Armies of the War of the Grand Alliance 1688–97 (Men-at-Arms) 9781472844354, 9781472844361, 9781472844330, 1472844351

Table of contents :
Cover
Contents
Introduction
French expansionism, 1667–88
The ‘Glorious Revolution’
Britain, 1688–91
Chronology Of The ‘Glorious Revolution’
Chronology Of The European War
Armies In Britain
The English army, 1685
Expansion, 1686–88
The Scottish army, 1685–88
The Irish army, 1685–88
William of Orange’s invasion army, 1688–90
Dutch & Anglo–Scots units
Danish auxiliary corps
Exile units
William III’s British armies, 1689–98
The Jacobite Army, 1688–91
Foot
Horse
French expeditionary corps
Irregulars
The French Army
Guard
Foot
Militia
Horse
Artillery
Irish troops in French service
The Spanish Army
Guard
Foot
Horse
Catalonia
The Imperial Army
Recruitment
Foot
Horse
The Dutch Army
Guard
Foot: national units
Foreign ‘permanent’ units
Foreign ‘subsidized’ units
Horse: national units
Artillery
The Savoyard Army
Guard
Foot
Horse
Militia
Artillery
Select Bibliography
Plate Commentaries
Index
Imprint
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Men-at-Arms

Armies of the War of the Grand Alliance 1688–97

Gabriele Esposito • Illustrated by Giuseppe Rava

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 • French expansionism, 1667–88

THE ‘GLORIOUS REVOLUTION’

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• Britain, 1688–91

CHRONOLOGY OF THE ‘GLORIOUS REVOLUTION’

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CHRONOLOGY OF THE EUROPEAN WAR

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ARMIES IN BRITAIN

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• The English army, 1685 – Expansion, 1686–88 – The Scottish army, 1685–88 – The Irish army, 1685–88 • William of Orange’s invasion army, 1688–90: Dutch & Anglo-Scots units – Danish auxiliary corps – Exile units • William III’s British armies, 1689–98 – The Jacobite army, 1688–91 – Foot – Horse – French expeditionary corps – Irregulars

THE FRENCH ARMY

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• Guard – Foot – Militia – Horse – Artillery – Irish troops in French service

THE SPANISH ARMY

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• Guard – Foot – Horse – Catalonia

THE IMPERIAL ARMY

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• Recruitment – Foot – Horse

THE DUTCH ARMY

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• Guard – Foot: national units – Foreign ‘permanent’ units – Foreign ‘subsidized’ units – Horse: national units – Artillery

THE SAVOYARD ARMY

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• Guard – Foot – Horse – Militia – Artillery

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

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PLATE COMMENTARIES

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INDEX 48

Men-at-Arms • 541

Armies of the War of the Grand Alliance 1688–97

Gabriele Esposito • Illustrated by Giuseppe Rava Series editors Mar tin Windrow & Nick Reynolds

ARMIES OF THE WAR OF THE GRAND ALLIANCE 1688–97

INTRODUCTION French expansionism, 1667–88

The War of the Grand Alliance (also known as the War of the League of Augsburg, or the Nine Years’ War) was a major European conflict in roughly the last decade of the 17th century, which was the precursor of the series of great wars that ravaged much of the continent – and some of its overseas territories – during the 60 years that followed. The Grand Alliance was a military coalition formed by several European states in order to resist the expansionist policies of King Louis XIV of France (r. 1638-1715). After signing the Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648, France had acquired new territories along the Rhine. During the following decades Louis, the ‘Sun King’ – the embodiment of Catholic absolute monarchy – greatly improved his armed forces, and implemented an aggressive foreign policy which threatened neighbouring powers (particularly the Habsburg dynasties of Central Europe and Spain). In 1667-68 the French invaded the Spanish Netherlands (roughly, modern Belgium) in the so-called War of Devolution, which brought them significant territorial acquisitions on their northern border. During 1672-78, Louis then attempted to conquer the Dutch republic (the United Provinces – roughly, the modern Netherlands). This Franco–Dutch War also dragged in the Holy Roman Empire (roughly, modern Austria, Germany, Central and Eastern Europe – then in Habsburg dynastic alliance with Spain). It ended with the Treaties of Nijmegen, which brought France additional territory, and cemented Louis’ military dominance. During the 1680s Louis both tightened his grip over France, and consolidated his military position in anticipation of renewed conflicts. To counter a perceived disloyalty among France’s Protestant (Huguenot) minority population, in October 1685 he revoked the liberal Edict of Nantes, and harsh suppression of his Protestant subjects led to widespread emigration. Simultaneously, employing the great military engineer Vauban, Louis strengthened his frontiers in the Rhineland and northern Italy. Meanwhile, the Marquis de Louvois reformed the army, improving its organization and discipline, and creating a system of command that would be exercised by such talented generals as Turenne, Condé and Luxembourg.

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In 1681 the French occupied the important Rhineland city of Strasbourg. During 1683-84 Louis fought the so-called War of the Reunions against the Empire and Spain to secure the Spanish Netherlands; this ended with a temporary truce which gave further territory to France. During these same years the French were also at war against the Duchy of Savoy (Piedmont in modern north-west Italy, then including part of south-east France). This pattern of events would convince most of the other European states to put aside their past differences, and to unify their resources in a common effort to resist French aggression. Louis had also gradually expanded his navy in order to project his power overseas, and a side-show of the War of the Grand Alliance would be fought in North America (where it is known as King William’s War). That name recalls one of the two monarchs who were central to the alliance against Louis XIV in 1688-97: William, Prince of Orange, the Dutch Stadtholder of the Netherlands (r. 1672-1702) and later King of England (1689-1702). While William lacked the military talents of his 16th-century forebears, he was nevertheless the champion of Protestantism across Europe. His major collaborator was the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I (r.1658-1705), who managed to persuade both Catholic and Protestant states within the Empire to co-operate in the face of the French threat. The ongoing conflict in the Balkans between the Empire and the Ottoman Turks had favoured Louis XIV by tying down most Imperial troops on that front, and thus preventing their deployment on the Rhine. However, the defeat of the Ottomans’ attempted siege of Vienna in 1683 freed up Imperial resources. At the same time, large numbers of the 200,000 Huguenot exiles from France took refuge in the Netherlands republic and England, nurturing their hostility towards Louis XIV. Some also settled in the Duchy of Savoy, but there they faced continued persecution by French forces based on the fortress of Pinerolo. Savoy could no longer accept such foreign interference in its domestic affairs, and thus became ready to join an anti-French alliance. In late September 1688, Louis XIV suddenly ordered his troops to cross the Rhine and besiege Philippsburg near Karlsruhe; this, and his subsequent utter devastation of the Rhineland, consolidated German support for the Habsburg emperor. Consequently, on 20 December 1689, the Empire, Brandenburg, the Netherlands and England (now also ruled by William of Orange – see below) formed a military alliance known as the League of Augsburg, from the name of the city where it was concluded. Soon afterwards, Spain, Savoy, Hanover and Bavaria would also join the Grand Alliance.

THE ‘GLORIOUS REVOLUTION’ Britain, 1688–91

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While these events came to a head in continental Europe, a series of fundamental developments were taking place in Britain. Collectively known as the ‘Glorious Revolution’, these led to the foundation of Britain’s subsequent constitutional monarchy, and, more immediately, to Britain’s participation in the war on the continent. In 1685, on the death of King Charles II (r. 1660-85) of the restored Stuart dynasty, his younger brother James II (of England, and VII of

CHRONOLOGY OF THE ‘GLORIOUS REVOLUTION’ 1688: 9 November  William’s army occupies Exeter unopposed. 19 November  James II takes command of 19,000 troops assembled at Salisbury. 20 November First skirmish at Wincanton. From 24th, John Churchill (later Duke of Marlborough) leads defection of most of James’s senior officers. 9 December Loss of second skirmish, at Reading, convinces James that his English army is unreliable. 10 December  James II tries to leave England for France, but is captured the following day. 11 December Provisional government formed, initially guided by Archbishop of Canterbury. 16-18 December James’s remaining troops evacuate London; William’s army enters the city without opposition. 23 December  James and his wife and child (the future ‘Old Pretender’) are allowed to flee to France. 28 December William summons surviving members of previous English Parliament. 1689: 5 January  A new ‘Convention Parliament’ is elected. 6 February After constitutional negotiations, William and Mary are proclaimed joint monarchs of England. 7 February The Bill of Rights, stating the limits of royal power and the rights of all English subjects, is passed by Parliament. 12 March James II lands with French troops at Kinsale, Ireland; Irish army and Catholic population rally to his ‘Jacobite’ cause. 16 March Scottish ‘Convention of Estates’ meets to determine the settlement of the throne. 11 April  William III and Mary are crowned King and Queen of England. The Convention then offers them the crown of Scotland. 18 April, Ireland:  In Ulster (northern Ireland), James’s army lays siege to Derry, where many Protestants have taken refuge.1 Others also hold Enniskillen, from which they mount sorties while awaiting support from England. 11 May  William and Mary accept Scottish crown. 15 May–25 July, Scotland:  Jacobite uprising; Highlanders make minor attacks on regular Scottish army, which is loyal to William. 11 June, Ireland:  First reinforcements from William’s army land in Ulster to relieve Derry. 27 July, Scotland: battle of Killiecrankie.  Gen Mackay’s 5,000-man Scottish army defeated by 2,400 Scottish Highland and Irish Jacobites led by John Graham of Dundee. Dundee is killed among heavy casualties suffered by both sides, which the rebels (unlike the regulars) cannot replace. 28 July, Ireland:  English ships relieve siege of Derry. 31 July, Ireland: Jacobites retreat from Derry, and their assault on Enniskillen fails.

13 August, Ireland: William’s Gen Schomberg begins landing 20,000 men near Belfast. 21 August, Scotland: Jacobites suffer heavy losses in failed assault on Dunkeld – their last major action. Winter 1689-90, Scotland:  Jacobite Highlanders reduced to scattered raiding. Winter 1689-90, Ireland: Both sides concentrate on securing lines of supply, in a country poor in natural resources and infrastructure. Meanwhile, William focuses on operations in Scotland, and James is hampered by quarrels among the Irish Catholic leaders. 1690, Ireland: March-April 6,000 French regulars under Comte de Lauzun land to join Jacobites, who establish defensive line along the River Boyne. 14 June  William lands near Belfast with 15,000 troops. 1 July, battle of the Boyne: With about 36,000 men against James’s 23,000, William wins decisive victory. Jacobites retreat to the south and west, but James flees to France. William enters Dublin unopposed. 17-24 July  William’s siege of Athlone fails. August–September  William besieges Limerick, but Patrick Sarsfield’s garrison repel all assaults. After losing 2,000 men in combat and 3,000 more to disease, William abandons siege and returns to England, leaving western Ireland still in Jacobite hands. James II fails to persuade Louis XIV to launch an invasion of England. Winter 1690-91:  Both sides consolidate; Jacobite leaders’ factional disputes continue. 1691, Ireland: 9 May  Marquis de Saint-Ruhe lands at Limerick with arms, supplies, but no French reinforcements, and takes command of Jacobite army. 30 June Advancing westwards, William’s Gen de Ginkel captures Athlone. His offer of peace terms is rejected. 22 July, battle of Aughrim:  After lengthy fighting between 20,000-plus men on each side, the Jacobites are defeated, losing about 4,000 dead (including Saint-Ruhe) and 3,000 captured. Survivors retreat to their last stronghold, Limerick. August–September Second siege of Limerick. The garrison, again under Sarsfield, resists for two months, but Ginkel’s superior artillery, and the lack of French relief, make the outcome inevitable. 3 October, Treaty of Limerick: Surrender of this last Jacobite force in Ireland officially ends hostilities. The treaty’s generous military conditions allow all Irish Jacobite soldiers to sail for France. By the end of this ‘flight of the Wild Geese’, some 20,000 people have emigrated. December 1691, Scotland:  Last Highland chiefs surrender, having long ceased to pose a serious threat.

1 Originally ‘Derry’, the city was renamed ‘Londonderry’ by Protestant settlers in 1613; this was confirmed in 1662, but both forms have continued to be used by the Catholic and Protestant communities respectively.

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Officer of Royal Regiment of Guards, English army, 1680s. Black hat with gold lace edging and white plume; red coat with gold lace buttonholes and edging, gold-laced dark blue cuffs, dark blue shoulder-ribbons; dark blue breeches, white stockings, and black shoes. The fine-quality neckcloth is white, the waist sash red with gold tassels, and the gauntlet gloves buff leather.

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Scotland) became King of England, Ireland and Scotland – three different countries, with distinct histories and cultures. While the same monarch ruled all three parts of Britain, at that time Ireland had its own administration and military forces, and Scotland was still independent from England. In 1688 Britain’s international position was complicated by internal religious differences. James II was a Catholic, like most of his Irish subjects, and saw Louis XIV as an ally. Most of the English and Scottish peoples, as well as the minority Scots-descended settlers in Ireland, were Protestants, who considered the Dutch ruler William of Orange (both James II’s nephew, and his son-in-law) as the true defender of Protestantism. In July 1685 James had crushed an ill-prepared Protestant rebellion in south-west England led by another nephew, the illegitimate Duke of Monmouth. Many in England and Scotland now considered James II to be a potential Catholic tyrant and a collaborator with France. Since November 1685 he had suspended the sittings of the English and Scottish parliaments, and over the following two years he issued a series of decrees favouring Catholicism. In the face of growing opposition, James purged all government positions and expanded two of the armies of his three kingdoms. In June 1688 his second wife finally gave him a male heir. Memories of the devastating Civil Wars of the 1640s-50s were still potent, arousing the fear that James would seize absolute power by force of arms and establish a Catholic dynasty. Following the king’s arrest of seven Protestant bishops in April 1688, members of the English upper classes had already started planning his removal from the throne and his replacement with William of Orange, whose marriage to James’s eldest daughter Mary made him an at least arguably legitimate pretender to the throne. William held back until late June, when he received a formal invitation to invade from English political envoys. Always under threat of French invasion of the Netherlands, William could commit only a minority of his troops, so he made his move only after being convinced that most of the English army would not resist his landing. On 10 October he issued the Declaration of the Hague, appealing for the support of the English people. On 5 November 1688 William disembarked at Torbay in Devon, south-west England, with 15,000 troops. (In the weeks that followed, James II refused a French offer of military help, believing – correctly – that to accept a French expedition would immediately turn most of the English population against him.) The subsequent events in England, Ireland and Scotland are listed in the panel on page 5.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE EUROPEAN WAR 1688: 27 September 30,000 French troops cross Rhine by surprise and besiege Philippsburg. 30 October Philippsburg falls. During the following weeks, French troops occupy key east-bank towns between Mainz in the north and the Swiss border in the south, while Emperor Leopold I begins transferring forces from the Balkans to the Rhine front. December 1688 – June 1689 French army devastates large areas of south-west Germany, sacking Heidelberg, Mannheim, Speyer, Worms and other cities, and burning many villages. 1689: February Imperial Diet, representing entire Holy Roman Empire, declares war on France. The Imperial forces are subsequently organized into three armies, to defend the Upper, Central, and Lower Rhine. April Louis XIV declares war on Spain. 1 May Inconclusive naval action between French and English off Bantry Bay, Ireland. 17 May England declares war on France. 25 August After months of uneventful manoeuvring, first significant clash of the war is minor defeat for the French by Imperial and English force at Walcourt in Spanish Netherlands. 20 December Grand Alliance is formally ratified by the Holy Roman Empire, England, the Netherlands, and some German states. 1690: (19 May, America: Militia force from Massachusetts Bay colony occupies Port Royal, capital of French Acadia – modern Nova Scotia – but withdraws after pillaging. See MAA 372, Colonial American Troops 1610-1774 (2)). June Spain and Savoy join the Grand Alliance; the first had been at war with France since April 1689, but previously uncoordinated with other Allied armies. From this point on the conflict will be fought in four European theatres of operations: the Spanish Netherlands, the Rhineland, Catalonia, and Savoy. 1 July, battle of Fleurus, Spanish Netherlands: Duc de Luxembourg with 35,000-plus French troops defeats slightly larger Spanish, German and English army under Prince George Frederick of Waldeck. Allies lose 11,000 killed and wounded and 8,000 captured, against perhaps 6,000 French casualties. Thereafter this front remains quiet for several months. 10 July, naval battle off Beachy Head: In English Channel, Adm de Tourville with 75 warships defeats smaller Anglo-Dutch fleet under Earl of Torrington. Louis XIV fails to exploit consequent opportunity to invade England. 18 August, battle of Staffarda, Savoy: French force of 12,000 under Nicolas de Catinat crushes Savoyard army of 18,000, including some Spanish from Duchy of Milan. Thereafter French occupy much of Savoy. (August-September, the Balkans: Ottoman reconquest of Serbia.)

