Archaeology in the Pennines: Studies in Honour of Arthur Raistrick 9780860544128, 9781407317724

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Preface
The Contributors
ARTHUR RAISTRICK: AN APPRECIATION
ASPECTS OF THE SOIL AND VEGETATION HISTORY OF THE CRAVEN DISTRICT OF YORKSHIRE
A REAPPRAISAL OF THE LATER UPPER PALAEOLITHIC OCCUPATION OF DEAD MAN'S CAVE, NORTH ANSTON
THE BRONZE AGE IN WESTERN YORKSHIRE
SEARCHES FOR THE EARLY NEOLITHIC: A STUDY OF PEAKLAND LONG CAIRNS
EXCAVATIONS AT PORTFIELD HILLFORT, 1960, 1970 AND 1972
ROMANO BRITISH FARMS AND FARMERS IN CRAVEN, NORTH YORKSHIRE
EARLY SETTLEMENT IN UPPER TEESDALE, COUNTY DURHAM
GAYLE LANE EARTHWORK, WENSLEYDALE
DESTRUCTION, PRESERVATION AND RECOVERY: WEARDALE, A CASE STUDY
ROME IN THE PENNINES

Citation preview

Archaeology in the Pennines Studies in Hono-ur ·of Arthur Raistrick

edited by

T.G. Manby and P. Turnbull

BAR British Series 15 8 1986

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 158, 1986: 'Archaeology in the Pennines'

© The Individual Authors, 1986 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544128 paperback ISBN 9781407317724 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544128 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age L ist o f I llustrations

i ii

P reface a nd L ist o f C ontributors

v ii

A RTHUR R AISTRICK :

A n A ppreciation

1

A SPECTS O F S OIL A ND V EGETATION H ISTORY O F T HE C RAVEN

3

D ISTRICT O F Y ORKSHIRE b y R ichard T .

S mith

AR EAPPRAISAL O F T HE L ATE U PPER P ALAEOLITHIC O CCUPATION O F D EAD M AN'S C AVE, N ORTH A NSTON

2 9

b y R ogan D .S. J enkinson, & G .F . W ynne-Griffiths 5 5

T HE B RONZE A GE I N W ESTERN Y ORKSHIRE b y T .G . M anby S EARCHES F OR T HE E ARLY N EOLITHIC:

A S TUDY O F

P EAKLAND L ONG C AIRNS

1 27

b y C .R . H art E XCAVATIONS A T P ORTFIELD, H ILLFORT,

1 960,

1 970 & 1 972

1 37

b y P auline B eswick & D avid G . C oombs R OMANO-BRITISH F ARMS A ND F ARMERS I N C RAVEN , 1 81

N ORTH Y ORKSHIRE b y A lan K ing E ARLY S ETTLEMENT I N U PPER T EESDALE, C OUNTY D URHAM

1 95

b y D ennis C oggins G AYLE L ANE E ARTHWORK , W ENSLEYDALE

2 05

b y P ercival T urnbull D ESTRUCTION , P RESERVATION A ND R ECOVERY : A C ASE S TUDY

W EARDALE, 2 13

b y R obert Y oung R OME I N T HE P ENNINES b y R .F .J. J ones

2 29

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS P age R .T .

S mith F ig.

1

Craven : L ocation o f s ites

5

F ig. 2

P ollen d iagram , E shton T arn

7

F ig. 3

P ollen d iagram, T hreshfield M oor

F ig. 4

P ollen d iagram , G ordale B eck

1

F ig. 5 F ig. 6

P ollen d iagram, G reat C lose P asture C hronological T able

1 3 1 5

F ig. 7

H igh M ark, M alham M oor: s ections a nd

F ig. 8

S tages i n t he f ormation o f a f lush p eat

F ig. 9

E ffects o f s oil f ormation o n s tone f ield b anks

F ig.

B road S tones, M alham M oor:

p edogenic g radient

1 7

s ystem

1 0

9

1 9 2 1

p osition o f f ormer

f ield b ank i ndicated b y s olution e ffects o n a l imestone p avement

2 3

R .D .S. J enkinson & G .F. W ynne-Griffiths F ig.

1

D ead M an 's C ave: p lan o f c ave p rior t o e xcavation a nd s howing t he e xcavated a reas

F ig.

3 1

2

F lint A ssemblage:

D ead M an 's C ave, S ection 1

F ig. 3

F lint A ssemblage :

D ead M an 's C ave,

o ther s ections

3 5 3 7

T .G . M anby F ig.

1

W estern Y orkshire:

T he P hysical B ackground -

t he C entral P ennines a nd t he V ale o f Y ork

5 7

F ig. 2

D istribution o f E arly B ronze A ge b urials

F ig. 3

E arly B ronze A ge:

F ig. 4

T he P ickering I ndustry:

F ig. 5

T he D istribution o f M iddle B ronze A ge b urials, F ortified S ites a nd B ronze I mplements

8 3

F ig. 6 F ig. 7 F ig. 8

D aggers, D irks a nd R apier: P ickering, H otham C arr a nd P enard I ndustries H otham C arr B ronze I ndustry D istribution o f L ate B ronze A ge f ortified

8 4 8 5

9

s ites, B ronze i mplements a nd G old o rnaments U nfinished P alstaves f rom W allington

8 6

F ig. F ig.

1 0

I ndustry H oards T he ' Near H arrogate' H oard

8 7 8 8

F ig.

1

W allington a nd P enard I ndustry S pearheads

8 9

F ig.

1 2

H eathery B urn I ndustry : S pearheads a nd

F ig.

1 3

T he B ilton-in-Ainsty H oard

9 1

F ig. F ig.

1 4 1 5

B ronze a nd F old O rnaments E wart P ark a nd H allstatt ' C' S words a nd

9 2

S ompting t ype a xes

9 3

a nd b ronze i mplements

' Yorkshire'

8 0

A xes a nd D agger A xes a nd S pearheads

t ype S ocketed A xe

i ii

8 1 8 2

9 0

C .R . H art F ig.

1

F ig.

2

D istribution o f L ong C airns i n t he P eak L ong C airns: 1 , P ennyfoot; 2 , G autries; 3 , B lack H arry; 4 , T oplow ; 5 , R ingham

1 28

L ow ;

1 31

6 , R ockhurst;

7 , G ib H ill

F ig. 3

L ong L ow , W etton

1 33

F ig. 4

T he B rides t ones

1 33

F ig. 5

O rientation o f m ain a xis o f P eakland L ong C airns

1 33

P . B eswick & D .G. C oombs P late 1

P ortfield H illfort f rom t he a ir

F ig.

L ocation M ap

1 39 1 41

F ig. 2

S ite P lan s howing a reas e xcavated

1 42

F ig.

P lan a nd S ections, A reas A , Ba nd C

1 43

1 3

F ig. 4

P lan a nd S ection, S ite 5

1 46

F ig. 5

P ost H ole S ections

1 48

F ig. 6

P ottery a nd F lint I ndustry

1 50

F ig. 7

T rench P lan ,

1 51

F ig. 8 F ig. 9

T rench X VI E xcavation P lan , T renches X XXII-XXXVI

1 972 E xcavation

1 53 1 55

F ig.

1 0

P lan , T rench X II

1 61

F ig. F ig. F ig.

1 1 2 1 3

P lan , T renches I V-V S ections, 1 972 F eatures P osthole P rofiles

1 63

F ig.

1 4

P ottery : 1 , P rehistoric; 2 , R oman ; M edieval a nd P ost-Medieval

F ig.

1 5

F lint a nd C hert I ndustry

F ig.

1 2

G eology D istribution o f m ajor S ettlement S ites

1 65 1 67 3 -13, 1 69 1 69

A . K ing 1 83

F ield S ystems a t R ibblehead

1 85 1 87

F ig. 4

F ield S ystems a t M alham

1 89

F ig. 5 F ig. 6

F ield S ystems a t C onistone C limatic d ata f or t he C entral P ennines U pland

1 91

F ig .

F ig. 3

1 92

D . C oggins F ig.

1

U pper T eesdale: T he P hysical B ackground

1 97

F ig.

2

L ater S ites i n U pper T eesdale

1 98

E arlier S ites i n U pper T eesdale F ield S ystems a nd S ettlement S ites

2 01

2 07 2 09

F ig. 3 F ig. 4

1 99

P . T urnbull ' Fig.

1

F ig.

2

S ite P lan P lan o f E xcavated A rea

1

L ocation M ap o f W eardale a nd p laces m entioned

R . Y oung F ig.

i n t ext D istribution o f F lint S catters i n W eardale

2 14 2 17

F ig. 4

V egetation T ypes i n W eardale D istribution o f P eat D eposits i n W eardale

F ig.

A reas o f a ctive p eat e rosion

F ig. 2 F ig. 3 5

i v

2 16 2 19 21 2

F ig. 6

D istribution o f q uarrying a nd m ining i n W eardale

2 32

F ig. 7

S tanhope P ark

2 33

F ig. 8

T he W ear V alley s howing m ain s ources o f a rchaeological d estruction

2 35

P REFACE I n

1 980

h onour D r .

a D ay C onference

A rthur R aistrick .

U niversity 's

S chool

o f

A rchaeological S ociety :

t ook p lace a t

t he U niversity o f B radford t o

T his C onference w as j ointly s ponsored b y t he

A rchaeological

S ciences

a nd

t he

Y orkshire

P rehistory R esearch S ection.

T he m ajority o f p apers r ead o n t hat o ccasion h ave b een p repared f or p ublication a nd p resented i n t his v olume t o m ark t he 9 0th b irthday o f A rthur R aistrick .

T he s tudies r eflect b ut a m odest n umber o f a spects o f P ennine

a rchaeology t hat r eceived t he p ioneer a ttention o f A rthur R aistrick . T he s tudies w ere a ssembled i n 1 984 b y P ercival T urnbull w ho u ndertook t he i nitial e diting a nd p reparation o f t he t ext ; a nd t he p assage

t he f inal e ditorial w ork

o f t he v olume t hrough t he p ress h as b een u ndertaken b y T .G .

M anby.

T he C ontributors R ichard T . S mith: R .S. J enkinson :

T he S chool o f G eography, T he U niversity , L eeds. T he C reswell C rags V isitor C entre, W orksop.

G .F. W ynne-Griffiths:

T he C reswell C rags V isitor C entre, W orksop.

T .G . M änby :

M useum & A rt G allery , C hequer R oad, D oncaster .

C .R. H art:

C ity M useum , W eston P ark , S heffield.

P . B eswick :

C ity M useum , W eston P ark, S heffield.

D .G. C oombs:

D epartment o f A rchaeology, T he U niversity , M anchester.

A . K ing:

T he I ngleborough C ommunity C entre, I ngleton .

D . C oggins:

T he B owes M useum , B arnard C astle, D urham .

P . T urnbull:

O rchard C ottage, D alton , N r. R ichmond. N . Y orkshire.

R . Y oung:

T he A rchaeology Unit, S chool o f G eography, S t D avid 's U niversity C ollege , L ampeter , D yfed , W ales .

R .F.J. Jones:

T he S chool o f A rchaeological S cience, T he University, B radford .

v ii

ARTHUR RAIS RICK:

AN APPRECIATION

For seven decades Dr. Arthur Rais trick 1as made outstanding contributions to sc ientific research in the fields of.- Archaeology; Geology; Environmental Sciences; Folk Culture Recording; Industrial History; Landscape Studies; and Vernacular Architecture. 1-lis name will be forever synonymous wi h the archaeology and geology of Yo1.' -shi e, the Pennines and Northern England. His published works are prodigious and have conferred distinction on national, regional and local journals. In books and pamphlets he has informed and fascinated the scholar and layman alike. In so many fields he laid the foundations of modern scientific study and pioneered inter-discip inary collaboration in our region. Arthur Raistrick was born at Shipley in 1896 and educated at Bradford He became Lecturer in Civil and Grammar School and Leeds University. ruining Engineering at Armstrong College, Newcastle upon Tyne, then a part of the University of Durham. Although the prehistory and geology of Durham and Northumberland received his attention he continually retun1ed t 1 the Yorkshire Pennines and produced a series of archaeological period studies from the late 1920s onwards. At the same time h produced an equally prol1tic series of papers dealing with the glaciations of the Pennines. Parallel with these were investigations of the mining industries of the A further field of pioneering Pennine and ear ly civil engineering. scientific research was the collaboration wit Thomas Woodhead and Katherine Blackburn in the introduction of pollen analysis and palaeo­ botanical study of Pennine peats and lake deposits. Re.tiring from his University career Dr. and Mrs. Raistrick settled at Linton-in-Wharfedale and a further prolific phase as author and fieldwork began. The series of books produced at this period dealt with the Yorksh re Dales in a wide ranging perspective of natural and human history. ·These were the result of a deep and profound knowledge and love.of thee country, its inhabitants, their history and their traditions.e Dr. Ra.istrick continued as a lecturer and teacher, training a whole generation of fieldworkers in archaeology, geology and natural history. He trained both his own team of local field-workers and students at the Malham Tarn Field Centre whose combined field-studies courses he guided for three decades. The name of Arthur Raistrick will forever rank with the Giants of Yorkshire scholarship. In Geology, Archaeology and History he.must be placed alongside William Smith, John Phillips, Adam Sedgwick, Percy Kendall, John Robert Mortimer, Frank Elgee and Charles Clay.

le

A SPECTS O F T HE S OIL A ND V EGETATION H ISTORY O F T HE C RAVEN D ISTRICT O F Y ORKSHIRE . R ichard T . S mith .

I ntroduction . Among A rthur R aistrick 's many p reoccupations o ver t he y ears i t i s p erhaps t he l andscape o f C raven f or w hich h e h as h ad g reatest a ffection ( see ,

e .g .

R aistrick ,

1 97 0 .

I t i s a lso a ppropriate t o r emind t he r eader

t hat w hile t his v olume i s c oncerned w ith t he h istory a nd p re-history o f m an , D r . R aistrick 's p ersonal c ontribution t o t he d ocumentation o f P ennine l andscapes c overs n ot o nly t hese q uestions b ut a spects o f t he g eology a nd g laciation which p receded t hem . H is t otal c ontribution t hus f orms a n e ssential b ackground t o a ny s tudy o f t he l andscape h istory o f t he Y orkshire D ales. T he t erm ' Craven ' a s u sed h ere i s l argely o ne o f c onvenience . I t i s o f c ourse a g eological s tructural u nit , b ut s imply d efined , i t i s t he l imestone u pland d istrict c omprising t he h eadwaters o f t he R ibble , A ire a nd W harfe ( Fig . 1 ) . T he n ame C raven i s u sually c onsidered t o b e o f C eltic o rigin , d eriving f rom a n e arlier f orm o f t he W elsh ' craf ' ( = g arlic) . T his s eems a f airly s trong p robability i n v iew o f t he e vidence f or c ontinuity o f C eltic s peaking g roups i n B ritain t hrough t he R omano-British p eriod ( Jones, 1 961, 1 975) a nd t he f act t hat w ild g arlic w as k nown t o h ave f lourished h ere i n t he M iddle A ges a nd s till d oes g row i n t he l arge f issures ( grykes) d eveloped o n t he l imestone p avements . I t i s h ere t hat a s atisfactory n iche , b oth d amp a nd s haded , i s t o b e f ound f or s everal s pecies o f p lants n ormally r esident i n w oodland ( Sinker , 1 960) . T he e xtensive o utcrops o f a lmost h orizontal l imestone s trata, l argely w ithout v egetation o r s oil c over, h ave m ade, p articularly t he M alham a nd I ngleborough d istricts , w ell k nown t o m any g enerations o f g eographers , g eologists a nd b iologists . T ogether w ith i ts i nterest t o c avers i t m ust t herefore b e o ne o f t he m ost p opular a reas o f t he P ennines. G eologically , t he a rea i s d ominated b y C arboniferous s trata , t he l owest m embers o f t he s equence c omprising t he L ower C arboniferous o r G reat S car L imestone ( O 'Conner , 1 964 ; R aistrick a nd I llingworth , 1 949 ; R ayner , 1 953) . T his i s am assively-bedded r ock w ith o ccasional t hin s hale p artings t owards t he t op o f t he s equence . I t i s o verlain b y r hythmic s uccessions o f l imestones , s hales , s andstones a nd t hin c oal s eams c omprising t he Y oredale s eries o f t he M iddle C arboniferous . T hese s trata f orm t he s teep v alley s ides i n t he m ore e levated p arts o f t he d istrict , t he l imestone b ands o ften f orming l edges . T hese a re o verlain o n i solated s ummits s uch a s I ngleborough a nd F ountains F ell , b y t he M illstone G rit S eries , c omprising c oarse s andstones w ith l ocal c oal s eams , a s o n t he F ountains F ell s ummit . T his s olid g eological b ase i s o verlain b y av ariety o f s uperficial d eposits ( Clark ,

1 967 ;

B ullock ,

1 971) w hich h ave t he e ffect o f g reatly r educing t he

a rea o f b are l imestone o r l ime-affected s oils . • T he d irect o r i ndirect i nfluence o f l imestone i n t he C raven d istrict g reatly l imits o pportunities f or p alaeoecological w ork , d ependent a s t his n ormally i s o n w et c onditions a nd t hose w hich f acilitate p reservation a nd t he m aintenance o f as table a nd d iscrete s tratigraphy .

3

N evertheless o ne i s

s urprised

t o

l earn o f

t he v ariety o f

s ituations

i n w hich p eaty m aterials

h ave a ccumulated . W hile s ome o f t hese p rovide o nly r elatively r ecent r ecords , o thers c eased p eat f ormation , w ere t runcated o r w ere c apped b y m ineral m aterial m any c enturies a go . T he r estricted g eographic l ocations o f t he p eats m eans t hat o ne i s l imited i n c hoice o f s ampling l ocations . I n a ddition , t he s mall s ize o f c ertain d eposits w arns a gainst a nticipating r ecords w hich a re e asily c orrelated w ith n ationally-recognised v egetational z ones . H owever , a s w ill b e i ndicated l ater , s uch l ocal v egetation r ecords a re a rguably o f g reater v alue i n p robing m an 's a ctivities . T he v arious t ypes o f p eat-forming e nvironments i n C raven c an b e l isted a s f ollows , t he l ist p roviding a t emplate f or t he d iscovery o f p eats i n a reas n ot y et i nvestigated. 1 .

G lacial v alleys o ccupied s ubsequently b y m eltwater l akes.

2 .

D rift h ollows , l akes.

3 .

B road d epressions i n u neven a cidifying d rift o ver l imestone.

4 .

S ubsidence h ollows i n d rift o ver l imestone ( shake h oles).

5 .

V alley f lush o ver l ocal S ilurian o utcrop .

6 .

B lanket p eat o n g ritstone s ummit p lateaux .

7 .

L imestone s urface.

i ncluding k ettle h oles ,

a ssociated w ith m eltwater

R eference w ill l ater b e m ade t o r ecords f rom s ites i n e ach o f t hese c ategories b ut i t i s w orth e mphasising t hat i n a lmost a ll o f t hese e nvironments

p ollen

p reservation

m ay

b e

i mpaired

t hrough

t he

i nadequate

m aintenance o f a naerobism , t he p resence o f l ime-rich g round w ater o r b oth . E qually t he o pportunities f or u sing s amples f or c arbon-14 d ating a re s trictly l imited owing t o t he p ossible u ptake o f f ossil b icarbonate b y p lants -the h ard water e ffect . T he a ctual p resence o f l ime a t a p articular l evel, a s i n s hell marl, d oes n ot, h owever , a utomatically t hreaten

t he

s uitability

o f

o verlying

m aterial

f or

C -14

a ssay

a nd

i t

i s

p erhaps w orth p ointing o ut t hat a cidification ( i .e . r emoval o f C aCO3) i s a r outine p retreatment o f s amples f or r adiocarbon d ating . T o s ummarise , t he g reatest t hreat t o t he p alaeoecological u se o f p eat r ecords i n l imestone a reas i s as harply f luctuating g round w ater r egime w ith a h igh l ime c ontent. I n t he r emainder o f t his e ssay i t i s m y i ntention t o s ummarise t he f eatures o f H olocene v egetation h istory , t o d iscuss c ertain a spects o f t he e arlier h uman i mpact o n t he a rea a nd t hen t o c omment o n s oil p rocesses a nd s oil e volution a s t hey r elate t o t he h istory o f t he l andscape a nd t o f ield a rchaeology . F or t he a bove p urposes t he w ork o f v arious a uthors w ill b e r eferred t o a nd i llustrated , i n p articular t hat o f t he p resent w riter w hose s tudies h ave l ately b een c entred o n M alham M oor .

V egetation H istory a nd t he I mpact o f M an . F igure

1 s hows

t he

C raven a rea a nd

t he

p alaeoecological s tudies h ave b een u ndertaken .

l ocations

o f

s ites

w here

I n ar eview o f t his s ort i t

would b e u seful t o h ave m any p ollen d iagrams a vailable b ut i s h as b een

4

5 L ocation o f S ites

d ecided t o l imit t hese t o f our , f rom E shton T arn ( Fig . 2 ) , T hreshfield M oor ( Fig . 3 ), G ordale B eck ( Fig . 4 ), a nd G reat C lose P asture ( Fig . 5 ), f or p urposes o f i llustrating p articular f eatures . I t i s h elpful h ere t o l ist t he v arious s ites w hich a re a ssociated w ith p articular w orkers b efore s ketching t he m ain f eatures o f t he v egetation h istory i tself . E arlier s tudies i nclude t he w ork o f R aistrick a nd B lackburn ( 1938) a t L inton M ires a nd o f W alker ( 1956) a t S tump C ross .

P igott a nd P igott ( 1959 ,

1 963) t hen

p ublished p ollen d iagrams f or M alham T arn a nd T arn M oss . L ater i n t he 1 960s w ork was c ompleted i n t he I ngleborough d istrict b y G osden ( 1965, 1 968) . M ore r ecently J ones ( 1977) h as m ade a s tudy o f a n umber o f s ites : E shton T arn , W hite M oss, L inton M ires a nd T hreshfield M oor , w hich m ostly l ie o n t he s outhern , m ore l owland p erimeter o f C raven a nd t he p resent w riter ( herein a nd f orthcoming) h as i nvestigated a n umber o f s ites o n M alham M oor , i ncluding F ountains F ell, G ordale B eck a nd G reat C lose P asture. A t t he e nd o f t he D evensian g lacial p hase ( see F ig . 6 ) t he b rief p eriod o f A ller g id a melioration i s r ecorded c learly a t M alham T arn a s a n e xpansion o f p ine i n r elation t o b irch . T he s ame a lso a ppears t o h ave b een t he c ase a t T hieves M oss , I ngleborough , t hough i t i s l ikely h ere t hat s urface A llerSd s oil f ound i ts w ay i nto s ubsequent l ake c lays v ia p eriglacial a ctivity o r s oil w ash . P rior a nd s ubsequent t o t his w armer e pisode t he v egetational p icture a ppears s imilar t o m any o ther p arts o f B ritain , w ith a n o pen h abitat a ssemblage o f j uniper , d warf b irch a nd w illow a nd c opses o f t ree b irches . A t M alham T arn a nd T hieves M osses p articularly h igh v alues o f j uniper p ollen s uggest t hat i n t he l imestone d istricts t his w as t he d ominant s pecies w hile i t i s a lso c lear t hat i n t he a bundant w etlands a w ide r ange o f a quatics a nd f lowering h erbs w ere r epresented . T here s eems l ittle d oubt t hat b irch w as a t i ts c limatic l imit i n t he n orth o f E ngland i n t he l ate D evensian w ith i ts f requency s everely d etermined b y e xposure a nd a vailable m oisture . I t m ay b e f or t his r eason t hat g iven e ven a m odest i ncrease i n w armth , p ine w as t o b e a t a c ompetitive a dvantage o n t he w idespread , s hallow , h umus-carbonate s oils . A rboreal b irches d id h owever s upplant t his e arly f lora w ith g reat c onsistency o ver t he a rea, t hough a t t he h igh-level s ites w here i t w as f ormerly d ominant , j uniper s urvives w ell i nto t he B oreal p eriod p robably u ntil o vertopped b y h azel o r p ine . T hus a l engthy p eriod f rom t he o pening o f t he H olocene ( Flandrian o r p ost-glacial p eriod) s aw t he c olonisation o f t he l andscape b y an umber o f t ree a nd s hrub s pecies , f irst b irch , t hen p ine a nd h azel a nd t hen e lm a nd o ak , s uch t hat m aximum f orest e xtension h ad o ccurred b y a pproximately 7 000 y ears a go i n ac limate p robably m ilder b ut n o l ess m oist t han t hat o f t oday . W hile t ree p ollen v alues a re g enerally h igh i n t he e arly a nd m iddle p eriods o f t he H olocene t here w ere s ubstantial a reas w ith a m ore o pen v egetation .

T his m ay h ave b een a f unction o f a ltitude i n s ome a reas b ut

t he q uestion o f m an 's i nfluence i s r aised b y t he i nitiation o f p eat f ormation o n G reat C lose P asture o verlying a s oil h orizon i n w hich s ubstantial a mounts o f c harcoal w ere f ound ( Fig . 5 ) . P alynologically , t he p eriod a t w hich t his o ccurs i s c learly p re-Atlantic ( radiocarbon d ated t o 1 0,070+140 B .P .) a nd M esolithic w hile v alues o f a rboreal p ollen a re s urprisingly l ow t hroughout t his d iagram . P igott a nd P igott ( 1963) a lso r eport t hin s eams o f c harcoal i n a n e arly h orizon b eneath M alham T arn M oss . T here t hus a ppears t o b e a n a ssociation b etween t his a nd a r ise i n p lantain a nd o ther w eed p ollens a nd t he a bove a uthors s ee t hese a s b eing a ssociated w ith t he M esolithic s ite o n t he n orth s hore o f t he f en w here G eometric m icroliths a re n umerous . D r . R aistrick t ells m e t hat a pproximately 5 000 s uch f lakes h ave b een f ound o n t he s hore o f G reat C lose M ire a nd i t m ust b e a dmitted t hat

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t hat o f t he l ater MesolIthic : s ite a t S tump C ross ( Walker, 1 956) . T his e xample i llustrates t he v alue o f b ogs o f s maller e xtent w hen e valuating t he nd i t m ust w arn u s t hat r ecords f rom l arge m ire r ole o f m an ( Smith , 1 982) -a s ystems, i n c ollecting a •greater p roportion o f t heir l and p ollen f rom c onsiderable d istances , . l ead t o h igher r epresentation o f s pecies w hich i n r eality m ay n ot b e f ound i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s ite . I t

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s ome r elation t o df sturbances o f e arly w oodlands b y man ( Smith , 1 970; 7 iew s hared b y t he p resent w riter w ho v iews t he r ise o f R awitscher , 1 945) , a -. b oth h azel a nd p ine a s a m anifestation o f h uman a ctivity i n v iew o f t he r esponses o f t he l atter f ollowing c learances o r f ires ( Smith , 1 982) . I t m ust b e s aid , h owever , t hat w hile t he v egetation h istory o f C raven s hows m any s imilar f eatures t o t he r est o f n orthern E ngland i t i s p erhaps t he h igh p ine p ollen f requencies a t s ome s ites w hich a re m ost n otable . T hese a re t hought t o h ave a n e daphic b asis . I ndeed , p ine a ppears t o h ave b ecome m uch m ore i mportant l ater a t s ites w here i t a pparently g ained a f oothold e arliest a nd s ubstantially d elayed t he a scendancy o f e lm , o ak a nd e ven a lder . T he r elatedness o f p ine a nd h azel i n a n a nthropogenic s ense i s e vident a t M alham T arn Moss where p ine e xpands t emporarily a t t he t ime when h azel i s i ncreasing a nd t wo s imilar a ssociations a re e vident i n t he p ollen d iagram f or T hreshfield M oor ( Fig . 3 ) , t he o ne a t 1 20 c m b eing a ssociated w ith a p roportional r eduction i n t ree p ollen a nd a n i ncrease i n h eaths . I t i s a ppropriate t o n ote t hat o ne m ile n orth o f t he T hreshfield s ite a w orked r eindeer a ntler h as b een f ound . A t H elwith M oor ( Gosden , 1 965) h igh p ine p ollen f requencies p redate t he m ain h azel e xpansion a nd t he s ame i s t rue a t G reat C lose a s f ar a s c orrelation p ermits . T he m ajor r ise i n h azel o ccurs a round 8 800-9000 B .P . ( Jones , 1 977 , p . 1 67) w hich , o n r eflection , i s n o l ess c oincident t han t he m uch l ater e lm f all o n p ollen d iagrams . S o l arge a p roportion o f t he a rboreal p ollen d oes h azel f orm i n t he e arly a n t i m idH olocene t hat o ne i s f orced t o t he c onclusion t hat i t f ormed v irtually p ure s tands i n t he u pper r eaches o f C raven s imilar i n s tyle t o i ts c olonization o f c oastal a reas i n S kye o r i n t he B urren o f w estern I reland . I t s eems p erfectly c lear t hat n o modern a nalogues e xist i n C raven n or a ny o ther u pland a reas t o g ive i nsight i nto t he s tructure o f t hese p rimeval c ommunities. A nother d istinctive t rait o f t he C raven p ollen r ecords i s t he a bundance o f e lm , p articularly w ell d isplayed a t E shton , w here w e m ay n ote t hat i ts e xpansion i s v irtually c oincident w ith t hat o f p ine . I t i s a lso e vident t hat o ak i s n ot a s w ell-represented a s i n t he m ajority o f r ecords a nd t hat t he o ak g ains i n r elative i mportance l ater i n t he r ecords a s l ocal t rees o n c alcareous s oils a nd u pland d istricts d ecline r elative t o l owland a nd v alley-side w oods . T he o ak r ecords r eflect s ome e lement o f l ong d istance t ransport a nd f or t his r eason h ave l ess t endency t o f luctuate . T he r ecords f or o ak s uggest a r eluctance t o p enetrate t he l imestone a reas b ut i n v iew o f t he s ubstantial d rift o verlays i t i s t oo m uch t o e xpect t he s pecies t o h ave b een a bsent f rom t he p ollen d iagrams . I t i s d uring t he m iddle p hase o f t he H olocene ( the A tlantic p eriod) t hat d eciduous w oodlands a ppear t o h ave b een m ost v ariegated a nd t he e xisting t rees w ere j oined b y a sh , l ime a nd n otably b y a lder . T he r ise o f a lder i s n ormally t aken t o i ndicate t he B oreal-Atlantic t ransition o f s ome 7 000 y ears a go b ut t he r ise o f a lder i s f ar l ess c onsistent a nd c onvincing a t t his t ime i n C raven t han e lsewhere , p artly n o d oubt b ecause o f t he w ell-drained n ature o f s o m uch o f t he t errain .

A lder f ails t o a ttain i ts m aximal p ollen v alues

u ntil a fter m ajor d eclines o f t he p ine c urve ( see f or e xample F igs .

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t hus s aw m ajor d eclines i n p ine p ollen a mong t he v arious s ites i nvestigated . A t M alham T arn , i nception o f S phagnum i mbricatum g rowth o ccurs a t t he p oint o f t he p ine d ecline a t t he B oreal-Atlantic t ransition . A s imilar t rend i s s een a t G reat C lose w here t he a lder r ise i s v ery i ndeterminate a nd c ontrasts f ig . 3 ) o n a cidic d rift m arginal m arkedly w ith t he T hreshfield M oor r ecord ( t o t he l imestone a reas . T he r ecord a t M alham T arn s hows m inor i ncreases i n n on-tree p ollen a t t his t ransition w hile t he T hreshfield M oor d ata s how t hat i n a ddition t o t he i nception o f S phagnum p eat f ormation a t t his t ime , t here i s a n i ncrease o f s edges a nd b racken . T his s uggests t he i ntervention o f M esolithic p eoples i n a ssisting s uch a n e cological c hange , a nd t he f act t hat t hese p eople m ay h ave f ound f urther u ses f or d eal w ood o r i mproved m ethods f or i ts r emoval s eems b orne o ut b y t he e vidence f or f orest c learance a nd p ine s tumps i n S cottish p eats ( Birks , 1 975 ; O 'Sullivan , 1 977) a nd t he f act t hat many p ine s tumps i n p eat a re a ssociated w ith c harcoal ( A .G . S mith , p ersonal c ommunication ) . O ther a spects o f t he p alaeogeography o f C raven h ave c hanged v ery m uch i n t he c ourse o f t he H olocene . A t t he o utset t here w ere many o pen w ater b odies a nd s uch l akes a s M alham a nd E shton T arns w ere o riginally l arger w hen c harged w ith m eltwater . A n umber o f t he l arger d olines m ay a t o ne t ime h ave b een o ccupied b y w ater . P arts o f t he R ibble v alley , t he W hite M oss b asins , L inton M ires a nd T hreshfield M oor w ere a ll o nce l ake b asins . O n M alham M oor t he a rea o f H igh M oss w as o nce a l ake w hich h as s ubsequently d eveloped a f loating b og c ommunity .

W hile t hese a reas e volved t o d rier a nd

m ore a cid h abitats o ther l ocations d eveloped q uite d ifferently . G reat C lose a ppears t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith a f orest s oil p rior t o p eat i nitiation , w hile s crub w oodland b oth p receded a nd a ccompanied b lanket p eat f ormation o n F ountains F ell 5 000 y ears a go . T he p eat i n G ordale B eck b egan a round 6 -7000 y ears a go p resumably a s t he w ater t able r ose i n r esponse t o i ncreased l evels o f s oil m oisture . T his m ay h ave o ccurred t hrough c limatic f actors o r M esolithic i nterference w ith w oodland i n t he s ource r egions o f t he G ordale B eck . I n t he n eighbouring C ow G ill a b uried s oil l ayer a t j ust o ver 1 m etre d epth c ontained a p ollen s pectrum r eminiscent o f t he A tlantic p eriod i n t he G ordale r ecord . T his v alley h as c onsiderable d epths o f f lood l oam d eposits a nd o wing t o d evelopment o f w ater s inks a t i ts o pening o nto t he m oor i t r arely n ow s ees a ny s tanding w ater . T hus , j ust a s h ydrological t hresholds h ave d etermined t he t errestrial e volution o f h ydroseres s o t hese t hresholds h ave a lso d etermined t he c ourse o f p aludification a nd p eat f ormation . T he r ole o f m an i n i nitiating p eat d evelopment n ow s eems v ery c lear 1 975) .

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I t i s a lways p ossible t hat p eat-cutting d eceives t he e cologist

y et a t b oth t hese s ites t he s urface i s v ery e ven a nd D r . R aistrick i ndicates t hat t he o nly p eat c utting o f w hich h e i s aware a t L inton M ires i s i n a ssociation w ith a s urface d rain . P erhaps t he m ost c onvincing e vidence h owever , a s w ith t he C ow G ill e xample , i s t he s ubstantial f an o f m ineral d eposits w hich c over p ortions o f t he A tlantic p eats a t L inton , a rising n o

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d oubt f rom a s eries o f f lood e vents w hich l ed t o t he d iversion o f o ne o f t he f eeder s treams . T he f all o f e lm p ollen i s u sually r egarded a s e vidence o f t he i mpact o f N eolithic c ultures c reating c learances o f a n e ssentially t emporary k ind a nd s electively e xploiting e lm e ither f or i ts p roduce o r b ecause i t o ccupied s uitable l and f or f arming . T his i s c onsistently e videnced o n p ollen d iagrams f rom C raven t hough i t i s o nly p oorly r egistered a t W hite M oss i n a n i ll-drained l owland a rea o n a cid m orainic d rift w hile a t E shton , w here t here w as a bundant e lm , t he f eature i s v ery w ell d eveloped . A r adiocarbon d ate o f 5 000 B P i ndicates t hat a t t his t ime b lanket p eat b egan f orming o n F ountains F ell . W hile t he p eat i s h ere • a ssbciated w ith a s harp f all o f b irch a nd h azel, a lder v alues c ontinue a nd e ven i ncrease w ith t he c ontinuation o f p eat a ccumulation . T his m y i ndicate t hat t he r emoval o f w ild w ood b y m an l ed t o p eat f ormation a nd t hat a lder w as t he o nly t ree a ble t o g ain g round u nder t he

w etter c onditions .

I t m ay b e n oted t hat a lder

i ncreases a bove 1 35 c m a t G ordale B eck , i s t he m ost n otable t ree a t M alham T arn a fter t he e lm f all, a nd s imilarly a t H elwith M oss. P robably t he m ost s ignificant s ingle c learance p hase i n t his a rea a s i n N idderdale a nd o ther p arts o f N orthern E ngland w as t he B eaker P eriod o f t he e arly B ronze A ge . A t E shton ( Fig . 2 ) t his p hase o f c learance i s d ated t o 1 650 B .C . ( base o f z one E tE) . T he most c haracteristic f eature o f t his p eriod i s t he r eduction o f o ak w hich T insley ( 1975) n otes a t s ites i n N idderdale . W hereas t he s pread o f g rasses a nd v arious weed s pecies o ccurred f rom e arlier p eriods t he s pread o f h eaths i s n otable f rom t his t ime a lthough t hese w ere a lready w ell e stablished o n t he g ritstone-Capped h ills a nd M alham T arn M oss b y t he o nset o f t he N eolithic . T he e arliest a ctual r ecords o f c ereal p ollen o ccur i n I ron A ge h orizons w ithin t he M alham T arn M oss s equence a nd a t t he t ransition b etween G B Va nd V I a t G ordale B eck . I n v iew o f t he l imited d ispersal o f c ereal p ollen t his o ccurrence m ay i ndicate t hat t he I ron A ge a nd R omano-British p eriod w as o ne i n w hich t he e arly f ields o n t he e dge o f M alham M oor w ere m ost i ntensively u sed . N evertheless a p eriod o f i ntensified a griculture f rom 3 50 B .C . o nwards i s s upported b y an umber o f s tudies i n a djacent a reas , i n D erbyshire ( Hicks , 1 971 ; T allis a nd S witsur , ( Bartley , 1 975 ; T insley , 1 975) .

1 973) , a nd t he m id-Pennines a nd N idderdale

T he r ecords i n t wo s mall s hake h oles, M alham M oor i ndicate p eat T he b ase o f L ow S tony B ank a ppears t o h ave f ormed o n ( Gosden , 1 968) , s ince a bout

L ow S tony B ank a nd H igh M ark o n

f ormation w hich b egan c omparatively r ecently . s ubsidence p eat i s d ated a t 1 690+60 B .P . P eat p arts o f t he l imestone p avement a t S car C lose t his t ime a nd t he i mportance o f h eaths i n t he

m aintenance o f t hese d eposits s hould b e n oted . A fter

t he R oman p eriod

i t

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t here w as a p eriod o f

a bandonment i n w hich t ree r egeneration o ccurred o n aw ide s cale w hich e choes t he n eighbouring r ecords o f N idderdale . T his p eriod i s i llustrated b y z ones E t 2a nd 3 a t af urther s ite s ampled a t E shton ( Jones, 1 977 -not d isplayed h ere) a nd s eems t o h ave b een r eflected b y as pread o f h eaths a bove M alham C ove p rior t o m ore a ctive w orking o f t he l andscape b y N orse a nd A nglian f armers , t he C istercians . m aterial

c hanges

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t he 1 4th c entury a ssociated w ith t he B lack D eath i s l egible o n p ollen d iagrams w hile t he p revious p eriod 150-1350 s tands o ut a s o ne o f i ncreased a rable ( Donkin , 1 969) i n w hich h emp w as c ultivated o n o pen f ield l ynchets n ear E shton T arn . T his s ame c rop w as p robably g rown i n t he v icinity o f W hite M oss i n t he A nglian p eriod where i t i s a ssociated w ith a p eak o f c ereal g rowing. T he a rchaeological e vidence f or e arly a griculture i s e xtensive i n C raven ( Fleming , 1 976 ; K ing , 1 970 , 1 978a , 1 978b ; R aistrick , 1 939 ; R aistrick a nd H olmes , 1 962) , t he m ost c haracteristic f orms b eing t he l ong , s trip-like f ields p redating t he m ain p eriod o f P arliamentary E nclosures . T he o rigins o f

t his

e arlier p attern a re f ar l ess c ertain y et t hese l inear ,

c urved a nd

o ften l ynchetted f ields o ften p rove t o b e c o-terminous w ith e nclosures w hich a re c learly p rehistoric i n a ge . T he e xtent o f t hese f ield s ystems c ertainly m ust r eflect t he a dvantages o f t he s oils o f t his a rea b ut a t t he s ame t ime w e s hould a cknowledge t he p robability t hat q uite l arge a reas c ould h ave b een a ssociated w ith t emporary c orn p lots i n l ess h ospitable t errain which i s n ow p eat-covered . T he i ndividuality o f C raven h as m ade a ttractive t o s ettlement f rom t he v ery e arliest t imes , t he e vidence w hich h as a lready b een p resented . P erhaps C raven i s a lso r emarkable t he c ontinuity o f t hat i mpact t hrough t ime . T he f act t hat s o m uch o f v alleyside a gricultural r emains l ink u p w ith p rehistoric m aterial o n p lateaux s uggests s trongly t hat t here w as a n u pland-lowland l ink f rom

i t f or f or t he t he t he

e arliest t imes o f l and a llotment a nd t hat t he v alleys , c learly t he m ajor a ll-weather a ccess r outes, w ere a lso t he s ites o f m ajor s ettlement f rom t he e arliest p rehistoric p eriods .

S oil P rocesses. 1 .

T HE G ENERAL P ICTURE. I n t he C raven a rea t here a re t wo o utstanding t ypes o f s oil c hange w hich

h ave o ccurred t hroughout t he H olocene , o ne r elating t o t he e mergence o f l imestone p avements a nd t o t he i ncreasingly c alcareous q uality o f c ertain h abitats w hile a nother c oncerns t he p rogressive a cidification o f s oils a nd t he d evelopment o f p eat . T hus o ne m ight r easonably a rgue t hat s ubstantial p edological d ivergence h as o ccurred f rom s urfaces w hich e arly i n t he p ostg lacial p eriod d isplayed a g reater d egree o f c hemical u niformity . W ith t he e xception o f s oils d eveloped i n s itu o n p articular g eological s trata , w hich c omprise o nly a m inor p art o f o ur a rea , i t i s p robably t o v ariations i n d rift t ype a nd t hickness t hat m any o f t hese d ivergences o we t heir o rigin . A d istinction s hould t hus b e m ade b etween g lacial b oulder c lay a nd o utwash c ontaining much s iliceous material f rom s hales a nd s andstones o f t he Y oredale a nd M illstone G rit S eries, a nd t he l oamy l oessic d eposits , o ften d irectly o verlying t he l imestone a nd d emonstrably p ost-glaciation , w hich h ave a h igh l ime c ontent a nd w hich h ave t herefore r esisted d ecalcification t o a g reater e xtent . T he a ctual p attern o f s oils i s , t hen , d ependant o n t he n ature o f s ubstrate , l ocal d rainage a nd t he t hickness o f o ne o r o ther d rift t ype o ver l imestone . T hus a r ange o f s oils i s t o b e f ound i ncluding c lint r endzinas, m esotrophic b rown e arths , o ligotrophic b rown e arths , p eaty g leyed p odzols ,

1 .

p eaty g leys a nd h ill p eat ( Bullock ,

1 971) .

L OCAL S OIL D IVERGENCE A ND U NUSUAL P EAT-FORMING M ECHANISMS . A s

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I ntroduction o f e xotic s pecies s ince 1 500 A D s g .nycamore, c hestnuts, « pro m . T hroughout t his p eriod m an i n t he d ominant e cological f actor . A lder. o ak. n ine a nd b irch

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d eterminant o f s oil t ype .

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t ens o f m etres i n t he f ield , w ith c hanges i n p lant c omposition b ecoming a pparent ( Sinker , 1 960) . H owever , i n a d rift-filled d epression o n H igh M ark , M alham M oor i t h as b een p ossible t o s tudy a p edogenic g radient w ith t he e nd m embers o f t he s equence b ut t hree m etres a part . I n t his p articular s tudy , i llustrated i n F ig . 7 , t he d rift i s o f l oessic o rigin a nd t he g eneral s ite d rainage c omparable i n b oth c ases . W hen i n c lose p roximity t o t he u nderlying l imestone a m esotrophic b rown e arth i s f ormed w hereas w hen r emote f rom u nderlying l imestone i nfluence a s tagnopodzol ( = p eaty g ley p odzol) h as d eveloped w ith a s urface p lant c over o f S phagnum m oss d espite s ubsoil w hich f or p art o f t he y ear a t l east i s r elatively d ry a nd a erobic . C omparison o f t he s ubsoils s uggests t hat w e a re d ealing w ith a h omogeneous d eposit w hich h as b een s ubject t o d ifferential w eathering e ffects i n t he s urface . T he e xistence o f a b asal b lack m or l ayer i n w hich h eath p ollen i s d ominant , s uggests t hat t he p eaty g ley p odzol w as a t o ne t ime a ssociated w ith a f reerd raining s oil w hich h as s ubsequently b ecome g leyed . I t i s t hus c onceivable t hat a s light d rop i n t he s oil l evel a s ar esult b oth o f s olutional r emoval o f l ime i n t he d eposit a nd a t d epth c ould h ave l ed t o d eteriorating s urface d rainage . T his p rofile i s, h owever, s o s imilar t o o ther u pland h eath p rofiles n ot o verlying l imestone a s t o s uggest t hat w eathering o f t he s urface m ineral h orizon ( note h igher c lay c ontent i n s ample 3 t han s ample 1 ) h as l ed t o g leying w hich i n t urn h as l ed t o i ron p an f ormation ( at 3 0 c m d epth ) a nd c oncurrently t o t he i nitiation o f aw etter S phagnum f ormation a t t he s urface ( see T aylor a nd S mith , 1 980) . T his m arked c ontrast o f s oil d evelopment i s o f p articular i nterest n ot s imply f or i ts l ocal s ignificance b ut b ecause o f i ts d emonstration o f d ifferential w eathering o f l oessic m aterials . S tudies h ave p ersistently f ailed t o i dentify l oessic s oils o n M illstone G rit s trata b y c ontrast w ith t he P ennines l imestone a reas . I t i s t herefore s uggested t hat , a side f rom e xplanations f avouring t he e arly e rosion o f t hese m aterials f rom g ritstone a reas ( Pigott, 1 962), d ecalcification , p odzolic-type weathering a nd s ubsequent d evelopment o f p eat w ould r ender t he s oil

l ess

r ecognizably o f

l oessal o rigin . A dditionally i n a reas s ubject t o marked s olifluctive a ction , p articularly i n s hale a reas, t here i s a s trong l ikelihood o f c ontamination o f a eolian d eposits s uch t hat m ineral a ssemblages a re n o l onger d iagnostic o f l oess ( Catt , 1 977) . T wo f urther e xamples o f p eat f ormation p eculiar t o t he C raven d istrict • n ow d eserve m ention . B oth r elate c losely t o t he l imestone b ut i n t otally c ontrasted

w ays .

s hake h oles ; u nderneath .

T he

f irst

c oncerns

p eat

f ormation

i n a ssociation w ith

d epressions i n d rift c over o ccasioned b y s olution o f l imestone T hese f eatures c haracteristically o ccur t owards t he e dge o f

d rift s preads w here t he t hickness a bove l imestone i s g enerally u pwards o f a bout 2 -3 m etres . W hile m ost a re n o m ore t han 3 -4 m etres i n d iameter t he l argest m ay b e 5 0 m etres o r m ore a cross . I n t he b etter d eveloped e xamples a p ot h ole i s c learly d efined i n t he b ase w hile t erraces o f s lipped o rganic s oil a re i n e vidence a round t he m argins . N ot u ncommonly , s eepage w ater a t o ne s ide l eads t o t he f ormation o f a f lush p eat s ystem ( Fig . 8 ) . I n t he e arly s tages o f s ubsidence t he e ntire d epression b ecomes a z one o f l ocal p eat d evelopment a nd p ossibly s tanding w ater ; t his i s f olowed b y a n i mprovement o f s ubsoil d rainage a s t he b asal p ot w idens a nd c lears i tself o f g lacial d ebris . A s s ubsidence o ccurs , t he s oil i s l eft w ith n o a lternative b ut t o s lip d own t he s ides o f a d eepening c one . W hen t his o ccurs, c ontinuation o f p eat f ormation b ecomes r estricted t o t he u phill s ide w here w ater s eepage c ontinues . T he i nterest i n t hese f eatures p artly d erives f rom

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o therwise w ithout s urface p eat c over .

