their analysis. They are also asked to selfrate their participation as ―outstanding,‖ ―good,‖ ―satisfactory,‖ or ―below expectations‖ and to suggest the grade they think appropriately reflects their contribution and learning within the online discussions. In another assignment, they‘re asked to assess their peers‘ online participation (Table 8.2): Table 8.2. Sample Assignment for Peer-Assessment of Online Participation

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Please nominate three key postings that demonstrate any of the following characteristics:  Timely posting that allows adequate group conferencing before deadlines  Posting which helps to promote further interactions with other group members  Posting which demonstrates their role in providing feedback to group members Please justify your choice of characteristics, comment on the level of interactivity, and reflect on how this exercise will affect your future participation.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS Assessment of technology-enhanced learning comprises the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback on the use, worth and impact of learning and instructional designs (Born & Jessup, 2003). This comprises summative, diagnostic, formative and monitoring assessment processes. The generic goal of such assessments is to provide useful feedback to a variety of audiences. Assessment is perceived as useful if it aids in decision making or policy formulation through the provision of such feedback.

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Although there are many methods to conducting assessments, here I‘ll focus on two major types: summative and formative. Summative and formative assessments are often referred to in a learning context as assessment of learning and assessment for learning, respectively. Assessment of learning is summative in nature and intends to measure learning outcomes and report those outcomes to students, instructors, and administrators. Assessment of learning generally occurs at the conclusion of a class, course, semester, or academic year. Assessment for learning is formative in nature and is used by instructors to consider approaches to teaching and to improve the next steps for individual learners and the class (Stiggins, 2001).

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Summative Assessment There are many types of summative assessments. Online surveys and traditional tests can be used, as well as observations, interviews, and other qualitative or quantitative data. Take a realistic look at how well the technology performed, the adequacy of the instructor‘s skills and knowledge, the quality of the instructional materials online and the level of student involvement in both FTF and online settings. Working with new technology and using new instructional methods can be a bumpy road. The mistakes and problems that have occurred in the past semester or past year should be used to inform and improve the process and quality of future efforts; but also to acknowledge the successes, and strive to continue the practices that were most effective. A well-worth effort is to assess hybrid course effectiveness through a summative evaluation of both faculty and student satisfactions. The first is faculty satisfaction. Faculty satisfaction includes a faculty member‘s personal satisfaction with teaching a hybrid course as well as satisfaction within the larger frame of the work environment of the institution. Contributors to faculty satisfaction include robust infrastructure, ongoing training and technical support for teaching hybrid courses. The second is student satisfaction. Student perceptions of what they have learned have been valued as an indicator of learning (Lin, 2008a, 2008b; So & Brush, 2008). According to Melton (2009), student perceptions regarding whether the course was good or bad are cornerstone of the course assessment. Many of the qualities of the assessment that predict satisfaction in hybrid classes are parallel to those of good classroom teaching, such as creating learning opportunities, regular feedback, interactive experiences, and warmth and concern toward students. Table 8.3 includes a sample course evaluation.

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Table 8.3. Sample Hybrid Course Evaluation

Course: EDU 320 Instructor: Dr. Lin Dr. Lin has developed a specific online summative evaluation for her course. A sincere, in-depth response to each of the following questions will be greatly appreciated. You may attach additional pages if necessary. Also, please feel free to remain anonymous. 1. 2. 3. 4.

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5.

What did you like best about this course? What did you like least? Are there materials not covered in this course that you would like to see included? Please comment on the hybrid learning instruction in this course. What would you suggest to improve the instruction? Please comment on the instructor in this course. What would you suggest for her to improve the instruction? Did you invest as much of yourself in this class as you do in your other classes? If not, what would enable you to invest more in this class?

Although the information that is gleaned from this type of assessment is important, it can only help in evaluating certain aspects of the learning process. Because they are spread out and occur after instruction, summative assessments happen too far down the learning path to provide information and to make instructional adjustments and interventions during the learning process. It takes formative assessment to accomplish this.

Formative Assessment Formative assessment, that is, assessment for learning, is part of the routine instructional process. When incorporated into classroom practice, it provides the information needed to adjust teaching and learning while they are happening. In this sense, formative assessment informs both instructors and students about student learning at a point when timely adjustments can be made (Crisp & Ward, 2008). Formative assessment uses a variety of methods including open-ended

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tasks, survey questionnaires, confidence logs (students‘ self-assessment of their knowledge), or performance assessments. The key constraint of this method of assessment is its timing. By conducting formative assessment periodically throughout the course, important data can be collected on what works well and what does not, both in terms of content and technology. It also means that problems can be rectified during the current delivery of the course rather than only in subsequent courses. The following assessments are illustrative of the formative nature of the assessment.

Performance Assessments Performance assessment, which is a formative tool, is proposed as an alternative and authentic means of measuring student learning. Unlike traditional tests and quizzes, performance assessment tools such as field experience and student teaching allow student teachers and their supervisors and cooperating teachers to engage jointly in knowledge construction, to progressively turn over the metacognitive processes to students who are learning to think about thinking. These tools are authentic since students are required to perform tasks under defined conditions similar to what happens in the real world. Performance assessment is a higher-order approach to assessment. Born and Jessup (2003) suggested that this type of performance captures both cognitive and psychomotor domains. They described performance assessment as spotlighting a student‘s use of the knowledge gained in the course in a murky, undefined context. In other words, only the general outline of what is expected is given to the student for a performance assessment. The way in which the student performs is in great part left up to him or her; thus, the activation of creativity and higherorder skills. Portfolios Portfolio assessment is a purposeful, multidimensional process of collecting evidence that illustrates a student‘s accomplishments, efforts, and progress utilizing a variety of authentic evidence over time. The collection must include student participation in selecting contents, the criteria for judging merit, and evidence of the student‘s self-reflection. The development of portfolios may be considered to be a performance assessment by some, since it does exhibit learning; but it also depicts growth in learning since it is generally a work in progress. According to van Aalst and Chan (2007), portfolio assessment documents a student‘s progress in relationship to both process and product.

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Online Discussions Discussions can be valuable forums where complex content and perspectives are examined and understood through collaborative processes and knowledge sharing. The discussions can take the form of debates, small group work, and case studies. Most educators believe that to get the most out of a learning experience, students must engage with course content and contribute to the class discourse. One method of contributing ideas, knowledge, and resources to the class is to participate in discussions. If online discussions are incorporated into hybrid courses, there must be consideration for whether and how to assess student participation within these forums. The instructor might first want to consider how important discussions are and what role they should have in the learning experience—whether FTF or online. Some faculty assigns points to online discussion activities to help students understand the importance of spending the time and effort to contributing to, and learning from, discussions. Some provide multiple and alternative methods for students to interact with content and perspectives, and allow students to choose the activities they think will be of most benefit to them. This allows for differences in both learning preferences and interests. Other instructors set the general expectation that students will participate regularly in online discussions and, with student input, they develop a scoring guide (see Table 8.4) based on their own criteria for quality work combined with student feedback. Students submit a self-assessment of their discussion contributions with a grade recommendation to the instructor to indicate how well they believe they achieved the criteria indicated by the scoring guide. They may copy and paste actual examples of some of their postings to support their grade recommendation. The following example illustrates this assignment. Students are required to read an article that offers multiple perspectives on a course-related concept. They then write a brief synopsis of the article to explain a perspective they support and why. This summary is posted to an online discussion forum. Students then read the postings of at least two other students and respond, respectfully, with further evidence from the article that supports or challenges to his or her summary. The student should be able to defend his or her position and refute the argument, or concede that the posting has compelled reconsideration of his or her original position.