Impression of the uniform of the 1st Company of King’s Musketeers in the French Maison du Roi. Over a red coat they wore a dark blue tabard or soubreveste, both laced with gold, and the tabard embroidered with a white cross front and back. The nobly-born members of this bodyguard unit provided all their own equipment except the carbine itself; this 1st Company were distinguished by riding grey horses. After their re-raising by Louis XIV in 1657 the company’s first commander was Charles de Batz de Castelmore, better known as ‘D’Artagnan’; he was killed at the siege of Maastricht in 1673 during Louis’ Franco–Dutch War. For notes on the uniforms of other French bodyguard units, see commentary to Plate D2.

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(16-24 October, America: Sir William Phips fails in attack on Quebec, capital of New France, with 2,300 colonial troops from Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and New Hampshire, suffering serious casualties and financial loss. See Elite 229, Raiders from New France.) Winter 1690-91 No significant operations on any front. Some Imperial troops are withdrawn from the Rhine in response to several Ottoman victories in the Balkans. In Catalonia, the Spanish finally suppress a Frenchsupported secessionist uprising started in 1687. Although victorious in Savoy, Catinat is forced to return north of the Alps when sickness ravages his army.

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1691: 15 March, Spanish Netherlands: Duc de Luxembourg attacks strategic city of Mons with 46,000 French troops; Mons surrenders on 8 April. 1 April, Savoy: French army under Catinat takes city of Nice. 28 June Catinat’s attempted siege of Cuneo fails, and he is forced onto the defensive. September, Catalonia: French army under Duc de Noailles captures Ripoli and Urgell. Winter 1691-92 French prepare for major attack on strategic city of Namur in Spanish Netherlands, and plan invasion of England by 30,000 troops under Marquis de Bellefond. The Allies use these months to mobilize more military and naval forces and improve their coordination.

OPPOSITE A map of Europe in 1700, showing the political situation of the continent between the War of the Grand Alliance (1688-97) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14). (Map by Wikimedia user ‘Rebel Redcoat’, CC BY-SA 3.0)

1692: 25 May, Spanish Netherlands: Marshal Vauban invests Namur; the city itself soon falls, but the citadel resists until 30 June. Wet weather delays William III’s attempted relief march. 29 May-4 June, naval battle of La Hogue (Barfleur): Off the Cherbourg Peninsula, Anglo-Dutch fleet of 38 warships under Adms Russell and Van Almonde decisively defeats Adm de Tourville’s 44 sail. This victory secures Anglo–Dutch dominance of English Channel, and forces cancellation of planned French invasion. 24 July-3 August, battle of Steenkerke, Spanish Netherlands: Duc de Luxembourg’s 80,000-strong French army secures a tactical victory over William III’s similar-sized Anglo–Dutch army, with both sides losing about 3,000 men. The French do not pursue a disciplined Allied retreat. 15 August Duke of Savoy captures Embrun in Dauphiné region (southeastern France). September After pillaging and burning, the Savoyards are forced to abandon all the ground they have gained on this front. Winter 1692-93 No major operations are attempted. Both the Grand Alliance and France face serious economic difficulties; the populations of the disputed areas are decimated by famine and disease, and international commerce is seriously damaged by the ongoing naval operations. 1693: 22 May On the Rhine front, the French capture Heidelberg, but their subsequent advance is halted by the Imperial army. 9 June French forces in Roussillon, on the border with Catalonia, capture the seaport of Rosas, but are unable to pursue their offensive against the Spanish army. 27 June, naval battle off Lagos, Portugal: Adm de Tourville, with some 70 warships, ambushes a huge Anglo-Dutch convoy of about 200 merchantmen bound for the Mediterranean after the main Allied naval force has turned back north, leaving it escorted only by Adm Rooke with 13 English and Dutch warships. The escort is defeated and the convoy scattered, losing about 90 merchant ships sunk or taken, with huge

financial loss. The survivors sail back to Ireland, and this defeat dooms the Allies’ ambitions for a serious naval presence in the Mediterranean. 29 July, battle of Neerwinden (Landen), Spanish Netherlands: Duc de Luxembourg, with 66,000 French, outmanoeuvres William III, whose 50,000 Allied troops entrench with their backs to a river. At the third attempt the French break through, forcing a disorderly Allied retreat; William loses some 14,000 men and all his 80 guns, the French about 9,000. Again, the French fail to exploit their victory. (6 September, India: French colony of Pondichéry is occupied by the Dutch.) 25 September–1 October, Savoy: Duke of Savoy besieges fortress of Pinerolo without success. 4 October, battle of Marsaglia, Savoy: Marshal Catinat, marching with 35,000 French troops to relieve Pineroldo, wins a crushing victory over Duke of Savoy’s 30,000 Savoyards and Spanish, inflicting some 10,000 casualties while losing only 1,800. The French again advance across Savoy.

Knötel’s reconstruction of Imperial dragoons: (left) a trooper of the Regiment von Savoyen, and an officer of the Regiment Prinz Eugen. The trooper’s coat is dark blue with red facings and ribbons, and his shabraque and holster-cover are red with white and dark-blue edging. The officer wears a red coat with black facings and a black waistcoat, both decorated with gold lace, and a gold cloth sash.

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Leopold are determined not to end the conflict without having achieved some clear victories. 1694: 27 May, Catalonia: De Noailles’ 24,000-strong French army wins a resounding victory over a similar-sized Spanish army at Torroella. 18 June Failed Anglo–Dutch amphibious attack on Brest, France. 29 June, Catalonia: French army captures Gerona at culmination of successful advance. July-August De Noailles lays siege to Barcelona, but is forced to withdraw after arrival in Mediterranean of English fleet under Adm Russell obliges French squadron to retreat to Toulon. 27 September, Spanish Netherlands: Allies recapture Huy, clearing way for an advance on Namur. October 1694–June 1695: No significant military developments; France, Spain, and the Empire are all starved of troops and economic resources.

Impression of a bellicose Savoyard matchlock musketeer of the Reggimento Guardie. The establishment of this elite unit was 2 battalions each of 10 companies of 100 men, and from 1685 a battalion had 9 line companies and 1 of grenadiers. The black hat has yellow edging and a medium blue ribbon bow; the coat is dark blue with red cuffs and lining showing at the partly buttoned-back front , and is worn over blue ‘small-clothes’. Under Duke Victor Amadeus II, who threw off the regency of his French mother in 1684, the army of Savoy was tripled in size, and played an active role in operations on France’s south-eastern front until summer 1696.

10 October French capture Charleroi, Spanish Netherlands. (October, Balkans: Ottomans repel Imperial attempt to retake Belgrade.) Winter 1693-94 Neither side is in any condition to undertake major operations. The French are now outnumbered by the Allies on all fronts, and are suffering a severe financial crisis. Louis XIV tries to split the Grand Alliance by diplomacy, but both William of Orange and

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1695: January, Spanish Netherlands: Death of Duc de Luxembourg; he will be succeeded as French theatre commander by the less competent Duc de Villeroi. July–September The summer campaigning season is occupied by the very costly Allied siege of Namur, by William III with a Dutch, Brandenburg and Bavarian army. 9 July, Savoy: French garrison of Casale is forced to surrender. 5 September Final fall of Namur to the Allies. This first significant defeat for Louis XIV in the main theatre of operations allows the Allies to secure their communications between the Meuse, Moselle and Rhine fronts. Meanwhile, on the seas, the French navy remains in port, but privateers conduct commerce-raiding against Allied shipping. October 1695–July 1696 All fronts remain relatively quiet, since both sides are now seeking a diplomatic solution to the ruinously costly conflict. The armies continue to march and counter-march, but without fighting any significant engagements or achieving any important results. 1696: Spring English Mediterranean fleet, now under Adm Rooke, is recalled to English Channel after a report of renewed French invasion preparations. June Failure of English-led amphibious landing at Camaret Bay near Brest, France. 29 August Signature of Treaty of Turin between France and Duchy of Savoy. Under this separate peace, Savoy abandons the anti-French coalition in exchange for France handing back all Savoyard territories occupied since the beginning of the war. This frees part of Catinat’s 30,000 troops to march north to the main front, where William’s operations are stalemated.

September William III opens secret peace negotiations with Louis XIV. 1697: April The belligerent powers agree to meet at Ryswick in the Netherlands to initiate formal peace talks. These fail to achieve results, due to both sides’ unwillingness to renounce their territorial gains. May, Spain: In absence of English Mediterranean fleet, French squadron from Toulon raids Cartagena. 7 June, Spanish Netherlands: French troops occupy the city of Ath.

12 June–10 August, Catalonia: Some 32,000 French troops, including veterans transferred from the Italian front, besiege Barcelona. After long resistance, the Spanish garrison is forced to surrender – giving Louis XIV one of his greatest victories of the war, and encouraging Emperor Leopold to seek a negotiated peace. 27 September On the Rhine front, the French occupy the city of Ebernberg. 20 September–30 October, Peace of Ryswick: A series of treaties are signed between the belligerents, bringing the War of the Grand Alliance to an end.

All of the parties in the negotiations had their own objectives, but only some of these were obtained. William of Orange achieved recognition as the legitimate King of England, Ireland and Scotland. The Netherlands wished to reinforce its trading position, and obtained a new commercial treaty with France on quite favourable terms. France’s hopes to retain all its conquered territories were largely disappointed; Louis kept Strasbourg, but had to evacuate other acquisitions made during both the War of the Reunions and the War of the Grand Alliance. The Empire recovered most of its lost territories. Spain secured unruly Catalonia from French meddling, but its Caribbean colonies of Tortuga (Haiti) and Santo Domingo were ceded to France. In India, Pondichéry was returned to the French, as was Acadia in North America. As was usually the case in the mid-17th century, no single real victor had emerged from the war – and the ink was hardly dry before the European powers were already preparing for a new conflict. King Charles II of Spain was on the verge of death, and had no direct heir. Both Louis XIV and Leopold I had their own candidates for the Spanish crown, and thus wanted to have their hands free to prepare for the imminent dynastic struggle. This would explode in 1700 with the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, which would again see England and the Empire allied against France.

ARMIES IN BRITAIN The English army, 1685

When James II became king, the English army was in a state of neglect. Since the New Model Army’s days of glory, with a strength of more than 50,000 veterans, Charles II had reduced it to just 8,800 men, in the following units: Royal Regiment of Guards King’s Footguards (‘Coldstream Guards’) (Regts of Foot:) Royal (20 line companies, 1 grenadier company); Queen Dowager’s (10 line cos, 1 gren co); Prince George of Denmark’s (12 line cos, 1 gren co); Holland (12 line cos, 1 gren co); Queen Consort’s (10 line cos, 1 gren co); plus 24 ‘independent’ line infantry companies. (Mounted:) Life Guards (3 troops guardsmen, 3 companies horse grenadiers); King’s Regt of Horse (8 troops); Royal Regt of Dragoons (6 troops).

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Gentleman of the English Lifeguards; the white metal cuirass shown by this much later artist might suggest a date prior to 1685, but the crowned ‘IR’ cypher on the holster cover is that of James II. The hat has white plumes; a deep shirt collar of white lace hangs outside the red coat, which has dark blue cuffs and gold edging; and the waist sash is red. The shabraque and holster cover are red with gold edging and decoration.

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The Royal Regt of Guards (later 1st Regt of Foot Guards) had been created in 1665 by merging two infantry regiments that already had ‘guard’ status: Lord Wentworth’s, and John Russell’s. The first had been raised at Bruges in 1656 by the future Charles II while in exile in the Spanish Netherlands, from veterans loyal to the Stuarts, but had not been brought to England in its entirety at the Restoration in 1660. Russell’s was created in England in 1660; it mirrored the functions of Wentworth’s, which joined it in England in 1665 to be merged with it into the new Royal Regt of Guards. The King’s Footguards had been Monck’s Regt of Foot in the New Model Army. In 1660 it had supported the Restoration, making an epic five-week march from the village of Coldstream in Berwickshire to London, which earned it the nickname ‘Coldstream Guards’. In 1661 its official title became the Lord General’s Regt of Footguards, later changed to the King’s Footguards. Despite being older than the Royal Regt of Guards, it has always been rated as the second senior regiment of the English infantry, because it entered royal service only in 1660, four years after Wentworth’s. In 1685, the Royal Regt of Guards had 26 companies divided into 2 battalions of 13; the King’s Footguards had a single battalion. One company in each battalion was made up of grenadiers; the other 12 companies (referred to in this text, for simplicity, as ‘line’ companies) were mixed, each with one-third pikemen and two-thirds musketeers. Each of these Guard companies consisted of a captain, a lieutenant, an ensign (with the colour), 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 2 drummers and 80 privates. The regimental staff consisted of the adjutant, the quartermaster/provost marshal, a chaplain, a surgeon and a drum-major. Line companies (either within line regiments of foot, or ‘independent’ companies scattered across England in garrisons) each had a captain, a lieutenant, an ensign, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, a drummer and 60 privates. Grenadier companies carried no colours, so their officers consisted of one captain and two lieutenants; they also had an additional third sergeant. Both grenadier companies and ‘independent’ line companies were entirely made up of musketeers. The 1st Troop of Lifeguards was raised by Charles II in the Spanish Netherlands in 1658, and the 2nd or Duke of York’s Troop of Horse Guards was raised in the same year. The 3rd Troop was created in 1659 as Monck’s Lifeguards, being the mounted bodyguard of Charles’s main military supporter, George Monck. All members of the Lifeguard were known as ‘gentlemen’, and were required to provide their own horses and uniforms; however, the company of horse grenadiers, which was attached to each troop from 1678, was made up of ordinary soldiers. The composition of a troop was a captain, 4 lieutenants, a cornet (with the standard), a guidon, a quartermaster, 4 brigadiers, 4 sub-brigadiers (sergeant and corporal equivalents), 4 trumpeters, a kettle-drummer, and 200 ‘gentlemen’. A horse-grenadier company had 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 2 drummers, 4 hautboys (musicians), and 64

privates. In 1686 a 4th Troop of Lifeguards was raised, complete with its organic company of horse grenadiers. The King’s Regt of Horse was the only English heavy cavalry (partarmoured) unit in 1685. Each of its troops had a captain, a lieutenant, a cornet, a quartermaster, 3 corporals, 2 trumpeters and 50 privates. The senior troop also included a small regimental staff made up of the adjutant, chaplain, surgeon, quartermaster and a kettle-drummer. The Royal Regt of Dragoons, like all its contemporaries in European armies, was a unit of mounted infantry trained to dismount and fight on foot with muskets. The regiment was created from veteran cavalrymen who had served in the Tangier garrison in Morocco (1661-83); each of its troops had a captain, a lieutenant, a cornet, a quartermaster, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 2 drummers, 2 hautboys and 50 dragoons. The senior troop also included the adjutant, quartermaster, chaplain, surgeon, and a gunsmith. Expansion, 1686–88

A few months after taking the throne, James II initiated a significant expansion. Over the next two years the following new units were raised: Royal Regiment of Fuzileers (12 cos musketeers, 1 co ‘miners’) (Regts of Foot:) Princess Anne of Denmark’s (10 line cos); Henry Cornwall’s (12 line cos, 1 gren co); Earl of Bath’s (12 cos); Duke of Beaufort’s (10 line cos); Duke of Norfolk’s (10 line cos); Earl of Huntingdon’s (10 line cos); Sir Edward Hales’ (10 line cos); Sir William Clifton’s (10 line companies). (Regts of Horse:) Queen’s (9 troops); Earl of Peterborough’s (6 trps); Earl of Plymouth’s (6 trps); Earl of Thanet’s (6 trps); Earl of Scarsdale’s (6 trps); Baron Lumley’s (6 troops) (Regts of Dragoons:) Princess Anne’s (8 trps); Queen’s (6 troops). During summer 1685, James II ordered the absorption of seven of the independent infantry garrison companies into line regiments. During February/March 1686 all the remaining independent companies were transformed into grenadiers, and were attached to the newly-raised regiments of foot (most of which lacked a grenadier company). This transformation also made it possible to add two more line companies to the Queen Dowager’s and Queen Consort’s Regts of Foot. The Royal Regt of Fuzileers was organized from the first as an elite unit, with 12 all-musketeer companies and one of ‘miners’. The latter were uniformed and equipped as grenadiers, including carrying ‘hammer-hatchets’ to act as pioneers (roughly, combat engineers). The Fuzileers were raised to act as the escort for the Train of Artillery. In the late 17th century artillerymen were not equipped to defend themselves against attacks, so had to be protected on the battlefield by infantry specifically provided for the task. These were equipped with ‘fuzils’ (early flintlock muskets), to avoid the danger of carrying the burning match-cord for matchlock weapons close to the artillery’s barrels of gunpowder. Before the formation of the Royal Regt of Artillery in 1716 the army had no permanent units of artillery: in the 1660s temporary ‘trains’ were organized by the staff of

The cuirass is even more anachronistic in this attempted reconstruction of a horse grenadier of one of the three companies attached to the three troops of Life Guards from 1678; compare this image with Plate A2. Eyewitnesses describe two types of grenadier caps in use at that time: one taller with a frontal flap, and the other lower with a fur band and a hanging bag.