O n t he o ther h and t hey m ay e qually

o ccur i n a reas o f t hick b lanket p eat d evelopment a s o ne t he l ower s lopes o f F ountains F ell . T he s econd e xample i s o f p eat d evelopment o n l imestone p avement a t I ngleborough ( see G osden , 1 968) . A t S car C lose , t hin p eat d eposits o ccur d irectly o n l imestone a nd t his h as l ed t o m uch d ebate a s t o t heir m ode o f o rigin s I n v iew o f t he a pparent c ontradiction b etween l imestone a nd p eat f ormation i t h as b een a rgued t hat p eat b egan f orming o ver a d rift c over w hich h as s ubsequently b een l ost ( Jones , 1 965 ; M oisley , 1 954) o r t he p eat f ormation h as e xtended l aterally away f rom e stablished w etlands o n n eighbouring a reas o f d rift c over . B ut t he a bsence o f d rift c over o ver l arge a reas o f S car C lose t ogether w ith t he f act t hat p arts o f t he p avement c onsist o f m assive g rykes w ith e xtensive a reas o f u nfissured l imestone b etween , w arns a gainst t he a cceptability o f a n h ypothesis r equiring t he g radual l owering o f p eat o nto t he l imestone a s ar esult o f d rift w astage a t t he b ase . W hat a lternative e xplanation m ight t hen b e o ffered? I t i s s elf-evident f rom t he p linths b elow e rratic b locks o n t he p avements t hat s olution h as l ong b een a ctive u nder t he c ool , m oist c limate r egime o f t his l ocality . I t i s a lso a m atter o f c ommon o bservation t hat a v ariety

o f

l ichens

a nd m osses

c olonize

t he b are

s urface a nd

w ere a m ore

e xtensive a nd d enser t ree c over t o h ave c haracterised t hese a reas i n e arlier m illennia ( rooted i n t he g rykes a s a t C olt P ark ) i t i s p ossible t o v isualise t hat a n o rganic l ayer c ould h ave b uilt u p a bove t he c rystalline a nd v irtually i mpermeable l imestone s urface ( see W ebb , 1 947 a nd I vimey-Cook , 1 965) . T he c rucial i ssues t hen r evolve a round t he p erching o f w ater o n t he l imestone -pools c ommonly o ccur o n i t a t p resent , t he t olerance o f c ertain l ower p lants t o ah igh l ime, h igh p H e nvironment a nd t he p revention o f d esiccation a nd r emoval o f f ledgling o rganic d eposits b y w ind a nd w ater . O nce a t hin o rganic b ase h as b een e stablished o ne m ight a nticipate a s uccession o f more a cidophile s pecies t o c olonize a nd a ny m ineral d ust p articles a vailable c ould b e t rapped , h elping t o d evelop a m ainly o rganic s oil c over i n c ourse o f t ime . P atches o f p eat p resently c overing p arts o f t he l imestone s urface a t S car C lose a re c olonized b y h eath p lants a nd e ven b racken . T he r hizomes o f t he l atter t raverse t he p eaty s oil a nd t he p resence o f e arthworms i n t he l ower l ayers i s f urther c onfirmation t hat t his p articular p eat i s u nfit f or p alaeoecological c onsumption . I t i s v ery d oubtful w hether t oday w e h ave h ere t he c onditions l ikely t o g enerate p eat d evelopment a s d istinct f rom m aintaining i t w here i t a lready e xists . I ndeed t he v ery w idth a nd d epth o f m any o f t he g rykes s eems t o s uggest t hat t he m ost t hat c an b e e xpected o n s uch a s urface i s t he g radual e xpansion o f e arthy p eat o utwards f rom f avourable l oci . A lthough f ormerly p eat m ay h ave d eveloped o n a cidified s oil m arginal t o t he p avements a nd a bove t he p resent l ocation o f d eep g rykes , i t w ould s eem t hat u nder a l ight w oodland c over p eat m ight a lso b egin t o d evelop o n t he l imestone i tself .

3 .

S OILS A ND L IMESTONE P AVEMENT E MERGENCE . I t

i s e vident f rom t he m orphology o f p avement s urfaces t hat t he d etail

o f w eathering r elates t o l ithology a nd i n p articular t o t hickness o f b edding a nd d egree o f r ecrystallisation o f t he l imestone ( Trudgill , 1 976 ; 1 981; M oisley 1 954) . T hus i ndividual l imestone s urfaces

C layton , r espond

d ifferently t o t he f orces o f s un , w ind, f rost a nd s ubaerial s olution . H aving s aid t his , i t i s a lso e vident t hat d ifferent l imestone e xposures h ave e merged

f rom a c over o f

s oil

a t

v ery d ifferent

1 8

t imes

a nd

t he

p rocess

i s

S tages i n t he F ormation o f aF lush P eat S ystem

s

C O

1 9

s till c ontinuing . i n t he

T his p erhaps m ore t han a ny o ther f actor i s o f i mportance

i nterpretation o f

s urface p avement

f orm

( Clayton ,

1 981) .

D espite

t he g eneral p rinciples o f l imestone s olution a nd p avement f ormation b eing f airly w ell u nderstood ( e .g . J ones , 1 965 ; T rudgill , 1 976 ; S weeting , 1 966) t here y et r emain f ield s ituations w hich d efy e xplanation a nd i n s uch c ases t he p resent f orm o f t he l imestone s urfaces , b oth e xposed a nd e xcavated , m ust o we m uch t o t heir s tate w hen l ast b uried b y s uperficial d eposits . I t i s a lso e ssential t o r ealise t hat t he s olutional s tatus o f b uried l imestone d epends o n t he n ature o f t he material i mmediately o verlying i t . T he p rocesses o perating i n a reas o f e merging l imestone p avement m ay b e l isted a s f ollows: 1 .

S olution o f l ime f rom o verlying d eposits.

2 .

W idening o f j oint-determined f issures a nd a ction i n s ubterranean p assage s ystems .

3 .

M echanical r emoval o f s oil/drift a long s ubterranean c hannels.

s olvent

T he r esult o f a ll t hree r elated p rocesses i s t o l ead t o s ubsidence o f t he s oil c over , ap rocess w hich , o ne i magines , w ould a ccelerate i n i ts l ater s tages a s ar esult o f t he w idening o f u nderground f issures a nd t he i ncreased p articipation o f b iological c arbon d ioxide a s o rganic s oil c ontact w ith l imestone i s i ncreased . S uch a p rocess w ould o ccur w ith o r w ithout h uman i ntervention b ut t he o ccurrence o f r emains o f a ncient f ield b oundaries o verlying c lint s urfaces i n an umber o f l ocalities g ives c ause f or w ondering w hether m an m ay o ccasionally h ave a ccelerated t he p rocess . O ne m ay p onder t he c urious

s pectacle o f a ncient f ield b anks

o n B road

S cars a bove M alham

C ove a nd o f t hese , t ogether w ith t he s tone f ootings o f a D ark A ge f armstead ( King, 1 978) a t G auber H igh P asture, R ibblehead . S uch r emains must i ndicate t hat s oil c over w as o nce a dequate f or f arming p urposes . W hile h inting a t man 's r ole i n s oil d egradation t hey d o n ot p rove t hat m an 's a ctivities c aused t he l oss o f s oil a nd , w here d atable r emains a re t o b e f ound , t hey m erely i ndicate t he p robable t ime s cale o f p avement e mergence a nd

s erve

a s

e vidence

o f

t he

g eomorphological

r ecency

o f

m uch

l imestone

p avement. W hile t he e xistence o f a ncient f ields s trongly s uggests a rable f arming a t h igh l evels i t i s w orth r eflecting t hat s tone a nd e arth b anks a nd a ny w ooden o r h edge s uperstructure t hey m ay a t o ne t ime h ave p ossessed , m ight e qually h ave b een u sed i n a nimal h usbandry a s p addocks o r s pecifically i n s ome c ases f or p rotection o f y ounger a nimals f rom a ttack b y p redators . N evertheless, t here a re r easons f or a rguing a c ase f or a rable f arming . G iven s hallow l oams o ver l imestone , c ereals a nd o ther a rable c rops m ight b e e xpected t o b e l ess d emanding o f s oil moisture t han i ntensively g razed s ward . B ut a lthough t he f ields a bove M alham C ove a re i n ac ool a nd f airly h umid e nvironment t he s ubsoil d rainage a nd w ind s peeds c ombine t o e xacerbate a ny d rought c ondition .

T he e xistence o f s tone i n p iles a nd a rranged a long

f ield e dges c ould a lso i ndicate t he r emoval o f s tone f rom f ields i n t he c ourse o f c ultivation a nd i n t his r espect t he p resumed u se o f a s imple a rd i n p rehistoric t imes w ould h ave b een f acilitated b y t he f riable s oils a nd w ould n ot h ave e ncountered d ifficulties a rising f rom t hin s oil c over . S ince t hese s hallow s oils a re o f l oessic o rigin , e xposure o f t he s oil i n d ry , w indy s pells w ould h ave r endered i t v ulnerable t o d eflation . E xcessive r ain s torms m ight a lso h ave c aused h avoc b y f orming g ullies i nto t he l and ,

2 0

•

S

•

2 1

•

e

•

•

.

.

E ffects o f S oil F ormation o n S tone F ield B anks

L imes tone

e ven d own t o t he l evel o f s ubsoil g rykes .

H owever , w e s hould n ot v isualise

f or p rehistoric p eriods t he w eed-free s oil s urfaces c ommonly a ssociated w ith m odern a griculture ( see , f or e xample , R eynolds , 1 980) . I t i s t o b e d oubted w hether t he u se o f t he a rd d id m ore t han l oosen t he s oil a nd p rovide a s lit i n w hich t o p lant t he s eeds , i n w hich c ase t here w ould h ave b een a g reater m easure o f p rotection f or t he s urface t han w ould a pply t oday . I t i s a lso p ossible t hat l ater e xploitation o f t hese m arginal a gricultural l ands i n t he R oman p eriod c ould h ave d one m uch t o d egrade t hem . I t i s, h owever , b eginning t o l ook a s i f p arts o f t he D ales m ay h ave r everted t o a w ild v egetation s ubsequent t o e arly a gricultural u se . P er iodic s uccessions t owards h eath v egetation m ay t hus h ave o ccurred , t he l imestone g rass t ussocks b ecoming i nvaded b y h eaths a s t he v egetation b ecame r ank a nd a s t he s urface s oil a cidified . E vidence f or t he l ate e xpansion o f h eaths i s s een i n t he p ollen d iagrams w hile t he a ppellation M alham L ings f or m ost o f t he a rea t o t he n orth w est o f M alham C ove m ay w ell i ndicate t hat t he 9 th c entury N orse s ettlers ( whose f armsteads h ave b een r ecognised -see R aistrick a nd H olmes, 1 962) g ave t he n ame i n r ecognition o f ac ommonly o ccurring p lant a nd o ne w ith w hich t hey w ere f amiliar . L ing i s n ot t o b e s een a t t he p resent t ime i n t his a rea y et i ts p ollen h as b een r ecovered i n s ignificant q uantities f rom d eep l ayers o f g ryke s oils b y t he w riter . C ircumstantial e vidence t his m ay b e , y et n ew s ettlers w ould t end t o c olonize m arginal o r a bandoned l ands r ather t han o ccupy a reas a lready s ettled . T he e stablishment o f a n a cid v egetation s uggests a s ituation a nalogous t o t hat o f c halk h eath ( Grubb e t a l" 1 969 ; P errin , 1 956 ; P igott, 1 962; T homas , 1 957) a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat i t w ould h ave i ncreased t he r ate o f l imestone s olution b y p ercolating w ater . I t w ould a lso h ave b een m ore s oil v ulnerable t o f ire a nd i n t his e vent i t m ay h ave r epresented a greater e rosion h azard t han was e ver t he c ase u nder a rable o r g rassland . T he r eturn t o m ore i ntensive u se o f t he f ell i n t he m edieval p eriod , c ulminating i n t he e xtensive s heep e states o f F ountains A bbey a nd B olton P riory , e ffectively s uppressed l ing . A s s oils t hinned n aturally , t he i nfluence o f t he u nderlying l imestone c an o nly h ave b ecome t he g reater s o t hat t he s oils w ould h ave i ncreased i n l ime c ontent a s t heir d emise a pproached .

4 .

S OILS A ND A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY . A rchaeologists

w ill

b e

f amilar w ith

t he p roblems

o f

s tratification a ssociated w ith p articular s oils ( Atkinson ,

p reservation a nd 1 954 ;

C ornwall ,

1 958 ; L imbrey , 1 975; S hackley , 1 982) b ut o ne o f t he c urrent p roblems o f f ield a rchaeology , i ndeed o f t he a rchaeology o f f ield s ystems , i s t hat o f e stablishing t heir f uller e xtent f rom t he f ragments w hich s urvive . I n a cid a reas t here i s n o d oubt t hat e arly l andscapes a nd t heir a ssociated f ield b anks a nd l and d ivisions h ave b een b uried b y l ater p eat d evelopment ,

a s o n

D artmoor a nd t he N orth Y orkshire M oors ( Fleming , 1 978 ; S pratt a nd S immons , 1 976) . I n l imestone a reas b y c ontrast, t he s ame l and s urface h as b een c ontinually r eworked w hich w arns u s t hat t he p resent p icture i s a c omposite i nvolving

s elective s urvival a nd r euse o f e arlier s tructures .

L imestone-

a ssociated s oils d o h owever p ose v ery s pecific p roblems a nd w hile s ome o f t hese m ay a ct a gainst t he i nterest o f l andscape h istorians t here i s o ne p rocess o bserved b y t he w riter w hich m ay y et l ead t o a n e xtension o f u seful f ield s urvey . T he f orm o f e arly f ield b anks a nd s tone a lignments c an v ary i n a p redictable m anner a ccording t o t he d epth o f s oil o n w hich t he o riginal

2 2

c o

0 0

)

•e z c t i

c z t C i Z • c d 0 = 1 •

2 3

0 4 — ) c f ) ( 1 ) 4

s tone w as p laced .

O wing t o m ovement b y e arthworms a nd m oles , s tones w ill

t end t o s ink i n c ourse o f t ime ( see f or e xample S mith , 1 975 , p . 3 1) l eading t o t heir d isappearance i n s ome o f t he b asins b etween e levated l imestone o utcrops . B y c ontrast , i n a reas o f s hallow s oil , t he s tone i tself m ay n ow b e v isible a t t he s urface . T his p rocess p robably o ccurs a s f ollows : 1 .

T he s tone a nd e arth b ank i s c reated.

2 .

T he

s tone

d escends

t hrough

t he

s oil

u ntil

r eaching

b edrock o r t he b ase o f t he b iologically a ctive z one. 3 .

O n e levated a reas w ith s hallow s oils t he g radual l oss o f s urrounding s oil l eads t o s tone e mergence w hile i n t he h ollows, d espite s olutional p rocesses, s oil c ontinues t o a ccumulate b y c reep a nd w ash f rom h igher a reas.

T est b orings b y t he w riter a t s elected p oints h as h elped t o e stablish t hat t his p rocess h as o perated a nd t hat t herefore v ery m uch m ore o f t he e arly f ield s ystems s urvive t han i s p erceived f rom s urface s urvey ( 51g . 9 ) . I t h as b een t he w riter 's e xperience t hat f ield s ystems i dentified f rom t he a ir a nd s tudied f rom a ir p hotographs m ay p rove d espairingly d ifficult t o p ick u p w hen f ield w alking . I t i s t hus c lear t hat s hallow b urial o f s tone s tructures w ill a ffect t he g rowth o f g rass t o c reate a c rop m ark i n c ases where t here i s n o s urface e xpression r emaining o f t he o riginal l inear f eature .

A dditionally ,

w here

s tone b anks h ave o verlain b edded l imestone

p avement a nd p rotected t he l atter f rom s olutional a ttack one might a nticipate t hat , e ven w here i n l ater c enturies s tone h as b een r emoved , a ir p hotographic r ecords would t end t o p ick o ut a s lightly r aised p ortion l inking i ntact p ieces o f b ank . S uch a ppears t o b e t he c ase o n B road S cars , M alham M oor , w here g aps b etween a djacent b oundary s tones a re w ide a nd y et t he a ir p hotographic e ffect i s o f m ore c ontinuous l ines ( see F ig . 1 0 f or d iagrammatic i nterpretation ) . I n t his r espect w hat m ay b e o ccurring i s a l inear manifestation ( imperceptible t o t he w alker ) o f t he b etter-known p linths b eneath e rratic b locks o n t he l imestone p avement .

S ummary a nd C onclusions. T he v egetation h istory o f C raven a ppears l ittle d ifferent f rom t hat o f m any o ther a reas i n B ritain b ut t he h igher l evels o f p ine a nd e lm a nd t he e vidence o f s ubstantial M esolithic c learance o f t he l andscape a re t wo d istinguishing f eatures . I t s eems l ikely t hat m an 's a ctivities h ave l ed b oth t o i nitiation a nd t o c essation o f p eat a ccumulation a t d ifferent s ites a nd t imes a nd t hat t hese s ame a ctivities h ave a ccelerated t he n atural p rocesses o f s oil a cidification a nd t he e mergence o f l imestone f rom d rift c over . T hus i t i s p roposed t hat o riginally t he s oil c over w as m uch m ore u niform a nd t hat i n t he c ourse o f t ime while c ertain a reas b egan t o b e a ssociated w ith w et p eaty t errain o thers b ecame d ry a nd r ocky . I t i s a lso a v irtual c ertainty t hat t he e ffects o f t hese p rocesses h ave e scalated i n t ime. F rom

t he a rchaeological

p oint

o f v iew

t he g reater p art

o f

t he C raven

s urface h as a h igh c apacity f or d estruction o f e vidence . T his , t ogether w ith a bundant e vidence o f c ontinuity o f u se a nd a l ack o f w idespread p eat c over, makes t he a rea much l ess e asy t o e valuate i n t erms o f e arly s ettlement t han , f or e xample , p arts o f t he N orth Y ork M oors . I t a lso s eems

2 4

l ikely t hat t he e vidence o f s ettlement o n t his m oor ,

s uch a s i t i s,

r efers

t o s easonal r ather t han p ermanent a bodes , t he l ikelihood b eing t hat m ajor s ettlements, t hen a s n ow , w ere i n t he m ajor v alleys w here t he m ore r eliable s upplies o f w ater w ould h ave b een f ound .

2 5

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AR EAPPRAISAL O F T HE L ATER U PPER P ALAEOLITHIC O CCUPATION O F D EAD M AN 'S C AVE, N ORTH A NSTON R ogan D .S. J enkinson a nd G .F . W ynne-Griffiths

I ntroduction S ince t heir d iscovery b y W hite i n 1 969 t he n ature o f t he a rchaeological d eposits

i n

D ead

M an 's

C ave,

N orth

A nston

h ave

r emained

a mbiguous .

E xcavations p rovided g ood e vidence o f L ater U pper P alaeolithic ' Creswellian ' h uman u se o f t he c ave ' a ssociated ' w ith f aunal r emains , p ollen e vidence a nd as eries o f r adiocarbon d ates . M uch o f t he s ubsequent c omment u pon t he c ave h as p olarised a round l ack o f a greement b etween t he t ypological n ature o f t he s tone t ools , i n t hat t hey t ypify t ools r ecovered f rom C reswellian h orizons a t o ther s ites , t he p ollen e vidence w hich i ndicates a L ate G lacial h istory a nd t he r adiocarbon d ates w hich a re c onsiderably y ounger t han t hose n ormal f or C reswellian o ccupation s ites e lsewhere ( Table 1 ) . C onsiderable d iscussion h as t aken p lace w ith a v iew t o r econciling t he w orst o f t he a pparent d iscrepancies . M ellars ( 1969 , 1 974) h as s uggested t hat t he a ssociation b etween t he s tone t ools a nd r adiocarbon d ates m ay b e e vidence f or a v ery l ate s urvival o f t he L ater U pper P alaeolithic t radition . C ampbell ( 1980 , 1 04) h as s uggested t hat t he r adiocarbon d ates a re a t f ault a nd t hat t hey a re ' too y oung ' i n t hat t hey c annot b e r econciled w ith t he f loristic e vidence . T he p roblems w ere f ully d iscussed b y J acobi ( 1980) w ho a fter d iscussion w ith t he a uthor c ast d oubt s tone t ool a ssemblage a nd r adiocarbon d ates.

u pon

t he

a ssociation o f

t he

F or t he p urpose o f t he c urrent work, a r e-analysis o f t he a rchaeological m aterial f rom A nston C ave h as b een u ndertaken a nd i ncludes a c omplete a nalysis o f p reviously p reliminary r eported f auna . T he a im o f t he c urrent work i s t o e xamine t he v alidity o f t he v iews t hat t he h uman O ccupation c ould h ave b een p ost-glacial. T he a rchaeological e vidence f rom A nston S tone C ave i s s ignificant a mong n orthern B ritish

L ater U pper

P alaeolithic

s ites .

T his

w ork d emonstrates

t hat P alaeolithic u se o f t he s ite o ccurred i n t he L ate D evensian .

T he s ite

c an a lso b e s een t o b e o f a n u nusual t ransitory t ype r arely e videnced b efore a nd s eemingly p art o f t he o ccupational c omplex k nown f rom t he a rea a round t he C reswell C rags C aves d uring t he L ate D evensian .

D ead M an 's C ave -Excavation H istory A nston S tone G orge i s l ocated i n t he L ower P ermian l imestone o f S outh Y orkshire , c ommencing n ear t he v illage o f N orth A nston a nd r unning r oughly s outh-west e nding i n L indrick D ale . T he f loor o f t he g orge i s o ccupied b y A nston B rook a nd t he B rantcliffe t o D innington r ailway . T he c rags a re h igh ( 106 m ) a nd a re e xtensively f issured .

2 9

O nly o ne t rue

c ave h as b een f ound ( although s everal b uried c aves a re p robably p resent) , t he D ean M an 's C ave s ituated 2 .5m b elow o ne o f t he g orge f aces a t S K 5 28 / 835. P rior t o e xcavation t he c ave w as c omposed o f a n e ntrance f issure 3 .34 m i n l ength , 2 .5 m w ide a t t he e ntrance a nd 1 . 5 m i n h eight (f ig . 1 ) . F rom t he e ntrance t he f issure n arrowed s harply t o 0 .75 m i n w idth t hen o pened o ut , a t r ight a ngles , i nto a r ectangular c hamber 4 .5 m l ong a nd 3 m w ide . A long t he c entre o f t he c hamber l arge b locks o f l imestone h ad f allen f rom t he r oof a nd a t t he r ear o f t he c ave t he r oof h ad g iven w ay c ompletely , s howing u pon t he s urface a s ah umus f illed d epression a pproximately 0 .60 m i n d epth . E vidence o f t he c ave f ormation e xisted i n t he f orm o f p hraetic f eatures i n t he c ave r ear .

P hraetic s olution i s a long a N E-SW a xis a nd a t 8 8 m a bove

s ea l evel . P hraetic f eatures a re l ess c ommon t oward e ntrance a rea w here e rosion b y e xternal f actors h as h ad g reater e ffect , i t i s l ikely t hat t he c ave i s p art o f P leistocene p hraetic d rainage s ystem k nown f rom t he r egional o ccurrence o f m agnesian l imestone ( Jenkinson , i n p reparation ) . T he a rchaeological p otential o f t he c ave w as d iscovered b y W hite ( 1972) who u ndertook e xcavations i n t he e ntrance a rea ( see F ig . 1 , s ection 1 ) r emoving t he d eposits i n 7c ms s pits o r l ess w here t here w ere c hanges i n t he c olour o r c onsistency o f t he d eposits . F ollowing W hite 's w ork a t t he s ite f urther u nrecorded e xcavations w ere u ndertaken i n t he c entral a rea o f t he c ave a nd i n t he t alus ( Fig . 1 , s ections 8 , 7 , 4 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 1 0; 1 1, 1 2, 1 3, 1 4 , 1 5) . E xcavations w ere a lso u nder-taken b y M ellars ( 1969) i n t he r ear a rea a djacent t o t he l arge b locks f allen f rom t he c ave r oof ( Fig .

1 , s ection

1 5).

S tratigraphy I NTRODUCTION D etailed s tratigraphic i nformation e xists o nly f rom s ection 1 ( White , 1 972 ; C ampbell , 1 979) , i n w hich e ight d iscreet s tratigraphic u nits w ere r ecorded ( see T able 2 ) . T he t otal d epth o f s ediment i n t his a rea w as 0 .78 m .

U NIT 1 -RED C LAY R esting u pon t he b edrock s urface a nd r unning a long t he g radient i nto t he r ear o f t he c ave a u niform 2 e ms t hick l ayer o f s tiff r eddish-brown c lay o ccurred . T he c lay w as a rchaeologically s terile . T he c haracter o f t he c lay s uggests i t t o b e d erived f rom t he P ermo-Triassic b unter b eds w hich o ccur i n t he v icinity o f t he c ave . I t i s l ikely t hat t he c lay w as d eposited b y s urface d rainage o n t he n orthern A nston S tone o utcrop r unning i nto t he r ear o f t he c ave . U NIT I I -BROWN S ILTY S AND A

u niform

l evel ,

0 .007

m i n t hickness ,

r ested r easonably r egularly u pon U nit I .

o f p redominately s ilty-sand

T oward t he e ntrance a rea l enses o f

c lay w ere i nterspersed w ith t he s ilty s and . S ub-angular s mall l imestone b locks w ere d istributed t hrough t he u nit . A s w ith t he p revious u nit t he a ccumulation w as a long t he g radient i nto t he r ear o f t he c ave .

3 0

F ig .

1

D ead M an 's C ave :

P lan o f C ave p rior t o E xcavation a nd s howing t he

e xcavated s ections

3 1

U NIT I II -BRECCIATED S AND U nit I II c omprised a v ery h ard b rown c oloured c ontaining n umerous s ub-angular l imestone b locks . T he

b recciated s and, t hickness v aried

b etween 0 .02-0 .03 m . D eposition , a s w ith p revious u nits w as a long t he g radient i nto t he r ear o f t he c ave a nd i ndicates e rosion o f d eposits f rom t he o utside o f t he c ave b eing w ashed i nto a nd d eposited a long t he c ave f loor . U NIT I V -BRECCIATED S AND A ND T RAVERTINE I V ( a)

A h eavily b recciated d ark b rown s and o f 0 .07 i n t hickness w hich v aries

i n c onsistency o ver

t he a rea

e xcavated

a nd

c ontaining

0 .02 m l enses o f l ess b recciated s and . T he w hole u nit c ontained v ery a ngular f ragments o f l imestone p articularly c oncentrated t oward t he b ase. I V ( b)

A l ess h eavily b recciated s and o f 0 .07 i n t hickness a nd c ontaining l enses o f u nbrecciated s and o f 0 .01 i n t hickness . A s w ith U nit I V(a) n umerous a ngular l imestone f ragments w ere p resent.

I V ( c)

T ravertine f ormation a pproximately 0 .06 i n t hick c overs t he p revious u nits o ver t he w hole a rea e xcavated i n s ection I . I t i s f ragmented i n o ne a rea b y a 0 .61 i n l ong b lock o f l imestone ( see F ig . 1 )

A s w ith p revious u nits t he s ource o f t he s ediment w as p robably f rom t he e ntrance a nd o utside a reas o f t he c ave, t here b eing f airly u niform d eposition a long t he g radient i nto t he c ave r ear . L ess b recciated s andy a reas w ere p robably t he r esult o f l ocalised w ater f low f rom t he c ave r oof a nd f rom t he d isturbance a ssociated w ith r ockfall .

U NIT V -BRECCIATED S ANDY S ILT U nit V c onsists o f a d iverse s equence o f d eposits o f g reat v ariation s patially . D eposition c ontinued a long t he g radient t o t he r ear o f t he c ave b ut i s i nterrupted b y t he r ockfall ( Fig . 1 ) . T he o verall t hickness a verages 0 .12 m a nd c ontains i nterspersed l enses o f s and s ilt 0 .01 m i n t hickness a nd b recciated s and a nd t ravertine 0 .05 i n t hickness . D eposition o f U nit V m ust i ndicate a c onsiderable c hange i n v adose c ondition i ncreased e rosion o f b oth c ave w alls a nd r oof .

i nside

t he

c ave

w ith

U NIT V I -LIMESTONE R UBBLE U nit V I i s c omposed o f a ngular l imestone f ragments a nd l imestone s and a veraging a pproximately 0 .01 i n t hick o ver m ost o f t he a rea o f s ection I w ith l ocalised t hickening p articularly t oward t he e ntrance o f t he c ave . T he t hree l arge l imestone b locks f allen f rom t he c ave r oof h ave p enetrated t he p receding u nits a s d eep a s U nit I V (b ) .

3 2

U NIT V II -BROWN B RECCIATED S AND U nit

V II ( a) B rown b recciated

s and

c onsists

o f a l ightly b recciated

b rown s and 0 .07 m t hick a t t he c ave e ntrance a nd t apering t o 0 .03 i n t oward t he c ave r ear , a t t he b ase f ive l enses o f s andy c lay a veraging 0 .01 i n i n t hickness o ccurred o ver t he a rea e xcavated . U nit V II ( b)

T ravertine .

A 0 .01

t hick l ayer o f t ravertine c overing

t he p receding u nits a nd p rotruding r ocks f or t he w hole o f t he e xcavated a rea.

U NIT V III -BROWN S ILTY S AND T he p receding u nits w ere e ntirely b uried b y a 0 .15 i n t hick d eposit o f s ilty s and . T he d eposit w as l oosely p acked a nd e vidently m uch d isturbed a s h umus a nd modern f ire d ebris were f ound t hroughout most o f i ts e xtent . L ocalised b ut e xtensive d isturbance w as a lso c aused b y s heep b urials .

G eneral A lthough s ection I c ontains t he o nly s tratigraphic i nformation i t i s l ikely n o m ajor c hange o ccurs e lsewhere i n t he c ave w ith t he e xception o f s light i ncrease i n t hickness p articularly i n s ections 1 3-16 .

o f

a ll

t he u nits

t oward

t he

c ave

r ear

L arge s cale m odern d isturbances a re p resent i n s everal a reas o f t he c ave d ue t o t he b urial o f d ead s heep ( surface a reas o f v irtually a ll s ections e xcavated) a nd d ue t o t he b urrowing a ctivities o f R ed R ox ( Vulpes v ulpes), b adger ( Meles meles), b rown h are ( Lepus e uropaeus) a nd r abbit ( Oryctolagus c unniculus) .

F actors c ontrolling d eposition i n t he c ave,

t hroughout m ost o f i ts h istory , a re p rincipally t he g radient o f t he f loor i nto t he c ave r ear a long w hich i n-washed d eposit h as a ccumulated a nd h as b een s ubsequently a ffected b y v arying d egrees o f v adose a ctivity a nd t ravertine f ormation .

D ating L ate D evensian P recise d ating o f t he h uman o ccupation o f D ead M an 's C ave i s s ubject t o a n umber o f p roblems . I t i s g enerally a rgued t hat t he a rtefact t ypology , p ollen a nalysis a nd r adiocarbon d ates a re n ot c onsistent w ith e ach o ther a nd v arious e xplanations o f t he a pparent i nconsistencies h ave b een p ut f orward ( see M ellars , 1 969 , 1 974 ; C ampbell , 1 977 ; J acobi , 1 980) . T he v iew

p ut

f orward

i n

t his

e ssay

i s

t hat

t here

i s

n o

s trong

a ssociation b etween t he p ollen a nalysis a nd a rtefact t ypology a nd t he r adiocarbon d ates . T o e stablish t he p recise s tratigraphic c ontext a nd r elationship o f t he C reswellian a rtefacts a nd t he a ntler f ragments u sed i n r adiocarbon d ating, t he s tratigraphic d etails a re o f r elevance. P ollen a nalysis ( Campbell , 1 969 , F ig . 7 5) s uggests L ate D evensian d ate . J acobi ( 1980) h as a rgued t hat a s uggested p ollen z one I II d ate w ould a gree

3 3

w ith t he t ypological a rguments . T he m ore l ikely v iew a nd t he o ne s uggested i n t his p aper i s o f a p ollen z one I I d ate f or t he C reswellian i ndustry i n s ection I .

R adiocarbon D ates T he t hree r adiocarbon d ates a vailable f or D ead M an 's C ave -were d etermined u pon c ervid a ntlers f rom t wo d istinct a reas o f t he c ave. 1 .

S ECTION 1

A r adiocarbon d ate o f 9 7504110 y rs B .P . ( BM 4 40 ( b )) w as o btained f rom aR angifer t arandus a ntler f ragment ( identified b y D r . K . J osey) . T he l atter was h eld t o b e n ot i n d irect a ssociation w ith t he C reswellian i ndustry b ut f rom t he s ame l evel ( Mellars , 1 969 ; W hite , 1 972) . R ecent w ork h owever c an d emonstrate t hat t he b one i s d erived f rom U nit I V (c) ( White , 1 969 , l ayer 7 ) . T his u nit h as b een d isplaced l ocally b y r ockfall ( Unit V I) a nd i n p arts o f s ection 1 t he d isplacement p enetrates t o t he d epth o f U nit I V(a), ( i .e . w ithin 7 c ms o f U nit I II a nd i ts a ssociated C reswellian i ndustry ) . T he r adiocarbon d ated b one m ay n ot b e t herefore i n a ssociation w ith D evensian h uman o ccupation . T he d ate a grees w ell w ith a nother r ecently o btained u pon r eindeer a ntler f rom C ough 's N ew C ave ( 7970 b .c . + 1 30) a nd i ndicates w ith A nston C ave a l ate s urvival o f r eindeer , t he C reswellian o ccupation t herefore p robably p redates t he r adiocarbon d ated l evel ( Unit I V (c)) a nd c an a rguably b e w ithin t he e xpected a ge r ange d etermined u pon o ther s ites i n t he a rea ( see T able 1 ) .

2 .

S ECTION 1 5 R adiocarbon d eterminations

o f

9 850+115

B .P .

( BM 4 39) a nd 9 940+115 B .P .

( BM 4 40 ( a)) w ere o btained f rom r eindeer a ntler ( identified b y D r . K . J osey ) f rom t he r ear o f t he c ave . T his a rea o f t he c ave h ad b een d istrubed b y a t l east o ne s heep b urial a nd r abbit/brown h are b urrowing a ctivity . A r ecent r eanalysis o f t he f aunal d istrubtion w ithin t he c ave c learly i ndicates t hat i n t he r ear o f s ection 1 5 t he s heep b urial p enetrated t he f ull d epth o f d eposit . A s herd o f R omano-British D erbyshire W are i s a lso r ecorded f rom t he b ase o f s ection 1 5 . T he o riginal s tratigraphic p osition o f t he a ntler f ragments i s s ubject t o s ome c onfusion ( as i n t he c ontext o f t he C reswellian a rtefacts f rom t his a rea) . T he a ctivities o f s heep b urial i n t he f airly r ecent p ast h ave t herefore d isturbed a nd m ixed U nit I V (c ) w hich o n t he b asis o f t he s ection 1 e vidence a re t he l ikely s ource o f t he a ntler f ragments , a nd U nit I II , t he l ikely s ource o f t he a rtefacts . T he l atter s uggestion a ppears l ikely i n v iew o f t he c lose a greement b etween t he r adiocarbon d ates a nd t he n ature o f t he s tratigraphic c ontext o f a ntler f rom s ection 1 .

F landrian P ost-glacial h uman a ctivity w ithin t he c ave a s e videnced b y s ection 1 c an b e a ssigned t o t he I ron A ge ( Unit V I) a nd m ixed I ron A ge/Romano-British ( Unit V III) t he m ost r ecent m aterial b eing 4 th c entury A D ( Huntcliffe W are ) . T he h uman d isturbance t hrough s heep b urying a ppears t o b e i n t he v ery r ecent p ast, much o f t he b one m aterial f rom t hese a reas s till c ontains t races o f a nimal f at.

3 4

2 3 4

5

8

7

6

9 I0

F ig.

2

F lint A ssemblage:

D ead M an's C ave, S ection 1 ( 1:1) 3 5

H uman O ccupation A t otal o f t wenty-two s tone t ools w ere r ecognized d uring e xcavations w ithin t he c ave . S trong t ypological a rgument e xists f or a ssigning m any o f t he t ools t o t he L ater U pper P alaeolithic/Creswellian p eriod o f t he l ate D evensian . C onsiderable p roblems e xist i n d emonstrating t he s tratigraphic e vidence t o s upport t his v iew . A s i n t he c ave w ith f aunal m aterial f rom t he s ite t he m ost r eliable e vidence w as o btained f rom s ection 1 e xcavated b y W hite ( 1972).

S TONE T OOLS S ection 1 N ine s tone t ools w ere d iscovered w ithin f our o f t he s tratigraphic u nits: U nit I I

-

t he t otal s tone t ool a ssemblage c omprises a s mall b lade b urin ( Fig . 2 , 7 ), a n u nretouched b lade ( Fig . 2 , 6 ) a nd a s ingle w aste f lake ( Fig . 2 , 9 ) .

U nit I II

-

t he t otal s tone a ssemblage c omprises a C reswell p oint ( Fig . 2 , 1 ), b urin ( Fig . 2 , 4 ), p oint b lades ( Fig. 2 , 2a nd 3 ).

U nit V

-

( Fig .

2 ,

5 ) a nd

t wo

b acked

as ingle r etouched b lade ( Fig . 2 , 1 0)

U nit V II ( b) - a s mall u npatinated c ore. S tone t ools f rom U nits I I a nd I II a re t ypically C reswellian a nd p redate U nit I V d ated b y r adiocarbon ( see a bove

f or d iscussion ) t o 9 750+ 110 y rs .

T ools f rom U nits a nd V II(b ) a re n ot p articularly d iagnostic t ypologically a nd d erived f rom t he P ost-Devensian , s tratigraphic u nits d isturbed b y r ockfalls ( White , 1 969 , F ig . 2 ) . R econciliation o f s tone t ools f rom t he r emainder o f t he c ave w ith t he L ate D evensian s tratigraphic u nits o f s ection 1 i s p roblematic c hiefly d ue t o t he l ack o f i nformation a llowing a c lear c orrelation f rom o ne e xcavated s ection t o a nother . T he d ifficulties m ay b e p artially o vercome b y c omparison w ith t he f aunal a nalysis f rom t he c ave . T he d isturbance e ffect o f m odern s heep b urials i s c lear f rom t hese a nalyses a nd t his m akes c orrelation o f s ome e xcavated s ections a nd s tone t ools p ossible. A p roportion o f s tone t ools , i ncluding C reswellian i ndustries r emain a mbiguous.

s ome

t ypologically t ypical o f

C lear s tratigraphic e vidence o f C reswellian s tone

t ools

f or t he

r emainder o f t he c ave i s c onfined t o :

S ection 3 A white p atinated C reswellian p oint ( Fig . 3 , 7 ) f ound i n e xcavated l evel 6 a nd d emonstrably b elow u nits d isturbed b y s heep b urials ( see t able 4 ).

3 6

F ig. 3

F lint A ssemblage:

D ead M an 's C ave, o ther s ections ( 1:1)

3 7

S ection 6

3 ,

E xcavated l evel 4 c ontained t wo b lades r etouched a long o ne e dge ( Fig . 2 -3) a nd o ne b lade r etouched a long b oth e dges ( Fig . 3 , 1 ) . T he

d istribution o f f auna c learly s hows t heir o ccurrence b elow m odern s pecies a nd s heep b urials .

S ection 8 E xcavated l evel 4 , c ontained t wo s tone t ools , a C reswell p oint ( Fig . 3 , 5 ) b roken p roximally a nd a b lade r etouched d iscontinuously a long o ne e dge a nd a round b oth e nds ( Fig . 3 , 4 ) . T he r emaining f ive s tone t ools w ere e xcavated f rom

t he c ave

r ear a nd

a lthough

t ypologically

t hey a ppear

C reswellian t his i s n ot d emonstrably s o s tratigraphically . T his a rea o f t he c ave i s g reatly d isturbed b y m odern s heep b urials . F urther i t i s l ikely t hat m aterial i n t his p art o f t he c ave i s d erived f rom t he e ntrance a rea . A lthough i t i s i mpossible t o o btain a c lear s tratigraphic c ontext f or t hese s tone t ools t hey a re c losely w ithin t he C reswellian t radition e videnced f rom t he e ntrance a rea .

S ection 1 2 A h eavily r etouched p oint l evel

( F ig .

3 ,

6 ) o n a g rey f lake e xcavated f rom

3 .

S ection 1 5 A ll

s tone

t ools

f rom

t his

s ection w ere s urface

f inds

a nd

i nclude

a

C reswell p oint ( Fig . 3 , 9 ), a b acked t ool ( Fig . 3 , 1 0) a nd a b roken b lade r etouched a long o ne e dge ( F ig . 3 , 1) . I t i s r eported t hat a ll t hree t ools w ere f ound t ogether a nd n ear t he r eindeer a ntler f ragment ,

l ater u sed f or

r adiocarbon d ating . T he t otal l ithic a ssemblage r elevant t o t he L ate D evensian h uman o ccupation o f t he c ave c onsists o f s eventeen f lints, f ourteen o f w hich w ere l ikely t o h ave o riginated f rom s tratigraphic u nits I I a nd I II o f t he L ate D evensian a nd t hree f lints f or w hich t he s tratigraphic c ontext i s u nclear d ue t o t he d egree o f d isturbance w ithin t he e xcavated s ection 1 5,

b ut which o n t ypological g rounds s trongly s uggest a L ate

D evensian/Cresswellian d ate .

P OST-GLACIAL S TONE T OOLS F our p ost-date

f lints w ere f ound i n t he e xcavated s ections f rom l evels w hich t he u ndisturbed L ate D evensian s tratigraphic u nit a nd a ll p ost-

d ate t he r adiocarbon d ated u nit . N one o f t he f lints a re d iagnostic t ypologically a nd d o n ot a ppear t o b e f rom c ontemporary s tratigraphic u nits. S ection 1 -e xcavated l evel 3 , p roduced a s mall e xcavated l evel 6 a n u nretouched f lake ( Fig . 2 , 1 0).

c ore

f ragment,

S ection 3 -excavated l evel 2 , al arge u nretouched f lake ( Fig. 3 , 8 ).

3 8

S ection 1 2 -excavated l evel 3 , ah eavily r etouched p oint ( Fig. 3 , 6 ). A lthough f lints f rom s ection 1 a re u ndoubtedly p ost-glacial i n d ate t he n ature o f t he p oint f rom s ection 1 2 r emains a mbiguous. F auna I NTRODUCTION F aunal e vidence w as r ecovered f rom

t hroughout t he c ave a nd f rom m ost

o f t he s tratigraphic l evels . T he t otal c ollection n umbers e ight h undred a nd t wenty-nine b ones o f w hich 5 0 p er c ent i s i dentifiable t o s pecies a nd i s i ncorporated i n t his r ecount . C rags V isitor C entre .

i n

T he f auna

i s

c urrently

h oused

i n C reswell

B eyond p reliminary w ork d uring e xcavation ( see W hite , 1 972 ; a nd J osey M ellars, 1 969), t he f auna h as n ot b een c omprehensively r eported

p reviously .

U nfortunately ,

t here

a re

d ifficulties

i n

i nterpreting

f aunal

material f rom t he c ave . B y f ar t he g reatest i s d ue t o t he h igh l evel d isturbance a ssociated w ith modern s heep b urials, a nd t he b urrowing a ctivities o f s mall c arnivores a nd l agomorphs . F urther t he s tratigraphic r elationship b etween t he b ase l ine o f t he e xcavation ( section 1 ) a nd o ther a reas e xcavated i s u nclear .

I n t he c ircumstances t here i s s ome v alidity t o

t he v iew t hat w ith t he e xception o f t he s heep b urial i n s ection 1 5 ( see F ig . 1 5) t here i s u nlikely t o b e a ny d isturbance o f t he L ate D evensian s tratigraphic u nits w ithin t he c ave . T he c ontext a nd l evel o f m ixing i n F landrian f auna f rom t he c ave v aries a ccording t o l ocation w ithin t he c ave .

L ATE D EVENSIAN L ate D evensian -Pollen Z one I I B est e videnced f rom s ection 1 , U nit I a nd I I ( see t able 7 ) a nd c ontemporary w ith h uman p resence , t here i s a r estricted f auna w ithin t he c ave . I t i s l ikely t hat f auna f rom t he b asal l evels o f s ection 6 ( Table 3 ) a nd 5 ( Table 4 ) c orrespond t o t his p eriod w hich w ould c onsequently c omprise o f f auna o f B rown B ear ( 20%), R ed F ox ( 40%), B adger ( 20%) a nd L epus p s . ( 20% ) . T he c omposition o f t he f auna w ould i ndicate a w oodland e nvironment .

L ate D evensian -Pollen Z one I II/IV F rom U nit I V (b ) i n s ection 1 , r adiocarbon d ated t o 9 750+110 , t here i s m ore d iverse f auna ( see T able 7 ) . N o h uman p resence i s r eported f rom t his p eriod w ithin t he c ave .

I t i s p ossible t o c ompare e vidence f or t his l evel

w ith o ther p arts o f t he c ave ( section 3 , 4 , 1 2, 1 4, t ables 5 , 6 , 1 4, 1 5) . T he s ubsequent f auna c omprises E quus s p . ( 21, 4 2%) , B rown B ear ( 14 , 2 8% ) , R eindeer ( 14, 2 8%), R ed F ox ( 7, 1 4%), P ig ( 7, 1 4%), B os s p . ( 7, 1 4%) . T he f auna c ould i ndicate a m ore d eveloped w oodland o f ap arkland t ype .

F LANDRIAN S tratigraphic U nits

I V (c) t o V III c ontain a F landrian f auna i n a m uch

d isturbed c ontext, a nd q uantification o f t he u ndisturbed f auna i s i mpossible . I n g eneral t erms i t w ould a ppear t hat R ed F ox , B adger , H are

3 9

o ccurred w ithin t he c ave t hroughout m ost o f t he p eriod r epresented . T he a ppearance o f I ron A ge a nd l ater o ccupation ( Units V I-VIII) w ould a ccount f or t he p resence o f s heep , c ow a nd p ig b ut s eparation o f f aunal m aterial r elevant t o t heir p eriod o f o ccupation w ithin t he c ave i s n ot p ossible d ue t o t he m ixing l ater w ith m ore r ecent s heep b urials a nd b urrowing a ctivities . I n g eneral t erms d espite t he p roblems o f r ecent d isturbance o f t he c ave s ediments,

t he a nalysis o f t he f auna i s a t l east a ble t o d emonstrate t hat

t he d isturbance i n s ome a reas d id n ot p enetrate t o L ate D evensian l evels . F urther s eparation o f t he D evensian l evels ( into z one I II a nd z one I V/V?) i s p ossible a nd t he s eparation h as b earing u pon t he e xplanation o f h uman o ccupation o f t he c ave a nd t he c ontext o f t he a vailable r adiocarbon d ates .

V egetational H istory D uring W hite 's e xcavations o f s ection 1 , s amples w ere t aken f rom t he e xposed s ections b y C ampbell f or p ollen a nalysis , t he r esults o f w hich a re p ublished e lsewhere ( 1980 , F ig . 7 5) . S amples w ere t aken f rom t he l ower h alf o f s tratigraphic U nit I , ( White 's s pit 1 0) , U nits I I a nd I II ( White 's s pits 9 a nd 1 0) , U nits I II a nd o v( White 's s pits 8 , 7a nd I V (a ) ( Whit e 's s pits 9 a nd 8 ) a nd U nits m o t 6 ). T he t otal p ollen c ount w as r elatively s mall b ut s ufficient t o a llow C ampbell t o r econstruct a m eaningful p ollen p ercent f requency v ariation ( Campbell, 1 977, F ig. 7 5). C ampbell h as t entatively s uggested a c hronological s pread o f l ate G lacial p ollen , z one I I a nd I II a nd o n t he w hole s uch a s uggestion i s b orne o ut b y t he m ammalian f aunal e vidence . I t i s l ikely t hat p ollen z one I I e vidence i s c onfined t o s tratigraphic U nits I , I I a nd I II ( Campbell 's l ayers A a nd L SB) . t he d istinction a ppears t o b e c louded t o s ome e xtent b y o verlapping a nd b aulking o f s ampling a reas. S ample f our ( Campbell, 1 969, F ig . 7 5, i ncludes W hite 's o riginal s pits 8 , 7 a nd 6 o f

l ayer U SB), i n p articular w hich 7 , t he o rigin o f t he

r eindeer a ntler i s r adiocarbon d ated 9 750+110 y rs B P .

I t w ould a ppear t hat

s tratigraphic u nits I t o I V(a) a re L ate D evensian p ollen z one I I, U nits I V(b) t o V a re z one I II a nd s ubsequent u nits a re d isturbed ( by U nit V r ockfall) L ate D evensian/Flandrian .

C onclusion A nalysis o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f orm D ead M an 's C ave h as s hown t hat a r ange o f p roblems e xist f or i nterpretation o f t he e xcavation a nd t hat a p articular d ifficulty r emains f or a ttempts t o c orrelate t he r esults f or d ifferent a reas o f t he c ave .

