Asia in the making of Europe, Vol. 1, Book 2 9780226467320, 9780226467092

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
Chapter VII: SOUTHEAST ASIA (page 493)
Chapter VIII: JAPAN (page 651)
Chapter IX: CHINA (page 730)
Chapter X: EPILOGUE: A COMPOSITE PICTURE (page 822)
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (page 837)
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHIES (authorname, page 865)
INDEX (page 913)

Citation preview

IN THE MAKING OF EUROPE

BLANK PAGE

IN THE MAKING OF EUROPE

DONALD F. LACH VOLUME.

I The

Century of Discovery BOOK TWO

xSRR. | Ny

Sel n/N

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO AND LONDON

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, CHICAGO 60637

The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1965 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 1965 Second Impression 1971 Paperback edition 1994 Printed in the United States of America

9897969594 $43 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 64—19848

ISBN 0-226-46731-7 (v. 1. bk. 1) ISBN 0-226-46732-5 (v. 1. bk. 2)

€ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Contents BOOK ONE

PART I

Introduction 3 Heritage

Chapter I: ANTIQUITY AND THE MIDDLE AGES 5

A.D. 300) 12

1. India in the Greek Tradition (600-100 B.c.) 5 2. The Expanding Horizons of the Graeco-Roman World (26 B.c.-

3. The Medieval View of Asia (300-1300) 20 4. The Revelation of Cathay (1240-1350) 30 Chapter II: THE RENAISSANCE BEFORE THE GREAT DISCOVERIES 49

1. Trade, Exploration, and Diplomacy 50

2. Travel Accounts of India $9

4. Fine Arts 71 5. Literature 74 6. Technology and Invention 81 7. Summary 84 3. Cartography and Geography 65

[v]

Contents

PART II

New Channels of Information

Introduction 89 Chapter III: Tue Spice TRADE 91 1. The First Voyage of Vasco da Gama 92 2. The Beginnings of Trade between Portugal and India, 1499-1503 98

3. The Reorientation of Commerce in Europe, 1500-1515 103

4. The Conflict over the Moluccas 114 5. The Conduct of Trade at Lisbon and Antwerp, 1509-48 119 6. The Revival of Eastern Mediterranean Trade, 1548-70 127

| 7. The New Era of Contract Trade, 1570-98 131 Appendix. Pepper Prices in the Sixteenth Century 143

Chapter IV: THe Printep Worp 148

1. Portugal’s Control of Information 151 2. Circulation in Europe of the First Reports, 1500-1520 154

3. The Widening Circle, 1521-50 171

4. The Iberian Commentators and Linschoten 181 5. The Great Collections of Travel Literature 204

6. The Evidence of Maps 217 Chapter V: THe CHRISTIAN MIssION 229 1. The Portuguese ‘Padroado” (Patronage) of the East 230

2. The Jesuit Enterprise, 1542-1600 245

3. The Mission Stations of India 262

4. The Mission Stations of Further Asia 281 A. Xavier’s Reconnaissance, 1546-52 281

B. Malacca and the Spiceries 286 C. Mass Conversions and Reform in Japan, 1552-82 290

D. Macao and Manila 295 E, Troubles in Japan, 1582-1600 303 F, Friars and Adventurers in Cambodia 309

5. The Jesuit Letters, Letterbooks, and General Histories 314 [ vi]

Contents

PART III

Four Images and a Composite Picture

Introduction 335 Chapter VI: INDIA 337 1.A.The Portuguese Profile 338 Geographic Placement and Adjacent Islands 339

B. Malabar 347 D. The Deccan States and Goa 381

C. The Hindu Empire of Vijayanagar 369

E. Gujarat (Cambay) 392 F. From Cape Comorin to Bengal 406 G. Hindustan and the Afghan-Mughul Struggle for Supremacy 418

2. The Jesuit Newsletters and Histories 427

A. The “Indian Letters” in Europe, 1545-1601 428

B. The First Impressions, 1552-70 431 C. The Second Generation, 1570-1601 446

3. The Italian, English, and Dutch Commentators 468

BOOK TWO

Chapter VII: SourHgast AsIA 493

3. Siam 519 4. Burma $39 5. Indochina | $60 1. The Printed Sources in Review 493 2. Malaya, the Crossroads of Asia $05

6. Sumatra, Borneo, and Java $71

7. The Spiceries 592 8. The Philippine Islands 623 [ vii]

Contents

Chapter VIII: JAPAN 651

1. First Notices 652

2. “The Best [People] Who Have Yet Been Discovered” 663

3. The Successors of Xavier, 1552-85 674

4. A Japanese Mission in Europe, 1584-86 688 5. Maps, Histories, and Polemics in Europe, 1585-1601 706

Chapter IX: Cumna 730 1. Behind the Portuguese Curtain, 1520-50 731

2. Mendoza’s Book and Its Sources 742

3. The “Mightie Kingdome”’ 751

| A. Political Entity, Organization, and Administration 752

B. Economic Resources and Crafts 764

C. Customs, Social Practices, and Learning 772

D. Military Weakness, Trade, and the Tribute System 786

E. Criticism and Evaluation 791

4. The Jesuit Writings 794 5. The Evidence of Maps 816 Chapter X: Eptrocuz: A Composrrg PIcTuRE 822

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 837

INDEX 913 CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHIES 865

[vii

Illustrations FOLLOWING PAGE 20

Map of the world according to Eratosthenes Christ extending his divine power to all peoples, even the monstrous ones Detail from Central Tympanum, Church of St. Magdalen, Vézelay, France Elephant, from Reims Cathedral, France Seal of Grand Khan Kuyuk on a letter to Rome The pepper harvest Dog-headed people of India Fantastic Indians

The Hereford (England) World Map, ca. 1276 FOLLOWING PAGE $2

Martyrdom of the Franciscans at Ceuta, by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, 1332(?) Ecclesia militans, by Andrea da Firenze, ca. 1365 Parement de Narbonne, silk altar hanging, ca. 1375 Winged creatures, from an illustration in Heures de Rohan, ca. 1420 Madonna in a mandorla of exotic angels, by Gentile da Fabriano, ca. 1420 Adoration of the Magi, by Gentile da Fabriano, ca. 1423 Sketch of a Mongol archer, by Antonio Pisanello, ca. 1440 Illuminated Titus Livius manuscript of Charles V, ca. 1370 Gluttony. Treatise on the Vices, attributed to the “Monk of Hyeres,”’ ca. 1400 Ptolemy’s map of Asia Martin Waldseemiiller’s map of the Far East, 1507 FOLLOWING PAGE 100

Lisbon in the late sixteenth century Antwerp in the middle of the sixteenth century The Fortress of Malacca, ca. 1630

[ix]

Illustrations Macao, ca. 1600

Coins used in commerce in the East Indies, Cambay, Ormuz, Goa, Malabar, Coromandel, Bengal, and Malacca

The Bourse at Antwerp | The port of Lisbon in the sixteenth century

A small merchant ship, ca. 1532 Manuelina Naus. A painting of Portuguese ships executed ca. 1521 by Gregério Lopes Leaves and berries of canella or “wild cinnamon” (Ravensara aromatica) The clove tree Leaves and berries of the pepper plant East Indian trees East Indian trees and plants

Animals of India

FOLLOWING PAGE 164

Woodcut of Indian warriors Title page of Valentim Fernandes’ Portuguese translation of Marco Polo, 1502 Title page of Jodo de Barros, Asia, 1552

Title page of Volume I (revised second edition) of G. B. Ramusio, Delle navigationi et viaggt, 1554

Title page of Book I of the Historia of Fernio Lopes de Castanheda, 1551 Portrait of Jodo de Barros; first printed in the 1615 edition of his Décadas da Asia

Painting from life of Luis de Camoés, by Fernando Gomes

| Portrait of Damiao de Gois Title page of first edition of The Lusiads Title page of a sixteenth-century edition of Anténio Galvao’s Tratado Title page of first edition, printed in Goa in 1563, of Garcia da Orta’s Colloquies Title page of Jan Huygen van Linschoten’s Itinerario, 1596 Map of Asia, from A. Ortelius’ Theatrum orbis terrarum, 1575 Map of eastern Asia and the East Indies, from Linschoten’s Itinerario Map of Eurasia and Africa from G. Mercator’s World Map of 1569 FOLLOWING PAGE 260

Panoramic view of Goa in the sixteenth century Chapel of Saint Catherine constructed in 1510 by Albuquerque and rebuilt in 1550 by Jorge Cabral Cathedral of Old Goa Dom Costantino de Braganza, Viceroy of Goa from 1558 to 1561 Alessandro Valignano, S.J. (1539-1606) Coimbra in the sixteenth century The ruins of the facade of the Church of Saint Augustine (Goa) Matteo Ricci, S.J. (1552-1610) Title page from a typical Jesuit letterbook

[ x]

Illustrations

Akbar and Prince Salim Title page from the Venetian edition (1589) of G. P. Maffei’s Historiarum Indicarum libri XVI Map of Asia, from G. B. Peruschi’s Informatione, 1597 FOLLOWING PAGE 356

India in the late sixteenth century (according to European sources) Quilon at the beginning of the sixteenth century Cannanore at the beginning of the sixteenth century The king of Cochin with his attendants The “famous rhinoceros” of Cambay; woodcut by Albrecht Diirer, 1515 Mahmud III, king of Cambay (reigned 1537-54) ““Reisbutos” (Rajputs) of Cambay “‘Baneanes” (Banyas) of Cambay Sati, or widow-burning Gujarat Bengal Juggernaut and ceremonial religious suicide in the Rath-jdtra, a Hindu procession A Portuguese fidalgo in India Ships and boats of India FOLLOWING PAGE 528

Southeast Asia in the late sixteenth century (according to European sources) The map of southeast and eastern Asia in Ramusio’s Navigationi (2d rev. ed.; Venice, 1554), Vol. I Ortelius’ map of southeast and eastern Asia The map of Sumatra in Ramusio, op. cit.

The map of Java inserted into the Madrid edition (1615) of Joao de Barros’ Décadas da Asia

“Inhabitants of Malacca, who surpass all other Indians in courteous and amorous behavior” Natives of Pegu, the Moluccas, and St. Thomas Pigafetta’s list of Malay words learned from the inhabitants of Tidore Island in the Moluccas FOLLOWING PAGE 656

, Fresco in the Teatro Olimpico depicting the young Japanese emissaries in attendance at a performance Title page of Benacci’s Breve ragvaglio, showing one of the Japanese emissaries clad in the European garments presented by Pope Gregory XIII Letter of August, 1585, written in Japanese to the Duke of Mantua from Milan by It6 Mancio expressing the thanks of the Japanese emissaries for Mantua’s hospitality, with Italian translation

[xi]

Illustrations

Wood engraving of a map of Japan showing the major Christian places and the Jesuit houses, ca. 1585 Excerpt from a letter written by Father Balthasar Gago from Firando, September 23, 1555, with sample Chinese and Japanese characters Excerpts from the same letter printed in Cartas . . . dos reynos de Iapao e China, 1598

Map of Japan by Luis Teixeira FOLLOWING PAGE 752

Title page of first edition of Juan Gonzdlez da Mendoza’s Historia... del gran reyno dela China... ., 1585

A Chinese or Javan junk with reed sails and wooden anchors Palanquin and land ship of China Simple Chinese in their elegant native costume Chinese mandarin and lady in their rich costume

Map of China by Luis Jorgé de Barbuda | Discussion of China on verso of Barbuda’s map Tartary, northern China, and Japan

[ xii }

CHAPTER VII

Southeast Asia In our definition, southeast Asia divides into two vast geographical groupings: the continental peninsulas east of Bengal and south of China, and the insular world which lies within a vast triangle that has Sumatra, the Philippines, and New Guinea at its vertices. Life in the mainland states follows the rivers and flows in a north-south direction; communication and trade along the sea lanes of the archipelago run along east-west lines. In 1500 most of these lines intersected at Malacca, a hub of commerce for both the mainland states and the archipelago. A few places unrelated to this complex, such as the Ladrones (Marianas) will be mentioned collaterally. Australia is omitted because there are no certain refer-

ences to this continent in the contemporary printed materials. It should be noticed, however, that Portuguese historians have claimed on the basis of evidence in sixteenth-century maps that voyagers touched on Australia in about 1522 and brought back to Europe word of its existence. The absence of additional references to Australia is attributed to Portugal’s policy of secrecy and desire to conceal from the Spaniards whatever information it may have possessed on the continent down under.! But the evidence for Portugal’s discovery of Australia in the sixteenth century is still much too vague and tenuous in our estimation to warrant more than mere mention.

I THE PRINTED SOURCES IN REVIEW

There is no question that the Portuguese jealously guarded every scrap of information which might have led potential competitors to the sources of the spice trade. And, so far as the published accounts and printed maps show, they !R. H. Major, Early Voyages to... Australia (London, 1859), pp. v—vi. For a statement of the claim that Australia was discovered by the Portuguese in 1522 see Armando Cortesio, “A expansio portuguesa através do Pacifico (Austral4sia, Macau, Japao),” in Antonio Baiio (ed.), Histéria da expansdo portuguesa no mundo (3 vols.; Lisbon, 1937-39), Il, pt. 3, chap. xi.

[ 493 ]

Southeast Asia

were successful for a time in keeping from others the authoritative information in their archives on routes, marts, prices, and methods of trade. Spies and the agents of foreign governments and commercial houses were naturally able to acquire copies of maps and rutters, and some of the interested outsiders, like Peutinger in Augsburg, collected a significant number of these documents.” But, it is worth repeating,? that no accounts of the East Indies by responsible Portuguese authors were in print before 1550. All of the rutters and pamphlets on the spice trade which appeared before mid-century were the work of foreign-

ers who had been employed by the Portuguese or who had derived their information either from participating themselves in the voyages or by interviewing those sailors fortunate enough to return. The exception to this generalization is, of course, the general announcements by the crown of Portuguese successes in Asia.

The first printed material on southeast Asia was included in the Itinerario of Ludovico di Varthema which appeared in 1510. Though there is some doubt whether Varthema himself actually got east of Ceylon, we may conjecture that his vague material on Tenasserim (Mergui), Pegu, Malacca, Sumatra and the Spice Islands should be dated approximately as 1505-6.5 Nothing more was published in Europe on this region until after the return of the “Victoria” to Spain. The survivors of Magellan’s expedition were courted and interviewed by a number of scholars, diplomats, prelates, and kings in an effort to learn from them the secret of the Spiceries. In 1523, Maximilian of Transylvania’s De Moluccis

insulis... was printed at Cologne and Rome, and it gave to Europe, on the basis of the author’s interviews with the survivors, the first concrete information on the location of the Moluccas and the conditions prevailing there. Two years

later, a truncated version of Pigafetta’s story was published for the first time at Paris under the title Le voyage et nauigation faict par les Espaignolz es isles de Mollucques.® Pigafetta was the only participant in Magellan’s expedition who left a written account. His work is particularly important for its vocabularies of Bisayan and Malayan words as well as for the author’s deliberate and thorough investigation of trading practices in southeast Asia. After Pigafetta’s story had been told in Venice, it was not until the publication in 1543 of the Viaggi fatti alla Tana that fresh news of Malacca, Sumatra, and the Moluccas appeared in print at the spice center on the Adriatic. An aftermath of the successful circumnavigation of the world by a remnant of Magellan’s crew was the dispatch of two more Spanish expeditions via the Pacific to the Spice Islands. These voyages, while unsuccessful in themselves, helped Charles I to establish a claim to the Moluccas which he finally abandoned 2 A. Cortesio and A. Teixeira da Mota, Portugaliae monumenta cartographica (Lisbon, 1960), I, 15. 3 See above, p. 181. 4 See above, p. 165. 5 A table with approximate dates is given in Sir Richard C. Temple (ed.), The Itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema of Bologna from 1502 to 1508 (London, 1928), p. xxv.

6 Translations of this French version into Italian and English were reproduced later in the century by Ramusio and Eden, respectively. See above, pp. 207, 210.

[ 494 }

The Printed Sources

to Portugal in 1529 at Saragossa in return for a cash payment. While this arrangement officially brought an end to the contest for the Moluccas, the Spanish, particularly those in the New World, continued to hope and plan for a trading and missionary foothold in southeast Asia. The chronicles of Oviedo (Book XX, which deals with the East, was first published in 1548) and Gémara (published in 1552) summarized the information on the Spiceries obtained through the Spanish voyages and provided Europe with its first comprehensive accounts of the Philippines, Borneo, and the Spiceries. In the first volume of Ramusio’s Navigationi published in 1550, much of the data available at mid-century on southeast Asia was put between two covers for the first time. The Italian collector printed in the same volume the Periplus of the Indian Ocean, then ascribed to Arrian, along with the fifteenth-century travels of

Nicold de’ Conti. He reproduced from manuscripts the letters on the spice trade prepared early in the century by Tomé Lopes, Giovanni da Empoli, and Andrea Corsali. He republished the Itinerario of Varthema in a new Italian version. The original text, Ramusio contended, was too full of errors to warrant

reproduction. He included some of the available accounts of the Spanish circumnavigation of the globe by translating into Italian the Latin text of Maximilian of Transylvania and the French text of Pigafetta. He also published, apparently for the first time, the narrative of Juan Gaetano (also written, Ivan

Gaetan) who described the expedition of 1542 headed by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos which sailed from Mexico across the Pacific to the Moluccas. Though he included in Italian translation a large part of the Suma oriental of Tomé Pires, Ramusio was unable to acquire the prize portion on the archipelago and Malacca which went unpublished until 1944. Ramusio’s version, however, did include

Pires’ short accounts of Cambodia, Champa, Cochin-China, Burma, Siam, Pegu, and Arakan, as well as collateral references to the trade between Malacca and the Spice Islands with India, Pegu, and other parts of continental southeast Asia. The slighter and less authoritative summary of southeast Asia contained in the Book of Duarte Barbosa, who probably never got east of India, was acquired by Ramusio and is included in its entirety in Italian translation in his first volume. In the 1554 augmented edition of Volume I, Ramusio added a map of the East Indies (probably drawn by Giacomo Gastaldi), Italian translations of two Jesuit letters from Malacca, and a brief narration on the Spiceries by a Portuguese who had returned on the “‘Victoria’’ from the Moluccas. In his second volume,

which deals with the land travels into Asia, Ramusio included in the first edition (1559) his version of Marco Polo and in the second edition (1574) the

travels of Odoric of Pordenone. The third volume of the Navigationi, first published in 1556, deals primarily with America but in it he included some authors, like Oviedo, who had remarks to make about the Pacific ventures of the Spanish, and also the discourses of Pierre Crignon on the French voyage of 1529 to Sumatra.” 7 George B. Parks (comp.), The Contents and Sources of Ramusio’s Navigationi (New York, 1955).

[ 495}

Southeast Asia

The major Portuguese sources on southeast Asia, which began to appear contemporaneously with Ramusio’s compilations, are six in number: Castanheda’s Histdria, Albuquerque’s Commentarios, Barros’ Décadas, the materials of Anténio Galvio in the Tratado . . . dos descobrimentos (Lisbon, 1563), Damiao de Géis’ Chronica do felcssimo Rey D. Manoel (Lisbon, 1565), and Jorge de Lemos’ Historia dos cercos que em tempo de Anténio Monis Barreto, Governador que foi dos estados da India, os Achens, e Iaos puserdo 4 fortaleza de Malaca, sendo Tristao

Vaz da Veiga capitdo della (Lisbon, 1585). All but the last of these books deal with events in southeast Asia during the first half of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese chroniclers, like the Jesuit historian, Maffei, characteristically

confine their attentions to the empire during its zenith. It was not until the seventeenth century that Diogo do Couto and Manuel de Faria e Sousa, both of whom were employed by the Spanish, endeavored to write general histories of the empire’s decline and even they were forced from lack of information to leave a gap for the five years from 1575 to 1580.8 Castanheda, who was resident in Asia from 1528 to 1538, may possibly have journeyed to Malacca and the Moluccas. In his book he makes the general claim

to have visited the places which he describes; Do Couto, keeper of the Goa archives in the later sixteenth century, records in his Asia that Castanheda traveled extensively east of India and even to the Moluccas.9 The eight books of Castanheda’s Histéria were published between 1551 and 1561, but it is mainly in Books II through VI (published in 1552-54) that he takes up southeast Asia in connection with Portuguese activities there for the period from 1511 to 1542. While his first book was translated a number of times into various languages

during the sixteenth century, the books (II-VI) pertaining to southeast Asia

were translated only into Italian and that did not occur until 1577-78

(Venice). |

In his treatment of southeast Asia, Castanheda follows closely the enterprises of the Portuguese but pays little attention to local conditions. He has less interest in geographical description than Barros and pays only passing deference to the

pre-European history of the peoples in the regions discussed. Malacca, the Moluccas, and Pegu are described and commented upon in considerable detail, and his discussion of Pegu is clearly his best effort. It is probable that Castanheda

used Barbosa for some of his data on the trade and ports of southeast Asia, though without acknowledging it. His narrative, which is generally prosaic and dry, begins to take on life when he comes to describe the struggles at ® See I. A. Macgregor, “Some Aspects of Portuguese Historical Writing of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries on South East Asia,” in D. G. E. Hall (ed.), Historians of South East Asia (London, 1961), p. 196. ® Década IV, Book $, chap. i. Many students of Castanheda seem not to have known about this possibility, or, if they did, dismissed it as being improbable and insufficiently documented. Certainly such travels were possible, even though we do not have contemporary documentation to clinch the matter. J. H. Harrison, “Five Portuguese Historians,” in C. H. Philips (ed.), Historians of India, Pakistan and Ceylon (London, 1961), p. 163, has no hesitation in asserting unqualifiedly that “‘the great value of Castanheda lies in his personal acquaintance with Malacca and the Moluccas.”