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Quiyun Lin Table 8.4. A Scoring Guide for an Online Discussion Forum

Points 4

3

2

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1

0

Competencies Posts in discussions indicate careful reading of and critical reflection on reading assignments. Readily offers interpretations of course readings and supports opinions with evidence from the readings. Comments on other posts and responds appropriately to comments on own posts. Ideas are expressed clearly, concisely. Use appropriate vocabulary. Is attentive to spelling and grammar. Posts in discussions indicate reading and basic understanding of reading assignments. Supports some opinions with evidence from reading. Offers occasional comments on other posts and unclear responds to comments on own posts. Ideas are sometimes unclear due to poor organization or poor word choice. Occasional spelling and grammatical errors. Posts suggest incomplete reading or poor understanding of the material. Either does not offer an opinion on reading material or fails to support the opinion with evidence from the reading. Rarely comments on other posts and fails to respond to comments on own work. Frequent spelling and grammatical errors. Posts are rare and do not answer the discussion question, or do not indicate reading and comprehension of the reading assignments. Spelling and grammar are so problematic that the message is garbled. Student did not use the discussion board.

Online Collaborative Tasks Beyond procedural discussion, online conferencing can be integrated in various ways into collaborative assessment. For example, the group might be asked to discuss a course topic, contributing examples of real-life situations to illustrate course concepts or drawing on additional resources. Students can be graded on their contribution to the online discussion, as recorded in the transcript of the discussion. The following example assesses the individual, although it reflects on the group effort (Table 8.5).

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Table 8.5. Requirements on Collaborative Online Participation

You are required to contribute to a discussion on topic x, in which you draw on your personal experiences, and illustrate with the content of some relevant web resources. You should:   

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

Contribute at least three messages to the discussion. Select a message from one of your fellow students, and reply to it— remember to do so sympathetically. Within your messages contribute two relevant web resources to the group, and one personal experience. Submit transcript of three messages that demonstrate your contribution.

It is very important to keep in mind that the main purpose of assessment is the learning, teaching, and curriculum planning which is the focus of assessment and reporting practices. The key to the most effective assessment is for it to be part of the everyday learning and teaching activities rather than an end on activity. Table 8.6 is a sample assessment that shows collaborative assessment strategies that are integrated into the curriculum content. Table 8.6. Requirements for Peer Review and Group Discussion of a Position Paper

Literature survey and peer review

 Students are required to read one paper per week and summarize the main points in one or two paragraphs. They are to post the summary in the conference.  Other students may come in and ask for clarifications about the paper. The student who did the summary acts as an expert and tries to clarify what the paper covers.  After one month, students are asked to draw implications, taking the perspective of their respective position papers, from all the reviewers.  Students then post their position paper outlines for critiques. Scaffolding peer review

 Does the script answer the question?

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Quiyun Lin Table 8.6. (Continued)  To what extent does it meet the four assessment criteria?  Can you follow the line of reasoning?  Are the resources relevant? An online debate ( in groups of four)

 Two students are assigned as critics and two as defenders.  Each posts a 500-word position statement, whether for the motion or against it.  Each student must review all statements and enter at least four replies, including one to each side of the motion.  Each student submits their position statement, and a summary of the debate, including four points made for the motion and four points against. Using online discussion as a resource

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 Write a report on x, based on the issues debated in your tutor group.  Summarize the content of the discussion by drawing out four main points and illustrating your points with extracts from conference messages.  Reflect on the experience of participating in online collaboration, including a consideration of the practicalities for yourself and your fellow students.

PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT IN HYBRID COURSES Student performance assessment is a continuous process examining what a student is able to do. Assessment process includes planning, implementation, responding and follow-up (Figure 8.1).

Phase I: Planning The first phase, planning, begins with choosing a hybrid course to implement a scoring rubric. When a target course is selected, an instructor must identify a ―teaching goal‖ and formulate an ―assessable‖ question. An assessable question is one that is well focused and limited in scope and can be easily answered mostly through the use of one student assessment technique. Wording in both the goal and the question must be clear because it will subsequently guide development of

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assessment activities. Once the question is formed, the tasks of determining the required student responses and the appropriate techniques to collect responses remain. Thus, an assessment activity as well as its corresponding rubric must be created. Regarding validity and reliability of a rubric scale, an instructor or rubric designer should use the goal and the assessable question to guide the rubric development. An expert in the subject area can be invited to provide input and ensure content validity of the rubric.

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Phase II: Implementation In the implementation phase, the selected lesson or module is instructed and student learning is assessed. Using the selected assessment technique in the planning phase, the instructor can collect and analyze student responses with the predefined rubric. The important issue that needs to be addressed in this phase is when assessment should be delivered. It can be delivered before, during or after instruction as described next. Assessment given before instruction is used for identifying student background knowledge, directing student attention to important issues and establishing ―baseline‖ performance. During instruction, students‘ work is evaluated to identify areas that need to be improved and to remind students of the desired outcomes they are expected to meet. After instruction, assessment is used for measuring student learning, preparing students to apply their knowledge and determining whether the learning outcomes are met. Different rubrics can be used to evaluate a student‘s responses at any stage of the instruction. Concerns should be made that criteria in those rubrics are relevant to the content area (content validity), the intended construct (construct validity), and address knowledge and skills related to practices in the field (criterion validity).

Phase III: Responding Lastly, the responding phase transforms student responses collected from the implementation phase into a meaningful output ready to be presented to students. The instructor informs the students whether their overall responses indicate that the goal is achieved. This can be easily done by displaying to students which criteria in the predefined rubric they meet or do not meet. If the goal is not reached, the instructor must discuss with the student what needs to be done. A rubric can ease this task because the instructor can create a rubric template and fill

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it out while grading student responses. In addition, instructors should keep an inventory of assessment activities and rubric templates, with an attached comment as to how they were conducted and whether they were well accepted by students. The inventory makes it easy to retrieve for future use and to ensure consistency in a grading process.

Figure 8.1. Processes of Hybrid Course Assessment.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA Assessment criteria, or ―the standards of achievement,‖ need to be communicated to students before the tasks are assigned. One of the most popular tools used to organize and present these criteria is known as a rubric.

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Rubrics A rubric is used to teach as well as to assess. All the terms used should be clearly defined, and the terms and phrases should help students identify deficiencies to improve the next assignment. A rubric serves as both an assessment and communication instrument between students and an instructor. To measure how much students learn, a rubric provides a clear list of assessment criteria that the instructor intends to measure and a numerical score associated with each criterion (see Table 8.7 for a sample). A student‘s performance is compared directly to these predefined criteria and only indirectly to other students. A well-written rubric can also serve as a means to convey an instructor‘s expectations to students. Both instructor and students will have a common tool to assist an evaluation process and to monitor student progress. The primary advantages of using rubrics in assessment include:   

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  

Allowing assessment to be more objective and consistent Forcing the instructor to clarify criteria in specific terms Showing the students how their work will be evaluated and what is expected Promoting student awareness of the criteria used in assessing peer performance Providing useful feedback regarding the effectiveness of the instruction Providing benchmarks against which to measure and document progress Table 8.7. Sample E-Portfolios Grading Rubric

Component Home Page

Beginning

Developing

Accomplished

0.5 points

1.5 points

2 points

Incomplete— missing components and broken hyperlinks

All components are present and functional

Appropriate and thematic graphic elements are used to make visual connections that contribute to the understanding of concepts, ideas and relationships. Differences in type size and/or color are used well and consistently. The page content demonstrates reflection and connections with course content.

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Quiyun Lin Table 8.7. (Continued)

Component Resources Page

Lesson Plan Page

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PowerPoint Page

Beginning

Developing

Accomplished

0.5 points

1.5 points

2 points

Incomplete— missing components and broken hyperlinks

All components are present and functional

There is a clear theme (e.g., subject area, grade level) to your resource links and the annotations provide a clear overview to each of the external Web sites

0.5 points

1.5 points

2 points

Incomplete— missing components and broken hyperlinks 0.5 points

All components are present and functional

The page content demonstrates meaningful and substantive reflection and connections with course content.

1.5 points

2 points

Incomplete— missing components and broken hyperlinks

All components are present and functional

The page content demonstrates meaningful and substantive reflection and connections with course content.