T his e ssay w hich h as s et o ut

t o e xamine t he

p ossibility o f a l ate L UP o ccupation h as d emonstrated t hat p ostulation o f t his c oncept i s n ot p ossible f rom t he D ead M an 's C ave e vidence . T his v iew i s b ased u pon t he p roblems g enerated b y e xtensive d isturbance o f t he c ave d eposits p rior t o e xcavation b ut m ore s ignificantly t he p resence o f a l arge r ockfall i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f a nd p ost-dating t he L UP o ccupation w hich f rom i ts s ize n ature i s a lmost c ertainly t he s ource o f

4 0

c onsiderable

d eformation

o f

t he

a rchaeological

s ediments .

S imilar

g eomorphic e vents a re k nown f rom o ther c aves w ithin t he C reswell a rea a t D og H ole F issure w here f aunal r emains i n t he c ontext o f am uch s maller r ockfall w ere m ixed , p ost-mortem t hrough a lmost t he e ntire d epth o f t he s ite t he d istances i nvolved l ay g reater t han t he t otal d epth o f d eposits k nown f rom D ead M an 's C ave ( Jenkinson e t a l , 1 982) . A m ore r eliable i ndication o f a ge i s a vailable f rom t he f loristic e vidence r econstructed f rom t he s amples t aken o utside t he i mmediate r ockfall a rea a nd w hich s uggest a L ate D evensian z one I I d ate f or L UP o ccupation . T he r adiocarbon d ates o n r eindeer b one i ndicates t he e xciting p ossibility o f t his a nimal 's s urvival i nto t he B oreal . T his a rgument, while w eakening t he a vailable e vidence f or t he s urvival o f L ate U pper P alaeolithic t echnology i nto t he e arly p ost-glacial d oes n ot d iscount s uch a p ossibility .

A cknowledgements Iw ould l ike t o a cknowledge t he v aluable c omments m ade b y G . W hite , t he o riginal e xcavator o f t he s ite a nd t o t hank P .A . M ellars a nd D .D . G ilbertson f or c ommenting u pon t he t ext .

B ibliography C ampbell, J .R . G odwin ,

( 1977) T he U pper P alaeolithic i n B ritain , O xford, 2 v ols.

H . a nd W illis ,

E .M .

( 1962) ' Cambridge U niversity N atural R adiocarbon

M easurements V ', R adiocarbon 4 , 6 1-2. J acobi, R .M . ( 1980) ' The U pper P alaeolithic o f B ritain w ith s pecial r eference t o W ales ' , i n J .A . T aylor ( ed .) C ulture a nd E nvironment i n P rehistoric W ales , 1 5-100 J enkinson , R .D .S . ( 1978) ' Archaeological c aves a nd r ock s helters i n t he C reswell C rags A rea ' , C reswell C rags V isitor C entre R esearch R eport 1 , 1 -15. J enkinson , R .D .S .; B ramwell, D . ; B riggs, D .J .; G ilbertson , D .D .; G riffin , C a l . ; S tebbings , R .E . ; W atts , C .J . a nd W ilkinson , M . ( 1982) D eath o f aW olf. N ottinghamshire C ounty C ouncil. M ellars,

P .A .

( 1969)

' Radiocarbon d ates

f or

a n ew

C reswellian

s ite ',

A ntiquity 4 3, 3 08-10 . M ellars,

P .A .

( 1974)

' The P alaeolithic a nd

M esolithic ',

R enfrew

( ed .) .

B ritish P rehistory , D uckworth . W hite ,

G .F .

( 1972)

E xcavation o f t he D ead M an 's C ave , N orth A nston ,

P ublic L ibrary a nd M useum .

4 1

W orksop

A ge

L ab R ef

S ource

D ead M an's C ave

9 ,940+ 115 B P _

( BM 4 40A)

M ellars

1 969

9 ,850+ 115 B P _

( BM 4 39)

M ellars

1 969

9 ,750+110 B P ( Rangiier t arandus a ntler)

( BM 4 40B)

M ellars &W hite

1 969 1 972

1 0,590+90 B P ( Equus — p rezwalski b one)

( BM 6 04)

C ampbell

1 0,390+90 B P ( Equus — p rezwalski b one)

( BM 6 03)

C ampbell

8 ,800+300 BP ( charcoal)

( Q552)

C ampbell

9 ,370+230 b c ( Bos s p b one c ollagen)

( Q1484)

J acobi 1 980

9 ,335+180 b c j p b one c ollagen) ( Bos «

( Q1483)

J acobi 1 980

9 ,210+170 b c s -p b one c ollagen) ( Bos -

( Q1459

J acobi 1 980

R obin H ood C ave

M other G rundy's P arlour

T able 1 L ater P alaeolithic R adiocarbon D ates f rom C reswell A rea

4 2

S tratigraphic

D epth m m

U nit

E xcavated S pit

V III

0 -170

1

V II

1 70-240

, c _

S ediment T ype

S ilty S and

T ravertine, B recciated S and

V I

2 40-340

V

3 4o-46o

4

5 +6 upper

L imestone R ubble

B recciated S ilty S and

I V c

4 60-520

6 lower

T ravertine

I V b

5 20-590

7

B recciated S and

I V a

5 90-660

8

B recciated S and

1 11

6 60-690

9

B recciated S and

I I

6 90-760

i ü

B rown S ilty S and

1

7 60-780

l i

R ed C lay

T able 2

S tratigraphic I nterpretation o f D ead M an 's C ave b ased u pon S ection I

4 3

c l )

u )o

C C

0( , )

D h-

0

1 . 1 W — J — J W W

N0 5 (

L EVEL

c o 0 c a

c n D

C l )

N

%

N

F

—

—

—

1

N

—

—

—

F

—

—

1

—

2

N

—

—

1

2 0 .0

F

—

—

3

N

—

—

F

—

4 N F

%

L i i

a

E i a c n 5 0

h-

C l )

33

EXCAVAT ION

c o Z c z a

< e u _c 0

C l )

N

%

—

—

—

—

—

-

1

3 .3 3

1

—

—

—

4

1

2 0 .0

—

—

2 4 0 .0

N 1

% —

N 5

% —

1 3 3 .3 —

N

%

2

—

1 3 3 .3 1 1

8 5 3 .33

1 0

7

2 0 .0

—

4 1 .17

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

N

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

F

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

N

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

F 8 N

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

-

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1 0

—

1 .

—

—

F 9 N

7

—

F

7

N

— _

5 N 6

w 0 z _

w >
0

1 C . ) 2 > Z

V )

TOTAL I DENT IF IED BONES

S PEC IES

V I

W

w >


• r -

c o

F = n umbe ro f b one f r agment s

N

N = n umbe ro f i n d iv idua ls b a sed o nt he n umbe ro ff r agment si d en t if ied

C l

V ertebrate B one F ragments f rom S ection 1

1 I c N i

AVES

S PEC IES

r . t ) D 03 e n

•

a

( nu ) w w

o w W W I I

. J J

. •

E XCAVAT ION L EVEL

1 2 3

F

8

N

%

—

—

—

—

—

1 * 16 .6

F

2

N

1

— 2 5

1 1

F

—

—

1

N

—

—

1

` n z

— 2 5 — 2 5

N 2

—

1

1 6 .6

N

0 0

E

D

0U %

5

—

6

—

1

1 6 .6

2

3 3 .33

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

2

—

6

—

—

1

1

TOTAL F RAGMENTS

U )

2 5 — 2 5

W

w

0

N

_ 0

• a :

5

%

2 5

F 7.

'Z w

0

> -Z

— 1w %

0 w

C . ) Z

0

a .C

0

%

N

w

2

. i

< _ i

i n

c n

22

> >

N ,

0 w L i


e C t t

i . 14 D ATED S ITES R EG IONAL ‚ C I NDUSTRY 1 IRE &L ANCASHRE , P ENN INE YORKSH

e

0

3

m eX e r

3

. ,) . 9 . m KM " z -» c r 9 s ,. • .- e i — " _ i z i 1, . -, : . . -

. . ,4 .• .

i 3g e

4, 1 .1

< < e ,x u 1

,

6

e § g lg

4 •1

. .

•.

W

4 . 3 . W

c n

N

C r a2 -

C r

. g , . «-

8

>

g

£

--

< e 5c r.

, -

C O z. . . . .

1

i1 g

g

I

W C C

W u i c

6i ` u r i , -1 .

47 . .R 7-v

. . . .

. 8

2

. -

. x C ) w

f l a red U rn A ssoc ia t ion

C . 14 D ATED S ITES EASTERN YORKSH IRE

,. . . .. .. . ,

••

2

. -. . .

4

. _

e c e )

+t

c v >

w

i e

a

.

g§g

g ( 9) gg

e

z

2

z < e

e is ucri .

0 Z

g o

3

I V

e n

4

E T I

< 0

5

2 g 0

it )

Z 3

E

e

7 . .

x . o

a i

3 1 3

3 (

i5

. e e

§

§

2
b lades ,

f rom R askelf ( Ra c ll .ey ,

i n

C raven

1 967 ,

1 5 , F ig .

I rish t ype.

7 2

4 .6) .

T wo w ith k ite-shaped

1 . 7) a nd C lapham i n C raven , a re

H otham C arr P hase .

W idely d istributed f inds a long t he f lanks o f t he

P ennine D ales , t here i s a m ajor c oncentration o f f inds f rom t he V ale o f M owbray b ut f ew i n t he s outhern p art o f t he V ale o f Y ork ( Fig . 5 ) . T he o nly a ssociated f inds a re t he w ing f langed a xes f rom h oards a t R awdon a nd R eeth ( 74> 7 . 1-2 ; A ppendix 2 , A ) . W ing f langed a xes a re t he m ost n umerous f orm o f i mplement b ut u nlooped p alstaves o ccur l ike t hose i n t he H otham C arr h oard ( Burgess , 1 967 , F ig . 3 ) . A n I rish p alstave f rom M anfield ( Fig . 7 .4) a nd a t ransverse p alstave f rom S tarbottom i n Wharfedale ( Fig . 7 .3) a re i mported t ypes . S pearheads h ave l eaf-shaped b lades a nd s tring t ype s ide l oops a nd f inally b asal l ooped s pearheads a ppear ; t he l arge o ne f ound i n S emerwater h as l ozenge l oop-plates a nd a b and o f i ncised d ecoration a round t he b ase o f t he s ocket ( Fig . 7 .5) . T he most o utstanding i tem o f b ronze w orking i s t he G roup I II r apier f rom F lasby F ell ( Fig . 6 . 1) . T he o rnament h orizon b ronze t ypes o f S outhern E ngland c urrent i n t his p hase a re n ot r epresented i n Y orkshire . P enard P hase .

T he H otham

C arr

t ypes

c ontinued

i n u se d uring t his

p hase

w hen n ew t ypes c ame i nto u se s uch a s t he e arliest l ooped p alstaves a nd e arly s words . T hese i nnovations were s timulated b y w eapons a nd o rnaments i mported i nto s outhern a nd e astern E ngland f rom t he U rnfield C ulture o f S outhern G ermany a nd N orthern F rance . U rnfield p ins w ere c urrent a t t he f ortified s ite o f T hwing i n E ast Y orkshire b oth i n b ronze a nd l ocal c opies i n b one ( Manby , 1 980, 3 21-3) . T he o nly p in o f t his t ype f rom W estern Y orkshire c omes f rom I ngleton . I t h as a d isc h ead , a l ozenge l oop p late a nd n o d ecoration ( F4> 1 4) . T he l oop p late h as b een c ompared w ith t he l ozenge p lates o f s ome s ide-looped a nd r ecognised t o a n i nsular f eature ( Piggott ,

b asal l ooped s pearheads a nd 1 949 , 12 , F ig . 4 ; C hallis a nd

H arding , 1 975 , 2 8) . R egionally l ozenge l oop p lates o ccur o n b oth P ickering p hase a nd H otham C arr p hase s pearheads i n Y orkshire a nd t he I ngleton p in m ust b e s een a s al ocal p roduct. W allington-Wilburton P hase .

T he N orthern W allington I ndustry p redominates

a nd a n i mportant g roup o f h oards f rom t he C oal M easure a rea o f t he P ennines c onstitute t he g reatest c oncentration o f W allington b ronzes i n Y orkshire ( Fig . 8 ) . T he h oards f rom B runthwaite , C hurwell , C arr M oorside , R oundhay a nd S helf a re i ndustrial h oards d ominated b y l ooped p alstaves o f ' transitional c lass ( Appendix 2 B) . T hese w ere c ast l ocally , u nfinished i mplements f resh f rom t he m ould o ccur i n e ach h oard a nd a s ingle p alstave i n t his s tate i s r eported f rom M orley i n t he s ame a rea ( Wardell, 1 88 0 . S maller h oards a re o f a m ore p ersonal n ature e specially t he K ilnhurst h oard t hat i ncludes s pearhead a nd t ools . T he

m ost

n umerous

c lass

o f

i mplement

a re

t he

' transitional '

p attern

p alstaves ( Fig . 9 . 1) ; t rident p attern p alstaves a re r are . T he m ajor w eapon f orm i s t he b asal l ooped s pearhead d eveloped i nto a f orm w ith s tring l oops a nd a s traight b ase t o t he b lade . I n c ontrast t o t he E ast Y orkshire s ituation s pearheads o f l arge s ize a re f requent i n W estern Y orkshire , t he l argest o f a ll i n t he s o-called H arrogate H oard ( Fig . 1 0 ; A ppendix 2 C) . L arge s pearheads o ccur a s s tray f inds f rom W est B radford a nd B righouse i n ; a b roken t he P ennines a nd S tanwick i n t he V ale o f M owbray (74> 1.1-3) e xample w as i n t he S helf h oard . T he f inal d evelopment w as t he s pearhead w ith l unate o penings i n t he b lade , ar are f orm c onfined t o f inds f rom M alham i n C raven a nd R ainton ( Fig . 1.4) i n t he V ale o f M owbray ( Burgess , ' Ripon ' i s t he R ainton f ind) .

1 967, 6 8 ;

T he H umber a nd t he D on f orm t he n orthern b oundary o f t he S outhern W ilburton I ndustry b ut s mall n umbers o f

7 3

c haracteristic b ronzes

r eached

E astern Y orkshire ( Manby , 1 980, 3 30), t he V ale o f Y ork a nd t he C entral P ennines . T he U lleskelf h oard , V ale o f Y ork , o f t wo s ocketed a xes a nd a l ooped p alstave ( Burgess, 1 967, F ig . 2 1.4) i s t he most i mportant g roup . F rom t he P ennines c ome t he p air o f s words, h ilts b roken o ff f rom B en R hydding i n Wharfedale a nd t here a re r are f inds o f ' late ' p alstaves, s ocketed a xes w ith multiple m outh m oulding , a nd l ozenge s ectioned s pearheads w ith h ollow b lades ( Burgess , H eathery B urn P hase .

1 967 ,

2 9-31,

6 8) .

T he p roducts o f t his n orthern i ndustry p redominate

i n Y orkshire a nd i ts f orms a re more n umerous t han a ny o f t he e arlier i ndustries ( Burgess, 1 969, 3 9-40) . I n W estern Y orkshire t he m ajor a ssociations a re h oards , b oth o f s crapmetal a nd p ersonal t ype , c onfined t o t he e astern e dge o f t he P ennines , a d istribution o nly s lightly w idened b y s tray f inds o f a xes a nd s pearheads ( Fig . 8 ) . S ocketed a xes a re t he m ost c ommon f orm , e specially t he t hree r ibbed ' Y orkshire ' t ype ( Fig . 1 2 .2) a nd i ts p lain v ersion ,

t he l Everthorpe ' t ype .

f aceted a nd r ound f orms ,

M inority t ypes c onsist o f

t he o nly o bvious i mport b eing a n I rish t ype f rom

L eyburn i n W ensleydale. W eapon f orms a re E wart P ark s words a nd l eaf-shaped s pearheads o ccurring t ogether

i n

t he

B ilton

( Fig .

1 3)

a nd

H arrogate

h oard

( see

p age

7 0) .

S pearheads a gain i nclude a s ignificant p roportion o f l arge e xamples p resent a t B ilton , H arrogate, K irk D eighton , M orley a nd S tanwick ( Fig . 1 2 .3) . A l arge l unate s pearhead f rom A gglethorpe i n W ensleydale i s a d evelopment o f t he l unate t ype c urrent i n t he e arlier W allington p hase a nd w as f ound w ith a ' Yo li csh t ype s ocketed a xe ( Fig . 1 2 .1-2) . T his a ssociation -i s r epeated i n t wo h oard a ssociations f rom t he l owlands w est o f t he P ennines a t W inmarleigh n ear L ancaster , a nd C ongleton i n C heshire ( Davy , 1 975 , N o . 1 25 a nd 1 30) . T he d etails o f t he A gglethorpe a nd W inmarleigh s pearheads a re s o s imilar t hat t hey must b e r egarded a s t he work o f t he s ame s mith ; t he l ocalities a re 7 2 k m . a part . A s ignificant n umber o f g old o rnaments h ave b een f ound i n W estern Y orkshire p enannular W eardale d ecoration

( Appendix 4 ) t hat a re p art o f t he H eathery B urn a ssemblage ; a b racelet a nd a h air o r l ock r ing w ere f ound a t t he c ave s ite i n ( Greenwell, 1 894, 9 6, F ig . 2 ) . A h air r ing w ith e laborate w as a ssociated w ith t he s word f ind a t S tartforth ( Jones , 1 978 , 5 ,

P l . 1 ) i n T eesdale ; p enannular b racelets f ound a t B owes a nd G reta B ridge ( Fig . 1 4) a re t o t he s outh o n t he a pproach t o t he S tainmore P ass . A d ecorated h air-ring a nd a s lender p enannular b racelet o ccur i n t he s mall h oard f rom t he P ortfield C amp , n ear W halley ( B iflock , 1 969) , o verlooking l ower R ibblesdale i n t he L ancashire P ennines . T he r ange o f g old o rnaments R ig . i s c ompleted b y t he t rumpet e nded l oops f ound a t R ipon a nd S winton ( 1 4).

H allstatt V P hase . T he s catter o f c ontinental b ronzes a cross Y orkshire ( Manby , 1 980, 3 30) e xtends t o t he e astern e dge o f t he P ennines ( Fig . 8 ) r epresented b y a s word f rom T emple N ewsam i n l ower A iredale ( Fig . 1 5) a nd b rooches f rom B oroughbridge ( Fig . 1 4) a nd Y ork . More n umerous a re t he h eavy s ocketed a xes o f t he i ndigenous S ompting t ype w ith r ibs ( Fig . 1 5) a nd r ing a nd p ellet d ecoration

( F ig .

1 5) .

T he d istribution o f t hese l arge a xes

i s v ery s imilar t o t he H eathery B urn t ypes t hat c ontinued i n u se d uring t his p hase.

7 4

D istribution o f B ronzes. B ronze i mplements a re t he m ost u niversal i ndicator o f B ronze A ge l and s ettlement a t p resent a vailable . T he b urial r ecord i s b iased t owards t hose a reas w here b arrows a nd r ing c airns h ave b een e xcavated , e ssentially i n t he V ale o f M owbray a nd t he f ringes o f t he C entral G ritstone M oors . I t i s h owever n otable t hat b ronzes c ontemporary w ith t he E arly B ronze A ge b arrows b ear l ittle r elationship t o t he f ield m onument

d istribution .

A part

f rom

t he s carce b urial a ccompaniments h oards a re t he o nly a ssociations a s t he g reat m ajority o f i mplements f rom W estern Y orkshire a re c asual f inds f rom c ultivation , d raining , c ivil e ngineering a nd , r ecently , m etal d etecting . T he e arliest r ecorded f inds a re f rom t he b eginning o f t he e ighteenth c entury , s uch a s t he O smondthick ( Bramham) H oard . T he majority o f i mplements a re r ecorded o nly t o p arish , l ess c ommon a re a ttributions t o a s pecific m oor o r f arm . S ome o f t he P ennine p arishes a re v ast , s preading f rom o ne w atershed t o t he n ext a nd e mbracing many s oil t ypes a nd c onsiderable c hanges i n a ltitude . A s ummary o f b ronze f inds i n W estern Y orkshire i s p rovided i n T able 2 . A d istributional b ias i s t he s urprisingly f ew b ronze f inds f rom t he t hin s oils o f t he magnesian l imestone h ills . T his m ust b e s et a gainst t he i ntensive m edieval a rable f arming o f t his a ttractive s oil t ype ; s imilar c ircumstances a ffected t he s urvival o f b ronzes o n t he W olds ( Manby , 1 980 , 3 31) . T he p eat a nd a lluvial s oils o f t he V ale o f Y ork h ave b een t he s ource o f m any b ronze f inds d uring d rainage w orks o ver t he p ast 1 50 y ears . S ome o f t he f inds h ave b een a t c onsiderable d epth , s uch a s t he U lleskelf h oard f ound a t 1 . 3 m . b elow t he s urface . I t i s n ot a t a ll c lear i f a ny o f t hese f inds c ame f rom B ronze A ge p ools o r l akes o r i f t he o verlying w aterlaid d eposits a re e ntirely B ronze A ge i n d ate . T he f ine d ecorated b asal l ooped s pearhead f rom S emerwater i n W ensleydale i s t he o nly u ndoubted l ake f ind. D rainage i s a lso t he c ause o f t he s mall c oncentration o f b ronzes

f rom

t he A ire G ap a nd t he C raven l owlands g enerally . T he i ntensity o f c ivil e ngineering i n t he i ndustrial L eeds a rea was r esponsible f or t he c oncentration o f h oards a nd s ingle f inds b eing r ecovered f rom t his p articular p art o f t he C oal M easures . T he i ntensive m odern c ollecting o n t he e roding p eat m oors o f t he C entral G ritstone a rea h as r esulted i n t he r ecovery o f o nly o ne o r t wo b ronzes, t estimony t o t he u nattractive e nvironment o f t hese a reas a bove t he 3 00 m . c ontour t o B ronze A ge man . H owever , i t i s n ot a t a ll c lear w hy t he b ronzes w ere l ost o riginally a nd m ost c ould h ave b een l osses i n d ifficult f orested o r m arsh c onditions r ather t han o n o ccupation s ites . T he g eneral d istribution o f b ronze f inds i n W estern Y orkshire c omes f rom t he e astern j unction z one b etween t he P ennines a nd t he l owlands; t his i s t he a rea o f l ower r ainfall a nd g reatest o pportunity t o e xploit t he e conomic p otential o f t wo o r m ore e nvironments . T he s maller d istribution i n t he C raven l owlands i s a f urther r eflection o f t his p attern t hat c ontinues d own R ibblesdale t o t he L ancashire c oastlands ( Davey , 1 976, 7 ) .

C ONCLUSIONS. T he l owlands o f t he V ales o f Y ork a nd M owbray a nd t he P ennine u plands t o t heir w est w ere s electively o ccupied t hroughout t he B ronze A ge . T he n ature o f t he e vidence a vailable i mposes s evere l imitations o n a ny i nterpretations o f t he e conomic a spects o f s ubsistence a nd d aily l ife . A ge

e njoyed

t he m ost

f avourable

c limatic

7 5

r egime

T he E arly B ronze

f or o ccupation a t h igher

a ltitudes i n t he P ennines b ut man 's i mpact o n t he u pper margins o f t he f orest d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een v ery i ntensive . T he p roblems o f t he e conomic

e xploitation

o f

t he

v aried

a nd

d ifficult

u pland

t errain o f

t he

P ennines d uring t he i st a nd 2 nd M illenia B .C . a nd d uring h istoric t imes h as b een c onsidered i n t wo r ecent s tudies ( Challis a nd H arding , 1 975 , 1 84-5 ; P ierpoint , 1 980 , 1 5-18) . B oth w orks s tress t he l imitations o f a ltitude , w ind, r ainfall a nd t emperature t hat g overn t he u pper l imits o f h uman a ctivity a nd s ettlement , e specially c ereal g rowing . E ven a t t he t ime o f t he c limatic a melioration d uring t he f irst h alf o f Z one V IIB t he h igher P ennine s ummits w ould h ave b een u nattractive t o h uman a citivity . T hose a reas a lready c overed b y s preading b lanket b og w ould h ave p rovided p oor f ood r esources f or m an , h is d omestic a nimals a nd w ild a nimals . A lthough t he o pen n ature o f t he t errain w ould b e u seful t o d rive g ame o nto f or h unting , a n a ctivity i ndicated b y t anged a nd b arbed a rrowheads f rom b lanket-bog c overed u plands . T he b uilding o f b urial m onuments s uch a s b arrows a nd r ing c airns o n t he P ennines i s d irect e vidence o f c ommunities i n t he a rea b ut p rovides n o i ndication o f t heir m eans o f f ood s upply o r t he s easonal d uration o f o ccupation . T he l owlands a nd t he f loors o f t he d ales w ould h ave b een t he m ost a ttractive s ettlement a reas w ith t he g reatest e conomic p otential i n t he B ronze A ge a s i n l ater t imes . M ost a ttractive o f a ll m ust b e t he e astern s lope o f t he P ennines, e specially t he m agnesian l imestone b elt . T his z one p rovides a ccess t o t he l owlands t o t he e ast a nd u pland e nvironments t o t he w est a nd h as a n e asily c ultivated s oil i tself . T he c ombination o f b urial m onuments a nd t he b ronze f inds a re t he o nly e vidence a vailable t o s tudy s hifts i n s ettlement p atterns f or t he B ronze A ge i n W estern Y orkshire . A c oncentration o f H otham C arr i ndustry b ronzes i n t he V ale o f M owbray ( F ig . 5 ) p oints t o a n i ncreasing i mportance o f l owland s ituations d uring t his p hase c ompared w ith u pland a reas . T he s andy a nd g ravel g round m oraine s oils o f t he V ale h ad p reviously b een a n i mportant a rea i n t he E arly B ronze A ge i ndicated b y e xtensive b arrow d istribution . I n t he l ater W allington I ndustrial p hase t he e mphasis h ad s hifted t o t he C oal M easure a rea o f t he A ire-Calder w atershed w ith i ts c oncentration o f F ig . 8 ) . I n t he s ucceeding E wart P ark I ndustrial p hase t he f ocus h oards ( s hifts t o t he i nterface z one b etween t he P ennines a nd t he V ale o f Y ork , t he a rea o f t he b ronze h oards . C ontemporary s hifts i n d istribution p atterns t o l ower g round a nd h eavier s oils c an b e r ecognised i n E astern Y orkshire w ith f inds f rom t he V ale o f P ickering a nd H olderness ( Manby ,

1 980 ,

3 32) .

T he a ctual s ubsistence e conomic b asis o f B ronze A ge c ommunities s ettled i n W estern Y orkshire i s v irtually u nknown b ut i n a ll p eriods t hey w ere a ble t o a ttract p roducts f rom d istant s ources .

D uring t he E arly B ronze A ge t he

f lint f or t ools a nd t he j et a nd a mber f or o rnaments w ere d erived f rom t he e ast c oast .

T he e laborate L oose H owe t ype b attle a xes f ound i n t he V ale o f

Y ork a nd p etrologically i dentified a s G roup X II P icrite o riginated f rom t he C wm M awr o utcrop o n t he S hropshire-Welsh b order . T he r egion a ttracted b oth t he p roducts o f t he p revailing N orthern B ronze I ndustry a nd t o as mall e xtent t he o ccasional p roducts o f t he c ontemporary S outhern I ndustry . S ome o f t he b ronzes a re i tems o f q uality a nd g reat s ize, n otably t he l arge s pearheads, e specially t he b asal l oop t ype . T he g reatest a nd m ost p restigeous o f t hese w eapons o ccur i n t he ' n ear H arrogate ' f ind . T he g old f inds o f t he Ewart P ark p hase a re a f urther t estimony t o t he e conomic s trength o f t he r egion a t t he e nd o f t he L ater B ronze A ge . I n t he p ast t here h as b een a d ominant t endency t o s ee f inds o f t his t ype o nly a s m anifestations o f t rade r outes t hrough t he P ennines a nd t he V ale o f Y ork . C ertainly t here a re t he f inds f rom t he i mportant n atural t rans-Pennine

7 6

c rossing , t he S tainmore P ass , t hat c ould b e l osses a long a r oute t hat i s t he o bvious l ine o f i nter-regional c ommunication .

B ut d istribution p atterns

c ontinue s imilarly i n a reas t hat h ave n o n atural a dvantages f or l ong d istance movement . A part f rom g old, i tems o f o bvious C ontinental, o rigin a re e xceptional w ithin W estern Y orkshire .

I rish , o r T his m ust

r ule o ut c oncepts o f l ong-distance I rish-Continental t rade p assing t hrough t he r egion . T he A ire G ap w ould n ot, i n a f orested a nd u ndrained s tate , b e a n e asy r oute f rom o r t o a n I rish S ea c oast , a c oast t hen s uffering m arine t ransgression t hat w ould c reate a l ong , s hallow , a nd i ndeterminate s hore l ine

o f

a k ind

h azardous

t o

p rimitive

c oastal

s hipping .

T he

s tone

a nd

m etal i mplement d istribution r ather i llustrates t he a ctual s ettlement a reas w ithin t he r egion a nd r elated t he l ocal p attern o f c ommunication b etween t he c ommunities. T he a reas n aturally a ttractive t o B ronze A ge s ettlement e xtend b oth n orth-south a long t he b road i nterface z one o f t he P ennines a nd t he l owlands , a nd t hen w estward i n as elective m anner d ivided b y t he h igher i nhospitable h ill m asses . T he s ignficance o f t he f ind d istribution p atterns a s i ndicators o f t he B ronze A ge s ettlement a reas a nd c ommunications i n W estern Y orkshire w as r ealised b y A rthur R aistrick i n 1 929 . T his r ealisation c ame f rom a n i ntimate u nderstanding o f t he e nvironmental b ackground a nd g eography o f t he P ennines i n r elation t o t he e vidence o f m an a nd h is a bility t o l ive t o h is b est a dvantage i n t his v aried l andscape .

A cknowledgements. T he p reparation o f t his s tudy h as u tilised r esearch i n t he f ield a nd i n p ublic a nd p rivate

c ollections u ndertaken o ver

t he p ast t wo d ecades .

T hanks a re r ecorded f or s tudy f acilities t o t he r espective p ast a nd p resent D irectors, C urators a nd K eepers o f A rchaeology a t t he B radford , B ritish , H uddersfield, H ull, K eighley , L eeds, R otherham, S heffield, S kipton , T odmorden a nd Y orkshire M useums .

A g reat d ebt i s o wed t o m any c olleagues

i n Y orkshire a rchaeology f or d iscussion , i nformation a nd g uidance i n t he f ield , e specially t he l ate J oe D avis a nd t he l ate S idney J ackson . A lso A . K ing, S . F eather, l ate E .T . C owling, t he l ate B .J .W . K ent, t he l ate T ot L ord , D r . G .D . G aunt , S . K erry , D . C oggins , t he l ate M rs . I t H artley , M iss . P . B eswick , Mrs . K . B umstead, Mrs . E . H artley , B urgess, E .C . W aight , E .J . P in e a nd D .N . R iley .

7 7

t he l ate R . C hapman ,

C .

c s ) u

c l

r i

H

C ,1

c N

c N

7 8

H

W ilburton T ypes

C y l

L unate S pear

( N

L ooped P alstave

c ‘ i

L oop S pear

c ,• 1 c * . 1

P al s tave

M easures

H

W ing F langed Axe

C ritstones

c ,•

S ide-loop S pears

F langed Axe

f rom W estern Y orkshire

N orthern

B ronze I m l ements

A rreton A xes

F lat A xes

Table 2 :

c r, 1 " •

c 0

c N c N

U i c ,)

H

L . r 3

H

H

H

H

H

c N

Wallington

4 _ J

7 : 3

C ' )

0 ) 2 c 1

H

o

C ' )

H

C / 2

0

U

S pearheads

c z 3 0

M easures

Z

G ritstones

G

S ocketed A xe

N orthern

B ronze I m l ements f rom W estern Y orkshire ( continued)

0

c + 4 0

H

o H

) ) 0 C ' )

t C1

• c 1

7 : 3

c • o O Z

H 0

› . o 3 c r )

c ) 0 0 3 . C o H

c l . ) c 1 ) 4 0 C O 4) C O ( 1 )

4 E

c 0

H

c 0

( + 2

a )

H

‘ . 0

v.)

( I )

( C O

2 0 c i Z

7 9

S ide-looped S pearheads h ave n ot b een d istinguished s eparately b etween P ickering a nd H otham C arr I ndustries

c 3

H allstatt

,

.

: • ; •

••

, •• • t A •

Contours: f t .

m * 1 .1

200

4 00

1 . ••• 11 22

1 000 '

• 1 302 1 0

1 400 i r if . ' il , 11 14 27 2 000 :U M : 6 10 L .

u

l i äl l 1 1

1

21 0

M i les

30

1 0

I K i lo metres

O

F ood Vesse l

O U rn

A M igda le T ype Axe

•

rn F ood V esse l -U

O U rns(t wo o r more )

A A rreton T ype Axe

T

T ree T runk Coffin

• Accessory Cup

• T anged S pear

V S tone B attle Axe

F ig.

2

D istribution o f E arly B ronze A ge B urials a nd B ronze I mplements

8 0

BA RNOLDSW ICK SK I PTON M.

SK YTHORNS SI L SDEN FA R GH YLL GR ANGE

SK 1 PTON M .

P. C.( A FTER S. JA CKSON ) 5 I NS . CMS .

5

0

ST AN W ICK B. M. 4 7 .2 8105 YO RK BO ROUGHBR IDGE RO AD y .M,1 9 80 .28 F ig. 3

E arly B ronze A ge:

8 1

A xes a nd D agger

0

2

BO WES WE ARDLEY LE EDS M .

BM W G 2

0 0

4

I NS . CMS . 1 0

5

THURC RO FT DO N . M.2 58 X •

5 4 re

HA NDSWORTH

RI PON

9 1 . M.J1 9 4 7 .359

v

6

BA WTRY DO N . M. 2 97X F ig. 4

T he P ickering I ndustry :

8 2

A xes a nd S pearheads

0

. . .

. ....

A

.

• •

A AA Contours: f t .

m.

200 ; 4 00 1 000

S I

. 7777 .

: • ••• : 1 22 ..;

1 400

305 1 0

4 27

2000 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1

$ 10

•

1 0

M iles

30 IK ilo metres HOTHA M CARR:

P ICKERING :

F ig .5

20

•

Haft F langed Axe

*

•

Wing F langed Axe:

O

P a lstave

0 Fort if ied S ite

•

P a lstave

A

S ide L ooped S pear

• B ucket U rn B ur ia l

A

Basa l L ooped Spear

•

D agger o r R ap ier

•

Hoard

Go ld O rna ment

T he D istribution o f M iddle B ronze A ge B urials, B ronze I mplements 8 3

F ortified S ites a nd

2

—4•1 1 1

411 1 10 " '

WOOD N OOK , ST ANLEY LE EDS M . I N S C MS 4 1 0

-

5

TH ORNTON I N -CR AVEN SK I PTON M .

0 —

—

LI NDR ICK DA LE SH EF . M.

FL ASBY

FE LL

PI G YARD CL UB M.

F ig .6 D aggers, D irks a nd R apier : I ndustries 8 4

P ickering, H otham C arr a nd P enard

I NS . CMS . 4 1 0

5

0

FR EM 1NGTON RE ETH B. M. WG . I820 1 8 2 1

ST ARBOTTOM AR NCL IFFE

MA NF IELD

SK I PTON M .

B. M. WG . 188 1 SEMER WA TER PR IVATE CO LL . F ig . 7 H otham C arr B ronze I ndustry

8 5

0

C ontours : f t . 200

e i 1 22

400 1 .7 .7 10 0

0

: •• •

-

7 1 . ;

1 400

3 05

2 0 0 :0 1 1 1 1 :

WALL INGTON:

WILBURTON: •

P a lstave

A B asa l L ooped Spear L unate Spear

20 I M iles 30

6 10

0 Hoard D L ooped

1 0

4 27

Hoard

• Socketed

Axe

K ilo metres

EWART PARK :

HALLSTATT .C '

• Hoard

O

✓

• Socketed Axe

Sword

Sword

# Spear

• Socketed Axe

+ B rooch

V

A L eaf s haped s pear

O

Sword

F ortif ied

* Go ld Orna ment

F ig. 8

D istribution o f L ate B ronze A ge F ortified S ites, B ronze I mplements a nd G old O rnaments

8 6

S ite

O a t

CH URWELL H OARD

RO UNDHA Y H OARD EDS M. LE

EDS M LE . D 236 . 1964C 0 0

I

4 5

1 0

I N S . CMS

R UNTHWA ITE H OARD ( SI L SDEN ) 1 129 y .m . 130 & . 1948 F ig.

9

U nfinished P alstaves f rom W alington I ndustry H oards

8 7

I i 0

-4 0 1m . -— 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

)GOLD BAND

-

-

4 I N S . CMS 1 0

F ig.

1 0

T he

' Near H arrogate' H oard ( after P ryor)

8 8

WE ST BR ADFORD

_

BR IGHOUSE

HU LL M

TO LSON M.

ST A NW ICK B. M .4 7 .2-7 104

0 0

4 5

I N S . C MS . 1 0

4

_7 `e

RA IN T ON CUM NE WB Y RI PON M L3 9

F ig .

1

W allington a nd P enard I ndustry S pearheads

8 9

P \

ST ANW ICK B.M .4 7 . 2 -8 . 102

0 0

4 I N S .

I 5

CMS . 1 0

2

D AG LETHORPE , MI DLEHAM SH .M.J 93 .468& 5 04 F ig .

1 2

H eathery B urn I ndustry : S pearheads a nd ' Yorkshire' t ype S ocketed A xe

9 0

BI L TON IN - AI N STY SHM J 9 3 4 6 4 -467 J 93 4 9 4 -500

F ig.

1 3

T he B ilton—in—Ainsty H oard 9 1

SW INTON LO ST

GR ETA BR IDGE B. M. WG .8 .

NE AR BO ROUGHBR IDGE

I N GLETON

Y. M.

PI G YARD CL UB M.

F ig.

1 4

B ronze a nd G old O rnaments

9 2

9 3

YM 1 2 1 3 . 1948

NE AR LE E DS

YEA DON , WE STF IELD LA NE BR ADFORD M

SH EFF IELD , WY BORNE ES TATE

YORK AR EA?

0 0

L r )

A PPENDIX I . E arly B ronze A ge B urials a nd P ottery.

t he

T his i s a s ummary l ist o f s ites a nd a ssociations, a d etailed s tudy o f B ronze A ge p ottery o f W estern Y orkshire i s i n p reparation . F or t he

g eneral l iterature a nd g eographical b ackground F aull a nd M oorhouse 1 981, 9 3-7 a nd 1 00-1 .

1 .

A RKSEY

S E 5 80/007

c onsult

B u 'lock

1 963 ,

a nd

V ale o f Y ork .

A ccessory C up w ith c ord d ecoration f ound d uring t he d igging o f a d rain . N o i nterment n oted . D oncaster M useum a nd A rt G allery 1 54 . 6 8 . M anby 1 974 , 3 4 , F ig . 2 .5 .

2 .

A YSGARTH

S E 0 0/88

W ensleydale.

U rn b urial w ith a ccessory c up w ithin a s tone c ist , C rake C lose. Y orkshire M useum 1 953 .11 ( Accesory C up) .

3 .

B AILDON M OOR

S E 1 38/403

f ound

i n

1 910 a t

C oal M easures .

O n D obrudden F arm a g roup o f b arrows a nd r ing w orks a mongst a f ield s ystem f irst i nvestigated b y C olls i n 1 845 d iscovering c remation b urials , s ome w ith c ollared u rns . c onfusion a bout f inds . Y orkshire Museum 167-1169 .47 . C oils 1 846 .

L ater e xcavations i n t his a rea a nd

W ardell 1 855 , 8 7-94 ; 1 869 , 2 5-38 , L ongworth 1 984 , 2 78 , N o . 1 580-3 .

4 .

B AILDON

S E 1 42/396

C oal M easures.

H ope H ill c airn d estroyed i n e xtending a g olf c ourse 1 904 . G reenwell r eputedly d ug i n t his a rea i n t he 1 870s a nd t hree u rns w ere f ound? . B arnes 1 982,

5 .

11, N o . 2 28.

B AILDON

S E 1 38/409

C oal M easures.

P ennythorn H ill b arrow d estroyed i n e xtending t he g olf c ourse i n 1 904 a nd a n u rn b urial w ith f lint f lakes, a t anged b ronze b lade a nd a b one p in r ecovered . P ossibly e arly u rn f inds f rom t his s ite o r a nother b arrow e xcavated b y C oils i n 1 845 . B radford M useum f or 1 904 f inds , e arlier f inds i n C raven M useum, S kipton . W ardell 1 869, 2 3 . P reston 1 905, 9 7 . S heppard

1 905,

1 84-5 .

G ilks 1 973b , 1 79 . B arnes 1 982 , 11, N o . 2 30 . L ongworth 1 984 , 2 78 , N o . 1 585 .

9 5

6 .

B AILDON

S E 1 40/4068

R ingwork o r d isk b arrow ,

7 .

C oal M easures.

i nverted u rn b urials a t t he c entre e xcavated

b y C oils 1 845 . S ite r e-excavated b y Mr . c ollared u rn a nd a F ood V essel f ound . C raven M usuem 1 890 f inds C oils 1 846, 3 03 P l. V II.3 R aistrick 1 929, 3 62, F ig. 8 B arnes 1 982, 11, N o . 2 29 L ongworth 1 984, 2 78, N o. 1 584

M aude a bout

B AILDON

C oal M easures.

S E 1 42/406 a rea

1 890

a nd a

A cre H owe e xcavated b y M r. M aude a bout 1 890 a nd a b ucket u rn r ecovered. C raven M useum A . 10 G ilks 1 973, 1 78, F ig. 4 .4 B arnes 1 982, 11, N o . 2 29

8 .

B ALDERSBY S T . J AMES ' British u rns f ound b arrow W ide H owe. M anby 1 971, 1 77.

9 .

S E 3 69/766 1 909 ' o n B rooms F arm .

S E 0 41/185

B ARKISLAND

V ale o f M owbray . P robably f rom a d estroyed

G ritstone.

R ound b arrow k nown a s B eacon H ill o n R ingstone E dge ,

t wo c inerary u rns

c ontaining b ones f ound w hen t he e astern s ide o f t he m ound w as r emoved i n r ebuilding a w all i n 1 907. L ongbotham 1 932,

1 0.

1 67, P l. V

B ARKISLAND

S E 0 44/182

R ing w ork o n R ingstone M oor c alled t he ' Wolf 's F old ' b y W atson i n 1 775 , u pright s tones o n a b ank l ater r emoved . E xcavated b y L ongbotham i n 1 905, a c ist c ontaining a n u rn , a nd p its c ontaining c harcoal a nd a nother u rn f ound i nside t he b ank . W atson 1 775 L ongbotham 1 932,

1 68-74, P l. V I

W atson 1 952, 9 4 B arnes 1 982, 1 14, N o . 2 85 ( Beacon H ill a nd R ingstone m erged i n t his e ntry).

1.

B ARNINGHAM

N Y 0 57/074

N orthern D ales

R ound c airn k nown a s H ow T allon e xcavated b y G atty a nd M ilburn i n 1 897 . C entral e mpty c ist a nd f ive i nhumation b urials i n t he c airn , s herds o f aB eaker , a nd a F ood V essel a ccompanying a c rouched i nhumation . B owes M useum 1 958.

1 837 A -J

G atty 1 898 C oggins & C lews 1 980, 2 0-30

9 6

1 2.

B RADFIELD

S K 2 27/983

S outhern G ritstone

B arnside C ommon c remation b urial c ontained i n a l arge u rn , s mall u rn a nd a ccessory c up w ith a s mall p iece o f b ronze a nd a w orked f lint. S heffield C ity M useum 1 972. 4 46-448 K enworthy 1 899

1 3.

L ongworth 1 984, 2 65, N o.

1 405-6

B RADFORD

S E 19/353

C oal M easures

D uring t he c onstruction o f ar eservoir a t C hellow H eights i n 1 921 t hree u rns a nd a n a ccesory c up w ere d iscovered, n o d etails o f b urial a ssociations. B radford M useums N H 5 7-36 B arnes 1 982, 13, N o . 2 51 L ongworth 1 984, 2 78-9, N o. 1 591-3

1 4.

B RADFORD

S E 0 99/321

C oal M easures

I n 1 880 t hree u rn b urials f ound o n L ower H eadley F arm, T hornton , a c ollared u rn i llustrated . ' S everal o ther u rns h ave b een m et w ith i n t he i mmediate v icinity . . ' . B radford A ntiquary I ( 1888) 5 6 L ongworth 1 984, 2 80, N o. 1 606

1 5.

B RAMLEY

S E 2 40/337

C oal M easures

A n u rn ' in a d ish-like c ircle f illed w ith e vidences H ough H ill ( Hough E nd) i n 1 879. H olmes 1 887, 2 87

1 6.

S E 5 28/073

B RODSWORTH

o f c remation ' a t

M agnesian L imestone

M iniature c ollared u rn f ound w ithin a y ard o f p ottery a nd b ones, p robably a b urial ,

d uring t he c learing o f s urface s oil f rom a c lay p it

a t B rodsworth C olliery i n 1 915. D oncaster M useum 1 5.29 M anby 1 974, 3 3, F ig . 2 .5 L ongworth 1 984, 2 65, N o. 1 407

1 7.

S D 9 4/50 a rea

B ROUGHTON I N C RAVEN U rn

b urial

f ound

s tone b attleaxe ,

1 675

o n t he e state o f

a h one ,

a t anged k nife

A ire G ap S tephen T empest o r

c ontaining

a

r azor a nd b one p ins w ith

p erforated h eads. T horesby 1 715, 14-115 & 5 65-566, P l. 2 8-30.

1 8 .

C ROOKES, S heffield U pright

u rn a mongst

S K 3 25/881 a m ass

h ouse f oundation i n 1 887 .

o f

.

c harcoal

C oal M easures f ound

d uring

t he

d igging o f

C remation i nside w ith a ccessory

9 7

c up,

b ronze t anged b lade , l eaf-shaped f lint a rrowhead . i nside a s ac over t o b urial. S heffield C ity M useum J 87-51 B aggaley 1 928, L ongworth 1 984, 2 65-6, N o. 1 410-11.

1 9.

C ROSS

H ILLS, S ilsden

S E

0 07/452

S econd u rn i nverted

C entral G ritstone

1 845 f ragments o f t hree c ollared u rns p resented t o t he Y orkshire M useum b y J .H . F isher . A nother u rn n oted b y R aistrick f ormerly i n t he E shton H all C ollection . Y orkshire M useum 138 .47 R aistrick 1 929, 3 62

2 0.

L ongworth 1 984, 2 80, N o .

1 603-5.

D ONCASTER

S E 5 72/030

V ale o f Y ork

C ollared U rn b urial f ound d uring d igging h ouse f oundations i n S t . S epulchre G ate i n 1 856. D oncaster M useum 2 83X T omlinson 1 887, 7 , P late M anby 1 974, 2 4, F ig . 1 L ongworth 1 984, 2 65, N o. 1 409.

2 1.

D ONCASTER

S E 5 81/038

C ollared u rn c ontaining a c remation ,

V ale o f Y ork a ccessory c up a nd a ' brass '

o bject , c overed b y a b owl a nd a s tone b attleaxe b eside i t . 1 856 i n a s and p it a t T he H olmes.

F ound i n

D oncaster M useum & A rt G allery 2 84X , 3 02X , 3 08X T omlinson 1 887, 7 , P late M anby 1 974, 2 7-30, F ig . 2 .1-3 R oe 1 979, 4 1, F ig. 2 . Y6 09 L ongworth 1 984, 2 65, N o . 1 408 .

2. 2

E LBOLTON , T horpe D uring

S E 0 08/616

C raven U plands

t he e xcavation o f E lbolton C ave i n 1 888-1891 a nd 1 920 s herds o f

a c ollared u rn a nd a p ossible F ood V essel f ound i n t he M iddle C ave e arth a bove a h earth . S herds o f a s econd c ollared u rn f ound n ear a n i nhumation b urial i n t he u pper c ave e arth. B radford M useum a nd S kipton M useum G ilks 1 973b L ongworth 1 984, 2 56, N o. 1 294-5.

2 3.

F ERRY F RYSTON

S E 4 74/245

M agnesian L imestone

R ound b arrow e xcavated b y G reenwell i n 1 863 a fter e arlier d iscoveries o f

i nhumation b urials

g rave ,

a nd c ollared u rns .

