The Archaeology of Central Darfur (Sudan) in the 1st Millennium A.D. 9780860543671, 9781407344904

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
CAMBRIDGE MONOGRAPHS IN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Plates
CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH STRATEGY
CHAPTER 2 THE ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER 3 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CENTRAL DARFUR (1978-1981)
CHAPTER 4 POTTERY CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION
CHAPTER 5 IRON TECHNOLOGY: INTRODUCTION AND IMPACT ON CENTRAL DARFUR
CHAPTER 6 THE 'LATE' ROCK DRAWINGS OF DARFUR
CHAPTER 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE PRE-ISLAMIC SETTLEMENTS
CHAPTER 8 THE COMING OF ISLAM
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS: SITE TYPES AND BEHAVIOURAL FRONTIERS
APPENDIX I THE LITHIC MATERIAL
APPENDIX II LIST OF ATTRIBUTES USED IN POTTERY ANALYSIS
APPENDIX III ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF SETTLEMENTS
APPENDIX IV RADIOCARBON DATES
APPENDIX V HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS FROM CENTRAL DARFUR
APPENDIX VI ANIMAL BONES FROM CENTRAL DARFUR
APPENDIX VII REPORT ON TWO SLAGS AND CORRODED IRON FROM CENTRAL DARFUR
APPENDIX VIII SEEDS 4ND PLANT REMAINS FROM CENTRAL DARFUR
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AUTHORS CITED
INDEX
PLATES

Citation preview

The Archaeology of Central Darfur (Sudan) in the 1st Millennium A.D.

Ibrahim Musa Mohammed

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 14

BAR International Series 285

1986

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -s285, 1986: 'The Archaeology of Central Darfur (Sudan) in the 1st Millennium A.D.'

© Ibrahim Musa Mohammed, 1986

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543671 paperback ISBN 9781407344904 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543671 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C AMBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A lexander , M .A ., P h .D., F .S.A . D ept. A rchaepiogy, D owning S treet C ambridge C B2 3 DZ, E ngland M anuscripts s hould b e s ubmitted t o D r . A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance. T itles a lready p ublished : . 1 .

' T he N iger D elta : A spects o f i ts P rehistoric E conomy a nd C ulture ' b y N wanna N zewunwa. B AR-575. P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

2 .

' Prehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne , M ali ' b y S usan K eech M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh . B AR-589. P rice £ 20.00 p ost f ree.

3 .

' Off-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman A daptation i n E astern A frica : A n A nalysis o f R egional A rtefact D ensity i n t he A mboseli , S outhern K enya ' b y R obert F oley. B AR-S97. P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

4 .

' L ater P leistocene C ultural A daptations i n S udanese N ubia ' b y Y ousif M ukhtar e i A min . B AR-5114. P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

5 .

' Settlement P atterns

i n t he I ron A ge o f Z ululand :

I nterpretation ' b y M artin H all. 6 .

' The N eolithic P eriod I n t he S udan , M ohammed -Ali.

7 .

B AR-S119.

B AR-5139 .

A n E cological

P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

c . 6 000

-

2 500 B .C . ' b y A bbas S .

P rice £ 12.00 p ost f ree.

' H istory a nd E thnoarc l iaeology i n E astern N igeria :

A S tudy o f I gbo-Igala

r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra V alley ' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu 0 kpoko. B AR-S195. P rice £ 15.00 p ost f ree. 8 .

' Meroitic S ettlement I n t he C entral S udan :

A n A nalysis o f

S ites i n t he

N ile V alley a nd t he W estern B utana ' b y K hidir A bdelkarim A hmed . S 197 . P rice £ 14 .00 p ost f ree . 9 .

' E conomy

a nd T echnology

C harles C able. 1 0 .

t he L ate

S tone A ge

o f

S outhern N atal ' b y

P rice £ 13.00 p ost f ree.

' F rontiers : S outhern A frican A rchaeology T oday ' e d . M . H all , C . A very , D .M. Avery, M .L . W ilson a nd A .J .B . H umphreys . B AR-5207 . P rice £ 18 .00 p ost

1.

i n

B AR-5201.

B AR-

f ree .

' Archaeology a nd H istory e arthworks

o f B enin a nd

i n S outhern N igeria :

I shan ' b y P .J .

T he a ncient l inear

D arling . B AR-S215 .

P rice

£ 28 .00

p ost f ree. 1 2.

' T he L atest S tone A ge o f S outhernmost A frica ' b y J anette D eacon . S 213. P rice £ 20.00 p ost f ree.

1 3.

' F isher-Hunters a nd N eolithic P astorallsts i n E ast T urkana , J ohn W ebster B arthelme. B AR-5254. P rice £ 18.00 p ost f ree.

B AR

K enya ' b y

P reface B ecause r egions

i t

i s

( the

s ituated

a t

N ilotic a nd

t he f rontier o f

t he

C hadic

t wo d istinct

g eographical

B asins) , a rchaeological

r esearch

i n

D arfur has b een u nfortunately l acking . T hose a rchaeologists w ho w orked i n t he

C hadic

B asin

h ave

c onsidered

w hile t hose w ho w orked a way t o

b e

i ncluded

i n t he

i t

N ile

t o

b e

V alley

a p art

o f

r egarded

t he N ilotic

i t

a s

B asin ,

b eing t oo

f ar

i n t heir s tudies . C onsequently i t h as f allen b etween

t hem a nd b een a rchaeologically n eglected . W hen

t his p roject s tarted , t he

u nknown ,

t he

o nly

w ritten b etween c onduct t he

f ield

n ature

e vidence

1 920 a nd

s urveys

o f

t he

a rchaeology o f

b eing

g eneralized

t he

r egion w as

r eports

o f

l argely

i solated

s ites

1 960 . I t w as t hus c lear t hat i t w as n ecessary t o

o f s elected a reas ,

a rchaeological

t o

r emains

l ocate s ites

i n

C entral

a nd

t o e xplore

D arfur

d uring

t he

l ater P rehistoric p eriod , ( here d efined a s c irca 2 001000 A D) . As uitable r egional p lan w as d evised f or a ccomplishing t hese a ims . T his w as c arried o ut i n t wo f ield s easons u ndertaken b y t he w riter i n 1 979-1980 a nd 1 981-1982 . D uring e ach , a bout n ine m onths w ere s pent i n t he f ield . F ive r egions o f d ifferent g eographical l ocalities w ere s elected . A ll o f t hem

w ere

g enerally

i ntensive

s urveyed

a nd

t hen

i nvestigation . A t otal a rea o f

t wo

w ere

1 200 k m

s elected

2

f or

f urther

w as s urveyed , i n w hich

4 6 s ites w ere s tudied . T he m aterial c ollected w as u sed t o d efine t he n ature o f s ites a nd t heir r egional

d istribution i n t he f irst m illennium A D i n C entral D arfur . T hey

w ere c lassified i nto t wo g roups ; a )

s tone-using a nd b )

i ron-using s ites .

T he r elationship b etween s ites o f e ach g roup w as t hen e xamined . T he l ithic m aterial o f t he s tone-using s ites i s l isted i n A ppendix I . T he d ata f rom t he i ron-using s ites w as •t hen u sed , w ith t he h elp o f e thnographic e vidence , t o s tudy t he a rchaeology o f C entral D arfur i n t he i st m illennium A D , a s p resented i n t he f orthcoming c hapters . C hapter a rea's

h istory,

C hapter

2 i s

s urveyed f ield

1 i s

a n

t he r esearch

c oncerned

r egions

s urveys

c oncerned

i ntroduction

a nd

t he

o f

r espectively .

C hapter

r anges

c oming o f t he

l ocal

C hapter

o f

a nd

i ron

a nd

t he

e nvironment

t heir

d escription

i ntroduction t he

t he

o utlines

w hat

w as

s trategy a s

t he

r esults .

a nd

t echnology

a nalysis

o f

t o

t he

t he

r egion

t he

4 ,

t he

r esearch . t o

5 a nd

p ottery

a nd

o f

t he

3d escribes t he

C hapters o f

k nown

b ackground

t heir m aterial r emains . C hapter

u ndertaken

w ith

p roblems

w ith

t o

w hich

' Late'

6 a re

f ound ,

t he

r ock

a rt ,

7e xamines t he p re-Islamic s ettlement p atterns i n

C entral

D arfur ,

a nd

C hapter

8 a ttempts

t o

d escribe

t he

I slam a nd i ts e ffects o n i ndigenous p opulations . I n a ll o f t hem c haracteristics

9 i s

a c onclusion

o f i n

t he

a rchaeological

w hich

a n

a ttempt

e vidence i s

m ade

a re

t o

r evealed .

s ee

C entral

D arfur a s ac ultural z one i n i ts o wn r ight , a nd t hen t o c ompare i t w ith i ts n eighbouring z ones

-

t he N ile V alley a nd t he C hadic B asin . O n t he b asis o f

t he a rchaeological r emains a nd t he r adiometric C 1 4 d ates , i t e merges a s a B ehavioural F rontier Z one .

1

T he

s tudy h as

r elationship

o f

M illennium A .D .

c ast

d oubts

C entral

o n

D arfur

e arlier t o

i ts

a ssumptions w ith

t wo

n eighbours

r egard t o t he

d uring

I t a ppears t hat C entral D arfur's c ultural

t he

f irst

a ffinities w ere

w ith i ts w estern n eighbours a nd t hat c onnections w ith t he N ile B asin w ere m inimal. T he

r adiometric

C 1 4

d ates

o btained

f rom

m aterial

e xcavated

b y

t he

w riter, f ew t hough t hey a re , a re t he f irst a ssociated w ith a rchaeological m aterial

f rom t he C entral D arfur. T he d ate o f t he b eginning o f i ron—using

i n t he a rea i s , o f c ourse , n ot k nown , b ut t he r elevant d ates s uggest t hat i t w as i n u se a s e arly a s t he 5 th c entury A D i n s ettlements s uch a s A in F arah , B ora a nd M ao , a nd s o t hat t he d ates o f s uch s ites m ust b e r evised , a s t heir o rigins m ay b e t owards t he b eginning o f t he m illennium . S pecialist r eports a re g iven i n a ppendices a t t he e nd o f t he v olume .

11

A cknowledg1 e.ents A omng t hanks

t he m any

a nd

p eople w ho

g ratitude

a re

h ave

f irst

a ssisted d ue

t o

i n

m y

t his r esearch

r esearch

A lexander w hose p atient g uidance , a dvice a nd

m y d eepest

s upervisor

D r.

J .

c riticism d uring t he c ourse

o f t his r esearch w ere o f i nvaluable h elp a nd e ncouragement . Iw ould a lso l ike t o a cknowledge w ith g ratitude t he a dvice I r eceived f rom P rofessor J . C oles . I a m

g rateful

P hillipson ,

t o

M iss

P .

H all ,

D r.

P .

C allow ,

M r.

P .

C roker,

D r.

P rofessor F . V an N oten a nd P rofessor G . C or inah w ho r ead

D .

p arts

o f t his w ork a nd g ave v aluable a dvice . S pecial t hanks f or v aluable d iscussions a re d ue t o M r . M . H . S heshenieh , D r . A . A ddo-Yobo , D r . K .A . A hmed, M r. L . S mith , M r. A . K habir , a nd P rofessor H . Z eigert. H owever, a ny m istakes a re m ine . M any

t hanks

a re

d ue

t o

M r.

N .M .

S harif ,

t he

C ommissioner

f or

t he

A ntiquities S ervice , f or g ranting m e a r econnaissance s urvey l icence , t o h is d eputy M r . A kasha M . A h, t o D r. M .A . B adien a nd M r. S id A . K amir. I a m v ery g rateful t o D r . M .O . A bu S ak , t he M inister o f N ational G uidance a t t he t ime , w ho r estored t o m e m ost o f t he m aterial d etained b y t he A ntiquities S ervice .

S pecial

t hanks

a re

d ue

t o

M r.

A l

A min

S ilik ,

M r.

K amal

Y unis '

A bdullah , M iss . N . T obert . D r. J . V ernon a nd M r . I smail M usabal. T hanks D arfur

a re

d eserved

R egional

M urdi ,

f or

t he

G overnment

C ommissioner o f

a t

N orth

a ssistance , o f t he t he

t ime

D arfur

o f

m y

f ollowing

s urvey :- M r.

P rovince , w ho

m ade

t he

m embers o f

A l

T ayib

A l

f irst f ield-

t rip p ossible a nd M r. M .A . S harif , R egional M inister o f L ocal A ffairs , a nd h is

s uccessor

M r.

A .M .

M ah r noud.

M r .

M .A .

A l

D owna ,

H amed

Y usul

a nd

H amid

T urain m ade m y s tay i n K ebkabiya a greeable . I a m D arfur

g reatly

i ndebted

t o

S ayed

A hmed

I brahim

D iraige ,

G overnor

o f

R egion w ithout w hose h elp t he s econd f ield-trip w ould h ave n ever

b een a chieved. Iw ould h elp

o f

l ike

S ayed

t o

e xpress m y

A li

B adien ,

g ratitude

a nd

Y usuf

a nd a nd

a ppreciation A l-Tayib

f or

t he

M ohammed

g reat

N ur

w ho

c ontinuously s upported a nd e ncouraged m e i n m y w ork . M any t hanks a re a lso d ue t o t hose m embers o f C ambridge U niversity w ho e xamined t he s cientific m aterial, D r. R . S witzur o f t he G odwin L aboratory, M r . C . B . D enston o f t he D epartment o f P hysical A nthropology , D r. C . S hell o f t he

D epartment o f A rchaeology , D r. R owley

C onway, D r. J . R enfrew

a nd

M rs .

L evine . I a m a lso g rateful t o M r . A bdel R ahim S haque a nd M iss C . C heah f or t heir h elp w ith t he i llustrations a nd t o M rs S . E dmonds f or t yping p art o f t he m anuscript . Im ust t hank w ith g ratitude t he U niversity o f K hartoum f or g ranting m e as cholarship f or s tudy a nd f inancing t he f irst f ield s eason . Iw ould l ike a lso

t o

a cknowledge

m y

g reat

i ndebtedness

a nd

g ratitude

t o

S t.

J ohn 's

C ollege , C ambridge , f or a warding m e a s cholarship t o f inalize m y r esearch ;

111

a nd t o D r. P . G oddard , i ts S enior T utor , f or h is h elp i n v arious w ays a nd t o P rofessor

C .

R enfrew ,

D isney

P rofessor

o f

A rchaeology ,

f or

a rranging

f inancial h elp . A mong f riends a nd c olleagues I w ould l ike t o t hank M r. M .S . M usa , D r. H . A bdeen , P rofessor M. M . M ahmoud, M r . A li A bdelrahman , D r. Y .M . M ahmoud, M r. A . A l B ushra a nd M r I . N ayal f or t heir h elp a nd s upport . Ia m g rateful f or t he g enerous h elp I r eceived f rom t he p eople o f B ora a nd T auni i n J abal S i, e specially M alik A dam a nd F aki A li A bakar ; a nd t o m y f riends

a t

M ao

i n

T agabo

e specially

A hmed

A bdalla ,

t he

M ao

s chool

H ead

M aster, h is s uccessor U staz A h, a nd t heir s taff a nd U ncle B otolo . L ast , b ut c ertainly n ot l east , w hose

c ontinuous

s upport ,

I a m g reatly i ndebted

d edication

h elp t o m e.

i v

a nd

e ncouragement

t o m y w ife S usan w ere

o f

i mmense

C ontents P reface

1

A cknowledgements

111

L ist o f F igures

x iii

L ist o f T ables

x v

L ist o f P lates

x vi

C HAPTER 1 : B ACKGROUND A ND R ESEARCH S TRATEGY

1

1 . 1 D efinition o f t he p eriod 1 .2 T he h istory o f r esearch i n D arfur

1 2

1 .2 .1 T he f irst p hase 1 .2 .2 T he s econd p hase

3

1 .2 .3 T he t hird p hase

7

1 4

1 .3 R ecent p opulation s urvey o f t he r egion 1 .3 .1 T he Z aghawa 1 .3 .2 T he D aju

8 8 8

1 .3 .3 T he T unjur 1 .3 .1 4 T he M asalit 1 .3 .5 T he F ur

9 9 9

1 .3 .6 T he T ama 1 .3 .7 T he B erti

1 0 1 0

1 .3 .8 T he M eidob

1 0

1 .3 .9 O thers i ncluding n omads

1 0

1 .3 .10 C onclusions 1 .1 4 R ecent m aterial c ulture

1 1 2

1 .5 A rchaeological a nd h istorical e vidence

1 3

1 .6 P roblems e ncountered i n t he 1 9781981 s urveys 1 .7 R esearch o bjectives

1 5 1 6

1 .8 M ethods a nd t echniques u sed i n t he s urveys 1 .8 .1 M ethod A 1 .8 .2 M ethod B

1 7 1 8 1 8

1 .8 .3 M ethod C

1 8

C HAPTER 2 : T HE E NVIRONMENT

1 9

2 .1 T he g eological b ackground 2 .1.1 T he B asement c omplex 2 .1.2 T he N ubian s andstone

1 9 1 9 2 1

2 .1.3 T he T ertiary v olcanic r ocks 2 .1.1 4 T he s uperficial d eposits

2 1 2 2

2 .2 P ost-Pleistocene e nvironment ( 10 ,000-2 ,000 B C) 2 .2 .1 C limatology 2 .2 .2 T he n atural h istory

2 3 2 1 4

2 .2 .3 T he a rchaeological e vidence 2 .3 R ecent e nvironmental c hanges

2 3

( 2 ,000 B C

2 .3 .1 C limatic c hanges a fter 3 ,000 B P 2 .3 .2 W est A frica a nd t he C hadic B asin