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Impression of an officer of an English line cavalry regiment of William III’s army, 1690s; again, the cuirass can probably be ignored. Grey hat with white plumes; red coat with blue cuffs decorated with gold lace; white breeches, and presumably orange sash; white horse housings with red edging and fringe.

the Master-General of Ordnance as needed, and were usually disbanded at the end of each campaign. In time of peace up to 225 professional (‘fee’d’) gunners were dispersed around the country to man the guns of the various garrisons. In wartime some were assembled to form a ‘train’, supplemented with the necessary numbers of civilian matrosses, pioneers, smiths, carpenters, etc.; these craftsmen were hired for the duration of a campaign only, along with the drivers of the wagons and carts used to move the guns and equipment. In the summer of 1686, six infantry regiments (of which only four were English) were each given two brass 3-pdr guns, like the ‘battalion guns’ already used by some contintental armies. This experiment was not a complete success, and was not extended to the other regiments of foot. On 17 January 1688 James ordered the recall of all the English, Scottish and Irish soldiers who were serving in the Dutch army as part of its veteran Anglo–Scots Brigade (see below, ‘William of Orange’s invasion army’). William obviously did not permit the transfer of the entire brigade, but could not prevent several hundred men from returning home. Once in England, these were organized into three new units: John Hales’, John Wachop’s, and Roger McElligott’s Regts of Foot, in the English, Scots and Irish armies respectively. A few weeks before William of Orange’s landing, James II ordered that each infantry regiment was to have a standard establishment of 12 line companies and 1 grenadier company. The Royal Regt of Foot was increased to a total of 26 companies, in 2 battalions of 13 each. James also ordered the raising of another seven infantry regiments, but it was impossible to complete them before William’s invasion. During this last expansion of his infantry James also ordered the raising of 31 new independent companies, in order to free regular troops from garrison duties. Two of these were recruited from Pensioners of the Royal Hospital, who were no longer fit for active service but could still perform static guard duties. The cavalry and dragoons also underwent several changes during James’s reign. In July 1685 it was ordered that all regiments of horse were to have a uniform establishment of 6 troops, save only the King’s and Queen’s Regts of Horse with 9 troops each. During 1685 the number of troops in the Royal Regt of Dragoons was expanded to 12, and Princess Anne’s Regt of Dragoons was raised. Some time later the Royal Regt of Dragoons was reduced to 8 troops and Princess Anne’s to 6, in order to create the new Queen’s Regt of Dragoons with 6 troops. Shortly before William’s landing six new regiments of horse were ordered raised, but, like their infantry counterparts, these had not yet been manned, mounted and equipped by the time of the invasion. No further dragoon regiments were raised at that time. The Scottish army, 1685–88

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After the Restoration in 1660, the Privy Council of Scotland established a small standing army. Completely autonomous from the English forces,

this was primarily tasked with maintaining law and order among the volatile Highland communities. In 1685, when James Stuart succeeded to the Scottish throne as James VII, it consisted of the following units: Scots Regt of Foot Guards Royal Scots Fuzileers (Mounted:) Lifeguards; Royal Regt of Scots Horse; Royal Regt of Scots Dragoons. The Scots Regt of Foot Guards, whose forerunner was raised as early as 1642, became a guard unit in 1650, and was soon considered to be the army’s best corps. In early 1685 it had 10 line companies and 1 of grenadiers, and following James’s coronation it was expanded with another 4 line companies. Despite its nationality, in 1686 the unit was transferred to the English army establishment. The composition of its companies and regimental staff was exactly as in the English Foot Guard regiments, except for the addition of a piper and 4 hautboys to the staff. As in England, no permanent artillery units existed. When the Royal Scots Fuzileers were raised in 1678 their 10 line companies were initially equipped with mixed pike and shot, but in around 1680 they all received fuzils, like the single grenadier company. Another line company was added during 1685. Both the Scots Regt of Foot Guards and Royal Scots Fuzileers followed the organizational changes introduced by King James for the English army. However, he did not expand his Scottish army as he did in England, with only one new infantry regiment added before the Glorious Revolution – John Wachop’s, of Scottish soldiers returning from Dutch service (see above). The single troop of Scots Lifeguards was quartered in Edinburgh, to act as the king’s mounted bodyguard when he was in Scotland. It had a captain, 2 lieutenants, a cornet, a guidon, a quartermaster, 4 brigadiers, 4 trumpeters, a kettle-drummer, a surgeon and assistant-surgeon, a clerk, a farrier, and 118 guardsmen. Unlike the English Lifeguard troops, it did not have an attached company of horse grenadiers. The Royal Regt of Scots Horse had originally been formed in 1678 as 3 independent companies, which were augmented to 4 and assembled into a regiment late in 1682, the last 2 troops being added in 1684. The internal structure was the same as in its English equivalent, and it followed the later organizational changes. The Royal Regt of Dragoons (known as the ‘Scots Greys’, from the colour of their first uniform) was created in 1678 as 3 independent troops, being augmented to 6 and assembled into a regiment during 1681. Again, its organization followed the English model. Like the English, the Scottish army included a number of professional gunners, and of independent garrison-infantry companies. Finally, there were also 12 independent Highland companies, charged with policing the cattle-rustling Highlanders. The small Scottish army, expanded by William III, continued to exist as a separate force until 1707, when the Act of Union merged it into the new army of ‘Great Britain’. The Irish army, 1685–88

Following the Restoration of Charles II the loyal Irish forces were reorganized and expanded. All the existing regular units were assembled into a large corps known as the Royal Regt of Ireland, combining 8 independent companies of infantry and 20 independent troops of cavalry. A further reorganization in 1684 used the existing companies

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This impression of an officer of the English train of artillery seems to echo the fashions of the reigns of Charles II or James II rather than that of William III. The hat is edged with gold and decorated with white plumes; the coat is dark blue with red cuffs, and gold edging and buttonholes; the sash is deep crimson with gold tassels. The (problematic) cuirass is shown as blackened, with gilt decoration. It is well known that body-armour was conventionally shown in officer portraits for many years after its use on the battlefield had become exceptional.

and troops, plus some veteran companies returning from Tangier, to form seven regiments of infantry and three of cavalry. The infantry units each had 12 line companies and 1 of grenadiers. In 1685 the army comprised the following units: Irish Regt of Foot Guards (Regts of Foot:) Duke of Ormonde’s; Earl of Granard’s; Viscount Mountjoy’s; Sir Thomas Newcommen’s; Sir William King’s; Hamilton’s; Fairfax’s. (Mounted:) Lifeguards. (Regts of Horse:) Duke of Ormonde’s; Earl of Arran’s; Earl of Ossory’s. Only one new infantry unit was added before the Glorious Revolution: Roger McElligott’s Regt of Foot, raised from the Irish soldiers returning from Dutch service. The Irish Regt of Foot Guards, as raised in 1662, initially comprised 1,200 men in 12 companies. Originally it included local Protestant veterans of Cromwell’s army, but from 1685 all Protestant officers were rapidly purged, and by the outbreak of the Glorious Revolution the unit was entirely Catholic. In 1685 it had 12 line companies and 1 of grenadiers; its staff differed from the English equivalent only by the addition of a piper. The single troop of Irish Lifeguards was quartered in Dublin, to provide the king’s mounted bodyguard when he was in Ireland. Its composition followed that in the English Lifeguards, and it too had an attached company of horse grenadiers. The three Irish line regiments of horse each had an establishment of 8 troops plus, from 1684, an attached company of dragoons. They followed the English organization, except that each troop had 45 troopers and a trumpeter. The companies of dragoons had the same internal structure as the cavalry troops. During the autumn of 1685 two more troops were added to each Irish cavalry regiment; at the same time the companies of dragoons were removed, in order to form a new regiment that had been raised in England but was later transferred to the Irish army. This was Hamilton’s Regt of Dragoons, with a large establishment of 10 troops. Shortly before William of Orange’s invasion, James II ordered the creation of four new Irish regiments (three of foot and one of dragoons), but these were not raised in time to fight in England. William of Orange’s invasion army, 1688–90

William of Orange conquered his new realm at the head of a polyglot military force. The majority of his troops were Dutch, but there was also a Danish auxiliary corps, several groups of English exiles who had joined his cause, and others of French Huguenots. Distinct from these was the Anglo–Scots Brigade, which had long served under the flag of the United Provinces. The units that landed in England were as follows: Dutch & Anglo–Scots units

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Regiment of Foot Guards (27 cos in 3 bns) (Regts of Foot:) Wiinberge (12 cos); Birkenfeld (10 cos); Holstein Norburg (10 cos); Fogel (10 cos); Brandenburg (10 cos); Nassau Saarbrücken (12 cos); Hagedoorn (10 cos ); Carlson (12 companies).

(Anglo–Scots Bde:) Mackay (Scottish, 10 cos); Balfour (Scottish, 12 cos); Ramsay (Scottish, 12 cos); Babington (English, 12 cos); Sydney (English, 12 cos); Tollemach (English, 12 companies). (Mounted:) Gardes du Corps (1 trp); Gardes te Paard (6 trps); Gardes Dragonders (10 troops). (Regts of Horse:) Nassau Saarbrucken (3 trps); Montpouillan (3 trps); Waldeck (4 trps); Obdam (3 trps); Flodorf (3 trps); Gravemoer (1 trp); Sopenbrok (2 trps); Riedesel (3 trps); Oyen (2 trps); Zuilestein (2 trps); Schack (3 trps) ; Lippe (3 trps); Heyden (3 tops); Ginkel (3 trps); Bentinck (2 troops). Marwitz Regt of Dragoons (8 troops) plus Train of artillery (21x, later 36x 24-pdr guns); engineer detachment (incl. pontoon bridges and mobile forge). Danish auxiliary corps

This force of some 7,000 men joined William’s army only in November 1689. Under a treaty between William and King Christian V of Denmark, the Danish troops swore allegiance to the new King of England, but if their home country became involved in a new war they had to be returned within three months. The Danish soldiers received the same pay as the English, and soon became valued for their training and discipline. They fought with distinction during the most important actions of the Irish campaign, and were then transferred to Flanders to fight against the French in 1692. Their order of battle was as follows: Royal Foot Guards Battalion (6 line cos, 1 gren co) (Bns of Foot:) Queen’s (6 line cos); Prince Frederick’s (6 line cos); Prince Christian’s (6 line cos); Prince George’s (5 line cos); Zealand (6 line cos); Jutland (6 line cos); Funen (6 line cos); Oldenburg (5 line companies). (Regts of Horse:) Rysensteen’s (6 trps in 2 sqns); Donep’s (6 trps in 2 sqns); Sehested’s (6 trps in 2 squadrons). The Royal Foot Guards Bn was created from the elite Regt of Foot Guards, raised in 1658. The three cavalry regiments were temporary corps formed with drafts from four different Danish army cavalry units. By contrast, each of the infantry battalions was taken from a single regiment of the Danish line.

Compare this reconstruction of an English artillery gunner of William’s army with Plate A3. It was William who first introduced blue, faced with red, as the uniform for the train of artillery, well before the raising of the Royal Regiment in 1716.

Exile units

In addition to the above, there were also several hundred English political exiles and French Huguenots. Of the former we know very little: apparently they were organized into seven embryonic units intended to act as cadres for new recruitment once in England. These regimental nucleii were commanded by: Sir John Guise, Sir Rowland Gwynn, Sir Richard Buckley, Sir Robert Peyton, Lord Coot, Lord Mordaunt, and the Earl of Macclesfield. Once in England, three of the seven were disbanded, but enough recruits came forward to form Guise’s, Peyton’s, and Mordaunt’s Regts of Foot, and the Earl of Macclesfield’s Regiment of Horse. Initially the Huguenot exiles were simply attached as ‘volunteers’ to the various Dutch corps. Once in England,

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they were finally assembled to form the following: La Melonière’s Regt of Foot (10 line companies and 1 of grenadiers); La Caillemotte’s Regt of Foot (11 line cos and 1 of grens); Du Cambon’s Regt of Foot (9 line cos and 1 of grens); and Schomberg’s Regt of Horse (8 troops). In addition to these four regiments there were also three cadet companies, of young Huguenots from wealthy families who aspired to become officers. In 1695 William III recruited a second Huguenot mounted unit, Miremont’s Dragoons (with 4 troops). Generally speaking, these Huguenots fought courageously. The regiments were finally disbanded only in March 1699, two years after the end of the War of the Grand Alliance. Many of their soldiers remained in England, pursuing valuable commercial activities; most of their officers were ‘naturalized’, and continued to serve in the English army on half-pay. William III’s British armies, 1689–98

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After becoming King of England and Scotland, William found that the existing armies of his new realms were too small and demoralized to play a significant part in the imminent Irish campaign or the ongoing Grand Alliance. The troops were unwilling to serve abroad; their discipline was poor, pay was irregular, and corrupt officers swindled their men by skimming what did arrive. William did his best to resolve these failings by introducing the so-called Mutiny Act (which became the basis of English military law), and by appointing a special commission to investigate illegal practices. He also greatly expanded his armies by creating 26 new regiments of English and Irish infantry, six of cavalry and six of dragoons. As indicated below, more than one-third of these were quite short-lived, being disbanded at the end of the Irish campaign or of the War of the Grand Alliance: (Regts of Foot:) Sir John Guise’s (raised from former political exiles); Col Robert Peyton’s (political exiles); Lord Mordaunt’s (political exiles); Earl of Monmouth’s; Col Francis Luttrell’s; Duke of Norfolk’s; Lord Herbert’s; Sir Edward Dearing’s; Earl of Kingston’s; Viscount Castleton’s; Earl of Mar’s Fuzileers (initially part of the Scottish establishment); Earl of Roscommon’s (disbanded 1690); Earl of Drogheda’s (disbanded 1690); Sir Henry Ingoldsby’s (disbanded 1690); Lord Lovelace’s (disbanded 1690); Duke of Bolton’s 1st Regt (disbanded 1697); Viscount Lisburne’s (disbanded 1697); Duke of Bolton’s 2nd Regt (disbanded 1698); Sir Thomas Gower’s (disbanded 1698); Sir Thomas Erle’s (disbanded 1698); Col Tiffins’ (raised at Enniskillen); Col Thomas Lloyd’s (Enniskillen); Col Gustavus Hamilton’s (Enniskillen); Col Henry Baker’s (raised at Londonderry); Col Skeffington’s (Londonderry); Col George Walker’s (Londonderry). (Regts of Horse:) Earl of Macclesfield’s (political exiles); Lord Cavendish’s; Earl of Arran’s; Col Winsor’s; Lord Delamere’s (disbanded 1691); Brigadier Wolseley’s (disbanded 1697). (Regts of Dragoons:) Col Wynn’s; Sir Albert Conyngham’s; Richard Cunningham’s; Henry Conyngham’s; Earl of Denbigh’s; Col Edward Leigh’s. Six of the new infantry regiments were raised at Enniskillen and Londonderry (Derry) from Irish Protestant volunteers, who had supported