C entral B eaker

i nhumation

o ther b urials i ncluding o ne a ccompanied b y a F ood V essel .

R e-

e xcavation i n 1 962 l ocated t wo c oncentric r ing d itches a nd e vidence o f t wo p hases o f c onstruction .

S econd b arrow t o t he s outh m arked b y a

9 8

r ing d itch w ith c entral i nhumation g rave a ccompanied d agger. P acitto

b y a f lint

1 969

L ongworth 1 984, 2 79, N o. 1 594-5.

2 4.

G UISBURN

S D 8 3/49

A ire G ap

B arrow c lose t o t he r iver b ank i n G uisburn P ark e xcavated i n t he 1 9th C entury, ' a r ude e arthenware u rn ' f ound. W hittaker 1 823 , 5 3.

2 5.

G UISELEY

S E 1 9/43 a rea

C entral G ritstone

U rn ( collared) f ound o n G uiseley Moor ,

o ther u rns r eported i n t he

d istrict . P re-1869 . W ardell 1 869 , 4 0 S later 1 880, 1.

2 6.

H ALIFAX

C entral G ritstone

AY orkshire t ype F ood V essel f rom s omewhere i n t he p arish o f H alifax . T olson M emorial M useum , H uddersfield R oth 1 906, F ig . 1 97 M anby 1 969, 2 81, F ig. 1 .6 B arnes 1 982, 15, N o . 2 93. 2 7.

H ALIFAX T hree

S E 0 93/240

c ollared u rns

f ound

' at

C entral G ritstone

t he b ottom o f

t he w alk l eading

t o

h ouse c alled H eath i n S kircoat ' , b efore 1 775 . V essels i nverted , t hree f eet a part a nd o ne c ontaining a c remation . W atson 1 775, 6 1, P l. 4 .3

t he e ach

V arley 1 973, F ig . 3 .1-2 B arnes 1 982, 15, N o. 3 01 L ongworth 1 984, 2 79, N o . 1 597-9.

2 8 .

S E 0 74/386

H ARDEN M OOR , B ingley R ingwork a rea ,

e xcavated

s ome

1 959 .

C remation

w ith c ollared u rns .

C entral G ritstone b urials

i n p its

C remation d eposit

i n

t he

i n t he

c entral

r ing b ank

a ccompanied b y am iniature u rn . B radford M useums B arnes 1 982, 12 , N o . 2 42 L ongworth 1 984, 2 78, N o. 1 586-90.

2 9.

H ELLIFIELD

S D 8 72/572

C raven U plands

E xcavation b y R .H . T iddeman o f a b arrow o n L ingber H ill i n 1 885 o r 1 889 . T wo c ollared u rns f ound e ach c overed b y a s lab a nd c ontaining c remations . O ne a ccompanied b y a t anged b ronze b lade a nd b one p in , t he s econd c ontained a n a ccessory c up . R aistrick 1 931, 2 50

9 9

K ing 1 970, 3 4, F ig. L ongworth 1 984, 2 46, N o .

3 0 .

173.

H UTTON M OOR , H utton C onyers

S E 3 54/727

V ale o f M owbray

A b arrow t hree-quarters o f am ile e ast o f B lows H ill e xcavated i n 1 846 . A s mall c airn o f c obbles c overed b y s and, c harcoal a nd e vidence o f b urning b ut n o b urial f ound. W albran 1 875 M anby 1 971, 1 78 T homas 1 955, A ppendix I I, N o . 1 4.

3 1.

H UTTON M OOR ,

S E 3 44/757

V ale o f M owbray

H utton C onyers B arrow e xcavated b y L ukis i n 1 869 o n M elmerby C ommon . T wo u rns? o ne u pright a nd t he o ther i nverted b eneath a c entral c airn o f c obbles . B oth c ontained c remation b urials. B ritish M useum L ukis 1 870, 1 20, P l. V I, N o. 1 T homas 1 955, A ppendix I I, N o . 1 8 .

3 2.

H UTTON MOOR , H utton C onyers

S E 3 47/755

V ale o f M owbray

B arrow e xcavated b y L ukis i n 1 869 o n M elmerby C ommon . C remation b urial w ith c harcoal i n a c entral p it , c overed b y a c entral h eap o f c obbles. L ukis 1 870, 1 21 T homas 1 955, A ppendix I I, N o.

3 3.

H UTTON M OOR ,

1 9.

S E 3 47/754

V ale o f M owbray

H utton C onyers B arrow

e xcavated b y L ukis

i n

b elow t he o ld l and s urface ,

1 869

3 f t .

o n M elmerby C ommon . d iameter ,

s ides b urnt ,

C entral p it f illed w ith

c harcoal a nd b urnt b ones, a ccessory c up o n t he f loor. L ukis 1 870, 1 21-122, P l . V I, N o . 2 T homas 1 955, A ppendix I I, N o. 2 0.

3 4.

K EIGHLEY

S E 0 65/413

C entral G ritstone

T hree u rned c remations f ound d uring r ailway c onstruction n ear K eighley s tation , m id-nineteenth c entury . R ecorded i n n otes a t K eighley M useum .

3 5.

K ILDWICK

S E 0 0/45 o r 0 1/45

A ire D ale

T wo u rns f ound w hen t he r ailway l ines w ere l aid, c entury .

N otes a t K eighley M useum .

1 00

m id-nineteenth

AVENSWORTH 3 6. KIRBY R

N Z 1 4/06 a rea

N orthern D ales

T hree c airns d estroyed i n t he e arly n ineteenth c entury . ( 1) C astle S teads, D alton , a ccidental d iscovery o f s keletons ( 2) a t t he ' Stone M an ', a c airn d estroyed f or w all s tone, a s keleton d iscovered . ( 3) T umulus t hree-quarters o f am ile S .E . o f ' S tone M an ' , a ' stone c hest o r c offin , i nside w as a c ael p ot'. M aclauchland 1 859, 3 42-343.

3 7.

K IRKLINGTON

S E 3 22/816

V ale o f M owbray

B arrow c alled ' S tapley H ill ' ( formerly S tappilhow) e xcavated i n 1 903 . P rimary i nhumation w ith a F ood V essel a nd s econdary c remations w ith c ollared u rns. K irklington P rimary S chool M 'Call 1 903, 1 07 & x v T homas 1 955, A ppendix 1 1.2

3 8.

M anby 1 971 L ongworth 1 984, 2 47-8, N o.

187-9.

L EEDS

S E 3 02/337

C oal M easures

A n u rn c ontaining a shes, c alcined b ones a nd a s tone b attleaxe f ound i n 1 745, a t a d epth o f t wo f eet, i n af ield n ear t he t op o f B rigate . W ardell 1 853, 3 , P l. 1 L ongworth 1 984 , 2 79, N o .

3 9.

L ITTLE O USEBURN

1 602.

S E 4 45/602

V ale o f Y ork

L arge b arrow e xcavated b y P .A . R ahtz i n 1 959 . C entral g rave c ontaining a t ree t runk c offin , b urial d issolved b ut a ccompanied b y a b ronze d agger . C entral t urf s tack c overed b y a c airn o f c obbles a nd a n o uter t urf s tack . P roc. P rehist. S oc. 2 5 ( 1959), 2 74.

4 0.

S D 8 99/641

M ALHAM

C raven U plands

S heriff H ill p artly r emoved i n t he 1 840s . E xcavated b y R aistrick , a c airn w ith a k erb o f f laggy s tone . A n a ccessory c up u nder a f lat s tone i nside t he k erb . T hree b ronze a ge v essels r epresented b y f ragments i n t he d isturbed c airn . M alham T arn H ouse R aistrick a nd H olmes 1 962, 8 0, F ig. 4 .1-4.

4 1.

S E 4 58/454

N EWTON K YME

M agnesian L imestone

T wo i nhumation b urials i n g raves , p it c ontaining a F ood V essel , w ithin as egmented d itch . F ound d uring e xcavation a t t he R oman F ort s ite b y H .G . R amm ,

1 955.

Y orkshire M useum

1 01

U npublished. 4 2.

N ORTH D EIGHTON

S E 3 88/512

M ägnesian L imestone

R ound b arrow e xcavated 1 937-1942 , c omposite m ound w ith s tone r evetment . C entral i nhumation g rave c overed b y i nner m ound w ith i nhumations a nd c remations , o ne a ccompanied b y a F ood V essel . S atellite i nhumation g raves a round o ne w ith a F ood V essel . S econdary b urial i n m ound , a c ollared u rn c remation . H arrogate M useum W ood 1 971 L ongworth 1 984, 2 49, N o. 1 208.

4 3.

O VENDEN , H alifax

S E 0 68/298

C entral G ritstone

I nverted c ollared u rn i n a s tone c ist a nd c ontaining a c remation . F ound b y ag rave d igger a t M ount Z ion C hapel i n 1 877. T olson M useum , H uddersfield R oth 1 906, 2 93-294, F ig. 1 93 V arley 1 968 B arnes 1 982, 16, N o. 3 09 ( No . 3 07 i s t his f ind u nder a nother l ocation) L ongworth 1 984, 2 79 , N o. 1 596.

4. 4

O ULTON

S E 3 7/29 a rea

C oal M easures

A ccessory v essel f ound i n ag ravel p it i n 1 873, p ossibly w ith a n u rn . W alker 1 939, 1 3.

4 5.

S E 0 32/104

P ULE H ILL , M arsden F our F ood V essels a nd

C entral G ritstone

a n a ccessory v essel

f ound w ith

i nhumation a nd

c remation b urials o n t he s ummit o f t he h ill , n o m ound n oticed , p ossibly e roded a way . F ound 1 896, a nd r e-examined 1 899 . T olson M useum , H uddersfield A 1 3-16.58 W rigley 1 911, 5 1-56. P l. L P etch 1 924, 5 6-59, F ig. 2 4-25 M anby 1 969, 2 73-275 B arnes 1 982,

4 6.

1 20, N o. 3 74.

S E 3 38/804

Q UERN H OWE, A inderby R ound

b arrow

e xcavated b y DM

o uter c apping o f c obbles .

W aterman

V ale o f M owbray 1 949 .

C omposite m ound

w ith

C remation b urials i n p its s ome a ccompanied

b y F ood V essels . Y orkshire M useum W aterman 1 951.

4 7.

R ASTRICK

S E 1 4/22

C oal M easures

1 797 a bout t wenty u rns f ound i n o pening a q uarry . 1 5 i nches d iameter , a b lack s ubstance .

D escribed a s 4 t o

c ontaining a shes a nd h uman b ones a nd s urrounded b y O ne u rn i nverted a nd m ost f ell t o p ieces b efore

1 02

t hey c ould b e g ot o ut o f t he e arth. P arson a nd W hite , T he A nnals o f Y orkshire, V ol. I ( 1836), R oth 1 906, 2 92-293 B arnes 1 982,

4 8.

1 797

15 , N o . 2 92.

R YLSTONE

S D 9 71/568

C raven

C lay r ound b arrow w ith e ncircling d itch . T ree t runk c offin i n c entral B ody w rapped i n aw oollen c loth , b ones d ecayed . G reenwell B arrow 1 62 B ritish M useum a nd S kipton M useum G reenwell 1 877, 3 75-377.

4 9.

S D 9 95/064

S ADDLEWORTH

C entral G ritstone

B arrow d estroyed b y q uarrymen a t B rown H ill i n 1 844 . T wo u pright u rns, 4 f t . a part , c ontaining c remations, t ops c overed b y f lat s tones a nd s tanding i n a c harcoal l ined h ollow . H our-glass p erforated m acehead i n o ne u rn . T olson M emorial M useum W rigley 1 911, 4 4, P l. K P etch 1 924, 5 0 &5 9 G ilks 1 977 B arnes 1 982, 1 04, N o . 14 L ongworth 1 984 , 2 01, N o . 6 13-4.

5 0 .

S HARROW

S E 3 54/743

V ale o f M owbray

B arrow e xcavated b y W .C . L ukis w est o f S ix P enny H ill , o n H utton M oor , i n 1 870 . T hree f ine t anged a nd b arbed f lint a rrowheads a nd f our f lint k nives f ound b ut n o f urther d etails. B ritish M useum 7 5. 4 -5. 4 -11. M anby 1 977, 1 77178.

5 1.

S HEFFIELD

S K 2 90/861

S outhern G ritstone

Ag roup o f t hree b arrows a t L odge M oor, r eported a s b eing d ug i nto p rior t o 1 846 b y G eorge B ennett when ' urns' w ere d iscovered . Two m ounds e xcavated 1 954-1957 . B oth b uilt o f s tacked t urf w ith b oulder c appings , c entres d isturbed a nd a ny c entral i nterments . T wo u rned c remations i n t he m ound o f B arrow 1 . S heffield C ity M useum B artlett 1 957 H enderson 1 957 L ongworth 1 984, 2 66, N o.

5 2.

S KIPTON

1 .12-3, -

S D 9 89/514

A iredale

C ord d ecorated a ccessory c up f ound d uring t he d igging o f a n e lectricity c able t rench o utside t he R egal C inema i n K eighley R oad, i n 1 953. C raven M useum , S kipton D 1383 U npublished.

1 03

5 3.

T HORPE C inerary u rn

S E 0 1/62 f rom a

f abric , i ncluding d ecoration .

b arrow ,

p ieces

C raven n o

f rom

f urther

a c ollar

d etails . w ith

S herds

i ncised

o f

h erring

u rn b one

C raven M useum , S kipton R aistrick 1 929, 3 61.

5 4.

T HORPE A RCH

S E 4 3/46

M agnesian L imestone

R ound b arrow e xcavated i n 1 859 , c entral c airn c overing b urials, o ne w ith a p iece o f b ronze. P ro . Y orks. G eo. & P oly . S oc. 1 0 ( 1889).

5 5.

T HORNBOROUGH

S E 2 87/791

t wo c remation

V ale o f M owbray

R ound b arrow , C entre H ill, e xcavated b y L ukis i n 1 869 . C entral h ollow i nto t he o ld s urface l ined w ith ' a c oarse c oncrete ' -possibly g ypsum . I n t he b ottom o f t he h ollow a t ree t runk c offin c ontaining a d ecayed i nhumation a ccompanied b y a F ood V essel , f lint s craper a nd a f lint k nife. B ritish M useum 8 0. 6 -23.1 L ukis 1 870, 19, P l. 1 1 .1, V .1.

5 6.

T HORNTON I N L ONSDALE

S D 7 09/787

C raven

R ound c airn , d isturbed i n t he n ineteenth c entury a nd p artially e roded b y K ings D ale B eck . E xcavation b y A . K ing , 1 972 , o f a n a rea s outh o f t he c entre l ocated t wo e longated p its c ut i nto t he p re-cairn s urface . P it

1 c ontained

a c remation

b urial

b eneath

t wo

s andstone

s labs

a nd

e nclosed b y b oulders. K ing 1 978.

5.

T HORNTON M OOR , E arby

S D 9 3/46

C entral G ritstone

R ing work w ith c entral m ound e xcavated b y W .W . H olgate i n 1 932 . C remation b urials i n t he b ank , s ome w ith c ollared u rns, s ome d eposits e nclosed i n c ists . B eaker a ccompanied b urial f rom c entral m ound , a F ood V essel a ccompanied b urial a nd a l arge c ollared u rn c ontaining a l arge a ccessory c up a nd c remation . C raven M useum , S kipton L ongworth 1 984, 2 56, N o .

5 8.

T ODMORDEN

J et o rnaments w ith b urials .

1 292-1293a .

S D 9 43/254

C entral G ritstone

R ing w ork a t B lackheath , e xcavated 1 898 , 1 00 f eet i n d iameter , b ank 3 f eet w ide , w ith l arge s tones s et m ore o r l ess a t i ntervals . A part f rom o ne u rned c remation i n t he b ank a ll i nterments w ere g rouped a round t he c entre a nd e ast o f i t, a ll w ere c remations . 1 , a n u rned c remation c ontaining a n a ccessory c up ,

C entral b urial N o . b ronze d agger a nd

a wl , a nd a b one p in . O f r ing o f c remation d eposits a round t he c entral b urial , o nly t wo o f t hese i n u rns . S econd c oncentration o f b urials

1 04

r adially ,

s pread u p t o

1 0 f eet s outheast o f t he c entre ,

s ome i n u rns .

S preads o f c harcoal, ' baked s urfaces , t wo p its a nd f our s tone c airns a ll w ithin t he a rea o f t he r ing b ank . T otal n umber o f u rns a t l east f ifteen ;

f our a ccessory c ups ,

b eads a nd p ins, i nterments.

f lint

a lso j et ,

k nives

a nd

a mber a nd f aience b eads ,

s crapers

a ccompanying

b one

v arious

T odmorden L ibrary L aw 1 898 R oth 1 906, 3 -7-322, F igs. 2 20-229 B u 'lock 1 963, 4 1, F ig. I I B arnes 1 982, 17-118 , N o. 3 27, F ig. 1 5, I I a nd 3 6 L ongworth 1 984, 2 80-1, N o. 1 60719.

5 9.

W ADDINGTON

S D 7 2/43

R ibblesdale

I nverted u rn b urial f ound b y w orkmen i n J une 1 887 b eneath t he c entre o f a s mall mound o n F inder H ill, d estroyed d uring g ravel d igging . B ipartite c ollared u rn c ontaining c remated b ones, a l arge a ccessory c up, a f ragment o f ab one b ead, a f lint s craper a nd f lake. C lithero C astle M useum R aistrick 1 931, 2 43-250, F ig.

1&2

L ongworth 1 984 , 2 20, N o. 8 45.

6 0.

W ADWORTH

S D 0 10/275

C entral G ritstone

I n M ay 1 897 b urials e xposed i n t he f ace o f a q uarry a t C ockhill , ' urns ' r olled d own .

A g rave e xposed w ith b ones a nd c harcoal .

w hen

P ottery

a nd f lints r ecovered , a n a ccessory c up i n t he B ritish M useum m ay b elong t o t his f ind. B ritish M useum 9 8.10-15.1 R oth 1 906 , 3 06, F ig. 1 98 B arnes 1 982, 18 , N o. 3 29.

6 1.

S D 0 13/272

W ADWORTH

C entral G ritstone

R ing w ork w ith c entral m ound , e xcavation i n l ate n ineteenth c entury b y W ilkinson f ound a n u rned c remation w ith a ccessory c up i n f ragmentary c ondition . O ther r ing w orks a nd a n umber o f s mall m ounds n earby h ad b een d estroyed b y q uarrying. R oth 1 906, 3 06 B arnes 1 982,

6 2.

, N o. 3 30. 18

W ARLEY

S E 0 54/260

C entral G ritstone

U rned c remation b urials e xposed i n 1 848 i n aq uarry a t T ower H ill . l east f ive c ollared u rns, o ne w ith a n a ccessory c up r ecorded. T olson M useum , H uddersfield L eyland 1 868, 5 8-59 R oth 1 906, 2 94-295, F igs. 1 95-6 G ilks 1 968 & 1 973b B arnes 1 982, 18 , N o. 3 38, F ig. 1 3, I II L ongworth 1 984, 2 79, N o.

1 600-1.

1 05

A t

6 3.

W EST T ANFIELD

S E 2 86/802

V ale o f M owbray

T he s outhern o f t he ' Three H ills ' r ound b arrow g roup e xcavated b y L ukis i n 1 869 . A l arge c ollection o f c obbles w ith a s ingle f ragment o f b urnt h uman b one b eneath t he c entre . c harcoal. L ukis 1 870, 19. T homas 1 955, N o. 2 5.

6 4.

W EST T ANFIELD

A bove a c remation d eposit w ith

S E 2 86/802

V ale o f M owbray

T he n orthern o f t he ' Three H ill ' e xcavated b y L ukis i n 1 870 . A c omposite r ound b arrow ; c entral p it w ith b urnt s ides c ontaining t he c remated b ones o f a n a dult a nd c hild , c overing i nner c lay m ound . T wo ' jars '

o n

t op

o f

t he

i nner

m ound ,

o ne c ontaining

c remated b ones

a nd

f lint f lakes. L ukis 1 870,

1 20, P l. V .2

T homas 1 955, N o . 2 6 .

6 5.

S E 2 86/802

W EST T ANFIELD

V ale o f M owbray

T he c entral o f t he ' Three H ills ' r ound b arrow g roup e xcavated b y L ukis i n 1 869 . C entral p it f illed w ith c harcoal a nd c remated b ones , c overed b y as oil m ound -description s uggests t urf. L ukis 1 869, 1 20 T homas 1 955, N o . 2 7.

6 6.

S E 0 1/66 a ved

Y ARNBURY N o f inds d etails.

Ac ollared u rn .

M anchester M useum 0 .9021 L ongworth 1 984, 2 45, N o . 152, P l .

6 7.

C raven

Y EADON

S E 2 0/40

1 2e

C entral G ritstone

Al arge u rn ' full o f a shes ' d iscovered a f ew y ears b efore 1 780 a nd c ompared b y W hittaker w ith t he S kircoat U rn i llustrated b y W atson . ( Watson 1 775, P l. 4 .3) W ardell 1 869, 4 0 S later 1 880, 1 011 B arnes 1 982, 1 23, N o. 4 09

1 06

A PPENDIX 2 A ssociated B ronze I mplement F inds A .

H otham C arr I ndustry

1 .

R EETH , F ramington E dge N Z 0 5/00 a rea F ound w ith o thers, p reserved ( Fig. 7 ). 1 . 2 .

p re-1861 .

W ensleydale

H oard .

T wo

w ing

f langed

b ronze

a xes

1 8 c ms. l ong, r ough d ark g reen p atination. U lrome t ype. 1 8 e ms. l ong, r ough g reen p atination . U lrome t ype.

E xtent o f f ind u nknown. B ritish M useum W .G . E vans,

2 .

1 820 & 1 821.

1 961, 7 6, F ig. 5 6.

S chmidt & B urgess,

1 981, 9 5, N o. 5 57-558.

R AWDON, C ragg W ood

N Z 2 09/388

F ound u nder a r ock i n 1 866 . W ood T ype. 1 .

1 6 c ms.

2 .

1 4.6 c ms.

A ire D ale

H oard .

T hree w ing f langed a xes,

C ragg

R ough p atination.

3 . F ragment, b roken o ff a t t he b ase o f t he f langes. B radford M useum 2 23.33. C artwright A rchaeol. G roup B ulletin 5 ( 1960), 7 0. S chmidt & B urgess,

1 981, 7 9, N o. 4 62-464.

B .

W allington a nd W ilburton I ndustries

1 .

B OLSTERSTONE,

S K 2 5/97

U pper D on V alley

F ound t ogether i n 1 912 d uring t he d igging o f a d rain a t a d epth o f 9 0 e ms.

i n S tangpit F ield.

1 . T ransitional l ooped p alstave, Y -midrib. 2 . T ransitional l ooped p alstave.

R oundhay t ype.

S helf t ype.

R ecorded i n t he B ritish A ssociation B ronze I mplement I ndex . U nknown l ocation , f ormerly i n t he B roomhead H all c ollection . B urgess,

1 968, 6 3.

S chmidt & B urgess,

2 .

1 981,

B RUNTHWAITE,

1 48-149, N o. 8 74 & 8 79.

S E 0 5/46 a rea

A ire D ale

N ear S ilsden A m id-19th c entury f ind r ecord i n a m anuscript n ote a t K eighley M useum . ' A n umber o f c opper c elts f ound a t B runthwaite C rag, s old t o M r . L aycock f or s crap'. H oard. ( Fig. 9 .3-4). 1 . L ate l ooped p alstave, 1 9 c ms. d ark g reen p atination . c entury i nscription o n t he b lade : 2 .

Mid-19th

' The D ruid 's C elt o r P ilum , F ound

o n t he N orth s ide o f K eighley , Y orks'. S ilsden t ype. L ate l opped p alstave f rom t he s ame mould a s 1 . 1 8 .5 c ms

B runthwaite p alstaves

a re

C rag

i s

5 kms

c onsidered

t o

n orth b e

o f K eighley a nd

p art

g rounds. Y orkshire M useum 129 & 130.

1 07

1 948.

o f

t his

f ind

t he o n

t wo

l ong .

l ooped

c ircumstantial

R aistrick ,

1 929, 3 59.

S chmidt & B urgess,

3 .

B OLTON P ERCY

1 981,

1 61, N o. 9 23-924 .

S E 5 1/42

' Found o n P alethorpe F arm ,

V ale o f Y ork

1 850, i n d igging a d rain '.

1 . 2 .

T ransitional p alstave, 1 7.5 c ms. r ough g reen p atination . T ransitional p alstave , n o m id r ib , 1 7 .2 c ms . G reen p atination w ith i ron s taining. B oth S helf t ype. A ssocation o f t wo p alstaves c omparable w ith B olsterstone. B ritish M useum W .G . 1 848 a nd 7 9 . 1 2-9 , 1 73. E vans, 1 881, 8 8. B urgess,

1 968 , 6 0.

S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981,

4 .

1 48-149, N o. 8 73 & 8 82.

D ONCASTER S E 5 76/027 V ale o f Y ork F ound d uring e xcavations i n C atherine S treet, p re-1909. 1 . 2 .

T ransitional l ooped p alstave , S helf t ype . T anged c hisel ( or l eather k nife) w ith c ollar s top .

P robably a p ersonal h oard. D oncaster M useum & A rt G allery . S heppard, 1 937. B urgess,

1 968, 6 1, F ig. 7 .2.

S chmidt & B urgess,

5 .

1 981,

C HURWELL ( Beeston)

1 47, N o . 8 62, P l.

S E 2 7/30

1 36B .

C oal M easures

A h oard, f ound i n May 1 846 d uring t he c onstruction o f t he L eedsD ewsbury r ailway a t ad epth o f 2 0 f eet i n s and . V ariously d escribed a s 9a xes a nd 4 s pears, 5 a xes a nd 3 s pears, a nd 5 a xes a nd 2 s pears. 1 . L ate l ooped p alstave, S ilsden t ype , 1 6 .7 c ms . l ong . C asting f lashing a round t he s ides. 2 . L ate l ooped p alstave , S ilsden t ype , 1 8 e ms . l ong . C asting f lashes a round t he s ides. ( Fig. 9 .2). 3 . G roup I I p alstave, L iswerry t ype, 1 5.5 c ms. l ong. 4 . L eaf-shaped s pearhead w ith p eg h ole i n t he s ocket . E dge o f b lade b roken a way . B and o f i ncised d ecoration a round t he b ase o f t he 5 .

s ocket. 1 5 c ms. l ong. L ow f langed p alstave w ith t races o f i ncised l ine d ecoration b elow

T he

t he s top r idge. 1 8 c ms. l ong. N orth G erman . 1 881 r eport c onflicts w ith t he 1 882 r egarding t he n umber o f

i mplements . H owever , b est e vidence w as 9 .

t he t otal n umber o f i tems i n t he h oard o n t he T he G roup I I p alstave i s e arliest i tem i n t his

h oard. N o o ther i tems t raceable . 1 -4. L eeds C ity M useum D 226. 1 964, D 236,

1 964, D 242,

H olmes, 1 881, 4 06 a nd 1 882, 1 44. S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 1 27 , 1 43-144 & 1 59 . P l.

6 .

1 964.

N . 7 92,

8 44 ,

9 21

1 39C .

H UNSLET

S E 3 0/30

C arr M oorside

1 08

C oal M easures

& 9 25 .

F ound i n M ay 1 881 b y a l abourer d igging , a c lay s oil a t a d epth o f 2 1 f eet ( 75 c ms.). Ah oard o f a xes. 1 . S ocketed a xe, G withian t ype, a t rident p attern o f r ibs. 2 -3. T ransitional l ooped p alstaves, S helf t ype. 4 -8 . T ransitional l ooped p alstaves, R oundhay t ype. H oard o f n ine i tems a ccording t o t he 1 882 a ccount a cquired m ost o f t he h oard.

b y H olmes

w ho

8 83-887 .

P l .

1 -6. L eeds C ity M useum , s ome d estroyed i n b litz. 7 . Y orkshire M useum , 137. 1 948. 8 . A shmolean M usuem , 1 927. 1 948. H olmes, 1 881, 4 05 a nd 1 882, 1 43. B urgess, 1 968 , 6 0-61, F ig. 8 . S chmidt & B urgess 1 981, 1 48-149 & 1 74, N o . 8 68, 1 38C .

7 .

K ILNHURST

S E 4 6/97

8 77,

D on V alley

P re1918, n o f ind d etails. 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

L eaf-shaped s pearhead, s ocket b roken o ff. L eaf-shaped s pearhead , p eg h ole i n s ocket , b lade b roken a long t he e dge T ransitional l ooped p alstave, R oundhay t ype v arient. S ocketed c hisel, s quare s ocket.

5 . S hort s ocketed h ammer, s ub-rectangular s ocket. 6 . S hort s ocketed h ammer. T he p atination o n a ll t he i tems i s s o s imilar t hat i t s upports t he v iew t hat t his i s ag enuine h oard . B ritish M useum , 1 918 . 7 -9. 1 t o 6 . P reston , 1 956. B urgess, 1 968, 6 1, F ig. 1 3. I nventaria A rchaeologica G B 4 1 ( 1958).

8 .

S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981,

1 50, N o. 9 00, P l. 6 5.

R OUNDHAY

S E 3 3/37

C oal M easures

A h oard o f s ix p alstaves f ound f uring t he d igging o f h ouse f oundations b efore o r d uring 1 907. 1 -3. T ransitional l ooped p alstaves, S helf t ype. 4 -5. 6 .

T ransitional l ooped p alstaves, R oundhay t ype . L ate l ooped p alstave , S ilsden t ype . C asting f lashing r emains a round t he e dge a nd s ides. ( Fig. 9 .1). I tems d amaged i n W artime b ombing o f L eeds C ity M useum . L eeds C ity M useum D 231 & 2 32. 1 964.

V ictoria C ounty ; H istory : Y orkshire I ( 1907), 4 11. P roc. S oc. A ntiq. 2 0 ( 1907-8), 2 61. B urgess, 1 968, 6 1-2, F ig . 7 .1.

9 .

S chm idt & B urgess, 1 981,

1 47, N o. 8 56, 8 60, 8 89, 8 96 & 9 20.

S HELF

S E 17/272

F ound

a t

a d epth

o f

2 f eet

( 60

1 37A .

C oal M easures e ms .)

d uring

q uarrying

W estercroft i n 1 856, a h oard o f a xes a nd s pearheads. 1 . A t ransitional l ooped p alstave . I ts s urfaces a way b y s evere 1 9th c entury m echanical c leaning.

1 09

P l.

h ave

a t

U pper

b een g round

2 -4. 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

T ransitional l ooped p alstaves, S helf t ype. T ransitional l ooped p alstave, S helf t ype v ariant. T ransitional l ooped p alstave, u nclassified. T ransitional l ooped p alstave, P enrith t ype. L ate p alstave , S ilsden t ype . T he c asting f lash h as b een r emoved

9 . 1 0.

b ut t he c utting e dge h as n ot b een s harpened. A l arge b asal l ooped s pearhead, p oint a nd s ocket b roken o ff. P oint o f al arge s pearhead .

1. S ocket f ragment o f a s pearhead. 1 2. S ide-looped s pearhead, b lade a nd l oops b roken o ff. I tems 1 2 i s t he e arliest p iece i n t he h oard a nd m ay h ave b een o ld s crap m etal. 1 . Y orkshire M useum, 197. 1 948. 2 -11 o n l oan t o t he T olson M useum , H uddersfield. 1 2. L ost. R oth, 1 906, 2 97. W atson, 1 952, 2 97, F ig. 6 . B urgess, 1 968, 6 2, F ig. 6 . S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 1 47-148, 1 52, 1 61, 1 62, N o . 8 52, 8 65, 8 67, 9 09, 9 22 & 9 33, P l. 1 83C .

1 0.

U LLESKELF

S E . 5 0/39

F ound a t ad epth o f 5f t .

( 1 .5 m .) b etween T owton a nd U lleske lf i n J une

1 849 . 1 . 2 .

V ale o f Y ork

A h oard o f W ilburton I ndustry A xes .

L ooped p alstave, t hree r ibs o n t he b lade. F ulford t ype . S ocketed a xe o f i ndented t ype, m ultiple m outh m ouldings. I ncised d ecoration , U lleskelf t ype .

3 . S ocketed a xe w ith m outh m ouldings. I sleham t ype. T he o nly h oard o f e xclusively W ilburton m aterial f rom Y orkshire . ! . shmolean M useum , O xford. . f ormerly i n t he B lackmore C ollection , S alisbury . A rchaeol. J ourn . 8 ( 1851), 9 9. E vans, 1 881, n. B urgess, 1 968, 6 5, F ig. 4 . S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981,

1 61,

1 67 & 1 69 .

N o . 9 28, 9 96 & 1 010 .

P l.

1 39D .

T he H eathery B urn I ndustry 1 .

B ARWICK I N E LMET O smondthick

S E 3 8/38

M agnesian L imestone

h oard o f f ive a xes f ound d uring p loughing i n A pril 1 709. 1 -4.

Y orkshire t ype s ocketed a xes.

5 . E verthorpe t ype s ocketed a xe. H oard r eferred t o b y l ater w riters

a s

' Bramham M oor ' .

O nly o ne a xe

c an n ow b e i dentified a nd i t i s r ecorded a s c oming f rom ' Kiddal'. B ritish M useum : S loan C ollection. S l. 2 83. R aistrick , 1 929, 3 59. R adley , 1 974, 2 0. B riggs, 1 978 a nd n ote i n A ntiq. J ourn . 6 2 ( 1982),

2 .

B ILTON I N A INSTY

S E 4 89/502

10

1 24-5.

V ale o f Y ork

F ound d uring d raining i n F ebruary 1 848 a t a d epth o f 2 0 i ns . ah oard o f s pearheads, s words a nd a xes . D ecember

1 848

b y

C .M .

J essop

w ho

( 50 c ms .)

T he s ite was e xamined i n

r ecovered a nother a xe a nd r ecorded

b urnt e arth ( clay) w ith a shes a nd c harred t imber a t t he s pot . ( Fig . 1 3). 1 -2. 3 . 4 . 5 -8. 9 .

E wart P ark s words, b lades b roken ( Appendix 3 , N o. 2 ). L eaf-shaped s pearhead , p eg h ole i n s ocket , f illets d own t he s ide . P oint a nd p art o f s ocket b roken . L arge l eaf-shaped s pearhead, b ase o f s ocket b roken . L eaf-shaped s pearheads, b lades a nd s ockets b roken . L eaf-shaped s pearhead, p eg h ole i n t he s ocket . I ncised d ecoration o n t he s ocket a nd b lades .

1 0-11 a nd 1 3-14 .

S ocketed a xes, E verthorpe t ype.

1 2. Y orkshire t ype s ocketed a xe. 1 5. S ocketed a xes, f aceted b lade t ype. 1 6. S ocketed a xe w ith h orizontal m oulding b elow t he s ocket. T he b roken n ature o f t he o bjects s uggest t his w as a s crap m etal h oard , b ut i t i s d ifficult t o d istinguish what b reakages a re d ue t o t he f inding o f t he h oard. S heffield C ity M useum J .93. 4 64-467 a nd 4 94-500. J essop 1 849. R adley , 1 967, 1 7, F ig. 2 .

3 .

H ARROGATE, n ear

S E 3 /5 a rea

C entral G ritstone

P urchased i n H arrogate a s a l ocal f ind b y aL ondon d ealer , W .H . F enton . A n a ssociated f ind o r h oard. ( Fig. 1 0). 1 . L arge b asal-looped s pearhead, b ase o f b lade a ngular . 6 1.9 c ms . l ong. 2 .

L eaf-shaped s pearhead ,

p eg h ole i n s ocket .

B and o f i ncised l ines

a nd h atched c hevron a round t he b ase , a s trip o f g old l eaf a pplied a nd t he p attern t raced o ut w ith a s harp p oint. 4 1.9 c ms. l ong. 3 .

S word, E wart P ark t ype. ( Appendix 3 , N o . 5 ). T he b asal-looped s pearhead i s e arlier t han t he o ther i tems ; i t m ay h ave b een a n h eirloom o bject, c ertainly i ts s ize a nd q uality m akes i t a m ost p restigious

p iece .

I t

i s p ossible t hat t hese o bjects

c ome f rom t he A lexander H ill f ind a t F ollifoot, s outh-east o f H arrogate ( Appendix 2 , D 1). R oyal O ntario M useum 9 27.3. 8 -10. C oles, 1 964, 1 92-3. F ootnote 7 , P l. X VIII & X IX r ight. P ryor , 1 980, 2 2-3 a nd 6 2, N o . 1 74-176. T aylor,

4 .

1 980, 8 3 a nd 8 8, P l. 6 1 a &e .

K IRK D EIGHTON

S E 4 00/510

V ale o f Y ork

A bout 1 954 a s pearhead f ound a fter p loughing . T wo f urther s pearheads f ound i n 1 955 a nd a s ocketed a xe ; i ntensive s earch o f t he f ield p roduced

n o

f urther

f inds .

A p lough d isturbed h oard

a rea, d rift-covered m agnesian l imestone . 1 -2. L arge l eaf-shaped s pearheads , s ockets 3 .

c ms. l ong. L eaf-shaped s pearhead, 2 5.5 c ms. l ong.

4 .

S ocketed a xe, E verthorpe t ype .

b roken

o ff .

T he i tems a re c omparable w ith t he B ilton i n A insty h oard.

11

f rom a g ravel L ength

2 3 .5

H arrogate R oyal P ump R oom M useum , K D 1 -4. R adley , 1 967, 1 5. F ig. 1 , 1 -4. P ierpoint, 1 980, 1 8-20, F ig. 7 .4. S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 19. N o. 1 313. P l .

5 .

K IRBY M ALZEARD

S E 2 40/736

1 440 .

C entral G ritstone

Ah oard f ound i n 1 887 d uring t he d igging o f ad rain i n t he f ield c alled ' E ller ' , c lose t o W illow H ouse F arm . T hirty-six a xes a ccording t o t he o ldest r ecords b ut v arious n umbers g iven i n o ther a ccounts. 1 . 2 . 3 .

E wart P ark s word, h ilt f ragment ( Appendix 3 , N o . 6 ). B lade f ragment o f as pearhead . S ocketed a xe w ith m ultiple m outh m ouldings . S outh-eastern t ype , B eddlestead v ariant.

4 -9. S ocketed a xes, Y orkshire t ype. 1 0-13 .Socketed a xes , Y orkshire t ype . T wo o pposed p airs o f r ibs i nside t he s ocket. 1 4-15.Socketed a xes, Y orkshire t ype. C asting f laws. 1 6. S ocketed a xe, Y orkshire t ype. O ne f ace b roken a way . 1 7. S ocketed a xe, Y orkshire t ype. U nsharpened c utting e dge . 1 8. S ocketed a xe, S outh-eastern t ype. B ilton v ariant. 1 9-29.Socketed a xes, E verthorpe t ype. 2 1. S ocketed a xe, s lender f orm . W elby t ype. 2 2. S ocketed a xe, Y orkshire t ype. 2 3. S ocketed a xe, p lain w ith c ollar . P ortree t ype. T he M inute B ook o f t he K irby M alzeard M echanics ' I nstitute h as a p hotograph o f 2 4 s ocketed a xes . T hese w ere f ormerly i n t he p ossession o f t he C athcart f amily a nd t he m ajority a re r epresented b y N o . 3 -20 a t R ipon . A t otal o f 2 1 a xes c an b e a ccounted f or a nd t he p resent w hereabouts o f t he r emaining 1 5 i s u nknown. T his h oard h ad a rrived a t t he T horpe P rebend H ouse M useum , R ipon , b y t he 1 920s a nd i ts s ource h as b een c onfused b y s ome w riters w ho h ave c alled i t t he R ipon H oard. R ipon , T he W akeman 's H ouse; L 14 a nd L 57. 1 18. 2 1. B ritish M useum . 2 2-23. E x . W illiam H orne M usuem , L eyburn , t ransferred t o B olton C astle M useum . P resent l ocation u nknown . A non.

1 909 ( illustration o f N o. 2 1). 1 910. 1 929, 3 59. B urgess, 1 981, 1 86, 2 13-214, 2 18, 2 27-228, 2 35-236 & 2 50 . 1 271, 1 278, 1 297, 1 409-1419 , 1 545-1548 & 1 660. P l . 1 49B .

A rmstrong, R aistrick , S chmidt & N o. 1 066A ,

6 .

M IDDLEHAM

S E 0 8/86

F ound t ogether a t A gglethorpe i n 1 848 .

W ensleydale ( Fig.

1 2.

1 -2).

1 . S pearhead w ith l unate o penings i n t he b lade. 3 9 c ms. l ong. 2 . S ocketed a xe, Y orkshire t ype, 9 c ms. l ong. T he s pearhead i s a d evelopment o f t he l unate o penings f ound i n l ate W allington I ndustry s pearheads. S heffield C ity M useum , J 93. 4 68 & 5 04 . N o p ublications.

12

7 .

OXTON , n ear T adcaster

S E 5 15/427

V ale o f Y ork

N o k nowledge o f c ircumstances. N o d escription . Y orkshire M useum . Y orks. A rchaeol. J ourn . 4 8 ( 1976), 2 .

8 .

S TANLEY , n ear W akefield

S E 3 56/228

C alderdale

D redged u p f rom a g ravel b ed i n t he R iver C alder a t S malley B ight b efore 1 914. Ah oard o f a xes. 1 -7.

S ocketed a xes o f Y orkshire t ype.

8 . 9 . 1 0. 1.

S ocketed a xe. E verthorpe t ype. W ing f langed a xe, U lrome t ype. A s outh-eastern l ooped p alstave , S leaford t ype . A n ' object w ith a m an 's b earded h ead d elineated o n i t'.

1 2. A n I rish s eries G roup C l p alstave . T he e arliest i tem o f t his g roup i s t he w ing f langed a xe , i ts g reen p atina d iffers f rom t he i ron s tained p atina o f t he s ocketed a xes a nd m akes i t l ikely t hat i t i s a s tray f ind . T he I rish p alstave m ay a lso b e as tray l oss a nd n ot p art o f t he h oard . L eeds C ity M useum , R aistrick ,

1 -7, 9 a nd 1 2 s urvive, o thers l ost i n W artime b litz.

1 929 , 3 59 .

V arley , 1 977, 5 3-54, F ig. 3 . S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 20 & 2 35, N o.

9 .

S TAINBURN

1 329,

1 526-1531.

S E 2 4/48

W harf dale

T wo a xes f ound b y al abourer s tubbing u p ah edge. 1 . S ocketed a xe, Y orkshire t ype, l oop a nd p art o f s ocket b roken a way . 2 . S ocketed a xe, Y orkshire t ype. P oor c astings, p ossibly f rom a s crap m etal h oard. H arrogate M useum K 112 & 15. C owling, 1 946, 1 22, P l. X VII 1 & 2 . S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 22 & 2 34, N o.

1 0.

1 347 & 1 510.

N Z 0 37/156

S TARTFORTH

T eesdale

F ound t ogether i n t he b ank o f G ill B eck , a bout 3 f eet ( 1 m .) b elow t he s urface . 1 -2. E wart P ark S words ( Appendix 3 , N o. 9 ). 3 . Ag old h air o r l ock r ing ( Appendix 4 , N o . 8 ). A p ersonal h oard. B owes M useum , J ones, 1.

1 958 .

1 864.

1 978, 4 -5, F ig. 3 , P l.

1 .

S E 6 10/508

Y ORK

V ale o f Y ork

A 1 9th c entury f ind b elieved t o b e a h oard .

T he C emetery i s i n

F ulford R oad. 1 -2.

S ocketed a xes, r ound s ectioned.

3 .

S ocketed a xe f ragment, Y orkshire t ype.

13

M eldreth t ype.

4 .

L eaf-shaped s pearhead, p oint m issing.

5 . S word f ragment ( Appendix 3 , N o . 1 0). 6 . S pearhead f ragment. T he f ull e xtent o f t his f ind i s u nknown . B ritish M useum W G 2 010-2016. M anby , 1 980, 3 63. P ierpoint, 1 980, F ig. 7 .6, N o. 2 5-30. S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 07 & 2 37, N o .

1 2.

Y ORK

S E 5 9 4 /5 1 7

1 243-1244 & 1 563.

P l .

1 44G .

V ale o f Y ork

' Celt b rought f rom Y ork b y G eorge M ifford E sq . A ug . 1 847 .

F ound i n

m aking r ailway w ith m any o thers'. S ocketed a xe, s outh-eastern t ype. R ound s ection . N o f urther f inds f rom t his h oard c an b e t raced .

T he s ource

i s

p robably t he Y ork-Scarborough R ailway l ine s tarted i n Y ork i n 1 845. L iverpool M useum M 6 996. R adley , 1 974, 2 1. M anby , 1 980, 3 64. N icholson , 1 980, 3 2. N o . 4 7. S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 16, N o. 1 294A

N OTE : I tems f rom t hese t wo Y ork h oards c ould h ave p assed i nto o ther c ollections i n t he d istrict . A mongst a c ollection o f b ronzes a cquired f rom a d ealer i n 1 863 b y t he B ritish M useum a re t wo s ocketed a xes f ound ' a t o r n ear Y ork ' . 1 . S ocketed a xe, s outh-eastern t ype, B ilton v ariant . W aste m etal f illing t he s ocket . 6 3 . 1 2-24 .2 ( Schmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 14, N o . 1 280). 2 . S ocketed a xe , S ompting t ype . 6 3 . 1 2-24 .1 . ( Schmidt & B urgess , 1 981, 2 42, N o .

1 599).

A lso t o b e c onsidered a re t wo s ocketed a xes a mongst b ronzes a cquired f rom a M r . W ormald o f F ulford b y T homas B ateman i n J uly 1 848: 1 . S ocketed a xe, F ulford t ype ( Wallington-Wilburton p hase). S heffield C ity M useum J .93 .502 ( Schmidt & B urgess, 2 .

1 001). S ocketed a xe , &B urgess,

D . 1 .

Y orkshire t ype .

1 981, 2 33, N o.

1 981, 1 77, N o .

S heffield C ity M useum J 93 .507 ( Schmidt

1 506).

U ncertain I ndustries a nd A ssociations F ARSLEY C OMMON ,

S E 2 1/35 a rea

C oal M easures

P udsey T his i s c learly a m is-attribution o f t he ' Earsley C ommon ' h oard f ound i n 1 735 a t Y earsley o n t he H owardian H ills ( area S E 5 8/74) . R aistrick ,

1 929, 3 59.

S chmidt & B urgess, 2 .

F OLLIFOOT ,

1 981, 2 0814. S E 3 22/522

n ear H arrogate

14

C entral G ritstone

A lexander H ill , al arge c airn d estroyed i n t he m id-19th c entury . ' A t t he b ase w ere s everal v ery l arge s tones , p robably a c ist v aen , a nd a t t he s ame t ime w ere f ound f ragments o f u rns, b ones a nd p ieces o f b rass, w hich w ere i mmediately d ispersed . S ome o f t he l atter a rticles c ame i nto t he p ossession o f t he v illage s mith , . a nd w ere d isposed o f b y h im t o a b rass f ounder a s o ld m etal . T here s eems t o h ave b een a mongst t hem s ome s pearheads a nd a p alstave . ' U nless

t his i s a h oard h idden i n a n o lder

c airn ,

t he

f ind m ust

b e

g rave g oods a ccompanying a n o utstanding b urial o f t he L ate B ronze A ge. F ull e xtent o f f ind u nknown . L ocation u nknown , i t i s p ossible t hat t his i s t he s ource o f t he t wo s pearheads a nd s word ( Appendix 2 , C 3 ) . W ardell,

' Near

H arrogate '

a cquired

b y

W .H .

F enton

1 881, 5 6-58 .

C hallis & H arding,

3 .

f rom

1 975, I 1 75, I I 5 7, N o. 2 7.

L EEDS

S E 3 2/33

A ire D ale

T hree b ronze a xe h eads f ound i n F ebruary 1 901 d uring t he d igging o f f oundations i n S treet L ane . L ocation u nknown . E . B ogg, T he K ingdom o f E lmet ( 1902), 9 3.

4 .

S ETTLE

C raven

N ote a ttached t o as ocketed a xe . w ith a s errated e dge -High H ill. S ocketed a xe, w ith s traight s ides.

•

' Found w ith t wo o ther a xes, o ne A rmorican t ype.

A s uspect f ind, m ay n ot b e o f l ocal o rigin . P ig Y ard C lub M useum , S ettle. S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 49, N o .

5 .

S TANWICK

1 654.