It is important that students are engaged in a discussion about the assessment rubric process so that they clearly understand what ―quality‖ work means for a particular assignment. Examples of previous student assignments, with names removed, can be presented to demonstrate different levels of quality. A discussion forum can then be used to develop a list and corresponding criteria of what counts in quality work. Students can co-create the assessment rubric with the instructor by articulating the gradations of quality, describing the lowest and highest levels of quality, and then filling in the middle levels based on their and the instructor‘s knowledge of common student problems. Alternatively, assessment rubrics can also be constructed to involve students in their own self-assessment. Encouraging learners to develop reflective practices enhances independent learning. The multimodal interactive learning involved in new learning is increasingly demanding that students be more critically literate and more analytically involved in their own learning. Born and Jessup (2003) state that with the use of rubrics, students were able to articulate what they had learned. This technique of self-assessment would further empower students as

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independent learners and is illustrative of the formative nature of assessment. Table 8.8 provides an example of a rubric that could be used to assess student participation in an online discussion forum. Table 8.8. A Rubric to Assess Participation in an Online Discussion Forum

Level of Performance

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Criteria 0

1

Weekly discussion posting

Did not enter discussion

Poorly developed ideas: does not add to the discussion

Discussion responses to instructor and other students

Did not enter discussion

Interacts once with either the instructor or other students

Evidence of critical thinking (application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)

Did not enter discussion

Poorly developed critical thinking

2

3

4

Developing ideas

Well developed ideas

Interacts at least twice with instructor and/or other students Demonstrates the beginning of critical thinking

Interacts at least three times with instructor and/or other students Some critical thinking evident

Well developed ideas (at least one full paragraph) and introduces new ideas Interacts multiple times with instructor and/or other students Clear evidence of critical thinking (application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)

The use of rubric underscores problem-solving as a building process; by taking that first step there is something to be gained. Once the first step is taken, momentum is there to move on to the next level. Success leads to success. Instead of going down in defeat by striving for too much from the onset, which can be

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pretty threatening to some, students often set themselves up for success by initially aiming for the more easily attainable option. Then, in reaching this goal, they can extend themselves to the next level of success without being overwhelmed by the fear of failure.

Analytic and Holistic Rubrics Assessment criteria can be grouped in two different ways: analytical and holistic. An analytical rubric contains several dimensions, each of which is then divided into multiple levels of competency. Table 8.9 shows an analysis of background knowledge, presentation of new ideas, demonstration of analytical skills and overall writing quality of a diversity reflection paper. Each of these dimensions is divided into three to four levels of competency. The expectation of each level is explained clearly; therefore, students know what to expect. The total score of the rubric is based on a summative scale of all criteria.

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Table 8.9. Sample Analytic Rubric of a Reflection Paper

Instruction: Read the case study and write a short reflection paper (1-2 pages) about it. Points in a possible range from 0-10 will be awarded based on a summation of scores received from each of the following four criteria. Student Uses Background Knowledge 2 Integrates background knowledge to explain the questions. 1 Incomplete background knowledge; mostly copied from other sources. 0 Did not submit the paper. Student Presents New Ideas 3 Presents new and well-developed ideas with a reasonable justification. 2 Presents developing ideas that are not fully thought through; ideas have some major flaws. 1 Presents old ideas that do not add value to the paper; ideas are copied from other sources without applying them within the context of the paper. 0 Did not submit the paper.

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Table 8.9. Sample Analytic Rubric of a Reflection Paper Student Demonstrates Analytical Skills 3 Makes a clear and sound argument with supporting evidence. Clear evidence of analytical skills (e.g., applying lessons from the textbook or lectures to solve the problems and provide a reasonable explanation). Provides constructive recommendations. 2 Makes clear argument without supporting evidence. Beginning analytical skills (e.g., attempting to apply lessons learned to solve the problems but does not provide rationale). Provides constructive recommendations. 1 Does not make an argument, or makes vague arguments. Does not apply lessons learned to solve the problems. Does not provide a recommendation. 0 Did not submit the paper. Writing 2 Grammatical and spelling errors are few to none. 1 Grammatical and spelling errors are many.

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0 Did not submit the paper.

A holist rubric, on the other hand, provides a summary of all assessment criteria on one scale. Holistic scaling views the entire activity as a set of interrelated tasks. One score or one level of achievement is used to capture simultaneously different aspects of the learning outcomes. In other words, a holistic scale is divided into different levels of competency, and either a letter grade or a point base is assigned to each level. An example of a holistic rubric for the same short paper assignment can be created as shown in Table 8.10. Table 8.10. Sample Holistic Rubric of a Reflection Paper

Instruction: Read the case study and write a short reflection paper (1-2 pages) about it. A possible grade of A-F will be awarded based on the following levels of performance. A – A submission integrates background knowledge to explain the questions, presents new and well thought out ideas with a reasonable justification, and makes a clear and sound argument with supporting evidence. The submission shows clear evidence of analytical skills (e.g., applying lessons from the textbook or lectures to solve the problems and providing reasonable explanation) and provides constructive

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recommendations. Writing is free of grammatical and spelling errors.

Table 8.10. (Continued)

B – A submission integrates background knowledge to explain the questions, presents new and well thought out ideas with a reasonable justification, and makes a clear argument without supporting evidence. The paper shows beginning analytical skills (e.g., attempting to apply lessons learned to solve the problems but does not provide a rationale) and provides constructive recommendations. Writing is free of grammatical and spelling errors.

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C – A submission contains incomplete background knowledge, presents developing ideas not fully thought through (some ideas have major flaws), and makes a clear argument without supporting evidence. The paper shows beginning analytical skills (e.g., attempting to apply lessons learned to solve the problems but does not provide a rationale) and provides constructive recommendations. A few grammatical and spelling errors. D – A submission contains incomplete background knowledge, is mostly copied from other sources, and presents old ideas that do not add value. Absence of analytical skills exhibited. Lack of argument or making vague arguments. Fails to apply lessons learned to solve the problems; fails to provide recommendations. Many grammatical and spelling errors. F – Did not submit the paper.

Adapted from Born & Jessup (2003).

While holistic scoring provides a quick and easy way to evaluate student work, it does not provide detailed feedback about student performance in specific content areas. Analytical scoring, on the other hand, divides learning objectives into many categories, each of which is assigned one score. This grid or scale provides more detail of what criteria will be evaluated than a holistic scale, although it is time consuming for an instructor to evaluate student work or a product based on one category at a time.

Rubric Design

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A rubric is usually presented in a matrix or checklist format. Rubrics can be designed for the evaluation of specified tasks or for general categories. Rubric design needs to focus on assessment criteria that are observable and measurable. In the following two tables, one presents a sample rubric for assessing case study (Table 8.11) and another is a sample rubric for internet resource project (Table 8.12).

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Table 8.11. Rubric for Assessing Case Study 1 point

2 points

3 points

4 points

Introductory material

There is no introduction. The purpose is not identified

The introduction is present. Identification of the purpose and central questions is sketchy.

The introduction provides a welldeveloped context for the project. The significance of central questions is illustrated by references to course materials.

Descriptions of the setting and data collection process

The narrative contains an incomplete or vague description of the setting, and no description of the data collection process.

The narrative contains an adequate description of the setting, but an incomplete description of the data collection process.

The introduction provides an adequate context for the project. The purpose is identified through reference to one or more central questions. The narrative contains adequate descriptions of the case study setting and the data collection process.

The narrative contains welldeveloped descriptions of the setting and the data collection process (which is built upon concepts from current research, theory, and course materials).

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Quiyun Lin The narrative contains observations from only one perspective, or of a single type of data.

The narrative contains observations from at least two sources.

The narrative contains observations from multiple sources or includes qualitative and quantitative data.

The narrative contains observations from multiple sources, includes qualitative and quantitative data, and makes references to models of appropriate practice that are supported by current research and theory.

