Archaeology and Settlement in Upper Nubia in the 1st Millennium A.D. 9780860546825, 9781407348315

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO THE NUBIAN ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER THREE A SURVEY OF UPPER NUBIA BY REGIONS
CHAPTER FOUR SETTLEMENT IN THE MEROITIC PERIOD
CHAPTER FIVE THE SUB-MEROITIC PERIOD (C.350-550 AD)
CHAPTER SIX THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD
CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS
Bibliography

Citation preview

Archaeology and Settlement in Upper Nubia in the· 1st Millennium A.D.

David N. Edwards

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 36

BAR International Series 537

1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S537, 1989: 'Archaeology and Settlement in Upper Nubia in the 1st Millennium A. D. ' © David N. Edwards, 1989

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546825 paperback ISBN 9781407348315 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546825 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION. 1. 0 .1 Problems & Objectives. . . . . . . 1. 0 .2 Nubia 1. 0 .3 Archaeology in Lower Nubia. 1. 0.4 Archaeology in Upper Nubia. 1. 0 .5 The Historical outline. 1.0.6 Geographical Parameters.

. .

. 1

.

.

.

.

.

. . 1 • • 3 . . . 6

.

.

.

. 7 . 8

11

2 THE NUBIAN ENVIRONMENT. 2.0.1 Geology. 2.0.2 Climate. 2.0.3 Pedology. 2.0.4 Vegetation. 2.0.5 Water. . . . . . . . . . 2.0.6 Land Use. . . . . . . . . . . 2.0.7 Palaeoclimate and environment.

13 13 13 15 17 20 21 25

3 A SURVEY OF UPPER NUBIA BY REGIONS. 3.0.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0.2 The Butana. 3.0.3 Archaeology of the Butana and southern Atbai. 3.0.4 Site Gazetteer: The Butana & southern Atbai. 3.0.5 The Gezira. 3.0.6 Archaeology of the Gezira. 3.0.7 Site Gazetteer: The Gezira. 3.0.8 The Western Butana. 3.0.9 Archaeology of the Western Butana. 3.0.10 Site Gazetteer: The Western Butana. . . . . . 3.0.11 The Atbara-Khartoum Reach. 3.0.12 Archaeology between the 5th cataract and Khartoum. 3.0.13 Site Gazetteer: Atbara-Khartoum Reach. 3.0.14 The Abu Hamed Reach. . . . . . . . . . 3.0.15 Archaeology between the 4th & 5th Cataracts. 3.0.16 Site Gazetteer: The Abu Hamed Reach. . . . . 3.0.17 The Dongola Reach. . . . . . . . . 3.0.18 Archaeology in the Dongola Reach. 3.0.19 Site Gazetteer: The Dongola Reach. 3.0.20 The Baiyuda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0.21 Archaeology of the Baiyuda. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0.22 Site Gazetteer: The Baiyuda & the West. .

29 29 30 35 38 40 43 45 50 52 54 60 63 66 79 81 83 93 96 99

112 114 116

4 SETTLEMENT IN THE MEROITIC PERIOD. . . . . 4.0.1 Settlement Distribution. 4.0.2 The Dongola Reach. . . . . 4.0.3 4th to 5th Cataracts. 4.0.4 The Shendi Reach. 4.0.5 The Western Butana 4.0.6 The Gezira. . . . . 4.0.7 Conclusions. . . . . 4.1 Problems of Cultural Definition. 4.1.1 Meroitic ceramics. . . . . 4.1.2 Meroitic Mortuary practice. 4.2 Meroitic economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Meroitic Subsistence. 4.2.2 Basin Agriculture. 4.2.3 Saqia. . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Rainland agriculture. . . . . 4.2.5 Pastoralism. 4.2.6 The dynamics of pastoral nomadism. 4.2.7 Pastoralism in the Butana & Western Butana. 4.3 The wider Economy. 4.3.1 Trade & Manufactures . . . . 4.3.2 Manufactures . . . . . . 4.3.3 Trade. . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Trade Routes.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . 121 . . . 121 . . . . 123 126 . . . . 127 . . . . 129 . . 131 . 133 . . . . 134 . . . 136 . . . 139 141 141 . . . 143 144 146 147 150 . . . . 151 . . . . 154 . . . . 155 . . . . 155 . . . 156 . . . 157

. . . 159 . . . . 5 THE SUB-MEROITIC PERIOD (C.350-550 AD). 159 . . . . 5.0.1 Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 5.0.2 The Sub-Meroitic Period in Lower Nubia. . 160 5.0.3 The Sub-Meroitic period in Upper Nubia. 5.1 Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 . . . . 163 5.1.1 Recognition of the sub-Meroitic . . . . . . 164 5.1.2 Contracted burials oriented north-south. . . . . 164 5.1.3 Animal sacrifice. . . 165 5.1.4 Tumulus Burials. . . . . 168 5.1.5 Sub-Meroitic Ceramics. . 170 5.2 Sub-Meroitic developments. 170 Continuities . . . . . 5.2.1 . . . . . . 171 5.2.2 Urban Discontinuity. . 174 5.2.3 Villages and other settlements . . . . 174 5.3 Changes in Landuse_& the economy . 176 5.4 Changes in Settlement. . . . . . . . . . . 176 5.4.1 The Abandonment of Permanent Settlements. . . . . 177 5.4.2 General settlement location . . . 178 5.4.3 Artefactual evidence . . . . . 179 5.4.4 Crafts and Production 5.4.5 External Contacts . 181

6 T HE E ARLY C HRISTIAN P ERIOD.

6 .1

6 .2

6 .3

6 .4

1 82

6 .0.1

I ntroduction

1 82

6 .0.2

T he P olitical & G eographical O utline.

1 82

C onversion,

& C hanges i n Material C ulture.

1 85

6 .1.1

C hristian c eramic i ndustries.

1 86

6 .1.2

C emetery E vidence

1 87

6 .1.3

C ontinuity w ithin c emeteries

1 89

6 .1.4

C ontinuity i n S ettlements.

1 90

L ater C hristian S ettlement

1 91

6 .2.1

T he A rchaeological E vidence

1 92

6 .2.2

I nterpretative p roblems.

1 97

6 .2.3

S ettlement i n Makuria.

1 99

6 .2.4

S ettlement i n A lodia.

2 01

E conomy a nd L anduse.

2 02

6 .3.1

A rabic d ocumentary e vidence f or Makuria.

2 03

6 .3.2

A rabic d ocumentary e vidence f or A lodia.

2 04

T he W ider E conomy.

2 06

6 .4.1

F arming.

2 07

6 .4.2

Manufactures.

2 08

6 .4.3

L ong D istance T rade.

2 09

7 C ONCLUSIONS.

2 11

7 .0.1

S urvey r esults a nd p roblems.

2 11

7 .0.2

S ettlement a nd S ubsistence.

2 12

7 .0.3

M eroitic S ettlement.

2 14

7 .0.4

S ub-Meroitic S ettlement.

2 15

7 .0.5

C hristian S ettlement.

2 16

7 .0.6

E xplanation o f C ulture C hange.

2 18

i

L IST O F F IGURES

F igure: 0 1.

N ubia

0 2.

G eology.

5 .

0 3.

R ainfall.

0 4.

S oils.

0 5.

V egetation.

0 6.

L and U se.

0 7.

G razing i n the B utana.

0 8. 0 9.

S ites i n t he B utana S ites i n the G ezira

3 6. 4 1.

1 0.

W estern B utana S ites

5 1.

1 1.

A tbara - K hartoum

6 1.

1 2.

A tbara - K hartoum S ites

6 4.

1 3. 1 4.

A bu H amed R each S ites D ongola R each

8 0. 9 4.

1 5.

D ongola R each S ites

1 6.

B aiyuda S ites

1 13.

1 7.

M eroitic U pper N ubia

1 22.

1 8.

D ongola R each - Meroitic S ites

1 24.

1 9.

A tbara - K hartoum M eroitic S ites

1 28.

2 0.

W .Butana - Meroitic S ites

1 30.

2 1.

G ezira - M eroitic S ites

1 32.

2 2.

S ub-Meroitic U pper N ubia

1 61.

2 3. 2 4.

D istribution o f Tumuli C hristian U pper Nubia

1 66. 1 83.

2 5.

D ongola R each - C hristian S ites

1 93.

2 6.

A bu H amed R each - C hristian S ites

1 95.

2 7.

A tbara - K hartoum C hristian S ites

1 96.

2 8.

G ezira - C hristian S ites

1 98.

( after Whiteman 1 971:

F ig.4)

( after Whiteman 1 971:

( after L ebon 1 965:

1 4.

F ig.3)

1 6.

F ig.7)

( after L ebon 1 965: ( after L ebon 1 965:

1 8.

F ig.6 )

1 8.

F ig.39)

( after L ebon 1 965:

2 4. F ig.24)

3 4.

9 7.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

A

g eneral

a cknowledgement i s d ue t o a n umber o f s cholars a nd f riends

m any c ountries,

f or h elp a nd e ncouragement.

I n

p articular

I

s hould

f rom t hank

s taff o f t he S udan Antiquities S ervice a nd i n t he Archaeology D epartment o f t he U niversity o f K hartoum , n otably D r.Khidir Abdelkarim Ahmed , D r.Ali O sman Mohammed

S alih

g enerous

i n

f ieldwork

a nd

Dr.Ali

a cquainting

m e

T igani

E l

w ith

much

Mahi.

P atrice L enoble h as b een v ery

u npublished

material

f rom

a s h as D r.Derek W elsby i n t he c ase o f t he S oba e xcavations.

r ecent I a lso

a cknowledge my d ebt t o u npublished t heses by D rs. B abiker, B radley , G eus a nd A li O sman. I w ould a lso t hank D r.Welsby a nd D r.K G rzymski f or t he o pportunity t o w ork o n t he e xcavations a t t hank

S udanese

f riends

S oba a nd H ambukol.

i nterest

i n t he h istory a nd c ulture o f Nubia,

S udan a t

l arge.

o f

D r.Jeremy J ohns t he

c ourse

o f

a ncient a nd modern ,

t hey h ave e nsured t hat

i t

a nd

i s a lways a p leasure

t o

N ewcastle f or h is my

members u pon T yne,

o f

t he

Archaeology

w ish i n b oth

c onstructive c riticisms and

r esearch.

D epartment

b oth s taff a nd s tudents,

t o t he t o

practical

must t hank my p arents

a t

t he

p articularly t o a dvice

d uring

S taff a t t he O riental S tudies L ibrary a nd t he

S udan A rchive a t the University o f D urham w ere a lso most h elpful. I

I

w ho e ncouraged my

i n t heir c ountry.

T hanks a re a lso d ue U niversity

g enerally

o f l ife,

F rom my f irst a cquaintance w ith t he S udan i n the Mahas r egion

o f N orthern P rovince, w ork a nd t ravel

More

f rom many d ifferent w alks

f or their e ncouragement,

my t ime a t N ewcastle.

v i

U ltimately

s upport a nd t olerance d uring

C HAPTER O NE I NTRODUCTION.

1 .0.1

P roblems

T he

& O bjectives.

i mpetus

f or

this r esearch w as t he d esire t o p roduce a r eview a nd

s ynthesis o f a rchaeological e vidence f or U pper N ubia , f rom t he l ate M eroitic p eriod , t hrough t he d ecline o f t hat c ivilization t o t he r evival o f t he m edieval C hristian k ingdoms. T o d ate, o nly more g eneral s tudies h ave d ealt w ith t his p eriod ( eg.Adams 1 977) a nd n one h ave b een d evoted s pecifically t o U pper Nubia.

T here c an b e l ittle d oubt

i mmediate i nfluences o f E gypt,

t hat

b eyond

t he

c ultural d evelopments t ook a v ery d ifferent

c ourse f rom t hose d ocumented i n L ower N ubia. F urthermore t here i s a g rowing a wareness o f t he n eed t o l ook b eyond t he i mmediate e nvirons o f t he N ile V alley a nd t o r elate t he N ubian e xperience t o o ther modern S udan a nd b eyond.

r egions

f ieldwork h as g reatly i ncreased b oth t he q uality a r id q uantity o f i n

U pper

N ubia,

o f

t he

O ver the l ast d ecade a s ignificant r esurgence i n e vidence

b ut t his h as y et t o b e c ollated i nto a s ingle d atabase.

W hile t he p rospect o f this g rows c loser w ith the o ngoing p reparation o f H inkel's A rchaeological Map o f S udan i t w as n ecessary t o p repare a n i nterim , w ork.

t hough n o d oubt l ess t horough s ite g azeteer a s a b asis

I t q uickly b ecame a pparent t hat t he s cale a nd b readth

o f

f or

t he

t his

s ubject

m atter i nvolved i ntegrating a nd r econciling a v ariety o f a pproaches w hich h ad d eveloped i n e arlier r esearch i n N ubia. O therwise d ue t o t he v ery d ifferent

p erspectives

a dopted

b y

p revious

q uestions w ere l ikely t o h ave r emained M eroitic

s tudies

h as

t raditions o f E gyptology ,

b een

p articularly

n ot a lways

s cholars,

u nexplored.

i nfluenced

s ympathetic

t o

many

T he b y

t he

i mportant

d evelopment the

o f

r esearch

a spirations

o f

a rchaeology [ Trigger e t a l 1 983:xii]. An a ttitude c riticized b y K emp w as t hat " Pharaonic c ivilization c an b e c omprehended a lmost e xclusively t hrough

i ts

i nscriptions,

a cknowledgement T his

..

monuments a nd w orks o f a rt,

w ith o nly a f ormal

o f t he e vidence p ertaining t o s ettlements"

[ 1977:185].

m ight b e e choed w ith r egard t o M eroitic s tudies w here t here h as b een

a s imilar l ack o f r esearch i nto

w ider

p roblems

o f

s ettlement,

w ith

a

c oncentration o n monuments a nd o bjets d 'art. S uch s tudies c annot b e b alanced b y t he k ind o f d ocumentary e vidence e ncountered i n E gypt h owever , a s t he c orpus u nderstood. I n

a ddition ,

o f M eroitic t exts i s b oth v ery l imited a nd o nly p artially

u ntil

r ecently

m ost

f ieldwork i n a ll p eriods h as b een

d ominated b y s ite-specific e xcavation p rojects. B y t heir n ature t hese h ave t ended t owards c ompartmentalisation a nd s pecialisation i n d ifferent p eriods. T heir r esults h ave y et t o b e i ntegrated l ong-term p erspectives o n s ocial a nd e conomic c hange. t he t raditional h istorical f ramework a round w hich s tudies b ecome

t o p rovide more A t the s ame t ime a re

a ccepted t o a d egree w hich i ts t enuous n ature may n ot

1

b ased j ustify.

h as I n

v iew

o f

t he

p eriod i t

v ery l imited t extual e vidence r elating t o t he l ate M eroitic

i s u ncertain h ow g reat a n e mphasis

b eing a " historic" p eriod a f ar g reater r eliance o n p reoccupation t ribes,

w ith

s hould

b e

p laced

o n

t his

[ Török 1 987:142]. A c ase may s till b e m ade f or a rchaeological e vidence u ntramelled b y t he

d ynastic

l ists

a nd

t he

o bscure names o f k ings a nd

a s Adams a rgued f or L ower N ubia i n t he 1 960s

[ 1966b:156-62].

C ertainly , c onsequent t o t he d ominance o f h istorical a nd a rt h istorical p erspectives, N ubian c ultures a re l ittle k nown i n t erms o f w hat m ight b e c alled t he ' dynamics o f l iving '. T he p redominance o f e vidence f rom t emples,

c hurches o r a rtefact-rich

p overty

o f i nformation o n l iving c ommunities.

b urials

c ontrasts

s harply

E qually ,

h as b arely b egun t o i nvestigate c rucial b ut mundane e conomic p roduction

a nd

d istribution ,

c oncentrating

r ather

w ith

t he

a rtefact r esearch

o n

p roblems

o f

m ore s ubjective

a ssessments o f c ultural a nd a rtistic s ignificance. T he e xploration , e ven a t a v ery b asic l evel, o f t he s ubsistence f oundations o f U pper N ubian s ocieties h as b een l argely n eglected. When

v iewing

N ubia

a s a n e ntity ,

i t i s i ncreasingly c lear h ow p oorly

d efined a re p erceptions o f r egional d iversity w ithin t his l arge a rea. B road c ontrasts b etween U pper a nd L ower N ubia h ave b een e xplored ( eg.Adams 1 976),

b ut

l ittle p rogress h as b een m ade i n

g eographical

u nits

b y i nadequate d ata p roblem

h ave

w ithin t he s outh. [ Adams

a lso

i nvestigated a t many f actors,

o r

1 987:189],

b een n eglected.

p erhaps

l evels, a s

t he

t o

e nvironmental

p olitical

o r

a nd

s ubsistence

a dministrative u nits. a n

i ntegral

a nd p erhaps a p recondition o f b alanced a nd more g eneral s tudies.

S ingle p eriod s tudies h ave p erhaps d iverted a ttention f rom p roblems c hange

a nd

d evelopment

n orms.

T his

i s p erhaps most n oticeable w ith r egard t o

o f

t his

S uch i nter-regional d iversity m ay b e

R ecognition o f s uch r egional d ifferentiation must h owever b e p art,

d ifferent

m ore t heoretical a pproaches

c oncerning

' natural'

i nvestigating

W hile c onstrained i n many r espects

M eroitic

t hrough

c ivilization

i n

c oncentrating

t he

s outh.

b ut

t he

U ntil r ecently ,

d iscussed t hrough t he r epeated r einterpretation o f t he s ources,

d isappearance t his h as b een

s parse

h istorical

w ith s cant c oncern f or e stablishing a t heoretical b asis

u nderstanding w hat t his c ollapse e ntailed.

o f

o n w ell d efined c ultural

D iscussion

o f

t he

f all

f or o f

M eroe h ave t ended t o r egard t ribal N oba i ncursions o r Axumite p ressures a s s ufficient e xplanations w ithout l ooking f or more f undamental c hanges w hich m ay

h ave

c ontributed

t o

i ts

d ecline.

I t

c an b e a rgued h owever t hat

i nvestigating a nd e xplaining p recisely s uch c hanges i s o ne o f t he m ost c entral p roblems i n N ubian S tudies. A s I saac n oted " it g oes w ithout s aying t hat t he c ollapse o f a ncient c ivilization i s t he e vent

i n i ts h istory"

m ost

o utstanding

[ in T ainter 1 988:2].

An i nitial o bjection w hich c ould b e r aised a gainst a pproaching m any

o f

t hese p roblems i s t hat t he e vidence i s s till t oo l imited , a nd c ertainly c ompares u nfavourably w ith t hat f rom L ower N ubia. T his i s p erhaps s elf-evident g iven t he c oncentrated f ieldwork o f v arious r escue p rogrammes u ndertaken i n t he n orth.

I t must,

h owever,

b e b orne i n m ind t hat

b ecause

n o s uch i ntensive f ieldwork i s l ikely t o b e u ndertaken i n t he S udan i n t he f oreseeable

f uture,

t he q uantity o f d ata n ow a vailable f or L ower N ubia

2

i s

n ever l ikely t o b ecome a vailable f or t he s outh. a nd

U pper

N ubia

r ecognized

s hould

n ot

b e

t oo

e xtreme

C omparisons b etween L ower h owever,

f or a s T rigger

" much o f t he a rchaeological w ork d one i n L ower N ubia

r epetitive

r ather

t han

h as

b een

p roblem-oriented a nd t he amount o f material t hat

h as b een c ollected g reatly e xceeds i ts s ignificance"

[ 1970:347].

What

i s

r equired i n U pper N ubia a re i ntegrated a nd p recise r esearch p rogrammes w ith h igh-quality p roblem-oriented f ieldwork. A s a p recondition t o t his, g eneral

r eviews o f t he c urrent

s tate o f r esearch a re r equired ,

a s much t o

i dentify p roblems a s t o h ope t o s olve t hem . T he m ost a pposite b asis

f or s uch a r eview s eems t o b e t he i nvestigation

o f t he c ultural e cology o f U pper N ubia , i n i ts b roadest s ense, a s a dopted b y T rigger f or L ower N ubia [ op.cit]. Moving b eyond t he b asic r elationship o f t he n atural e nvironment a nd s ubsistence p atterns, t his a llows f or o ther f actors s uch a s t rade a nd s ocio-political s tructures, w hich f ormed a p art o f N ubia's c ultural e nvironment. s ome

o f

t he

n ecessary c omplement s ocieties,

R ather t han o ffering a n

more t raditional r esearch a pproaches, t o

them .

E specially

w hen

a lternative

t o

this may b e s een a s a d ealing

w ith

c omplex

s uch a n i ntegrated a pproach a cknowledges t he c omplexity o f t he

p roblems a nd a bove a ll i mpossible

t o

p rovides

s ettlement o f t he M eroitic i gnorance

t he

n ecessary

c ontext.

I t

w ould

b e

d efend a n arrow e cological d eterminism w ith r egards t o t he a nd

C hristian

k ingdoms,

b ut

o ur

c ontinued

o f s ome o f t he most b asic f eatures o f their c ultural e cology i s

e qually u ntenable. O ne o f t he most r ecent y ears h as b een

p romising m ethods o f a pproaching s uch p roblems i n t hrough s ettlement a rchaeology. T his o ffers a

v iable m eans o f u nderstanding t he c hanging c ultural e cology o f U pper N ubia w here

" the q uantity ,

r eliable e vidence t he l andscape, a nd a re

r eflected

i n

s ome

s ettlement p attern"

1 .0.2

t ype a nd

d istribution

o f

s uch

r emains

c onstitute

o f the manner i n w hich f ormer i nhabitants a djusted t o ( that) a ll t he f actors t hat i nfluenced this a djustment manner,

e ither

d irectly

o r

i ndirectly i n t he

[ ibid:349].

N ubia

M odern N ubia i s g enerally r egarded a s e xtending f rom A swan t o E d i n

t he D ongola R each .

U ntil t he d islocations o f the

1 960's,

h ome o f N ubian s peakers a nd t heir d istinctive c ulture, t heir

t raditional

d efinition , N ubian

r iverine

a gricultural

a bove a ll d ependent o n t he

d ialects,

c an

b e

o f

f irmly

e conomy.

modern

r ooted

S uch

d istribution

D ebba

t his w as t he a

o f

i n

n arrow

r iverine

o nly l imited u se i n r elation t o p re-modern

c onditions. O n t he l inguistic c riteria N ubia m ay b e e xtended a t l east a s f ar s outh a s t he K hartoum a rea, w here N ubian p lacenames s till s urvive a nd f rom w hich m edieval N ubian i nscriptions h ave b een r ecovered. C ertainly m edieval

A rabic

t he B lue N ile. c ulture

s ources I t

r epresents

r efer t o

' Nuba'

i s c lear t hat t he a

r emnant

p eoples i nhabiting t he b anks o f

e xtent

w hich h as

o f

modern

s urvived i n t he

r iverine

N ubian

f ace o f o ngoing

i ntrusion a nd d omination b y A rab p opulations, p art o f a p rocess w hich h as c ontinued f or s everal c enturies a nd w hich h as a ll b ut d estroyed a ny

3

v estiges o f N ubian c ulture f urther s outh. Adams c haracterized N ubia a s a n a rea: o rigin a nd s peech c ulture" [ 1977:21].

" occupied b y p eoples

African

i n

b ut s trongly i nfluenced b y E gyptian a nd M editerranean A voiding p resuppositions o f e thnicity o r l anguage

g roups, s uch a b road d efinition d emands w ithin w hich s uch c ultural i nfluences may b e

a b road g eographical c ontext s ought. I n a ttempting t o

a void i mposing a p otentially u ntenable a nd r estrictive g eographical f ramework, t his r esearch h as c overed a w ide a rea , s imilar t o t hat a dopted b y

S .Adam ,

i ncluding t he w hole o f t he N ile b asin f rom n ear t he f rontiers

o f modern E thiopia i nto E gypt

[ 1982:226].

T he

r etained

f or

a mbiguous

r elationship b etween N ubian l anguages,

name

t his a rea a s a w hole r ather b y d efault,

' Nubia '

h as

b een

a nd t he p otentially

modern

N ubian

c ulture,

t he m edieval N ubian k ingdoms a nd t heir a ntecedents must b e r ecognized. T he

" natural"

d efine,

e ast-west l imits o f

d efinition o f N ubia o r N ubian. l anguages

o f

s tudy

a rea

D arfur

A p reliminary

s eems

t o

e xclude

a re

d ifficult

t o

l imited

r eference

n orthern

s outh ,

1 982]

t o

t he

e xtant

N ubian

a re b eyond t he s cope o f

I .M .Mohammed 's

r esearch

a reas

T o t he e ast o f t he N ile,

p rovides

a

n atural

I n

b ut

t he N ubian d esert i n

f rontier,

s ettlement i n t he h istoric p eriod.

h owever,

i n

[ 1986].

a rchaeological d ata f or K ordofan w ill b e r eferred t o ,

e xtends l ittle b eyond 3 0° E . p ermanent

[ Thelwell

a ny d emonstrable c ultural r elationship b etween

t hat a rea a nd t he N ile V alley T he

T he p roblems p osed by

K ordofan a nd D arfur

t his r esearch.

t he

t he

b oth b ecause o f t he l ack o f d ata a nd t he p olythetic n ature o f a ny

a ll

t he

b ut

d evoid o f

r ainlands

o f

t he

s uch e nvironmental c onstraints a re l ess p ronounced.

T he

A tbai a nd R ed S ea H ills may b e s uggested a s c onvenient l imits, b ut t he l imited a rchaeological e vidence f or the a rea r emains t he main c onstraint o n i nvestigating the e astern b ounds o f Nubia. T hus

d efined

Nubia e xtends s ome 1 ,000 miles n orth t o s outh ,

a nd t oday

c ontains a w ide v ariety o f e nvironments a nd e qually

d iverse

r anging

f rom

f armers o f t he n orth ,

t hrough

A rabic-speaking

d wellers

o f

the t he

t raditional major

b eneath L ake N asser,

r iverine

n omadic

" Nubian"

p astoralists,

c onurbations.

A ll

t o

o f

p opulations,

s ophisticated

u rban

E gyptian N ubia n ow l ies

a nd t he r est o f N ubia l ies w ithin

t he

f rontiers

o f

t he p resent-day R epublic o f t he S udan . I n d efining the a rea o f s tudy , t o a void a mbiguities, the t erm S udan r efers to t his modern s tate, r ather t han t o

t he w ide t rans-African ,

s ub-Saharan z one t o which i t c ommonly r eferred

a t l east u ntil e arly t his c entury. A

v ariety

o f

o ther t erms h ave b een u sed f or t he r egion i n a ntiquity.

I n p haraonic t imes K ush w as o ne a mong s everal a reas u ltimately

t he

s outh o f E gypt,

t oponym w as a pplied t o the w hole o f N ubia.

t hough

L atterly ,

t he

c lassical A ethiopia w as u sed t o r efer t o a v ariety o f p eoples a nd k ingdoms s outh

o f

E gypt

M eroe i n 1 909-10 W ithin

t he

w ill b e u sed ,

a nd w as a t erm s till employed b y the f irst e xcavators o f [ Garstang e t a l 1 911]. b orders o f a " Greater" Nubia a s eries o f r egional t oponyms

d efining r elatively

a rbitrary

4

a reas,

w hich

c ombine

b oth

F i g1

N ub ia

5

g eographically

r ecognizable

u nits

a nd

a reas o f a c onvenient

s ize

f or a

d iscussion: 1 ) Lower

N ubia i s u sed t o d escribe b oth t he a rea more c ommonly r eferred

t o u nder t his n ame, i .e. f rom t he i st t o 1 977:24], a nd a lso t he b arren B atn e l H ajar, t o t he D al

c ataract.

T his

i ncludes

t he 2 nd c ataracts [ Adams e xtending f rom n ear t he 2 nd

e ffectively t he a rea

n ow

d rowned

b y

t he w aters b ehind t he A swan dams. 2 )

T he A bri-Delgo R each ,

n ear

A bu

F atima ,

e xtending f rom D al t o t he t op o f t he

w hich

t oday

S ukkut t ribes [ ibid:28-9]. 3 ) T he D ongola R each , f rom t he b roadens, 4 )

T he

n otable A bu

f oot o f the

l arge

H amed R each ,

4 th C ataract,

w here t he

5 th C ataract;

a nd

r iver

f ertile a reas.

t he i nhospitable a nd o ften r ocky l ands t he a rea c alled

f rom t he

t he

M iddle

[ 1953].

T he A tbara-Khartoum R each

f ertile

3 rd t o t he

( by N ubian s tandards)

4 th C ataract t o t he

N ile b y C rawford 5 )

f or i ts

3 rd C ataract

i s t he Nubian h eartland o f t he Mahas

S hendi R each ,

w hich

i ncludes

e xtending b eyond t he

t he

margins

o f

t he

more

6 th C ataract t o t he c onvenient

d ivide a t t he c onfluence o f t he N iles. 6 )

T he

G ezira,

a nd White N iles 7 )

T he

i n t he 8 )

w hich h ere i ncludes t he

W estern B utana: s andstone

T he

r iverine d istricts

t he h interland e ast

o f t he A tbara K hartoum R each ,

s emi-desert.

B utana:

t he

a rea

t o

t o

t he

s outh

a nd

e ast

e ssentially d efined b y t he p resence o f t he B utana c lays; t he

E thiopian

a long t he B lue

a s w ell a s t he h interland o f t he G ezira p roper.

f oothills

o f t he

t his

f ormer ,

e xtends

t o

a nd a l ittle t o t he e ast o f t he A tbara i nto t he

A tbai 9 )

T he

B aiyuda,which

i ts w estern f ringes

1 .0.3

h ere r epresents b oth t he B aiyuda d esert p roper a nd

i nto n orth K ordofan.

A rchaeology i n L ower N ubia.

T he r ediscovery o f M eroe a nd t he U pper t he

N ubia,

s outhern h eartland o f N ubia.

c entury ,

s urge o f i nterest

i n t he monuments

h owever ,

t he

t wentieth

t he b ulk o f r esearch h as b een i n L ower Nubia ,

l argely i n

S ince t he

b eginning

o f

r esponse t o t he r epeated r ebuilding o f t he A swan d ams a nd t he i nundation o f t hat T he mass

t o t he p ost-medieval,

t he r iver d ominates N ubia.

F or

m eans t hat p eripheral

h as m eant t hat t his

o ur k nowledge o f

c ertain

p eriods,

e vidence p redominates f rontier

z one.

t he

s uch f rom

a rchaeology

w hat

w as,

T he

s alvage p rogrammes, l ed

t o

t hree

[ Adams

o f

i n

F or t he M eroitic p eriod ,

e ven p olitically - o f t he n orth

s equence, 2 70 m ile

f rom

t he

w hole

s everal a t

l east, -

t he

s tretch o f

a s t he M eroitic a nd C hristian ,

g rowing a wareness o f t he d istinct p rovincial c haracter

N ubia ,

p rogressive

r egion.

o f e vidence r elating t o t he w hole c ultural

p rehistoric

o f

d irected most o f n ineteenth c entury a ntiquarian i nterest t o

o f t his

s enses

a

t here i s a

c ulturally

a nd

1 976].

i n r esponse t o t he p rogresive d rowning o f L ower

m ajor

s urvey

6

a nd

e xcavation

p rojects,

u sefully

s ummarized

b y

A dams

[ 1977:71-80].

I n a ll,

b y t he 1 960s o ver 2 10 s ites

w ere k nown f or M eroitic o r l ater p eriods n orth o f t he 2 nd b ut

o f

t hese

maybe

8 0

r epresented l iving s ites,

C ataract

a rea ,

a nd o nly a h andful o f

s ettlements h ad h ad e ven e xploratory e xcavations. T he

i ntensive

f ieldwork

i n t he 1 960s p rompted b y t he c onstruction o f

t he A swan H igh D am c ontinued t he g eneral s urvey o f t he r iver b anks a s

f ar

a s t he D al C ataract a s w ell a s u ndertaking a n umber o f major e xcavations. W ithin E gypt, s everal i mportant s ites w hich h ad s urvived e arlier f looding w ere

r eturned

s ettlements. F aras, w ith

t o ,

i ncluding

s everal

major

M eroitic

a nd

C hristian

I n S udan , w ork w as c oncentrated w ithin s ome 3 0 m iles o f p articular i nterest i n C hristian s ites. I n g eneral, t he

f ieldwork u ndertaken m ay b e c ontrasted w ith e arlier c ampaigns i n g reater

e mphasis

o n

s ettlements,

a nd

p articularly

t he

f ar

o n C hristian o nes,

p artially r edressing t he b ias o f t he e arlier y ears. 1 .0.4

A rchaeology i n U pper N ubia.

T he p rogress o f r esearch i n t he v ast a reas o f U pper N ubia , f urther

6 00 m iles t o t he s outh ,

i s v ery d ifferent,

e xtending

a

d ue t o t he s parsity o f

s ystematic s urvey o r w ide-ranging e xcavation p rojects.

Only r ecently

h as

s ystematic s urvey b een e xtended s outh o f D al,

a nd o ther p rojects i nitiated

i n

W estern

t he

D ongola

a nd

S hendi

R eaches,

t he

B utana

a nd

t he

B utana/Atbai. D espite B ruce's i dentification o f M eroe C ailliaud 's [ 1826],

t hat t he c ivilization b ecame a n o bject

s cholarly [ 1822]

i n

1 772,

i t

w as

n ot

u ntil

p ublication o f t he p yramids a nd o ther monuments o f t he r egion i nterest.

o f

a ntiquarian

a nd

m ore

T ogether w ith t he a ccount by W addington a nd H anbury

o f t he D ongola R each ,

t hat o f H oskins

[ 1835]

a nd

u ltimately

t he

L epsius E xpedition [ 1849-1913,1853] p roduced a c orpus o f p lans a nd d rawings o f t he g reat monuments a nd s ome g eneral r ecords o f o ther a ntiquities. T he m ajor s ites r esearch i nto r ecent y ears. E arly e xcavations,

s o i dentified h ave r emained t he f ocus o f

f ollowing t he t raditions o f E gyptology ,

o n t he c learing a nd r ecording o f t emple

c omplexes

t hese

monuments,

c oncentrated

i ncluding

the

a nd r oyal p yramid c emeteries o f J ebel B arkal,

major

E l K urru ,

N un , S anam , M eroe-Begrawiya a nd K awa. A ll t hese s ites w ere o nly p artially p ublished , a nd w hile l ater e fforts w ere made t o c omplete t he r ecord , O ther

n otably b y D unham , c emeteries

[ Reisner 1 923], o nly

l imited

w ere

many

g aps

e xcavated

r emain ,

a t

S an w a

b ut t he major s ites h ad i n n o a ttention

b eing

L ower N ubia w here t here w ere c oncern w ith c emeteries.

h umbler

f ew

s ites,

p articularly

f rom

[ Griffith

1 923],

w ay

e xhausted ,

b een

p aid t o a ssociated t own s ites. ' royal' w hether

monuments, s maller

there

s ettlements

M eroe.

a nd K erma w ith

U nlike i n w as

l ittle

o r

c ommon

A n otable d eparture f rom t he E gyptologist's a pproach w as t he s eries o f W ellcome E xcavations, p artly a p hilanthropic e xercise, f ar t o t he s outh o f K hartoum

a round

J ebel Moya a nd A bu G eili.

7

T he r esults,

t hough d ifficult

t o

i nterpret,

p rovide a u nique i nsight i nto t he s outhern p eriphery o f t he

M eroitic c ulture a rea ,

f ar

r emoved

f rom

t he

p roblems

o f

t emples

a nd

p alaces. A s i n t he n orth ,

t he g roundwork f or t he m edieval p eriod w as

t he s urveys o f S omers C larke a nd Monneret d e V illard. s till r emain u nverified b y more r ecent f ieldwork ,

l aid

w ith

M any o f t heir s ites

b ut t hey a lso p rovide

a

u seful r ecord o f s everal s ites w hich h ave s ince b een d estroyed. P ost-War f ield s urvey b etween A bu H amed a nd K hartoum d emonstrated t hat t he g reat p otential t he s outh o ut

i n

f or

s urface s urvey d emonstrated i n L ower N ubia a lso e xisted i n

[ Crawford 1 955a,b]. t he

s ame

m onastery o f G hazali W ithin

t he

T he f irst major

B arkal,

l ast

2 5 y ears,

M eroe

Emery

a nd S oba.

a nd

K irwan.

d egree

[ Geus

S udanese

w ithin

O ld

D ongola ,

t he

t raditions

o f

R eisner ,

W ith t he b eginnings o f l imited s urvey a nd

c ompared

t hat

a s a t K erma,

T he c oncentration o n i nevitably a typical

o ccasional r escue e xcavations w ith

c arried a nd t he

e xcavation s trategies h ave c ontinued t o b e

p restige s ites c ontinues t o a g reat G arstang ,

w ere

[ Shinnie 1 961]

[ Shinnie & C hittick 1 961].

d ominated b y l ong-term s ite-specific p rojects, J ebel

e xcavations

p eriod a t t he t own s ite o f S oba

1 984],

t he s tate o f k nowledge m ight b e

L ower

N ubia p rior t o t he H igh D am

c ampaign. H eavily b iased t owards a f ew major s ites, o ften i ndifferently e xcavated , t he c ulture h istorical o utlines a re f leshed o ut w ith t he e vidence f rom numerous s maller s ites, o ften o f u ncertain r eliablity; w hile s everal r egions

r emain l argely u ninvestigated.

U pstream o f K hartoum a nd i nto t he h interlands o f t he e ast a nd w est

f ar

ioneer w ork o f t he W ellcome e xcavations i n t he G ezira T he p s l argely t he impetus o f p rehistoric s tudies w as n ever f ollowed u p. I t i esearch i nto the B utana a nd A tbai t o t he e ast, w hich h ave b egun t o d raw r or t hose a reas a lways s een a s p eripheral t o p roviding s ome i nformation f he w est, s ome l imited f ieldwork i n a rchaeology t he r iverine c ultures. T o t l ess i s k nown.

b egun [ Mohammed a nd e thno-archaeology h as nexplored. K ordofan r emains v irtually u 1 .0.5

o p.cit;

H aaland

1 978],

b ut

T he H istorical o utline.

T he

h istorical

f ramework

t o

r elated i s b ased o n a d iverse i f e xternal.

the a rchaeological r ecord c an b e c orpus

T he u ntranslated M eroitic l anguage,

t o f unerary c ontrols

which l imited

i nscriptions

u pon

t hese.

a t T he

p resent s ources

o ffers may

b e

o f

l ittle

h ope

g rouped

r elation t o a n umber o f i mportant a spects a nd p hases n ot a lways e asy t o i nterrelate.

s ources,

g enerally

w hich i s l argely r estricted

o f

o f

i nternal

t ogether b y t heir N ubian

h istory ,

T here a re g eneral r eports o f t he M eroitic

E mpire f rom t he M editerranean w orld , o f t he l ate a nd p ost M eroitic h istory o f L ower N ubia, o f Axumite i ncursions i nto U pper N ubia f rom E thiopia , o f t he p enetration o f C hristianity i nto N ubia, a nd u ltimately A rabic s ources, o n t he m edieval C hristian k ingdoms. T he c lassical s ources a re D iodorus S iculus a nd P liny.

w ell k nown , i ncluding H erodotus, S trabo , T he l atter i s p articularly i mportant f or h is

8

a ccounts

o f

P etronius'

r eprisals

a gainst

r econnaisance t o M eroe a nd C entral S udan M eroe

a re

m ore o bscure.

N apata a s w ell a s a N eronian

[ N.H.VI:35].

T he l ater y ears

o f

T he l ast d ated M eroitic r uler i s T egerideamani ,

n amed o n a n i nscription a t P hilae d ated t o c .260 A D,

a nd b uried i n o ne

o f

t he l atest p yramids a t M eroe-Begrawiya [ Millet 1 968:35-6]. T he h istorical s ources f rom t he R oman w orld h owever, h elp l ittle i n e xplaining t he f ate o f M eroe. F rom t he 3 rd C entury E gyptian d ocuments d ealing w ith

U pper

E gypt

N ubia d o n ot r efer t o n otable a re t he B lemmyses,

M eroe o r M eroites b ut t o o ther p eoples. d esert n omads f rom t he R ed S ea H ills, w ho

i ncreasingly

i n

t roublesome

r aiding i nto U pper E gypt:

a nd Most w ere

K irwan p rovides a

u seful r eview o f t heir p rogress [ Emery 1 938:5-17]. P rocopius' a ccount o f t hese y ears i s more i mportant f or t he h istory o f N ubia. W riting i n the e arly 6 th c entury ,

h e r ecorded D iocletian 's

f rontier

i st C ataract i n 2 98 A .D:

t o

t he

w ithdrawal

o f

t he

E gyptian

i n t he f ace o f B lemmyse r aids,

t he D odekaschoinos w ere a bandoned a nd t he N obatai i nvited t o s ettle a s a buffer a gainst t he d esert r aiders. O lympiodorus, t he

B lemmyses

D odekaschoinos. b oth

t he

w ho t ravelled t hrough t he a rea i n t he 4 20's, w ere

i n

N ot l ong a fter,

B lemmyses

o f

t he

h owever,

r ivei

r ecords t hat

t hroughout

P riscus r ecorded t he

t he

o ld

d efeat

o f

a nd t he N obatai b y Maximinus a nd a s hort l ived p eace

s ettlement a round 4 52 A D s truggles

c ontrol

t here

[ Blockley

1 981].

S ome

h int

o f

the

i nternal

o f L ower N ubia i s s een i n t he f amous i nscription o f K ing S ilko ,

f rom K alabsha

[ Wooley & MacIver 1 910:104-5],

amplified ,

t he P honen-Abourni l etter f ound a t Q asr I brim

i f ambiguously ,

b y

[ Rea 1 979].

B oth t he e xternal a nd i nternal s ources c learly s how a p eriod o f t urbulence i n L ower N ubia w hich c annot b e d irectly r elated t o M eroe. T he d ebate o n t he o rigins,

e thnic i dentity a nd a rchaeological

r ecognition

o f

t he N obatai a nd B lemmyses r emains o nly p artially r esolved [ Emery 1 938:5-34, K irwan 1 939:39-48, Adams 1 976]. T he v ery r eal p roble m o f r elying

o n e thnic l abels u sed i n h istorical s ources i s h ighlighted i n t he

c ase o f t he B lemmyses.

While t hey f requently o ccur i n h istorical t exts a s

t he i nhabitants o f t he e astern d eserts,

i t h as o nly r ecently b een p ossible

t o d emonstrate t hat t his l abel i s o nly o ne o f p eople

a nd

w as

s ynonymous

w ith

s everal

a pplied

t o

t he B eja u sed i n A rabic t exts

t hese

[ Plumley

1 983:160]. W hether ' Meroitic' T örök

t he

N obatai

s hould

n ecessarily

i nhabitants o f L ower N ubia r equires

s uggests,

P rocopius

may

u ncertainties

s urrounding

d istinguished

s uch

e thnic

[ 1987c:31]. l abels

p ossible t hat t hese w ere e ssentially o ne a nd t he s ame t his

f rom t he

f urther c larification.

A s

b e g uilty o f a nachronism i n r eferring t o

N obatai r ather t han M eroites i n t he 3 rd C entury t he

b e

I n

h owever,

v iew

o f

i t

r emains

p opulation.

W hile

p roblem r emains c entral t o t he i nterpretation o f t he B allana/X-Group

c ulture i n L ower N ubia ,

the h istorical a ccounts

o f

d evelopments

i n

t he

s outh b eyond t he b oundaries o f t he B allana c ulture a rea a re e ven l ess w ell d efined.

9

O ne e xplanation f or t he d isappearance o f Meroe i tself i s n ot i n s telae. b oth

b e

f ound

i ncomplete a nd o bscure b ut h as b een t aken t o s how A xumite c ontrol o r

c onquest o f M eroe s ometime w ithin t he p agan p eriod i n Axum , 3 30 A D.

T he o ther t wo s telae,

i tself.

B oth r ecord c ampaigns o f t he k ing E zana a gainst

t he

t o

t he r ecords o f t he M editerranean w orld , b ut i n a t rio o f A xumite T he f irst, a G reek i nscription , f ound a t M eroe b y S ayce [ 1909] i s

" Kasu",

a pparently

[ Kirwan 1 960; p ostdate

d ated t o 3 49,

f ollowing

Anfray e t a l 1 970].

E zana's

c onversion

p rior t o a bout

o ne i n G reek a nd o ne i n G e'ez a re f rom A xum t he

" Noba"

T hese l atter i nscriptions a re t aken

t o

a nd

t he R .Atbara i nto t he i sland o f M eroe C hristianity ,

t o

t entatively a nd v ariously

3 55 o r 3 60 A D.

I t h as a lways b een a ssumed t hat t hese p eoples c ould b e i dentified w ith t he K ushites a nd N oba o f t he N ile V alley. I t s hould b e n oted h owever t hat a c ase c an b e m ade t hat t hese r ecords r efer t o p urely l ocal b order r aids w ithin E thiopia. A s B ehrens p oints o ut, u naccountably M eroe i tself i s n ever

m entioned ,

w hile o ther

' towns'

a re,

a nd t he d istances i nvolved a re

i nconsistent w ith t he d escription o f t he c ampaigns I f

t hey

a re

t o

b e a ccepted a t

f ace v alue,

[ 1986].

t hese s telae s uggest t hat

Axum c ontributed s ignificantly a nd d irectly t o t he d isappearance o f t he Meroitic K ingdom . T hey a re a lso i mportant i n d escribing a d iverse a nd d ivided p opulation w ithin t he a rea,

d istinguishing b etween t he

" Noba",

t he

" Kasu" a nd t he " Red N oba". While t hese may b e s een a s e thnic g roups, a d istinction i s a lso m ade b etween t hose l iving i n " redbrick t owns" a nd t hose

i n

" Nubae" b een

" reed

h uts".

O n

t he

b asis

o f a r eference b y S trabo t o t he

a s a n on-Meroitic n omadic p eople l iving w est o f t he N ile,

i t

h as

a ssumed t hat t he N oba w ere a n i ntrusive p rimitive p opulation amongst

w hom o nly r emnants o f t he c ivilized M eroite K asu s urvived [ Kirwan 1 972b:462-3]. T hese i nscriptions r emain t he o nly e vidence f or d irect Axumite i ntervention i nto t he M eroitic h eartland a nd f or t hese e xpeditions s ome

3 50 m iles b eyond t he b oundaries o f t he E thiopian k ingdom ,

t hough t he

c laim o ver t he N oba a nd K asu r emained i n t he t itle o f t he E thiopian r ulers a s l ate a s t he 6 th C entury

[ ibid:464].

E xternal i nterest i n t he a ffairs o f N ubia s eems t o h ave r evived t he

t ime

o f

J ustinian ,

r ecorded b y J ohn o f E pheseus a nd p ossibly b y J ohn 1 975:8-23,27-9],

b oth w riting a round 5 80 A D.

v aried i nterpretation ,

d uring

w ith t he o fficial e vangelizing o f i ts k ingdoms, o f

B iclar

[ ed.Vantini

T hese t exts a re o pen t o s ome

b ut r emain o f g reat i mportance b oth f or

c hronology

a nd f or t he p olitical s tructure o f N ubia. I n t he f irst c ase, the m ission o f J ulian t o t he N obatai c an b e d ated t o a round 5 43 A D, a nd w as s oon f ollowed b y t he i nstallation o f B ishop T heodore f rom P hilae. 5 60's L onginus w as c ontinuing t he w ork o f c onversion amid

B y t he l ate c onflicting

c laims

h elp o f t he

o f

M elkite

a nd

Monophysite

p artisans.

W ith

t he

B lemmyses t o a void t he h ostile Maccuritae, L onginus w ent s outh a mong t he A lodiae a nd b rought a bout t he s uccessful c onversion o f t he k ingdom o f A lodia c .580 A D. T he

t ext

o f

J ohn

o f

a rrival o f a d elegation o f M onneret

d e

B iclar,

i s l ess h elpful a nd m erely r ecords t he

" Maccuritae"

a t

C onstantinople

i n

5 73

A D.

V illard i nterpreted t his a s e vidence f or a c onverted M elkite

1 0

c lient

k ingdom

i n

H owever,

t his

t ext

p ossible

f or t he

t he

a rea k nown t o t he A rabs a s Makouria

r emains

" Mauritarum"

T he s ources n onetheless t he

s tudy

N ubia.

o f

v ery

b oth

t he

u ncertain

w ith

f rom N orth A frica

i s

u ncertain

a nd

i t

i s

r eadings

[ Kirwan 1 982:143-4].

r emain i nvaluable i n e stablishing a e cclesiastical

b asis

f or

a nd s ecular h istory o f m edieval

Whether t hey t ruly a ttest t o t he f irst

C hristianity

[ 1938:61ff].

a lternative

s ignificant p enetration

o f

i nteresting

t o

n ote i n J ohn o f

E pheseus t he p resence o f A xumite P hantasiast h eretics a rrival o f L onginus.

i n

A lodia

o n

t he

T he p olitical i mplications o f h is a ccount a re p articularly i mportant i n r ecording

t he e xistence o f t hree i ndependent N ubian k ingdoms i n t he l ater

6 th C entury.

T he M eroitic Empire d isappeared f rom t he

i n t he l ate 3 rd C entury , t ribes a nd k inglets H owever,

h istorical

r ecord

a nd o nly a f ew a mbiguous r ecords p oint t o w arring

i n L ower

N ubia

o ver

t he

n ext

t wo

h undred

y ears.

c ontemporary w ith t he i ntroduction o f t he f oreign r eligion a n ew

s tability a nd e ven a d egree o f s ophistication w as a pparent i n N ubia. While t he M accuritae w ere s till w arring w ith t heir n eighbours, t he n arrative o f L onginus r ecords t he l ong d istance c ontacts b etween the k ings o f

N obatia a nd A lodia a nd p erhaps b etween A lodia a nd Axum a s w ell,

t he o utlines o f t he p olitical s tructure w hich w ould s urvive f or

w ithin

a t

l east

t he f ollowing s even c enturies. T his r evival o f r egular c ontacts w ith t he M editerranean w orld

i n

t ime

r esulted i n a n e xtensive c orpus o f r eferences f or t he m edieval h istory o f N ubia. I f m ost N ubian d ocuments c onsist o f b iblical t exts, f ollowing t he c onquest I slamic

o f

g eographies Umari, 1 .0.6

h as

E gypt

w orld

b y

w hich

a nd

t he a re

h istories,

A rabs, r eflected n otably

t here i n

emerged i mportant t ies t o t he s everal

o f

the

t hose o f a l Mas'udi,

major

A rabic

I bn H awqal,

a l

a l Maqrizi a nd I bn K haldun.

G eographical P arameters.

T he b road g eographical d efinition o f U pper N ubia a dopted f or t his s tudy a lready b een n oted. I mposing a n orthern b oundary t o t he s tudy a rea

r emains u nity

i n s ome r espects p roblematic i n v iew o f the b etween

a cknowledged

U pper a nd L ower N ubia i n d ifferent p eriods.

e vidence h owever t hat t he 3 rd C ataract h as marked a r eal f rontier n orth

a nd s outh o ver a c onsiderable t ime s pan.

t he s outhern e nd o f t he 3 rd

C ataract

a round

o verall

T here i s g ood b etween

I n t he p re-modern p eriod , Abu

F atima

r epresented

a

l inguistic a nd p erhaps c ultural f rontier b etween t he Mahas N ubians a nd t he m ore a rabicized D ongolawi/Danagla [ Macmichael 1 967:13]. A s imilar s ituation e xisted i n t he m edieval p eriod w hen a l A swani r ecorded t hat t he c ataract m arked t he s outhern l imit o f t he n orthern p rovince o f Makuria

a s

w ell a s o f t he ' Marisi' l anguage [ ed.Vantini 1 975:605]. T his i s l ikely t o r eflect t he f rontier b etween t he e arly C hristian k ingdoms o f Makuria a nd N obatia. S uch a d ivision s eems t o p redate t he C hristianisation o f N ubia r eflected

i n

t he

m aterial

c ulture.

1 1

T he most

a nd

i s

s outherly B allana s ite i s

t hat

a t

S ese,

f ollow t he e xamples R each,

n orms o f

o pposite o f

B allana

D elgo,

L ower

w here

Nubia

c eramics

h ave

t he c eramics a nd tumulus b urials

[ Trigger

1 965:133.n9].

r ecently

t he s ub-Meroitic tumulus b urials a t T abo ,

While

r are

b een f ound i n the D ongola n ot

f ar

s outh

o f

t he

c ataract a re c learly w ithin t he U pper Nubian t radition r ather t han t hat o f t he n orth [ Jacquet-Gordon & B onnet 1 971-2].

1 2

C HAPTER T WO T HE N UBIAN E NVIRONMENT.

2 .0.1

G eology.

T he g eographic s ubdivisions u sed i n t his s tudy a re c losely l inked w ith t he p rimary g eological f ormations o f N ubia; namely t he N ubian S andstone o verlying t he B asement C omplex. T he l argely p re-Cambrian B asement C omplex c onsists o f a v ariety o f i gneous, m etamorphic a nd s edimentary r ocks [ Whiteman

1 971:11].

c onglomerates,

T he

g rits,

N ubian

S andstone

s andstones

a nd

h orizontally o ver t he B asement c omplex i n a l argely f eatureless p lateau , n orth ,

G roup i ncludes a v ariety o f

mudstones;

[ ibid:54-55].

g enerally

l ying

T hese a re manifested

g ently r ising f rom

1 00

metres

i n

t he

t o o ver 4 00 m etres a bove s ea l evel i n t he s outh.

I mmediately a pparent

( Fig.2)

i s the c oincidence o f t he major

c ataracts

w ith t he b oundaries b etween e xposed N ubian S andstone a nd B asement C omplex . A reas o f u nderlying B asement C omplex a re d elimited b y t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c ataracts

a nd

b y

t he

4 th

a nd

5 th

c ataracts,

c ataract l ies w ithin a n i solated o utcrop. G allabat-Gedaref

a rea

E thiopian h ighlands, o f t he p lains. T he

s uperficial

T o

w hile t he

t he

s outh

6 th S abaloka

e ast,

i n

t he

a re t ongues o f v olcanic r ocks o riginating f rom the

w ith o utcrops o f S andstone,

d eposits

o verlying

t he

b reaking t he

Nubian

l ong

S andstone

s weep

a nd

the

B asement C omplex t hroughout most o f t he s outhern h alf o f t he s tudy a rea a re t wo d eposits o f s ands a nd c lays. T o t he w est o f t he White N ile i s the Q oz C entral S and Z one o f s tabilized d unes. T his i s a n e ast-west b and o f s ands g enerally a t l east 2 00 kms. w ide, w ith i ll-defined b ut important ' limbs'

o ff t o t he n orth a nd e ast i nto t he B aiyuda d esert.

T o t he s outh a nd e ast l ies t he g reat c lay p lain ,

w hich i s

o ccasionally

b roken , b oth i n t he s outhern G ezira a nd t o the e ast o f t he B lue N ile, i nselbergs. T he c lays o f t he G ezira a re a lluvial d eposits l aid d own t he

a ncient

B lue

N ile

f loods

f rom t he s outh e ast

b y b y

[ Tothill 1 948:137-9].

F urther t o t he e ast o ver t he B asement C omplex a re t he B utana C lay

P lains,

p ossibly

i n t he w est;

o r e lse

t he

i s

a lluvial a lluvial

o f

a eolian

o rigin

[ Lebon 1 965:48]. G ash

d elta ,

w here

i nto t he p lains t o f orm [ Whiteman 1 971:141].

2 .0.2

l ike

t he

Q oz

s ands

O n t he e astern f ringe a

t he r iver G ash , d esert

d elta

o f

B utana

t he

r ising n ear A smara r uns o ut

w ith

i ts

s ilts

a nd

g ravels

C limate.

T he

c limate

o f

N ubia r anges

f rom t hat o f t he d eserts i n t he n orth t o

t he t ypically t ropical c ontinental i n t he s outh;

1 3

t he

1 9* N orth

l atitude

F ig 2

G eo logy

1 4

m arks

t he

a pproximate

e xperiences T his

a c ool,

l asts

s ummer.

b oundary b etween t hese r egions.

d ry w inter,

o ften w ith s trong

f or a round f our months a nd i s

T ypical o f d esert

c limates,

i t

f our s easons:

' rainy s eason '

e xtreme

s outh ,

t he

a c old d ry w inter,

h ot

l ess

o f t he t he

s easons

i nfluence

c hange o f

w ith

t he

T he

d ry

a nd a h ot a nd humid p ost-rain p eriod.

a nd d istinctiveness

a nd

n orth

s andstorms.

f ollowed b y a l ong a nd v ery h ot s uffers

t emperature b oth d iurnally a nd f rom s eason t o s eason. e xperiences

T he d esert

w inds

v ariations

i n

s outhern r egion

e arly

s ummer,

T he r elative

l atitude;

h ot

l engths

t he

f urther

d ry n ortherly a ir m ass

a nd t he

g reater t hat o f t he d amp s outherly a ir mass. T here l ocal a nd

a re

n o

l arge

c limatic e ffects, f ew

mountains

w ater s urfaces n orth o f the S udd s wamps t o c ause n o major mountain r anges t o o bstruct t he

a irflows

h igh e nough t o p roduce their o wn m icroclimates.

O nly

the b arrier o f t he E thiopian h ighlands s ignificantly e ffects r ainfall. A s c an b e s een f rom t he m ap [ Fig.3] t he r egular n orth-south p rogression o f i sohyets

i s

i ncreasingly d istorted w ith a markedly h igher

t he w estern f oothills M ean

a nnual

r emarkably ,

t emperatures

maximum

a nd

f rom

n ear

z ero

l ie

w ithin

the

r ange

2 6-29

m inimum r ecorded t emperatures

a nd 2.0 ° C a t W adi H aifa t o r anges

r ainfall

a long

c ompared t o s imilar l atitudes t o t he w est.

4 6 °C a nd

( and i s

6° C

a t

S ennar.

More

f rom 5 2.5 C

Annual

u sually e xtremely l ocalized )

t hrough c .100mm i n t he M eroe a rea,

C .

°

r ange

r ainfall

i n t he n orth ,

t o 5 00mm a round S ennar a nd 9 00mm a round

1 2° N a long t he B lue N ile. T he n orthernmost a reas a re s ubject t o p articularly v ariable r ainfall p atterns, w ith , f or e xample, u p t o 4 0% v ariability f rom a verage i n t he M eroe a rea

[ Ireland 1 948:71].

A s v ariability e xacerbates t he p roblems

o f

meagre

r ainfall,

s o

t he

b rief d uration o f t he r ainy s eason h as a g reat impact o n t he e nvironment i n s uch a h ot c limate. T he d uration o f t he r ains p rogressively d iminishes a s

t he

m ean

a nnual t emperature r ises,

a pproaching t he n orthern d eserts.

E r R oseires,

a pproximately 1 2'N o n t he B lue N ile e njoys

s ubstantial

r ains

i ts a nnual

2 .0.3

( May t o S eptember ),

r ainfall d uring

j ust

2 months

w hile A tbara,

s ome 5

months

a round 1 8 N ,

o f

e xpects

( July-August).

P edology.

B ased o n o lder a ccounts b y W orrall d escribed

t he

l and u se.

V ail's mapping o f a lluvial s oils

f or

a reas

[ 1978]. b etween

s oils o f t his a rea ,

[ 1961]

a way

f rom

t he

[ 1948]

a nd t heir i mportance a s

r iver,

w hich

i s

a lso

L ebon

h as

d eterminants o f

p articularly

u seful

a re o therwise r ather n eglected

T he m ap ( Fig.4) c learly d emonstrates the c lose r elationship s oils a nd p arent materials ( r ock o r s uperficial d eposits ) . T he

s oil-less

d esert a nd t he i mmature

n orthern

a reas

s oils

a nd G reene

s oils o f t he

s emi-desert

o f N ubian S andstone a nd B asement C omplex.

p redominate

i n

t he

s outhwest

a nd

a lkaline

s outheast, w ith s maller a reas o f r ecent a lluvial o f t he G ash a nd a long t he r ivers.

1 5

s oils

c lay

z one c over

t he

S tabilized s and s oil

i n

i n t he d esert

t he d elta

F ig 3

R a infa l l

1 6

T he

d esert

o f t he n orth ,

e xtremes o f t emperature

i s

w ith n eglible r ainfall a nd w ater e rosion a nd e ffectively

s oil-less.

c onsists o f t he d ebris o f a eolian w eathering , a nd i n p laces m obile d unes. w adi b eds.

T he

s urface

c over

s hattered r ocks a nd g ravels,

T here a re r are a reas

o f

i mmature

s oils

i n

T he i mmature s oils o f t he s emi-desert z one m erge w ith t he t rue d esert t o t he n orth. W ith t he a dded a gency o f l imited r ainfall, t his r egion s ees d iscrete

f ormation o f b oth l ight

s andy s oils a nd c lays,

s pecially

t owards

t he s outh. T here a re c oncentrations o f more o r l ess c oarse a lluvia i n w adi b eds, b ut e qually l arge a reas o f s oil-less r ocky o utcrops. T hese s oils,

l argely

d ue

t o

t he l ack o f humus a re c apable o f s upporting o nly

l imited v egetation a nd o nly w hen 1 961:52]. T he s econd c lass o f s oils, l argely

w est

o f

t he

w atercourses

[ Barbour

t he s tabilized s ands o r Q oz s oils,

a re f ound

N iles

c oncentrated

i n

t he

i n

C entral S and Z one,

b ut w ith a r are

o ccurence e ast o f t he W hite N ile b etween H ashana a nd E l G eteina [ Whiteman 1 971:126,138]. T he l atter a re p ossibly f luvially d eposited s ands a s a re s imilar a reas a long t he A tbara. T he d une s tabilization w hich f ormed t hese s oils i s r egarded a s o f s ome a ntiquity , p robably i n t he o rder o f 1 0,000-7,000 y ears B P [ ibid:139], a nd i t i s more r ecent d essication t hat h as r esulted i n t he m obile d unes i n the D ongola R each , a nd t he c learing o f s and o ver l arge a reas o f t he B aiyuda. T he

t hird

c lass

o f

s oils

a re

the

t rue a lluvial s oils,

b etween t hose o f the d esert d eltas a nd those

a long

t he

s ubdivided

r ivers

[ Tothill

1 948:133-7]. T he r iverine a lluvia a re p resent t o s ome e xtent a long t he w hole c ourse o f t he r iver i nto E gypt, e xcept i n t he most r estricted g orges.

T hose

a long

t he s low f lowing White N ile a re more c layey ,

t hose o f t he B lue N ile a nd b elow d eltas

h ave

a

a re

h igh c lay c ontent,

p redominantly

s ilty.

w hich i s h ighly f ertile,

w ater r etaining. D etails o f l ocal d istribution o f r iverine b e e xamined i n t he r egional s urveys.

T he

p ermeable a nd a lluvia

F inally there a re t he a lkaline s oils o f t he N orthern C lay P lain , i nclude b oth t he G ezira a nd B utana c lay s oils. t he

e ast

i s

a

f riable

c lay

l oam ,

f looding a nd i mpassable i n t he r ainy s eason

w ill

w hich

T he p otential f ertility o f

t he u niform G ezira c lays i s d ependent o n g ood d rainage. t o

w hile d esert

T he B utana

p lain

l argely i mpermeable,

r egularly

[ Whiteman 1 971:140].

T he b est

d rained a reas a re t hose t owards t he B lue N ile a nd t he E thiopian f oothills.

2 .0.4

V egetation.

R eliable

a nd

d etailed

i nformation

v egetation o ver t his l arge a rea p roduced d uring t he C ondominium .

o n

the t ypes a nd d istribution o f

i s s carce, d espite s ome m ajor w orks T he s tandard w ork o f A ndrews [ 1948], h as

b een s upplanted t o a g reat e xtent b y J ackson a nd H arrison 1 956)

w hich

h as

b een

L ebon 's L and U se s urvey

t he b asis [ 1964].

f or B arbour

[ 1961]

( Sudan

T he v ast a reas i nvolved a nd t he

1 7

S urveys

a nd more i mportantly l ack

o f

Wad i H a ! fa—)

•

DESERT ( so i l less)

( A l luv iu m i0

4 0/

F ig 4 .

1 ) Desert

2 ) Acac la s crub

4 ) Butane s hort g rass land

200

S o i ls

3 ) S hort g rass lands & t horn s crub

6 ) C lay P la ins S avanna

F ig 5 .

m i les

: e

V ege ta t ion

1 8

6 ) Qoz S avanna

r esources,

h ave

r estricted d etailed f ield r esearch h owever,

l ittle r eliable d ata t o a dd t o L ebon e xcept s urveys

[ eg.Lee

1 970].

g eneral

o utline

o f

c orrelations

w ith

s ettlement.

H ere

c limate

I n t he

h owever,

v egetation

a i t

p atterns,

a nd

s oils

l ater r egional

l imited

o f

i s

l ocal

i s o nly n ecessary t o g ive a a nd

a nd

s urveys

a nd t here

n umber

t o

i llustrate

t heir

more

g eneral

i nfluence

d etailed

o n

human

d ata

w ill

b e

w ith

numerous

e xamined w here n ecessary a nd a vailable. L ebon d ivides t he S udan i nto 5 major v egetational

z ones,

s ubdivisions, f ew o f w hich a re r epresented i n t he s tudy a rea. T he major d ivisions r elate l argely t o r ainfall a nd s ubdivisions t o s oil t ypes ( Fig.5).

F irst,

i s t he d esert

r egion o f t he n orth

r ainfall a nd l argely d evoid o f v egetation. r ecieving

l ess

2 5mm i sohyet); T o

t he

g rasses', d ependent

t han 5 0mm o f r ain a nnually , w hile B arbour

s outh

l ies

f avours t he

t he

b and

o f

( 1);

o n

o f

8 0-90mm i sohyet

w hich l asts

i n

f urther

s outh.

H ills,

a cacia

( 3).

w ith

t he p lant

l ife

T he

l ittle v ariety b eyond a f ew h ardy s hrubs i n N orth K ordofan a cross

s ituated l argely n orth o f a cacia

t o

t hose

f ound

among t he g rasses, T he

t he i n

a nd

i nto D arfur, Q oz:

most

( 2)

a nd f rom

s crub

o f

t he

v egetation

s pp.