N Z 1 8/11

V ale o f M owbray

F orcett A xe p urchased a t D arlington a nd w as s aid t o h ave s ome f rom a h oard f ound a t F orcett n ear R ichmond . T his a ppears t o b e o ne o f a g roup o f b ronzes i llustrated a s c oming f rom t he S tanwick e arthworks ( Wooler , 1 917) . ' Numerous b ronze a xes a nd s pearheads h ave b een f ound h ere . ' T he m eaning o f t his s tatement i s a mbiguous , t he f inds m ay h ave c ome f rom a w ide a rea a s s tray f inds o r s ome m ay c ome f rom a h oard. 1 -2 . S ocketed a xes w ith m oulded s ockets . 3 . S ocketed a xe, S ompting t ype, v ertical r ibs b elow t he c ollar . 4 . L eaf-shaped s pearhead. T he r elationship o f t hese o bjects , a nd t he b asal-looped a nd l eafs haped s pearheads f ound a t S tanwick b efore 1 847 ( Evans 1 881, 3 14 & 3 28) i s u nknown . S chmidt & B urgess p oint o ut t hat t he S ompting A xe f its p erfectly t he m ould i n t he R oseberry T opping H oard ( Schmidt & B urgess , N o .

1 608 ,

P l .

1 48D ) .

1 981,

2 43 ,

T heir v iew t hat t he a xe p robably c ame f rom t he

R oseberry T opping h oard

i s

s upported b y

b ronzes. N ewcastle M useum o f A ntiquities,

15

t he

p atination

1 929 .68 f or N o. 3 .

o f

t he

P resent l ocation o f o ther i tems i s u nknown . W ooler 1 927, 7 P l. S chmidt & B urgess,

6 .

1 981, 2 43, N o.

T ADCASTER , n ear

1 604.

S E 4 8/43

M ägnesian L imestone

E xhibited t o t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries i n 1 812 a nd f ound n ear T adcaster a f ew y ears e arlier . 1 . 2 .

S ocketed a xe, W elby t ype, d ark b rown i ron s tained p atination. P enannular b racelet , D s ection , b utt t erminals , d ecorated o n t he

e xterior w ith d iagonal g rooves . p atination . 3 .

7c ms . d iameter .

S mooth l ight g reen

B un-shaped b ead o f b lack j et, 2 .5 c ms. d iameter.

T he b racelet h angs o n t he l oop o f t he s ocketed a xe a nd t he b ead i s o n t he b racelet . T his i s a s uspect a ssociation , t he p atinations o f t he t wo b ronze i tems i s v astly d ifferent a nd t he b racelet c annot b e o bviously p arallel i n a p rehistoric c ontext . E vans s uspected t he a ssociation . B ritish M useum ,

1 937.

1 217.1.

J .C . C rosse i n A rchaeologia 1 6 ( 1812) 3 62. P l. L IV N o . 2 . E vans, 1 881, 18 & 1 58. S chmidt & B urgess 1 981, 2 22. N o . 1 354 . T he f ull e xtent o f t his f ind i s u ncertain . M anby ,

1 980, 3 63.

P ierpoint, 1 980, F ig. 7 .6, N o. 2 5-30. S chmidt & B urgess, 1 981, 2 07 & 2 37, N o . 1 243-4. N ote S ince

t his

s ection w as p repared a E wart P ark i ndustry h oard h as b een

r ecovered a t G ilmonby n ear B owes ( NM 7S . C omm . D . C oggins) .

A PPENDIX 3 B ronze S words

1 .

B ARNOLDSWICK

S D 8 93/480

F ound a t G hyl C hurch .

Ewart P ark t ype ,

a cross.

c omplete,

b lade b roken

T wo r ivets i n t he h andle a nd t wo i n e ach s houlder .

B ronze c olour, 0 .8 m . l ong. ( Fig . C raven M useum , S kipton D avy & F orester 1 975, N o. 13

2 .

A ire G ap

B ILTON-IN-AINSTY

S E 4 89/502

1 5)

V ale o f Y ork

I ncluded i n a h oard o f b ronze i mplements ( Appendix 2 , N o . C 2) . ( a ) E wart P ark t ype , u pper p ortion o nly . T wo r ivet h oles i n t he h andle a nd t wo i n e ach s houlder . G reen p atination . ( b) E wart P ark t ype , u pper p ortion o nly . T wo s mall r ivet h oles i n t he h andle a nd t wo i n e ach s houlder .

G reen p atination .

S heffield C ity M useum J 93.464 & 4 65

16

J essop 1 849, 3 49, F ig. 2

3 .

B ROMPTONONSWALE F ound i n 1 963 .

N Z 2 01/001

E wart P ark t ype .

V ale o f Y ork

T hree r ivet h oles i n e ach s houlder

a nd t hree i n t he h andle which h as f langed s ides . p rivate p ossession .

0 .59 m .

l ong .

I n

Y orks. A rchae . J . 4 2 ( 1970), 3 88 ( wrongly d escribed a s ' Hallstatt t ype')

4 .

B URLEY-IN-WHARFEDALE

S E 1 7/46

W harfedale

F ound i n M essrs S tephen T oulson a nd S ons L td . G ravel P it i n 1 952 . ( a )

B allintober

t ype ,

h ilt

b roken

o ff .

( b)

B allintober

t ype ,

h ilt

b roken o ff. O licana M useum , I lkley B urgess 1 968, F ig. 6 8,

5 .

1 7.1-2

H ARROGATE

C entral G ritstone

A ' hoard ' c onsisting o f a sword, t wo s pearheads, n o f ind d etails ( Appendix 2 , N o . C 3) . Ewart P ark t ype , p ommel b roken o ff . A r ivet h ole i n e ach s houlder a nd t wo i n t he h andle.

( Fig .

1 0.2)

R oyal O ntario M useum 9 27.3.10 P rYor 1 980, 2 2, N o.

6 .

K IRBY M ALZEARD I n t he

1 74-176

S E 2 40/736

W illow H ouse h oard

P ark t ype, h ilt f ragment,

o f

b ronze

C entral G ritstone a xes

( Appendix 2 ,

C 3) .

Ewart

f langed h andle s ection with t wo r ivet

h oles. W äkeman 's H ouse M useum , R ipon

7 .

A iredale

L EEDS, T emple N ewsam

F ound d uring s creening g ravel o n t he O x B ow O pencast s ite .

H allstatt

G undlingen t ype, p ommel a nd o ne s houlder b roken o ff . F ive r ivet h oles i n t he h andle a nd t hree i n t he r emaining s houlder . G reen p atination . ( Fig. 1 5) I n p rivate p ossession, c ast a t T emple N ewsam H ouse C owan 1 967, 4 44, N o.

8 .

L INDRICK &

1 96a

E SE 2 7/70

M agnesian L imestone

S TUDLEY R OYAL l arge b ronze s word w as f ound n ear s ome b roken g round a t L indrick F arm ', p re-1857.

' Thrown a way b y f inder'.

W albran, G uide t o R ipon ( 1857), 4 .

17

9 .

S TARTFORTH

N Z 0 37/156

T eesdale

F ound w ith a g old h air r ing ( see A ppendix 2 , N o . C 10 a nd A ppendix 4 , N o . 8 ) . ( a) E wart P ark t ype , p oint b roken o ff . T hree r ivet h oles i n t he h andle a nd t wo i n e ach s houlder . . 53 m . l ong . ( b) E wart P ark t ype , b roken a cross t he b lade a nd h andle . F langed h andle w ith t wo 5 r ivet h oles, o ne r ivet i n e ach s houlder. 5 c ms. l ong. B owes M useum , B arnard C astle 1 958.1841 & 1 842 J ones 1 978, 4 -5. F ig. 3 .8 & 9

1 0.

Y ORK

S E 6 10/508

V ale o f Y ork

Ah oard f ound d uring t he n ineteenth c entury a t t he c emetery , s ocketed a xes, s pearheads a nd s word f ragment k nown ( Appendix 2 . C 11) . ( a) F ragment f rom t he s houlder a rea , o ne l arge ( b) F ragment f rom t he t ip o f t he b lade.

r ivet

i n e ach s houlder .

P ierpoint 1 980, F ig. 7 .6, N o. 2 9-30

A PPENDIX 4 G old o rnaments

1 .

B OWES

N Y 1 9/13

T eesdale

H oard f ound 1 850, s ix m assive p enannular r ings o f ' rude ' w orkmanship . 1 . 6o z. 1 0 d wts. 1 7 g rs. 2 . 5o z. 1 2 d wts. 3 . 2o z. 1 7 d wts. 1 2 g rs. 4 . 1o z. 1 0 d wts. 1 9 g rs. 5 . 1o z. 1 0 d wts. 1 5 g rs. 6 . 1 9 d wts. 1 5 g rs. T wo p enannular r ings , o f c ircular s ection , w ith a corn t erminals h ave b een i dentified a s p art o f t his f ind ( Taylor 1 980). B ritish M useum 7 3. 1 218. 1 & 2 Y orks. A rchae J . 2 2 ( 1913), 4 09 T aylor 1 980, 8 8 Y k 3&4

2 .

C AWOOD F ound

S E 5 7/37 d uring

p loughing .

' R ing

b racelet. P ro. Y orks. G eol. & P oly. S oc. T aylor 1 980, 8 9, Y k 1 9

3 .

G RETA B RIDGE

M oney ' ,

V ale o f Y ork p enannular

r ing ,

p robably a

1 0 ( 1889), 3 24

N Y 0 8/13

T eesdale

P enannular b racelet w ith e xpanded t erminals, D -section . B ritish M useum W G 8 T aylor 1 980, 8 8 Y k 8

18

( Fig.

1 4).

4 .

H ARROGATE, n ear

G ritstone M oors

' Hoard ' o f t wo s pearheads a nd a s word ( Appendix 2 . C 3) . G old f oil b and p ressed i nto t he i ncised l ines a nd h atched t riangles d ecorating t he s ocket o f a l eaf-shaped s pearhead . T aylor 1 980 , 8 3 , c omments t hat g old i mpressed i nto d ecoration i s a n u ncommon t echnique i n t he B ritish I sles b ut c onsiders i t t o b e l ocally p roduced. R oyal O ntario M useum 9 27.3.9 C oles 1 964,

5 .

1 92, P l. x xviii

K IPLIN

S E 2 9/97

V ale o f M owbray

F ound o n t he K iplin H all e state ( information f rom T albot) .

P enannular b racelet w ith e xpanded

t he

l ate

M iss

t erminals,

B .

l ozenge

s ection. T he G reen H oward's R egimental M useum , R ichmond T aylor 1 980, 8 9 Y k 2 1

6 .

L INDRICK &

S E 2 73/703

G ritstone M oors

S TUDLEY R OYAL g old t orque ' f ound i n 1 818 i n t he m iddle o f a s tone c airn o n H igh L indrick F arm .

U nknown l ocation ,

e xhibited

b y E arl

d e G rey d uring

t he n ineteenth c entury a t t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries . W albran 1 857, 4 R ipon M illenary R ecord ( 1892), p art 2 , p reface I V

7 .

R IPON

s e 3 1/70

Two c up-ended l oops f ound t ogether 1 780, o ne weighing 9 -10 dwts. C ompared i n 1 849 w ith t he S winton L oop . A rch . J .

6 ( 1849) ,

5 ,

q uoting G ough 's

e dition o f

C amden 's

B ritannia ,

v ol . 4 , 2 31

8 .

S TARTFORTH H oard

N Z 0 37/158

f ound

( Appendix

2 ,

i n

t he

C 11

b ank a t

& 3 ,

9 ) .

G ill

T eesdale B eck .

Ewart

P enannular H air R ing ,

D ecorated o n o ne f ace w ith i ncised l ines, a lternating c hequer p attern . A p ersonal h oard .

P ark 3 .9

t ype

c ms .

s words

d iameter .

c oncentric

b ands

B owes M useum , B arnard C astle 1 958.1864 J ones 1 978, 5 , P l.

1

T aylor 1 980, 8 9 Y k 2 0

9 .

S WINTON , n ear M asham

S E 2 1/79

F ound a bout

f orming a s unken f ence

1 815

w hile

e ntrance L odge o f S winton P ark . 1 0 g rs.

W ensleydale

C up-ended l oop ,

n early

o pposite

w eight 5 o z .

t he

3d wts .

D ecorated w ith i ncised l ines w ith d iagonal i n b etween .

C ompared w ith t he R ipon f inds N o . t he S winton C astle c ollection . P ro. A rchael. I nst.

1 846, 5 , P l.

19

7 .

( Fig.

U nknown l ocation , 1 4)

1 , F ig.

1

f ormerly i n

T aylor 1 980, 8 8 Y k 1 5

N ote :

G old T ore f ound a t G uisley ( Taylor 1 980, 8 8 Y k 1 1) i s t he Y eadon B illings f ind , t he d escription o f t his t orc i ndicates i t i s l ikely t o b elong t o t he E arly I ron A ge.

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N orth R iding ',

Y orks. A rchaeol. J ourn . 3 8, 4 25-45. T horesby , R . ( 1715) D ucatus L eodiensis 1 816.

( Leeds) .

S econd

r evised e dition

T insley , H .M . ( 1975) ' The F ormer W oodland o f t he N idderdale M oors ( Yorkshire) a nd t he R ole o f E arly M an i n i ts D ecline ' , J ourn . o f E col . 6 3, 1 -27 . T omlinson , J .

( 1887) D oncaster f rom R oman T imes t o t he P resent D ay .

T ooley, M .J . ( 1977) S ea-Level C hanges; t he C oast o f N orth-West E ngland d uring t he F landrian S tage ( Oxford). V arley , R .A .

( 1968)

J ourn . 4 2, V arley, R .A .

' A C ollared

U rn

f rom

O gden ,

Y orks A rchaeol .

1 26-7.

( 1975)

' Bronze

A rchaeol. J ourn . 4 5,

A ge

F inds

1 73-4.

1 25

f rom

S kircoat,

H alifax ',

Y orks .

V arley, R .A . ( 1977) 4 9, 5 1-58.

' Bronze A xes

f rom

C alderdale ',

Y orks . A rchaeol . J ourn .

V arley , W .J . ( 1976) ' A S ummary o f t he E xcavations o f C astle H ill, A lmondbury ', i n D .W . H arding ( ed .) H illforts, L ater P rehistoric E arthworks i n B ritain a nd I reland ( London). W albran , J .R . ( 1844) A G uide t o R ipon , F ountains A bbey , H arrogate , B olton P riory a nd S everal P laces o f I nterest i n t heir V icinity , F irst E d . 1 875, 1 2th e dition . W alker ,

D . ( 1956) ' A S ite a t S tump C ross , n ear G rassington , Y orks" a nd t he A ge o f t he P ennine M icrolith I ndustry ' , P roc . P rehist . S oc . 2 2 , 2 32 8.

W alker, J .W .

( 1939) W akefield: I ts H istory a nd I ts P eople ( Wakefield).

W ardell, J . ( 1855) ' British R emains o n B aildon C ommon , R eliquiae A ntiquaiae E boracences ( Leeds), e d. W . B owman .

Y orkshire ',

W ardell , J . ( 1869) H istorical N otices o f I lkley , R ombald 's Moor , B aildon C ommon a nd o ther m atters o f t he B ritish a nd R oman P eriods ( Leeds). W ardell, J .

( 1881) S econd e dition , w ith n otes a nd a dditions b y J . H olmes.

r dhowe , W aterman , D .N . ( 1951) ' Que . J ourn . 3 1, 1 -24.

A F ood V essel B arrow i n Y orkshire ' , A ntiq .

Waterman , D .N ., K ent, B .W .J . a nd S tickland, H .J . ( 1954) ' Two I nland S ites w ith ' Iron A ge A , ' P ottery i n t he A rchaeol. J ourn . 3 8 , 3 83-97. W atson , G .G . W atson , J .

W est

R iding

o f

Y orkshire ' ,

Y orks .

( 1952) E arly M an i n t he H alifax P eriod ( Halifax). ( 1775)

H istory

a nd Antiquities

o f t he P arish o f H alifax

( London). W hittaker, T .D .

( 1812) L eodis a nd E lmete .

W hittaker, T .D .

( 1823) H istory a nd A ntiquities o f t he D eanery o f C raven .

W ood, E .S .

( 1971)

' The E xcavation o f a B ronze A ge

B arrow :

G reenhowe ,

N orth

D eighton , Y orkshire', Y orks. A rchaeol. J ourn . 4 3, 2 -32. W ooler, E .

( 1917) T he R oman F ort a t P iercebridge, C ounty D urham ( London).

W rigley , A . W right, E .V .

( 1911) S addleworth : I ts P rehiszpric R emains ( Oldham). a nd

C hurchill,

D .M .

( 1965)

T he B oats

Y orkshire, E ngland', P roc. P rehist. S oc . 3 1,

1 26

f rom N orth F erriby ,

1 -24 .

S EARCHES F OR T HE E ARLY N EOLITHIC: A S TUDY O F P EAKLAND L ONG C AIRNS C .R . H art

I ntroduction A m ajor P eakland

i s

M esolithic

p roblem t he

c onfronting

l ack o f

a nd

t he L ate

s tudents

i dentifiable N eolithic

o f

t he

e vidence ,

w hich h ave

c ontrasting l arge

i mplying a ctivity a reas a nd s ettlement ( Hart, k nowledge o f ( Radley a nd

s ettlements

C ooper ,

1 968 ;

were H art ,

E arly N eolithic w ith

s catters

1 981) .

i n

t he

o f

t he L ate

a rtefacts

T he g aps i n o ur

emphasised b y t he u navailability o f d ata 1 976

& 1 981;

S impson ,

1 971) .

T he

L ate

N eolithic h enge m onuments o f A rbor L ow a nd t he B ull R ing , a nd t he c hambered a nd u nchambered r ound b arrows h ave l ong b een r ecognised , b ut w e k now l ittle o f t he s ociety which c onstructed t hese w orks a nd e ven l ess o f t he p receding s ociety

( Manby ,

modern

e xcavation h as

p rogramme

o f

1 958 ;

f ield

A lcock ,

1 950 ;

G ray ,

b een c onducted,

i nvestigation t o

1 903) .

o r

s olve

L ittle

t he

t he

i n t he

w ay

o f

c reation o f a n o rdered

m any q uestions

r elating

t o

b een p artially e xcavated ,

o n

E arly a nd L ate N eolithic s ettlement . O nly

o ne

L ate

A leck L ow , ( Site 1 ) ,

N eolithic

s ettlement

H artington M iddle

t hrough s urvey a nd d etailed

p lotting

h as

Q uarter . o f

T his

s catters

o f

s ite

w as

d omestic

r ecognised

f lint t ools .

E xcavation u ncovered r ectangular s unken f loored h ouse s tructures with a ssociated s torage p its, b oth c ontaining f lint a nd s tone t ools a nd G rooved W are

p ottery . D uring w ork c onducted

f or

t he a uthor 's

N orth D erbyshire S urvey ( Hart,

1 981) f ifty L ate N eolithic s ettlement l ocalities w ere d efined m ainly o n t he C arboniferous L imestone ,

a nd a ll o n t he L oess r ich s oils ( Catt,

1 978) .

T he

p resent s tudy b ased o n r ecent f ieldwork, c onsiders t he e vidence a nd e ndeavours t o r ecognise E arly N eolithic s ettlement i n t he P eak . ( See a lso B radley a nd H art,

1 983).

L ithic A nalysis T he f lint i ndustries f rom t he M iddle H ill, A leck L ow

a nd

U pper H ouse F arm,

H artington

Wormhill ( Hart,

M iddle

s ites a re p redominantly t he p roducts o f a b road

Q uarter

( Hart ,

1 976), 1 985a) ,

f lake t echnology w ith f ew

b lades p resent ( Hart, 1 981) . T he b road f lakes a nd n umerous s crapers a ppear t o b e t ypical o f L ate N eolithic a ssemblages ( Wainwright a nd L ongworth , 1 971; M anby , 1 974; S mith , 1 965; P ryor, 1 978) . T he t otal a ssemblages a re r elatively s mall f or c ompar ison o f f lint i ndustries a nd must b e t reated w arily a t p resent, a lthough t he l ack o f d iffering t ool t ypes s eem t ypical o f s uch l ate a ssemblages . A s t he a ssemblages a re u nstratified, w e a re u nable t o i dentify e arlier N eolithic s ettlement, a nd o ther a pproaches h ave t o b e c onceived ;

t he

m ost

o bvious

s ealed

c airns o f t he P eak .

1 27

a ssemblages

m ay

c ome

f rom

t he

l ong

0

1

t a me,

o1

2m l

2 3 k m

ARB OR LO W

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1

P e r ry foo t G au t r ies B l ack H ar ry T op low R i ngham L ow R o ahu rs t G ib H i l l T he B r ides tones L ong L ow P a ins to r ( l os t) B rush f ie ld H ough

F ig.

1 D istribution o f L ong C airns i n t he P eak

1 28

L ong C airns R ecent

w ork

t hroughout

u nchambered l ong c airns ,

B ritain h as d rawn a ttention

a nd t here i s l ittle d oubt

h ad c eased b y c . 2 ,5000 b c .

( Burgess,

1 980) .

t o

c hambered a nd

t hat t heir c onstruction

T he c hronological f eatures o f

l ong b arrows i n N orthern E ngland i s p rovided b y a s eries o f r adio-carbon d ates a nd s tratigraphy o f s ites c ompiled b y M anby ( 1970) . AN eolithic m ortuary h ouse a nd l ong c airn a t S treet H ouse C airn , L oftus , C leveland h as a p rimary c airn , o val i n f orm, a nd e xtended t o a round 3 0 m etres b y t he a ddition o f a ' tail ' . S ubsequent d evelopments i nclude t he c onstruction o f a B ronze A ge r ound b arrow o n t he l ong c airn 's h ighest w est e nd ( Vyner, 1 984). E ver

s ince

t he e xcavation o f L ong L ow ,

W etton ,

b y S amuel

C arrington

( 1864-5) , R ingham L ow , O ver H addon b y T homas B ateman ( 1848 , 1 861) , P erryfoot a nd G autries , P eak F orest b y R ooke-Pennington ( 1877) , i t h as b een k nown , b ut l argely o verlooked , t hat l ong c airns a re a f eature o f t he P eak .

N ew S urvey T he P eakland l ong c airns s urveyed f or t his p resent s tudy , a re b uilt o f s tone a nd e arth w ith a djacent q uarry p its p roviding t he m aterial f or c onstruction . T heir c ondition v aries f rom r egion t o r egion . M any h ave b een d enuded b y a griculture a nd ' enclosure ' . T he d istribution o f l ong c airns c an b e s een t o b e p redominantly o n t he C arboniferous L imestone o f t he D erbyshire a nd S taffordshire W hite P eak au . 9 . T he B ridestones o n t he C heshire G ritstone ( SJ 9 08/622) i s t he o nly e xception . B ronze A ge c airns o f r ectangular p lan o ccur o n t he D erbyshire G ritstones , b ut t hese a re u nlikely t o o we m uch t o t he l ong c airn s eries . ( A n ew s urvey o f S tanton M oor -Hart, 1 985b). T here a re p referred s itings f or t he l ong c airns , o n t he e dge o f v alleys a nd o n f alse c rests b etween 9 25 a nd

1 ,230 f eet ,

w ith t he m ajority o n

t he

1 ,150 f oot c ontour . I n p lan t he l ong c airns a re n ormally w ider a t o ne e nd , w ith c onverging s ides a nd r ounded e nds . T he m ain a xes o f t he l ong c airns a re s ummarised i n F ig . 5 w ith t he w ider e nds t o t he e dge o f t he d iagram . A s f ar a s m ay b e d etermined f rom t he p resent e vidence , a t l east s even l ong c airns a nd o ne ' bank b arrow ' a re e xtant . T he c ontour o f m any l ong c airns w as a ltered b y t he a ddition o f a r ound c airn o n o ne e nd , o r a s i s p robable 3) w ith t wo r ound c airns o n t he a xes o f t he a t R ockhurst , A ldwark ( SK 2 1 4 /5 7 l ong c airn , a nd a t L ong L ow a t b oth e nds o f t he ' bank b arrow ' . t hese c airns c an b e c lassified a s m ulti-period m onuments . A s earch

o f

T homas

B ateman 's

1 848

a nd

1 861

p ublications

M ost o f

s timulated

Fu . 2 . 4 ) , Swinscoe a nd ' Painstor ' ( SK f ieldwork a t T op L ow ( SK 19/491) , ( 1 6/55) , A lsop M oor . T op L ow c annot b e c lassified a s a l ong c airn a lthough T homas B ateman 's ( 1861, 3 7) i llustration b egged t he q uestion . T homas B ateman ( 1848 , 6 7) d escribed a c airn i n af ield c alled P ainstor , s ituated o n A lsop M oor a s " a l ong a nd i rregular f ormed m ound" . T he t ithe a ward o f 1 846 ( D .R .O . -M atlock ) p rovides n o s uch f ield n ames a nd f ield s earches i n t he a rea o f P inelow -Crosslowbank a nd P eakway f arms p roved n egative . T he ' s cheduled ' R onksley M oor c airn ( SK 1 41/975) i s a p roduct o f w ater e rosion a nd c annot b e i ncluded i n a ny d escription o f l ong c airns ( P . B eswick , p ersonal c ommunication ) .

1 29

A l ong c airn w ith a r ound c airn e mbellishing t he e nd h as r ecently b een r ecognised a t 1 ,100 f eet 0 .D . n ear B lack H arry 's b arn ( SK 1 97/747) , G reat L ongstone , ( Fig . 2 .3) ( Hart , 1 98 0 . I t i s s imilar t o t he m onument s ituated a t 1 ,175 f eet 0 .D . a t G ib H ill ( SK 1 58/634) n ear A rbor L ow i dentified b y R adley ( 1968) . D ue t o T homas B ateman 's e xcavations a nd t unnellings i nto G ib H ill t he l ong f eature m ust h owever r emain i n q uestion , ( Fig . 2 . 7) . A f urther c airn m ay e xist a t B rushfield H ough ( SK 1 69/709) s ituated o n a f alse c rest a t 1 ,000 f eet 0 .D . a bove t he R iver Wye . T he l ate L eslie B utcher 's i ncomplete s urvey d rawing ( Sheffield C ity M useum) c urrently p resents o ur o nly c lear p lan a s t he s ite i s n ow c overed i n t horn s crub . T he d rawing a ppears t o s how a s eries o f l ong c ists i n a p rotracted c airn .

C onstruction a nd B urials S ome d etails o f t he i nternal f eatures a nd b urials a re k nown f rom t he 1 9th c entury o bservations . P erry F oot ( SK 0 99/811) ( Fig . 2 . 1) , P eak F orest s ituated a t 1 ,275 f eet 0 .D . , c ontained a t l east t wo c ontracted i nterments w ith " long f ormed s kulls" i n t he b ody o f t he c airn . A nimal b ones i ncluded o x , r ed d eer , h orse , p ig , g oat o r s heep a nd d og , b ut n o f lint o r p ottery w as r ecovered ( Pennington , 1 877) . T he G autries l ong c airn ( SK 0 99/805) s ituated a t 1 ,230 f eet 0 .D . a lso i n P eak F orest i s m uch m ore i nformative . H uman b ones w ith r ed d eer , o x , p ig a nd " water r at" w ere c ontained i n t he m ake u p o f t he c airn w ith f lint f lakes a nd " a v ery g ood a rrowhead" ( now l ost , b ut p robably a l arge l eaf s haped j udging f rom f urther c omments i n R ookeP ennington) . F ragments o f a n ' ornamented u rn ' w ere a lso r i oted . T his a ppears

t o b e a m ulti-period - m ulti-burial c airn f or P ennington n oted

i n

h is l imited t renching , t wo c ontracted s keletons, o ne f rom a c ist w ith f lint f lakes a nd a b one p in . ( The b one p in a nd p ottery a re i n t he P ennington c ollection a t B olton M useum) . T oday ,

R ingham L ow ( SK 1 69/664) ,

( Fig .

2 . 5) ,

O ver H addon ,

s ituated a t

9 25 f eet 0 .D . i s l argely c overed b y a n " enclosure" c oppice a nd n o d etails o f t he m any c ists e xposed b y T homas B ateman ( 1861, F ig . 9 4) c an b e r ecognised . I t s hould b e n oted, a ll p reviously p ublished p lans a re n ot c orrectly m agnetically o rientated ( Alcock , L . &E ., 1 952/53) . T he p resent s tudy c orrects t his r epetitive e rror . I n f act e ven t he h ollowed f orecourt c annot b e f ully a ccepted w ithout m odern e xcavation c learing t he e xtensive s tone s pread c reated b y s tone w allers . T en i nterments s pread t hrough t hree c ists w ith o x , h orse , d og a nd r at b ones a re r ecorded . F ive l eaf s haped a rrowheads w ith a b one p in a nd c harcoal a re a lso n oted , b ut e ven B ateman s tates t hat t he c airn h ad b een m uch d espoiled p rior t o h is r escue w ork . ( The f lints a re i n t he B ritish a nd S heffield C ity M useums) . T he m ost t antalising o f t he e arly e xcavations i s t hat o f L ong L ow , W etton ( SK 1 21/539) , ( Fig . 3 ) , b y S amuel C arrington ( 1864- 9 . H ere w e c an r ecognise a c omplex ' bank b arrow ' c onstruction a t 1 ,000 f eet 0 .D ., c omparable i n f orm w ith t hose o f s outhern E ngland , v ide D orset R .C .H .M . V ol . 2 ( I -V . G rinsell -personal c ommunication ) . T he i nternal s tructure c onsists o f a d ry s tone w all f orming a c entral s pine a long t he l ength o f t he c airn w ith l arge f lat s tones r eclining a gainst t he w all , a f orm o f c onstruction t hat p erhaps m ay b e r econgised i n t he B eaker r ound c airn o n A leck L ow ( Elk L ow -Bateman ,

1 848 a nd B ateman M .S . a t S heffield C ity M useum) .

T he t erminals c onsist o f ( ?) s uperimposed r ound c airns , t he l arger , t he n orthern , h as a l arge s tone c ist w ith a p avement w ith r emains o f a t l east

1 30

e

•I s

E

i

te




C \ I

CI

C,

1 972 F eatures

4

f --

c n 0

• H 4 ) C . ) G . ) C l ) C V cI

l-

C I r i l a w

1 65

-

s and l oam f ill

( Fig .

1 2 .2) .

F1 0

M odern d isturbance .

F1

P ost h ole w ith s tone p acking, f illing a s F5i n t he s ame t rench .

T rench I V F3

( Fig . 1).

P ossible p ost h ole w ith b rown ( 10YR 3 /4) s ilty c lay l oam f ill w ith o ne l arge p acking s tone . D iameter 1 5 .75 i nches ( 40 c ms) a nd d epth 3 .54 i nches ( 9 c ms).

T rench V ( Fig . 1) F1

P ost h ole w ith d ark b rown ( 10YR 3 /4) s ilty c lay l oam f ill . D iameter 1 7 .72 i nches ( 45 c ms) b y 1 .81 i nches ( 30 c ms) , d epth 4 . 72 i nches ( 12

F2

S light g ulley t hat f orms a r ight a ngle .

F3

S light r ectangular d epression t hat g oes i nto t he s ection o n o ne s ide a nd o n t he o ther i s d isturbed.

T rench X VI ( Fig. 8 ) F1

C ontinuation o f t he s tone l ined g ulley l ocated i n t he 1 970 a nd 1 967 e xcavations.

D iscussion o f t he f eatures I t i s d ifficult t o s ay v ery m uch a bout t he s cattered p ost h oles i n t he i nterior , t heir i solation makes a ny r econstruction o r s uggestion o f a s tructure i mpossible . O nly a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he e xcavations i s d iscussion p ossible . H ere t he g ulley l ined w ith l arge s tones , p art o f w hich h eld u pright p osts , a ppears t o b e o f as imilar c onstruction t o t he g ulley a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he f ort , b ut r eally l acks t he s tone c oncentration f ound t here . T here w as n o e vidence o f a n a ssociated w all a nd p erhaps t his f eature a t t he s outhern e nd i s b est i nterpreted a s af ree s tanding p alisade . T he p ost h ole a rrangement i n t he a rea o f t he g ulley , a ll l arge a nd w ith h eavy s tone p acking , p resent a p roblem a s t heir c hronological a nd s tructural a ssociation w ith t he g ulley a re n ot k nown . H owever t he g ulley d oes a ppear t o c ut o ne o f t he p ost h oles ( Trench X XXV F 11). A s imilar c onstruction g ulley , t hough s lighter w as f ound i n A rea C i n 1 960 ( Fig . 3 ) . T his s tone l ined g ulley c urved f rom n orth-east t o s outhw est a nd w as t raversed b y a n o val s etting o f s tone l ined p ost h oles. T he s light g ulley ( Trench X XXIV F 2 ) w ith s take h oles r uns r oughly p arallel t o t he l arge g ulley b ut i ts a ssociation w ith i t i s u nknown . G eneral o bservation w ould b e t hat t he o riginal s tructures o n t he s ite a ppear t o h ave b een s ubstantial a s t he m ajority o f t he p ost h oles c ontained

1 66

F ORTF IELD 1 972

XXV F 5 X

2

XXV F l X a

b

XXV F 3 X

XXV F 7 X

XXI I F l X

XXI I F l X I

XXI I F 2 X I

X I F 2 I

X V I F l

6

8

1

a

5

i M

D GC F ig .

1 3

P osthole P rofiles

1 67

h eavy s tone p acking .

F inds T he majority o f t he s herds w ere f ound i n L ayer 2 a nd c onsisted o f M edieval a nd l ater p ieces . P rehistoric s herds w ere v ery p oorly r epresented . T here w ere a lso t wo R omano-British s herds .

P OI1ERY P rehistoric 1 .

T hick

s herds

b ut

w ith

i nner

s urface

d isintegrated .

P oorly

f ired

w ith v ery l arge g rits, r ed o utside a nd w ith a d ark c ore . O uter s urface s mooth a nd f inger s meared . O ne s herd w ith p ossible f inger 4 t ip i mpressions . F rom T rench X IV ( Fig . 1 41) . T he f abric i s c lose t o P7f ound o n S ite 5 i n 1 970 a nd t o ar im s herd ( Fig . 6 .6) f rom 1 960 . A lso t he d ecorative t echnique f alls w ithin t he s ame M iddle t o L ater B ronze A ge p ottery t radition . 2 .

A s a bove, o ne s herd s howing a s light s houlder .

3 .

P ossible p rehistoric s herds, h ard b lack f abric.

F rom T rench X XIV .

B ody s herd ,

a nd

4 .

V ery X VI.

l arge

l ight g rits .

b rown o utside , F rom

t he

F rom T rench X IV .

b lack i nside

n orthern s tone

w ith d ark c ore .

l ined g ulley i n T rench

R oman 5 .

R im f rom a f langed b owl, g rey w are.

F rom T rench X III ( Fig. 1 4.2).

6 .

B ody s herd , b lack i nside a nd o ut , b uff c ore .

F rom T rench I V .

M edieval a nd l ater 7 .

B ody s herd , d ark b rown g laze i nside a nd o ut , b uff c ore , r ippled o uter s urface.

8 .

P ost-Medieval.

B ody s herd ,

F rom T rench X XV .

d ark b lue g laze i nside a nd o ut ,

w hite c ore .

V ictorian .

F rom T rench I V . 9 .

B ody

s herd,

M edieval. 1 0 .

r ed

i nside

a nd

o ut,

d ark

c ore

a nd

B ody s herd,

r ed i nside a nd o ut w ith b lack c ore .

o uter s urface a nd h orizontal g rooving o n t he i nside . a nd t races o f g reen g laze o n t he i nside . M edieval .

1.

( Fig.

1 4.8).

B ody

s herd,

M edieval .

s andy

t exture .

F rom T rench X XI.

r ed

i nside

a nd

o ut,

F rom T rench X V .

1 68

d ark c ore

a nd

R ippling o n t he S andy t exture F rom T rench X I

s andy

t exture .

5

e is sai f 1+ F ig . 1 4

P ottery :

1

1 3

1 2

1 . P rehistoric ;

2 . R omano-British ;

3 -13 . M edieval &

L ater

2

3

I

5

0

5 0

I 4

1 5

mm PB

6

F ig.

I

F lint I ndustry

1 69

1 2.

B ody s herd, d ark b rown g laze i nside a nd o ut, red c ore . i nterior s urface. P ost-Medieval. F rom T rench X XIII .

1 3.

A s 7a bove, f rom T rench X XII.

1 4.

A s a bove, f rom T rench X XII.

1 5.

B ody s herd w ith t races o f g reen g laze o utside , buff i nside a nd d ark c ore . H orizontal g rooving o n t he i nterior . M edieval . F rom T rench X VIII .

1 6.

B ody s herd M edieval.

1 7.

B ody

r ed e xterior , d ark core a nd F rom T rench X IX .

s herd,

r ed

t hroughout

r ippling i nside a nd o ut. 1 8.

o f

s andy

S andy t exture .

t exture .

H orizontal

F rom T rench X XXVI .

B ody s herd, b uff i nside a nd o ut a nd t races o f g reen g laze o n t he o utside, d ark c ore.

1 9.

a nd

M edieval.

i nterior .

R ippled

B ase f ragment, t exture.

M edieval a nd s imilar t o 2 0.

r ed o utside ,

M edieval.

F romTrench X I.

b uff i nside a nd g rey core .

F rom T rench X XXV ( Fig.

S andy

1 4.10).

2 0.

S trap h andle w ith t races o fgreen g laze o n t he e xterior s urface w hich a lso h as s light g rooving . M edieval a nd s imilar t o 1 8 . F rom T rench X VIII ( Fig. 1 4.9).

2 1.

R im i n v ery h ard t hin f abric , r ed o utside , light b rown i nside w ith b uff c ore . H orizontal g rooves o n o utside . E nglish s toneware , 19th c entury .

2 2.

2 3.

F rom T rench I ( Fig. 1 4.12).

R im , b lack g laze i nside a nd o ut a nd d ark c ore . I mpressed f acets on t he c ollar . E arly p ost-Medieval. F rom T rench X V ( Fig. 1 4 .3). O ut t urned r im ,

r ed o utsideand i n a nd d ark c ore .

M edieval .

F rom

2 4.

R olled o ver r im, r ed i nside a nd o ut a nd w ith d ark core , t exture. M edieval. F rom T rench X XXV ( Fig. 1 4.11).

s andy

2 5.

R im, d ark b rown g laze i nside a nd o ut, l ight core . M edieval. F rom T rench X XIII ( Fig . 1 4 .5).

2 6 .

H andle f ragment , b lack/dark p urple g laze , d ark c ore . G laze very b ubbly . P robably a w aster a s t here i s a s plit i n t he pot . C istercian w are . E arly p ost-Medieval . F rom T rench X XIII (Fig .

T rench X XXV ( Fig.

1 4.7).

E arly p ost-

1 4.6). 2 7.

L ower p art o f p ot , d ark b rown g laze i nside a nd out , r ed c ore . o riginally r ather s quarish . F rom T rench X VIII ( Fig.

2 8 .

B ody s herd,

C istercian w are .

B ase

Early p ost-Medieval .

1 4.4).

white glaze i nside a nd o ut,

F rom T rench X V .

1 70

l ight c ore .

V ictorian .

2 9 .

S herd , p robably f rom f lat p late o r d ish .

B rownish r ed g laze i nside

a nd o ut . T wo p arallel l ines o f l ighter g laze o n i nside . 1 8th-19th c enturies. F rom T rench X V ( Fig. 1 4.13).

S lipware ,

O ther f inds. G LASS. 3 0.

C hip o f g reen g lass.

F rom T rench X V .

3 1.

F ragment o f g reen g lass.

F rom T rench X XIII .

M ETAL . F rom T rench X XIII.

3 2.

N ail, i ron .

3 3.

P in? w ith l ump o f i ron a t o ne e nd.

3 4.

S hapeless p iece o f i ron .

3 5.

L ump o f l ead.

F rom T rench V .

F rom T rench V .

F rom T rench I V .

S TONE . 3 6.

F ragment o f w orked s tone .

T he s tone i s v ery l ight a nd s mooth ,

p ossibly a t ype o f mud s tone .

I t h as a n o val c ross s ection w ith o ne

s ide w orked i nto a r ather b lunt e dge .

T here a re a lso t wo a reas o f

i ntentional s moothing, p robably a round i ntentional p erforations . F ro m T rench X XXII ( Fig. 1 4.14). 3 7.

S lingstone . XXV . X

3 8.

S lingstone .

S andstone a nd o val i n s hape .

A s a bove .

2 7 b y 1 9 mm .

4 7 b y 3 9 mm .

F rom T rench

F rom s tone l ined g ulley ,

T rench X XXV . 3 9.

S lingstone .

A s a bove.

2 4 b y 1 8 m m .

F rom T rench X XII.

F LINT a nd C HERT . T he m ajority o f t he 7 5 p ieces f ound w ere i n d isturbed l ayers b ut t hey a re o f s ome i nterest b ecause t hey s how s imilar c haracteristics t o t he m aterial f ound i n 1 970 . T he o nly c oncentration o f s ignificance w as i n T rench X XIV w here t here w ere 2 3 p ieces -17 c hert , 6 f lint a nd i ncluding o ne c ore ( no . 4 0) a nd t wo s crapers ( nos . 4 5 a nd 4 6) -none , h owever , o ccurred i n a c losed a ssociation .

1 71

A s i n 1 970 t he r aw m aterials i nclude b oth p ebble f lint a nd P ennine c herts: F lint

C hert

- Patinated w hite

1 4

L ight g rey/cream D ark g rey

3 1 0

B rown/amber

2 0

T OTAL

4 7

- Vesicular B lack c hert B anded c hert

1 3 1 4

T OTAL

2 8

S mall b lades a s w ell a s f lakes w ere p roduced b ut t he a ssemblage i s t oo s mall f or a s tatistical a nalysis o f f lake s ize a nd t ype t o b e m eaningful . W aste f lakes/blades U tilised f lakes/blades

4 8 1 5

R etouched f lakes/blades

3

D iagnostic f orms: C ores. 4 0.

S mall 1 960).

4 1.

S mall

r esidual

c ore ,

f lint

p atinated w hite .

C lass

C ( Clark e t a l ,

F rom T rench X XIV ( Fig. 1 5.1). c ore ,

d ark g rey f lint

F rom T rench X I ( Fig.

p ebble .

C lass

C ( Clark e t a l ,

1 960) .

1 5.2).

W aste. 4 2.

C ore r ejuvenation f lake ,

v esicular c hert .

F rom T rench X XXIII

( Fig .

1 5.3). 4 3.

B urin s pall, d ense c reamy g rey f lint.

F rom T rench X XXV ( Fig. 1 5.4).

I mplements. 4 4.

E nd/side s craper , a mber f lint.

4 5.

E nd s craper, b lack c hert.

4 6.

E nd s craper ( broken), h oney b rown f lint .

F rom T rench X IX ( Fig.

F rom T rench X XIV ( Fig.

1 5.7).

1 72

1 5.5).

1 5.6).

F rom T rench X XIV ( Fig .

C ONCLUSIONS P .B . A lthough many p roblems r emain u nsolved a t P ortfield, o btained i s a c onsiderable a ddition t o k nowledge o f P ennine f oothills o f c entral L ancashire.

t he i nformation

t he p rehistory o f

t he

N eolithic. T he n ature o f t he N eolithic o ccupation , p robably s ometime i n t he t hird m illenium B C , i s d ifficult t o d etermine f rom t he f ragmentary e vidence , w hich c an b e s ummarised a s f ollows : A rea C , 1 960:

L eaf a rrowhead

S ite 4 ,

C hert k napping a nd l eaf a rrowhead ( Hallam ,

1 967:

S ite 5 , 1 970:

2 p its

c ontaining N eolithic

G rimston

1 970)

s tyle

p ottery

a nd

f lint a nd c hert w aste. T he f inds a re w idely d istributed o ver t he s ite a nd i t i s n ot u ncommon f or h illfort s ites i n B ritain t o s how a t radition o f a ctivity a nd o ccupation b ack i nto t he N eolithic . T here i s n o e vidence t o c onnect t his a ctivity a t P ortfield w ith t he d efences , b ut d efended h illtop s ettlements a re n ow k nown f rom t his p eriod, f or e xample a t C am nB rea, C ornwall ; C rickley H ill, G loucestershire a nd t he S tepleton e nclosure , H ambledon , D orset ( Mercer , 1 980). T he r arity o f N eolithic

G rimston s tyle p ottery w est o f t he P ennines h as

a lready b een i ndicated , a nd o ther s tyles o f N eolithic p ottery a re u ncommon a lthough t he n umber o f f inds i s s lowly i ncreasing . R ecently a d ecorated N eolithic b owl o f M ortlake t ype w as e xcavated i n L ancaster ( White , 1 974) . T o

t he n orth i n C umbria,

P eterborough p ottery h as b een r eported f rom

B rougham , P enrith ( Fell , 1 972) , B eaker p ottery f rom D og H ole C ave , W arton C rag ( Jackson , 1 912) a nd f rom a r ing c airn i n L evens P ark , n earby ( Sturdy , 1 972) a nd B eaker a nd G rooved w ares f rom W alney I sland ( Barnes , 1 955) . L ate N eolithic f inds f rom t he c entral P ennines i nclude a B eaker b urial o n E xtwistle Moor, n ear B urnley ( Manby , 1 965-6) . E xtwistle l ies a t t he h eadwaters o f t ributaries o f t he R iver C alder, a nd b oth E xtwistle a nd P ortfield a re l inked b y t he R ibble/Calder s ystem t o a c oncentration o f B eaker f inds , s ome a ssociated w ith P eterborough p ottery , i n t he l imestone c aves o f t he C raven d istrict o f Y orkshire . B eaker p ottery h as a lso b een r eported f rom a p it o n t he s ite o f t he R oman f ort a t C astleshaw , W est Y orkshire ( Clarke, 1 970) . T o t he s outh a t G awsworth i n C heshire, P eterborough s herds o f M ortlake t ype h ave b een f ound r ecently i n a m ound c overing a p rimary B eaker b urial ( Rowley ,

1 977).

N eolithic b urial m onuments, a part f rom a g roup i n C umbria ( Manby , 1 970) , a re

s carce .

A ccepted

s ites

i nclude

t wo

s tone

c hambered

t ombs

-

C alderstones ( near L iverpool) a nd P ikestones, A nglezarke M oor ( near B olton ) ( Lynch , 1 966) -and o ne l ong c airn o n B radley M oor , A iredale ( Feather a nd Manby, 1 970) . T he most n umerous N eolithic f inds a re f lints f rom t he P ennine m oors a nd s tone a nd f lint a xes . A bout h alf t he a xes a re o f t he C umbrian t ype a nd M anby ( 1965a) h as d rawn a ttention t o t heir s triking c oastal a nd r iverine d istribution w hich c ould r eflect t rade p atterns o peration d uring t he N eolithic . F rom C umbrian a xes f ound a t P endle ,

i n a t

W iswell ( near P ortfield) a nd a t U pbrook F arm ( near C litheroe) c ould b e

1 73

p ostulated a c entral P ennine r oute v ia t he R ibble/Aire o r t he C alder a nd C olne/Keighley p ass , t o Y orkshire a nd e astern E ngland . I t i s p ossible t hat t he o ccurrence o f G rimston w are a t P ortfield a nd a t E henside T arn r eflects t he i nfluence o f i nter-regional c ommunication a nd t ransitory a ctivities s uch a s s easonal m ovements f or t rade a nd s tock . H owever , t he u nquestionable e vidence f or N eolithic o ccupation a t P ortfield s uggests t hat t he d istribution o f N eolithic a xes r epresents m ore t han t rade l osses a nd s hould b e s een a lso a s a m eaningful i ndicator o f t he p attern o f N eolithic s ettlement i n t he a rea.

E arly B ronze A ge. T here a ppears t o h ave b een a h iatus i n a ctivity o n t he s ite d uring t his p eriod . T he b arbed a nd t anged a rrowhead ( F 1 ) c ould b e a s tray h unting l oss a nd t he s mall p erforated a nd w ell-worn w hetstone , a s urface f ind i n 1 966 ( Hallam , 1 970) , i s a t ype w ell k nown i n E arly B ronze A ge c ontexts b ut w hich a lso c ontinued i n u se t hroughout t he B ronze A ge a nd t he P ortfield e xample c ould b e c ontemporary w ith t he L ate B ronze A ge h oard f rom t he s ite. L ocally E arly B ronze A ge b urial a nd r itual m onuments a re m ore n umerous t han monuments o f a ny o ther p eriod . T hey a re k nown o n t he P endle a nd L ongridge h ills a nd i n t he R ibble V alley a t S tonyhurst, while a t t he h eadwaters o f t he C alder t here i s al arge c omplex o f b arrows , r ingbanks a nd s tone c ircles o n W orsthorne a nd E xtwistle M oors . F inds o f e arly b ronzes i n t he C alder V alley i nclude a h oard o f 3 f lat a xes f rom R ead , o ne d ecorated a nd o f I rish t ype ( Evans , 1 881) , a f lat a xe f rom G reat H arwood ( Blundell , 1 965-6) , a nother f rom B lacko T ower , n ear C olne ( Davey a nd F orster , 1 975) a nd at anged s pearhead f ound n ear N elson ( Davey a nd F orster, 1 975).