2 5 -

P resent)

2 6 2 6 2 6

2 .3 .3 D arfur 2 .3 .1 4 C omment 2 .1 4 T he C limate

2 7 2 7 2 8

2 .5 T he s oil 2 .5 .1 T he d esert s oil

2 9 2 9

2 .5 .2 T he s emi-Desert S oil

2 9

2 .5 .3 T he s avannah s oil 2 .5 .1 4 t he W adi A lluvial S oils

3 0 3 0

V

2 .6 T he v egetation

3 0

2 .6 .1 T he D esert v egetation

3 0

2 .6 .2 T he s emi—Desert v egetation

3 1

2 .6 .3 T he s avannah v egetation

3 1

2 .7 T he s urveyed r egions o f D arfur

3 3

2 .7 .1 T he T agabo r ange

3 3

2 .7 .2 T he J abal S i r ange

3 4

2 .7 .3 T he S imiat r ange

3 5

27 .4 T he A l F asher r egion

3 6

2 .7 .5 T he K utum r egion

3 6

C HAPTER 3 : T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY O F C ENTRAL D ARFUR 3 .1 s urvey o f t he T agabo r ange ( Area A )

( 19781981)

3 8 3 8

3 .1.1 J abal M ao

3 8

3 .1.2 J abal M abo

5 2

3 .1.3 N amudu ( Jabal S lab)

5 5

3 .1.4 J abal B ongbong

5 9

3 .1.5 M artial

5 9

3 .1.6 J abal M erbo

6 0

3 .1.7 J abal U sungra

6 1

3 .2 S urvey o f t he J abal S i r ange ( Area B )

6 2

3 .2 .1 B ora D ulu

6 3

3 .2 .2 T asi

7 5

3 .2 .3 J abal D io

7 8

3 . 3 S urvey o f t he S imiat R ange ( Area C )

8 0

3 .3 .1 J abal W ara

8 1

3 .3 .2 J abal W ima ( Bobay F asher)

8 2

3 .4 S urvey o f A l F asher R egion ( Area D ) 3 .4 .1 T ombasi

8 7 8 8

3 .4 .2 U mgidibu

8 9

3 .4 .3 S hagra

8 9

3 .4 .4 H alluf

9 0

3 .4 .5 N igua

9 0

3 .4 .6 M ajdoub

9 1

3 .4 .7 H egilig

9 1

3 .5 S urvey o f K utum r egion ( Area E )

9 2

3 .5 .1 W adi K utum

9 2

3 .5 .2 A in F arah ( Jabal F urnung)

9 3

3 .6 C omment

9 5

C HAPTER 4 : P OTTERY C LASSIFICATION A ND D ISTRIBUTION

9 7

4 .1 W ork b efore 1 979

9 7

4 .2 E thnographic a nalogies

9 8

4 .3 P resent p ottery m aking i n T agabo a nd S i

9 9 9 9

4 .3 .1 R aw m aterial 4 .3 .2 F orming , s haping a nd s moothing

9 9

4 .3 .3 D ecoration

1 00

4 .3 .4 S lipping

1 00

4 .3 .5 F iring

1 00

4 .3 .6 T he s ocial p osition o f p otters

1 01

v i

4 1 1 . 14

. 3. 7 C omment o n e thnographic m aterial

T he a rchaeological e vidence 1 4 .14 . 1

1 02

M ethods o f d ata c ollection

1 4 .1 4 .2 M ethods o f D ata r ecording 1 4 •5

M ethods a nd p rinciples o f c lassification 4 .5 .1 F abric 1 4 .5 .2

1 01 1 02 1 03 1 03 1 03

S urface T reatment

1 03

4 .5 .3 S urface c olour

1 04

4 .5 .1 4 D ecoration

1 01 4

1 4 .6 T ypes a nd s ubtypes

1 01 4

4 .7 T ype A

1 05

4 .7 .1 S ubtype Ai

1 05

1 4 .7 .2 S ubtype A -2

l os

1 4 .7 .3 S ubtype A -3

1 08

4 .7 .4 S ubtype A - 14

1 08

4 .7 .5 S ubtype A -S

1 09

4 .7 .6 S ubtype A -S

1 09

4 .7 .7 S ubtype A -7

1 09

1 4 .7 .8 S ubtype A -8

10

4 .7 .9 S ubtype A -9

10

4 .7 .10 S ubtype A 10 1 4 .7 .11 S ubtype A -li 1 4 .8 T ype B 4 .8 .1 S ubtype Bi

11

1 4 .8 .2 S ubtype B -2

12

1 4 .8 .3

12

S ubtype B -3

1 4 .9 T ype C

1 4 . 10

12

4 .9 .1 S ubtype Ci

13

1 4 .9 .2 S ubtype C -2

13

4 .9 .3 S ubtype C -3

13

T ype D

1 14

4 11 P ot f orms

11 4 .

4 .11.1 W ide-mouthed p ots

11 4

1 4 .11.2 S mall n arrow-mouthed p ots

14

4 .11.3 L arge t hick P ots

15

4 .11.4 b eaker/cups p ots

15

1 4 .11.5 F lat p lates

15

1 4 . 11.6

15

l ugs a nd s pouts

4 . 12 C hronology

16

4 .12 .1 B efore t he i st m illennium A D

16

4 .12 .2 T he i st m illennium A D

18

1 4 . 12 .3

T he 2 nd m illennium A D

4 .12 . 14 C onclusions 1 4 . 13

19 19

A m odel f or m odes o f p roduction a nd d istribution

i n t he i st m illennium A D

1 20

C HAPTER 5 : I RON T ECHNOLOGY : I NTRODUCTION A ND I MPACT O N C ENTRAL D ARFUR

1 27

5 .1 D ating a nd o rigin

1 27

5 .2 T he m anufacturing t echniques

1 30

5 .2 .1 T he P re-smelting p rocesses

v ii

1 30

5 .2 .2 T he s melting p rocess

1 31

5 .2 .3 T he f orging p rocess

1 32

5 .3 T he s miths o f D arfur

1 33

5 .3 .1 T he s tatus o f s miths

1 36

5 .3 .2 T he a cceptance o f s miths

1 38

5 .3 .3 T he o rganization o f t he i ndustry

1 39

54 E vidence f rom e xcavations

1 40

5 .4 .1 T he M ao f urnaces

1 40

5 .4 .2 T he M ao f orge

1 41

5 .4 .3 B ora

114 2

W ima

1 42

5 4•1 4

5 .5 I ron a rtefacts

1 42

5 .5 .1 H oes

1 42

5 .5 .2 K nives

1 43

5 .5 .3 R eaping k nives

1 43

5 .5 .4 b eads

1 44

5 .5 .5 B racelets

1 45

5 .5 .6 A nklets

1 45

5 .6 A nalogies

1 46

5 .6 .1 F urnaces

1 46

5 .6 .2 H oes

114 6

5 .6 .3 R eaping k nives

1 47

5 .6 .4 B eads

1 47

5 .6 .5 B racelets

1 47

5 .6 .6 S pears

1 47

5 .6 .7 c urrencies

1 47

5 .6 .8 S words

1 48

5 .6 .9 H orse b its a nd s tirrups

1 48

5 .7 G eneral c onclusions

1 48

5 .7 .1 T he N ile B asin

1 49

5 .7 .2 N orth-west A frica

1 49

5 .7 .3 T he C had B asin

1 50

5 .7 .4 K ordufan a nd D arfur 5 .8 M odels f or t he s pread o f i ron-using t o D arfur S

1 50 1 51

5 .8 .1 M ass m igration

1 51

5 .8 .2 S mall s cale m igration

1 52

5 .8 .3 W arfare , h unting a nd c urrency

1 52

5 .9 S ocial a nd p olitical i mpact o f i ron o n D arfur

1 53

5 .10 S ummary

1 5 1 4

C HAPTER 6 : T HE ' LATE' R OCK D RAWINGS O F D ARFUR 6 .1 T he 1 979-1981 s urveys , r elated t o e arlier f inds

1 55 1 56 1 56

6 .2 T he T agabo R ange 6 .2 .1 M ao

1 57

6 .2 .2 B ongbong

1 59

6 .2 .3 M artial

1 60 1 60

6 .2 .4 M erbo

1 61

6 .3 T he J abal S i/Marra r ange

1 61

6 .4 T he J abal S imiat r ange

1 61

6 .5 T he F urnung r ange

1 61

6 .5 .1 J abal S irgu

v iii

6 .5 .2 G harra M urtenga

1 61

6 .6 T he A bu A ial R ange

1 62

6 .7 T he D aju h ills

1 62

6 .8 C omment

1 62

6 .9 T echniques a nd s tyles

1 63

6 .9 .1 P aintings

1 63

6 .9 .2 E ngravings

1 63

6 .10 T he s ubject m atter

1 61 4

6 .10 .1 T he w ild f auna d epicted

1 6 14

6 .10 .2 T he d omesticated f auna d epicted

1 61 4

6 .10 .3 H uman f igures

1 67

6 .10 . 14 H uman a rtefacts

1 68

6 .11 D iscussion

1 69

6 .12 C hronology

1 71

6 .12 .1 T he e vidence f or d ating t he i ntroduction o f t he H orse

1 72

6 .12 .2 T he e vidence f or d ating t he i ntroduction o f t he C amel

1 73

6 . 13 T he c hronology o f t he D arfur p aintings

1 73

6 .13 .1 H orse a nd r ider

1 74

6. 13 .2

1 71 4

C amel

6 .13 .3 T ribal m arks

1 71 4

6 . 11 4 G eneral c onclusion

1 75

C HAPTER 7 : AC OMPARATIVE S TUDY O F T HE P RE-ISLAMIC S ETTLEMENTS I N T HE R ANGES O F D ARFUR

1 77

7 .1 B uilding t echniques

1 78

7 .1.1 S tructural h ouse u nits 7 .1.2 T he t errace s ystems

1 78 1 79

7 .2 P opulation e stimates

1 79

7 .3 T he T agabo r ange s ettlements

1 80

7 .3 .1 M ao

1 80

7 .3 .2 M abo

1 83 ,

7 .3 .3 N amudu

1 85

7 .3 .1 4 J abal U sungra

1 87

7 .3 .5 O verall d iscussion o f t he T agabo s ettlements

1 87

7 .1 4 T he S i r ange s ettlements

1 89

7 .1 4 .1 B ora D ulu

1 89

7 .1 4 .2 T asi

1 92

7 .1 4 .3 J abal D io

1 92

7 .1 4 .1 4 O verall d iscussion o f t he J abal S i s ettlements

1 91 4

7 .5 T he S imiat r ange s ettlement

1 96

7 .5 .1 W ima

1 96

7 .6 T he F ur n ung r ange s ettlements

1 98

7 .6 .1 A in F arah

1 98

7 .6 .2 J abal U ri

2 00

7 .6 .3 O verall d iscussion o f A in F arah a nd U ri s ettlements

2 02

7 .7 T he T urra r ange s ettlements

2 02

7 .8 A g eneralised m odel o f s ettlement

2 03

7 .8 .1 E nvironment

2 01 4

7 .8 .2 T echnology

2 01 4

7 .8 .3 H orse a nd C amel i ntroduction

2 05

i x

7 . 8 . 14c onclusions

2 05

7 .9 L ocal v ariations a nd s imilarities i n C entral D arfur 7 .9 .1 D iscussion

2 06 2 11

7 .10 U rbanization a nd s tate f ormation

2 11

7 .10 .1 P opulation

2 12

7 .10 .2 F ood p roduction

2 12

7 .10 .3 P olitical g roups

2 13

7 .10 . 14 S pecialized g roups

2 13

7 .11 S ummary

2 1 14

C HAPTER 8 : T HE C OMING O F I SLAM

2 15

8 .1 T he l iterary a nd o ral e vidence

2 15

8 .2 T he a rchaeological e vidence

2 15

8 .3 T he T agabo r ange

2 16

8 .1 4 T he J abal S i/Marra r ange

2 16

8 .4 .1 B ora M osque

2 17

8 . 1 4 .2 B ora C emetery

2 17

8 .4 .3 B eads

2 17

8 . 1 4 .1 4 S hoba m osque

2 18

8 .1 4 .5 T urra m osque

2 18

8 .5 T he S imiat R ange

2 19

8 .6 T he F urnung r ange

2 19

8 .6 .1 U ri M osque

2 19

8 .6 .2 A in F arah M osques

2 20

8 .6 .3 B eads

2 22

8 .7 C omment o n l iterary , o ral a nd a rchaeological e vidence

2 22

8 .8 T he K eira d ynasty a nd I slam

2 22

8 .9 T he p rogress o f I slam i n D arfur

2 23

8 .9 .1 P hase I ( c . 1001600 A D)

2 23

8 .9 .2 P hase I I

2 24

( c . 1 6001800 A D)

8 .9 .3 P hase I II

2 25

8 .10 I slam a nd e xisting s ocieties i n D arfur

2 25

8 .10 .1 T he M uslim h oly m en ( Fuqara)

2 25

8 .10 .2 I slam a nd t he l ocal p agans

2 27

8 .11 C onclusions

2 29

C HAPTER 9 : C ONCLUSIONS : S ITE T YPES A ND B EHAVIOURAL F RONTIERS 9 .1 S ite d istribution

2 30 2 30

9 .1.1 T he T agabo r ange

2 30

9 .1.2 T he S i r ange

2 31

9 .1.3 T he S imiat r ange

2 31

9 .1.1 4 A l F asher r egion

2 32

9 .1.5 K utum r egion

2 32

9 .2 G rouping o f t he s ites

2 32

9 .2 .1 G roup 1

2 32

9 .2 .2 G roup 2

2 33

9 .2 .3 G roup 3

2 33

9 .2 .4 C omment o n s ite t ypes a nd d istribution .

2 34

9 .3 T he b ehavioural f rontier

2 34

9 .3 .1 T he a rchaeological e vidence

x

2 35

9 .3 .2 T he n on-archaeological e vidence 91 4

C onclusions

2 37 2 38

APPENDIX I : T HE L ITHIC M ATERIAL

2 40

1 . M erbo

2 40

1 .1 R etouched t ools

2 40

1 .2 P iercers

2 40

1 .3 B acked p ieces

214 0

1 .1 4 U tilized p ieces

2 40

1 .5 S ide s crapers

2 1 40

1 .6 B lades

2 1 41

1 .7 T runcations

2 1 41

1 .8 P oints

2 41

1 .9 D ebitage

2 41

1 .10 C ores

2 41

1 .11 T echnology

2 1 41

1 .12 S ize o f t ools

214 1

1 .13 B acking

2 42

1 .14 T runcation

214 2

1 .15 F aceting

2 42

1 .16 F aceted c ores

214 2

1 .17 F lakes

2 42

1 .18 B lades

2 1 42

2 . A l F asher

2 1 42

2 .1 R etouched t ools

2 1 42

2 .2 B lades

2 1 42

2 .3 C ore s crapers

214 3

2 .4 E nd s crapers

2 43

2 .5 S ide s crapers

2 43

2 .6 D er iticulated p ieces

2 1 43

2 .7 B acked p iece

2 43

2 .8 T runcated s egments

2 1 43

2 .9 D ebitage

2 43

2 .10 C ores

2 43

2 .11 T echnology

2 43

2 .12 F aceting

2 1 43

2 .13 R etouching

2 44

2 .11 4 B acking

2 44

3 . K utum

2 44

4 . B ora

2 44

APPENDIX I I : L IST O F A TTRIBUTES U SED I N P OTTERY A NALYSIS

2 45

APPENDIX I II : E THNOGRAPHIC S TUDY O F S ETTLEMENTS

2 46

1 . T awsali V illage ( Tagabo)

2 46

1 .1 H ouse A rrangements

2 1 46

1 .2 a nimal p ens

2 48

1 .3 w ater s upply

2 1 48 211 8

2 . S igring V illage ( Si) 2 .1 H ouse A rrangement

2 48

2 .2 a nimal p ens

2 50

x i

2 .3 T he M osque

2 50

2 .4 T he M arket

2 50

2 .5 I ron W orking A rea

2 50

3 . W arda V illage ( Simiat)

2 50

3 .1 H ouse A rrangements

2 50

3 .2 A nimal P ens

2 51

3 .3 G rain S tores

2 52

3 .1 ! W ater S upply

2 52

1 ! . C onclusions

2 52

A PPENDIX I V : R ADIOCARBON D ATES

2 53

1 . B one 2 . C harcoal 2 .1

2 53 2 53

( Q-3152)

2 53

2 .2 ( Q-3151 )

2 53

3 . C arbon i n i ron o bjects 3 .1

2 51 !

( Q-3155)

2 51 !

1 ! . S eeds

2 51 !

1 ! .1 ( Q-3156) 5 . c alibration

2 51 ! 2 51 !

6 . s ignificance

2 55

A PPENDIX V : H UMAN S KELETAL R EMAINS F ROM C ENTRAL D ARFUR

2 56

1 . B ora G rave I : D escription o f t he s keleton s kull a nd p ostcranial b ones

2 56

2 . P athology

2 57

2 .1 P opulation A ffinities 2 .2 N on-human B ones

2 57 2 58

3 . B ora G rave I I : D escription o f t he s keleton

2 58

1 ! . M ao G rave I I

2 58

4 . 1 T eeth

2 58

5 . M ao G rave I II

2 59

6 . M ao G rave I V : D escription o f t he s keleton

2 60

7 . P seudo P athology

2 60.