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Table 8.11. (Continued) 1 point

2 points

3 points

4 points

Discussion, logic and conclusions

The discussion is incomplete or illogical, and conclusions are missing or unrelated to the central questions.

The discussion is adequate, but conclusions— if present—do not match the central questions.

The discussion seems complete. Conclusions are logical and address the central questions.

The discussion seems complete. Conclusions are logical; they address the central questions, suggest possible strategies for addressing weaknesses, and are tied to the course work.

Presentation clarity and style

At least three of the following are true:  The project contains multiple errors in grammar, spelling or mechanics.  The page layout is cluttered.

Two of the following are true:  The project contains multiple errors in grammar, spelling or mechanics.  The page layout is cluttered.

One of the following is true:  The project contains multiple errors in grammar, spelling or mechanics.  The page layout is cluttered.

All the following are true:  The project contains no serious errors in grammar, spelling or mechanics.  The page layout facilitates understanding of the narrative.  Navigation

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Assessment of Hybrid Learning  Navigation between section is unclear.  APA format is not used for in-text citations and bibliographi cal references to external resources.





Navigation between sections is unclear. APA format is not used for in-text citations and bibliographical references to external resources.

 Navigation between sections is unclear.  APA format is not used for in-text citations and bibliographical references to external resources.

169 between sections is clear.  APA format is used for in-text citations and bibliogra-phical references to external resources.

Table 8.12. Rubric for the Internet Resources Project Key: M = Mastery D = Developing U = Unacceptable

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Learning Objectives  Use precise verbs to specify expected level of thinking and performance.  Address district exit requirements.  Are performance-based. Content  Subject matter is accurate.  Applies to current instructional principles, and appropriate assessment practices.  Project is appropriate to learning outcomes.  Project is interactive.  Easy to follow instructions for students.  Project design encourages critical thinking.  Project ensures active participation by students. Project Rubric (Student Assessment)  Criteria sufficiently measure the outcomes.  Criteria appropriate to level of middle-school student.  Criteria clearly allow student/peer/teacher assessment.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS

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There are many classroom instructional and assessment strategies that are part of the repertoire of good teaching. When instructors use sound instructional practice for the purpose of gathering information on student learning, they are applying this information in an effective way.

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Table 8.13. Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Assessments Tools

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Standardized Exams (Commercial)

Advantages

Disadvantages

Recommendations

 Convenient  Can be adopted and implemented quickly.  Reduces or eliminates faculty time demands in instrument development and grading.  Are scored objectively.  Provide for external validity.  Provide reference group measures.  Can make longitudinal comparisons.  Can test large numbers of students.

 Measures relatively superficial knowledge or learning.  Unlikely to match the specific goals and objectives of a program/institution  Norm-referenced data may be less useful than criterion-referenced.  More summative than formative (may be difficult to isolate what changes are needed).  Norm data may be user norms rather than true national sample.

 Must be selected carefully based on faculty review and determination of match between test content and curriculum content.  Request technical manual and information on reliability and validity from publisher.  Check with other users.  If possible, purchase data disk for creation of customized reports.  If possible, select tests that also provide criterion-referenced results.  Check results against those obtained from other assessment methods.  Embedding the test as part of a course‘s requirements may improve student motivation.

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Table 8.13. (Continued)

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Locally Developed Exams

Advantages

Disadvantages

Recommendations

 Can be tailored to match program and institutional objectives.  Specific criteria for performance can be established in relation to the curriculum.  Can be used to develop locally meaningful norms.  Can obtain results more quickly.  Cheaper than commercial exams.  Easier to use in a pre- and posttest approach.  May be embedded in specific course.

 Complex and time consuming to develop psychometrically valid exams.  Requires considerable leadership and coordination.  May hinder curriculum change if it means that exam would have to be revised.  Vulnerable to student theft and distribution.  Results can not be generalized beyond the program or institution.

 Development requires strong cooperation by program faculty.  Use on-campus experts to assist with test construction and validation.  Include outside experts and stakeholders in development and grading process.  Consider embedding within a course common to all students in the program.  Check results against those obtained from other assessment methods.

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Table 8.13. (Continued)

Performance Measures  Essays  Presentation  Oral exams  Exhibition  Demonstration  Products  Research paper  Poster presentation  Capstone experience  Practical exam  Supervised internship & practicum

Advantages

Disadvantages

Recommendations

 Can be used to assess from multiple perspectives  Using a student-centered design can promote student motivation  Can be used to assess transfer of skills and integration of content  Engages student in active learning  Encourages time on academics outside of class  Can provide a dimension of depth not available in classroom  Can promote student creativity  Can be scored holistically or analytically  May allow probes by faculty to gain clearer picture of student understanding or thought processes  Can provide closing of feedback loop between students and faculty

 Time consuming and labor intensive to design and execute for faculty and students  Must be carefully designed if used to document obtainment of student learning outcomes  Ratings can be more subjective  Requires careful training of raters  Inter-rater reliability must be addressed  Production costs may be prohibitive for some students and hamper reliability  Sample of behavior or performance may not be typical, especially if observers are present

 Can be intimidating to students  Develop specific, measurable criteria for observing and appraising  When possible, use criterionreferenced rating approach instead of simple checklists  Develop rubrics for greater consistency between raters  Must clearly articulate expectations to students prior to initiation and provide models or performance criteria  Consider possible award strategies for enhancing student motivations (best of show, etc)  Performances could be videotaped  If possible, base assessment on range of products or performances instead of on single items  All raters should be trained and inter-rater reliability checked

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Table 8.13. (Continued)

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Advantages

Disadvantages

 Can place faculty more in a mentor role than as judge  Can be summative or formative  Can provide an avenue for student self-assessment and reflection  Can be embedded within courses  Can adapt current assignments  Usually the most valid way of assessing skill development Surveys & Questionnaires (students, alumni, employers, public)

 Easy to administer  Can cover a variety of topics in a brief amount of time  Easier to communicate results to stakeholders  Can be used to gather information from individuals who would be difficult to include in other assessment methods  Demonstrates concern about gathering feedback/information

Recommendations  Consider training peers, alumni, and community members as raters

 Information on student learning (perception and opinion) considered to be indirect data  Good surveys and questionnaires are difficult to develop  Voluntary participation may result in biased results  Forced-response choices may not allow individuals to respond as they wish  Low response rate

 Pilot all instruments  Use as a supplement to direct methods of assessment  Include open-ended items with forced-choice response surveys

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Table 8.13. (Continued)

Portfolios  Learning Portfolios  Assessment Portfolios  Job Portfolios  Showcase Portfolios  Proficiency/ Competency Portfolios  Developmental Portfolios  Hybrid Portfolios

Advantages

Disadvantages

Recommendations

 Shows sophistication in student performance  Identify student weaknesses for remediation, if timed properly  Can be used to view learning and development longitudinally  Multiple components of the curriculum can be assessed (e.g. writing, critical thinking, technology skills)  Samples are more likely than test results to reflect student ability when planning, input from others, and similar opportunities common to more work settings are available  Process of reviewing and evaluating portfolios provide an excellent opportunity for faculty exchange and development, discussion of curriculum goals and objectives, review of criteria, and program feedback

 Portfolio will be no better than the quality of the collected artifacts  Time consuming and challenging to evaluate  Space and ownership challenges make evaluation difficult  Content may vary widely among students  Students may fail to remember to collect items  Transfer students may not be in the position to provide complete portfolio  Time intensive to convert to meaningful data  Costly in terms of evaluator time and effort  Management of the collection and evaluation process, including the establishment of reliable and valid grading criteria, is likely to be challenging  May not provide for externality  If samples to be included have

 Clear expectations about the purpose and collection responsibilities will help students succeed in using the portfolio method. The works that student select will be more satisfying if the student can compare to established criteria. If the faculty wants student portfolios to represent student development over time, they will need to be scrupulous about setting forth the performance demand of collecting and examining works throughout the student's career.  The success of the portfolio may be enhanced when students reflect on how all the pieces work together to express their learning or meet department criteria.  Consider having portfolios submitted as part of course requirements, especially a capstone course at the end of a