L ater B ronze A ge/Iron A ge . T he d efence o f t he s ite w ould a ppear t o d ate t o t his p eriod . O nly a t t he n orth e nd , h owever , h ave t he d efences b een e xamined i n d etail , w here b ecause o f m odern d estruction i t i s p ossible o nly t o p ostulate a nd n ot t o p rove a s equence : P hase 1 : I nner r ampart -some f orm o f s tone a nd t imber r einforced ' wall', 1 2 f t ( 3 .5 m ) w ide. P hase 2 : O uter r ampart -earth b ank w ith s tone r evetted v ertical f ront f ace, 2 0-30 f t ( 6.1-9 .1 m ) w ide. P hase 3 : O uter d itch a nd c ounterscarp b ank -ditch 1 6 f t ( 4 .8 m ) w ide a nd c ounterscarp b ank 1 4 f t ( 1 4 .2 m ) w ide , o f d ump c onstruction . S tages 1 a nd 2 m ay h ave o ccurred i n r everse o rder a nd a t t he s outh e nd o f t he s ite S tage 1 may h ave b een r epresented b y ap alisade r ather t han a ' wall ' . T he v ariation o f d efence s tructures t o m eet t he n eeds o f t he t errain a nd d ifferent t actical p ositions w as p erhaps m ore c ommon t han h as b een r ecognised, a nd f or i nstance a ppears t o h ave h appened a t M am T or ( Coombs, 1 979) where t he r ampart c onstruction w as d ifferent i n t he t wo s ections c ut . T here i s c learly a n eed f or c aution i n f orming c onclusions a bout t he d efences o f ah illfort o n t he b asis o f as ingle s ection .

1 74

T he l ast d ecade h as s een g reat s trides f orward i n o ur u nderstanding o f h illfort c hronology ( Avery , 1 976) . T he major p eriod f or t heir i nitial c onstruction a ppears t o h ave b een f rom 7 50 t o 5 00 B C , w ith n o k nown e xamples o f s tone a nd t imber r einforced r amparts i n t he n orth o f E ngland l ater t han t he m id 5 th c entury B C ( Challis a nd H arding ,

1 975) .

I n t he l ight o f t hese

d evelopments i t w ould n ot a ppear u nreasonable t o p ostulate t hat t he L ate B ronze A ge h oard f ound i n 1 966 i n t he f ort i nterior a nd d ated t o t he 7 th c entury B C ( Longworth , 1 967) i s c ontemporary w ith t he e arlier p art o f t he d efences a nd w ith t he L ater B ronze A ge c oarse p ottery f ound i n t hem . I t i s o ften d ifficult t o r elate m etalwork f ound i n h illforts t o t heir d efences a s f or i nstance a t I vinghoe B eacon , B uckinghamshire ( Cotton a nd F rere , 1 968) a nd M am T or , D erbyshire ( Coombs , 1 979) . H owever , a t N orton F itzwarren , S omerset ( Langmaid , 1 971) L ate M iddle B ronze A ge m etal t ypes w ere f ound a ssociated w ith t he e arly d efence o f t he s ite, a nd s imilarly a t t he B reiddin , M ontgomeryshire , m etalwork a ssociated w ith o ccupation w as d ated t o 7 54 + 5 0 b .c . ( BM -798 ; f rom a xe h aft) a nd r elated t o t he e arliest p hase o f t he h i nfores c onstruction ( Musson , 1 976) . T he h oard f rom P ortfield c omprised t wo g old i tems -a p enanular t ressr ing a nd a b racelet -and s even b ronzes -t wo s ocketed a xes , o ne d amaged , a b roken t anged k nife a nd b roken b lade , a s ocketed g ouge , a lso b roken a nd a p iece o f w aste m etal f rom b ronze c asting . L ongworth ( 1967) c oncluded t hat t he h oard w as p robably t he p roperty o f ab ronze s mith o n t he g rounds o f t he s crap m etal c ontent , a nd b uried a bout t he 7 th c entury B C . H e j udged t he m etal t ypes c losest t ies t o l ie w ith t he n orth B ritish i ndustries t ypified b y t he H eathery B urn C ave a ssemblage a nd w ith t he I rish m etal i ndustries o f t he D own s p hase . T he s ame c ultural a ffinities a re a lso t o b e f ound i n t he l argest h oard o f L ate B ronze A ge m etalwork f ound i n L ancashire, a t W inmarleigh 1 2 m iles ( 7 .4 k ms) n orth o f t he R ibble e stuary . I n e ach o f t hese h oards t here i s a lso a b aggy f acetted a xe n ow c lassified a s a G illespie t ype , a nd f ound c oncentrated i n t he s outhern a reas o f S cotland w ith a w estern b ias i n t he c ounties f rom s outhern A rgyll t o L ancashire ( Schmidt a nd B urgess , 1 981) . A t hird a xe o f t his t ype i s r ecorded f rom S tainton Q uarry ,

S tainton-in-Furness .

L ocal c omparisons f or t he h illfort a t P ortfield l ie w ith t he g roup o f L ancashire a nd C heshire f orts s urveyed b y F orde-Johnston i n t he e arly 1 960s ( Forde-Johnston , 1 962) r ather t han w ith t he l arge m ultivallate c ontour f orts o f t he c entral P ennines s uch a s A lmondbury a nd M am T or . O f t he 1 2 h illforts h e s urveyed o nly E ddisbury c an b e c ompared w ith t hese t wo P ennine f orts , a nd a part f rom t he u nusual f ort a t C astercliff , t he r emaining 1 0 h ave b asic c ommon f eatures , t o w hich P ortfield i s n o e xception . F orde-Johnton d rew a ttention t o t heir p reference f or t he p romontory s tyle o f f ort , t heir s mall s ize, t he c ommon u se o f s tone r evetting, t he f requent a bsence o f d itches, a nd t he i mplications o f m ore t han o ne s tructural p hase a t s everal s ites .

A lthough f ew i n n umber t hese f orts a re s trategically w ell p laced .

F or i nstance , S kelmore H eads , C astle H ead a nd W arton C rag c ommand M orecambe B ay, i ts e stuaries a nd n atural r outeways, while H elsby , W oodhouses a nd B radley a re s imilarly p laced a long t he M ersey e stuary . K elsborrow a nd E ddisbury c ontrol b oth s ides o f a n atural g ap ,

t he M ouldsworth G ap ,

i n t he

s ame w ay t hat P ortfield c ontrols t he W halley G ap . F ew o f t hese f orts h ave b een e xcavated b ut t here a re g eneral s imilarities t o P ortfield i n t he e xcavated d efences a t M aiden C astle , B ickerton , C heshire ( Varle .y , 1 935-6) , w here t here w as a lso a n i nner ' wall ' r ampart o f s tone a nd t imber a nd a n o uter s tone r evetted b ank w ith n o d itch . T here w as n o e vidence f or t he d ate o r s equence o f e ither s tructure . ( Powell ,

A t S kelmore H eads,

U lverston

1 963) a p alisade a ppeared t o h ave p receded a l ater b ank w hich m ay

1 75

h ave b een t imber s upported i n p art . T he s mall o val a nd t otally e nclosed s ite a t C astercliff , o nly 9 m iles ( 14 .4 k ms) f rom P ortfield ( Fig . 1 ) , w ith a n i nternal d iameter o f a bout 4 00 f t ( 121 m ),

i s u nique i n L ancashire .

H ere t he e xcavators f ound t he r emains o f t wo s tone a nd t imber l aced r amparts , t he i nner p artly v itrified a nd t he o uter o ne u nfinished a nd w ith a d itch . R adiocarbon s amples f rom e ach r ampart ( S 2 86 -2460) + 70 B .P . ( S 2 87) -2460 + 6 0 B .P . , g ave t he d ate 5 10 b .c . ( Coombs , 1 982):-

a nd

A t P ortfield p lough d amage a nd a l ack o f l arge s cale e xcavation m eans t here i s i nsufficient e vidence t o d etermine t he n ature o f t he i nternal o ccupation . O dd p ost h oles a nd f eatures f ound i n A rea C ( 1960) , S ites 1 , 3 a nd 4 ( 1967) ( Hallam, 1 970) a nd i n t he 1 972 e xcavations s uggest t hat o ccupation w as e xtensive a nd multiphased . A lso t he g old i tems i n t he b ronze s mith 's h oard h int a t a h igh s ocial a nd e conomic s tatus f or t he o ccupants. A n umber o f s lingstones f ound a t t he s outh e nd o f t he s ite i n 1 972 a nd o n S ite 4 ( Hallam , 1 970) i mply a c ontinuing n eed f or d efence , a s d oes t he l ate a ddition o f t he o utlying d itch a nd c ounterscarp b ank s ystem . T he s mall s cale o f t his w ork a nd t he s imple ' dump ' t echnique

e mployed s uggest

t hat p erhaps t his w as a s hort t erm e mergency s trengthening o f t he d efences, p robably l ate i n t he I ron A ge . O ne s herd o f R oman p ottery ( P 8 ) i s i nsufficient d ating e vidence b ut t he p ossibility c annot b e r uled o ut o f a R oman o r p ost R oman d ate f or t his s tage .

R oman a nd P ost R oman . A n umber o f R oman o bjects h ave b een f ound o n t he s ite i ncluding a l athet urned s hale d isc ( ? b ase o f v essel) ( Tyson a nd B u 'lock , 1 957) , t he i ntaglio f ound i n 1 960 ( Henig, 1 974), a l ead weight ( Hallam, 1 970) a nd n umerous p otsherds . P resumably t hese f inds r elate t o s ome f orm o f R oman n onm ilitary a ctivity , n ot u ncommon o n h illfort s ites , b ut t he n ature o f w hich i s o bscure. T he M edieval a nd

l ater p ottery f ound r eflects

l ater a gricultural

a ctivity a nd t he e stablishment o f t he a djacent f arm a nd c ottages.

A cknowledgements. W e s hould l ike t o t hank p articularly C live H art , R oger J acobi a nd T erry M anby f or t heir e ncouragement a nd h elpful c omments a nd M ichael H arte f or p roducing F igures 1 -5.

1 76

B IBLIOGRAPHY. A very , M . e t a l ( 1967) ' Rainsborough N orthants . 5 ' , P roc . P rehist . S oc . 3 3, 2 07-306 .

E ngland .

E xcavations

1 961-

A very, M . ( 1976) ' Hil'forts o f t he B ritish I sles': A S tudent's I ntroduction ' , i n H illforts , L ater P rehistoric E arthworks i n B ritain a nd I reland , e d . D .W . H arding , 1 -58 . B arnes,

F . ( 1955) ' Pottery f rom P rehistoric s ites,

I sland ', 1 6.

N orth e nd o f W alney

T rans . C umberland & W estmorland A ntiq . A rchaeol . S oc . 5 5 ,

1 -

B arnes, F . ( 1970) ' Prehistoric P ottery f rom F urness ', T rans . C umberland &W estmorland A ntiq . A rchaeol . S oc .

7 0 ,

1 -8 .

B arrett , J . ( 1980) ' The P ottery o f t he L ater B ronze A ge i n L owland E ngland ' , P roc . P rehist . S oc . 4 6, 2 97-319 . B lundell,

J .D .

( 1965-6)

' A

B ronze

A xe

f rom

L ancashire & C heshire A ntiq . S oc . 7 5-6,

G reat

H arwood ',

T rans .

22-23 . 2

C hallis, A .J . a nd H arding, D .W . ( 1975) L ater P rehistory f rom t he T rent t o t he T yne , B ritish A rchaeological R eports 2 0 . C lark , J .G .D ., H iggs, E .S . a nd L ongworth , N eolithic s ite a t H urst F en , 2 6 , 2 02-45 . C larke ,

D .L .

I .H . ( 1960) ' Excavations a t

M ildenhall ,

S uffolk ' ,

t he

P roc . P rehist . S oc .

( 1970) B eaker P ottery o f G reat B ritain a nd I reland ,

2 v ols .

C oombs, D .G . ( 1979) ' Excavation o f t he H ill F ort o f M am T or , D erbyshire 1 965-9 ' , D erbyshire A rchaeol . J . 9 9 , 7 -51 . C oombs, D .G . ( 1982) ' Excavations a t t he H illfort o f C astercliff, N elson , L ancashire 1 970-71 ' , T rans . L ancashire & C heshire A ntiq . S oc . 8 1, 113 0 . C otton , M .A . a nd F rere, S .S . ( 1968) ' Ivinghoe B eacon E xcavations 1 963-5 ', R ec . B uckinghamshire

1 8(3) ,

1 87-260 .

D avey , P .J . a nd F orster , E . ( 1975) ' Bronze A ge M etalwork f rom L ancashire a nd C heshire ' , U niv . L iverpool D ept . P rehist . A rchaeol . W ork N otes 1 . E vans, J .

( 1881) A ncient B ronze I mplements o f G reat B ritain .

F eather, S .W . a nd M anby , T .G . ( 1970) ' Prehistoric C hambered T ombs o f t he P ennines ', F ell, C .

( 1972)

Y orks . A rchaeol . J . 4 2 ,

3 96-7 .

' Neolithic F inds f rom B rougham ',

T rans . C umberland &

W estmorland A ntiq. A rchaeol. S oc. 7 2, 3 6-43. F orde-Johnston ,

J .

( 1962)

' The H illforts

o f

L ancashire

T rans . L ancashire & C heshire A ntiq . S oc . 7 2 , G arton ,

D . a nd B eswick ,

S ettlement

A rea

a nd

C heshire ',

9 -46 .

P . ( 1983) ' The S urvey a nd E xcavation o f a N eolithic a t

Mount

P leasant,

1 77

K enslow ,

1 980-83 ',

D erby .

A rchaeol . J . 1 03 ,

7 -40 .

G illam , J .P . ( 1951) ' Dales W are : A ntiq . J . 3 1, 1 54-64 .

a d istinctive R oman-British c ooking p ot ' ,

G reen , H .S . ( 1980) T he F lint A rrowheads o f t he B ritish I sles . A rchaeol . R ep . 7 5 .

B ritish

G reene , J .P . a nd H ough , P .R . ( 1977) ' Excavation i n t he M edieval V illage o f N orton , 1 974-1976 ' , J . C hester A rchaeol . S oc . 6 0 , 6 1-93 . G uilbert, G . ( 1976) ' Moel-y-Gaer, 1 972-1973: a n a rea e xcavation i n t he i nterior ' , i n H illforts , L ater P rehistoric E arthworks i n B ritain a nd I reland , e d . D .W . H arding , 3 0317 . H allam, J .S . ( 1970) ' Preliminary R eport -Portfield C amp, W halley, L ancashire ' , u npublished M S i n t he C ounty R ecords O ffice , P reston . H enig, M . ( 1974) A C orpus o f R oman E ngraved G emstones f rom t he B ritish I sles . B ritish A rchaeol . R ep . 8 . J ackson ,

J .W .

C rag, 1 30 . L angmaid, N . L ongworth ,

( 1912) ' Third R eport o f t he E xploration a t D og H oles , L ancashire ',

( 1971) I .H .

L ynch, F .

' A B ronze

A ge

H oard

f rom P ortfield

B ritish M useum Q uarterly 3 2 ,

( 1966)

' The

P ikestones,

P roc . P rehist . S oc . 3 2 , M anby , T .G .

1 -2 ,

F arm ,

Anglezarke,

Lancashire',

3 47-8 .

( 1965a ) ' The D istribution o f R ough-out a nd C umbrian S tone A xes ' ,

M anby , T .G . ( 1965b) ' The e xcavation D erby . A rchaeol . J . 8 5, 1 -24 .

J .

S cot . A rchaeol . F orum

( 1971)

' A

N eolithic

3 ,

s ite

D erbyshire ' , D erby . A rchaeol . J . M ercer , R .

o f

t he

9 1,

1 -37 .

G reen L ow c hambered

( 1970) ' Long b arrows o f n orthern E ngland :

e vidence ' , M ay ,

W halley ,

8 -14 .

T rans . C umberland & W estmorland A ntiq . A rchaeol . S oc . 6 5,

M anby , T .G .

99

' Norton F itzwarren ', C urr . A rchaeol. 2 8, 16 7120.

( 1967)

L ancashire ' ,

W arton

T rans . L ancashire & C heshire A ntiq . S oc . 3 0 ,

t omb ',

s tructural a nd d ating

1 -27 . a t

A stonhill

n ear

M inninglow ,

3 1-6 .

( 1980) H ambledon H ill, A N eolithic L andscape, E dinburgh.

M iket, R . ( 1976) ' The e vidence f or N eolithic a ctivity i n t he M ilfield B asin , N orthumberland ' , i n S ettlement a nd E conomy i n t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd m ill . B C , e d . C . B urgess a nd R . M iket , B ritish A rchaeol . R ep . 3 3 , 13-44 . Musson , C .R . ( 1976) ' Excavations a t t he B reiddin 1 969-73 ' , i n H illforts, L ater P rehistoric E arthworks i n B ritain a nd I reland , 2 93-302.

e d .

D .W .

H arding ,

N ewbigin , N . ( 1937) ' The N eolithic P ottery o f Y orkshire ', P roc . P rehist . S oc .

3 ,

1 89-216 .

1 78

P hilips, C .W . ( 1936) ' The E xcavation o f t he G iants' H ills l ong b arrow, S kendleby , L ines . ' , A rchaeologia 8 5 , 3 7-106 . P iggott, S . ( 1931) A rchaeol . J . 8 8 , P owell ,

T .G .E .

( 1963)

a nd 1 959% 1 -30 . R adley ,

J .

' The N eolithic 6 7-158 . ' Excavations a t

P ottery

o f

t he

S kelmore H eads ,

B ritish

I sles ',

n ear U lverston ,

1 957

T rans . C umberland a nd W estmorland A ntiq . Archaeol . S oc .

( 1968) ' A M esolithic s tructure a t

S heldon ,

6 3 ,

w ith a n ote o n c hert

a s a r aw material o n M esolithic s ites i n t he S outhern P ennines ', D erby . A rchaeol . J . 8 8 , 2 6-36 . R owley ,

G . ( 1977) ' The e xcavation o f a b arrow a t W oodhouse E nd ,

n ear S avory, H .

M acclesfield ' , ( 1971)

J . C hester A rchaeol . S oc .

6 0 ,

G awsworth ,

1 -34 .

' A W elsh B ronze A ge h illfort', A ntiquity 4 5, 2 51-61.

S chmidt, P .K . a nd B urgess, E ngland , M unich .

C . ( 1981) T he A xes o f S cotland a nd N orthern

S mith , I .F . ( 1974) ' The N eolithic ', e d . C . R enfrew , 1 00-36 .

i n B ritish P rehistory , aN ew

S turdy, D . ( 1972) ' A R ing C airn A rchaeol . F orum 4 , 5 2-55 .

i n L evens

P ark ,

O utline ,

W estmorland ',

S cot .

T yson , N . a nd B u 'lock , J .D . ( 1957) ' The I ron A ge f ortifications a t P lanes W ood , W halley ' , T rans . L ancashire & C heshire A ntiq . S oc . 6 7 , 1517 . V arley,

W .J . ( 1935-6) ' Excavations a t Maiden C astle, B ickerton ', A nnals

o f A rchaeol . &A nthropol . , L iverpool

2 , 2

9 7-110 ;

2 3 ,

1 01112 .

V arley, W .J . ( 1976) ' A s ummary o f t he e xcavations a t C astle H ill, A lmondbury , 1 939-1972% i n H illforts , L ater P rehistoric E arthworks i n B ritain a nd I reland , e d . D .W . H arding , 19-292 . V .C. H . ( 1908) ' Ancient E arthworks: L ancashire S outh o f t he S ands ', ( Willoughby G ardner), V ictoria C ounty H istory : L ancashire v ol . I I , 5 07-60. W ainwright , H eath ,

G .J .

( 1972) ' Th e e xcavation o f a N eolithic s ettlement o n B roome

D itchingham ,

N orfolk ' ,

P roc . P rehist . S oc .

W hite, A .J . ( 1974) ' Excavations i n t he V icus , 2 , n o . 2 , 1 3-20 .

1 79

L ancaster ,

3 8 ,

1 -97 .

1 973-74%

C ontrebis

R OMANO B RITISH F ARMS A ND F ARMERS I N C RAVEN , N ORTH Y ORKSHIRE A lan K ing

I ntroduction T he a rea d iscussed i n t his p aper i s c ounty o f

N orth Y orkshire ,

g eologically

t han

t hough i ts

p olitically .

t he w estern d ales p ortion o f t he

b ounds a re

S tructurally

t he

d elineated A skrigg

m ore

c learly

B lock h as

w ell

d eveloped f aults, t he D ent f ault a nd t he C raven f ault s ystem a long i ts w estern a nd s outhern e dges r espectively w hile t o t he e ast t he b lock f ad es o f t he l ower C arboniferous , G reat S car L imestone , d ips b eneath t he M illstone G rit s eries r ocks . W e s hall n ot c oncern o urselves w ith t he n orthern h alf o f t he A skrigg s table b lock f or t he w ider more h orizontal e xpanses o f l imestone a re f ound i n t he s outh ; n orthwards , c onditions o f d eposition t hicken t he Y oredale S eries a nd b ury t he G reat S car l imestone ( Fig . T his d escription i s o ne o f as tructural d ome ;

1 ) .

t he s ummit m onadnocks o f

W hernside , I ngleborough , P en-y -Ghent a nd G reat W hernside r ise a bove 2 000 f eet b ut o nly a v ery s mall a rea o f l and m akes u p t hat 2 000 f oot p lateau , t he m ost e xtensive p lateau s urface i s f ound a bout 1 300 f eet ( 400 m ) . W e f ind m ost o f t he p rehistoric s ettlement s pread o ver t his f eature a nd d own t o t he a djacent v alley f loors ( Fig . 2 ) . G enerally t he h ill p rofiles a nd v alley s ides a re n aturally s tepped b y d ifferential w eathering e xcept w here a d rift v eneer h as o bliterated t he s olid g eology . O ur d istribution m aps s how t hat p rehistoric man w as a ttracted t o t his c alcareous c ore o f t he c entral P ennines ; a bove t he l evel o f t he l imestone p lateau t he i mproved g rassland p asses u pwards i nto t he M olinia-Nardus a ssemblage w ith s ome h eather o n t he h igher p eat c overed f ells . T oday t he d istrict i s a lmost t otally p astoral w ith n o c ereals g rown ; t his i s l ittle d ifferent t o t he r eport t o t he B oard o f A griculture i n 1 799 . T he e arly l iterary r eferences, u sually

r efer

t o

c airns

( 1785 ,

i nvariably i n t he G entleman 's M agazine ,

1 92 a nd

4 17) ,

c oin h oards a nd R oman c amps

( 1784 , 2 59) , t hey a re i nteresting b ut d o n ot h ave t he v alue o f t he V ictorian a uthors l ike J ohn P hillips i n h is R ivers, M ountains a nd S ea C oast o f Y orkshire ( 1855) w here, o n P late 5 , i s as cale p lan o f t he I ngleborough h illfort a nd i ts s tone b ox r ampart , o r B oyd D awkins ' C ave H unting ( 1874) w ith h is a ccount o f s ome o f t he d igging i n V ictoria a nd n eighbouring c aves . T hen , i n t he A ntiquary f or 1 892 ( 147) w e r ead o f t he e xcavation o f t he l argest o f t he t umuli 7 2 f eet i n d iameter o n H igh C lose ,

G rassington .

W e

s hall r eturn t o t his a gain . D r . R aistrick 's p apers o n f ield s ystems - ' Lynchet G roups o f U pper W harfedale ' ( Antiquity 1 929), ' Prehistoric C ultivations a t G rassington ' ( Y .A .J . 1 937 , X XXIII , 1 66-174) a nd ' Iron A ge S ettlements i n W est Y orkshire ( Y .A .J . 1 939 , 1 15-150) a re n ot j ust t he f irst w ords f ollowing C urwen 's A ntiquity p aper o f

1 928

( 168-172) ,

t hey a re v irtually t he o nly w ords .

W e

a ll w ish t o e mphasise t he i mportance o f D r . R aistrick 's w ork , e specially a s h e h ad n o a rcheaological t raining h imself. D r . R aistrick s uggests a B ronze A ge d ate f or t he s ub-circular b uilding b eneath C omb S car , a bout 8 00 m etres n orth o f M alham C ove ;

1 81

n o o ne e lse h as

d ated a ny s ettlement t o t hat p eriod i n t he a rea. A lan A berg

e xcavated

t he

e nclosed

g ritstone

h illtop

a t

H orse

C lose ,

S kipton , e xposing t he b edding t rench f oundations a nd p ost h oles o f p re-Roman t imber s ub-circular d wellings . F eacham b elieves e vidence f or r ectangular t imber s tructures c an b e s een a n a irphotographs o f t he I ngleborough h illfort b eneath t he f ree s tanding c ircular s tone h ouse b ases . P ersonally I w ould p refer t o c onsider t he s tone r ampart t here a s ap seudomorphic I ron A ge f eature n ow e ncircling e vidence f or R oman p eriod r eoccupation . N ine k ilometres t o t he n orth w est , a s tring o f s tone e nclosures, e ach w ith s tone b eehive d welling a t 2 000 f eet ( 610 m ) i nitially s uggest s tock p ens, b ut I n ow t hink t hat t hey w ere p ossibly s ignal s tations l inking I ngleborough w ith C umbria . O ther p astoral e vidence c an b e f ound a t a n a ltitude o f 1 800 f eet ( 550 m ) o n W hernside a nd a bove t he 1 500 f oot c ontour b etween M alham T arn a nd L ittondale . T here t he M iddle H ouse v illage i s i deally s ituated , o pen t o t he s outh o n a p romontory w ith h igh l and t o t he n orth a nd e ast , i t h as t en f ree s tanding c ircular b uildings a nd n ine b uilt i nto t he e nclosure wall ( Raistrick a nd H olmes, 1 962) . N ot a ll w ere d wellings , t he s maller -less t han 1 2 f eet i n d iameter -I c onsider s tore h ouses o r a nimal s helters . D r . R aistrick h as l inked t he a rchitecture o f s ome o f t hese h ouses w ith o thers h e e xcavated a t t he n orthern e nd o f P rior R akes . B oth h ad w alls m ade o f b oulder c ored g ravel b anks , s et w ith t imber p osts a bout a y ard a part . T he l atter s ite i s a s ingle f armsetad w ith e nclosure a bout 3 0 m x 1 5 m w ith t wo c ircular b uildings , o ne i ncorporated i nto t he e nclosure w all a t t he n orth e ast c orner , t he o ne e xcavated s tanding a f ew m etres n orth o f t he n orth w est c orner a nd n otable i n t hat a n i ron s ickle a nd a s econd a nd H olmes , 1 962) . A bove a bout

c entury p ottery d ish w ere d iscovered

1 250 f eet ( 381

t here

( Raistrick

m ) t he f armsteads a re s cattered t hough t he

m ajority a re c lose t o s prings , t heir h ouse d oorways i nvariably o pen t o t he s outh e ast a nd t he e nclosures w ith t heir i rregular ' organic ' o utlines c annot b e p roven a s a rable f ields . B elow t his a ltitude t he d ensity o f f armsteads i ncreases a nd i n s ome a reas t he p ressure o n t he l and w as s uch t hat l arge b locks o f s mall s quared a nd r ectangular p lots a re f ound s urrounding t he d wellings a nd f arm b uildings . T he D eepdale s ite i s t he m ost s urprising o f t he h igh l evel s ites ( Penhill b eing s imilar a nd t hough m uch m ore e xtensive , n ot a s w ell p reserved) . S tretching a long t he s outh f acing s car a nd b oth s ituated a nd b uilt o f t he s andstone s cree b elow a m assive s andstone o utcrop , t he c ircular dwellings h ave w alls t oday o ver 6 f eet h igh w ith i ntegral c upboards . S ocket h oles n ear t he w all t ops s how t imber b eams s upported t he r oof a nd t hat t hese s tone h ouses w ere n ot c orbelled c ompletely , t hough t hey h ad s tone s uggesting

r oofs . P assages a pparently l inked n eighbouring b uildings t hat s torage s tructures w ere l inked t o t he d wellings . A t a n

a ltitude o f 1 600 f eet t he s ite c omprises m ultiples o f t he ' house p lus y ard ' f orm w hich a ppears t o b e t he u pland p astoral v ariant f or t he d ales . L et

u s

c onsider

t he

t hree

a reas

o f

M alham a nd t he G rassington n eighbourhood .

d ensest

s ettlement :

A t R ibblehead

R ibblehead ,

f our n uclei c an b e

i dentified w ith l inear g roupings o f f armsteads s ituated b elow t he t opmost t errace o f t he G reat S car L imestone w ith f ield s ystems r unning a cross t he t errace a nd d own h ill t o t he e ast ( Fig . 3 ) . B efore r ecent e xcavation i t s eemed t hat a n umber o f t umuli s eparated t he p astoral l and h oldings : n ow t he f ield c learance c airns s uggest t hat t his l and w as c ultivated , y et t he b ulbous d ouble b anked e ntrances t o t he a cre s ized f ields i n G auber L imekiln P asture m ust h ave h ad s ome p astoral f unction p ossibly r elated t o w ork w ith

1 82

T he C raven F ault

c o c l ) c U . . 0 . c o 0 4 )

' V a ) r : c 1 ct 4 ) a ) 0 . 0

0 . A > ,

ß b e

0 ( 3 )

C . ) l r 1 •

•

C D L A . 1-

F 4 c o t i O 3 4 c d 9 z , ( 1 ) 0 • H C Z ( 1 ) . c l ) r i p c l -V C z . . ( ) 0 0 14 4 F 4 4 i 4 . ) 0 0 Q. C O C I ) c l ) W " c ) c 0 c a 4 1 c n 1 2 " 0 e I c r l a 0 c f ) c o . '4 c • , i a ) C D Q ( ) , i c s ) c n

20 4 )

$ i a ) 4 )

c o c l )

0 4 i U ) C I )

, I 1 . 1

C t i

C D T ) 4 1 a )

e 64 is , 2 . • _ , , 1•ri . 1 . 0 •

c n

•

c * N 1

1 83

h orses o r m ilking o f s heep o r c ows . N orth

o f

S elside ,

t he

f ield

e vidence

i s

r easonably c omplete .

F rom

t erraces a t 100 f eet t o v alley f loor a t 8 50 f eet n o s ubsequent p loughing h as o ccurred , t hough q uantities o f s tone h as b een r obbed f or w alling a nd u rban r ockeries. I n t he v icinity o f Malham C ove, w e h ave f ound a n a lmost i dentical a ltitude z one o f s ettlement 100 t o 8 00 f eet a nd 1 50 a cres ( 62 h ectares) o f f ields r unning f rom b eneath J orden S car i n t he w est, a long t he f ault s carp v ia t he c ove a nd b elow i t , o n t o S tridebut a nd G ordale . G enerally t he f ield s ystems c over s outh f acing s lopes, e xcept w here m edieval s trip l ynchets o bliterate t he e vidence . A p articularly f ine t rackway s ystem r uns n orth t hrough T rougate t o g razing p otential a round t he t arn ( Fig. 4 ).

l ies

T he l argest s ingle b lock o f a rable ' Celtic ' f ields i n t he P ennines i mmediately n orth o f G rassington b etween t he 1 000 f oot a nd 8 00 f oot

c ontours

c overing i n o ne b lock a t

l east

1 45

a cres

( 60

h ectares) .

m ore b roken g round t o t he w est a re c ontiguous s ettlements, d efended s ite a t F ar G regory i n G rass W ood .

O n t he

f ields a nd t he

N orthwards s ettlement c ores m ay b e i dentified b elow H ill C astles , a t S winebar S car i n C onistone P arish ( Figs . 5 ,

6 ) .

a nd

S imilarly t he e ast

f acing b locks o f c eltic f ields i mmediately n orth o f K ilsey C rag, t he c oncentration a round O utgang H ill a nd t hose , i n w hat w as o nce C hapel H ouse W ood , w hich d esend t o 6 00 f eet, t his e xpanse f eatures t he b est * l ynchetted c eltic f ields i n t his p art o f Wharfedale p rotected, p resumably b y t he r ecently f elled w ood . T hey e xtend t o v alley f loor b ut n ot t o t he f lood p lain . I n T hreshfield , 7 5 a cres ( 30 h ectares) o f c eltic f ields o ccur b etween t he 8 00 a nd 7 00 f oot c ontours w est o f t he S kipton r oad, w ith a c ontinuation e astwards . W e a ll r ealise w hy D r . R aistrick l ives i n U pper W harfedale. P erhaps

o ne

s hould

n ow

a mplify

s ome

e arlier

a rchitectural

c omment .

G enerally h ouses a re c ircular s tone b ased b uildings , 1 8-36 f eet i n d iameter , n ot q uite t o E we C lose s ize , w ith s maller o utbuildings . O n s ome s ites, d wellings a re r ectangular s tructures ,

r arely o ver 3 5 f eet l ong b y 1 2 f eet

w ide w ith t he d oorway n ear a n e nd o f a l ong w all , y et t he b arns , s hippons , p igsties, g ranaries e tc . , c ontinue i n t he t raditional c ircular f orm . T he s maller a rable f ields m easure 2 0 t o 3 0 y ards s quare , a re r ectangular a nd h ave

l ength . t o b readth r atios

o f u p

t o

w hile o thers 5 :1

b ut s till

c over r oughly t he s ame a rea. T he s ettlement c ores a re m ade u p o f n umerous b uildings , y ards a nd s mall g arden s ize p lots w hich h ave b een c ultivated a lbeit s easonally . P ossibly v egetables w ere c ultivated o r m aybe c ereal s eed b eds w ere g rown a way f rom t he p lough f ields , p erhaps u nder b etter s oil c onditions t o e nsure a v iable s eed b ank . I f , o r w hen , h arvests w ere r uined , s ome u nripe g rain c ould b e k iln d ried f or f lour , b ut t his w ould n ot p roduce s eed . T he

l ong

s trip

f ields

w hich a re

e vident

a round

e very

d ales

v illage

p ost-date t he R omano-British p eriod a griculture u nder d iscussion w ith o ne e xception . I n U pper R ibblesdale a n u nlynchetted g roup o n S mearsett ( SD 8 05/683) r uns d irectly u phill w ith o thers r unning a long t he c ontour , a verage s trip w idth i s 1 2 y ards w ith l engths m easuring 1 05 y ards .

1 84

t he

1 85

I nvariably t he s ignificant b oundaries r un a t r ight a ngles t o t he t errace e dges , t he n orth e astern p art o f t he m ap -these l ong r unning w ells , m ost g rass c overed n ow , d ivide t he a ltitude z one t hat w as t he e nclosed l and . F ig . 3 , T hey a re b est s een i mmediately s outh o f R ibblehead n ear C olt P ark ( n ear B ) a nd i n t he C oniston n eighbourhood ( Fig . 5 ) n orth a nd e ast o f S winebar S car .

T hese w alls e nclose ,

w ith t he t errace e dges -w hich m arks

b reaks o f s lope -fields m easuring i n s ome c ases f our t o s ix a cres t aken w ith t he d ouble w alled t rackways t hat r un t hrough t he b ank o f l ynchetted a rable p lots . T hey i mply i ntensive s tock r earing , t he b easts b eing d riven t o r ivers a nd t heir a djacent water m eadows, t hrough a z one o f c ereal p roduction . I n U pper W harfedale t he v alley f loor b elow t he c onfluence o f W harfe a nd S kirfare a nd b etween K ilnsey C rag a nd C hapel W ood o n t he w est a nd C oniston o n t he e ast i s ad rained p ost-glacial l ake f lat l iable t o f looding. L arge a reas o f R omano-British s ettlement a nd a ssociated f ields h ave v anished b eneath l ater s trip l ynchets o n m any s carp f aces a nd c lose t o t he m ajority o f d ales v illages . I n r are i nstances i nsight t o t he p eriod u nder d iscussion i s o btained a t t he p eriphery o f t he modern p arish a nd where p arish b oundaries a ppear t o p rotect t he a ncient monuments . T he b etter e xamples o f t his a ppear o n t he s outh f acing s lope a long t he C lapham-Austwick p arish b oundary a nd a lso a long t hat b etween S ettle a nd L angcliffe . T he

e vidence

s hows

t his

t he

r ichest

a nd

t he

m ost

d ensely

p opulated

p ortion o f t he P ennines; i t w as n o a rea o f s ubsistence p astoraligm . T he m ajority o f e xcavated s ettlements

c an b e d ated

t o

t he s econd o r

f ourth c enturies b ut t he f inds a re m eagre a nd i n m arked c ontrast t o t he e vidence f rom t he c aves ( King, 1 970) . T he s ubterranean f inds s equence e xhibits a n h iatus a bout 1 50-160 A D f ollowing t he a cme o f B rigantian m etalwork a nd w e r ealise t he R omans c ame f or w hat w as a lready a vailable : c ereals , m eat , w ool a nd l ead . T he m ajority o f s tudents

l ook u pon t he C raven U plands

a s

a m arginal

a rea where t he c ultivation o f c ereals i s a nd a lways w ould h ave b een c onsidered r isky . M nlham T arn F ield C entre c limatological r eports a nd o ther d ata s uggests o therwise ( Fig .

6 ) .

M alham T arn h as 4 0 m onth d egrees

C , o r i f y ou p refer , o ver 190 d ay d egrees C a bove a b ase o f 4 .5 d egrees C . T hough a t a n a ltitude o f 1 300 f eet ( 395 m ) t his i s t heoretically n ot a n a rea w here c ereals w ould b e a t r isk . M anley h as w ritten t hat 2 5 m onth d egrees Cm akes p loughing w orthwhile a nd a n e xtra 1 2 m onth d egrees C w ould r emove m ost r isks f rom w heat a nd o at c ultivation ( Manley , 1 979) . O ats n eed a bout 9 00 d ay d egrees C a bove a b ase o f 4 .4 d egrees i n F inland . T his i s r ather l onger t han s pring w heat w hich P arry c onsidered t o n eed 1 050 d ay d egrees C i n s outhern S cotland ( the a rithmetic d iscrepancy d oes n ot m ake a llowance f or t he l onger h ours o f s unshine i n F inland c ompared w ith t he L ammermuirs) ( Parry ,

1 978) .

T he c limate d uring t he e arly p art o f t he R oman p eriod w as a lmost i dentical t o t hat o f t oday , d eteriorating i nto t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies . B ut s till a n umber o f q uestions n eed t o b e a sked . H ow w idely u sed w ere t he a rd , p lough a nd s ickle? T he s mall s ize a nd s quare s hape o f m any p lots s uggests a s pade w as u sed f or d igging .

S .

C aulfield i n C ounty

M ayo h as e xcavated p rehistoric s pade m arks a bove h orizons p loughed b y a rd . I t i s a lso r elevant t hat w e a ccept s pade c ut t urf b uilt b arrows -not i n t he P ennines a dmittedly b ut i n e astern Y orkshire w here t hey a ppear a s af acet o f

1 86

NV IA/ 02 1 BAINBR IDGE

C I V02 1 I

Z . d

R IBBLEHEAD

U . !

/ '

"

—

1 87

t he p astoral B ronze A ge ! S ickles h ave b een e xcavated i n C raven a nd a ssumption h as l inked t hem w ith t he c ereal h arvest .

O ur m ono c ulture m entality , w ith m odern w heat a nd

b arley e ars c arried a t r egulation h eight must g o, w e must t hink a bout g rowing s pelt a nd e mmer , b eans a nd v etch , w ith p lant s pecies w hich p roduce o il r ich s eed . S eed i s p lanted i n r ows , s ome w eeds d iscouraged , o thers a ccepted a s a l ey c rop . T rials a t B utzer h ave e ars o ver o ne m etre a part v ertically , s o t he c rop i s h arvested m ore e asily b y u prooting t he p lant ( Reynolds,

1 980) .

R ecent e xcavation a t C efn G raenog a t a n a ltitude o f

1 000 f eet i n

S nowdonia r evealed s torage b arns w here c arbonised s traw w as s till a ttached a t t he r oot , a nd t his a grees w ith c lassical l iterary r eferences ( Cambrian A rchaeological S ociety , m onograph , G . H illman , f orthcoming) . T he e ars a re k nocked o ff t he p lants, t he p rehistoric r achis b eing v ery b rittle . s ure t hat l egumes i ncluding v etch w ere h arvested i n t he s ame w ay . Many o f t he weed s eeds t oo would h ave b een c ollected,

e specially

s pecies l ike p oppy , t hough w ind d ispersal o f t he r ipe s eed h eads c ould c reate d ifficulties . T he s weepings f rom t he l ate s econd c entury R oman s tables a t L ancaster, s how h orses b eing f ed b arley , o ats, r ye , s pelt, l egumes a nd f odder c ontaining r ich m eadow s pecies ( Gay W ilson , 1 979) . T he s ickles a nd l opping k nives p ossibly c ut t he f odder c rop . T he a ssociation o f l egumes a nd c ereals i s o f m ajor s ignificance a s i s t he f act t hat s pelt a nd e mmer c ould h ave b een e ither a utumn o r s pring &O WL B rongers s ees t he s maller a rable p lots a s s ub-divisions o f af ield w ith t he f ields b eing p art o f a n i ndividual 's h olding .

T he b oulder w alls a nd b anks

w ould k eep s tock i n o r o ut -w e h ave t o h edge o ur b ets -though I p refer t o h edge t he f ields t o a void t he l odging o r f lattening o f c rops b ut t he b oundaries t hemselves s how l and o wnership a nd h elp c ut o ut f riction b etween t he u nneighbourly . P eter R eynolds h as o btained a n a verage y ield o f 1 4 .2 c wts p er a cre o f s pelt o ver t he l ast e ight y ears a t B utzer , a nd f inds n o l oss o f f ertility o f t heir r endzina s oils . S .D . P rince r esearching t he e ffect o f c limate o n b arley d evelopment , c ompared c onditions a nd y ields a t C ambridge , L ancaster a nd M alham M oor ( Prince , 1 976) . F rom s owing o n A pril 1 3th e ars e merged o n J uly i st a t C ambridge , J uly 7 th a t L ancaster , a nd J uly 2 5th a t M alham , m aximum g rain w eight w as r eached i n m id-July a t C ambridge , m id-August a t L ancaster a nd m id-September a t M alham , w here g rains r ipened w hen t emperatures w ere f alling a nd p recipitation i ncreasing . T he M alham y ield w as a bout t wo-thirds t he l owland y ields w hich w ere v irtually i dentical t hough t he p olysaccharide r eserve i n t he u pland g rain w as s ignificantly h igher

( Prince ,

P erhaps

1 976) .

n ow w e s hould c onsider

g rew t heir c rops ,

t he d ales p eople f or a m oment .

b red a nd s laughtered t heir l ivestock ,

T hey

f aced t he p roblems

o f o ver w intering a nd a ugmented t heir d iet b y h unting a nd c ollecting . W e h ave e vidence f or c attle , s heep , h orses, p igs , f owl a nd f ish , b ut I b elieve c arbohydrate w ould h ave m ade u p a bout h alf o f t heir f ood n eeds . I f w e a ccept a d iet o f 3 000 c alories a verage , a nd t hat i s o bviously t oo h igh , o ne h alf w ould c ome f rom 1 6 o unces o f c ereal p er d ay , o r 3 65 p ounds p er a nnum , t o t hat a dd o ne t hird f or s eed, a bout 4 .3 c wts p er h ead. T o

c onclude

R eynolds '

l owland

t his

m athematical e xercise ,

y ield

i n

t he

c ontinually

w e t ake c ropped

t wo-thirds

F ield

1

i n

o f t he

P eter e ast

s ector a t B utzer ( the a verage y ield f or b oth t he w inter s own s pelt [ Triticum

1 88

WATER S INKS

l imes tone Ou tcrop Ce l ti c f i e lds B u i ld ing

B ases

F ig. 4

F ield S ystems a t M alham

1 89

s pelta]

a nd

[ Emmer T riticum d icoccum],

i s

1 4 c wts

p er a cre) ,

a nd g et a n

a nswer o f 9 .3 c wts . W e r ealise n ow t hat o ne a cre o f p rehistoric a rable w ill s upport a t l east t wo p eople ( one h ectare w ill s upport m ore t han 5 p eople) . T he p resent p arish o f M alham h as a p opulation o f 1 62 , a bout h alf t he f igure w e w ould e xpect f or t he R omano-British p eriod ( Reynolds , 1 980 , 1 09) . H eather T insley ,

w orking

i n N idderdale ,

c onsiders

t he B eaker

p eople ,

t he R omano-British a nd t he C istercians a s t he m ajor d eforesting g roups i n h er c entral P ennine s tudy a rea . I t c annot b e c oincidence t hat t hose a reas w hich f eature t he m ost i ntensive e vidence o f p rehistoric f arming h ave l arge f ield m onuments t hat p redate t he R omano-British p eriod b y m any y ears . A t H igh C lose , G rassington , t he l arge c airn e xcavated i n 1 892 y ielded a n A .O .C . d ecorated b eaker ; t he Y arnbury h enge i s a k ilometre a way , w hile a l arge n umber o f l eaf-shaped a nd t anged a nd b arbed a rrow p oints h ave b een c ollected o ff t he c eltic f ields, a nd t o t he w est o n L ea G reen . O n t he s outhern v alley s ide o f W ensleydale i n t he n orth o f o ur s tudy a rea , S toney R aise C airn i s c lose t o t he A ddleborough c oncentration o f s ettlement , w hile a round t he O rdnance S urvey t rigonometric p oint o n A ddleborough i s a c up m arked b oulder k erbed c airn . W e c an s imilarly r elate t he s ituation o f t he P en-yG hent c hambered c airn ; S eaty H ill , S tridebut a nd U pper R ibblesdale b urial m ounds a mid c eltic f ield s ystems. I i gnore h ere c aves ,

t he w ealth o f p rehistoric e vidence f rom t he s epulchral

b ut p oint o ut t hat c ommunities e xisted i n m ost v alleys

a nd o n a ll

l ocal p lateaux d uring t he N eolithic a nd B ronze A ges . T he c airns a re c lose t o t he b etter s oils a nd p robably n ot f ar f rom t he f armsteads a nd f ields , a ll b eing s ituated o n c leared g round .

C onclusion I c onsider

a r eassessment

o f

o ur

u pland

P ennine

p rehistoric

a rable

h istory l ong o verdue , a nd s uggest a p rogramme o f e xcavation a nd a nalysis o f t he s oils b uried b elow m any o f t he l arger r obbed a nd m utilated c airns : w e a lso m ight s et u p o ur o wn B utzer s omewhere a bove t he 1 000 f oot c ontour . T he d ales s uffered n o G reenwell o r B ateman a nd f eatured r arely i n E lgee 's w riting , b ut t he a rea h as b een m ore f ortunate t han t he r emainder o f Y orkshire i n b eing t he s etting o f p ossibly t he major p art o f A rthur R aistrides e xtended i nterdisciplinary r esearch . H e h as l aid d own f or s tudents o f t his l imestone a rea a m ost s ubstantial f oundation , f or t his w e s hall b e e ver g rateful .

1 90

S lb

WALLS ( above 900 ' OD . )

-

H owes , o u i d .o 4No6 MALL ‚HEL M

e = 7=

=3

L I M I L wron it

3#41

SURFACK.

e l eFA I te

9 0 "

" e 0 z 0 r l

O A

/ / /

14 2

)) I * . . . . . . . . .' 0 "• • 1

)

DRA W N 0

A IR .

FROM \ AN

P HoT o

MOSA IC ,

A K ING

F ig . 5 F ield S ystems a t C onistone

1 91

• • • 1 I

•

( 0

.. ' •. . .:

0

—9

F " Z D 0 . U .

•

** ..

A

. C i

Z

••

. . N •.

_ j — 1 W L i .

c i

1 92

•

• , ••

< •

•

C limatic d ata f or t he C entral P ennines U pland

0

,J D

B ibliography D awkins, W .B .

( 1874)

C ave H unting, M acmillan , L ondon .

H arker ,

( 1892)

' D iscovery o f P rehistoric r emains

B .J .

C raven , Y orkshire', A ntiquity 2 6, K ing, A .

( 1970)

G .

Y orks . A rchaeol . J ourn .

( 1979)

M .L .

( 1978)

4 2 ,

P t .

1 68 ,

4 10-417 .

' Temperature r ecords o n F ountains F ell,

P ennine c omparisons', P arry ,

i n

' Romano-British m etalwork f rom t he S ettle d istrict o f W est

Y orkshire ' , Manley ,

a t G rassington ,

1 47-8.

w ith s ome

F ield S tudies 5 , 8 5-92.