A PPENDIX V I : A NIMAL B ONES F ROM C ENTRAL D ARFUR

2 61

1 . C omments

2 62

2 . P ig B ones

2 62

A PPENDIX V II : R EPORT O N T WO S LAGS A ND C ORRODED I RON F ROM C ENTRAL D ARFUR

2 63

1 . F urnace S lags

2 63

2 . C orroded I ron

2 63

A PPENDIX V III : S EEDS A ND P LANT R EMAINS F ROM C ENTRAL D ARFUR

2 65

B IBLIOGRAPHY

2 66

A UTHORS C ITED

2 86

I NDEX

2 88

x ii

L ist o f F igures F igure 2 .1

G eological M ap o f C entral D arfur

2 0

F igure 2 .2

V egetation a nd R ainfall M aps

3 2

F igure 2 .3

M ap s howing a reas s elected f or s urvey

3 7

F igure 3 .1

T agabo R egion : A reas o f d etailed s urvey

3 9

F igure 3 .2

M ao : S urvey a rea

1 4 0

F igure 3 .3

At ypical S ingle-room h ouse ( example M ao)

4 1

F igure

At ypical D ouble-room C ompound H ouse ( example M ao)

1 4 1

F igure 3 .5

At ypical T hree-room C ompound H ouse ( example M ao)

F igure 3 .6

T est p its 1 ( Mao)

4 2 1 4 3

F igure 3 .7

T est p its 2 ( Mao)

1 4 3

F igure 3 .8

R ectangular w ell ( Mao)

1 45

3 .1 4

F igure 3 .9

C ircular w ell ( Mao)

1 45

F igure 3 .10

Ac omplex h ouse o f s even r ooms ( example M ao)

4 6

F igure 3 .11

At ypical F ive-room C ompound H ouse ( example M ao)

1 47

F igure 3 .12

L ocation o f s ites i n z one I V ( Mao)

F igure 3 .13

T est p it 3 ( Mao)

4 8 1 4 9

F igure 3 .14

Ap lan o f G rave I ( Mao)

5 0

F igure 3 .15

T est p it 1 4 ( Mao)

5 1

F igure 3 .16

H alf-section F urnaces I -II ( Mao)

5 2

F igure 3 .17

M abo : S urvey a rea

5 2

.18 F igure 3

P lan o f B asins a nd R eservoirs

Fig ure 3 .19

S ingle p latform ( Mabo)

5 6

F ig ure 3 .20

N amudu s ite

5 7

( Mabo)

5 3

F igure 3 .21

R aised ( graded) P latform ( Numudu)

5 8

F igure 3 .22

T est p it 1 ( Bongbong c ave)

5 9

F igure 3 .23

T est p its ( Merbo C ave)

6 1

.2 14 F igure 3

P lan o f H ouses ( Usungra)

6 2

F igure 3 .25

S i R egion : A reas o f d etailed s urvey

6 3

F igure 3 .26

B ora D ulu : S urvey a reas

6 4

F igure 3 .27

D ouble-room C ompound H ouse ( example B ora)

6 5

.28 F igure 3

T est p its 1 -4 ( Bora)

6 6

F igure 3 .29

E xcavation o f B ora M idden

6 7

F igure 3 .30

Ac omplex h ouse o f t en r ooms ( Bora)

6 9

.31 F igure 3

P lan o f t he s quare b uilding a nd s urroundings ( Bora)

7 0

F ig ure 3 .32

B ora : C emetery

7 1

F igure 3 .33

G rave I ( Bora)

7 2

.31 4 F igure 3

G rave I B urial p it ( Bora)

7 3

F igure 3 .35

G rave I I ( Bora)

7 1 4

F igure 3 .36

T asi: S urvey a rea

7 5

.37 F igure 3

T est p it o f H ouse 3 f loor ( Tasi)

7 6

.38 F igure 3

S ections o f e xcavated T erraces ( Tasi)

7 7

.39 F igure 3

D io : S urvey a rea

7 9

.1 40 F igure 3

G rave I ( Dio)

8 0

.1 41 F igure 3

S i r niat R egion : A reas o f d etailed S urveys

8 1

.1 42 F igure 3

W ima S urvey a rea

8 3

.43 F igure 3

T est p its 1 -2 ( Wima)

8 4

.41 4 F igure 3 1 45 F igure 3

E ight-room C ompound H ouse S ingle p latform ( Wima)

8 6

. 1 46 F igure 3

A l F asher R egion : A rea o f d etailed s urvey

8 7

( Example W ima)

8 5

F igure 3 .47

T ombasi a rea o f s urface c ollection

8 8

F igure 3 .48

T est p its ( 1-4) A l F asher

F igure 3 .49

8 9

S hagra a rea o f s urface c ollection

9 0

F igure 3 .50

K utum R egion : A reas o f d etailed s urvey

9 2

F igure 3 .51

A in F arah s urvey a rea

F igure 3 .52

A in F arah c emetery

9 3 9 1 4

F igure 4 .1

M at—impressed ( Farish) D ecoration

1 06

F igure 4 .2

M at—impressed ( Birish) D ecoration

1 06

F igure 4 .3

P ottery D ecorative P atterns

1 07

.4 F igure 4

U nrestricted W ide M outh

11 4

F igure 4 .5

U nrestricted S mall N arrow M outh

15

F igure 4 .6

S imple L arge T hick R ims

16

F igure 4 .7

B eaker—like R ims

17

F igure 4 .8

P ie—charts 1 -5

1 22

F igure 5 .1

C urrent D arfur I ron M aking t ools

1 33

F igure 5 .2

C urrent D arfur M anufactured O bjects

1 31 4

F igure 5 ,3

A n e xcavated H oe ( Mao)

1 43

F igure 5 .4

E xcavated I ron O bjects

1 45

F igure 5 .5

E xcavated I ron B racelets a nd A nklets

1 45

F igure 6 .1

D istribution M ap o f R ock F igures

1 55

F igure 6 .2

H unted O strich

( example M ao)

1 57

F igure 6 .3

AR ider a nd a U —shaped S addle ( example M ao)

1 58

F igure 6 .4

H ourse F igure w ith l egs c rossing

1 59

F igure 6 .5

G iraffe F igure

1 65

F igure 6 .6

C amel F igure

1 66

F igure 6 .7

R ider , D og a nd a C urved S addle

1 67

F igure 8 .1

S hoba M osque

2 18

F igure 8 .2

U ri M osque

2 19

F igure 8 .3

A in F arah M osque

2 20

( A)

x iv

L ist o f T ables T able 2 .1

T he J uzzu P lants

T able 3 .1

A rtefacts f rom C entral D arfur

T able 1 . 1

T ypes o f S ample

T able

F requency o f P ottery T ypes

1 05

D istribution o f S ubtype Ai

1 06

4 . 2

T able 1 .3 T able

3 1 ( 19781982)

9 6 1 02

41 4

D istribution o f S ubtype A -2

1 08

T able 1 .5

D istribution o f S ubtype A -3

1 08

T able 1 .6

D istribution o f S ubtype A1 4

1 08

T able 1 .7

D istribution o f S ubtype A -S

1 09

T able 1 .8

D istribution o f S ubtype A -6

1 09

T able

D istribution o f S ubtype A -7

10

D istribution o f S ubtype A -8

10

T able 1 . 11

D istribution o f S ubtype A -9

10

T able

D istribution o f S ubtype A -10

11

T able 1 . 13

D istribution o f S ubtype A -11

11

T able 4 .14

D istribution o f S ubtype Bi

12

T able 14 . 15

D istribution o f S ubtype D -2

12

T able

D istribution o f S ubtype B -3

12

1 4•9

T able 1 . 10 1 1 . 12

1 1 . 16

T able 1 . 17

D istribution o f S ubtype Ci

13

T able 1 . 18

D istribution o f S ubtype C -2

13

T able 1 . 19

D istribution o f S ubtype C -3

13

T able

1 1 . 20

S ubtypes C olour

1 23

T able

1 4 . 21

A pplication o f S mooth S urface

1 21 4

T able 1 .22

A pplication o f S lip

1 2 14

T able 1 .23 T able 1 .21 4

B urnishing S ubtypes D ecorations

1 21 1 25

T able

S ubtypes T hickness

1 26

1 4 . 25

x v

L ist o f P lates P late I

M ao G eneral D efensive W all

2 99

P late I I P late I II

E xcavated G rave I ( Mao) E xcavated G rave I I ( Mao)

2 99 3 00

P late I V

I ron S melting A rea a t M ao

3 00

P late V

U praised P latform ( Namudu)

3 01

P late V I

B ongbong C ave

3 01

P late V II

J abal U sungra

3 02

P late V III

B ora S quare b uilding

3 02

P late I X

E xcavated G rave A in F arah

3 03

P late X P late X I

B eads o f d ifferent t ypes ( Ain F arah) L owland s ite ( Al F asher P lains)

3 03 3 04

P late X II

C urrent P ottery M aking T ools ( Tagabo)

3 04

P late X III

E xcavated I ron F urnace E xample ( Mao)

3 05

P late X IV

E xcavated I ron O bjects

3 05

P late X V

R ock F igures E xample

( East s ide M ao C ave)

3 06

P late X VI

R ock F igures E xample

( West s ide M ao C ave)

3 06

P late X VII

T awsal V illage ( Tagabo)

x vi

3 07

m b ar o u (? TU U r A in F a r ah W .B

J .F u r ru ng K u tum

L

k ya

Wan a

J .S im ia t A l F a she r

'

/ e i

e ii t

T aw i la

L M enawa she i .

ODa ju H i l l s

/

N ya la

2 00 k r' .

F igure 1 . 1 C entral D arfur a nd i ts s urroundings

C HAPTER 1 B ACKGROUND A ND R ESEARCH S TRATEGY

T his

c hapter

r esearch,

i ts

i s

a n

i ntroductory

b ackground

a nd

o ne

p roblems .

w hich

I t

i s

d efines a lso

t he

p eriod

c oncerned

o f

w ith

t he

o bjectives a nd m ethods o f t he r esearch . D arfur

( Dar m eans h ome i n A rabic a nd F ur i s ap roper n ame o f at ribe , s o

D arfur l iterally m eans t he h ome o f t he F ur)

i s t he w esternmost

R egion o f

t he D emocratic R epublic o f t he S udan. I ts s urface a rea i s a bout 1 90 ,000 k m2 a nd

i t

h as

a s ub-rectangular

b etween l atitude 70 a nd

s hape

e xtending

Na nd l ongitude 2 20

2 00

r oughly -

f or

s ome

7 00 k m

2 70 3 0 ' E . I n t he w est i t

b orders t he R epublic o f C had a nd t he R epublic o f C entral A frica , a nd L ibya l ies t o t he n orth-west. I t

i s b ounded b y

3

S udanese

R egions: t o t he n orth

b y t he N orthern R egion, t o t he s outh b y t he S outhern a nd t o t he e ast b y t he R egion o f K ordufan. T he t otal

p opulation o f t he

m ost r ecent d ata, m ay b e a pproximately

3

r egion , a ccording t o

m illion ( Nelson

t he

1 983 , 2 95) .

1 . 1 D EFINITION O F T HE P ERIOD T he d efinition o f a rchaeological p eriods h as a lways b een p roblematical i n

s ub-Saharan

S mith

1 971;

A frica

P hillipson

( Mauny 1 97 1 4 ;

1 952 ;

B ishop

C onnah

1 980 ;

a nd

C lark

P osnansky

1 968 ;

1 981)

S haw 1 971;

f or

b oth

t he

P rehistoric a nd H istoric p eriods a nd f or t he p eriod b etween t hem w hich i s s ometimes c alled p eriod

o f

n on

P rotohistoric. T his i s c ertainly t he c ase i n D arfur. T he

m etal-using

f armers

i s

v ery

i ll-defined

b ecause

t here

i s

o nly o ne C 1 4 d ate. E xcavated e vidence h as c ome f rom U mm-Barou i n N orthern D arfur w hich h as b een

d ated

t o

c . 2 000

B C

( Mohammed-Ali

1 982 ,

1 73) .

T his

l ack o f f irmly d ated e vidence h as m ade i t i mpossible t o d efine e ither t he d evelopment o f s tone-using c ommunities o r t he b eginning o f m etal-using i n D arfur. F ield s urveys w ere u ndertaken b y t he w riter i n f ive s elected r egions o f C entral D arfur i n t wo s easons ( 1979-1980) . D uring e ach a bout s pent

i n

t he

f ield. A t otal

a rea o f a bout

9

m onths w ere

1 ,200 k m2 w as s urveyed, a nd

4 6

s ites s tudied, i n a n e ffort t o s olve t his p roblem . T he

' Iron A ge ' h as b een d ated

( 1976) t o e vidence

t he

p eriod

f rom

i n

A frica g enerally b y O liver

6 th c entury . B C t o

i ron-using

s ites

a nd

a nd

F agan

1 6th c entury A D , o n t he b asis o f

w ritten

s ources .

H owever,

t his

i s

a

v ague d efinition a nd c ould n ot p ossibly b e a pplied t o a ll a reas o f A frica , s ince i ron w as n ot i ntroduced a t t he s ame t ime t o t he v arious p arts o f t he c ontinent. A reas

w hich

i nfluences

h ad

f allen

( pagan a nd

u nder

P haraonic

E gyptian,

C hristian) h ave a c hronological

G reek

a nd

R oman

f ramework, e ven

i f

v ery b road, b ased o n b oth w ritten a nd a rchaeological e vidence . H owever, i t i s

b iased

t owards

h istorical

e vents

a nd

p hases

n amed

a fter

p olitical

e ntities , e .g . ( in t he M iddle N ile v alley), N apatan, M eroitic a nd C hristian K ingdoms .

I n

W est

A frica

t he

a cceptance

o f

m etal-using

i s

m uch

l ess

w ell-

d ocumented, b ecause v ery f ew s tratified c ultural r emains h ave a s y et b een f ound a nd n o w ritten e vidence e xists t o d ate s uch e vents ; i ron o bjects a re s ometimes s tone

e xcavated

i mplements .

f rom T his

c ontexts h as

d irectly

b een

t aken

s ucceeding

t o

i mply

t hose

a

w ith

d irect

o nly

c ultural

d evelopment f rom s tone-using c ultures t o i ron-using o nes , a nd c onsequently t he

i nception o f t he

t o l ate

i n

t he

i st

' Iron A ge ' i n s ome p arts o f t his a rea h as b een d ated

m illennium A D

( Connah

1 980 ,

S ome c ommunities

1 47) .

i n

t he W est A frican f orest z one w ere i n f act u sing s tone i mplements u p t o t he t urn o f t he l ast c entury , w hilst o thers w ere u sing i ron i n t he l atter p art o f

t he

i st

m illennium

t echnological

B C .

d evelopment

p arts o f A frica" ( Posnansky

T hus

w ere

" peoples

l iving

a t

d ifferent

c ontemporaneously

i n

s tages

o f

d ifferent

1 981, 5 33) .

I n D arfur t he n ational p eriod w hen i ron w as i n u se h as b een r eferred t o a s

' Antiquity '

( Arkell

( Arkell

1 937) . T he

1 937 ;

f irst

B alfour

d esignation

P aul

1 956)

a nd

a s

' Mediaeval'

i s a v ague o ne a nd c ould b e a pplied

t o m ore t han o ne a rchaeological p hase. T he s econd t erm r efers t o a k nown h istorical

p eriod

s tructure

a nd

p eriod

t he

o f

i t

i n

E urope

w ould

b e

h istory

o f

w hich

h ad

m isleading D arfur,

a w ell-defined

t o

u se

s uch

i t

h ad

a q uite

f or

s ocio-economic

t erminology

f or

d ifferent

a ny

s ocio-

e conomic b ackground. S cholars a ccepting t hat ' History ' b egins w hen w ritten d ocuments a ppear h ave

c oined

t he

t erm

' Protohistoric'

t o

d escribe

t hose

c ultures

w hich

p ossessed n o w riting s ystem , b ut w hich m ight h ave b een m entioned b y t heir l iterate n eighbours . I t i s a lso u sed s ometimes t o d escribe s ocieties w hich h ad n o w ritten

h istory o f t heir o wn b ut

p eriod

1 955 , 9 ).

( Alimen

e xpresses

a s tate

( Bishop a nd o f

t he

C lark

' Iron

A ge '

o f

T his

c oncept

k nowledge

1 967 , 8 99). h as

b een

a nd

S o

l ived

h as

h as

n o

b een

i n

t he

g eneral h istorical

c riticized:

" Protohistory

a rchaeological

i mplications"

f ar, t herefore, n o a cceptable d efinition

p resented

f or

D arfur

o r

p erhaps

a ny

o ther

A frican g roup . I t

h as b een

d ecided, o n t he s trength o f t he e vidence c ollected b y t he

w riter, t o l imit t he p eriod c overed b y t his v olume t o t he

i st m illennium

A D . I t i s d efined b y C 1 4 d ates o btained f rom e xcavated s amples ( Q-3152 , Q 3 151,

Q -3155 a nd Q -3156) r anging b etween 2 00 ± 5 0 a nd

c alibrated

1 75-1020 A D). T his p eriod

9 20

± 5 0 a .d

( when

i ncludes b oth i ron-using a nd s tone-

u sing c ommunities .