B lepharis

n atural

c oarse

g rasses,

d ifferent

v egetation

o f

s hort

g rassland

most f odder

i mportant

( 4)

[ Lebon i bid:29].

T his

t he G ezira a s w ell a s the B utana, S ome p eripheral a reas,

a t o f o f i s

t hough t he

i rrigated

a nd

n otably t he R ed S ea

a nd t he R ed S ea L ittoral e njoy t heir o wn d istinct m icro-climates a nd

d istinct

v egetation.

T he

h ills

i n p articular r eceive

w hich i s o f i ncreased e ffectiveness

d ue t o

t he

N ear t he S avannah '

s outhern e xtent o f t he b elt,

a nd t hat o f t he Q oz C lay

p lain

a nd g rasses. b urning o ff T he w est s enegal,

s tudy

l ands

i n t he w est

s ummer r ain ,

a nd

g enerally

i nland s crub a reas.

l ies

t he

' Low

W oodland

s avannah o f t he C lay P lains

( 6).

T he n orthern most a reas o f

h ave d ense a cacia t hickets w ith a v ariety o f u ndershrubs

T oday , ( hariq )

w ide a reas

a re u sed f or c ultivation w hich d epends

o n

t he d ominant a nnual g rasses.

a gain h as d ifferent v arieties

w hich

a rea

s ubdivided a gain b etween the

s ome

a ltitude,

h ave a n i ncreased g razing p otential c ompared w ith t he

( 5)

o f s pp.

l arge e xpanses

f ormer h as b een r adically a ltered b y t he e xpansion o f b oth

t he

v arieties

T here i s a g reater v ariety

b ut

a g reatly v alued a nimal

r ain a griculture t his c entury. H ills

i s t he

a ttractive t o s heep a nd c amel.

a nd

s pp.,

T o

a reas o f s hort g rasslands a re

o nly l ocal t ype o f i mportance i s t he B utana

a cacia

T here

g rasses.

t here a re a lso s ome B lepharis

the n ortheast e nd o f t he g reat C lay P lain.

t he

l imited

d isplaying

t he e ast,

b eing

f ormer e xtends

c onfined t o w atercourses,and l arge a reas o f empty r ock a nd s and. w est,

a reas

f rom J uly t o S eptember.

s ubdivision i s b etween t he a reas o f

s hort g rasslands w ith t horn s crub S ea

t his

( though mapping i t w ithin t he

' Semi D esert a cacia s crub a nd s hort

t he b rief r ainy s eason ,

t he K hartoum a rea t o t he R ed

a n a rea o f m inimal

p laces

w hich e xtends t o a round t he 2 00mm i sohyet;

T he p rincipal t hose

L ebon

p roduces gum a rabic,

o f

a cacia,

a nd t he b aobab

o ften h ollowed o ut f or u se a s w ater r eservoirs v arieties o f a cacia c hange t owards t he s outh a s

1 9

a bove

a ll

A cacia

[ Adansonia d igitata],

[ Bacon 1 948:397]. T he r ainfall i ncreases u ntil

t hey a re e xcluded f rom t he a reas o f h igh r ainfall ( 800mm p lus) a gainst t he f oothills o f t he E thiopian h ighlands w here p erennial g rasses r eplace t he a nnuals

f ound f urther n orth

[ Andrews

1 948:397].

I n a ddition t o t hese l atitudinal z ones, t here i s o f c ourse t he m ajor f actor o f t he c ourse o f N iles a nd t o a l esser e xtent t he r ivers A tbara , G ash ,

D inder

n onetheless

a nd

R ahad.

s upport

a

t heir b anks.

W hile

t he

l atter

a re

o nly

Most o bviously t he r iver b anks

a re

c apable

c onsiderable q uantities o f A cacia n ilotica t hickets, p alm i n t he more a rid r egions o f t he n orth.

2 .0.5

s easonal

t hey

d istinct v ariety a nd q uantity o f p lant l ife a long o f

s upporting

a s w ell a s t he d ate

W ater.

A s h as b een n oted , l argely r egime,

r ainless,

t he h arsh c limate o f N ubia l eaves much o f t he

w hile

t he

w etter

s outh ,

s till s uffers f rom a l ong d ry s eason.

a vailability

o f

U nder t hese c onditions,

t he

g roundwater i s e ssential f or a ny p ermanent o ccupation o f

t he t housands o f s quare m iles o f a rid a nd s emi-desert l and a way i mmediate

n orth

w ith a t ropical c ontinental

v icinity

o f

t he

N ile.

T he

f irst

e ssential

f rom

t he

i s t o p rovide

d rinking w ater f or t he h uman p opulation , a nd then f or t heir h erds. D ependance o n w ell w ater m ay b e l essened b y t he b uilding o f r eservoirs ( Hafirs),

o r t he u se o f n atural r ock p ools

r ains.

T he

u nreliability

o f

the

( Gulut)

r ainfall,

t o

c apitalize

h owever,

o n

t he

i ncreases

t he

i mportance o f p ermanent g roundwater s upplies. T he g eneral p attern o f g roundwater a vailability a nd i ts c orrelation w ith t he u nderlying g eology w as d escribed b y W hiteman [ op.cit:181-204]. W ater

b earing

c onsiderably. w ater

p roperties G enerally ,

r eserves,

o f

t he

w hereas T he

g eological S andstone

f ormations v ary o ffer

t he

b est

t he B asement C omplex p roduces v ery l ittle w ater

e xcept a round w eathered o utcrops [ ibid:182-3].

d ifferent

t he a reas o f N ubian

p resence

o f

s uch

a s

N ubian

J ebel

Moya

S andstone

a nd

i s

J ebel

t hus

a

i ndicator o f p otential g roundwater f or l arge a reas o f t he W estern

Q eili g eneral B utana ,

t he B aiyuda a nd n orthwards a nd t he n orthern G ezira. H owever t he a quifers a re f ed a t l east p artly by c ontinuing r ains a nd h ence a re p oorer t owards t he n orth. C onversely , C omplex

o f

d espite

t he

t he

g reater

r ainfall,

t he

B utana p lain i s a v ery p oor a quifer,

u nderlying w hich ,

B asement

c oupled w ith

t he i mpermeability o f the c lays a llows v ery f ew w ells, e xcept a round o utcropping g ranite h ills. I t i s t hese h ills, w hich h ave n umbers o f g ulut, w hich h ave c onsequently b een n atural c entres o f s ettlement [ Berry & G raham 1 973:299]. T he h afir b uilding c ampaign o f the l ast f orty y ears w as i n r esponse t o t he l ack o f w ater o ut i n t he o pen p lains a nd t o

a llow

more

[ Jefferson n .d.]. t he

r egular

a nd

w as

d esigned

i ntensive e xploitation o f t he f ertile s oils

E vidence f or a ncient u se o f h afirs w ill b e e xamined

r egional s urveys,

i n

b oth a s a n i ndicator o f s ettlement d istribution a nd

f or p ast e nvironment.

2 0

T he

i nfluence o f g roundwater p otential o n s ettlement p atterns

i llustrated r ainfall

i n

t he

( under

e xtensively

G ezira.

3 00mm )

c ultivated

T he n orthern G ezira,

h as

b een

r elatively

w ell

a way

f rom

i s

w ell

w hile e njoying l ittle

d ensely

t he N iles.

p opulated

T he

s outh ,

a nd

w ith f ar

g reater r ainfall ( c.550mm a round J ebel Moya ), h as v ery l ittle s ettlement. T his i s l argely d ue t o t he a ccessibility o f w ell w ater i n t he n orth , a t d epths

o f a t most

o ther

t han

2 0-30 m etres,

l imited

s ources

a nd t he l ack o f c lustered

p ermanent w ater c learly o utweigh g reater p ermanent a reas

s ettlement.

I n

t he

t he

r ainfall

l ight

o f N ubia r eceiving s ubstantial

s imilar w ells

a round o f

i n t he

h ills.

a s

a

d eterminant

s uch c onsiderations,

r ains,

s outh

S upplies

o f o f

f or t hose

s implistic a ssumptions

o n

t he

e nvironmental p otential must b e c arefully s crutinized.

2 .0.6

L and U se.

F rom t he

f oregoing r eview o f g eology ,

c orrelations b etween t hese d istribution

o f

i s

c lear.

f orms

o f

modern

d ifferent

d etermined b y t hese n atural t he

major

i sohyets;

z ones the

o f

f actors.

v egetation

s emi-desert,

c limate a nd v egetation ,

f actors

A s

c an

I ndeed l and

c an b e

t he

u se

t he c lose

v ariety

i s

s till

s een f rom F igures

a nd

l argely 3 a nd 5 ,

r oughly b e d elimited b y a r ange o f

f or e xample,

f alls b etween t he 2 5mm

a nd

4 00mm

i sohyets. W ith t he d ifferent

z onal s oils

s ubdivisions h owever , i s

a pparent;

m ost

the

r elation

o f

v egetation

t o

o bviously w ith t he e xtent o f t he B utana

s hort g rasslands t runcated b y t he e nd o f the c lay p lain i n t he n orth e ast. W ithin

t he

c lay

p lain

h owever,

v egetational

n ortheast-southwest m atch c losely t he i sohyets; t he

g rasslands

f all

a round

t he

i mportance o f t hese d eterminants l and

u se,

p resent

o r

p ast.

3 50mm

the

i sohyet.

i s e ssential

f or

T he c oncern h ere

b oundaries

s outhern A n

Much o f h is h is

a reas

o f

a ny

a reas

o f o f

c omplex c lassification s ystem i s ' settlements',

a gricultural l and

' horticulture'

S cant

( his

t ypes

( Types

6 )

a ttention h as b een p aid l argely

Ahmed

c onstrains

[ 1984]

M eroitic

d ue

t o

p eriod.

a griculture. b asin l ands

a ll

T his

T he

n ot

a nd

f ully

l atter

r elevant h ere,

l ife a re

4 a,

4 a'

a nd

[ op.cit:70-132].

h is

t o t he

q uestions emphasis

o f o n

l and ,

d etails w as

o f

4 b ),

i n

l and L ower

u se

i n

N ubia

b ounded b y

t he

O nly G rzymski

p otential

l and

2 1

N ubian

w here t he r ainless [ 1981]

u se

i n

a nd t he

p rimarily c oncerned w ith t he W estern

G rzymski's

a n e specially i mportant

v arying

( Fig.6)

s ettlement t herein b ut p roduced a g eneral m odified

i n t hat

' tree a nd p erennial c rops'

l and u se a nd s ettlement.

h ave e xamined a ny

B utana a nd M eroitic

o f

r anging f rom the p erennially i rrigated t o

e xtremely l imited q uantity o f a gricultural d esert,

a p roblem most

More r elevant t o t raditional

l and ,

r otation

r elationships t o g razing

a rchaeology ,

i nvestigation

[ 1965].

r epresent modern d evelopments. c lasses

o f

a wareness o f t he

i s t o e xplain a nd map t he

d istribution o f a griculture a nd p astoralism i n Nubia, u ndertaken b y L ebon

r unning

e xtremes

r ole

f indings

[ op.cit:265]

i n c alculating

s cheme

f or

b y d enying

p otential

a rable

l and. A

b asic

H ewison s oils

c lassification

[ 1948:740-1],

r iverine a gricultural l and i s p rovided b y

a nd t he t echnology employed i n t heir u se.

o r S eluka l and , t he

o f

w ho c lassifies i t a ccording t o t he

n ame

f ound a long r iver b anks,

g ezira ).

q uality

o f

t he

T he f irst t ype i s G ezira

o r f orming w hole

F ormed o f d eposited s ilts,

i slands

( hence

e xposed o nly a t l ow r iver ,

i t r equires n o i rrigation , r etaining s ufficient moisture f or c ultivation . S econdly , t here i s S aqia l and; a lso r iver d eposited a lluvium , b ut u sually o f g reater r equiring

a ntiquity. m echanical

s aqia w aterwheel. r iver

w hich

o verflows,

N ow a ids

l ying t o

a bove

r aise

n ormal

T hirdly t here i s B asin L and ,

w hile

l iable

t o

a t

f lood

w ater t o i t,

l evels

a nd

s o

i t i s named a fter t he

d epressions a way f rom

t he

l east p artial i nundation b y h igh N ile

a re d ependent o n more s ophisticated i rrigation a nd d raining

c analization f or r egular a gricultural u se

b y

[ Lee 1 970:59].

A s Ahmed o bserved [ op.cit:90-1], b asin a griculture a s p resently u nderstood , i s a r ecent i nnovation m ade p ossible o nly by t he C ondominium g overnment's a bility t o o rganize a nd t o f inance the p rojects t o b uild t he n eccessary i rrigation s ystems. T his s ophisticated p erennial i rrigation i s o nly t he m ost c omplex f orm o f e xploitation o f t hese a reas a nd l ess c omplex w ater management, c onsideration. t he

r egional

a s p ractised i n E gypt f or m illennia

[ Hamdan 1 961],

More d etailed e xamination o f t he b asins w ill s urveys b elow.

b e

n eeds

m ade

T heir p otential r ole a nd i mportance a s

o f a griculture a nd s ettlement i s c entral t o

a ny

s tudy

o f

U pper

i n f oci

N ubian

s ubsistence. T he o ther f orms o f a gricultural l and a re t hose d ependent o n r ainfall , c alled A tmur l and b y C h81u [ in Ahmed 1 984:90]. T o t he n orth , a s t he r ainfall d ecreases, i s most v egetation ,

t his l and i s i ncreasingly l imited t o t he w adi b eds, a s r elying o n t he r elatively g reat c oncentration o f s oils

a nd m oisture i n o therwise d ry a nd b arren a reas.

H owever , e ven t oday , l arge-scale a griculture i rrigated a reas o f t he G ezira a nd t o t he s outh e ast, i t

i s

d ependent o n mechanization.

i s s till l imited t o a round G edaref , w here

O therwise i n the n orthern G ezira

( and

t o a l imited e xtent i nto the B utana ) t he s cant r ains may b e c onserved b y t he b uilding o f e arth b anks ( Terus) a round s mall f ields [ Barbour o p.cit:184]. i ntensive

I n t he n orthern B utana w ith l ower r ainfall t here w as

o r

r egular

r ain c ultivation p rior t o mechanization.

w ith e ffectively u nlimited l and a vailable,

i t

w as

a nd

i s

l ittle H owever ,

p ossible

t o

u ndertake s hifting c ultivation i n t he m ore d ensely w ooded s outh , a nd H ariq c ultivation i n t he more o pen g rass p lains. W ith the f ormer, t he m ajor c onstraint

i s t he l abour o f c learing t he b ush.

H ariq s ystem w hich i nvolves t he c ontrolled a fter

t he

p roblems s ilts

f irst

[ Burnett

p roviding

r ains.

T his

1 948:291-2]. g ood

g razing

a nnual f lood o f a round t hree i ntensively s ince t he 1 860's.

More c ommon h owever i s t he

b urning-off

o f

g rasses

j ust

b oth c lears t he l and a nd r educes w eeding T he G ash

d elta

i s

a nomalous,

w ith

t he

a s w ell a s g ood a griculture f ollowing t he months.

2 2

I t

h as

o nly

b een

e xploited

T he

p otential

f or

a nimal

h usbandry

a vailability o f g razing a nd w ater s upplies t he

s emi-desert/desert

f ringes

a re

i s

c learly

l imited

f or t he h erds.

I n

b y

t he

t he

n orth ,

g razed b y c amel o wning t ribes.

T he

r elatively l ow w atering n eeds o f t he c amel a nd t he s parse human p opulation i s a ll t he n atural e nvironment c an m aintain.

C oncentrations o f c attle a nd

c aprovines a re o nly f ound a long t he N iles o r w ithin t he G ezira, t he

d ensity

g razing ,

o f

t he

h uman

p opulation.

O ther

w ide

p articularly i n t he B utana a re s till l imited by

o f w ater s upply ,

r eflecting

a reas o f s easonal t he

c onstraints

t hough t oday e xacerbated b y t he o vergrazing o f w ide a reas

a round w atering p oints.

S uch

g razing a ppears,

t o b e a modern p henomenon

h owever ,

p opulation

p ressure

a nd

d estruction

o f

[ Jefferson 1 954:106].

U sing L ebon 's s cheme a nd m apping , a g eneral d istribution a s w ell a s s ome q uantification o f

i mpression o f t he modern l and u se i s

a vailable.

T able

d ifferent

c ultivation

a nd

1 .

s hows

g razing

t he

t hrough

d istribution

o f

t hree l arge r egions,

t ypes

o f

( corresponding t o

t hose c overed b y 1 :1,000,000 maps o f t he S udan S urvey ). I f c ompared t o g eneralized mapping.

F ig.6, t hese f igures g ive s ome q uantification t o t he T he f irst a rea f rom W .Halfa t o n ear D elgo i ncludes

t he n ow f looded a reas o f L ower Nubia a nd t he A bri-Delgo R each. R iverine i rrigation a nd g razing i s c oncentrated a round F aras-W.Halfa, S ai-Abri a nd D elgo, w ith a reas o f g razing a nd o ccasional r ain c ultivation f ar t o t he e ast,

i n a nd a round t he R ed S ea H ills.

U pstream ,

i rrigated c ultivation i s

d ominated b y t he pump s chemes a nd b asins o f t he D ongola a nd S hendi R eachs, w ith r ainland c ultivation i n t he w adis, c lay

p lain.

s een

t o

i rrigation t he G ezira. I f f or

S outh o f K hartoum ,

h ave a nd

t ransformed

l and

n ear t he A tbara a nd o n t he

B utana

m odern i rrigation s chemes c an c learly b e u se,

w ith

l arge

a reas

o f

p erennial

more i ntensified c ultivation b y s edentarized A rabs w ithin

s uch d ata i s t o p rovide a b asis f or p rojecting a ncient l and u se a nd q uantification

o f

d ifferent

q ualifications a re n eeded.

l and

u se

I n t he f ar n orth ,

types,

s everal

m ajor

t he i rrigated a reas s how t he

v ery p oor p otential o f S udanese L ower N ubia, e ven w ith modern p umps s upplementing t he c apacity o f t raditional s aqia a nd s eluka c ultivation . T he g razing c apacity o f t he n orth , a nd

i n

h owever,

l ies

t he t erritory o f n omadic B eja t ribes,

f ar f rom

r iverine

T he g razing o nly a pproaches t he N ile f arther n orth , i n E gyptian w here g reater i nteraction o f t he p opulations m ight b e e xpected. T o t he s outh ,

a reas

b ased i n t he R ed S ea H ills.

t he a rea o f i rrigated l and i ncludes much w hich

N ubia ,

h as

o nly

b een t aken u nder c ultivation w ithin r ecent y ears w ith t he a dvent o f m odern p umps.

W hile

i ndicating

t he

r elative

d istribution

o f

r iverine

a griculture, i t c an o nly p rovide a n u pper l imit i n t erms o f p ast l and p otential. R ecent e xpansion may a ccount f or a v ery h igh p ercentage o f t his

l and.

t otals

T he l and m apped b y L ebon b etween W .Halfa a nd t he K hartoum a rea

s ome 1 ,990 km2

( c.750 s quare m iles),

a rea e stimated b y H ewison f orty y ears a go

which i s 5 0% g reater t han

t he

[ 1948:740].

I n t he s outhern r ainlands, t he r elative p redominance o f e ither p astoralism o r c ultivation i n a ny o ne r egion i s c learly v ariable o n r ecent

2 3

a 4 a •

4a '

_ g

F ig 6 .

6 a( 9 )

L and U se

2 4

6 a (7 c )

A A

4 b -6a (7c )

T able 1 :

a reas o f l and u se - i n km2.

L ebon T ype. 1 .

4 a

2 .

4 a':

W .Halfa

:

D ongola-Berber

6 3 7

K hartoum

9 51

4 ,973

9 69

7 2

v arious 3 .

4 b-6a(7c):

4 .

6 a-(7c ):

5 .

6 a-(g ):

6 .

6 a'-9

7 .

5 0 -

3 4,398

2 7,313

6 0,040

1 45,667

1 86

9 :

8 1,405

5 8,849

1 .

p erennial i rrigated c ultivation. i ntermittent i rrigation

3 .

c ultivation i n r ainlands

4 .

g razing i n l ow s avanna

5 .

g razing i n s emi-desert g rasslands

( and f looding )

s parse g razing i n s emi-desert

7 .

u nproductive d esert

e vidence.

I ncreasing

s edentarization

a long t he White a nd B lue N iles, i n

t he

p resent

m odern e nvironment t hough

t here

p astoralists c an e xploit t he c ultivation

o f

w ithin t he

d istribution.

f orm o f e xploitation.

s hifting

& g razing

& g razing

6 .

d ominant

2 3,852 1 32,580

:

2 .

r esulted

1 ,330 3 9,914

i s

n omads

o ver the l ast a nd

W ithin

the c onstraints o f t he

s cope

f or

t he

w ide

s ame

a rea

p reviously

B utana,

v ariation

An i ntrusive n ew p opulation ,

( and v ice v ersa ).

c entury

G ezira

u sed

i n

s uch a s f or

h as t he c amel

e xtensive

There i s n o a bsolute d eterminism

o f l and u se f orms i n s uch a reas.

2 .0.7

P alaeoclimate a nd e nvironment.

S uccessfully p rojecting p ast l and u se p atterns

d emands

a n

a ccurate

o n

t he

a ssessment

e nvironmental c onditions i n e arlier p eriods. e nvironmental 1 988c ),

s tudies

h ave

b een

b ut h ave b een r estricted

o f

more

p ossibly

S ome important

u ndertaken t o

b asis o f

r elatively

b road

i n r ecent y ears s mall

modern

d iffering b ased

( eg.Caneva

a reas

a nd

t heir

m icro-environments. M ore g eneral s tudies o f the p alaeoclimates o f t he S udan r egion a re s till i n t heir i nfancy , a nd a re l argely d ominated b y g eomorphic

e vidence

( eg.Fairbridge 1 963),

l ittle o f w hich r elates t o t he

l ate H olocene p eriod o f t he l ast t wo t o t hree m illennia. f luctuations

i n N ile f lood l evels,

c orrelated w ith c hanges i n p recipitation a t t he [ 1982]

r eviews

the

p roblems

I n

p articular ,

e videnced b y a ncient s ilt t erraces a re

r aised ,

r iver

s ources.

s eemed t o b e a t v ariance w ith e vidence f rom t he N ile h eadwaters. h igher

l ake

l evels

i n

l evels i n t he l ower N ile.

E ast

Adamson

where w ork i n E gypt i n p articular

A frica c ontradicted e vidence

S igns o f

f or l ow r iver

F airbridge's i nterpretation a ppears t o

r esolve

t he c ontradiction p ostulating a p eriod o f much g reater r ainfall i n t he e arly H olocene, a nd a d rier m id-Holocene, though s till s ignificantly w etter than p resent.

2 5

L ocalized s tudies o f t he p alaeogeography o f t he G ezira r egion r eflect t hese c hanges i n t he d evelopment o f t he B lue N ile. I ncision d ue t o t hese h igh

r iver

c ourse,

l evels

c aused

f ollowed b y

f looding

o f

t he

t he

r iver

p rogressive G ezira

by

c ourse t o s tabilize i nto a s ingle

l owering

t he

o f

r iver

p eriod 5 -3,000 B P

l evels

e nding

t he

[ Adamson & G illespie

1 982:189]. F or

more

r ecent

p eriods,

s tressed a s a d eterminant o f N ubia.

F irth 's

s uggestion

t he

i mportance

r iverine [ 1912:21-3]

[ 1977:242].

l evels h as b een

e specially

c ontinued

O thers h ave s erious d oubts;

o f t he N ew K ingdom p eriod d id n ot

N ile

i n

L ower

t hat l ow l evels may h ave d eterred

s ettlement i n t he f irst m illennium B C h as Adams

o f

s ettlement,

d eter

t o

b e

f or e xample,

s ettlement

d efended

b y

t he l ow l evels

[ Trigger

1 976:105].

E qually , t he h igh f lood l evels r ecorded i n E gypt i n t he p eriod 8 70-625 B C d id n ot e ncourage r esettlement i n L ower N ubia. N ew e vidence t hat N apatan a nd

e arly M eroitic s ettlement d id e xtend a s

f ar n orth a s t he D al C ataract

f urther s uggests t hat o ther d eterminants w ere a t w ork

[ Vila 1 982].

T he g eological e vidence h as b een r einforced b y i nformation o n N eolithic s ettlement d istribution , a nd a rchaeologically r ecovered e vidence f or f auna a nd f lora. O ccupation e vidence f rom t he n ow l argely w aterless W adi H owar o f n orth-western S udan h as b een t aken t o i ndicate a s ignificantly

g reater

r ainfall i n t hat p eriod [ Jackson 1 957]. More r ecent w ork h as i dentified s ettlements i n t he W adi S haw, p resently more a rid than t he W .Howar, u p t o t he e arly s econd millennium B C s till r eceive u p t o 1 50n un d omesticated c attle,

[ Francke 1 986:37-9].

r ain ,

t his

l atter

While t he W .Howar may

s ite,

w ith

e vidence

c learly i ndicates t he p rogress o f d esiccation ,

f or

t hough

o ver a t ime s cale o nly marginally r elevant t o t he s tudy p eriod. More

r elevant

t o t he p roblems o f t he C entral S udan i s r ecent e vidence

f rom t he S haqadud e xcavations i n t he W estern B utana [ Marks e t a l 1 984]. T he N eolithic a ssemblages h ave b een d istinguished f rom t hose a long t he N ile,

s uggesting

s easonal

a

v isitors

d istinct f rom

p opulation

the

r iver.

o f

t he

Moreover,

s teppes,

r ather

t han

this p opulation h ad l inks

w ith t raditions t o t he s outheast i n a n e nvironment a pparently n o l ess, n ot

more,

a ttractive

than

t he

N ile

V alley

[ ibid:276-7].

r emains i ncluded l and s nails L imicolaria c aillaudi i ndicative o f o f

a t

l east

4 00mm ;

w ooded s avanna a nd c limate

f rom

a lso

l arger

g rasslands.

a ntelopes a nd h artebeest,

T his

c onfirms

e vidence

i f

T he f aunal r ainfall

p ointing t o

f or

a

S haheinab where t hese s ame l and s nails w ere p resent

w etter [ Arkell

1 953]. E qually t he E arly K hartoum s ite p roduced s eeds o f c eltis i ntegrifolia [ Arkell 1 949] w hich i s n ow o nly w idespread s outh o f t he 4 00mm i sohyet

[ Wickens

A t p resent,

1 982:30].

h owever ,

t he s carcity o f d ata a nd t he w eaknesses o f much o f

t hat a vailable must b e a ppreciated. m icro-environments

E vidence c omes

o ver a l ong t ime s pan.

f rom a w ide v ariety o f

T he u se o f C eltis i ntegrifolia

s eeds a s a n i ndex o f c limatic c onditions may b e u nreliable i n

a

c ontext,

T he t ree i s

w here

t he

d ependence o n r ainfall i s n ot a bsolute.

a ctually c ommon t oday a round t he 6 00mm i sohyet i ts

p resence a t K hartoum a nd l ater a t M eroe

[ Andrews

2 6

1 948:42-3],

[ Shinnie 1 974:256]

s ignificant g iven t he p roximity o f b oth s ites t o t he

r iverine

N ile.

b ut

m ay n ot b e

T he

s pecial

c ircumstances

o f

t he

m icro-environment

o f

t he c ase a t K awa , M eroitic

" fluvial

o asis"

r iverine s ites,

i n t he D ongola

[ Caneva

1 988c:362],

n eeds more a ttention.

R each ,

w here

K irwan

r eported

l evels t he r emains o f t ended S apotaceae t rees,

t he

S uch must b e i n

t he

a t ree i ndigenous

t o E quatoria [ Kirwan 1 936:207]. E ven t he t raditionally h eld v iew o f t he s ignificance o f t he L imicolaria may n ow b e c hallenged b y t he e vidence f rom t he S hendi R each w here a pparently r ecent e xamples h ave b een f ound , a rea

w ith

o nly

1 36mm

r ain.

r iver b anks i s t aken t o

h ave

i n

a n

H ere a gain t he s pecial e nvironment o f t he p reserved

t he

s nail

p opulation

[ Gautier

1 986:67,92]. R eliance o n t he d istribution o f l arge f auna a s a n i ndicator o f p ast e nvironment i s a lso p roblematic. W ickens' s urvey o f r ecords o f mammals i n t his r egion r ecord ,

[ 1982:26-30]

w ith

f or

s uggests

e xample,

n o

major

e lephant

a nd

c hanges g iraffe

i n

t he

s ub-fossil

i n the B utana i n t he

n ineteenth c entury. T o t his m ight b e a dded f requent n ineteenth c entury r ecords o f h ippopotami a nd g azelle i n t he D ongola R each a nd d ownstream [ Cailliaud.I:381;

H oskins o p.cit:219].

W ickens a ssigned a major

r ole

t o

t he human p opulation i n d riving a way game, p articularly s ince the a dvent o f f irearms. T he a meliorating a ffects o f t he N ile w ould a id s urvival i n a n

i ncreasingly

a rid

e nvironment

t o

a n

i ndeterminate

e xpectation o f a s outhward r etreat o f f auna t hrough t ime, a rchaeological r emains

d egree,

a nd a n

mirrored i n

t he

i s t oo s implistic.

A r econstruction o f p ast v egetation c ommunities i s a lso a ttempted b y W ickens o n t he b asis o f p resent z ones. T his a ssumes a s outhward s hift p arallel t o t hat o f t he p atterns o f i sohyets

r ainfall z ones, [ op.cit.31-47].

t aken t o f ollow t he p resent H is r econstruction p rojects t he

v egetation b elts t o h ave r eached a maximum o f 2 50 k ilometers n orth o f t heir p resent p osition a t t he o nset o f t he l ate H olocene d essication ( c.3,000 B P). I n p articular t he t horn s avanna e xtended much f urther n orth w hile t he a ncient

s wamps o f t he White N ile w ere r eceding.

T he p eriod o f t his s urvey i s c oncerned w ith t he e nvironment

t o

t he

p resent,

t ransition

f rom

t hat

a t s ome i ll-defined p oint i n t hat p rocess.

T he g radual e ncroachment o f s emi-desert c onditions may h ave made

n orthern

a nd c entral r egions i ncreasingly marginal. B ut i t i s i mportant t hat d rier c onditions i n t he G ezira a nd B utana w ould a lso h ave r educed t he n egative e ffects o f b oth f looding a nd t he i nfestation o f b iting T abanidae f lies, f actors w hich s till d iscourage s ettlement f urther s outh [ ibid:41-3]. A

p articular

d anger o f modelling p ast e nvironments o n t he modern l ies

i n u nderestimating t he c ontribution s outhward

r etreat

1 973:506].

o f

f lora

a nd

o f

modern

f aunal

man

i n

c ommunities

e ncouraging [ Wickens

R ecent d evelopments must n ot b e c onfused w ith

t he

t he

& Adamson l ong

t erm

p rocesses o f d essication. R ecent o vergrazing a nd c utting h as g reatly i mpaired n atural r egeneration o f t he v egetation , e specially i n marginal a reas,

a nd

c onfusion

o f

t his

w ith

t he

n atural d evelopments may h ave

e ncouraged a n o verstating o f t he e nvironmental c hanges. t hough ,

t hat

e ssentially

t he a rid;

a rea a nd

n orth t hat

o f f or

t he more

F ifth

C ataract

s outherly

I t

w ould

a ppear

w ould h ave b een

r egions

t he

w etter

c onditions w ould n ot h ave r esolved t he p roblems o f o nly s easonal r ains a nd

2 7

l imited w ater s upplies i n n on-riverine a reas.

2 8

C HAPTER T HREE A S URVEY O F U PPER N UBIA B Y R EGIONS.

3 .0.1

I ntroduction.

T his

c hapter p rovides a

r egions,

w ith

p arameters,

p articular

more

d etailed

r eference

a nd t heir a rchaeology.

t o

T he

d iscussion

o f

e nvironmental g eneral

t he a nd

d ifferent s ubsistence

a rchaeological

o utlines

a re d iscussed i n t he t ext a nd a re a ccompanied b y a b rief s ite g azeteer f or e ach r egion. I n v iew o f t he l imitations o f a rchaeological e vidence, n o a ttempt h as b een e nvirons o f t he d ifferent

s ites i n a ny d etail.

b oth g eographical a nd made t o i nvestigate t he

S uch

i nvestigations

w ill

o nly b ecome p ossible w ith t he r esults o f s pecially d irected f ieldwork. A s w as n oted , t here i s o nly a l imited b ody o f r eliable modern r esearch a nd i nformation o n many a reas h as d erived f rom e xtremely d iverse a nd v ariable s ources. T his a pplies e ven t o b asic t opographical d escriptions o f

c ertain a reas.

A rchaeologically,

c an b e s upplemented b y a r ange t hose

f rom

t he

e arly

o f

modern e xcavation a nd s urvey r eports

t raveller 's

a ccounts,

most

u sefully

n ineteenth c entury w hich t o d ate h ave b een l ittle

u sed b y a rchaeologists. D ue

t o

t he

g eneralized

a nd

o ften i nadequate r eports o n many s ites,

d eveloping s trict c riteria f or t heir d efinition h as b een p roblematic. I t w ould h ave b een d esirable t o p rovide a t ypology a nd h ierarchy o f s ites s uch a s t hat a dopted b y t he F ranco-Sudanese S urvey o f the D al a rea. T his r anged

f rom

s imple s herd s catters t o c omplex u nits o f t owns a nd v illages

f or h abitation

s ites,

a nd

f rom

s ingle

g raves

t o

l arge

multi-period

n ecropoli f or c emetery s ites [ Vila 1 975:22-3]. I n p ractice, i t w as o nly p ossible t o p rovide g eneral d escriptions o f the t ype a nd s ize o f s ites a nd i n

m any

g azeteer, f unction

c ases

r equired.

W ithin t he

d ifferentiation o f v arious c omponents o f s ites b y h as b een made w here p ossible, but t hey h ave

f ar

p eriod o r o nly b een

d istinguished a s

more

p recise

i nformation

s eperate s ites w hen s ufficient

i s

i nformation

i s

a vailable

t o s upport t his. A n

i mplication

d ifferentiate

o f

this

i s

t hat

w hile

many s mall a nd d iscrete s ites,

i t

h as

b een

p ossible

t o

l arge s preads o f i ll-defined

r emains,

o ften o f s everal p eriods h ave b een t reated a s

f urther

p roblem

s ingle

u nits.

A

h as b een t hat l arge n umbers o f p ossible s ites a re k nown ,

most n otably t umuli,

w hich c annot b e p recisely

l ocated

o r

g rouped

i nto

d iscrete s ites. I n s heer q uantity t hey f ar o utweigh t he number o f d efined c emeteries. I n v iew o f s uch p roblems, t he b asic q uantification o f k nown s ites

i s

o f l imited v alue.

l isted b elow.

T he d istribution o f the 4 94

( Table.2).

2 9

s ites i s h owever

T able.2:

Number o f s ites b y r egion.

M er.

s ub-Mer.

B utana:

2

( 1)

1

( 1)

G ezira:

7

( 4)

6

( 4)

( 3)

1

( -)

W .Butana:

2 4

A tbaraK hartoum :

4 1

A bu H amed:

2

D ongola:

2 2

B aiyuda:

1

( 8) ( 3) ( 4) ( 2)

1 2 1 0 -

C hr.

1 2 2

U ndated

( 1)

1 0

( 4)

2

1 7

1

( -)

4 8

1 9

4 9 1 26

( 5)

1 5

( 5)

4 0

( 1)

5 2

( 10)

1 5

( 8)

7 5

( 8)

( 1)

1 4

( 6 )

8 3

3

1 30

1 7

4 1

T otal - 4 94 ( note: n umbers i n b rackets i ndicate u nconfirmed d ating. : multi-period o ccupation a ccounts f or t he n umber o f ' sites'

e xceeding t he n umber o f l ocations i n the

g azeteers.) 3 .0.2

T he B utana.

T he

" Butana"

i s a t erm c ommonly u sed ,

b ut a s

Ahmed

h as

p ointed

o ut,

o ften w ith a c ertain c onfusion a s t o i ts g eographical l imits [ 1984:14]. T he r egion b ounded b y t he N ile, B lue N ile a nd A tbara r ivers may b e s ubdivided

i nto

E l

p roper. T he f irst D amer-Adarama-Atbara

D eheira , c omprises t riangle.

b y t he N ile-Abu D eleiq-Khartoum ;

E l

K eraba,

S harq e l A teik a nd t he B utana

t he b arren r ocky p lateau i n t he E d T he K eraba l ies t o t he s outhwest b ounded a nd t he S harq

e l

A teiq

i s

b ounded

b y

K hartoum-Abu D eleiq a nd A bu H araz. T he B utana p roper c onsists o f t he r emaining l ands t o the s outheast t o t he E thiopian h ighlands, a nd t he R iver A tbara. I n t he a rchaeological l iterature, t hese p lains

t here h as b een s ome c onfusion b etween

s ubdivisions. L ack o f c larity i n d istinguishing the B utana c lay f rom t he s andstone s emi-desert o f t he W estern B utana may b e q uite

m isleading [ Ali 1 972:639-46; Adams 1 973:1-2]. I t i s a rgued b elow t hat t he e nvironment, p articularly t he d istribution o f s oils, w ater a nd v egetation h as a lways d etermined a nd c onstrained e xploitation o f t hese a reas, d ifferences b etween t hese r egions e ast o f a cknowledged. H ere t hen , i ncluding

t he

N ile

must

t he t erm B utana i s l imited t o t he a rea o f t he

s ome

p arts o f t he S harq e l A teik,

a nd G ash w ith r icher s oils a nd w ater s upplies.

b e

a nd t he

e xplicitly

c lay

p lains,

a nd a reas e ast o f t he A tbara T he s teppelands a re v iewed

a s a s ingle u nit a nd t he r iverine s ites o f t he B lue N ile w ill b e d iscussed t ogether w ith t he G ezira. T he a pproximate a nd s lightly a rbitrary n ature o f

s uch

d ivisions,

a s b etween t he B utana a nd t he W estern B utana ,

3 0

must b e

n oted. A s

c an b e s een f rom F ig.2,

a lmost

e ntirely

t hat

o f

t he u nderlying

t he

w ithin s ome 3 0 m iles o f t he B lue N ile, S andstone.

T he

S andstone

[ Whiteman 1 971:69].

g eology

B asement C omplex.

r arely

E qually t he

o f

a nd a long t he R ahad

o utcrops

T ertiary

a nd

o nly

s ediments

f ormation a re l argely c oncealed b y t he l ater c lays.

T he l imited b ut

j ebels o f K assala.

u p

g ently

s loping

a nd

t he

Q ala

e n

i nfluenced

t he

p lain

a rea ,

t he

A tshan n ear t he c onfused

B asement

f ormed

[ ibid:139-41].

o f

the

B utana

r ing

a nd

t he

o f

c lays.

L argely

i t i s a bove

f rom t hose

a reas

t o

I n a reas b ounding t he B lue N ile a nd t he

s harper g radients w hich a llow

f ormation

h ills,

f looding i n t he r ainy s eason ,

s oils,

p ervious t o w ater a nd l ess s aline t hese

E l

[ ibid:74-5].

N ahl

a ll t he c racking c layey s oils w hich d istinguish t his E thiopian f oothills,

t he

T hese a re t he o nly major f eatures w hich b reak

p rone t o s heet

t he n orth a nd w est

N ubian

t he r iver

v olcanic o utcrops i n the G edaref-Gallabat a rea a nd

s triking t he

i s

a n a rea

o f

s ometimes

b ut a gain r arely o utcropping

t he B asement C omplex e xposed a round

i mpermeable

i s a long

o f

l ocally i mportant o utcrops i nclude

c omplex a t J ebel Q eili,

B utana

T o t he e ast,

E thiopian b order i s a n a rea o f t he G edaref F ormation , w ith t he N ubian F ormation ,

t he

E xceptionally ,

w hich

i n

b etter

d rainage

h ave

t hese a reas may b e more

[ Lebon 1 965:48].

T he r are e xceptions t o

c lay s oils a re f ound o n t he d enuded u plands o f t he G edaref-Gallabat i n t he l imited a lluvium a long t he A tbara a nd i n t he G ash d elta.

T he

p resent

r ainfall

r egime

v aries

n ortheast, t o o ver 8 00mm i n t he s outh , r eliability t owards t he s outheast.

f rom

s ome 1 00mm o r l ess i n t he

w ith a n a ccompanying i ncrease i n T he r ivers A tbara , G ash , D inder a nd

R ahad a ll f lood s easonally , f ed b y t he r ains o f E thiopia. D uring t he d ry s eason o f u p t o s even months, t hey may s till p rovide p ools o f w ater o r m erely s hallow w ells i n t heir f latness

o f

the

c lay

o therwise

p lain ,

w ith

l argely

d ry

b eds.

T he

g reat

p oorly d eveloped d rainage l acks t he

s maller s easonal w atercourses w hich i n t he s emi-desert a reas t o t he n orth s erve t o c oncentrate t he w aters o f t he l imited r ains. I t must b e n oted t hat

p rojected

p alaeoclimates

i ncrease t he d uration t hem p erennial. I f

the

b enefits

o f

t he

c omparable t o modern t imes, s till

b e

a s

g reat

w ith

s lightly

g reater

r ainfall

m ight

a nd v olume o f t he r iver f loods b ut w ould n ot m ake

s easonal

r ivers

w ere

e ven

a pproximately

t he i mportance o f g round w ater s upplies

f or e xploitation o f t he B utana a s t oday.

w ould

S tudies b y

G raham [ 1969] a nd B erry a nd G raham [ 1973] h ave h ighlighted t he i mportance o f s uch s upplies, a nd t he l imitations t hey i mpose.

c ritical

T he c lay p lain , o verlying t he B asement C omplex y ields l ittle s ubsurface w ater. T he r are o ccurrence o f w ells d epends o n t he p resence o f r ocky o utcrops w hich a llow s ufficient p ercolation o f r ainwater t o f orm l ocalized a quifers. Q eili,

T he

E s S ubagh ,

most

i mportant

K assala ,

a reas

f or

t hese w ells a re a round J ebel

t he G edaref R idge a nd t he Q ala e n

N ahl

h ills.

G raham e stimates t hat s ome 8 0% o f t he w ells i n t he s outheastern h alf o f t he B utana a re i n t he v icinity o f t he G edaref R idge, a nd t hese i nclude t he b ulk

o f

t he p erennial s hallower w ells

3 1

( under 2 0 m etres)

[ ibid:414].

T he

o nly

o ther

B lue N ile, T he

a rea

w ith

s ignificant n umbers

n orth o f W ad M edani,

o ther n atural

t he r ock o utcrops.

s upply o f w ater i s

S ome n atural h ollows

b y t he l ocal p opulation , t he y ear. w ith

o f w ells

i s t hat

a nd i n t he

O ther g ulut may p rovide

f ound i n g ulut

( rock p ools)

a re k nown t o h ave

s outh ,

b een

w ith g ood r ainfall,

s upplies

f or o nly

p art

[ Berry & G raham 1 973:302-4]. a ffect

t hese

A

r egime

w ater

y ields o f b oth w ells a nd g ulut,

o f

g reater

s ources.

W hile

among

e nlarged

m ay s urvive

o f

t he a dded p roblem o f e vaporation making t he w ater t oo

q ualitively

c lose t o t he

w ith a quifers i n t he N ubian S andstone.

t he

y ear ,

s aline f or u se

r ainfall

w ould

n ot

i ncreasing c apacity a nd

t heir g eographical

d istribution

a nd

t he

c onstraints t hereon w ould s eem u nlikely t o b e a ffected. T he p resent v egetation a reas.

I n

z ones o f

t he S emi-Desert

t he

B utana

f all

z one t he B utana S hort

b roadly

i nto

f our

G rasslands p redominate ,

w ith l imited a reas o f A cacia S crub i n t he e xtreme n orth a nd n ortheast. I n t he L ow W oodland S avanna z one t here a re a reas o f T horn S crub a nd L ow W oodland a nd g rass.

Moving

s outh

i ncreasingly

d ense

s tands

o f t rees a nd l ess o f t he o pen g rassland w hich

p redominates o n t he

s teppe.

W ickens'

r econstruction

o f

t hrough

t he

l atter

( c.3000

B P);

r ainfall t o t he n orth v egetation

b elts

a ssuming

[ 1982].

c an

a

c lose

a t

t he

c orrelation

While t he r etreat

o nly

t here

p ast v egetation p rojects t hat t hese

m ight h ave b een p laced a maximum o f 2 50km t o t he n orth d esiccation

z one

s outhwards

i mplication i s t hat t he p resent g rasslands might

h ave

o f

g reater

o f t he

s een

z ones

o nset

w ith

b e e stimated i n t he c rudest w ay ,

a re

d enser

t he o bvious much

d enser

s crub a nd l ow w oodland. T he B utana i s t oday g razing ,

n orth a nd t he a re

d ominated

b y

o f c ultivation ,

e xpanses

s upplies

a round

r ock

u nimproved

T hroughout

the

a rea

t here

o utcrops

more d eveloped w ater c ourses a nd w ater p rovide

f avourable

c onditions

[ Lebon

Mackinnon 1 948a:733]. i s

r elatively i ntensive a griculture m ixed w ith w ith s ome g razing

n ear t he B lue N ile,

w here t he p resence o f g roundwater p ermitting p ermanent

o ccupation c oupled w ith t he u se o f t erus e mbankments s uch e xploitation. a nd K assala i s

F urther s outh ,

s ufficient

s ufficient w ater d enser

o f

s hort g rasslands o f t he

p articularly o n t he n orthern f ringes o f t he

g rasslands w here t he thinner c lays,

T here

w ide

s avanna c ountry f urther s outh.

s catters

1 965:81;

t he

o nly s lightly d ifferentiated b etween t he

f or c ultivation most y ears,

s upplies t o s upport

v egetation

N evertheless t he

b ulk

makes o f

l and t he

( recently a ugmented b y l arge a rea o f g reater r ainfall;

a round f ields p ermits

t he r ainfall i n the a rea b etween S ennar t he

c learance

t raditional

more

p astoralism

C onversely , l abour

a griculture

s cale m echanized f arming )

w ith

s o l ong a s t here a re

c ultivators.

i s

p redominating

i n

t he

i n t his i n

t he

i ntensive. B utana s outhern

t he

n orth

[ Mackinnon o p.cit:728] O verall, s peaking

the B utana r emains t he p reserve o f n omadic p astoralist t ribes.

s edentarization

T he i llustrate

p atterns

o f

p articularly

3 2

t heir w ell

s easonal t he

A rabic

movements

a nd

e nvironmental

c onstraints. t he

T he l imited p erennial w ater s upplies a llow s mall s ections o f

S hukriya

J ebel

Q eili

I ncreasing

t o

r emain

a nd

E s

a way f rom t he r ivers,

S ubagh

s edentarization

[ Crawford a nd

m ainly a round A bu D eleiq ,

1 951;86;

a griculture

L ebon

o p.cit:117].

i n t hese a reas a re a f actor

b oth o f t he a vailability o f w ater a nd o f t he modern c onditions o f s ecurity w hich a llow t he f ragmentation o f l arger t ribal u nits;

s uch c ombinations o f

c onditions m ay b e r elevant i n e arlier p atterns o f l and u se. T he

a xis

n ortheast t he

o f

modern

- s outhwest,

g razing ,

s easonal

movements

o f

t he

w ith p ost-rains movement i nto

f rom t he A tbara a nd the B lue N ile

t ribes t he

i s l argely

h interland

( Fig.7).

f or

T his i s c oupled

w ith more l engthy movements f rom t he s outhwest b y t he R ufaa a l S hariq a nd t he K awahla t ribes; f rom t he R ahad a nd K hor a l A tshan a reas; a nd b y t he R ashaida a nd L ahawin f rom t he s outheast. movement

v egetation ,

t he u nhealthy c onditions o n t he f looded c lays a nd

f lies, a ll o f w hich d iscourage p ermanent 1 969:419; Mackinnon 1 948:805]. T he

I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t he

a way f rom t he s outh i s n ecessitated by t he d ensity o f w et

d ry

s eason

I n s outhern a reas i n s itu.

b iting

s ettlement i n t hose a reas

[ Graham

s ees t he s ubsequent r etreat t o s ecure w ater s upplies.

s uch a s G edaref,

i nvolve a modified t ranshumance, m igrate,

w ith s ome

p ermanent

w ells,

t he

G raham p roduces a n e xample o f w here 4 5% o f

t he

h erds

w hereas o nly 9 % o f t he h uman p opulation g o w ith t hem

r ains. t o

t he

c ombination

o f

w ater

s upplies

h ave

B lue

N ile

a nd

t o

[ ibid:424]. c onstrained

I t i s n oteworthy t hat t he major movements o f p eople a nd A tbara ,

m ay

a nd g razing a vailable a fter t he l ivestock

R ahad i s n ot mirrored b y a ny e quivalent

movement a cross t he W estern B utana t o t he N ile. r eflect

this

w ith much o f t he human p opulation s taying

T he l argely p astoralist e xploitation o f t he B utana i s t hus b y

s eason

t he

While t his

may

i n

p art

a " political" b arrier p osed b y t he s ubstantial s ettled p opulation

a long t he S hendi R each ,

t he r elatively p oor p astures a vailable

a long

t he

w adis d own t o the r iver w ould a lso s eem t o d iscourage t hat d irection a s a n a xis o f movement. Any

p rojections

p ossibility

o f

p ast

( though s till

i mpact o n t he e nvironment. a s w ell a s

p ositive

l and

u se

u nquantified )

must t ake i nto c onsideration t he o f

g reater

r ainfall,

a nd

i ts

I t i s c lear t hat there may b e s everal n egative

i nfluences

o n

the

k ind

o f

s ubsistence

p atterns

r epresented i n t he a rea t oday. B etter g razing , c oupled

p articularly i n

the

d rier

n orthern

a reas

w ould

w ith i mproved g roundwater s upplies i n t he w ells a nd g ulut.

c onditions w ould b e m ore f avourable t o c attle h erding ,

w hich

t he

b e

T hese p resent

h arsh e nvironment d iscourages i n f avour o f c amel a nd s heep r aising [ Ahmed 1 984:98]. H owever , e ven t he d ate o f t he i ntroduction o f t he c amel i nto S udan s till r emains u ncertain , t o i ts p resence i n t he n orth 1 987:291].

T hey

t hough r ecent f inds f rom Q asr I brim p oint i n t he N apatan p eriod [ Hedges e t a l

w ere c ertainly p resent i n t he l ater M eroitic p eriod ,

a s

b ones r ecovered f rom M eroe [ Carter & F oley 1 980:299] a nd a c amel s tatuette r ecovered f rom a p yramid [ Dunham 1 957:127,P1.XLIX ] i ndicate; t heir r ole i s u nclear.

T heir u se i n

l ong-distance

3 3

t ransport,

o r

e ven

f or

m eat

i n

i

A

/ / /

er. a

/ / 0

, s , ,

/

/

V

1 6 °_ ,

--- ; Abu D e le iq

-

SHUKR IYA

Kassa la •

• J .Qe i l i • E s S ubagh

" 7 5 -

\

Wad Medan i 1 4. _

• Gedaref

f i l .p? ah : o.

9 0

m i les

km

1 00

-' 01 0

/ -

\

4

1 00

F ig 7 .

Modern G raz ing i n t he B u tana

3 4

1 4 ° ._

r iverine

a reas

i s

o bviously f ar r emoved f rom t he r ole t hey p lay amongst

h ighly s pecialized c amel b ased n omads w ho h ave e xploited t his t erritory i n r ecent t imes. T he a ccentuated m ilitary t hreat p osed b y t he B lemmyses i n t he

2 nd

a nd

3 rd c enturies A D h as b een l inked t o t heir r ecent a doption o f t he c amel, g iving t hem a n ew mobility a nd f reedom o f movement i n t he d eserts [ Adams 1 977:383-4]. T his r elatively l ate d ate, i n a n a rea c lose t o t he r oute a long w hich t he c amel i s p resumed t o h ave s pread i nto N orth A frica w ould c ertainly

a rgue

a gainst t he p resence o f s pecialized c amel p astoralism i n

t he B utana d uring t he M eroitic p eriod L arge

s cale

p roblematic,

p astoralism ,

b ecause

o f

t he

b ased

[ Bulliet o n

1 975:118].

e ither

u ncertainties

c attle o r c amels

o f

b oth

t he

r emains

e nvironmental

e vidence a nd t he r elationship b etween t he B utana g rasslands a nd t he s ettled r iverine a reas. T he n egative i nfluences o f t he g reater r ainfall w ould b e most f elt i n t he s outhern a reas, w ith u nhealthy b iting f lies, c oupled w ith g reater f looding , making a reas a s f ar a s t he 5 00mm i sohyet u nsuitable

f or

l ivestock a nd t o a l esser e xtent man

S uch e ffects m ight b e f elt a s f ar n orth A griculture, w ould h ave b enefited f rom

[ Wickens

1 982:41-3].

a s t he S ennar-Kassala l ine. i ncreased r ainfall, w ith more

d ependable c ropping , b ut t he l ikely m ore n ortherly e xtent o f t he d ensely c overed s avanna l ands w ould i ncrease p roblems o f l and c learance. T he f oci o f o ccupation w ould c learly r emain i n t he l ocalities s upplies,

3 .0.3

a s

s uch p recluding w idespread p ermanent

o f

p ermanent

w ater

s ettlement.

A rchaeology o f t he B utana a nd s outhern A tbai.

E astern

S udan

h as

b een

l ittle

E uropeans.

D uring t he C ondominium ,

e ncroached

o nto

t he

B utana

t ravelled

a nd

s urvey i n t he

p roper

[ Crowfoot

l imited e vidence w as r ecorded mainly f or

i s

l ittle

W estern

1 911,

1 920].

p rehistoric

k nown t o

B utana

a nd

b arely

B eyond t his, I slamic

s ites

[ Seligman 1 915; C rowfoot 1 928; S anders & O wen 1 952]. K irwan w ho made a p ioneering r econnaissance a cross t he r egion a s f ar a s t he R ed S ea H ills i n 1 939

r ecorded

s cattered

n eolithic

p enetration b eyond t he A tbara W hile

t he

1 958

" Butana"

f ringes o f t he B utana p roper, s outheast G ash

r emains b ut n o e vidence f or M eroitic

[ 1972:459]. e xpedition

e xplored

o nly the n orthwestern

f urther s urvey h as b een mainly

i n

t he

f ar

i n t he K hashm e l G hirba a rea a nd a long the l ower r eaches o f t he

( including t he K assala a rea )

[ Sadr 1 983;

F attovich

1 984].

T o

t he

s outhwest l imited s urvey n ear t he Q ala e n N ahl h ills w as u ndertaken , s ampling a n a rea o f s ome 9 00km2 [ Vila 1 979:122-34] J ebel Q eili,

i n t he n orthwest B utana d isplays

h uman o ccupation ,

r elated t o t he

l ocal

c onsiderable e vidence f or

a bundance

o f

w ells,

a nd

g ulut

[ Hintze 1 959:191; B erry & G raham 1 963:307]. C rawford n otes t he S hukriya t raditions t hat i t h as b een a n i mportant t ribal c entre a t l east f rom t he e arly F ung p eriod

[ 1951:86-8].

S herds o f f ine Meroitic p ottery ,

a nd s andstone r ubble h ave a lso b een r ecorded

3 5

a round

t he

h ill

r ed b rick [ Crowfoot

Qa la e n N ah l " ; c > c e ,

F ig 8

11. e4 e

S i tes i nt he B u tana

3 6

/ I .

1 920:89;

H intze

o p.cit:189-92;

M eroitic monument

t he e arly i st C entury A D. w ell a s t he most

i t

t he

h as

v icinity

b een

r egarded

a h andful o f o f

a s

s ites

h ave

w ells a nd h afirs.

s tone a nd r ed-brick b uildings [ Crawford 1 920; H intze 1 959]. f ound ,

T he most r emarkable

i ndicative

a t

J .Sadda

h as u p t o 7 00 g raves,

b een

i dentified ,

b ut a lso o thers o f p resumed e arlier p eriods. a

f ocus o f d ry s eason s ettlement,

n oted

b y

p eriod ,

W erne

l ittle i s k nown. [ 1852:39],

T he

most

many o riented i n t he Muslim

k nown

t owards E thiopia,

a

a nd o ccasionally w heel-made c eramics S cattered tumulus c emeteries a re a lso

t radition , a s

o f

S everal h ave r uins o f

e specially n ear t he f ew h ills a nd t heir w ater s upplies.

i mportant,

d ated t o

[ Hintze o p.cit:196].

S outh a nd e ast o f J .Qeili, i n

1 984:40,69].

I mportant a s o ne o f t he l ast r oyal monuments a s

s outherly ,

f rontier i n t hat a rea

g enerally

Ahmed

i n t he r egion i s t he r ock c arving o f S herkarer,

A long t he A tbara ,

a nd a s t he r oute f rom B erber

R ed b rick d ebris a t

J .Erembat,

f irst

h as p roduced i nscribed b ricks o f t he C hristian

t hough most o f t he n earby c emeteries

s eem t o

b e

o f

Muslim

d ate

[ Crawford 1 953a:4-5]. T he

s outhwest

B utana

u ndertaken b y V ila. p resent-day l and u se, r everting

t o

a bandonment

[ Vila 1 979:122-34]. s terile

a part

f rom

i s

e qually

u nknown,

a part

f rom

t he

s urvey

P reliminary r econnaissance-confirmed t he e xpected w ith a n i nflux o f m ixed h erds j ust a fter t he r ains, f or

s ome

s ix w aterless months a fter D ecember

A rchaeologically h owever, r are

s catters

o f

F unj

t he p lain

w as

e ffectively

o r l ater p ottery.

i ndeterminate tumuli a nd s ome g rain s ilos w ere a ll f ound t o a round the s mall h ills o f t he a rea.

b e

T he f ew c lustered

W ith t he more e xtensive s urvey u ndertaken i n a nd a round t he G ash D elta , much

i nformation h as b een r etrieved o n s ettlement o ver s everal m illennia ,

b ut v ery l ittle f rom t he l ast t wo t housand y ears [ Marks e t.al. 1 986; S adr 1 986]. O f t his the e arly H ajiz G roup, d ated t o c .500 B C-200 A D s hows s light a ffinities w ith p re-Axumite c eramics f rom E thiopia. O nly a f ew f inds f rom t he K hatmiya G roup, a round K assala s how s igns o f a ny l ink t o r ecognizable N ubian a rtefacts. material

a nd

t here

i s

M ost p arallels

s eem t o b e

w ith

E thiopian

a s y et l ittle material t o d emonstrate l inks w ith

a reas t o t he n orth-west.

3 7

3 .0.4

S ite G azetteer:

N ote:

L atitudes

p ossible,

T he B utana & s outhern A tbai. a nd

L ongitudes

a re

g iven b y t he S udan S urvey D epartment a s 1 .

J ebel E REMBAT. T he

g iven

w ithout d egree o r s econd marks.

( Qoz R ec ieb )

t o

1 m inute a ccuracy w here

P lacenames

w ith

t hose

[ 16.05.N./35.33.E.]

r uins o f r ough s tone a nd r edbrick b uildings

t he b ricks

a ccord

f ar a s p ossible.

h ave C hristian g raffiti o n t hem .

a re r eported;

T he

n earby

s ome o f

c emetery

i s

p robably I slamic. C hittick 1 953a:4-5. 2 .

J ebel F AU.

( Abu S habia )

O n t he e ast

s ide o f t he h ills,

d ate,

t hough

[ 14.09.N./34.18.E.] a g roup o f l ow tumuli o f

i ndeterminate

w idespread p illaging s uggested they h ad c ontained g rave

g oods. V ila 3 .

1 979:133-4.

H ADALIYA.

[ c.16.15.N./36.00.E.]

T he r emains o f r edbrick b uildings a re r eported. S ome b ricks a ppear t o h ave C hristian g raffiti o n t hem , t hough t he c eramics a re n ot i ndisputably o f C hristian d ate. F attovich 1 984a. 4 .

I SNABIR .

[ 15.44.N./34.11.E.]

T here a re u nconfirmed r eports o f g raves h ere,

a p ossible M eroitic s ite. P orter & Moss 1 951:272; G eus 5 .

i n t he v icinity o f

f rom w hich a s carab h as b een r ecovered.

KHATMIYA . S everal

( Jebel K assala ) g roups

mountain h ere,

o f

t he

h afir

T his h as b een c ited a s

1 974:41.

[ 15.26.N./36.25.E.]

t umuli

h ave b een r eported a round t he b ase o f t he

t entatively d ated t o

t he

p eriod

3 50-650AD,

b ut

n ot

Muslim ,

b ut

d efinitely r elated t o N ubian c ultures.

6 .

F attovich 1 984b;

S adr 1 986:26-8.

J ebel e l K HIARI.

[ 15.16.N ./34.52.E.]

A l arge c emetery o f a bout t here a re a t C rowfoot 7 .

l east

1 920:91;

J ebel L ABAITO.

1 00 g raves.

3 0 u ndated t umuli, H intze

1 959:193.

[ 14.50.N./33.45.E.]

B alfour P aul n otes a g roup o f B alfour P aul 1 952:207.Map.1 8 .

J ebel O TASH. H intze

9 .

' large b urial mounds'

o ther e vidence 1 920:89;

J ebel Q EILI.

o f u ncertain d ate.

[ 15.19.N./34.50.E.]

f ound 2 l arge t umuli o f u ncertain d ate,

t here w as C rowfoot

S ome a re p robably

s ome 3 -4m i n d iameter.

H intze

w hile C rowfoot

f or o ccupation i n t he v icinity. 1 959:193.

[ 15.30.N./33.33.E.]

3 8

i mplied

T here i s a f ine M eroitic i nscription c arved i nto a r ock r eports

m ention

f ace.

O ther

p ossible r edbrick b uildings a ssociated w ith M eroitic

p ottery a s w ell a s t umuli n ear t he h ill. C rowfoot 1 911:24-5, 1 920; W hitehead 1 926:51-2;

H intze 1 959:189;

Ahmed

1 984:40. 1 0.

J ebel e l R AU.

[ 15.22.N./34.45.E.]

H intze n oted r ock p ictures,

o f u ncertain d ate,

t umuli t o t he e ast o f t he h ill, H intze 1 959:192-3. 1 1.

R UFAA . [ 15.18.N./33.43.E.] S ayce f ound c olumn d rums, p robably v icinity. t he

S ubsequently t his

B lue

N ile,

a rchives,

b ut

o n

a s

w ell

a s

s ome

2 0

r anging f rom 4 -6m i n d iameter.

f rom

a

M eroitic

s hrine

i n

t he

s ite h as b een i dentified w ith t he t own o n

e xamining

t he

S udan

Antiquities

S ervice

G eus c onfirms t hat t he s ite i n q uestion i s n ear t he h afir o f

R ufa i n t he B utana. S ayce 1 909:192; 1 2.

G eus

J ebel e s S ADDA . H intze

1 974:147.

[ 15.12.N./35.00.E.]

r ecorded a l arge n ecropolis,

a nd tumuli,

i ncluding s everal types o f c airns

p robably d ating t o s everal

d ifferent

p eriods.

S ome

a t

l east a re p robably I slamic. C rowfoot 1 920:91; 1 3.

S HURAB e l G ASH. F attovich

H intze 1 959:194;

t o

t wo

e xamples

c ontext i s u nclear. F attovich 1 984a. 1 4.

t he

h afir,

p ots f rom

o f

a pparently

S haqalu

p ost-Meroitic

& G ereif E ast,

t ypes,

t hough i n w hat

( Site S EG.21)

S OFAYA e l D ERISHEIB. N ear

1 974:148-50.

[ 15.10.N./36.20.E.]

r ecovered

c omparable

G eus

[ 15.30.N./34.22.E.]

t here

r ough s tone a s w ell a s

a re

r eports o f a s mall e nclosed b uilding o f

s catters o f r edbrick.

T he o nly o ther a rtefacts

w ere u ndiagnostic c oarse s herds a nd s tone t ools. C rowfoot 1 920:80; 1 5.

S OFAYA e l WATA .

H intze 1 959:192. [ 15.30.N./34.07.E.]

A h afir o f u ncertain d ate

i s

r ecorded ,

a nd

H intze

s uggests

o ther

o ccupation w as o f p rehistoric d ate. C rowfoot 1 920:90-1; 1 6.

U MM R UWEISHID.

H intze 1 959:192.

[ 15.35.N./34.23.E.]

C rowfoot n oted a h afir ,

s herd

s catters

C rowfoot f ound a h afir h ere, a s w ell a s s herds o f w heel-made t hough w ithout a ny c lear d ating e vidence.

p ottery ,

h ere,

C rowfoot 1 7.

w ells,

masonry

r emains

a nd

t hough t here i s n o c lear e vidence o f d ate. 1 920:90-1.

WAD A BU H ADIDA.

C rowfoot

[ 15.18.N./33.39.E.]

1 920:90.

3 9

3 .0.5

T he G ezira.

T he

G ezira

h ere

a nd W hite N iles, p resent

r efers t o b oth t he r iverine d istricts a long t he B lue

a s w ell a s t heir

e vidence

i t

i s

h interland

i mpossible

t o

w ithin

t he

" island".

O n

d istinguish a ny c lear d ivisions

b etween t hese a reas i n t erms o f h uman o ccupation. A ll t he i ndications a re t hat e xploitation s trategies h ave a lways s een a c lose i nteraction b etween r iverine

z ones a nd t heir h interlands.

E xploitation

o f

t he

B utana

a nd

a reas w est o f t he White N ile f ollow b roadly s imilar p atterns.

t he

T he G ezira l ies a t t he e xtreme l imits o f a rchaeological e xploration o f N ile V alley , w ith m inimal r esearch t o t he w est o utside o f D arfur , a nd

l ittle,

u ntil r ecently ,

m assive

i n t he B utana a nd A tbai.