' C limatic c hange a griculture a nd s ettlement i n D awson ,

F olkestone'. P rince ,

S .D .

( 1976)

' The e ffect o f c limate o n g rain d evelopment i n b arley

o n a n u pland s ite ', R aistrick , A .

( 1937)

N ew P hytologist 7 6, 3 77-389. ' Prehistoric c ultivation a t G rassington% Y orks.

A rchaeol. J ourn . 3 3 , R aistrick , A .

( 1939)

' Iron A ge s ettlements i n West Y orkshire ', Y orks.

A rchaeol. J ourn . 3 4 , R aistrick ,

A .

a nd

1 66-174.

15-150.

C hapman,

W harfedale ', A ntiquity , R aistrick ,

A . a nd H olmes,

S .E .

( 1929)

' Lynchet

g roups

o f

U pper

' Archaeology o f M alham M oor ' ,

F ield

1 65-181.

P .F .

( 1962)

S tudies 1 . R eynolds,

P .

( 1980)

' Farming p ractice i n B ritish P rehistory ',

Munro

S ymposium ( subsequently ( 1981) p ublished , e d . R . M ercer , E dinburgh U .P .). W ilson ,

G ay D .

M aria H opf,

( 1979)

' Horse d ung f rom R oman L ancaster ' ,

A rchaeo-Physika B and 8 , 3 31-349.

1 93

F estschrift t o

E ARLY S ETTLEMENT I N U PPER T EESDALE, C OUNTY D URHAM D enis C oggins

T he R iver T ees r ises n ear t he s ummit o f C ross F ell , w hich a t j ust u nder 9 14m ( 3000 f t) i s t he h ighest p oint o f t he P ennines . F or t he f irst 1 6 k m ( 10 m iles) o f i ts c ourse t he r iver r uns t hrough u ninhabited m oorland w here t he o nly a pparent s igns o f h uman a ctivity a re t he r emains o f l ead p rospecting a nd m ining . E ven t here h owever p eat e rosion h ad r evealed f lints a nd t he r emains o f t he h orns o f c attle . B elow t he C ow G reen r eservoir a nd t he c ataract o f C auldron S nout t he T ees r eceives i ts f irst t ributary ,

t he M aize B eck .

T his r ises o n D ufton F ell a nd a t o ne p oint

i s

o nly a s hort d istance f rom t he s pectacular g orge o f H igh C up G ill w here t he w estern s carp o f t he P ennines d rops s teeply t o t he v alley o f t he R iver E den . T he M aize B eck t hus f orms a s hort a nd c onvenient r oute b etween t he e ast a nd w est s ides o f t he P ennines, a l ink p erpetuated b y t he m odern P ennine W ay f ootpath . B etween t he t wo w aterfalls o f C auldron S nout a nd H igh F orce t he T ees r uns t hrough a g laciated v alley w ith w hinstone c liffs o n a lternate s ides a nd i s j oined b y i ts m ajor t ributary f rom t he n orth : t he H arwood B eck . B elow t he g orge a t H igh F orce t he r iver f lows l ess r apidly a nd t he v alley b roadens t hough i t s till m aintains i ts u pland c haracter a s f ar a s M iddleton i n T eesdale . I t i s t he v alley o f t he T ees f rom i ts s ource t o M iddleton w hich c an p roperly b e r egarded a s U pper T eesdale a nd w hich i s t he s ubject o f t his p aper ( Fig . 1 ) . I nformation

a bout

t he

g eology ,

c limate

a nd

v egetational

h istory

o f

U pper T eesdale ( Clapham , 1 978) i s r eadily a vailable a nd o nly t he b riefest s ummary n eed b e g iven h ere . M uch o f t he s urface o f t he d ale i s c overed b y l ocally d erived g lacial d rift w hile t he m ost p rominent f eature o f t he s olid g eology i s t he p resence o f t he i ntrusive G reat W hin S ill w hich f orms t he s pectacular c liffs a nd w aterfalls . T here a re m any g eological f aults, o ne o f w hich , t he T eesdale F ault , r uns a pproximately a long t he l ine o f t he r iver . T o t he s outh-west o f t he f ault t he w hin s ill o utcrop a cts a s a b arrier b etween t he r iver v alley a nd t he m oorland w hile t o t he n orth-east i t l ies d eeply b uried b eneath t he s andstones.

C arboniferous

s eries

o f

l imestones ,

s hales

a nd

T he c limate o f U pper T eesdale i s t hat o f t he N orth P ennines g enerally , s een i n i ts m ore e xtreme f orm . T he m ost i mportant f eature a ffecting f arming a nd t herefore s ettlement i s t he r apidity w ith w hich t he l ength o f t he g rowing s eason

d ecreases w ith i ncreased a ltitude .

F or e ach 1 00 m i ncrease

i n a ltitude t here i s as hortening o f t he g rowing s eason o f o ver t wo w eeks . T his i n t urn c an b e c orrelated w ith t he u pper l imit o f t ree g rowth w hich u nder p resent c limatic c onditions c an b e s et a t a bout 4 57 m ( 1500 f t) . T rees w ill a nd d o g row a t g reater a ltitudes t han t his b ut a re u sually p oor s pecimens. B oth c limate a nd g eology h ave a n i mportant i nfluence o n s ettlement . t oo d oes a spect :

S o

s outh f acing s lopes a re u sually p referred t o n orth f acing

o nes . T aking t hese f actors i nto c onsideration o ne w ould e xpect t o f ind m ost s ettlement i n U pper T eesdale o n t he n orth b ank o f t he r iver w here s oils a nd a spect a re m ore f avourable , w ith a c oncentration a t l ower a ltitudes a nd a

1 95

p robable u pper l imit o f a round 4 57 m ( 1500 f t) .

F ig . 2s hows e xisting f arms

a nd a lso t hose r ecently o ccupied : t he p attern i s v ery m uch a s p redicted t hough t here a re p erhaps m ore f arms n ear a nd e ven a bove t he 4 57 m c ontour t han m ight h ave b een e xpected . M ost o f t hese a re c onnected w ith t he g rowth o f l ead m ining i n t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c enturies. W hen o ne l ooks a t t he d istribution o f p rehistoric a nd p re-Conquest s ites h owever ( Fig . 3 ) ad ifferent p attern e merges . T he 4 57 m c ontour s till m arks t he e ffective u pper l imit o f s ettlement b ut d espite t he d isadvantages o f an ortherly a spect, p oorer s oil a nd t he p hysical b arrier p resented b y t he w hin s ill , t he r emains o f e arly s ettlement a ppear t o b e c onfined a lmost e ntirely t o t he s outh-east o f t he T eesdale F ault . I t i s i mportant t o t ry t o a scertain w hether t his d echotomy b etween e arly a nd m odern s ettlement i s r eal o r o nly a pparent a nd i n e ither c ase , t o e xplain i t . T he s implest e xplanation i s t hat m ediaeval a nd m odern e nclosures a nd i mprovements h ave d estroyed a ll t races o f t heir e arlier c outerparts o n t he b etter s oils a nd t hat t hese n ow s urvive o nly o n u nimproved l and , m ost o f which i s t o b e f ound t o t he s outh o f t he T eesdale F ault . T his i s a n a ttractive h ypothesis b ut o ne w hich i s i ncapable o f p roof a nd w hich h as m oreover s everal s erious d isadvantages. B efore c onsidering t his q uestion f urther i t i s d esirable t o s ummarise t he e vidence p rovided b y e xcavation i n U pper T eesdale . S ince 1 972 e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut a t s even s ites , s ix t o t he s outh o f t he f ault a nd o ne t o t he n orth . B racken R igg ( Coggins a nd F airless, A ge s ettlement ,

1 984) p roved t o b e a M iddle B ronze

r adiocarbon d ated t o 3 180+ 6 0 B .P . O le 2 414) .

I t c onsisted

o f a s ingle l arge c ircular h ouse w ithin a n i rregular e nclosure o f a bout 0 .7 h ectares . F inds i ncluded f lints, p ottery f rom a t l east f ive v essels, a s pindlewhorl a nd f ragments o f aj et r ing . T he s ite o ccupied t he s ummit o f a m orainic r idge a t ah eight o f a bout 3 87 m ( 1250 f t) . F orcegarth P asture ( North) ( Fairless a nd C oggins, s ingle

e nclosed

f armstead

s ettlement m ore c omplex -a r adiocarbon d ated s pindlewhorls ,

L o

t hough

e nclosure

was

1 980) w as a lso a s maller a nd

t hree r oomed h ouse a nd s eparate b arn .

1 810 + 7 0 B .P .

q uernstones

t he

( INR 8 04) .

F inds

a nd a l ittle p ottery .

w ere s parse :

T here w as

t he

I t w as f lints ,

a lso e vidence

f or i ron w orking. F orcegarth P asture ( South) ( Fairless a nd C oggins ,

1 986) l ittle o ver 1 00

m a way f rom t he p revious s ite w as a lso a n e nclosed s ettlement t hough w ith a t l east f ive r ound h ouses i nstead o f a s ingle o ne . C harcoal f rom t he h earth o f o ne h ouse g ave a r adiocarbon d ate o f 1 740 + 9 0 B .P . O le 1 447) . F inds w ere s imilar t o t hose f rom t he N orth s ite t hough t here w as e vidence f or R oman c ontacts . T here w as a gain e vidence f or i ron w orking . B oth F orcegarth P asture s ites h ad e xtensive f ield s ystems a nd b oth l ie a t ah eight o f 3 30 m ( 1100 f t). A t S imy F olds ( Coggins e t a l,

1 983) t here a re t hree s ettlements o f

A nglo-Scandinavian t ype w ith f ield s ystems t otalling s ome 3 0 h ectares . f armstead

c onsists

E ach

o f a l ong n arrow b uilding w ith a s maller o ne a t r ight

a ngles t o i t , t hus f orming t wo s ides o f a n e nclosed y ard . T wo o f t he s ites h ave a t hird b uilding a t a l ittle d istance . E xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut o n a ll t hree s ites a nd r adiocarbon d ates a nd

1 210 + 8 0 B .P .

o f

0 B .P . 170 + 7

O le 4 034) h as b een o btained f or t wo o f t hese .

1 96

O le 1 898) T here i s

,I

b u • • , 1 r . i

1 97

CN

1 98 L ater S ites i n U pper T eesdale

c r )

1 99 E arlier S ites i n U pper T eesdale

a lso e vidence t hat t he s ettlements w ere a r e-occupation o f a l ate I ron A ge s ite ; c harcoal f rom a h earth b eneath t he f loor o f o ne o f t he 8 th c entury b uildings g ave a d ate o f 2 330 + 1 00 B .P . ( RAR 4 035) . F inds f rom t hese s ites w ere e ven more s parse t han f rom t hose p reviously m entioned : f lints, s pindlewhorls a nd a gain e vidence o f i ron w orking . T he o nly s ite l ying n orth o f t he f ault l ine t o h ave b een e xcavated p resented a v ery d ifferent p icture . T his w as a t M iddle H urth ( Coggins a nd F airless, 1 978-1979) w here a n i rregular l ong l ow m ound o ver-lain b y a c ircular b ank o ccupies a l imestone o utcrop a t j ust u nder 4 57 m ( 1500 f t) . A s ection a cross t he m ound p roduced a q uantity o f f lints , a n a ssemblage w hich s eems c haracteristic o f t he L ate M esolithic . I nserted i nto t he m ound , w ithin t he c ircle a nd p artially c overed b y t he s pread o f t he e arthen m ound , w as a s lighted c airn c ontaining a f ew t iny f ragments o f b one a nd s ufficient c harcoal t o g ive a r adiocarbon d ate o f 2 210 + 8 0 B .P . ( RAR 2 918) . A s ection a cross t he b ank i tself r evealed a n e arly g round s urface h eavily b urnt, r adiocarbon d ated t o 1 360 + 9 0 B .P . ( HAR 3 623) . T he i nterpretation o f t his e nigmatic s ite i s n ot e asy b ut i t w as o bviously a ' ritual ' m onument o f s ome i mportance w ith a l ife-span o f s ome t wo t housand y ears. T he m aterial r emains f rom t he h abitation s ites d escribed b riefly a bove a re v ery s imilar a nd i t w ould p robably b e t rue t o s ay t hat a t a ll p eriods t hey w ere o ccupied b y p astoralists w ho g rew a l ittle c orn a nd f rom t he l ate I ron A ge o nwards w orked t he l ocal i ron o re d eposits ( Coggins a nd F airless , 1 977, 1 979, 1 981) . N o d oubt t he b alance b etween p asture a nd a rable f luctuated w ith t he l atter p robably m ore i mportant i n t he R oman p eriod b ut t hese c hanges w ould b e o f e mphasis r ather t han b eing f undamental . T his o f c ourse i s o nly t o b e e xpected . T he c onditions i mposed b y c limate a nd g eology o n U pper T eesdale h ave a lways l eft f ew o ptions o pen t o f armers a t a ny p eriod , e specially t o f armers d ependent o n t heir o wn r esources . I t m ust h ave b een e ssential f or t hem t o e xploit e very p ossible r esource a nd i n o rder t o d o t his t he p referred l ocation f or a f arm w ould b e a t a p oint where d ifferent e nvironments m et .

I n p ractical t erms t his m eans t hat s ettlement

w ould b e l ikely t o b e f ound a t t he w oodland e dge w herever t hat h appened t o •b e a t a ny p articular t ime . H ere a ccess w as a vailable t o b oth f orest a nd t o o pen g round, w hile s mall p lots o f a rable c ould b e c reated w ithout much d ifficulty . T he c learance o f t hese p lots w ould p rovide s tone f or b oundary w alls a nd f or h ouses; f rom t he f orest c ame t hat m ost e ssential o f r aw m aterial -timber . P igs c ould b e k ept i n t he w oodland , c attle b rowse o n t he s hrubs a nd b ushes a nd s heep g raze o n t he o pen f ells . A s t he w oodland w as c leared s ettlement would f ollow i ts r etreating e dge d ownhill .

I t i s

i mportant t o r emember h owever, t hat t hough h abitation s ites m ay m ove d ownhill t he f ields t hemselves w ould n ot b e a bandoned . F orest w ould b ecome s crub, f orest-edge a nd a rable c hange t o p asture a nd t hus t he a mount o f p asture w ould s teadily i ncrease .

A t t imes w hen t he a rable b ecame o f g reater

i mportance t here w ould b e s ome f orest r egeneration o n a bandoned p astures . T his s implified a ccount o f t he s equence o f s ettlement i s b roadly s upported b y t he e vidence o f p ollen a nalysis f rom s everal s ites ( Turner , 1 973) .

R ecent f ieldwork o n a n a rea o f a bout 8 k m2 o n C rossthwaite C ommon

h as a lso p rovided c orroborative e vidence f or t he p attern o f l and u se s uggested a bove . F igure 4 s hows t he f ield s ystems l ying b etween 3 05 a nd 4 57 m ( 1000 -1500 f t) . E xcept f or a reas o f p eat c over p ractically t he w hole o f C rossthwaite C ommon i s o ccupied . I n g eneral t he h ighest s ettlements a re t he s implest a nd t heir r emains l ess w ell p reserved ,

2 00

w hile t he

l owest a re

t he

LJ

2 01

t o M IDDLETON

t o B ARNARD

T EESDALE: e a r ly s e t lemen t . t

C ROSSTH WA ITE COMMON

—

• -• •

0 C )

F ield S ystems a nd S ettlement S ites

t o HO LW ICK

m ost c omplex a nd a lso t he m ost c omplete . Ad ownhill p rogression f rom e arly t o l ate p rehistory i s a l ikely e xplanation . T he s heer q uantity o f t he r emains o f e arly s ettlement o n t he s outh s ide o f t he f ault s uggests t hat t he p attern i llustrated i n F igure 3 i s a r eal o ne . I t i s h ardly l ikely t hat i f f ield s ystems a s e xtensive a s t hose o n C rossthwaite C ommon h ad e xisted o n t he o pposite b een d estroyed e ver b een

b y l ater f arming

p ractice .

b ank t hey w ould a ll h ave

N o l and

i n U pper T eesdale h as

i ntensively c ultivated, t he e conomy h as a lways b een l argely

p astoral . T he f act t hat a f ew i stes d o s urvive o n t he n orth b ank s hows t hat w holesale d estruction h as n ot t aken p lace . T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he s outh b ank o f t he r iver w as t he p referred l ocation f or e arly s ettlement . T here a re s everal p ossible r easons f or t his . I n t he f irst p lace i t h as a lready b een s uggested t hat e arly f armers n eeded t o m ake u se o f t he v ariety o f r esources which w ere m ost e asily a vailable a t t he f orest e dge . T he f actors o f g eology a nd a spect w hich n ow g ive t he l and o n t the n orth b ank o f t he r iver i ts d esirable f arming c haracteristics w ould m ean t hat i n p rehistoric t imes i ts f orest c over w ould b e d ense a nd t he t ree l ine w ould b e m uch h igher . T here w ould b e p ractically n o f orest e dge z one b elow 4 57 m ( 1500 f t) a h eight a t w hich t he g rowing s eason i s p erilously s hort . I t i s s ignificant t hat t he f ew s ites i dentified o n t he n orth b ank a re a ll h igh . M iddle H urth f or e xample i s a t 4 57 m ( 1500 f t) w hile C arr C rags , ag rouping o f h uge r ocks b earing h undreds o f c arved ' b asins ' , l ies a t 6 10 m ( 2000 f t) . T hough d ense f orest w ould p resent m any p roblems a nd f ew a dvantages t o e arly f armers i t w as n evertheless a n i mportant r esource . F igure 4 s hows t hat t he a vailable l and o n C rossthwaite C ommon w as d istributed i n ah ighly o rganised m anner . A s ociety w hich w as c apable o f a rranging l and d istribution o n t his k ind o f s cale w ould s urely n ot o verlook t he e ssential r esources p rovided b y t he f orested n orth b ank a nd would, i t i s s uggested r egulate i ts e xploitation . W hatever s ocio-political s ystems w ere c urrent a t d ifferent t imes i n t he p rehistoric p eriod l and u se m ust a lways h ave b een c losely c ontrolled e ither b y a greement o r b y i mposition . o f h unting f orests i n T eesdale a nd

T he N orman e stablishment

W eardale i s w ell d ocumented a nd w hile

s imilar e vidence c an n ever b e a vailable f or p rehistory a s imilar u se o f t he l and c an b e p ostulated . O ne

f urther

f actor

m ust

b e

c onsidered .

T hough e arly s ettlements

i n

U pper T eesdale m ust h ave b een l argely s elf-sufficient t hey c ould n ever h ave b een c ompletely s o a nd o ne i mportant r aw m aterial -flint -w as c ompletely a bsent f rom t he a rea . T hough t he s ource o f t he f lint s upply c annot b e i dentified f or c ertain i t i s l ikely t o h ave b een i mported f rom e ither t he N orth Y orkshire c oast o r t he W est C umbrian c oast, o r f rom b oth . A s m entioned a bove , t he R iver T ees, M aize B eck , R iver E den r oute i s a t ransP ennine t rack o f g reat a ntiquity a nd w ould h ave b een p articularly u seful i f t he f lint s ource w as W est C umbria . T he r oute f ollows t he s outh b ank o f t he r iver r ather t han t he n orth b ecause t here a re n o m ajor t ributaries t o c ross a nd b ecause t he whin e scarpment p rovides a n atural l ine t o f ollow . S ettlement c ould b e e xpected t o c luster a long s uch a r oute . B riefly t his p aper s uggests

t hat t he a pparent d ichotomy b etween e arly

a nd m odern s ettlement i n U pper T eesdale i s ar eal o ne a nd t hat s ettlement o f t he s outh b ank w as o rganised a t l east b y t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illenium B .C . I t d oes n ot p retend t o e xplain f ully t he r easons f or t his d ichotomy b ut s uggests t wo p ossible m ajor f actors : t he i mportance o f t he w oodland e dge z one a s a n a rea o f p rimary s ettlement a nd t he n eed t o r egulate t he f orest r esources o f t he n orth b ank .

T he m odel s uggested h ere f or U pper T eesdale i s

2 02

n ot

i ntended

t o

b e

a pplied

t o

o ther

a reas.

F urther

i ntensive

i nterdisciplinary s tudy w ill b e n eeded i f p rogress i s t o b e m ade t owards a g eneral u nderstanding o f t he s ettlement o f t he H ighland z one -the k ind o f s tudy p ioneered y ears a go b y A rthur R aistrick .

A cknowledgements Ia m p leased t o a cknowledge t he d ebt w hich I o we t o K en F airless ,

m y

c olleague o n t he e xcavations d escribed a bove , a nd t o L ouisa G idney w ho h as g iven i nvaluable h elp w ith f ieldwork a nd t he p reparation o f t his p aper .

B ibliography C lapham,

A .R .

( ed .)

( 1978)

U pper T eesdale,

t he A rea a nd i ts N atural

H istory C oggins,

D . a nd F airless,

K .J .

( 1977,

1 979 a nd 1 981) A rchaeological R eports

o f t he U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle . C oggins, D . a nd F airless, K .J . ( 1978 a nd 1 979) ' Excavations a t M iddle H urth ' , A rchaeological R eports o f t he U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle f or 1 978, 2 -3 a nd 1 979, 2 . C oggins,

D .,

F airless,

K .J .

a nd B atey ,

C .

( 1983) Simy F olds .:

m edieval s ettlement s ite i n U pper T eesdale ,

C o . D urham ' ,

a n e arly

M ed . A rchaeol .

2 7, 1 -25 . C oggins,

D . a nd F airless,

K .J .

( 1984) ' The B ronze A ge s ettlement o f B racken

R igg , U pper T eesdale, C o. D urham ', D urham A rchaeol. J ourn . F airless ,

K .J .

a nd

C oggins,

D .

( 1980)

' Excavations

s ite o f F orcegarth P asture N orth ' ,

T rans .

o f

A rch .

1 , 5 -22 .

t he e arly s ettlement & A rch .

S oc . D urham &

N orthumberland 5 . F airless,

K .J .

a nd

C oggins,

D .

( 1986)

' Excavations

s ite o f F orcegarth P asture S outh ',

a t

t he e arly s ettlement

D urham A rchaeol. J ourn . 2 .

T urner, J . e t a l ( 1973) ' The H istory o f t he v egetation a nd f lora o f W iddybank F ell a nd t he C ow G reen r eservoir b asin , U pper T eesdale ' , P hil . T rans . R oyal S oc .

B 265 ,

3 27-408 .

2 03

G AYLE L ANE E ARTHWORK , W ENSLEYDALE P ercival T urnbull

D uring 1 978 i t b ecame a pparent t hat e ssential r oad w idening w orks t hreatened t o d estroy p art o f a n e arthwork e nclosure a t O ld G ayle L ane , n ear H awes i n W ensleydale . I n r esponse t o t he t hreat , r escue e xcavations w ere o rganised a nd c onducted u nder t he d irection o f M r . J ulian B ennett i n t he s ummer o f 1 978 . T he s ite o ffered d ifficulties o f i nterpretation w hich c ould n ot b e r esolved w ithin t he o riginal p rogramme , a nd i n t he a utumn o f t he s ame y ear f urther w ork w as u ndertaken b y s taff o f t he a rchaeology s ection o f N orth Y orkshire C ounty C ouncil 's P lanning D epartment: o verall t he w ork , w hich w as c ompleted i n t he s pring o f 1 979 , a llowed a t horough i nvestigation o f t he b ank a nd d itch a s w ell a s t he e xploration o f t he g reater p art o f t he i nterior a nd o f a s mall a ssociated w ork . I nterpretation o f t he s ite w as r adically c hanged d uring t he c ourse o f t he w ork , a nd t he s ite 's d ating m ay b e s een t o i nvolve a s alutory l esson i n t he c onsideration o f m any u pland e arthworks. T he m ajor p art o f t he e arthwork c omplex a t O ld G ayle L ane c onsists o f a s mall r ectangular e nclosure t ransected b y t he e ast-west r oad f rom G ayle t owards B ainbridge MGR S D876/894) . T he e arthworks o f t he e nclosing b ank a nd d itch a re o f c onsiderable p roportions a nd c learly m arked , a nd c ontrast w ith t he s mall a rea e nclosed ; a pproximately s quare , t he e nclosure m easures o nly s ome 4 0 m etres a cross , f rom d itch t o d itch . N o c lear e ntrance w as i ndicated b y t he e arthworks , a lthough o ne w as s uggested i n t he m iddle o f t he e astern s ide ; a p ossible c orresponding e ntrance i n t he w estern s ide w as o bscured b y a s light s carp i dentifiable a s t he e dge o f a n e arlier c ourse o f O ld G ayle L ane , L ittle c ould b e d iscerned i n t he i nterior s ave f or a s light h ollow t rack p erpendicular t o t he m odern r oad ( F :4› 1 ) . A s eries

o f

o ther ,

l esser ,

e arthworks

w ere a ssociated w ith

t he m ain

e nclosure . A f ew m etres t o t he w est l ay a l ow p enannular s tructure w ith t he a ppearance o f a s light , t urf-covered r ing c airn . A round t he e nclosure l ay a lso a s eries o f l ow l inear b anks, a pparently t he b oundaries o f a s omewhat mutilated f ield s ystem . T o t he s outh, p articularly , t hese b oundaries i ndicated e lements o f a g roup o f s mall, r ectangular f ields. T he c hronological p riority o f t he f ields was q uite c lear, a nd c ould b e d emonstrated p articularly w ell a t t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he e nclosure , w here t he a xis o f t he s outhern r ampart i s c ontinued b y a n e specially w ell m arked s tony b ank w hich i s n evertheless c learly c ut b y t he e nclosure . A n i nitial

p riority f or e xcavation

w as

t he

l ow

p enannular

s tructure

w hichhad e very a ppearance o f b eing a r ing-cairn a nd w hich w as s tripped a nd e xcavated i n t wo h alves . I t p roved t o c onsist o f a c ircular b ank c onstructed o f s tone i n a matrix o f b rown , s andy s oil . T here was s ome i ndication o f a n o uter d itch o r g ulley , t hough t his w as e xtremely s light a nd s hallow, a nd t here a ppeared t o b e a g ap i n t his s mall s tructure i n i ts n orth-western a rc . P ost-dating i ts c onstruction w as a d ump o f s toney m aterial w hich c ontained p ost-mediaeval p ottery ( a s ingle s truck f lint w as

2 05

a lso f ound, a ssociated w ith t he b ank) .

S ubsequently , t he whole o f t he

n atural s urface w ithin a nd u nder t he ' cairn ' was c losely e xamined, b ut f ailed t o p roduce a ny e vidence c oncerning t he n ature o r f unction o f t he f eature . I t i s v ery d ifficult i n v iew o f t his s till t o i dentify i t a s a c airn , a nd t here i s c ertainly n o r eason t o s uppose t hat i t m ight h ave b een a f ree-standing h ouse o r o ther b uilding. T he g reater p art o f t he e xcavation ( Fig .2) w as d evoted t o e xamination o f t he m ain r ectangular e nclosure . T he b ank w as s tripped a nd e xcavated a t t wo p oints, a llowing e xamination o f t he p ossible e ntrances i n t he c entre o f t he e astern a nd w estern s ides .

I t w as c onstructed o f ad ump

o f t he r ather

d andy b rown b oulder-clay which f orms t he n atural s ubsoil a nd which r epresented u pcast f rom t he d itch , a nd w as s tudded w ith l umps o f l imestone o r o ther , f oreign , r ocks . E xamination o f t he c rest o f t he b ank r evealed n o i ndication o f p alisade o r b reast-work . T he b ank f ell d irectly t o t he i nner l ip o f t he d itch , w ith n o b erm . O n t he o uter s ide o f t he b ank , h owever , w as a f acing o f c oursed r ough d ry-stone b locks w hich p resented a n u nbroken a nd a lmost s mooth a spect .

T he f acing ,

w hich c ould b e t raced a round t he e ntire

p erimeter o f t he e nclosure , s urvived t o am aximum h eight o f f ive c ourses , o r a l ittle o ver a m etre , c onsiderably s hort o f t he f ull e levation o f t he b ank . I t a ppears moreover n ever t o h ave c ontinued t o t he t op o f t he b ank , o r b eyond a s a p arapet ; t his w as e vident f rom t he p ronounced a nd c ertainly d elibverate i nward p itch o f t he s tones a s w ell a s f rom t he l ack o f f allen s tone r ubble i n t he f illing o f t he d itch . I ts p rimary p urpose w as t o a ct a s a s ubstantial r evetment , i ts s tability i ncreased b y t he i nward l ean w hich p revented t he s lipping o f t he b ank i nto t he d itch . I t w ould a lso n o d oubt g reatly h ave i ncreased t he i mpressive a ppearance o f a n a lready s ubstantial e arthwork . T he f ill o f t he d itch w as d ivisible i nto t hree l ayers .

Av ery s hallow

u pper f ill o f l ight s andy s oil , p robably o f r ecent d ate , o verlay u p t o 3 0 c entimetres o f b rown c lay a nd s tones . T he l ower f ill , o ver a m etre d eep i n p laces , w as a s ticky g rey-blue c lay , f lecked w ith c harcoal . A s mall , r ound s craper a nd a nother s truck f lint w ere r ecovered f rom t he m iddle l ayer , a nd a s mall a mount o f a nimal b one f rom t he l ower . D uring p ositions

t he

c ourse

o f

o ft he t wo o pposed

t he

e xamination o f

e ntrances

w ere

t he b ank a nd d itch t he

c onfirmed .

I n

e ach

c ase

t he

d itches c ame t o f irm b utt-ends , a nd t he r evetment o f t he b ank f inished a t t his p oint ( but d id n ot t urn i n t o f lank t he e ntrance ) . T he c auseway , a t l east o f t he e astern e ntrance, h ad a w idth o f a bout f our m etres. T he i nterior o f t he e nclosure f urnished e vidence f or c onsiderable r ecent a ctivity . T he l ayer o f t urf a nd t hin t opsoil c ontained e ntirely p ost-medieval p ottery . A b arn o r o ther a gricultural b uilding t hought t o b e o f m edieval d ate w as r epresented b y t he f ootings o f a s tone w all r unning n orth t o s outh , w ith a s econd , s outhern s ide c ut b y a t rackway w hich l ed a t r ight a ngles t o O ld G ayle L ane a t i ts n orthern e nd . T he t rackway was v isible

a t

t urf

l evel a s

a s light h ollowness ;

i t

h ad

a r oughly

m etalled

s urface a nd w as s cored b y ap air o f d eeply-cut w heel r uts . A ssociated w ith t he t rack w as a n a rea o f l imestone f lags , s ome t hree m etres b y t wo , p erhaps a s tanding f or c arts o r s ome s ort o f u nloading p oint . T he g eneral p attern i s o f c ontinual r e-use o f t he i nterior o f t he e nclosure f or p eripheral a gricultural p urposes. I mmediately c entimetres

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c lay .

T his c ontained m uch n atural s tone , b ut i ts s urface w as a lso l iberally

s trewn w ith

r ough s tone r ubble,

f orming

a pproximate c entre o f t he e nclosure .

a d efinite

l ow h eap

i n

t he

A n o bvious i nference w as t hat t his w as

t he s ite o f a c ollapsed b uilding, a nd w ith s ome d ifficulty t his w as e ventually i solated a nd e xcavated . T he b uilding w as r oughly o val i n p lan a nd v ery s mall i n s ize , m easuring o nly s ome 2 . 5 b y 1 . 5 m etres . T he m ode o f c onstruction w as r ough i n t he e xtreme ; t he f ootings c onsisted o nly o f r ough b oulders h eaped i nto w alls a nd w ithout a ny f ormal f oundation . T here w as n o t race o f p ost-holes o r o ther s upplementary s tructural i nformation , n or w ere t here a ny r emains o f ah earth , a lthough a s hallow a nd i rregular h ollow f ive c entimetres i n d epth o ccupied m uch o f t he i nterior . T he s tructure c ould , i ndeed o nly b e e xcavated b y r eference t o a s light d ifference i n t he m atrix i n w hich t he s tones w ere s et . I t i s i nconceivable t hat t he b uilding w as e ntirely s tone-walled, a nd o ne must v isualise a f limsy t imber s upers tructure . A ssuming t hat i ts p urpose w as t o s helter p eople r ather t han b easts o r c hattels, l ong-term o ccupation s eems v ery u nlikely ; t his i s a pparently a r ough-and-ready s helter f or b rief o r s poradic o ccupation . T here w as n o d irect s tratigraphic l ink w ith t he m ain e arthwork w hich i tself i s d ifficult t o e xplain i n t erms o f f unction : t he s trength o f t he r ampart i s q uite o ut o f p roportion t o t he s ize o f t he e nclosure , w hich m ay r eadily b e c leared b y at hrown m issile ; ad efensive p urpose d oes n ot s eem l ikely . A s h as b een s een ,

t he s ite w as s ingularly l acking i n d ateable m aterial

o r , i ndeed , i n f inds o f a ny k ind .

A part f rom p ost-medieval p ottery f rom t he

t urf l ayer a nd f rom t he d ump o n t he ' cairn ' s ite , c ultural m aterial w as l imited t o a f ew f lints, n one o f w hich c an b e s aid t o c ome f rom a u seful c ontext . I n t he f inal s tages o f t he e xcavation , h owever , t he o pportunity p resented i tself o f a cquiring s ome s ort o f d ate: a q uantity o f o rganic m aterial w as f ound a t t he b ase o f t he p rimary s ilt o f t he e astern d itch , a djacent t o t he e astern e ntrance . T his w as i n t he f orm o f w aterlogged w ood , a nd h ad t he a ppearance o f s mall b rushwood o r e ven b racken ; i t w as i ndeed c onsidered p ossible t hat t his h ad b een l aid d eliberately a t t he v ery b ottom o f t he d itch . T he s ample was r eferred f or i dentification t o t he E nvironmental A rchaeology U nit a t t he U niversity o f Y ork , b ut p roved t o b e t oo c ompressed t o a llow i solation o f s pecies . I t w as t hen s ent f or r adiocarbon a ssay , a nd y ielded a d ate o f 100 + 70 B .P . o r 8 50 + 7 0 a .d . ( HAR . 37 / 49) T he d ate i s o f c onsiderable i nterest . L imitations a ttendant o n a s ingle d ate f rom a ny s ite m ust b e a cknowledged , b ut t he p rimary p osition o f t he s ample w ithin t he d itch s ilt i s n ot i n d oubt a nd a p ost-Roman d ate , w ith s hort-lived o r i ntermittent o ccupation , i s a c onvincing e xplanation o f t he n ature o f t he s ite a nd t he g eneral l ack o f f inds. L argely a s ar esult o f t he s parseness o f e vidence f rom e xcavation , m uch o f u pland a rchaeology i s h eavily d ependent u pon t he i nterpretation o f e arthwork s ites; t he e nclosure i n q uestion , s uperficially s carcely d istinguishable f rom a ny o f a g reat n umber o f s mall r ectangular e nclosures, i s a n i llustration o f s ome o f t he p itfalls w ith w hich t his a pproach i s l ittered. A t a n e arly , p re-excavation , s tage i n t he c onsideration o f t he G ayle L ane s ite i t was p rovisionally f elt t hat i t m ight b e R oman i n d ate a nd m ilitary

i n

n ature,

a n h ypothesis

b ased

o n a g eneral

morphological

c onformity t o s ome R oman s ignal s tations a nd f ortlets ( e .g . H art , 1 98 0 . A s imilar p rovisional i nterpretation w as a pplied t o s ome o f t he s mall r ectangular e nclosures o n L evisham M oor ,

2 08

w hich p roved o n e xcavation t o b e

P lan o f E xcavated A rea 7) 0

o e

pa

' i

0

? . .o •. 6 . . c •Vcf

v

• t%

.

•\ )

•4 °•

c,

a.• oe5 0 d

2 09

l ate I ron A ge i n d ate ( Hayes,

1 983) .

E arly i n t he e xcavation t he R oman

m ilitary t heory w as a bandoned, a nd w ith t he d iscovery o f t he d ry-stone r evetment t o t he r ampart i t w as t hought t hat t he s ite m ight p rove t o t he I ron A ge ; t he c ombination o f e arth a nd c oursed s tone i s a f eature i n , f or e xample , h ill f ort r amparts, a nd t he G ayle L ane d itch a re i n s ome r espects s imilar t o t he d efences o f S tanwick

t o b elong r ecurrent b ank a nd ( Wheeler ,

1 954). I t i s b ecoming i ncreasingly p lain t hat t he s mall ,

d itched r ectangular

e nclosure i s t he c haracteristic s ettlement f orm a mong t he l ate I ron A ge a nd ' n ative ' R omano-British s ocieties i n t he n orthern c ounties, a nd a n umber o f r ecent s urveys h ave s hown t heir u biquity ( e .g . C hallis a nd H arding , 1 975 ; H aselgrove , 1 982) . A lthough l arge n umbers a re c ontinuously b eing d etected b y a erial r econnaissance o ver a rable l owlands , t hey a re a lso a f eature o f t he m arginal u plands . I t i s n ow b ecoming a pparent t hat t he e arliest , p reC laudian , p hase a t S tanwick c onsists o f ag roup o f e nclosures w hich m ust , w hen u pstanding , h ave b een i ndistinguishable f rom a ny o ther s ites o f t his k ind ( Haselgrove, 1 982; T urnbull, 1 983) . N ot a ll a re n ecessarily i nterpreted a s o f I ron A ge d ate ; R oberts ( 1975) c onsiders a t l est s ome o f t he e nclosures o n C ockfield F ell , C ounty D urham , a s p ost-Roman , b ut i t s hould b e n oted t hat t his u nderstanding i s b ased o n t he r egularly r ectangular s hape, w ith r ounded c orners, o f t he e arthworks -a f eature e qually e vident i n t he l ate I ron A ge e nclosures o n L evisham M oor . S uperficially , t hen , t he s ite a t G ayle L ane a ppeared t o c onform t o a l arge a nd g rowing g roup o f r ectangular e arthwork e nclosures , m ost o f w hich a re p robably o f I ron A ge d ate b ut which c ertainly i ncludes s ome R oman m ilitary s ites a nd e stablishments o f p ost-Roman d ate a nd b etween w hich , w ithout e xcavation , i t may b e v ery d ifficult t o d ifferentiate . I t i s d ifficult t o k now h ow t he p roblem may b e r esolved . O ne f actor c learly a pplicable t o t he n orthern p art o f B ritain a s a w hole a nd p erhaps t o t he P ennines i n p articular i s t he g eneral i nadequacy o f t he d ata-base w ith r egard t o e xcavated a nd f irmly d ated s ites . M ost o f o ur k nowledge o f t he a rchaeology o f t he u plands d erives f rom n on-excavation f ieldwork , a nd i ndeed t he s ize o f t he a rea a nd t he e normous r ichness o f i ts a rchaeology h ave d ictated t hat t his s hould b e t he c ase . T his t ype o f f ieldwork , o f w hich A rthur R aistrick i s t he g reatest a nd m ost p rolific e xponent , h as b een a nd c ontinues t o b e f undamentally e ssential a nd t he b asis o f a ll o ther w ork . W e m ust h owever b eware t he d angers o f e xtrapolation , a nd m ust c ontinue t o p ress f or a n a ppropriately h igh l evel o f i nvestment o f f unds a nd i nterest i n t he a rchaeology o f t he n orth a nd i ts u plands i n o rder t o b e a ble t o b uild y et f urther u pon t he l egacy o f a cute o bservation a nd i nterpretation w hich h as b een l eft t o u s.

2 10

B ibliography C hallis,

A . a nd H arding ,

T yne , H art, C .R .

D .W .

B ritish A rchaeol .

( 1975) L ater P rehistory f rom t he T rent t o R ep .

t he

2 0 .

( 1981) T he N orth D erbyshire A rchaeological S urvey, 9 0.

H aselgrove, C .C . ( 1982) ' Indigenous S ettlement P attern i n t he T yne-Tees L owlands ', i n C lack , P . a nd H aselgrove, S . ( eds .) R ural S ettlement i n t he R oman N orth . H ayes, R .

( 1982) L evisham M oor :

R oberts, B .K . T urnball,

( 1975)

P .

A rchaeological E xcavations 1 957-1978.

' Cockfield F ell', A ntiquity X LIX , 1 93, p p . 4 8-50 .

( 1983)

' Stanwick

i n

t he

N orthern

A rchaeological J ournal 1 . 4 1-50. W heeler, R .E .M .

( 1954) T he S tanwick F ortifications.

2 11

I ron

A ge ',

D urham

D ESTRUCTION , P RESERVATION A ND R ECOVERY :

W EARDALE, A C ASE S TUDY

R obert Y oung

P rior t o g iving a v ersion o f t his p aper a t B radford ,

I h ad n ever m et

D r . A rthur R aistrick . H owever , a s m y m ain r esearch i nterests a re i n t he p rehistory o f t he n orth e ast o f E ngland , h is w ork w as a n e arly s ource o f i deas a nd i nspiration f or m y o wn e fforts . w ith a s ense o f s aying t hank y ou t hat F estschrift.

I t i s w ith g reat p leasure a nd I c ontribute t his p aper t o h is

F rom t he o utset I would l ike t o make my p osition t otally c lear . I f irmly b elieve t hat i n B ritain a t t he p resent t ime , t he b asis o f a ll s ound a rchaeology m ust b e l ocal a rchaeology . B efore w e c an g o o n t o g eneralise a bout a ny a spect o f t he s ubject o n a n ational o r r egional s cale , w e m ust u nderstand t he v ery n uts a nd b olts o f o ur m aterial l ocally . T his s hould i nclude n ot o nly t he o bserved a nd o bservable d istribution p atterns o f material a cross t he l andscape, b ut a lso, a nd I w ould a rgue j ust a s i mportantly , t he m any l ocal v ariables w hich t ogether c an c ontrol , l imit , c onstrain , a nd b ias t hese p atterns . I f w e d o n ot e ven t ry t o u nderstand t hese a nd i ncorporate t hem i nto o ur t hinking a nd i nterpretations , t hen w e a re o nly l ooking a t o ne p art o f t he p icture w hich i s a vailable f or s tudy . T his c ontribution s tems f rom a g rowing s ense o f a larm a t t he w ay s ome w orkers h ave a ttempted , a nd a re a ttempting , t o u se d istribution m aps i n e fforts t o b e m ore ' r igorous ' a nd ' s cientific ' i n t heir r econstructions o f p ast h uman a ctivities, w ithout r eally t aking c ognisance o f w hat t he d istribution p atterns m ay a ctually r epresent i n t erms o f t he l ocal p rocesses o f d estruction , p reservation a nd r ecovery which may b e o perating a t d ifferent l evels o f i ntensity , in d ifferent a reas . I n a ny o ther ' s cientific ' d iscipline , n o r esearch w orker w ould d ream o f u sing a s ample i n a n e xperiment w ithout f ull i nformation a bout t hat p articular s ample , a nd w ithout

t he f ull k nowledge t hat i t h ad b een c ollected u nder t he b est

p ossible

c onditions .

What

I h ope

t o

s how b elow ,

w ith r eference

t o a rtefact a nd s ite

d istributions i n t he W eardale a rea o f C ounty D urham ( Fig . 1 ) , i s t hat w e m ust b e v ery c areful i ndeed t o u nderstand t he p edigree o f o ur a rchaeological i nformation , b efore w e p roceed t o u se i t i n a ny q ualitative o r q uantitative a rchaeological w ork . T his i s n ot t o g ive t he i mpression t hat I a m t he o nly p erson t o a ddress t hemselves t o t his p roblem o f ' what m akes a d istribution m ap ' . T he l ate D avid C larke , f or e xample , w as k eenly a ware o f t he f actors w hich p roduce t he a rchaeological r ecord t hat w e h ave t o w ork w ith . I ndeed , w hen h e d iscussed t he c oncepts o f ' depositional ' a nd ' post-depositional ' t heory i n 1 973 , h is w as o ne o f t he f irst e xplicit a rticulations i n aB ritish c ontext, o f s ome m ajor p roblems w hich b eset t hose w orking w ith t he d istribution o f m aterial c ulture r emains ( Clarke , 1 973 , 1 6) . R ecently , s everal o ther r esearchers h ave e xamined t he d istribution o f v arious c ategories o f a rchaeological material o n t he b asis o f t he k ind o f q uestioning s et o ut b y C larke, e .g . S tevenson ( 1975, 1 04-108) ; W oodman ( 1978, 1 -11) ; Martlew ( 1981, 1 1-13) ; a nd H ammond ( 1981), w hile F oley ( 1981a a nd 1 981b), h as a dvanced C larke 's i nitial i deas, w ith s pecial

2 13

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r eference t o t he a rchaeology o f h unter—gatherers , b y m odelling t he p rocesses i nvolved i n t he f ormation o f t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd t esting m odels a gainst e thnographic o bservations f rom h is o wn s urvey w ork .

t hese

S tevenson c oncluded t hat " the a rchaeological d ata c ontained i n a d istribution map a re t he p roduct o f t wo p rocesses . F irst, t hose t hat d etermined t he o riginal ( i .e . ' rear) d istribution , a nd s econdly t he f actors t hat h ave a ffected t he r eal d istribution s ince i ts f ormation a nd h ave r esulted i n i ts p resent f orm" ( 1975 , 1 08) . S tiles , i n a d iscussion o f t he m ethods a nd a pplications o f e thnoarchaeology ( 1977 , 8 3103) , h as e xpanded t he m ajor t heme o f S tevenson 's c omments i n t he f ollowing f low c hart , s howing t he r elationship o f t he p rocesses i nvolved i n t he p atterning a nd i nterpretation o f a rchaeological r emains. 1 )

6 )

P rocesses g enerating

2 )

p hysical t races

-

>

P erceived t races

< ___

P rocesses d isturbing

3 ) D estruction/

p hysical t races 5 )

B urial

P rocesses o f

4)

P reservation

e xtracting t races ( After S tiles, T his d iagram, e ncapsulates

s ome

1 977, 9 3, F ig .

1 )

w hile maintaining a g eneral s tance o n t he p roblem, o f

t he

m ajor

p oints

t o

b e

e xamined

b elow .

H ammond,

h owever , w as m uch m ore s pecific a nd p articularistic i n t he c onclusions t o h is o wn r esearch : " The a mount a nd d istribution o f a rtefacts o n a n y a rchaeological d istribution m ap i s t hus s een t o b e p otentially i nfluenced b a t l east f our f actors : 1 )

T he l ocation o f a rchaeologists a cting i n t he a rea.

2 )

T he e xtent o f t heir f ieldwork , t his a ttenuating w ith d istance .

3 )

T he

n ature

o f

t his

f ieldwork ,

s ystematic

f ieldwork

b eing

m ore

e fficient a nd e ffective i n t he d iscovery o f s ites . 4 )

T he r ate o f d ifferent

d evelopment o f a rchaeological i nvestigation i n

a reas .

T hus a m ap o f a rchaeological m aterial i s t o s ome e xtent l ikely t o b e a n a rtefact o f a rchaeological i nvestigation ."

( Hammond, 1 981, 2 15).

B earing a ll t hese p oints i n m ind f or t he d iscussion b elow ,

l et u s n ow

t urn t o t he s tudy a rea .

W eardale T he

a ntiquarian ,

l ocal h istorian a nd

t opographer S opwith ,

w riting

i n

1 833 s aid t hat, " There a re n ot p erhaps i n a ll E ngland, t hree c ontiguous d ales o f g reater i nterest a nd b eauty t han t he m ining d ales o f T yne , W ear a nd T ees a nd y et t hey a re c omparatively u nknown t o t he p ublic" ( 1833 , 1 6) . I w ould v enture t he s ame o pinion t oday . W eardale ,

f or t he p urpose o f

t his

p aper ,

h as b een t aken a s t he W ear

v alley w est o f S tanhope ( NY 9 95/394) ( Fig . 1 ) . T he h ead o f t he d ale r ests o n B urnhope S eat ( NY 7 85/375) a nd K ilhope L aw WY 8 19/449) , w ith t he g reat

2 15

•

••

•• •• •-

6 *

•

•

• •

•

• ••• : • •.

•

• •

• •

•

• • • •

I •

•

• •

•

•

• 0 •

•

•

• •

I •

•

•

2 16

D istribution o f F lint S catteL-s i n W eardale

•

V egetation T ypes i n W eardale ( , )

L ( )

e

1 I I I I

c l )

C l )

Q ) . — _

N

o

2 17

E

C ross F ell j ust b ehind i t ( NY 7 4 4 /3 6 2) .