1 .2 T HE H ISTORY O F R ESEARCH I N D ARFUR I nvestigations i n D arfur h ave u ndergone t hree d evelopmental p hases; i n t he

f irst,

i nformation

w as

r ecorded

b y

e arly

t ravellers

a nd

e xplorers ,

m ainly t hose o f t he 1 7th to t he 1 9th c enturies A D . T hey w ere n ot i nterested i n

a rchaeology

o r

t he

e arly

h istory

o f

t he

a rea ,

b ut

m ade

g eneral

o bservations . T he s econd p hase w as t he s ystematic r ecording o f i nformation b y t he

a dministrators

o f t he

S udan

G overnment

i n

t he

r egion

f rom

1 916-

1 956 , w ho w ere a mateur a rchaeologists a nd h istorians . H owever, s ome o f t hem c ontinued t heir w ork i nto t he t hird p hase w hich b egan a fter i n

t he

1 960s,

w ith

a

l icensing

o f

2

p rofessional

i ndependence ,

a rchaeologists

a nd

h istorians w ho w ere a llowed s elected a reas a nd t opics t o s tudy , u sing n ew a nd

m ore

r igorous

e xpeditions

a re

m ethods .

a t

T his

p resent

p hase

i n

t he

i s

s till

c ontinuing

a lthough

f ew

a nd

c onditions

o f

a re

f ield

w ork

i ncreasingly d ifficult.

1 .2 .1 T HE F IRST P HASE N o

i nformation

a bout

D arfur

w as r ecorded b y P haraonic E gyptian, G reek

o r R oman w riters , n or i n o ther c ontemporary r ecords f rom t he M eroites . T he e arliest

a ccounts

I drisi w ho d ied w ho

d ied

i n

a ppeared

i n

1 332

i n

t he

w ritings

o f

153 A D , I bn S aid w ho d ied A D)

w ho

h ad

n ever

M uslim

i n c .

v isited

t he

g eographers

a rea , b ut

h ad

i nformation c oncerning s ome p arts o f i t. T he e arliest, b efore A l K hwarismi

( c . 8 36-847 A D ; c ited b y L evizon

( Al

1 276 A D a nd A boulfeda o btained

1 000 A D , w as

1 978 , 6 80) , w ho m entioned t he

Z aghawa p eople w ho a re t o b e f ound t oday i n p arts o f K ordufan, D arfur a nd C had. A l I drisi p agan

( 1957 ,

g roup k nown

A ccording t o

1 0) d escribed t he c ity o f T ajawa a s t he c apital o f a

a s T ajawlin a nd

A rkell, t his w as

h as b een e quated b y A rkell o f

D aju).

B oth

( 1970 ,

9 6-97) .

m odern

N orth

t he

A lthough a nd

" more o r

( 1952 ,

Z aghawa

t hese

t hem b etween

K anem a nd

N awbia.

l ess e xactly i n D arfur" . T ajawlin

6 3-65) , w ith Ijawiin , ( the A rabic p lural

a nd

C entral

p laced

t he

T ajawiin w ere

p eoples '

D arfur,

i t

m entioned

t erritories

i s

d ifficult

b y

I bn

c ertainly t o

S aid

i ncluded

i dentify

t hem

o r

l ocate t heir l ands i n s uch a v ast t erritory , e xtending o ver 6 00 k m b etween t he N ilotic a nd t he C hadic B asins . T he t he

e arliest

a rea,

n on-Muslim r eference , a lso

w as

i n

1 668

S paulding

1 974 ,

11)

E gypt.

a lso

m entioned

T hese

H e h ave

b een

w hen

m entioned t he

i dentified

D 'Anana

U r i, w hich Z agava ,

w ith

b y s omeone w ho ( quoted h ad

M emr ni ,

t he

b y

t rading

t isulat

p resent

d ay

n ever

v isited

0 'Fahey

a nd

c onnections

w ith

a nd

D agio

t ribes

p eoples .

Z aghawa ,

M ima ,

M asalit a nd D aju i n D arfur. T he

f irst

E uropean

t raveller

a ccount w as W .G . B rowne

w ho

v isited

( 1799) , w ho s tayed

t he K obe r egion o f C entral

D arfur. T he

D arfur

a nd

l eft

f or t hree y ears

l ocal

a w ritten

( 1793-1796)

a uthorities w ere

i n

s uspicious

o f h im , a nd h is a ctivities w ere r estricted ; h e w as u nable t o m ix w ith t he l ocal p eople a nd

d id

n ot c oncern h imself m uch w ith t he

e arly h istory o f

t he r egion. T o h im t he D aju w as t he e arliest d ynasty t o r ule t he a rea t hat i ncluded o rigin

D arfur,

a nd

( ibid, 2 80) .

w as ,

H e

a ccording

t hen

t o

d escribed

h im , t he

o f

M oorish

( North

K eira

( Fur)

S ultanate

z enith o f i ts p ower. A M uslim , M ohammed I bn O mar A l T unisi v isited

D arfur

i n

1 803 ;

t he

s ome o f t he l ocal l anguages

p restige o f h is

f ather

a nd

A frican) a t

( 18 1 4 5 a nd

t he

1 850) ,

h is k nowledge o f

f acilitated h is m ovements a nd h e w as a ble t o

m ix w ith p eople m ore t han B rowne. H owever, h e t oo w as n ot i nterested i n t he m onuments o r t he e arly h istory o f t he r egion. H e m entioned, a s t ranslated i nto F rench ( Al T unisi

1 850 ,

7 1 4), t hat

" au r este, q uelque o pinion q ue l 'on a dapte s ur l 'origine d es S ultans a ctuels d u O uaday , d u D arfour, e t d e K ordofal, i l e st c ertain q ue l ' tab1issement d e c es t rois t ats e st d 'une p oque a ssez r approch e e t n e dpasse p as d eux c ents a ns ."

3

G ustav N achtigal

( 1971 ) v isited D arfur i n 1 874 w hen i t w as a t w ar w ith

t he E gyptians a dministration i n t he S udan, a nd f rom h is a ccount i t a ppears t hat b oth t he r ulers a nd t he p eople o f D arfur w ere

s uspicious o f h im . H e

d id n ot t ravel m uch i n t he c ountry b ut w as a ble t o g ive a n a ccount o f t he p olitical h istory o f t he a rea f rom l ocally a vailable o ral

t raditions .

F or

h im , t he

D aju

w ere t he

l ists o f k ings , a nd

f irst d ynasty w ho r uled

a rea , f ollowed b y t he T unjur w ho w ere s ucceeded b y t he c onsolidated c .

i n

t he

c ountry

d uring

1 600 A D . H e a lso g ave a v ivid

a rea ,

m entioning

a ll

t he

t he

r eign

o f

F ur, a nd I slam w as

S ultan

d escription o f t he t ribal

t ribes

l isted

b elow

t he

' Solong '

S alman

g roups

i n t he

( section

1 . 3 ).

O f

a rchaeological i nterest i s t hat h e m entioned T ouari a nd R o-Kuri a s h aving b een t he r esidences o f t he T unjur r uler

S hau D orshid

( ibid, 2 78), a nd t he

s ite o f U mmashana i n e astern D arfur w here h e d escribed: " crude d rawings o f h orses w ere

w ith

a nd

w ithout

a lso c ut o n t he

r iders ,

s tone". H e

c amels

a nd

c oncluded

g iraffes

t hat

a nd

n umerous

" none o f t hem h as

n ames e ither

a rtistic o r h istorical v alue" ( ibid, 3 78) . C ontemporary

w ith

N achtigal

w as

B arth ,

w ho

w rote

a bout

t raditions

c urrent f urther w est i n B ornu . H e d escribed t he T unjur a s b eing r ulers i n D arfur b efore t he F ur C adalvène

a nd

( Barth

B reuvèry

1 890 , 4 29_430) .

( 1836 ,

1 98) d id n ot v isit D arfur b ut m entioned

i t f rom t raditions c ollected f urther e ast, i n c onnection w ith t he h istory o f K ordufan. T hey s aid 1 447

t hat b oth K ordufar i a nd D arfur w ere r uled

a t a bout

A D b y t he p agan D aju , a nd t hat I slam w as i ntroduced t o D arfur b y A hmed

A l M aqur. S latin

( 1897 , 3 9) , w ho h ad b een a n E gyptian o fficial i n D arfur, r eported

t hat t he o riginal r ulers o f t he

a rea w ere t he

t he T unjur a nd t hen b y t he F ur ( see a lso O 'Fahey

D aju w ho

w ere

f ollowed

b y

1 972 , 5 5-66) .

1 .2 .2 T HE S ECOND P HASE T his c ommenced i n

1 916 w hen D arfur b ecame a p art o f t he A nglo-Egyptian

C ondominium , f or c ivil s ervants w ho a dministered t he p rovince c ontributed m uch t o

t he

s tudy o f t he c ultural h istory o f t he a rea , a nd b egan

t o m ake

u se o f a rchaeological e vidence . M acMichael ( 1922 V olume 1 , 1 2 14 ) w as t he m ost i mportant o f t hese. H e w as t he f irst t o v isit a rchaeological s ites a nd d escribed t hem i n s ome d etail. F or e xample , h e v isited A in F arah ( Figure

1 . 1) a nd d escribed i ts r emains a s

f ollows:

" The m ain e ntrance t o

t he

f ort

i s

f rom t he w est, t hat

i s ,

f rom t he s ide o f t he s ettlement , a nd t he g reat g ateway, t hree a nd a h alf y ards b road, i s f lanked b y a s tone w all n ot l ess t han 1 2 f eet h igh . . . . T he f oundations o f t he f ort, l ike t he o uter a nd i nner d efensive l ines b eyond i t, a re w ell b uilt o f r ough u nhewn b oulders , b ut t he u pper s tories o f t he s tructure , a nd t he i nner r ooms a nd d ividing w alls , a re o f m agnificent r ed b rick , h ard a s i ron, m etallic i n r ing a nd s lightly g lazed. T he l abour i nvolved i n b ringing t he h undreds o f t housands o f b ricks r equired f rom t he k ilns , w hich l ie a m ile o r m ore a way

4

t o

t he

s outh ,

m ust

h ave

b een

e normous ,

f or

t he

i ntervening

g round i s i nconceivably r ough , c ut a nd s carred b y r avines a nd l ittered d eep i n j agged r ocks . T he a ctual p lan o f t he f ort i s l ike n othing b ut a r abbit w arren: g alleries r un i n a nd o ut a nd c hamber l eads t o c hamber i n b ewildering m anner. A ll i s p artly r uined, b ut t he o utline c an e asily b e t raced" H e ( 1925 ,

7 7) a lso v isited T urra ( Figure

1 . 1) a nd s aid:

" The s tone m osque, c lose b y t he t ombs , i s s aid t o d ate f rom t he t ime o f A hmed B akur ( 1682-1722) w ho i nstalled a f amily o f G awama 'a f ekis f rom K ordufan a t T ura t o p rovide I mmams a nd c are f or t he t ombs . F or s even g enerations t his f amily h ad l ived a t T urra w hen I v isited i t, a nd t hey t old m e t hat t he o ld b uildings o f s tone a nd m ud w hich h ad m arked t he s ite o f t he t ombs h ad b een r ebuilt b y S ultan A ll D innar i n 1 910 i n r ed b rick w ith b uttresses a nd t hatched r oofs. I t w as s o Is aw t hem , t hough t he t hatched r oofs a re e vidently n ow a t hing o f t he p ast. T hey w ere w ell b uilt a nd i n e xcellent r epair, a nd i nside w ere t he l ow t ombs o f t he o ld S ultans , r aised o nly ( as f ar a s I r emember)

a f oot o r

s o

a bove t he

g round

l evel

a nd

p erfectly

s imple i n d esign".

H owever, r egion

a nd

h is h e

m ain

c ontribution

d istinguished

a ll

l ies

t he

i n

m ain

t he

t ribal

g roups,

h istories

i ncluding t he

o f

t he

Z aghawa,

D aju , M ima a nd M asalit m entioned b y e arlier w riters . A rkell w as t he t o r eport t he s ites , a nd

f irst t o c oncentrate o n t he a rchaeological r emains a nd

a rchaeology a nd t he e arly h istory o f t he r egion. H e v isited

d escribed

t hem

a nd

c ollected

s urface

i ron o bjects . H e g ave d etails , p lans a nd

s amples

o f b eads ,

p otsherds

p hotographs o f s ome o f t hem

a nd h is a rguments f orm t he b asis o f t he p resent r ecords . T he q uality o f h is w ork

c an

( Arkell

b e

1 936 ,

" On

s een

f rom

t he

f ollowing

d escription

o f

A in

F arah

3 02-304 a nd 3 05-306) :

t he

w ay

u p

o ne

p asses

t he

r uins

o f

a n umber

o f

a

c ircular s tone h uts , i n m ost o f w hich t he s tone w all i s f aced o n b oth s ides a nd f illed w ith r ubble ; a nd a s o ne a pproaches t he h ead o f t he v alley , o ne p asses t hrough a c arefully b uilt g ateway i n t he r ough w all w hich r uns a cross t he v alley O ne s crambles u p t his w all t o f ind t hat o ne i s o n t he s outh w all o f t he m osque, t he w alls o f t his m osque a re d ouble, am assive o uter w all o f m asonry e nclosing a n i nner w all o f r ed b rick . T he L -shaped p illars o f r ed b rick . .a re a lso a s f ar a s I k now u nique, a s i n D arfur t he u se o f v ery l arge b ricks s ome o f w hich c an b e s een o n t he t op o f t he p illar a nd i n t he s mall u nderground s tore t o t he s outh-west o f t he m osque. T he m osque i s o verlooked b y t he r uins o f t he r oyal r esidence w hich c rowns t he h ighest p oint o f t he h ill. F rom t he s addle b etween t he m osque a nd t he p alace a c arefully g raded r oad b uilt u p w ith b locks o f s tone s weeps u p t o t he m ain e ntrance t o t he p alace, w hich w as o n t he w est. J ust i nside t his e ntrance o n t he l eft i s a r ectangular t wo-roomed r ed-brick b uilding , t he f ired-on p laster o n t he i nside o f w hich h as b een d escribed b y S ir H arold ( MacMichael). T his b uilding, m ust I t hink , h ave s erved a s

t he

S ultans

D iwan ,

w hen

h e 5

g ave

a udience ,

c onsulted

h is

a ffairs o f t he s tate. . . T he h illside a cross t he s tream i s s een t o h ave b een a ll t erraced w ith m athematical r egularity f or c ultivation . . . I t s eems t o m e t hat t he s ite a t A in F arah w as n ot o ccupied f or l ong . P otsherds a re c omparatively f ew , a nd I h ave b een u nable t o f ind a ny c onsiderable m idden o r g rave y ard" H e a lso d escribed U ri

" The

m ost

( Arkell

i mportant

1 952 ,

2 46) :

s ite

i n

D arfur

i s t hat o f t he

s tone—

w alled t own, f rom f our t o f ive m iles i n c ircumference , w hich i ncludes w ithin i ts w alls t he p eak m arked o n t he m ap a s J .Orrei, b ut w hich i s k nown l ocally a s U ni. T he t own w all i s c ontinuous e xcept w here n atural f eatures s uch a s p recipices r ender i t u nnecessary . T he t own a ppears t o h ave g rown o ut o f a s maller w alled t own a t t he S E . c orner w hich i s c omplete i n i tself , b ut w hich h as b een i ncluded a t a l ater s tage w ithin t he g reatly e xtended c ity w all. T he d efensive w all o f t his e arly

t own

i s

o f d ry

m asonry

w ell

b uilt

w ith

p erpendicular

f aces ; i t v aries i n t hickness f rom s ix t o n ine f eet a nd i ts c ourse i s r oughly c ircular, a nd t he s pace t hat i t e ncloses h as ad iameter o f a pproximately 1 50 y ards" H e ( 1945 ,

2 86) d escribed o ne o f U n 's a udience p latforms a s:

" a m assive, r ough c ircular, w all a bout 9 f t h igh , u p t o t he t op o f w hich f rom t he w est s ide l eads a n i mposing f light o f n ine s teps. I nside t his w all a re f ive m asonry p illars a nd a pproximately i n t he c entre o f t he s pace e nclosed i s ar ock o f a bout 5 f t c ube"

H is

w orks

s till

s tand

a s

t he

c ontribution r egarding D arfur ( Arkell A l ater o fficial, B alfour

P aul

m ost 1 937 ,

o utstanding 1 946 , 1 956 ,

a rchaeological

1 962 a nd 1 965).

( 1953 a nd 1 956), a lso v isited s ites a nd

m ade v aluable c omments a bout t hem . H e r eported •o n t he p alace o f T ayrab a t S ioba a nd m ade d etailed p lans o f t he m osque t here. H e r evisited U ni a nd w as a ble t o f ind a m osque w hich h ad b een m issed b y A rkell. I n

1 924 a nd

t he d eserts o f

1 953 t here w ere a lso N orthern

D arfur

f our

b y N ewbold

a nd r ock d rawing i n t he W adi H awar a rea t ime

l inguistic

s tudies

i n

e xploratory e xpeditions t hrough

D arfur

a nd

S haw .

( Newbold

w ere

a lso

T hey

r eported

1 924 ; S haw

c ommenced.

1 953).

s ites

A t t his

C . B eaton

( 1968)

d escribed t he p honetic s ystem o f t he F ur l anguage a nd i ts g rammar. A li A bu S in a lso d eveloped h istorical s tudies a nd i ncluded a d etailed d escription o f A li D innar's 1 9th c entury P alace ( 1968 , F rom

t he

a rchaeological

p oint

o f

4 2-50) .

v iew t he

w orkers

o f t his p hase

h ad

c ertain w eaknesses o f a pproach a nd o f c oncept w hich m ay b e s ummarized a s f ollows: [ 1]

L ike

m ost

o f

t he

s cholars

o f

t heir

g eneration,

t hey

t ook

a

d iffusionist s tandpoint. T hey l ooked t o t he a rchaeological e vidence i n t he T he

a rea t o s how h uman m igration a nd N ile

V alley

a nd

t he

W est

c ultural A frica

d iffusion i nto s avannah

w hich

D arfur. w ere

a rchaeologically b etter k nown w ere t aken a s m ore ' civilized' a reas a nd 6

h ence

t he

T hat

p ossible

a ssumption

A rkell's

v iew

c onsidered 1 937 ,

l ed

o f

t o

t he

p ost

H e

t hen

o f

f or

t he o f

p ost

3 rd

d evelopment

I t

c an

b est

U ri

a nd

A in

o f t he

c hanged

t he

c ultural

c onfusion.

c omplexes

t hem a t rading

2 01-202).