O n t he o ther

e xpansion o f i ntensive a griculture w ithin t he

p roduced a b oom i n

r elated

r esearch ,

p roviding

s upplies a nd t he d evelopment o f t he r ivers, A s w as n oted a bove , e xposed

w ithin

t he

d ata

h and ,

t he

" Gezira S cheme" o n

s oils,

h as

w ater

u nmatched e lsewhere i n N ubia.

t he B asement C omplex a nd N ubian s andstone i s r arely G ezira.

M ajor o utcrops o f t he f ormer a re a t J .Moya ,

J .Saqadi a nd J .Tomat. T he s andstone i s f ound a t J .Aulia , Q oz B an k, Q oz B eida, E l G eteina, A lti, E l Masid a nd S ennar [ El B oushi & A bdelsalam 1 982:65]. An o bvious c onsequence i s t hat t his i mportant M eroitic b uilding m aterial i s g enerally u navailable s outh o f K hartoum . T he s ilts a nd c lays o f t he G ezira

F ormation ,

c omparable

R uwaba F ormation t o t he w est a nd t he B utana c lays t o t he e ast,

t o

t he

U mm

b lanket t he

r egion. S uperficially f lat, t he c lays b arely s how t he s light d epressions o f p alaeochannels o f t he B lue N ile, c utting n orthwest a cross t he p resent G ezira. h ave

T he most

b een

r ecent

s easonal f looding o f t hese c hannels w ould s eem t o

b etween 5 ,000 - 3 ,000 B P,

a lthough t he p resent main c hannel o f

t he r iver w as w ell e stablished a t t hat d ate 1 982:175-89].

C ertainly

[ Adamson ,

f or t he p eriod o f t his

W illiams

& G illespie

s tudy t he r ivers d id n ot

e ncroach i nto t he G ezira h interland. T he c rucial r ole o f g roundwater s upplies a s a d eterminant o f b oth a ncient a nd modern s ettlement w as s tressed b y E l B oushi a nd A bdelsalam [ op.cit]. W ith the b est a quifer, N ubian S andstone , b uried a t g reat d epths, t he p opulation i s d ependent o n t he p oorer G ezira a quifer, f rom w hich

w ater

may

b e o btained a t d epths r anging f rom 4 -12 m etres n ear t he

r iver t o 5 0 m etres i n t he c entral n orthern

G ezira

[ op.cit:75].

I n

t he

s outhern G ezira, w here t his a quifer i s t hin a nd u nderlain b y B asement C omplex , t here a re v ery p oor w ater s upplies. A n a dded c omplication i n t he n orthern a rea i s t he u nsuitable f or a nimal i ncreases

i n

h igh s alinity w hich m ay r ender t he w aters q uite o r a gricultural u se [ op.cit:75-79]. G reater

s alinity a way f rom t he W hite N ile a s c ompared w ith t he B lue

a lso p reclude d eeper w ells o ver much o f t he w estern h interland

[ Williams,

A damson & A bdulla 1 982:137]. T he r ainfall p atterns t hrough t he G ezira , r ising f rom s ome 1 60mm i n t he K hartoum a rea t o 1 000mm n ear t he E thiopian b orders p ermits a t l east

4 0

KHART OU M 1 6_ •

3 74

1

2-3 2 8

2 9-30

F ig 9 .

S i tes i n t he Gez ira

4 1

SENNAR

s easonal s hifting a griculture t hroughout t he w hole s eason

r egion.

T he

i n K osti may b e u p t o t wice a s l ong a s n ear K hartoum

I ntensification

o f

c ultivation ,

h owever,

d epends

g rowing

[ op.cit:138].

l argely

o n

t he

a vailability o f d rinking w ater f or t he c ultivators. T he n atural v egetation may b e c ompared w ith t hat o f t he B utana , most h as b een d estroyed G ezira a nd Manaqil s chemes. n orthern

t hough

b y modern i ntensive f arming i n a nd a round t he P rior t o t his, s ome s emi-desert s crub i n t he

a rea g ave w ay t o s hort g rasslands a nd t hen t horn s crub s avannah ,

s outh o f t he 4 00mm p redicted

a

i sohyet.

s outhward

W ickens'

r etreat

o f

c ontraction o f t he e xtensive W hite m illennia

p rojection t he

N ile

t horn

o f

p alaeoenvironment

s crub

s wamps

s avannah

d uring

t he

a nd

l ast

a

t hree

[ 1982:45].

O ngoing d essication a llowed a n e xpansion i nto t he i nterior, w hich t he e arly , f lyridden , u nhealthy e nvironment d iscouraged. I t i s s uggested t hat N eolithic o ccupation w as c onfined t o t he r iver

f ringes,

mixing

f ishing ,

h unting a nd l imited a griculture a nd h erding [ loc.cit]. P ermitting a g reater e xploitation o f t he i nterior , t he d essication p rocess h ad b oth p ositive

a nd

n egative

c onsequences,

c oinciding

d eterioration i n v egetation a nd w ater s upplies,

a s

i t

d id

w ith

a s i n t he B utana.

T he W hite N ile i n r ecent c enturies h as b een d ominated b y i ntrusive A rab t ribes.

While their o ccupation i s o f n o g reat a ntiquity ,

u seful

model

d islocation

o f

v iable

c aused

[ A .A .Mohammed

b y

1 980].

t he

s ubsistence b uilding

p atterns, o f

t he

t hey

p rior

J .Aulia

p rovide

a

t o

t he

major

dam

i n

1 937

T he u nreliability o f b oth the W hite N ile f lood a nd

t he r ains e ncouraged a m ixed a gricultural-pastoral r egime,

c ommon s outh o f

K hartoum . T he p articular l egacy o f A rab t ribes i s, h owever , s een t o a ccount f or t he l ack o f a t radition o f s aqia c ultivation [ Lebon 1 965:76]. T he

bulk

o f

t he

s eluka l and l ies o n the w est b ank ,

s loping b anks p ermit a w ide l ateral s pread o f

t he

f ound o n t he g enerally s teep e astern b anks. p roximity o f t he Q oz s ands t o t he w est, t he b etter e ast,

i n

t he

p attern w as: c ultivation

G ezira

h interland

[ Mohammed

w here t he g ently

r iver

i n

f lood ,

n ot

C onversely , d ue t o t he g razing l ies i n t he

o p.cit:14-15].

T he o verall

w est o f t he r iver, s eluka a nd s ome l imited t erus a nd r ainland b eyond , a nd o n t he e ast b ank , r elatively i ntensive h erding ,

k eeping c lose t o t he f ields a nd t he r iver. T his may b e c ontrasted w ith t he m ore w ide-ranging t ranshumance p ractised b y l ess s edentarized p opulations i n t he B utana. t o

t he

r iver,

l imits

t he

S outh o f K osti, a mount

t he i ncreasingly s wampy b order

o f r iverine c ultivation o f t his k ind

[ Barbour o p.cit:117]. R ecords o f t raditional s ubsistence o n t he B lue N ile s tress t he p rimacy o f s easonal r ainland a griculture, w ith r iverine f arming a nd p astoralism o f s econdary

i mportance

b eing l argely A rab,

[ Gleichen

1 905:117;

R andall

1 958].

T he p opulation

t his may m erely r eflect t he p articular s edentarization

p rocess o f a p reviously d iscrete p astoral p opulation. T here a re h owever , n otable p roblems w ith s aqia i rrigation o n t he B lue N ile, w here t he s hifting t he f lood ,

c ourse

o f t he r iver,

a nd t he e xtreme f all i n r iver l evels a fter

m ay make s aqias i mpractical

4 2

[ Lebon o p.cit:76-7].

T he n ineteenth c entury a ccounts o f t he B lue N ile s eem t o s how a b ut

p roductive

i nland ,

e nvironment.

D ense v egetation ,

s till h arboured much g ame,

M edani

[ Cailliaud 1 1:217].

d etails

a re

d ifferent 3 .0.6

f ew ,

t he

f rom t hat

b oth a long t he r iver a nd

w ith e lephants

a s

E xtensive a griculture,

w as c oupled w ith w idespread a nimal i mpermanent t ukl v illages [ Crawford s ubsistence

w ilder

f ar

n orth

a s

W ad

mainly i n t he r ainlands

h usbandry , c entred o n numerous 1 951:72; L inant 1 958:89]. While e conomy

w as

c learly

s ubstantially

f urther n orth.

A rchaeology o f t he G ezira.

T he major s ite t o h ave b een e xcavated s outh o f K hartoum i s a t S oba , l ong k nown f or i ts r uined c hurch. S hinnie's o riginal e xcavation i n 1 951-2 r evealed

a

n umber

o f

mud-brick

b uildings,

c omparable t o t hose k nown i n t he n orth , [ Shinnie

1 961:28-50].

a djoining c hurches, c omplex.

M ore

t wo o f

a nd

r ecently ,

major

w ith

o thers

e xcavations

p roportions,

a nd

a s e xpected o f a C hristian c apital c ity ,

1 982;

W elsby 1 983-87].

A n umber o f r uined s ettlement

s ites,

c eramics

t o

t he

n earby

mud-brick

t he i mportance o f t he

s eems

c onfirmed

[ Daniels

s uperficially s imilar t o

S oba a re r ecorded f urther u p t he B lue N ile.

s ite

h ave r evealed t hree a

E ven f rom t he s mall a rea e xamined t o d ate,

s ite,

C hristian u nique

t hat

a t

N one h ave b een s ystematically

r ecorded a nd s ome c onfusion may e xist e ven among these f ew s ites i n t he p ublished n otes. C ailliaud r ecorded t wo " des d ebris d 'anciennes c onstructions s omewhere

d e

b riques,

d ownstream

o f

c omme E n

ä

N uba

S obah",

a t

R odis

[ II:210;Pl.LI].

s imilar s ites w ere n oted b y B alfour P aul

[ 1952],

a nd

" Dourman",

A s eries o f s ome 1 9

t hough

f ew

h ave

b een

v erified. S ome o f t hese w ere f ound d uring t he massive d evelopment o f t he G ezira S cheme, w hich must h ave d estroyed much o f t he a rchaeology i n t he a rea.

T he

l ack

o f

o ther f inds d uring t his d evelopment may a t l east b e

i ndicative t hat t here w ere n o m ajor o r monumental s ites t hereabouts. W ithin t he e nvirons o f t he K hartoum c onurbation t here a re s everal s ites o f t he p eriod , 1 949], o f a

a t G ordon 's T ree

[ Addison 1 931],

K hartoum H ospital

B urn i [ Addison 1 930] a nd G ereif [ Geus 1 983]. M eroitic a nd p ost-Meroitic c emetery w ere

[ Arkell

A t t he l atter, p arts s alvaged. U pstream ,

i mportant b ut i solated e xcavations a nd c hance f inds i ndicate b oth M eroitic a nd p ost-Meroitic o ccupation i n t he a rea, a nd

i solated

A ddison 1 935].

[ Dixon 1 963;

A rkell

1 934;

T he e xtensive mud-brick v illage n earby a t A bu

G eili

a lso

p roduced M eroitic A ddison 1 951]. T he

White

a nd

N ile

e ven

h as

i mported M editerranean m aterial

r eceived

v ery

e xcavation o f p ost-Meroitic t umuli S urface

s urvey

w ith a c emetery o n t he e ast b ank

g raves o n t he w est b ank a t S ennar

a t

[ Crawford &

l ittle a ttention s ince t he e arly U shara

[ Marshall

&

A dam

1 953].

a t F iki M ahmoud n ear E l G eteina c onfirm b oth M eroitic a nd

C hristian o ccupation ,

w ith

c eramics

a nd

i nscribed

b ricks

i n

e vidence

[ Crawford 1 953a:26-7]. A l arge C hristian s ite a t K alakla w as n oted a s i t w as d estroyed b y p loughing [ Geus 1 984:12]. F urther s outh , s ome o ccupation o f t he M eroitic p eriod w as f ound a t K osti [ Arkell 1 950:40].

4 3

R esearch J .Tomat, d eposits,

i n

t he

i nterior

h as

c entered

o n the o utcropping h ills a t

J .Moya a nd S aqadi. T he f irst p roduced s ubstantial m idden c ontemporaneous w ith t he l ate M eroitic p eriod. E vidence f or t he

e conomy a nd

p alaeoecology

i s

p articularly

i mportant

i n

s uggesting

a

t ranshumant m ixed e conomy w ith b oth c attle a nd c aprovine h erding a s w ell a s d omesticated s orghum [ Clark & S temler 1 975]. A s imilar r egime i s s uggested f or J .Moya,

e xtensively d ug b y t he W ellcome E xcavations

1 949].

W hile t he e xcavation l eft much t o b e d esired ,

f inds,

a t

l east,

[ Addison

t he i nventory o f t he

p rovides u seful e vidence f or t he s outhern p eriphery o f

M eroitic c ulture. T he c hurch ,

n earby

s ite

o f

S aqadi

w as v ery d ifferent,

p robably o verlying a n e arlier mud-brick

p roducing a r edbrick

b uilding.

F ragments

o f

C hristian w heel-made c eramics c omparable t o t hose k nown e lsewhere a t S oba , a s w ell a s o ther h and-made w ares c omparable t o e xamples w ere r ecovered

[ Crawford & Addison o p.cit:113-4].

4 4

f rom

A bu

G eili ,

3 .0.7

S ite G azetteer: 1 .

T he G ezira.

A BU F URU '.

[ 14.48.N./33.17.E.]

A h abitation s ite o f t he C hristian p eriod , m ound i s

r ecorded ,

marked b y a r edbrick r ubble

t hough w ith n o d etails.

B alfour P aul 1 952:211, Map 1 . 2 .

A BU G EILI T his

I .

[ 13.34.N./33.36.E.]

i s a n e xtensive mud b rick v illage s ite,

h ad u ndergone a s

s everal r ebuildings.

w hich e xcavations

Numerous c learly N apatan

M eroitic o bjects c onfirm t he p eriod o f o ccupation ,

s howed

a s

w ell

t hough the b ulk

o f t he p ottery i s h and-made o f a t ype r arely f ound f urther n orth.

A t

l east o ne g rave i s i n t he M eroitic t radition. C rawford & A ddison 1 951. 3 .

A BU G EILI

I I.

3 g raves,

p robably f rom a l arger c emetery w ere

c entury

[ 13.34.N./33.36.E.]

r uined

b uilding.

T hey

f ound

b eneath

w ere a ligned e ast-west,

a

1 9th

w ith s imple

s ide-niches a nd w ith n o g rave g oods a nd w ere t entatively d ated t o

t he

C hristian p eriod. C rawford & A ddison 1 951:109-10. 4 .

A BU U SHAR N orth.

[ 14.55.N./33.13.E.]

B alfour P aul r ecorded a r edbrick r ubble mound , o f a C hristian s ettlement,

i dentified a s t he

s ite

t hough o ther d etails a re l acking.

B alfour P aul 1 952:Map 1 . 5 .

A BU U SHAR S outh. [ 14.54.N./33.13.E.] B alfour P aul r ecords a s econd r edbrick r ubble mound c lose t o t he o ther A bu U shar s ite,

t hough a gain d etails a re l acking.

B alfour P aul 1 952:Map 1 . 6 .

A LTI.

( Elti)

C rowfoot t he

[ 15.15.N./32.49.E]

r ecorded t he r uins o f r edbrick b uildings,

C hristian

c oncerning t he

p eriod. ' Anaj'

Macmichael

f ounder Anti ,

r eported

p resumed t o a

l ocal

b e

o f

t radition

a nd l inks t o t he s ite o f R odos

a t

n earby B ashaqra. C rowfoot 7 .

ARBAJI.

1 911:8;

M acmichael 1 967.1:48.

[ 14.45.N./33.21.E.]

T here a re e xtensive r edbrick r ubble s preads w hich

may

b e

B alfour P aul l ists t he s ite a s r emains

a t

t his

s ite,

much

o f

r elated t o t he i mportant p ost-medieval F unj t own h ere.

u ncertain.

O n

a

h aving

v isit

i n

C hristian 1 986,

r emains,

b ut

t his

n o d iagnostic C hristian

r emains w ere s een o n t he s urface. B alfour P aul 8 .

B AQEIR . B alfour

1 952:Map 1 ;

E l T ayeb K halifa 1 979:20-1.

[ 15.21.N./32.46.E.] P aul

s ettlement s ite, B alfour P aul

r ecords

a

r edbrick

r ubble

mound ,

t hough t his r emains u nconfirmed.

1 952:Map 1 .

4 5

a s

a

C hristian

9 .

B ASHAQRA E ast. ( Rodess/Rudis) [ 15.14.N./33.05.E.] C ailliaud r ecorded r edbrick r ubble r uins, c omparable t o t hose a t S oba. H e

c alled t he s ite R odess,

o f l ocal t radition ,

w hich Macmichael i dentified w ith t he R udis

s upposedly b uilt b y t he

' Anaj'

a long w ith A lti.

C ailliaud.II:210; Macmichael 1 935.1:48. 1 0.

B RANCO. C rowfoot

( Bronko ) [ 14.59.N./33.15.E.] i dentified r edbrick r uins

a s

t he

s ite

o f

a

C hristian

s ettlement. C rowfoot 1 1.

B URRI. A ddison

1 911:8. [ 15.36.N./32.34.E.] r ecorded t he r emains o f b uildings,

w ork a s w ell a s C hristian p ottery ,

d estroyed d uring b uiding

i ncluding f ragments o f t he

p ainted

' Soba w are'. A ddison 1 930. 1 2.

E L E LEILA.

[ 14.33.N./33.29.E.]

B alfour P aul r ecords a r ubble mound h ere s ettlement, t hough s herds o f a k ind

marking a l arge C hristian k nown a t Umm S unut m ay b e

p ost-Meroitic t ypes. B alfour P aul 1 952:211,213, Map 1 . 1 3.

G EREIF E ast. [ 15.35.N./32.36.E.] An e xtensive c emetery w as r ecently p artly s alvaged ,

mainly o f M eroitic

d ate b ut w ith

t he

e vidence

p eriod. G eus 1 983:26-9; 1 4.

G EREIF W est.

1 984:39;

f or

c ontinued

u se

i nto

p ost-Meroitic

1 986:32-3.

[ 15.34.N./32.35.E.]

C hance f inds o f p ost-Meroitic d ate h ave b een made i n the

v icinity

o f

t he N eolithic c emetery h ere. G eus 1 5.

1 984:13.

G ETEINA. Numerous a s

w ell

( Fiki Mahmoud )

[ 14.49.N./32.19.E.]

f inds o f s herds o f b oth t he M eroitic and a s

i nscribed

C hristian

b ricks

s tructures e xposed i n a c liff s ection

a re

C hristian

a re k nown. p ossibly

p eriods,

T he r emains o f C hristian.

T he

r ecovered

f rom

e xtent o f o ccupation r emains u ncertain. C rawford 1 953a:26-7. 1 6.

G ORDONS'S TREE.

[ 15.33.N./32.30.E.]

S everal g ood e xamples o f p ost-Meroitic d isturbed g raves,

p ottery

w ere

t hough a f ew e xamples m ay w ell b e o f M eroitic d ate.

Addison 1 931. 1 7.

H ASSA H EISSA I . C rowfoot

[ 14.44.N./33.18.E.]

l ocated a mound o f r edbrick r ubble w hich h e i dentified a s t he

s ite o f a C hristian s ettlement. C rowfoot 1 911:8; B alfour P aul 1 952:Map 1 . 1 8.

H ASSA H EISSA I I.

[ 14.42.N./33.18.E.]

4 6

B alfour P aul r ecords a r edbrick r ubble s ettlement

s ite f ound among t he

c otton f ields t o t he s outh o f H assa H eissa. H e n oted t he o ccurrence o f p ainted s herds, p robably o f t he w ell k nown C hristian t ype. B alfour P aul 1 9.

K ALAKLA . G eus

1 952:213,Map 1 .

[ 15.31.N./32.30.E.]

r eports a l arge

( Christian )

m edieval s ettlement,

c urrently

b eing

d estroyed b y c ultivation. G eus 2 0.

1 984:12;

K ARABI.

L enoble

( Kerebi )

B alfour

P aul

[ 14.46.N./33.16.E.]

r ecords

C hristian s ettlement B alfour P aul 2 1.

K ASEMBAR . S ayce

( pers.comm .)

a

r edbrick

( Kamlin )

h ere,

w hich

C rowfoot

h e

KHARTOUM .

C rowfoot

i ndicated

a

i t i s u nclear i f the

2

[ 15.36.N./32.33.E.] K hartoum ,

r emains o f a d ozen more o r l ess d isturbed g raves,

o f M eroitic d ate, o thers p ossibly N apatan. e xtended g raves i s u ncertain.

2 3.

t hought

1 911:8.

D uring e xcavation o f t he p rehistoric s ite i n

A rkell

a

r efer t o t he s ame s ite.

S ayce 1 909:192;

t he

a s

f ound a r edbrick r ubble mound

w hich h e i dentified a s a C hristian s ite;

r eports

i dentified

[ 15.07.N./33.10.E.]

M eroitic s ite i n t he v icinity.

2 2.

mound ,

1 952:Map 1 .

f ound s ome c olumn d rums

h ere,

r ubble

s ite.

A rkell

f ound

s everal c learly

T he d ate o f

a

f ew

l ater

1 949a:119-33.

K OSTI.

[ 13.10.N./32.41.E.]

C hance f inds o f a rtefacts c omparable t o s ome f rom J ebel Moya h ave b een r ecovered d uring b uilding w orks, A rkell 1 950:40; 2 4.

K URTANG.

a s w ell a s

s carabs.

P orter & M oss 1 951:273.

[ 15.16.N./32.57.E.]

M acmichael r ecorded C rowfoot.

H e,

t his

h owever ,

a s

t he

s ite

o f

r edbrick

r uins,

c iting

f ails t o r ecord t he s ite i n h is g eneral s urvey

( 1911), a nd o therwise t he i dentification r emains u nconfirmed. M acmichael 1 967.1:48 2 5.

J ebel MOYA. A l arge massif.

[ 13.29.N./33.19.E.]

c emetery a nd o ccupation s ite l ocated i n a b asin w ithin t he T here a re n o t races o f s ubstantial b uildings a nd

i nterpretation o f t he l arge q uantities o f o ccupation d ebris r emains u ncertain. S ome a t l east i s c learly o f M eroitic d ate a nd p erhaps N apatan ,

b ut t he c ultural r elation t o M eroitic n orms i s u nresolved.

A ddison 1 949,1956; Mukherjee, 2 6.

Q OZ B AKHEIT.

R ao & T revor 1 955.

[ 14.42.N./33.13.E.]

C rowfoot r eports t he f ind o f a r edbrick r ubble m ound , C hristian p rehistoric

s ite.

T here

' Qoz C ulture'

a re

a lso

s everal

i n t he v icinity ,

4 7

a nd

i dentified a s

o ccupation B alfour

a

s ites o f t he P aul

r ecords

t he f ind o f a t humb r ing. C rowfoot 2 7.

S AQADI.

1 911:8;

B alfour P aul 1 952:202-6,

M ap 1 ,

F ig 8 .

[ 13.34.N ./33.09.E.]

E xcavations h ere u ncovered a r edbrick b asilican c hurch , t ogether w ith s mall q uantities o f C hritian c eramics. O ther f inds w ere h owever v ery s imilar t o t hose a t A bu G eili a nd m ay d ate t o t he M eroitic p eriod. C rawford & A ddison 1 951. 2 8.

S ENNAR E ast.

[ 13.33.N./33.38.E.]

S ome o f t he c ontents o f a t l east 1 7 M eroitic g raves w ere s alvaged f ollowing t heir d estruction d uring b uilding w orks.While most o f t he

2 9.

c eramics w ere l ost, b ronze v essels.

t he g raves w ere n otable f or t he r ich c ollection o f

Addison 1 935,

D ixon 1 963.

1 950;

S ENNAR W est I . [ 13.33.N./33.37.E.] A rkell r ecorded a g rave i n t he r iver b ank a l ittle S ennar

G arden ,

w ere a lso f inds o f M eroitic a nd J ebel Moya t ype e roded o ut o f t he b ank. A rkell 1 934:105-7, 3 0.

S ENNAR W est

t o

t he

n orth

w ith h and-made p ottery o f p ost-Meroitic t ypes.

I I.

1 950:40;

p ottery

a nd

o f

T here s carabs

C rawford 1 951:80.

[ 13.33.N./33.37.E.]

A ddison r ecorded a l arge g rave f ound b y t he S ennar t he p ottery w as o f w ell k nown p ost-Meroitic t ypes, h ave p arallels i n w hat a re g enerally r egarded a s t hough a ll w ere h and-made.

g arden.

S ome

o f

t hough a f ew p ieces M eroitic c ontexts,

I t i s p ossible t hat this g rave may b e p art

o f a s ingle c emetery w ith s ite I . A ddison 1 935:292-3. 3 1.

S OBA E ast.

[ 15.31.N./32.40.E.]

T he t own s ite o f S oba,

t he h istorical c apital o f t he k ingdom o f ' Alwa ,

i s marked b y numerous r edbrick a s w ell a s g ravel mounds.

T he

a nd

many

c apitals

o f

o ne

c hurch

E xcavations i n t he 1 950's mudbrick.

More

r ecent

o f w hich a re v ery c loseby.

h ave

u ncovered

b een s everal

k nown

f or

buildings,

p illars y ears.

l argely

o f

s urvey a nd e xcavations h as f ound 3 c hurchs,

l arge,

a s

w ell

a s

a

massive

mudbrick

2

c omplex

D espite a f ew c hance f inds o f K ushite d ate t here i s n o f irm

e vidence f or p re-Christian o ccupation. S hinnie 1 961; 3 2.

S OBA W est. B alfour

W elsby 1 983,

1 984,

1 987a.

[ 15.31.N./32.39.E.]

P aul

r ecords

f inds

o f p ossibly C hristian d ate,

t hough t his

r emains u nconfirmed. B alfour P aul 1 952:212, 3 3.

J ebel T OMAT. A round

[ 13.36.N./32.44.E]

t hese h ills

l ittle t o s how c lose e vidence c attle,

F ig.12.

i ndicates

i s a l arge o ccupation s ite o f M eroitic d ate t hough c ultural

l inks.

m ixed f arming ,

c aprids a nd s orghum c ultivation.

4 8

T he

important

e nvironmental

p ossibly o n a s easonal b asis,

w ith

C lark 3 4.

& S temler 1 975.

E t T UKEILAT. B alfour P aul

[ 15.12.N./33.07.E.] r ecords a r edbrick mound i n the v icinity ,

w hich

may

b e

t he s ame s ite, w ith C hristian s herd s catters l ocated by H offmann. B alfour P aul 1 952:Map 1 ; H offmann ( pers.comm ). 3 5.

UMM D OM .

[ 15.33.N./32.38.E.]

A k om o n this

3 6.

s ite s hows

s catters o f r edbrick,

s herds,

c omparable w ith t hose k nown a t S oba.

L eclant

1 977:285;

UMM S UNUT.

L enoble

o f

a nd

C hristian

( pers.comm ).

[ 14.19.N./33.34.E.]

B alfour P aul r ecords a s ettlement i s

p laster

u ncertain

d ate.

S ome

k nown p ost-Meroitic t ypes,

s ite a s w ell a s g raves.

T he

f ormer

o f the p ottery f rom g raves

i s o f w ell

w hile o thers a re p ossibly o f t he

C hristian

p eriod. B alfour P aul 3 7.

U SHARA.

1 952:207-10,

[ 15.33.N ./32.28.E.]

A c emetery o f a t s ome

F ig.9-11.

1 1.5m .

l east

2 0 l ow g ravel tumuli;

a cross w as

p ossibly o f Christian

e xcavated.

d ate,

o f - which a s mall e xample ,

2 l ate burials

though

the

main

i nto the mound w ere

c hamber

c ontained

a

c ontracted p ost-Meroitic b urial. M arshall 3 8.

& Adam 1 953.

WAD e l H ADDAD.

[ 13.50.N./33.32.E.]

A h abitation s ite , r edbrick r ubble C hristian t ypes, p rovision

o f

p ossibly o f the C hristian p eriod

s preads.

P ottery ,

i s

a pparently f rom g raves

i ndicated

t hough o ther g raves a re p ossibly p ost-Meroitic.

g rave

f urniture

i s

b y

i s mainly o f T he

c ertainly u nusual i n the C hristian

p eriod. C rowfoot 3 9.

1 927a:Pl.XXXII.;

WAD HASHIM . A

s ingle

B alfour P aul

[ 13.27.N./33.40.E.]

g rave

w as

f ound w ith p ottery s imilar t o s ome p ost-Meroitic

t ypes. A rkell

1 952:210-3.

1 934:107-10.

4 9

3 .0.8

T he W estern B utana.

T he r egion o f t he W estern B utana h ere i ncludes t he K eraba a nd p arts o f t he S harq e l A teik, b eyond t he l imits o f t he B utana c lay p lain , a n a rea o f s ome 2 5,000km2. P rimarily a r egion o f e xposed N ubian S andstone, t here a re major

p eripheral

o utcrops

C ataract a nd a t J .Qeili.

o f

B asement

C omplex a t S abaloka,

o n t he 6 th

I n t he c entre o f t he r egion t he s andstone

f orms

e xtensive m esas w hich a re h eavily e roded t owards t he r iver, w here t hey f orm a s eries o f r agged e scarpments, p articularly p rominent i n t he S hendi R each

[ Whiteman 1 971:69].

T he p rime w atershed i s a b road r idge t hat e xtends D uleiq

a nd J .Qeili;

[ ibid:112]. d raining

T he l argest

t o

t he

f rom S abaloka t o

A bu

e ither s ide o f w hich t here i s w ell d eveloped d rainage w atercourses

B lue N ile,

a re

t he

W .Soba

a nd t he W .Awateib ,

a nd

W .Dosheim ,

W .el

H asib

W .el H awad a nd

W .el Mukabrab i nto t he S hendi R each. T he

d istribution

r iverine d istricts t he

o ther

s urvey , m ight

o f

t he a lluvial t erraces i s n oted i n d iscussing t he

s outh o f A tbara.

I n t he i nterior ,

t he d istribution

p oorer a lluvial s oils r eceived l ittle a ttention b efore Ahmed 's

w hich w as l argely b ased o n a erial h ave

b een

p hotographs

[ 1984:87-96].

h e

r ecent

On t he e dge o f

n oted

a nother l arge a rea o f a rable l and i n t he D engalia

w ork,

n orth

o f

K hartoum

c onfirmed

t he

p resence

o f

[ Caneva

e t

c onsiderable s ediments i n t he s maller w adis d raining w estwards a l

1 986:35,Fig 7 ].

W ithin h is

s urvey a rea,

t he W .Awateib a nd t he W .el H awad , 1 ,763

km2

o f

A s

p redicted h e w as a ble t o m ap c oncentrations o f a lluvial

s oils i n t he w adis a nd i n t he p layas a ssociated w ith t hem . t he B utana, b asin. O ther

o f

a lluvial

b ounded b y t he r iver ,

s ome 1 2,000 k m2,

s oils.

T his

i s

b oth

b etween

Ahmed mapped a t otal o f the

most

f ertile

a nd

a rchaeologically most i mportant a rea i n t he r egion. T he

l ow

r ainfall o f t he a rea,

i n r eplenishing

u nderground

s ome 1 00-200mm a nnually ,

w ater

s upplies.

T here

i s

a re

s ignificant

a

s eries

o f

p ermanent w ells a long most o f t he w adi b eds, n otably the W .el H awad . W ithin t his S emi-Desert z one, o n p oor s oils, t he r ains s upport a cacia s crublands,

c oncentrated i n t he w adis

s emi-desert a reas,

[ Lebon 1 965:20-2].

t he g rowing s eason i s

s hort,

a nd

e ven

A s w ith a ll t he t he

w adis

a re

l argely b arren i n t he middle o f t he d ry s eason. T he most c omprehensive s tudy o f l and u se, a ncient a nd modern , h as b een m ade b y Ahmed [ op.cit] i n d eveloping h is model f or M eroitic e xploitation o f t he r egion [ ibid:83-104]. O nly a f ew s alient f eatures o f t he e vidence n eed b e r epeated h ere. S easonal c ultivation i n t he w adis w as n oted b y H ewison

[ 1948:743]

a s a n i mportant e lement i n t he e conomy

R each.

T his c onfirmed t he e arlier o bservations o f L epsius

C rowfoot

[ 1911:10],

o f

t he

w ho b oth n oted a s ubstantial movement o f t he

p opulation i nto t he L epsius r ecorded t hat

i nterior f ollowing " the w hole v alley

5 0

S hendi

[ 1853:154]

a nd

r iverine

t he r ains. I n J anuary 1 844, o f t he A wateb i s e ven n ow

d , -

c n U -

5 1

Western B u tana S i tes

c ultivated l and"[loc.cit]. H owever, i n

t he i mportance o f t his c ultivation h as

r ecent

y ears.

T he

i ntensification

o f

d eclined

l and

u se

d ramatically

a long t he r iver ,

f acilitated b y t he e xpansion o f m echanized i rrigation , h as d iminished t he a ttractions o f t he r ainlands, w hich a re l ittle u sed e xcept i n y ears o f e xceptional r ainfall t he B utana p roper, Arabs,

c ultivation

e vidence

f or

p opulation ,

[ Lee 1 970:97].

O n t he o ther h and ,

o n t he m argins

o f

w here t here i s a p ermanent p opulation o f s emi-sedentary c ontinues

o ver

c onsiderable

a reas

[ loc.cit].

T he

r ecent a nd p re-modern c ultivation p ractised b y t he r iverine s uggests

t hat

a griculture

w as

a

major

f actor

i n

e arly

e xploitation o f t he a rea. Ahmed c learly f avours s uch a b asis f or M eroitic s ubsistence, b oth a long t he r iver a nd i n t he h interland [ op.cit:103-4]. An

a lternative model f or l and u se h as

p astoralism ,

w ith t he emphasis

m easure

c onfusion

o f

p astoral n omads, i nfluenced

s uch

s till

o n

s uggested a f ar g reater r ole f or

c attle

h erding

[ Al-Hakim

s urrounds t he d ebate.

p redominantly c amel r aising i n t he models.

A s

h as

b een

s een ,

1 972].

A

T he p resence o f A rab B utana,

t he

h as

c learly

c amel n omads r arely

p enetrate t he W estern B utana, a nd t heir s easonal movements a re t o a nd f rom t he A tbara , t he B lue N ile a nd t he s outh. T here i s ' n o c omparable p astoral e xploitation o f t he W estern B utana. M odern g razing b y e lements o f t he r iverine p opulation i s s mall s cale, a nd d ominated b y h ardy c aprovines r ather t han c attle. K hartoum

i s

A s Ahmed p oints o ut,

e xtremely

l imited

t he c attle p opulation

a s c ompared t o o ther s pecies

n orth

o f

[ op.cit:92,

F ig .5.3]. A p ast e nvironment w ith g reater r ainfall a nd more a bundant g razing a nd w ater s upplies c annot b e t otally d iscounted , b ut t he s evere c onditions w hich w ould s till e xist i n t he d ry s eason w ould s till make t ranshumance t o the r iver e ssential, w ater

s upplies,

t ransform

s uch

p articularly f or f odder.

b oth a

n atural

a nd

s emi-desert

T he m ere p resence o f b etter

a rtificial

e nvironment.

( i.e. O n

t he

h afirs) o ther

c ould n ot h and

a rchaeological e vidence f or a s ubstantial o ccupation o f t he a rea , i n M eroitic t imes d emands that a n i ntegrated s tudy

o f

p astoralism i nterior.

r iverine a reas a nd t he

3 .0.9

a nd

a griculture

b e

made,

b oth

i n

t he

t he

a t l east

p otential

o f

A rchaeology o f t he W estern B utana.

E arly r ecords o f t he monumental s ites o f t he r egion w ere m ade b y n ineteenth-century v isitors, n otably C ailliaud [ 1826], L inant [ 1958] a nd L epsius C rowfoot

[ 1853]. [ 1911]

T hese

a ccounts

w ere

n early a ll o ther w ork c oncentrated s ites,

a nd

o nly

s upplemented

a nd b y t he H umboldt U niversity a

l imited

o n

r ecord

t he h as

m ore b een

b y

t he

s urveys

[ Hintze 1 959]. s pectacular made

o f

s ites o f Musawwarat e s S ofra a nd N aga

5 2

[ Hintze 1 959,

m onumental

" lesser"

E xcavation a nd s ystematic d ocumentation h as c entred o n t he major

o f

T h e .se a nd s ites.

M eroitic

1 962,1963,1967-8].

M usawwarat E nclosure, a reas

c onsists

o f

a

m ajor t emple c omplex ,

w ith f urther t emples,

n earby.

Q oz B armilo , C hristian

T o

b ut

w orkshops,

c lose t o t he c entral a rea ,

l arger

s ite

a t

" town"

N aga

s ite.

d iagnosed

n oted s everal

o ccupation

f ine

a s

t he

a t

s outh

l east a re

f ive

t emples

t wo h afirs.

M eroitic

s herds

i n

t he

a s

a

a nd

a

T wo tumulus h afir

[ Hintze 1 959:183-7].

d isturbed n orthern c emetery d uring a v isit

a nd

T örök 1 974:78-83].

A s ingle p oor g rave n ear t he

p ost-Meroitic

w heel-made

b oth p ost-Meroitic tumuli

" temple" w as u sed o r r ebuilt

i ncludes

T o

c emeteries c omplete t he c omplex. t entatively

o ther

[ Hintze 1 967-8:294-7;

T here i s a lso e vidence t hat a p ossible c hurch [ Török o p.cit:72-100]. T he

c entred o n t he G reat

a nd

t he s outhwest t here i s a s till u nexplored c emetery a t

g raves h ave b een f ound

s ubstantial

h afirs

w as

T he a uthor

d ebris

o f

t he

i n 1 986.

A n umber o f s maller s ites w hich m ay b e g rouped t ogether a re t hose s mall t emples/shrines, o ften w ith h afirs n earby. O ne o f the t horoughly

e xplored ,

c emeteries

i n

D uanib ,

t he

J .Hardan ,

' Alim ,

h as

v icinity.

J .Matruqa,

t wo

s hrines,

S imilar

Muraaba ,

o ther

b uildings

a nd

g roups a re k nown a t A wlib ,

B asa ,

N asb e s S a rni,

s ites w ith more i ll-defined b rick o r s tone r uins. A most p rominent h afirs.

H inkel

a

t otal

e xceeding

8 00

c omparison w ith e xamples a t Musawwarat a nd N aga, U suda

w hich

a utomatic

a

f urther

i dentification ,

f our

n umber

[ 1986:175.n.15].

a nd o thers

i s d ecorated w ith M eroitic s culptures

a re g eneraly a ssigned t o t hat p eriod. a n

w ith .

f eature o f t he W estern B utana i s t he l arge

s uggests

w ith m ore

s uch

[ Crowfoot

H intze h owever,

a s

1 911],

o f B y U mm

t hese

h as q uestioned s uch

l argely d ue t o t heir p resence i n t he B utana

p roper, w here n o o ther e vidence f or M eroitic o ccupation h as b een f ound [ 1959:196]. While s everal a re a ssociated w ith o ther M eroitic r emains, i t a ppears f rom t he d istribution r ecorded b y t he S udan S urvey t hat g reatest c oncentration i s i n a b road b and e ast a nd w est o f A bu D uleiq. o ne s ector s ome 1 2 m iles a t

l east

2 5 h afirs.

s quare n ear t he h ead o f t he W .el H awad ,

T he o nly o ther " antiquity"

a s ingle E gyptian s carab f rom o verall

d istribution

I snabir

[ Porter

s everal c emeteries h ave b een r ecorded.

t here a re

r ecorded f rom t he a rea i s &

Moss

o f t umuli a cross the r egion i s

h ave b een n oted t owards t he r iver

O ther more

[ Al-Hakim 1 972;

1 951:272].

l ittle k nown ,

g eneral G eus

c learly

c oncentrated i n a reas o f a lluvial s oils,

l and i n t he W estern B utana

[ 1984:93-94].

n atural

w ater

i mportant

d istribution t racks

o f

w hich

c ross

T his

s upplies. t he

a lso T he

W estern

d istributions

J .Qeili a re n odal p oints, S uch

r outes

w ere

s uggests,

p erhaps

t hey

c oincides

w ith

t he

w adis c arry a n umber o f

B utana

a nd

t he

B utana;

a nd E ast-West

f rom

t he R ed S ea o r E thiopia W ad H assuna , A bu D eleiq a nd

w ith g ood n atural a nd a rtificial w ater s upplies.

c ertainly

[ Cailliaud.III:138-9]

a nd

t he o nly p roductive

n orth-south l inking t he S hendi R each a nd t he B lue N ile, t he K hartoum a rea t o Q oz R eqeb a nd u ltimately [ Vercoutter 1 962:263]. A long t hese r outes,

T he t hough

1 986:28-9].

T he b ulk o f t hese s ites w ere r ecorded b y Ahmed i n h is s urvey , a re

t he I n

a nd a s

o f s ome a ntiquity b y t he n ineteenth c entury t he

i nscription

i n M eroitic t imes.

5 3

o f

S herkarer

a t

J .Qeili

3 .0.10

S ite G azetteer:

T he W estern B utana.

1 . A BU D ELEIQ. [ 15.55.N./35.50.E.] Ahmed f ound 6 g raves, 3 km . w est o f A bu D eleic i , c ircles

f illed w ith g ravel,

c onsisting o f s tone

h e c onsidered s ome o f t he h and-made s herds

t o b e M eroitic. Ahmed 1 984:39. 2 .

A BU E RTEILA .

[ 16.51.N./33.43.E.]

A cross t he w adi f rom Awlib , mudbrick

r ubble

a nd

t here a re a t l east

p lastered

s andstone

4

mounds

b locks.

o f

T here

r ed i s

a nd much

M eroitic p ottery o n t he s urface. S hinnie 1 953:87; 3 .

H intze 1 959:176-7;

' ALIM .

[ 16.59.N./33.53.E.]

T here

i s a c omplex o f a t

h afir a nd c emeteries. b locks,

a nd

s ome

l east

Ahmed 1 984:23-5.

1 4 f eatures,

i ncluding a s mall t emple ,

T he s hrine w as b uilt o f r edbrick a nd

o f

t he g raves w ere c learly M eroitic.

s andstone O ther s tone

c airns r emain u nexcavated. Addison & D unham 1 922; 4 .

AMBASA . T here

H inkel 1 985:163-71.

[ 16.09.N./33.53.E.] a re

s everal

w heel-made v isible.

l ow g ravel mounds,

M eroitic

e xamples.

w ith s herd s catters,

T here

a re

n o

o bvious

i ncluding s tructures

T here a re 2 s mall h afirs c lose b y.

Ahmed 1 984:39-40. 5 .

K hor AWLIB.

[ 16.52.N./33.43.E.]

T here i s a l arge h abitation s ite o n t he n orth s ide o f t he w adi, i ncludes

a

t emple,

r ubble mounds w hhelmade 2 50m .

d ating

i nclude r edbrick

s herds.

I n

a nd

f rom

a shlar,

t he w adi b ottom ,

a nd

h as

f ine

C rowfoot

1 911:12;

H intze 1 959:176;

Ahmed 1 984:21-2.

W adi E l B ANAT.

[ c.16.32.N./33.18.E.]

H intze

t hat t here a re s everal c emeteries a nd s mall h afirs n ear

n otes

B ASA .

b ut g ives n o d etails.

[ 16.42.N./33.53.E.]

T here

i s

s mall

t emple

p lastered

a l arge h afir, w ithin

r ough

a n

s tone.

s ome 2 50m . e nclosure

a cross, w all

w ith M eroitic s tatues. s tands

n earby ,

C rowfoot

1 911:13-8;

b uilt

A o f

E xcavation o f p art o f a l arge mound b etween

t he t emple a nd h afir p roduced n o s tructural r emains a nd may d egraded mud w alls.

8 .

T he

M eroitic

t here i s a l arge h afir a bout

t he w adi, t o t he n orth a nd n orthwest o f D uanib, H intze 1 959:179. 7 .

w hich

t he N apatan p eriod.

a cross a nd a nother s mall b uilding.

S ayce 1 909:198; 6 .

p ossibly

H intze 1 959:178;

Ahmed 1 984:29-31.

B ASA N orth. [ 16.42.N./33.53.E.] H intze r ecords a f urther o ccupation s ite t o t he n orth M eroitic s herd s catters.

5 4

r epresent

o f

B asa ,

w ith

H intze 9 .

1 959:178.

B ASA S outh.

[ 16.41.N./33.53.E.]

T here a re 3 mounds h ere, r edbrick , 2 -3m . a cross. b uildings

o r

g raves,

t hough

h ere. S mith & A dam 1 950:306; 1 0.

E l B EIDA U MM G AR . J ackson

n oted

i ncluding a s mall c ircle o f r ough s tone a nd I t i s u nclear i f t he m ounds r epresent Ahmed f ound M eroitic w heel-made s herds

Ahmed 1 984:31.

( Beidumgar )

t hat

t he

[ 15.41.N./33.19.E.]

l arge

a ccording t o l ocal t radition.

h afir

T here

h ere

a re

n o

w as b uilt b y t he d etails

o f

' Anaj'

t he

r uins

m arked o n t he S urvey map. J ackson 1 926:25. 1 1.

DARU.

[ 16.04.N./33.52.E.]

H intze r ecords a c emetery o f 3 0-40 l arge tumuli, H intze 1 2.

D UANIB. T here

a cross.

[ 16.31.N ./33.22.E.]

i s

m ounds. r emains,

a

l arge

s ite

w ith

a t

l east 3 t emples a nd 3 o ther l arge

T est e xcavations o f o ne o f t hese f ailed b ut t here i s much w heel-made p ottery.

H intze 1 959:179; 1 3.

u p t o 2 0m .

1 959:189.

t o

f ind

s tructural

Ahmed 1 984:32-3.

W adi E ISH. [ 16.57.N./33.50.N.] H inkel f ound a s andstone q uarry h ere w ith b oth M eroitic a nd

C hristian

i nscriptions. H inkel 1 985:175. 1 4.

GANETTU. [ 16.35.N./34.54.E.] A l arge c emetery o f s ome 2 00 tumuli a t t he

j unction o f t he W .Hawad a nd

W .Sawad. G eus 1 5.

1 974:27.

B ir E l G EHEID I .

[ 16.14.N./34.07.E.]

A s mall c emetery o f c .15 t umuli s outh o f t he w ell. S mith & Adam 1 950:305. 1 6.

B ir E l G EHEID I I. c

1 80m .

[ 16.14.N./34.06.E.]

N E f rom Q ubba o f W ad A bu N agma a re s everal c airns a nd mounds

o f o ccupation d ebris, S herds

f rom

h ere

p ost-medieval,

w ith t he r uins o f a t l east o ne

w ere

a ll

u ndistinctive

l arge

b uilding .

a nd t he s ite m ay w ell b e

a ssociated w ith t he q ubba.

S mith & A dam 1 950:305. 1 7.

J ebel G EHEID. T here

a rea

d iameter.

[ 15.43.N./33.30.E.]

l east B elow

6 0 t here

s tone i s

c airn a

s mall

g raves o n the h ill, h afir.

w heel-made, a pparently M eroitic s herds h ere. Ahmed 1 984:38.

5 5

Ahmed

u p t o 8 m .

r ecovered

i n

s ome

1 8.

G EREIN B ASA. Ahmed

[ 16.42.N./35.56.E.]

f ound

a

s catter

o f

f eatureless g ravel r idge.

h and-made

s herds

a long

a n

o therwise

T hese h e t hought w ere M eroitic.

Ahmed 1 984:31. 1 9.

J ebel H ARDAN. T here

i s

a

[ 16.15.N./33.19.E.] s mall

e nclosed

t emple,

b uilt o f p lastered r ough s tone.

C lose b y t here a re 2 f urther s mall b uildings, w ithin.

A

M eroitic

s tela

o ne w ith 4 c olumn

w as f ound h ere.

A t t he w est

b ases

f oot o f t he

h ill t here i s a lso a s mall h afir. Addison 1 926:56-7; 2 0.

H intze 1 959:459;

Ahmed 1 984:35.

E l H ASSANI. [ 16.41.N./33.53.E.] Ahmed f ound 7 l ow s tone mounds, s uggesting b uilding r emains; c airns

s uperimposed o n i t.

O f t he r are s herds,

a nd s ome w ere p ossibly modern:

f ew

w ere

o ne h ad 2

w heel-made ,

a nd t he d ate r emains u ncertain.

Ahmed 1 984:35. 2 1.

E l H OSH.

[ 16.58.N./33.51.E.]

T here a re b uilding r emains h ere,

o f r ough s tone,

r edbrick a nd p laster.

O ne r uin i s o f a M eroitic s hrine a nd t here i s a ' small h afir n earby. Addison & D unham 1 922:44; 2 2.

I DD e l A DDADA .

H inkel 1 985:171-3.

[ 16.09.N./33.18.E.]

H intze r eported a s mall s tone r evetted h afir h ere,

t ogether w ith

s ome

s mall t umuli. H intze 1 959:188. 2 3.

K ADABONA . [ 15.59.N./33.53.E.] A c emetery o f a bout 4 0 t umuli marks o ne o f t he l argest g roups W estern

B utana.

h afir n earby.

T here

J ebel K HEREIQ I . T here 2 0m .

i s

t he

s quare,

t he

( Hintze c alled t his s ite A bu D eleiq ).

S mith & Adam 1 950:304-5; 2 4.

i n

i s n o d ating e vidence f or t hese o r t he l arge H intze 1 959:189;

Ahmed 1 984:39.

[ 16.27.N./33.15.E.]

r emains

o f a b uilding ,

w ith a t l east

9 r ooms.

o f d rystone c onstruction ,

T est e xcavations r ecovered a

s ome f ew

M eroitic w heel-made s herds. Ahmed 1 984:36-7. 2 5.

J ebel K HEREIQ I I. [ 16.27.N./33.15.E.] T his s mall h afir, s ome 4 0-50m . a cross l ies a t t he b ottom o f S ufra.

t he

W .el

F ragments o f s tatuary a nd w heel-made s herds c onfirm a M eroitic

d ate. Ahmed 1 984:37. 2 6.

J ebel MALLIHA .

[ 16.50.N./33.46.E.]

Ahmed f ound s ome 8 0 c airns a round t he h ill, t hough w ith n o e vidence o f d ate. T here w as a lso a n u nexplained m ass o f w heel-made s herds c overing a n a rea o f 3 0 x 4 0m .

o n t he h ill t op.

Ahmed 1 984:37-8.

5 6

2 7.

J ebel MATRUQA. H ere

i s

a

[ 16.20.N./33.18.E.]

s mall

M eroitic

w ithin a n e nclosing w all. a cross

b uilt o f s mall s andstone b locks,

t here i s a s mall h afir,

MATRUSA.

Ahmed 1 984:33-4

6 0m .

.

[ 15.43.N./33.34.E.]

T here a re 3 g roups o f s ubcircular r oughstone s tructures, Ahmed

a bout

& a s mall g roup o f c airns.

A ddison 1 925:197-200; 2 8.

t emple,

N earby ,

r ecovered

o nly c oarse h and-made s herds,

a nd 2 h afirs.

a nd t he s tructures may

w ell b e o f q uite r ecent d ate. Ahmed 1 984:38-9. 2 9.

MURABBA .

[ 15.47.N./33.32.E.]

C rowfoot r ecorded a h afir, m easuring 1 20m . h ere. C rowfoot 3 0.

1 911:27-8;

s mall s andstone a cross. H owever,

Ahmed 1 984:39.

MUSAWWARAT E S S UFRA .

[ 16.25.N./33.22.E.]

T here i s a massive c omplex o f t emples G reat

E nclosure.

& o ther b uildings c entred o n t he

O nly t he major monuments h ave b een e xcavated & t he

e xtent o f o ther s ettlement h afirs.

r emains

u nclear.

T here

a re

h owever

L ater o ccupation i s marked b y a f ew p ost-Meroitic g raves,

p ossible u se o f T emple I IIA a s a c hurch , H intze 1 959-63,1973; 3 1.

b uilt t emple t ogether w ith a Ahmed f ound n o s urface s herds

O tto 1 967;

NAQA. [ 16.16.N./33.18.E.] T his l arge ' town ' s ite

2 t he

a nd C hristian g raves.

T örök 1 974b.

c overs

a n

a rea c .1 x 1 .5 km .

s everal w ell

p reserved t emples s till s tand , b ut t he l arge r ubble mounds r emain l argely u nexplored. T here a re 2 h afirs o n t he s outh s ide o f t he t own . T he

2

main

c emeteries

a re

u nexcavated

e xcept

f or

a

s ingle

u nidentifiable b urial f rom a t umulus. T he n orthern c emetery i s h eavily d isturbed b ut h as many M eroitic s herds o n t he s urface. W hitehead 1 926:62-4;

H intze 1 959:183-7;

Ahmed 1 984:34-5;

Authors n otes

1 986. 3 2.

J ebel NASB E S S AMI I .

[ 16.15.N./33.14.E.]

T here i s a s mall M eroitic s hrine

b uilt

a soociated

b uildings

k iosk

a nd

2

o ther

o f

T here i s a lso a l arge tumulus c emetery. W hitehead & Addison 1 926:58; H intze 1 959:188; 3 3.

J ebel NASB E S S AMI I I.

a shlar

b locks,

w ith

a n

b uilt o f p lastered s tone. Ahmed 1 984:35-6.

[ 16.15.N./33.14.E.]

A g roup o f s ome 2 0-30 g raves o n t he s outh s ide o f t he h ill. H intze 3 4.

QALA '

1 959:188;

Ahmed 1 984:35-6.

E L B INAIYAT.

[ 15.49.N./33.28.E.]

A c emetery o f s tone c overed tumuli o f u nknown d ate. G eus 3 5.

1 974:140-1.

Q OZ B ARMILO. [ 16.25.N./33.21.E.] T here i s a l arge c emetery a l ittle t o t he w est o f Musawwarat,

5 7

a t t he

f oot

o f t he h ills.

l ikely. H intze 1 963:226, 3 6.

Q OZ K EFEITA. Ahmed

I t r emains u nexcavated ,

b ut a M eroitic d ate s eems

1 973:284.P1.1.

[ 16.43.N./33.53.E.]

f ound

a s mall c emetery o f s ome 2 5 c airns a long a g ravel r idge,

r anging b etween 1 -7m . i n N eolithic, a nd o nly a

d iameter. f ew may

b e

M any s herds f ound t here w ere M eroitic - t he d ating r emains

u ncertain. Ahmed 1 984:32 3 7.

Q OZ K HEREIQ. A bout c .8m .

[ 16.27.N./33.15.E.]

l km .

N E

a cross,

o f

w ith 1 2

H intze 1 960:375-6; 3 8.

S HAQ E L AHMAR . H inkel

J ebel

K hereiq ,

s maller o nes,

G eus

t here i s a s ingle l arge t umulus,

r egularly s paced a round i t.

1 974:146.

[ 16.58.N./33.52.E.]

r ecords a dam b uilt a cross a s mall k hor,

M eroitic p eriod

o n

t he

e vidence

o f

t he

w hich h e d ates t o t he

c onstruction

t echniques.

N earby t here i s a lso a s mall s tone r uin a nd a s ingle g rave. H inkel 1 985:173-5. 3 9.

J ebel S URAT.

( J .Sirefat).

[ 16.07.N./33.25.E.]

T here a re t he r emains o f a t l east 3 b uildings b uilt o f p lastered r ough s tone. t emples.

T he

l argest

mound

m easures

T here i s a lso a s mall h afir

s ome 1 1m .x 2 0m .

T hese m ight b e

m easuring

1 50m .

s ome

a cross.

Ahmed o nly f ound h and-made s herds h ere. S mith & A dam 1 950:303-4; 4 0.

UMM B ASAL.

H intze 1 959:188-9:

Ahmed 1 984:38.

[ location u ncertain ]

C rowfoot n oted a g roup o f t umuli n ear a n

a rea

o f

c ultivation

l ying

b etween B asa a nd A wlib. C rowfoot 4 1.

1 911:13.

UMM DANGEILA .

[ site u ncertain]

C rowfoot r ecords a h afir , j ourney

f rom

A bu

D eleiq

r evetted w ith a shlar b locks, t owards

S hendi

-

t he

a bout 1

e xact

h our 's

l ocation i s

u ncertain , b ut t his may b e t he s ame s ite a s K adabona. C rowfoot 1 920:90-1. 4 2.

UMM S AMUGH.

[ 16.38.N./33.56.E.]

A l arge c emetery o f 5 0-60 tumuli a nd c airns. a re c ircular, t hough t here a re a lso l ater

S ome, u p t o 1 0m . s maller c airns.

a cross Ahmed

t hought a ll t he h and-made s herds t here might b e M eroitic. H intze 1 959:178; 4 3.

Ahmed 1 984:32.

UMM U SHEIRA E ast.

[ 16.42.N./33.54.E.]

Ahmed f ound 2 s tone c airns a nd a f ew h and-made t he w ell. Ahmed 1 984:32. 4 4.

UMM U SHEIRA W est.

[ 16.42.N./33.53.E.]

5 8

s herds h ere,

c lose

t o

Ahmed

f ound

9

l arge

s tone

c airns,

8 -17m .

i n d iameter,

w ith a f ew

h and-made s herds. Ahmed 1 984:32. 4 5.

UMM U SUDA .

[ 16.18.N./34.21.E]

A l arge M eroitic h afir, l ined i ntakes. m ound g raves,

s ome 2 20 x 2 00m .

a cross,

w ith p rojecting s tone

N earby t here i s a l arge c emetery o f tumuli o f u ncertain d ate.

S ayce 1 909:200;

C rowfoot 1 911:20-4.

5 9

a nd

s mall

3 .0.11

T he A tbara-Khartoum R each.

T his r egion c onsists o f t he w hole l ength o f t he N ile f rom t he 5 th C ataract t o t he c onfluence o f t he N iles a t K hartoum - Omdurman. F rom n ear E d D ar ner, t he r iver r uns t hrough N ubian S andstone, w ith t he e xception o f t he 6 th C ataract, w here i t c uts a d eep a nd n arrow g orge t hrough t he R ing C omplex a nd B asement C omplex h ills a t S abaloka [ Whiteman o p.cit.22-8]. N orth o f S abaloka, t he r iver v alley w idens, b ut i s c onfined b luffs a nd g ravel t erraces, o ften s everal m iles a part. c ourses o f t he r iver p articularly o n t he

a re t oday l eft b ank.

i ndicated b y t he n umber o f b asins, T he m ajor a lluvial d eposits a re u p t o 2

m iles w ide

[ Geus e t a l 1 986:83-4;

L ee

p rocesses

w hich

b asins

c reated

r iver w ith l arge n umbers

t hese o f

w ithin l ow T he a ncient

1 970:59,

s hifting

F ig.3].

T he

h ave s tudded t his a lluvial

c ontinuing

s tretch o f t he

i slands,

b ecoming

l ess

f requent n orth o f A tbara. N orth o f E d D ar ner , a s t he s andstone d isappears, t he v alley n arrows, a lthough t here a re r elatively b road a reas o pposite B erber , a round A bidiya a nd a t B auga.

I n e ach l ocation ,

s everal w ide w adi o utlets.

t he r iverine

a lluvia

B eyond t he l ast t wo,

a re

a ugmented

t he b arren d esert c onfines t he r iver t o a n i ncreasingly n arrow a nd i ncised c ourse. T he d istribution o f

t he

e leven

m ain

b y

a pproaching t he c ataract,

b asin

a nd

f our

d eeply

pump

s chemes

r ecorded b y A llan [ 1948:623-7,Fig.250] r eflects t he a lmost c ontinuous a nd r elatively i ntensive c ultivation a long t he l eft b ank , a nd t o a l esser e xtent o n t he r ight b ank,

i n t he c entral S hendi R each.

a re n ow i rrigated b y t he pump s chemes a t G andetto, B auga f urther n orth. T he modern c analization r anging f rom 2 ,000 t o 8 ,000 f eddans e ach , a nd

d raining

l ow f loods,

o f

e nsures more d ependable

t hese b asins a t h igh r iver.

many o f t he b asins w ould

h ave

T he l argest b asins

A h ab, K iteiyab, a nd o f t he s maller b asins,

P rior t o t his,

r emained

d ry

f looding

i n y ears o f

[ Lee

1 970:59].

E ven i n r ecent t imes, the t otal a rea f looded h as v aried b etween 6 ,000 a nd 4 1,000 f eddans [ Barbour o p.cit:141-2]. I n t he B asement C omplex t o t he n orth , t here a re o nly 3 b asins, o f w hich B auga w as e arly c onverted t o a pump s cheme. T he o thers a re a t D angeil-Hassa a nd M ikeilab, o n t he r ight b ank.

S outh o f S abaloka there a re n o t rue b asins.

While the b asins a re c oncentrated i n t he S hendi R each , o f

o ther a lluvial s oils

t he d istribution

s uitable f or s aqia a nd s eluka c ultivation i s more

w idespread. N orth o f K hartoum , t here a re a t l east 2 p alaeochannels l ying u p t o 2 m iles e ast o f t he p resent r iver c ourse. T he a ncient a lluvium f orms a n e xtensive, " tongue"

p otentially

f ertile

p lain.

1 0 m iles w ide a t t he c onfluence o f t he N iles. b arest

Moreover,

t here

i s

a

o f t he G ezira c lays a long t he r iver c ourse w hich i s a pproximately m inimum

o f

e xtends d own t o 1 986:34-5,Fig.7].

a lluvial t he

s oils,

r iver

e dge

6 0

a nd

T he w est b ank h as o nly

t he

i n p laces t he s andstone d esert [ Caneva, Marcolongo

&

P almiri

0

4

: e ,

6 th C a taract

1 6°-

Western Butana

Bas ins

0

/m i les

5 0

0

kms

8 0

3 3

F ig 1 1 .

A tbara - K har toum

6 1

*

D ownstream o f S abaloka, t here a re w ide a reas o f a lluvia, mainly o n t he r ight b ank, s upplementing t he t rue b asins. T oday t hese a re e xploited b y p ump s chemes a t G andetto , l inked

A h ab ,

S hendi,

T aragma a nd E l

H assah.

C losely

t o t hese a re t he l arge w adis d raining t he w estern B utana;

i mportant b eing t he W .Awateib n ear W ad B en N aga , W .Dosheim

n ear

T aragma,

W .Banat

n ear

t he m ost G andetto ,

W .el H awad a t M eroe K abushiya a nd t he W .Mukabrab

a t Z eidab E ast. N orth o f B erber, t he b road t erraces a nd b asins q uickly d iminish w ith o nly a l imited b and o f s aqia a nd s eluka l and . A r ibbon o f s ettlement e xtends

a s

v illages. d earth

f ar

n orth

L ee's

o f

a s

B auga,

b ut

b eyond

t here

a re f ew s cattered

s tudy o f l and u se i n t he G ananita a rea

l and

a s

U nlike f urther s outh ,

f ound

d ownstream o f t he c ataract

t here

a re

f ew

a lluvial

s hows

a

s imilar

[ op.cit:60,fig.4].

i slands,

a nd

t hese

a re

r elated t o t he w idening o f t he v alley a t B auga a nd D angeil - A bidiya: d ownstream a t t he h ead o f t he c ataract t hey a re more r ocky w ith o nly l imited

p atches

o f

s oil

[ loc.cit].

Overall,

a gricultural l and a nd modern s ettlement m ostly

o n

t he

l eft

b ank.

i s

S outh

o f

S hendi

S abaloka

c oncentrations o f p opulation o n t he r ight b ank; o r l ess c ontinuous

t he g reat c oncentration o f

b etween

a nd

t here

B erber ,

a re

l esser

a nd n orth o f B erber,

m ore

c ultivation i s p ossible a s f ar a s A bidiya a nd B auga.

P re-modern p atterns o f a griculture a nd s ettlement r ecorded b y C ailliaud a nd

H oskins

s eem

t o a ccord c losely w ith more r ecent o nes.

T he n orthern

l imits o f f ertility w ere a pparent i n t he D angeil - A bidiya a rea: " since

w e

r eached

e l

F errakeh ,

q uite d ifferent; more v illages,

the c haracter o f t he c ountry i s

a r icher s oil a nd e ven t he

t hickly s tudded w ith t rees l ike a s hrubbery." S outh o f S abaloka, u ncultivated

i n t he o ld H alfaya p rovince t he

l and ,

[ 11:195-6;

I II:100].

H oskins

r eported

p articularly o n t he l eft b ank,

i nundation

m anual l abour" [ op.cit:53]. C oupled d istribution o f a griculture, h owever, i s h erding

( unlike,

c hameaux e t W ith

a n

a pparent

f or e xample,

a nd

o f

but

the

s aw t hat t he N ile

a nd

b y

t o t heir d escription o f t he s tress o f t he i mportance o f

i n t he D ongola R each ).

l es b oeufs e n b osses

p overty

w as n oted b y C ailliaud

s ome 5 00 s aqias i n B erber p rovince,

b ulk o f t he l and w as i rrigated " by t he

d esert

[ Hoskins o p.cit:43]

C ailliaud s ays:

s ont l a r ichesse d e l a p ays"

" les

[ III:110].

a gricultural p otential r arely e qualled i n t he n orthern S udan ,

t he c entral S hendi R each w ould b e e xpected t o a ct a s a f ocus s ettlement. L ying w ithin a r egion w ith a ppreciable r ainfall, h owever,

f or a ny

e stimation o f s ubsistence, e conomic a nd u ltimately s ettlement p atterns must a lso b e r elated t o t he i ncreasingly h ospitable h interland o f t he W estern B utana a nd t o a l esser e xtent, o f t he B aiyuda. B oth t he e vidence f or p re-modern e xploitation o f t hese a djoining a reas b y t he r iverine p opulation a nd t he n otable M eroitic p resence i n t he i nterior, c lose i nteraction b etween t hese a reas.

6 2

i ndicate t he

3 .0.12

A rchaeology b etween t he 5 th c ataract a nd K hartoum .