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Table 8.13. (Continued)

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Advantages  May be economical in terms of student time and effort if no separate assessment administration time is required  Greater faculty control over interpretation and use of results  Avoids or minimizes test anxiety and other one-shot measurement problems  Increases power of maximum performance measures over more artificial or restrictive speed measures on test or inclass sample  Increases student participation (selection, revision, and evaluation) in the assessment process  Reflective statements could be used to gather information about student satisfaction

Disadvantages

Recommendations

been previously submitted for course grades, faculty may be concerned that a hidden agenda of the process is to validate their grading  Security concerns may arise as to whether submitted samples are the students‘ own work or adhere to other measurement criteria  Must consider whether and how graduates will be allowed continued access to their portfolios  Inter-rater reliability must be addressed

program  Develop specific, measurable criteria for observing and appraising  When possible, use criterionreferenced rating approach instead of simple checklists  Develop rubrics for greater consistency between raters  Have more than one rater for each portfolio, establish inter-rater reliability through piloting designed to fine-tune rating criteria  Provide training for raters and check inter-rater reliability  Recognize that portfolios in which samples are selected by the student probably represent their best work rather than typical work  Cross-validate portfolios with more controlled student assessments for increased validity

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In order to better utilize an assessment tool, instructors need to consider strengths and weaknesses of each assessment and choose one that best meets the course objectives. When a comprehensive assessment program at the classroom level balances formative and summative student learning/achievement information, a clear picture emerges of where a student is relative to learning targets and standards. Students should be able to articulate this shared information about their own learning. The more we know about individual students as they engage in the learning process, the better we can adjust instruction to ensure that all students continue to achieve by moving forward in their learning. Table 8.13 presents a variety of assessment tools with their strengths and weaknesses as well as recommendations.

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CHALLENGES Assessment is a very challenging responsibility. As Smith (2007) states, it is about several things at once: First, assessments need to capture both individual and collective aspects of learning. Second, assessments need to be designed as learning events that align with instruction. Third, it is important to assess both processes and learning products. Fourth, whereas instructors are usually the assessors of student learning and collaboration, it would be beneficial to design assessments that students can use to examine their own progress. Fifth, as students are given more opportunities in assessing their own learning and progress in hybrid environments, they also need to be provided with criteria for understanding the goals of learning and assessment. Lastly, evaluating student learning very quickly spills over into an assessment of your own teaching, the scope and sequence of your hybrid course design, strategies selected, and supporting media (Tillema, 2009). Even when using summative design models, the necessity of revising and refining the materials and course design is critical to useful and effective teaching. You are never completely finished with a course, particularly courses designed for technology-enhanced learning (Tan & Towndrow, 2009). Assessment is no less challenging when hybrid learning designs are employed. Traditional means of assessment may shift to nontraditional means in a hybrid course, such as examining both class and online attendance to determine participation. Levia (2008) contended that assessment of hybrid learning is not to be conducted as it is or has been in a traditional classroom, and suggested that traditional assessment measures are unlikely to reveal the complexities of the outcomes of student-centered hybrid learning environments that are radically different from the dominant teacher-centered instructional paradigm.

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CONCLUSION There have been major shifts in paradigms of learning and instruction, and current views propose that instruction and assessment are closely related. That means that assessment is not an activity that stands apart from learning—that is, coming at the end of learning—but one that is part of the learning process. Finding out what has been achieved and what still remains to be done are as much a part of learning as reading and doing an experiment. Assessment for learning will inevitably shape how students approach the educational experience. The primary task in assessing learning is to ensure that assessment techniques support and enhance intended learning processes and outcomes. The intended learning outcomes in teacher education are deep and meaningful learning. Achieving deep and meaningful learning is the primary motivation for adopting hybrid learning designs. Hybrid learning designs provide for sustained discourse and critical reflection. For deep and meaningful approaches to be successful, it is essential that students be assessed for their depth of understanding, not for simple factual recall.

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REFERENCES Born, A. D., & Jessup, C. M. (2003). Performance assessment: A case for rubrics in the virtual classroom. In F. Albalooshi (Ed.). Virtual education: Cases in learning and teaching technologies. Hershey, PA: IRM Press. Carroll, J. B., Morrell, P. D., & Eifler, K. E. (2007). An alternative model to implementing technology integration in teacher education. AILACTE Journal, 4, 31-47. Chang, C. (2008). Enhancing self-perceived effects using Web-based portfolio assessment. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 1753-1771. Craddock, D., & Mathias, H. (2009). Assessment options in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 34, 127-140. Crisp, V., & Ward, C. (2008). The development of a formative scenario-based computer assisted assessment tool in psychology for teachers: The PePCAA project. Computers & Education, 50, 1509-1526. Gillies, R. M. (2007). Cooperative learning: Integrating theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Levia, D. (2008). Assessment of student learning in a hybrid PBL capstone seminar. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32, 217-231.

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Lin, Q. (2008a). Student satisfactions in four mixed courses in elementary teacher education program. Internet and Higher Education, 11, 53-59. Lin, Q. (2008b). Student views of hybrid learning: A one-year exploratory study. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 25, 57-66. Lund, A. (2008). Assessment made visible: Individual and collective practices. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 15, 32-51. Melton, B. (2009). Achievement and satisfaction in blended learning versus traditional general health course designs. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching & Learning, 3, 1-13. Miller, T. (2009). Formative computer-based assessment in higher education: The effectiveness of feedback in supporting student learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 34, 181-192. Smith, K. (2007). Empowering school- and university-based teacher educators as assessors: A school-university cooperation. Educational Research and Evaluation, 13, 279-293. So, H., & Brush, T. (2008). Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors. Computers & Education, 51, 318-336. Stiggins, R.J. (2001). Student-involved classroom assessment (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill-Prentice Hall. Tan, A. L., & Towndrow, P. A. (2009). Catalyzing student-teacher interactions and teacher learning in science practical formative assessment with digital video technology. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 25, 61-67. Tillema, H. H. (2009). Assessment for learning to teach: Appraisal of practice teaching lessons by mentors, supervisors, and student teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 60, 155-167. van Aalst, & Chan, C. K. K. (2007). Student-directed assessment of knowledge building using electronic portfolios. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16, 175–220. Vu, T. T., & Dall'Alba, G. (2007). Students‘ experience of peer assessment in a professional course. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32, 541556. Wolsey, T. D. (2008). Efficacy of instructor feedback on written work in an online program. International Journal on E-Learning, 7, 311-329.

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Chapter 9

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A FINAL WORD Koehler, Mishra and Yahya (2007) argued that technology integration in teaching and learning required understanding the dynamic, transactional relationship between content, pedagogy and technology. In this view, good teaching with technology for a given content matter is complex and multidimensional. The challenge is to reexamine the core values of teacher education so that they will be enhanced and not lost. The goal is to create, enhance, and sustain the vitality of communities of inquiry (Bonk, Kim, & Zeng, 2006). Teacher education will be the poorer if the result is to simply deploy hybrid learning designs to find greater efficiencies but without the commensurate qualitative gains of purposeful collaboration. Frankly, teacher education has to do better to improve the design, the facilitation, and the direction of meaningful learning experiences (Larson, 2009). There is no longer any reason to use the lecture to simply transmit information. Students can and should come to class armed with the most current information and be ready to engage in the critical and creative process of making sense of the information, followed by an exploration of the implications and applications (Gouge, 2009). For all of these reasons, as well as because of the successes of individual hybrid learning designs, there is a convergence of interest (intuitive appeal), need (educational demands) and opportunity (potential of communications technology) with regard to hybrid learning. Hybrid learning designs remove the constraints to create and sustain communities of inquiry that frames this book.