[ 496 ]

The Printed Sources

Malacca, Ternate and Tidore—perhaps another indication of the fact that he may have actually been in those places. The Commentarios de Afonso Dalboquerque (Lisbon, 1557; rev. ed., 1576), prepared by the great captain’s son on the basis of his father’s letters written from the East, contains a mixture of firsthand observations and secondhand reports. Albuquerque's only direct experience in southeast Asia came during the siege and conquest of Malacca in 1511. While most of the description naturally relates to Malacca and its immediate vicinity, Albuquerque also comments on

the initiation of relations with Siam and the dispatch of an expedition to explore the Moluccas. He also makes brief references to Sumatra, Pegu, Java, and Pahang. The abbreviated Commentarios includes rich detail on Malacca’s history under the Malay sultanate. On the siege and capture of Malacca, there is considerable disagreement between the Commentarios and the letter of Giovanni da Empoli published by Ramusio. The account in the Commentarios is particularly valuable, no matter what Braz de Albuquerque might have done to his father’s report, because the original is no longer extant.?°

While references to various parts of southeast Asia are scattered throughout the Décadas of Barros, it is only the third decade (relating to the years from 1515 to 1525, not published until 1563) which deals extensively with the region. Since he never traveled to Asia, Barros’ work is necessarily based exclusively on the reports of others, a fact which probably helps to account for his acceptance of several tall stories. But he more than compensates for his critical failings by his thoroughgoing researches into the official and unofficial sources available in his day. Barros’ survey is more systematic for the region as a whole than any of the

others produced in the century. While his description of Sumatra remained unsurpassed until the eighteenth century, Barros’ information on Java and Indochina was not extensive and his narrative consequently is not always as clear and informative on these two territories as the reader might reasonably expect from an author of his competence and erudition.'! But, unlike Pires and other writers who report from the scene, Barros seems to get his proportions better. He realizes that the intermediate world between India and China is similar to both but different from each. Always hostile towards the Muslims, Barros points out that Pegu and Siam are dominated by heathens and that they are rich and powerful states. While conscious of the wealth of the Indies, he does not overestimate, as do so many of the Portuguese, the importance of the archipelago and Malacca in the economy and politics of the entire region. After the appearance of Lemos’ book in 1585, the Portuguese secular writers provide no more sources of significance. Once again, the books which appear 10 Academia das sciencias de Lisboa, Cartas de Afonso de Albuquerque (7 vols.; Lisbon, 1884-1935);

although invaluable on Albuquerque’s activities, the collection does not include his report of the siege. For the translation of his remarks on Malacca see Walter de Gray Birch (trans. and ed.), The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalbaquerque (‘‘Publications of the Hakluyt Society,” Old Series, Vols. LXII and LXIII [London, 1880]), Vols. III and IV. 1t See Zoe Swecker, “The Early Iberian Accounts of the Far East” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1960), pp. 113-14.

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Southeast Asia

between 1585 and 1601 are from the pens of outsiders. These later sources may be divided into three groups: the accounts of two Spaniards who obtained their information about the East by way of the Philippines and Mexico; the narratives of the commercial travelers and explorers from Italy and northern Europe; and the Jesuit letterbooks and histories. The two Spanish books, which first appeared respectively in 1585 and 1590, are the work of religious writers with experience in America and hence are only collaterally concerned with southeast Asia. The first of these was from the pen of the Augustinian friar, Juan Gonzalez de Mendoza and was called Historia de la cosas mas notables, ritos, y costumbres, del gran reyno de la China (Rome, 1585).1?

While this famous book deals primarily with China, as the title indicates, it also includes in its last chapters some interesting materials on Malacca, Indochina,

and the Philippines. Mendoza depends for these comments on the experiences there in about 1579 of Martin Ignatius de Loyola, a relative of the first Jesuit general and a Franciscan missionary himself. The second book by a Spaniard was the work of the famous Jesuit Humanist, José de Acosta, who sojourned for a long period in Mexico and learned about eastern Asia at this crossroads of the Spanish empire. Acosta’s volumes first appeared in Latin (1588-89), and, in their complete form, were published in 1590 at Seville under the title Historia natural y moral de las Indias. While Acosta’s work centers on the New World, it also includes scattered comments on the East Indies. From the viewpoint of the scholar interested in southeast Asia, Acosta’s work illustrates strikingly how a Humanist of the late sixteenth century with overseas experience mentally wrestled with himself to integrate his knowledge of Asia inherited from antiquity with the newer information. The Italian, Dutch, and English merchants who comment on southeast Asia had their narratives published between 1587 and 1599. The Viaggio (1587) of the Venetian, Fedrici, records that he was east of India on at least three different occasions, on the last two of which he was engaged in the opium traffic between Cambay and Pegu. On his first and most extended trip into southeast Asia, he visited from 1566 to 1569 in northern Sumatra (Achin), Malacca, Tenasserim (Mergui), Tavoy, and Martaban. His second voyage, which seems to have been restricted to Pegu, probably occurred in 1572-73. His third voyage, which again seems to have been limited to Pegu, possibly took place as late as 1577-78.!3 On the basis of these experiences it is not surprising, when we consider that Fedrici probably kept a diary, that he was able to provide the fullest and most accurate account of Burma (Pegu) prepared by a European in the sixteenth century.' Gasparo Balbi, another Venetian, published his Viaggio in 1590. It is clear, because the author is precise in dating his peregrinations, that Balbi was in 12 For a full analysis of this book see below, pp. 743-45. 13 Since he gives so few dates in his record, it is difficult to determine exactly when he was at a given place and how long he stayed there. The above dates are based on the estimates given in Jarl Charpentier, “Cesare di Federici and Gasparo Balbi,” Indian Antiquary, LIII (1924), $3-$4. 14 ““Fredericke . . . has left us the best description of Burma that we have from a European source.” See D. G. E. Hall, Early English Intercourse with Burma (1587-1743) (London, 1928), p. 18.

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The Printed Sources

Pegu for more than two years (1583 to 1586). While Balbi pirated many of his

comments on India from Fedrici, his record of events and his description of Pegu are the most independent and best part of his book.'5 It is also clear that Balbi’s contemporaries in Europe valued the Viaggio most for its detailing of affairs in Pegu. Though Hakluyt probably knew Balbi’s work, he never published it. When it finally appeared in English translation in Purchas’ collection,?® his account of India, except for materials on St. Thomas and Negapatnam, were omitted while the portion on Pegu was included in its entirety.

Linschoten, who was in western India from 1583 to 1588, published his Itinerario in its complete form in 1596. Though he never traveled east of India,

Linschoten managed to reconstruct, from informants in Goa and from the books and maps at his disposal after he returned home, a comprehensive survey of the places in southeastern Asia known to the Portuguese. In his disquisitions on the flora and fauna of the East, Linschoten remarks on curiosities

such as the elephants of Pegu, the great shellfish of Malacca, and the valuable camphor of Borneo. In 1597, the year after Linschoten’s book appeared, an account of the first Dutch voyage to Java was published at Middelburg and in the following year it came out in an English translation.!7 While this narrative mainly recounts the problems of the voyage and the strife between the Dutch captains, it also includes comments on conditions affecting trade in Java. Ralph Fitch was the first Englishman to visit southeastern Asia and record his experiences there. The account of his peregrinations which Hakluyt published in 1599 is based in part upon Fedrici and in part upon his own experiences. Fitch arrived at Pegu in 1586 and in the following year he made a journey to

Chiengmai in the Siamese Shan states. After returning to Pegu, he left for Malacca in 1588 to collect information on the trade there. Then he made his way back to Pegu by way of Martaban, and, after a short respite in Pegu, began the long journey back to England. Since Fitch kept no diary or notes, his recollections are hazy and his descriptions much less precise than those recorded in the accounts of Fedrici and Balbi. Still, his experience of about three years in

southeast Asia gave him a genuine understanding of certain features of life there, particularly of Pegu where he spent the most time. His independent picture of the Buddhist monastic system of Burma is still respected as a faithful representation.18

When Drake circumnavigated the world in 1577-80, his ship, the “Golden Hind,”’ called at Ternate in the Moluccas, at Roma Island, and at Java. Notices of these places appeared in books and on maps prepared in northern Europe 15 Charpentier, loc. cit. (n. 13), p. 6%. 16 As reproduced in Samuel Purchas (ed.), Hakluytus Posthumus; or, Purchas His Pilgrimes (“Publica-

tions of the Hakluyt Society,” Extra Series, Vol. X [Glasgow, 1905-7]), pp. 143-64. 17 The original is entitled Verhael vande Reyse by de Hollandtsche Schepen gedaen naer Oost Indien (Middleburg, 1597). The English version, translated by William Phillip, is entitled The Description of a Voyage Made by Certaine Ships of Holland into the East Indies (London, 1598). See above, p. 202n. 18 D. G. E. Hall, Europe and Burma. A Study of European Relations with Burma to the Annexation of Thibaw’s Kingdom (1886) (London, 1945), p. 15.

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beginning in 1582. Of particular importance is the narrative compiled by Hakluyt from documents written by participants in the Drake enterprise. The final version, the last of several earlier and less complete compilations, appeared in 1600 in the Principal Navigations'® and was entitled The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake into the South Sea... begune in the yeere of our Lord 1577. This

short narrative is particularly rich in its description of the garb and court ceremonies of Ternate. It also gives a few notes on the political conditions prevailing in the Moluccas in the crucial year of 1578 when the Portuguese established themselves at Tidore, and it also provides a few references to the rulers of Java in 1579. The first voyage to the East of James Lancaster, an Englishman with long experience in Portugal, took place in the years 1591 to 1594. He was sent out by a group of London merchants to make a reconnaissance of the Portuguese route to Malacca. Two narratives of these voyages of pillaging

and surveying were acquired and published by Hakluyt.2° These documents contain fascinating data on Portuguese trade, but very little material on Asia itself. The English narratives are especially important because they refer to times for which we have very few other contemporary sources on the eastern archipelago. The Jesuit letters published in Europe give scattered runs of information on various parts of southeast Asia from 1552 to the end of the century. Most of the

Xavier letters from Malacca and the Moluccas were not published until the Tursellinus collection appeared in 1595-96. The early letterbooks, published mainly in Portugal and Italy, frequently include letters from his followers in southeast Asia. But, as in the case of India, a sharp break in published versions

of the letters occurs beginning with the letters penned in the period from 1564 to 1568.2! Several of the letters written before 1564 were republished beginning in 1569. Over the entire period (1552-1600) ten of the letters dated from southeast Asia were published three or more times. It is not until the last

decade of the century, however, that new and substantial additions were incorporated into the letterbooks. Most of the letters dated from the islands give information on native customs and the problems being faced by the Jesuits in the Moluccas and in Amboina before 1570. Not a single Jesuit letter from the Moluccas was published during the last generation of the century. Those dated

from Malacca are ordinarily concerned with matters far removed from the 19 III, 730-42; also see XI, 101-33.

20 Barker’s narrative is in Vol. II, Pt. Il, pp. 102-3; May’s narrative is in III, 571-72. For recent, edited versions of these documents see Sir William Foster (ed.), The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster to

Brazil and the East Indies (““Hakluyt Society Publications,” Second Series, No. LXXXV [London, 1940)], pp. I-SI. 21C. Wessels, S. J., Histoire de la mission d’Amboine ... 1564-1605 (Louvain, 1934), p. 9, asserts that as far as he can determine not a single letter from Amboina or the Moluccas was printed in the period from 1570 to 1600 which had been written during that time. He accounts for this by referring to the complete dependence of the mission upon the crowns of Spain and Portugal. He also points out how slow Rome was to publish Teixeira and Valignano’s surveys of Xavier's activities in the East; from the context into which he puts this discussion he seems to imply that the papacy was also under pressure from the Iberian powers to keep detailed information on the Spiceries out of print.

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The Printed Sources

local scene. The Jesuits at Malacca, like the merchants, were usually in transit, and mostly write about the places from which they came or about what they have heard of the place to which they are going. As a whole, the Jesuit letters are much less valuable for southeast Asia than they are for Japan.?? The first author to use the Jesuit letters extensively, as well as many secular sources, was Maffei whose Historiarum Indicarum libri XVI appeared at Florence in 1588. In his scattered sections on the various parts of southeast Asia, Maffei includes more from the Jesuit letters than he does when commenting on India. As he recounts the expansion of the Portuguese and the Jesuits to about 1557,

Maffei interrupts his narrative at appropriate points to present thumb-nail sketches of what he knew from his researches about such places as Sumatra, Siam, and Pegu. The Spanish Jesuit, Guzman, in his Historia de las missiones (1601), likewise gives occasional vignettes of those parts of southeast Asia where the Jesuits were active. Since Guzman depends more than Maffei upon the letters and Spanish sources, and less upon the Portuguese historians who wrote almost

exclusively about the first half of the century, he recounts political events in a slightly less stylized manner and without too much regard for the sensibilities of the Portuguese. His detailed descriptions of the wars going on in southeast Asia during the last quarter of the sixteenth century and the amount of information he possessed on Cambodia reflect the fact that some of his sources came to him from the missionaries in the Philippines. In short, Guzman is particularly useful for the history of southeast Asia during the last generation of the sixteenth century, a period when firsthand accounts, aside from Jesuit letters, are in short supply. Neither Maffei nor Guzman had traveled to Asia and both based their narratives on the materials available to them in Europe. The European sources generally tend to consider southeast Asia as a part of “further India,’’ even though they bring out clearly how important the Chinese, Japanese, and Muslims were at Malacca and in the islands. The Moluccas, always of interest for its cloves and other spices, receives the attention of most

of the writers, including the Jesuits. As the place where the Spanish and Portuguese empires met in the East, the Spice Islands in the sources receive radically different treatment on a number of relatively simple matters. The sources are especially contradictory on the exact location of the Moluccas and the Philippines, important questions in the debated question of ownership. The Portuguese historians and other Europeans who traveled in Portuguese India are

especially authoritative on Pegu, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. The Spanish writers are best on the Philippines, Borneo, and Cambodia.?3 22 Based on a study of Robert Streit, Biblioteca missionum (Aachen, 1928), IV, passim.

23 While Portuguese adventurers and the Dominican missionary Gaspar da Cruz were in Cambodia by 1555~56, it is not until the last years of the century that concrete information begins to appear on Cambodia in European published works. It was mainly in connection with the Spanish efforts to get a continental foothold that Europeans became aware of Cambodia. In 1601, the first description of the

ruins of Angkor was included in F. Marcello de Ribadeneyra, O. F. M., Historia de las islas del archipielago, y reynos de la gran China . . . (Barcelona, 1601), pp. 173-87. For an excellent summary of the discovery of Cambodia by the Iberians see Bernard P. Groslier, Angkor et le Cambodge au XVIe siecle d’apreés les sources portugaises et espagnoles (Paris, 1958), chap. ii.

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Java is the territory most slighted and the Javanese are the people viewed most hostilely by the Iberian authors, perhaps because of the sporadic wars in which they engaged the Portuguese, who sought to replace them as the great international traders of the region. That the Portuguese were ultimately unsuccessful in their effort to eliminate the Javanese is brought out by the voyage of Lancaster which transgressed the Portuguese monopoly and by Linschoten when he writes to his countrymen: “‘... men might very well traffique [to Java] without any impeachment [hindrance], for that the Portingales come not thether, because great number of Iava come themselves unto Malacca to sell their wares.”’ 5 It was in the Byzantine versions of Ptolemy’s Geographia that the first general description of southeast Asia became available before the fifteenth century.?6 Book VII, chapter 2 of the principal extant version lists the coastal features,

riverine divisions, and the inland towns of the Golden Khersonese (Malay Peninsula), But no effort is made by the compiler to describe its countryside, people, or products. If the stylized Ptolemaic co-ordinates are abandoned when evaluating the data on southeast Asia, a clearly recognizable delineation of the coast of peninsular southeast Asia from the Bay of Bengal to Indochina emerges from the Geographia.27 While modern scholars are not agreed on the identifications of the many rivers, gulfs, and inland towns mentioned in the Geographia, it is clear that the Byzantine compilers were aware of the strategic importance of the emporiums of the Malay peninsula in the trade of southeast Asia.?8 Not until the late thirteenth century did the entrepéts, capitals, islands, and states of southeast Asia begin to be heard about in Europe under the names by

which we know them today. Marco Polo refers by name to Champa (which corresponds roughly to modern Cochin-china), the Great Island of Java (Java or Cochin-china) and to Java the Less (Sumatra), while describing many other islands, towns, and peoples more difficult to identify. Significantly neither Polo nor Odoric of Pordenone, who returned to Europe in 1330, mentions Malacca. This may be accounted for by the fact that Malacca had not yet become a great merchandising center.29 Odoric discourses on ‘‘Nicuveran’’ (the Nicobar Islands), but gives nothing more than some legendary information about them.3° Other European travelers of the fourteenth century also refer to Champa, Java, and Java the Lesser (Sumatra), possibly based on the traditional yarns told to them by the Arab sailors with whom they voyaged. Nicold de’ 24 The Javanese are usually described by the Iberian writers as fierce warriors who are base and unreliable in their business dealings. For an independent, and similar judgment see I. A. Macgregor, “‘Notes on the Portuguese in Malaya,” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society XXVIII (1955), 24. 25 A. C. Burnell and P. A. Tiele (eds.), The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies (““Hakluyt Society Publications,” Nos. LXX and LXXI, Old Series [London, 1885)]) I, 112. 26 Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), pp. 138-40. 27 For a map showing the Ptolemaic coastline superimposed on a modern map of southeast Asia see ibid., p. 146. 38 See ibid., pp. 151-52. 39 Probably founded ca. 1400. Ibid., pp. 306~7. 30 D, G. E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (London, 1960), p. 189.

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The Printed Sources

Conti, the Venetian who returned home in about 1444, calls Sumatra by the classical name of ““Taprobana’’ and refers to ““Andamania” (the Andaman Islands) and the city of ““Panconia’’ (Pegu), the capital of the Mon kingdom of Pegu in Burma. Girolamo da Santo Stefano, the Genoese merchant, who visited Pegu in 1496 gives its name more correctly, tells about setting out on a trading expedition to Malacca, and of finally having ended up on Sumatra.3! From this brief recapitulation of Renaissance travel accounts it can be observed generally that the few Europeans who traveled into southeast Asia before the opening of the sea route included in their summaries some information on Champa, Java, Sumatra (though not under this name until Santo Stefano’s visit there in 1497), Pegu, and the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Many other places and peoples in

6¢ + 99 e ° .

further India’ they also referred to under designations which are not so

readily identifiable. Varthema, whether or not he actually traveled east of India himself, was the

first writer formally to introduce Malacca to Europe, though the Portuguese and those who sailed with them had heard about it shortly after landing at Calicut.32 The merchant from Bologna also comments in some detail on Tenasserim (Mergui) and Pegu, and he seems vaguely to understand that the

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religion of Burma (Buddhism) is different from Hinduism.33 Like Santo Stefano, he calls Sumatra by the name which we use today, and like Conti, he identifies

it with Taprobane.3+ He also sailed eastward to Banda and to the Moluccas where the cloves grow,”’ and was the first European writer who even made an effort to describe the Spice Islands. Varthema then began his return westward and stopped on his way at an island which he calls ““Bornei.’’ It is not clear from his brief description whether or not he is referring to Borneo, the great island which derives its name from one of the chief Malay states (Brunei) existing on it when the Europeans first arrived there.35 If we assume, as I do, that he is referring to Borneo, it can then be concluded that most of the major islands of the archipelago and some of the leading cities of continental southeast 31 R. H. Major (ed.), India in the Fifteenth Century (‘““Hakluyt Society Publications,” Old Series, Vol. XXII [London, 1857]), Pt. IV, p. 7. 32 In the Dutch work Calcoen (1504), ‘““Melatk” is mentioned as the place from whence come the spices. The Nuremberg newsletter of 1505 (The Right Way to Travel from Lisbon to Calicut) gives the

distance from Quilon to “‘Mellacka” and to “Scharmarttar’’ (Sumatra?). But, the famous letter from King Manuel to Castile (1505) makes no mention of Malacca. See above, pp. 160-61. 33 Temple (ed.), op. cit. (n. 5), p. xix. 34 Conti also says that it is known locally as “Sciamuthera.” But as far as its name is concerned, “even to the present day, it is like the other large islands of the Archipelago, Java perhaps excepted, without a name familiar to the inhabitants.” (John Crawfurd, A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian

Islands and Adjacent Countries [London, 1856], p. 413.) For its derivation from “Sumatrabhimi” rather than ““Samudra”’ see N. J. Krom, ““De naam Sumatra,”’ Bijdragen tot de taal-, land~en Volkerkunde

van Nederlandsch-Indié, C (1941), 5-25. Linschoten (in Burnell and Tiele [eds.], op. cit. {n. 25], I,

107-8) continues to call it Taprobane at the end of the century, even though Barros had earlier insisted upon Taprobane’s identification with Ceylon. 35 It may be that he actually is referring to the island of Buru, south of the Moluccas. See Temple, op. cit. (n. 5), pp. lxxv-lxxvi. Crawfurd (op. cit. [n. 34], p. 63) believes that he is talking about Borneo,

and is simply giving one spelling of the Malay city or state which later European writers render as “Brune,” “Brunai,” “Burne,” or “Burnai.”

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Southeast Asia

Asia were known in European literature (and some of them on maps) before the

Portuguese captured Malacca in 1511.36 |

Mention of Cambodia in a printed work probably first occurred in a letter written by King Manuel in 1513 to Pope Leo X telling of the visit of Cambodian envoys with Albuquerque at Malacca.37 Though additional information on the

archipelago (especially the Philippines) was made available in Europe by the writings of Maximilian of Transylvania and Pigafetta, it was only at midcentury with the publication of Ramusio’s first volume that the Portuguese authors, Pires and Barbosa, were in print for the first time. The great collector also included Empoli’s letter to his father in Florence describing conditions at Malacca when he was there with Albuquerque in 1511-12. Though Barbosa discourses briefly on many parts of southeast Asia, his information, collected in India, is uneven in quality and his notions of geographical relationships are hazy. It was not until the appearance of the great histories of Castanheda and Barros that a comprehensive description of southeast Asia was attempted by a

European author. And, of the two general pictures sketched by the great historians of the discoveries, the portrait by Barros, who had never been on the scene himself, is the more vivid and comprehensible.3# In his first Década, the great Portuguese historian divides the Orient, or the entire area between Arabia and Japan, into nine large sections. Southeast Asia

falls into his sections numbered five, six, and seven. The area between the Ganges and Malacca is embraced within section five, the region from the tip of the Malay peninsula to the Menam River falls within section six, and the last section extends from the Menam delta “‘to a famous cape which is at the easternmost of the firm land which we now know about.” 39 Each of these sections he breaks down into smaller components, and specific places are located by their distance from the equator and from one another.

In discussing the archipelago Barros gives a particularly full description of the placement, dimensions, and topographical features of Sumatra.t° The Moluccas, which he locates south of the equator, are said to be five in number and to lie in a north-south line parallel to a large island called “Batochina do Moro” (Halmahera).4! While he discusses the relations of the Moluccas to the neighboring islands (and he knows about many of them), Barros fails to give a completely clear depiction of Java. In a number of cases, Barros dismisses geographical description almost entirely from his considerations and refers the reader to his Geografia which was never published or found. As a visual aid to the reader who had no map at hand, Barros conceived of an

Pp. 165-66. .

36 Varthema’s Itinerario was first published in 1510. For a bibliographical survey see above,

37 Groslier, op. cit. (n. 23), p. 142. 38 Maps were not added to the Décadas until the revised and augmented version appeared in Madrid in 1615. 39 Hernani Cidade and Manuel Murias (eds.), Asia de Jodo de Barros . . . (Lisbon, 1945), I, 353.

4 Tbid., TI 231-32. 41 Ibid., pp. 257-59.

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Malaya ingenious device to help picture the complicated geographical configurations and relationships of continental southeast Asia. By placing his own left hand, turned palm down with the fingers pointing in towards the body, the reader can see in front of himself a rough picture of the coastline from eastern India to Indochina. The thumb, spread apart from the index finger, represents India, and the space in between stands for the Bay of Bengal. The index finger which is in turn spread apart from the remaining fingers represents the Malay peninsula.