A rchaeological i nvestigation b etween E d Da r ner a nd t he 5 th C ataract i s v ery l imited , i n s pite o f i ts r elative a ccessibility. O nly a d ozen d efinable s ites a re r ecorded t o d ate, i n t he s urveys o f C rawford [ 1953], J ackson m ost

[ 1926]

f ully

i ncludes

a nd C rowfoot

r ecorded

a n

b y

e nclosed

[ 1911].

T he m ost n otable i s t hat a t D angeil ,

C rawford

o r

[ 1953a:8-9].

f ortified

T he

" oblong c amp"

l arge

s ettlement

o f mud a nd r ed b rick.

S herd c ollections a nd a n i nscription c onfirm a M eroitic d ate. O pposite D angeil o n t he p rominent j ebel a t N akharu , a l arge d ry s tone f ort d ominates t he l eft b ank. C hristian

p ottery

i n

W hile t he

s till

s ite,

u nconfirmed ,

t hough

c omparable s ite a t J ebel Umm M arrihi m ay i ndicate [ Crawford

1 953b:17-9].

t here

s trong

s eems

s imilarities a

M eroitic

t o w ith

b e a

f oundation

T he o nly o ther h abitation o r v illage s ite i n t he

a rea i s M eroitic a t B auga/Et T ikkawin. C onsiderable

c emeteries

t umuli f ields a t S uwiktab , U mm G odima.

a re

r eported

A bu H araz,

o n

F ahalab ,

t he

w est b ank,

J ebel

N akharu ,

w ith m ajor B auga

t he d istribution o f t hese tumulus

f ields.

A f inely p reserved

" box-grave"

c emetery w as f ound n ear U mm G odima a t E l G ol [ Crawford 1 953a:11-12]. g rave f rom A bu H araz, w hich c ontained M eroitic w heel-made a s w ell a s i mpressed

h and

made

h ave b een o pened S outh

a nd

N o more r ecent a ttempt h as b een made h owever t o b etter d efine

o f

E d

O ne m at

j ars i s n oteworthy a s t he o nly g rave i n t his a rea t o

[ Crowfoot Dar ner ,

1 927a].

t he c oncentration o f s ites

i ncreases,

a s d oes t he

i ntensity o f r esearch i n t he e nvirons o f t he major s ite c omplex o f M eroe B egrawiya. T his w ork h as s erved t o s upplement t he r eports o f t he n ineteenth c entury t ravellers, r uins

t hen

H assa T he

r ecorded

[ Cailliaud.III c oncentration

a lthough o nly r ecently

h ave

b een c onfirmed a s M eroitic s ites, : 161;

L inant

1 958:138;

G eus

&

s ome

o f

t he

a s a t T aragma a nd

R einold

1 979:9-12].

o f e ffort o n s ite-specific p roblems a t M eroe h as a dded

l ittle t o i nformation o n

m ore

g eneral

a spects

o f

M eroitic

a nd

l ater

s uccessively

b y

G arstang

( 1910-14),

o ccupation o f t he r egion. T he

M eroe

c omplex ,

e xcavated

R eisner ( 1922-5) a nd S hinnie ( post 1 965), i ncludes t he " Royal C ity" a nd a ssociated t emples, t he c ity p roper, M eroitic c emeteries i ncluding t he r oyal

p yramids

3 00-399. o nly

a nd

t he

s ubstantial

p ost-Meroitic

O f t he m ain o ccupation s ite m easuring s ome

s ome

s ettlement

1 5%

h as

a s

y et

b een

s ites a re r eported ,

e xcavated.

r anging f rom t he

Apart

c emeteries 8 00

1 -99 a nd

1 000

m etres

f rom M eroe,

s ome 1 3

M eroitic

x

t emple-"palace"

c omplex a t W ad B en N aga [ Vercoutter 1 962] t o m odest h abitation s ites s uch a s F ikhikheira [ Ahmed 1 984:26-31]. M eroitic t emples w ith a ssociated s ettlements

a re

k nown

a t

G adu ,

Mutmir

[ Hintze 1 959:

1 74-5],

M eshra e l

H assan [ Shinnie & B radley 1 977], H assa [ Geus & R einold l oc.cit] a nd H amadab [ Garstang 1 914-16:7]; t hese f orm w hat S hinnie s aw a s t he s uburban s prawl o f M eroe [ 1979:124]. Among t he o ther h abitation s ites, a ny e vidence f or C hristian o ccupation.

6 3

o nly 3 s how

3 3

3 4

9 7 • 3-34

1 6 17

• 6 7-68 •

2 1_ . _

1 8

• 6 1 8 9

2 6

2 2

•

• 5 1 1 0 1 1

2 0 • 4 0

1 4' 8 1 1 _ 3 _4

• •

6465 9 5

1 7

. 23 24

57 -5 8 2 8

5 0 •- 5 9 7 4-7 5-• j alk 2 7.

4 ) -- 4 2' 7 I le — •

e 6 0

3 2

5 3

4 3

4 4

*

4 5 2 9

2

1 02

6 3

\

\ t 2 \4 8

8 4 8 5

1 3 3 e 7

9 1

t s

s ‘ ,

• 1 03 7 3 S

8 0 1 6

•

98 -9 91 1 8 7 015-

_ _4

1 0 1-

£ 2

3 0-3 1

5 19

1 6 7 8 92

/6-54 0104

4 1 9

8 1 -82 1 05

7 2 9 0 1 00

3 9 7 4 6 -4713 7 6

0 -9 6 2 5

7 1 /

9 3

0

/m i les

5 0

0

kms

80

3 3

F ig 1 2 .

A tbara - K har toum S i tes

6 4

T he u biquitous tumulus r ecorded

i n t his a rea.

f ields

a re

p articularly

C rawford 's a ssertion t hat

t he r ight b ank n ow n eeds t o b e r ejected.

L arge

p rominent

n umbers

n orth o f M eroe a long t he h ills a nd g ravel r idges,

a nd

w ell

f ew w ere t o b e f ound o n a re

n ow

k nown

c oncentrated a t b ut a lso

e xtending b etween Umm A li - J .Dayiqa - Mutmir - A bu S heifa - B aqeir Z eidab E . W hile f ew h ave b een c losely e xamined , c ertainly s ome o f t hose a t B ageir a re S outh

" box-graves"

o f

M eroe,

[ Hintze o p.cit:172-4].

r escue

r evealed s even c emeteries, 1 986].

S urveys

h ave

e xcavations

s uggested

k ilometres a long t he r iver w ith a round

J .Kereiba

f or

a

S hendi a nd T aragma h ave tumuli

[ Geus

d istribution o f a t l east o ne e very 2

many

e xample

w hich r emains u nsurveyed ,

a round

s ome w ith s urviving e vidence f or more

f urther

i nto

[ Geus e t a l 1 986:84].

r ecorded

i n

6 th

C ataract

[ Hintze

T he l eft b ank h as l ong b een n oted f or m ore o bvious c emeteries,

o f w hich

e l

A sal

a rea

a round

t he

c emeteries

i nterior ,

a re

H ajar

o nly 3 m ixed

t he

U pstream o f S hendi,

f oot

o f

t he

t he

o p.cit:177].

t he t umuli

a t

[ Chittick

H obagi

1 957].

a re

R ecent

n earby a t H osh e l K afir ,

p articularly

l arge

a nd

e laborate

e xamples

f ieldwork h as i dentified a l arge f ortified s ite

p erhaps t o b e a ssociated w ith

t hese

p restigious

b urials, a s w ell a s a n umber o f s imilar s ites i n t he r egion , d ated t o t he l ate o r s ub-Meroitic p eriod [ Reinold & L enoble 1 989]. P reliminary r eports o f r elatively i ntensive s urvey b etween M etemma a nd K ali a long the d esert f ringes h as p roduced a p reliminary q uantification o f t hese g raves, w ith a n e stimate

o f

2 0-30,000

u nits i n t his 3 5 mile s tretch o f the r iver.

T his

may b e c ompared w ith a s ingle c emetery r ecovered i n t he a lluvial p lain , Q oz

B urra.

g eneral,

T he

t umuli

a ttributed

w ith o nly l imited e vidence

e lement i s i ndicated b y a t o r s mall mounds o nly

a re l east

f or

a t

t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod i n M eroitic

b urials.

A

m edieval

1 2 C hristian c emeteries w ith " box-graves"

[ Geus 1 986:27-9].

T o t he n orth o f t he s urveyed a rea w hile

a f ew g roups a re s pecifically r ecorded ,

s uggestion t hat t he g eneral d istribution i s

a round Z eidab W , a ny

d ifferent

t here i s n o

t han

f urther

s outh i n the s urveyed a rea. U pstream

o f

S abaloka,

t he

c emeteries

s till

p redominate.

I nitial

e xcavations a t t he f ortified s ite a t J ebel U mm Marihi i ndicate a M eroitic d ate. T he t wo h eavily r obbed k oms a t D efeia p roduced M eroitic f inds a nd C hristian b uildings, w ith l ater b urials [ Vercoutter 1 959:5-7]. S uggested c hurch s ites o n A slang a nd T uti i slands n umbers

o f tumuli o n b oth b anks

r emain

u nverified.

[ Chittick 1 957:73],

o f 4 ,000 u nits i n a n 1 1 m ile s tretch o f t he l eft b ank, h ave

b een

e xcavated ,

W ith

l arge

t here i s o ne e stimate

b ut r emain l argely u npublished

o f w hich

s ome

1 50

[ Al-Hakim 1 979:154].

O ne g roup a t B auda s tudied b y B abiker w ere l argely o f M eroitic d ate [ 1988]. Outside t his p articular a rea M eroitic a nd C hristian g raves w ere r ecovered a t S haheinab a nd i n Omdurman , [ Arkell

1 953:1-7,82;

V ercoutter

s uperimposed o n p rehistoric

1 959:7-8].

C hance

f inds

s ites

a nd l imited

e xcavations i n s imilar c ircumstances o n t he r ight b ank i ndicate c omparable b urials a t a n umber o f s ites, i ncluding s everal s ignificant tumulus c emeteries [ Haaland 1 987; C aneva 1 988c:321-46].

6 5

3 .0.13

S ite G azetteer: 1 .

A BU H ARAZ.

A tbara-Khartoum R each.

[ 18.01.N./33.58.E.]

A s ingle g rave a mong t he t umuli w as o pened i n 1 902. t o

h ave

h ad a r amp & e nd c hamber.

w heel-made

p ots

b ut

a lso

a

p ost-Meroitic i n a ppearance, C rowfoot 2 .

s eems

u nique

m at

impressed

e xample

m ore

a s w ell a s a b ronze b ell a nd c hain.

[ 16.31.N./33.02]

G eus r ecords a g roup o f r edbrick r uins,

3 .

g rave

1 927a:Pl.XXXII.

W .ABU M EIGA . G eus

T he

T he g rave g oods i ncluded M eroitic

o f u nknown d ate.

1 974:166.

J ebel A BU S HEIFA I .

[ c.17.12.N./33.48.E.]

T here a re n umerous tumuli i n t he a rea s tretching a long t he e dge o f t he p lateau t owards Mutmir. H intze 1 959:174. 4 .

J ebel A BU S HEIFA I I. Among

t he

many

[ c.17.12.N./33.48.E.]

tumuli

i n

p articularly l arge e xamples, H intze 1 959:174. 5

A BU T ULEIH.

t he

a rea ,

H intze

n oted

s ome s till s tanding 4 m .

o ne

g roup o f

t all.

[ 16.00.N./32.36.E.].

C aneva r ecorded h eavily damaged

a n b y

e xtensive s mall c emetery o f s ome 3 0 t umuli h ere , g ravel w orkings. A p ost-Meroitic d ate w as

s uggested b ut a M eroitic d ating i s q uite p ossible. C aneva 1 988c:337. 6

E l AHAMDA I . C aneva

[ 15.56.N./32.36.E.]

r ecorded

a n

t entatively a ssigned M eroitic d ate.

e xtensive t o

t he

c emetery

o f

p ost-Meroitic

s ome p eriod

3 0

t umuli

h ere ,

b ut p ossibly o f

C aneva 1 988c:340. 7

E l AHAMDA I I. A t l east

[ 15.56.N./32.36.E.]

8 much d amaged t umulus g raves h ave b een f ound h ere.

S ome m ay

b e d ated t o t he l ate M eroitic p eriod , t hough s ome may b e N apatan . L eclant 1 985:402; G eus 1 984:13; C aneva 1 988c:340. 8 .

A LIAB.

[ c.17.19.N ./33.48.E.]

H intze

n oted l arge tumulus

f ields i n t his a rea,

T hese i nclude s ome l arge e xamples, p acked. H intze 9 .

A SLANG.

4 -5m .

i n a t l east 3 g roups.

a cross a nd w ere o ften d ensely

1 959:174. [ 15.53.N./32.33.E.]

C rawford s uggested t hat t he e arly mosque o f A jib o n t he i sland may

b e

a c onverted C hurch , b ut t here a t p resent i s i nsufficient e vidence t o a ccept t his i dentification. B abiker n otes t hat p art o f M eroitic c emetery w as e xcavated o n t he i sland.

6 6

C rawford 1 953a:25; 1 0.

A TBARA .

B abiker 1 988,11:270,111:20-9.

[ 17.41.N ./33.59.E.]

V arious

P haraonic

b uilding w ork , l ocality

a nd

M eroitic

b ut m ost

n ear

o bjects

h ave b een r ecovered d uring

s eem t o b e s carabs a nd b eads.

t he

c onfluence

o f

t he

W erne

r ivers

w as

n oted k nown

a a s

' Kenisse'/'church '. W erne 1 852:25; 1 1.

S ayce 1 909:201;

A TBARA I sland. O ne

o f

t he

[ 17.41.N./33.58.E]

s mall i slands o pposite t he m outh o f t he A tbara h as l arge

q uantities o f c ut

s tones

a t

r ecorded

l arge f lat b ricks,

w as

s ite

t he

C rawford 1 951:20.

i dentified

i ts

u pstream

e nd.

C lose

b y

P almer

p robably f rom s ome r uined b uilding. b y

S ayce

a s

t he

l ocation

o f

T his

E zanes'

s tela/throne. S ayce 1 911:55; 1 2.

E l ATRA.

P almer m s:17-8.

( El H atra )

[ 16.45.N./33.32.E.]

T here i s a c emetery o f s everal s ite.

t umuli

h ere,

o verlying

a

N eolithic

E xcavation o f o ne s howed i t t o b e o f p ost-Meroitic d ate,

c hamber p erpendicular t o t he s haft a nd a c ontracted b urial.

w ith a

T he

o nly

s urviving g rave g oods w ere a f ew s herds a nd b eads. L eclant 1 3.

1 984:403;

AWLAD E l I MAM .

G eus

1 986:21;

G eus,

H inkel & L enoble 1 986:83.

[ 15.54.N./32.36.E.]

C aneva r ecorded a n e xtensive s ite

o f

a bout

3 0

t umuli,

t entatively

d ated t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod. C aneva 1 988c:342. 1 4.

E l B AQEIR.

[ 17.23.N./33.51.E.]

Among t he m any t umuli o f t he c emetery

h ere.

T he

r ight

b ank,

s uperstructures

r ectangular o r e lliptical,

H intze

w ere

n oted

b uilt

w ith a g ravel c ore.

T heir

o f

a n

u nusual

s tone, s hape

e ither

s uggests

t hey may b e C hristian. H intze 1 959:174. 1 5.

B AUDA .

[ c.15.54.N./32.32.E.]

1 04 o f 1 18 tumuli o f

a

p artially

b y B abiker.

p ublished

l arge

c emetery

h ave

b een

e xcavated

h ere ,

T he tumuli p roved t o b e o f M eroitic

d ate w ith l argely h and-made p ottery. A t l east 3 6 l ater C hristian g raves w ere f ound c ut i nto t he g rave mounds. 1 p ossible p ost-Meroitic b urial r emains u nproven. A l-Hakim 1 979:153-4; 1 6.

B AUGA I .

B abiker 1 988,1:132ff.

[ 18.14.N./33.55.E.]

T here i s a l arge s pread o f r edbrick r ubble w ith s herds o n t he s urface. M ost w ere c oarse b ut C rawford f ound s ome d iagnostic M eroitic t ypes. C rawford 1 953a:11-2. 1 7.

B AUGA I I.

[ 18.14.N./33.55.E.]

T here i s a l arge t umulus c emetery i n t his a rea. C rawford 1 953a:11-2.

6 7

1 8.

B UWEIDA.

[ 16.45.N./33.33.E.]

C ailliaud r ecorded a n e xtensive s pread o f r edbrick r uins, r iver i n t his p art o f T aragma. e roded

b y

t he

M eroitic d ate c emetery.

r iver m ay

C ailliaud.III:161; 1 9.

B YUT AWLAD AHMED. C aneva r ecorded a p rehistoric

b e

w hich

p robably

i s h ere c utting i nto t he r ight b ank.

s uggested

G eus,

c lose t o t he

T he s ite h as n ow d isappeared ,

H inkel

b y

t he

p roximity

o f

t he

A

K adada

& L enoble 1 986:85.

[ 15.59.N./32.35.E.]. s mall

s ite.

c emetery

o f

s ome

2 0

t umuli

o verlying

a

T hese w ere t entatively d ated t o t he p ost-Meroitic

p eriod b ut a M eroitic d ate i s p ossible. C aneva 1 988c:338. 2 0.

2 1.

E d D AMER .

[ 17.35.N./33.58.E.]

S ome

f ine

h ere,

t hough n o d etails a re a vailable.

DANGEIL.

M eroitic

c eramics

i n

K hartoum Museum a re p rovenanced t o

[ 18.08.N./33.58.E.]

T he i mportant r uins a re w ithin a r ectangular e nclosure c .300m .x w hich

r epresents

b astions. C rawford

t he

r emains

C ailliaud.III:179; DARMALI.

f ound h ere,

C rowfoot

1 911:8;

a nd t he p ottery a ppears t o b e a ll C rawford 1 953a:8-9.

[ c.17.49.N./34.00.E.]

C rowfoot i ndicates t he e xistence o f a s ite, t hough g iving n o d etails. C rowfoot 1 911:8. 2 3.

w ith

W ithin , t here a re t he r emains o f s everal buildings, a nd s uggested k ilns, d ue t o t he l arge q uantities o f s herds. A

M eroitic i nscription w as M eroitic.

2 2.

1 50m .

o f a mud w all f aced i n r edbrick,

J ebel DAYIQA I .

[ 17.04.N./33.42.E.]

A l ittle t o t he n orth o f t he h ill t here s ettlement,

p ossibly o f M eroitic d ate ,

w ith

i s

t he

r ubble

b oth r edbrick a nd s andstone d ebris.

mound

o f

a

H intze t hought

t his w as p robably o f M eroitic d ate. H intze 1 959:174. 2 4.

J ebel D AYIQA I I. N ear

t he

[ 17.04.N./33.42.E.]

h ill t here i s a c emetery o f s mall tumuli o f 2 -3m .

d iameter ,

b uilt o f s andstone r ubble. H intze 1 959:174. 2 5.

D EFEIA . T he

[ 15.39.N./32.37.E.]

s ite c onsists o f 2 s mall r ubble mounds c overed w ith r ed b ricks.

h eavily d amaged C hristian b uildings a re c rypt,

t hough

t hey

a re

e arlier s tructures b eneath ,

n ot

c onfirmed

but t he

s phinx w as a lso f ound o n t he s ite, s ettlement i n t he v icinity. V ercoutter 1 959:5-7; 1 961.

6 8

d ate

k nown ,

o ne

w ith

a

2

v aulted

t o b e c hurches.

T here w ere

i s

A

u ncertain.

N apatan

t hough t here w as n othing t o c onfirm

2 6.

F AHALAB.

( Fadlab?)

[ 17.43.N./33.56.E.]

C rawford r ecorded a tumulus l eft b ank.

f ield i n t his a rea,

a long t he r oad o f

t he

C rawford 1 953a:11. 2 7.

F IKHEIKHIRA .

[ 16.55.N./33.39.E.]

O n a l ow r ise t here a re s herd s catters a nd a f ew Ahmed

c onsidered

p roduct, G eus 2 8.

t he

r ecorded o therwise

1 976:20-1;

G ADU.

t hat

h and-made

w ares

r edbrick

f ragments.

f ound h ere w ere a l ocal

f rom M eroe.

Ahmed 1 984:26-31.

[ 16.58.N./33.43.E.]

T here a re n umerous t races o f M eroitic s ettlement, w ith t he r emains o f b rick & a shlar w alls, w ith M eroitic o r N apatan r eliefs a nd a s tatue o f a

l ion.

T his m ay b e t he s ite o f a t emple.

t he l argest

s ome 2 .5m .

h igh w ith m any

C hristian o ccupation i s s herds o f ' Soba' w are. H intze 1 959:175; 2 9.

G ANDETTO. H aycock

3 0.

G EILI.

l ater

i ncluding

[ c.16.41.N./33.22.E.]

t o s ubstantial M eroitic r uins a nd g raves i n t his a rea r ecently c onfirmed b y L enoble.

L enoble 1 987b:214.

[ 16.01.N./32.35.E.]

D uring e xcavations o f a n eolithic s ite, w as

S ome

S hinnie 1 961:36.

s outhwest o f S hendi; H aycock 1 976:37;

s herds.

i ndicated b y f inds o f p ottery h ere,

( Hosh b en N aqa/Muweis).

r efers

T here a re 2 m ain mounds,

M eroitic

f ound i ncluding a t l east

a n e xtensive M eroitic c emetery

1 0 t umuli.

L ater C hristian

a nd

I slamic

g raves w ere a lso f ound. L eclant 3 1.

1 979:398;

G EILI S HARQ.

C aneva 1 984,

1 985,

1 988.

[ 16.01.N./32.36.E.]

A s mall g roup o f 7 -8 tumuli w as r ecorded by C aneva,

t entatively

d ated

t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod. C aneva 1 988c:337. 3 2.

E l GHABA.

[ 16.45.N./33.33.E.]

A s ettlement mound w as k nown r ubble;

a t

t his

s ite,

c overed

w ith

b ut w as r ecently d estroyed d uring b uilding w ork.

r edbrick

I t h as b een

s uggested a s b eing o f M eroitic d ate. P arts o f a c emetery c ontaining a t l east 6 7 M eroitic, p ost-Meroitic a nd C hristian g raves h ave b een e xcavated. G eus 3 3.

& R einold 1 979:13;

E l G OL I . C rawford

G eus

1 982:178-9;

[ c.18.17.N./33.50.E.] f ound

a

v ery

w ell

p reserved g roup o f 3 3 C hristian g raves

o riented e ast-west a nd a rranged i n m ade o f r ough s tone, g rit & r ubble.

6 f t.

E l G OL I I.

r ows.

The

l ong a nd s tanding 4 ft.

C rawford 1 953a:12. 3 4.

L ecointe 1 987.

[ c.18.17.N./33.50.E.]

6 9

s uperstructures h igh ,

w ere

w ith a c ore o f

C rawford r ecorded a s econd g roup o f

r ectangular

C hristian

g raves

a

l ittle t o t he w est o f E l G ol I . T here w as a lso a t umulus w ithin a l arge c ircular e nclosure,which c onsisted o f a b ank made o f s mall s tones. C rawford 1 953a:12. 3 5.

H AJAR E L A SAL I . ( El M iga ). [ 16.21.N./32.46.E.] H intze r ecorded a l arge c emetery w ith s ome 2 00-300 g raves o f 2 M any

t ypes.

w ere s imple r ound tumuli o f h eaped s tone o r s tone b orders w ith a

g ravel f ill. T he o thers w ere r ectangular o r e lliptical, b uilt o f s tone w ith a g ravel c ore. T heir d imensions r ange f rom 1 .3 x 2 .5m t o 2 x 3 .5m . T hese a re p robably C hristian p eriod g raves, t hough t here i s n o r ecord o f t heir o rientation. H intze 1 959:177. 3 6.

H AJAR E L A SAL I I. [ 16.24.N./32.46.E.] H intze r ecorded a g roup o f 3 0-40 s mall t umuli, 1 -3m .,

a nd

h eight

0 .5-1m .

d iameters

B uilt o f r ough s tone,

r anging

f rom

t hey a re p artially

r obbed. H intze 1 959:177. 3 7.

H AJAR E L A SAL I II. H intze

f ound

a

[ 16.25.N./32.48.E.]

c emetery o f s ome 4 0-50 t umuli b uilt o f r ough g ranite

b locks. T hey w ere g enerally s mall, l arger o nes, 3 -4m . a cross.

o nly 1 -2m .

d iameter,

w ith

a

f ew

H intze 1 959:177. 3 8.

H AMADAB.

( Hamdab )

[ 16.53.N./33.41.E.]

T here i s a l arge o ccupation m ound w ith b uilding d ebris, m easuring s ome 2 75 x 2 05m . G arstang c arried o ut s ome e xcavation h ere, f inding a p robable t emple w ith a l arge M eroitic r oyal i nscription.

C ollections

o f s herds a ll s eem t o b e M eroitic. G arstang 1 914-16:7; 3 9.

Ahmed 1 984:21.

E l HAMRA . [ 15.55.N./32.36.E.] C aneva r ecorded a n e xtensive c emetery o f s ome 3 0

t umuli,

t entatively

d ated t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod. C aneva 1 988c:341. 4 0.

H ASAYA.

[ 17.29.N ./33.54.E.]

G eus n otes t hat t he

C hristian

s ite

marked

o n

t he

S urvey

Map

i s

t hough

n o

p robably M eroitic. G eus 4 1.

1 974:37.

H ERIZAB.

[ 15.51.N./32.31.E.]

B abiker n otes a M eroitic t umulus c emetery

r ecorded

h ere,

f urther d etails a re k nown. B abiker 1 988,11:270. 4 2

H illat H ASSAB A LLAH.

[ 16.51.N./33.42.E.]

A s mall M eroitic s ettlement h as b een l ocated c emetery c lose b y .

7 0

h ere,

w ith

a

p ossible

L enoble 1 987b:213; 4 3.

R einold & L enoble 1 987:61;

1 989

E l H ASSAH. [ 16.47.N./33.40.E.] A l arge a rea o f r uins w as n oted b y s everal 1 9th c entury t ravellers. C overed b y r edbrick r ubble, t here a re v estiges o f p lastered w alls, c arved s andstone b locks a s w ell a s a M eroitic r am s tatue. C ailliaud 's a nd L inant's c orrect. B urckhardt

s uggestion t hat t here w as

1 819:363-3;

a

t emple

C ailliaud.III:161-2;

h ere,

L inant

i s

p robably

1 958:138;

G eus

&

R einold 1 979:9-10. 4 4.

H OBAGI. Among

( U m Makharoqa )

n umerous

t umuli

w ithin e nclosures; T hey

s tand

[ c16.37.N./33.11.E.] i n

3 0-40m .

w ithin

t he a rea, a cross,

e xamples.

s till

s tand

2 -3.5m .

h igh .

l arge e lliptical w alled e nclosures b uilt o f r ough

s andstone b locks u p t o 8 0m . n orth-south.

C hittick f ound 5 l arge e xamples

t hey

T here

a re

a cross,

o rientated

w ith

t he

l ong

a xis

s ome 4 0 s maller tumuli amongst t he e nclosed

A f ew s herds o f ' Al a'

t ype

s uggest

t hat

t hese

a re

o f

p ost-Meroitic d ate, b ut r ecent e xcavations o f s ome o f t he t umuli f ound m ixed a ssemblages f rom t he t ransitional M eroitic/post-Meroitic p eriod . C hittick 1 957; 4 5.

R einold & L enoble 1 988.

H OSH e l K AFIR. [ 16.37.N./33.11.E.]. A l arge s ub-rectangular e nclosed s ettlement built o f r ough s tonework , c lose t o t he tumuli o f H obagi, A s ingle C 14

R einold & L enoble 1 987:61-2, 4 6.

p robably o f l ate o r s ub-Meroitic

s ample p rovided a d ate o f 1 600+50 B P 1 988:14,

d ate.

( GIF7199).

1 989.

K ABBASHI. [ 15.54.N./32.36.E.] T here i s a c emetery o f a t l east 5 0 l arge tumuli h ere.

S ome

e xcavated

e xamples d ate t o a v ery l ate M eroitic o r e arly p ost-Meroitic d ate. C aneva 1 986, 4 7.

1 987,

K ABBASHI H AITAH.

1 988:342. [ 15.54.N./32.36.E.]

C aneva r ecorded a v ery e xtensive s ite w ith s ome 1 00 t umuli , t entatively d ated t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod , b ut q uite p ossibly o f M eroitic d ate. C aneva 1 988c:342. 4 8.

K ADADA . R escue

[ 16.45.N ./33.33.E.] e xcavations

h ave

r ecovered

p arts

o f

a n e xtensive c emetery

c overing t he N apatan t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod. M eroitic

a nd

p ost-Meroitic

s uperstructures. p ost-Meroitic t ransition. I slamic

g raves

C eramic a ssemblages

t ypes S ome

c emetery

a re

a n

s preads m ay

w ere c omprising

i mportant

o f

b rick

r epresent

E xamples f ound b oth

i ndication

r ubble

b oth

t umulus

M eroitic

o f

u nderlying

a v illage s ite,

o f

w ith a

a nd

p eriod o f

t he

modern

t hough t his h as n ot

b een c onfirmed. G eus 4 9.

1 982,1986;

K ADERO. A

l arge

G eus

& L enoble 1 985

[ 15.44.N ./32.36.E.] n eolithic

s ite h as b een e xcavated on a n atural m ound i n t he

7 1

f lood

p lain.

l evels,

A Meroitic c emetery w as

o f w hich 1 4 g raves

p ost-Meroitic e roded g raves.

g rave.

N o

C hittick 1 955a:75-81; 1 987:42-3. 5 0.

K ALI N orth.

w ere

K rzyzaniak

5 1.

c ut a s

s uperstructures

i nto the p rehistoric w ell

a s

1

p robable

s urvived o ver t he h eavily

1 974,1979;

P rominska 1 984;

H aaland

[ c.16.57.N./33.41.E.]

A much e roded Meroitic c emetery w as G eus

f ound ,

e xamined ,

f ound d uring s urvey w ork.

1 986:29.

K ANNUR .

[ c.17.45.N./34.00.E.]

C rawford

r ecorded

r uins

i n

t his

a rea

( between D armali & A tbara ),

t hough w ith n o f urther d etails. C rawford 1 953a:10. 5 2.

K AWAHLA.

[ site u ncertain ]

B abiker

n otes

t he

p resence

o f

a

Meroitic

c emetery a t t his

s ite ,

s omewhere i n t he a rea o f S ururab. B abiker 1 988, 5 3.

1 1:270.

J ebel K EREIBA. A

l arge

h ills,

numbering

p roto-historic, L enoble 5 4.

( J . Makbor ).

[ 16.49.N./33.41.E.]

g roup o f tumuli a re r ecorded o n the r iverine o ver

1 000.

f lanks o f t hese

e xamples

i nclude

l ate Meroitic a nd m edieval g raves.

1 987b.

K HOGALAB.

[ 15.49.N./32.34.E.]

E xamples o f p ost-Meroitic b eer h ere. L enoble, 5 5.

E xcavated

P .

j ars h ave b een

r ecovered

f rom

g raves

( pers.comm )

E l MAGBOUD. [ site u ncertain ] L inant r ecorded a n o therwise u nknown r uined s ettlement

s omewhere a f ew

m iles w est o f T aragma. L inant 5 6.

1 958:138.

MAHMIYA. ( Gabati?) [ 17.09.N./33.43.E.] L epsius r ecorded the mounds o f s ome s mall ' broken

t iles',

C hristian

s herds,

i n

this a rea. though

T his

S ayce

r uins,

w ith

b ricks

a nd

i s p robably w here J ackson f ound

implied

that

the

s ite

m ight

b e

M eroitic. L epsius 5 7.

1 853:157;

E l MAROQA I . H intze

G arstang ,

S ayce & G riffith 1 911:6.nl.

[ 17.00.N./33.44.E.]

r ecorded a s mall c emetery o f

s ome

1 5

c ircular

t umuli

h ere.

T hey r anged i n d iameter b etween 4 -6m . H intze 5 8.

1 959:175.

E l MAROQA I I. [ 17.00.N./33.44.E.] O n t he h igher g round t o the e ast o f s ite I , o f

' very

l arge tumuli',

s ome

there i s a s econd c emetery

s till s tanding 3m .

7 2

h igh ,

p robably t hose

n oted h ereabouts b y L epsius. L epsius 5 9.

1 853:213;

M EROE.

H intze 1 959:175.

[ 16.54.N./33.44.E.]

T he main s ettlement s ite c overs i ncludes

t he

M eroitic

u nexcavated r ubble m ounds, I mmediately

t o

t he

a n

' Royal

6 0.

c .1000m .

x

t emples

t here

l ies

a

l arge

t umulus

B eyond t hat l ies

t he

7 50m .

a nd

&

l argely

a nd

k ilns.

c emetery o f

' Sun

t emple '

a nd t he 3 P yramid c emeteries.

G arstang , 1 974;

o f

s everal

w ith e vidence f or i ron w orking

e ast

M eroitic a nd p ost-Meroitic d ate. a nd h afir ,

a rea

C ity ',

S ayce & G riffith 1 911;

S hinnie

D unham

1 957,

1 963;

S hinnie

1 973,

& B radley 1 980.

M ESHRA A L H ASSAN.

( Giblab ).

[ 16.50.N./33.40.E.]

T he r emains o f aM eroitic t emple w ere u ncovered h ere d uring i rrigation w orks. T here a re f ew d etails b eyond t he f act t hat i t w as b uilt p artly i n r edbrick , a nd a M eroitic r am s tatue w as r ecovered. T his may b e p art o f a s ingle c omplex w ith t he s ite a t E l H assah. S hinnie & B radley 1 977; 6 1.

M IKEILAB.

L enoble 1 987b:213.

[ 17.55.N./34.00.E.]

C rowfoot m entions a s ite i n t his a rea, w ithout d etails, w hich may b e l inked t o f inds o f C hristian s herds h ere b y J ackson. T he n ame c learly s uggests s ome C hristian o ccupation. C rowfoot 6 2.

1 911:8;

W .MILAKIT.

J ackson 1 926:27.

[ 16.10.N./32.36.E.]

T here i s a s mall c emetery o f s ome 2 0 tumuli. G eus 6 3.

1 974:166.

M ISIKTAB. T here

[ 16.43.N./33.29.E.]

i s

a

tumulus c emetery a long t he g ravel r idge.

S urface s herds

i ndicate a p ost-Meroitic d ate. G eus, 6 4.

H inkel & L enoble 1 986:83.

MUTMIR I . T here i s

[ 17.06.N./33.42.E.] a l arge mound o f r uins h ere,

s andstone b locks a nd H intze

s uggested

p illars/columns,

t hat

t his

w as

w ith f ragments o f r edbrick ,

w ith

p robably

s ome a

M eroitic

t emple

s ite,

r eliefs. w ith a n

e nclosure w all. H intze 1 959:174; 6 5.

MUTMIR I I. A long t he

[ c.17.06.N./33.42.E.] e dge o f t he d esert p lateau ,

H intze r ecorded a c emetery o f

l arge t umuli. H intze 1 959:174. 6 6.

N AGAZU. A n

[ 16.29.N ./32.50.E.]

I slamic

c emetery c ontains n umerous r edbricks,

r ectangular b uilding , G eus

o f C hristian o r e arlier d ate.

1 974:137.

7 3

r obbed f rom a l arge

6 7.

J ebel NAKHARU I .

[ 18.09.N./33.56.E.]

N orth o f t he h ill i s a g roup o f l arge tumuli. C rawford 1 953a:11. 6 8.

J ebel NAKHARU I I. [ 18.09.N/33.56.E.] T he h ill t op c ontains a l arge s quare d rystone f ort, v ilage o f r ound s tone h uts. C rawford

T he

f ort

m easures

w ith a nnexe,

a bout

i dentified s ome o f t he p ottery a s C hristian ,

c ertainly p ostmedieval.

8 0m .

a nd a

s quare.

t hough s ome w as

A M eroitic d ate c annot h owever b e e xcluded.

C rawford 1 953b:17-9. 6 9.

N OFALAB.

[ 15.52.N./32.32.E.]

A l-Hakim

r ecorded

a

c emetery

w ith a bout 2 0 tumuli,

which w as e nclosed w ithin a s tone n orth.

w ith

a n

a t

l east o ne o f

e ntrance

f rom

t he

D etails p ublished by B abiker i ndicate a Meroitic r ather t han a

s ub-Meroitic d ate. a

w all

r ow ,

T he c emetery i ncluded a number o f o ther g raves

c ontaining

e xtended

burials,

w ithout g rave g oods,

i n

p robably

C hristian. L eclant 7 0.

NUBA.

1 978:311;

A l-Hakim 1 979:152-3;

B abiker 1 988,1:193,279,

1 1:270.

[ 15.53.N./32.32.E.]

B abiker

r eports

t hat

a

M eroitic

tumulus c emetery w as

r ecorded a nd

p artially e xcavated b y U niversity o f K hartoum . B abiker 1 988,11:270, 7 1.

OMDURMAN B ridge.

1 11:23-9.

[ 15.37.N./32.29.E.]

Arkell

d iscovered

B ridge,

c utting N eolithic l ayers.

s everal

g raves

d ouble burial o f Meroitic d ate. c ontracted ,

a ligned

n orth-south.

T he

a round One,

w est e nd o f Omdurman w as a

T hose o f M eroitic d ate w ere g enerally

e ast-west, l atest a re

the

b eneath a s tone tumulus,

s uperceded

by

o thers

s ome e xtended burials,

a ligned

e ast-west,

w hich

a re p robably C hristian. Arkell 7 2.

1 940:7-8,

E l QALA 'A .

F ig.8-9.

[ 15.58.N./32.36.E.].

C aneva r ecorded a n e xtensive c emetery o f s ome 3 0 tumuli a long t h s outh s ide o f W adi e l K enger,

t entatively d ated t o the p ost-Meroitic p eriod .

C aneva 1 988c:339. 7 3.

7 4.

Q ERRI.

[ 16.13.N./32.38.E.]

G eus

r ecords a l arge tumulus

G eus

1 974:145.

Q OZ B URRA I . A l arge mound , b ut

c emetery h ere,

o f u nknown d ate.

[ 16.53.N./33.37.E.] c .300m .x 2 00m .

s hows q uantities o f

N eolithic

s ome M eroitic s herds h ave a lso b een f ound h ere.

mound a re p ossibly r ecent a nd i t

r emains,

T he r uins o n t he

i s u nclear w hether t his

r epresents

a

M eroitic s ettlement. L eclant 7 5.

1 977:282;

Q OZ B URRA I I. A tumulus

Ahmed 1 984:28.

[ c.15.44.N./33.37.E.]

c emetery o f p ossibly p ost-Meroitic

7 4

d ate

w as

f ound

d uring

s urvey w ork. G eus 7 6.

1 986:28.

Q UBBAT S HEIKH I BRAHIM . C aneva

r ecorded

a

[ 15.53.N./32.36.E.]

s mall g roup o f 5 tumuli,

t entatively d ated t o t he

p ost-Meroitic p eriod. C aneva 1 988c:342. 7 7.

J ebel QUDEIN. T his

i s

a n

s andstone H intze 7 8.

s labs;

building

m easuring

1 6m .x 2 1m .

built o f

[ 15.55.N ./32.36.E.]

n oted

numerous

tumuli o f g ravel o r s tone i n this a rea.

e xcavation o f a p rehistoric s ite, o ne M eroitic g rave, C aneva & Z arattini 7 9.

s ome

d ated b y H intze t o t he Meroitic p eriod.

1 959:176.

S AGGAI. G eus

[ 16.55.N./33.45.E.] i solated

W .SEIDNA .

C aneva f ound r efuse p its

i ndicating s ome 1 985;

During

a nd a l east

s ettlement n earby.

C aneva 1 984:303;

G eus

1 974:151.

[ 15.49.N./33.31.E.]

C rawford n oted l arge g roups o f tumuli i n the v icinity. C rawford 1 953a:11. 8 0.

S HAHEINAB. D uring

[ 16.03.N./32.17.E.]

t he

c ourse

many l ater g raves. p ottery

o f

o f excavating a N eolithic s ite, S everal v ery

h and-made

e roded

types.

E leven

e xamples

l ater g raves,

h eads t o t he w est, s hrouded , a nd s imply r oofed w ith C hristian , p redating a l arge I slamic c emetery. A rkell 8 1.

Arkell d iscovered p roduced

Meroitic

most w ith their

s tone

s labs

a re

1 953:1-7,82.

S HEIKH AWADALLAH .

[ 15.59.N./32.35.E.]

C aneva r ecorded a n e xtensive c emetery o f s ome 2 0 tumuli o verlying p rehistoric s ite, a s w ell a s p ossible E arly I slamic g raves.

a

C aneva 1 988c:338. 8 2.

S HEIKH e l R ASHID.

( El S alhab )

C aneva n oted a n e xtensive C aneva 1 988c:327,Fig.2. 8 3.

S HEIKH e t T AYEB. A

p ossible

[ 16.46.N./33.37.E.].

M eroitic

s ettlement

W .Doshein , w ith a tumulus L enoble 1 987b:213. 8 4.

S HAQALU I . T here

a re

a t S hendi,

i s

r eported

n ear the mouth o f t he

c emetery o n t he g ravel t erraces t o the e ast.

[ 16.42.N./33.26.E.] s igns o f a l arge c emetery i n the a rea o f the military c amp o f which 2 g raves

b oth c learly j ewellery. C rowfoot

[ 15.59.N./32.34.E.]

s pread o f t umuli i n t his a rea.

o f

h ave b een

p ost-Meroitic

1 927a:Pl.XXXII;

G eus,

d ate,

c leared w ith

H inkel & L enoble

7 5

a t much

d ifferent p ottery

1 986:82.

t imes; a nd s ome

8 5.

S HAQALU I I.

[ 16.43.N./33.27.E.]

A tumulus g rave f rom a c emetery h ere w as

r ecently

s alvaged ,

w ith

a

c ontracted n orth-south b urial o f p ost-Meroitic d ate. T he p resence o f r edbrick r ubble & a rchitectural f ragments i n t he s haft f ill s uggests t he p resence o f a M eroitic s ite i n t he v icinity. G eus,Hinkel & L enoble 1 986:81. 8 6.

S HENDI.

[ 16.41.N ./33.25.E.]

O ne g rave

o f

a

c emetery

h as

b een

e xcavated,

w ith

p ost-Meroitic

h and-made p ottery & j ewellery. G eus, 8 7.

H inkel & L enoble 1 986:82.

S IDEIR . G eus

[ 16.45.N./33.35.E.]

r ecorded t he r ecent d estruction o f a

t races

s urvived ,

f ragments,

i ncluding

s andstone

i ndicating a M eroitic s ite,

s ettlement c olumn

mound .

d rums

8 8.

f ew

p laster

p ossibly w ith a t emple.

r ecorded e arth m ounds c lose b y w hich s eem t o b e t umuli G eus

A

a nd

Ahmed

( see T aragma ).

1 982:187.

S URURAB.

[ 15.56.N./32.33.E.]

A l-Hakim e xcavated s everal tumuli p erhaps

s ub-Meroitic

p eriods,

w hich

d ate

s imilar

t o

' to

t he

t hose

M eroitic

a t

B auda.

a nd L ater

C hristian a nd I slamic b urials w ere a lso r eported. A l-Hakim 1 979:154-5; 8 9.

S UWIKTAB W est. C rawford

Mohammed-Ali 1 984;

[ 17.48.N./33.57.E.]

f ound 2 g roups o f tumuli,

w ere 7 -10m .

B abiker 1 988,11:270.

a cross a nd s tanding l m .

1 v ery l arge e xample.

o ne w ith a t l east 5 0 g raves. h igh ,

a lthough t here w as a t

Most l east

T hey s howed s igns o f r obbing.

C rawford 1 953a:10-1. 9 0.

TAMANYAT. [ 15.57.N./32.36.E.] C aneva r ecorded a n e xtensive c emetery o f d ated t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod ,

s ome

3 0

tumuli,

i nitially

b ut p robably M eroitic.

C aneva 1 988c:339. 9 1.

TARAGMA. [ 16.45.N./33.35.E.] Ahmed r ecorded 3 l arge mounds a bout h igh ,

w ith s ome h and-made s herds,

8 -10m .

a cross,

s tanding s ome 1 .5m .

p ossibly t he s ame s ite a s S ideir.

Ahmed 1 984:38. 9 2.

E l T EMEYIM . [ 15.55.N./32.36.E.] An e xtensive c emetery o f s ome 5 0 p ost-Meroitic p eriod ,

tumuli,

t entatively

d ated

t o

t he

b ut p ossibly M eroitic.

C aneva 1 988c:341. 9 3.

T UTI I sland. [ 15.38.N./32.30.E.] C ailliaud r eported a p ossible C hristian p eriod w hich r emains u nconfirmed. C ailliaud.II:198.

9 4.

UMARAB.

[ c.15.49.N./33.31.E.]

7 6

r uin

o n

t he

i sland ,

O n

t he

l eft

b ank

o pposite

a nd a bove E d D ar ner,

g roups o f tumuli o f

u nknown d ate a re r ecorded. C rawford 1 953a:11. 9 5.

J ebel U MM A LI. Q uarries

[ 17.03.N./33.43.E.]

w ere

i nscriptions;

u sed i n b oth M eroitic & C hristian t imes,

J ackson 1 926:27; 9 6.

UMM D IREIWA . T his

w ith numerous

a nd J ackson f ound C hristian s herds. A rkell 1 946:3;

H intze 1 959:6-7.

[ 15.42.N./32.36.E.]

n atural

mound

h as

a N eolithic o ccupation s ite w ith s ome l ater

M eroitic b urials c ut i nto i t. H aaland 1 987:40-1. 9 7.

K hor U MM G ODIMA. [ 18.18.N./33.48.E.] C rawford f ound a g roup o f l arge t umuli o n t he n orth s ide o f t he k hor; p art o f t he w idespread d istribution b etween e l G ol a nd J ebel e l Hamra. C rawford 1 953a:12-3.

9 8.

J ebel U MM MARRIHI I . C rawford

d escribes

[ 15.59.N./32.33.E.] 2

e nclosures

o n

c onsiderable N eolithic o ccupation. f ort

measures

s ome 9 0m .

s quare,

t his

h ill

t op,

T he b etter p reserved w ith b astions.

o ne

s howing

r ough

s tone

C rawford t hought t he

s herds w ere mainly M eroitic o r e arlier. C rawford 1 953a:25-6, 9 9.

1 953b:39-40.

J ebel UMM MARRIHI I I. B abiker l east

r eports

a

1 06 tumuli,

[ 15.59.N./32.33.E.]

l arge

M eroitic c emetery i n t his l ocality w ith a t

u p t o 1 5m .

i n d iameter.

P arts o f t he c emetery

w ere

e xcavated. E l-Hassan 1 986; 1 00.

U MM S INGID.

B abiker 1 988,11:270,

1 11:34-50.

[ 15.58.N./32.38.E.]

A n e xtensive g roup o f tumuli a long t he K enger.

n orth

s ide

o f

t he

W adi

e l

A n umber o f c ircular tumuli h ad a c overing o f s tones.

C aneva 1 988c:337. 1 01.

URDI.

[ c.15.53.N/32.32.E]

B abiker r ecords t hat a M eroitic tumulus c emetery a s w ell a s

C hristian

g raves w ere i dentified h ere b y a U niversity o f K hartoum s urvey. B abiker 1 988,11:270. 1 02.

WAD B EN N AQA.

[ 16.31.N./33.07.E.]

T here a re s everal s mall t emples,

a l arge

' palace'

a nd c emeteries

h ere

p artially e xcavated b y V ercoutter; w hile s everal l arge r edbrick mounds r emain u nexcavated. O nly M eroitic material w as f ound , a part f rom r eused P haraonic s tatues, t o

1 0m

a cross.

I t

i s

f rom L ower N ubia. u ncertain

p ost-Meroitic. V ercoutter 1 962; 1 03.

W .YALLA .

Ahmed 1 984:25-6.

[ 16.14.N./32.38.E.]

7 7

w hether

Tumuli c loseby m easure u p t hey

a re

M eroitic

o r

T here i s a c emetery o f s ome 3 0 tumuli o f u nknown d ate. G eus 1 04.

1 974:166.

Z AKIAB.

[ 15.47.N./32.36.E.]

M eroitic b urials w ere f ound o ver much o f t his a lluvial p lain; L eclant 1 05.

1 979:399;

Z A 'URI.

n atural

mound

o n

t he

n o s uperstructures a re r ecorded. H aaland 1 987:40.

[ 15.57.N./32.36.E.]

C aneva r ecorded a s mall g roup o f a bout

1 0

t umuli

h ere,

t entatively

d ated t o t he p ost-Meroitic p eriod. C aneva 1 988c:339. 1 06.

Z EIDAB E ast.

[ 17.27.N./33.54.]

A r eport o f a n o ccupation s ite w ith b oth C hristian a nd Meroitic s herds i s u nconfirmed , a nd H intze w as u nable t o f ind t he s ite. H intze 1 959:172-3.

7 8

3 .0.14

T he A bu H amed R each.

T his

r egion

c omprises

t he a rea b etween t he d ownstream e nd o f the 4 th

C ataract a nd t he u pstream e nd o f t he 5 th.

T he

f ormer

i s

p laced

a round

H amdab, w here t he i ncreasingly b roken l andscape a nd t he multitude o f r ocky i slands r einforce t he c ontrast w ith t he M erowe a rea, u pstream o f w hich t he a lluvial

p lain

v irtually d isappears a fter N un .

b etween G ananita a nd K araba w here t he c ataract m etres

[ Whiteman

1 971:127].

b arrier t o r iver t ransport, p roper

o nly

s ome

T he s outhern l imit l ies

d rops

t he r iver v alley w idens

d istance

t he

r iver

s ome

8

While t he c ataract i tself p resents a major t o

t he

s outh ,

i nto t he S hendi

w here

R each

t he B asement C omplex

d isappears. T his

r each o f t he r iver e xtends

f or s ome 2 00 m iles a nd c onstitutes t he

l east k nown , l east e xplored a nd most t hinly p opulated a rea o f r iverine N ubia. T hose e arly t ravellers w ho f ollowed t he n ormal t rade r outes u pstream , f aster

s uch a s P oncet a nd

B aiyuda c rossings.

t he a rea r emains

s carce.

C ailliaud ,

b ypassed

I n more r ecent t imes,

t he

a rea

t aking

t he

p ublished i nformation o n

G leichen u sed t wo a ccounts o f

Maj.Slade

( 1885 )

a nd M aj.Talbot ( 1897) f or h is b rief d escription o f t he M erowe-Abu H amed s tretch , which r emain a s d etailed a s a ny a vailable [ Gleichen 1 905:38-44]. T he

o ther

r eport

o f

H .C.Jackson ' on t rek'

t hrough t he a rea r emains t he

f oundation o n w hich a ll l ater a rchaeological w ork i n t he a rea T he

a rea d ownstream o f A bu Hamed r emains i naccessible,

w as

l argely n ineteenth-century a ccounts o f t he a rea a re i mportant t he t opography ,

B asement

C omplex

t he r iver i s c onfined t o a n arrow c ourse [ Lee

1 970:58].

T he

l ack

p recludes

f ormation o f t he a lluvial t erraces a nd

a nd

r iver

the

s ources

f or

s ettlement a s w ell a s the a rchaeology.

A s w as n oted e arlier , t he

b ased .

a nd t he h andful o f

n ever

b reaks

o f

l ateral

b asins

s een

t hrough movement

e lsewhere ,

b eyond the s teep b anks a t f lood t ime.

T he

e xtremely b roken l andscape o f t he d ownstream a rea i s a mass o f g ranite i slands w hich t ogether f orm a n ear c ontinuous r un o f r apids f rom B ellal t o S hirri, T he

n early 7 0 m iles

[ Gleichen o p.cit:35].

a rea

o nly

a nnually ), h interland ,

r eceives

a nd t his h as c ontributing

t he w adi mouths a long

t he

1 926;

t o

t he a

b arest

minimum o f r ainfall

l imited

i mpact

o n

t he

F rom

a ll

a ccounts,

t he

o f

t he

w hich a t

a lluvial

s oils

a rea h as a v ery r estricted

O n t he o ther h and ,

g ood l and h ave t ended t o c oncentrate n umber o f a reas,

the

a nd s upports o nly a s mall p opulation

L orimer 1 936].

( under 6 0mm

w adis

t he f ormation o f p oor s andy s oils,

s cantily s upplement the e xtremely l imited

r iver.

a gricultural p otential, J ackson

o nly

s mall

[ Innes

1 930;

l ocalized o ccurrences o f p opulation

i n

a

s mall

a nd

w here

l eaving many o thers v irtually e mpty.

Where t he r iver b anks a re g enerally l acking i n s eluka s ac lia

i rrigation

i s

d ifficult

b ecause

b anks,

t he p otential o f t he i slands may

a reas

o f

o f b e

l and

p articularly s teep a nd h igh i mportant.

E ven

t oday

t he

t he mainland s uitable f or m odern p ump i rrigation a re l imited t o

t hree s mall s ites a long t he Mograt b ank

7 9

[ Barbour 1 961:146,

F ig.56].

W hile

—

0

•

'

-3

-

e Hn qv

• ; : '

0

8

p ew

8

SepS

11 3

L .)

L ei

al 03 K.

C . 1

8 0

•

m ost

o f t he i slands a re r ocky ,

u nlike t he a lluvial i slands o f t he D ongola

o r S hendi R eachs, t he r elative c oncentration o f s eluka l and o n t heir m argins a nd t he b etter o pportunities f or s aqia i rrigation a long t heir s hallower b anks, T he

e arly

e nsure t heir i mportance.

n ineteenth

c entury

C ailliaud r ecords a g eneral l ack u pstream s ands.

a s

t he

r eports o f

A bidiya a rea,

H e c ontrasts a f ew v illages

d escription

b ank,

t iny

p atches

p roductive

T he m ost

a s

s uch a s N adi/Bageir w ith t he

f ar

i slands:

T he Mograt a rea i n p articular w as r ocky l andscape. D ownstream ,

w ith d rifting s and o f

a lluvium

o ccasionally more f ertile i slands t he

p opulation

o f t he b roken c ataract c ountry i s r eminiscent o f

t he B atn e l H ajar i n t he n orth , r ight

o r

w ith t he r ight b ank d ominated b y d rifting

" l'image d e l a f ertilite" [ III:181]. n oted f or c ultivation , d espite t he C ailliaud 's

t end t o r eflect t his p attern.

c ultivation

l and . . in

s till

a long

t he

[ op.cit:190-7].

t he i slands"

d ominating r iver,

t he

a nd

v ery

H oskins a lso r ecords

[ op.cit:39]

"

u pstream o f A bu H amed.

f ertile o f t he d ownstream i slands a ppear t o b e S hirri

a nd

B erti

[ Gleichen o p.cit:27,39].

3 .0.15

A rchaeology b etween t he 4 th & 5 th C ataracts.

N o

e xcavations

c onsequently

t he

h ave

e ver

b een

n ineteenth-century

u ndertaken a ccounts,

i n w ith

t his

r egion ,

a nd

t he

h andful

o f

r econnaissance s urveys, a re p articularly v aluable. A dams d escribes t he r egion a s " devoid o f i mportant r emains f rom N apatan-Meroitic c ivilization a nd f rom t he h igh p eriod o f t he m edieval k ingdoms"

[ 1977:31-32].

f ragmentary material a vailable s ome r eevaluation o f n eccessary.

I ts

p otential

i s

b est

i ndicated

t his i n

a

r egion

F rom t he m ay

o therwise u npublished s urvey b etween K arima a nd e l K ab c onducted b y H e

r eported

f inding

2 11

s ites

o f

a ll

G ray.

p eriods mainly s ituated o n t he

i slands t hough " the M eroitic a nd C hristian b eing r egularly r epresented t he

f inal

o ccupation"

o ccupation a t

l east h as b een

C ataract by C aneva A part r eports

f rom t his o f

[ 1949:121]. p rovided

b e

b rief n ote o n a n

S ome b y

c onfirmation

a

n ew

s urvey

o f n ear

a s

m edieval t he

4 th

f rom

t he

[ 1988a]. r ecent l imited s urvey,

C ailliaud ,

H oskins,

most

i nformation c omes

L epsius a nd l atterly J ackson.

t wo g roups o f f ortified s ites i n t his

s tretch.

O ne

p air

o f

T here a re s ites

o n

e ither s ide o f t he r iver a t K ubinat, a t t he f oot o f t he F ourth C ataract, h ave massive b astioned d ry s tone w alls. S urface e vidence o f q uantities o f " painted

C hristian"

s herds

s uggest a n e arly m edieval d ate

1 939:269-71].

U pstream a t E l K ab ,

C ailliaud

a bandoned ,

a s

w ere

a s imilar p air o f

s urveyed b y C rawford.

s urface i ndications o f C hristian o ccupation ,

A t U mm D eras

i sland

[ loc.cit]

n ear m ay

K ubinat,

t he

r ecorded

r ed

b rick

r uins

n oted

b y

t entatively b e i dentified w ith m edieval s ite

" encore l es t races d e p eintures a f resque,

d es

r epresentant

C optes,

w as

[ 1953:10].

r ecorded b y C ailliaud : a nciens

b y

T here w ere s imilar

but a l ate m edieval d ate

p roposed f or a t l east o ne o f t he s tanding b uildings

T itherington

[ Titherington

" forts",

8 1

d es

f igures

o uvrage

d e S .Georges e t a utres"

[ 111:197].

T itherington ,

h owever,

g ives n o s ource f or t he t radition o f

a nother c hurch s ite 2 miles b elow K ubinat. O ther

C hristian

S alamat. H is

s herd

s catters

a re

J ackson a lso r ecords a n umber o f

g eneral

d escription

s uggests

k nown

a t

" Anaj"

c emeteries i n t his a rea.

C hristian

t hat

[ 1926:25].

m ay

o nce

h ave

c arefully

Mograt

I sland

h as

a ttracted n umerous

t he

l aid

" six f eet i n o f

o f

f ortified

t ravellers s ites

s ome s till i nhabited i n t he e arly n ineteenth c entury.

b rief r eport o n t he i sland w as i sland ,

o f w hich s ome 1 4 a re C hristian s ix

t hey

s upplemented b y

t ogether

i nclude

h eaps

o f

o ne u pon t he o ther "

a ttention

u pstanding

Ahmed:

t hree

.composed

Tumuli g raves may a lso b e i ncluded among t hese c emeteries.

a rchaeologists d ue t o t he s hores,

b een

K irbekan a nd

" box-graves",

l ength a nd t wo t o t wo-and-a-half f eet i n h eight s tones

B erti,

a

s urvey

o n

a nd i ts

C rawford 's

b y

A bbas

S iid

r eveal a t l east 2 4 d efined s ites i n a nd a round t he o ccupation

s ites

[ 1971].

T hese

s tanding f ortified s ites a nd Ahmed f urther s uggests a t l east

p ossible

c hurchs.

T hese

a re

m erely

i solated

r ed-brick

r uins

a ssociated w ith c emeteries, a nd n eed e xcavation t o b e c onfirmed. T he o ther s ites a re c emeteries, mainly o f " box-graves" b ut i ncluding t hree t umuli g roups. T he p lundering o f t he t umuli m ight i ndicate a M eroitic o r p ost-Meroitic d ate [ op.cit:11]. A b rief n ote b y K leppe o n a n o therwise u npublished

M eroitic

o ccupation

s ite a nd a n i nscription r emain t he o nly

c lear i ndications o f a M eroitic p resence U pstream w est b ank, K oro,

o f

Mograt,

[ 1982:147].

s ites a re l argely c onfined t o t he i slands a nd t he

a reas w ith r elatively h igh a gricultural p otential.

a nother f our c hurchs a re i dentified ,

a t M ari,

A rtul,

S outh o f E l

G andeisi a nd E l

U sheir i slands, t ogether w ith s even v illages, w hich w ith t he e xception o f W adi Dam e l T or s eem t o b e e nclosed o r f ortified s ettlements. O nly o n G andeisi i sland w as f urther e vidence f or M eroitic o ccupation r ecovered. A

m ajor

f eature

o f t his r egion f urther s outh i s t he s pread o f t umuli

a long t he d esert margins o f t he l eft a bandoned

s ystematic

b ank.

C rawford

a dmits

t o

r ecording b ecause o f t heir s heer numbers

h aving

" they s eem

t o l ine t he l ow g ravel e scarpment o f t he d esert a lmost c ontinuously a ll t he w ay a long t he w est b ank r ight d own t o Mograt I sland " [ 1953a:11]. W ithin t his w ide d istribution , h ave b een n oted:

s ome,

a n umber o f l arge o r w ell p reserved

l ike B ageir,

8 2

i ncluded u p t o 1 00 m ounds

g roups

[ op.cit:13].

3 .0.16

S ite G azetteer:

T he A bu H amed R each.

1 . A BBAR I sland. ( Korta ). [ 19.32.N./33.12.E.] A mudbrick f ortified b uilding , o f p robable p ost-medieval d ate a lso h as e arlier r uins a round i t, s ome w ith w hite p laster. Ahmed r ecords t he f inding

o f

a

l arge

s herds a ll a round .

g ilded

i ron

k ey a s w ell a s n umerous C hristian

T here i s a lso a c emetery l inked

t o

t he

s ite

o f

u ncertain d ate. J ackson 1 926:28; 2 .

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:7-9.

A BU D IS. [ 19.08.N ./33.35.E]. T here i s a r eport o f C hristian amphorae f ound i n o r a round t his p lace. A rkell 1 940:18.

3 .

A BU G UEH.

( Ku 'eh ).

L epsius r ecords L epsius 4 .

[ location u ncertain]

f inding a G reek i nscription h ere.

1 853:225,

D k.IV:287,

V I:97,Gr.472.

A BU S IDEIR. I . ( Kenisa ). [ 19.29.N./33.14.E.] T his r edbrick r uin k nown l ocally a s t he ' Kenisa' l km .

s outh

o f t he r iver b ank ,

a bout 2 kms.

r ubble mound h as C hristian s herds o n i t.

( Church )

l ies

n orth o f t he v illage.

T his i s

p robably

t he

a bout T he s ite

m ismarked o n t he s urvey maps l ying o pposite F illikol i sland. C rawford 1 953a:19; 5 .

A BU S IDEIR .

I I.

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:13.

[ 19.29.N./33.14.E.]

T here a re t wo s mall c emeteries c lose t o s ite I . T he s uperstructures o f t he g raves s eem t o b e s ubrectangular mounds o f t he l ocal b lack s tone. O rientated e ast-west, t hey a re l ikely t o b e o f C hristian d ate. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:13. 6 .

A BU S OL. [ 18.54.N ./33.31.E.]. J ackson f ound C hristian s herds i n t he v icinity. J ackson 1 926:26.

7 .

A QABA.

[ 18.45.N./32.02.E.]

A g roup o f s mall t umuli,

c .2m i n d iameter.

C oarse s herds f ound i n t he

v icinity w ere p robably f rom t he C hristian p eriod. C aneva 1 988a:4. 8 .

AMRI.

[ 18.47.N./32.03.E.]

T here i s a n u nverified r uined s ite h ere,

t raditionally r egarded a s t he

s ite o f a c hurch. T itherington 1 939:269. 9

ARJAT.

I sland.

[ 19.27.N./3.20.E.]

J ackson r ecorded t he r emains o f a n e nclosed s ettlement b uilt o f s tone.

M ore

r ecently ,

w ell a s g raves d isturbed d uring building o perations. t he m iddle o f t he v illage o rientated e ast-west. J ackson 1 926:31;

r ough

Ahmed r eported f inds o f C hristian p ottery a s

A bbas S iid Ahmed 1 971:12-3.

8 3

H e t raced o ne i n

1 0.

ARTUL.

I sland.

[ 18.53.N./33.32.E.]

O ne o f t he mosques o n t he i sland a ppears t o b e a c onverted C hurch , t he g ranite c olumns a nd c arved r eliefs o f w hich s urvive. C hristian s herd s catters a re k nown f rom t he v icinity. J ackson 1 926:26-7; 1 1.

A SHKUR .

C rawford 1 953b:14-5.

[ location u ncertain ]

J ackson n oted E l A r.

' Anaj'

g raves a t t his u nidentified s ite,

s omewhere

n ear

J ackson 1 926:25. 1 2.

A TMUR I .

( Kenisa ).

[ 19.07.N/33.34.E]

A l arge r uined v illage s ite w ith b oth r ed a nd mudbrick d ebris. T he s ite i s e nclosed w ithin a l arge s emicircular b ank. A r edbrick b uilding k nown a s t he C hristian

s herds

' Kenisa'

a re

f ound

may

i ndeed

b e

a

a ll o ver t he s ite.

c hurch.

N umerous

C rawford a lso n oted

s ome u ndated g raves t o t he w est o f t he v illage. J ackson 1 926:26; 1 3.

A TMUR I I. T his

C rawford 1 953a:16-7.

[ 19.11.N/33.31.E.]

s ite

i s

t he

s ite

marked o n t he S urvey - maps o pposite G egi a nd

c onsists o f t he r uins o f a n

u ndefended

C hristian

m edieval

v illage ,

b uilt o f mudbrick. C rawford 1 953a:17. 1 4.

B AQEIR I .

[ 18.42.N./33.37.E.]

A l arge c emetery o f c .100 t umuli s ituated S ome

l arge

e xamples

w ere

e nclosed

g ravel, o utside a n e ncircling d itch. a nd m ay b e M eroitic o r p ost-Meroitic.

a long

w ith S herds

t he

w alls

d esert

f ringe.

o f r ough s tone a nd

f ound w ere

i ndeterminate

C rawford 1 953a:13-4. 1 5.

B AQEIR .

I I.

[ 18.42.N./33.37.E.]

C rawford f ound a s mall d efended h ouse, i sland.

T he

r emains

w ell a s 2 more

o pposite t he w est e nd o f S abnas

o f 2 k ilns w ere f ound i nside t he e nclosure,

j ust o utside,

w ith n umerous w asters.

T he

p ottery

a s a ll

s eemed t o b e C hristian. C rawford 1 953b:30-1. 1 6.

B ERTI.