M eroitic

s ources

h is

c entury

B ornu

m ind A D

b e

K ingdom

a nd

D arfur.

i llustrated

F arah ,

f or

h e

b y

f irst

( 1936 , 3 10

r egarded

( Arkell

i n

a nd

U ri a s a l ate

1 961,

114 7) .

H e

l ater

c hanged h is v iew a gain a nd d esignated A in F arah a s a C hristian N ubian M onastery , K alck

d ated

t o

t he

7 th-10th

1 972 ; 0 'Fahey a nd S paulding

c enturies

A D

( Arkell

1 959 ,

19 ;

1 973).

[ 2] T hey n ever h ad e nough t ime t o s urvey a w hole s ite o r e ven t o m ake t est e xcavations , f or t hey w ere o ccupied i n a dministration a nd a rchaeology w as a h obby f or t hem ( MacMichael [ 3] T hey

u sually t ravelled

s ites

w hich

w ere

a long

l ocated

1 922 V olume 1 ,

b eaten

a way

t racks

f rom

t heir

1 23 ;

a nd

1 937 ,

A rkell

c onsequently

r outes .

T he

1 25).

m issed

e xception

w as

B alfour P aul ( 1956), w ho t ravelled b y c amel f or m any m iles l ooking f or r ock d rawings . D espite

t heir

a rchaeology o f

f ailings ,

D arfur

a nd

t hey

m ade

r eported

p ioneering

s ites

a ttempts

w hich

s ince

t o

t heir

r ecord

t he

v isits h ave

b een m uch d estroyed.

1 .2 .3 T HE T HIRD P HASE T his

b egan

i n

t he

m id-1960s

w hen

s pecialists p ermitted t o g o t o t he H istorians

m ay

b e

c onsidered

w ork

w as

b eing

c arried

o ut

b y

a rea f or d ifferent k inds o f r esearch .

f irst. T heobald

s tudied

t he

f inal

p hase o f

t he K eira d ynasty ( the r eign o f S ultan A li D innar), a p eriod w hich w as n ot r ecorded s tudied 1 981),

b y

t he

t he w ho

h istory

e arlier

t ravellers.

M andist

p eriod

c ollected

o ver

o f

d evelopment.

t he

K eira

H e

a lso

b efore 3 00

A li

a nd

a n ote

A l

M ubarak

D innar.

d ocuments

S ultanate w rote

M usa

f rom

t he

0 'Fahey t he

t he

H asan

( 1972 ,

r egion,

b ackground

a bout

A l

t o

B ergid

( 1969)

1 976

a nd

s tudied

t he

g rowth

a nd

i ts

l anguage

a nd

i ts

c onnection w ith N ubian. A s eries o f a nthropologists c ame t o w ork

i n

t he

a rea .

T ubiana

( 1961 4)

s tudied t he l anguage a nd t he p re-Islamic s urvivals o f t he Z aghawa. J . H oly ( 1971 4)

i nvestigated t he

B erti a nd t heir l anguage . F . B arth a nd

G . H aaland

( 1969) s tudied t he t ribal b oundaries o f t he F ur. R . H aaland ( 1978 a nd 1 980) i nvestigated

p resent d ay

p ottery

m aking

a nd

i ron w orking .

U nfortunately

t he a nthropological w ork h as n eglected t he t imescale i n m ost o f t he a reas s tudied. G eographers ,

g eologists

s tudied

t he

J abal

B arbour

( 1964 a nd

M arra

a nd

r egion

b otanists ( Lebon

h ave

1 965 ;

a lso

L ebon

c ontributed.

a nd

R obertson

L ebon 1 961),

1 969) s tudied W adi A zum a nd w estern D arfur a nd W hiteman

( 1976) w orked o ut t he g eology o f t he a rea. W ickens s tudied t he f lora o f t he J abal M am a r egion a nd c ontributed t o a rchaeology b y t he d iscovery o f t he s ite o f K ebeih ( Wickens

1 973 ,

3 10-311).

O nly t wo a rchaeologists o ther t han t he w riter h ave w orked i n t he r egion s ince 1 960 . H . Z iegert m ade s urveys i n t he J abal M arra r egion a nd e xcavated

7

s everal

s ettlements

U nfortunately ,

( personal

v ery

l ittle

c ommunication ,

o f

h is

w ork

b een

1 978) . n o

r esearch

f or

t his v olume t he w riter

v isited b oth H amburg a nd K hartoum , b ut n o r eports

A h

( 1978 a nd H awar

o f t he

a nd

a vailable.

W adi

t he c ourse

S eptember p ublished

m anuscript r eports a re o r o bjects f rom t he

D uring

H amburg ,

h as

J abal M arra s urveys w ere a vailable t o

h im . M ohammed -

1 982) c onducted a rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he u pper

B asin

i n n orthern D arfur, a nd h as p ublished

a r eport o f t hree

N eolithic s ites a nd a g roup o f r ock d rawings .

1 .3 R ECENT P OPULATION S URVEY O F T HE R EGION A s a nd

c an

b e

s een

l inguistic

p opulation c riteria

f rom t he m ap

g roups

c ensus

t o

i s

( Figure

i nhabit

t he

a vailable

o ther

i dentify m embers o f o ne

t hat p ersonal

1 . 1) a n umber o f d ifferent t ribal

r egion. t han g roup

U nfortunately ,

t hat o r

o f

1 956 ,

a nother.

n o

n or

r eliable

a ny

a greed

H owever, i t

s eems

f eelings o f b elonging t o a g roup , k inship , t ribal m arks a nd

l ocal l anguage a re t he m ajor c haracteristics w hich i dentify a n i ndividual a s a m ember o f a n

e thnic g roup. T hese g roups e xploit d ifferent e cological

z ones: S ahel, s avannah a nd t he h ill r anges i n b oth . T hey a re l isted

b elow

i n t he o rder o f t heir f irst m ention i n t he h istorical r ecords . T here a re o ther e thnic g roups s uch a s t he B irgid, B ediyat a nd M ima ( not d iscussed h ere)

a bout w hich t here i s v ery l ittle

h istorical

i nformation.

A ll p opulation f igures f ollowing a re f rom t he 1 956 c ensus.

1 .3 .1 T HE Z AGHAWA T his C entral s ingle

g roup

n umbered

K ordufan a nd r egion,

a bout

9 6 ,211,

N orthern

o ccupied

b y

t he

n omadic s heep ,

N ilo-Saharan s ome

i n

i n

e thnic

( Tubiana

D arfur,

h istorically , t his

g roup ,

1 964 ,

N orth

a nd

i s a

o nly d ivided

1 0). T heir

b y

l anguage b elongs

t he

S ahel/savannah , w ho

c ultivation

o f

k eep c amels , g oats

b ullrush

m illet

a nd

P ennisetum

s orghum d urra . T hey h ave m any d ifferent s ub-clans ,

i ncluding t he K obe , t he g roup

t he

s poradic

t yphoideum d ukhun a nd e thnic

' same '

o f

g roup r elated t o t he D aza a nd T eda o f C had . T hey a re

p eople , l iving w ith

p arts

C had. S ocially a nd

t he

m odern i nternational f rontiers t o

o ccupying

B ari a nd t he K itinga. T hey a re t he e arliest k nown

r egion,

b eing

m entioned

b y

A l

K hwarismi ,

I bn

S aid

( section 1 .2 .1) a nd B rowne ( 1799 , 2 85) .

1 .3 .2 T HE D AJU T hey

n umbered

1 7 ,215 ,

f urther w est

i n t he

n ow

s outhern

i n

t he

s avannah .

S udanic g roup ( 0 'Fahey w ith

M ahas .

p eople , b ut

0 'Fahey t here

s cattered

t hroughout

K ordufan

a nd

D arfur

a nd

R epublic o f C had. T heir m ain c entre o f s ettlement i s l anguage

1 972 , 2 9 a nd 1 980 ,

a nd

i s

T heir

o thers

a g eneral

a re

b elongs

t o

t he

e astern

1 5) a nd m ay h ave s ome c onnections

u ncertain

a s

t o

t he

o rigin

o f

t his

a greement s ince B rowne t hat t hey p rovided

t he f irst d ynasty o f w hich w e h ave e vidence a s h olding p olitical p ower i n D arfur. 1 .2 .1).

A rkell T hey

r egarded

a re

t hem a s t he

s edentary

s ame g roup

a griculturalists

a s t he

T ajawiin

c ultivating

( section

b ullrush

m illet

a nd s orghum . T hey h ave f ew a nimals , m ostly c attle i n t he p lains n ear N yala ( Figure

1 . 1).

T hey

a re

M uslims

a nd

a re 8

d ivided

i nto

m any

c lans ,

e .g .

T ambuge , A dujge a nd D armange .

1 .3 .3 THE T UNJUR T hey

a re

a t

p resent

f ound

i n

t he

n orthern s avannah b etween

K ordufan,

D arfur a nd n orthern N igeria. T hey h ave n o l anguage o f t heir o wn, c ommonly s peak

A rabic,

a nd

n umbered

5 7 ,402 .

T heir

e conomy

i s

a m ixed

o ne

o f

a griculture a nd a nimal h usbandry . T heir m ain c rops a re b ullrush m illet a nd s orghum

a nd

t heir

m ain

k nown a nd h as b een a n ( Arkell T hey

1 931,

a re

D arfur,

2 72-279 ;

r egarded

a fter

M acMichael

a s

t he

a nimals c attle

a nd

d onkeys. T heir

o rigin

I s n ot

i ssue o f d ebate a mongst t hose w ho h ave s tudied t hem h aving

D aju .

T he

1 922

V olume

p rovided T unjur

g roups: F ella , S ambella a nd D umua

t he

o f

1 , 1 22-8 ;

s econd

F urnung

( MacMichael

0 'Fahey

d ynasty

a re

o f

d ivided

1 980 ,

8 ) .

r ulers

o f

i nto

t hree

1 922 V olume 1 , 1 26) .

1 .3 4 THE P I ASALIT T his g roup i n t he m ost w estern d istrict o f D arfur i s , l ike t he Z aghawa , d ivided b etween t he r epublics o f C had a nd t he S udan , a nd l ives b etween t he R onga o f C had a nd t he S udanese F ur b elt .

T hey n umbered

( 1972 ,

1 3 1 4 ,379 .

T heir

( Figure o rigin

1 . 1)

i n

t he n orthern s avannah

i s n ot w ell

k nown, b ut

0 'Fahey

2 8) p ostulated t hat : " The M asalit l anguage i s p art o f t he M aba g roup , w hich i s f ound m ainly i n W adai a nd w hich a lso i ncludes M ararit a nd E rnga a nd w hich s uggests t hat t he M asalit m ay b e a n i ntrusive g roup f rom t he w est" .

A lthough

t hey

r etain

t heir

o riginal

l anguage ,

A rabic

i s

w idely

s poken

a mong t hem a nd t heoretically a ll o f t hem a re M uslims . H istorically , t heir c ontrol

w as

u sually

d isputed

a ccepted

I ndependence g rowing

b y

t he

( Theobald

b ullrush

t he

S ultanates

o f

l atter 's

a uthority

1 962 ,

T hey

m illet

a nd

7 ) .

s orghum ,

W adai w ith

a re w ith

a nd a

s edentary a v ery

D arfur, l arge

b ut

t hey

d egree

o f

a griculturalists

s mall

g roup

h erding

c attle i n s outhern D arfur a djoining t he F allata a nd t he H abania . 1 .3 .5 THE F UR T hey n umbered 3 03 ,173 a nd l ive I n a nd a round J abal M arra . T heir l anguage I s d ifferent

f rom o thers I n t he a rea a nd i s r ather a n i solated o ne a mon g

A frican

l anguages ,

( 0 'Fahey

1 972 ,

3 1) .

b eing T he

d istantly

K eira

d ynasty o f D arfur b etween c .

c lan

o f

1 600 a nd

r elated t he

F ur

t o w as

t hat

o f

t he

c ertainly

M asalit

t he

r uling

1 916 A D . T hey a re s edentary p eople ,

d epending o n a griculture ; b ullrush m illet , s orghum a nd n ow m aize a re t heir p rincipal c rops a nd s ome o wn c attle , s heep a nd g oats . T hey a re f amous t oday f or

t heir

b askets o f

v arious

c olours .

V ery

l ittle

i s

k nown

a bout

t heir

o rigin; h owever, t hey s eem t o b e o ne o f t he o ldest e thnic g roups i n D arfur a nd t he w hole r egion I s n amed a fter t hem . A l T unisi d ivided t hem t o t hree c lans , K unjara i ncluding K elra , T emuka a nd K arakirit S i).

9

( inhabitants o f J abal

1 .3 .6 T HE l AMA T his g roup n umbered M asalit , i n

C had

a nd

a bout

2 7 ,181

a nd

l ives w est

a nd

D arfur. A ccording t o N achtigal

u sually u nder t he a uthority o f t he W adai

n orth-west

of t he

t hey w ere i n t he p ast

S ultanate. A lthough a ll

o f t hem

a re M uslims , m ost s till s peak t heir o riginal l anguage, w hich i s ab ranch o f a n

e astern

S udanic

( 1962 , 8 5) .

I t

s ub-group

a ffinities w ith t he a nd

i t

h as

c lassified

h as r ecently b een b een

N ubian

a s

s uggested

m acro-Sudanic

t hat t heir

l anguage o f K ordufan

t hought

t he

h omeland

o f

a nd

b y

G reenburg

l anguage h as c lose o f t he

N ubian

N ile

s peakers

V alley ,

m ay

h ave

o riginally b een s omewhere b etween D arfur a nd K ordufan b efore t hey m oved t o t he

N ile

( Thellwall

1 982 , 4 6 ;

A dams

1 982 ,

1 5) .

T hey

a re

a griculturalists

g rowing b ullrush m illet a nd s orghum , a nd i n D arfur t hey a re v ery f amous a s c raftsmen;

t hey

p roduce

s ome

o f

t he

m ost

s killed

i ronsmiths

a nd

t heir

w omen a re f amous p otters t hroughout t he r egion. S ome o f t hem a re a lso n ow c entred a t A l F asher a nd K ebkabiya.

1 .3 .7 T HE B ERTI T his g roup , l ike t he F ur, i s f ound m ainly i n D arfur a nd i s d ivided

i nto

t hree g roups. O ne i s i n w hat m ight h ave b een t heir o riginal t erritory, t he T agabo r ange ( Figure w here

t hey

d riven

h ave

1 . 1), a nd n umbered 9 ,939 . T he s econd i s i n e ast

b een

f or

t here b y f amine

a t

a nd

l east

t he

t wo

c enturies ,

p erhaps

D arfur

h aving

e xpansion o f t he M eidob t ribe . T he

b een t hird

o ccupies t he S imiat r ange. U p t o t he b eginning o f t his c entury t hey s poke a l anguage o f t heir o wn, c lassified a s o ne o f t he N ilo-Saharan g roup r elated t o

Z aghawa

( Holy

1 974 ,

1 5).

i ncluding W amato, K amdirto f or

s everal

c ommonly

g enerations

s peak

A rabic.

T hey

a nd i n

a re

i nto

B asigna . T he l ast

T agabo .

T hey

d ivided

a re

A ll

o f

a nd

f ormed

t hem

c ompletely

a griculture , g rowing b ullrush m illet

n umerous

t he r uling g roup

a re

n ow

s edentarized

s orghum , a nd

s ections

M uslims a nd

k eep

a nd

p ractice

c attle ,

s heep ,

g oats a nd d onkeys.

1 .3 .8 T HE M EIDOB T his

g roup

f ound

i n

c lose

t o

a nd t he

l ives

i n

a round

t he

J abal

M ahas

S ahel

n orth-east

M eidob, a nd

v ersion

o f

o f t he

n umbered

N ubian

B erti

2 0 ,782 .

( MacMichael

a nd

i s

m ainly

T heir l anguage

1 912 ,

1 05) .

T hey

i s a re

m ainly c amel-keeping n omads b ut s ome o f t hem o wn s heep a nd g oats . T hey a re d ivided

i nto

d ynasty

h as

s everal b een

i n

f inally i ncorporated t hem a re n ow b ecame

m ixed

s ub-groups p ower

f or

i nto t he F ur

w ith t he

e .g . a t

U rti,

l east

S helkota

e ight

g ave

u p

T urte,

g enerations .

S ultanate i n t he

B erti; t hey

a nd

w hose

T hey

w ere

1 8th c entury . A f ew o f

t heir

n omadic

l ife

s edentary a griculturalists a ccepting t he t raditions o f t he

a nd

B erti.