These three digits, pressed together and slightly drawn up underneath the palm represent the Indochinese peninsula and indicate its more northerly placement and its northward slant. Specific localities and their relationship to one another are brought out by referring to the nails and knuckles of the fingers and

to the nerves of the hand. The body of the hand is even used to help the reader get a rough idea of the placement of interior areas and of their relationship to each other and the coast.‘ Through his references to this finger-map, Barros quickly locates for the reader the political divisions of India, the island of Ceylon, the three Burmese states of Ava, Arakan and Pegu, as well as Siam, ‘‘Jangoma’’ (Chiengmai), the three kingdoms inhabited by the Laotians, Cambodia, Champa, the various

vassal states of Siam, Sumatra, Malacca and other cities, the Menam and Mekong rivers, and various mountain ranges. No other general description of southeast Asia was again attempted in the sixteenth century until the appearance of Linschoten’s Itinerario in 1595-96.43 And Linschoten’s discussion, based on

traders’ reports which came to him in Goa, is generally inferior to Barros’ though it does include more recent materials, especially on Java. A short but accurate survey is also included in Guzman’s Historia de las missiones (1601) and

it brings in a few additional geographical details garnered from the Jesuit letters and the Spanish reports from the Philippines.‘

2 MALAYA, THE CROSSROADS OF ASIA

Though the Malays were certainly a civilized people when the Portuguese first arrived at Malacca, the history of the peninsula before 1500 has had to be painfully reconstructed from oral traditions, archaeological evidence, and foreign sources. The earliest extant record in the Malay language is the Séjarah Mélayu

(The Dynasty of Mélayu) which is usually dated between 1500 and 1550.45 42 Ibid., III, 76; my explanation is adapted from the summary in Swecker, op. cit. (n. . aN j R q2S yetX2 GM = MKS Be Ao ee 53) ANe. 32 13 WS, ZA an~. og

hes a: ~eV iE ‘am. | 2p cig os ON ZO ae Nc: Si: ee BN, Qe WY ~s SL + Fe —

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ee. te .. Ba ee a si ae - S Pee rierre : Pe ‘ Soe og ae eae ee a PR sore ee 2 ras oat 2 cane eee eat Sa 8 ren es Se as Mn, Sa ae PRR Bens Bh ae as ae a wares re es eee pis = En eset See ae a Siniate

Bek Big Bese RE (i So Bei Bsa Le cs oe oa ae oe ge ee eb ® bat oo. . a a a y i. 4 RR e / 7 OR 7 aeae aa ae SENS See aeee a Pe Ba SRE $ Page SagSr aaaeeCoeRe Paton oe ed ts ee re aaaPR ie riahost SAR eas Be RR Lang ees Shere LSSSSe2,aSee hs Be a SmRESON Be Sma: B SSBa. oftaSeONO: ES, Be abhi Raeee a as ae Bg ERR as aySages si eeaa ‘ os ee ae BebeBBR

: J :Shas ae4Bi 4adaaie -Ber: 7_ _RN .RRS ae a RY Re ee SO Na? eRe ieBe mnSBaeons peoLaMeo rire:eae eea oe Bos 5 Ry a eeBR ae Nay eee SEES eet. eee SES x eens *Res Bea Be, a ake Sune sitet oe SR SE ee ae SRS Saiss om ee She €| in Fang Hao wén lu [aH x 4h] (Peking, 1948), Vol. 1, Section V, pp. 442-50 accepts Fujita’s identification as being correct. Also see the map by Luis Jorgé de Barbuda on which it

appears as “C. de Liampo,” the “‘C.” probably referring to cidade or city. 24 On the events which led to the severance of relations see Wang Yi-t’ung, Official Relations between China and Japan, 1368-1549 (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), pp. 60-81.

[737]

China

tacitly permitted, though quite unofficially, to set up a permanent trading settlement at Macao around 1555.75 Information on China was circulated in Europe before 1550 only as official

sources in Lisbon permitted it to be divulged, or as the agents of Spain and other European states managed to acquire maps and rutters, as well as texts and oral information from participants in the trade with China. The letters of the Portuguese prisoners written in 1524 are the only firsthand accounts of China prepared by Westerners in the first half of the sixteenth century which are still

available to us. However, we know from his own testimony that Jo%o de Barros, who was factor of the Casa da India from 1533 to 1567, had in his possession at Lisbon a collection of Chinese books and an intelligent Chinese slave to read and abstract them for him.?® Barros’ first draft of his first Década was completed in 1539, though it was not published until 1552. Ferndo Lopes de Castanheda, who published in 1551 the first volume of his pioneer Histéria do descobrimento e conquista da India pelos Portugueses, lived in Asia from 1528

to 1538. Like Barros in Lisbon, Castanheda in the East interviewed sailors, merchants, and natives coming from China, and collected “authentic information . . . by the perusal of many letters and memorials . . . written by men of credit and reputation.” 27 Yet, before the publication of the histories by Castanheda and Barros, the Portuguese sources on China, except for isolated items, were practically unknown outside of official circles in Lisbon. Castanheda’s description of China is centered about his account of the Portuguese expedition of 1516-17 headed by Fernao Peres d’Andrade, and is very

short when compared to his long discourses on India. However, his story is fuller than the China narrative of Duarte Barbosa, even though he did not use the letters of the Cantonese prisoners in its preparation.28 He is clearly dependent upon other primary materials, and he has more to say about Buddhist practices, gods, and temples in China than any of the previous writers known to us.?9 Like the other Europeans, he asserts that the Chinese have singular talents in

both the mechanical and liberal arts. Their learned men and books exhibit knowledge of many sciences, and instruction in various subjects is given in public schools. For war they have little taste, though their weapons are con25 Though this date is only generally correct, it seems clear that at this time, as they began to be seriously involved in the Japan trade, the Portuguese used Macao or the nearby island of Lampacio as a wintering place. See C. R. Boxer, The Great Ship from Amacon. Annals of Macao and the Old Japan Trade, 1555-1640 (Lisbon, 1959), pp. 21-22. 26C. R. Boxer, “Three Historians of Portuguese Asia (Barros, Couto and Bocarro),” Instituto Portugués de Hongkong, Boletim, No. 1 (1948), pp. 19-20. For future references to Barros see Hernani Cidade and Manuel Murias (eds.), Asia de Jodo de Barros (4 vols.; Lisbon, 1945-46), especially Décadas I

(Vol. I) and III (Vol. I. 27 As reproduced from Book I of the 1582 English translation of Castanheda in Robert Kerr, A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels (London, 1824), II, 297. 38 See Ferguson, op. cit. (n. 2), p. 433, n. 84.

29 Zoe Swecker, “The Early Iberian Accounts of the Far East, 1550-1600" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1960), pp. 50-56. This is not noticed in Henri de Lubac, La rencontre du Bouddhisme et de l’Occident (Paris, 1952).

[738]

Behind the Portuguese Curtain, 1520-50

sidered good. He notices that they have but one ruler, called the “Son of Heaven,” who is served by eunuchs and a vast hierarchy of officials. He gives in transliteration a detailed list of official titles, including many not previously noticed in the Western accounts.3° Barros, writing and researching in the official materials at Lisbon, was able to present a fuller and more authoritative discussion than Castanheda.3! His numerous Portuguese sources included the letters of the prisoners at Canton.3? His Western sources were amplified, particularly on northern China and the interior, by materials probably taken from the Chinese books at his disposal. The third of the Décadas, in which Barros includes his longest account of China,33 was in first draft before the middle of the sixteenth century, but it did not appear in print until 1563.

The Chinese coast, Barros estimates, is more than seven hundred leagues (2,800 miles) in length; this he concludes because a trip from Canton to Peking is a journey of five hundred leagues (2,000 miles).34 The Great Wall, which he locates between 43 degrees and 45 degrees north latitude,35 excites his admiration, and he correctly points out that it was designed to serve as a defense against Tartar invasions. From the geographical works in Chinese at his disposal he gained some conception of Chinese measures of distance. After looking at a

map of the fifteen provinces of China,3® he divided them into two groups: maritime and interior.37 Within the provinces he reports seeing that there are a 30 For a translation of this material from Castanheda see Ferguson, op. cit. (n. 2), pp. 446-67. 31 Swecker, op. cit. (mn. 29), p. 114.

32 Barros clearly used these letters in preparing his third Década. See especially his description of Canton in Cidade and Marias (eds.), op. cit. (n. 26), HI, 94-97. 33 Jbid., III, 90-105. And also see references to China in his first Década in ibid., I, 352-34, 364, 368-69. 34 Estimates on China’s northward extent vary markedly as might be expected. Mendoza gives it as 1,800 miles; Gabriel Magalhaes in his A New History of China (London, 1688) asserts in his preface

that it is “not above Four hundred and fifty Leagues in length.” Also cf. below, p. 810, where the estimate is $40 leagues. In modern estimates it is usually put at around 2,200 miles. 35 Actually it is at about 40 degrees north latitude.

36 China was divided after 1428 into two metropolitan areas (ching) and thirteen provinces (sheng). See C. O. Hucker, “Governmental Organization of the Ming Dynasty,”’ Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, XX1 (1958), 5, 7. It is this difference over the metropolitan areas and the provinces proper which causes confusion among sixteenth-century European writers and leads some to talk of thirteen and others of fifteen provinces. 37 The maritime provinces which he gives (in Cidade and Marias, op. cit. ({n. 26], III, 91-92), are

“Cantio” (Canton or Kwangtung), ‘‘Foquiem” (Fukien), “‘Chequeao” (Chekiang), “Xantom”’ (Shantung), ‘“Naqui’’ (Nan-chih-li or Nanking), and “Quinci” (Pei-chih-li or Peking); the interior provinces are “‘Quicheu” (K weichow), “Juna” (Yunnan), “‘Quansi” (K wangsi), “Sugu3o” (Szechwan),

““Fuquio (Kiangsi), ““Canfi” (Hukwang), ‘“Xiauxi” (Shansi), ‘‘Hon3o” (Honan), “Sanci” (Shensi).

The Portuguese prisoners, who wrote from Canton in 1524, gave a comparable list, though the transliterations are not identical (Ferguson, op. cit. [n. 2], XXXI [1902], 18-19). Evidently they also

obtained their information from a Chinese work, for Vasco Calvo, who claims “to know how to read and write their [Chinese] letters,” reports that he had in his possession “the book of all fifteen provinces.” (Ibid., p. 61.) Pereira, Cruz (see below, p. 755n.) and other of the later Portuguese writers are not able to give as complete and accurate a list of the provinces and their locations. For a modern list of the Ming provinces see C. H. Philips (ed.), Handbook of Oriental History (London, 1951), p. 190.

[739]

China total of 244 cities (fu).38 Each province has a capital city which is the center of administration. All other provincial cities are subordinate to the metropolitan city; likewise towns (chou) are subordinate to their regional cities; villages, even though they sometimes are as large as towns, are administratively under the towns.39 Barros asserts that provincial administration is entrusted to three officials:

e ° ° e ° ° e 66 ww 99 a e

the “tutio” (probably tu-t’ang,4° inspector-general or viceroy) who has general jurisdiction over public order and justice; the “concao” (chéng-shih, or more correctly, pu-chéng-shih,4! meaning governor or provincial treasurer) ; and the “chumpim”’ (tsung-ping,4? regional commander or brigadier general) who has charge of military matters. Each of these top officials has numerous subordinates. The three main officials in company with their aides meet to form a kind of provincial council whenever they need to take decisions on matters of common concern. The officials are recruited through the civil service; the justices are never natives of the provinces in which they serve though the military commanders are. All officials hold office for a maximum of three years;43 they are moved without consultation on orders from Peking; and they are all constantly under surveillance by the censorate. In their relations with foreigners, the Chinese, like the Greeks, consider all other people to be barbarians. Most barbarians are blind in their understanding of China’s civilization; the Europeans, Barros believes, are considered by the Chinese to be somewhat more advanced as they are said to be only half-blind and have “one eye.” Like the ancients of the West, the Chinese are reported to 38 Fy is actually a term for prefecture or prefectural city. The total number of provincial subdivisions varied greatly from time to time. See Hucker, loc. cit. (n. 36), p. 7. The apparent confusion over prefectures and cities is explained by reference to Barros (in Cidade and Mirias [eds.], op. cit. [n. 26], ITI, 91). He asserts that the fu in Ningpo-fu, for example, means “the city of Ningpo”’ as the

Greek “polis” in Adrianopolis means “‘the city of Adrian.”” He thus indicates with a modicum of accuracy that the prefectural capital often carried the designation fu as part of its name. 39 Chou is actually a term for subprefecture, and, as Barros indicates, the subprefectural capital sometimes carried the designation chou as part of its name. 4° The tu-t’ang, as well as the hsiin-fu (not mentioned here), were censorial officials appointed by Peking to act temporarily as viceroys in order to rectify local problems that seemed to be beyond the capabilities of the provincial governors to handle. From the mid-fifteenth century onward the viceroys were increasingly charged with general military supervision and co-ordination. Their temporary tenure in the maritime provinces, as well as in other disturbed areas, tended to become permanent in the latter half of the Ming dynasty. The powers of the provincial governors and regional commanders were circumscribed as a consequence of this extension of viceregal power. 41 Western manuals, based on Ch’ing usages, usually translate pu-chéng-shih as comptroller or provincial administration commissioner. According to Professor Ho Ping-ti, the translation “governor” is more correct for Ming times. Though the powers of pu-chéng-shih declined throughout the Ming period, this official never relinquished his financial functions. “Conc%o” could also possibly be a transcription of chen-shou, another designation for viceroy. See C. O. Hucker, “The Chinese Censorate of the Ming Dynasty” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1950), p. 81. 42 A province sometimes had more than one tsung-ping. The independent authority of this official declined in the latter half of the Ming as the viceroys increased their personal participation in military and related affairs.

43 Dubious. Every third year each official was rated by his superiors, but the normal maximum tenure in a post was for nine years. See Hucker, loc. cit. (n. 36), p. 15. Also see below, p. 761, and

_ Motes 139-40.

[ 740}

Behind the Portuguese Curtain, 1520-50 have considerable knowledge of religion and of the natural and moral sciences. They possessed the art of printing before Europe knew it, as well as great skill

in various other arts and crafts. That in times past they conquered parts of South Asia is borne out by the artifacts and remnants of their writing, religion, and customs extant in Pegu and Siam. Tribute embassies, sent from the southern countries to Peking triennially, are, in Barros’ estimation, a form of continuing

recognition of China’s former overlordship. China’s withdrawal from the game of conquest the Portuguese chronicler attributes to the decision of a wise ruler who recognized that overextension of the country’s activities was doing it more harm than good, a point which apparently makes the Chinese superior

to the Romans in Barros’ estimation. Once prudent appraisal of the state’s needs by the government led to the decision that China could subsist on her own resources, it was then decided that Chinese should not go abroad, that trade should be strictly regulated, and that foreign emissaries might enter the country only for the purpose of paying tribute. In connection with China’s relations to the south, Barros, as we have seen, offers a comparison between the Chinese and Javanese peoples.*4

Unlike most of the later writers, Barros tries to point out the differences between the southern and the northern Chinese. In general the southerners are inferior to the superior northerners, except for the people in and around Canton. The Cantonese are more advanced than other southerners and are clever in trade and astute in warfare. They are credited with knowing how to use artillery before the arrival of the Portuguese and are thought to be good cannon-makers. They possess craft which are propelled on land by the use of sails and are steered like boats. In describing the city of Canton specifically, Barros evidently depends upon the map and descriptions forwarded to Portugal by the Portuguese prisoners of Canton. Of Chinese practices he notes that irrigation is highly developed in the maritime provinces, that many people live

in houseboats, and that there is a great bustle of life everywhere. He also observes that the Chinese usually have two or three wives, and that women are generally kept in seclusion. Common women are not permitted to live within the city walls. And he notes, as practically every other writer does, the Chinese predilection for festivals, banquets, and entertainment. Everybody,

he alleges, has an occupation, and poverty and beggars are not to be found. Because his book was not widely circulated,45 Barros’ excellent account of China appears to have exercised very little direct influence upon the image of

China as it developed in Europe beyond the Iberian Peninsula and Italy. However, as we shall see, it had at least indirect influence upon the works of Mendoza and Maffei, the two most popular works dealing with China to appear in the sixteenth century. 44 See above, p. 586. 45 See above, pp. 191-92.

[ 741]

China

|2 MeEnpDOza'S BOOK AND Its SOURCES

Once it began to ascend, the curtain on information rose remarkably fast; within a generation after mid-century a number of firsthand accounts on China reached the reading public of Europe, some of them, like the materials included

in Ramusio, having been prepared in the earlier years of the century. The Jesuits, particularly after the establishment of Macao in about 1555, regularly included news of China, some of it learned through Japanese sources, in their annual letters. But it was not until 1569, at Evora in Portugal, that the first European book devoted exclusively to China was published. The work of the Portuguese Dominican, Gaspar da Cruz, this book was entitled Tractado em que se cotam muito por estéso as cousas da China.*® Based upon his own experiences

and those of others, Cruz’s book is the first to present a rounded and detailed view of China as it appeared to a European in the sixteenth century. But the book was not widely distributed, perhaps because it was published in a year of plague, or because like Barros’, it was written in the Portuguese language rather than in one of the better-known tongues of Europe. The second book on China published in Europe was Bernardino de Escalante’s Discurso de la navegacion que los Portugueses hazen a los Reinos y Provincias del Oriente, y de la notica G se tiene de las grandezas del Reino de la China (Seville, 1577).

Unlike Cruz, Escalante had apparently not visited China.‘7 For his information he relied heavily on Cruz, Barros, and informants whom he met in Portugal and Spain. At the end of his small book of exactly one hundred leaves, Escalante comments: All] that is written of the great lordship of China in this woorke I have gathered myselfe with great diligence and care of men worthie of faith; Portingals that have been there with merchandise, & of other buziness; as also of the saide people of China, which have come too Spayne: of whome I tooke that which I thought to be certaine, most meete for this short discourse.48 *© For the English translation of Cruz and the most recent editorial documentation see Boxer, op. cit. (n. 14), pp. 47-239. For further details see ibid., pp. lxiv-Ixv. Boxer was able to find records of only ten extant copies. 47 Very little is known of his biography. See scant data provided in Felipe Picatoste y Rodriguez, Apuntes para una bibliografta cientifica espafiola del siglo XVI (Madrid, 1891).

48 As translated by John Frampton, a retired merchant who had been active in Seville, in his English version of Escalante’s work called Discours of the Navigation which the Portugales doe Make to the Realmes and Provinces of the East Partes of the World, and of the knowledge that growes by them of the

great thinges, which are in the Dominion of China (London, 1579). All subsequent references to Esca-

lante’s work are taken from Frampton’s translation. Although it is surprising to learn from this quotation that there were Chinese in Spain in about 1577, no good reason exists for doubting Escalante’s word. There were certainly Chinese in Portugal long before this time, and Mendoza notes (see below, p. 791) that three Chinese merchants arrived in Spain via Mexico in 1585. And evidently two Chinese returned to England with Cavendish in 1588.

[ 742]

Mendoza’s Book and Its Sources

Since his account was written in Spanish, it attracted a reading public outside of Iberia and it was translated into English just two years after its publication at Seville.+9

Escalante’s book has sometimes been dismissed as being little more than a paraphrase of Cruz’s.5° Such is not the case, for Escalante, while recognizing his debt to Cruz, specifically acknowledges his obligation to Barros. His work in sixteen chapters follows, if anything, the organizational model of Barros. And he points out a discrepancy between the accounts of Cruz and Barros as to whether or not the Chinese teach sciences “other than the lawes of the Realm in their schools.’”’ Escalante elects to follow Barros on this disputed point. Furthermore, Cruz lists but thirteen provinces for China while Escalante gives fifteen, and his transliterations of the provincial names are almost identical with those given by Barros. Escalante testifies that he saw a Chinese make characters, and his book includes a set of three sample characters which were copied by Mendoza and the cartographer, Luis Jorgé de Barbuda.5! He also used other materials, such as official reports, which came into his hands.5? Far from being a mere paraphrase of Cruz, Escalante’s Spanish study is the first effort on the part of a European to synthesize the available sources on China and present them in narrative form. His object, it would seem from the text, was to encourage the Spanish to take a more active interest in the Far East by extending their trading and missionary activities from Mexico across the Pacific via

the Philippines to China. ,

The most influential and detailed work on China prepared in the sixteenth century was Juan Gonzalez de Mendoza’s Historia de las cosas mas notables,

ritos y costumbres del gran Reyno de la China (Rome, 1585). At the command of

Pope Gregory XIII the Augustinian monk, Mendoza, was ordered around 1583 to compose a “history of the things that are known about the kingdom of China.’’53 Before the end of the century his compendium had been translated into most European languages and had become one of the best-sellers of its day. Its popularity may be accounted for in part by the great and unsatisfied demand

which existed everywhere in Europe for a comprehensive and authoritative survey of China in the vernacular languages, and also by its publication in Rome at a time when Europe was agog over the Japanese “embassy”” which had been 49 On the importance of Spanish as the language through which news of China was diffused to the rest of Europe see the somewhat jingoistic, but fairly accurate, work of Carlos Sanz, Primitivas relaciones de Espatia con Asia y Ocednia (Madrid, 1958), pp. 37-45. 5° Boxer, op. cit. (n. 14), p. xv, n. 5, while noting Escalante’s indebtedness to Barros, cites, apparent-

ly with approval, the judgment of Jerénimo Roman, a Spanish Augustinian commentator of the sixteenth century to the effect that Escalante’s Discourso ‘was, for the most part, a thinly-disguised paraphrase of Fr. Gaspar da Cruz’s pioneer Tractado.” 51 See below, p. 818, and the illustration taken from the reverse side of Barbuda’s map. 52 For example, he refers to a report made in 1573 to Philip II by Captain Diego de Artieda. For the text of Artieda’s report in English translation see E. H. Blair and J. A. Robertson (eds.), The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 (Cleveland, 1903), III, 204-8.

53 Quoted from a memorial of 1591 which reproduces the original command in G. de Santiago Vela, Ensayo de una biblioteca Ibero-Americana (Madrid, 1917), Ill, 234.

[ 743 J

China sent to the papacy. The appearance of Mendoza’s book under the auspices of the papacy no doubt also lent it authority and interest which it might not otherwise have had. Mendoza’s clarity, his penetrating insights, and his lively style must also have contributed to its popularity. In fact, the authority of Mendoza’s book was so great that it became the point of departure and the basis of comparison

for all subsequent European works on China written before the eighteenth century.