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DISAPPEARANCE OF THE TERM ‘HYBRID LEARNING’ The language of teaching and learning is in a state of change and flux. At the time of writing, the term ‗hybrid learning‘ is commonly used in the way in which it is used in this book. However, I anticipate that in a relatively short time the use of the word ‗hybrid‘ will be dropped. The merging of technologies with teaching and learning will become more and more seamless, where a distinction between hybrid and non-hybrid learning will no longer be necessary—it‘s all just learning. Thus, it will become unnecessary, as it will be generally accepted that teacher education programs integrate an appropriate blend of learning activities and experiences. As online learning becomes more commonplace, faculty may not necessarily see themselves as doing something unique and special when integrating online communications technology, particularly in hybrid learning environments where a small portion of the class may be conducted online. For many younger faculty who grew up fully immersed in online technology, using Internet tools for instruction is second nature. They use these tools as many older faculty would use overhead projectors.

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CONCERNS AND POSSIBILITIES Although many teacher educators recognize the advantages of hybrid learning; some may be hestitating to adopt this new pedagogy. Here are some common concerns. One concern relates to the complexity of learning and teaching processes. Learning involves a number of interrelated processes that need to be hybrid. These processes change according to the learners‘ context. Changing one variable may have a huge impact on the dynamics of the whole course. The second concern relates to control and accountability. When designing courses, instructors may feel that they cannot afford to experiment and get things wrong. This may reduce their confidence to experiment with e-tools and media to try out a range of possibilities. They may be conscious that their students have limited time and that it must be spent productively. The third concern relates to the term ‗hybrid learning‘. One question that arises is whether or not you can blend pedagogies. My own view is that a particular hybrid learning program will be underpinned by one particular pedagogy but that it is possible to introduce specific activities that are located within another pedagogy. In fact, while common notions of hybrid learning consider the integration of activities that occur

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in face-to-face settings with those that occur online, several other options may exist (Ogusthorpe & Graham, 2003): blending of pedagogy, blending of synchronous and non-synchronous technologies, blending instructional formats (from text-based to more multimodal technologies), etc. Through the use of communication technologies it is also possible to bring learners or faculty from other institutions into the teaching and learning occurring locally. Thus participant in courses may also be ―hybrid‖. A non-exhaustive list of blending options might then include the frequencies along which activities occur on several spectra:       

Time (Synchronous—Asynchronous) Place (Face-to-Face—Online) Pedagogy (Cooperative—Competitive) Technologies (Text—Multimodal) Format (Cohort—Self-paced) Courses (Home-institution‘s courses—Others) Participants (Local—Distant)

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CONCLUSION Hybrid programs and hybrid courses will become the norm in the future. These take advantage of the complimentary strengths of classroom instruction and online learning. Such things as student interaction and personal one-to-one faculty interaction can be enhanced if the teacher educators are willing to incorporate Internet online teaching technology into traditional classrooms (Kaleta, Skibba, & Joosten, 2007). The greatest change will occur with the ability to engage students in reflective discourse and the ability to adjust to the learner‘s individual and collaborative needs (Kaleta et al., 2007). In short, change will occur with the ability to create and sustain a community of inquiry. In this context hybrid learning could become one of the most significant developments of the 21st century. The real importance and significance in hybrid learning lies in its potential. If we forget the title and focus on the process, hybrid learning represents a real opportunity to create learning experiences that can provide the right learning at the right time and in the right place for every individual. Hybrid learning necessitates that educators question what is important and consider how much time should be spent in the classroom. When we step back and allow our minds to escape the paradigmatic trap of either the traditional

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lecture or Web-based learning, we can approach the possibilities of hybrid learning and become an innovative teacher educator.

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REFERENCES Bonk, C., Kim, K. J., & Zeng, T. (2006). Future directions of blended learning in higher education and workplace learning settings. In C. J. Bonk & C. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 550-567). San Franscisco: Pfeiffer. Gouge, C. (2009). Conversation at a crucial moment: Hybrid courses and the future of writing programs. College English, 71, 338-362. Kaleta, R., Skibba, K., & Joosten, T. (2007). Discovering, designing, and delivering hybrid course. In A. G. Picciano (Ed.), Blended learning: Research perspectives. Needham, MA: Sloan-C. Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., & Yahya, K. (2007). Tracing the development of instructor knowledge in a design seminar: Integrating content, pedagogy and technology. Computers & Education, 49, 740–762. Larson, L. (2009). A descriptive study of mentoring and technology integration among teacher education faculty. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, l7, 119-135. Ogusthorpe, R. T., & Graham, C. R. (2003). Blended learning environments: Definitions and directions. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4, 227233.

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APPENDICES APPENDIX A: HYBRID COURSE PROPOSAL FORM

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I. Heading Applicant Information Name Position Department E-mail Phone Office Location Mailing address Please attach a brief statement of support from your dean or department head.

II. Project Detail Course Information Place the course in context in a short paragraph of 150 words or fewer. Describe student learning outcomes, content, primary teaching methods currently used—for example, undergraduate educational psychology course, students gain basic knowledge and concepts primarily through readings, lectures, and inquiry projects.

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Project Goals and Rationale (800 Words orF ewer) Articulate how this project involves innovative course design rather than simply a series of minor changes. Describe what you hope to accomplish with this project and list the primary goals. How will both effective pedagogy and resource efficiencies be realized? Describe your vision for this course, how it may involve hybrid learning, how evaluation will be consonant with the nature of the course, and how it will assist your faculty and department. Please detail how you believe it will affect your teaching and your students‘ learning. Please indicate if the students taking the course will need any special resources (for example, daily computer access). Finally, what roles will TAs or other student assistants play in the redesigned course? Why is this project important? What are the key design or redesign issues? How is hybrid learning essential to the improved delivery of this course? Who will be involved? What resources will be needed?

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Redesign Phase (250 Words or Fewer) How will this project involve all faculty, staff, or stakeholders to ensure success? Time Frame  When will this new or revised inquiry or hybrid-learning course first be offered?  When will you begin to work on your design or redesign project? Include your current course outline here.

III. Project Evaluation and Sustainability Plans (Approximately 1 Page) Evaluation Plan (250 Words or Fewer) List your project‘s goals and describe your plan for assessing the extent to which they are being achieved. The analysis of these data should allow you to make evidence-based claims about the efficacy of your intervention, and it would provide guideposts for future redesign. Sustainability Plan (250 Words or Fewer) Assuming evaluation activities yield information to suggest that the course innovations should continue, what measures will you take to ensure continuation

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and improvement? How will you share what you learn with others in your faculty?

IV. Budget Detail If this award is intended to be applied toward release time for development, state who will be released, when, for how long, and at what projected cost. Detail any other funds that are being requested to complete the project.

APPENDIX B: HYBRID COURSE SYLLABUS

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Semester: Spring 2009 Course Number: EDU 320 (Section A) Course Title: Applied Learning Strategies for the Exceptional Learner Number of credits: 3 Credit hours breakdown: 3 Lecture/0 Lab/3 Credits Course format: Hybrid (70% in the classroom, 30% online)

I. Course Description The goal of this course is to prepare general education teachers to successfully include students with special challenges into their classrooms. The unique physical, cognitive and behavioral needs of all types of exceptional learners will be examined, with an emphasis on the role of a general education teacher in the inclusive classrooms. Upon completing this course, the teachers-intraining will have a sound knowledge base as well as practical classroom skills of working with all types of exceptional learners. The course will be delivered in hybrid format with 30% of seat time replaced by online activities. Students will meet in the classroom for which there are weekly meetings in a traditional classroom setting, but most assignments and assessments are conducted online.

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II. Course Objectives At the end of the course, students will:     

 

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

Define special education and related terms. Describe the characteristics, abilities, and disabilities of students commonly classified as exceptional. Describe models and philosophies that provide the basis for special education practice. Demonstrate an awareness of the major issues currently confronting special educators. Understand the educational needs of exceptional children and the alternate learning environments and current instruction practices employed to meet these needs. Understand roles of students, parents, teachers, other school and community personnel in planning a student's individualized program. Identify assurances and due process rights related to assessment, eligibility, and placement for students who are culturally and/or linguistically diverse. Reflect upon the educational implications of characteristics of various exceptionalities.