1 .3 .9 O THERS I NCLUDING N OMADS O ther t he

s mall g roups

s avannah

o f t he

f ound w est.

i n D arfur

T he

f ormer

t oday a re a re

f rom t he

N ile V alley a nd

J allin, S haigiya

w hose a ncestors h ave b een m erchants a nd h igh o fficials i n t owns a nd

f or

N iger

s everal a nd

c enturies . T he

a re f ound

l atter

a re

F ulani

w ho

a nd

D or igolawi

K obe a nd o ther

a re

f rom

N igeria

i n m any r egions . S ome m embers o f t his g roup 1 0

w ere

h igh

o fficials

u nder

t he

K eira

S ultanate

f or

c enturies ,

a nd

t hey

a lso

p roduced i mportant r eligious l eaders ( fakis) w ho p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he s pread o f I slamic t eaching i n t he a rea . O ne F ulani n omadic c attleh erding

g roup

D arfur.

s till e xists i n t he D ar

A d ifferent

p roduced

m any

g roup,

f amous

t he

F ulani , a round T ulous

G awama ,

r eligious

c laims t o

c ome

i n s outhern

f rom K ordufan

t eachers; a t p resent t hey

a nd

l ive m ainly i n

A zagarfa a nd a round G adid A l S il. A t hird g roup i s t he B ornoese , w ho c ame t o t he a rea t hree c enturies a go f rom L ake C had a nd s ettled i n M anawashai i n s outhern D arfur T he

s outhern

h ere , b ut

( Figure

s avannah

C entral D arfur

1 . 1) . o f

D arfur

( Figure 2 .2)

w ill

n ot

b e

d iscussed

i s v isited b y c attle a s w ell a s c amel n omads w ho

g o n orth a nd s outh r espectively i n t heir h erding c ycles t wice a y ear. T he

c attle n omads u sually r eferred

V olume

t o a s t he

B aqqra

( MacMichael

1 922

1 , 1 72) , a re A rabic-speaking a lthough n ot a ll o f t hem c laim A rabic

o rigin. T hose c laiming t o b e o f A rabic B ani

H alba ,

M a 'alia

a nd

o rigin c omprise t he

T a 'aisha. T heir

R iziggat , H abania ,

m ain a dministrative c entre i s i n

S outhern D arfur a nd i n t he s ummer t hey g o f urther s outh t o B ahr A l G azzele , w here

t here

i s

a mple

g razing

f or

t heir

c attle .

T hey

s avannah o f C entral D arfur d uring t he r ainy s eason

g o

t o

t he

n orth

( July-October) w hen i t

i s n ot p ossible f or t heir c attle t o l ive i n t he s outh . I t i s s till u nknown w hen o r

t hrough w hich

r oute

t he

A rabic-speaking

c lans

c ame

t o

s outhern

D arfur, b ut t heir o ral t raditions s eem t o p oint t o t he C had B asin a nd t he w est . T hose n ot c laiming A rabic o rigin h ave l inks w ith t he F ulani c attle n omads a nd t he M asalit f urther w est . A mong

c amel

n omads

o ther

t han

t he

Z aghawa

a nd

t he

M eidob ,

m entioned

a bove , a re t hose w ho c laim A rabic o rigin a nd a re u sually c alled A bala , a nd a re A rabic-speakers a nd M uslims . T hey c ome t o t he s avannah o f C entral a nd s outhern

D arfur

m igrate

t o

t raditions

i n

D ecember ,

a void s uggest

r eturning

t he

h eavy

t hat

t hey

r ains c ame

t o

t he

n orth

( Barbour

i nto

t he

i n

J uly

1 962 ,

1 50) .

r egion

f rom

w hen

T heir t he

t hey o ral

w est

a s

b ranches o f t he R iziggat a nd Z iyyadia t ribes a nd c ontinued t o h erd c amels.

1 .1.10 CONCLUSIONS F rom t he e thnographic d ata i t c an b e s een t hat t here a re t wo g roupings o f p opulation i n D arfur. T hose C entral

w ho

l ive

D arfur

-

i n

h ills

t he

D aju ,

a nd

p art

T unjur,

o f

F ur,

t he

p lains

M asalit

a nd

s edentary a griculturalists . T hey s eem t o h ave b een

i n

t he

B erti

s avannah -

a re

o f

m ostly

i n t he c ountry b efore

t he a rrival o f I slam ( 11th-16th c enturies A D) a nd e ach ( except t he T unjur) h as a n i ndigenous l anguage o ther t han A rabic. T o

t he

n orth

r espectively ,

a nd

s outh

o f

t hem

m ostly A rabic-speaking

o ne

f inds

( with t he

c amel

a nd

c attle

n omads

e xception o f t he M eidob ,

Z aghawa a nd F allata) w ho a re i mmigrants a nd c laim t o h ave c ome t o t he a rea a fter t he

i ntroduction o f I slam . T he r ole o f a rchaeology i s t o a dd t o o ur

1

k nowledge o f h ow t his s tate o f a ffairs c ame a bout. I t

i s w orth n oting t hat t he

" tribal/occupational

f rontiers" h ave b een

s table b ut p ermeable . G roups a re a lso k nown t o h ave c hanged t heir e conomic b ases .

A ccording

s edentary ( Haaland

t o

f arming

H aaland,

a nd

s ome

a dopted

t he

o f

t he

F ur

h ave

a nd

n omadism

c ustoms

r ecently o f

g iven

t he

u p

B aqqra

1 969 , 7 0-73). A lso s ome g roups o f Z aghawa a nd M eidob h ave s ettled

a nd b ecome c ompletely s edentarized. O 'Fahey ( 1980 ,

8 ) h as c orrectly s tated t hat

" Such m obility s uggests t hat t he t ribal l abels h ave o nly l imited e thnic c ontent o r s tability, a nd t hat o nly p olitical m echanisms a ccount f or t he p reservation o f t he t erritorially d efined g roups i n a n a rea o f o pen f rontiers . C hanges i n p olitical a llegiance w ere l ater l egitimized b y c hanges i n o ne 's a ncestors . T he m obility b ecomes a pparent f rom a n e xamination o f t ribal a nd c lan n ames , s ince t hese g enerally r eveal a h igh p roportion o f s tranger a ncestors . T he o utstanding e xample o f e xpansion b y i ncorporation w ere t he F ur t hemselves , s ince t heir t erritorial g rowth w as a m ajor t heme o f t he s ultanate 's h istory".

1 . 1 4 R ECENT M ATERIAL C ULTURE I t w as f elt, f ollowing O rme ( 1969 a nd ( 1979) , C larke

( 1975) , H odder

( 1981,

t hat

1 011),

a rchaeological r eports

o f

m aterial

t he

( 1976 a nd

e thnographic

r emains

i n

t ravellers

d ata

C entral o f

t he

1 981) , G ould

( 1980) , C arol

1 982) , L ebeuf w ould

b e

D arfur.

I t

l ast

1 86

a n

a id

w as

y ears

C ramer

( 1980 , 3 ) a nd C onnah t o

t he

a pparent , a nd

t he

s tudy

o f

f rom

t he

p resent

d ay

c ollected b y t he w riter, t hat m any a spects o f l ife h ave r emained

s tatic i n t he r ural a reas

f or t wo h undred y ears a nd m ay h ave b een

s o f or

e ven l onger. I t w as c onsidered t o b e o f v alue t o c ompare t he p resent p eople a nd t heir m aterial c ulture i n t he v icinity o f t he s ites w ith d ata f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord. T hree t ypes o f e thnographic d ata h ave b een u sed h ere: [ 1] E thnographic i nformation f ound i n e arlier r ecords . [ 2] O ral t radition o r v erbal i nformation c ollected b y t he t he w riter f rom p eople i n t he a rea . [ 3] D irect e thnographic o bservations m ade b y t he w riter

i n e ach

s urveyed

r egion , a nd t hose r ecorded b y e thnographic r esearchers . T he

f ollowing

e thnographic

a spects

w ere

e specially

s tudied

t o

h elp

e xamine t he m aterial r emains c ollected f rom a rchaeological s ites . [ a]

P ottery m anufacturing a nd t he s ocial l evel ( Chapters

[ b]

i ron w orking o n b oth t he

t echnological a nd

4a nd 5 ) .

P resent s ettlements n ear a rchaeological s ites w ere s tudied; t his i ncluded t he s tudy o f p hysical f eatures o f i ndividual s tructures a nd t heir

r elationship

( Appendix

w ith

i ndividuals

I II).

1 2

a nd

g roups

i n

t he

c ommunity

[ c] S ome

a spects o f t he p resent d ay r ural

e conomy a nd

l and u se w ere a lso

e xamined, s uch a s t he l and u se s ystem , h erding a nd e xchange. T his

e thnographic

s trengthen

t he

d ata

w ill

a rchaeological

b e

u sed, w hen

r elevant, t o

e vidence. H owever, i t

t hat t he l atter i s o f p rimary s econdary n ature f or t his v olume .

i mportance

s upplement

s hould

w hile

t he

o r

b e e mphasised

f ormer

i s

o f

a

1 .5 A RCHAEOLOGICAL A ND H ISTORICAL E VIDENCE T he

e arliest

a rchaeological

e vidence

i n

D arfur

w as

r eported

b y

g eologists w ho f ound a t U mm M ai " in t he b ase o f a d eposit o f m ixed g ranite a nd b asalt c obbles a nd g ravel u nconformably o verlying b ed a s lightly a braded b ifacial c hopper o f O ldowan / Ache u li an w ith

r olled

b asalt

f lakes

a nd

s ubangular

n ature o f m any o f

t ools

h ave

b een

e arly

t o

c arried

m iddle

p ossible"

a rea , u nifacial m ay

b e

f rom

a nd

a nd

1 .5

t he

v ery

P leistocene

( Williams

f rom

a ge

F aure

0 .8

g ravels

f ar

b ifacial

t o

p olyhedra . . . .

f or

u nlikely

t hat

( bed

a lso

3 )

b y

t he

c omparison

s o i n

a nd

s tone

t hat

s eems

f ound,

O ldowan/Acheulian

o ld,

a ngular

s ources ,

B eds

T hey

o f

y ears

i s

f rom t he

o riginal R ed

3 16) .

s crapers

m illion

i t

t he

t he

1 980 ,

J udging

( 3) w e o bserved a spect , t ogether

a n

q uite

t he

s ame

a spect.

T hey

w ith

s imilar

a ssemblages f rom e ast A frica ( ibid, 3 16-317) . i s

a s

y et

o nly

c ommunities

T here

i n

t he

r egion,

W adi

1 l awar,

D arfur ,

i n

t he

w ere w rongly t hought t o P aul

(1 956 ,

s light

e vidence

m ostly n ecked

b e

f rom

o f

l ater

s urface

s tone

a xes

c ollected

P alaeolithic t ypes

5 ) h as s uggested

h unting

( Newbold

t hat s ome o f t he

a nd

c ollections .

M erbo

f rom 1 924 ,

g athering

I n

n orthern

t he

s urface

1 0). B alfour

r ock d rawings

c ould

p ossibly b e a ssociated w ith t he h unting c ommunities , b ut o ffers n o s upport f or t he h ypothesis; t hey c ould b e o f N eolithic A ge ( c . M ohammed—All c attle

a nd

( 1981,

p ractised

9 5)

h as

s hown

a griculture

t hat

w ere

6 000-2000 B C).

s tone—using

p resent

i n

t he

g roups U pper

w ho

W adi

b red H awar .

B asin i n n orthern D arfur b etween 3 000 a nd 2 000 B C . H is e xcavation o f t hree s ites a t U mm—Barou s uggested t hat t hey w ere s easonal c amp—sites l ocated o n l ow

h ills

o verlooking

d rawings m ight

H e

a lso

b e a ttributable t o

w adis .

t hem .

b y t he w riter's s urvey f rom C entral

s uggested M any

D arfur

t hat

l ithic

s ome

e arly

r ock

i mplements c ollected

( Al F asher, M erbo , B ora D ulu a nd

K utum), s uggest t hat t here w ere g roups s imilar t o t hose f ound a t U mm—Barou ( Chapter T here H owever,

a nd A ppendix

3

i s

a t

p resent

n o

d ated M erbo

t hree

t he ( I)

t o

t he

T he

s econd

t he

c harcoal

f rom

l ayer

2 nd m illennium B C . L ayer I II s hows s imilar

s tone i mplements; s ome o f i ts p ottery i s s imilar U mm—Barou a nd

t hat

B C .

b ottom o f t he p it s hows s tone i mplements s imilar t o t hose o f U mm—Barou

p hases .

s uggests

m illennium

w as

b e d ated

T agabo

i st

f rom

w ell

i n

t he

c ave

c ould

a t i n

f rom

t he

a nd

s equence

c ontinuously

e vidence

( IV)

o ccupied

t he

I ).

t o

t he

i t i s d ated t o 2 00 ± 5 0

p ottery f ound

a t

( 175-375 A D). T he

s imilarities b etween t he l ithic a rtefacts o f b oth l ayers s uggest t hat t he o ccupants

of M erbo c ave

e arly c enturies o f t he i mplements,

i t

s howed

c ontinued i st

t o

u se

s tone

i mplements w ell

m illennium A D . W hile l ayer

d istinctive

p ottery

1 3

t ypes

I I

s howed

w hich

i nto t he n o

s tone

e xhibit

s ome

s imilarity t o p ottery f rom M ao a nd b oth c ould b e d ated t o t he 2 nd h alf o f t he i st m illennium A D ( see C hapter 3 ) . T he

n ewly

o btained

C 1 4

d ates

f rom

D arfur

( Appendix

I V)

f ew

a s t hey

a re , i ndicate t hat t he a ge o f t he l ocal i ron-using s ettlements n eeds t o b e r eviewed. s hould

T here

b e

i s

d ated

e vidence

t o

b efore

n ow

t hat

4 50

A in

t 2 20

F arah

( 560-620

i ron-using A D).

T hose

c ommunities

o f

B ora w ere

a lready i ron-using b y 6 40 ± ( 670 A D) . T he i nhabitants o f M ao w ere i n af ull i ron-using p hase b y 9 20 ± 5 0 i ncluded w ithin t his g roup .

( 9801020

A D) .

T he

S imiat

T he d ate o f t he b eginning o f i ron-using i n t he a rea

a rea

c ould

b e

i s n ot k nown , b ut

t he n ew d ates s uggest t hat i ron t echnology w as i n u se i n t he a rea a s e arly a s t he 5 th c entury A D . C onsequently , t hese s ettlements m ust b e p ushed b ack i n t ime a nd t heir b eginning c ould g o t o t he i st c entury A D i f n ot e arlier. O ne c ould t hose

i nclude h ere o ther s ites s urveyed

l ocated

o n

h illtops

w ith

s igns o f

b y A rkell

( 1952) , e specially

n on-Islamic

b urials ,

d ry s tone

b uidings a nd a rtefacts s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t he d ated s ites m entioned a bove . F inally , s ome o f t he d rawings i n c aves a nd r ock s helters o f h orses a nd c amels , a fter

a nimals 1 700

B ulliet

w hich c ould

a nd

1 975 ,

2 00 B C

16) .

n ot

h ave

b een

i ntroduced

r espectively , b elong

A s

w ill

b e

t o

d iscussed

t his

i n

t o

t he

p eriod

C hapter

a rea

( Law

6 ,

t he

u ntil

1 981,

1 ;

e arliest

d rawings a t M ao c ave m ay w ell g o b ack t o t he 7 th-10th c enturies A D . T o

t his

p eriod

m ay

a lso

b e

a ssigned

t he

e arliest

g roups r ecorded

i n

o ral t raditions a nd i n t he w ritten s ources . A mong t he f ormer t here a re t he T ora ,

w ho,

t errace

i n

t he

J abal

c ultivation

r emembered

t here

a nd

M arra ,

a re

i rrigation .

( personal

c redited

w ith

H owever,

n o

c ommunication) .

t he

I ntroduction

p recise

I n

i nformation

n orthern

D arfur

o f i s t he

u nm iganaan a re c ited a s t he p eople w ho b uilt b arrows ( Balfour P aul 1 956 , 5 6 ) , w hile i n C entral D arfur i nformants t old t he w riter t hat t he p eople w ho f irst

b uilt

i n

s tone

i n

t he

a rea

w ere

c alled

u n ganaan

( sometimes

m entioned a s a buganaan). N obody c laims l inks w ith t hem t oday . A fter

1 000 A D t he p eriod o f I slamic/Arabic

a rea , a nd

a t

( section

1 .2 .1) .

l east

s ome o f i ts

T he

Z aghawa

p eoples

a nd

i nfluence c ommenced i n t he

a re m entioned

T ajawa ,

i f

i n

A rkell 's

A rabic

s ources

i dentification

o f

T ajawlin a s D aju i s a ccepted, a re t he m ost i mportant g roups a nd a lso s how c ontinuity t hrough t o t he p resent d ay . S ee O 'Fahey ( 1972 , F rom t he

1 8th

c entury , t he

s ources

a gree

t hat

5 5) .

a s tate

i n

D arfur

w as

r uled b y t hree s uccessive d ynasties . T he D aju w ere f ollowed b y the T unjur a nd t hen t he F ur. Ad ynasty o f t he D aju e stablished i ts r ule i n t he s avannah a t s ome d ate b efore

t he

s outhern

1 0th

c entury

p arts o f

J abal

A D .

T he

M arra

a nd

D aju t o

s eem h ave

t o

h ave

e xpanded

b een

b ased

t heir p ower

i n

t he

t o r ule

C entral D arfur a s f ar a s t he A l F asher r egion . T heir m ain c entre w as a round t he

h ills

F igure

w hich

s till

b ear

t heir

n ame

( Jabal

D aju

i n

s outhern

1 . 1) . T hey h ave a ll t he a ppearance o f a n i ndigenous g roup .