The Rome edition (440 pages in octavo) of Mendoza’s book, known as the principal edition, was published at the expense of Bartolomé Grassi and issued by the press of Vicencio Accolti in 1585.54 It was reissued at Valencia in Spanish and at Venice in Italian during the same year, and by 1600 there were

nineteen additional Italian printings. Those issued at Brescia and Bologna in 1589 included a primitive map of China.85 The revised edition of 1586 printed at Madrid was enlarged by the inclusion of a narrative describing the Espejo expedition to New Mexico in 1583. By the end of the sixteenth century eleven printings in Spanish had appeared, one of which was put out in Antwerp in 1596.56 A German and a Latin version, the latter dedicated to Anton Fugger, appeared at Frankfurt in 1589; in 1597 a German translation by Matthies Dresser was printed at Leipzig. Dutch translations appeared both in Alkmeer and Amsterdam in 1595 at the behest of Cornelis Claesz. French translations were published at Paris in 1588, 1589, and 1600. In the year of the Armada, the English

version of R. Parke, who had been stimulated to undertake the translation by the younger Hakluyt, appeared in London under the title: The Historie of the great and mightie kingdome of China, and the situation thereof: Together with the great riches, huge citties, politike government, and rare inventions in the same.37

By the end of the sixteenth century Mendoza’s work had been reprinted forty-six times in seven different European languages. The last translation of Mendoza appeared in 1674; the most recent edition of his work in Spanish was issued in 1944,58 bringing the total number of printings to sixty-three. Most of those who have written about Mendoza’s work have had only a rough idea of the number and diversity of its sources. Generally, it can be asserted, Mendoza was acquainted with and used, either directly or indirectly, practically all the materials available in his day. His book certainly represents the first major effort to bring into a single volume the scattered pieces of infor54 For a complete bibliographical rundown of the various editions and translations of this work see Sanz, op. cit. (n. 49), pp. 386-97. 58 See below, pp. 819-20.

56 A number of the Spanish reprintings and several of the translations, including the English translation used here, were made from the expanded version. See H. R. Wagner, The Spanish Southwest (“Quevira Society Publications,” Vol. VII [Albuquerque, 1937]), I, 119, 147-48. 57 Parke’s translation was reprinted with marginal comments by Purchas, It was reissued by the

Hakluyt Society with an introduction by R. H. Major and edited by Sir George T. Staunton. All subsequent references to Mendoza are to G. T. Staunton, The Historie of the great and mightie Kingdom

of China... (““Hakluyt Society Publications,” Old Series, Vols. XIV, XV [London, 1853~54]). A new edition with full notes is still badly needed. $8 Edited by Félix Garcia, O.S.A., as Vol. II of Espaiia misionera (Madrid).

[744 ]

Mendoza’s Book and Its Sources mation which the Portuguese and Jesuits had made available, and to co-ordinate them with the other materials coming into Europe from the Spanish missionaries and administrators in the Philippines.

Mendoza has often been accused of telling tall tales, fabricating his data, and wholesale plagiarizing. Such allegations have usually been based on cursory examination of his book. No one has so far troubled to identify Mendoza’s sources, to evaluate his use of them, or to test his information by systematic comparison with the Chinese sources. Such an enterprise, timeconsuming as it might be, would help to establish whether or not Mendoza’s book is a reliable, or semi-reliable, description of Ming China. Obviously such a complete analysis and evaluation cannot be undertaken within the scope of this book. But an effort will be made to identify his major sources, to evaluate his handling of them relative to certain problems, and to show through the use of footmotes to what degree his account corresponds to or differs from other Western and Chinese sources touching the same topics. Until mid-century the Spanish in the New World continued to busy themselves with conquest and the development of the rich silver mines of Mexico and Peru. Yet officials and priests in Mexico appear to have cherished unswervingly the hope of extending their activities across the Pacific and of setting up a Spanish colony in the Far East from which both China and Japan might easily be approached. Juan de Zumarraga, the first bishop of Mexico, wished around 1550 to resign his duties in the New World to lead a mission to China. And the establishment of the Portuguese at Macao around 1555 was followed by the renewal of Spanish efforts to open regular maritime relations between New Spain and the Philippines. Legaspi finally succeeded in 1565 in founding a permanent Spanish base in the Philippines and in successfully making the difficult return journey eastward across the Pacific Ocean. Spain was thus readied to become a Far Eastern power in her own right. Published materials in Spanish were, like those in Portuguese, exceedingly few in number and slender in size until after mid-century. The early chroniclers of the discoveries recount in some detail the Spanish expedition to the Moluccas under Magellan’s command but, except for passing references, are generally silent on other Far Eastern areas. So, once the Portuguese materials became more

readily available after mid-century, the Spanish writers on Asia naturally drew upon them for their material on China. It was not until about 1570 that news began to return directly to Spain about the contacts which had been made between the Spanish and the Chinese in the Philippines and about the wealth of the China trade. In their early dispatches to Philip II, the Spaniards, both lay and religious, in the Far East, like the Portuguese before them, began to urge the conquest and conversion of the “Middle Kingdom.” In 1574, a chart of the south China coast along with a Chinese geographical work was sent to Madrid.59

Shortly thereafter the Spanish at Manila were attacked by the pirate fleet of 59 Boxer, op. cit. (n. 14), pp. xxxix-xl. Notice that it was just one decade later that Barbuda’s map, the first special map of China, was published by Ortelius. See below, p. 818.

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China

“Limahon” (Lin Féng), a Cantonese adventurer. The Spanish repelled his attacks, and Manila was visited by a Chinese imperial war junk which was hunting down the pirate. Delighted by the co-operation of the Spanish, the Chinese commander offered to escort envoys from Manila to Fukien. It was for just such an embassy that the Spaniards had long been eager.

The first Spanish mission to China (June-October, 1575) was led by two

Augustinian friars, Martin de Rada and Jerénimo Marin, and they were accompanied by two military observers, Miguel de Loarca and Pedro Sarmiento. Since this mission to Fukien failed to establish the basis for regular religious and

commercial relations, some of the Spanish in the Philippines began to call, even more impatiently than before, for a military expedition against China. In 1576 Dr. Francisco de Sande, the governor of the islands, formally proposed a military attack on China.® Philip II replied on April 29, 1577: As regards the conquest of China which you think should be undertaken forthwith, it

has seemed to us here that this matter should be dropped; and that, on the contrary, good friendship should be sought with the Chinese. You should not act or collaborate with the piratical enemies of the said Chinese, nor give them any excuse to have just cause of complaint against our people.®!

It was in this context that Mendoza became interested in China.6? At seventeen years of age Mendoza left Spain for Mexico, and in 1564 he entered the Augustinian Order in Mexico City. Since this was just the time when Legaspi and his Augustinian companions left for the Philippines, Mendoza from the beginning of his career had an opportunity to follow closely the growth of the Philippine mission and to be swept along in the tide of enthusiasm for a mission

to China which developed around 1570. His first opportunity to participate in these stirring events came in 1573 when he was appointed to accompany to Europe Diego de Herrera, an Augustinian emissary from Manila to the court of Philip II. The king welcomed the Augustinian with his gifts from the East, and responded favorably to his request for more missionaries. Herrera set Out in 1575 to return to the Philippines with a company of forty religious. Mendoza remained behind in Europe, and was still in Spain in 1577 when another group of Augustinians, carrying Rada’s reports and papers, turned up at court.®3 Jerénimo Marin, Rada’s fellow emissary on the mission to Fukien, 60 See the first official report (dated June 4, 1576) by Sande sent to the home government; therein he suggests, as the Portuguese prisoners did earlier in the century, that “with two or three thousand men one can take whatever province he please . . . for the people would revolt immediately” against

their tyrannical rulers. The entire document is translated in Blair and Robertson (eds.), op. cit. (n. $2), IV, 21-97.

61 As translated in Boxer, op. cit. (n. 14), p. 1. For the later efforts of the Spanish to penetrate continental eastern Asia see above, pp. 298-303, 309-12. 62 For biographical details see Santiago Vela, op. cit. (n. $3), III, 201-40. 63 News of this mission also reached London in 1577, for Thomas Nicholas then translated and

published a letter from a merchant in Mexico to “his friend dwelling in... Andoluzia,” giving “the particular newes, which at that instant [March, 1577] were comen from the great dominion of China.” Nicholas’ tract, six pages long, is entitled The Strange and marueilous Newes lately come from the great

Kingdome of China. The original is exceedingly rare, but it is reprinted in S. E. Brydges (comp.),

Censuria literaria (London, 1808), IV, 126-32. [ 746]

Mendoza’s Book and Its Sources

was the leader of this group, and he evidently brought Sande’s report with him. In response to Marin’s request for more missionaries, the king in 1580 delegated

Marin, Mendoza, and Francisco de Ortega to lead a mission to China. The following year the mission arrived in New Spain, but it was destined to get no further. Changing political conditions both in Spain and the Philippines led to its suspension. Frustrated in his ambition to reach China, Mendoza returned to

Spain. He then went on to Rome in 1583 where he completed the task of collecting, organizing, digesting, and writing the materials which formed the nucleus of the work published two years later. In the preparation of Part I of his book Mendoza used both primary and secondary materials, though he does not cite his indebtedness to the latter. Through textual references he indicates that he used Cruz,®* the writings and papers of Martin de Rada and Miguel de Loarca,®5 the account of Duarte

Barbosa published in Ramusio’s Viaggi,®® personal conversations with Jerénimo Marin,®7 Rada’s co-legate, the Chinese books brought to Spain®® and Rome,®? the Jesuit letters from China,”° and the three accounts, published as

the second part of his book, of the Spanish friars who had sought on separate occasions to establish missions in China. Textual comparison shows that Part I of Mendoza’s book, which contains his composite description of China, is also heavily indebted, though he does not say so, to Escalante’s Discurso. It is also likely that Mendoza knew the part of the Suma oriental by Pires published in Ramusio, that he had read a great many of the Jesuit letters from parts of the

East other than China, and that he knew, and probably used, the works of Castanheda and Barros, and had conversations with native Chinese who were then in Mexico and Spain. Yet a mere listing of Mendoza’s many sources, acknowledged and unacknowledged, does not reveal how he came by either direct or indirect access to so large a share of the information on China then available in Europe. To show as many as possible of the roots and tendrils of his account, it is necessary to examine the sources of his main sources. For example, he acknowledges Cruz

as a major source, and it appears from textual comparison that Mendoza certainly relied heavily on the Dominican for his account of religious and monastic life in China, customs at Canton, and the prisons, justice, and punishments of the Chinese. But we must further examine Cruz to see how he, and Mendoza through him, came by his information. 64 Mendoza (in Staunton [ed.], op. cit. [n. $7], I, 38) refers to Cruz as one “whom I do follow in many things in the proces of this hystorie. . .” 65 In ibid., pp. 7-8, 12, Mendoza refers to this group “‘as witnesses of sights whose relation I will follow in the most part of this hystorie.” 66 Ibid., p. 33. 67 Ibid., p. 44.

68 See below, pp. 778-80. That there were Chinese writings at El Escorial in Mendoza’s day is verified by the fact that the Japanese embassy to Europe in 1585 was shown a book which included sample Chinese characters. See above, p. 693. 69 See below, p. 777 n. 7° Staunton (ed.), op. cit. (n. $7), I, 171-72.

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China Cruz had set sail for Goa in 1548, worked on the west coast of India, founded a convent in Malacca, and then sought unsuccessfully in 1555-56 to establish a mission in Cambodia. Disappointed by his failure in Cambodia, he traveled northward to Canton, where he remained for a few months in 1556 to observe

and preach. Like other missionaries before and after him, Cruz was shortly forced to leave China. Apparently he then went to Malacca, Ormuz, and finally to Portugal. He arrived at Lisbon at the time of great pestilence in 1568-69, published his book, ministered to the sick, and succumbed to the pestilence himself.7! He and Barros both died in 1570.

Since Cruz was able to publish his book immediately upon his return to Portugal, it must be concluded that he had it in a state of near completion, at least, before returning to Lisbon. From the astuteness and accuracy of his minute observations on Chinese customs, both religious and secular, it is clear that he

probably took detailed notes while at Canton. From his own testimony he had resolved “to give a general survey of their [Chinese] affairs as best I could, both from what I saw, as [well as] from what I read in a compendium composed by a gentleman who was prisoner the land inward, and from what I heard from

trustworthy people.”7? But aside from these contemporary sources, Cruz also relied, especially for geographical materials, on Herodotus, on the Ptolemaic and biblical traditions, and on the Supplementum chronicarum of Jacopo Filipo Foresti da Bergamo written in the fifteenth century. The “compendium composed by a gentleman who was a prisoner’’ refers to the account of Galeote Pereira.73 Of a Portuguese noble family, Pereira had gone to India in 1534, and was evidently a participant in the trading voyages that the Portuguese were then making along the China coast. But the Chinese determined in 1549, after the appointment of a new imperial commissioner, to end the smuggling trade along the Fukien coast. As a result of this crackdown, Pereira and about thirty other Portuguese were captured and imprisoned in various Fukien and Kwangsi cities. Though a number of the Portuguese and their Chinese confederates were executed, Pereira and a few others were spared and managed to escape to St. John’s Island in 1553.74 Shortly after fleeing the Chinese mainland, Pereira evidently wrote up his recollections. This text was copied in 1561 by the boys at the College of Goa, and a version of it was sent to Europe as an appendix to some Jesuit letters. In 1565 it was published in

abridged form in a Venetian compendium of Jesuit letters,75 and in 1577 Richard Willes included an English translation from the Italian of this abridged account in his History of Travayle in the East and West Indies (London). Accounts of their experiences in China were also written by some of the other prisoners 71 For biographical details see Boxer, op. cit. (n. 14), pp. lviii-Ixi. Also see above, p. 562. 72 Tbid., p. $5.

73 Text translated in ibid., pp. 3-43. 74 Biographical details in ibid., pp. 1-lv. 78 Nuoui Auisi Delle Indie di Portogallo, Venuti nuouamente dalli R. padri della compagnia di Giesu & tradotti dalla lingua Spagnola nella Italiana, Quarta parte.

[ 748 }

Mendoza’s Book and Its Sources

fortunate enough to escape, but Pereira’s was the longest and best of these mid-century descriptions.7¢ In fact, one of these other reports was translated as part of the introduction to the English version of Mendoza.77 But apparently Cruz used only the account of Pereira. He reproduced about one-third of the captive’s story, particularly those parts relating to Chinese justice, punishments, and prison life. When coupled with his own astute observations on the customs and religious life at Canton, Cruz was able to produce a better rounded descrip-

tion of social practices in Kwangtung and Fukien than had heretofore been available.

While the accounts by Pereira and Cruz were highly laudatory of Chinese life in general, the tone of Rada’s later reports and those of his companions was much more critical. An Augustinian and a Spaniard, Rada worked as a missionary in Mexico before leaving for the Philippines with Legaspi in 1564. In both Mexico and the Philippines he showed himself adept at learning the native languages. In the Philippines he also found time to make astronomical observations and calculations, partly in an effort to show that the Philippines, despite Portugal’s claims to the contrary, lay within the Spanish demarcation. Soon the intrepid friar, in his letters sent to Mexico, began to advocate the concentration of all Spanish efforts on the conquest and conversion of China, a land reputedly both wealthy and weak.78 Upon leaving for China in 1575, Rada and his cohorts were ordered by their superior in Manila that, besides obtaining permission to carry on missionary activities, they should try to get the Chinese “to designate a port for us, where our merchant ships can enter and leave securely,” and should seek “to learn the quality of the people of the

land.”’79 :

Although the mission failed in its missionary and commercial objectives,

the Spaniards soon learned a great deal about China through the reports, papers, and Chinese books of Rada and his colleagues. Rada’s second effort to get to China in 1576 misfired completely, for the Chinese captain of the junk carrying him there put Rada and his companions off the vessel shortly after leaving Manila. While he accumulated data on China and prepared a work that has since disappeared on the Arte y vocabulario de la lengua China, he lost his life

in 1578 before having a further opportunity to advance his China interests. Rada was clearly a man of great religious and scholarly zeal. His interest in Chinese books and letters was conveyed in his reports and in the kinds of materials he gathered and had translated in the Philippines. From these papers and translations, Mendoza was able to learn through Rada many additional details about the history of China, its political and economic organization, and 76 Boxer, op. cit. (n. 14), p. lvi. For bibliographical details see Georg Schurhammer, Die zeitgendéssischen Quellen zur Geschichte Portuguesisch-Asiens und seiner Nachbarlander (1538-52) (Leipzig, 1932), Nos. 4694, 6062, 6107, 6159. 77 Staunton (ed.), op. cit. (n. $7), 1, xxxix—li. 78 For further details see Boxer, op. cit. (n. 14), pp. lxx—Lxxi. 79 As quoted in ibid., p. bexii.

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China something about the character of its scholarly tradition. Still, despite the factual nature of Rada’s reports and of those of Sande which accompanied them,®° Mendoza rejected the highly critical attitude of the Spaniards in the Philippines and adopted in his book the tone of admiration for China that may be found in the writings of Barros, Escalante, and Cruz. Like the reports of Rada, Mendoza’s other missionary sources are somewhat

more critical of China than the materials relayed to Europe through the Portuguese. In the second part of his work Mendoza gives accounts of three missions to China undertaken by Spanish ecclesiastics stationed in the Philippines. The first of these, the story of Rada’s mission of 1575, leaves with the reader a vague but incorrect impression that this first Spanish endeavor was something of a success. The unsuccessful Franciscan mission of 1579 to Canton is reported in paraphrase by Mendoza from the account originally prepared by Friar Augustin de Tordesillas. The final document in Mendoza’s book is based on the Itinerario of 1584 written by Martin Ignatius de Loyola, a relative of the

founder of the Society of Jesus. Although all of these missionaries failed to establish themselves in China, their reports were used by Mendoza in the preparation of Part I where he presents his comprehensive picture of China.

Finally, textual comparison of Mendoza’s Part I with Escalante shows beyond dispute the former’s debt to the latter. The first three of Mendoza’s chapters follow the organizational scheme of Escalante, and in many details, statistics, and anecdotes the two accounts are identical. Throughout the remain-

der of Mendoza’s account there are references to matters not touched upon in Cruz, such as the Chinese state system of social services and military organization. The Chinese characters which Escalante presents and his comments on

' writing Mendoza follows down to the last detail. Mendoza also includes references to land-ships, the Chinese methods of calking boats, and the Chinese priority in the manufacture of artillery, matters which are to be found only in Escalante and Barros. If Mendoza can rightfully be charged with plagiarizing, his victims must be identified as Escalante and Barros; he clearly uses material drawn from their works without so much as a passing reference to them personally. He remarks only that a “long time before, there was relation given, by way of the Portingall

Indias, by such as dwelt in Macao, and did trafficke to Canton. ... But this was by relation [hearsay?] so, that the one nor the other could satisfie. . . .”’8! 80 For Sande’s report on China of 1576 see Blair and Robertson (eds.), op. cit. (n. $2), IV, 50-66. He remarks that he is enclosing “the originals and translations of the letters from China, together with the residencias and other papers, consisting of a Chinese map and another small map that I had made here, some stories of China, and those that they call ‘Flowers of Silver’” (pp. 91-92); and ‘‘a book will

also be found ... which is a narration of the country, rents, and tributarios of China, which is in substance what is contained on the Chinese map. There is also another small book resembling a collection of sea-charts, and some papers upon which are depicted their officials of justice, which are sold in the shops of that land” (p. 93). For the use to which this information might have been put by

the cartographer, Barbuda, see below, p. 818. 81 Staunton (ed.), op. cit. (n. $7), p. 7.

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The “Mightie Kingdome”’

Be that as it may, the Portuguese accounts other than Cruz and Escalante’s Spanish version of them, were sufficiently “satisfying” for him to use them and to paraphrase them at great length. Thus, through Escalante, Mendoza used indirectly, and probably also directly, the Portuguese information compiled

by Barros, and at third-hand he was even able to profit by the observations that had been made in 1524 by the unhappy Portuguese prisoners of Canton. His work, therefore, represents a valuable synthesis of most of the written materials on China then known to Europeans.

3

Tue “Micutrg KincpoME”

What picture of China was it possible for a learned European to obtain after the publication of Mendoza’s work in 1585? To answer this question we shall center the discussion which follows about Part I of Mendoza’s description. As he organized it, this first part was subdivided into three major sections or books. The ten chapters comprising Book I cover the geographical placement of China, its climate and peoples, products, early history and kings, provincial organiza-

tion, cities, roads, and architectural wonders, as well as the “dispositions, countenance, and apparell’”’ of its people. The second book deals with religion, marital and death rites, and charity. The final book avowedly is concerned with

“morall and pollitike matters,” but it is in fact a miscellaneous collection of materials on almost every conceivable subject.

Rather than following Mendoza’s rough outline of topics, I will seek in the interests of clarity to organize his description into tighter compartments. It will also be my object to see as far as possible how he uses his sources, how

they supplement or differ from his account, and how valid these sixteenthcentury materials on Ming China may be considered to be in the light of other available materials. But before discussing the individual topics, it is necessary to remind the reader that most of the impressions and data gathered by these early travelers and emissaries relate mainly to South China, and that much of what they have to say about other places in the Celestial Kingdom was learned at second-hand through informants or the few Chinese books at their disposal. Finally, ic should be observed that the better educated observers were inclined to relate what they saw or heard to the corpus of European

knowledge and convention about Asia which was a part of their own intellectual heritage. The analysis which follows is thus designed to give in brief scope what these writers knew about China, how their information differed, and how accurately or inaccurately informed they were on particular - subjects.

[757]

China A. POLITICAL ENTITY, ORGANIZATION, AND ADMINISTRATION

The most important discussions of China’s name, a constant source of controversy in these years, are given by Cruz and Rada. As a missionary to India, Malacca, and Cambodia, Cruz comments on the widespread use of the name “China” among “those who dwell in the Southern regions,” and he notices, like the other writers, that the Chinese most commonly refer to themselves in the sixteenth century as “Tame” (Ta-ming jen or Men of the Great Ming). For Cruz and Mendoza, China is “‘a great part’ of the Scythia of Herodotus. But for Rada, who was the first person even tentatively so to identify it, “The country which we commonly call China was called by Marco Polo the Venetian the kingdom of Cathay,” thus clearly identifying it with the country visited

by the land voyagers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Rada also observes that the Chinese merchants in the Philippines called themselves natives of Chung-hua (Middle Flowery Kingdom), and that the Filipinos referred to the Chinese as “Sangley.’’82

The geographical placement of China, the countries on its borders, and the islands off its eastern seaboard were subjects of interest to Mendoza and all of his forerunners. The Augustinian friar places China at “the Orientalist part of all Asia.”"®3 Cochin-China he calls China’s “next neighbour towards the Ponent [West], a designation which is accurate even though we tend to think today of Cochin-China as being primarily south of China. “The greatest part” of China, he asserts, “is watered with the great Orientall Ocean sea beginning at the Iland Aynan [Hainan].”” Burma he places north and west of CochinChina. Cruz, whom Mendoza followed only occasionally in his placement of China, knew much more about it from his personal experience than the other writers, and he describes more accurately the placement of Champa, Cambodia,

and Siam in relation to China. Concerning China’s northern and western borders the utmost confusion prevails. Cruz correctly places Russia on China’s

northern frontier, but falls into abysmal error by making the Don River its western boundary, thus having China, according to Cruz’s imperfect geographical conception of continental Asia, bordering “‘the end of Almayne[Germany].’’84 Unlike Marco Polo, both Cruz and Rada mention and describe the Great Wall as China’s northernmost boundary.85 Mendoza in his report of Father Martin Ignatius de Loyola’s journey into China in 1582 says “that from the furthest 8A term probably of Tagalog origin that was adopted by the early Spanish writers to designate the Chinese. In the seventeenth century it was most commonly applied to the Chinese resident in the Philippines. See Boxer, op. at. (n. 14), p. 260, n. 1. 83 Escalante (chap. vi) says that China “‘lyeth moste Easterly of all Asia.” 84 This misunderstanding about the western boundaries of China implies an astonishing underestimate of the extension of the Asiatic continent. Such a gross misconception might also be related to the Portuguese policy of deliberately minimizing the distance from India to the Moluccas. See above, pp. 603-4. 8s This is probably a reflection of the changes which actually occurred in China’s boundaries from Mongol to Ming times.