( Kanisa )

[ 18.54.N./32.17.E]

J ackson s uggested t hat a P haraonic s carab a nd v arious b eads M eroitic

p resence

o n

r elate t o C hristian Monneret

d e

t he

i sland.

o ccupation ,

V illard

i ndicated

c alls t he s ite

s howed

a

I t i s more l ikely t hat t he r uins b y

t he

' Keniset B irti '

s herd

s catters.

w hich p resumably

r eflects a l ocal t radition. J ackson 1 926:21-2,26; 1 7.

H illet e l B IB. T his

e nclosed

Monneret d e V illard 1 935:263.

[ 18.48.N./32.01.E.] s ettlement w ith b oth mudbrick a nd r ough s tone building

i s o f C hristian d ate. main

c entral

b uilding

e astern i nternal a pse,

L epsius

s uggested a p ost-medieval d ate,

h as t he p lan o f a c hurch ,

a nd C aneva d escribes i t a s a c hurch.

8 4

b ut t he

w ith a w ell d efined

L epsius

1 853:226,

1 913:IV :288;

M onneret d e

V illard

1 935:258;

C aneva

1 988a.4. 1 8.

B ONI

I sland.

[ c.18.56.N./32.24.E]

J ackson r ecords ' Anaj' g raves o f u ncertain d ate o n t e i sland. u nclear w hether t hey a re t umuli o r r ectangular ' box-graves'. J ackson 1 926:25. 1 9.

W adi D AM e l T OR. C rawford

f ound

a nd r edbrick. a ppeared g raves,

t o

[ 18.44.N. . /33.33.E.] t he

much d amaged r emains o f s everal b uildings i n mud

T here w as n o c lear e nclosing w all, b e

I t i s

C hristian.

T he

a nd t he

s herds

a ll

c emetery i ncluded s everal t ypes o f

s ome c ircular o f 2 -3m d iameter a nd

s ome

r ectangular

c .1m

x

2 .5m . T he most i mportant h ad p ossibly c ircular s uperstructures b uilt i n r edbrick, s tone a nd p laster, w ith numerous f ragments o f c eramic i nscriptions. C rawford 1 953b:24-6. 2 0.

E SRI.

( Isri).

[ 18.32.N./33.39.E]

J ackson r ecorded f inds o f C hristian s herds

i n t his a rea.

J ackson 1 926:26. 2 1.

E SRI

I sland.

( Isri ).

[ 18.32.N./33.40.E.]

O n t he e astern s ide o f t he i sland a n ' extensive' i ndicated , d istinct f rom t hat f ound b y J ackson.

C hristian s ite i s

K leppe 1 982:147. 2 2.

F ILLIKOL I .

[ 19.29.N./33.17.E]

Ahmed r ecorded a C hristian c emetery o f a bout 5 0 g raves. T he p resence o f n umerous C hristian s herds s uggested t hat a s ettlement h ad b een d estroyed

b y

r ecent

c ultivation.

T he c hurch h e m entions,

h owever ,

w ould a ppear t o b e a t Abu S ideir a cross the r iver. J ackson 1 926:26; 2 3.

F ILLIKOL I I. O n

the

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:12-4.

[ 19.29.N./33.17.E.]

w est

s ide o f t he i sland ,

b uilt o f r ough s tonework, J ackson 1 926:26; 2 4.

GANDEISI

I .

t here i s a r uined s ettlement o f h uts

t hough w ith n o i ndication o f d ate.

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:14.

[ 18.42.N./33.38.E]

N ear t o t he e ast e nd o f t he i sland i s t he r emains o f a c hurch b uilt o f r edbrick. S catters

S ome o f t he b ricks s how G reek l etters

i nscribed

o n

t hem .

o f C hristian p ottery i n t he v icinity s uggest t he p resence o f

a ccompanying s ettlement. J ackson 1 926:26; 2 5.

G ANDEISI

I I.

C rawford 1 953b:26-30.

[ 18.42.N/33.38.E.]

C lose t o t he c hurch s ite a t G andeisi l ies a s mall f our s ided e nclosure w ith s everal r uined b uildings i n a nd s urviving f ort

i s u ncertain ,

M eroitic s ite i n

t he

a round

i t.

T he

d ate

b ut t ooled r eused a shlar b locks

v icinity.

J ackson

r eported

M eroitic

n earby a nd t here a re a lso C hristian s herds o ver t he s ite.

8 5

o f

t he

s uggest a s herds

J ackson 1 926:22-6; 2 6.

G EREIF I .

C rawford 1 953b:26-30.

[ 19.02.N./33.33.E]

C rawford r ecorded t he r emains o f a l arge v illage s ite,

w ith many s tone

r uins i n i t, b ut much d amaged b y m aroq d igging. C hristian s herds w ere f ound o n t he s urface, a s w ell a s a f ragment o f a c ross i nscribed t ile o f t he k ind k nown f rom C hristian g raves.

T here

w ere

a t

l east

t wo

g roups o f g raves n ear t he v illage. C rawford 1 953a:14-7. 2 7.

G EREIF I I.

[ 19.02.N./33.33.E.]

A l ittle t o t he w est o f t he C hristian v illage a t G ereif t umulus

c emetery.

r ecovered f rom

o ne

C rawford tumulus

r ecords d uring

t hat

t here

w as

a

t hree M eroitic p ots w ere

1 949-50,

t hough

t he

s ite

h ad

d isappeared b y t he t ime h e v isited i t. C rawford 1 953a:14-5. 2 8.

G URGURIB.

[ 19.27.N./32.52.E.]

J ackson r ecorded ' Anaj' w alled f ort.

t umuli i n t his a rea,

c lose t o a n u ndated s tone

J ackson 1 926:25. 2 9.

H ADA H ADID. [ 18.46.N./32.03.E.] C aneva n oted a r ectangular ' box-grave'

h ere,

p robably

o f

C hristian

d ate. C aneva 1 988a:4. 3 0.

H AJAR .

[ 19.30.N./33.20.E.]

T here i s a s ettlement o f r ound b uildings, b uilt a pparently o f b oth d ry s tone a nd r edbrick. Amongst t he r ubble there i s much w all p laster , b ut n one o f i t p ainted. T here a re s herds b oth p lain r ed w ares a nd d ecorated p ieces. s carp t here a re g raves p robably C hristian.

3 1.

w ith

s mall

J ackson 1 926:25;

C rawford 1 953a:5-6;

H AJAR E L M ERWA .

[ 19.14.N ./33.30.E.]

o f t he N earby ,

C hristian p eriod , a t t he f oot o f t he

r ectangular

s uperstructures,

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:14.

T he l arge q uartz r ock a t t his s ite c ontains b oundary i nscriptions f rom t he P haraonic p eriod. N earby t here a re a g roup o f g raves w hich C rawford t hought w ere o f C hristian d ate, which may r elate t o a p ossible s ettlement a t t he v illage o f E l K enisa c lose b y. A rkell 1 940:7, 3 2.

H AMADAB.

1 950:36-9;

C rawford 1 953a:7.

[ 18.27.N./33.42.E.]

Ahmed r eported a l arge w ell m iddle o f E l U sheir i sland. A bbas 3 3.

p reserved

C hristian

c emetery

n ear

t he

S iidahmed 1 971:13.

H ELLELA .

[ 18.45.N./32.02.E.]

A l arge c emetery o f s ome 1 00 U li I sland ,

' square'

t umuli,

p robably o f C hristian d ate.

C aneva 1 988a:7.

8 6

n ear t he

n orth

e nd

o f

3 4.

H UBEIL I .

[ 19.30.N./33.17.E.]

Ahmed r ecords a l arge c emetery o n t he t op o f t he p lateau b ehind H ubeil v illage e xtending a s t umuli, g raves,

f ar

a s

K huzeina.

S ome

o f

t hese

g raves

a re

a ll o f w hich h ave b een r obbed. T here a re a lso r ectangular m easuring 2 m x . 75m a nd a ligned e ast-west, f rom t he C hristian

p eriod. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:11. 3 5.

H UBEIL I I.

[ 19.30.N./33.17.E.]

N ear t he c emetery a re t he r emains o f c ollapsed

mosque.

I t

w as

b uilt

a

b uilding ,

f rom

b locks,

s ome w ith t he r emains o f p laster o n t hem .

s herds

a round

t he

r eputed

t o

b e

a

r eused b ricks a nd s andstone N umerous

C hristian

s ite s uggest e arlier C hristian o ccupation ,

t hough

Ahmed 's i dentification o f a c hurch r emains u nproven. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:12. 3 6.

E l K AB I . T wo

[ 19.18.N./32.43.E.]

f orts

s tand c lose t ogether o verlooking t he r iver.

a s ubrectangular mudbrick. t ypes,

a nd

c onstruction ,

b uilt

T he l argest i s o f

s tone

a nd

C rawford r ecorded q uantities o f p otsherds a ll o f C hristian

t hough f ew w ere p ainted.

w ith thinner w alls, o f F unj t ypes,

E l K AB I I.

T he s maller f ort w as v ery

i rregular ,

p robably o f p ost-medieval d ate a s many s herds w ere

b ut t here w ere a lso C hristian s herds t o b e f ound.

J ackson 1 926:26; 3 7.

b astioned

T itherington 1 939:27;

C rawford 1 953b:10-4.

[ 19.18.N./32.43.E]

J ackson r ecorded ' Anaj'

t umuli i n t he v icinity ,

t hough w ith n o f urther

i nformation. J ackson 1 926:26. 3 8.

K ADEITTA .

[ 19.29.N./33.17.E.]

J ackson r eported f inds o f C hristian s herds. J ackson 1 926:26. 3 9.

K ARJAKOL.

[ 18.45.N./32.02.E.]

A c emetery o f s ome 2 5 r ectangular v illage, p robably o f C hristian d ate.

' box-graves'

n ear

t he

modern

C aneva 1 988a:4. 4 0.

K ARMEL. T his

[ 19.28.N ./33.19.]

l arge c astle o n Mograt i sland a ppears t o h ave b een o ccupied f or a

l ong 1 820s.

p eriod ,

w ith

many

t hough i t w as a bandoned b y t he r edbrick

a nd mudbrick.

C hristian o ccupation i s c onfirmed b y numerous

s herds i n

a nd a round t he

s ite.

C ailliaud

( see K uweib ). n earby.

K ELESAIKAL.

T his i s n ot t he s ite c alled K armel b y

Ahmed n oted a s mall c emetery o f c .30 C hristian g raves

L inant 1 958 : 67.161; S iidahmed 1 971:4,13 4 1.

r ebuildings,

T he w alls a re b uilt o f a c ombination o f r ough s tone,

J ackson

1 926:31;

C rawford

1 953b:18-9;

A bbas

[ c.19.29.N./33.19.E]

K leppe r ecords t he f ind o f a M eroitic i nscribed t ablet,

8 7

j ust n ortheast

o f t he v illage o f K elesaikal G ubli. K leppe 1 982:147. 4 2.

J ebel K ELIDOB I . A

l arge

f ort

[ 18.49.N./32.04.E]

o n

t here a re r edbrick

t he r ight b ank b uilt m ainly o f r ough s tone, r uins

i nterior w as c arpeted b oth f ine p ainted w ares a ssumed

t o

b e o f t he

w ithin.

T itherington

w ith p otsherds. a nd p lain r ed ' Roman p eriod '.

r ecorded

t hough

t hat

t he

T hese w ould s eem t o i nclude w heel-made w ares w hich h e

T here i s l ittle t o s upport h is

s uggestion t hat t he l argest r edbricks w ere M eroitic. T itherington 1 939. 4 3.

J ebel K ELIDOB I I. [ 18.49.N./32.04.E] T his i s a l arge i rregularly b uilt f ort o n t he l eft b ank o f t he r iver. T here a re t he s ame r edbrick

r ubble

s preads b oth

o f

C hristian

w ithin

a nd

s herds

o utside

a ll

i t.

a round ,

w ith

T here a re a lso s ome

g raves o utside t he w est w all. T itherington 1 939. 4 4.

K HUZEINA I . Ahmed

( Kenisa ).

r ecorded

a

[ 19.31.N./33.18.E.]

r uined

K nown l ocally a s t he

r edbrick

' Kenisa',

h e

b uilding

s uggested

close t o t he c emetery . i t

m ight

b e

a

C hurch

r elated t o t he C hristian g raves. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:12 4 5.

K HUZEINA I I.

[ 19.31.N./33.18.E]

O n t he p lateau b ehind t his v illage t here a re g roups

o f

h ave

a lso

b een

r obbed.

Amongst

t hem

t here

a re

t umuli

w hich

r ectangular

s uperstructures w hich a ppear t o b e C hristian. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:12. 4 6.

K ENDI. Ahmed

( Kindi) f ound

a

[ 19.30.N./3.09.E] l arge C hristian c emetery i n the c entre o f t he i sland ,

w ith o ver 1 00 g raves, a lso

a

w ith a nother g roup t o

their

s mall r uined b uilding w ithin t he c emetery ,

n umbers o f C hristian s herds,

e ast.

T here

w as

a nd c lose b y l arge

p ossibly f rom a p loughed o ut

s ettlement.

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:13 4 7.

K IRBEKAN. [ 18.55.N./32.24.E] J ackson f ound C hristian s herds c lose t o t he s ite o f t he b attle. J ackson 1 926:26.

4 8.

E l K ORO I . ( Kuddik ) [ 19.22.N./33.22.E.] T here a re t he s ubstantial r emains o f a s tone built c astle o f u ncertain d ate.

I t

s eems l ikely t hat i t i s s uperimposed o n a n e arlier C hristian

s ettlement, d erived.

f rom w hich t he C hristian s herds a nd r ed b rick B etween

t he

g rave s uperstructures, r ecovered.

f ort

a nd

f rom w hich f ragments

o f

a n

T his s ite w as c alled K uddik b y J ackson ,

t he f ort w as a monastery. J ackson 1 926:28; C rawford 1 953b:31-5.

8 8

r ubble

a re

t he r iver there a re more r uins a nd i nscription

w ere

w ho s uggested t hat

4 9.

E l K ORO I I.

( Kuddik )

[ 19.22.N./33.22.E]

T he mosque o f W ad S aleh i s p ossibly a c onverted t hat

a t

G andeisi.

c ompared

t o

i s b rick b uilt a nd h as a l arge a pse w hich h as

a

m ihrab.

b een c onverted

i nto

h ollowed

o utside

r ock

c hurch ,

I t

m ight

i nformation o n e arly mosques,

C rawford b e

i t

a

s uggested

f ont.

i s

q uite

I n

t hat

a

l arge

t he a bsence o f g ood

p ossible

t hat

t his

w as

i ndeed t he c hurch f or t he C hristian s ettlement. J ackson 1 926:28; C rawford 1 953b:31-35. 5 0.

E l K ORO I II.

( Kuddik )

N orthwest o f t he

[ 19.22.N./33.22.E]

o ther

s ites

t here

i s

a

s eparate

c emetery

w ith

e vidence f or r edbrick s uperstructures. Amongst these C rawford f ound n umerous f ragments o f c eramic g rave s telae, s imilar t o a n e xample J ackson r etrieved i n t he v icinity , C rawford 1 953b:31-5. 5 1.

K UDDIK I .

d ated 9 17 A D

[ 18.51.N./33.31.E.]

C rawford f ound t he r emains o f a b astioned c astle, m ismarked

o n

p robably

t he s urvey map a f ew m iles t o t he n orth.

b uilt o f s tone b ut t here a re r ed b rick r uins w ithin.

t he

s ite

T he c astle i s

T he p ottery

a ll

s eemed t o b e C hristian. N earby t here a re g raves, w hich i nclude b oth r ectangular a nd s mall r ound mounds, w hich a re p robably a ll C hristian. C rawford 1 953a:14. 5 2.

K UDDIK I I.

[ 18.50.N./33.31.E.]

A p rominent A rtul I sland.

g roup

o f

tumuli w as r ecorded o pposite t he s outh e nd o f

C rawford 1 953a:11. 5 3.

K URGUS.

( West).

[ 19.12.N./33.28.E.]

T here i s a l arge t umulus C allow & W ahida 1 981:35. 5 4.

K URGUS.

( Kenisa ).

f ield ,

o n t he w est b ank.

[ 19.14.N./33.30.E]

A rkell i dentified a f ort a t t his

s ite a s p robably o f

a ssociated

s tela

r emains

w ith

t he

u nconfirmed ,

C hristian

b oundary there

p ottery w ithin the f ort,

a s t he l ocal name s uggests. t he

a re

v icinity

a nd

P haraonic

a t H ajar e l M erwa.

m ounds

o f

r edbrick

d ate ,

While t his

r ubble

w ith

w hich h e s uggested may b e a c hurch

J ackson a lso f ound

C hristian

n oted a s eperate f ind o f l arge b urma,

s herds

i n

o f u ncertain

d ate. J ackson 1 926:25-6; 5 5.

K UWEIB. T his

( Carmel )

A rkell 1 950:39. [ 19.32.N./33.14.E.]

s ite w as n oted a nd c alled C armel b y C ailliaud ,

n ot t o b e c onfused

w ith a nother f ort o n Mograt

i sland .

r ough

T he d ate i s c onfirmed b y t he l arge n umbers

s tone a nd mudbrick.

o f r ed w heel-made s herds,

T he w alls a re b astioned ,

b uilt o f

p robably E arly C hristian.

O utside t he w alls

t here i s a c emetery o f s ome 5 0 r ectangular g raves, i n t he C hristian f ashion.

o riented e ast-west

C ailliaud.II:187-9;

C rawford 1 953b:7-11;

8 9

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:18.

5 6.

K hor e l MALKH. [ 18.46.N./32.01.E.] A c emetery o f c ircular t umuli, r anging f rom 2 .5m t o 7 m .

i n

d iameter ,

o f u ncertain d ate. C aneva 1 988a:6. 5 7.

MARI. I sland. [ 19.02.N./33.34.E.] Ahmed n oted a ' finely p reserved C hristian

c hurch '

o n

t he

i sland ,

n orth

e nd

o f

t hough g ives n o f urther d etails. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:18. 5 8.

MARU.

I sland.

[ 18.59.N./33.34.E.]

Ahmed r ecorded a l arge C hristian c emetery a t

t he

t he

i sland i n the S a'adan a rea. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:20 5 9.

R AS e l D IR .

[ 18.47.N./32.02.E.]

A t t he n orth e nd

o f

s tone-built h uts, f ew g raves c loseby.

t he w ith

s mall

i sland

i s

a

s ettlement

o f

l arge q uantities o f C hristian p ottery ,

c rude a nd a

C aneva 1 988a:6. 6 0.

R AS e l G EZIRA I . T his

f ort

[ 19.32.N./33.06.E.]

l ies a t t he e xtreme w estern p oint o f Mograt

o f a c ombination o f r ough s tone a nd mudbrick, r uins

w ithin

o utside t he

i t.

Ahmed

t hought

the

I sland.

t here a re a lso

B uilt

r edbrick

C hristian p ottery i nside a nd

f ort w as p robably o f a l ate d ate.

N earby t here i s a s mall

c emetery o f s ome 3 0 C hristian r ectangular g raves. J ackson 1 926:31; 6 1.

A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:5-7.

RAS e l G EZIRA I I.

[ 19.32.N./33.06.E.]

L ocated a bout a m ile e ast o f t he f ort, a bout

2 0

tumuli,

w ith

t here i s a

s mall

c emetery

a n a verage s ize o f 1 0m .diameter.

o f

T heir d ate

r emains u ncertain . A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:13. 6 2.

E l R UM . A

[ 18.47.N ./32.02.E.]

c emetery

o f

r ectangular

b uilt o f g ranite r ubble. g roups.

T hey

' box-graves',

A bout

9 0

w ere

m easuring s ome 2 -2.5m x l m , r ecorded ,

i n

p robably d ate t o t he C hristian p eriod ,

t wo

d istinct

a nd t he name o f

t he l ocality a lso s uggests a C hristian c onnection. C aneva 1 988a:6. 6 3.

E l S AK .

[ 18.45.N ./32.02.E.]

A s mall c emetery o f 1 5 t umuli o f u ncertain d ate. C aneva 1 988a:7 6 4.

S ALAMAT.

[ 19.09.N./32.34.E.]

J ackson f ound C hristian s herds which r emains r ecorded o n t he S urvey map. J ackson 1 926:26. 6 5.

S ALATEIB.

[ c.19.30.n./33.03.E.]

9 0

a re

p robably

t he

C hristian

J ackson

f ound

' Anaj'

g raves

b etween S hemkia a nd S hellal.

T hey a re

l ikely t o b e C hristian r ectangular g raves. J ackson 1 926:25 6 6.

E l S HELLAL. J ackson

[ 19.31.N./33.04.E.]

f ound

g raves

a ttributed

t o

t he

' Anaj',

w hich a re p robably

C hristian t ypes. J ackson 1 926:25. 6 7.

E l S UR.

( Kenisa ).

J ackson

f ound

[ c.19.03.N./32.29.E.]

C hristian

s herds

h ere,

s eeming

t o

c onfirm

t he

t raditional n ame f or t he p lace. J ackson 1 926:26. 6 8.

J ebel K hor T AFLA . C aneva

r ecorded

[ 18.46.N./32.03.E.] a ' shelter'

o n t his h illock,

w ith N eolithic p ottery ,

b ut a lso s ome L ate C hristian s herds. C aneva 1 988a:4. 6 9.

T ARFAYA .

( Abu H agar )

T his

i s

a

1 50m .

x 1 00m .

s ome

f ragments

[ 18.45.N./33.34.E.]

f ortified

s ettlement,

I nside, o f

w ithin a n e nclosure m easuring s ome

t here a re r ound

a

r ed

p ainted

c onfirm t he d ate o f p art o f t he s ite, e xcluded.

C lose

b uildings w all

o f

p laster.

r edbrick ,

w ith

C hristian s herds

t hough l ate o ccupation c annot b e

b y t here a re t he r emains o f a c emetery i ndicated b y

f ragments o f r edbrick a nd p laster s uperstructures.

T his

i s

p robably

t he s ite J ackson c alled A bu H agar. J ackson 1 926:26,31; 7 0.

T OKNA.

[ 19.26.N./33.20.E.]

Ahmed f ound a v illage

C rawford 1 953b:15-7.

a nd

l arge t he

C hristian

p lateau

c emetery

b ehind ,

w ith

l ying o ver

b etween

t he

1 00 g raves.

modern F inds o f

i ncised b ricks i n t he f ields n earby i ndicate t he s ite o f a s ettlement. A bbas S iidahmed 1 971:13. 7 1.

K hor T IBNA .

[ location u ncertain ]

J ackson r ecorded m ore ' Anaj' i mpossible t o l ocate t he s ite.

g raves i n t his a rea,

b ut i t h as p roved

J ackson 1 926:25 7 2.

U MM B EID.

[ c.18.39.N./33.41.E.]

J ackson f ound ' Anaj' J ackson 1 926:25. 7 3.

U MM D URAS.

g raves i n t his a rea ,

p robably o f C hristian d ate.

[ 18.50.N./32.05.E.]

T here a re r edbrick r uins a t t he s outh e nd

o f

t his

i sland ,

p ossibly

t hose n oted i n 1 9th c entury a s m edieval. C aillaiud.III:197; 7 4.

W adi U MM H ADIMA .

T itherington 1 939:269. [ 19.23.N./33.22.E.]

J ackson f ound C hristian s herds w hich m ay l arge s ite a t E l K oro n earby.

9 1

b e

d istinguished

f rom

t he

J ackson 1 926:26. 7 5.

UMM M EREIKH.

[ c.18.40.N./33.41.E.]

J ackson f ound b oth ' Anaj' g raves a nd C hristian s herds h ere; a re p robably a lso C hristian. J ackson 1 926:25-6. 7 6.

UMM M IRDI. C rawford

t he f ormer

[ 18.58.N./33.32.E.]

n oted o ne o f t he l argest t umulus

f ields i n t he a rea h ere,

o n

t he w est b ank f acing M aru i sland. C rawford 1 953a:11 7 7.

E l U SHEIR . T he

[ 18.29.N./33.41.E.]

' Church '

i s

b rick c olumns. C hristian

a

t rapezoid b uilding i n r edbrick ,

P ossibly l ater u sed a s a m osque,

b ricks

i n

i ts

s tructure.

b uilt w ith a ssociated r edbrick r uins. g raves

B uilt i n

i nscribed

p hases,

a ll

I n t he n earby c emetery ,

s everal

s ome

s howed s igns o f r edbrick s uperstructures, a nd s ome w ere s imple tumuli,

a re

T he l arge f ort i s l argely s tone

t he s herds w ere t hought t o b e C hristian. mounds,

w ith a n a pse a nd

t here

s ome t he

r ectangular

n ot n ecessarily C hristian .

C rawford 1 953b:19-24. 7 8.

E z Z UMA.

[ 18.44.N./33.32.E.]

C rawford n oted a p articularly p rominent g roup o f t umuli

h ere,

t hough

o pposite

D agash

g ives n o o ther d etails. C rawford 1 953a:11. 7 9.

E z Z UWEIRA .

[ 19.20.N./33.24.E.]

T here i s a l arge

g roup

o f

tumuli

s tation. C rawford 1 953a:11.

9 2

r eported

h ere,

3 .0.17

T he D ongola R each .

T he

D ongola

R each

s tretches

f rom

H amdab,

t o t he t op o f t he 3 rd c ataract,

c overs

a d istance o f s ome 2 20 m iles,

t he

e nd o f t he 4 th c ataract n ear

a f ew m iles n orth o f

K erma:

t he s outh-west a s f ar a s E d D ebba a nd t hen t he s tretch t o t he D ongola a nd K erma.

n orth

T he r iver r uns t hrough a r egion o f N ubian S andstone w here d owncutting c ontributes t o a v arying w idth o f a lluvial p lain. K areima a rea,

t his

c omprising p art o f t he g reat b end t o

t he a lluvial p lain i s g enerally n arrow ,

o ften

p ast

l imited I n t he

l ittle

more

t han 5 00 m etres w ide b efore r eaching t he r ocky b luffs o r g ravelly t erraces o verlooking t he r iver. T he b luffs a re p articularly p rominent o n t he r ight b ank u pstream o f E d D ebba. T he d istribution o f a gricultural l and i s a gain r eflected b y t he p resent s iting o f major pump s chemes i n t he n atural b asins [ Allan 1 948:621-7]. O f t hese B orgeig , E l G haba , K ulud/Ganetti, G ureir, Nun i a nd Mora a re t oday i rrigated b y pumps. A rgo , K erma, B akri,

O ther a reas a re c analized t o v arying d egrees, s uch a s M egauda, K armakol/Debbat e l F uqara , G abriya, A rgi ,

L etti a nd A ffat [ loc.cit]. T he most i mportant a re L etti, A rgo a nd K erma , w ith p otential c ultivable a reas, d epending o n t he v ariable f lood l evels o f 1 -8,000

1 -7,000 a nd 5 -70,000 f eddans r espectively.

E ven w ith modern c anals t he g reat

v ariability

e xtensive a nd r egular a griculture i n t he b asins,

i n

f looding

p recludes

but t hey a re o f g reat u se

f or g razing a nd a s s ources o f w ood. E ven i rregular f looding s till e nsures a c oncentration o f v egetation n ot o therwise t o b e f ound a way f rom t he i mmediate b anks o f t he r iver i n t his

r egion

[ Barbour

1 961:139].

O ther

s maller b asins o ffer r elatively l arge b ut u nderdeveloped a reas o f l and: M aqassir i sland , w ere

l imited

f ringes

D ongola ,

u ntil

G irri,

r ecently

G oshabi, t o

K orti a nd B arkal.

s a c : 11 .a

T hese

a t

a reas

a nd s eluka a griculture o n t heir

[ loc.cit].

B esides t hese a reas, t he D ongola R each h as t raditionally s een t he i ntensive e xploitation o f s aqia a nd s eluka l ands w here a vailable. While d etailed

f igures

a ccording t o w ater c omprised

a t

1 948:745]. o f

r iver ,

u navailable

l evels),

t he

( and w ould o bviously b e v ery v ariable s eluka

l east 5 0% o f c ultivated l and ,

l ands

a re

e stimated

t o

[ Hewison

T hese s eluka l ands a re p articularly i mportant f or t he

n umbers

a nd

i nhabited i slands o f t he D ongola R each.

G enerally l ow

t hey c ombine t he a dvantages o f the e xtensive s eluka l ands a t

l ow

a nd t he l ow l ift r equired f or e xtensive s ac 1 : 1 .a i rrigation.

T he d ozen o r s o s uch i slands o f t he D ongola R each h ave l ong b een f or

h ave

p rior t o modern p umps

p ermanent

a nd f lat,

a re

t heir

a gricultural

i mportance.

" perhaps t he r ichest s oil i n c ultivated" s easonal t ravellers

[ op.cit:27].

i slands/banks f requently

t he T heir

r evealed r efer

t o

S udan , n umbers a t

l ow

t hickly a re

p opulated

g reatly

N ile.

c ultivation

9 3

n oted

G leichen e nthused o f A rgo i sland a s

o f

a nd

N ineteenth t he

h ighly

i ncreased b y t he i slands:

c entury H oskins

3 1°

—

3 2 "

2 1;

3 rd Cataract

KEA MA

‘ , e; e

A rgo I s land

• DONG OLA

—

1 9 '

1 9—

h ie

,i oad

E l KHANDA0

•

•

KARE IMA

MERO WE

* E d DEBBA •

KORT I

— Te e

*

z

—

— *

m i les

5 0

•

Modern T owns

kms

8 o

*

Bas ins

F ig 1 4 .

T he Dongo la R each

9 4

c ommented o n t he s carcity o f " any c ultivated l and , e xcept o n t he i sland" i n t he T angassi a rea [ op.cit:169-70]. L inant l ikewise r ecords e xtensive a griculture o n B adin , W hile

t here i s

H useinarti a nd H ammur/Tangassi

[ op.cit:38,174]

l ittle d iscussion o f s pecific c rop t ypes a nd t heir u se ,

t he g reat i mportance o f d ate c ultivation i n t he D ongola R each must b e e mphasized. I n modern t imes, d ate p alms h ave p roduced t he o ne d ependable c ash c rop o f t he r egion a nd a re e ssential f or

f ood ,

d rink

a nd

b uilding

materials w ithin t he t raditional e conomy. T his r egional i mportance i s r eflected i n g overnment s tatistics, s uch a s t hose o f t he 1 942 c ensus w hich r ecorded

s ome 7 00,000 p alms i n t he D ongola R each ,

o ut o f a n ational t otal

o f s ome 1 ,600,000.

S uch a c oncentration a nd i mportance

f urther

L ower

n orth

i n

N ubia

w hich

h ad

s ome

i s

5 00,000

o nly

matched

p alms

[ Bacon

1 948:368-86]. W hile

a voiding

t oo

c orrelation b etween t he s ettlement

i s

d eterminist d istribution

a pparent.

a n o f

i nterpretation , a gricultural

t he

l and

g eneral

a nd

modern

T he t wo major t owns o f D ongola a nd K areima a re

modern d evelopments: t he f ormer a s a T urkish administrative c entre a nd t he l atter a s t he r ailhead s erving N orthern P rovince. T hree major t owns M erowe, K orti a nd E d D ebba - w hich s tand a t t he h eads o f w adis c arrying i mportant " roads" t o the s outhwest a nd s outheast h ave a lso d eveloped a s m inor administrative c entres. I n t he p ast, s imilar f actors w ill h ave i nfluenced t he d evelopment o f s ome s ites, f or e xample a s t rading o r r eligious c entres,

b ut a g eneral a wareness o f p ast a gricultural

p otential

i s n ecessary i n o rder t o a ssess o bserved macro-settlement p atterning. T he e arliest k nown c analization o f b asin l ands i n the r egion w as a t A ffat d uring t he Mandist p eriod [ Allan o p.cit:623]. A s ignificant p roblem r emains h owever i n e stimating h ow much o f t he b asins may h ave b een s usceptible

t o

n atural

i nundation

i n

e arlier c enturies.

f lood l evels a nd/or l ower l evels o f t he b asin f loors a nd s ignificantly c hange t heir p otential: s uggested

a dvanced , h owever ,

i n

e arlier p eriods,

t he b asins m ay h ave f looded t o a g reater

R eisner

[ 1914:21]

e mbankment

a nd

A t

d ividing

B onnet

[ 1978:116]

p resent,

h as b een a ttributed b y t he

T he l ocation o f c emeteries o n t he e ast t he

s lope

o f

p resent N ile f rom t he K erma b asin s uggests

s ubstantial f looding o f t he b asin s ince t hen. t hat

d egree.

I t

s o f ar

t he s ubstantial e rosion o f s oil o ver M eroitic g raves r ecorded

l atter t o f lood w aters. t he

h eight.

w hen t his p rocess w as n ot

there i s o nly l imited c ircumstantial e vidence t o s upport t his.

A t K erma, b y

t hat

c ould

c ontinued d eposition o f s ilts d uring

a nnual f looding h as r aised t he b asin l evels t o t heir p resent i s

H igher r iver

e ntrances

A rkell c ertainly

e nvisaged

t he a rea o f t he W estern D effufa m ight h ave b een a n i sland d uring t he

l ast m illennia B C

[ 1955:67-8].

T he n ature o f a ncient e xploitation o f

t he

K erma b asin i s u nknown. H oskins r ecorded the r uins o f the D effufa l ying i n " uncultivated p lains" [ 1835:214], b ut R eisner n oted t he r emains o f o ld s ac lia p its i n h is ' plain o f p otsherds', i ndicating c ultivation a way f rom t he r iver, u sing w ells a s t he w ater s ource [ 1923:34-5] Another f actor w hich n eeds c onsideration i s t he a dvance o f mobile s ands o ver a gricultural l and a nd s ettlements.

9 5

T he h istorical

p rogress

o f

t he

s and movements w hich h ave d rowned much o f t he T anqassi i s o bscure.

r ight

n oted " quelques p lantes e t d es p etits m imosas [ op.cit:29].

b ank

d ownstream

o f

D escribing t he e astern b anks i n t his v icinity L inant e t

l e

r este

T he p resence o f C hristian s ites b eneath t hese

e st

d esert"

s ands,

a nd t he

modern e xperience o f v illages n ear O ld D ongola a ttests t o t he l ong t erm e ffects o f moving s ands, a s n oted i n L ower N ubia. T he b urial o f t he c hurches a t A bdullah N irqi, F aras a nd S onqi a nd t he s how t he massive a ccumulations p ossible [ Adams

v illage a t M einarti 1 977:491-2,544], b ut

r eveals t hat t his w as n ot n ecessarily a g reat d eterrent t o s ettlement.

3 .0.18

A rchaeology i n t he D ongola R each.

U ntil r ecently , e xcavation ,

a rchaeology

c oncentrating

u pstream e nd o f t he R each

h as

i n

l argely

t hree

n ear

main

modern

c onsisted a reas.

K areima

o f

T he

a nd

s ite-specific f irst

M erowe.

i s a t t he A t

N un ,

R eisner e xcavated t he major M eroitic r oyal c emetery t he s eriation o f w hich r emains o ne o f t he c orner-stones o f M eroitic

c hronology

[ Reisner

1 918].

S uperimposed o n this s ite t here w as a lso e vidence f or m edieval s ettlement, C hristian a nd I slamic c emeteries [ Dunham 1 955]. A l ittle d ownstream , c omplex

a nd

r oyal

a nd

R eisner

p yramids

a lso a t

a

s ubstantial

c leared

J ebel

t he

B arkal,

c hurch

b ulk

o f

w ith

t he

d ocumenting

o ccupation o f t he r eligious c entre f rom t he N ew K ingdom t o t imes,

( Nun i

t emple

t he

l ate

1 00 )

l ong

M eroitic

s ome c hance f inds o f p ost-Meroitic a nd C hristian d ate i n t he

u pper l evels. T he p ublished r ecords f or t he l ater o ccupation a re e xtremely s ketchy , b ut t here s eem t o b e b oth o ccupation a nd b urials w ithin t he c omplex A cross

[ Dunham 1 957,1970; t he

r iver ,

t he

R eisner 1 931:89]

s ite

o f S an w a w as e xcavated by G riffith ,

w ho

c leared a bout h alf o f a l arge N apatan/Early M eroitic c emetery a s w ell a s a f ew

e lements

o f

a

s ettlement.

h andful c ould b e a ssigned t o

t he

Among t he 1 550 b urials e xamined ,

o nly a

l ater

p eriod

y ears

o f

t he

M eroitic

[ Griffith 1 923:74-77]. A l ittle f urther d ownstream , the e arly N apatan r oyal c emeteries a t E l K urru w ere d ug b y R eisner, w ho i ncidently u ncovered e vidence 1 950]. r ecorded

f or

l ater

i ntrusive b urials w ithin t he s ame n ecropolis

On t he l eft b ank a t T anqasi a l arge t umulus c emetery , a s

p yramids

C hittick i n 1 953.

[ Dunham

e rroneously

b y L epsius a nd B udge w ere e xcavated b y S hinnie a nd

C ontaining t he t hen t ermed ' Al a'

w are,

t his

s ite

h as

s ince b ecome t he t ype-site f or t he s upposed p ost-Meroitic c ulture o f U pper N ubia [ Shinnie 1 954]. E xcavations

a t

O ld

D ongola h ave b een u ndertaken s ince

1 964,

a nd h ave

b een l argely c oncentrated o n t he major c hurches a nd t he ' Mosque' r ecently i dentified a s a T hrone H all [ Jakobielski 1 986].

b uilding , L imited

e xcavation i n t he r esidential a nd s uburban a reas h as o nly

b egun

j ust

r eveal t he e xtent o f t he s ettlement a nd s urrounding c emeteries. d evelopment o f t he s ite, u nclear

b eyond e vidence f rom t he the l ate

[ Jakobielski & O stracz 1 973a:135].

9 6

t o

T he e arly

6 th C entury ,

i s

1 3 1*

3

— 2 0*

2d -

. 100 •1 0 1 5 7

8 4 6 3 • 6 6 6 4 9 6

• 5 1 5 8

4 9

6 9

B O

••

8 1 — 7 8

Dongo la 0 •

5 6

T 72-76 K

.

.

7 0

'• 1 1 ,, 3 4-35 — 1 9 *

•

7 9

7 s

- - 4 7 -48 6 7-68 3 0 -32

4 1-42

1 04

1 05106

2 8-29

9 9 1 02 • 9 3

5 9

•

G O •6 1

4 6

1 3• 8 2 . 5 3 •— 6 5 1 07 4 5 1 2 • 7 6 • • 2 0 • 2 3

2 1 •

E d Debba

—18

•

3 3

2 4

0

mi les

SO

0

k ms

8 0

F ig 1 5 .

Dongo la R each S i tes

9 7

•

87

/

8 3

. 94

•

1 9

9 8

D ownstream , p artially

t he

c leared

P haraonic/Meroitic i n

t he

1 930's,

t own

a nd

l ater M eroitic p hases o r s ubsequent o ccupation f oundation

a t

T abu ,

t emples

a t

K awa

w ere

b ut w ith v ery l ittle e vidence f or t he

o n A rgo i sland ,

A

s imilar

w as m ore r ecently e xamined ,

[ Macadam 1 955].

a nd t he

r emains o f t he major t emple c leared [ Jacquet-Gordon e t a l 1 969]. M ost o f t he s ite r emains u ntouched h owever , e xcept f or p arts o f t he s urrounding n ecropoli,

w hich i nclude M eroitic,

p ost-Meroitic a nd C hristian b urials,

c omplement t he c hurch f ound w ithin t he a bandoned t emple N earby ,

R eisner's e xcavations a t K erma c leared p art

c emetery

a s w ell a s a f ew c hance l ater g raves

o f

[ 1923],

a n e arlier M eroitic a nd a C hristian c emetery w as

t o

[ Bonnet 1 978:118]. a

l ate

M eroitic

w hile more r ecently

f ound

c lose

b y

[ Bonnet

o p.cit;1988:20]. S urface s urvey h as o nly b een u ndertaken s ince 1 984, mainly o n a 5 0 m ile s tretch o f t he r iver b etween E d D ebba a nd E l K handaq , w ith a n i nitial c oncentration b etween J .el A lim a nd B ugdumbush , 1 985:39]. A p reliminary i nventory o f t he a vailable, t here

o f w hich a n umber o f s ites w ere p reviously k nown.

Among t hese ,

a re l arge tumulus c emeteries a t J .el A lim a nd a round J .Ghaddar f rom

t he M eroitic a nd p ost-Meroitic p eriods. a ppear

o n t he r ight b ank [ Grymski 7 8 s ites r ecovered i s n ow

t o b e C hristian s ettlements,

a t O ld D ongola

E leven k oms a long t he L etti B asin

s ome e arlier n oted by t he P olish t eam

[ Jakobielski & K ryzaniak

1 968:154,n.19].

M eroitic

s ites

a ppear t o b e l ess f requent t han p rehistoric o nes [ Grymski 1 985:39], t hough a t l east f ive a re k nown , i ncluding a p ossible t emple a t U rukutti, u nderlying a C hristian s ite. Most o f t he o ther s ites w ithin t he D ongola R each w ere t he r eports o f t he n ineteenth c entury t ravellers.

f irst

n oted

i n

T he c ore o f M onneret d e

V illard 's i nventory o f s ites d epended o n t hem , w ith a t l east s even c hurchs i dentifed b y t heir s tanding r emains [ Linant o p.cit:173]. O thers c annot b e c learly l ocated ,

t hough t here w ere a pparently s everal

o n

t he

l eft

b ank

b etween U rbi a nd D ongola. W addington a nd H anbury r ecord " a b rick c hurch w ith t he p aintings o f a ngels o ver t he a ltar. . the r oof h ad f allen i n , e xcept

a

p art

o f

t he c upola"

[ op.cit:222].

d istribution o f C optic o r G reek g rave s telae, f rom

n earby

c emeteries

[ eg.Crowfoot

o therwise u nconfirmed b y more r ecent

9 8

1 927].

f inds,

A f urther i ndicator i s t he a lways a ssumed t o h ave Only

a t D ebeiba ,

t hree

c ome

s ites r emain

K udi a nd N awi.

3 .0.19

S ite G azetteer:

N ote:

T he D ongola R each.

T hose s ites d iscovered o r r eexamined b y G rzymski a re a ccompanied b y

t heir i dentification p refixed b y R OM . 1 .

n umbers

S heikh A BDALLAH MANASYR . A

s mall

k om ,

a bout

f rom

t he

R oyal

O ntario

Museum

S urvey ,

[ 18.24.N./30.42.E.]

5 0m .

i n d iameter,

m arks a C hristian s ettlement,

c lose b y t he r iver. R uins o f a I slamic g ubba o verly t he s ite. G rzymski 1 987:33. ( ROM .99 ) 2 .

A BKER .

( ESTABEL ).

L inant

r ecorded l arge c emeteries,

o n t hem .

[ 18.03.N./31.05.E.] w ith c arved h eadstones w ith c rosses

A rkell c onfirmed t he p resence o f C hristian g raves,

a nd t here

a re r eports o f C hristian p eriod s herd s catters. A rkell 3 .

1 940:12;

A GAB W AD A DDUL. T his

L inant

1 958:36.

[ 18.30.N./30.42.E.]

i s a h abitation s ite,

w ith b oth p ost-Meroitic a nd E arly C hristian

s herds o n t he s urface. G rzymski. 4 .

A KKAD.

1 987:28-9.

( ROM70)

[ 19.40.N./30.22.E.]

B reasted r ecorded t he r emains o f a s mall c hurch a nd c apitals w ere a lso s een b y S omers C larke. B reasted 1 908:48; 5 .

J ebel e l

' ALIM .

h ere,

w hose

c olumns

S omers C larke 1 910:224.

[ 18.09.N./30.50.E.]

T here a re s ome s mall tumuli r anging f rom 3 -8m . i n d iameter w ithin t he l ater I slamic c emetery o n t he s lope o f t he h ill. G rzymski s uggests a p ost-Meroitic d ate b ut t hat r emains u ncertain. G rzymski 1 987:10. ( ROM63) 6 .

S heikh ARAB H AJ. P robable

[ 18.23.N./30.43.E.]

f indspot

o f r eused C hristian g ravestone a nd M eroitic s tela.

M onneret d e V illards's i dentification o f a c hurch h ere i s u nconfirmed . G rzymski n otes t hat t he g ravestone may h ave p ost-medieval f ortified building i n t he v illage. B reasted

1 908:40;

1 935.1:245; 7 .

C rowfoot

G rzymski 1 987:26.

ARAB H AJ N orth.

1 927b:228-9;

a l arge

d e

V illard

Monneret

[ 18.24.N./30.43.E.]

G rzymski 1 987:26. E l ARAK.

f rom

( ROM .27)

S mall mound w ith C hristian w heel-made w ares.

8 .

c ome

c eramics

a nd

o ther

h and-made

( ROM .56 )

[ 18.13.N./31.37.E.]

N icholson r ecorded a f ragment o f a C hristian c eramic g rave i nscription. T here i s n o r ecord o f t he c hurch m arked o n t he S urvey m ap w hich Monneret d e V illard c ited. N icholson 1 933:293;

M onneret d e V illard 1 935:250.

9 9

9 .

ARGI.

[ 18.06.N./30.57.E.]

A P haraonic o ffering t able w as a

c emetery

l ocated

2

f ound i n t he v illage.

m iles

e ast

o f

I t may c ome f rom

t he r iver w here a rtefacts o f

N apatan o r p ossibly M eroitic d ate h ave b een f ound i n t he

d ebris

l eft

b y t omb r obbers. A rkell 1 950:35-6. 1 0.

B AGANARTI.

[ 18.10.N./30.49.E.]

S mall mound w ith b rick a nd p laster f ragments, m easuring 1 5m . i n d iameter. G zymski s uggested a n I slamic q ubba o verlying a C hristian s ite. G rzymski 1 987:10-11. 1 1.

B AGANARTI N orth.

( ROM .66)

[ 18.10.N./30.49.E.]

L arge c emetery o f a bout

1 00 tumuli ,

r anging b etween 3 -8m .

t umuli a ppear t o b e r obbed a nd G rzymski

t hought

t hem

a cross.

c omparable

T he t o

p ost-Meroitic e xamples a t J .Ghaddar. G rzymski 1 987:10. 1 2.

B AKHEIT.

( ROM .65)

[ 18.17.N./31.41.E.]

L arge f ortified e nclosure w ith C hurch. c .150 x 2 20m .

T he

b aätioned

a nd m ay h ave e nclosed a s mall t own,

w alls

m easure

t hough t he c hurch i s

t he o nly c learly i dentified b uilding. L epsius

1 953:231,

1 913.V :252-3,

L inant

1 958:41;

B udge

1 907:30;

B reasted 1 908:39. 1 3.

J ebel B ARKAL.

[ 18.32.N./31.50.E.]

L arge N apatan a nd M eroitic T emple a nd c emetery n earby.

P alace

C omplex ,

w ith

W ithin t he r uins o f t he M eroitic b uidings,

l ater o ccupation w ere f ound ,

P yramid t races o f

i ncluding p ost-Meroitic g raves,

C hristian

s herds a nd g ravestones. R eisner 1 917,1918,1931;

D unham

1 957,

1 970;

D onadoni

1 986;

C aneva

1 988b. 1 4.

S heikh B ATRAN.I. A

mound

[ 18.23.N./30.43.E.]

b eneath a n I slamic q ubba w ith much C lassic C hristian p ottery

a nd numerous q adus. G rzymski 1 987:33. 1 5.

( ROM .91)

S heikh B ATRAN.II. [ 18.23.N./30.43.E.] A p ossible C hristian c emetery t o t he w est o f S heikh B atran I .

T he

s mall g rave mounds a re o riented e ast-west. G rzymski 1 987:33. 1 6.

B ELLAL. S ayce

( ROM .92)

[ location u ncertain ]

r ecorded f inding s ome o ld g old w orkings,

r iver i n t he v icinity o f K asingar-Bellal.

a bout

4m iles

Amongst t hese

h e

f rom t he f ound

a

C hristian i nscription i n G reek. S ayce 1 910:267-8. 1 7.

B UGDUMBUSH. ( Nogdumbush ). [ 18.32.N./30.42.E.] C hristian t own s ite, l argely b uried b y s and ,

1 00

s howing

o ccupation

t hrough a ll C hristian p eriods.

T here i s

s ite

t hough G rzymski f ound f ew s herds t here

b eneath

w ith

a

T emple,

p ossibly

a

l arge

M eroitic

f rom p re-Christian p eriods. B reasted 1 908:41; 1 8.

B UKIBUL. S mall

p ost-Meroitic,

1 9.

G rzymski 1 987:29.

w ith

D EBEIBA .

s ome

1 5

t umuli

o f

u ncertain

[ 18.26.N./31.48.E.]

J ebel D EIGA. c apitals, B akheit.

2 1.

I slamic c emetery.

1 927b:230. [ 18.11.N./31.36.E.]

A l arge f ortified s ite

L epsius

p ossibly

( ROM .51)

A C hristian marble g ravestone w as f ound w ithin the

2 0.

d ate,

b ut m aybe much e arlier.

1 987:12.

C rowfoot

( ROM .72)

[ 18.12.N./30.45.E.]

c emetery

G rzymski

C rawford 1 951:38;

a nd

o ther

1 913.V:251,

D IFFAR .

( el H au ).

F ortress

o f

w ith r ed

1 853:231;

mudbrick

C hurch ,

s tructures.

w ith

p illars

a nd

L epsius c ompared i t t o

B udge 1 907:30.

[ 18.03.N./31.18.E.]

p ossibly

C hristian s ettlement.

p ost-medieval

1 853:231-2,

d ate,

p robably

o verlying

G ranite c olumns a nd c apitals f rom a c hurch

k nown. A pparently t he V illard n ear N izeiza. L epsius

a b rick

s ame

s ite a s E l H au ,

1 913.V:250;

a a re

l ocated b y Monneret d e

C ailliaud.II:29;

L inant

1 958:38;

B reasted 1 908:39; Monneret d e V illard 1 935:250. 2 2.

F ERGI.

[ 18.27.N./30.42.E.]

R edbrick r emains o f p ossible C hristian d ate w ere b ut r emain u nconfirmed.

p ossibly o f r eused C hristian b rick , c hurch h ere a s

G ABRIYA.

b y

G leichen ,

b ut t here i s

n o

e vidence

f or

a

l isted b y Monneret d e V illard.

G leichen 1 905:313; ( ROM . 9 4) 2 3.

n oted

G rzymski f ound r edbrick t omb s uperstructures,

M onneret d e

V illard

1 935:244;

G rzymski

1 987:34.

[ 18.07.N./30.52.E.]

P ossible

C hurch

a nd/or o ther h abitations k nown ,

s eriously damaged i n

1 930s. L inant 2 4.

1 958:35;

G ANETTI.

G EREIF.

t ype C hurch w ith c olumns, a ssociated w ith o ther r uined w ithin a l arge e nclosure w all, w hich may a lso b e m edieval.

1 958:173;

1 927a:145; 2 5.

1 940:13.

[ 18.00.N./31.17.E.]

B asilican b uildings, L inant

A rkell

B reasted

1 908:39;

C rowfoot

[ 18.07.N./30.49.E.]

L arge g roup o f s ome 5 0 l ow mounds o f l ittle r ed b rick, p ossibly C hristian. G rzymski

S omers C larke 1 910:226;

A rkell 1 941.

1 987:31

( ROM .103)

1 01

mainly

mudbrick

r uins,

w ith

2 6.

E l G HADDAR. [ 18.15.N./30.44.E.] A l arge s ettlement mound , s tanding u p t o 3 m . h igh a t t he mouth o f t he w adi, w ith p ossibly l ate M eroitic, C hristian a nd I slamic o ccupation. G rzymski 1 987:15.

2 7.

( ROM .6)

E l G HADDAR E ast.

[ 18.15.N./30.45.E.]

L ate M eroitic a nd p ossibly e arly p ost-Meroitic g raves a nd h ouses. G rzymski 1 987:15 2 8.

( ROM .85)

E l GHADDAR S outheast I . [ 18.15.N./30.44.E.] A mound o f b rick r uins s tanding u p t o 3 m . h igh ,

w ith E arly a nd C lassic

C hristian s herd s catters. G rzymski 2 9.

1 987:14-5.

( ROM .1)

E l G HADDAR S outheast

I I.

[ 18.16.N ./30.45.E.]

2 l arge r ockcut t ombs o f t he C hristian p eriod T heir

e laborate

i mportant

s ubstructures

p eople.

s uggest

S uggestions

t hat

w ere

t hey

t hey

d iscovered

w ere

m ight

t he

h ere.

g raves

r epresent

o f

r eused

M eroitic g raves h ave r ecently b een r ejected. J akobielski 1 982b , 3 0.

J ebel G HADDAR I . L arge c emetery p ost-Meroitic

1 986:303-4. [ 18.15.N./30.45.E.]

o f

1 20-150

tumuli.

E xcavated

t umuli o verlying M eroitic g raves,

e xamples

i dentified

w ith s igns o f e arlier

K erma C ulture c emetery. G rzymski 1 985:39, 3 1.

1 987:15-16,41-45.

J ebel G HADDAR I I.

( ROM .4)

[ 18.16.N./30.45.E.]

T he a rea a t t he f oot o f t he h ill w ith many d epressions, C hristian s herds, p ossibly r epresents a c emetery. G rzymski 3 2.

1 987:16.

J ebel G HADDAR I II. R ed

a nd

mudbrick

s howing

( ROM .15) [ 18.16.N./30.45.E.] a nd

s tone s tructure o n t op o f t he h ill.

P robably

C hristian w ith p ost-medieval u se. G rzymski 1 987:16. 3 3.

G IGERNARTI.

( ROM .14)

[ 18.02.N./31.18.E.]

A C hurch s ite i s i ndicated b y s everal s tanding c olumns. L inant 3 4.

1 958:37.

G OJUB S heikh Mohammed.

[ 18.17.N./30.43.E.]

A l arge C -shaped s ettlement mound h as C hristian a nd p ossibly s urface

f inds,

G rzymski 1 987:24. 3 5.

G OJUB E ast.

g raves

e ast-west, G rzymski

( ROM .34)

[ 18.17.N./30.44.E.]

T o t he e ast o f t he s cattered

M eroitic

c omparable t o H ambukol.

s ettlement i n

t he

h ead t o t he w est,

1 987:24.

r emains

d esert.

H e

a t

G ojub ,

t hought

G rzymski t hey

a nd t hus p ossibly C hristian.

( ROM .34)

1 02

r eports

w ere o riented

3 6.

E l G OLED Q UBLI.

( At T ammariya )

[ 18.28.N./30.41.E.]

G rzymski s uggests a C hristian p eriod s ettlement, v illage,

G rzymski 1 987:34. 3 7.

t he

o ld

H AJ MAGID.

w ith

r edbrick

( ROM .93)

[ 18.21.N./30.45.E.]

A L arge s ettlement m ound b eneath I slamic q ubbas, a nd

u nderlying

l argely d estroyed b y f looding i n 1 946.

p laster

o n

t he

s urface.

G ranite

much

c olumns a nd c apitals

f rom a

C hurch a re v isible a s w ell a s n umerous C hristian s herds, i ncluding C lassic C hristian . I t i s p robably t he l argest o f t he s ites w ithin t he L etti B asin p roper. J akobielski & K rzyzaniak 1 973:

1 54.n 1 9;

G rzymski 1 987:19-20,

P 1.3a.

( ROM . 4 9 ) 3 8.

H AJ MAGID E ast.

[ 18.21.N./30.46.E.]

C emetery w ith s ome 3 0-40 t umuli, r obbed.

T heir

d ate

i s

m any o f w hich

u ncertain ,

a ppear

t hough

t o

G rzymski

h ave

b een

s uggests

a

p ost-Meroitic d ate. G rzymski 1 987:19. 3 9.

( ROM .105)

H AJ MAGID S outh. [ 18.20.N./30.46.E.] A s mall c emetery o f a t l east 1 0 tumuli,

o n the r ocky p lateau ,

p ossibly

o f p ost-Meroitic d ate. G rzymski 1 987:19. 4 0.

( ROM .84)

H AJ MAGID N ortheast. Among s herds;

t here a re many c oarse u ndiagnostic

p ossibly T erminal C hristian o r p ost-medieval.

G rzymski 1 987:20. 4 1.

[ 18.21.N./30.46.E.]

s catters o f b rick f ragments,

H AMBUKOL I .

( ROM .8

)

( Gogub e l Madrasa )

[ 18.17.N./30.43.E.]

A s eries o f l arge m ounds o f b rick a nd p laster, n ow b eing e xcavated.

S herds

m easuring c .500 x 3 00m ;

f rom a ll p eriods o f C hristian

a re p lentiful. J akobielski & K rzyzaniak 1 973:154.n 1 9;

G rzymski

1 985:39,

o ccupation 1 987:23-4.

( ROM .3 3) 4 3.

H AMBUKOL I I. A

M eroitic

p ottery ,

[ 18.17.N./30.43.E.] c emetery

G rzymski 1 987:23-4. 4 3.

HAMMUR . A i n

i s

i ndicated

b y s catters o f b one a nd M eroitic

d isturbed d uring r ecent h ouse b uilding. ( ROM .33)

[ 18.10.N ./30.47.E.]

l arge c emetery o f s ome 8 0 w ell-preserved tumuli, d iameter.

S urface

s herds

i nclude

r ibbed

r anging f rom 2 m-8m a mphora,

p robably

p ost-Meroitic. G rzymski 1 987:12. 4 4.

H AMMUR N orth.

( ROM .76)

[ 18.11.N./30.47.E.]

A c emetery w ith 3 0-40 s mall g raves a ligned e ast-west. e xample

h ad

n o

g rave

g oods

a nd

w as

p robably

C hristian s herds w ere f ound i n the v icinity.

1 03

O ne

e xcavated

C hristian.

A f ew

G rzymski E l HAU.

1 987:12.

- s ee D IFFAR

( ROM .52) [ 18.03.N./31.18.E.]

Monneret d e V illard 1 935:250. 4 5.

E l H ILEILA.

( Hezeima )

[ 18.19.N./31.43.E.]

A p ossible t emple o r s hrine a ssociated w ith r ed b rick r uins. L eclant 4 6.

1 982:475.

I SHASHI. S everal

[ 18.34.N./31.57.E.] b uildings

built o f b rick ,

i s p ossibly a c hurch , L epsius 4 7.

1 853:225,

S heikh J ODA I . A

s mall

4 8.

O ne

1 913.V:286.

[ 18.17.N./30.45.E.]

C hristian s ettlement a nd c emetery a t t he f oot o f t he h ill o n

the s outhwest G rzymski

w orked s tone a nd r ough s tone.

w ith a w ell d efined a pse.

s ide.

1 987:18.

S heikh J ODA I I. C hristian

( ROM .46) [ 18.17.N./30.45.E.]

c emetery s outh o f the h ill.

T here a re b arrel-vaulted t ombs

built o f r edbrick a nd mud mortar. G rzymski 4 9.

1 987:18.

K ADAKOL-TERAZA . A

l arge

( ROM .31) [ 18.21.N./30.43.E.]

mound o f b ricks a nd p laster,

C hristian s herds.

A t

l east

o ne

5 00m .long c overed w ith a bundant

p illar

i s

v isible,

a nd

t his

i s

p robably the s ite o f a c hurch r ecorded by B reasted. B reasted 1 908:40; 5 0.

KADAKOL E ast.

G rzymski

1 987:25-6.

( ROM .54)

[ 18.21.N./30.44.E.]

T wo l ow mounds o f 3 0m .x 2 0m .

w ith s ome brick r ubble.

D rab

h and-made

s herds a nd Meroitic p ottery w ere f ound. G rzymski 5 1.

1 987:22-3.

K ADRUKA.

( ROM .61)

[ 19.23.N./30.30.E.]

A Meroitic c emetery h as the K erma b asin ,

r ecently b een f ound h ere,

o n

the

m argins

o f

n ear t he modern v illage.

R einold 1 987a:44. 5 2.

KAIT.

[ site u ncertain ]

T his

s ite h as n ot b een l ocated ,

a nd

( New )

D ongola.

but l ies

W addington

s omewhere b etween W ad N imeiri

a nd H anbury n oted a s ettlement w ith

" one o r two o ld c hurches among the r uins". Waddington & H anbury 1 822:222. 5 3.

K AJEBI.

[ 18.28.N./31.47.E.]

S ettlement

s ite

w ith

r edbrick

d ebris

o f

C hristian

d ate

p ostmedieval r uins.

A l arge c emetery o f r ectangular g raves,

multiple

a nd

burials

o rientated

e ast-west,

i dentified a s C hristian. Abbas

S iidahmed 1 971:12,20;

L eclant

1 04

1 982:475.

i s

n earby ,

b eneath s ome w ith a nd

i s

K ANDAMIR s ee T ANGASSI

[ 18.10.N./30.37.E.]

M onneret d e V illard 1 935:248. 5 4.

K ANKALAB.

[ 18.17.N./30.42.E.]

S everal m ounds,

o ne w ith a p ost-medieval f ortress b uilt o ver i t.

o f t he m ounds h ave m any C hristian s herds o n t he G rzymski 5 5.

K ASSE

1 987:32.

( ROM .87)

( Amentego )

[ 18.25.N./30.43.E.]

A l arge s ite c overed w ith T here

a re

s ome

r uins

s herds o f

a nd

w hat

b rick

1 953:47-52; K AWA . A

s andstone

r ubble.

T he s ite o f a

C hurch

o r

s uggested b y l ocal r eports o f b uried c olumns.

G leichen 1 905:313;

5 6.

a nd

a re p robably Meroitic b uildings a nd

s everal f inds o f M eroitic a nd N apatan d ate. t emple i s

S ome

s urface.

A rkell 1 940:12;

G rzymski

1 987:26-7.

P orter

&

Moss

1 951:192;

L eclant

( ROM .25)

[ 19.07.N./30.30.E.]

m ajor

M eroitic

t ownsite,

c emetery c lose b y . o ccupation

i ncluding

s everal

t emples a nd a l arge

An E gyptian N ew K ingdom f oundation ,

t hrough

t he

N apatan a nd Meroitic p eriods.

C hristian p ottery a re a lso k nown f rom the v icinity ,

w ith c ontinued S ome f inds o f

t hough

t here

i s

l ittle e vidence f or o ccupation o f t he t own a fter the M eroitic p eriod. G riffith 1 931:87-9; 5 7.

K ERMA .

K irwan 1 936;

M acadam 1 949,1955;

[ 19.36.N./30.25.E.]

T wo l arge c emeteries o f E arly a nd L ate Meroitic h ave

S hinnie 1 950:297.

b een

p artially

e xcavated.

d ate

a re

k nown

a nd

T he o nly e xcavated building o f t he

K ushite p eriod i s o f N apatan d ate t hough t he s ite o f a p ossible M eroitic t emple h as b een i dentified. C hance f inds o f C hristian p ottery a re r eported a nd p arts o f a l arge c emetery o f the s ame

p eriod

w ere r ecently e xcavated. R eisner 1 914,1923;

5 8.

1 978,1982,1984a,1987:18,1988:20;

S hinnie 1 950:297.

K HALEIWA .

[ 18.22.N./30.42.E.]

A lthough

n o l onger v isible,

b een r ecovered. G leichen

&

the c olumns a nd c apitals o f a c hurch h ave

C rowfoot

1 927a:145,

1 927b:229-30;

G rzymski

( ROM .90 )

E l K HANDAQ.

[ 18.36.N./30.34.E.]

N ineteenth-century r eports r eports

B onnet

C hristian g ravestones a re a lso k nown f rom t he s ite.

1 905:30,313;

1 987:32-3. 5 9.

B onnet

Ahmed 1 984;

n ote

f inds

o f

s uggest s everal g raves,

c hurchs

h ere,

a nd

o ther

g ravestones

a nd C hristian p ottery ,

s uggesting a l arge s ettlement o n t he s ite. L inant 1 958:30; G leichen 1 905:28; Monneret

d e V illard 1 935:242-3;

C rawford 1 951:38. 6 0.

E l K HANDAQ E ast I .

[ 18.36.N./30.35.E.]

S ettlement s ite w ith s catters o f q adus a s w ell a s g lazed w ares, m ay b e o f C hristian d ate. G rzymski 1 987:30.

( ROM-MM .5)

1 05

w hich

6 1.

E l KHANDAQ E ast I I. [ 18.36.N./30.35.E.] A s ettlement s ite w ith o ccupation p ossibly f rom t he N ew K ingdom t o t he M eroitic p eriod.

T here i s p ossibly a c emetery n earby.

G rzymski 1 987:30. K OBAN.

s ee AKKAD.

( ROM-MM .3)

[ 19.40.N./30.22.E.]

S omers C larke 1 912. 6 2.

K OMI. [ 18.30.N./30.39.E.] B reasted r ecorded a C hurch h ere b ut g ave n o d etails. B reasted 1 908:41.

6 3.

K OYA ( Koi) [ 19.31.N./30.24.E.] A l arge r uined s ettlement w as r ecorded h ere b y L epsius,

t hough w ith n o

d ating e vidence. L epsius 6 4.

1 853:235.

K UDI. [ 19.25.N./30.27.E.] C hristian g ravestones h ave b een

r ecovered

f rom

t his

a rea ,

b ut

n o

g raves h ave b een s ubsequently c onfirmed. S ayce 1 910:267. 6 5.

E l K URRU.

[ 18.25.N./31.46.E.]

T he major f eature o f n ecropolis

o f

E l

t he

K urru

f irst

i s

k ings

t he o f

l arge

t umulus

N apata.

t umulus b urial w as e xcavated c loseby a nd s everal o f h ad l ater i ntrusive b urials, R eisner 1 919; 6 6.

a nd

p yramid

A t l east o ne M eroitic t he

r oyal

t ombs

o ne w ith a p ost-Meroitic t ype b eerjar.

D unham 1 950.

E l L AQIYA. [ 19.28.N./30.16.E.] T hree r uined buildings w ere r ecorded a t t his o asis i n 1 884,

t hough t he

i dentification o f o ne a s a monastery r emains u nconfirmed. G leichen 1 905:204 6 7.

K hor L ETTI E ast I . A l arge t umulus

p ost-Meroitic d ate, G rzymski 1 987:17. 6 8.