William of Orange from the start of the revolution. They had soon organized a semi-regular military force known as the ‘Army of the North’, most of the officers being those who had been purged from the Irish army by James II. After fighting the Jacobites with great determination, they were later absorbed into the English army, reorganized into the six regiments listed above. During 1693-94 William III raised yet another eight English regiments and one Irish for service in Europe; these were all disbanded in 1697 or 1698. Previously only Prince George of Denmark’s Regt of Foot had acted as naval infantry, but William III expanded this capability by the creation of Torrington’s and Pembroke’s Regts of Marines. William III also significantly (if temporarily) enlarged the Scots army, by the addition of 14 regiments of foot and four of dragoons. Most of these were, again, disbanded after the suppression of the Jacobites or the Peace of Ryswick: (Regts of Foot:) Lord Leven’s; Earl of Angus’s; Sir James Moncrieff’s; Lord Bargeny’s (disbanded 1689); Blantyres’ (disbanded 1689); Earl of Glencairn’s (disbanded 1689); Laird of Grant’s (disbanded 1690); Lord Strathnaver’s (disbanded 1690); Viscount Kenmuir’s (disbanded 1691); Col Robert Mackay’s (disbanded 1697); Lord John Murray’s (disbanded 1697); Lord Lindsay’s (disbanded 1697); Earl of Argyll’s (disbanded 1698); Col John Hill’s (disbanded 1698). (Regts of Dragoons:) Col Richard Cunningham’s (? see English listing, above); Lord Cardross’s (disbanded 1690) ; Lord Newbattle’s (disbanded 1697); Lord Carmichael’s (disbanded 1698). THE JACOBITE ARMY, 1688–91

The Jacobites originally had three main sources of men available to them: regulars of the prewar Irish army; Irish irregulars; and Scottish irregulars (Highlanders). James II soon recruited new units in Ireland, though their quality varied widely; most were pressed feudal tenants of his aristocratic supporters. The regiments already existing before the outbreak of the revolution were reorganized and renamed. The Jacobite train of artillery was formed by assembling the pieces and trained personnel which were available in Ireland.

Impression of a trooper of the Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons in the uniform worn c. 1678-81: a steel ‘three-bar lobstertail’ helmet, and the grey coat from which they took their nickname, with dark-blue lining showing at the cuffs. The shabraque is shown as dark blue with red edging. The use of a matchlock carbine and associated bandolier of strung charge-tubes is plausible for this date.

Foot

Orders of battle from various sources and dates have been published, but changes of unit names following changes of commanding officers make them difficult to reconcile. One, from a review of James’s army on 1-2 October 1689, was reported to Paris by Commissaire Fumeron. It shows about 16,000 ‘effectives’ in 26 regiments of Jacobite infantry, as follows in alphabetical order (see McNally, Campaign 160, Battle of the Boyne 1690, p.48): Foot Guards (later Royal Regt of Foot; 2 bns) (Regts of Foot:) Earl of Antrim’s; Col Bagnal’s; Lord Bellew’s; MajGen Boisseleau’s (2 bns); Col Richard Butler’s; Col Thomas Butler’s; Earl

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Despite the importance of his magisterial work Uniformenkunde, Richard Knötel was not always accurate. The left-hand figure here represents the Danish Foot Guards, of which one battalion served with the Danish auxiliary corps hired by William III in 1689 – compare with Plate B2, but modern scholars dispute some of the details. (The other figure is of a member of the Grenadier Regiment formed in 1700, wearing a red uniform dating from perhaps 1703.)

of Clancarty’s; Earl of Clanrickard’s; Cormac O’Neill’s; Sir Michael Creagh’s; Col Henry Dillon’s (2 bns); Col Edward Butler’s; Sir Maurice Eustace’s; Lord Galway’s; Lord Gormanston’s (Germanstown’s ?); Col John Grace’s; Lord Grand-Prior’s; Col John Hamilton’s; Lord Kenmare’s; Lord Kilmallock’s; Col Macarthy Mor’s; Viscount Mountcashel’s; Col Richard Nugent’s; Lord Slane’s; Col Uxbrugh’s (Oxburgh’s?). The ‘effective’ strength for the 2-battalion regiments (Foot Guards, Boisseleau and Dillon) was between 952 (Boisseleau) and 1,236 (Dillon); that of single battalions was between 220 (Clancarty) and 820 (Bellew), with single battalions averaging 543. The proportion of pikes to muskets was still between one-third and half in most units, but ranged between only about 10 per cent (e.g. Antrim, and Clancarty) up to 59 per cent (Dillon). By the eve of the battle of the Boyne in late June 1690 the Jacobite infantry fielded 24 regiments, plus six stronger French regiments (see below; and, for all orders of battle at the Boyne, see CAM 160, p.53). The Royal Regt of Foot had 2 battalions, each with an establishment on paper of 10 line companies and 1 of grenadiers, each with 90 soldiers. In fact, regimental strength in October 1689 was 73 officers, 53 sergeants, 34 drummers, and total ‘effectives’ of 1,093. The direct heir of the Irish Regt of Foot Guards, it had lost one of its battalions during the early weeks of the Glorious Revolution; transferred to England to oppose William’s landing, this unit was soon taken prisoner. A new replacement battalion began recruiting in Ireland, and the whole regiment was retitled the Royal Regt of Foot. The other regiments of infantry were each to have a ‘paper’ establishment of 13 companies each with 60 soldiers; in practice, however, very few of them fielded more than a few companies. One of the 13 companies in each unit was supposed to be of grenadiers, but in practice none were. Horse

All cavalry regiments were supposed to have 6 troops each with either 50 or 60 troopers, and all dragoon regiments, 8 troops of 60 men. Fumeron’s report of October 1689 recorded the mounted units as follows: Life Guards (Regts of Horse) Earl of Tyrconnell’s; Viscount Galmoy’s; Col Sarsfield’s; Col John Parker’s; Lord Abercorn’s; Col Henry Luttrell’s. (Regts of Dragoons) Lord Dongan’s; Col Simon Luttrell’s; Col Purcell’s; Col Cotter’s; Col Clifford’s. The Jacobite cavalry enjoyed a high reputation; but again, a shortfall in recruiting reduced the actual strength of most regiments below the official establishment. The ‘effective’ strengths were noted at between 113 (Clifford’s Dragoons) and 390 (Sarsfield’s Horse), though even in the latter only 295 were mounted and armed. French expeditionary corps

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When James II landed in Ireland in March 1689 he brought a French expeditionary corps numbering around 7,000 men; losses seem to have been heavy, since another 6,000 were sent to support him in April 1690. At the Boyne in July these regiments were Farnechon (Walloons), Forez, La

Marche, Mérode and Tournaisis, most of them with a strength of just over 1,000, and the two-battalion Zurlauben (Walloons/ Germans) with 2,090. Irregulars

The Scottish and Irish irregulars, despite their limitations of equipment and organization, made important contributions to the Jacobite cause by employing mainly traditional ‘guerrilla’ tactics against William’s regulars. The Scots were all Highlanders, accustomed to travelling and raiding in a harsh climate and difficult terrain. They could survive on basic rations and move across country rapidly, which gave them an advantage over road-bound regulars with wagon-trains. They had very limited numbers of firearms, but at the battle of Killiecranckie the warrior tradition of the clans was harnessed into shock action, which enabled them to inflict a defeat on the Scots army’s regulars. This was their only success in pitched battle, and they suffered mounting and irreplaceable losses when they attempted to attack fortified places. However, their dispersed raiding tactics continued to hamper King William’s logistics and communications for nearly two years thereafter. The same was true in Ireland, where the irregulars’ name of ‘rapparees’ came from an Irish word meaning ‘half-pikes’ or ‘pike-wielders’; they were, in fact, mostly equipped with short pikes, and had few if any firearms. Although obviously based on ancient traditions, their methods of hit-and-run fighting had more recently been seen during Cromwell’s conquest of Ireland in 1649-50.

THE FRENCH ARMY The enormous French army, as reorganized and reformed under Louis XIV during the 1660s-80s, had an establishment of nearly 280,000 as early as January 1678, of which some 165,000 were in the field and the remainder in garrisons. The king’s royal household troops were alone stronger than the armies of some small European states.

Soldiers of the Gardes Françaises regiment of the Maison du Roi, in the well-attested uniform introduced in 1685 and worn for many years thereafter. The hat edging is white, with a red ribbon bow. The coat is royal-blue, with red cuffs and shoulder-ribbons, and white buttonhole loops. The red waistcoat was also trimmed with white, and the breeches and stockings are red. The equipment is buff leather; note that while musketeers still carry matchlocks, ammunition is now carried in a slung pouch. In the left background is a pikeman still wearing a cuirass, which would be a rare sight by this date; at right is a sergeant, identified by his halberd.

Guard

At the outbreak of the War of the Grand Alliance this Maison du Roi consisted of the following units: (Ceremonial bodyguards:) Gardes de la Porte (company of 50 foot guards); Cent-Gardes Suisses (co of 100 Swiss foot guards); Gardes de la Prévote (co of 80 foot guards); Gardes de la Manche (25 picked bodyguards). (Field units, mounted:) Gardes du Corps (4 cos of 400, the first made up of Scots); Compagnie des Gendarmes (200 heavy cavalrymen); Compagnie des Chevaux-Légers (200 light cavalrymen); Mousquetaires du Roi (2 cos of 150 men); Grenadiers à Cheval (co of 250 horse grenadiers); Gendarmerie de France (16 cos of heavy cavalry, varying from 80 to 200 men each, recruited throughout the provinces as a reserve for the Guard cavalry).

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RIGHT French officer of the La Reine line regiment of horse. The black hat has gold edging. The white coat has red lining and cuffs, and is worn over a red waistcoat and breeches, and, apparently, a white-metal cuirass. Since armour was only specified for the Régiment des Cuirassiers du Roi, re-raised in 1665, its inclusion here may be copied from a purely conventional portrait. The gloves are buff leather, the top-boots black, and the horse housings are shown as red with gold decoration. The latter were normally in the colonel’s personal livery colours; only a few are recorded, and they might differ from the uniform facings. While officers of appropriate French units would have purchased high-quality coats of true white, the rank-and-file uniforms are best described as ‘off-white’. Dispersed manufacture of coats in so-called gris-mesle, a white cloth with interwoven blue threads, produced shades ranging from white to pale grey, and descriptions by witnesses and in procurement accounts use both terms.

FAR RIGHT Trumpeter of the same La Reine regiment of horse as the previous officer. Like all musicians in French regiments, he is wearing a coat in the regimental facing colour of his corps (in this case red, here with blue facing on the cuffs), heavily decorated with ‘chain’ lace in dark blue and white. This also edges his red shabraque and holster covers. For a note on troopers’ dress and equipment, see commentary Plate D1.

(Field units, foot:) Gardes Françaises (30 cos of 200, in 6 bns, plus 2 independent gren cos); Gardes Suisses (Swiss; 12 cos of 200, in 2 battalions). Foot

In 1691 the French infantry totalled 126 regiments (92 French, and 34 of foreign mercenaries), plus a large number of independent companies. This total includes the foot units of the Maison du Roi (above), and the corps tasked with protecting the artillery (Fusiliers du Roi, 1671-93). By this date most French line regiments bore the title of the province where they were raised, but some French and most foreign units were still named after their colonels. The latter were of the following nationalities: 11 Swiss regiments, 8 Italian/Corsican, 6 German, 5 Walloon, 3 Irish (see below), and 1 Catalan. The number of battalions and companies in each regiment varied: usually, older units had 2 or more battalions, while more recent creations (the majority) were usually single battalions. By the 1690s most battalions had 13 companies (12 line and 1 of grenadiers), each company usually having 45–50 soldiers. Foreign regiments, most notably the Swiss, frequently had 200-strong companies, but fewer companies per battalion. The independent (non-regimental) element comprised 28 garrison companies (60 men each); 12 Swiss garrison companies (200 men); 2 German garrison companies (100 men), and 22 companies of veterans/ invalids. In addition to these there were also 20 independent Catalan companies with a semi-regular status, each with 60 soldiers. Known as miquelets, these light infantrymen were recruited among supporters of Catalan independence from Spain. They were excellent mountain infantry, perfectly suited to the hit-and-run tactics that characterized warfare in the Pyrenees. In 1690 France also had naval troops, in the form of 80 Compagnies franches de la Marine (independent companies of colonial infantry), and 100 Compagnies ordinaires de la Mer (independent companies of naval infantry), as well as three independent companies of naval artillery. Militia

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From 1688 a sizeable conscript militia began to be organized, and over the following ten years this would grow to 30 regiments of Provincial

Infantry. Called up for two years of garrison duty, the militia were later often abused by being sent as casualty replacements to line regiments. The Provincial Militia was supplemented by a Coastguard Militia in all the coastal provinces. Horse

It had taken Louis’ brilliant war minister Luvois longer to reform the mounted arm, whose strength and organization fluctuated. There were 90 regiments in 1678, and 102 by 1690, of which only a few were recruited from foreign mercenaries (mostly Germans). The majority of units were confusingly termed ‘light cavalry’, since they were no longer armoured, but by international standards they were in fact heavy cavalry. Regiments had a usual establishment of 8 companies each with a captain, a lieutenant, a cornet, and 50 men; exceptions were 11 of the oldest regiments, which had 12 companies. Smaller mounted elements were a single part-armoured regiment of Cuirassiers du Roi, the elite regiment of Royal Carabiniers, a single regiment of hussars, and the dragoon regiments. Despite their title the Cuirassiers were a line unit, which served in the Rhineland and Spanish Netherlands throughout the war. Since 1679 each ‘light’ cavalry company had included two carabiniers equipped with rifled carbines, and in October 1691 Louis XIV ordered that the carabiniers in each regiment should be assembled into a single company. However, in November 1693 all these carabinier companies were stripped out to form a Regiment of Royal Carabiniers, structured in five large ‘brigades’ with 20 companies each. All the 100 companies of carabiniers had an establishment of 30 troopers, so the whole Regt of Royal Carabiniers totalled an impressive 3,000. The Carabiniers were mostly employed as mounted scouts and skirmishers, and performed extremely well in this role. Exceptionally, their officers could not purchase their ranks as in other regiments, but were commissioned on merit directly by the king. The first French hussar regiment was raised in 1692, employing Hungarian deserters from the Imperial army, and was organized as 4 companies in 2 squadrons. This single regiment of Royal Hussars was disbanded in 1698, though the branch would soon be reborn. In 1690 the army had a peak total of 43 dragoon regiments, but these would dwindle to 15 by 1699. They were still mounted infantry, but during the War of the Grand Alliance they began to be employed quite frequently as conventional cavalry – apart from their infantry muskets, their equipment was practically the same. Each regiment usually had 12 companies with 30–60 men, divided into 3 squadrons.

While the image is too ‘slim’ to be convincing, it does represent the basics of French dragoon uniform, in this case of the Régiment Hautefort-Dragon in 1698 (which had been AsfeldDragon until 1696). He wears a soft cap with a black band and a long dark green ‘bag’ top; a dark green coat with black cuffs, and gold lace loops at the buttonholes, but in this unit lacking the common shoulderribbons; a red waistcoat; buff leather belt equipment, and black riding gaiters, which might be discarded when serving on foot. Dragoons were armed with a fulllength flintlock musket (note the plug bayonet), one saddle-pistol, and a sword; ammunition was carried in slung powder flasks and a bullet-bag.