III. Grading Scale 94-100% 90-93.9% 86-89.9% 82-85.9% 79-81.9% 70-78.9% Below 70%

A B+ B C+ C D F

Superior Excellent Above Average Average Passing Less than Satisfactory Failure

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IV. Course Requirements A. Small Group Case Story Discussions (in Class) In a small group of three to four students, you are asked to choose two case stories from our text (any chapter) and meet in your small group to discuss the cases. There should be no repetition of the same case story in one group. After the discussions, prepare a summary of each of the cases as well as your group‘s responses to all the case questions that you‘ve gone through in your group discussions. The case questions could be found in sections ―What do you think?‖ and ―What would you recommend?‖ in the text.

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B. Discussion Board Participation (Online) You are required to participate three times in Discussion Board. The 1st discussion will be led by the instructor. The next three will be led by students. Students who lead the discussion will research the topic ahead of time and post readings and discussion questions on the Discussion Board at least 24 hours before the class. Please prepare enough open-ended questions and alert your group members about your posted readings PRIOR TO the class so that they may come prepared. All discussions are conducted online within the normal class time. C. WebQuest Do an internet search for one of your topics of interest in special education and submit a WebQuest to me for publishing it online. A typical WebQuest requires you to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the information from the Web. The focus of the WebQuest is on synthesizing information rather than merely retrieving it. Therefore, you should summarize and synthesize the information in your own words. For more information, visit: http://webquest.sdsu.edu/webquest.html D. Exceptional Child Observation Paper You will be required to spend a minimum of 10 hours at a PreK-6 setting, observing and/or interviewing a child with special needs, or an individual working with exceptional children, or attending activities/meetings related to special education. That is to say, you could focus your attention either on an exceptional child or a professional working with this child, or both. Here are the suggestions: a) Observe and/or interview a special education teacher or a regular education teacher who has students with disabilities in his/her class. b) Observe and/or interview a student with disabilities or special needs.

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Observe and/or interview an Adaptive Physical Education Teacher Observe and/or interview a Speech/Language Pathologist Observe and/or interview a Physical Therapist Observe and/or interview an Occupational Therapist Observe and/or interview a School Psychologist or the Guidance Counselor h) Observe and/or interview a member of Pupil Appraisal i) Attend an SBLC (School Building Level Committee) Meeting j) Attend an IEP (Individualized Education Program) Conference k) Attend a workshop pertaining to working with students with disabilities or giftedness.

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After completing your observations, submit your signed time sheet and begin writing your observation paper. In your observation paper, be sure to talk about your personal reactions to what you‘ve observed including strategies used, management techniques and special methods employed. For more information on how to observe, refer to the attached ―Guided Observation Questions.‖

E. Exceptional Child Presentation Based on your observation and your research, you‘ll be given 15-20 minutes to present your observation and what you have researched about that particular exceptionality. You‘re evaluated not only on the depth of the information you present, but on the degree to which you‘re able to engage the whole class in the discussion of the issues you put forward, in order to draw appropriate implications for this study. F. Mid-term and Final (online) There will be mid-term and final exams which are made up of essay questions, based on information covered in text and class discussions. The tests will be conducted in Blackboard. G. Active Participation (both FTF and online) Participation includes both participation in FTF and online classrooms. Appropriate participation in a learning community includes regular, thoughtful contributions to class discussions and activities, courteous attention and behavior in class, and the willingness to encourage and support others in their efforts. These behaviors reflect appropriate conduct for a professional educator and cannot be accomplished if you are absent or tardy. At the end of the semester,

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you‘ll be given opportunities to self-assess your own participation according to the rubrics given.

V. Required Text 

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Turnbull, R., Turnbull, A., Shank, M., & Smith, S. J. (2004). Exceptional lives: Special education in today’s schools (4th ed.) Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall. Other readings will be assigned Companion website: www.prenhall.com/turnbull

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VI. Recommended Readings Bullock, C., & Foegen, A. (2002). Constructive conflict resolution for students with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 289-295. Dickson, K. (2003). Gifted education and African American learners: An equity perspective. In J. A. Castellano (Ed.), Special populations in gifted education: Working with diverse gifted learners (pp. 45-64). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Duhaney, L. M. G., & Salend, S. J. (2000). Parental perceptions of includisve educational placements. Remedial and Special Education, 21, 121-128. Ford, A., Davern, L., & Schnorr, R. (2001). Learners with significant disabilities: Curricular relevance in an era of standards-based reform. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 214-222. Hitchcock, C., Meyer, A., Rose, D., & Jackson, R. (2002). Providing new access to the general curriculum: Universal design for learning. Council for Exceptional Children, 35, 8-17. Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (2000). What definitions of learning disability say and don‘t say: A critical analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 239256. King-Sears, M. E. (2001). Three steps for gaining access to the general education curriculum for learners with disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 67-76. Kleinert, H., Green, P., Hurte, M., Clayton, J., & Oetinger, C. (2002). Creating and using meaningful alternate. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, 40-47. Matshaw, M. L. (Eds.). (2002). Children with disabilities (5th ed.). Baltimore: Brookes.

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Mills, G. E., & Duff-Mallams, K. (2000). Special education medication. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31, 72-78. National Research Council. (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Palmer, S., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2003). Promoting self-determination in early elementary school: Teaching self-regulated problem-solving and goal setting skills. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 115-126. Thousand, J. S., & Villa, R. A. (2000). Collaborative teaming: A powerful tool in school restructuring. In R. A. Villa & J. S. Thousand (Eds.), Restructuring for caring and effective education: Piecing the puzzle (pp. 254-292). Baltimore: Brooks. Wehmeyer, M. L., Sands, D. J., Knowlton, H. E., & Kozleski, E. B. (2002). Providing access to the general curriculum: Teaching students with mental retardation. Baltimore: Brookes.

VII. Recommended Web Sites 

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        

Council for Exceptional Children www.cec.sped.org National Association for Bilingual Education www.nabe.org National Association for Gifted Children www.nagc.org National Foundation for Gifted and Creative Children www.nfgcc.org Children's Defense Fund www.childrensdefense.org Autism Society of America www.autism-society.org Center for the Study of Autism www.autism.com Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders www.ccbd.net United Cerebral Palsy www.ucpa.org American Speech, Language, and Hearing Association www.asha.org

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VIII. Course Schedule Meetings

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Introduction /Overview/Syllabus Orientation to Blackboard and the online component Class meets in Computer Lab 217

Meeting Two

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Readings: Chapters 1-2 Online Discussion Board #1 (Teacher-Led, whole class) Class meets online

Meeting Three

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Readings: Chapters 3-4 Case Stories Group Discussion conference and sign up Class meets in Main 202

Meeting Four

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Readings: Chapter 5-6 Small Group Case story discussion #1 Class meets in Main 202

Meeting Five

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Readings: Chapter 7-8 Class meets in Main 202

Meeting Six

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Online Discussion Board #2 Class meets online (led by Group A)

Meeting Seven

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WebQuest Workshop Class meets in Computer Lab 217

Meeting Eight

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Mid-term (Chapters 1-8); online test Class meets in Computer Lab 217

Meeting Nine

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Videotape: Sean‘s story: A lesson in life (40min) Readings: Chapters 9-10 Class meets in Main 202

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Discussion Board #3 (led by Group B) Class meets online

Meeting Eleven  

Readings: Chapters 11-12 Small Group Case story discussion #2

Meeting One

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   

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Topics

Meeting Ten

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Meeting Twelve  

Readings: Chapters 13-14 Assignment due: submit the Observation Time Sheet in Blackboard Class meets in Main 202

Meeting Thirteen  

Readings: Chapters 15-16 Assignment due: WebQuest (submit the assignment in Blackboard)

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Class meets in Main 202

Meeting Fourteen  

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Class meets in Main 202

Meeting Fifteen  

Note.