[ 18.16.N./30.45.E.]

c emetery ,

a t

l east

8 m .

d iameter.

p ost-Meroitic p ottery , G rzymski 1 986:2-4,

mound

O ne

o f

t he

g raves

o f

s tanding u p t o 3 m .high ,

e xcavated

o f

s ide-niche

b urial

w ith h ad

i ncluding B allana w heel-made w ares.

1 987:17,35-41.

K hor L ETTI E ast I II. S ettlement

s ome

( ROM .18)

K hor L ETTI E ast I I. [ 18.16.N./30.45.E.] A s mall c emetery w ith a t l east 1 2 tumuli, m aximum

6 9.

w ith

t hough o thers a re p erhaps K erma C ulture.

( ROM .32)

[ 18.19.N./30.46.E.] s ome

5 0

x

3 0m .

w ith much r edbrick r ubble a nd

C hristian s herds. G rzymski 1 987:19. 7 0.

L ETTI W est A

s mall

I .

( ROM .48)

[ 18.16.N./30.44.E.]

s ettlement mound w ith r edbrick a nd mudbrick r ubble ,

1 06

c overing

a n a rea o f s ome 8 0 x 4 0m . G rzymski 1 987:21. 7 1.

L ETTI W est

I I.

C hristian s herd s catters c over i t.

( ROM .39)

[ 18.17.N./30.44.E.]

A s ettlement s ite w ith s everal mounds e xtending f or 3 00m , w ith amounts o f C lassic a nd L ate C hristian s herds, a nd manyqadus. G rzymski 1 987:21. 7 2.

L ETTI W est

( ROM .40)

I II.

[ 18.18.N./30.45.E.]

T wo l arge mounds w ith r edbrick r ubble.

7 3.

C hristian p eriod ,

w ithqadus.

G rzymski 1 987:21.

( ROM .41)

L ETTI W est

I V .

S herds

o f C hristian s herd a ccumulation.

G rzymski 1 987:21. L ETTI W est V . A

l arge

I II

&V .

a bout

1 80m .

d iameter s howing r edbrick r ubble. T his

s ite

G ood

may

b e

I II a nd I V a bove. ( ROM .37)

[ 18.17.N./30.45.E.]

A s eries o f l ow m ounds w ith r edbrick a nd s ome s tone f ragments, l ittle p ottery.

t hough

P robably o f l ate C hristian d ate.

G rzymski 1 987:22. 7 6.

2

[ 18.18.N./30.45.E.]

G rzymski 1 987:22. L ETTI W est V I.

L ate

C uttings s howed a t l east

e xamples o f E arly a nd C lassic C hristian p ottery.

7 5.

a nd

( ROM .42)

m ound ,

l inked t o s ites

C lassic

T his m ight e asily b e s een a s

p art o f o ne l arge s ite t ogether w ith s ites

7 4.

o f

[ 18.18.N./30.45.E.]

F ive s ettlement m ounds c lose t o s ite I II. m etres

l arge

( ROM .36)

MAGAL. [ 18.16.N./31.40.E.] A l arge c hurch i s r ecorded h ere,

p ossibly w ith 5 a isles,

a nd

s everal

c olumns a nd c apitals w ere r ecorded i n modern t imes. L epsius 7 7.

MAWWAD

1 853:231,

1 913.V :251,

( Kankalab N orth )

C ailliaud.II:36-7;

B udge

1 907:30.

[ 18.18.N./30.42.E.]

T wo s ettlement m ounds w ith s herds a nd

b rick

r ubble ,

d ating

t o

t he

C hristian p eriod. G rzymski 1 987:32. 7 8.

( ROM .88)

M EGAUDA . [ 18.16.N./30.44.E.] A c emetery o f p ossibly p ost-Meroitic a nd C hristian

p eriods,

l ies

B reasted

f ound

i n

t he d esert a rea n ortheast o f M egauda S outh. G rzymski 1 987:25. 7 9.

M EGAUDA E ast.

( ROM .44)

[ 18.16.N./30.44.E.]

R uined mud b rick b uilding o f u ncertain d ate, M eroitic g ranite s tela. B reasted 1 908:40; 8 0.

M EGAUDA N orth.

G rzymski 1 987:22.

w here

a

( ROM .35)

[ 18.19.N./30.43.E.]

T wo s ettlement m ounds,

w ith l arge amounts o f

1 07

r edbrick

a nd

C hristian

s herds. G rzymski 1 987:25. 8 1.

M EGAUDA S outh.

( ROM .45)

[ 18.18.N./30.43.E.]

L arge r edbrick r ubble mound , o f C hristian d ate. G rzymski 8 2.

1 987:25.

M EROWE E ast. R eused

w ith s ome s andstone f ragments,

( ROM .38)

[ 18.29.N./31.48.E.]

M eroitic/Napatan

s tonework

p ost m edieval c astle a t O ld M erowe c ome f rom B arkal. L inant

p robably

i s

r ecorded i n t he f abric o f t he

( right b ank ),

b ut

i s

t hought

t o

C hristian s herds a re k nown f rom t he c astle a rea.

1 958:43,167-8;

L epsius

1 913.V :282-3;

Monneret

d e

V illard

1 935:253. 8 3.

M EROWE ( Abu D om ). [ 18.28.N./31.49.E.] A f ew M eroitic g raves f rom a l arger c emetery h ave b een e xcavated , t here a re g eneral r eports o f C hristian g ravestones L epsius

8 4.

1 913.V .282-5;

&

&b uildings t here.

G riffith 1 923:74-5.

MUSHU. [ 19.23.N./30.23.E.] R uins o f a s mall c hurch a re n oted f rom t he s ite,

a nd a lso r emains o f a

s ettlement. L epsius 8 5.

1 853:235;

S heikh e n N AAMAN . A

h abitation

p ottery ,

N AWI A

8 7.

1 912.

[ 18.32.N./30.41.E.]

s ite

i s

i ndicated

b y

l arge

q uantities o f C hristian

i ncluding p ilgrim f lasks.

G rzymski 1 987:29. 8 6.

S omers C larke 1 910:224,

( Nawa )

( ROM .73)

[ 18.27.N./30.43.E.]

s ettlement

mound ,

w ith

r edbrick a nd s tone r ubble,

w ith s cattered

s herds.

A C hristian g ravestone i s a lso k nown f rom t he s ite.

C rowfoot

1 927b:226-8;

N URI.

G rzymski 1 987:28.

( ROM .74)

[ 18.33.N./31.55.E.]

A C hristian v illage w as e xcavated amidst t he r emains o f t he N apatan r oyal p yramid c emetery , t ogether w ith i ts a ttendant c hurch. R eisner a lso n oted C hristian a nd I slamic g raves. R eisner 1 918; 8 8.

O LD D ONGOLA .

D unham 1 955;

S hinnie 1 961:10.

[ 18.14.N./30.45.E.]

A l arge t own i n w hich s everal c hurches a nd a h ave n ow b een e xcavated.

f ew

w hole o f t he C hristian p eriod ,

i nto

p re-Christian

b een r ecovered.

b uidings

d omestic

b uildings

T here i s e vidence f or o ccupation t hrough t he h ave

modern

t imes.

S ome

t races

o f

S everal c emeteries a re

k nown. M ichalowski 1 986; 8 9.

1 966 ,

1 969,

1 970;

J akobielski

J akobieski & K rzyzaniak 1 973,

R UMI Q UBLI

( Mohammed Amentod )

1 975,

1 978,

J akobielski & O stracz

1 979,

1 982,

1 973.

[ 18.25.N./30.42.E.]

G rzymski r ecorded a C hristian s ettlement m ound u nderlying

1 08

a n

I slamic

q ubba. T he k om m easures s ome 5 0 x 2 0m . G rzymski 1 987:33. ( ROM .97) 9 0.

R UMI Q UBLI N orth .

( Ahmed W adidi)

a nd s tands 2 .5m .

h igh.

[ 18.25.N./30.42.E.]

G rzymski r ecorded a n u nidentified s tructure o f s quare p illars v isible i n t he b ank o f t he r iver a t l ow w ater. T here a re n o s uggestions o f t heir d ate. G rzymski 1 987:34. 9 1.

S ALEB

( Nasrani)

A mound ,

[ 18.09.N./30.52.E.]

w ith r edbrick a nd p laster b ut

r ectangular 8 0m .;

( ROM .96)

e nclosure c hurch.

G rzymski 1 987:9-10. S ALEB S outh. A

s ettlement

h igh ,

A round

i t

i s

a

T he

4 -5m .high. name

G rzymski s uggested t hat

r eflects

a

t he

t radition o f C hristian

( ROM .100)

[ 18.09.N./30.52.E.] mound

a bout

1 00m .in d iameter,

s till s tanding u p t o 5 m .

w ith r edbrick r ubble a nd C hristian s herds.

G rzymski 1 987:9. 9 3.

f ew s herds.

b uilt o f b rick a nd s tone m easuring 1 20 x

t he mound w ithin s tands

s ite w as a o ccupation.

9 2.

w all

S ALI.

( ROM .101)

[ 18.40.N./30.33.E.]

N ineteenth c entury r eports r emains u nconfirmed.

s uggest a C hurch i n the v icinity ,

b ut t his

W addington & H anbury 1 822:220. 9 4.

S ANAM .

[ 18.28.N./31.49.E.]

T his l arge s ite i ncludes i nportant t emples, s torehouses a nd p robably a p alace. E xcavations p roduced material mainly f rom t he N apatan p eriod a nd

t he l ater M eroitic h istory i s u nclear.

T he l arge n ecropolis w ith

p erhaps 3 000 g raves w as l argely e xcavated a nd w as o f N apatan d ate w ith o nly o ccasional M eroitic g raves. B reasted 1 908:37-8; 9 5.

S INADA .

( Kenisa ).

G riffith 1 922,

1 923.

[ 18.10.N./30.47.E.]

A s ettlement mound i s e nclosed

by

a

w all

measuring

2 00m .

s quare.

T here a re t races o f t he b uildings w ithin a nd s uggestions t hat i t m ight h ave e ven b een a m onastery s ite. G rzymski 1 987:11. 9 6.

T ABU. A

( ROM .53)

[ 19.23.N./30.28.E.]

l arge P haraonic t emple c entre w as u sed u ntil M eroitic t imes a nd h ad

a C hurch b uilt o n i ts r uins. c emeteries

c lose

b y ,

T here a re

p ost-Meroitic

a nd

a nd b uilding r emains o f u nknown d ate,

C hristian s ome a re

p robably M eroitic. L epsius

1 913.V:247-8;

J acquet-Gordon & B onnet 9 7.

TANGASSI.

J acquet-Gordon

a t

a l

1 969;

1 973;

[ 18.09.N./30.49.E.]

A much damaged C hurch s till s urvives o n t he i sland , r emains

Maystre

1 972.

t ogether w ith

o f s ettlement mounds w ith C hristian p ottery.

1 09

t he

T his a ppears t o

b e t he s ite i dentified b y M onneret d e V illardas b eing a t K andamir. L inant 1 958:34; A rkell 1 940:13; Monneret d e V illard 1 935:248; G rzymski 1 987:11. 9 8.

( ROM .78)

T ANQASI. A l arge

[ 18.23.N./31.48.E.] p ost-Meroitic t umulus

f ield

w ith

a round 2 00 m ounds.

T he

l argest o f t hese s tand u p t o 1 0m . h igh. E xcavated e xamples w ere p oorly f urnished o r h eavily r obbed. C hristian s herds a re r ecorded f rom t he s ite. L epsius 1 913.V.255-6; 9 9.

T EITI.

R eisner 1 918:67;

S hinnie 1 954.

[ 18.50.N./30.29.E.]

U nconfirmed

r eports

o f a r edbrick c hurch a nd o ther b rick r ubble f rom

C hristian s ettlement. C ailliaud.II:14; 1 00.

T OMBOS I . I mportant

L inant 1 958:29.

[ 19.42.N./30.24.E.] g ranite

q uarries

u sed i n t he N apatan a nd M eroitic p eriod ,

a re p robably t he s ource o f many c hurch p illars a s w ell. A rkell 1 950:35; 1 01.

T OMBOS I I.

L inant

1 958:18-9,22-3.

[ 19.42.N./30.24.E.]

A l arge c emetery t o t he s outheast o f t he q uarries a ppears t o b e o f t he l ate M eroitic p eriod ,

t hough t his r emains u nconfirmed.

A rkell 1 950.35. 1 02.

URBI.

[ 18.44.N./30.32.E.]

C hristian s herds h ave b een f ound o n t he e ast b ank i n t he v icinity. Monneret d e V illard 1 935:242. 1 03.

URUKUTTI.

[ 18.24.N./30.44.E.]

P otentially a l arge a nd i mportant C hristian a nd M eroitic s ettlement w ith a n u nconfirmed r eport o f a t emple. S everal f inds a re r eported o f M eroitic

j ewellery a nd

p ottery

a nd

C hristian

p ottery

f rom

E arly ,

C lassic & T erminal p eriods. A rkell 1 940:12; 1 04.

G rzymski 1 985:39,

Q asr WAD N IMEIRI.

( Khannaj).

t he

t own ,

1 958:29;

1 940:12; 1 05.

s ingle

1 06.

1 987:13.

S heikh WAHAB I I. A

s mall

o f

C hristian

c ommon

r uins

i n

a nd

A C hristian g ravestone

a round

t he

p ost-medieval

W addington & H anbury 1 822:222;

A rkell

S ayce 1 910:267.

[ 18.14.N./30.45.E.]

b uilding

b uilt

C hristian s herd w as G rzymski

a re

C ailliaud.II:12;

C rawford 1 951:32-3;

S heikh WAHAB I . A

r eports

i ncluding s everal c hurches.

i s k nown a nd C hristian s herds f ort. L inant

( ROM .21)

[ 19.00.N./30.27.E.]

T here a re s everal 1 9th C entury a round

1 987:27-8.

i n

s tone

f ound t here.

a nd mud o f u ncertain a ge,

b ut a

Q uite p ossibly a m odern h ouse.

( ROM .5) [ 18.14.N./30.45.E.]

s ettlement

m ound

s howing r edbrick r ubble a nd p laster ,

1 10

w ith

C hristian s herds. G rzymski 1 07.

E z

1 987:14.

Z UMA .

T he s ite i s

[ 18.21.N./31.44.E.]

A l arge p ost-Meroitic t umulus M eroitic

c ut b y l ater Muslim g raves.

( ROM .2)

d ate

n earby.

T hese

c emetery ,

h ermits

i n t he C hristian p eriod.

L epsius

1 913.V:253;

B udge

w ith p ossible

c ave

s how s igns o f r eoccupation ,

1 907:126-9;

1 11

R eisner

1 918:67-9.

t ombs

o f

p ossibly b y

3 .0.20

T he B aiyuda.

T he s outh a nd w est o f t he B aiyuda D esert i s l argely N ubian S andstone , w ith B asement C omplex i n t he n orth-east, a nd m ore r ecent v olcanic o utcrops s outh o f S ani t o t he G ilif H ills

[ Whiteman 1 971:99-100].

A t

t he

f ringes

o f t he r ainbelt, t he d esert h as w ell d eveloped d rainage. T he t wo most i mportant w adis a re t o t he w est, w here t he W .el M ilk d rains f rom t he s outh-west,

a nd

t he W .Muqaddam f rom t he s outh ,

r eaching t he N ile n ear E d

D ebba a nd K orti r espectively. A

s eries

o f

l esser

w atercourses

d rain

n orthwards,

t here

a n umber o f l esser b ut i mportant w ater c ouses d raining e ast o r

a re

T he w atershed l ies

Above

s outh o f t he G ilif H ills o n

A bu

t he

W .Abu D om ,

s outh-east.

W .Barkal/Bitia a nd t he W .Kasar.

i ncluding

W .Kirbekan ,

t he

H amed

Q oz

A bu

D ulu , a " limb" o f t he Q oz C entral S and Z one o f K ordofan [ ibid:136-7]. A lthough r arely more t han 1 5 m iles w ide, t he s emi-mobile d unes f ound h ere f orm a c onsiderable b arrier t o t ransport a cross t he s outhern B aiyuda. T he B aiyuda r eceives a nnually u nder 1 00mm o f r ainfall a nd f alls w ithin t he S emi-Desert d enser t owards t he s outh. c onsiderable

r ole

a s

a

w hole

z one w ith p atchy a cacia s crub a nd g rasslands,

W ithin t his e nvironment t he w adis

s till h ave

a

i n c oncentrating t he b enefits o f t he l imited r ains a nd

t he p oor s oils. C onsiderable n umbers o f p ermanent w ells a re r ecorded , w adis, which a re t he f ocus o f e xploitation o f t he a rea. W .Muqaddam , A bu T uleih , t hese

t he

major

c entres a re a t B aiyuda,

H ambuti,

a nd a t S ani a nd J ura i n t he g ranite a rea

must

b e

a dded

t he

i mportant

n atural

t o

mainly i n t he E ast o f t he

U mm M erwa , t he

n orth.

p ools a t J akdul

F ura , T o

[ Crawford

1 953a:22-3]. Modern l and u se i s l argely d irected a t

s easonal g razing ,

f ocused o n t he

w ater p oints.

T his e ngages b oth t he s emi-nomadic s ections o f S haiqiya a nd

o ther

f rom

t ribes

t he

E d

D ebba

-

A bu H amed R each ,

a nd H assaniya a nd

H awawir c amel n omads f rom K ordofan [ Barbour o p.cit:79]. E ase a long t he w ater-and g razing-rich w adis c ertainly f avours t ranshumance o f s mall,

m ixed h erds o f c amels,

r iverine

A

H ills, s oil

d istricts.

p articularly

h ills

h as

c oncentrated

a h igh g razing p otential w hich C rawford c ontrasts

a reas t o t he e ast

c attle

f rom

i mportant a rea i s a round t he G ilif

w here a ccumulated d ownwash f rom t he w ith

c aprovines a nd

o f a ccess a l imited

g ood

s tarkly w ith

[ op.cit:20-21].

O therwise, t here i s v ery l ittle d etailed i nformation o n t he a gricultural e xploitation o f t he a rea , b eyond t he l imited r ain a griculture mapped b y L ebon a nd n oted a lso b y L epsius

[ 1853:213].

i s c learly more marginal t han a reas t o t he s outh t here i s n onetheless a gricultural p otential,

w ith

A lthough t he r egion g reater

r ainfall ,

b oth i n t he w adis a nd i n s uch

a reas a s t he f ertile s outhern m argins o f t he G ilif , w here C hittick r ecorded " considerable" r ain c ultivation [ 1955:86]. A s w ith t he W estern B utana s uch c ultivation d epends

o n

1 12

t he

v agaries

o f

h ighly

u nreliable

2 2 •

.1 6 6, 3 5 ,6 f tiK3 8 1 1 ,

2 4

•

•

Abu Ha ifa • • 5 1 4 15 1 7 19

• 6 • • 5 •---i 2 5 ;

• 1 2

3 1 •

3 0

1 0 2 6

-

;9 2 9 •

1 3 •

0

kms

2 00

Modern T owns o

F ig 1 6 . B a iyuda S i tes

1 13

2 3

2 3 • 3 3

2 7

J ura

4 ; 47

• 2 8

a nnual

r ains,

b ut

r ecent u nusually h eavy r ains,

t hat t he p roductivity o f e ven

t his

h arsh

a s i n 1 988 d emonstrated

e nvironment

i s

b y

n o

m eans

n egligible. O ne a rea o f i nterest i n t he B aiyuda h as b een t he c aravan r outes, p resumed f rom e arly t imes t o h ave t raversed t he d esert, l inking N apata a nd M eroe

[ Adams

v arious

1 977:303].

c ombinations

A v ariety o f o f

t he

r outes

a re

s uggested ,

w ells a nd w aterholes.

t aking

i n

T here a re t wo major

a xes o f t ravel;

a n ortherly r oute l inking t he 4 th C ataract - S ani - J ura -

5 th

a nd a s outherly f rom t he K orti-Merowe r each ,

C ataract,

H ills t o t he S hendi R each D escriptions

o f

v ia t he G ilif

[ Jackson 1 926:29].

t hese

r outes

a re

s carce,

t hough C ailliaud t ook t he

n orth r oute v ia J ura t o B aqeir [ 11:82-90], a nd H oskins t he l onger , f rom M etemma, v ia J akdul t o M erowe [ 1835:124-33]. T he l atter r oute w as r etraced b y C hittick a nd S hinnie i n 1 955]

3 .0.21

1 954,

a nd

t heir

a ccount

[ Chittick

a nd t hat o f J ackson a re t he s ources f or t his r egion.

A rchaeology o f t he B aiyuda.

T he

o nly

G hazali,

major

s ite

s ome 1 0 m iles

i n

t he

i nterior

i s

t he monastery c omplex o f

f rom t he N ile u p t he W .Abu D om .

V isited b y s everal

n ineteenth c entury t ravellers, i t w as p artially e xcavated i n 1 954 [ Shinnie & C hittick 1 961]. T he o nly o ther s ettlement s ites a re f our s tone e nclosures,

t hree i n t he W .Abu D om ,

T he f ormer,

o nly s ome 1 5 m iles

c aravanserais,

b ut

n ot

f rom

f ar f rom G hazali,

t he

r iver,

w ere

a nd o ne a t F ura. s uggested

t he l ack o f o ther r egular " stations"

t o

b e

a long t he t racks

w as s een t o c ount a gainst t his. N o c lear d ating e vidence f or t hem f ound , t hough C hittick s uggested a M eroitic d ate [ op.cit:86-91].

w as T he

b astioned e nclosure a t F ura d id p roduce s ome d efinitely Meroitic c eramics, h owever

[ Crawford

1 953b:36].

tumuli a nd " box-graves" N ear

t wo

o f

t hese

C hittick

a long h is r oute,

a round

J akdul,

n oted

s ome

1 5 major g roups o f

i n c emeteries o f u p t o 1 50 u nits.

p ainted C hristian s herds w ere f ound

[ op.cit:91-2]. J ackson n oted a n umber o f g roups o f n orth , i n t he S ani - J ura a rea [ 1926:25].

" Anaj"

g raves

f urther

T he S hendi R each i s t he o ne a rea w here t he i nterface b etween t he d esert h interland F ollowing

a nd t he

p ost-Meroitic

t he

r iverine

s mall a nd

d istricts

W .Hiyelig

s everal

h as

i nland ,

b egun

n ear

t o b e i nvestigated .

M etemma,

f our

C hristian c emeteries w ere f ound ,

o nly a f raction o f t he d ensity o f t he

g raves

a long

t he

s mall

r epresenting

d esert

f ringe.

T his g ives f irst i ndications o f c hanging d istributions i n c ontiguous a reas [ Geus 1 986:28-9]. T he

v ast

k nown.

a reas

A n umber o f

p robably

c orrespond

r ecorded b y E dmonds many

t o

t he

" Anaj" t o

w est o f t he W adi Muqaddam a re e ven l ess w ell

r emains t he

d ry

i n t hat r egion

r ecorded s tone [ 1940].

o n

J udging

o f t he e nclosures w ere o f s ome a ntiquity:

w ith s ites e ast o f t he N ile,

b ut d o w itness

1 14

t he

S udan

e nclosures,

a n

S urvey

m aps

h afirs

a nd g raves

t heir

d isrepair ,

b y

t hey h ave l ittle i n c ommon e arlier ,

more

i ntensive

o ccupation a nd management o f w ater s upplies. B eyond ,

t o

t he s outh o f t he W adi e l M ilk,

N ubian i nscription

h as

b een

f ound

a mongst

a t B ir e l K ai, n umerous

a s ingle O ld

p rehistoric

r ock

c arvings [ Arkell 1 951]. F urther s till, a t A bu S ofyan , N ewbold [ 1924] d iscovered w heel-made c eramics ( apparently p ilgrim f lasks) n ear t he u nexplained r ed-brick s tructures, o ne o f w hich l ooks v ery l ike a p yramid . N ear t he mouth o f t he w adi,the d ry s tone e nclosure a t K ufriyat e l A tash , s imilar

t o

[ Edmonds

1 940].

t hose

o f

t he

e astern

N ear B aiyuda w ells,

i nscription a nd a g ranite q uarry , O verall, the e vidence f rom t he

B aiyuda , J ackson

p roduced

[ 1926:30]

C hristian s herds r ecorded

a

G reek

a pparently a s ource o f c hurch c olumns. f ringes o f K ordofan , u nvisited b y

a rchaeologists, o nly g ives a h int o f t he most o bvious r emains a long t he m ain t racks a nd n ear w ater s upplies. B eyond , i nto D arfur , w here A .A . M ohammed

i nitiated a rchaeological r esearch ,

l inks w ith t he N ilotic N ubian t raditions

1 15

t here a re n o o bvious c ultural

[ 1986:118-9,206 ].

3 .0.22

S ite G azetteer: 1 .

T he B aiyuda & t he W est.

A BU S OFYAN.

[ 15.37.N./27.53.E.]

T here a re s everal r edbrick a nd d rystone s tructures, the most s triking o f w hich i s a l arge r edbrick mound/pyramid , s ome 3 -4m . h igh. T he o ther s tructures a re r edbrick o r s tone c ircles s ome

w ith

e ntrances.

T he

d ate

a nd

2 0-30m .

f unction

u ncertain , t hough p ilgrim f lasks a nd t humb r ings h ave i n t he a rea , s uggesting a medieval d ate. N ewbold 1 924; 2 .

S haw 1 936;

J ebel A B M ERAN I .

A rkell

i n

d iameter ,

o f the s ite r emains b een

r ecovered

1 940:18.

[ 18.11.N./32.18.E.]

O n t he n orthwest e nd o f t he h ill, a nd s ome b ox-graves,

t here i s a c emetery w ith b oth tumuli

p robably o f t he C hristian p eriod.

C hittick 1 955a:91. 3 .

J ebel A B MERAN I I. l km .

[ 18.11.N./32.20.E.]

f rom s ite I t here i s a nother l arge

g raves,

t ogether w ith a f ew tumuli,

c emetery

o f

a bout

1 50

b ox

p robably o f the Christain p eriod.

C hittick 1 955a:91. 4 .

A BU HALFA W ells. About

l km .

[ 17.43.N./32.46.E.]

f rom t he w ells there i s a c emetery o f s ome

1 00

b ox-graves,

w ith a f ew more t o the s outhwest. C hittick 1 955a:91. 5 .

W adi ABU HASHIM .

[ 16.47.N./31.17.E.]

Edmonds r ecorded a g roup o f 6 e nclosures h ere built o f r ough s tonework. The l argest w as 2 60m . a cross, w ith w alls s till s tanding u p t o 2m .

h igh.

T here i s n o e vidence f or d ating ,

a nd t he

s tructures

may

b e p ost-medieval. Edmonds 6 .

1 940:296-7.

ABU S AIYAL.

[ 17.17.N./31.12.E.]

S urvey Map 4 5-I

r ecords

' Anaj R emains'

i n t he

v icinity.

N o

d etails

a re k nown. 7

W adi A BU S IBAA . J ackson

[ c.18.30.N./32.35.E.]

r ecorded

i n t his a rea,

the p resence o f ' Anaj'

tumuli s pread a long t he w adi

a nd a l ocal t radition o f s ome r uined b uildings.

J ackson 1 926:25,30. 8 .

B AIYUDA W ells. J ackson

s till i n s itu , o f

[ 17.33.N./32.08.E.]

f ound

G reek

a

g ranite

q uarry h ere,

w ith p artially w orked c olumns

p robably o f C hristian d ate.

i nscriptions

h ere

a nd

Anaj

H e a lso r efers t o g raves

a re

r eports

r ecorded i n t he

v icinity. J ackson 1 926:30. 9 .

BARQAT UMM BALBAT.

[ 16.17.N./31.50.E.]

S urvey

n otes

Map

4 5-N

' Anaj

1 16

R emains'

a long the W . Muqaddam i n t his

a rea. 1 0.

N o d etails a re k nown.

B IR e l K AI.

[ 16.25.N./30.04.E.]

N ear t he a ncient w ells, t here a re n umerous p etroglyphs, o ne C hristian g raffito i n O ld N ubian. A rkell 1 951. 1 1.

W adi DAYAMON. C hittick 2 .5km .

a nd a t l east

[ 18.19.N./32.08.E.]

f ound

a

g roup

o f

b ox-graves o f t he C hristian t ype,

f rom t he m outh o f t he w adi w here i t

a bout

j oins W adi Adu D om .

C hittick 1 955a:91. 1 2.

E ILAI. E dmonds

[ 16.30.N./31.03.E.] f ound a d rystone e nclosure s ome 2 2m .

w as a g roup o f 1 8 t umuli u p t o 2 0ft. i n s herds o f w hat m ight b e p ilgrim b ottles, E dmonds 1 3.

a cross.

C lose b y t here

d iameter. H e f ound p robably C hristian.

a

f ew

1 940:299.

F ARAGAB.

[ c.13.40.N./30.40.E.].

4 l arge o ccupation S eligman. f ound.

A

mounds,

s tanding

3 -4m .

h igh

w ere

t renched

b y

v ariety o f mat-impressed a nd i ncised c oarse p ottery w as

C omparisons h ave b een made w ith M eroitic h and-made w ares,

b ut

n o c lear c ultural l inks w ith r iverine N ubia h ave b een e stablished. S eligman 1 914-16. 1 4.

E l F URA.

[ 17.40.N./32.59.E.]

C rawford r ecorded t he M eroitic

t hough

n o

d rystone C hristian

f ound a g roup o f t umuli, G leichen 1 905.:316; 1 5.

E l F URA S outh. A bout

1

k m .

b astioned

f ort

h ere

s herds w ithin i t.

5 0m .

a nd

r ecovered

t o t he e ast h e

p ossibly a ssociated w ith t he f ort.

C rawford 1 953a:24,

1 953b:36.

[ 17.40.N./32.58.E.] s outh

t umuli & b ox-graves,

o f the t he f ort,

C hittick f ound a l arge g roup o f

t he l atter p robably C hristian.

C hittick 1 955a:92. 1 6.

G HAZALI. [ 18.26.N./31.56.E.] T he monastery c omplex l ies N ile, w ith a l arge e nclosed c emeteries w ith u pwards

a t a s mall o asis c o mmunity a nd o f 2 000 t ombs

s ome 1 0 m iles

c hurch , o f t he

f rom t he

a s w ell b oxgrave

a s 4 t ype.

E xcavations p roduced n o e vidence o f e arlier o ccupation. S hinnie & C hittick:1961. 1 7.

J AKDUL I . A bout

2 km .

[ 17.38.N./32.51.E.] f rom

t he

w ells

t here

i s

a l arge c emetery o f s ome 2 00

b ox-graves w ith a s mall i solated g roup o f a nother 9 c lose b y. C hittick 1 955a:91-2. 1 8.

J AKDUL I I.

[ 17.38.N./32.52.E.]

A l ittle t o t he n orth o f the w ells a re 9 l ow b ox-graves t ogether w ith s ome p ossible r emains o f d rystone h uts. • Chittick f ound s herds o f p ainted C hristian p ottery w ith t hese.

1 17

C hittick 1 955a:91-2. 1 9.

J AKDUL I II. [ 17.40.N./32.54.E.] A bout 5 km . t o t he e ast o f J akdul t here a re n umerous g raves w ithin a b asin e nclosed b y t he h ills. S ome a re l ow , p ebble c overed r ectangular g raves, w hile o thers a re l ow c ircular g raves, p robably e roded tumuli. C hittick d id n ot r ecord t he s herds

o f

C hristian

o rientation

o f

t he

g raves,

b ut

f ound

p ottery a ssociated w ith t he r ectangular g raves,

t hough n ot w ith t he tumuli. C hittick 1 955a:91-2. 2 0.

J URA . [ 18.39.N./33.08.E.] J ackson n oted t he p resence o f

' Anaj'

g raves,

w hich h e i mplies a re o f

t he b ox-grave t ype. J ackson 1 926:25. 2 1.

K UFRIYAT e l ATASH. N ear

t he

[ 17.41.N./31.03.E.]

w ells

s andstone-faced ,

h ere

t here

a re

r ubble-filled w alls.

s ome T he

r uined

o nly

b uildings

o f

e vidence

i s

d ating

f rom a f ew C hristian w heel-made s herds f ound h ere. E dmonds 2 2.

1 940:161.

E l MALLAGI. J ackson

[ 18.46.N./32.53.E.]

r ecorded

' Anaj'

g raves

h ere,

p ossibly

o f

t he

b ox-grave

v ariety. J ackson 1 926:25. 2 3.

I dd e l M ESUTTAR .

[ 17.07.N./30.59.E.]

S urvey Map 4 5-I r ecords a c hurch s ite h ere, k nown. 2 4.

MUWALIH.

but n o o ther

d etails

a re

[ 18.15.N./32.47.E.]

J ackson r eported ' Anaj'

g raves h ere,

p ossibly o f t he b ox-grave t ype.

J ackson 1 926:25. 2 5.

MUWEILIH.

[ 18.24.N./32.30.E.]

J ackson n oted t he p resence o f

' Anaj'

t umuli g raves h ere.

J ackson 1 926:25. 2 6.

W adi M ILH. E dmonds

[ c.16.31.N./31.31.E.]

f ound

a

g roup o f a t l east

w ith s everal h afirs. w alls

s uggests

4 d rystone e nclosures,

a ssociated

T he s ilting o f t he r eservoirs a nd d ecay

t hey

a re

o f

s ome

a ntiquity ,

o f

t he

b ut t here i s n o c lear

e vidence f or t heir d ate. E dmonds 2 7.

1 940:299-300.

M ITNET e l G AWWALA . E dmonds 7 0m .

f ound

a cross.

k hor.

T here

2

[ c.16.18.N./31.18.E.] e nclosures,

built o f r ough s tone,

C lose b y t here w as a h afir , i s

n o

d ating

e vidence

p ost-medieval. E dmonds

1 940:257-8.

1 18

the l argest

f illed b y a b ank a nd

t he

s ome

damming

s tructures

may

a b e

2 8.

J ebel N ABATI.

[ 18.22.N./33.41.E.]

J ackson r eports t he t radition o f a G reek i nscription

l ocated

i n

t he

a rea J ackson 1 926:30. 2 9.

J ebel Q ISI. [ 15.54.N./32.23.E.] T here i s a c emetery o f 5 8 tumuli, mound ,

s till s tanding 8 m .

b y a d rystone

w all

s ub-Meroitic

d ate

w ith may

w hich

t all a nd 4 1m . a n b e

i ncludes

e ntrance s uggested

a t

l east

i n d iameter. t o

t he

1

l arge

T his i s e nclosed

n orth.

A

l ate

o r

o n c omparison w ith e xamples a t

H obagi a nd N ofalab. Ahmed 1 979:152. 3 0.

J ebel e l R AQTA . E dmonds l ocated

[ c.16.24.N./31.20.E.] a l arge h afir, s ome 1 00m .

a nd a r etaining m ound. E dmonds 3 1.

a cross,

w ith s tone w alling

T here i s n o e vidence o f d ate.

1 940:301.

W adi S EGENAIT. [ 16.32.N./32.47.E.] C hittick r eported t he d iscovery o f a s quare r edbrick b uilding h ere, w hich h e s uggested w as o f C hristian d ate,

t hough

t here

i s

n o

f irm

e vidence. C hittick 1 955b:5. 3 2.

K hor e s S IDR .

[ location u ncertain ]

C hittick n oted a r eport o f s ome 8 0

' Anaj'

g raves h ere.

C hittick 1 955a:91. 3 3.

E t TUWEINA . A bout l km .

[ 18.00.N./37.32.E.] s outh o f t he w ells

i s a g roup o f a bout 5 0 b ox-graves,

p robably o f C hristian d ate. C hittick 1 955a:91. 3 4.

UMM H AROT. S urvey

v icinity. 3 5.

[ 16.20.N./31.49.E.]

M ap

4 5-N

r ecords

' Anaj r emains'

a long t he W .Muqaddam i n t his

N o d etails a re k nown.

UMM K HAFUR .

[ 18.23.N./32.02.E.]

C hittick f ound a e nclosure o f r ough s tone,

s ome 5 0m .

s quare.

C lose b y

t here w as a g roup o f s ome 2 0 b ox-graves o f C hristian t ype. C hittick 1 955a:90. 3 6.

U MM K UWEIB.

[ 18.23.N./32.03.E.]

C hittick f ound a l arge r ectangular e nclosure w ith

l ong

n arrow

r ooms w ithin.

measuruing

6 5

x

3 8m .,

H e t hought t hat a f ew c oarse s herds

f ound t here w ere o f M eroitic t ypes,

b ut t he d ate r emains u ncertain.

C hittick 1 955a:90. 3 7.

J ebel U MM Q UBU. S urvey

[ 16.23.N./31.49.E.]

m ap 4 5-N m arks t his a s t he s ite o f

o f t hese a re r ecorded.

1 19

' Anaj r emains'.

N o d etails

3 8.

U MM R UWEIN.

[ 18.25.N./32.01.]

T here a re 2 d rystone e nclosures o f i ndeterminate d ate. a f ew c oarse s herds,

o ne o f w hich h e

t hought

m ight

C hittick f ound b e

M eroitic

o r

e arly C hristian. A f ragment o f a C hristian g rave s tela h as a lso b een r ecovered i n t he a rea , t hough t he c emetery h as n ot b een l ocated. C hittick 1 955a:87. 3 9.

J ebel e z Z EIN. J ackson v icinity ,

r eports

[ c.17.47.N./31.53.E.] a

G reek

i nscription

b ut g ives n o d etails.

J ackson 1 926:30.

1 20

o r

g raffito

f ound

i n

t his

C HAPTER F OUR S ETTLEMENT I N T HE M EROITIC P ERIOD.

4 .0.1

S ettlement D istribution.

S ince t he d iscovery o f t he g reat r oyal c entres o f N apata a nd M eroe, o f

s uch

s ubsidiary

s ites

a s

K awa

a nd

N aga,

s ettlement h ave b een i dentified a t t he t wo e nds o f t he D ongola t he

S hendi R each/Western B utana

s ites,

t he d istribution ,

[ Adams

a nd

t he d ual f oci o f K ushite

1 977:298-301].

a nd i n s ome a reas t he v ery

R each

a nd

B eyond t hese major

e xistence,

o f

o ther

s ettlements h as r emained o bscure a nd u ncertain. S tudies o f s ettlement i n U pper N ubia a re s till h ave r emained c autious,

h ave b een h ighlighted a s l ikely T hese

c learly

r eviewed. M eroitic

n eed

s ome

d eterminants

r eappraisal

i n

T here h as b een s ome d iscussion s ociety ,

i n

d ue t o t he l ack o f d ata.

t heir

E ven s o ,

o f

s ettlement

t he -l ight o f

i nfancy

v arious

t he

o f

a nd

f actors

p atterning . t he d ata h ere

s ubsistence

b ases

o f

a nd t he s ource o f t he s urplus w ealth manifested i n t he

g reat monumental c entres a nd i n t heir t reasures. L ittle a ttempt h as h owever b een made t o i ntegrate d ifferent a spects o f t he e conomy a nd t heir g eneral b earing o n s ettlement. I n

s ome

a reas,

t he

s lim

e vidence

h as

n ot

w arranted

many o f t he

i nferences d rawn f rom i t. T hus t he a bsence o f i dentified s maller s ettlements h as b een i mplicitly a ssumed t o r eflect a r eal a bsence o f r ural s ettlement. s trong

I n turn ,

t his h as b een u sed t o s uggest b oth

a gricultural b asis t o t he e conomy ,

c ulture o f a " subject p opulation"

[ Adams

t he

l ack

o f

a

c ombined w ith t he p oor material 1 976:17].

E xperience

o f

t he

L ower N ubian e nvironment h as p erhaps p redisposed m any r esearchers t o a ssume a s imilar l ack o f a gricultural p otential w ithin U pper N ubia: a t b est,

i t

E gypt.

i s c ontrasted most u nfavourably w ith t he a gricultural w ealth o f

I n t he

s earch

f or

p roposed f or p astoralism ,

i n

a lternatives,

a n

i mportant

r ole

h as

b een

p articularly i n t he more s outherly r egions.

T hese s ame p erceptions o f s ettlement, o r t he l ack o f i t, p articularly r iverine a reas, h ave b een u sed a s a n a rgument f or t he i mportance o f

t rade, T hus

b oth e conomically a nd a s a d eterminant o f s ettlement Adams

h as

s tressed

d istribution.

t he i mportance o f c ross-desert t rade r outes

i n

e xplaining t he w ealth a nd l ocation o f t he major c entres o f K awa , N apata a nd M eroe [ loc.cit]. T he l ack o f major s ettlements a way f rom t hese c aravan t ermini s eemed t o s trengthen t he c ase f or t he r ole o f t rade r ather t han a griculture i n t heir l ocation. W ithin t hese i ssues; a nd

more

g eneral

most o bviously t he

t heir

r elationship

p roblems

there

a re

p articular

r egional

s tatus o f t he s ettlements o f t he W estern B utana t o

r iverine

a reas,

i nvolving

t he

i nteraction o f a griculturalists a nd more mobile p astoralists.

1 21

p ossible D oubts a lso

I

I

3 2'

3 4 '

A

2 0 '

2I f—

• Ker ma T abo Kawa

B arka ' S ana m

I l Dange i l

/

• i s •

A i "

Wad b en Naga

• E l MusawW,sa rat

U [ 1 ]3

, ,

•

•

•

i n

, ; . •

T e mp le/Town s i tes

E l

•

S ett le ments I I

J . Moya

Ce meter ies & o ther s i tes 0

•

km

s2 00

3 2'

34 ' i

I

F ig 1 7 .

Mero i t ic Upper N ub ia

1 22

•

a ;

Naga — 1 6 '

MER OE

J . Oe i l i

1 6—

r emain a bout t he e xtent a nd n ature o f M eroitic c ulture s outh o f w here,

f or e xample,

A dams h as

K hartoum ,

t he s ites n ear S ennar r emain g eographically i solated .

s uggested t hat a r ibbon o f r iverine s ettlement may h ave e xtended

a long t he B lue N ile, a t l east a s f ar a s S ennar [ 1977:323], w hile H intze h as p roposed t hat t he G ezira r egion a s a w hole may h ave l ain o utside M eroitic

c ontrol,

a nd

t hat

t he

a rtefacts

M eroitic c ultural i nfluence o ver d istinct h owever,

s uggested t hat

u p t he B lue N ile B efore

s ome

o f t hese p roblems,

r ecord.

I n

1 982:14].

t he f irst p lace,

T hese

b etween d ifferent

r egions,

r elationship

t hese

o f

f actors

d ata ,

a nd

h ow

s how

h ow

m ay

s ite v isibility a nd s ite s urvival

v ary t o

w hich

i nvolves d iscussing s uch

c onsiderably ,

b oth

a nd b etween d ifferent c lasses

v ariables

t o

i nadequacies

t his

t he

s ites

e xamined i n a n a ttempt t o m easure t he v alue, t he

i t i s n ecessary t o a ssess

a nd t o h ighlight

v ariables a s t he i ntensity o f f ieldwork, [ Cherry

C rawford ,

[ 1951:14-20].

a pproaching t he

[ 1967:82].

s everal t owns r ecorded b y P tolemy m ight b e l ocated

t he r eliability o f t he s amples, d istort

f ound t here m erely r epresent

p eoples

o f

w ithin a nd s ites.

T he

o f e ach r egion w ill b e

a s w ell a s t he l imitations o f

t his may a ffect a ny i nterpretation o f

s ettlement d istribution. 4 .0.2

T he D ongola R each.

I n t he c omplexes

D ongola R each , t he b est k nown s ites a re major r eligious a nd monuments, c oncentrated i n t he three most f ertile l ocations

b etween t he 3 rd a nd 4 th C ataracts.

T he g reat p yramid c emeteries a t B arkal

a nd N un , a nd t he m assive m asonry r emains o f t he Amon T emple a t J .Barkal w ere t he f irst t o b e d iscovered. D espite t hese massive r uins, i t i s s ignificant

t hat

o ther

c omparable

s ites l eft

T he g reat Amon t emple a t T abo o nly a ttracted f allen

c olossi

p rominent

f ar l ess o bvious r emains.

a ttention

l ying b eside t he l ow mounds.

d ue

t o

t he

t wo

N either K awa n or S anam l eft

s tanding r emains t o a ttract t he a ttention o f e arly v isitors;

t he

t emple a t S anam w as o nly f ound d uring n ineteenth c entury m ilitary b uilding [ Breasted 1 908:37]. T extual e vidence s uggests t hat t hese s ites a ccount f or t he f our g reat r eligious c entres o f t he r egion [ Jacquet-Gordon e t a l 1 969:110-1],

b ut t hey h ighlight t he p roblems o f s ite r etrieval.

R ecognition e specially a s T here,

o f

G rzymski

a round Amentego, f inds

o f

s maller

s ites

i s

s ystematic s urvey h as f ound

t hen

b een

o nly o ne major n ew s ite,

U rukutti a nd K adakol w ere

s tatuary

l ikely

l imited

a nd i nscriptions.

t o t o

b e t he

p roblematic , L etti

a t H ambukol,

a lready

i ndicated

B asin .

while t hose b y

c hance

While f ield s urvey h as b een b etter

a ble t o d efine t he n ature a nd e xtent o f s ome o f t he

s ettlements,

i t

h as

n ot r adically a ltered t he d istributions s uggested b y e arlier c hance f inds. I t h as e nsured , h owever, t hat t he K erma a nd N apata a reas c an n o l onger b e s een

a s t he o nly c entres o f s ettlement.

b e r uled o ut w ithin

t he

o belisks f rom t he a rea w ould e qually s uggest s ettlements

i n

L etti

I ndeed , T he

major t own s ites c an n ot

numerous

r oyal

s telae

a nd

[ Porter & Moss 1 951:192-3], o ften o f N apatan d ate, a n umber o f l ong e stablished a nd i mportant

t he a rea.

t o d emonstrate that

a rea.

S urvey b eyond t he b ounds o f t he b asin w as a ble

s ettlement c ontinued a long t he r iver ,

1 23

a t l east a s

f ar

1 3 1.

3 2.

2 6-

S

• Ker ma T e mp le/Town s i tes O ther s ett le ments

r I e

•

Ce meter ies & o ther s i tes

•

TABO

S

KA WA

•

Bugdu mbush

J . BARKAL

Nun i

U rukutt i • Amentego

E l Kurru

•

SANA M

• •

1 B

m i les

S O

kms

8 0

F ig 1 8 .

Dongo la R each Mero i t ic S i tes

1 24

—

n orth a s E l K handaq , a t t he e ffective n orthern e nd o f p roductive l and , a lso w ell o utside t he L etti B asin p roper. N orth

o f

t here,

c lose t o t he r iver, D ongola

-

K awa

t he l eft b ank i s d ominated b y t he d esert a nd t he r ight b ank b y e ncroaching d unes,

a rea.

A

b ut

s carp c oming a s

f ar a s t he

n orthern f ocus o f s ettlement a round t he K erma

B asin s eems t o b e d efinitely ( if p oorly ) d emonstrated , w ith t he t own a nd t emples o f K awa a f ew m iles f rom the s outhern e nd o f t he b asin, a nd T abo o n t he

a lluvial

s ettlement

i s

i sland

t hought t hat h is [ 1923:36] [ 1978]

o f

i ndicated l ate

A rgo.

b y

t he

M eroitic

T he

p resence

c emeteries c emetery

a t

o f

a

f urther

K erma i tself.

c ontained

u p

t o

l arge R eisner

1 000

t ombs

a nd e arlier M eroitic a nd N ew K ingdom g raves e xcavated b y B onnet

p oint

t o

a n

i mportant

l ong

e stablished

s ettlement.

R ecent

e xcavations h ave r evealed N apatan b uildings a nd i ndicate a Meroitic t emple o n t he

" kom d e B odegas".

N apata,

B onnet

s uggests t hat K erma c ompared w ith

K awa a nd T abo a s o ne o f t he m ajor t owns o f the s outh ,

f rom t he N apatan t o t he e nd 1 984:42; B onnet 1 987:18].

o f

the

M eroitic

p eriod

M eroe ,

f lourishing

[ Bonnet

&

Ahmed

I n the a bsence o f s ystematic s urvey a nd e xcavation , d epended o n t he r ecognition o f monumental r emains,

s ite r ecovery h as c oupled w ith c hance

d iscoveries b y a rchaeologists i nvestigating s ites

o ther

w ith

R eisner 's

o f

e xcavations o f t he K erma C ulture.

p eriods,

s tone-built s ites may s uggest t heir r elatively h igh s urvival r ate. o ther

h and ,

[ Donadoni

a s h as b een f ound a t T abo ,

1 986],

e ven

i mportant

S ama r a ,

t emples

a s

T he p rominence o f s ome On t he

a nd more r ecently a t B arkal

may

s urvive

o nly

i n

their

f oundations. Masonry a ppears t o h ave s uffered v ery h eavily , r obbing.

Where

i t h as b est s urvived ,

t o t he p rotection o ffered b y d rifting s and , t he

s ite.

R obbed

c astle a t O ld Merowe d estruction

o f

t he

s tonework

t emples

a re

f ound

a t

a ll

t he

s uffered h eavy r obbing , w ind

a nd

t he

h owever,

o ccasional

a bandonment

c entury

l arge

a nd

o f

[ op.cit:36].

mudbrick

b uildings

R edbrick may b e e xpected t o h ave

w hile mudbrick i s l iable t o e rosion

r ains,

a nd

a s i n t he p ost-medieval

i n t his

t hough

major c entres.

e rosion

a nd B reasted n oted the o ngoing

e arly

E xtensive u se o f r edbrick i s u ncertain ,

f rom

t his may b e a ttributed

f ollowing t he

i s c ommonly f ound ,

[ Linant o p.cit:167-8], B arkal

b oth

a s a t K awa,

i s

o nly

r eusable

a s

f rom

f ertilizer

( sebakh/maroq ). F urther

n atural

h azards a re a ttested ,

w here a ll t he c emeteries w ere s everely a ssumed

t hat

a s a t K erma,

e roded

b y

a nd p erhaps S anam ,

f looding.

I f

i t

i s

s ettlements a nd t heir c emeteries w ere l ocated o n t he m argins

o f b asins, t hen b oth b uildings a nd t omb s uperstructures may h ave s uffered h eavily f rom f looding. E vidence f rom L ower N ubia, f or e xample f rom M einarti,

s hows h ow f luctuating f lood l evels c ould p rogressively o verwhelm

w hole v illages o ver s everal g enerations

[ Adams

1 968:184-6].

Another f actor i ncreasing s ite d estruction i n t he b asin p ersistence

o f

v illages

o n t he n atural l evees.

N ubia,

s ettlements a re c ommonly l ocated o n t he h igher b anks

r iver

c ourse

f rom

t he

b asins p roper

1 25

l ands

i s

t he

B oth i n E gypt a nd U pper

[ Butzer 1 982:261].

d ividing

t he

W ith c ontinued

o ccupation

o f

t he

s ame

l ocalities,

many s ites may b e o bscured b y l ater

p hases, p ossibly t o t he p resent d ay. A lternatively , t hey may b e e roded b y t he r iver o r, g iven i ntensified c ultivation , d isappear b eneath e xpanding i rrigated a reas. T he i ncreasing d emand f or f ertile l and , p articularly w ith modern pump s chemes, h as o ften e ncouraged t he r elocation o f s ettlements a way f rom a lluvial s oils, w ith t he d estruction o f o ld v illages u nder

c ultivation ,

f actors

a s

f or

e xample

a t

N un i [ Al S hahi 1 986:95].

r ecur t hroughout t he r iverine n orth ,

d ensely

s ettled

a reas

a re

a lso

t hose

w here t he m ost

T hese

most

f ertile

a nd

t o

e rosion

a nd

l iable

d isturbance b y n atural a s w ell a s human a gency. I n

t he a bsence o f d etailed s urvey a nd e xcavation ,

p roblems i n r ecognizing t he e arly m ajor

monumental

o bliterated. e vidence

s tructures

F or e xample,

f or

p hases

o f

t he

t he t emple a t Amara ,

s tructures

[ Vila 1 982:105-6]. may

r emain

e ra

I t

i s

a reas

s ites.

may

n ear A bri,

u ndiscovered

b e

E ven

a ll

s howed

b ut

m inimal

d ue t o t he e ffects o f q uite

p ossible

t hat

w ithin t he L etti B asin . o f

L ower

N ubia,

i t

i s

t hat n umerous i mportant M eroitic s ettlements r emain u nidentified

b eneath t he d ebris o f m edieval v illages 4 .0.3

t here a re p articular

multi-period

M eroitic

E ven w ithin t he r elatively w ell s urveyed a ccepted

o f

p rior t o i ts u se a s a c hurch ,

r obbing a nd o verbuilding c omparable

p hases

[ Trigger 1 965:49 ].

4 th t o 5 th C ataracts.

T he i solation o f t he i nhospitable r egion u pstream o f t he h as

b een

p reviously n oted ,

w as d evoid o f a rchaeological i nterest.

C ertainly ,

p romising

s urvey

l ocations,

M eroitic i nscription A gain ,

u pstream

C rawford ,

o nly

o f t he

Mograt

I sland ,

[ Kleppe 1 982], Mograt,

C ataract

a t

o ne

o f

t he

m ost

h as r evealed o nly a s ingle

w hile t here a re n umerous

among

f ortified

p re-Christian o ccupation

4 th

a nd t he a ssumption q uestioned t hat t he r egion

l ater

s ites.

t he

m edieval

s ites i nvestigated b y

o f

G andeisi

h as

s ite

s hown

s igns

o f

[ 1953b:26-30].

T here a re h owever i ndications o f a more

s ubstantial

p resence

i n

t he

a rea. G ray 's s urvey o f t he d ownstream h alf o f t he r egion c laimed t o h ave f ound many M eroitic a s w ell a s C hristian s ites, p articularly o n t he i slands

[ 1949].

W hile

u nconfirmed ,

this r eport

t hough C aneva's p reliminary r eport o f t he s ame a rea

s hould n ot b e i gnored , r ecords

n o

d efinite

M eroitic s ites [ 1988a]. More s ignificant p erhaps, i s t he p resence o f a M eroitic t umulus c emetery a t G ereif I I. A s w as n oted i n C hapter 3 , t he w ide

d istribution o f t umulus

t o Mograt,

a nd e ven f urther

i dentification

o f

t hese

f ields i s a n i mportant f eature f rom K hartoum d ownstream .

T he

p roblems

s urrounding

b ut t he p resence o f M eroitic e xamples i n t his r egion m ay d emand a r eappraisal e lusive.

o f

M eroitic

t he

tumuli w ill b e e xamined i n d etail i n C hapter 5 , s ettlement,

1 26

r adical

e ven t hough h abitation s ites r emain

4 .0.4

T he S hendi R each.

S outh f ound. l ikely

o f

t he

5 th

C ataract,

f ar more t angible s ettlement

r emains a re

A part f rom M eroe a nd W ad B en N aga , t here a re a t l east f ifteen v illage o r t own s ites. Most a re c lose t o g ood a lluvial s oils.

F ortified s ites,

l ike

J .Umm

p ositions. T he v illage p roper a nd a f ew o utlying

M arrihi

s ites a reas

a nd

J .Nakharu ,

o ccupy

s trategic

a re c oncentrated w ithin t he S hendi R each w hich h ave b een t he f ocus o f b asin

a griculture t o t he p resent d ay. T he d iscovery o f l ocation

i n

t he

t hese

s ites

may

b e

l argely

w hich f ollowing t he d iscovery o f

M eroe,

a rchaeologists.

G andetto ,

D angeil, t he

T hus

T aragma ,

a ttracted e l

o f

many

H assa,

a s w ell a s M eroe c ity a nd W ad B en N aga ,

s trength

a ttributed

r ecently ,

t heir

a t

M eshra

e l

H assan ,

G adu

t ravellers H amadab ,

a nd

Mahmiya ,

w ere a ll i dentifiable

t he k oms o f r edbrick a nd r ubble.

o n

T he r emains o f c olumn

d rums a nd s tatuary i ndicated p ossible t emple s ites a t more

t o

most a ccessible a nd w ell t ravelled s ector o f t he r iver ,

a nd

s ome

o f

p erhaps

t hese

a nd

D efeia.

T he

n ineteenth-century t ravellers, h owever , f irst n oted t he b ulk o f the k nown s ettlements. R ecent r esearch h as b een a ble t o v erify t he e arly r eports b ut h as i dentified f ew m ajor n ew s ites, d isturbance

a nd

a nd c ultivation

h ighlighting

t he

s erious

[ Geus 1 982:187].

E lsewhere,

c emetery

s ettlement,

w hile

d estruction o f s everal i n t he f ace o f e xpanding v illages

w here

i dentification

o f

s ites

a ctual M eroitic

h ave

p rovided

l iving

s ites

c emeteries

a

u seful

h ave

r emains

i ndicator

d isappeared.

p roblematic,

o f T he

e specially

s ince t he t ens o f t housands o f t umuli i n t he r egion r emain a ssociated w ith t he i ll-defined p ost-Meroitic p eriod [ Geus 1 986]. A t s everal s ubstantial l iving

s ites

a nomalous,

n ow

i dentified ,

t he

l ack

o f

r elated

K adada d emands a r eevaluation o f t he g reat tumulus w hich

c emeteries

s eems

a nd t he k nown e xamples o f M eroitic tumuli b oth a t M eroe a nd a t

i n

g reat

n umbers

f ields,

t he s urvival o f

b elies t he l ikelihood o f t otal e rosion o f t heir

s upposed p redecessors. O ne

a rea

K hartoum ,

w here

M eroitic

c emeteries

h ave b een e xcavated i s c lose t o

w here s everal h ave b een f ound d uring s urvey a nd

p rehistoric

s ites

[ Babiker

1 988;

C aneva

1 988c].

e xcavations

W hile

d etails

o f a re

l acking , t he s ites o n t he r ight b ank l ie mainly o n n atural r ises, t owards t he f ringes o f t he a lluvial p lain n orth o f K hartoum , a nd w ere f requently d isturbed b y M eroitic a nd l ater c emeteries. T he h eavily e roded c ondition o f

e ven

t hese

a reas

e specially s ettlements, 1 978;

H aaland

1 987].

t he v icinity o f D efeia.

s uggests

t hat

o ther

s ites

c loser t o t he r iver ,

a re l ikely t o h ave b een l argely d estroyed O ne p ossible i mportant

s ettlement i s

[ Caneva

s uggested i n

A s phinx r ecovered t here n amed a t emple o f O siris

a t a n u nidentified s ite o f ' Merota '. S uch e xcavation a s w as c arried o ut t here, i ndicated e arlier o ccupation u nderlying C hristian b uildings, b ut v ery

h eavily

e roded

[ Vercoutter

1 961].

T he

s phinx i s o f t he N apatan

p eriod , b ut t he f ate o f t his s ite f urther i llustrates r ate w hich may b e e xpected i n t he v icinity.

1 27

t he

p oor

s urvival

B auga •

l

D ange l l

J . N akharu

S ett le ments

C I

Ce meter ies & o ther s i tes •

• • • /

^

/

•/ l c J i l l MEROE •f / e l --

AR• • sG andetto

I' ,

. '

Wad b en N aqa ' . , ' , ,

s , ,

I

i , / '

. .. .,

• J . Umm Marr lh i • • • • •

, 0

' m i les

0

F ig 1 9 .

km

I

l

A tbara - K har toum Mero i t ic S i tes

1 28

5 0 8 0

T he o verall p attern w hich emerges, t he f ertile a reas,

r eveals

s ites

a nd t owns o n t he r ight b ank o f t he S hendi R each , w adis

i nto t he i nterior.

w ith

a ll

p ossibly e xtending u p t he

A s urprising a nomaly i s t he a pparent a bsence o f

c omparable s ites o n t he l eft b ank, f ound.

a ssociated

w ith a p articular c oncentration o f b rick-built v illages

w here

m any

o f

t he

t rue

b asins

a re

O nly t he s mall k om a t F ikheikhira d emonstrates t hat t he l eft b ank

w as n ot t otally d evoid o f s ettlement.

T he

' reality '

o f

t his

a pparent

c ontrast i n s ettlement n eeds t o b e v iewed i n t he l ight o f t he l ack o f d ata f or t his a rea. I n

t erms

o f

b asic

s ite

r etrieval,

t he

l eft

b ank

r emains l ittle

e xplored. E ven i n t he n ineteenth c entury , a s t oday , t he c ommon r oute a long t he r iver w as o n t he r ight b ank, c onnecting t he major t owns. R ecent s urvey h as b een d irected a t c emeteries a nd c onfined t o t he d esert f ringes, n eglecting t he c ultivated a reas o f the b asins. T his i s e xacerbated b y t he v ery h igh d egree o f d estruction o f l iving s ites e nhanced A gain ,

b y

t he

e arly

i ntensification

t he most c ompelling e vidence t hat

w hich

may

b e

e xpected ,

o f c ultivation i n t hese b asins. t here

a re

s ettlements

i n

t he

v icinity i s t he p resence o f t he numerous tumuli w hich c learly r epresent a c onsiderable p opulation o f w hatever p eriod. B ut n o t races o f a ssociated l iving s ites h ave b een r ecovered w hich , e xcluding t he n omadic o ption , w ould b e e xpected t o l ie i n o r a round t he b asins. 4 .0.5

T he W estern B utana

S ettlements a way f rom t he r iver, r ight b ank,

c onfined

t o

t he

a dd a f urther d imension t o t he p roblem .

h interland

o f

t he

T o a ttempt t o e nforce

a r igid d ivision b etween r iverine s ites a nd t hose o f t he W estern B utana s eems u nrealistic. S ites s uch a s A bu E rteila a nd A wlib, w hich h ave t he c ommon c haracteristics o f o ther i nland s ites, w hile

a re o nly 4 km f rom t he N ile ,

t he most r emote a t T i mm U suda i s s ome 1 04 km ,

t o t he A tbara. i nland s ites.

O n t he o ther h and ,

t hough a l ittle c loser

e ven M eroe h as a l arge h afir,

l ike

W hile s urvey w ork h as b een c onfined t o t he most a ccessible a reas t he w adis,

t he

a long

t here i s l ittle r eason t o d oubt t hat t hese w ere i ndeed t he f oci

o f o ccupation.

T he o nly l ikely l acunae l ie i n t he n orthernmost

a reas

o f

t he W estern B utana , w here n o w ork i s r eported a long t he l arge W .Mukabrab. T he m ost s triking s imilarity o f t he 1 6 m ain s ites, i s t heir c ombination o f s tone

s tructures a nd h afirs.

D espite t he l imited e xcavations a t l east

o f t hese h ave t emples o r s mall s hrines. h ierarchy

b y

s ize,

r anging

f rom

Amongst t hese,

t here i s

T opograpically ,

a ll t he s ites

s eem c losely r elated t o

s uch

a s

t he

major

c entral g roup l ie a long t he W .el H awad ,

w hich r eaches t he r iver ' Alim ,

a nd t he c luster o f s ites n ear

W .Eish

D uanib ,

w adi

s outhern g roup l ies a long t he W .Awateib, w hich r uns t o n ear D uanib l ies o ff t he W .Banat, d raining t o n ear G andetto. A

o f M eroe, s mall

1 1

c lear

t he g reat c omplexes o f Musawwarat a nd

N aga , t hrough i ntermediate s ites w ith s everal b uildings, t o t he s mall s hrine-hafir u nits.

s ystems. A W ad B en N aga.

a

w hich

d rains

t o

G adu .

1 29

l ie

a t

t he

j ust

h ead

o f

s outh t he

T he most i solated t emple s ite a t

s e l !s owoJe l n i e ue ln9 we lse m m c a n ) C

1 30

M uraaba i s s ystem ,

s ituated b eyond t he w atershed ,

a t t he h ead o f

t he

W .el

H asib

d raining t o t he B lue N ile.

L ittle e vidence f or l imited

p ermanent

s ettlements

e xcavations a t t hese s ites,

f or i nterpreting t heir f unction

h as

b een

r ecovered

f rom

w hich m ay h ave i mportant i mplications

[ Al-Hakim 1 972]:

h owever,

s uch

e vidence

r emains f ar f rom c onclusive. W ithin t he l argest mounds a t Awlib, t he s tratified d eposits s urvived t o a d epth o f l m a t most, b ut i ndicated a t l east

t wo

e roded

[ Ahmed 1 984:22-3].

b uilding

p hases,

d epth

o f

w ith

n o more t han 0 .25m s igns

o f

o ccupation

[ loc.cit].

n o s igns o f a ccumulated d eposits. s urface

r emnant w alls

A t D uanib,

s ettlement

s ubstantially r obbed o r d ebris

s urvived

A t t he s mall s hrines,

E ven a t Musawwarat,

t here

a re

o utside the t emple c omplexes,

g reat mounds a t N aga s uggest a t own s ite,

t o

a

t here w ere minimal

a nd o nly t he

w ith k oms c omparable t o t hose o f

r iverine s ites. D espite t his l ack o f s urface i ndications a t Musawwarat,

a reas

w ith

a

l ayer o f M eroitic o ccupation w ith l ate M eroitic s herds a t t he t op, u p t o l m t hick w ere f ound , t hrough w hich p ost-Meroitic g raves w ere c ut [ Hintze 1 973:295].

T hese

e qually r elate p ossibly

t o

d eposits may r elate d irectly t o t he t emples, o ccupation

f or

w hich

n o

b uildings

p erishable g rass a nd w ood s tructures.

Again ,

b ut m ight

s urvive,

q uite

t he s evere e rosion

i ndicated b y t he f ew c ourses o f b rickwork s urviving a t many s ites, may h ave t otally d estroyed o thers s ites. I n t he a bsence o f e xcavation b eyond t he m onumental r emains a ny a ssessment o f t he e xtent a nd t hese w ind , 4 .0.6

s ites,

w hich

a re

f unction

o f

a ll

i ncreasingly e xposed t o t he e ffects o f r ain a nd

must t ake a ccount o f s uch s evere e rosion.

T he G ezira.

S outh o f K hartoum , w here d ata i s p articularly s parse, e valuation o f t hat w hich i s a vailable i s e specially i mportant. c emeteries c lose t o t he c onfluence o f t he N iles, a t

D efeia

t he s ites

s uggest t owards

a ny

a brupt

t he s outh.

e nd

t o

E qually ,

b een

1 909:192]. H owever,

i nterruption

o f

M eroitic

s uggests t hat a h igh l evel o f s ite d estruction m ay b e e xpected.