Artillery

In 1667 the French army was one of the first in Europe to organize permanent companies of gunners and bombardiers, and in 1684 some of these were assembled into a Regiment of Royal Bombardiers. To protect them in battle, in 1691 a 6-battalion regiment of King’s Fusiliers was formed. In April 1693 this was transformed into a true artillery unit under the new denomination of Royal Regiment of Artillery. Alongside this the Royal Bombardiers

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were also retained, specializing in serving mortars and heavy siege guns. Irish troops in French service

Reconstruction of one of the turncoat Imperial troopers employed to form the Hussards Royaux, 1692-98; for colours, compare with Plate D2. Note here the simple fur-trimmed cap; the short jacket with frogging linking the three rows of chest buttons; the tight breeches reinforced with high secondary leggings, all tucked into soft boots; and the slung sabretasche pouch. The weapons are a curved sabre, a slung carbine (visible behind the waist), and two saddlepistols. Few hussars yet wore the fur-lined pelisse overjacket, but some, as here, wore a pelt slung over the left shoulder. Although this single regiment was disbanded after the War, a cadre was retained in the RoyalAllemand cavalry until 1705, when a new Versailles Hussards regiment was raised.

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Various Irish mercenary regiments had served in the French army since the 1590s, but the last – Sir George Hamilton’s – seems to have been disbanded in 1675. In exchange for the reinforcements provided by Louis XIV in spring 1690, Louis required James II to send five Irish infantry regiments to France to fight against the Grand Alliance. Some 5,000 raw feudal levies (described as ‘shirtless, shoeless, and verminous’) were assembled, and were shipped to Brest during April. Three of the regiments – Mountcashel’s, Clare’s and Dillon’s – had large establishments, with 16 companies of 80 men divided into 2 battalions; two – Butler’s and Fielding’s – were weak single battalions, which were soon absorbed into the other three. When equipped and trained, these three units formed a so-called ‘Irish Brigade’ within the substantial foreign component of the French infantry. Following the Treaty of Limerick, most of the Irish who had served under James II decided to follow him into exile in France, as follows: Royal Regiment of Foot Guards Queen’s Regt of Foot Guards (Regts of Foot:) Marine; Dublin; Athlone; Limerick; O’Neill (later Charlemont); Clancarty, plus 3 independent infantry companies. (Mounted:) Lifeguards. (Regts of Horse:) King’s; Queen’s. (Regts of Dragoons, dismounted:) King’s; Queen’s. In December 1691 these Irish Jacobite veterans began reorganization into new units; numbering about 12,000, they represented a useful contribution to Louis XIV’s forces, added to perhaps 4,000 men of the original three regiments of the Irish Brigade already serving separately. The infantry and dragoons, including the original Irish Brigade, had the same internal structure as their French equivalents; the Lifeguards consisted of 2 troops, while the regiments of horse had 2 squadrons with 3 troops each. This ‘Army of King James’ fought with distinction on several fronts during the War of the Grand Alliance, including at the battles of Neerwinden (where Sarsfield was killed), Marsaglia, and Barcelona, while the Irish Brigade served mostly in Catalonia. After the end of hostilities the whole French Army was greatly reduced, from some 450,000 including the militia to about 288,000. The Army of King James (who died in 1701) was merged with the Irish Brigade in French service, thus forming eight regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. The five reorganized foot regiments were initially named Galmoy’s, Bourcke’s, Berwick’s (Fitzjames’s), Dorrington’s and Albemarle’s, the cavalry regiment Sheldon’s. During the following 60 years thousands of Irishmen would continue to enlist in the brigade, but it was gradually reduced thereafter. With the passing of any realistic hope of re-invading Ireland, it lost its original character and became just another foreign mercenary corps, until its final disbandment on 21 July 1791 following the French Revolution. (continued on page 33)

ENGLISH ARMY

1: Musketeer, Huntingdon’s Regt of Foot, 1686 2: Horse Grenadier, 1st Troop of Lifeguards 3: Gunner, Train of Artillery, 1689 2

3

1

A

WILLIAM III’S ARMY

1: Trooper, Royal Regt of Scots Dragoons 2: Musketeer, Danish Royal Footguards Bn 3: Musketeer, La Melonière’s Huguenot Regt 1

3

2

B

JACOBITE ARMY

1: Highland clansman 2: Musketeer, Mountcashel’s Regt; France, 1690 3: Trooper, Maxwell’s Regt of Horse

1

3

2

C

D

FRENCH ARMY

1: Dragoon, Dragons du Roi 2: Hussar, Hussards Royaux 3: Miquelet de França, Catalonia

3

2

1

E

2

3

SPANISH ARMY

1: Musketeer, Regto de Inf de la Guardia del Rey 2: Musketeer, Provincial Tercio of Seville 3: Trooper, mounted bodyguard, Viceroy of Naples 1

1: Cuirassier, Regiment Corbeille 2: Hussar, Regiment Czobor 3: Hajduck, Regiment Palffy

IMPERIAL ARMY

F 2

3

1

G

1

1: Trooper, Gardes te Paard 2: Grenadier, Hollandsche Gardes 3: Gunner, Regiment of Artillery

DUTCH ARMY 3 2

SAVOYARD ARMY

1: Trooper, Guardie del Corpo 2: Musketeer, Reggto La Marina 3: Dragoon, Reggto Genevois

1

3 2

H

THE SPANISH ARMY At the beginning of the War of the Grand Alliance, Spain was still a great military power, and the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty controlled several European territories outside the Iberian peninsula. In addition to the Spanish Netherlands, Madrid ruled over four Italian states: the Duchy of Milan in the north, and in the south the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. Guard

As in France, the monarchy maintained a large Royal Guard (as was typical in armies that had only gradually been brought under centralized control), and in addition to ceremonial bodyguard companies this included two significant field units. The Regimiento de Infanteria de la Guardia del Rey was an elite infantry regiment with 8 companies each of 300 men (150 pike and 150 shot), while the Regimiento de Caballeria de la Guardia del Rey (raised only in 1697) had 22 cavalry companies of 30 men each. Foot

The Spanish line units were divided between three main commands: the Ejército Metropolitano, stationed in Spain; the Ejército de Italia, stationed in Italy; and the Ejército de los Paises Bajos (Army of the Low Countries) stationed in the Spanish Netherlands. The infantry was made up of 85 major units, known as tercios. These were comparable to large regiments in other European armies, but comprised variable numbers of companies, from 10 up to a maximum of 16. The basic staff of each tercio consisted of the colonel, a major, a drum-major, a chaplain, a surgeon, a physician, and a secretary. Each company was led by a captain, an ensign, a sergeant and 2–4 corporals, but might field anything between 30 and 200 soldiers. No standard internal structure existed, and the actual strength of any one tercio might vary greatly, especially when on campaign, between only a few hundred men and a maximum of about 3,000; in practice few mustered more than about 1,500. In 1632 the tercio’s organization had been ordered as 15 mixed companies (each with 60 pike and 130 shot), but the proportion of pikes dwindled thereafter. Grenadiers started to be introduced only during 1685, when the first four 50-man independent companies were formed. The tercios were distributed as follows: Metropolitan Army: 5 tercios viejos (‘old tercios’) raised in Castile; 8 tercios provinciales (‘provincial tercios’, formed originally from militia companies in the other regions of Spain), increased to 18 in 1694); 4 ‘frontier tercios’ guarding the border with Portugal (2 regular and 2 auxiliary); 4 Italian tercios, 2 Walloon tercios, and 2 German tercios; and 6 tercios trained as naval infantry (one of which was Italian), serving with the fleet or in Spanish coastal garrisons in Morocco.

Reconstructions of Spanish musketeers of the late 17th century. (Left) soldier of the Morados Viejos (‘Old Purple’) Tercio, also known as the Provincial Tercio of Seville – see Plate E2. (Right), this musketeer of the Colorados Viejos (‘Old Red’) Tercio is shown with a red plume, a red coat with white facings and pocket trim, yellow breeches and red stockings; another source shows the facings as blue and the ‘smallclothes’ as red. By the time of the War of the Grand Alliance it was usual for the coat’s lining to be buttoned back down the front (see Plate E2) rather than simply hanging open, as shown by this artist. The adoption of ‘uniform’ colours was a gradual and piecemeal process, but after about 1675 bulk purchases by royal authorities in each province began to achieve some degree of uniformity. However, resupply was as unreliable as the soldiers’ wages, and in the field they might present a motley and ragged appearance. The use of matchlock muskets continued throughout the period, alongside gradual adoption of flintlocks.

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Impression of a fifer (left) and drummer of the Spanish infantry. Both are dressed in dark blue with white cuffs and exposed frontal lining, with edges, seams and pockets decorated with white-and-red lace. The breeches are yellow, the stockings and plumes red.

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Army of Italy: In the Duchy of Milan, 5 Spanish tercios, 9 Italian tercios, 2 German tercios (later increased to 3) and 3 Swiss tercios. The kingdoms of Naples and Sicily each had one locally-raised ‘permanent’ or garrison tercio. Army of the Low Countries: 6 Spanish tercios, 3 ‘permanent’ tercios, 3 Italian tercios, 9 Burgundian tercios, 9 German tercios (later augmented to 12), and 1 each English, Scottish, and Irish ‘tercios’ (actually reduced to one company each). The only truly ‘foreign’ tercios were those recruited from Swiss, German and British mercenaries, since all the others were raised from subjects of the Spanish crown. The English, Scottish and Irish tercios were all disbanded during 1691-92, but a good number of Irishmen decided to remain in Spain thereafter, and were assembled into a new tercio variously known as ‘O’Lally’, ‘O’Lulla’, or simply ‘Irlanda’ (10 companies of 100 men each), which existed until 1698. After the end of the War of the Grand Alliance, when King Philip V ascended the Spanish throne in 1701, the total of about 65 tercios then in existence could muster fewer than 30,000 men (thus an average of only 460 soldiers each), rather than the theoretical full strength of some 200,000. Thereafter the Spanish infantry received a much more consistent organization, with the tercio (renamed as the regimiento in 1704) standardized at 12 companies of musketeers and 1 of grenadiers. Horse

Spain’s mounted troops comprised heavy cavalry (in units called trozos) and dragoons (in tercios). A standard trozo might have anything between 7 and 10 companies, each company having a captain, a lieutenant, a cornet, 2 trumpeters, 2 sergeants, 4 corporals, and 30–50 troopers. The heavy cavalry also included several independent companies; among these, several termed Guardias acted as 100-strong mounted bodyguards for the viceroys or governors of the various Spanish territories. Spain was one of the last countries in Europe to raise units of dragoons, which were initially organized in independent companies. As time passed these began to be assembled into tercios, which might have anything between 5 and 12 companies, each usually of 50 men. The various units of the Spanish cavalry were distributed as follows: Metropolitan Army: 6 companies of Guardias; 4 trozos of Spanish heavy cavalry, 1 of Italian heavy cavalry, 1 of German heavy cavalry, and 1 of Burgundian heavy cavalry. Army of Italy: 5 companies of Guardias (4 in Milan,1 in Naples); 67 independent companies of heavy cavalry (28 from Naples, 30 from Milan, and 9 of German mercenaries); 2 tercios of dragoons (in Milan). Army of the Low Countries: 8 companies of Guardias; 2 trozos of Spanish heavy cavalry, 1 of Italian heavy cavalry, 5 of Burgundian heavy cavalry, and 4 of German heavy cavalry; 4 tercios and 3 independent companies of Burgundian dragoons. During the War of the Grand Alliance these units were augmented by the creation of several new corps. The Spanish artillery and naval artillery of 1690 consisted of several independent companies scattered between garrisons and coastal defences

across the Spanish dominions, and mostly performing garrison duties. As in the other European nations, in case of war a temporary train of artillery was organized in each theatre of operations. Catalonia

The Catalan military forces, which were heavily involved in the operations against the French, consisted of: Two companies of Guardias (viceroy’s bodyguard) One tercio recruited in Barcelona (1,600 men in 10 companies) One tercio recruited from the rest of Catalonia (1,000, in 12 cos) Two ‘provincial’ tercios (each 800, in 8 cos) 50 independent infantry cos recruited from smaller cities (each 100-120) 114 independent light inf cos (esquadres) of semi-regular ‘miquelets’ (total 4,212). Catalonia had a long history of rebellion against the central government in Madrid, and many Catalans welcomed the French invasion during the War of the Grand Alliance. It should be noted, however, that the Catalan units listed above fought loyally during all the operations in which they were involved. The loyalist miquelets, in particular, caused serious problems for the French supply lines stretching across the broken terrain of the Pyrenees.

THE IMPERIAL ARMY Recruitment

During the second half of the 17th century the Holy Roman Empire – which comprised Austria, present-day Germany, and other territories in Central Europe and the northern Balkans – was still one of the most powerful states in Europe. From a military point of view, however, it was handicapped by being an elective rather than an absolute monarchy. Apart from the family fiefs of the Habsburgs themselves, its extensive territories were fragmented into a multitude of semi-independent princedoms and duchies. Each of these was formally obliged to provide a specific military contingent to the Emperor to contribute to the formation of Imperial field armies, but the smaller states only rarely fulfilled these obligations. As a result, the Imperial family was usually forced to rely mainly on the forces raised from the territories that were under direct Habsburg control (notably, in Austria and Hungary). For military purposes, the various regions and states of the Empire were divided into ten administrative entities known as ‘circles’, and, according to the Reichsdefensionalordnung of 1681, each of these was to provide the following number of troops to the Imperial army: Austrian Circle: 5,507 infantry and 2,522 cavalry Burgundian Circle: 2,708 infantry and 1,321 cavalry Electoral Rhenish Circle: 2,707 infantry and 600 cavalry Franconian Circle: 1,902 infantry and 980 cavalry Bavarian Circle: 1,494 infantry and 800 cavalry

Reconstruction of a Spanish horse guardsman of the Regimiento de Caballeria de la Guardia del Rey, raised only during the last year of the War. He is illustrated wearing a yellow coat with red trim, brown top-boots, and a whiteplumed hat instead of this unit’s white-metal ‘morion’ helmet. (These broad hats were sometimes called ‘Schombergs’, after the famous German professional general who was killed at the Boyne while serving as William III’s deputy army commander.) The image seems to give a fairly convincing impression of a typical Spanish trooper of the period, armed with a matchlock musket and flintlock saddle-pistols as well as a straight sword.

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RIGHT The hussars raised in the Habsburgs’ family territory of Hungary represented only a small fraction of the Imperial cavalry arm in the 1690s. Since they had served on the Empire’s frontiers facing the Ottoman empire, they came as a surprise to Western European powers, which regarded them as more-or-less barbarians; nevertheless, their prowess as light cavalry was undeniable. This reconstruction shows the cap as red with a brown fur band, the short jacket as white with yellow edging and frogging, the tight trousers as light blue, the boots as light brown and the belt equipment as black. Note that the sabretasche is here worn from a crossbelt rather than from the sabre belt (under the barrel-sash at the waist); and that the carbine belt seems to have a gourd or flask attached to its snap-hook. FAR RIGHT Because of the matchlock’s slow rate of fire, it was still necessary for some infantry to carry pikes, to defend the musketeers from a sudden cavalry attack while they were reloading, and one is shown in this reconstruction by Richard Knötel of Imperial infantry. (Left) musketeer of Regiment SachsenCoburg, dressed in white with black facings; (centre) pikeman of Regiment Toldi, in grey with blue facings; and (right) officer of Regiment von Osnabruck, in dark green with red facings and ‘small-clothes’, the coat and waistcoat both trimmed with gold lace. Between the two garments he also wears a blackened cuirass with a gilt coat-of-arms on the chest, and he carries a tasselled spontoon.