[752]

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Chapter VIII PEREZ, LORENZO. Fr. Jeronimo de Jestis, restaurador de las misiones del Japén, sus cartas y relaciones, 1595-1604. Florence, 1929. PONSONBY-FANE, R. A. B. Kyoto, the Old Capital of Japan (794-1869). Kyoto, 1956.

Pratt, J. B. The Pilgrimage of Buddhism. New York, 1928. Runpatt, T. (ed.). Memorials of the Empire of Japan, in the 16th and 17th Centuries. London, 1850. SADLER, ARTHUR Linpsay. Chanoyu, or: The Tea Philosophy of Japan, a Western Evaluation.

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Sarré Axu [ * Ak pof_p.|- Seiyoku tozen-shi [35 yw P | (“A History of the Western Powers’ Eastward Penetration”). Tokyo, 1902. SANsoM, G. B. Japan: A Short Cultural History. New York, 1936. ——. The Western World and Japan. Berkeley, Calif., 1950. ———. A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford, 1958. SCHILLING, DorotHEus. Hospitaler der Franziskaner in Miyako, 1594-1597. SchoneckBeckenried, Switzerland, 1950. ———. Das Schulwesen der Jesuiten in Japan (1551-1614). Miinster, 1931. ScHUTTE, J. F. Alejandro Valignano, S.J., Il ceremoniale per i missionari del Giappone. Rome, 1946.

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——, Zoku Namban Koki [4% Ai A Rte. ] (‘The Continued Extensive Record on the Southern Barbarians’’). Tokyo, 1925. [SHimmuRA Izuru, and HaMapAa Kucut} Documents Relating to the Japanese Ambassadors Sent to Europe in the Sixteenth Century in Possession of the Department of Literature, Kyoto Imperial University. Kyoto, 1929. SHINICHIRO TAKAKURA. The Ainu of Northern Japan: A Study in Conquest and Acculturation.

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ARTICLES

ABRANCHES PINTO, J. A., and BERNARD, HENRI (trans.). “Les instructions du Pére Valignano

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BrrNarD, Henrl, S.J. “Hinayana indien et Mahayana japonais. Comment |’Occident a-t-il découvert le Bouddhisme?” Monumenta Nipponica, IV (1941), 285-86. ——. “Les débuts des relations diplomatiques entre le Japon et les Espagnols des fles Philippines, 1571-1594,” ibid., I (1938), 99-137. [ 902 ]

Chapter VIII BERNARD, Henn, S.J. “L’orientaliste Guillaume Postel et la découverte spirituelle du Japon en 1552,” ibid, [X (April, 1953), 83-108. ———. “Valignani ou Valignano, l’auteur véritable du récit de la premitre ambassade

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Braca, J. M. “Os enviados Japoneses a Roma em 1582-86,” Archivos de Macau, Ser. 2, I (1941). Cortesko, ARMANDO. “The First Account of the Far East in the Sixteenth Century—the Name ‘Japan’ in 1513,” Comptes rendus of the International Geographical Congress, II (Leiden, 1938), 145-52. Cory, RAtpu M. “Some Notes on Father Gregorio de Cespedes, Korea’s First European

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——. “The Crucifixion of the Twenty-Six in 1597,’ Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, XLIV (1916), 20-45. ———. “Les débuts de la cartographie du Japon,” Archives d'études orientales, IV (1911), 10-18,

D’Euia, Pasquate. “Bernardo, il primo Giapponese venuto a Roma (1555).” Civiltd cattolica, CII (1951), 277-87; CII (1952), $27-35.

Dor Tapao. “A Review of Jesuit Missionaries’ Linguistic Studies of the Japanese Language in the 16th and 17th Centuries.” In Japanese National Commission for UNESCO, International Symposium on History of Eastern and Western Cultural Contacts, 1957, Collection of Papers Presented. Tokyo, 1959. ————-. “Das Sprachstudium der Gesellschaft Jesu in Japan im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert,” Monumenta Nipponica, Il (1939), 437-65. ————. “Researches in the Japanese Language Made by the Jesuit Missionaries in the XVith and XVUth Centuries,” Proceedings of the Imperial Academy (of Japan), XIII (1937), 232-36. EsisAwA ARIMICHI. “Irm3o Lourengo, the First Japanese Lay-brother of the Society of Jesus and His Letter,” Monumenta Nipponica, V (1942), 225-33.

Enoki K. “Marco Polo and Japan.” In Oriente Poliano (‘Publications of the Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo Oriente.”), pp. 23-44. Rome, 1957. FIGUEIREDO, F. pg. “De re Japonica,” Vasco da Gama, I (1925-26), 202-19.

Fuj1rA MOTOHARU [ He wt &l. “Shira no shima oyobi Gores ni tsukite”’

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Commission for UNESCO, International Symposium on History of Eastern and Western Cultural Contacts, 1957, Collection of Papers Presented. Tokyo, 1959.

Hipser, B, “Renard Cysat, der Stadtschreiber zu Luzern,” Archiv fiir schweizerische Geschichte, XIII (1862), 160-224; XX (1875), 3-88. Isempa Mixinosukge. “A Brief Note on the Two Old European Maps of Japan Recently Discovered,’ Monumenta Nipponica, I (1938), 259-65.

Izu HisaNosuke [| $2 3} 22. Bp]. “Tensho ken-O shisetsu Marutino no enjutsu”

[x SEE Be 4% ap JB 20-008 Omura Sumitada (Dom Bartolomeu), 304, 305, ya, seer aye 683, 691 n.; conversion of, 291

O’Neill, Eugene: Marco’s Millions, 35 Pacheco, Diogo, 160, 167

Onin Civil War (Japan), 654 Pacific Ocean, 337, 745, 825; Balboa’s discovery

Onor (India), 475 of, 114; cartography of, 217, 221, 225; Ophir, 37, $53; as synonym for Golden Cher- exploration of, 47, 116, 117; mythical sonese, 14 islands of gold and silver, 725 n.; national [ 948 }

Index demarcation of, 118; Pigafetta’s depiction of, Papacy, 39, 41, 42, 43, $5, 117, 133; Aeterni regis

175 of 1481, $5; bull of 1500, 233; bull of 1588

Padma river, 481 elevating Goa to archdiocese, 241; bulls of Padrao (marker), 590 1493, §6; diocese of Manila created, 298;

Padrdo (the standard chart), 219 Ea quae of 1506, 160; Ex pastorali officio of

Padroado (Portuguese), 328, 433; activities 1§85, 706n.; Japan policy, 294-95, 307; within, 233, 239, 242, 245, 262; China and Mendoza’s book, 743-44; Méilitans within, 294; definition, 230, 231, 235; Italians ecclesia of 1506, 160; Mirabilia Dei of 1583, in, 258; Japan within, 294; Jesuits in, 247, 295; and the padroado system, 230; Portugal’s

249, 313; papal relations to, 294; position embassy of 1505 to, 112, 160; Portugal’s of St. Thomas Christians in, 266-67; Spanish embassy of 1514 to, 167, 227; Praecelsae

in, 298, 798 devotionis of 1514, 168; relations with PortuPadua, 38, 255, 316, 700 gal, 56-57; relations with St. Thomas

Paes, Domingo, 187, 191, 370 Christians, 266-67; and request for embassy Pagan (Burma), $39; and Marco Polo, 38 to China, 302; role in Portuguese-Castilian

Pago (near Malacca), 507, $08 dispute, 57, $8; Sedes apostolica of 1506, 160 Pagodes (temples), 377, 378, 390; meaning, 440 Paper, 488, 526, 526n., $59, 688; Chinese Pahang (Malay peninsula), 509, $10, $12, $15, invention and manufacture of, 83, 767, 777;

$16, $24, $26 in Europe, 148; transmission to Europe, 148;

“Pahari” (nickname of Murad), 455 Varthema on, 166. See also Printing

Paiva, Afonso de, 64, 94 Paper money: use of in China, 83

Pajang (Java), 586 ““Papuas.”” See New Guinea Palawan island, 637-38; Pigafetta’s description Paradési (name for foreigners in India), 369 of, 176 Paramesvara (founder of Malacca), $07, $08, $09 Palayakayal (India), 353, 408 “‘Paramisvra.” See Paramesvara

Pale (India), 341 Pardo (warship), 425

Palembang (Java), 509 Paravans (Fishery Coast Indians), 408, 428, 433,

Palembang (Sumatra), 572 442, 443; conversion of, 236, 260, 269; Pali language, 529, $59 emigration to Manaar, 270-71, 433-34; Palirone, S. Benedetto di, 700 pearl-fishers, 236

Palk Strait, 472 Parayans (caste), 368 Palladio, 700 “‘Parchia.” See Parthia

Palluruthi (India): Jesuit mission station at, 265 ‘‘Pardesis.”” See Paradési Paludanus (Bernard ten Broecke), 201, 202, 488, “‘Pareans.”” See Parayans

$53 0., 777 Paris, 79, 316, 430, 665 n., 675; Bar Sauma in,

Palurt (India), 447 39; compared to Cathay, 34, 42; compared to “Pam.” See Pahang Karakorum, 33; printing in, 149, 150 Panan (India), 487 Paris, Giraldo, 137 “‘Pananee.”’ See Pounani Parke, R., 744, 791, 792 Panans (caste), 367 Parmentier, Jean, 178, 181 Panaon island, 630, 631 Parmentier, Raoul, 178

“*Panaruca.”’ See Panarukan Parrots: from Cabral’s voyage, 104; gift to

Panarukan (Java), 588, 590, 591 papacy, 167

Panchatantra: Boccaccio’s use of, 76; migration _Parsis, 43, 405, 832; at court of Akbar, 275

to West, 27, 74; translations of, 74 Parthia, 42; St. Thomas in, 25

“*Pandanare.”” See Pantalayini Parthians: as middlemen, 13 Pandya: Paravan pearl-fishing monopoly of, ‘Parus.” See Parsis

236 Parvati (Hindu deity), 439

“Paneens.”” See Panans | Pasay. See Pasei

“‘Pangim.”’ See Mandavi river Paschasius, Pedro, 558; in Pegu, 285

Panglao island (Philippines), 637 Pasei (Sumatra), $71, 575, 577, 578; Bengalis in,

“*Pangocai.” See Bang Plassoy $78; succession by assassination, $78

“*Panicals.”” See Pannikars Pasig river, 646

Pannikars, 362 299 Pantalayini (India), 351 Pasqualigo, Pietro, 105, 106

Panipat, battle of (1526), 420 Pasio, Francesco, 801; meeting with Sanchez,

Panther: gift to papacy, 167 Pataliputra. See Patna

Pao-chia system (China), 736, 760-61, 793, 828 **Patamares.” See Patemari

[949 ]

Index Patana (towns), 345 Pepper, 29, 96, 119, 162, $75, $89, 642; adul-

‘“‘Patane.” See Patani _‘teration, 79, 144, 472; from Cabral’s voyage, Patangali: relation to Neo-Platonism, 18 104; in Calicut, 156; cultivation, 79, 162, $99; Patangatins (village heads of the Paravans), 442 deliveries to Lisbon, 138; fixed price of, 139,

Patani (Malay peninsula), $09, $21, $24 143, 472; in Germany, 122; Odoric on, 40;

Pate Udara, ruler of Java, 589 Pliny on, 16; prices, 97, 123, 124, 136; *“‘Pateudra.” See Pate Udara prices in Antwerp, 107, 125, 129; prices in

Pate Unus, ruler of Japara in Java, $89 Egypt, 49, 107; prices in England, 129;

Patemari (caste), 485 prices in Europe, 50, 98-99, 133, 143-47, Pathan (India), 461 824; prices in India, 99; prices in Lisbon, 107, *‘Pathanes” (Afghan kingdom of Bihar), 424, 425 109; prices in Marseilles, 136; prices in Old Pathans, 456, 473 Castile, 136; prices in Vienna, 129; quality, “Pationus.” See Pate Unus 824; quantities imported, 144; quintal of, 97; Patna (India), 9, 454, 480, 481 relation between supplies and price, 144; Pattars (Brahmans of Malabar), 360, 400 n. relationship to general commodity prices, Paul III, pope, 179, 235; and Society of Jesus, 144-45; Santo Stefano’s description of, 64;

246 Sernigi’s knowledge of, 156; sources, 351,

Paul IV, pope, 255, 673 352; table of price fluctuations, 145-46; Paul of Camerino, 246 types, 79; uses in Europe, 16, 136-37

Pavia, 700 “*Peraia.”’ See P’ra Chao

Pawlowski, Christophe, 468 Peregrini, Gerard, 40

P’aya (Siamese official title), 524, 529 Pereira, Diogo, 284, 436

Pazhayangadi (India), 350 Pereira, Duarte Pacheco, 95 Pearl-fishing, 434; Calcoén on, 160; in Gulf of Pereira, Galeote or Galiote, 211, 739n., 748,

Manaar, 346-47, 408 749, 754, 759 0., 762, 764, 775, 776, 780, 781,

Pearl river, 737 782, 783, 784, 788, 792, 796

Pearls, 546, $65, 767, 768, 826; of Borneo, 347; Pereira, Gaspar de Ledo. See Ledo Pereira, of China, 347, 811; grades of, 472; imported Gaspar de by Rome, 15; of India, 9, 236; of Ormuz, _ Pereira, Gongalo, 580 n.

347 Pereira, Julian, 457; at Akbar’s court, 275

Pedir (Sumatra), $71, $76, 577; king, $77 Peres, Francisco, 265, 434, 797; his attempt to

‘“*Pedirpatam”’ river. See Kotta river enter China, 295-96 Pedro, prince of Portugal, $3, 63, 151, 159; Perestrello, Bartolameu, 733 n.

travels, 52 Periapatam (India), 271

Pegado, Antonio, 435 Periplus of the Erythrean Sea: on the Indian Pegolotti, Francesco Balducci, 45-46, 474 Ocean, 14-15, 495 Pegu (name for Burma): Balbi on, 474; Chinese Persia, 5, 47; Cristobal de Acosta in, 194; in, 741; climate, $41; currency, $46; etymo- alliance with Venice, 64; frontier, 7; Greek

logy, $40; on European maps, 540; extent, knowledge of, 5; influence on medieval $40-41; fauna, $42; Franciscans in, 285; literature, 27; as intermediary, 20, 73, 128; Osério on, 196; ports, 541; Portuguese under jurisdiction of Bishop of Goa, 235, 241; missions to, $20-21; products 541-42; rubies, and Prester John legend, 26; silk, 15; trade, 11

$42; towns, $41; trading practices, 546; Persian Gulf, 42; and Marco Polo, 37, 38; Varthema in, 165, 166; wars with Arakan, $41. role in trade, 11, 130

See also Burma Persian language, 438

Pegu, city of: Balbi’s description of, $44; Persians, 340, 401, 456 destruction in 1600, §44, $§1; Fedrici’s Persica, 7

description of, 543-44; fires, $50; location, Perumil, ruler of Malabar, 348. See also Malabar

$41 Peruschi, Giovanni Battista, 330, 452-53, 465

Pei-chih-li. See Peking Pesaro (Italy), 82

Peking, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 80, 720, Pescadores islands, 816 739, 754, 756, 761, 788, 810, 813; cartography _ Peter of Lisbon, 215, $50 n.

of, 67; first Portuguese mission to, 187; Peter of Lucolongo, 39, 43 foreigners in, 789; Jesuits in, 801; Marignolli Peter the Tartar, 47 in, 42; Odoric of Pordenone on, 41; Pires in, Petrus, Aloysius: training as priest, 271

134 Peutinger, Conrad, 156 n., .162, 219 n., 494;

Penrose, Boies, 223, $81 n. correspondence with Fernandes, 159-60

Penugonda (India), 471 Pfyffer, Ludwig, 703 [950]

Index Philip II, king of Spain, 130, 131, 133, 134, 192, 632, 635, 637, 638, 639, 818; his Bisayan 202, 203, 227, 488, 569, 706, 719, 745, 754+ vocabulary, 494, 629, 636; on Brunei, $83;

770, 776, 779n., 786, 787n., 808, 818; in Cebu, 175-76; drawings, 602; his Malay barring of Dutch and English vessels, 200; vocabulary, 176, 494; manuscripts of his communication with Akbar, 276, 277; work, 175; on Moluccas, 176, 597; pereindebtedness, 139; and “Invincible Armada,” grinations in Europe, 173-75; relationship 694; marriage to Mary of England, 127, 210; to Venice, 173 n., 174, 175; in Rome, 174-75;

message from Lavezaris, 297; and military sources, 173 crusade against China, 297, 301, 746, 808; _ Pillars of Hercules, 50 negotiations with Venice, 136; reception of | Pimenta, Nicholas, 257, 312n., 458; as Jesuit Japanese emissaries, 692-93, 701; relations with Visitor to India, 274-75, 278 Jesuits in Asia, 261; and request for embassy Pina, Ruy de, 153 to China, 302; role in Asiatic affairs, 298, 300; Ping-pu (Chinese board of war), 755 n. spice trade, 136, 137, 139, 140; and union of _ Pinheiro, Antonio, 325 the Portuguese and Spanish crowns, 134-35, Pinheiro, Manuel, 459, 461, 467; mission to

198, 299, 688-89 Akbar, 277

Philip III, king of Spain, 467; and dispatch of Pinto, André, 797 n.

Goes to China, 278 Pinto, Fernio Mendes, 325, 327, 445, 522, $30,

Philip IV, king of France, 108; and Bar Sauma, $31, $32, 533, $34, $36, 554, $55, $62, $63,

39 655, 668, 795, 796; credibility, $38

Philippa of Lancaster: marriage alliance, 51 Pinto, Manuel, 281 n.

Philippine Islands, 115, 504, 584, 655, 656, 709, Pipino, Francesco, 38, 158

722, 745, 746, 750, 753, 782, 800; anarchy, _Pippli (India), 407 645; Asian sources on, 625; Augustinians in, Pirckheimer, Willibald, 164 262, 798; barangay, 626 n.; cannibalism, 638; Pires, Domingo: on mission to Akbar, 277 ceremonial wine drinking, 629; Chinese in, Pires, Tomé, 153, 169, 185-86, 188, I9I, 226, 642, 645, 745, 752, 790, 805, 806; Christian 338, 388, 409, 427, 497, $04, 522, $40, 561, $80, missions, 227, 286, 296-97, 299, 630, 633-34; $81, 582, 603, 626, 652, 747, 753, 793; On

climate, 646; coconut palm, 628; customs, Bengal, 415-16; on China, 733; in Chinese 631, 635, 636; Dominicans in, 262, 297, 805; sources, 734n.; on Gujarat, 395, 398; India ethnohistory, 626; on European maps, 221, in, 340-42; on Indochina, 563-65; on Japan, 222-23, 625; European sources on, 623-25, 653-54; in Ramusio, 495; reliability, 339; 626; fauna, 631; Franciscans in, 297; geo- on Vijayanagar, 370 graphy, 644; gold, 626, 628, 633; Gémaraon, _ Pisa, 73, 103

185; habitations, 629, 633; history, 626; Pisanello, 73 intermediary role between China and Spain, Pisani, Domenico, 104, 105 749; Jesuits in, 297, 625; languages, 639; Pius II, pope. See Piccolomini Legaspi in, 289, 296, 643; levels of civilization, Pius IV, pope, 191; ruling on jurisdiction in

639; Malay language in, 628, 635, 640-41; Serra, 267 Mendoza on, 644-46; Muslims in, 645; Pius V, pope: on Japanese mission, 294 names, 625; Oviedo on, 185; people, 628, Plancius, Pieter, 225 638, 643; Pigafetta on, 175-76; piracy, 298; Plantin press of Antwerp, 194, 195, 319

placement, 501, 636n.; polygamy, 635n.; Plato, 169 Portuguese in, 624, 641 n., 643 n.; products, Platonism: John Scot Erigena as exponent of, 24 626, 628, 631, 639; Ramusio’s use of Pires’ Pliny the Elder, 9, 13, 19, 21, 29, 70, 75, 78, 97;

information on, 186; relations with Japan, attitude toward luxuries, 15; as basis for 305 n., 306; religion, 630, 636, 645; slavery, Le livre du trésor, 29; on pepper, 16; substan64$n.; ““Tendaia,” 643; trade with China, tiation of by Montalboddo, 164; transmission 646; as vassal of China, 789; Villalobos in, of Ctesias of Cnidus, 7; view of China, 17

642-43 Plotinus: influenced by India, 18

Phillip, William, 202, 489 Po river, 41, 698

Philosophoumenos, 18 Pocarago, Elizabeth Niachile, 282 n., 613 n. Phnom Pénh (Cambodia), 310, 311 Poggio, 60, 61, 62, 63, 85; Historia de varietate Phra Attaros (Siamese religious image), 528 n. fortunae, 62; manuscript copies of, 62-63 Piccolomini, Aeneas Sylvius, 63, 70-71, 85 Pohai, gulf of, 810 n., 817; on European maps, Pigafetta, Antonio, 173-76, 181, 184, 337, 495, 224 $04, $24 0., $79, 580, $81, $88, 593, 595, 596, Point Calimere, 409 598, 599, 604, 606, 608, 624, 625, 627, 629, Point Palmyras, 411, 413

[951]

Index

Point Tinaka, 641, 643 732, 752 n., 805, 823, 824; control of Macao,

Poitiers, 42 296; control of Manaar, 274; Cortes’ petition

Polanco, Juan de, 315, 316, 326, 681 n., 798 n. of 1481, 1$2; at Council of Florence, 59; Poland, 32; interest in discoveries, 179; Mongols demarcation question, $7, 298, 604; difficulties

in, 31, 33; trade, 134 in East, 130, 131, 137, 140-41, 171, 202, 269, “Poleas.”” See Pulayans 270, 271, 287, 381, 395, 433, 447, 487-88,

Polo, Maffeo, 34-35, 37, 38 621, 824; directives of 1545, 239-40; Dutch in, Polo, Marco, 20, 24, 34-38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 47, 198; early history, $1, 229; ecclesiastical $7, 60, 61, 63, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75» 77s organization in East, 235, 240-41; embassies 78, 80, 81, 85, 158, 159, 179, 180, 204, 212, 347, to China, 187, 295, 733-34; embassy to 399, 407, 408, 416, 455, 495, $23, 560, $87, Gujarat, 394; embassy to Rome in 1505, 112,