1 4

D arfur,

T he T unjur p robably e stablished a d ynasty a s t he m ain p ower

i n D arfur

by 1 200 A D . T he m ain c entre o f t heir p ower w as p robably a round U ri a nd A m F arah i n

t he F urnung h ills

a nd c entral

( Figure

1 . 1), b ut

s ome r emains

D arfur a re a ttributed t o t hem ( Arkell

w riter w as s imilarly i nformed 1 981). H owever, M acMichael

i n

1 981

( Malik A bdella

( 1922 V olume

i n

1 937 a nd

J abal

M arra

1 961) ; a nd t he

R ifa, T omi, O ctober

1 , 1 26) w as d oubtful i f t he T unjur

e ver r uled a s f ar w est a s J abal S i. T heir d ynasty i s s aid t o h ave c ollapsed i n

1 590

A D a nd

p ower

p ossibly

h ave

( Nachtigal

1 971, 2 75)

p assed

h ad

t o

t he

s ome

K eira

d ynasty

o f t he

l inks

w ith

d ynastic

F ur, w ho m ight t he

T unjur

T he K eira r ulers w ere i n p ower o ver m uch o f D arfur f rom a round t o

1 874 .

T he

c ore

o f

t heir

s tate

w as

i n

J abal

M am a ,

f rom

1 590 A D

w here

t hey

e xtended t heir p ower i n C entral D arfur a nd m oved t o A l F asher w hich b ecame t heir p ermanent c apital

i n c .

r ival

t o

k ingdom

K ordufan

t o

r eached

o f W adai

t heir

t he

N ile

t he w est, t hey e xtended

k ingdom w hen

i n

1 792 . A fter w aging s everal w ars a gainst t he

i n

t he

1 781 4 ,

1 8th

t hey

e astwards a nd

c entury .

d efeated

T heir

t he

a nnexed

i nfluence

A bdalab, t he

e ven

n orthern

t ributary o f t he F unj K ingdom o f S ennar, a nd c aptured t heir w ar d rums . T he K eira d ynasty w as e nded i n a s a p rovince

f or

1 87 1 4 b y t he E gyptians , w ho r uled

n ine y ears . F or t he n ext

1 5 y ears

( 18851898)

D arfur

i t w as a

p art o f t he M andist s tate i n t he S udan a nd w as r uled b y a n A r nir. I t s hould b e n oted K eira

t hat

t hroughout t hese

g overnment

o rganising

t wo l ast

r esistance

n ever c onquered ( Musa A l M ubarak I n

1 969 ,

p hases t here w as a n a lternative f rom

t he

J abal

M arra ,

w hich

w as

1 81-182).

1 899 , A li D innar o f t he K eira d ynasty r ecaptured t he l ost t hrone a nd

r evived i ts r ule f or

1 8 y ears , u ntil h e w as d efeated a nd k illed a nd D arfur

b ecame p art o f t he A nglo—Egyptian C ondominium .

1 .6 P ROBLEMS E NCOUNTERED I N T HE 1 978-1981 S URVEYS I n t he c ourse o f t hese s urveys t he w riter h ad t o o vercome a n umber o f p roblems , n otably : [ 1] V ery f ew s ites i n D arfur a re m arked o n t he a vailable s urvey m aps, w hich a re

s omewhat

m any

m odified

s ettlements

h ave

h ave b een c hanged, s o

c opies

o f o nes

d isappeared

m ade

a nd

t he

i n

t he

1 960s.

n ames o f

S ince

m any

i t i s o ften n ecessary t o d emarcate

t hen

l ocalities t he n earest

p resent d ay s ettlement, r oad o r n atural f eature a s w ell a s t he s ite. [ 2]

P revious

w orkers

r eported

s ites

i n

i solation .

A lso

s ites

w ere

p artially s tudied, n one o f t hem w ere e xcavated o r c ompletely s urveyed; t hus m any f eatures w ere m issed. [ 3] A erial

p hotographs w ere o nly m ade

a vailable t o t he

w riter

a fter t he

c ompletion o f t he s urveys a nd c ould n ot b e u sed w ithout f urther f ieldw ork . [ 1 4]

T he

s hortage

u sually

o ne

o f h ad

f uel t o

i n

t he

d epend

o n

r egion t he

w as

a cute

a vailable

a nd

l ocal

d elayed

s urveys;

t ransport ,

o ften

d onkeys, w hich a re s low a nd e xpensive . [ 5]

T he

a bsence

o f

f unds

f or

r esearch r endered

1 5

t he

t ask v ery d ifficult ,

e specially i n a reas s uch a s J abal

S i w here p aid

l abour w as d ifficult

t o o btain. O n m any o ccasions t he w riter w as f orced t o b ring l abourers f rom a d istance a t e xtra e xpense. [ 6] T he

w riter

h ad

m uch d ifficulty

i n o btaining a r esearch l icence

f rom

t he S udan A ntiquities S ervice, w hich h as m ade a p olicy d ecision t hat a p ost-graduate

s tudent u naccompanied

b y h is o r

h er

s upervisor

1 978

k nowledge

i s

n ot

s upposed t o u ndertake a rchaeological f ield-work .

1 .7 R ESEARCH O BJECTIVES W hen

t his

a rchaeology

r esearch o f

t he

p roject

r egion

w as

w as

u ndertaken

v ery

s parse

i n

i ndeed

a nd

n o

o f t he

s ubstantial

o utline o f t he a rchaeological d evelopment i n t he r egion e xisted. R esearch h ad

t herefore

t o

b egin

w ith

s elected

f ield

s urveys

t o

c ollect

f resh

a rchaeological e vidence t o a chieve t he f ollowing g oals: [ 1] T o l ocate s ites a nd t o e xplore t he m ain a rchaeological c haracteristics o f t he r egion

i n

a n

a ttempt

t o p resent a p reliminary o utline o f i ts

m aterial r emains . [ 2] T o

f ind

d atable m aterial

w hich c ould

h elp t o

e stablish i n

a g eneral

m anner t he s equence o f p re- a nd p rotohistoric c ultures i n t he a rea .

[ 3]

T o

s tudy

t he

l ocation ,

s ubsistence

e conomies ,

d istribution

a nd

O rganisation o f t he s ettlement p atterns o f d ifferent p eriods . [ 4]

T o

c heck t he

' corridor '

p revious

f or

t he

h ypothesis

t ransmission

r egarding

t he

o f c ultural

w estern

t raits

S udan

b etween

a s

w est

a

a nd

n orth-east A frica a nd t he N ile B asin. [ 5]

i n

D arfur;

c onsequently i t w as d ecided t o s elect a reas w hich h ad a w ide

T o

p repare

f or

t he

d evelopment

o f

r egional

a rchaeology

v ariety

o f t opographical d ata f eatures e .g . b oth h igh a nd l ow l and, f or

i t w as

h oped t hat d ifferences i n e nvironmental c onditions w ould b e r eflected i n t echnological a nd e cological a daptations . T o a chieve t he a bove a ims i t w as t hought b est t o s tudy s elected a reas o n a r egional

b asis , s o a s t o r eveal t he c ultural c haracteristics o f e ach

r egion t hrough t ime a nd i mpossible t o

a llow r egional

c omparisons . H owever, s ince

s urvey s uch a w ide a rea c ompletely , w ith l imited

i t w as

f unds a nd

s uch a s hort p eriod o f t ime, s ome m ethod o f s election h ad t o b e a dopted. D etailed r egional s urveys a re r are i n t he a rchaeological l iterature o f s ub-Saharan ( 1980) H ugot

i n

( 1962)

n orthern

A frica ,

J enne i n

S udan

w ith

t he

J eno, H all C had ( Vila

a nd

n otable

( 1982)

t he

i n

e xceptions

o f

N atal, P hillipson

s ystematic

s urvey o f t he

1 976). S urvey m ethods a nd

S . a nd

R . M cIntosh

( 1976)

i n

Z ambia,

D al r egion

t echniques

u sed

i n

i n t he t hose

a reas w ere a dopted, a s w ell a s s ome o f t hose u sed b y R edman ( 1977). F ive r egions w ere s elected i n C entral D arfur o n t he f ollowing b asis : [ 1]

C entral

D arfur

w as

d ivided

i nto

n atural

r egions

a nd

o ne

a rea

o f

c . 4 00 k m2 w as s elected i n e ach o f t hem . S pecial a ttention w as p aid t o a reas w hich h ave a ttracted h uman s ettlement t hrough t he a ges , s uch a s t hose w ith w ater s ources .

1 6

[ 2] L ocal

g uides , e specially t hose

w ho

h ad

t ravelled

e xtensively w ithin

t he r egions , a nd o ld m en w ho k new t heir l ocalities w ell w ere c onsulted. [ 3] P revious r ecords h eld b y t he A ntiquities S ervice w ere c onsulted, a nd t he p rinted s ources e xamined.

1 .8 M ETHODS A ND T ECHNIQUES U SED I N T HE S URVEYS T he m ethods o f s urvey a nd s ample c ollection v aried a nother.

I n

e ach ,

m ethods

a pplied. H owever, i n

m ost

w hich

a reas

w ere

c onsidered

R edman's

( 1972 ,

f rom o ne r egion t o

s uitable

6 3-65)

t o

i t

w ere

m ulti—stage s ystem

w as f ollowed. F irstly ,

a ' reconnaissance ' o r

a g eneral

s urvey o f e ach

w as c onducted. N otes a bout s ite l ocations a nd t he a rtefacts

w ere

t aken.

T he

m ain

s elected

a rea

s urface d istribution o f

p hysiogeographical

c haracteristics ,

i ncluding g eology , c limate, v egetational c over, p resent d ay p opulation a nd l ivestock i n t he v icinity o f e ach s ite w ere r ecorded. S econdly ,

t he

b oundaries

o f

t he

l ocated

s ites

w ere

p lanned

a nd

t he

d ensity o f s urface a rtefacts m arked. E ach s ite w as t hen s urveyed b y e ither m ethod A , B o r C ( section

1 .9) a ccording t o t he n ature o f t he t errain a nd

i ts s tructural r emains . T hirdly ,

s elected

i nvestigated. I n

p arts

o f

e ach

s ite

w ere

m ore

i ntensively

s ome s ites t he m aterial w as s ystematically c ollected, i n

o thers c ontrolled

s amples w ere t aken a nd

i n a f ew p eripheral

a reas , w hen

t ime w as l imited, m aterial w as c ollected i n a n u nsystematic m anner. F ourthly , t est e xcavations a t s ome p arts o f t he s ampled a reas w ere m ade . H owever,

t his

l ast

s tage

d epended

o n

f unds

a nd

t ime

a vailable,

a nd

i s

o utlined i n C hapter 3 . A lthough a n umber o f s ophisticated s tatistical m ethods w hich h ave b een u sed

f or

( Higgs O rton

s ampling

1 969 ;

a nd

M ueller

1 976 ; F lannery

c ollating 1 972 ;

a rchaeological

B inford

r emains

R edman

1 973 ;

w ere

1 975 ;

e xplored

H odder

a nd

1 977), i t w as r ealised t hat s uch a pproaches n eeded t o

b e a pplied i n a reas w here t here w as a p rior k nowledge o f t he r emains . I n a p oorly d ocumented a rea l ike C entral D arfur i t w as d ecided b etter t o c arry o ut

s impler

C onnah

1 980 ,

g eneral

r econnaissance

1 9 ; S . a nd R . M cIntosh

T here s eems n o g eneral

1 981,

a greement o n

s urveys

( Higham 1 972 ,

1) . w hat p ercentage r equired

c ollection c ould b e r egarded a s a r epresentative s ample S .

a nd

m erits

R . M cIntosh a nd

1 980 ,

p roblems .

13_11 14 ) .

B ecause

T his

C entral

454;

i s b ecause D arfur

i s

( Redman

f or d ata 1 971,

1 9 ;

e ach a rea h as i ts o wn

a l argely

u nknown

a rea

p riority w as g iven t o t wo r egions w hich w ere t hought l ikely t o b e o f e qual i mportance

b ecause

o f t heir

p osition; M ao

a nd

B ora.

I n

t he

r est

o f

t he

a reas , p arts w ere s tudied s ystematically a nd t he m aterial w as c ollected i n ac ontrolled m anner, e xcept f or a f ew o ther m ore c ursory w ay ( Chapter

3

)

•

1 7

a reas w hich w ere s tudied

i n a

F rom t he t o t he t he

p reliminary t opographical

f ield, i t a ppeared

h igh

l and

t hat d ata

a reas a nd

t he

l ower

s tudies o f e ach a rea, b efore g oing

s hould

b e c ollected

p lains a nd

w adi

f rom z ones ; f rom

s ystems b etween

t hem .

T hree s chemes o f s earch w ere a dopted.

1 . 8 .1 M ETHOD A M ethod t hese

A w as

w ere

h ouses ,

f ound

c ompound

w alls a nd

g overned

r oads

t hey

b y

t he

w ere

h ouses , ( Binford

p resence

c lassified

a ncillary 1 972 ,

b y

a nd

o f

s tructural

u nits

s uch

i ndustrial

r emains .

a s

W here

s ingle-roomed

s tructures ,

d efensive

1 41; F lannary 1 976 , 5 1-56) . T his m ethod w as

u sed b ecause s tructural r emains , r egardless o f t heir p osition i n b oth h igh a nd

l ow l and

w ould

z ones , a re u sually i rregularly l aid o ut, a nd

h ave d ivided

a s ingle

s tructure

i nto

m ore

t han

t he g rid s ystem

o ne

a rea

u nit

a nd

c onsequently s ome p arts o f i t w ould b e m issed .

1 .8 .2 M ETHOD B M ethod B w as s ampling b y a rea u nits . T his w as d one b y ag rid s ystem , i .e . b y d ividing t he a rea t o b e w hich

a rchaeological

r epresentative s ample . T he t he

c entral

f our

p oint o f t he

d irections

m ethod

w as

s urveyed

m aterial f irst s ite

n orth-east,

a pplied

i n

i nto w as

s quare u nits

u nit w as s elected

a nd

f rom

s outh-west,

f lat

e qual

i ntensively

a reas

i t

3 0% o f a s

a t r andom , a t o r

a

n ear

i nvestigation w as m ade i n a ll

s outh-east

d evoid

f rom

c ollected

o f

a nd

n orth-west.

a bove-ground

T his

s tructural

r emains.

1 .8 .3 M ETHOD C T his w as u sed

i n

r ocky

a reas o f u neven

t errain

r emains . H ere t he s ample w as b ased o n t he n atural w adi s ystems a nd v alleys.

1 8

d evoid

o f s tructural

f eatures , i .e. h illtops ,

C HAPTER 2 T HE E NVIRONMENT

I t

i s

n ot

i ntended

t o

a ttempt

a

d etailed

s tudy

o f

t he

f ormer

e nvironmental c onditions o f C entral D arfur, w hich c ould n ot b e e ncompassed b y

t his

s tudy ,

b ut

r ather

t o

g ive

a g eneral

c onditions a nd t heir e ffects o n m an's l ife b ecause, a s S haw ( 1978 ,

o utline

o f

t he

n atural

i n t he s pecified a rea. T his i s

1 5) h as c orrectly n oticed:

" An u nderstanding o f e arly m an 's i nteraction w ith h is e nvironment p rovides o ne o f t he k eys t o h istory ; t his i s n ot g eographical d eterminism , b ut i s t he r ecognition t hat t his e nvironment d id s et c ertain l imits u pon t he a chievements o f e arly m an, a nd t hat g eographical f actors w hich p ersist o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime a re l ikely t o a ssert a nd r eassert t hemselves i n a m anner w hich ' personality ' t o ac ountry."

T he h istory o f t he g eological ( climatology a nd

n atural

h elps

t o

g ive

a c onstant

f ormations a nd e nvironmental c onditions

h istory)

w ill

t herefore b e d iscussed

o nly a s a

b ackground t o t he f irst m illennium A D . T o p rovide a s etting f or t he s urvey c urrent e nvironmental c onditions ( climate, s oil a nd v egetation) w ill a lso b e

c onsidered.

I t

s hould

b e

n oted

t hat

w hen

t here

i s

l ack

o f

s olid

i nformation i n t he a rea i tself , u se w ill b e m ade o f r elevant e vidence f rom t he a djoining N ilotic a nd C hadic b asins .

2 .1 T HE G EOLOGICAL B ACKGROUND T he

g eneral

d etailed L ebon

b y t he

a nd

g eological f ollowing

R obertson

f ormation

i n

D arfur

a uthors: A ndrew

( 1961),

V ail

( 1972

( Figure 2 .1)

( 1948),

a nd

F rancis

1 978) ,

e t

M ohammed

h as a l

b een

( 1973) ,

( 1975)

a nd

W illiams a nd A damson ( 1980). T hey a re: [ 1] T he B asement c omplex. [ 2] T he N ubian s andstone f ormation. [ 3] T ertiary v olcanic r ocks .

[] S uperficial d eposits i ncluding s and-dunes ( Qoz) a nd r ecent w adi-fill. T hese f ormations w ill b e d iscussed i n c hronological o rder f rom o lder t o y ounger.