F urther

s tatuary

o r

t he v ery d isturbed n ature o f a ll

u pstream ,

t he i solated s ite a t K asembar

o f t he s pecial p roblems s outh o f K hartoum . h ave

s ettlements

a nd G eteina a s w ell a s t he c emetery a t G ereif E ast o n t he B lue

N ile d o n ot s ettlement

t he p ossible

c areful S everal

a ccepted S imilarly , may

a s

( Kamlin )

d rums

a n i ndication o f n earby M eroitic b uilding

[ Sayce

f rom

t he o ccasional a

s andstone

i s a r eminder c olumn

a t S oba,

o riginate

H ere,

f inds

o f

r eused

K ushite

s ubstantial s ite s omewhere q uite c lose.

t he g eneral a bsence o f f urther

M eroitic

b uilding

i n

s tone

i s

c ertainly n ot a r eliable i ndicator o f the l ack o f s ettlement. A s w as n oted i n C hapter 2 , a p articular f eature o f t he G ezira i s t he a lmost t otal l ack o f s urface o utcrops o f b uilding s tone. I t i s p robably n ot c oincidental t hat K asembar i s c lose t o o ne o f t he f ew s ources o f s tone a nd f inds t here a re l ess l ikely t o r epresent l ater i mports o f r eused M eroitic m aterial f rom t he n orth .

1 31

3 3°

Khartou m

3 4°

Gnre i l •

I s°

1 4.

0

m i les

0

ums

4 0

S ett le ments 7 0

F ig 2 1 .

Ce meter ies & o ther s i tes •

Gez ira Mero i t ic S i tes

1 32

N orth

o f

K hartoum ,

w ill b e r ecognizable H owever, t hat

t o t he s outh ,

f orms

i t may b e a ssumed t hat s ome t races o f s ettlements

d ue

t o

t he

p resence

o f

s tone

a s t he r ainfall i ncreases,

o f w ood a nd g rass h uts

( tukls)

o r

b rick

r uins.

r ecent e vidence s uggests

h ave b een t he d ominant t ypes

o f

b uilding a nd a re f ar m ore f unctional a nd e asy t o maintain t han mudbrick b uildings. C ertainly i n t he n ineteenth c entury , d espite a f ew r edbrick F unj

b uildings

a t S ennar a nd A rbaji,

[ Cailliaud.II:211]. a nd a re a ll b ut

i nvisible a rchaeologically ,

Against t his, G eili

n early a ll t he b uildings w ere t ukls

S uch s ettlements l eave o nly t he m ost e phemeral t races w ithout c areful e xcavation.

t he p resence o f t he s ubstantial mudbrick v illage

t here a re many s imilar s ites a long t he B lue N ile, t he

a t

A bu

d emonstrates t hat r ecent a nalogy c annot b e u niversally a pplied. t he

s evere

e rosion

I f o f

mud w alls w ill a gain make i t v ery d ifficult t o r ecognize t hem w ithout

i ntensive s urvey.

C ertainly ,

n o c lear e vidence f or t he

s ettlement

w hich

may b e s upposed t o r elate t o t he r ich c emetery a t S ennar E ast h as b een f ound. T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat A bu G eili w as u nique, n or i s t here

p ositive

e vidence

T he p reference f or p eriod

may

l ess

r eflect

f or l ess s ubstantial b uilding i n t he r ainlands. p ermanent

s ettlements

a nd i nsecurity o f more u nstable t imes W ithin l east

t he

s ome

G ezira h interland ,

c eramic

l inks

w ith

s ubstantial s ettlement w as f rom t his p eriod , o ccupation s easonal.

A

f rom

t he

M eroitic

[ Bjorkelo 1 983:96].

t he n ecropolis a t J .Moya c learly h ad a t M eroitic

c ulture.

N o

e vidence

f or

f ound , a nd a s a t J .Tomat w hich h as C 14 d ates h as b een s uggested t o b e n o more t han

p resence

s eems

a lso p ossible a t J .Saqadi,

Addison c onsidered much o f t he p ottery " very s imilar" G eili

p ost-medieval

m ore mobile s ubsistence r egimes o r t he u ncertainties

[ Crawford & Addison 1 951:120]:

t o

t hat

w here

f rom

A bu

a nd t his w ould s eem t o b e o ccupation

d ebris r ather t han c emetery material. 4 .0.7

C onclusions.

W ithin t he D ongola R each , a round

the

K erma

s ignificant a dvance T emple/Town

i n

c omplexes,

i n t he l iterature. s ubstantial s ites

3 main f oci o f o ccupation a re n ow d iscernable

a nd L etti b asins a nd N apata/Barkal. o ur

k nowledge

f or

p reviously

T his

r epresents a

o nly

t he

major

a t t he v ery a pex o f a ny s ite h ierarchy h ad f igured

G rzymski's

s urvey w as a ble t o c onfirm t he p resence

o f

i n t he L etti a rea w hich v arious c hance f inds h ad a lready

i ndicated. I t n ow s eems l ikely t hat a t l east t he u pper t ier o f r egional s ite h ierarchy h as b een i dentified [ Flannery 1 976:159-60]. A s r egards l esser s ettlements,

t he

r esults

f rom

L etti

h ave

t he

g reatly

i ncreased t he n umbers k nown , a nd h ave c onfirmed t hat s ettlements a re t o b e f ound , i f o nly t hrough m ore i ntensive f orms o f s urvey. L ittle c onfidence c an

n ow

b e

p laced i n t he a ssumption o f o nly " a t hin a nd s cattered r ural

p opulation" [ Adams 1 981:3], e ither i n t he b asins o r t he ' blank' a reas t hat e xtend b etween t hem . I n t hese l atter a reas, i t s hould b e n oted h ow s ettlement s maller

c ontinued n orth o f L etti i nto r elatively marginal a reas.

s ites may h ave e xtended t he l ength o f t he D ongola R each ,

w ith o ther c oncentrations a round t he s maller b asins.

1 33

S uch

p robably

U pstream ,

t here d oes

i ndeed

s eem

t o

b e

l ittle

l ikelihood

o f

a ny

u ndiscovered m onumental s ites w ithin t he A bu H amed R each. T he p resence o f s ome s cattered s ettlement w ithin t his i nhospitable a rea c annot b e d iscounted w ithout m ore i ntensive s urvey a nd i t s eems p robable t hat a p roportion o f t he tumuli i n t he r egion may d ate f rom t his p eriod. S outh o f

t he

k nown ,

5 th

C ataract,

w hile a n umber o f s ubstantial s ettlements a re n ow

i t r emains u ncertain h ow c omplete a p icture w e h ave.

o f G andetto s hows h ow e ven a n e xtensive m ajor s ite i n t his

T he

e xample

r elatively w ell

r esearched a rea h as r emained v irtually u ndocumented. T he s tark c ontrast b etween t he l eft a nd r ight b ank i n t he S hendi R each p roper r emains p roblematic. E ven i f major m onuments p ositive e vidence f or t he a bsence u ncertain a ttribution o f t he tumulus

a re i ndeed l acking , w e h ave n o o f l esser s ites. C oupled w ith t he f ields

i t

s eems

l ikely

t hat

h ere

a reas

w as

a gain v ariations i n t he q uality o f s urvey a re r esponsible. W e

c an

b e

c onfident

t hat

s ettlement

i n

n on-riverine

r estricted t o t he W estern B utana. T he f unction o f t hese s ites r emains l argely o bscure, b ut t heir l ocation o n t he w adi s ystems d raining i nto t he S hendi

r each

s ettlements

s uggests

t hat

t his

[ Ahmed 1 984:278].

r egion

S ome o f

t he

i nteracted m ore

w ith t he r iverine

s outherly

s ites

m ight

s imilarly r elate t o t he n orthern B lue N ile. T he p ossible n ature o f t his r elationship w ill b e e xamined l ater. H owever, c haracterisation o f s ettlement

s outh

o f

K hartoum

must

r emain

a vailable e vidence i s c ompatible w ith s ettlement,

p erhaps

u p b oth N iles,

a

l argely

c ontinuing

s peculative. r ibbon

o f

T he

r iverine

w ith a t l east l imited t hough p robably

i mpermanent o ccupation o f t he i nterior.

I t i s s till i mpossible t o

t he l imits o f M eroitic i nfluence b oth t o w est a nd s outh ,

d efine

t hough i ncreasing

e vidence f rom e ast o f t he B utana i ndicates m inimal c ontacts. 4 .1

P ROBLEMS O F C ULTURAL D EFINITION.

T he u ncertain d istribution

r eliablity

o f

t he

e vidence

f or

M eroitic

s ettlement

h as b een d iscussed l argely i n t erms o f g eneral s ite r ecovery

a nd t he v agaries o f f ieldwork.

F urther p roblems a re p osed b y t he

p resent

i nadequate a rchaeological d efinition o f t he c ulture. I ts most s triking m anifestations a re f ound i n i ts a rchitecture, i n t he t emples, p alaces a nd p yramids

o f

U pper

E gyptologists. s ophisticated

N ubia

T hese a nd

must

c omplex

a nd a w ritten l anguage.

w hich b e

f irst

s een

s ociety ,

a s

a ttracted

the

r epresenting

a ttention

t he

a pex

o f

o f

a

w ith d istinctive r eligious p ractices

T he d evelopment o f r esearch t owards a

more

w ide

r anging a ppreciation o f M eroitic c ulture h as f ollowed a s hifting c ourse. F ollowing t he e arly e xcavations o f t he r oyal t ombs a nd o f Meroe c ity , t he g eographical

f ocus

o f

r esearch moved n orth.

n ature o f L ower N ubian s ociety , g enerally a bsent

[ Adams

1 976:16-7],

w ith a d ifferent c lass o f s ites, a ll , c emeteries.

T here,

s uch m anifestations o f

c ulture. n either

r oyal

p ower

w ere

a nd e xcavations w ere c oncerned l argely

m ainly

h umbler

S uch e vidence c annot b e c ombined t o p roduce a o f M eroitic c an p rovide

d ue t o t he p eculiar

s ettlements

s atisfactory

a nd ,

a bove

d efinition

T he d isparate e vidence f rom L ower a nd U pper N ubia t he c omprehensive n or r epresentative s ample o f

1 34

c ultural a ctivity w hich i s r equired N ubia ,

[ Clarke

most o f t he e xcavated material c omes

t emple c omplexes w ithin u rban a reas, r emain l argely u nexplored. c ountryside h ave y ielded o nly a bove. I t i s l ikely t hat b iased t owards, I n t urn , m ortuary

W ithin

U pper

t he

a ssociated

d omestic

a reas

B eyond t he c ities l arge t racts o f t he t he l imited r ange o f e vidence r eviewed much o f o ur k nowledge i s d erived f rom , a nd

v ery s pecialized a spects o f e lite a nd u rban l ife.

t he L ower N ubian material r emains d ominated b y c emeteries,

c ulture

s tructures,

s till

a nd

p redominates.

W ell

d efined

n orms

o f

t heir r elation t o b ody t reatment a nd c eramics,

e stablished w hich r elatively

b ut

1 968:23Off ].

f rom r oyal c emeteries a nd f rom

( with o ther d iagnostic

u niform

a nd

h omogeneous

a rtefacts)

c ulture.

s eem

t o

h ave b een r eflect

F or

e xample,

i t

f rom a d omestic c ontext.

d espite t he l imitations o f r esearch i n t he s outh ,

p ossible t o p roduce s ome g eneralizations c oncerning M eroitic s ociety ,

a nd

t o

i ndicate

L ower a nd U pper N ubia.

i t h as b een c ulture

s ome a pparent c ontrasts b etween t hat

S ome

a reas

p roblems o f p olitical s tructures

n eed

c annot b e a ssumed t hat c eramics f rom a

m ortuary c ontext c an b e c ompared t o c eramics H owever,

a

S ome i mportant p roblems,

p articularly t he r elations b etween m ortuary a nd d omestic a ssemblages, c larification.

a nd t omb

r emain

[ Adams

c ontroversial,

1 976].

a nd

f ound i n

p articularly

T he t able b elow h ighlights

s ome o f t he p erceived c haracteristics o f U pper N ubia. P olitical

a nd s ocial s tructures r emain i ll-documented a nd t he b ases o f

material c ulture r equire much g reater b etween

p rivileged

w ith a r elatively S imilarly , t he

r ulers

c larification.

T he

s upposed

g ap

a nd d ispossessed s ubjects h as b een c ontrasted

p rosperous r elatively

a nd u nstratified u nsophisticated

i ndustries h ave b een c ompared u nfavourably

w ith

s ociety i n t he n orth. a nd f unctional c eramic t hose

o f

L ower

N ubia ,

w hich w ere c losely i nfluenced b y M editerranean t raditions. S uch r egional d iversity i n M eroitic s ociety h as b een l ittle e xplored h owever, a nd t he s upposed

' norms'

o f t he M eroitic p eriod r emain o f l imited a pplicability.

T he f ull v ariety o f M eroitic c ulture must f irst b e i dentified i n o rder t o p rovide a b asis f or c omparison , p articularly f or s tudy o f p rocesses o f c hange. T he i dentification o f many c lasses o f s ites d epends o n c ertain n orms o f c eramics a nd b urial f orms, t he r epresentativity o f w hich r emains u nclear. U nlike L ower N ubia , n either o f t hese a spects o f c ulture a re w ell d efined , n or h as m uch s ub-cultural v ariation.

a ttempt

b een

m ade

t o

e xamine

t he

b ases

o f

A g eneral d istinction h as b een made b y H intze b etween t he e lite a nd ' dispossessed s ubjects'. F urther e laboration o f t his d ivision i s n eeded h owever, p erhaps, must

b e

d istinguishing v ariety b etween u rban a nd r ural a reas a nd , b etween s ettled a nd m obile p opulations. I n d iscussing c hange, i t c lear

w hich

a reas

s ignificance c an b e p laced o n

o f M eroitic s ociety w ere c hanging ,

a nd w hat

c hanges

m aterial

i n

d ifferent

a reas

o f

c ulture. I n a pproaching c urrent e xplanations f or t he e nd o f M eroe, i t c annot b e a ssumed t hat c hange i n o ne s ector o f s ociety i mplies c omparable c hanges i n o ther a reas. I n t he d ominant a reas o f c eramic a nd m ortuary c ulture, p ossible r ecognized.

s ub-cultural

v ariation

1 35

must

b e

more

e xplicitly

T able 3 : 1 .State

a ncient t heocracy ,

o rganization:

g odking

a nd s mall r uling e lite; g overning b ureaucracy a nd p riesthood.

2 .Social o rder:

p rivileged r ulers a nd d ispossessed s ubjects ( essentially P haraonic o rdering o f s ociety )

3 .Symbols o f S tate a uthority:

4 .Religion:

t emples a nd k ing 's t omb.

S tate d eities Amon a nd A pedemek.

5 .Pottery a nd

a ncient E gyptian

d omestic manufactures.

t raditions.

( from H intze 1 976:54)

4 .1.1

M eroitic c eramics.

D istinctions made b etween U pper a nd L ower Nubian c eramics h ave b een p rimarily c oncerned w ith w heel-made p roducts. B roader d istinctions may b e d iscerned ,

h owever,

i n t he h and-made w ares,

t he u se o f w hich a s a c ultural

d iagnostic r emains c onfused. T wo p oints n eed t o b e m ade. F irst, t he p resence o f w heel-made c eramics m ay i ndicate e conomic c onditions, b ut b e u sed l ess M eroitic

s atisfactorily a s a n i ndicator o f t he e xtent o r d egree o f s ettlement. S econd , t he r elative a bundance o f h and-made p ottery

i n p arts o f U pper N ubia must b e s een i n a w ider i nappropriate

t o

j udge i ts

p erspective,

a nd

i t

i s

s ignificance o n t he b asis o f t he L ower N ubian

e xperience. T he h and-made p ottery w hich p redominates i n c emeteries s outh o f t he 6 th C ataract i s p art o f a l ong-established M eroitic t radition , l argely s upplanted

i n

t he

" index o f i dentity" 1 973:182-3].

n orth.

I t may r epresent,

f or p opulations,

t han

t he

h owever,

a f ar m ore u seful

w heel-made

w ares

i s o ne o f t he i mportant d ifferences b etween t he material c ulture o f a nd

s outh ,

[ Adams

T he c oncomitant a bsence o f w heel-made p ottery i n s ome a reas a nd

a lso

i ndicates

s ome

1 36

n orth

r egional d ifferences w ithin U pper

N ubia. T he e xistence o f a r ecognized

r elatively

i n L ower N ubia.

i t i s a ssumed t o r epresent 1 986:47]. H owever , A dams' b urnished t ypes,

s ophisticated

h and-made

t radition

i s

R epresenting o nly 5 -15% o f t he p ottery t here , a s mall-scale d omestic p roduction [ Adams W are H .11 c onsists o f f ine, d ecorated b lack

p ossibly f rom s pecialist p roduction c entres.

I t

h as

a

w ide d istribution i n t ime a nd i s f ound f rom M aharraqa t o J ebel M oya [ op.cit:419]. N o c omprehensive s tudy h as y et b een a ttempted o f t his w are , b ut

s ome g eneral o bservations may b e m ade.

F irst, h and-made p ottery i n t he s outh d oes f all w ithin a M eroitic t radition , f ound t hroughout N ubia, w hich p rovides a M eroitic d iagnostic , i ndependent

o f

s tandardization

t he o f

w heel-made f orms

s ource f or many o f t he c ertain

n orms

a nd

w ares.

f iner t ypes,

amongst

S econd ,

d ecorative o r e lse

d ifferent

t he

motifs a

h igh

d egree

o f

may i ndicate a c ommon

w idespread

manufacturers.

I f

a cceptance

o f

d ifferences

i n

d istribution p oint t o d ifferent p roduction c entres a s w ell a s t o d ifferent m odes o f p roduction f or w heel-made a nd f ine h and-made w ares, n eed t o b e a ccommodated w ithin t he ' Meroitic' s ystem .

a ll o f t hem

T he l argest p ublished s election o f h and-made p ottery a re t he e xamples f rom t he c emetery a t Amir A bdallah [ Fernandez 1 984], w ith a w ide v ariety o f

f orms

a nd

d ecoration.

F ernandez

g eneral p arallels b oth n earby , i ncluding

J ebel

i nclude e xamples

Moya

[ ibid:59].

S ome

a nd G eili

a ble t o d emonstrate numerous a nd f ar

s outh ,

[ Geus

1 984:75],

S ennar

E ast

j udged t hat the e xclusive u se o f h and-made w ares w as t he most i n the 3 rd C ataract H owever, o n s ites

t hese w ares c oexist w ith l ater d ominant w heel-made i ndustries,

f or e xample a t M eroe 1 967:23-5].

t he

[ Caneva 1 985].

d iagnostic f eature o f a n ' Early M eroitic A ' p eriod , r egion , w hich h e d ated t o t he l st-3rd c enturies B C. e lsewhere,

t o

i mportant a dditions t o h is l ist

f rom K adada a nd G ereif E ast

[ Addison 1 935:290] F ernandez

w as

a t S oleb o r K erma ,

Again ,

[ Shinnie & B radley 1 980:155-8] t heir p ersistence,

a nd

Musawwarat

a lbeit i n s mall n umbers,

t he L ate M eroitic p eriod e ven i n L ower N ubia, i ndicates t hat n ot b e u sed i n i solation a s a c hronological i ndicator. F ernandez a lso s howed t hat

w ithin

a

r elatively

A bdallah s aw t he i ntroduction o f w heel-made c eramics,

b rief

[ Otto

t hroughout

t hey

s hould

p eriod ,

Amir

t hough t he h and-made

w ares w ere s till w ell r epresented d uring h is ' Early M eroitic B '. H e w ould c hoose t o d escribe t his c hange i n t erms o f i ncreasing ' meroiticization ' o f t he p opulation.

H owever t his p resupposes t hat w heel-made c eramics w ere

a

n eccesary a nd u niversal f eature o f M eroitic c ulture. H e s eems t o p ortray t he r epopulation o f t he A bri a rea d uring t he E arly M eroitic p eriod a s t he i mmigration o f a n ew p opulation , l inked c eramically w ith t he G ezira r egion p erhaps, O n

a nd o nly g radually a cculturated b y t he M eroites

t he

o ther

h and ,

t he

[ 1984:57-62].

e vidence p resented b y F ernandez i s q uite i n

k eeping w ith t he h ighly v ariable d istribution o f w heel-made w ares i n U pper N ubia ,

w hich may s tem f rom e conomic r ather t han e thnic d ifferences.

t he s ignificance o f p redominant h and-made c eramics i n t he

1 37

' Early

T hus,

M eroitic

A '

a round A bri,

t he

a bsence

o r w ithin t he G ezira,

o f

s pecialized

may b e more

p otters,

u sefully

w orking

e xplained

b y

i n w hat w as a fter a ll a n

i mported E gyptian c raft. I nstead , w e m ay o bserve t he p ersistence o f w idespread i ndigenous p otting t raditions, w ith l inks g oing b ack o ver many c enturies. d etermined

T heir r elative a bundance, t hrough b y t he f luctuating f ortunes o f

t ime a nd s pace w as s pecialized w heel-made

i ndustries, w hich , a s F ernandez r ecognized , w ere l ikely t o d epend o n f ortunes o f u rban c entres, s uch a s K erma [ op.cit:69]. T hese, t hen , c ases o f r egional o r s ub-cultural v ariation

w hich

i n

i solation

t he a re

a re

o f

F urther e vidence f or t he v arying d evelopment o f r egional i ndustries

i s

l ittle v alue i n i dentifying d ifferent p opulations.

a lso s een i n c omparisons b etween U pper a nd L ower N ubian w heel-made m aterial. Adams f ound t hat c .75% o f L ower N ubian w heel-made p ots w ere d ecorated

[ 1986:229,Fig:108],

w hich c an b e c ontrasted w ith a g eneral l ack

o f d ecoration i n t he c ollections d iversity

i n

f orms,

f abric

f rom M eroe

a nd

s uggested many manufacturing c entres, a rea.

I n

t he

s outh ,

w hile

[ Shinnie 1 976:89].

d ecoration e ven

t here

i n

w ithin

may

b e

T he

g reat

n orthern material a lso t he

s ome

r elatively

l ocal

s mall

p roduction o f

' eggshell' w ares [ Bradley 1 984:206], m any o f t he o ther d ecorated w ares m ay e ven b e n orthern i mports [ Shinnie l oc.cit]. O verall, t he q uality a nd q uantity o f

f iner

u nfavourably

w hile e vidence i s w ere

w ares

f ound

i n

t he

w ith t hose o f L ower Nubia.

t hought

s carce f rom t he D ongola R each ,

t o

t han t he s outh

s outh

w ould

t o

c ompare t hat

a t l east a t T abo c eramics

c ompare b etter w ith a ssemblages

[ Jacquet-Gordon i n Adams

s eem

I t s hould b e n oted h owever ,

f rom L ower N ubia r ather

1 973:229].

I n t erms o f d istribution t hen t he s carcity o f w heel-made w ares i n t he G ezira n eed n ot s imply c orrelate w ith t he b ounds o f M eroitic s ettlement. I ndeed , d istribution p atterns may b e f ar more c omplex n ear t he h eartland o f M eroe i tself. Ahmed a nalysed t he v arying p roportions o f w heel-made a nd h andformed p roducts a t d ifferent s ites i n t he W estern B utana. R anging s ites h ierarchically ,

f rom t he u rban s ites,

t hose w ith t emples

a nd

o ther

p ermanent b uildings, t o m ere o ccupation s ites, h e f ound t hat w heel-made p ottery o nly d ominated a t t he l arger s ites w here t he a rchitectural r emains s uggested t he p resence o f t he s tate, w heel-made w ares a ltogether. m ajor

b uiding

w hile m any o f t he l esser s ites l acked

O n t he

b asis

o f

t he

c orrelation

b etween

a ctivity a nd t he d ominance o f w heel-made c eramics,

h e w ent

o n t o p ropose t hat c entralized , p robably s tate-controlled manufacture d istribution w as l ikely [ 1984:235-44]. T he v ery i solation a nd u ncertain i dentification o f m any c onsidered

may

h ave

b iased

h is

s ampling ,

p redominance o f h and-made w ares a t t he

r iver,

s uggest

I t

T his m ight

[ Adams

t he

s ites

c lose

t he t o

b e

c ontrasted

w ith

t he

w ares i n L ower N ubia ,

w idespread

f ound e ven i n

1 976:145].

w ould s eem t hat t he d efinition o f t he l imits o f M eroitic s ettlement

m erely o n t he i ncidence o f t he t reated

o f

t he s ame t ime,

s ites l ike B asa a nd H amadab ,

o f t he l uxury ' eggshell'

t he h umbler v illages

a t

f ar f rom r egular d istributions o f w heel-made p roducts,

e ven s o c lose t o M eroe. d istribution

b ut

a nd

w ith

c aution.

w ell

k nown

w heel-made

p ottery

must

b e

W ith l ittle i dea o f t he l ocation o r l ocations o f

1 38

p roduction ,

n or

o f

e xchange/distribution

n etworks,

i t i s p ossible t hat

p rovincial s ettlements s uch a s A bu G eili, l ike Amir A bdallah , l ay b eyond t he r each o f w heel-made p roduction but m ay s till b e r egarded a s M eroitic. T hey

c ontinued

a

t radition

o f

c oarse

d omestic

a nd

f iner

d ecorated

h and-made w ares, f ound t hroughout M eroitic s ociety , b ut i ndependent o f t he i mported i ndustries a ssociated w ith t owns. T he r ecognition o f c ulture c hange w ill,

b y i mplication ,

n eed f ar more c omprehensive s tudies w hich c an

a ccommodate t he e xperience o f t he r ural p rovinces

a s

w ell

a s

u rbanized

a reas. 4 .1.2

M eroitic M ortuary p ractice.

W hile

n o

d etailed

a nalysis

o f

mortuary

s everal a spects o f t he U pper N ubian e vidence g eneral t erms,

a s w ith c eramic e vidence,

p ractice c an b e m ade h ere , n eed

t o

b e

s tressed.

I n

i t i s i ncreasingly c lear t hat t he

n orms w ell d ocumented i n L ower N ubia a re o nly p artially r epresentative U pper

N ubia.

i n b urial p ractices, p rovides K ush"

a

o f

I nstead t here i s g rowing e vidence f or s ub-cultural v ariety c ontrary t o Adams'

u nifying

[ 1977:374].

a ssertion

t hat

" mortuary

r itual

t heme t hroughout t he c ivilization a nd the empire o f

Many o f t he r ecent c emetery e xcavations h ave s hown

t he

e xistence, a nd i ndeed t he p redominance o f b urial c ustoms i n t he s outh w hich i n L ower N ubian t erms a re d istinctly ' un-Meroitic'. An e xplicit r ecognition g eneral,

o f

t his

i s

i mportant

i n

i tself

f or

M eroitic s tudies

but i s e ssential f or a ny f urther d iscussion o f c ulture c hange

i n a t

t he e nd o f t he M eroitic p eriod. T he p resence o f f orms o f g rave s uperstructure,

o r t heir

a bsence,

b ody

o rientation a nd b ody a ttitude, a ll o f w hich d erived f rom E gyptian t raditions w ere p articularly d iagnostic f eatures o f M eroitic p ractice i n L ower N ubia [ Adams 1 968:202]. T ombs w ere s ometimes marked b y s mall p yramids o r p ossibly m astaba, w ere

b ut g enerally n o t races

o f

f ound a nd t hey a re p resumed t o h ave b een u nmarked.

o f p yramids o r m astaba a re f ound a s e xample

a t

Amir

A bdallah

[ Giorgini

1 965:129-30,

f ar s outh a s

[ Fernandez

1 973:255]

t he

1 984:154],

a nd A bri-Missiminia

c onstruction o f tumuli i n t he Meroitic p eriod , e ncountered [ Säve-Söderbergh 1 981:196] a ppears t o r are.

s uperstructures R are o ccurrences

3 rd

C ataract,

S edeinga

a nd

f or S oleb

[ Vila 1 982:6-8].

T he

t hough o ccasionally h ave b een e xtremely

T he p redominance o f E gyptian t raditions o f b ody a ttitude a nd o rientation , i .e. d orsally e xtended e ast-west b urials s eems c omplete i n L ower

N ubia

d ictated

b y

r ecently b y S candinavian

[ Adams

1 977:378],

w ith

l ocal

modification

o f

J oint E xpedition [ Säve-Söderbergh o p.cit:12,24], s outh b y V ila a t A bri-Missiminia [ loc.cit]. I n

d irection

t he f low o f t he r iver. S uch n orms a re w ell d ocumented, t he c omprehensive p ublication o f c emeteries b y

c ontrast,

w hile

t he

q uantity

o f

d ata

f rom

most t he

a nd f urther

U pper N ubia i s

f ar

s maller , i t i s c lear t hat s uch E gyptian i nfluences w ere f ar l ess c ommon. T he g reat p yramids a s w ell a s t he u nmarked g raves o f t he n ecropoli a t M eroe a re w ell d ocumented

[ Dunham

1 957,1963].

1 39

E lsewhere,

t he

u se

o f

p yramids

h as

a s y et o nly b een t entatively i dentified

[ Bonnet

1 978:120-2,

e xample,

h ave

&

L enoble

1 18n.31].

s uch

s ignificant

w ithin

t he

i s

t he

e vidence

w ell

P erhaps t he most

s hould

d ocumented

u se

n ot

b e

r ecorded

by

G arstang ,

these r epresent a v ast

s everal,

d istribution

o f

t he K hartoum a rea, a t S ururab

l arge E ast

t umuli

a

f rom

i s b ecoming i ncreasingly T here ,

h ad s urviving tumuli

[ Geus

A l-Hakim [ 1979],

excavated

b oth

w hile Arkell

[ Dunham 1 950:109]. t o

t he

( Qoz B armilo ).

M eroitic

f ound a t

[ 1940:7-9].

a nd

l east o ne

s urviving mound

D ownstream , o f

K awa

I n

p ost-Meroitic a n e xample

[ Crawford 1 953a:14-5]

T he e xcavators

n ortheast

O ther i mportant

Tumuli a re a lso k nown a t t he

N aga a nd Musawwarat

among t he tumuli a t G ereif I I

c emetery

g raves.

w hile a djoining a reas d ate

[ 1987:232-4].

s uperstructure a t Omdurman B ridge E l K urru

s uch

c entres o f W ad b en Naga,

c onfirmed

" low

t han

G eus & L enoble o p.cit:71]. C lose b y , but f urther a way f rom L enoble e xcavated a M eroitic e xample w ithin the multi-period

f ields a round J .Makbor

tumuli

w herein

e xtended f or more

t hough n ot a ll o f the Meroitic g raves,

i mportant

i n

more

P artially e xcavated

c emetery ,

b est d ocumented i s the multi-period c emetery a t K adada.

1 982:186-7; t he r iver t umulus

s ites

o verstressed;

1 911:10]. A s f ar a s c an b e a scertained f rom t he s ubstantial a reas o f t hem a re M eroitic i n d ate ,

i ncluding c emeteries 5 00-599 a nd 4 00-499, t he s ub-Meroitic p eriod. w idespread

f or

[ Geus

o f tumuli d uring t he M eroitic

s ome c overed w ith s tones"

m ile [ Garstang e t a l i ncomplete p ublication ,

A

R each ,

o f M eroe

s ignificant g roup o f t umuli a re t hose a t M eroe i tself ,

s ome o f s and ,

a pparent;

T abo

a c ommon a lternative t o pyramids.

l ying b etween t he c ity s ite a nd t he r oyal n ecropolis. mounds,

S hendi

a nd

G iven the r ecognized h eavy e rosion o f most

n egative

p eriod throughout U pper N ubia a s

a nd

K erma

f ailed t o f ind o ther e xamples i n the e nvirons

1 985:72].

t he s outh ,

S urveys

a t

a lso

w as

a nd a lso a t

i dentified

a

o f t he t own c ontaining t hree M eroitic

c emeteries a t K erma ,

S anam ,

K adero

a nd

G ereif

w ere t oo h eavily e roded t o l eave e vidence o f t he p resence o r a bsence

o f tumuli. F urther

e xcavation

t emporal v ariations A

s imilar

i s

r equired

t o

c larify

p ossible

r egional

a nd

i n t he d istribution o f M eroitic t umuli i n U pper N ubia.

v ariation i s a lso v isible i n o ther a reas o f burial p ractice i n

U pper Nubia ,

w ith t he c ommon a ppearance o f c ontracted b urials a nd v ariable

o rientation

o f

g eneral a rea

b urials.

( Geili,

S haheinab,

w ith r are e xceptions, c ontracted

a nd

c ontracted. g ive

n o

N o c omplete r eports

c haracterization i s p ossible. G ereif E ast,

U nfortunately ,

i ndication

b urials, the

w hile

t he

F urther n orth , t he

e xample

s ketchy r ecords o f

t he

h ave ,

K adada h ad a t

b oth

J .Makbor w as

Meroe

c emeteries

a re

d ominated

b y

t he

u sual

o f burial.

S uch v ariation i s l ess w ell d ocumented i n t he D ongola R each. t he

s o o nly K hartoum

o f t he n ature o f t he M eroitic g raves b eneath tumuli ,

t hough t he c emeteries e xcavated by R eisner f orms

i n

K hartoum a nd p robably S ururab )

c ontracted burials.

e xtended

a re y et a vailable,

T hose c emeteries

A t K erma ,

E arly M eroitic g raves e xcavated b y B onnet w ere c lassic M eroitic

o f e xtended e ast-west burials. R eisner

I n

c ontrast,

c ontained d orsally e xtended b urials,

1 40

the b ut

l ater

g raves

f orms

d ug

b y

s howed n o c lear p attern :

o f t he g raves r an e ither N orth-South o r E ast-West,

w hile

t he h eads o f t he s keletons w ere t urned s eemingly w ithout r ule i n a ll

" the

l ong

a xes

f our

d irections" b urial,

[ 1923:41].

F rom

K awa

t here

i s a n e xample o f a c ontracted

w hile t he t umulus g rave a t E l K urru w as o riented e ast-west a nd m ay

h ave c ontained t he a rchaic f orm o f b ed b urial

[ Dunham l oc.cit].

I f f ew f irm c onclusions may y et b e d rawn c oncerning i n

U pper

N ubia ,

s eems c lear. g eneral

mortuary

t he l ack o f s tandard p ractices o r o f

p ractice

' a u nifying t heme '

I nterpretation o f s uch v ariety must r emain t entative,

d istinction

b etween

' Egyptianized '

b ut

a

e lite o r u rban g roups a nd a

r ural p opulation c ontinuing i ndigenous p ractices, p rovides o ne p ossible b asis f or e xplanation . A more c omplex model i ncluding e thnic a nd r egional g roups a nd p ossibly d istinguishing s edentary a nd mobile p opulations, a lso

b e

s uggested.

g roups o r a

A l-Hakim

d istinct

m ight

r aised t he p ossibility o f e ither p astoral

' Southern

P rovincial'

M eroitic

s ubculture

b eing

r epresented a round S ururab [ 1972, 1 979:155]. O f g reatest importance f or d iscussion o f c ulture c hange, h owever, i s a n a wareness o f t he l ack o f a c oherant

a nd

w ell

d efined

M eroitic

mortuary

c ulture

a gainst

w hich

d evelopment a nd c hange m ay b e g auged. 4 .2

M EROITIC E CONOMY

4 .2.1

M eroitic S ubsistence.

I t

h as

l ong

b een

a ssumed

b ased o n p lant c ultivation N ubia ,

t he

c orrelation

t hat t he M eroitic s ubsistence e conomy w as

[ Adams b etween

1 981,

S hinnie

1 984:114].

o ver m any m illennia h as b een e xplicitly a ffirmed b y w as

a ble

t o

d emonstrate

p redicted i ntuitively ) L ower

N ubian

w ith

s ome

t he h igh d egree

d evelopment.

H e

c onfidence

L ower

o f

T rigger ( what

[ 1965].

H e

might h ave b een

e nvironmental

d eterminism

i n

a lso s aw t he l imitations o f g eneralizing

f rom s tudies o f s ingle s ites o r l ocalities, t he

I n

s ettlement d istribution a nd a rable l and

" typical" e xperience m ight b e

w here t here i s n o k nowing w hat

[ 1970:378].

a nd e stablish s ome g eneral c onditions,

a s

f ar

H ere t he c oncern i s t o t ry a s

t he

T he main c onstraint o n r esearch i n U pper N ubia

h as

t opographical

a nd

a rchaeological i nformation a llows.

f ieldwork

a nd

e xcavation

o f

s ettlements.

A t

a

b een

r emained i mpossible t o d evelope a u seful s ite h ierarchy. t hat M eroe a nd o ther m ajor s ites s uch a s T abo , K awa, N aga m ay b e c haracterized a s c omplexes.

I t

i s

f ar

u rban

f rom

c ommunities,

c lear h owever ,

r eligious

o r,

a s

c entres.

p erhaps T hey

w ith

s ites

r epresent

i n a

l imited

l evel,

i t h as

I t i s a ssumed S anam a nd W ad b en a round

t emple

w hether o ther s ites

c entred

s howing

e vidence f or s mall t emples o r o ther s ubstantial b uildings v illages

t he

b asic

t he

d istinct

w ere

t owns

W estern B utana, c lass

o f

o r

i solated

s ite

n ot

e ncountered i n L ower N ubia. S econdly , s ubsistence.

t here i s v ery l ittle empirical e vidence r elating t o M eroitic S amples o f s orghum h ave b een f ound a t M eroe, Musawwarat a nd

J .Tomat a nd t his i s l ikely t o h ave b een a major s taple. a bsence

o f o ther c rops,

T he

p resence

o r

p articularly t hose w hich m ight b e r elated t o m ore

1 41

s pecialized N ubia b e

a gricultural

p ractices

[ Shinnie l oc.cit].

a ssumed

t o

a pply

r emains p oorly d emonstrated i n U pper

T he f ar r icher e vidence i n

t he

s outh .

S o

f rom L ower N ubia

c onstrained ,

s ubsistence s trategies must b e l imited t o e xploring t he p ossible a nd i ntra-regional v ariety i n i ntensity o f c onstraints o f l ocal r esources a nd t echnologies. s ubsistence

c annot

d iscussion

o f

r egional

e xploitation , w ithin t he A t l east t he o utlines o f

may b e e stablished t o p rovide s ome c ontext f or t he p attern o f

s ettlement. T he

mere

c oincidence

o f

p otentially

f ertile

l ocalities o f most M eroitic s ettlement i n t he s outh , i mply

v ery

much

l and

w ith

d oes

n ot

f or t he n ature o f t he s ubsistence e conomy.

t he k nown o f

i tself

Much o f t he

d iscussion o f t he c ontrasts b etween U pper a nd L ower N ubia h as c oncentrated o n t he p otential f or p astoralism , c entred o n t he W estern B utana, t hough o nly r ecently w ith e xplicit m odels f or s uch e xploitation [ Al-Hakim 1 972; A dams 1 976; B radley 1 986]. Most h ave p roposed v arying c ombinations o f s easonal c ultivation a nd p astoral t ranshumance i n a nd a round t he r egion . O nly Ahmed [ 1984] h as p roduced d etailed i nformation o n t he a gricultural p otential o f t he r egion a s a w hole, w ith a n a ccompanying model f or i ts e xploitation i n M eroitic t imes. L ittle a ttention h as b een p aid t o o ther a reas a nd o nly t he m ost g eneral s ubsistence

models

h ave b een d eveloped.

o n t he s urplus w ealth ,

p articularly

A ttention h as b een f ocused m ore

t hat

o f

i nhospitable

L ower

N ubia.

M illet o bserved " it i s a g reat d eal e asier t o d escribe t he r elative w ealth...in L ate M eroitic t imes t han t o a ccount f or i t" [ 1968:30]. Much o f

t his

s urplus

w ealth i s v isible i n the f orm o f i mported g oods a nd h as

c onsequently d irected a ttention t owards p ossible

n etworks

o f

t rade

a nd

e xchange. H ere, h owever, w hile i t i s t o b e e xpected t hat t hat t he d ata w ill b e i nadeqate i n m any r espects, v arious a spects o f s ubsistence w ill b e d iscussed ,

s pecifically

f or

M eroitic

c onditions,

a nd

a s

a b asis

f or

c omparison w ith l ater p eriods. T he

r ange

o f

d iffering

e cozones w ithin U pper N ubia d emands s eparate

t reatment o f e ach b efore a ny c omposite p icture e nvironments,

v ariety

i n

t rade,

must b e e xamined.

z ones

a re

g enerally

e conomic l ife,

c an

e merge.

i n a griculture,

T he d ifferences b etween the m ajor

o bvious b ut,

w ithin s maller a reas,

I n

d iverse

p astoralism ,

o r

e nvironmental

a pparently m inor

v ariations i n a gricultural a nd p astoral p otential may b e i mportant.

T his

i s v ery a pparent i n d ealing w ith t he v aried e xploitation o f d ifferent t ypes o f a gricultural l and a long t he r iver. A s w as s een i n C hapter 2 , e ach

c ategory

h as

s pecific l imitations t o i ts u se,

w hether d ependent o n

f looding , r ains o r m echanical i rrigation. B etween d ifferent r egions t here a re w idely v arying d istributions o f t hese l ands, a nd s implistic g eneralizations o n a griculture s hould n ot b e u ndefined

M ost o bviously , s ource,

b ased

o n

t he

p resence

o f

" alluvial s oils".

m ay

v ariation i n t he a vailability o f w ater,

r adically

f rom

w hatever

t ransform e xploitation i n a ny g iven r egion.

m ay c hange t he i ntensity o f c ultivation ,

p romote g razing i n i ts p lace,

T his o r

i n t he e xtreme, s top a griculture a ltogether. A d ecline i n r iver l evels, a nd h ence i n c ultivable l and , s till r emains o ne c redible e xplanation f or

1 42

t he a pparent l ack o f e xtensive s ettlement i n L ower N ubia d uring the m illennium B C 4 .2.2

f irst

[ Trigger 1 965].

B asin A griculture.

T he

r ole

o f

b asin

l and

i s

p otentially

most

i mportant

a nd

i s a

d istinguishing f eature o f t he a griculture o f t he D ongola a nd S hendi R eachs. O f t he t otal o f s ome 1 ,900 km2 o f a rable l and b etween t he 3 rd c ataract a nd K hartoum f eddans)

o f

1 948:744], C hapter

b asins

( see m ay

T able.1), b e

l iable

a

l ittle

a n i mportant p roportion o f a vailable

2 ,

t he

L etti",

b ut

s ettlement t here l argest

l and.

A s

w as

s een

" on a l imited s cale

[ 1981:3].

i n

Adams

a t

T he K erma b asin d oes h owever h ave t wo

c entres

o n

i ts m argins,

K erma

J .Barkal

a nd

o f

t he

a t T abo a nd K awa a nd t here i s

g rowing e vidence f or a nother m ajor c entre a t K erma a t

( 109,280 [ Hewison

t hen d iscounts t his d ue t o a n a pparent l ack o f M eroitic

M eroitic

c omplexes

5 00km2

p otential o f t he b asins h as l argely b een i gnored.

a dmits t he p ossibility o f b asin a griculture a nd

u nder

t o f looding i n a g ood y ear

i tself.

E qually

S anam

a re

l ocated b y e xcellent,

b asin

a griculture i n N ubia r emains

t he

i f s maller

b asins. A ctual

d emonstration

d ifficult. o r

o f

A s Ahmed n oted ,

p erennial

[ 1984:90].

i rrigation

t here i s n o h istorical e vidence f or o f

t he

b asins p rior t o t he n ineteenth c entury

T o c ontrast t his w ith o ur k nowledge o f E gyptian i rrigation ,

h ave s ubstantial d ocumentary r ecords p eriods

[ Lewis

p ossible

f ar more i ntensive

1 983:110-4;

f rom t he I slamic,

W atson 1 981].

F rom s uch r ecords

t o a ppreciate t he c omplexity o f a ncient

w e

R oman a nd P haraonic i t

h as

b een

i rrigation s ystems w hich

may h ave s ustained a p re-modern p eak o f p roductivity a nd p opulation i n t he i st

C entury

A D

u nder t he e xploitative a nd l abour i ntensive R oman r egime

[ Butzer 1 976:92]. c ombining F ayyum

t he

I n

E gypt

e laborate

f orms

o f

p erennial

i rrigation ,

u se o f s a c :pa a nd e xtensive c analisation a re k nown f rom t he

[ ibid:48],

b ut s uch p ractices a re n ot a ttested

i n

M eroitic

U pper

N ubia. I n g eneral t erms t hough , t he c oincidence o f t he M eroitic c entres w ith t he b asin l ands o f U pper N ubia c annot b e i gnored. While i ntensive c ultivation o f t hese a reas o n t he R omano-Egyptian model r emains u nproven , t he p otential p roductivity o f a lternative r egimes s hould n ot b e u nderestimated. W ithout major f lood c ontrols, u se

s maller s cale w ater management a nd c asual

o f i nundated l and may b e a ssumed.

W ithout

s ome c ontrols,

most o f t he

b asin l ands h ave o nly b een w atered a t t he h ighest

f lood l evels

t imes.

t he v ast majority o f t he

I n m ost y ears o f moderate o r l ow f loods,

l and r emains u nfit

f or c ultivation;

f eddans w ere f looded W hile N ile l evels h ave M eroitic

p eriod ,

a t

w orst,

a s

i n

1 941

i n

modern

o nly

4 ,680

w ithin a ll t he D ongola R each [ Barbour 1 961:141-2]. b een p rojected a s s lightly h igher d uring t he

t his m ight a ppear t o b e a major o bstacle t o r egular a nd

i ntensive u se o f c onsiderable a reas. T his

p roblem

w as

s olved

i n E gypt b efore t he e nd o f t he p re-Dynastic

p eriod b y l imited c ontrol o f n atural i rrigation w hich a reas

f looded

a t

h igh-Nile

a nd

r etain

1 43

w ater

a imed

w here

t o

maximize

n ecessary

a fter

p articularly

b rief

f loods.

T his d emanded a r elatively l ow l abour i nput,

c oncerned m ainly w ith d eepening t he n atural c hannels i nto b asins, a nd d eveloping t he n atural l evees w hich d irected a nd h eld t he f loodwaters [ Butzer o p.cit:20-1].

I t may b e more

a ppropriate

i n

t he

U pper

N ubian

c ontext t o c onsider t his modest d egree o f w ater m anagement r ather t han t he i ntensity s een i n t he F ayyum . I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat t he D ongola R each

a t

p eriod

l east

a t

h ad

t he

m anagement must a wait

b een

l atest,

c losely

a nd

l inked t o E gypt

p resuppositions

o f

f rom t he N ew K ingdom

u nsophisticated

w ater

a nd a griculture may b e p remature. C larification o f t his i ssue f urther r esearch , b ut w e d o h ave s ome e vidence c oncerning

i rrigation w ith s aqia.

4 .2.3

S aqia.

I ntensified a griculture i s most e asily d emonstrated b y t he u se o f w ater w heels. T he s aqia w as i ntroduced i nto L ower N ubia f rom E gypt a round t he i st

c entury A D T he d istinctive q adus

i n M eroitic v illage s ites w ith t he M eroitic g reat s ignificance. t echnological p opulation , a nd s till t he

t hat

s till

b est a ccounts

s aqia

d efine

c hronology f or t he i ntroduction a nd

i nto

t he

t his

a rrival

f or s udden g rowth i n

i f n ot f or t he c onspicuous p rosperity o f t his l ess f or i ts e arlier a bandonment [ Adams U pper

b order r egion , 1 976:141-2,163].

s outhward

p rogress

E gypt a nd N ubia r emains i mpossible a nd i n t he

a bsence o f e xtensive e xcavations t o

T he c oincidence o f

" resettlement" o f t he r egion h as b een s een t o b e o f F or w ant o f a more f easible e xplanation , i t i s t his

i nnovation

D efining a n e xact o f

j ars o f t he s aqia a re c ommonly f ound

i n t he n orth .

s outh o f t he 3 rd C ataract i t i s d ifficult

e xtent o f t he s outhward d iffusion o f t his n ew t echnology .

I t h as b een a ssumed h owever t hat t he m ore i ntensive

a griculture

p ossible

w ith t he s aqia w as c onfined t o L ower N ubia. A rkell s uggested M eroitic u se o f s agias, b asins

o f

t he

D ongola

R each:

" there

o perating o ver w ells, a re

i ndications

e xtensively u sed f or c ultivating c ertain a reas, a nd

p art

d eepened

b y

a

f ew

f eet"

u se

[ 1948:16].

r ecently ,

b ut

i t

t he

i t

f or i nstances L etti

o f t he W adi K howi i n D ongola...at l east o ne o f t hese

" saqiya" w ells w as b rought b ack i nto

i n

t hat

w as B asin

[ Meroitic ] h ad

t o

b e

W addington a nd H anbury r ecorded a

t radition f or t he l ater u se o f t he s aqia i n t his r ole i n t he K erma

B asin :

" ..three h undred y ears a go, a ll t he l and w as c ultivated b y s akies e rected o ver w ells o f w ater f ound i n t he g round...one s uch s akie i s n ow i n e xistence a t more t han h alf a m ile f rom t he r iver" U nfortunately , M eroitic

p eriod ,

r ed-brick l ining , p ositive

e vidence

f ound a t T abo

A rkell g ives n o r eason f or d ating u nless

i t

i s

i mplied

w hich m ight e qually b e

i n o f

h is

[ 1822:43]. t hese

s aqia

d escription

C hristian

d ate.

t o

t he

o f t heir O therwise

f or t he u se o f s aqia i n t he D ongola R each h as o nly b een

[ Jacquet-Gordon i n Adams

1 973:229].

c onfirm t he u se o f s aqia w ithin t he K erma a rea,

I f

t he

f inds

t here

t heir a bsence e lsewhere i n

t he r egion m ay b e d oubted. H owever, w hether t his a ssumption may b e a pplied f urther s outh i s d oubtful. E arly e xcavations o f monumental s ites, p alaces,

t emples a nd p yramids,

w ere c ertainly n ot t he c ontexts

1 44

i n w hich t o

f ind q adus. M ore

r elevant,

p erhaps,

e xcavations a t M eroe, a griculture c loseby , t he s mall a reas

i s t hat n o e xamples w ere f ound i n t he r ecent

a lthough a n u rban c entre m ight b e e xpected a nd t o h ave b een i nvolved i n p roduction.

e xcavated

n eed

n ot

b e

a ssumed

t o

b e

t o h ave H owever ,

r epresentative

[ Bradley 1 984:205]. Q adus k nobs f ound i n t he c hamber d ebris o f p yramids a t N un i a nd B egrawiya [ Dunham 1 955: F ig.149] m ay b e a ssumed t o b e l ater i ntrusions a long w ith o ther c learly C hristian c eramics. T heir f orms a re c ertainly s imilar t o A dams'

l ater t ypes

[ 1986:165,Fig.76].

I f t he p resence o f t he s aqia i n U pper N ubia w ould i ndicate a g reater s ophistication o f a griculture, i ts a bsence s hould n ot b e o verstressed. I t may

b e

a rgued

p eriods,

t hat

i ts

p articular

i mportance

w as d ue t o t he v ery r estricted a reas o f

t o L ower N ubia, b asin

a nd

i n a ll

s eluka

l and

a vailable, w hich w as n ot t he c ase i n much o f U pper N ubia. T he r elative a bundance o f a rable l and , p articularly i n t he D ongola R each h as t ended t o b e

o bscured i n t he s hadow o f t he o bvious p rosperity o f L ower N ubia a nd o f

the s hift o f p olitical f ocus t o M eroe. l ittle

e vidence

f or

s ettlement

a bandonment o f many s ites i n t he r evival, e vidence

e quated f or

w ith

t he

i n

U ntil

6 th C entury

M eroitic

" Early M eroitic"

r ecently , B C

a nd

s ettlement a t Amir

s ubstantially

h as

t he

l ate

b een

M eroitic

r esurgence i n L ower N ubia.

c emeteries o f s imilar d ate a t S oleb a nd K erma, l ate 2 nd C entury B C,

t here

t he r egion b etween t he l ate N apatan

' Abdallah

R ecent

t ogether

w ith

p oint t o a r evival f rom t he

s hortening

t he

p ost-Napatan

h iatus.

F ernandez a rgues t hat p olitical i nstability s eems i ncreasingly l ikely a s a c ause f or f luctuations i n s ettlement

[ 1986:62],

b ut w hatever t he

r easons,

this r esettlement c ertainly p redates t he a rrival o f t he s aqia.

T he l ack o f t he s aqia a nd s upposed l ow w ater p revent

t hese

s ettlements.

T hus

o ne

l evels

c learly

d id

n ot

may a ssume a m ode o f s ubsistence

w hich h ad i ts r oots i n N apatan t imes ( or e ven d uring t he N ew K ingdom , w hen many o f t he m ajor c entres w ere f ounded ). U nless t he c ontrolled f looding o f t he b asins c an b e d emonstrated , t hese a reas

W ithout t he s aqia, a ncient

r iver,

t his

t he

1 5% o f t he s aqia

a nd

l imited

E arly t his c entury ,

f ew t housand f eddans"

i s)

a ssociated w ith s mall-scale h orticulture,

a griculture a t l arge

a t most

r elatively

i t w as e stimated

[ Allan 1 948:638].

I n E gypt,

w ith a

t o

w ater

i t w as

m arginal

i mpact

( and o n

[ Butzer 1 976:47].

S eluka c ultivation r emains t he a lternative f or r iverine e specially

t o

m ost W ith a

c an o nly h ave h ad a l imited i nfluence c ompared w ith m ore

" a

K hartoum ,

u tilized

i rrigation w ould b e l imited t o t he s haduf,

s ophisticated i rrigation.

H owever,

o nly

o r f or h erding.

o f w ater r aising d evices p resumed t o h ave b een a vailable.

l ifting c apacity o f p erhaps h igh

t his t radition c an h ave

f or more c asual c ultivation ,

d ifficult

t o

a s H ewison r ecorded ,

q uantify i t i s

o f

o r

d emonstrate

g reat

a reas

i mportance

d ownstream

b oth f or t he g ood y ields a nd t he m inimum l abour i nput

W ithin t raditional p ractices h e c laimed i t that w atered b y a ll f orms o f i rrigation"

1 45

b ut

i s

a rchaeologically . o f

r equired .

" covered h alf a s b ig a n a rea a s

[ op.cit:745].

W hile

t he

r eal e xtent o f r iverine a griculture r emains u nproven ,

h ard t o a ccept t hat i t n ever d eveloped b eyond l imited

a reas

i rrigable

w ith

t he

t he

s haduf.

s eluka

An

l and

e arly

f avouring

t he

l ocations

s pread l ate u p t he N ile,

o f

t he

i ntroduction o f

E gyptian m ethods m ight e xplain t he g eneral c orrelation b etween s ites a nd t he b asin l ands w hich , f ar l ess d esirable l ocations.

i t i s

a nd t he

m ajor

w ithout a ny e nhanced i rrigation , w ould b e T here a re n o o ther o bvious f actors

f or

i nstance T abo o r K awa.

T hat the s a c : 1 1 .a

d oes n ot m ean t hat U pper N ubia w as n ot i nfluenced

b y o ther E gyptian t echniques o f i ntensified a griculture. 4 .2.4

R ainland a griculture.

W ithin

t he

l and b ecomes

r ainlands

a griculture i s b roken . p ermanent o ccupation , s easonal,

o f t he C entral S udan ,

e xploitation o f t he a tmur

i ncreasingly a ttractive a nd t he t otal

f or

r eliance

o n

r iverine

W ith t he l ack o f p ermanent w ater s upplies

l imiting

c ultivation o f t hese a reas i s p resumed t o b e l argely

s owing a nd h arvesting.

L epsius a nd C rowfoot r ecorded t his

k ind o f c ultivation i n t he W estern B utana a nd u sed i t t o e xplain t he s ubstantial r emains a t Musawwarat a nd N aga , a s w ell a s t he l esser s ites o f t emples a nd h afirs.

H owever,

a f unctional e xplanation f or t hese s ites

i s

l acking. W ith n o e xcavation o f d omestic a reas w ithin s uch s ites, t here i s n o e vidence f or t he m odes o f s ubsistence o r o ther a ctivities a t t he s ites, b eyond

t heir

r eligious

f unction.

A

s upposed

d eposits e ncouraged t he v iew t hat t here w as o ccupation

a bsence

l ittle

o f

s tratified

a ssociated

p ermanent

[ Al-Hakim 1 972].

I n s tudying t hese s ites,

Ahmed r eturned

t o

a

more

g eneral

r egional

a nalysis, a lthough h e s till a ssumed u nderlying e conomic d eterminants f or s ettlement l ocation. H e t ried t o p roduce a model o f a gricultural e xploitation o f t he r egion a nd ,

f irst,

s ites t o t he v arious s oil types

[ 1984:86].

W estern B utana w hich h e s tudied i mmature s oils ( 57.55%), q oz s oils c lays

( 5.54%)

a nd B asement C omplex

r elated t he o verall d istribution o f W ithin t he l arge a rea

o f

t he

h e n oted t he r elative p roportions o f ( 21.62%), a lluvium ( 14.73%), B utana ( 0.56%)

T he c orrelation b etween t he s ites a nd t he a reas o f a lluvium w as v ery c lear, w ith o ver 6 4% o n t hese s oils. O n t he s trength o f t his h e i nferred t hat t he s ite l ocations w ere s elected o n t his b asis, a gricultural p otential. T his h e e xtensive a nd s hifting c ultivation , d iscounting

a nd h ence

f or

p roposed , f ollowed t he o n a s easonal b asis.

a nimal h usbandry a ltogether,

l imited w ater a nd g razing a nd s uggested

t heir

s ystem o f While n ot

h e r ecognized t he c onstraints o f a

v ery

s econdary

r ole

f or

i t

[ ibid:83-99]. T he d ynamics o f t he s easonal u se o f t he r egion w ere n ot e xamined i n a ny d epth ,

t hough

t he S hendi R each f ound

i n

t he

t he

g eneral a ssumption w as f or movement u p t he w adis

[ ibid:103], i nterior.

t hough A t

m ore

J .Geheid ,

p ermanent

o cupation

t he

i s

c ultivated b y t he i nhabitants o f W ad H assuna , a re a p ermanent p opulation , n umerous h afirs i n t he a rea.

a rea

might

f rom b e

s till h abitually

s ome t en m iles

a way.

T hey

w ith a ssured w ater s upplies f rom w ells a nd A lthough t hey a re l argely s edentarized

1 46

A rabs,

t heir

p resence

p ossibility

o f

a

o n

t he

f ringe

o f

t he

B utana

t hose l ocalities w here w ater i s a vailable

t he

l ocation

c onsideration

o f

o f

t he

s ites

n umerous

c an

o ther

b ear

o n

f actors.

f actors

a ppear

e qually

p lausible

a

w ith ,

o f

a lluvial

f or e xample,

s oils

may

p roblem ,

i s

w ithout

q uestionable

s ingle

w hat

r esource

[ Roper 1 979:126].

s ignificant c orrelation t hat Ahmed f ound b etween s ite a reas

t he

i t r emains u nclear

t his

I t

i nferances m ay b e b ased o n t he a vailability o f s everal

t hat

[ ibid:97].

A ssuming s ome s easonal c ultivation i n t he w adi b eds, h ow

s hows

l imited p ermanent p opulation must n ot b e d iscounted i n

w here

T he h ighly

l ocations

a nd

t he

b e m atched b y a n e qually g ood c orrelation

w ater s upplies;

w here

t he

w adi

b eds

a re

t he

b est

l ocations f or s inking w ells. I ndeed t he s ite l ocations h ave s elected f or a ll f ive ' basic e lements' s uggested b y C hisholm , n amely w ater, a rable l and ,

g razing l and ,

f uel a nd b uilding materials

s ignificant l ack o f s ites o n t he e vidence p lateau;

w hen

i t

i s

i mmature

[ 1968:102-3].

s oils

s eems

l ess

E qually t he c ompelling

r ecognized t hat much o f t hat a rea i s t he s andstone

a t otally b arren ,

w aterless

r ocky

w asteland.

T his

f act

a dds

l ittle t o o ur u nderstanding o f a c omplex s ociety. While t he w adi v egetation o f t he W estern B utana i s i nferior t o t hat o f t he B utana p roper , i t

c annot

b e

a ssumed t hat t he f ormer a rea w as n ot u sed f or g razing ,

b ut

o nly t o a l esser d egree than t he c lay p lains. Ahmed c onfined h is r esearch t o t he W estern B utana l argely d ue t o t he l ack o f e vidence f or c omparable M eroitic o ccupation i n o ther n on-riverine a reas. H owever, b oth t he G ezira a nd t he B utana n eed t o b e c onsidered . T he e vidence f or s ettlement a round t he w ater s ources o f J .Tomat a nd J .Moya w ithin t he G ezira c onforms t o t he e xpected p attern o f e xploitation. T he l argely s easonal o ccupation o f t he i nterior , p roposed b y C lark a nd S temler [ 1975],

i s o f d ual s ignificance.

S pecifically f or t he M eroitic p eriod i t

s hows a m ixed p astoral a nd a gricultural e xploitation o f t he p lains f rom r iverine

b ase,

though w ith o nly l imited M eroitic c ultural i nfluences.

more g eneral t erms,

i t s eems t o c onfirm t he e thnographic

w ithin c omparable e nvironmental p arameters, h ave c ontinued u ntil m odern t imes. W ith n o

e vidence

a I n

w here ,

s imilar f orms o f s ubsistence e vidence f or more c omplex

s ettled s ocieties i n t hese r egions, i t i s d ifficult t o a void a ssuming t hat p ast e xploitation w as b roadly c omparable w ith t hat i n more r ecent p eriods, b oth t here, 4 .2.5

a nd a round t he B utana.

P astoralism .

A

r ecurring t heme w ithin M eroitic s tudies i s d iscussion o f t he r ole o f

a nimal h usbandry , a s a n a djunct o r e ven a n a lternative t o a griculture. I ts r elative i mportance t o t he M eroites h as y et t o b e d emonstrated , h owever.

T rigger p roposed t hat

i nto

m odern

t imes,

p astoralism

w as

a

s ignificant f actor i n t he s ubsistence e conomy o f L ower N ubia , i n s pite o f t he u nfavourable e nvironment i n t he r ainless n orth [ 1965:21-22]. W ithin t he

1 00

m ile

s tretch o f t he v alley f looded i n t he 1 960s,

c ensus r eturns

r ecorded a p opulation o f 2 ,831 c attle a nd 5 3,481 c aprids w ith s mall n umbers o f c amels, d onkeys a nd h orses [ in Adams 1 977:54]. While c attle w ere n eeded t o p ower t he w ater w heels,

1 47

t he

n umbers

o f

s heep

a nd

g oats

d emonstrates t he c arrying c apacity o f e ven t his t he

r iver.

t his

l ivestock

s tretch

o f

W ith n egligible g razing t o b e f ound a way f rom t he r iver,

a ll

h ad

t o

b e

m aintained

o n

i nhospitable

t he

l imited

f ertile

s trip ,

c ompeting w ith t he n eeds o f a griculture. W ith n o s uch d etailed f igures

f or U pper N ubia,

i t i s s till p ossible

t o

c ompare t he f ar g reater a reas o f p otential g razing a vailable, b oth a long t he r iver , a nd i n t he h interland f urther s outh. A s w as s een i n C hapter 2 , t he

u nimproved

v egetation. c ultivated ,

b asin

l ands

h ave,

i nto

r ecent

t imes,

I n t he 1 940s, o nly s ome 1 0% o f t heir t he r est b eing u sed f or g razing a nd w ood

s upported d ense

t otal a rea w as [ Allan 1 948:624].

T he K erma b asin w ith p otentially u p t o 1 00 s quare m iles o f r ough

g razing ,

f ar e xceeds t he t otal p roductive l and o f L ower N ubia. T he l ong t radition o f s uch a p astoral e lement i n t he r egion i s r eflected

p erhaps

i n t he l arge n umbers o f l ivestock r epresented i n t he c emeteries

o f t he K erma C ulture [ Reisner 1 923:64]. H owever , w ith t he e nvironmental r estrictions o f t he r egion t here i s n o s uggestion t hat t his w as e ver m ore t han s edentary a nimal h usbandry ,

p ractised a s a s upplement t o a griculture.

S uch e arly e xploitation m ight b e c omparable t o p re-Dynastic c onditions i n E gypt, w here: " perhaps h alf o f t he f loodplain c onsisted o f d isturbed s avanna h erding"

a nd t hickets, e xtensively u sed f or f ood c ollecting a nd s easonal [ Butzer 1 976:85].

W ith

a t

l east

s ome

h erding

p ossible i n t he r ainless n orth ,

p otential w ould g reatly i ncrease f urther s outh , a long

t he

r iver,

w here

m any

o f

t he

g razing

b oth i n t he h interland a nd

w adis

d rain

i nto

t he

b asins,

s upplementing t he g razing n ear t he r iver [ Hewison o p.cit:743-4]. P astoralism i n t he i nterior h as a ttracted much a ttention , b ut t he p otential f or s edentary h erding a long t he r iver c annot b e i gnored. I ts l ikely

s ignificance

h as

y et

t o b e a ssessed b ut t he p rominence g iven t o

h erding i n t he r ainless n orth s uggests i t W hat

f orm

s hould

n ot

b e

u nderestimated .

o r f orms o f p astoralism m ay h ave o perated i n t he s outh r emains

o bscure h owever a nd m ost models p roduced t o d ate

may

b e

c riticized

t heir r eliance o n i ndirect e vidence a nd r ather u ncertain a nalogies. f aunal e vidence f or t he l ast t wo m illennia i s s lim f or t he c entral t here i s more f rom p rehistoric t imes, i ndicate

p ossible

g enerally

o rigins

l ittle

f or

u nderstood

w hich w hile

p astoralism

[ Khazanov

" its

s pectacular

t he

b enefits

r egion ,

l ong

l ivestock,

w hich

K rzyzaniak t erm

z enith d uring M eroitic t imes."

s howed t he p redominance o f d omesticated W ith

t he

1 983:109].