623, 653, 727, 769n., 793, 819, 823; on 160; embassy to Rome in 1513-14, 113, Buddha, 37; on Burma, $39; celestial obser- 167-68, 227; in Europe, 58, 89-90, 91; vations, 38; on Ceylon, 339; on China, 735 n., and exploration of East Indies, 115; ‘Father 752, 767n.; contemporary references to, 38; of the Christians” (Pai dos Cristdos), 240; contributions to cartography, 218; edition of, Fishery Coast wars, 236; fleet of 1498, 95~06;

by Valentim Fernandes, 158; English trans- fleet of 1500, 100; fleet of 1505, 110; fleet

lation by Frampton, 212; influence of, 24, of 1561, 129; geography, $1; gold, 53; 38-39, 66-67; on Japan, 37, 652, 6$7n.; indebtedness, 126, 127, 132, 133, 134, 139, 141; knowledge of Chinese language, 36; literature Indian reaction against, 244-45; Inquisition, on, 38; on Malabar, 339; manuscripts extant, 181; intermediary in China-Japan trade, 35-36; Mongol sympathies of, 36-37; on 731, 737; international commercial interests porcelain of Fukien, 81; and Prester John in, 103-$, 1$2, 153; Italian merchants in, $3,

legend, 27; Ramusio on, 207; return route 93, 1$2; Jews in, 94, 95, 100, 103; “law of to Europe, 27-38; on southeast Asia, 37, 502; avoidance”’ in, 759 n.; loss of Ternate fortress,

on Sumatra, $73 289; Mesa da Consciéncia in, 242; monopolies,

Polo, Nicolo, 34-35, 37, 38 $3, 93, 1$2, 230, 307, 468, 824; naval power, Polybius: as source for Strabo, 13 $7; overseas claims, $5; portulan charts, Pongsawadan (Annals of Ayut'ia, 1349-1765), 218-19; and pre-Columbian discovery of

$22 America, 56; printing, 148, 170, 182, 226;

Ponte, Nicolas da, 699 products, 53; in program of Philip II, 135;

Porak4d (India), 352, 447-48; Jesuit mission relations with Antwerp, 119-27; relations

station at, 265 with Brazil, $7, 120; relations with Burma,

Porcelain, 404, $65, 601, 642, 704, 731, 768, 811, $39-40; relations with Castile, $4, 55, 56, 57,

816; European efforts to imitate, 81-82; $8, 96, IOI, 115, 116, 117, 118, 133, 297;

price, 101 relations with Ceylon, 271-74; relations

“Pori.” See Elephanta with China, 113, 172, 187, 283, 295, 296; “Porqua.” See Porak4d relations with Florence, 52, 167, 475-77; Portugal, 51, 83, 222, 262; and Africa, $1, $2, relations with India, 93, 95-98, 100-103, 106, $3, 54, $5, 56, $7, $8, 64, 92, 93, 95, 97, 98, III, 112, 113, II9, 120, 121, 129, 370, 393-94, 102, 109, 120, 1§2; alliance with Bachan, 288; 447; relations with Japan, 128; relations with

attitude towards heathens, 238-40, 243; Muslims, 94, 9$, 100, IOI, 102, 112, 238; carrying-trade between China and Japan, 726; relations with papacy, $$, $6, $7; relations and cartographic development, 218-22; and with St. Thomas Christians, 231-32, 239; Christian mission in East, 229-30, 233, 237, relations with Siam, $20-22; relations with 238, 239, 245; chronicles, 182; church and Venice, 171; and religious uniformity, $1, state in East, 235-36, 237-38, 241, 252-53, 94, 238-39, 243, 244, 2$3; and sea route to 262, 283, 288-89, 313, 429, 435, 484, 618; India, $0, $6, $9, 66; size of fleets, 132, 140; closure of factory at Antwerp, 181; commer- slave trade, $3, 93, 120, 239, 486-87; Spanish cial agreement of 1294 with England, 51; party in, 133 n., 134-35; spice monopoly, 38, commercial agreement of 1502 with Cochin 108-12, 113, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, and Cannanore, 103; commercial agreement 127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 136, 140, 141, of 1504 with Lucas Rem, 109; commercial 227; and subsidized marriages in India, 234; agreement with German merchants of 1503, trade, $1, 64, 65, 91, 93, 94, 100, 103-19, 131,

108; concordat of 1940, 231; control of 307, 767; treaty of 1513 with Calicut, 113; Asian information, 54, $5, 64, 1§0, I$I—$4, treaty of 1518 with Siam, 521; treaty of 1519 158, 169-71, 181, 185, 188, 195-96, 219, 226, with Burma, $39, 557; treaty of 1534 with 227, 493, $00, $92, 603, 604, 6$3—$4 n., 726, Gujarat, 422; treaty of 1598 with Calicut,

[952]

Index 265; union with Spain, 134-35, 298, 299; 428-39. See also Cartography; Jesuit letterviceroys of Goa, 238, 483~84; war in Indian books Ocean, 101; war with Jaffna, 270; war in Priuli, Girolamo, 104, 105 Morocco, 132; war of 1534 with Gujarat, ‘Probar Missur.” See Préas Baram Eysaur 394-95; wars with Calicut, 236; wars with “Prom.” See Prome Muslims in Spiceries, 288-90; war with Prome (Burma), $43 Turks, 104, 105; war with Vijayanagar, 236. Protestants, 727; reaction to Japanese mission, See also Cartography; Goa; Jesuits; Padroado; 702

Pepper; Philip II; Ships “Pesudo-Callisthenes,”” 8-9, 28

Portuguese: in foreign service in Europe, 153 Ptolemaic tradition, 17, $8, 68-69, 219, 823

Portulans, 66, 218, 222, 223 Ptolemy, historian of Alexander, 8 Posidonius: as source for Strabo, 13 Ptolemy of Alexandria, 16-17, 20, 23, 24, $8, 61,

Possevino, Antonio, 709, 710 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 85, 150, 162, 191, Postel, Guillaume, 604 n. 218, 222, 407, 603; sources of his Geographia,

Pounani (India), 351 16-17. See Geographia (of Ptolemy)

Pozzuoli (Italy): role in trade, 15 Pu-chéng-shih (Chinese title meaning governor P’ra chao (title meaning “Lord of All” of king or provincial treasurer), 740, 758 n., 813

of Siam), $24, $26 “Pudricaraja.”” See Putrikardja

P’ra chao chang Phenak (“Lord of the White “Pylaoan.” See Palawan island Elephants,” a title of the king of Siam), $31 Pulaw Pisang (in the Riau archipelago), 511 Praecelsae devotionis, papal bull of 1514, 115, Pulayans (caste), 367

168 Pulicat (India), 409, 410-11

Prague, 702 605

“Prage.” See Prayaga Pulo Cabale (‘island of pots” in the Moluccas),

Praibach (Siamese paper), $59 n. “Pulopicio.” See Pulaw Pisang “Praissur.”” See Preas Eysaur Punical (India), 433, 434, 437; Jesuits at, 271; “Pralocussar.”” See Préas Lok Eysaur language seminar at, 260

Prancudo, Marcus, 435, 436, 440 Punjab, 9, 420

“Praput prasar Metri.” See Préas Put Préas purchas, Samuel, 77, 78, 208, 397 n., 776

Séar Metrei Puteoli. See Pozzuoli

Prayaga (now Allahabad in India), 480 Putrikardja (first minister of Malacca), $11 Préas Baram Eysaur (Cambodian deity), $67 Pygmies, 29, 70, 599 Préas Eysaur (Cambodian deity), $67 Pythagoreans: conception of spherical earth, 10; Préeas Lok Eysaur (Cambodian deity), 567 relation to Indian thought, 12, 449 Préas Put Préas Séar Metrei (Cambodian deity),

$67 Quadros, Anton de, 252, 253, 323m, 7973

“Precaosale.”” See P’ra chao chang Phenak encouragement of language study, 279;

Prenestino, Antonio, 720 and policies of Jesuits in Asia, 254-55; report Prester John: legends about, 24-25, 26, 29, 30, on Xavier, 282; Valignano compared to, 47, 54, 59, 63, 64, 75, 76, 78, 156, 822; letter 261 to Europe, 26; locations of his empire, 26-27; “‘Quaile.”” See Palayakayal

Odoric of Pordenone’s refutation of, 41; “Quategatam.” See Kottayam

and rise of Mongols, 31 “Quelim” (judge of Malacca), $10 Primitivism, 5, 12, $84 “‘Quiai Colompon” (Burmese deity), $55 Printing: in Asia, 827; Asian titles, 182-83, 227, “‘Quichelhumar.” See Kéchil Umar 437; book sizes, 150; centers of book produc- “Quichil Bubacar.” See Kéchil Bubacar tion in Europe, 148-51, 182, 183-84, 316-17, Quilon (also “Columbum,” ‘“‘Coilam,” and

430; in China, 811-12; at Coimbra, 316-17; “Coulan’”), 43, 103, 437, 447, 448, 466; European books about, 150; German travel Amazons of, 353; ““Bentady” (ruler), 349 n.;

collections, 215-16; history, 777; Jesuit castes, 443; and Chéruman Perumal, 348; letterbooks, 182-83, 319-20, 323, 431, 446; climate, 447; ‘‘Cobritim” (or pontiff), 349; Jesuit presses in Asia, 250, 262, 308, 701 n.; extent, 352-53, 447; Franciscans in, 234, 266; at Macao, 809; of maps, 218; of Mendosa’s history, 348; Jesuit mission station at, 265; book, 744; of newsletters, 340; numbers of missionary schools at, 249; monopoly of books printed, 182, 183-84; of Chinese and pearl fishing, 408; relations with Ceylon, 352;

Japanese characters, 680; spread of from as religious center of Malabar, 349, 360; China to Europe, 777~78; Venetian printers St. Thomas Christians in, 231, 352; Strozzi in, and Ramusio, 205; of Xavier's letters, 315-16, 169; temples, 353; towns, 352-53; trade, 352;

[953 ]

Index

Quilon—(continued) Rebello, Gabriel, 196 n., 465° and vassal states of Cape Comorin, 408-9; “Rebincur.”” See Rep-un-quar

Xavier in, 269, 270 “Recon.” See Arakan Quipit (Mindanao), 637, 638 Red Sea, 11, 12, 112 Quiroga, Gaspar, 692 Reformation, 127

Qutb-ud-din Khan, Sarkar of Broach (India), Reinel, Jorgé, 217, 220, 601

457 Reinel, Pedro, 217,Reis220, 221, 625 Magos, College of: as center of Franciscan Rabelais, 222 n. activity, 262 Rada, Martin de, 298, 746, 747, 749, 750, 752, | Rem, Lucas, 108, 109, 119 755, 756, 764, 767, 772, 773, 775, 776, 777, | Remuna (India), 411 778, 780, 782, 783, 785, 786, 787, 790, 806, Renaissance: accounts of East, 59; art, 71-74;

806 n.; on Chinese tributary system, 789 cartography in, 69; circulation of Odoric Raganighantu (Sanskrit textbook of chemistry), of Pordenone’s book, 41; conception of

477 world, 65; diffusion of, in Europe, 84;

Ragusa, 128, 129 exoticism, 71, 72, 73; geographical theory, 65, Rahu story, 534 70-71; Humanism, 84~85; its image of Asia, Raichur (India), 384 n. 71, 80, 84-86; impact of discoveries on, 86; Raja Abuleis, ruler of Ternate, 595 migrations in art, 72, 73; migrations in

R4ji Emir, ruler of Tidore, 600, 613 literature, 72; Oriental traces in paintings of, Raja Jessu, ruler of Halmahera, $96 72-73; textiles, 73; Tuscan art, 72; trade, 50 R4ja Papua, ruler of Halmahera, $96 Renou, L., 68

Raja “Siripada.”” See Sripadh Rep-un-quar (name for Sakhalin in the Ainu

“Rajamir.” See Raja Emir language), 725

“Rajapute” (the “white raja’ of Malacca), Resende, André de, 179

$09, $10 Resende, Garcia de, 397 n., $$3 n.

Rajput confederacy, 398 : Restello (Portugal), 99 Rajputana (India), 461 Retes, Ynigo Ortiz de, 616 n. Rajputs, 396, 397, 399, 419, 420; defeated at | Revadanda (India), 385 n.

Chimpaner, 397 ““Revoleens.” See Eravallens

Rama Raya Vitthala, viceroy of southern India, Rhinoceros, 394, 399, 515 n., 566, $69; gift

269 n. to papacy, 167; in Lisbon, 169; in Madrid,

Rama T’ibodi II, king of Siam, $20, $21, $30 $69 n.; present to King Philip II, 488

Ramayana, 77 Rhodes: Eratosthenes’ use of in geography, Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, 35, 63, 150, 153, IO-II

168, 170, 175, 178, 179, 181, 186, 191, 204-9, Rhubarb, 489, 816, 826 213, 217, 222, 223, 227, 431, 492, 626, 727, Ribadeneira, Marcelo de, O.F.M., 306 n., 307 n.,

742, 793, 825; agents of, 186; and Book of 719; on Japan, 718 Duarte Barbosa, 186; compared to Hakluyt, Ribadeneira, Pedro de, 326, 328, 673; biography

21$; maps, 223, 495, $63, 603, 604n., 625, of Loyola, 327 643, 710, 817; omissions in, 186, 624n., Ribeiro, Diogo, 563, 625; as a cartographer, 632 n.; Pires in, 186; on southeast Asia, 495. 221-22; and the translation of Barbosa’s

See also Travel collections Book, 186

Rana Sanga, ruler of the Rajput confederacy, Ribeiro planisphere of 1529, 223

420 Ribera, Juan Bautista, 297, 799; in China,

Randér (India), 402, 404 797-98

Rangoon (also “Dogo” and “Dagon”), $41, Ribero, Nunius, 282 n. $44, $45, $47, $55; Shwe Dagon Pagoda at, Ricci, Francisco: in Chittoor, 274

$55 Ricci, Matteo, 301-3, 314, 324, 329, 467, 698,

Raniero, Antonio, 701 n. 783, 7$8n., 769n., 781 n., 821; in Chao-

“Raphael,” Portuguese ship, 162 Ch’ing, 302; in China, 801-2; on Chinese

Rattan. See Rotas military weakness, 802; influence of, 802-3,

Rau island, 620 809; in Macao, 301~2; writings, 801-2

“‘Raulim.” See “Rolis” Rice, 343, 350, 352, 405, 400, 416, 473, $41, 589,

Ravi river, 454, 463 597, 60$, 630, 637, 642, 677, 712, 722; in Asia, “Rayen” (rayya or raji of Vijayanagar), 375 826; of China, 768, 772, 811; cultivation, Raynal, Abbé: his definition of East Indies, 4 373, 764, 826; double-cropping, 373; grades

Rebello, Amador, 453 of, 373; production of Coromandel coast, 409 [954]

Index

Ricold of Monte Croce, 78 Rota island, 627 Rimini (Italy), 698 Rotary reel: migration to Europe, 81 Rites controversy: bases of the problem, 250 Rotas (rattan), 607

Ritsu (Japanese Buddhist sect), 670 n. Rott, Konrad, 134, 136, 137 Rivera, Captain Gabriel de, 585, 770 Rouen: in spice trade, 125

“RS.” See Run island Rovellasca, Giovanni, 134, 136, 137, 139, Rodrigues, Francisco, 188, 220, 601, 816 475

Rodrigues, Goncalves, 432, 435, 438, 444 Roz, Francisco, 267 Rodrigucs, Nuiio, 689, 690 n., 692, 706 n. Rubies, 96, $42, $46, $47, 826 Rodrigues, Simo, 246, 254, 428, 672, 795 n. Ruchamer, Jobst, 164 “Rolis” (priests of Burma), 555 n., $$7 Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, 346

Roma island, 499 Ruggiero, Michele, 302, 800, 801, 821 n.; at Roman, Jerénimo, 743 n., 792 Chao-Ch’ing, 296; in Europe, 302; meeting Roman, Juan Bautista, 300, 301, 802 with Sanchez, 299; in Rome, 820 n.

Roman Catholic Church: attitudes towards Ruiz, Simon, 136 . heathen practices, 238-40, 243, 244; Barlaam ‘“‘Rumes” (Turks or Egyptians), 422 and Josaphat in Vitae sanctorum, 27; and caste, Rumi-Khan, Turkish engineer, 422

244, 269n.; church and state in Asia, 230, Run island (Bandas), 609 235-36, 239-40, 241, 244, 252, 262, 283, 288— Russia, 32 89, 313, 429, 435, 484, 618, 799-800; converts, Rustichello of Pisa, 35

243, 262, 265, 271, 274, 308; ecclesiastical Rutilius, Johannes, 319 organization of East, 232, 233, 235, 240-41; | Ruysch, Johann, 220 and education of natives, 232, 237, 239, 243, 265; Indian reaction against, 244-45; martyr- Sd, Cristovdo de, 612 doms in Japan, 309; mission policy, 238, 313, | S4, Henrique de, 619

319, 719; mission stations in Asia, 286, 312; Sd, Simon, 274 mission statistics, 231 n., 238n.; missions Saavedra, Alvaro de, 599, 600, 639 as compensation for losses suffered in Refor- ‘“‘Sabaio” (ruler of Goa), 384, 391, 392

mation, 429; native clergy, 238-40, 263; Sagar (India), 384 n. and orphans, 243; and problem of pene- Sago bread, 615, 636, 642 trating high cultures, 278-79; regulars and Sago palm, 597, 605, 826 seculars in Asia, 263; relations with St. Sagre, 52; observatory at, 52, $3 Thomas Christians, 232; synods or Councils Sahara Desert: in medieval geography, 24

of Goa, 242-45 St. Catherine, church in Goa, 233, 235

Rome, 34, 67, IOI, 102, 316, 665 n., 702, 708; St. Dié, 220 Asian influences in, 18; Asian products in, 15, St. Euthyme d’Hagiorite: and Barlaam and

16, 17, 18; Bernard of Kagoshima in, 673; Josaphat legend, 27 compared to Cambaluc, 42; construction of St. Francis: church of, in Goa, 234 warchouses in, 15; and geographical theory, St. John’s island (Shang-ch’uan), 748, 749;

14, 22; image of Asia, 17; Indians in, 696; Xavier on, 284 influence of Confucian thought on, 17; St. Paul, College of, 263. See also Goa; Jesuits influence of Taoist thought on, 17; Japanese St. Remi: Odo as abbot of, 26 mission in, 301, 695-98; knowledge of, in St. Thomas, Apostle of India, 466, 784, 786, 831; Asia, 158; knowledge of Seres, 30; loss of legends about, 24-25, 66, 75, 283; shrine at Red Sea hegemony, 20; Manichacanism in, Mylapore, 42, 60, 79, 233, 235, 410 19; and Mongols, 30, 31, 38, 40; moralists’ St. Thomas, city of (India), 410, 473 attitude towards trade, 15, 16; Periplus of the St. Thomas Christians, 98, 101, 102, 158, 160, Erythrean Sea as a source for its trade, 14; 231-32, 235, 237, 239, 240, 259, 260, 337, and Prester John legend, 26; printing in, 349 N., 351, 391, 410, 438, 439, 443, 451; 149, 674-75; replacement of Greece, 12; and caste system, 232, 269; Chaldean bishops Ruggiero in, 801; slave trade, 15; sources of of, 266; in Cochin, 352; and Dominicans, 266; information about East, 19, 33; spices, 13, 16, history, 231; internal feuds, 266; numbers in

20; trade, 12-19, 20-21, 22, 49 Malabar, 353; in pepper trade, 98, 231;

Ronquillo, Diego: and Sanchez, 300 in Quilon, 352; relationship to padroado,

Ronquillo, Gonzalo, 299 266-67; relations with Jesuits, 267, 269;

“Roots of China.” See Ginseng relations with papacy, 266; relations with Rosingain island (Bandas), 609 Portuguese, 232; rites question, 266; as “Rosolanguim.” See Rosingain island soldiers, 231

[955]

Index

St. Thomas island, 92 Sansom, Sir George, 725, 728 n.

in, 291 Santarem, 187 Sakhi ses (Cambodian priests), 568 Santo Domingo, 639

Sakai (Japan), 668, 677, 682, 684, 716 n.; Vilela Santaella, Rodrigo de, 159, 181

Sakuntala or the Ring, 77 Sant’ Orso, Enrico di, 164

Saladin, 81 Santo Stefano, Girolamo da, 64, $39, $73; Salamanca, 673 edition of by Valentim Fernandes, 158; Salazar, Domingo de, 299, 300; in Manila, 297 on southeast Asia, $03

Salim, son of Akbar, 455, 463 Sanudo, Marino, 66; on Pigafetta in Venice, 174 “Salomon” (religious symbol of Kashmir), 467 “Sio Gabriel,’”’ Portuguese ship, 95, 96 Salsette island, 395, 404, 466, 482; Christianiza- S. Luzia, Jorgé de: as bishop of Malacca, 287 tion of, 264; conversions in, 448; Franciscans 5S. Maria, Fernando de, $36

in, 236; language seminar at, 260 S. Mathies, Manuel de: study of Sinhalese, 279

Salsette martyrs, 446 “Sao Raphael,” Portuguese ship, 95 Salvador, Lufs do, 232, 233 : Saparua island, 616 Salvago, Antonio, 104 Sapta-nitha, temple of Divar, 441

Sdmal Laut (a people of the Philippines), 638 Saragossa, 600, 639, 701; printing in, 183

Samar (Philippines), 628, 643, 644 n. Saragossa, treaty of (1529), 118, 177, 221, 495 Samarkand, 454; defeat of Muslims at, 26 ‘“Saranga.” See Sarangani island Sambandhams (Nayar alliances), 360 Sarangani island, 602, 638, 641, 643 “Samibelgan” (approximation of Burmese title | Sarawak (Borneo), 581

for viceroy), 557 Sarmiento, Pedro, 746

Sampantangu island, 641, 643 Sassetti, Filippo, 137-38, 198, 325 n., 490, 694, “San Felipe,” Spanish ship, 718, 719 826; correspondence, 475-77; Sanskrit studies,

“San Felipe” affair, 308-9 477; travels, 476

San Luicar de Barrameda, 639 Sassetti, Francesco, 475 “Sanbon.” See Jobon Dai O | Sitgion (India), 417, 473; population, 417; Sanchez, Alonzo, 793n. 807; audience with Portuguese factory at, 275, 413 Philip I], 301; in China, 299, 300, 301; in Satha, ruler of Cambodia, 310, 311, $69 Macao, 299, 800-801; in Mexico, 299, 301; Sati, 378, 388, 471, 484; condemnation of by and military crusade against China, 300, 808; Christian missionaries, 243; Conti on, 61; in Philippines, 299, 300-301; relations with Megasthenes’ account of, 10; Priest Joseph’s

José de Acosta, 301 description of, 157

Sancho, Martin, 808 Satsuma (Japan), 290, 304, 664, 666, 667 Sandalwood: Santo Stefano’s description of, 64 “‘Sazes.’”’ See Sakhi ses

Sande, Duarte de, 214, 708, 809; in Chao- Scheldt river, 121

Ch’ing, 302 Schurhammer, Georg, 322, 726

Sande, Francisco de, 585, 746, 747, 750, 754 ““Scieco.”” See Salim “Sandinguar.” See Sampantangu island “Scuum’”’ (Burmese word for ‘“Heaven’’), $59

Sandwip island, 473 Scylax of Caryanda, 5-6

Sanga (Japan), 684 Scythians: Pomponius Mela on, 17 “Sanga” (Rajput territory under Rana Sanga), Sebastian, king of Portugal: letter of 1573 to

396 Borneo, 585n.; and religious uniformity,

“Sangages” (from Malay, sangd-agi, meaning 242; support of Jesuits, 289; suspension of

““prince’’), 608 payments at Antwerp, 127; trade policies,

Sangermano, Vincentius, $43 n., $52 n. 131, 132, 133

“*Sangesinga” (lord of Singapore), 507 Sede apostolica, papal bull of 1506, 160

Sangihe islands, 618, 619, 621 Segovia, 673

“Sangleyes” (Tagalog word for Chinese), ‘“Seilan.” See Ceylon

752, 806 Seixas, Domingo de, 524

“Sanguim.” See Sangihe islands Sé&jarah Melayu (The Dynasty of Melayu), 505

“Sangiun.” See Sanguir “Selani” island, 627

Sanguir island, 641 Seleucus Nikator: treaty with Chandragupta, 9

San-kuo-chih (“The Story of the Three King- Selim II, sultan of Ottoman Empire, 130

doms’’), 773 n. Semedo, Alvarez, 781 n.