Swabian Circle: 2,707 infantry and 1,321 cavalry Upper Rhenish Circle: 2,853 infantry and 491 cavalry Lower Rhenish Circle: 2,708 infantry and 1,321 cavalry Upper Saxon Circle: 2,707 infantry and 1,322 cavalry Lower Saxon Circle: 2,707 infantry and 1,322 cavalry. Foot

The 25 infantry regiments of the Imperial army in 1688 were augmented to 31 during the War of the Grand Alliance. They had a standard establishment of 12 companies each, divided into 3 battalions of 4 companies. A separate company of grenadiers was added to each regiment only in 1701; until then each line company was to include a certain number of chosen soldiers who had been trained as grenadiers. There was also a single regiment of Swiss mercenaries, stationed at Freiburg. Since 1675 the Imperial infantry had additionally included a certain number of independent companies, known as Frei-kompanien, which performed static garrison duties. The Habsburgs could also draw upon their Hungarian troops, which were separate from this Imperial military system. Until 1697 the Hungarian infantry consisted of two large regiments, each with 1,500 men in 12 companies. The members of these units, known as Hajducken, were semi-regular light infantrymen who spent most of their time fighting against the Ottomans, employing Balkan hit-and-run tactics. Horse

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The Imperial cavalry comprised three main categories: cuirassiers, dragoons and hussars. In the Empire the heavy cavalry still wore cuirasses, unlike those of other contemporary armies. The regiments of

cuirassiers and of dragoons had the same internal organization, with 10 companies paired in 5 squadrons. In April 1695 the number of companies in each regiment was increased to 12, in 6 squadrons. The regiments of hussars, recruited in Hungary and thus under the direct control of the Habsburgs, had a standard establishment of 10 companies. In 1690 the cavalry of the Imperial army comprised 20 regiments of cuirassiers, 12 of dragoons and 2 of hussars (increased to 3 in 1696). As in most of the other European armies, the Imperial artillery was not yet organized in independent units, and during the War of the Grand Alliance it operated in temporary ‘trains’.

THE DUTCH ARMY Formally and finally independent of Spain since the Peace of Münster in January 1648, at the outbreak of the War of the Grand Alliance the republic of the seven United Provinces of the Netherlands was a significant military and naval power, funded by maritime commerce and colonial expansion in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Unlike their French opponents, the Dutch could not mobilize a large national population. However, in addition to their ‘national’ guard and line units, their commercial wealth allowed them to hire many mercenary regiments. These corps might be either permanent parts of the Dutch army, or ‘subsidized’ regiments hired under state-to-state contracts for the duration of a specific war. Guard

Gardes du Corps (company of mounted bodyguards, provided by province of Holland) Gardes du Corps van Zeeland (mounted co, provided by Zeeland) Gardes du Corps van Friesland (mounted co, provided by Friesland) Gardes Friesland (foot guard co, provided by Friesland) Gardes Groeningen (foot guard co, provided by Groningen ) (Guard field units:) Gardes te Paard (elite regt of horse, 6 cos); Gardes Dragonders (elite regt of dragoons, 10 companies); Hollandsche Gardes (Gardes te Voet; elite regt of foot, 27 cos in 3 bns, 1 gren co in each bn); Frieslandsche Gardes (elite regt of foot; 24 cos in 2 battalions).

Reconstruction of an Imperial artilleryman, showing a conventional dark blue uniform with red facing barely showing at the cuffs. It seems that gunners often wore these high on the arm, since they needed their hands unencumbered to handle their dangerous powder and matches safely. The slowmatch is shown wound around a staff linstock, with two holders for its smouldering ends when it is lit.

Foot: national units

In 1688 the Dutch national infantry had 45 line regiments, with 10 or 12 companies each. The staff of an infantry regiment included the colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, a major, a quartermaster, an adjutant, a chaplain, a surgeon and a clerk. Each company comprised a captain, a lieutenant, an ensign, 2 sergeants, 2 drummers, a clerk and 60 privates. The whole Dutch infantry had only 6 companies of grenadiers: 3 in the Hollandsche Gardes, 2 in the Regt Nassau-Friesland, and 1 in the Regt Nassau-Groningen. Since 1678, however, each infantry company had included 6 soldiers trained as grenadiers. From 1665 the Dutch navy had had its own separate corps of naval infantry, at that time known as the Regiment de Marine, 3,000 strong in

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RIGHT Since the Imperial artillery was normally dispersed in fortresses and only assembled into a ‘train’ for particular campaigns, variations in costume are unsurprising. This reconstruction by Knötel shows a shorter dark grey coat with red cuffs, red waistcoat, dark blue breeches, red stockings, and white neckcloth. Most interesting is the dark brown fur cap; the hanging tail shows clearly that it is made directly from the pelt of an animal (perhaps a marten?) FAR RIGHT Knötel’s reconstruction of Dutch infantry, of (left) the Regiment Saint Amand, and (right) the Regiment Friesheim; note that all wear oakleaf sprigs in their hats as a field sign. All these figures are shown wearing yellow hat edging, light grey coats with dark blue cuffs, and dark blue waistcoats, breeches and stockings. The grenadier (far right) has a brass-fronted dark blue cap, what appears to be a bullet pouch on his waist belt, and a grenade pouch slung to his right hip. The officer (centre) and the ensign behind him have gold lace edging on their waistcoats, gilt gorgets at the throat, and diagonal orange sashes. It is unclear whether the artist intended the muskets to be matchlocks or flintlocks; the latter did not completely replace the former until about the turn of the century, and the issue of plug bayonets was also gradual. Some Dutch regimental flags, as illustrated, bore the badge and motto of the English Order of the Garter from as early as 1688. The colours of this example are a light blue ground, white corners with gold branches, and red, white and gold details.

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19 independent companies. Of the latter, 18 had 120 marines each and the colonel’s own company had 170. Foreign ‘permanent’ units

The army’s permanently embodied infantry also included the Anglo– Scots Brigade, and several Swiss mercenary regiments. The Anglo–Scots Brigade had been created in 1586 by assembling all the English and Scottish units that were supporting the Netherlands in their war of liberation against Spain. It originally consisted of six regiments – three English and three Scottish. This natural alliance was interrupted by the brief Second and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars. The Second (1665-67) was sparked by maritime rivalry, was fought at sea, and ended in humiliating English defeat; the Third (1672-74) was a half-hearted fulfilment of Charles II’s temporary treaty with France. In 1664, shortly before the outbreak of the Second War, the three English regiments returned home; however, in 1675 they returned to the Netherlands and were re-incorporated into the Brigade. The Brigade followed William of Orange to England, and remained in English pay until the end of the War of the Grand Alliance (see above, ‘William of Orange’s invasion army’). In 1697 one of the English regiments was disbanded, and the other two were taken into the English army; the three Scottish regiments returned to the Netherlands, continuing to form a Scots Brigade until 1795. The six regiments of the Anglo–Scots Brigade had the same internal organization as the Dutch national infantry. In 1693 the Dutch raised their first three regiments of Swiss mercenaries, who became valued for their discipline. William of Orange recruited a fourth in 1694, and in 1696 a fifth regiment plus an independent battalion. Each of the regiments had 2 battalions, and each

Swiss battalion had 4 companies with 200 soldiers each. By 1697 some 9,000 Swiss mercenaries were serving in the Dutch army. Foreign ‘subsidized’ units

The so-called ‘subsidy system’ was introduced by William of Orange in 1672, and involved hiring troops from other states (mostly German princedoms of the Holy Roman Empire). Contracts were signed between the Netherlands and these other states, by which the Dutch paid a cash subsidy to the German ruler, paid the wages of the troops that had been hired, and provided the latter with all necessary supplies. The state providing the troops had to keep the hired units up to strength by periodically sending replacements, but the Dutch subsidy temporarily freed it from the high costs of maintaining a standing army at home. During the War of the Grand Alliance the Dutch employed ‘subsidized’ regiments from 13 different German states, as well as from Sweden, and also the Danish auxiliary corps first hired for William’s campaigns in England and Ireland. Horse: national units

In 1688 there were 22 Dutch heavy cavalry regiments, each with 5 or 6 companies. Each company comprised a captain, a lieutenant, a cornet, a quartermaster, a farrier, a clerk, a trumpeter, and 58 troopers. The largest corps in the line cavalry was the elite Regt of Carabiniers, armed with rifled carbines; this had 9 companies of carabiniers and 1 of mounted grenadiers. In 1688, in addition to the Gardes Dragonders, the Dutch had just two regiments of line dragoons (increased to three in 1693). Each of these had an establishment of 8 companies, each comprising a captain, a lieutenant, a cornet, 2 sergeants, 2 drummers, a clerk, and 69 troopers. Artillery

The Dutch artillery had had a stable organization since 1677, when a permanent Regiment of Artillery was formed. In 1689 this had 5 FAR LEFT Knötel’s reconstruction of Dutch artillery officers (left & right) and gunners; compare with Plate G3. The officers have white hat-plumes, and differing cuffs and sashes. The latter are (left) orange, white and blue, and (right) deep crimson. LEFT Savoyard mounted guardsman of the duke’s Guardie del Corpo, in field uniform. The black hat has silver edging and blue and red plumes. The coat is of buff (‘buffalo’) leather, with red cuffs edged with silver lace. The white-metal cuirass has redand-white lining showing at the edges; the breeches are red with white over-stockings, and the top-boots are black. For the ceremonial dress worn by this unit, see Plate H1.

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companies with 102 men each, but during the following year the number of men in each company was increased to 260 (including 142 labourers and 18 carpenters). During the course of the War of the Grand Alliance another 3 companies were formed.

THE SAVOYARD ARMY Guard

The Savoyard army was the best in Italy at that time, and the only one that was comparable with contemporary European forces. It included the following ‘bodyguard’ units, and a large Guard infantry regiment: Guardia Svizzera (co of Swiss foot guards ) Guardie della Porta (co of Savoyard foot guards) Guardie del Corpo (4 cos of mounted guards, 30 men each) Dragoni Guardiacaccia (1 co of dragoons) Reggimento Guardie (elite regt of infantry; 20 cos of 100 men each, in 2 battalions). Foot

RIGHT Impression of infantrymen of the army of Savoy; those at left and centre carry matchlock muskets (note the forked rests), and the soldier on the right a slung flintlock. All wear hats with white edging and a medium-blue ribbon bow, and off-white coats with cuffs and breeches in regimental facing colour (here shown as medium blue). The man on the right also has a lined, collared, buttoned cloak of the same colours.

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FAR RIGHT Savoyard grenadier of the Reggimento La Marina, wearing the prewar uniform: conventional hat with yellow edging rather than a grenadier cap; red coat with green facings; green ‘smallclothes’, and brown leather equipment. For the later uniform worn during the War of the Grand Alliance, see Plate H2.

In 1688 the Savoyard line infantry consisted of nine regiments: Savoia, Monferrato, Aosta, Piemonte, Nizza, Croce Bianca, Saluzzo, La Marina, and Chablais. In 1690 two more regiments were raised: Mondovì (disbanded in 1694), and Fucilieri. The Croce Bianca (‘White Cross’) derived its name from the fact that all its officers were Knights of the Order of Malta. La Marina was originally raised from soldiers who garrisoned the forts and harbour of Nice, Savoy’s only major port; nominally a regiment of naval infantry, it usually served ashore in the line, since the Duchy of Savoy had only three warships. Initially the Reggto Chablais had been entirely Savoyard,

but from 1687 it was enlarged by the addition of a second battalion which assembled various foreigners already in the service of the duchy: 2 companies of German mercenaries, 3 of Irish deserters from the French army, and (later) several Bavarian companies. All the regiments except the Savoia had an establishment of 10 companies, each with a captain, a lieutenant, an ensign, 2 sergeants, 4 corporals and 40 privates. From 1685, 9 were line companies and 1 was of grenadiers. The Reggto Savoia had 20 companies in 2 battalions. During the War of the Grand Alliance the Savoyard army also acquired several foreign units provided by states of the Holy Roman Empire. A first regiment of French Huguenots was sent by Brandenburg in 1691, followed in 1693 by one Bavarian and one Westphalian regiment. In 1694 Brandenburg sent another three infantry battalions, and these were followed by a second Bavarian regiment (which was later absorbed into the Reggto Chablais – see above). In 1695 all these foreign units were disbanded, as was the foreign battalion of the Chablais in 1696. In 1688 the Savoyard army also included 6 independent Swiss companies, which were augmented to 8 during 1694. In 1695, 5 of these, supplemented by new Swiss recruits, were used to form the new Reggto Andorno, of 2 battalions. From 1694 Savoy also received one more Swiss infantry battalion paid for by the Netherlands, and a regiment funded by England. Horse

Until 1692 the Savoyard heavy cavalry consisted of 24 independent gendarmerie (i.e. noble) companies, which were then assembled to form two regiments: the Savoia and the Piemonte Reale. There were also three dragoon regiments, known as the Red, Green and Yellow from the colour of their uniforms, each having 6 companies. For a short time an additional regiment of dragoons with 4 companies, raised from French Huguenots, was included in the Savoyard cavalry, but during 1696 this unit passed into Dutch pay.

Savoyard gunner late in the War: hat with yellow edging and medium-blue cockade, uniform entirely dark blue except for red stockings. Savoy’s artillery first received this distinctive uniform only in 1696.

Militia

Unlike the militias in most other states, that of Savoy was well organized and trained. It consisted of foot or mounted companies with 50 men each, the best of which were recruited from Savoyard Protestants or Valdesi, who were excellent mountain fighters. When the French occupied most of Savoy, militiamen organized themselves into guerrilla bands which attacked the invaders successfully on a number of occasions. All the foot companies of the militia could be assembled into two large units known as the Battalions of Savoy and of Piedmont; the mounted militia could likewise form a Squadron of Savoy and a Squadron of Piedmont. Artillery

Until 1696, when a permanent battalion was formed, the Savoyard artillery consisted of individual gunners who were divided into three territorial subdivisions: the Artillery of Savoy, of the County of Nice, and of Piedmont. The new battalion created in 1696 had 4 companies of gunners, a company of artillery workers and a company of miners, each with 40 men. In 1694 England and Brandenburg had each sent one company of artillery to Savoy, as ‘auxiliary’ troops. The infantry regiment Fucilieri was tasked with protecting the artillery on the field of battle.

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Barthorp, Michael, The Jacobite Rebellions 1689-1745, Menat-Arms 118 (Osprey, 1982) Boeri, G.C., Mirecki , J.L., & Palau, J., The Spanish Armies in the War of the League of Augsburg 1688-1697 (Pike and Shot Society, 2002) Boeri, Gian Carlo, The Army of the Duchy of Savoy 1688-1713 (Pike and Shot Society, 2001) Chartrand, René, Louis XIV’s Army, MAA 203 (Osprey, 1988) Ede-Borrett ,Stephen, The Army of James II 1685-1688: The Birth of the British Army (Helion, 2017) Galster, Kjeld Hald, Danish Troops in the Williamite Army in Ireland 1689-1691 (Four Courts Press, 2012) Garbett, H., Irish Infantry Regiments in the Service of France 1690-1791 (Partizan Press, 2001) Glozier, Matthew, The Huguenot Soldiers of William of Orange and the Glorious Revolution of 1688 (Sussex Academic Press, 2002) Grant, Charles Stewart, From Pike to Shot 1685 to 1720 (Wargames Research Group, 1986) Hall, R., & Roumegoux, Y., French Artillery and Bombardiers under Louis XIV 1688-1714 (Pike and Shot Society, 2002) Hall, R., & Roumegoux, Y., Organisation, Flags and Uniforms of the French Militia under Louis XIV 1688-1714 (Pike and Shot Society, 2002)

Hall, R., Stanford ,I., & Roumegoux, Y., Uniforms and Flags of the Dutch Army and the Army of Liege 1685-1715 (Pike and Shot Society, 2013) Hall, Robert, Flags and Uniforms of the French Infantry under Louis XIV 1688-1714 (Pike and Shot Society, 2001) Hall, Robert, Guidons and Uniforms of the French Dragoons under Louis XIV 1688-1714 (Pike and Shot Society, 2001) Hall, Robert, Standards and Uniforms of the French Cavalry under Louis XIV 1688-1714 (Pike and Shot Society, 2005) McLaughlin, Mark G., The Wild Geese: The Irish Brigades of France and Spain, MAA 102 (Osprey, 1980) McNally, Michael, Battle of the Boyne 1690, Campaign 160 (Osprey 2005) Mugnai, Bruno, The Army of the United Provinces of the Netherlands 1660-1687 (Helion, 2019) Mugnai , Bruno, The Imperial Army 1660-1689 (Helion, 2020) Paoletti, Ciro, William III’s Italian Ally: Piedmont and the War of the League of Augsburg 1683-1697 (Helion, 2019) Reid, Stuart, The Last Scots Army 1661-1714 (Partizan Press, 2003) Riart, F. & Hernandez, F.X., Soldats, Guerrers i Combatents dels Paisos Catalans (Rafael Dalmau, 2014) Tincey, John, The British Army 1660-1704, MAA 267 (Osprey, 1994)

PLATE COMMENTARIES A: ENGLISH ARMY

The English army of 1685-89 had a more ‘uniform’ appearance than many contemporary European armies, since red coats had been standard since the New Model Army of the late 1640s. By the late 1660s the norm was a broad-brimmed black hat edged with white tape, a kneelength red coat worn over a long-sleeved, long-skirted ‘waistcoat’, full-cut knee-breeches, and stockings. Different regiments wore a number of differently-coloured coat linings which showed as ‘facings’ on the turn-back cuffs: blue, yellow, green, buff, ‘tawny’, grey and white were all noted at a review in 1686. Since there were more regiments than available lining colours, regiments were further differenced by breeches and stockings in either red, the lining colour, or other contrasting shades. The only exceptions seem to have been the Earl of Bath’s Regt of Foot, and the Earl of Oxford’s (later the Royal) Regt of Horse, both of which wore dark blue with red facings. The Scots and Irish armies wore essentially the same standard dress. There is a reference to both the drummers and the pikemen within Guards regiments wearing reversed coat/facing colours. By the 1680s pikemen had discarded their helmets and cuirasses.