N eolithic p astoralism a t K adero a s p art o f s uch w ith

f ar r emoved i n t ime,

i n

" a v ast p lain ,

m ay i s

s aw t he

d evelopments,

T he f aunal r emains

p articularly

c attle.

o f g reater r ainfall a nd m ore e xtensive f loods,

t he r iver v alley n orth o f K hartoum a s

f or

W hile S udan ,

w hich

i n

h e s aw

N eolithic

t imes m ight h ave p rovided e xcellent g razing a fter t he r ainy s eason a nd t he a nnual N ile

f lood"

[ 1978:171].

T he s lightly l ater s ite a t K adada ,

a s imilar p redominance o f p astoralism , m ore a dvanced d esiccation

s howed

w ith m inor v ariations a ttributed t o

[ Gautier 1 986;

C aneva 1 988c].

T he g eneral model f or t he N eolithic r egime s eems t o b e a c ombination o f p astoralism , a llowed

a

c ultivation a nd f ishing , more

o r

l ess

w hich i n t he more f avourable c limate

s edentary a nd s table o ccupation a long t he r iver

1 48

v alley.

W ith

g reater

g razing

movement w as n ecessary o ut S uch

s easonal

t he r iver b anks 1 982]. g razing ,

m ovement

p otential

i n

t he

i nto t he h interland ,

v alley ,

a s o ccurred w as p robably l imited ,

i n t he d ry s eason

f or

t he

o nly m inimal

p ossibly t o e scape

w ater

a nd

f lies.

moving d own t o

f ishing

[ Haaland

W ith a n eed f or o nly l imited movement i nto t he W estern B utana f or t here i s n o e nvironmental c ase f or m ore e xtensive t ranshumance

i nto t he B utana p roper,

a t l east

f rom t he a rea n orth o f K hartoum .

I t w as w ithin t his f ramework t hat t he s ite o f S haqudud , i nterpreted

[ Marks

e t

a l

1 985].

W ith

b oth

n ear

K hartoum

N aga

w as

M esolithic a nd

N eolithic o ccupation , i t s eemed l ikely t o h ave s erved a s r ainy s eason c amp f or a r iverine p opulution o ver a c onsiderable t ime-span [ Haaland 1 981:58-9]. t he

H owever,

a ssemblages

t he l atest l evels a re c onsiderably

r elating

n ot

t o

t he

N ile

d ifferent,

w ith

V alley b ut t o t hose o f t he

s outhern A tbai o f e astern S udan. O nly a s ingle s ite, S haqadud , r epresents t he l atest w ell d ated p re-Meroitic s ite o f t he c entral S udan. S easonal e xploitation o f t he W estern

B utana

i n t he l atest p hase a ppears n ot t o c onform t o the e arlier

r iverine b ased p attern.

T here r emains

a n

a pparent

l ack

o f

o ccupation

a long t he r iver p rior t o t he M eroitic p eriod c oupled w ith e xploitation o f t he i nterior f rom a n ew d irection. T his m ay p rove t o b e v ery s ignificant f or

t he

o rigins o f M eroitic s ubsistence,

e arlier r iverine p astoral c ultures

f rom

f ringes,

t he

t radition.

A tbai

f rom t he e ast.

w ere

l eaving n o d irect l ink w ith t he

A t

t he

s ame

t ime

a utochthonous

e xploiting t he B utana a nd W estern B utana

T his w ould c ertainly c ount a gainst a h ypothetical

M eroitic p astoralism d eveloping s uggested b y K rzyzaniak.

f rom

a r iverine N eolithic t radition a s

I n t he M eroitic p eriod , t he p redominence o f c attle i n t he f aunal r emains f rom M eroe [ Carter & F oley 1 980] h as e ncouraged c laims f or a m ixed e conomy s ample.

i n t he r egion; u ndue s ignificance h as p erhaps b een p laced o n t his T here r emains n o e vidence f or i ts w ider c ontext, i n t erms o f

p atterns o f c onsumption o r d eposition ,

w ithin w hat a re p ossibly t he u nique

c onditions o f M eroe c ity. D educing a m ajor r ole f or c attle f rom t he e vidence f or m eat c onsumption i n t he c apital c ity i s d angers,

a nd a g ood e xample o f t he d angers o f

e vidence i n i solation Models r ainland

u ndue

c omplex model a llows

[ Ahmed

o p.cit:99],

b ut

p roduced b y B radley

w ith t he h elp

m aterial

[ 1986],

o f

c ultures r ecord .

a nd S he

t he

W estern

d egree

s ome

e thnographic

B utana

a nd

B utana

t hat

o f a

M eroitic

g razing

i n

f orm i s u nclear

1 49

d ata

o n

t he

t he d ifferences i n t his

f or

s ignificant p eriod ,

t he

n omadic

e xploiting

[ 1985:233-6].

r ural s ubsistence w ithin t he S hendi R each , [ 1989:1].

o f

a nd more

p ossibly c arried

L enoble c ertainly s tress t he l ikely d ominance o f p astoralism c ultivation

f aunal

A more e xplicit m odel i s

i mplications

p roposes

p astoralist e lement m ay h ave e xisted i n t he t he

t o

a lternative

b etween s edentary a nd n omadic p opulations,

a rchaeological b oth

o n

f or l arge s cale n omadic p astoralism , [ Al-Hakim 1 972:645].

t heir

i t a n

o n b y a d iscrete p opulation i nteraction

r eliance

[ Chang & K oster 1 986].

f or p astoralism h ave g enerally r elated c ultivation

p astoralism f raught w ith

R einold &

r ather

t han

t hough i n w hat

4 .2.6

T he d ynamics o f p astoral n omadism .

T he

l inking

o f

p astoralism

w ith n omadism h as m ajor i mplications

f or

r econstructing s ettlement p atterns a nd u ltimately o ur c onception o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic b asis o f N ubian s ocieties, a nd d emands c lose e xamination. A c rucial e lement i n d iscussing p astoral n omadism h as b een t he

r eliance

o n

e thnographic a nalogies.

f ound w ithin t he modern S udan , T ypically ,

t he

g razing.

Numerous i ts

s pecific

a daptation. w ater a nd [ Cunnison

t he

S udan ,

n omadism i s a lways i n t he f orm o f s easonal

f ocused o n p ermanent w ater s upplies w ith s ufficient d ry

s eason

T he more s pecialized l arge-scale f orms a re w ell d ocumented.

T he B aqqara r ange o ver a n a rea b etween a bout w et

f orms o f n omadism a re

o wn

a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f a nnoying f lies"

W ithin

movements,

w ith

c attle o wning B aggara move a ccording t o " grass,

g round u nderfoot, 1 966:19].

e ach

1 3 N a nd 1 0 N ,

w ith

t heir

s eason g razing a round t he 4 00mm i sohyet a nd d ry s eason n ear t he 8 50mm

i sohyet. t he

T heir h omelands

b eginning

( dars)

a re t he a reas w here t hey

a nd e nd o f t he r ains.

c oncentrate

a t

I n t he r ains t hey c an c ultivate a nd

s end t heir h erds n orth a s f ar a s t he g razing a llows. A s t he g razing a nd w ater f ails a t t he e nd o f t he r ains, t hey r egroup a nd h ead s outh t o w herever s ufficient g razing a nd w ater e xists,

u sually

n ear

t he

B ahr

e l

A rab. A s s oon a s t he r ains r eturn t hey a re d riven n orth b y t he mud a nd t he f lies [ Lebon 1 965:122-4]. T he

c amel

t ribes

o f

t he

K ababish

e xploit

a

f ar

m ore r estricted

e nvironment, w ith r ainfall b etween s ome 5 0mm a nd 2 50mm . T he s ections s tudied b y B radley f ollowed a c ircular a nnual c ycle t o maximise t he m ore f ragile a nd s carce r esources o f t he r egion [ ibid:27]. I n c ontrast t o t he B aqqara , their h omeland o r damar a rea i s a round t he p ermanent w ells w hich a lso s upport a d iscrete s edentary p opulation. T his m ay b e c ompared w ith t hose

s ections

o f

B utana h interland ,

t he

S hukriya

w ho

a re b ased a t t he f ew w ells i n t he

t hough m ost o f t he p opulation h as

t o

A tbara a nd t he B lue N ile. I n m ore s evere c onditions, S ahel, w ith r ains b etween 5 0 a nd 1 00mm , n omads may s limness o f 1 980:469].

t heir

r esources

t o

r emain

r etreat

t o

t he

s uch a s t he w estern b e f orced b y t he

p ermanently o n t he m ove

[ Smith

A ccording t o t he d egree o f mobility a nd d ependence o n t heir l ivestock , a ll n omadic p astoralists i nteract w ith s ettled p opulations. F ew e xploit t heir l ivestock f or m eat, a nd m ilk i s c ommonly t he b asis o f d iet c amel a nd c attle h erding t ribes [ Smith l oc.cit; C ranstone 1 969]. d o n ot c ultivate a t a ll, a griculturalists. I n modern t imes,

m ost a cquire v egetable f oods,

f or b oth I f t hey

u sually g rain ,

f rom

m ost o f t he p astoralists w ithin t he s tudy a rea w ho a re

r egarded a s n omadic w ould f all w ithin K hazanov 's

g roup

o f

" semi-nomadic

p astoralists", p ractising s ome d egree o f a griculture [ 1983:19]. T hese m ay b e d istinguished f rom " semi-sedentary p astoralists", f or w hom a griculture i s

d ominant,

a s

w ell

a s

o ther s edentists p ractising a nimal h usbandry ,

e ither l ocally o r u sing m ore d istant p astures p opulations

o f

n orthern S udan ,

T he

r iverine

mainly h erding s heep a nd g oats,

f all i nto

1 50

[ ibid:21-4].

t hese l atter g roups. A p articular c ontribution o f B radley w as i n d ocumenting t he c ontrasting t he

m aterial

c ulture

S udanese c ontext.

o f

c o-existing

s edentary a nd n omadic g roups i n a

P astoral n omadism h as l ong b een r ecognized a s p romoting

a n i mpoverishment o f m aterial c ulture [ Haycock 1 976; C ranstone o p.cit]. W ealth a nd t he m eans o f s ubsistence a re m obile, i n t he f orm o f l ivestock , a nd

o nly

t he

most

l imited s election o f p ortable a rtefacts a re r equired

[ Leshnik 1 972:151]. b e

f ew

A rchaeologically ,

a nd u ninformative,

t he material r emains a re l ikely

t o

w ith much a cquired f rom s edentary p opulations,

a nd m uch made o f p erishable materials l ike l eather a nd w ood. O n

t he

i nvisible,

m ove,

t he

n omadic

p opulations

w ould

b e

w ith o nly t he most e phemeral t races l eft

a rchaeologically

b y

t emporary

c amps.

W hile l onger p eriods w ould b e s pent i n t he d ry s eason c amps, e ven t hey w ould l eave l ittle t race, a nd a s L eshnik n oted , t raditional t echniques o f s ettlement b ased a rchaeology a re o f l imited u se i n i dentifying s uch p opulations [ op.cit]. T he g reatest p otential may l ie i n i dentifying b urial

p atterns,

e ither

a long m igration r outes,

o r a s B radley f ound ,

i n

t he d amar a rea [ 1986:28]. A d iscrete n omadic p opulation m ight b e d istinguishable f rom t he s edentarists b y d ifferent mortuary t raditions o r t he d emonstrable l ack o f a ssociated p ermanent

s ettlements.

S uch a l ack o f

M eroitic s ettlements a ssociated w ith k nown c emeteries i n t he G eili r egion w as s tressed b y C aneva w hen p romoting a model o f " pastoral s emi-nomadic o ccupation" [ 1988c:371-2], b ut w ithout d emonstrating t hat i ntensive s urvey o f l ikely s ettlement

z ones h ad a ctually c onfirmed a r eal

a bsence

o f

a ny

s ettlements. 4 .2.7

P astoralism i n t he B utana & W estern B utana.

W ithin

t he

B utana

a nd

W estern

B utana,

e xploitation o f t he r egions b y s easonal m ight

b oth

b e

p opulations. w ith

e lements o f t he r iverine p opulation , a

s mall

p ermanent

p opulation

W estern B utana.

T he h erders w ould f ollow

r iver

B utana.

t he

I n

a n

t he

r iver

i nto

t he W estern B utana.

b uilt b y t he M eroites w ould h ave t emples

a nd

o ther

b uildings

a t

s upplied

a

m ixed

h erders;

t hese

o r e lse t wo d iscrete b y

Ahmed ,

t he major s ites o f t he

a nnual

c ycle

t he l ater M eroitic p eriod ,

b uilding a ctivity s eems t o h ave t aken p lace, f rom

p roposed a nd

T he c ultivators w ould f ollow a p attern d escribed

p erhaps a nd

B radley

c ultivators

b etween

t he

w hen m ost o f t he

t he d amar a rea p ossibly moved T he n umerous w ells a nd h afirs t he

d ry

s eason

n eeds.

T he

r epresent t he p resence o f t he s tate i n t his

z one o f i nteraction. F inding d ifficult. d ifficult

p ositive e vidence t o s upport s uch a h ypothesis r emains R ecognition o f t he p astoral e lement w ould r emain v ery d ue

t o

t he

p redicted l ow l evel o f m aterial c ulture,

k nown o ccupation s ites c annot b e a ttributed a gricultural

p opulation.

I t

w as

t o

s uggested

a

p astoral

a nd m ost

r ather

t han

h owever t hat a d istinction

m ight b e v isible i n b urial f orms,

b ut e vidence f rom b urials

i s

p rovides n o c onfirmation o f t wo d iscrete

v ery

l imited

a nd

t o

d ate

p opulations.

1 51

i n t his

r egion

T he s ingle g rave o pened a t N aga, b y H intze [ 1958] c ame f rom o ne o f t he s mall s tone tumuli n ear t he l arge h afir. W ith a c ontracted b urial, f acing t he n orth-east, b owl,

c lay

t he g rave g oods w ere l imited t o

d iscs

a nd

a

c rude

b lack

s ome b eads a nd a b undle o f s orghum ,

p olished

n one o f w hich

w ere i n a ny w ay d iagnostic [ Hintze 1 960:380]. T his i s c learly a p oor g rave, a nd t here i s n othing t o s uggest t hat i t w as a M eroitic n omad 's g rave. O n t he o ther h and , t he t umulus c emetery u nder t he h ill n earby h as n umerous w heel-made s herds s cattered amongst t he d ebris w here i t h as b een d isturbed ,

s uggesting more d istinctive M eroitic g rave g oods.

A t Musawwarat, t he o nly e xcavated g raves a re s ub-Meroitic a nd C hristian , a lthough t he d ate o f t he l arge c emetery n earby a t Q oz B armilo i s u nknown. T he o nly o ther e xcavated g raves a re t wo a t ' Alim . O ne o f a c hild , d orsally e xtended , h ead t o t he s outh w as u ndated d ue t o t he l ack o f g rave g oods. T he o ther w as c ontracted , h ead t o t he s outh , f acing e ast ( not t ypically M eroitic ), b ut w as a ccompanied b y b oth h and-made a nd w heel-made 1 986:167].

c eramics, a pparently c omparable t o material f rom M eroe [ Hinkel T he b ulky j ars a mongst t hem w ould n ot s uggest a n omadic

o ccupant o f t he g rave. T he o ther tumuli r ecorded i n t he B utana a nd W estern B utana a re o ften c lustered a round t he w ater s upplies, a s w ell a s o n t he h ills a nd r idges a long t he w adis d raining i nto t he S hendi R each [ Al-Hakim 1 972:643]. T hose n earer t he r iver m ight c onform t o B radley 's model i n l ying w ithin t he d amar a rea , O ther

b ut r emoved f rom t he

g roups

t owards

t he

i mmediate

B utana

p ost-medieval o ccupation o f t he a rea. t o

h ow

o f

t he

b e

r elated

t o

A t p resent t here i s n o e vidence

a s

A major c riticism o f models h as

b een

a rid c onditions, M eroitic t imes

b e

r equirements

a utomatically

f or l arge s cale

e ven a llowing

[ Adams 1 981;

a

s lightly

Ahmed 1 984].

w ells.

r ecord

f or w ater a nd g razing ,

t he

p astoralism

m ore

t o

i n

a ncient

t he

t his

b asis

t hat

e xploitation o f t he B utana,

t he

f avourable

c limate

i n

o f

t heir

v aried

mobility

a nd

i n T able 4 .

s ignificant p art o f a M eroitic m odel. o n

a ssigned

T he r elative m erits o f d ifferent

T he a dvantages o f t he c amel a re m anifest, model

e asily

b ased o n t he u nsuitability o f c attle f or t he r elatively

l ivestock c an b e s een i n Smith 's

a ny

m ay

l ater s emi-nomadic t ribes c onformed t o o rthodox Muslim p ractices,

a nd a ll t he v aried t umuli c annot p opulations.

r egion

s urroundings

f ringes

c amel

b ut t hey a re u nlikely t o f orm B radley d efends a c attle b ased

d id

n ot

q ualitatively

c hange

b ut m erely e xtended t he p eriod i t w as p ossible

t o g raze t here i nto t he d ry s eason

[ 1985:214].

H ence,

s he

a rgues

c attle h erding w ould b e p ossible u nder M eroitic c onditions, c onstrained b y p roblems o f g razing a nd w ater. I t i s h owever ,

t hat

b ut more t he d ry

s eason movements w hich p ose t he g reatest p roblem f or c attle. M cHugh p astoralism p ractices. o f

h as

s hown c an

p resent

p rovide

d ay

g eneral

e xamples

o f

p arameters

e xtensive f or

m ore

c attle a ncient

I n p articular t he p resent A rab c attle o f t he S udan a re l argely

Z ebu b reeds

t imes,

t hat

o nly

[ 1974:13].

a nd w ere s o

w ell

Z ebu w ere a pparently i ntroduced a fter M eroitic a dapted

t o

1 52

t he

h arsh

e nvironment

t hat

t hey

T able

4 :

M obility , m ax.

w ater & g razing n eeds.

d ays w ithout

m ax.days

w ater b y s eason.

c amels c ow

w ithout

m ax.

f ood

t ravel

( kms./day )

c ool.

h ot.

9 0 3

5 -7 2

5 -7 2

8 0 2 0 1 0

1

-

g oat

c alves

1 5

1

2

2

2 0?

s heep

3 0

1 -2

2

2 0?

( from S mith 1 980) d isplaced i nferior i ndigenous b reeds. M cHugh

f ound

t hat

t he

m igrate b etween w et c .250mm

a nd

s eason g razing g rounds

a ssumption h afirs

r equirements. i t

i s

w ith

s uch

s uperior

b reeds,

J ie a nd T urkana h erds n eeded t o w ith

a n

a nnual

r ainfall

o f

[ loc.cit]. i s

t hat m igration o ccurs t owards t he r egion o f h igher

r ainfall i n t he d ry s eason. a nd

E ven

F ulani,

d ry s eason g razing g rounds r eceiving c .600mm a nnual r ainfall

i n o rder t o f lourish T he

B aqqara,

o f

t he

B radley a rgued t hat t he r iver a nd B utana

c ould

h ave

t he

w ells

s upplied

d ry

s eason

W hile s ome g razing m ight h ave b een f ound a long

t he

r iver ,

d ifficult

W estern

t o a ccept t hat a d amar a rea i n t he W estern B utana c ould

s ustain a ny s ignificant n umber o f l ivestock d uring a 6 -7 month d ry s eason . I t

i s

o n t his

i ssue t hat a c omparison w ith modern t ranshumance i n t he

B utana ( as o utlined i n C hapter 2 , F ig.7) i s u seful. B roadly , t he r ecent p atterns c oncur w ith M cHugh 's f indings. Many o f the p astoralist t ribes t ravel t he l ong d istances

f rom t he s outh ,

t o w hich t hey r eturn

f or

t heir

d ry s eason g razing i n a reas o f much h igher a nnual r ainfall. T ribes w ith a more r estricted r ange r etreat b ack t o t he w aters a nd g razing a long t he B lue N ile a nd t he A tbara.

While i t w as

c onsiderations e xcluded t he h erders

s uggested t hat p erhaps

f rom t he S hendi R each ,

o f t he p resent c ycle i s t hat t hey s tay w ithin t he c lay p lain , s uperior g razing. s eem

t o

" political"

t he

a dvantage

w ith i ts

I f a n o ptimum g razing c ycle m ay b e p redicted ,

f ollow t he p resent a xes o f m ovement,

r iverine margins o f t he c lay p lain.

i t

f ar

w ould

t o o r f rom t he s outh o r t he

S easonal movements b etween a n a rea o f

l ow r ainfall a nd l imited g razing i n t he d ry s eason a nd a n a rea o f s lightly h igher r ainfall i n t he w et s eason , s eems t o r everse p atterns o f modern l arge s cale p astoralism . T his d oes n ot d eny t hat t he r iverine e xploit p roper, n omadic

i ts

p astoral

a ssets

b oth

p opulation

may

p articularly w ith a n emphasis o n s heep a nd g oats. p astoralism

w as p ractised i n t he B utana ,

h owever,

t hat t he W estern B utana o r S hendi R each w ere i mportant o f

m igration.

e xpected t hough , t o

l ack

h ave

F rom

t he

a gain ,

o f w ater.

o n t he c lay p lains,

B lue

c hosen

t o

i n t he W estern B utana a nd t he B utana

N ile,

I f l arge i t

s cale

i s u nlikely

i n t he a nnual c ycle

s ome s imilar e xploitation m ight b e

w ithout p ermanent

s ettlements

i n t he i nterior

d ue

T his w ould s eem t he most l ikely model f or s ubsistence g iven t he e vidence f or a m ixed e conomy i n t he

1 53

s imilar

c onditions o f t he G ezira d uring t his p eriod. B aiyuda

i s a lso p ossible,

b oth s outhwards

f rom the S hendi R each l eft b ank. o f t he W estern B utana , u se o f the a rea , g razing m ight I t t o

i s

L imited e xploitation o f

T he a bsence o f s ites

c omparable t o those

b oth s tone b uildings o r h afirs,

p oints t o a l imited

s uch a s

i ts

s ubstantially

l ower

r ainfall

important t o n ote t hat p revious g eneralized s tudies b etween

the

p oorer

h ave

f ailed

s pecialised l arge-scale n omadism o f modern

A rab p opulations w ith t he h erding p ractised b y t o

a nd

s uggest.

d ifferentiate

Adding

t he

f rom t he D ongola R each a nd w est

this

t he

t he

r iverine

p opulation .

d esire t o a ssimilate t he u ncertain e vidence

p redominance o f c attle a t M eroe,

t hese s tudies

p astoralism s till q uestionable o n s ettlement p atterning , a nd r eliant

h ave

p romoted

e cological g rounds, o n i nferances more

f or t he

models

o f

u nrelatable t o t han p ositive

e vidence. 4 .3

T HE W IDER E CONOMY.

T he d istribution o f a gricultural l and h as b een e xamined p urely i n t erms o f s ubsistence, c ultivation , e xisted.

but

o f

A s

i t

i s p ossible that more s ophisticated

" cash-crops",

p erhaps

e arly a s t he N ew K ingdom ,

o n

t he

a nd

o rganized

E gyptian model may h ave

a w ide r ange o f c rops a re r ecorded ,

a s w ell a s v iticulture a nd h oney p roduction o n t he t emple e states 1 965:111-2].

T here

i s

s ome

e vidence

t hat

s uch

d iversity

[ Trigger may

h ave

c ontinued o r b een r evived i n t he K ushite p eriod. A l ikely c rop i s c otton , p erhaps

w hich w hile a l uxury i mport i nto

the 2 nd c entury A D,

w as

i n " Ethiopia"

[ N.H.XIII:28].

c onfirmation ,

f or

c otton

[ Griffith a nd C rowfoot

r ecorded b y P liny a s F or

c loth

1 934],

o nce w as

a nd i n

t here

i s

r ecovered l arge

E gypt

" tree w ool", s ome

f rom

q uantities

a rchaeological

K aranog a nd Meroe f rom

Q asr

[ Crowfoot.E 1 979]. A dams c ertainly s uggests t hat i n L ower N ubia a t i t w as t he c ommonest t extile i n the l ate M eroitic p eriod [ 1981:4]. T he

v alue

o f

c otton a s a n a rticle o f t rade i s

u ntil g rowing

I brim l east,

s uggested b y a f urther

c omment o f P liny t hat

" the most e steemed v estments w orn b y t he p riests

E gypt

i t"

a re

made

" cotton t rees" m ention

o f

[ N.H.XIX:2].

E qually

i n t he E zanes

o f h is e nemies a re s pecifically s ingled o ut

[ Griffith

&

C rowfoot

i bid:7].

While

a s

o f

s tela t he w orthy

o f

t he s cale a nd n ature o f

c otton c ultivation r emains t o b e c onfirmed i n U pper N ubia, i ts p resence w ould c ertainly f avour s uggestions o f w ell d eveloped r iverine a griculture. A n i nteresting p arallel m ight b e d rawn w ith t he modern d evelopment o f Z eidab

s cheme i n t he S hendi R each ,

t he r egion w as g iven o ver t o c otton V iticulture i s a nother p ossible

[ Bacon 1 948:325]. s pecialized f orm o f a griculture.

f rom t he e arly D ynastic p eriod i n E gypt

[ Lucas

1 934:13-22],

i n

[ Adams

1 966a].

L ower

N ubia

s eems

w ell

t he

w here t he l argest a rea o f b asin l and i n

a ttested

a ppear t o b e w ine p resses h ave b een f ound a t K awa

i ts

T o t he s outh,

[ Macadam

K nown

p resence

1 955:220]

w hat a nd

a t Meroe [ Bradley 1 984:206]. A s w ith c otton i t s uggests a m ore c omplex a gricultural e conomy w ith t he m echanisms f or manufacture a nd d istribution

1 54

o f w ine, 4 .3.1

i f o nly a s a l uxury i tem .

T rade & Manufactures

T his

s tudy

p arameters

h as

o f

c oncentrated

t he

s o

f ar

o n

s ubsistence e conomy.

e stablishing

t he

p ossible

While a n e nvironmental a pproach

m ay h ave p articular u ses f or i nterpreting m acro-settlement

p atterns,

i ts

l imitations f or t he s tudy o f a c omplex s ociety a re c lear. W hatever t he r esources o f t he s ubsistence e conomy , t he r ole a nd s ignificance o f t he u rban

c entres

i n p articular r emains v ery o bscure,

a s w ell a s t he r ange o f

o ther l ikely d eterminants o f s ettlement. T he

p olitical

u ncertain ,

a nd

b eyond

r eligious

t heir

o bvious

f unction o f t hese u rban c entres r emains a ssociation

w ith

t he

g reat

t emples,

p alaces a nd r oyal b urials. T he i nterweaving o f r eligious a nd p olitical p ower w ithin t he M eroitic s tate i s s till o bscure. A ssumptions o f a n ' ancient t heocracy ' a nd ' godking ' i n t he E gyptian mould s eem l ikely [ Hintze 1 976:54], b ut d etails a re l acking i n e very r espect. T he E gyptian a nalogy s uggests t hat t emples m ay b e f ruitful

a n e xamination o f t he e conomic r ole o f t owns a nd [ Kemp 1 972]. T he P haraonic f oundation o f t he

T emple/Towns o f t he D ongola R each m ay i mply t heir c lose c onnection w ith l ocal a griculture t hrough t emple e states b ut t he l ack o f g ood i nscriptional A lternative,

e vidence l eaves c onfirmation o f t his o r

c omplementary

r oles

may

b e

i mpossible a t p resent.

s uggested

f or

t rade

a nd

m anufacturing. 4 .3.2

M anufactures

E stablishing t he r elative i mportance o f the u rban c entres i n c rafts a nd i ndustry i s i ndeed ,

c rucial f or

f or

o ur

i nterpretation

o f

a rtefact

d istributions

p erception o f M eroitic c ulture g enerally.

e vidence f or i nternal v ariety i n material c ulture,

a nd ,

W ith g rowing

i dentification

o f

t he

b ases o f p roduction a nd d istribution a re o f p aramount i mportance. Much a ttention h as f ocused o n t he s upposed [ Rostovzeff t ombs.

1 957:299],

H owever,

t he

w ell s cale

r epresented o f

l ocal

w ealth

i n

t he

p roduction

E xcavations a t M eroe e ncountered v ast s lagheaps, i ron-working.

O n t he b asis o f t his,

r ecently ,

Adams h as g iven a [ 1981:4],

c annot b e q uestioned. r emains

u nproven ,

more

i ron

a nd

c autious

g old

r emains

u ncertain .

a ttributable t o i ntensive

M eroe w as a ssigned a r ole a s

t he g reat i ron p roducers o f a ncient A frica p roduction

i n

c ontents o f t he r oyal

[ Garstang e t a l a ppraisal

o f

o ne

1 911:55]. t he

s cale

o f M ore o f

b ut a c onsiderable a nd l ong-lived i ndustry a t M eroe T he

e xistence

o f

o ther

c entralized

p roduction

a nd l ocal s mall-scale i ron-working i s l ikely e specially

i n a reas o f i ron-rich s andstones. W hile

n umerous

i mported b ronze i tems a re f ound i n M eroitic t ombs,

t he

e xistence o f a c opper-based m etal w orking i ndustry r emains u ncertain. A m ajor l imitaticn l ies i n t he n egligible r eserves o f c opper o res i n t he S udan. T hey a re o nly f ound o n a l imited s cale i n t he f ar s outhwest o f t he

1 55

c ountry ,

w ell b eyond t he r ange o f a ny k nown

1 970:230].

O n

w orking a t a

t he

much

o ther

h and ,

B onnet

e arlier

d ate,

a t

M eroitic

c ontacts

[ Whiteman

f ound c lear e vidence o f c opper

K erma

[ 1982:34-9].

H aycock,

i n

p articular , h as s upported a c ase f or l ocal manufacture o f m any M erotic b ronzes [ 1976:41], b ut t he a nswer may l ie i n t he importation o f u nworked m etal, o r e ven t hat t he more d istictive f orms w ere made a broad , t o l ocal d esigns.

S uch a t rade i n f inished g oods,

m ade t o a l ocal d esign ,

s eems t o

b e a ttested i n l iterary r ecords o f t he E gyptian-Axumite R ed S ea t rade [ Huntingford 1 980:22]. I f a l ocal i ndustry m ay b e q uestioned , r eports o f c opper s lag-heaps a t A rgo,

K awa a nd N apata m ay r ather b e a ssociated w ith a

more w idespread i ron-working i ndustry R ostovzeff g old t o M eroe, A s

o riginally

g ave

b ut F raser's

i dentified

i n

[ 1959b] a nd f rom p roducing a reas

[ Adams o p.cit:4].

a c autious e stimate f or t he i mportance o f

r evision s eems t o g reatly e xaggerate i ts r ole.

V ercoutter's i mportant

s tudy o f t he a ncient g old t rade

Whiteman 's e vidence [ op.cit:217-30], t he m ajor g old o f t he N ubian d esert p robably l ay o utside t he c ontrol o f

t he M eroites. A lternative s ources o f a lluvial g old f rom t he u pper B lue N ile a nd t he B eni S hangul r emain a n u nknown q uantity. T hus, w hile e xotic , l ocally made j ewellery i s w ell k nown i n M eroitic t ombs, l ittle c an b e s aid o f i ts e conomic importance. T he most p rominent manufacture i n c eramics.

t he

a rchaeological

r ecord

r emains

S ome p articular f eatures o f U pper N ubian c eramics a re r eviewed

e lsewhere,

b ut a f ew p oints may b e n oted h ere.

n orms

L ower

o f

N ubia

h ighlights

T he

d ivergence

f rom

t he

t he much more v ariable p roduction a nd

d istribution i n t he s outh , a pparently o n a l ess s ophisticated l evel. T he p redominance o f a lternative h and-made w ares, p articularly s outh o f t he S hendi R each m ay i ndicate t he c entralized n ature o f w heel-made p roduction , o nly

c ommonly

S hendi R each. u rban

c entres,

c ulture, 4 .3.3

f ound i n t he D ongola R each a nd the u rbanized m ilieu o f t he T he s uggested d ependence o f w heel-made h ighlights

t heir

r ole

i n

i ndustries

o n

t he

maintaining c lassic M eroitic

a nd may b e c rucial i n e xplaining i ts d isappearance.

T rade.

A s a n a lternative t o t he i mportance o f a rts a nd c rafts more

s ignificance

h as

b een

" whatever w ealth a nd p ower t he s urely

o n

a

c ommercial

a ttributed M eroitic

r ather

t han

t o

t rade.

s tate a n

i n

t he

t owns,

A dams p roposed t hat

p ossessed

r ested

a grarian b asis"

s upport o f t his h e c ited t he l imited n umbers o f r ural s ites

a lmost

[ 1981:3]. k nown ,

h e b elieved t o i ndicate " a t hin a nd s cattered r ural [ loc.cit.]. T he i mplied p overty o f a grarian r esources m ay b e

I n

w hich

p opulation" q uestioned ,

b ut t he r ole o f t rade i n e xplaining t he w ealth o f M eroe, a s w ell a s i ts u ltimate d ecline, m ay b e c rucial. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t rade m ay a lso h ave b een a n i mportant d eterminant o f s ettlement l ocation A m ajor p roblem h as b een t he l ack o f d irect e vidence f or i s a ssumed t o h ave f ocused o n t he m arkets o f E gypt.

t rade,

N apatan t rade m ay h ave i nvolved t he e xport o f a gricultural p roduce, t he p roblems o f t ransport a lone m ake t his u nlikely

1 56

w hich

D unham s uggested t hat [ 1946:154].

t hough

T he e xport

o r

t ranshipment

o f e xotic l uxury p roducts

m ore g enerally a ccepted;

f rom t he A frican h interland i s

a t rade t hat c ontinued i nto r ecent t imes.

I tems

s uch a s i vory , e bony , s kins, o strich f eathers, g um a rabic a nd s laves h ave r emained t he s taples o f n orthward t rade [ Bjorkelo 1 983:48]. Q uantities

o f

i vory

a nd

m agazines o f W ad B en N aga ' Treasury ' G riffiths n orth ,

o f

S anam ,

1 922:117].

o r

f or

w ood

( possibly

[ Vercoutter 1 962].

e bony )

i vory h as a lso b een f ound W hether

h ome

t hese

r epresent

c onsumption

r emains

w ere

E lsewhere, g oods

d estined

u ncertain ,

a nd may h int a t t he T he o ther i mportant

o f

b ut t his

P tolemaic

r emains t otally u ndocumented.

a nd

R oman

t rade

s eems

l ikely ,

r emain s peculative. t rade,

p erhaps

o f

s uggests

c entralized ,

a

s een a s g reat

M eroitic

e xport

e xcept f or c otton i n t he i mports i s c lear; w ith

s lave markets

t rade

m ore

T he a ctive

s lave

b ut n o d irect e xistence

o f

r oyally

c ontrolled

b ut w hether M eroe o r

i s n ot k nown

[ 1979:162].

i s n ot d emonstrated a rchaeologically o r

d ocumentary r ecord, t he p resence o f l uxury t he c ommon R oman b ronzes a nd g lassware f ound i n

b oth L ower N ubia a nd t he r icher c emeteries o f t he a nd

o f

i ts m echanisms a nd d irection ,

w ith " regular m ilitary e xpeditions",

o ther t owns m ay b e W hile

T örök

f unction

While t he

d iscussions

t he l east

f actor may b e

E gypt a re w ell r ecorded ,

r eferences h ave b een f ound t o a M eroitic s ource. t he

f or

b ut t hey a t

d emonstrate t he p resence o f t hese g oods, t he s lave t rade,

t he

[ Carter & F oley 1 980:309;

t he b uildings i n w hich t hey w ere f ound. m arkets

f ound i n t he

a t M eroe a nd

s outh .

f unctional i tems i nclude o il o r w ine amphorae,

O ther

l arger ,

i n s ome n umbers.

W hile f ew o f t he more c ommon o nes h ave e asily i dentifiable s ources,

t here

a re e xamples f rom L aporte 1 977:153-71,

R oman N orth A frica ( Tubusuctu ) [ Dunham 1 957,1963; a nd E gyptian e xamples w ith G reek l abels f rom J .Barkal

[ Budge 1 907:174], 1 955:233,P1.XXXII].

M eroe [ Dunham 1 957:345] a nd K awa An e ven more s triking e xample o f b ulky g oods

c edar

w ood

E gyptian

r ecovered

e xamples,

may

f rom

M eroe p yramids

w ell

h ave

c ome

[ Hinkel 1 986:101], f rom

t he

[ Macadam i s t he

w hich l ike

L ebanon

[ Lucas

1 934:376-86]. W hile a t p resent t here i s n o w ay t o q uantify , m echanisms o f t he t rade,

o r e ven

t o

c onfirm

t he

t hese e xamples a re u seful t o d emonstrate t he l ong

d istance c ontacts o f t he M eroites,

a nd t heir a ccess t o

t he

w ide

r anging

m arkets o f t he R oman M editerranean e conomy. A t t he p resent l evel o f k nowledge, h owever, t hey c an d o l ittle more t han i ndicate t he c oincidence o f

a

w orld , f ound

c ertain

s urplus w ealth ,

o pen c ommunications w ith t he M editerranean

a nd t he m echanisms f or i nternal t ransport. I mported amphorae a re a s f ar s outh a s W ad B en N aga [ Vercoutter 1 962], w hile f ine e xamples

o f i mported b ronzes r eached S ennar 4 .3.4

[ Dixon 1 963].

T rade R outes.

T he e ffect o f t rade o n s ettlement l ocation r emains h ard t o d emonstrate, d espite

Adams'

N apata a nd K awa,

c laims.

H e

h ad

s uggested

t hat t he l ocation o f M eroe,

m ight b e d irectly r elated t o r outes a cross

t he

B aiyuda ,

t he M eheila R oad a nd t he A bu Hamed r oute i nto E gypt

[ 1981:8].

i mply t hat t he t rade c arried a cross t hese r outes

s ufficient e xplanation

1 57

i s

H e s eems t o

f or t heir l ocation a nd p rosperity.

A s w as n oted ,

h e h ad e arlier

p resumed

a n u nderlying l ack o f a grarian r esources, w hich may n ot b e t enable. K erma B asin , N apata a rea a nd S hendi R each h ave a ll b een s een t o c onsiderable a gricultural p otential,

w hich w as

T he h ave

s ufficient t o s ustain t heir

l ocal p olitical a nd r eligious c entres. A ssuming a d irect c orrelation b etween p ossible r outes a nd t he t ownsites i s f ar t oo B aiyuda,

s implistic. r anging

t he e ast.

L arge

f rom

E qually ,

n umbers

o f

a ttested

K orti/Dirayra i n t he w est,

r outes

c ross

t he

a nd K irbekan/Bageir i n

t he u se o f t he K orosko r oute i n

t his

p eriod

r emains

u nproven. T he v irtual a bsence o f M eroitic s ites n orth o f t he 5 th C ataract s uggests l ittle i nterest i n t he r egion g enerally , a nd t here i s n othing t o s uggest t he t erminus o f a major c aravan r oute a round A bu W ar ned. i tself c overs u se

s ome 2 50 m iles o f n otoriously h arsh d esert,

w ithout c amel c aravans i s u nlikely ,

a t Murat W ells T hese

f or a 7 -8 d ay j ourney

u ncertainties

c ompound

r egular

f or t here i s p ermanent w ater o nly

[ Hoskins

t he

T he r oute

a nd i ts

1 835:17-23].

l imitations o f e xpecting ' natural'

f oci f or c aravan r outes. T he s hifting f ortunes o f d ifferent c entres w ithin t rade n etworks i n more r ecent h istory d emonstrates t hat a n umber o f s ites i n t urn may a chieve p rominence o ver t he c enturies,

b ut t hat l ocation

w as o f l imited i mportance. B jorkelo 's a nalysis o f t owns i n t he S hendi r egion f rom t he 1 7th C entury s uggests t rading n etworks a nalogous t o t hose e nvisaged

i n

t he

M eroitic

e ra.

I n p articular h e h ighlights a " subtle

c ombination o f p olitical a nd c ommercial f actors",

r esponsible

f or

t heir

p rospering a nd a lso t heir d ecline. Whatever r outes a re e nvisaged , h owever, t he g eneral i nfluence o f t rade o n M eroe a nd o ther u rban c entres m ay h ave b een c onsiderable. A c omplex i nteraction o f l ocal, r egional a nd i nternational t rade may b e p roposed , o f w hich t he e xchange o f f ood a nd manufactures b etween t own a nd v illage r epresents merely t he l owest l evel. t he

n etwork

s till

r emain

o bscure,

g reatest e ntrepot o f t he k ingdom ; E gypt, t hem .

M eroe

While may

t he

r amifications

o f

b e c haracterized a s t he

p assing t he p roducts

o f

t he

s outh

t o

a nd i n t urn a cting a s t he g reatest c onsumer o f g oods e xchanged f or T his c ommercial r ole o f M eroe a nd o ther t owns may h old t he

t he c ontrasts b etween u rban a nd r ural l ife.

k ey

t o

T ogether w ith t heir p olitical

a nd r eligious f unctions, t owns w ere a lso n odal p oints f or a ll l evels o f t rade a nd e xchange. W ith a c oncomitant c oncentration o f s pecialist a nd f ull-time c rafts a nd i ndustries, b asis

f or

o ur

f eature o f u rban d issolution t erms,

o f

i t i s t heir material c ulture w hich i s t he

p erceptions o f t he M eroitic p eriod. s ociety u rban

a nd

c ulture

i n

maintaining

may

b e

t he

I f t rade w as a m ajor t owns,

t he

r ather t han b y c rude p aradigms o f i nvasions o r m igrations.

1 58

g eneral

e xplicable i nitially i n e conomic

C HAPTER F IVE T HE S UB-MEROITIC P ERIOD

5 .0.1

( C.350-550 A D).

C hronology

T he

s tudy

o f

t he

S ub-Meroitic

p eriod

i n U pper N ubia i s l imited b y

s canty a rchaeological e vidence a nd t he a bsence o f a r eliable c hronology : t hese d eficiencies r eflect t he g reat u ncertainties s urrounding L ate M eroitic h istory. d ocumentary

R esearch h as b een d ominated b y three s ets o f

e vidence

a rticulated.

I t

t o

w hich

t he

a rchaeological

d isparate

e vidence

h ad

b een

i s i n k eeping w ith t he E gyptological t raditions o f N ubian

a rchaeology t hat, u ntil r ecently , e xplanations o f t he e clipse o f M eroe h ave d erived f rom d ocumentary r ather t han a rchaeological e vidence, d espite t he c lear i nadequacies o f t he f ormer. T he t rio o f Axumite i nscriptions n oted i n

C hapter

1

h ave

l ong

b een

a ccepted a s c onfirming t he f inal d emise o f t he Meroitic s tate d uring t he e arly o r m id 4 th c entury A D. B y the t ime o f t he l atest i nscription , t he ' Noba ' w ere a pparently i n c ontrol o f t he K ushite t owns, a nd w ere a ttacking n eighbouring t ribes. T hus, i n the l ater y ears o f the Axumite K ing E zanes ( c.350

A D ),

M eroitic

c ulture

i s

a ssumed

t o h ave s uffered b oth ' Noba '

i ntrusion a nd d estructive m ilitary i ntervention f rom Axum . p roposal

t hat

A m ore r adical

Axum m ay e ven h ave p reviously c onquered Meroe a nd t hat t he

E zanes c ampaign w as d irected a gainst A xumite s uzerainty"

" an

[ Burstein 1 981:49],

u nsuccessful

r ebellion

a gainst

may b e d iscounted.

T he d ynastic c hronology o f t he M eroitic

k ingdom

i s

s een

t o

c onform

b roadly t o t he i nscriptions. T he b asis o f t his c hronology a lthough w idely a ccepted n eed t o b e n oted i n o rder t o h ighlight i ts t entative n ature. I ts f oundations

l ie

[ 1918,

w hich ,

1 923]

q uestioned

o n

R eisner's

s eriation o f t he r oyal pyramid c emeteries

w hile r efined b y D unham

b y T örök

[ 1974a;

1 987a],

[ 1957]

a nd H intze

[ 1959]

a nd

r emains b asically u naltered s ince t he

o riginal w ork a t N un i a nd M eroe. T here, t he r elative c hronology w as b ased o n t he c hanges i n , a nd t he u ltimate d egeneration o f p yramid a rchitecture , o n r elative p ositions w ithin c emeteries, h as p rovided a n a cceptable, C alibrating t his

c ontents a nd i nscriptions.

i f n ot c ompletely u ncontroversial,

s equence i nto e ven a n a pproximate a bsolute

T his

s equence. c hronology

h as b een d ependent o n i mprecise a nd s ubjective j udgements, s uch a s " the r eigns w ere o f a n o rdinary monarchical c haracter, g overned by t he o rdinary a verages o f h uman l ife u nder s uch c onditions" [ Reisner 1 918c:62]. T he k ing l ists w ere o ccasionly c omparable w ith e xternal e vidence, b ut t he l ast h istorically d ateable k ing w as r ecorded i n a g raffito a t P hilae a round 2 60 A D [ Millet 1 968:35-6]. F ollowing t his, t he s uccession o f the l ater k ings m ay

b e

e xtended

t o

p erhaps

3 39

A D

b y t he t raditional s ystem

[ Dunham

1 957:7]. T he c oincidence o f t his c hronology w ith that s uggested b y t he A xumite i nscriptions h as s upported the c ase f or the s urvival o f i mpoverished , t hough s till p yramid-building , K ushite d ynasties i nto t he

1 59

4 th

C entury ,

d isappearing

i ntervention. e stimates a re 5 .0.2

t he

s upposed

Adams h ardly u nderstates t he c ase, " hardly more t han g uesses" [ 1977:383].

a bout

t he

t ime

o f

h owever ,

A xumite t hat

s uch

T he S ub-Meroitic P eriod i n L ower N ubia.

E vidence c oncerning t he e nd o f Meroitic c ontrol o f L ower N ubia f ound

i n

P rocopius'

H iera

S ykaminos

d epredations

t o

m ay

b e

a ccount o f t he w ithdrawal o f t he R oman f rontier f rom t he

i st

C ataract

o f t he B lemmyses,

a nd p rotect t he a bandoned

a round

2 98

A D.

D iocletian i nvited t he

a rea.

P rocopius

f urther

D ue

t o

' Nobatai' s tated

t he

t o o ccupy

t hat

t hese

p eople c ame f rom w est o f t he N ile [ I.xix], i mplying t hat a n ew p opulation e ntered t he N ile v alley , c omparable t o t he N oba i n t he s outh. T hese a ffairs

o f

t he

E gyptian

f rontier a ppear e specially s ignificant i n t hat

t here a re n o mention o f M eroe b y name, omission

a lso

f ound

i n

o nly

O lympiodorus

a nd

a ccounts o f L ower Nubia i n t he 5 th C entury S imple

p aradigms

o f

i nvasions

B lemmyses P riscus

a nd

N obatai,

a n

i n t heir f irst h and

[ Blockley 1 981].

a nd m igrations h ave b een i ncreasingly

c hallenged i n i nterpreting t he e vents o f t his p eriod i n L ower N ubia [ Adams 1 968]. Meroitic c ulture i n t he n orth u nderwent g reat c hanges d uring t his p eriod ,

a nd t he t ransition t o t he d istinct

s eems

t o

h ave

b een

a ccomplished

b y

s ub-Meroitic ' Ballana' t he

e nd

o f

t he

c ulture

4 th

C entury .

A rchaeological i nterpretation h as t ended t o s tress t he h igh d egree o f c ultural c ontinuities b etween t he t wo p eriods, h owever, w ith n o c lear e vidence f or e xternal s ources o f c hange w hich m ight b e ' Nobatai'

p opulation.

l inked

t o

a

n ew

D emonstration o f t he d evelopment o f B allana c ulture

f rom t he Meroitic may b e r elatively c lear i n t he n orth , T orok's s tudy o f r oyal r egalia [ 1987b]. H owever ,

f or e xample i n o ur i ncreasing

u nderstanding o f c ulture c hange i n L ower N ubia h elps l ittle i n

c larifying

c ontemporary d evelopments i n t he s outh , e xcept that t here a re n o s imple c orrelations t o b e f ound b etween t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd t he e thnic l abels o f the d ocumentary s ources. 5 .0.3

T he S ub-Meroitic p eriod i n U pper N ubia.

S tudy

o f

t he

a rchaeology o f t he S ub-Meroitic

N ubia b egan w ith G arstang 's e xcavations a t M eroe. c laims

f or

l ate

C hristian p eriod o f

e vidence

o ccupation

o f

the

' Temple o f I sis,

[ Garstang e t a l 1 911:17],

c ame

f rom

t he

( c.350-550 A D )

n ecropolis

i n U pper

H e made u nsubstantiated p ossibly i nto t he

b ut t he most

s ubstantial

a nd ,

L ower

a s

i n

N ubia ,

b ody t he

s ub-Meroitic p eriod r emains l argely d efined b y i ts mortuary p ractices. I n v iew o f t he g reat u ncertainties r emaining a bout t he c ultural d evelopments o f t his p eriod , more

u sual

c ontinuities A s w ithin

w as t he

the t erm s ub-Meroitic h as b een

" Post-Meroitic", i n a t l east s een M eroe

i n

t o

r ather

t han

t he

s ome a reas o f c ulture.

C hapter 4 , n ecropolis

s ub-Meroitic p eriod i s

a dopted

emphasize t he r eal i f p oorly u nderstood

t he o riginal c hronology o f t he c emeteries h as

b een

l argely

r epresented b y c emeteries

1 60

r eversed ,

a nd

1 -99 a nd 3 00-399,

t he

t owards

Ce meter ies & m inor s i tes

•

F ig 2 2 .

S ub-Mero i t ic U pper N ub ia

1 61

t he

s outh

o f

t he

c ounterparts,

t he

n ecropolis. t ombs

a re

p articularly t he c eramics. w ares,

G enerally e asily

l arger

t han

c emetery

D ominated b y

p lain

5 00-599

b lack

a nd t he p lainer r ed w ares

r ather o f R oman t han o f a ny o ther s tyle" I n

t he

p eriod , w ith

e arlier

o r

r ed

h and-made

t he l arge g lobular l ong-necked p ots w ere p articularly d istinctive.

T hese c ould b e c ontrasted t o t he f ine d ecorated Meroitic o f

t heir

d istinguishable b y t heir c ontents,

o riginal s cheme,

" say 1 000-300 B C"

C rowfoot's

r ecognition t hat j ars,

o f h ighly b urnished b lack f unction

[ ibid:32].

[ ibid:46].

a nd

R eassessment b egan

I n p articular ,

c alled d ullangs, r ed

w ares

a nd p rocess o f manufacture,

h e f ocused o n

t o

t he

l atest

p ottery ' Al a' W hile

w are

t he

" obviously

r elated

i n

f orm ,

w ith m odern p ottery o f t he c ountry".

p hase o f o ccupation ,

[ Bentley & C rowfoot

t hese

' early '

m isleadingly c hristening t he

1 924:27].

c omparable c emetery material w as

s oon f ound ,

t o S hendi,

c onfirmation o f a t ruly p ost-Meroitic

p roblem .

K irwan

n oted t hat t he n umerous

r anging f rom S ennar

a ttribution

r emained

f ew

i mported

b etween 2 00 a nd

i tems,

4 00

A D.

a

R oman

A t

t he

a

r eused M eroitic o ffering t ables

f ound i n s ome o f t he t ombs n eed n ot p reclude a L ate M eroitic d ate. t he

v ery

a s w ell a s g eneral s tyles

O n t he s trength o f t hese v ery g eneral c omparisons h e d ated g raves

h owever

s imilar w ares w ere s till t o b e f ound i n

m odern N uba c eramics i n K ordofan. l ong-necked

w ares

" suggestive

t he h and-made w ares w ere a ssigned t o a n e arly

d ated t o

d istinctive

w heelmade

f rom 4 00-499,

Among

g lass b ottle m ight b e d ated a nywhere s ame

t ime,

t here

w as

a n

i mplicit

a ssumption t hat t he ' X-Group' o r ' Ballana ' c ulture o f L ower N ubia w ould a lso b e f ound i n t he s outh. O n r e-examining s ome o f G arstang 's m aterial , h owever ,

i t

b ecame a pparent t hat

s ome i mported a mphorae h ad b een w rongly

p ublished a s c oming f rom t he c emetery 4 00 s eries, w hen t hey w ere a ctually f rom t he ' Al a ' w are g raves. W ell k nown a s t he T ype 6 Amphorae f ound a t B allana a nd Q ustul,

t hey w ere d ateable t o t he 5 th

o r

6 th

c enturies

a nd

K irwan c oncluded t hat " the X -Group p eriod a t Meroe a ppears t o b e c overed b y t he ' Al a ' c emeteries" [ 1939:42-5]. T wo

f urther

s mall

f urther d efinition. Omdurman ,

o n

s cale e xcavations h ave p rovided t he b asis f or s ome

A s ingle tumulus w as d ug a t U shara ,

t he White N ile.

a l ittle s outh o f

T his p roduced t he f irst a dequate r ecording

o f t he ' Al a' c eramics, a s c ompared t o G arstang 's s ketches a nd p hotographs. A ll t he p ots w ere c omparable t o e xamples a t M eroe, n otably t he l ong-necked j ars, h and ,

b evel-rimmed a nd g ourd-shaped b owls.

t he b urial c hamber w as v ery d ifferent,

s haped , 1 953].

d emonstrating s ome d iversity i n b urial

c ustom

T anqasi.

T he

l argest

l eading o ff a l arge r amp,

t he

[ Marshall

T wo much l arger t umuli w ere e xcavated b y S hinnie i n t he a t

On

o ther

b eing s ubcircular a nd b eehive

w as p articularly e laborate,

b ut w as t horoughly p lundered ,

&

D ongola

Adam

R each

w ith t hree n iches a nd p roduced

o nly

t wo e xamples o f t he w ell k nown j ars. T he s econd tumulus s urvived m ore o r l ess i ntact, w ith t he s ame j ars, h and-made b owls a nd s ome b eads a nd s ilver r ings. A dding l ittle t o k nowledge o f t he material c ulture, t he g raves w ere i dentified b y t he e xcavator w ith t he [ 1954:85].

L atterly

t his

s ite

N oba

" overthrowers

o f

M eroe"

b ecame r egarded a s t he t ypesite f or t he

1 62

p ost-Meroitic 1 965:136]. l ittle

i n

U pper

S ubsequent

m ajor

N ubia ,

a nd

e xcavations

v ariation

o n

t he

f or o f

t he

' Tanqasi C ulture'

s ub-Meroitic

a ssemblages

g raves

[ Trigger

h ave

s hown

e ncountered i n t hese e arly

e xamples. 5 .1

D IAGNOSTICS

5 .1.1

.

R ecognition o f t he s ub-Meroitic

I n

v iew

o f

t he

s ub-Meroitic p eriod , i n

t erms

o f

i ts

d emonstrated.

r ange

o f

e vidence

r elating

d istinctiveness

f rom

t he

L ate

o nly

g raves

[ 1977:425].

b y

t he

p resence o f A t

p resent

" Al a"

c eramics,

t hese

r emain

i n

t he

M eroitic

p eriod.

T emples,

w ith

w heel-made

r edbrick

c eramics

t he

c learest

p alaces, s eems

t he

p ositive

o f

h ave

T he a rts

d isappeared ,

T he s carcity o f

c ultural

l eft a l imited r ange o f u tilitarian a rtefacts,

h igher

p yramids a nd o ther

t o

a nd f ine m etalwork.

o ther d iagnostic a rtefacts i s a lso a f actor w hich

t he

a nd t he u se o f tumulus

c onventionally d efining t he T anqasi/post-Meroitic p eriod.

s ubstantial b uilding i n s tone a nd t ogether

t he

M eroitic n eeds t o b e

n egative e vidence s tresses t he d isappearance o f many o f f ound

t o

p articularly

A c autious a ppraisal b y Adams w as a ble t o c haracterize

p eriod

a ttributes

r estricted

t he v alidity o f i ts c ultural d efinition ,

i mpoverishment,

g enerally s imilar t o

t hose u sed i n t he M eroitic p eriod. I n

t he

a nalysis

o f

s ub-Meroitic

g raves a t T abo,

J acquet-Gordon a nd

B onnet made a n a ttempt t o b roaden t heir a pproach w ith t his a ttempted t o i llustrate s ome o f t he

" culture t raits"

B allana a nd M eroitic c ultures d iscussed w ere:

i n

m ind ,

a nd

h eld i n c ommon b y t he

[ 1971-2:82-3].

T he

t raits

t hey

1 .Lateral n iche t omb s ubstructures. 2 .Mound s uperstuctures o f g reater o r l esser e xtent. 3 .Contracted b urials o riented n orth-south. 4 .T humb-rings. 5 .Jewellery ( including t he d rop-bead ). 6 .Iron w eapons a nd t ools. 7 .Hand-made, 8 . Animal

b urnished ,

" beer-jar" t ype p ottery.

s acrifice.

9 .E xtended b urials. 1 0.Use

o f

l arge

q uantities

o f

i mported

R omano-Egyptian m etal

o bjects & o ther l uxury p roducts. 1 1.The t ypical X -Group p ottery. [ ibid:82]

O f t hese t raits,

t hey c oncluded t hat:

a ) 1 ,4,5,6,9, w ere c ommon t o M eroitic, T anqasi a nd B allana; 2 b ) 9 ,10,11 c ould b e a ttributed t o e xternal ( Romano-Egyptian ) w hich a ffected M eroitic a nd B allana c ulture, c )

2 ,3,7,8,

c ontacts,

a nd

w ere c ommon o nly t o t he T anqasi a nd B allana c ultures.

W hile t his r emains a r elatively u nsophisticated a pproach t o t he p roblem o f

1 63

c ultural d efinition ,

i t d oes p rovide a b asis

t o i solate tumuli a nd o ther b urial p ractices

f or f urther s tudy; s uch a s

a ttempting

s acrifices,

t ogether

w ith c eramic e vidence a s p eculiar t o t he t wo s ub-Meroitic c ultures. f our t raits n eed s ome r eexamination , p articularly t he i ncidence o f tumuli, w hich Adams s aw a s c haracteristic. h and ,

i n o ther c ases,

d etails,

t hough

J acquet-Gordon a nd

B onnet

s eem

T hese

c eramics a nd O n t he o ther

m istaken

i n

s ome

t heir h ighlighting t he i mportance o f E gyptian i nfluences

o n b oth L ate-Meroitic a nd B allana c ulture i s o f i mportance. 5 .1.2

C ontracted b urials o riented n orth-south.

W ithin U pper N ubia , w ithin

a t

l east

1 6

t here i s n ow s ome i nformation a vailable o n c emeteries,

t hough e xtended b urials w ere a lso f ound a t T abo, I I.

O rientation

a lso

v aries,

b urials

a ll o f w hich s howed c ontracted b urials, w ith

M eroe a nd

K h.Letti

E ast

r iverine n orth-south a nd e ast-west

e qually r epresented , t hough w hether r iver d irection c an b e a ssumed t o r emain a d etermining f actor r emains u ncertain. T hus t he a ssertion t hat n orth-south , c ultures", o f

t he

c ontracted b urials a re n eeds q ualification.

c lassic

M eroitic

" indigenous t o t he X -Group a nd T angasi

W ithin L ower N ubia,

r ite

e nsured

t hat

t he g eneral a doption

i t 's

d isappearance

a nd

r eplacement by c ontracted n orth-south b urial a ppeared b oth n ovel a nd ' foreign '. H owever , t he a doption o f C lassic Meroitic b urial r itual , ( extended ,

e ast-west)

w as

n ever

u niversal

i n

U pper

N ubia ,

a c ommon

a lternative b eing c ontracted a nd n orth-south [ eg.Babiker 1 988:71]. A s s uch t he l atter c annot b e i solated a s a n ew p ractice n or a ssumed t o b e a d istinctly ' Noba'

d iagnostic.

I t c annot b e s uggested t hat l ate

b urials m ight b e t hose o f N oba i mmigrants,

" Meroitic"

p rior t o t he f all o f M eroe,

f or

t here i s e vidence t hat this r epresents a n i ndigenous r itual d ating b ack t o N apatan

t imes,

o r e arlier.

I ndeed ,

t he e arliest b urials a t E l K urru ,

p redecessors o f the f ounders o f t he N apatan d ynasty w ere w ay , p rior t o t he a doption o f E gyptian r ituals. T he c oexistence o f v aried b urial M eroitic

p eriod ,

M eroitic

e xtended

" Egyptianized" t hemselves

t o

s eems

c lear

most markedly s outh o f t he S hendi R each. b urial

m ay

s ubculture, a nd

b e

s een

t o

a lternative

d istinguish

J acquet-Gordon

t raditions

b uried

r epresent

r ites

n on-Meroitic

a re

i n

t he this

w ithin

t he

I f t he c lassic s ome

n ot

e lite

o r

s ufficient

p opulations.

T hus

b y

w hile

B onnet w ere c orrect i n s eeing t his a s r epresenting a n

i ndigenous t radition , t he s ignificant f actor f or a ssessing c hange i s t he d isappearance o f t he Meroitic e lite s trata , r ather t han t he i ntroduction o f n ew e lements. 5 .1.3

A nimal s acrifice.

T he n ovelty o f a nimal s acrifice a lso r emains e vidence i s

f rom L ower N ubia w here,

a pproaches o f the g raves,

n umerous c amels,

s acrificed ,

h uman

l arge tumuli s acrifices

o ften a t

w ith F irka,

a

v ictims

l ittle

o f d omestic a nimals

q uestionable.

T he

b est

a t B allana a nd Q ustol i n t he r amps a nd h orses,

f urther

s outh ,

[ Kirwan 1 939:xiii].

1 64

d onkeys a nd

[ Emery 1 938:25-6]. t here

d ogs

w ere

A gain i n t he w ere

s imilar

I n t he h umbler g raves

o f

t he

n earby

M issiminia c emetery ,

s acrifices a mong t he 2 57 g raves W ithin c amels,

U pper

N ubia,

g oats a nd c ats

h owever,

t here w ere n o s igns o f s uch

[ Vila 1 984].

J acquet-Gordon

i n 4 i nstances

&

i n

B onnet

f ound

s ub-Meroitic

t he r emains o f

g raves

a t

T abo ,

e ither w ithin t he t ombs o r a ssociated w ith t heir s uperstructures [ op.cit:78-9]. E lsewhere, f or e xample a t T anqasi o r U shara, t here i s n o e vidence f or d og s keletons

t he p ractice, a nd o nly o ne o f t he g raves a t M eroe c ontained [ Garstang e t a l 1 911:32,P1.XXXVIII].

W hile a nimal s acrifices w ere n ot e ncountered i n t he M eroitic p eriod i n c ommoners g raves, t hey w ere f requent i n t he r oyal a nd n oble n ecropoleis a t M eroe,

a nd

1 957:105].

d ate

b ack

t o

a t

I n s uch c ontexts,

l east

c ontinuity b etween t he e lite r ites r ather t han a n ew ' barbaric' c ustom . 5 .1.4

a s

t he

l ate

i st

C entury B C

[ Dunham

a nimal s acrifice may b e s een a s e vidence f or o f M eroe,

B allana a nd p erhaps T abo

T umulus B urials.

T he l arge t umuli f ields o f t he r iverine a reas h ave b een c haracterized " l'un d es e lements l es p lus r emarquables d u p aysage" [ Geus 1 986:26].

R ecent

s urvey w ithin t he S hendi R each h as

- 1 50,000 t umuli, o n t he C ataracts [ Lenoble p ers.comm ;

l eft b ank R einold &

s uggested t hat t here may b e

1 00

a lone, b etween t he 5 th a nd 6 th L enoble 1 988:15]. T his w ould

c omplement e arlier g eneral r eports o f numerous c emeteries o n b oth b anks, j ust n orth o f K hartoum [ Chittick 1 957; A l-Hakim 1 979], e xtending u p t he W hite N ile [ Marshall & Adam 1 954:46], a nd a s f ar d ownstream a s Mograt I sland [ Crawford 1 953a:11]. W ithin t he D ongola R each , a t l east a d ozen c emeteries a re n ow k nown i n t he L etti a rea [ Grzymski 1 987], w hile i solated e xamples a t o ccurrence.

t he

T abu,

E z

Z uma

a nd

T anqasi

i ndicate

a

more

w idespread

D espite their l arge n umbers a nd w ide d istribution , i nterpretation o f t umuli r emains r emarkably e quivocal. E choing Adams' g eneral

a ssessment o f t he p ost-Meroitic ( meaning p re-Christian ) p eriod , G eus c ould s till c haracterize t hese tumulus f ields a s " le s eul i ndice v isible d e l 'occupation p ostmeroitique" [ op.cit:28]. i dentification r emains q uestionable. While l iving s ites a re k nown

t hroughout

U pper

T he v alidity o f t his o nly a h andful o f p ossible

N ubia,

i t

r emains

t rue

t hat

d iagnostic s ub-Meroitic a ssemblages a re f ound w ithin tumulus b urials. W hat i s a lso a pparent, h owever, i s t hat n ot a ll tumuli a re p ost-Meroitic. I n

a ssessing

h is

s urvey

r esults

p eriod t o " seules q uelques

M eroitic

3 0,000

c entral S hendi R each ,

l imiting

t he C hristian b y " une d ouzaine"

-

t he

t he

t he

2 0

f rom

i mplicitly a ssumes t hat

tumuli

a re s ites

G eus

' post-Meroitic', f uneraires",

a nd

[ op.cit:29].

T his c ontinued a ttribution o f t umuli t o t he S ub-Meroitic i s a gain b ased l argely

o n

c haracterized

L ower b y

N ubian t he

u se

s uperstructures a ltogether.

n orms. o f

M eroitic

p yramids

o r

p ractices, mastabas,

I n c ontrast t o t his,

t here,

r emain

o r t he a bsence o f

t he a lmost u niversal u se

o f t umuli i n t he s ub-Meroitic/X-Group p eriod h as b een r epeatedly s tressed ,

1 65

3

3 4--