T his u pper s ection o f t he v alley

i s n arrow , f airly s teep s ided, a nd w hen c ompared w ith T eesdale t o t he s outh , t he l atter c an b e s een t o b e b roader , a nd d ue t o t he p resence o f t he W hin S ill , m ore t opographically v aried . S everal t ributaries o f v arying s ize e nter t he W ear f rom b oth s ides o f t he v alley i n t he d ale s ection , a nd a w ell d eveloped t errace s ystem h as b een m apped o ut i n d etail b y M aling ( 1955). F or e ase o f s tudy t he d ale c an b e d ivided i nto t hree m ain z ones: 1 )

T he v alley f loor a nd t erraces.

2 )

T he v alley s ides ,

w hich m ay s how s tepping w here

t he u nderlying

C arboniferous L imestone o utcrops . 3 )

T he m oorland ' tops' a bove t he v alley s ides.

S ettlement t erraces

i s

l argely

c oncentrated

i n t owns a nd v illages

l ike

i n

t he v alley b ottom

S tanhope,

E astgate

a nd

o n

t he

( NY 9 53/387),

W estgate ( NY 9 08/382) a nd S t . J ohn 's C hapel ( NY 8 83/380) , a nd t he m ain c haracteristics o f t he l and u se p atterns i n t he d ale were g iven b y E gglestone i n 1 886 ; " We f ind a long t he m argins o f t he R iver W ear e xcellent m eadow l and , o n t he b rows o f t he h ills w e h ave s ummer p astures f or c attle . a nd o n t he m oors o r m ountain t ops e xtensive h eather c lad s heep w alks . . T here i s s ome t illage a bove S tanhope a nd E astgate t o W estgate, b ut t he l argest p ortion o f t he c ultivated l and i s m eadow" ( Egglestone , 1 886 , 4 0) . T his s ituation h as n ot c hanged s ignificantly t oday . S o m uch f or i ntroduction . F igure 2 r epresents t he d istribution o f a t otal o f s ome 5 5 f ind s pots o f f lint s catters a nd a rtefacts w hich h ave c one t o m y n otice t hrough p ublished r ecords, p rivate d ocumentation a nd p ersonal f ieldwork . T ypologically most o f t he material i s c learly o f L ater M esolithic d ate . I mmediately i t i s c lear t hat t he d istribution c lusters i n t he v alley b ottom , o n t he t erraces a nd t he l ower s lopes , w ith s ome o utliers i n t he u pland a rea . I t i s i n f act a d istribution p attern w hich i s r ipe f or s peculation a bout v ariation i n s ite f unction a nd f or e conomic i nterpretation a long t he l ines s et o ut b y M ellars a nd o ther w orkers ( Mellars , 1 976) .

B ut

w hat d oes t h e p attern r eally r epresent? I w ould l ike n ow t o m ake s ome s uggestions a bout t he n ature o f t he d istribution a nd e xamine s ome o f t he f actors w hich h ave d irectly i nfluenced t he c ollection o f t he e vidence w hich m akes u p t he p attern . I n

t he

l ight

o f

t he

g eneral

d iscussion

a bove

o n

t he

n ature

o f

d istributions o ne p oint w hich c ould b e m ade a bout t he p attern u nder s tudy i s t hat i t m ay b e s olely t he r esult o f d ifferential d iscovery . I n o ther w ords , i t m ay o nly r epresent t he d istribution o f a ctive f ield a rchaeologists i n t he a rea .

O bviously t he c oncentration o f f ield—workers

i n o ne a rea a nd t heir

a bsence i n a nother w ill c reate b ias i n o bserved d istributions , a nd g iven t hat E .J .W . H ildyard , w ho r ecorded a g reat m any o f t he s ites o n t he m ap , l ived a t H orsely H all ( NY 9 65/383) , a lmost i n t he c entre o f t he p attern , t his m ay e xplain a t o ne l evel , t he c oncentration o f s ites a nd f inds a round E astgate . T his o bservation l inked w ith t he f act t hat t here i s v ery l ittle a rable l and w est o f E astgate m ay a lso h elp t o a ccount f or t he s eeming l ack o f f lint s ites i n t his p art o f t he d ale . O bviously i f l and i s n ot p loughed t hen

f lint

i mplements

o r

a ny

o ther

a rchaeological

m aterial

w ill

n ot

b e

b rought t o t he s urface, a nd e ven i f c ollectors a re a ctive i t c annot b e r ecorded.

2 18

4 c ; 8 1 c u

C l )

c e C T

C L )

• f 1 C J D 4 J C O 0

Q )

C D

0 0

C D

9 1

t n

0

2 19

M oving a way f rom t his, i t i s p ossible t o a rgue , a s Ih ope w ill b e s hown b elow ,

t hat

a c ombination o f

t hose

t wo p oints

a nd o ther f actors

s uch a s

p hysical a nd t opographical c onditions h ave p roduced a d istribution p attern w hich s ees a c oncentration o f m aterial o n t he t erraces a nd t he l ower s lopes . F igure

3 s hows

t he m ajor v egetation t ypes i n t he d ale .

I n e ffect ,

t he a reas o f g rass h eath , h eather m oor , b og a nd w oodland c ould b e w ritten o ff a s l and u nlikely t o p roduce a rtefacts u nless a ctivities s uch a s p loughing

f or d rainage ,

t aken p lace .

b urning o r e rosion o f p eat a nd h eather m oor h ave

I ndeed , a ny o f t he a rtefact f inds i n t he d ale w hich h ave c ome

f rom t hese l ocations h ave n early a lways b een f ound a s t he r esult o f o ne o r m ore o f t hese a ctivities. F igure 4 s hows t he d istribution o f p eat d eposits i n t he d ale a nd i t c an b e s een t hat a bove 1 500 f eet O D ( 461m a pprox .) t hese o rganic s oils a nd d eposits m ay e ffectively mask a ny s ite r epresented b y l ithic o r o ther a rtefact s catters a nd s o e xclude t hem f rom d iscovery . T he n ature o f t he p revailing v egetation c over i n a n a rea m ay w ell b e a m ajor c onstraining f actor i n t he g eneration o f a rchaeologically r ecoverable r emains a nd h ence o f o verall d istribution p atterns . T his p oint i s f urther h ighlighted i f F igure 5 , s howing a reas o f a ctual p eat e rosion i n t he d ale , i s r eferred t o . E rosion i s b rought a bout b y f our m ain a gents : w ater ; m ass m ovement ; w ind ; a nd f rost . T hese f actors h ave c ombined t o b ring a bout s ubstantial p eat e rosion a t h igh a ltitudes a nd b urning , o vergrazing a nd l and d rainage a re a lso s ignificant c ontributors t owards e rosion i n s ome a reas . A tkinson ( 1968) h as g raded p eat e rosion i n t he d ale o n a s cale r anging f rom 1 = s light e rosion t o 5=s ubstantial e rosion , a nd s ites a bove 1 500 f eet O D ( 461m a pprox .) h ave a ll c ome f rom t he a reas o f t he m ost a ctive p eat e rosion . T hus i t m ay b e t hat i f i ntensive f ieldwork w as

c arried o ut

i n t hese

a reas o f p eat e rosion t he n umber o f f lint s catter s ites w ould b e i ncreased a nd t he d istribution p attern w ould b e a ltered . T he d iscovery o f s ites a t W ager H ead ( NZ 0 13/337) , t o t he e ast o f S tanhope , j ust o utside t he p resent s tudy a rea , a nd a t A llenheads ( NY 8 62/453) ( lywchin , 1 880) , a nd t he m aterial r ecovered b y J ohnson a nd D unham f rom e roding p eat o n t he M oor H ouse N ature R eserve ( Johnson a nd D unham , 1 963 , 1 52-58) , c learly s hows t hat m ore s ites m ay a wait d iscovery u nder t he p eat . S imilarly i n a reas o f h eather m oor a nd h eathland d ifferential e rosion h as p roduced s ites . A g ood e xample o f t his w ould b e t he m aterial

f rom a round

t he o utlet

o f

t he R ookhope

S melt M ill

C himney ( NY 9 05/443) ( Trechmann , 1 914 , 6 8-74) , w here a rsenical f umes f rom t he l ead s melting p rocess h ave k illed o ff t he v egetation c over a nd p aved t he w ay f or s oil e rosion . H owever, g iven t hat many a reas o f p eat e rosion a re h ard o f a ccess, p urely o n t he b asis o f t heir l ocation , a nd g iven t he c onstraints i mposed b y t he v arious v egetation t ypes i n t he d ale o utlined a bove , t he d istribution p attern f or f lint s catters i n t he d ale w ith i ts c oncentration o f m aterial i n t he a rea o f i mproved p asture ( Fig . 2 a nd F ig . 3 ) , w here p loughing i s l ikely a nd t he l and i s e asily a ccessible , w ould s eem t o b e a l ogical a nd e xpected o ne , a rguably n ot r eflecting t he f ull r ange o f h uman a ctivity i n t his p art o f t he v alley . • O ther p rocesses m ay h ave d estroyed s ites d emarcated s olely b y a rtefact s catters a nd a lso e videnced b y f eatures s uch a s e nclosures , h ut c ircles a nd f ield b oundaries . Q uarrying a nd m ining , a nd t he r esultant d umping o f s poil i s a s erious p roblem i n t he d ale a nd m ay h ave d estroyed m any s ites b efore a ny f orm o f r ecords w ere k ept .

T he p reponderance o f s poil h eaps m ay a lso

20 2

L r

L O

C l )

1 •1

0

2 21 A reas o f A ctive P eat E rosion

•

•

•

•• ••

•

• •

N, • 4 1

V .

D istribution o f

•

• . j i b

e

ea

I

• •

4 k , 1

• • r i

• •

aa .

C / )

l u d ir

•

0

22 2

T he N ew P a rk

f C s _ a ) a a o _ c c c t s r ) (

Q

0 o o L C )

0

2 23

1 I I I I

b e o ne o f t he m ain r easons f or t he l ack o f s ites w hich c an b e i nterpreted a s b arrows i n t his p art o f t he v alley .

I h ave o nly i dentified f ive p ossible

r ound b arrows i n t he a rea ( Young , 1 980 , 112 , N os . 8 0-84) . H owever , i t i s t he d estructive r ole o f q uarrying a nd m ining t hat I w ish t o c oncentrate o n i n t he p resent c ontext. F igure 6 s hows t he d istribution o f q uarries w est o f S tanhope , a nd t he q uarries o n t he n orth s ide o f t he r iver m ay h ave b een p articularly i mportant i n t he d estruction o f s ites . T he a rea d oes h ave a s urviving c omplex o f f ield b oundaries a nd e nclosures w hich p redates t he p resent f ield s ystem b ut t he q uarries m ay w ell h ave d estroyed e xtensions o f t he c omplex . S imilarly t he q uarries i n t he R ookhope B urn h ave a lmost c ertainly d estroyed e arly f ield e vidence a nd t he q uarrying a round S tanhope h as o bliterated o ne v ery i mportant p rehistoric s ite, t hat o f t he H eathery B urn C ave . S ites a ssociated w ith t he c airnfield a bove S tanhope o n C rawley E dge ( NZ 0 01/397) m ay a lso h ave b een d estroyed b y t he s ame p rocess, a s t he w hole o f t he w estern e dge o f t he s ite, o verlooking t he S tanhope B urn , h as b een e xtensively q uarried . I f h istorical a nd r ecent l and u se p atterns m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or t he d estruction o f s ites, a s a c orollary , t hey m ay a lso h ave b een r esponsible f or t he p reservation o f s ome e arthwork s ites , a nd i t i s i n t his s ituation t hat t he l inks b etween d ifferential d estruction a nd d ifferential p reservation b ecome s o i ntricate. I n W eardale,

i n

t he

a rea b etween E astgate a nd

W estgate a t

H igh

N orthgate 9 37/400) a nd a round O ld P ark F arm ( NY 9 25/385) t he c omplex o f e arthworks w hich i s v isible h as p robably b een s o w ell p reserved b ecause t hey a re i nside t he a rea o f t he G reat P ark , t he E piscopal h unting a rea o f t he B ishops o f D urham i n t he M edieval p eriod ( Fig . 7 ) . T his p ark h ad a c ircumference o f a bout t welve m iles a nd w as a pproximately t hree m iles a cross, a nd i t r emained a p arkland , w ith n o s cope f or s ettlement , u ntil 1 419 , w hen t he f irst g rant o f l and w as m ade t o a R obert S trangways ( Dr ury , 1 976) . I n t he 1 490s t he p ark was r educed i n s ize a nd t he N ew P ark , c onsisting o f t he F rith o f t he O ld P ark a nd l and t o t he s outh a nd e ast o f i t w as c reated . D rury h as d one m uch w ork o n t he e arly s ettlement o f t he p ark a nd f rom 1 419 o nwards t he p icture w ould s eem t o b e o ne o f as low i ncrease o f s ettlement i n t he a rea . S he b elieves , a s Id o , t hat t he e arthworks i n t he p ark l and m ay b e m uch o lder t han t he M edieval p eriod a nd t hat t hey h ave b een p reserved b ecause o f t heir l ocation . I n e ffect , t he P ark h as p rovided a n i sland o f p reservation i n w hat c ould b e a ptly d escribed a s a s ea o f d estruction . O nly i n t he l ast 1 50-200 y ears o r s o h as d estruction b egun o n al arge s cale i n t his a rea , w ith t he i nevitable q uarrying .

t hat

A s a r esult o f t he a bove d iscussion i t s hould b e i mmediately o bvious i n t his o ne a rea o f t he W ear V alley , t he v ariables t hat h ave c ombined

t o p roduce t he o bserved d istribution p atterns o f s ites a nd a rtefacts a re m any . T here i s a c omplex l inkage b etween d ifferential d estruction , p reservation a nd r ecovery a nd a rguably t he o bserved p atterns r eflect o nly i n a m uch m odified w ay t he ' real ' d istribution o f p ast ( i .e . p rehistoric a nd e arly h istoric) h uman a ctivities . T o u se t hese d istribution p atterns w ithout q uestioning t he f actors w hich h ave g enerated t hem , w ould s eem t o b e ab lindly u ncritical a pproach , y et i t i s a n a pproach w hich m any p eople h ave a dopted . M ethods o f l ocational a nalysis u sed b y g eographers a re a ll t oo o ften b orrowed d irect a nd a pplied t o p ublished a nd u npublished a rchaeological d ata w ithout r eference t o a ny o f t he f actors d iscussed a bove . W hile i t i s f reely a dmitted t hat a ll a reas p ose d ifferent p roblems , i t i s

24 2

2 25

e ssential

t hat

s ome a ttempt

i s

m ade

t o d isentangle

t he t hreads t hat h ave

b een w oven t ogether t o p roduce t he a rchaeological r ecord . B y w ay o f i llustrating t he p oint t hat d ifferent f actors c an p lay a m ore o r

l ess

a rea ,

i mportant

r ole i n d etermining d istribution p atterns

F igure 8 s hows t he w hole o f t he W ear V alley .

o ver a s mall

I t c an b e s een t hat

m ining , q uarrying a nd h uman s ettlement b ecome t he o verriding f actors w hich m ay h ave c onditioned a rchaeological d istributions a s o ne p rogresses d own t he r iver . T he a rchaeology o f

t he C entral W ear V alley h as s uffered s everely f rom

b oth o pencast a nd d eep m ining f or c oal, a nd g ravel e xtraction h as a lso o ccurred o n al arge s cale i n t he a rea . T he p rocess o f d eep m ining f or c oal, while n ot a t o nce a s d estructive a s t he o pencast method, d oes n ecessitate h uge a reas b eing t urned o ver t o s poil h eaps w hich r esult i n c onsiderable l and e ncroachment . E ven t he a ct o f l and r eclamation h as t he e ffect o f c ausing f urther ' destruction ' b ecause t he r efuse i s s pread o ver a w ider a rea, r endering i t a rchaeologically s terile . I n t he l ower r eaches o f t he v alley , g rowing r ole i n t he d estrucion o f s ites .

s ettlement e xpansion h as p layed a S underland a t t he m outh o f t he

r iver i s a c ase i n p oint . T he e arly e xpansion o f t his t own h as d estroyed s everal b urial s ites f or i nstance ( Young , 1 980 , 8 , n o . 2 8 ; 1 2 , n os . 8 9 , 9 0 ; 1 3, n o . 9 2) a nd while w e k now a bout t hese t he n umber o f o ther s ites d estroyed w ithout r ecord

i s s omething t hat w e w ill n ever k now .

I t i s h oped t hat t he a bove d iscussion w ill n ot b e w ritten o ff a s j ust a nother ' cautionary t ale ' , r elated t o t he i nterpretation o f t he r esults o f a rchaeological f ieldwork . I f i t i s t hought t hat w hat h as b een s aid i s ' common k nowledge ' a nd i s s o o bvious t hat i t d id n ot r eally n eed s aying , t hen I w ould u rge a ll a rchaeologists u sing d istribtions i n t heir w ork t o i nclude a n e xplicit s tatement o f major v ariables which may h ave b een i nstrumental i n t he g eneration o f t heir p atterns . O nly w hen t his i s d one w ill o ther w orkers b e a ble t o g auge t he d egree o f r eliance w hich c an b e p ut o n d istribution m aps. I n

c onclusion ,

I w ould

c ontribution o f s ome i nterest ,

o nly

h ope

t hat

D r .

R aistrick

f inds

t his

a nd t hat h e w ill a ccept i t a s a n e xpression

o f m y g ratitude f or h is p ioneering f ieldwork i n t he n orth o f E ngland.

A cknowledgements. Iw ould l ike t o t hank M s . D . O 'Sullivan ( Leicester U niversity , D epartment o f A rchaeology )

a nd

f or r eading a nd

D r .

M .S .

S mith

( S .D .U .C .

L ampeter ,

D epartment

o f

c ommenting u pon e arlier d rafts o f t his p aper .

H istory ) P aul

C hadwick ( Berkshire C ounty C ouncil) , M artin J ones , M artin M illet , J ames H ibbs a nd A ndrew F itzpatrick ( Durham U niversity , D epartment o f A rchaeology ) a ll p rovided u seful a nd s timulating c omments i n t he c ourse o f s everal d iscussions . S pecial t hanks m ust g o t o D r . K . A tkinson ( Leeds U niversity , D epartment o f G eography ) f or a llowing m e t o u tilise h is u npublished • m aps w hich f orm t he b asis o f t his p aper .

2 26

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K .

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D .L .

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S tevenson, J .B . ( 1975) ' Survival a nd d iscovery ', i n J .G . E vans, S . L imbrey a nd H . C leere ( eds . ) T he E ffect o f Man o n t he L andscape : Z one, C .B .A . R es. R ep. S tiles,

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P .C .

( 1978) T he M esolithic i n I reland ,

( 1980)

' An i nventory o f

b arrows

B ritish A rchaeol . R ep .

i n C ounty D urham ' ,

a nd A rch. S oc. D urham a nd N orthumberland, n .s. 5 ,

2 27

1 16.

5 8 .

T rans . A rchit .

R OME I N T HE P ENNINES R .F .J . J ones

I f

w e

c onsider

t he p icture

o f

c ontinuous

s ettlement

i n t he P ennines

f irst d rawn b y R aistrick a nd n ow b eing w orked o n b y m any m ore f ieldworkers , t he i nfluence o f t he R oman E mpire m ight s eem s light . S ettlement s tudies o n t he w ell p reserved u pland l andscapes o f t he P ennines t end t o e mphasise t he c ontinuity o f o ccupation a nd l and u se o ver v ery l ong p eriods, a s s everal c ontributors t o t his v olume c an d emonstrate . H owever t he R oman p eriod d id m ake u p a t l east t hree c enturies o f t his l ong t ime s cale a nd b rought t o t he P ennines t he e mbrace o f aw orld e mpire . F or t hat a lone i t i s w orth c onsidering h ow g reat a n i mpact R ome h ad a nd h ow g reat a d iscontinuity i t r epresented . I t c ertainly b rought t o t he P ennines a n ew s ystem o f r oads a nd q uasi-urban s ettlements i n t he f orm o f t he f orts . F rom t he p erspective o f t he E mpire , n orthern E ngland a nd t he P ennines i n p articular w ere o ne o f t hose f rontier a reas w here a p olicy o f o ccupation i n d epth w as a dopted . A s i n W ales , t ime b rought a r elaxation i n t he i ntensity o f m ilitary c ontrol , b ut a pparently n ot i ts c omplete r emoval .

T he B rigantes a nd t he R oman C onquest T he B rigantes

s till

r emain s omewhat m ysterious .

H istorical s ources

s how t hat t he a lliance s truck w ith t hem w as c rucial t o t he R oman c onquest o f B ritain , s ince i t p rotected t he R omans ' n orthern f lank d uring a dvances i nto t he w est M idlands a nd W ales . T hey w ere s aid t o h ave b een t he m ost n umerous o f t he B ritish t ribes, b ut a re s till g enerally t hought t o h ave b een r elatively u nderdeveloped c ompared t o t he p eoples o f s outhern E ngland . S tanwick w as b eyond q uestion t heir m ost i mportant s ite . I ts c urrent r ee valuation i s d emonstrating f irmly t hat i t s hould p roperly b e s een a s a n orthern o ppidum, f ollowing t he m odel o f s uch p laces a s B agendon o r C amulodunum ( c .f . S pratling , 1 981; T urnbull ( 1983) . T o h ave e stablished s uch a c entre a rgues f or a s ociety m ore a dvanced t han w ild h ill-men . S uch d evelopment m ay h ave b een m ore e vident i n t he l owlands t o t he e ast o f t he P ennines r ather t han i n t he h ills t hemselves . N evertheless t he u plands c annot b e r egarded i n i solation , e ither b efore t he R oman c onquest o r a fter . A ccording t o t he h istorians i t w as d uring t he 6 0s a nd 7 0s t hat t he R oman-Brigantian a lliance b roke d own : b y t he 8 0s m ost o f t he P ennines s eems t o h ave b een t horoughly i ntegrated i nto a R oman m ilitary s ystem . T he p rocess b egan w ith t he b uilding o f f orts a round t he f ringes o f t he P ennines , b ut was c ompleted b y m ajor t hrusts o n b oth s ides o f t he h ills a nd t he o ccupation o f t he m ajor c ross-Pennine r outes . T he m ain a rtery o f R oman c ommunications

i n

n orthern

E ngland w as

t he Y ork-Carlisle

r oad a cross

t he

S tainmore p ass . R egular f orts w ere b uilt o n t his r oad , o n t he m ain w esterly r oute a nd o n t he n orthern c ontinuation o f t he r oad f rom Y ork t o C orbr idge , t he T yne a nd S cotland . S outh o f S tainmore, t hree m ain r outes o ver t he mountains were h eld: t he Y ork-Chester r oad, v ia S lack, C astleshaw a nd M anchester ;

t he A ire G ap , v ia I lkley a nd E lslack ; a nd p robably W ensleydale ,

v ia W ensley a nd

B ainbridge .

I t

i s n otable

29 2

t hat n o a ttempt s eems t o h ave

b een

m ade

S olway

t o

l ine .

f ind

a n e ast-west

M ick J ones

r oute n orth o f

( 1975,

6 0

S tainmore u ntil

f f .) h as n oted

t hat

t he T yne-

C astleshaw

I ,

M elandra , S lack , I lkley a nd E lslack I w ere a ll a bout t he s ame s ize , a bout 3 a cres . T he f orts o n t he f ringes o f t he h ills w ere a pparently s omewhat l arger -Templeborough , D oncaster , R ibchester a nd p robably M anchester a t a round 5 -6 a cres . T his p attern o f s mall f orts i n t he c entral P ennines a nd l arger o nes o n t he e dges s eems t o h ave r eflected t he F lavian s trategy f or h olding t he P ennines s outh o f S tainmore . F urther n orth , t he p olicy w as a pparently l imited t o t he f orts o n t he e dges o f t he h ills, w ith l arge F lavian b ases ( c .9 a cres) a t B inchester o n t he W ear a nd C orbridge o n t he T yne , w ith a s maller o ne a t E bchester . T he s ize o f t he f ort a t C atterick i s u nknown . T hese a rrangements s uggest q uite d ense m ilitary c ontrol o f t he P ennines, p arallel w ith d evelopments i n W ales a t t he s ame p eriod . F or w hat i t i s w orth , i n W ales t here i s ad ifferent p attern o f f ort s izes , w hich m ay r eflect d ifferences i n s tyle o f g arrison o r i n s pace a llowed p er m an .

I n

o ur p resent s tate o f k nowledge , t he i dentification o f f orts o f ap articular s ize w ith a p articular t ype o f u nit i s v irtually i mpossible , b ut s uch l arge v ariation i n f ort s ize m ust s hed s ome l ight o n t he r elative i mportances o f t he d ifferent b ases . T he major c omplicating f actor i n a ll t his i s t he p roblem o f b eing s ure w hich f orts a re p recisely c ontemporary . I t i s c lear t hat n ew p rimary f orts r emain t o b e d iscovered , a s s hown b y r ecent f inds a t W ashing W ells a nd W ensley . A lso t he r ecognition t hat B ainbridge b egan a s a f ortlet r ather t han a f ull s cale f ort r aises q uestions a bout t he e arly h istory o f o ther s ites ( Hartley , 1 980 , 4 ) . W hat i s c lear i s t hat t he R oman a rmy s aw f it t o g arrison l arge n umbers o f t roops i n t he n ewly c onquered a rea o n t he m ajor n atural r outes n orth-south a nd e ast-west , a nd b uilt r oads t o l ink t hem . T hus a p ossible t otal a dditional p opulation o f p erhaps 7 ,500 p lus t heir v arious d ependents, w as i mposed o n t he P ennine u plands i n t he s pace o f a f ew y ears .

T he C ontinuing M ilitary O ccupation a nd t he L ead I ndustry C hange c an b e s een i n t he g enerations

s ucceeding

t he R oman c onquest .

T he m ilitary h istory o f t he p eriod w as t urbulent a nd t here w ere m any t roop m ovements o f w hich w e u nderstand l ittle . H owever , t he o ccupation s eems t o h ave b een c onsolidated , p robably w ith t he v arious e xtra r oads w hich a re n ow i dentified o r c an b e p resumed . I t i s n otable t hat t here a re r elatively f ew s igns k nown o f R oman m ilitary w orks i n t he P ennines o ther t han t he f orts t hemselves , p articularly t he p ractice o r t emporary c amps a s a re m ore c ommon i n W ales a nd S cotland .

A parts f rom o ne a t M alham ,

e xamples o n t he Y ork-Carlisle r oad , E den V alley . o f S kipton ,

t he 0 .S . m arks o nly t he

f rom C atterick t o S tainmore a nd i n t he

A nother c amp h as n ow b een c laimed i n L othersdale , s outh-west a bout 1 4 a cres i n a rea ( Rankov 1 982, 3 48, b ut w ith t he

i dentification d isputed, c f. F rere 1 983, 2 93-4). W hat i s s triking i s

t hat

p roduction i n t he P ennines .

t he R omans w ere v ery q uick t o o rganise l ead T he l ead p igs f rom H ayshaw B ank a re d ated t o

8 1, w ithin a v ery f ew y ears o f f ull R oman o ccupation o f t he a rea .

O f c ourse

i t i s p ossible t hat R oman e ngineers h ad a lready t ravelled i nto B rigantian t erritory t o e ncourage l ead m ining b efore t he a ctual c onquest . N evertheless t hese p igs p rovide a n eat p arallel t o t he r apid a ppearance o f R oman l ead p roduction i n t he M endips , w hich w ere i n o peration b y A .D . 4 9 ( cf . E lkington 1 976) . T he l ead i ndustry i s a g reat e nigma i n t he R oman p eriod . I ts g eneral i mportance c an b e p erceived f rom s eeing t he w ide u se o f l ead i n

2 30

R oman e veryday l ife , s eals , e tc .

u sually i n c onnection w ith w ater -for p ipes ,

t anks ,

Y et , a s D r . R aistrick h as p ut i t, " no p recise l ocation f or t his

R oman m ining o r s melting c an n ow b e d etermined .

A ny R oman w ork h as b een

e ither c ompletely d estroyed o r c overed b y t he d ebris o f m ining d uring t he s ubsequent e ighteen c enturies" ( 1973 , 1 8) . T here i s a lso l ittle e vidence f or r emains t hat m ight h ave b een a ssociated w ith m ines , e ven i f t he m ines t hemselves h ave b een o bliterated .

W e h ave n o i dentification o f m ajor

p rocessing s ites o r s ettlements o bviously l inked t o c entrally o rganised R oman m ining . T hey m ay s till b e r evealed , f or t he l ead p igs f ound d o i mply s ome c ontrol b y t he I mperial g overnment o f a t l east t he f inished p roduct . A t t he m oment , w e c an o nly g uess t hat s uch c ontrol w as e xerted t hrough t he f orts , a lthough n o f ort i s k nown c lose t o t he G reenhow H ill l ead f ields . I t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat o ne m ight b e f ound o ne d ay s omewhere n ear w here t he I lkley-Aldborough r oad c rosses t he N idd a t R ipley . M ining f urther n orth i n S waledale a nd A rkengarthdale i s s uggested b y a nother l ead p ig , t his t ime o f H adrianic d ate . T his a rea m ay h ave b een c ontrolled f rom C atterick , b ut a gain t he I mperial p ig was f ound a ctually i n t he a rea where t he m ines p robably w ere , a t H urst , n ear M arrick . I t s uggests a n I mperial p resence a ctually i n t he m ining a rea . N orth o f S tainmore , R oman m ining i s u sually p roposed a s t he r eason f or t he s iting o f W hitley C astle f ort n ear A lston . F rom t here g arrisons c ould h ave s upervised a ny m ining i n t he A lston-Cross F ell a rea . T he f ind o f l ead s ealings a t B rough-under-Stainmore s tamped w ith t he n ame o f t he u nit i n g arrison a t W hitley C astle h as b een t aken a s f urther e vidence o f t he m ilitary i nvolvement i n l ead m ining . T hese s ealings a re d ated t o t he t hird c entury ( Richmond , 1 936) . D espite o ur r ather v ague k nowledge o f i t , v arious c omments c an b e m ade a bout t he P ennine l ead i ndustry . F irstly , a s t he m ining w as g oing o n i n a n a rea g enerally u nder m ilitary c ontrol , p erhaps f or o ther r easons t han t he l ead m ining, t hen i t was l ogical t o o rganise t he o fficial s ide o f t he i ndustry t hrough t he a rmy a nd t he f orts . T hen , e ven i f s ecurity d emands m ight h ave a llowed a r eduction i n t he g arrisoning , t he m ining m ay h ave b een a s trong e nough r eason t o r etain t he f orts . F urther s till , e ven c ivilian i nvolvement i n t he m ines w as l ikely t o r espond t o t he R oman c ommunication n etwork a nd t herefore t o c entre o n t he f ort a reas a s b ases . T hus , o ne w ay o r a nother , t he s ites o f t he R oman f orts a lmost c ertainly p layed i mportant r oles i n t he o rganisations o f t he l ead i ndustry . T he n ext p oint c oncerns t he d ate o f R oman l ead m ining . T he t wo f inds o f p igs m entioned g o n o l ater t han t he e aly s econd c entury , n o m ore t han 5 0 y ears a fter t he i nitial c onquest . I t h as b een a rgued t hat t hey s uggest t hat m ining i n t he c entral P ennines c ame t o a n e nd a bout t hat t ime . H owever, t he e vidence i s t oo s light . T here i s p lenty o f e vidence e lsewhere i n B ritain o f m ining c ontinuing i nto t he f ourth c entury . T he l ead s eals S tainmore a re t hird c entury . T he d emand f or l ead w as l ack f rom t he P ennines a re s tamped p igs . Y et t hey a nyway a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t he s tyle o f s tamping

f rom B rough-unders till t here : w hat w e w ere o bviously r are p igs d ied o ut . O ne

h ypothesis m ight b e t hat t he I mperial c ontrol w as c oncerned e ssentially w ith t he s ilver c ontent o f t he l ead . I f t his w ere e xhausted i n R oman t erms f rom t he o utcrops n earer t he s urfaces, t he p roduction o f l ead f or i ts o wn s ake c ould s till h ave g one , o n , b ut p erhaps w ithout l arge s tamped p igs . Ih ave p ointed t o I mperial a ctivities i n t he o rganisation o f f inished p roduct i n t he l ead i ndustry .

t he

A lthough i t o ften d id i n t he

E mpire, i t n eed n ot n ecessarily i mply t hat t he a ctual e xtraction w as c entrally o rganised . T here i s r eason t o b elieve t hat t he e xtraction c ould h ave b een d one o n q uite s mall s cales , b ased o n t he u pland s ettlements , t he p roducts t hen b rought i nto t he f orts f or d istribution .

2 31

w ith

W hatever h appened w ith l ead m ining , t he n ext s ignificant d evelopment i n t he m ilitary o ccupation o f t he P ennines w as t he e vacuation o f m any f orts i n t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury . S ome i n t he s outhern P ennines , s uch a s C astleshaw , h ad a pparently

S lack a nd M elandra w ere n ever r e-occupied . A t S lack t here a lready b een a r eduction i n t he f ort 's s ize b efore i t w as

a bandoned ( Hunter e t a l . 1 967) . T he l ater r e-occupation o f o ther s ites h as b een l inked t o t he s o-called " Brigantian r evolt" o f t he 1 50s . T he e vidence f or s uch a n e vent h as b een s hown t o b e e xtremely f ragile ( cf . G illam , 1 974) , a lthough s ome s cholars s till c ling t o t he i dea ( cf . H artley , 1 980) . T here i s h owever l ittle d oubt t hat t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury s aw s evere d isturbances o n t he n orthern f rontier . E xactly w here t hey t ook p lace i s e xtremely d ebatable a nd i t i s v ery m uch a m atter o f o pinion w hether t he e ventual w ithdrawal f rom S cotland a nd t he A ntonine W all w as c aused b y e vents i n S cotland , E ngland , o r i ndeed R ome i tself ( cf . B reeze , 1 982) . I t i s n otoriously d ifficult t o f ind e vidence f or d estruction b y e nemy a ction i n s pecific f orts . I n t he p resent s tate o f e xcavation a nd p ublication , i t i s h ard t o p ut f orward w ith a ny c onfidence a ny s cheme o f o ccupation a nd a bandonment i n n orthern f orts i n t he m iddle a nd l ater p arts o f t he s econd c entury . Y et b y t he e nd o f t he c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he t hird a n ew p attern w as b eginning t o e merge . T he c hief n ew f eature i n t he P ennines w as t he a bsence o f a g arrison f rom t he Y ork-Manchester r oad . T he s outhernmost g arrisoned t rans-Pennine r oute was n ow t he A ire G ap, w ith I lkley a nd R ibchester . F urther n orth , t he l owland D urham g arrison w as a pparently r educed , a lthough s ome s ites w ere t o b e r e-used a gain l ater . F rom t he l ate s econd c entury o nwards h owever , t he m ilitary s ites s eem t o h ave b een m ore o r l ess s ettled a t f ixed p oints, i nto t he l ate f ourth c entury a nd p erhaps b eyond . T he e stablished p attern o f n ucleated s ettlements a nd c entral p laces p rovided b y t he f orts l asted f or a t l east t wo c enturies.

T he E ffects o f R oman I nfluence T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat p arts o f t he P ennines w ere w ild p laces i n t he R oman p eriod , a s i n a ny o ther . T he i nscriptions r eferring t o R oman h unting l ike t hat o f S ilvanus f rom W eardale a nd V inotonus f rom S cargill M oor s how t hat t he R omans h ad t heir e quivalents o f t he g rouse m oor a nd r ougher f ield

s ports

( RIB

1 041;

7 32-8) .

Y et

t he

i mage o f

t he w hole

o f n orthern

E ngland b eing o ccupied b y a s cattered p opulation o f p astoralists e xisting o n ad iet o f m eat h as s uffered s ubstantial d amage i n r ecent y ears , a s r ecently n oted b y B ranigan ( 1980a ) . I f i t r etained a ny v estigial v alidity , i t w ould b e i n t he more r emote P ennine u plands, b ut t he work o f D r . R aistrick , f ollowed b y s uch o thers a s D enis C oggins a nd A lan K ing , h as s hown m any a reas o f t he u plands t o h ave b een p ermanently s ettled i n t he R oman p eriod , w ith i ncreasing e vidence f or s ignificant c rop c ultivation . S uch a b ackground s ets t he f ood n eeds o f t he R oman a rmy i n an ew c ontext , b ut t hey m ust s till h ave r epresented a v ery s ignificant e xtra l oad o n t he f ood-producing c apacity o f n orthern E ngland . I t i s r easonable t o e stimate a t otal o f c .7 ,500 m en f orming t he e arly m aximum g arrison o f o ur a rea . U sing t he s ame b asis f or c alculation a s Manning d id f or W ales ( 1975), t hey w ould h ave n eeded s ome 2 ,500 t ons o f g rain e ach y ear ,

w hich , a gain o n M anning 's s cales,

w ould h ave n eeded a bout 1 0 ,000 a cres t o y ield i t .

W hilst t hat s eems a l arge

a rea , i t s eems l ess w hen o ne a cknowledges M anning 's e stimate t hat a z one o f o ne m ile 's r adius a round e ach f ort w ould p rovide e nough l and . T hat s ort o f a rea g iven o ver t o p roviding f ood f or a n a rmy u nit w ould n ot h ave b een t oo d ifficult

t o

o rganise

a round

e ven

2 32

t he

D ales

f orest

l ike

I lkley

a nd

B ainbridge .

W e w ould p robably a ssume t hat h ere w e a re t aking a n e xtreme

c ase i n s uggesting a c oncentrated z one a round e ach f ort a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he s oldiers ' f ood s upplies w ould h ave b een d erived f rom l evies m ade o n a more g eneral s cale a round t he r egion o f t he f ort . A lso t he t otal r equirements o f s oldiers c hanged a s t he g arrison w as r educed i n t he s econd c entury , b ut t he g rowth o f v ici a longside t he f orts p robably a cted a s s ome s ort o f c ounter-balance t o t hat i n f orming a nother e lement o f n on-food p roducers . E ven i f s ome o f t he v icani w ere i n f act f ood p roducers , n ot a ll o f t hem w ere . W hatever m odifications

a re i ntroduced i nto t he c alculations , t here c an

b e l ittle d oubt t hat t he R oman a rmy i n t he P ennines a rea p resented b oth a s ubstantial s hock t o t he r egion 's f ood p roducing c apacity a t t he t ime o f t he i nvasion a nd a c ontinuing d emand f or f ood o ver t he c enturies . O f c ourse , t he e ffects o f t his c an b e s een b oth a s ap ressure o n t he f ood s upply o f t he n ative p opulation a nd a n o pportunity t o make s ome s ort o f g ain f rom s upplying t he m ilitary d emand . A lan K ing ( this v olume) h as s hown t hat i ntensive a rable p roduction w as b oth f easible a nd p robable , a t l east i n t he C raven , a nd b y e xtension i n many o ther p arts o f t he P ennines . R ecent e nvironmental s tudies i n D urham a nd N orthumberland s how e xtensive f orest c learance i n b oth u plands a nd l owlands , b eginning i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge , b ut c ontinuing t hroughout t he R oman p eriod , i n s ome p laces a t l east u p t o t he s ixth c entury ( Turner, 1 979) . T he c apacity f or t he l evel o f f ood p roduction r equired b y t he R oman a rmy c learly e xisted b efore t he c onquest a nd was a lready d eveloping r apidly . I t i s s till u nclear h ow f ar i ts d evelopment w as a ccelerated b y t he a rmy 's d emands . I t

i s

a pparent

t hat

R omanised f orms o f

s ettlement

w ere r are

i n t he

P ennines t hemselves . T he n earest t o u rbanised s ettlements w ere t he f orts a nd t heir a djacent v ici , w hich p rovided t o s ome e xtent t he f unctions b oth o f m arket a nd a dministrative c entres . I t i s l ikely t hat a ll s ignificant t rade p assed

t hrough t he f ort s ites,

whether i n l ead,

h ides o r w ool i n o ne

d irection , o r p ottery o r m etalwork i n t he o ther . T he t races o f t his t rade m ay b e s een i n t he s catter o f R omanised m etalwork , p ottery a nd c oins f ound i n t he u plands, a way f rom o bvious R oman s ites . A lthough t he c oins a re r elatively f ew i n n umber , t hey s pan t he w hole R oman p eriod . L ow t otals f rom t he t hird c entury a re b est e xplained b y c omparisons w ith o ther s ites w hich s how t hat g enerally f ewer c oins w ere i n c irculation d uring t his p eriod ( cf . M cKay , 1 981) . M uch l ess i s k nown o f t he v ici o f t he D ales f orts , s uch a s I lkley , B ainbridge a nd W hiteley C astle , t han o f t hose i n l owland D urham , w here t here i s n ow q uite s ubstantial i nformation f or l arge s ttlements a t , f or

e xample ,

G reta B ridge ,

C hester-le-Street ,

B inchester a nd P iercebridge .

I n Y orkshire , t he u rbanised s ites s uch a s A ldborough , C atterick , a nd A del w hich l ie o n t he e dges o f t he u pland a reas must p resumably h ave b een i nvolved

i n e xchange w ith

t he p eople o f

t he u plands ,

b ut

e xactly h ow

w e

c annot s ay a t t he m oment . A n o bvious d istinction b etween t he u pland a nd l owland a reas s eems t o b e t he s hortage o f r ecognisable u pland v illas . f arm s ite w ith R omanised b uildings,

M y d efinition o f a v illa i s a

r eflecting

t he p roduction o f a n

a gricultural s urplus a llowing b oth i nvestment i n w orking b uildings f or t he f arm a nd i ncreased c onsumption i n t he f orm o f ab etter a ppointed h ouse , a nd p resumably a m ore e xpensive w ay o f l ife i n g eneral . T o t reat s uch a s ite n eeds b oth a n a ct o f w ill a nd a dequate r esources . I t i s a rguable t hat f or m ost o f t he P ennines t he r areness o f v illas was c aused more b y l ack o f r esources t han t he l ack o f w ill . A l ack o f a vailable r esources d oes n ot n ecessarily o nly c ome f rom l ess p roductive l and a nd f arming m ethods . I t

2 33

m ust b e r emembered t hat m ost o f t he u plands w as d ominated b y t he m ilitary f or m ost o f t he R oman p eriod , w ith r esults o f w hich w e c annot b e s ure f or t he w hole s ystem o f l and t enure , f arm p rices a nd m arkets . T he o nly w ell a ttested v illa i n t he P ennines i s K irk S ink a t G argrave , e xcavated b y B rian H artley . I t i s worth n oting t hat n ot o nly c ould i t n ot h ave d eveloped u nder

t he p rotection o f

t he E lslack f ort ,

b ecause

t he

d ating

o f

t he

t wo

s ites d oes n ot c orrespond , ( pace B ranigan , 1 980b ) , b ut t hat i t i s s ituated i n t he A ire G ap i n o ne o f t he m ost f avourable p ositions i n t he P ennines , w ith g ood c ommunications p rovided b y t he n earby R oman r oad . T here a re v illas o n h igher l and i n t he C otswolds . T here a re f ew l ocations s o w ell s uited t o v illas i n t he P ennines, b ut s ome d o e xist a nd t here a re i ndications t hat m ore s ites m ay h ave e xisted , f or e xample , a t B ingley (a . F aull, 1 981, 1 47) . T here i s n o r oom h ere f or a f ull d iscussion o f t he p roblems o f t he d evelopment o f v illas . T he most r ecent d iscussion o f n orthern v illas ( Branigan , 1 980b) l eaves m any c omplex q uestions t o b e r esolved . I t i s h owever u nlikely t hat f uture w ork w ill t ransform o ur i deas s o m uch t hat w e w ill c onsider t he P ennines i n t he R oman p eriod a v illad ominated l andscape ( cf . W ilson , J ones a nd E vans 1 984) . V illas m ust h ave b een e xceptional i n t he u pland z one , s o t hat t he a pparent n ormal f orms o f s ettlement r emain u nchanged . W hat a c loser k nowledge o f t he t ypical u pland s ettlements m ight p roduce i s a n i ndication o f w hether t he R oman p eriods b rought a ny e volution o f s ettlement f orm o r l andscape o rganisation .

T he L ater R oman P eriod a nd B eyond Ih ave s uggested a lready t hat t he f ort s ites o f t he P ennine D ales b ecame i mportant l ocal c entres f or m arkets a nd a dministration . E lsewhere I h ave a rgued t hat c hanges i n t he n orth i n t he c ourse o f t he t hird c entury r einforced t he l inks b etween t he i nhabitants o f t he f orts a nd t heir r egions . T he a rmy 's c ommand s tructure h ad b roken d own s o t hat n o n ew c ommanders c ame t o t ake c harge o f t he f orts , w hilst p ay w as i rregular a nd i n c oin o f d ubious v alue ( Jones, 1 981) . I f t he f ort p opulations b ecame m ore i ntegrated a nd i dentified w ith t heir r egions a t t his t hey l ost t heir m ilitary i dentity .

t ime , i t d oes n ot m ean t o s ay t hat T here i s n ow g ood e vidence f or

e nergetic m ilitary a ctivity a t m any n orthern s ites i n t he l ate t hird c entury o r e arly f ourth c entury :

N ewton K yme , P iercebridge , B inchester , C hester-le-

S treet a nd p erhaps E lslack . Y et b y t he f ourth c entury t he n ature o f t he a rmy h ad c hanged . T he s harp d istinction b etween m ilitary a nd c ivilian o f e arly E mpire w as n ow o ften b lurred , a s c an b e s een i n t he p icture o f f ourth c entury C atterick s ketched b y W acher ( 197 0 . I t i s r easonable t o e xpect t hat t he u plands u nderwent c hanges s imilar t o t hose i n t he b etter d ocumented l owlands . C ertainly , I lkley , B ainbridge , W hitley C astle a nd t he S tainmore s ites r emained a s R oman c entres i nto t he l ate f ourth c entury . A t B ainbridge B rian H artley h as f ound e vidence f or i ndustrial a ctivities i n t he p rincipia l ate i n t he f ourth c entury ( Wilson , i s a c lose p arallel

t o w hat

w as h appening a t

1 969 , t he

2 07 a nd F ig .

3 2) .

T his

s ame s ort o f p eriod i n

a nother f ormerly d ignified b uilding a t B inchester ( Ferris a nd J ones ,

1 980) .

I n b oth c ases w e s ee t he l arge p ublic b uildings o f f orts t urned o ver t o m uch m ore e veryday a ctivities , a s t he e arlier d ignities w ere l ost . T he P ennine f orts p attern .

t hus

s eem

O n t he m ilitary s ites ,

t o

f it

i nto a more g eneral n orthern

m any o f t he o ld o fficial b uildings

l ost

t heir f unctions a nd p resumably m uch o f t he o ld m ilitary s ystem w as g iven u p g radually . Y et , t hrough t he f ourth c entury t he s ites i n t he P ennines a nd e lsewhere n o d oubt r etained a m ilitary i dentity a nd r emained p art o f t he t rading a nd c ommunications s ystem w hich b rought t hem f or e xample c oins a nd

2 34

p ottery f rom t he e ast Y orkshire i ndustries . r est o f t he n orth ,

a nd t he s outh t oo ,

A gain i n t he s ame w ay a s t he

a s t he s upply o f c oins d ied o ut l ate

i n t he f ourth c entury , t he a rchaeologist h as l ost t he p rime m eans o f d ating t he s tructures t o e xcavate . W e a re l acking d etailed m odern e vidence f rom s ites s uch a s I lkley a nd E lslack , a nd o nly h ave h ints f rom B ainbridge , b ut w e h ave n o r eason t o s uppose a ny s udden a bandonment o r v iolent d estruction a t t hese s ites . E ven i f w e a ssume a d egree o f c ontinuing o ccupation o n f ort s ites i nto t he f ifth c entury ,

i t i s o n t he w hole h ard t o i dentify s pecific l inks i nto

t he p ost-Roman p eriod . T he r oads r emained a nd a gricultural s ettlement m ay h ave b een l ittle c hanged , d espite t he d ecline i n i mportance o f t he f orts a s l ocal c entres . T he s low f ading o f i dentifiably R oman a spects o f l ife i n t he P ennines was i n d ue c ourse r eplaced b y n ew f orces, d etermining n ew s ettlement p atterns a nd a n ew w ay o f o rdering t he l andscape . N evertheless , t he R oman p eriod h ad p rovided t he P ennines w ith i ts f irst t astes o f i ndustrial a ctivity o n al arge s cale i n t he f orm o f t he l ead i ndustry a nd o f c entralised s ettlement , b ased u pon t he f orts , m anners , g oods a nd i deas o f a w orld E mpire .

a s w ell a s c ontacts w ith t he I t w as m any y ears b efore t he

D ales a chieved a gain s uch a l evel o f d evelopment a nd

v ariety o f a ctivity .

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2 36

t he

f orm

i t

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p resented

f or