Sannyiasis: European knowledge of, 280 “Semini” (Talaing word for “‘lords’”’), $49 Sanskrit language, 279-80; studied by Sassetti, | Senegal river: Portuguese exploration of, $4

477 Sengoku (“country at war” epoch in Japan), 654 [956]

Index

Seoul, 308 Sholapur (India), 384 n.

“Seque.”” See Bachan island Shrivijay (Buddhist kingdom of Sumatra), $72 Sequeira, Diogo Lopes de, 113, §07n., $09, 731, ““Siaca” river, $75

820 Siam (also called “Sarnam,” “Sion,” ‘Sido,’

“Sequita” (city of Morotai), 620 ‘*Sornao,” “Cernove,” “‘Xarnauz”), 629, 630,

Seram island, 593, 594, 601, 617 631, 752, 788; agriculture, 526; animism, Seres (China or Chinese), 22, 29; in Le livre du $34; armies, $29, $30; Asian sources on, $22; trésor, 29; Pomponius Mela’s consideration of, Barros on, $22-25, 529-30; books, $29;

17; Roman knowledge of, 30; silk of, 17; Buddhism, 527-29, $38; calendar, 529;

William of Rubruquis on, 34 cannibals, $23; ‘““Chaumua” (Chau Nua, or Serica: Latin name for China, 4, 17, 71 peoples of the north), 524; Chinese in, 741;

Sericulture: Europe, 21, 45 cosmography, $28-29; currency, 346; duels, Sernigi, Girolamo, 104, 155-57; two letters of $30; early Portuguese missions to, 520-21;

1499, 155-$6; letter of 1500, 156-57 education, $29; etymology of its name, $24; Serra (territory of the St. Thomas Christians), European sources on, $22, $30-31; extent,

267, 269 $22-23; festivals, 528; Franciscans in, 286,

Serrao, Francisco, $94, $95, 603, 624 $37; geography, 523, 526; Gdis on, 196; “Servidore” (possibly Bidar), 479 and “Gueos,” $23-24; harem, 527; history,

Sesame, 390 $22; Kathina ceremonies, 530 n. king, 526-27, Settala, Giovanni Giorgio, 225 n. $29, $31-32, $38; lack of Jesuit attention to,

Severio, Aurelio, 168 285; land-holding, 529-30; languages, $24, Seville, 212, 665 n.; printing in, 150, 183, 184 $29; military aid from Portugal, 521;

Seytz, Simon, 108 “‘Muantay” (Mu’ang Thai or southern Siam), Shakyamuni or Shaka (Japanese for “Buddha’’), $24; Muslims in, 526, $34, $37; official titles,

662 n., 670, 715, 716, 815 n. $24; people, 526, 527; Pigafetta on, 175;

Shang-tu (China), 34, 80 political divisions, 524; ports, 524, $26; Shansi, province of China, 739 n., 810, 817, 819 Portuguese in, 521, $26; priests, 28; products,

Shantung, province of China, 739 n., 817, 819; $26; reception of foreign emissaries, $34;

Odoric of Pordenone in, 41 religious images, 527-28; religious tolerance,

Shensi, province of China, 739 n., 810 534; royal barges, 532; royal domain, 592;

Sher Khan, Afghan ruler of Delhi, 424, 435, 426 royal palaces, 532; royal processions, 32-33;

Sher Khan Sur, ruler of Bihar, 424 statistics, $38; succession, 527; superstitions, Sher Shah, ruler of Bihar, 413, 425 $29; suzerain of Malacca, 509; suzerain of Shih-chia~fo (Chinese for ““Buddha”’), 815 n. Singapore, 507; temples, 528; Tenasserim

Shikoku (Japan), 710; political units, 713 (or Mergui) in, 525; Thai migrations, 519;

Shimazu Takahisa, 666, 667 Thai writings, 522; Thot Krathin pilgrimages,

Shimonoseki, 667 $32; trade, 15, 526, $38; treaty of 1518 with

Shin (Japanese Buddhist sect), 661 n., 670 n. Portugal, 521; vassal of China, $34; vassal Shingon (Japanese Buddhist sect), 660, 661 n., states, 510, $20, $25; wars with Burma,

670 n., 715, 716 n. $2I-22, $33, $35-36, 543, 550; wars with

Shinté, national religion of Japan, 305, 659, 832; Cambodia, 310-12, 561; wars with Chieng-

beliefs, 681, 682; ethical code, 681; festivals, mai, $20, $21; wars with Malacca, 509; 659; idols, 659, 660; kami, 681, 682; origins, white elephants, 527, $3233 681; priests, 659, 682; relationship to Buddh- _ Siberia, 15

ism, 681-82; rites, 660 “Sichao.” See Sangihe islands Ships, 346, 483, 486, 766; almadias (Indian rafts), Sicily: sericulture, 21, 46, 81

425; Asian types, 834; barangays, 626 n.; Sidayu (Java), 588 calking, 767n.; cargoes, 119; caturs, 352; Siena, 694 in China, 771, 787; construction of, 827, 834; | Sienese school, 72 fore and aft rig, 82; houseboats of China, 741, | Sighelm: search for St. Thomas’ tomb, 25

771; Javan vessels, 585-86; junks, 37, $42, Sikandar Shah, ruler of Malacca, 508, 509 $64, $76, 771, 787 n.; munchas, 425; naus,95; Silabdo (Timor island), $99 pardo (warships), 425; praus, 583, 596, 623; Silesia: and Mongols, 31 pumps, 771, 834; quintalados (space on a ship Silk: European imports of, 21, 46; of China,

for a quintal or hundredweight of merchan- 34, 41, 44, 45, 767, 768, 816; cultivation, dise), 120; recruitment of sailors, 95-96; 15, 811; Lucca’s production of, 46; myths royal barges of Siam, 532; sailing chariots, about, 15, 29; reprocessing in Syria and Egypt,

741; stores, 108; stern-post rudder, 82 16; state monopoly in Byzantine Empire, 21

[ 957]

Index Silkworms: introduced into Europe, 11, 81 in, 798; visitations, 254-$5, 261. See also

Silva, Duarte da, 679 n.; in Japan, 290 Jesuits

Silva, Martine da, 256 Society of Merchant-Adventurers (England), Silva Meneses, Diogo de, 104 126; employment of Sebastian Cabot, 209

Silva Rego, A. da, 322 “Socotay.” See Sukhothai Silveira, Goncalo da, 252, 431, 435 Sodré, Vicente, 102, 103

Silveira, Jodo de, 412, $50, $51 Solinus, 22, 29, 70, 75, 78 Silver, 345, 417, $26, 536, $45, 546, $48, 601, Solomon: and land of Ophir, 14 72$; of Argyre, 14; in Asia, 826; of China, Sonargaon (India), 425 n., 481, 482 767, 768, 811; distribution of, 108; of Japan, ‘“‘Sondiva.” See Sandwip island 653, 656, 657,677, 712; of Korea, 722; as ‘‘Sotumas”’ (2 people of Sumatra), $75

payment, 155, 156; prices of, 102 Sousa, Bernardin de, 613

Sinae: as name for China, 17 Sousa, Diogo de, bishop of Oporto, 160,

Sind, 43, 396, 398, 419, 420, 461 466

Singapore, 507, $08, 509, 608 Sousa, Domingo de, 232, 233, 275 “Singapura” (from Sanskrit, Singhapura, or Sousa, Martim Affonso de, 192; reception in

City of the Lion), $07 Lisbon, 272; and Xavier, 246

Sinhalese: as students at College of St. Paul Sousa Coutinho, Lopo de, 396

(Goa), 263; wars of, 272 Sousa da Tavera, Fernio de, 281, 610

279 fleet at Amboina, 281

Sinhalese language, 343; study of by Franciscans, Sousa Tavares, Francisco de, 195; arrival of his

Sinica: as Latin word for China, 4 South America, 117

Sintra, 692 Southampton: as spice market, 128 n.

Sinus Magnus: in cartography, 69, 219 Southeast Asia: Albuquerque on, 192; archi-~ ‘Sion,’ 620, 621. See also Macassars pelago, 649-50; Barros’ geographical divisions

Sipra river, 423 n. of, 504-5; books of, 647; Buddhism in, 520, Sirela, ruler of Brunei (also known as Maleka), 663; cartography of, 67; Chinese in, 501, $36,

$85 647; configuration, 37, 67; continental states,

Siron) (India), 480 648; definition, 4, 493; European image of, Sita (Hindu god of fortune), 441 646-50; Indians in, 647~—48; Japanese in, 501; Sittang estuary, 470 n. lack of Jesuit attention to, 285; languages, Sittang river, $39 647; Malay power in, 433; maritime routes, **Siusai.”” See Hsiu-ts’ai $94; Muslims in, 501, 648; oral traditions, Sixtus IV, pope, 168 647; place names, $02—4; Portuguese military

Sixtus V, pope, 306, 698, 708 control of, 262; Portuguese sources on, 496Slavery: in Asia, 486-87, $77, 631, 659, 734, 774, 97; Ramusio on, 495; role of Siam in, $37—38.

830; in Ceylon, 345; in China, 47, 734, 774; See also Malacca European slaves in Asia, 32; in India, 15, 239, | Soveral, Didacus do, 433 n. 409, 416, 443, 482, 483, 486; in Italy, 47, 72, Spain, 44, 70, 74, 104, 115; Alexandrian legends

73; in Japan, 659; in Portugal, $3, 93, 120, in, 21; and cartography, 221; Chinese in, 791;

239, 486-87; in Rome, 15 Chinese books in, 778-80; chroniclers, 182, Soares, Lopo, 108, 109, III, 120 184, 495; demarcation question, 115, 167, Society of Jesus, 181, 824; accommodation 298, $95, 602; El Escorial, 776-77; expedipolicy, 294; archives, 325, 328, 329; biogra- tions in Mexico, 175; Fuggers in, 114; phies of Loyola and Xavier, 326-28; constitu- Jews in, 94; libraries, 779n.; and military tions, 251, 252, 254, 256, 294, 462, 719; corre~ crusade in East, 298-99, 300, 311-12, $70~71, spondence system, 314-15; dissolution, 315; 745, 746, 786, 791, 793-94, 798, 833; mission

and doctrine of direct action, 329; finances, policy, 296, 298, 746, 747, 750; Moors in,

796n.; first general congregation, 315; $4, 94; paper in, 148; pepper prices, 145; growth of, 246, 2$1; Italians in, 799, 800; printing in, 183-84; relations with Dutch, Japan-China trade, 799; leadership problems, 135, 198, 199; relations with Portugal, $1, 52,

260-61; Malabar province, 266 n.; member- $8, 118, 297; and “San Felipe” affair in ship, 251; and military crusade against Japan, 308-9; sericulture, 21, 46, 81; trade, China, 298, 299, 329, 805; organization, 251, 114, I17, 123, 124, 133; union with Portugal, 254-55, 261; in Portugal, 181; procurators, 134-35, 298, 299; voyages to East, 114, 117, 256, 261, 329; province of India, 254, 256, 184, 494-95, 639—40; war of 1475, $5; war 260; provinces, 2$1; provincial congregations, with England, 1585-1604, 138-40; wars with 254, 256, 261; recruiting, 429, 445; Spanish France, 127

[958]

Index

Spanish Armada, 138, 302 quantities in the Levant, 113; sources of, 64,

“Spanish Fury”: sack of Antwerp, 131 102, 103, 173; as substitutes for gold and Spanish language, 743 n.; international impor- silver, 20

tance of, 182 Spindle wheel: transmission to Europe, 81

Spice trade, 22, 111, 337, 823; in Alexandria, Spitelli, Gasparo, 320, 452 128-29; and the Anglo-Spanish-Dutch war, Springer, Balthasar, 162-63

138-40; in Antwerp, 91, 99, 121; “Asian Sri Radaraxa Panchta: conversion of, 273; in contract,” 133, 134, 136, 137, 139; in Augs- Lisbon, 272 burg, 91; at Chaul, 386; contratadores in, 111; | Srinigar (India), 467 duties, 109, 110; in eastern Asia, 731; Eden __ Sripadh, ruler of Brunei, 582

on, 210; “European contract,” 133, 134, Sripur (India), 481 136, 139; expenses and losses of Portugal, Ssii-ma Kuang, Chinese historian, 779 n. 112, 119; fixed prices, 103, 109, 111; Floren- Stevens, Thomas, 213, 215, 478 tines in, 133; French in, 125, 177; general Stevin, Simon, 771 n. European involvement in, 91-92; German- Stongia, Pedro da, 235 n. Italian syndicate in, 109-12; German reac- Strabo, 9, 10, 85, 169; books on Asia, 13-14 tions to, 122-23; Germans in, 108, 133, 134, | Straits of Formosa: Marco Polo on, 37 137; Hakluyt’s interest in, 213; international Strassburg: printing in, 149 commercial interests in, 103-5; Italians in, Streit, R., 322 93-95, 109, 136; and Legaspi expedition of Stropeni, Michael, 468 n., 477, 478 1564, 129 n.; in Lisbon, 128; 1n Lyons, 124-25; Strozzi, Pietro, 169 of Middle Ages, 141; monopolistic control of, | Stuchs, Georg, 162 20, 21, 49, 108-12, 122, 132; Moors in, 369; ‘“‘Suai.” See Suzi in northern Europe, 134, 139; overland route, | Subarnarekha river, 407

124-25; in the Philippines, 129n.; private “Subuth.” See Cebu profiteering from, 131, 132; profits, 105, 106, | Suez: under Axum’s control, 20 III, 112, 132; regulation in Lisbon, 97, 109, Sugar, 417, 481, $42, 656, 766, 811 IIO-II, 132; reorganization of, 139; Sassetti Sukhothai (Siam), 528

on, 475-76; in Spain, 133; speculation, Sulayman, heir-apparent of Malacca, 510, $11 125-26; Valencia agreement of 1586, 137; Suleiman the Magnificent, 128, 130 in Venice, 91, 99, 129, 133, 136; Wheeler ‘Sultan Halamo.” See Jalal Khan

on, 126; See also Portugal; Spiceries Sulu archipelago, 638 Spiceries, 113; Barros on, 603-9; cannibalism in, Sulu Islands, 616 $94, $99, 611; censorship of information on, Sulu Sea, 637, 638; Pigafetta in, 176 186, 196; Christian settlements in, 286, 287, ‘“‘Sumas’’ (a people of Halmahera), 616

290, 616-17; climate, 611; cloves, 605; Sumatra (also called “Samudra,” “Sciamuthora,” currency, 601; definition, 592-93; in demar- “Sumatrobhumi,” and Taprobane), 64, 397 n., cation controversy, 116, 167, $93, $95, 600, 415, 753; arms, $76; arts, $77; Bataks, 523 n.,

601, 620; earthquakes, 611; on European $7$; cannibals, 511, §23n.; censorship of MapS, 220, 223, 225, 601-2, 603, 623; Euro- Pires’ information on, 186; cities, $75, 576; pean sources on, $93, 603; geography, 611; climate, $74; connections with Malacca, G6émara on, 185; harems, 596; Jesuit letters $10; Conti on, 60, 62; conversion to Islam, on, 609, 612-22; Jesuits in, 287-90; languages, $10; diet, $75; Dutch voyagers to, $74; 611; Malay language in, 611; Marramque’s Empoli in, 168; on European maps, 67, 70, flect in, 289; Muslims in, $96, 611; origins, 219, 223; European sources on, $73-74; 607; Oulilima (Five-Power Alliance), 595; flora, $75; ‘‘Geinal,” $77; geography, 574; Oulisivia (Nine-Power Alliance), $95, 610; as Golden Chersonese, $74; history, $72; Oviedo on, 185, 600-601; peoples, $94, 611; “* faus,” $76; languages, $75; Lemos on, 197;

piracy, 609; placement, 221, 603-4; Portu- Malaccans in, $16; Mandeville on, 79; guese in, $94, 609, 613, 620; rulers, 607; Marco Polo on, 37, 38, $73; Muslims in, Spanish in, 595-603; Spanish-Portuguese $73, $75; Normans in, 178; Odoric of hostilities in, 600, 620; Varthema on, 593-94; Pordenone on, 40; Pasei, $78; people, 75-76; volcanoes, 611; wars, 613, 620; Xavier on, placement, $04, 574; political divisions, $76;

248, 609-12. See also Celebes; Halmahera; population, 574, 575; Portuguese in, $76,

Moluccas; Spice trade 577-78; size, $74; “Sotumas,” $75; as TaproSpices: illustrations of plants, 194-95; inferiority bane, $74; trade, $76; Varthema in, 165, 166; of Portuguese imports, 112; Mandeville on, volcanoes, 575. See also Java; Malacca 79-80; Orta on, 194; Pegolotti’s list of, 45; | Sumbawa island, 61, 587, $93, 601

[959 ]

Index Summaria (of India and Japan). See Valignano, Tana (India), 43, 404, 405, 432, 444, 470;

Alessandro : Franciscans in, 234; Xavier in, 264

Sunda (western Java), 589, $90, 796 ‘“‘Tanavaca.” See Dinavaca “Sunda Calapa” (possibly Djakarta or Bantamin Tanda (India), 481

Java), $89 “Tanga.” See Toungoo

Sunda Strait, $74, $88 Tanguts: William of Rubruquis’ knowledge Surabaya (Java), $89 of, 34 Surajgarh (India), 424 “Tanjapura.” See Tanjungpura Surat (India), 398, 402, 404, 435, 436, 454; Tanjore (India): Pimenta in, 274, 466

siege of 1573, 457 Tanjungpura (Borneo), 581, 582

Surhanpur (India), 479 Tanur (India): conversion of prince of, 250 Surigao (Mindanao), 630 Taoism, 17, 36, 784 n.; priests, 815

Sutlej river, 454 Tao-tzu (Taoists), 815 Suzi (Timor), 599 Tapima island, 616

Svetambaras (Jain sect), 459 ““Taprobana.” See Taprobane

Switzerland, 702 Taprobane, 339, 342; as Sumatra, 166, $03. Syria, 64; Mongols in, 30, 53; reprocessing of See Ceylon Chinese silk in, 16, 21; role in trade, 15, 21, Tapti river, 404, 454 107, 113, 129, 136; sericulture, 81 ““Taquanqutes” (a people of India), 443

Syriam (Burma), $40, 545 Taravad (a Malabar woman and her suitors), 363

Syro-Malabar Church. See St. Thomas Chris- ‘“Tareghe”’ (royal brokers of Pegu), $46

tians *“*Tarnassari.” See Tenasserim

Szechwan, province of China, 739 n., 819 Tartars, 36, 38, 47, $9, 73, 80, 421, 644, 721; and papacy, 31, 34, 42; in Western art, 72; in Western literature, 74, 75, 76, 77

Tabaridji, sultan of Ternate, 610, 613 Tartary, 38, 59; on European maps, 225; as Tabinshwehti, king of Burma, $33, $43, 548 Scythia, 17; represented at Council of

Tagalog language, 645, 752 n. Ferrara-Florence, $2 “Tagima.” See Tapima island “Tauzu.” See Tao-tzu

Tagus valley, 95, 96, 99, 101; and Moors, $1 Tavares, Pedro, 457; in Akbar’s court, 275 T’ai tzu (heir apparent in China), 755 n. ““Tavaros” (a people of Halmahera), 614 n. Taiko (a Japanese title meaning “prince” or Tavoy (Burma), $41

“regent’’), 307 Tavora, Pires de, 128, 602

Taira (Japanese clan), 712 n. Tea: of China, 772, 803

Talaing (the Mon people of lower Burma), $49, “Tearragei,”” province of Vijayanagar, 372

$56 n., $59 Teatro Olimpico (Vicenza), 700

Taland Island, 641 Teive, Diogo de (Jacobus Tevius), 396 “Taldo Island.” See Taland Island Teixeira, Domingos, 224

Tali (golden jewel worn by girls of Malabar Teixeira, Emmanuel, 265, 327, 439, 798:

as a sign of maturity), 356 attempt to enter China, 295 Talikota, battle of, 471 Teixeira, Luis, 225, 709, 710, 725 “*Talinate,” province of Vijayanagar, 372 Teixeira, Manuel, 723, 797 n.

“Talinjano.” See Trenganu Telingina (Telegu area of India), 372 n. “Taliparam.” See Taliparamba “Telingue.” See Telingana

Taliparamba (India), 350 Tellicherry river, 351 “Talixe.”” See Kozhikkot Talachannavar Telugu language, 412

“Tallipoies” (mendicant priests of Burma), $56 ““Temiragio.” See Tirumala

“Tamio.” See Lintun island Temporal, Jean, 208

Tamburdns, kings of Malabar, 355 Tenasserim, 60, 411 N., $19, 521, $22, $24, $25, Tamburattis (royal ladies of Malabar), 355, 356 $33, $41; customs, $25-26; products, 525;

Tamerlane, 81, 453 province of Siam, $25; Varthema in, 165, Tamil language, 372, 429, 433, 436, 439; 166

areas in which spoken, 438; study of by Tendai (Japanese Buddhist sect), 670 n.

Franciscans, 279 “Tendaia” island (possibly Samar in the

Ta-ming jén (Men of the Great Ming), 752 Philippines), 643 “‘Tampoi” (wine of the East Indies), 581 Tenreiro, Antdénio, 204 n.