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A1: Musketeer, Earl of Huntingdon’s Regiment of Foot, 1686 This regiment was recorded on parade at Hounslow Heath wearing yellow facings and breeches, with white stockings. Hats often bore a band and bow in the regimental facing colour, but brims were universally edged with white tape. The coat was collarless and worn unbuttoned at the neck,

showing a simple white cloth cravat in the neck of the waistcoat. It had two four-button skirt pockets, white metal buttons, and deep turn-back cuffs showing lining in the regimental colour. The belt equipment was of buff leather. While the bandoleer with strung cartridge-tubes was still in use, it had begun to be replaced with a pouch on a crossbelt; the waist belt supported the priming flask, the ‘plug’ bayonet and the sword. A2: Horse Grenadier, 1st Troop of Lifeguards All regiments named as ‘Guard’ or ‘Royal’ had blue as their facing colour, as in this case. All English grenadiers, be they mounted or on foot, wore broadly the kind of uniform reconstructed here. For practical reasons, for soldiers who often had to sling their muskets and light and throw grenades, the broad hat was replaced with a distinctive soft cap; initially this was trimmed with fur, but here we illustrate the later frontal flap in facing colour bearing the embroidered royal cypher of King James II. Grenadiers were also distinguished by the early use of additional stripes of ‘lace’ in facing colour, sometimes tasselled, on the coat front and cuffs. All grenadiers had a leather bag for carrying their hand grenades, and a hatchet that was used to clear obstacles on the battlefield. A3: Gunner, Train of Artillery, 1689 Before William of Orange’s arrival English gunners were dressed like normal infantrymen, with blue as their facing colour. However, the ‘Train of Artillery’ which followed the new king on his Irish campaign received instead this dark blue uniform with orange facings (the distinctive colour of William III’s family). The Royal Regt of Fuzileers, protecting the

artillery, was dressed like the line infantry, with yellow facings, and yellow-fronted ‘grenadier’ caps for all its companies. B: WILLIAM III’S ARMY

The forces with which William of Orange invaded England and Ireland presented a very varied appearance. They not only included units from different countries, but, among the new English infantry regiments that he raised, some briefly wore blue before reverting to red. The six red-coated regiments of the Anglo–Scots Brigade were practically undistinguishable from their English equivalents, though some of their grenadiers wore fur caps in accordance with contemporary Dutch practice. The Dutch regiments (see also Plate G) of William’s invasion army wore coats and facings as follows: Wiinberge, Birkenfeld, Holstein Norburg and Hagedoorn, all off-white with red facings; Brandenburg and Carlson, off-white, faced dark blue; Fogel, red, faced yellow; and Nassau Saarbrücken, grey, faced with red. B1: Trooper, Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons Initially the famous ‘Scots Greys’, formed from separate troops into a regiment in 1681, had worn iron-grey with blue facings, but by 1688 they had adopted the standard red coat. The Scots army was dressed exactly like the English, and this figure is also representative of English and Irish dragoons. The regiments of horse were uniformed like the dragoons, but with the black hat in place of the fur-trimmed cap. The Lifeguards of England, Scotland and Ireland were all distinguished by gold lace on the coat-cuffs. B2: Musketeer, Danish Royal Footguards Battalion This elite unit of the Danish auxiliary corps had a distinctive yellow uniform faced with red, with additional strips of lace on the coat. The rest of the Danish foot had generally similar uniforms, but with coats and regimental facing colours as follows: Queen’s, red coats faced with yellow; Prince Frederick’s, dark blue, faced red; Prince Christian’s, grey, faced yellow; Prince George’s, green, faced orange; Zealand, medium blue, faced white; Jutland, grey, faced red; Funen, green, faced grey; and Oldenburg, grey, faced brown. B3: Musketeer, La Melonière’s Huguenot Regiment of Foot The three regiments of Huguenot infantry wore the grey uniform illustrated here; regimental facings were blue for La Melonière and red for La Caillemotte, while Du Cambon had entirely grey coats. Schomberg’s Regt of Horse was dressed like the Huguenot infantry, and had red facings. The new infantry and cavalry units formed by William of Orange around a core of English political exiles after their arrival in England received the same red uniforms as the English. The Protestants of Ulster who had formed the ‘Army of the North’ had worn their civilian clothes, receiving red coats only after being absorbed into William III’s reformed English army. C: JACOBITE ARMY

The Jacobite Army presented a wide variety of different dress. Most of the corps that were already in existence before 1689 as part of the Irish army retained their red coats, including the Royal Regt of Foot, which displayed the dark blue facings of its direct predecessor, the Irish Regt of Foot Guards. Most of the new regiments instead received off-white uniforms with facings in distinctive colours.

Impression of a French officer of the 200-man Compagnie des Chevaux-Légers of Louis XIV’s Maison du Roi. Red coat and shoulder-ribbons, blue facing on cuffs, doubled loops of gold-outside-silver lace; white sash with metallic-thread tassels.

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facing colours, and in this case had additional white loops on the buttonholes. The infantry of the ‘Army of King James’ formed from the wave of exiles to France in 1691 also received red coats, while its two regiments of horse were dressed in light grey. Titles and some facings changed over time. While retaining dark-blue facings, the Royal Regt of Foot Guards took its colonels’ names, initially Dorrington’s (1698). Mountcashel’s later became Bulkeley’s, with green facings; the Regt Dillon would long retain its name and its black facings, and Clare its yellow facings. C3: Trooper, Colonel Thomas Maxwell’s Regiment of Horse By July 1690 this officer was listed as a brigadier commanding a regiment of dragoons, in which case his men might have worn fur-trimmed caps like that illustrated in B1. Otherwise, the uniform illustrated is representative of most of the regular units raised by the Jacobites in Ireland. D: FRENCH ARMY

The army of the ‘Sun King’ was the most elegantly-dressed in Europe, and the first to introduce ‘modern’ uniforms as early as 1660. The basic dress of the French infantryman was essentially similar in composition and cut to that of his English counterpart, though in a variety of colours (often off-white/ light grey). Since a wide range of uniforms of all branches are described and illustrated in René Chartrand’s MAA 203, Louis XIV’s Army, we have chosen here to illustrate more unusual subjects instead. Reconstruction of a Spanish company ensign of the Amarillos Viejos (‘Old Yellow’) Tercio. Red hat plume; yellow coat with red cuffs, and white lining showing down the front; yellow breeches, and red stockings. The flag is red, with a ‘ragged’ white Burgundy Cross. This heraldic symbol was virtually universal throughout the tercios, though on different backgrounds and sometimes combined with other motifs. It had arrived in Spain in 1506 with the Habsburg prince Philip the Fair, who married the Castilian princess Juana; their son Charles I of Austria (later the Emperor Charles V) thus unified the rule of the Habsburg dynasty across huge regions of Europe.

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C1: Highland clansman Scottish Highlanders dressed according to the traditions of their clans and their personal means, although the blue bonnet seems to have been universal, often with a sprig of leaves as a field sign (e.g. the holly badge of the MacCleans). The poorest might have only the long, belted plaid and a pair of deerskin cuaran shoes, but this warrior is perhaps typical of the better sort. He has laid his plaid aside, and goes into battle wearing a short jacket with a simple checked pattern over his long shirt, which has its skirts fastened between his legs, and chequered knit stockings. He has a sporran and (obscured here) a dirk scabbard on his belt, and carries a basket-hilted broadsword and a small ‘targe’ shield. The Irish ‘rapparee’ irregulars likewise wore their everyday clothes, usually in grey or green shades, and were armed with half-pikes about 6½ feet long. C2: Musketeer, Mountcashel’s Regiment of Foot; France, 1690 This was the senior of the five Irish infantry regiments sent by James II to France to form the early Irish Brigade. All the three subsequent regiments were uniformed in red, with distinctive

D1: Dragoon, Dragons du Roi The standard headgear for this branch was a soft cap with a falling bag, with either a facing-colour flap or a fur band. Each regiment had a distinctive coat colour (red, blue, green, yellow or buff) and contrasting facings, often red. Many regiments had decorative bunches of ribbons (again, usually red) on the shoulders of the coat; some had silver or gold loops on the buttonholes, and the skirt pockets were of varying shapes and numbers of buttons. Dragoons did not wear top-boots, but black leather gaiters buttoned or buckled up the outside, over stockings and shoes. They were armed with a flintlock musket carried slung, a sword, and a single saddle-pistol, its holster balanced on the other side by a short hatchet or spade. The line regiments of horse were dressed more or less like the infantry, except for the use of buff leather waistcoats, and black leather top-boots reaching above the knee. The most popular colours for the coat were light grey or dark blue, with facings in regimental colour (with grey coats, usually red), and hanging aiguillettes cords at the right shoulder. Troopers were armed with a straight sword, a carbine slung to a crossbelt by means of a bar and ring, and two saddle-pistols. D2: Hussar, Hussards Royaux The first hussar regiment of the French army wore this distinctive Hungarian-style uniform, which was taken as a model by all the new hussar units subsequently raised across Western Europe. Note the sabre and sabretache, and also the fur pelt slung across the shoulder, which was the origin of the later pelisse overjacket. Sources for details of the uniform worn in French service are scarce, but this reconstruction resembles a print by Guérard (which also shows an axe slung hanging from the right front of the saddle), and there is a reference to the fleur-de-lys badge.

Of the royal household mounted units, the Garde du Corps were dressed in dark blue with red facings and white buttonhole loops; the Grenadiers à Cheval wore the same, but instead of the black hat they had a fur-trimmed cap with a red bag. The Compagnie des Gendarmes was dressed entirely in red,with gold lace on the buttonholes; the 16 companies of Gendarmerie de France had a similar uniform, but instead of loops on the buttonholes they were distinguished by silver cuff-edging. The Compagnie des Chevaux-Légers was uniformed like the Compagnie des Gendarmes, but with gold-outside-silver lace on the buttonholes. D3: Miquelet de França, Catalonia The independent Catalan light infantry companies of the French army wore this type of simple dress, based on the traditional costume of Pyrenean mountain communities. Among the other French non-line units, the Compagnies franches de la Marine and the Compagnies ordinaires de la Mer were dressed like the line infantry, but in white with blue facings, blue waistcoats, breeches and stockings. The King’s Fusiliers had a white coat with blue facings and red shoulderribbons, red breeches and stockings, and gaiters; the Regt of Royal Bombardiers wore the same, but with white-and-red ribbons at the shoulders. The companies of naval artillery wore a white grenadier cap with dark blue bag, a red coat with dark blue facings, and a dark blue waistcoat and breeches. E: SPANISH ARMY

Generally speaking, the uniforms worn by the Spanish during the War of the Grand Alliance were quite oldfashioned in their cut, and showed some French influence. Their most peculiar feature was the short coat sleeves, with the turn-back cuffs exposing the full-cut sleeves of the white shirt on the forearms, as had been widely popular in the mid-late 1660s. E1: Musketeer, Regimiento de Infanteria de la Guardia del Rey The Infantry Regt of the King’s Guard was dressed in this yellow coat, with white-and-red chequered lace edging on all its details. Among the other royal bodyguard units, the Guardias Alabarderos wore the same, but with white facings; a tricolour yellow, red and white hat plume; red breeches, and yellow stockings. The German company of the Guardias Alabarderos had a white coat with red facings, yellow breeches and red stockings. E2: Musketeer, Provincial Tercio of Seville Each of the ‘Old Tercios’ (like this ‘Old Purple’ unit ) and of the ‘Provincial Tercios’ had the coat in a particular regimental colour, with lining in a contrasting colour. This showed at the turn-back cuffs and down the front; originally the latter simply hung open, but by the 1690s the addition of many small buttons had turned it into permanent turn-back ‘lapels’. The waistcoat and breeches were usually of the facing colour. Nearly all the other tercios had white coats with regimental-colour facings, but there were some exceptions. For instance, the two Catalan tercios and the single unit raised in Naples had red coats with yellow facings. The sword gradually came to be carried on a crossbelt rather than a waist belt. The general issue of plug bayonets was not ordered until 1702, and the first to carry them may have been the few grenadier companies formed

Reconstruction of a Hungarian infantryman carrying a felling axe; compare with Plate F3. The soft cap is shown as black, the short jacket as dark blue with red edging and chestfrogging, waist sash and tight trousers as red, the soft boots and the cloak as shades of light brown.

from 1685; these only gradually adopted soft caps with white frontal flaps and bags in regimental colour. The Spanish artillery were dressed like the infantry. E3: Trooper, mounted bodyguard of Viceroy of Naples This is representative of the dress worn by the various Guardias cavalry companies, which usually had dark-blue or red coats with additional white lace loops on the buttonholes. The trozos of line heavy cavalry were dressed quite similarly, though without extra lace; most had white coats with facings in regimental colours. The dragoons were uniformed much the same, but the great majority of their regiments had red coats.