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Exceptional child research presentation Assignments due: Submit the presentation PowerPoint and other handouts in Blackboard Final (chapters 8-16); online test Class meets in Computer Lab 217

Face-to-face meeting in classroom;

Face-to-face meeting in computer lab;

Meeting online

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



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INDEX Access to computer, 134 educational opportunities and services, 34 information and resources, 53, 55, 78, 114 knowledge, 7 materials, 37 projects and assignments, 92 technology, 40, 130 tools, 53 Accountability 5, 51,147, 180 Active Learning 53, 54, 64, 172 Activity field definition, 117 round robin, 117 seven nouns, 117 Adaptation, 56 Alignment content, pedagogy, and technology, 9 Ambiguity, 145 Angel, 8, 22 Approach critical, 150 higher-order, 154 reflective, 149 student-centered, 34, 71, 142 teacher-centered, 34, 175 transactional collaborative, 33

Assessment attendance and participation, 13 criteria 147, 157 for learning, 175 of learning, 180 formative, 72, 112, 149 ongoing, 144 peer, 90, 107, 110 performance, 154, 158 summative, 164, 170, 175 Atutor, 14

Balance, 40, 51, 75 Behaviorism, 46, 47, 49 Blackboard, 74, 75, 85,92 Blend, 40, 148, 181. See hybrid Blogs, 55, 104, 107

Cartoon, 118 Case studies, 18, 50 Checklist, 77, 95, 167, 175 Claroline, 15 Coffeehouse, 118 Collaboration, 122, 125, 126, 131 Communication verbal, 36, 41 non-verbal, 32

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Communications technology, 1, 3, 33, 34 Communities of Inquiry, 66, 78, 140, 141, 142, 179, 181, 295 Communities of practice, 8 Constructivism, 46, 48, 76 Consultant, 143 Contact. Also see communication student-faculty, 149 COSE, 15 Course Levels, 83 Course Management Systems. See Learning Management Systems Course web site, 57, 90-92 Criterion, 22

Delivery course, 69, 100 method of, 155 visual, 105 Demonstration, 104 Designers of content, 143 of learning, 143 Desire2Learn, 22 Didactor, 15 Discussion board asynchronous, 6, 11, 13 synchronous, 31, 34, 55 Discussion forums. See discussion board Docebo, 16 Drupal, 16

eCollege, 23 eFront, 16 Engagement, 13, 32, 33 Epsilon, 23 Essays, 172 Exam practical, 172

Index standardized, 171 Exhibition, 172 Experience capstone, 172 field, 7 virtual field, 11

Facilitation discussion, 54 communication, 140 direct instruction, 141 Facilitator, 141, 142, 145 ongoing process, 138 hybrid learning, 145 Feedback, 141, 147 Field experience. See internship and practicum Fle3, 16 Flexible environment, 34, 56

General Public License, 14 GoingOn, 17

High expectations, 33, 53, 54 Hybrid mixed mode, 6 blended learning, 6 Hypermedia, 104 See also hypertext Hypertext, 103

ILIAS, 17 LAMS, 17 .LRN, 17 Inclusion, 143 Inquiry practical, 66, 67 projects, 54 Instruction

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Index classroom-based, 100 instructional approaches, 58 instructional changes, 76 instructional design, 38, 56 instructional goals, 35, 84 instructional materials, 152 instructional settings, 82 instructional skills, 133 instructional strategies, 139 Integration content, 172 FTF and online learning, 180 social and academic, 32 technology, 11, 12, 63, 72, 74, 76, 78, 179 Interaction asynchronous and synchronous, 32 class or classroom, 13, 84 face-to-face, 30, 32, 37, 62, 75 formal and informal, 32 human, 7, 30 instructor-to-student, 62, 72 one-to-one, 181 online, 32, 40 social, 32, 57 two-way, 68 virtual, 73 Interactive learning discussion, 121, 142 hybrid course, 137 multimodal, 162 online experience, 95 projects, 170 Internet hunt, 118 Internship and practicum, 172

197 learner-centeredness, 63 technology-mediated, 45, 47, 55, 58, 73 Learning Management Systems closed source, 22 open source, 14-15 Learning styles, 38, 87 Learning adventure, 8, 9 cooperative, 6, 122 experiential, 6 face to face, 6, 85, 100, 103 hybrid, 112, 119, 122, 125, 129 inquiry-based, 6, 9 online, 11-14, 53-54, 65-67, 95125 open, 6 problem-based, 15, 51, 98 project-based, 6 reciprocal and collaborative, 51

Mambo, 18 Manhattan Virtual Classroom, 19 Matrix, 19, 167. Also see checklist Measure, 148, 152, 159, 161, 170174 Mentor, 8, 51, 117, 172 Metacognitive awareness, 56, 65, 67, 72 Mixed mode. See hybrid Modeling, 134 Moodle, 14 Motivation, 30-32, 48 MySourceMatrix, 19

Net Geners, 56-57 Learning Activities, 12, 34, 63, 67 Learning environments collaborative, 64 community-centeredness, 64 knowledge-centeredness, 64

Objective course, 86 educational, 141

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learning, 7, 13, 147, 166, 169171, 174 performance, 84 OLAT, 19 Online, 117-131 OPensourceCMS, 20 Outcomes learning, 78, 82, 98, 123, 138, 142, 152 observable and measurable, 47

Participation, 69, 78, 87, 103, 115116 Pedagogy, 179-181, 184 Peer interviews, 118 Peer review, 90, 107, 110, 112, 148, 150, 157, 161 Perspective apprenticeship, 50 developmental, 50 learning, 58 nurturing, 51 social reform, 52 transmission, 46 Philosophies of learning, 8 behaviorist, 46, 49 sociocultural, 8 socio-constructivist, 8 Plone, 20 Portfolios assessment, 173 developmental, 173 e-portfolios, 54, 90, 161 hybrid, 173 job, 173 learning, 173 proficiency/competency, 173 showcase, 173 Presence cognitive, 65-66 social, 65, 67, 74, 144 teaching, 65, 82, 87

Index Presentation research, 193 PowerPoint, 75, 103 poster, 172 audio/video, 103 Presenter. Also see transmitter didactic, 143 Prior knowledge, 83, 135 Process assessment, 147, 158 learning, 30, 46 Products, 98, 143

RCampus, 21 Reasoning, 48 Reflection, 8, 13, 34, 36-37, 50-53 Research paper, 172 Respect, 51, 120, 142 Responsibility, 65-68, 78, 84, 96, 111, 114 Restructuring, 7 Return on investment (ROI), 83 Rubric analytic, 164-165 holistic, 165-166

Sakai, 21 Scanvenger hunt, see Internet hunt Scholar360, 24 Self-assessment, 148-150, 154-155, 162-163, 172 Self-directed, 16, 32, 55-56, 67, 122, 134 Self-efficacy, 51 Self-evaluation. See self-assessment Self-judgment. See self-assessment Skills analytical, 165 diverse, 120 higher order skills, 48, 154 instructional, 133

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interpersonal, 142 netiquette, 99 peer-review, 150 practical classroom, 186 self-assessment, 149 problem-solving, 125, 163 social, 115 study, 52 teaching, 3 technical, 129 technology, 29 time management, 135 Sloodle, 21 Socio-constructivist, 8 Student attitudes, 86 Subjective, 48 Surveys, 16, 77, 121, 148, 152, 173

Technology assistive, 14 communications, 1, 33-36, 40, 179-180 education, 23, 84 instructional, 2, 9 Internet, 55 online, 54, 56, 180 Timecruiser, 23 Transition, 24, 73, 144 Transmitter. Also see presenter didactic, 138 Turnitin, 24

Task collaborative, 156 scheduling and organizational, 85

Web Logs. See blogs Web-enhancement, 73 WebQuest, 106-107, 188 WisCom, 8

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Videoconference, 11 Virtual communities, 32, 76, 78

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