Tamu no mine (monastic school of Japan), 665 Tenreiro, Francisco, 730 n. “Tamungo” (military official of Malacca), $12 Tenshi (central provinces of Japan), 713

[ 960 }

Index Ternate island (Moluccas), 131, $92, $94, $99, Tiruvalur (India), 410, 466 602 n., 609, 610, 615, 621; ancient name, 604; Tiruvankodu (India), 353 Brito in, 176; in confederation of Muslim Tiruyangad (India), 351 rulers, 289; Drake at, 135, 622-23; Galvioin, ‘“Tissoury.” See Tisvadi 195; history, 608; Jesuits in, 619; Muslims in, Tisvadi (native name for Goa), 389 n. 606; placement, 612; Portuguese fortress at, | Ti-tw (Chinese military official), 758 n. 289, 604, 608, 612, 617, 618, 620, 622; rulers Titus Livius, 73 $94-95; Spanish at, 655; vassals, 608; wars, Tiyans (caste), 366

613, 621-22; Xavier in, 282 Tokugawa Ieyasu (shogun of Japan), 654

“Terra leucorr,”’ 817 “Toledam” (governor in Burma), $45, 547

“Terreca’”’ (treasury of Burma), $49 Toledo (Spain), 692 Tevius, Jacobus. See Teive, Diogo de Tolentino, Tommaso da, 40

Thai peoples, 524 n. Tolo (Celebes), 615, 620

Thamara, Francisco, 212 Tolomei, Marcantonio, 695 n. Theatrum orbis terrarum (Ortelius), 220, 224-25 Tomar (Portugal), 233, 393

Thekkumpur (India), 443 Tongking (Indochina), 561 Themudo, George, 265 Tonle Sap (“arm of Lovek” of the Mekong Théngippattanam (India), 434 n. river), $66 Theophylactus Simocatta: depiction of China, Tonos (minor lords of Japan), 714

22 Tordesillas, Augustin de, 750

“Thin”: as reference to China, 15 Tordesillas, treaty of (1494), 57, 58, 116, 118;

Thorne, Robert, 209, 213 papacy confirms, 160

Thuringian Company, 134 Toreno, Nuno Garcia de, 601 n. Tibet, 467, 481, $19, 825; identified as Cathay, Torre, Bernardo de la, 643 278; Marco Polo’s knowledge of, 37; Odoric Torreno, Garcia de, 221

of Pordenone on, 41; products for trade, Torres, Cosmas de, 602, 603, 663, 667, 668, 15, 454; William of Rubruquis’ knowledge 674 n., 676, 677, 678; death of, 292; in Japan,

of, 34 290, 291; meeting with Xavier, 281-82

Tibetans, 454, 825 Tosa (clan of Japan), 309, 713

Ticon (Sumatra): sailors of Dieppe in, 178 Toscanelli, 63

“Ticuari” (native name of Goa), 389 “Totoc.” See Ti-tu

Tidore island (Moluccas), $92, 595-96, 602, ‘“Totole.” See Toutoli 608, 610, 619, 620; beliefs, $98; Brito’s Toungoo, 533, $39, 541, 542, $43, 547, 548. knowledge of, 176; houses, 598; Magellan’s See also Burma

crew at, 116, 117; Muslims in, 606n.; Toutoli (Celebes), 619 Pigafetta on, 176; Portuguese fortress at, 289, | Toyotomi Hideoshi, 307, 654, 657, 708, 711,

622; relations with Halmahera, 599-600; 717, 719, 720, 723, 724; attack on Korea and

rulers, 600; Spanish in, 600 China, 304, 308; and Buddhists, 303 ; conquest Tidore Vongue, ruler of Ternate, 608 of the Kanto, 305; conquest of Kyiishi, 304;

Tigers, $15, $44 edict of Jesuit expulsion of 1587, 303, 304-5; Ti-hstieh (literary chancellor in China), 671 n. persecution of Christians, 308-9

Timbuktu: gold of, $2 Tramezzino press (Venice), 319, 674 Timor island, 467, $93, $97n., 601, 617n.; and ‘“Tranate.” See Ceylon John of Monte Corvino, 39, 40; kings, 599; | Travancore (India), 249, 353, 408, 428, 429, 432,

products, 599; towns, $99; trade, 599 433, 434, 440, 443, 466; attacked by Badagds,

Tin, $13, $26, 826 . 271; disorders, 434; Franciscans in, 262; | Tinnevelly (India), 408 as Jesuit ntission station, 265, 266; languages

Tintoretto, Venetian painter, 699 of, 279; “‘Macuas.” 434; Moors in, 434;

“Tippara.” See Tippera St. Thomas Christians in, 231; Xavier in, Tippera (India), 481, 552 248, 265, 269, 270 “Tipperdas.” See Tripura Das Travel collections: De Bry, 216; Eden, 209; Tipura (India), 414 Feyerabend, 216; Hakluyt, 209, 212-15;

“Tiramgoto.” See Tiruvankodu Hulsius, 216-17; Long John of Ypres, 204; “Tiramunigate.” See Tiruyangad maps in, 180, 227; Marco Polo of Fernandes

“Tircore.”” See Trikkodi (1502), 18-59; Novus orbis regionum. .., 179,

Tiru-koyil (temple in Malabar), 356 n. 204; objectives, 217; Paesi novamente retroTirumala (regent of Vijayanagar), 471 vati..., 163-64, 204; as popular literature, T’-irtimdsam (mourning rites of Calicut), 357 180, 215, 217; Ramusio, 204-9; as sources of

[ 961

Index

Travel collections—({continued) Uliasser island, 616

exoticism, 217; as a stimulus to new enter- Ulloa, Alfonso, 189, 192 prises, 180; translations of Nicholas and Unicorn, $69 n. Frampton, 212; Viaggi fatti alla Tana..., Union of Tomar, 299; European reaction to,

180-81; Willes, 211 135

“‘Tremopatam."’ See Dharmadam Union of Utrecht, 131

Trenganu (Siam), 524 Upanishads: Plotinus’ use of, 18 Trent, council of, 242, 258, 269, 323, 429; | Upeh (Malacca), 514

jurisdiction in East, 269 “Upi.” See Upeh Treviso (Italy), 40 Upper India: definition, 4; Odoric of PorTrichandur (India), 271 denone’s use of term, 40

Trigault, Nicholas, 802 Urbino, 81

Trikkodi (India), 351 Urdaneta, Andrés de, 184, 580, $90, $99, 600, Tri-murti (Sanskrit for “three forms’), 439, 442 601, 639, 640, 643 n.; in Loaisa’s expedition,

Trincomalle (India), 270, 345; Portuguese 119; in Spanish missionary effort, 297

attempts to control, 273 Urfa: and St. Thomas, 25; Uzbeks at, 453

“Trinidad” (Magellan’s ship lost in the Spiceries),

II$, $98 Vaibico (Timor), $99

260 265, 267, 268

Trinidade (India), 432; language seminar at, Vaipokkotta (India): Jesuit mission station at, Tripura Das, governor of Patna (India), 481 Valencia, 316, 429; printing in, 183

“Triquinamale.” See Trincomalle Valignano, Alessandro, 242, 302, 306, 308, 323,

Tsugaru (Japan), 725 325, 329, 683, 686, 689, 698, 704, 705, 708, Tsung-ping (regional commander or brigadier 711, 719 ., 724, 726, 728, 800, 809; accom-

general in China), 740, 813 modation policy, 262, 294, 300; admiration

Tsushima island, 721, 729 for Japanese culture, 280, 685-86; and “Tuaca.” See Tudq Annual Letters, 318; on Asian peoples, 258—59, Tuaq (Sago wine), 605 n. 827; biography, 255; Cabral disciplined,

“Tuba.” See Tuban 293-94; on China, 803; death, 257; diploTuban (Java), $88, $89 matic mission to Japan of 1591, 305; “Tuias.” See Tiyans education, 259; on Hindu temples, 280; his “Tundos” (Buddhist prelates of Japan), 714 Historia, 257, 32$, 693, 706; influence of, 803;

Tung oil, 732 instructions regarding Japanese mission to Tungabhadri river, 374, 381 Europe, 690-91; in Japan, 293-94; on Jesuit Tun-mén. See Lintun island letters, 261, 293, 318; as Jesuit Visitor, 255, “Turcol.” See Tiru-koyil 263, 271; lack of understanding for Hinduism,

Turcomans, 401, 421 280; on language study, 259, 260, 261, 279;

Turkestan: products for trade, 15 in Macao, 296, 799, 800; and military crusade Turkey: capture of Constantinople, 50, 63; against China, 300; mission methods, 261, decline of, 130; role in trade, 50, 99, 114, 128; 262; project for papal embassy to China, 302,

and St. Thomas, 25; war of 1570-73 with 801; as Provincial of India, 1583-88, 261;

Venice, 130 reform of Japan mission, 294; relations with

Turkimales, 456 Philip II, 261; on relations with seculars, 259;

Turks, 401; control of Egypt, 113; invasions of on Salsette martyrs, 446; and Sanchez, 299; Near East, 49, 113; wars with Venice, 104, 123, sources of his writings, 802; Summaria as

133 historical sources, 257, 686; Summarium of

Tursellinus, Horatio, 321, 327, 428, 429, 430 1$77, 256; Summarium of 1580, 256; SumTuscany, 694; Japanese mission in, 694-95 marium of 1583, 256; travels, 256-57. See also Tu-t’ang (inspector-general or viceroy in China), Fréis, Luis; Japan; Jesuit letters; Society of

740, 758, 813 Jesus

Tuticorin (India), 408, 428; Franciscan mission Vallerepattanam (India), 350

stations at, 235; Jesuits in, 271 Valori, Baccio, 476

Typhoons, 476, 720 ““Van-Svi.” See Wan-sui-yeh Varanasi Kataka (royal camp in India), 473 n. Udayagiri (mountain chain south of the Krishna “Varanura.”” See Seram island

river in India), 372 n., 409, 411 n. Varella (Burmese for “temple”), 554

““Udigirmele.”” See Udayagiri Vargas Machuca, Gregorio, 310, 311

Ujjain (India), 480 “‘Varodna.” See Baroda [ 962 |

Index

Varthema, Ludovico di, 64, 164-66, 179, 337, Vesconti, Pietro, 66 : 340, 395, 410, 411, 413, 419 n., 495, $06, $12, | Vespucci, Amerigo, 161 $20, 525, 540, 573, $74, 576, $79, $80, $88, Vettuvans (caste), 367 $91, $93, 611, 623; on Chaul, 385; credibility, | Vézelay: cathedral of, 30

16§; on Dabhul, 386; Eden’s translation of, Viaggi fatti alla Tana..., 180, 181, 206, 337, 211, 212; in Pegu, $47; on southeast Asia, 494, $73 494, 503; on Spiceries, 593-94; travels, ‘“Vicaya” (Mindanao), 640, 641

164-65; on Vijayanagar, 370 Vicente, Ruy, 256

Vasconcelos, Jorgé de, 152 Vicenza, 40, 700 Vatican library, 437 n., 777 n., 803 “Victoria” (first ship to circumnavigate the Vaz, Antonio, 617, 618 globe), 116, 171, 173, 177, $98, 599, 601, Vaz, Miguel, 239, 248, 283, 428; in Japan, 291 636 n., 639; Portugal’s reaction to its return, Vaz Dourado, Fernao, 224, 225, 710, 720, 818 46; returns from its voyage, 116

Vedabha Sataka, 77 Viegas, Gaspar, 602

Veer, Gerrit de, 489 n. Viegas, Vicente, 281 n. Vega, Christoval de: mission to Akbar, 276 Vieira, Cristavao, 187, 734, 735, 736, 759 n. Vega, Emanuel: in delegation to Vijayanagar, Vieira, Francisco: as head of mission in Spice

274 Islands, 287

Velasco, D. Juan Fernandez de, 791, 792 Vienna, 665 n.; pepper prices, 123, 129, 133, 143,

Velho, Alvaro, $31 n. 144

Velho, Bartolomeu, 224, 723, 818, 819 Vientiane (Indochina), 311 Vella (white ceremonial cloth of the Zamorins), Vignére, Blaise, de, 702

354 n. Vighnanasaka (Hindu deity), 441

Vellore (India), 466 Vigo, Gongalo de, 600, 640, 641, 644 n. Veloso, Diogo, 309, 310, 311, 312, 569 Vijayanagar, city of (also called “Bisinegar’’), “Vendanao” (Mindanao itself or Magindanao 340, 372, 374-75; ““Baneanes” of, 378-79;

in present-day Cotabato province), 640 Brahmans in, 378; Conti on, 60; history, Venduruthi (India): Jesuit mission station at, 471; Paes and Nuniz on, 187; people, 376-77;

265 population, 375; royal court, 376; sack of

“Veniaga.” See Lintun island 1565, 471; Varthema in, 164, 370; wealth, Venice, 20, 35, 38, 41, 47, 57, $9, 69, 79: 95, 99, 376 123, 316, $49, 744; apparition of St. Mark, Vijayanagar, empire of (also called ‘“‘Narsinga’’), 699; copyright to Pigafetta, 175; copyrights 269, 337, 341, 407, 435; administration, 375;

on travel literature, 180 n.; Germans at, armies, 379, 380; Barros on, 371; Ceylon as 95, 138; Japanese mission in, 698-99; knowl- its tributary, 369; clothing, 377; control of edge of in Asia, 158; as middleman, 20, 171; Goa, 391; Coromandel territories, 409-11; notarial archives, 468 n.; overland expeditions currency, 373; diamond mines, 471; diamonds to India, 180-81; pepper imports, 139-40; and precious stones, 374; duels, 375; elephants, pepper prices, 98, 107, 138, 143, 144; popu- 376, 380; extent, 369-70, 371-72; fauna, 373; lation, 100, 665 n.; and porcelain, 82; printing geography, 371-72, 374; Guzman on, 466; in, 149, 674-75; and publication of Viaggi heir apparent (yuvardja), 376; history, 369-70; fatti alla Tana, 180; reaction to Portuguese horse trade, 370, 373, 376; Jesuits in, 274-75, direct trade with India, 104-7; relations with 466; jewelry, 374; justice, 375; land grants, Egypt, 106, 112; relations with Spain, 136; 439; languages, 372-73; marriage practices, revival of, 140; Rialto, 44, 119; St. Marks, 376; military tactics, 380; northern frontier, 699; and spice monopoly, 20, 44, 45, 49, 370; Orta on, 193; political divisions, 372-73; $0, 91, 103, 107, 113-14, 133; Spices in, 99, ports, 369; Portuguese sources on, 370-71; 106, II9, 122, 124, 125, 129, 141; trade, $3, products, 373; religions, 377; revenues, 374; $4, 63, 64, 6$, 102, 104, 105, 112, 123, 129, 138; revolts, 466, 471; Salvador in, 233, 370; war of 1498-1503 with Turkey, 99, 104, 105, social classes, 377-79; temples, 377; trade, 106; war of 1570-73 with Turkey, 130, 133 373; women, 379

Venkata II, ruler of Vijayanagar, 466 Vijrakurur (India), 374 n.

Vergil: on silk production, 15 Vila de Conde, Jodo de, 272-73

Verona, 700 “‘Vilacem.” See Wellassea

Verrazano, Giovanni: attempt to find northern _ Vilela, Gaspar, 292, 676, 678, 680, 681, 682,

passage, 177 683, 720, 724; in Japan, 290, 291

Verteas ( Jains), 459, 460 n., 464 Villalobos, Ruy Lopez de, 495, 602, 603, 624,

Vervins, peace of (1598), 140 625, 642, 643, 655; survivors of fleet of, 281 [ 963 ]

Index

Villani, Giovanni, 38 Wolfe, John, 202 Villa-Vicosa (Portugal), 692, 701 Wiirzburg, 429 n. Villegas, Pedro Ruis de, 816

Villiers, Filippo de I’Isle Adam, 174 “X4 Nasaradim.” See Julal-ud-Din

Vilna, 316 “Xabandar” (Persian, shah-bdndar, or “king of Viniyaka (Hindu deity), 441 the port”’), $12, $83

Vincent of Beauvais, 42, 66, 78,79; astransmitter “Xanadu.” See Shang-tu of Barlaam and Josaphat legend, 27; use of ‘“Xaqua.’’ See Shakyamuni

History of the Mongols, 32 ““Xaquem Darxa.”” See Sikandar Shah

Vindhyan hills, 420 Xavier, Francis, 128, 257, 329, 464, $34, $63, Vishnu: Jesuits’ knowledge of, 280 602, 604 n., 613; his admiration of Japanese, Viss (standard of weight in Burma), $45 n., 546 284; in Amboina, 281-82, 285, 609; as Vi$vanatha, viceroy of Madura (India), 434 Apostolic Nuncio, 246; apotheosis, 326-27;

Vivero y Velasco, Rodrigo de, 665 n. his attempt to enter China, 284-85, 668, 794;

Volga river, 31 baptism of king of Maldives, 265; biography, “Voo” (stands for Japanese words O [king] or 245 n., 285, 326-28; his brief catechism, 247,

Dai O [great king]), 660 n., 661 249; canonization, 285, 326, 327, 428; on

Voragine, Jacobus de, 437 n.; as transmitter of Cathay, 467; on China, 282-83, 284, 795;

Barlaam and Josaphat legend, 27 circulation of his letters in Europe, 428-209, Voyage et navigation faict par les Espaignolz es 674; in Cochin, 283; death, 284-85, 794;

isles de Mollusques, 173 n. in East Indies, 285; evaluation, 285; extant

Vyabari (caste), 366 letters of, 429; on Fishery Coast, 269; his Vydsa: and the authorship of Mahabharata, 438 “gift of tongues,” 669n.; in Goa, 672; as head of the Jesuit College at Goa, 252;

Wada Koremasa, 684 interest in Japan, 283, 284; and Islam, 247, Waghenaer, L. J., 200 282; in Japan, 285, 663-68, 794; and Japanese Waigeu island, 616 youths, 667, 668, 672; in Kagoshima, 283; Wako (Japanese pirates), 654, 655, 796 knowledge of Ceylon, 283; larger catechism, ““Wakwak.” 652 249, 250; legend about, 328; letter to John III, Waldseemiiller, Martin, 217, 220 283; letters from Amboina, 609; letters

Wallace, Alfred, 515 n., 94 n. from India, 428-30; letters published in Walsingham, Sir Francis, 212 Europe, 315, 321; in Malacca, 270, 281, 282, Wan-li emperor (China), 754 n. 283, 286, $15; missionizing policies, 238,

Wan-sui-yeh (“Lord of Ten Thousand Years,” 245-50, 285; in Miyako, 284, 667-68; in a phrase used in addressing the Chinese Moro islands, 282; as official emissary of

emperor), 814 Viceroy of India, 668; principal letter from

Wareru, dynasty of Burma, $43, $47 Japan, 664-66, 674; as Provincial of India, Warhafftige Beschreibunge aller theil der Welt, 254; in Quilon, 269-70; relations with Yajiré,

216 660; and reports on India from Martim

Warsai (on Wiak island off New Guinea), Affonso de Sousa, 272; situation upon his

602 n. arrival in Goa, 262; on Spiceries, 609-12;

Wats (Buddhist temples), 532 in Ternate, 282; in Travancore, 265, 269; Wedas (a people of ““Moro”’), 614 travels, 248, 663; types of letters, 248; Weissenburger, Johann, 161 Valignano compared to, 261; visit to ParaWellassea (Ceylon), 345 vans, 236, 269. See also Jesuit letters; Society Welsers, 108, 109, I10, 114, 121, 122, 137, 138, of Jesus; Valignano, Alessandro

139, 159, 162 Xavier, Jerome, 329, 453; on Akbar, 463;

West Africa: Ramusio’s use of Barros’ informa- mission to Akbar, 277, 278; religious ideas,

tion on, 190 463; translation of Christian works into

West Indies: Linschoten’s account of, 202 Persian, 279

Wheeler, John, 126 “Xenxi.” See Zen-shii Wiak island (northwest of New Guinea), 602 n. “‘Xequiam.” See Shakyamuni

Wicki, Josef, 322, 431 *“Xercansur.” See Sher Khan Sur Willes, Richard, 215, 324, 748; editor Eden’s ‘“Xetay.” See Cathay

Decades of the newe worlde, 211-12 Ximenes, André, 139

William IV, duke of Hesse, 195 “Xiritoles.” See Juru-tulis William of Rubruquis, 42, 78; observations on “‘Xodoxius.” See Jédé-shi

Asia, 33-34 ““Xulas.”” See Sulu Islands [ 964 }

Index Yajiré (or Paul of the Holy Faith), 283, 657, 662, at, Lahore, 464-65; as mendicants, 442; 663, 664, 666, 667, 670 n., 675, 680, 683, 723, migration from Hindustan, 419; organization, 727; on Japan, 660-63; relations with Xavier, 449; relations with Portuguese, 243, 419

660 Yokoseura (Japan), 683; Torres in, 291

Yakata (a title for ‘“‘ruler’’ in Japan), 712 Yii the Great (legendary founder of the Hsia

Yala (Ceylon), 344 dynasty of China), 783

Yamabushi (hermits of the Shingon sect of | Yunnan, province of China, 35,739 n., 767n.,

Japanese Buddhism), 661 n., 662 n., 716 819 Yanragawa (Japan), 657, 658 Yusuf ’Adil Khan, ruler of Bijapur (India), 391 Yamaguchi (Japan), 667, 668, 671, 677, 678,

680, 704 n.; Jesuits in, 290, 291 “Zaba” island, 507

Yangtze river, 819; cartography of, 223; Zamboanga Peninsula (Mindanao), 637, 638, Mandeville on, 79; Odoric of Pordenone on, 642

41 Zamorin (captain of the sea or ruler of Calicut),

Yatis (Jain monks of Gujarat), 459 98, 155, 166, 231; army, 358; caste affiliation, Yellow River, 783 n., 817, 819; Mandeville on, 353-54n.; children, 355; court personnel,

79; Odoric of Pordenone on, 41 358; described by Castanheda, 354-55;

YeHow Sea, 819 funeral rites, 356-57; palace, 353; powers,

Yemen: as intermediary, 13; revolts in, 130 349; revenues, 351; succession, 356, 357-58; Yezo (or the Hokkaidd), 729, 825; Ainu people suzerain of Cochin, 352. See also Calicut of, 723-24; arms, 724, 725; customs, 724,725; Zanetti, Roman publisher, 321, 675

on European maps, 224, 723, 724, 725; Zasu (leading bonzes of Hici-zan in Japan), geography, 724; language, 724; location, 677 723-24; name, 723, 724-25; relationship to Zayton. See Ch’tian-chou

Japan, 724, 725; trade, 724, 725 Zeeland: trade of, 199

language), 280 715

Yogaraj Tilaka (a dialogue in the Marathi Zen-shu (Japanese Buddhist sect), 661 n., 665, Yogis, 344, 398n., 441, 444, 461, 831; Barbosa ‘“Zimpogu.” See Japan on, 419; beliefs, 419, 449, 465; and Christian Zoroaster: Mani’s treatment of, 19

mission, 250; converts, 442; doctrine of ‘“Zuba.” See Cebu patanjali, 18; European knowledge of 18, 280; | Zuméarraga, Juan de, 745 Greeks on, 18, 449; as hermits, 442; influence, Zwingli, Ulrich, 122

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