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F: IMPERIAL ARMY

The Imperial army did not present a high degree of uniformity, being formed from regiments coming from every corner of Central Europe, but some sort of dominant ‘German’ military fashion did exist. The standard dress of the infantry was the usual black hat with white brim-edging; an off-white or light

Reconstruction of a Savoyard ducal guard dragoon of the Dragoni Guardiacaccia; compare with the other mounted bodyguard, Plate H1. This company owed its title to its original purpose of escorting the Duke of Savoy when he was out hunting. Black hat with white edging and medium blue bow; red coat with blue cuffs; buff leather waistcoat and breeches; black gaiters, but belt equipment brown leather.

grey coat with pockets in the skirts, and cuffs in a regimental colour; waistcoat and breeches in regimental colours, white stockings and black shoes. It should be noted, however, that several regiments had dark-blue or red coats. The few grenadiers in each infantry company usually had a black fur cap with a bag in regimental colour. F1: Cuirassier, Regiment Corbeille The Imperial army was virtually alone by this date in fielding part-armoured heavy cavalry. The standard dress of the cuirassier regiments was a buff or off-white/light grey coat worn under a metal cuirass painted in black. During the War of the Grand Alliance most of the cuirassier units still wore ‘lobster-tail’ helmets like the one illustrated, but a few regiments had already replaced them with a conventional black hat. Turn-back coat cuffs were in regimental colours (here, red), and the coat might have skirt pockets. Weapons were a heavy, straight sword, saddle pistols and a slung carbine. The dragoons wore a black hat with the brim edged in white or yellow; a coat in regimental colour, usually dark blue or red, with cuffs in contrasting facing colours; and waistcoat and breeches in the same colour as the cuffs. Both heavy cavalry and dragoons wore high-topped black boots protecting the knees. F2: Hussar, Regiment Czobor The hussars’ uniforms were modelled on traditional Hungarian costume. Caps might either be soft, like this example, or of a more cylindrical shape; in both cases they would have some fur trim at the bottom, and were frequently adorned with black feathers. The short dolman jacket with frontal frogging was standard, as was the barrel-sash at the waist, but not yet the fur-lined pelisse over-jacket. However, an embryo form of this was already employed by individual hussars, who might wear a lynx- or fox-pelt over their left shoulder – see D2. F3: Hajduck, Regiment Palffy The two Hungarian regiments of the Habsburg infantry wore the distinctive Magyar ‘national’ uniform represented here. Each had a distinguishing colour for the soft cap and the collar, pointed cuffs, and frontal frogging of the short jacket. This Hungarian light infantryman carries a curved sabre as well as a wheellock musket. G: DUTCH ARMY

The standard uniform of the Dutch national line infantry consisted of the conventional round black hat, with white edging; a knee-length coat, usually in off-white/pale grey, with horizontal skirt pockets, and cuffs in a contrasting facing colour; waistcoat and breeches in facing colour; white stockings and black shoes, with belt equipment in buff leather (see also under Plate B above for some examples of facings). The foreign regiments hired under the ‘subsidy system’ naturally retained their own national uniforms.

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G1: Trooper, Gardes te Paard This elite regiment of cavalry was extremely loyal to William of Orange, who took at least part of it to Ireland. Note the orange hat plumes, the dark-blue coat with sleeves opened at the front seams, and William’s crowned cypher embroidered in gold on these and on the back of the coat. The Gardes du Corps wore basically the same, but with a red coat faced in blue. The line cavalry regiments had either white or yellow hat edging; coats in regimental

colours (usually off-white) with cuffs in facing colours; facing-colour waistcoats, buff leather breeches, and black boots. The Gardes du Corps van Zeeland were dressed like the line cavalry, but in red with dark blue facings and additional gold lace on the cuffs and buttonholes; the Gardes du Corps van Friesland differed in wearing blue faced with red, and silver lace. The line dragoons wore red coats with regimentally-coloured facings; the elite Gardes Dragonders wore a black fur cap, an entirely black coat with silver lace on the buttonholes, and a waistcoat and breeches both of buff leather. The Regiment of Carabiniers was dressed like the rest of the heavy cavalry, its white coats having red facings, and its company of mounted grenadiers black fur caps. G2: Grenadier, Hollandsche Gardes This elite infantry regiment, also known simply as the Gardes te Voet, followed William on his English and Irish campaigns. Its dark blue coats, faced with yellow, differed from those of the other infantry corps in having vertical rather than horizontal skirt pockets. The fur cap illustrated was worn by the three companies of grenadiers integral to this regiment; the line companies wore the standard black hat. The other few companies of grenadiers in Dutch line units wore simple cloth caps with embroidered front flaps and bags in regimental colours. The Frieslandsche Gardes were uniformed in dark blue with red facings, the grenadiers with a fur cap similar to that shown here. The elite Regiment de Marine was dressed exactly like the Hollandsche Gardes except for having horizontal coat pockets. G3: Gunner, Regiment of Artillery The Dutch artillery wore this simple uniform in infantry style. The gunner has a leather pouch for tools and necessities, a priming flask, and a linstock for the slowmatch. At the Boyne the Dutch artillery train is believed to have fielded some 36 guns, while King James had withdrawn most of his from the site of the battle.

H: SAVOYARD ARMY

Savoy was strongly influenced in its uniforms by the contemporary French army. The Reggimento Guardie, the elite unit of the Savoyard infantry, wore a conventional round black hat with white edging, a dark blue coat with red cuffs and buttonhole-lace, a red waistcoat, red breeches and stockings, and black shoes. H1: Trooper, Guardie del Corpo The Guardie del Corpo, as clear from the ceremonial uniform reconstructed here, were dressed quite similarly to the Compagnie des Gendarmes of the French Maison du Roi. Until 1692 the Savoyard heavy cavalry consisted of independent companies, which wore black hats with yellow edging, and dark blue coats with red cuffs. After being assembled into two regiments they received the same grey uniform coat as the infantry, but with buff leather waistcoats and breeches; the Reggto Savoia had dark blue facings, and the Piemonte Reale had red. H2: Musketeer, Reggimento La Marina The national infantry regiments of the Savoyard army were dressed in grey, with facings in regimental colours as follows: Aosta, Piemonte, Nizza, Croce Bianca and Fucilieri, all with red facings; Savoia and Monferato, dark blue; and Saluzzo, yellow. Initially the Marine Regt was uniformed in red with green facings and ‘small-clothes’ as a mark of distinction, but by the outbreak of the War of the Grand Alliance it had received grey coats like the rest of the infantry. The foreign regiments serving with the Savoyard army retained their national uniforms; the Reggto Chablais, being nominally Savoyard, had grey coats with red facings throughout. H3: Dragoon, Reggimento Genevois The three line regiments of Savoyard dragoons were dressed quite similarly to their French equivalents, with a soft cap having a falling bag at the back. They were known as the Red, Green and Yellow regiments according to the colour of their coats.

47

INDEX References to images are in bold; references to plates are in bold followed by captions in brackets. Anglo-Scots Brigade 14, 16–17, 38 ‘Army of King James’ 24 Army of the Low Countries 34 ‘Army of the North’ 18–19 artillery: Dutch 37, G3 (31, 47), 39–40 English 13–14, 16, 17, A3 (25, 42–43) French 23–24 Imperial 38 Savoyard 41 Spanish 34–35 see also weaponry Balkans 4, 10; see also Hungarian forces Barcelona, battle of (1694) 10, 11, 24 Beachy Head, battle of (1690) 7 Boyne, battle of the (1690) 20–21 Britain 4–6; see also England; Ireland; Scotland Catalonia 10, 11, 24, D3 (28, 45), 35 Catholics 3, 4, 6 cavalry see Regts of Horse Charles II of England, King 4, 12, 38 Christian V of Denmark, King 17 circles 35–36 Coldstream Guards see Regts of Guards conscription 22–23 cuirasses 12, 13, 14, 16, F1 (30, 46), 36 cuirassiers 22, 23, F1 (30, 46), 36–37 Danish auxiliary corps 17, 20, 39 Dutch army 16–17, G (31, 36–47), 37–40 Dutch Republic 3, 4 England 4, 5, 6, 7 English army 6, 11–14, A (25, 42–43), 34; see also Anglo-Scots Brigade exile units 17–18 flags 38, 44 foreign units 38–39 France 3–4, 6 French Army 3–4, 21–24, D (28, 44–45); see also Maison du Roi French expeditionary corps 20–21 George of Denmark, Prince 19 Germany 4, 7, 39, 41 ‘Glorious Revolution’ (1688–89) 4–6 grenadiers see Regts of Foot Guards see Regts of Guards gunners see artillery Habsburg dynasty 3, 4, 33, 35, 36, 37 Hague, Declaration of the (1688) 6 headwear see uniforms Highland companies 15, 21, C1 (27, 44) Holy Roman Empire 3, 4; see also Imperial army Huguenots 3, 4, 17–18, B3 (26, 43), 41 Hungarian forces 23, F2–3 (30, 46), 35, 36, 37, 45 hussars 23, 24, 36, 37 French D2 (28, 44–45) Imperial F2 (30, 46) Imperial army 9, 23, 24, F (30, 46), 35–37, 38 Ireland 5, 6, 18–19 Irish army 15–16, 21, 24, 34 irregulars 21 Italy 3, 33, 34; see also Savoyard army Jacobite army 19–21, 24, C (27, 43–44) James II of England and VII of Scotland, King 4, 6, 15, 19, 20, 24 and English army 11, 13, 14 Killiecrankie, battle of (1689) 5, 21 Knötel, Richard 20, 36, 38, 39

48

La Hogue (Barfleur), battle of (1692) 9

Lagos, battle of (1693) 9 Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor 4 Lifeguards see Regts of Guards Louis XIV of France, King 3–4, 6, 21, 23, 24 Louvois, Marquis de 3, 23 Maison du Roi 7, 21–22, 43 Marsaglia, battle of (1693) 10, 24 Metropolitan Army (Spain) 33, 34 militia 22–23, 41 Mordaunt, Lord 17, 18 musicians 22, 34 musketeers: Danish Royal Footguards B2 (26, 43) English 12, 13, A1 (25, 42) Huguenot Regt B3 (26, 43) Imperial 36 Maison du Roi 7, 21 Mountcashel’s Regt C2 (27, 44) Savoyard 10, H2 (32, 47) Spanish E1–2 (29, 45), 33 Mutiny Act (1689) 18 navy see Regts of Marines Neerwinden (Landen), battle of (1693) 9, 24 Netherlands see Dutch Republic; Spanish Netherlands Nijmegen, Treaties of (1678–79) 3 Noailles, Duc de 9, 10 North America 4, 7, 9 ‘permanent’ units 38–39 Peyton, Sir Robert 17, 18 Philip V of Spain, King 34 Philippsburg 4, 7 Protestants 6, 18–19; see also Huguenots recruitment 35–36 Regts of Dragoons: British 18, 19 English 13, 14 French 23, D1 (28, 44) Irish 16 Royal Scots B1 (26, 43) Savoyard H3 (32, 47), 46 Scottish 15, 19 Regts of Foot: British 18, 19 Dutch G2 (31, 47), 37–39 English 14 French 22 Imperial 36 Irish 24 Jacobite 19–20 Savoyard 40–41 Spanish 33–34 Regts of Guards: Danish 17 Dutch 16–17, 37 English 3, 6, 11–13 French 21–22 Irish 16 Savoyard 39, 40 Scottish 14–15 see also Maison du Roi; Regts of Foot Regts of Horse: British 18 Dutch G1 (31, 46–47), 39 English 13, A2 (25, 42) French 22, 23 Imperial 36–37 Jacobite 20, C3 (27, 44) Savoyard H1 (32, 47), 41 Scottish 15 Spanish E3 (29, 45), 34–35 Regts of Marines: British 19 Dutch 37–38 French 22 Savoyard 40–41 Ryswick, Peace of (1697) 11, 19

Sarsfield, Col Patrick 5, 20, 24 Savoy, Duchy of 4, 7, 9, 10 Savoyard army 40–41, H (32, 47) dragoons 46 Guardie del Corpo 39 Reggimento Guardie 10 Scottish army 14–15, 19, 21, 34; see also AngloScots Brigade; Highland companies Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–67) 38 Spanish army E (29, 45), 33–35, 44 Spanish Netherlands 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11 and Anglo-Scots Brigade 38 and army 33, 34 Staffarda, battle of (1690) 7 Steenkerke, battle of (1692) 9 ‘subsidized’ units 39 Swiss forces 21–22, 34, 36, 38–39, 41 tercios 33–34, 35 Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–74) 38 Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) 3 uniforms: Catalonia D3 (28, 45) Danish 20, B2 (26, 43) Dragons du Roi D1 (28, 44) Dutch artillery G3 (31, 47), 37, 39 Dutch grenadier G2 (31, 47) Dutch infantry 38 Dutch trooper G1 (31, 46–47) English artillery 16, 17, A3 (25, 42–43) English cavalry A2 (25, 42) English guards 3, 6, 12, 13 English musketeers A1 (25, 42) Gardes Françaises 21 French musketeers 7 Hajduck F3 (30, 46) Highland clansmen C1 (27, 44) Huguenot musketeers B3 (26, 43) Hungarian infantry 45 Hussards Royaux 24, D2 (28, 44–45) hussars F2 (30, 46), 36 Imperial artillery 38 Imperial cuirassier F1 (30, 46) Imperial dragoons 9 Jacobite C2–3 (27, 44) La Reine regiment of horse 22 Maison du Roi 43 Régiment Hautefort-Dragon 23 Regimiento de Caballeria de la Guardia del Rey 35 Regimiento de Infanteria de la Guardia del Rey E1 (29, 45) Royal Regt of Scots Dragoons 19, B1 (26, 43) Savoyard artillery 41 Savoyard dragoon H3 (32, 47), 46 Savoyard guards 10, 39 Savoyard infantry 40 Savoyard marines 40 Savoyard musketeer H2 (32, 47) Savoyard trooper H1 (32, 47) Spanish musketeers 33 Spanish trooper E3 (29, 45) tercio of Seville E2 (29, 45) volunteers 18–19 Wachop, John 14, 15 War of the Devolution (1967–68) 3 War of the Reunions (1683–84) 4 weaponry: carbines 23, 24 felling axes 45 flintlocks 13, 23, 33, 40 muskets 13, 20, 33, 35, 38, 40, 44), D1 (28 pikes 15, 20, 21, 36, 44), C1 (27 plug bayonets 23, E2 (29, 45), 38 sabres 24, 36, 44–45), 46), F3 (30, D2 (28 saddle-pistols 23, 24, 35 swords 23, 35 Westphalia, Peace of (1648) 3 William III of England (Prince of Orange), King 4, 6, 15, 17, 18–19

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Dedication

OSPREY is a trademark of Osprey Publishing Ltd

Special thanks are due to the series editor Martin Windrow, for his support throughout the preparation of this book. Another special acknowledgement goes to Giuseppe Rava, for his brilliant colour plates that recreate the uniforms and atmosphere of a fascinating but almost forgotten ‘lace war’. Most of the pictures published in this book were obtained from the Digital Collections of the New York Public Library, or from the Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection at Brown University, Rhode Island; the original files are available at: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/ https://repository.library.brown.edu/studio/collections/id_619/

First published in Great Britain in 2021 This electronic edition published in 2021 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc © Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2021 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: PB: 9781472844354; eBook:9781472844361; ePDF:9781472844330; XML: 9781472844347

To my parents Maria Rosaria and Benedetto, for their great love and their precious advice during the writing of this book.

Acknowledgements

TITLE PAGE Reconstruction by the pioneering German uniform historian Richard Knötel (1857-1914) of a fifer (left) and drummer of Imperial infantry at the end of the 17th century. Both wear reversed-colour coats, i.e. made in the facing colour of their regiments: blue for the fifer, with gold ‘lace’ embellishments, and red for the drummer, with silver lace.

Editor: Martin Windrow Index by Zoe Ross Typeset by PDQ Digital Media Solutions, Bungay, UK Osprey Publishing supports the Woodland Trust, the UK’s leading woodland conservation charity. To find out more about our authors and books, visit www.ospreypublishing.com. Here you will find extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events, and the option to sign up for our newsletter .

INTRODUCTION IMAGE There are very few genuinely contemporary images of common soldiers of this period, of any army, and those that do exist are inevitably subject to differing interpretations. Consequently this, like all the other illustrations in this book, is a reconstruction by a much later artist. Such researchers usually had to rely on comparisons with surviving officer portraits, or the purely chance survival of documents such as procurement accounts. This is a reconstruction of an English grenadier of the King’s Footguards (‘Coldstream Guards’) in the late 17th century. The cap is shown as dark green with yellow tape (‘lace’) edging and a crowned badge, and the stocking-like ‘bag’ as red. The red coat has dark green lining showing at the turn-back cuffs, which bear yellow lace ‘loops’ around the buttonholes. It also has tasselled lines of dark green lace down the front – a distinction of some grenadiers that was recorded at least by 1685. The breeches and stockings are both red, and the belt equipment is buff leather. As early as 1677 a unit raised for a Virginia expedition was issued mixed firearms – 300 matchlocks and 200 flintlocks – but no pikes. The following year senior foot regiments were provided with grenadier equipment for one company – ‘carbines’ with slings, plug bayonets, separate cartridge and grenade pouches, and hammer-hatchets. By the coronation of James II in 1685 the Coldstream were recorded with blue facings, rather than the green of a 1669 source – a reminder of the contradictions often found in reconstructions.