2 .1.1 T HE B ASEMENT C OMPLEX T his t ype o f r ock f ormation i s t he o ldest i n t he c ountry a nd i ts r ocks a re

c onsidered

t o

r ange

i n

a ge

b etween

t he

p re-Cambrian

a nd

C ambro-

o rdovician. I n C entral i n J abal

D arfur t he b est e xamples o f t his t ype o f r ock f ormation a re

M ala a nd J abal

K ousa t o t he w est o f A l

1 9

F asher

a nd

J abal

H alluf ,

□

0 CJ

Volcanic

� Sandstone

Sand dunes (Qoz)

� Granite

Basement Complex

�

� Continental sandstone

0

Alluvium

75km

Figure 2. 1 Geological ·Map of Central Darfur Jabal W,rna, and Jabal Kordill to the north of it. Some basement complex rocks are also reported as isolated inselbergs in the area north of Kutum. They end to the east of the Ennedi plateau in Chad. Several such formations are observed between Jabal Marra and the western Darfur borders (Va il 1978, 26). 7he complex is divided into an older and a younger group: [ 1] The hilly region of Jabal Wana is largely composed of fine to mediu m grained rocks with mica-rich bands formed usually of bioti te. This

20

o lder g roup i s o ften o verlain b y t he y ounger f ormation . [ 2] T he y ounger a nd q uartz .

i ntrusive g roup

i s m ainly c omposed

o f q uartzite

s yenite

2 .1.2 T HE N UBIAN S ANDSTONE T his i n

i s m ostly f ound

S udan

o ver

t o

t he

d enote

i n t he n orth-east o f t he r egion. T he t erm i s u sed

t he

s andstone

b asement c omplex

( Whiteman

o f ' Mesozine a ge' . E dwards f rom

J abal

D irra ,

a nd

e ast

o f

r est

A l

h as

i dentified

F asher,

a s

4M esozoic

f ollows:

r eticulata ( Strokes a nd W ebb); ( 2) F renelopsis h oheneggeri

( 3 )

D adoxylon

A ccording

a egyptiacum

t o

h im

t he

u nconformably

1 971, 5 4) . T hey a re c onsidered

( 1926 ,94 9 8)

7 5 k m

m udstone w hich

( Unger);

( 4)

W eichselia

a nd

F ern

F ragment

( 1)

t o b e

f ossils

W eichselia

( Ettinghousen);

( Indeterminable).

F renelopsis

s uggest

a n

e arly

C retaceous a ge. T his

t ype

o f

r ock f ormation

i s

b est

i llustrated

b y

J abal

S hagra a nd

J abal S hoba t o t he w est o f A l F asher w here t he N ubian s andstone f ormation i s c apped

w ith v olcanic

f low .

I t

i s a lso

o bserved

i n n orthern

D arfur

a t

J abal Q urgeil. S uch f ormations a re a lso f ound i n t he a rea w est o f K utum a nd n orth-east o f t he v olcanic r ange o f J abal S i

( Vail

1 978 , 2 6) .

T hree t ypes o f N ubian s andstone a re o bserved i n D arfur: [ 1]

P ebbly q uartz .

s andstone T hey

f ormed

o f

a ngular

a nd

s ub-angular

a re u sually h orizontally s tratified

f ragments

o f

a t t he b ase o f t he

N ubian s andstone. T hey v ary i n c olour r anging f rom w hite t o y ellow a nd b rown. [ 2]

S andy

m udstone

w hich

i s

m ade

u p

o f

c lay-silt

p articles .

T hese

f ormations s how v arious s hades b etween g rey a nd

l ight b rown. T hey a re

f ound

a nd

m ainly

i n

t he

a rea

w est

o f

A l

F asher

K ousa

w ith

s ome

G enena .

T hey

o utcrops t o t he e ast o f t he S imiat a nd n orth-west o f K utum . [ 3] T he a re

P alaeozoic o f

s edimentary f ormations

C ambro-ordivician

a ge ,

o f

a re

f ound

c ontinental

r esting o n t he b asement c omplex ( Vail

a round

o rigin,

u nconformably

1 978 , 2 5).

2 .1.3 T HE T ERTIARY V OLCANIC R OCKS T hese

a re c onsidered o ne o f t he m ost i mportant g eological

w estern S udan

( Whiteman

1 971,

5 5-57 ; M ohammed

f eatures i n

1 975 , 2 5) b ecause t he u plift

c hanged p atterns o f w atersheds a nd w ater c ourses . T hey a re t he m ost r ecent r ock

f ormation

v olcanic

r ock

i n

t he

a rea

f ormation

P leistocene-recent

t imes .

a nd

o f I t

W hiteman

J abal i s

( 1971,

M arra

b est

9 7)

p robably

r epresented

b y

s uggested

t hat

t he

e xtended

d own

t o

J abal

M arra ,

J abal

M eidob a nd p art o f t he s edimentary T agabo h ills . A ccording t o t he H unting T echnical

R eport

( 1968) l avas t hat h ad f lowed

d uring t he

f irst p hase o f e ruption a t J abal M arra a re t he m ost b asic r ock

f ormation,

a nd

d istance

c onsist

o f a bout

o f

o livine

7 5 k m f rom t he

b asalts

a nd

t rachytes

s pread

t o

a

e ruption c entre . T he b asalt r ocks h ave

v ery f ine g rain u sually o f d ark b rownish c olour, s ometimes r eddish .

2 1

A ccording t o M ohammed

3 5) :

( 1975 ,

" the v olcanic c omplex a t S hagra r epresents a j unction a rea c onnecting v arious a ssociations , o f J aba ] . M arra w estwards a nd J abal

M eidob

a nd

t he

v olcanic

o utcrops

o f

T agabo

h ills

e astwards a t t he e astern b oundary , o f t he r egion. T his l ine f orms a n a rch o f u plift w hich i s i mportant t o t he h ydrology o f t he a rea"

2 .1. 14T HE S UPERFICIAL D EPOSITS T his t erm i s u sed t o d enote t he n on-consolidated d epositions f rom t he P leistocene u p t o R ecent t imes

( Vail

1 978 ,

3 0) . I t i s b roadly d ivided

i nto

t wo t ypes , t he w ind-blown s andstones ( Qoz) a nd t he w adi-filled d eposits . [ 1]

W ind-blown

s and

d eposits

f ixed

s and-dunes a s

( Vail

1 978 ,

t he

D in

p art

a nd

c onsidered 1 969 ,

d erived

a s

i s

t he

a t erm

s and

u sed

s heets

f or

o f

e stablished

K ordufan

a nd

a nd

D arfur

3 0). I t i s w idely s pread i n n orthern a nd e astern D arfur. I n

e astern

n orthern

w ell

( Qoz)

o f t he

c entral

a s

a s ingle

1 79) f rom

I t

r egion

K ordufan.

e xtends

t o

Q oz i n

t he

g eographical

c onsists

t he

i t T he

N ubian

o f

u nit

i nclude t wo

( Barbour

w ell-rounded

s andstone

r ocks .

w hole

1 961, 6 0 ;

q uartz

I t

t he

r egions h as

i s

A lam

g rains

o f

b een a l

m ainly

c haracterized

b y

l ongitudinal a nd t ransverse d unes . I n t he c entral p art o f t he r egion , a round A l F asher, i t i s c omposed o f w ell r ounded m edium q uartz g rains o f b rownish c olour. A ccording

t o M ohammed

( 1975 , 4 3)

" The

s and-dunes

m ay b e c onsidered a s a n e olian d eposition f ormed b y s trong p revailing n orth-easterly

w inds .

P robably

P resent" . I n a reas w here t here c over, t he

a cting

f rom

l ate

P leistocene

i s m ore r ainfall, a nd

t o

m uch v egetation

s and-dunes a re m ore s table, e .g . b etween T awilla a nd

J abal

M arra . [ 2]

T he

w adi-filled

d eposits

i nclude

g ravel,

s and

a nd

s andy-clay

s ilts

a ssociated w ith w ater c ourses a nd t hey a re b est r epresented b y W adis A zum

( Barbour

t here

i s

n o

1 961,

3 6-37) , A l

p ermanently

K u

f lowing

a nd

H awar.

r iver

i n

I t

s hould

D arfur

b e n oted

a nd

a ll

t hat

t he

w adi

s ystems i n t he a rea a re s easonal, f ed b y r ain w ater. W adi A zum ( Figure s outh-west

1 . 1) o riginates i n t he

c rossing t he

w hole o f w estern

J abal M arra c omplex. I t

D arfur

t o d rain

f lows

i nto t he r iver

S hari a nd f inally L ake C had. I t h as a n umber o f t ributaries s uch a s W adis A ribo , B arai a nd K aja . A t i ts c onfluence w ith W adi K aja i t h as a s harp b end, c hanging i ts c ourse f rom a n orth-south d irection i n S udan t o a n e ast-west s tream

a s

i t

s uperficial

e nters

t he

R epublic

o f

C had

( Alam

d eposits h ere c onsist o f c lay s oil

A l

e roded

D in

1 971,

f rom t he

13).

T he

v olcanic

r ocks o f J abal M arra , a nd o rganic m atter w ashed f rom h igh a ltitudes o f t he M arra r ange. T he a rea h as a s ilty s oil a nd i t i s o ne o f t he m ost f ertile i n t he r egion. A ccording t o B arbour

( 1961,

1 50) W adi A zum h as n ot o nly s urface

w ater s upplied b y t he r ain, b ut a lso u nderground w ater

f rom t he m ountain,

d raining i n t he s ame d irection a s t he s urface w aters . W adi

A l

K u

( Figure

1 . 1)

h as i ts o rigin o n t he e astern s lopes o f J abal

M arra a nd a lso r eceives w ater f rom o ther w adis l ike H alluf a nd K ufout; i t r uns i n

a g eneral

n orth-east d irection . I t h as m any l ocal n ames ( e.g . W adi 2 2

T awilla

a nd

W adi

M ajdoub

i n

i ts w estern p art). I t h as a s harp b end a t

l atitude 1 30 3 0 'N w here i t c hanges d irection a nd b ecomes a s outh f lowing s tream ( Alan a l D in t o

a bout

2 k m

1 969 , 2 16) . I t w idens i ts v alley i n t he s outhern p art

( Mohammed

1 975 ,

8 1)

a nd

t hen

s hrinks

d isappears i n t he s andy Q oz o f s outhern D arfur. I n

a nd

f inally

t he c entral p art o f

W adi A l K u a t T awilla a nd M ajdoub t he s uperficially f illed d eposits a re c omposed

o f

o utworked

m aterial

f rom

v olcanic

t errain ,

e .g .

b asalt

b oulders a nd s andy c ontained g ravel w ith c lay l enses . I n t he s outh t he d eposits a re m ainly o f s and-dunes w ashed f rom t he Q oz , g rey-brown i n c olour

a nd

c omposed

g roundwater h ighest

m ainly

s tatic

o f

f ine

a round

A l

g roundwater

q uartz

F asher .

p enfines .

V ail

I t

( 1978 , 5 6)

h as

p lenty

s tated

t hat

o f " the

l evels a re i n W estern S udan n ear A l F asher,

D arfur , a bout 1 ,000 i na bove s ea l evel". W adi

H awar

( Figure

1 . 1)

r uns

n orthwards

a nd

h as

m any

t ributaries

o riginating i n b oth S udan a nd t he R epublic o f C had. I t c an b e t raced f or a l ength o f a bout 6 00 k m a nd f inally d isappears i nto t he d esert . T he b ed o f t he w adi i s s tone

g ravel

p ebbles .

f ormed o f s uperficial d eposits o f w ind-blown s ands w ith

m ainly

B ecause

c omposed

o f

t he

o f

q uartz

b arren

n ature

v egetational c over t he b ed

p enfines a nd o f

t he

N ubian

a rea

a nd

s andstone

t he

l ack

o f

i s m ostly o f s andy m aterial, a nd n o s izable

c lay d eposit i s f ound . S urface w ater h as d isappeared e xcept i n i ts u pper b asin i n t he s outh , w here w ater c an b e f ound a t ad epth o f 1m etre d uring t he r ainy s eason . A ccording t o V ail ( 1978 , 3 ) H awar a nd W adi M agrur f lowed n orth-eastwards

" in p revious t imes W adi a round t he J abal A byad

p lateau t o j oin t he N ile p ossibly b y w ay o f W adi a l Q aab n ear D ongola".

2 ,2 P OST-PLEISTOCENE E NVIRONMENT ( 10 90 00-2 ,000 B C) O wing t o t he s carcity o f i nformation c oncerning t he P ost-Pleistocene e nvironment f rom D arfur, u se w ill b e m ade o f r elevant i nformation f rom t he n eighbouring z ones i n t he d iscussion o f c limatology , n atural h istory a nd a rchaeology . 2 .2 .1 C LIMATOLOGY I n h is s tudy o f t he o rientation o f t he d une s ystem a nd t he p revailing w ind

d irection

c limatological

i n

K ordufan ,

p hases ,

o ne

i n

W arren

t he

( 1970)

P leistocene

h as

a nd

d efined

t hree

i n

t he

f our p ost-

P leistocene . T hese p hases a re c orrelated w ith t he c limatological s tudies o f G rove ( 1973 , P hase r ainfall

3 4-35) i n t he s outhern S ahara .

I i s a nd

c onsidered w ind

b elts

a v ery m oved

d ry

s ome

p eriod 4 50 k m

d uring s outh

o f

w hich

b oth

t heir

t he

p resent

p osition . T his p hase c ould b e r elated t o G rove 's p eriod 2 0 ,00015 ,000 B P . I t

i s

s uggested

t hat

t he

f ossil

b elong t o t his p eriod ( Wickens

a ssemblages

o f

S inga

a nd

A bu

H aggar

1 976 , 5 8) .

P hase I I w as a v ery w et p hase . T his c orresponds w ith G rove 's 1 2 ,000 t o C . 7 ,000 B P p hase. S tudies i n t he W hite N ile ( Adamson e t a l 1 976 , a lso

s uggest

a w et

p hase .

A ccording

t o

t hem

a l ake

4 0 k m w ide

1 20-3) a t

i ts

h ighest l evel, a nd 2 0 k m w ide a t i ts l ower l evel, s eems t o h ave o ccupied t he f lood p lains o f t he W hite N ile . S ome r adiocarbon d ates w ere o btained

2 3

f rom t he

b eginning o f t his p hase;

1,250

t2 55 B P a nd 8 370

± 3 50 B P f rom

T agara n ear S hawal o n t he W hite N ile . I t w as a ssumed t hat t he G ezira p lains w ere d eposited s oon a fter t he b eginning o f t his p hase. I n i ts c ourse t here w as

a nd

t he

a pproximately 4 00 k m n orth o f i ts p resent-day

a n

e stimated

s hift

i n

t he

c limate,

z one

t setse

f ly

( Wickens

b elt

1 975 ,

w as

3 0 a nd

1 982). P hase

I II

i s

c orrelated

w ith

G rove 's

7 ,000-6 ,000 B P p hase. T his w as a

s hort d ry p eriod d uring w hich t he i sohyets w ere s aid t o h ave b een 2 00 k m

s outh

o f t heir

t hat r ainfall

p resent

d ay p osition . W ickens

s hifted

( 1975 , 4 6)

w as l ower a nd t here w as p robably a s hift

s uggests

i n t he v egetation

b elts u p t o 4 50 k m s outh o f t heir p resent d ay l imits . P hase p hase

I V i s c orrelated w ith t hat o f G rove 's p eriod a fter 6 ,000 B P . T his

s tarted

a s

a w et

o ne, b ut

l ater

t he

c limatic

c onditions

d eteriorate. I t m ust b e n oted t hat t his p hase w as n ot a s w et a s

b egan

t o

P hase I I .

A ccording t o G rove , c entral S udan a nd t he a rea o f t he p resent s avannah o f W estern m iddle

S udan

e xperienced

H olocene

b eneath

t he

p eriods ,

W hite

N ile

a w etter a s

a nd

w armer

e videnced

a lluvium

i n

b y

t he

c entral

p hase l ate

S udan,

i n

t he

e arly

P leistocene

a nd

t he

a nd

l ayer

s urvival

o f

s mall l akes i n W estern S udan, e .g . t he M azrub a nd U mbadir i n d epressions o n e stablished s and-dunes . F or c limatic c hanges a fter 3 000 B . P . s ee s ection 2 .3 .1.

2 .2 .2 T HE N ATURAL H ISTORY C olchester f rom

t he

( 1927 , 2 34) c ollected a f ossil i mpression o f C yperus p apyrus

M aiha

W ickens ( 1976 ,

i n

N orthern

D arfur.

T his

h as

l ater

b een

i dentified

b y

6 0) a s P hragmites s p . T he n earest p resent l ocality f or t his

s pecies i s t he s outhern s lopes o f J abal M arra , a bout 3 50 k m s outh-west o f M alha.

I n

J abal

g uineansis

M arra ,

a n

u pper

W ickens b elt

( 1976 ,

o f a sh

5 8)

r eported

s tratigraphically

o il

p alm

d ated

t o

E laeis

a p eriod

1 2 ,000 a nd 3 5 00 B P . T his s pecies d oes n ot a t p resent o ccur n earer

b etween t han

i n

a bout

6 00 k m

s outh

o f

J abal

M arra .

A ccordingly

W ickens

( 1965 , 4 0)

c oncluded t hat t here w as a t t hat t ime a n i sohyet s hift o f a t l east

6 00 k m

s outhwards . A t

A l

M azrub

i n

n orthern

K ordufan,

r ainfall a t p resent, f ragments o f b een c ollected

w hich

r eceives

P hragmites s p . a nd

2 00 m m

o f

a nnual

C henopodiaceae

h ave

f rom d eposits s imilar t o t hose o f t he S udd r egion o f t oday

( 700 m m a nnual r ainfall). T his s uggests t hat t he M azrub l ake a rea h ad m uch w etter c limatic c onditions t han a t p resent. I n

K hartoum

a nnually

i nteqrifolia 6 th

a nd

C eltis

a nd

e xceed 4 th

a nd

E shaheinab, w here

1 60 m m ,

A rkell

c arbonized

m illennia

i ntegrif 'olia

t he

r ecovered

d ay

d oes n ot C eltis

f ragments o f E laeis g uineensis d ated

t o t he

f ound

a t

m illennium a t K adero b y L . K rzyzaniak l east 4 00 m m r ainfall.

2 4

o f

r ainfall

f ossilized

B P r espectively

w as a lso

p resent e vidence

( Arkell

1 9 49 , 1 08

N eolithic

l evels

a nd

d ated

19 53 ,

t o

1 05) .

t he 4 th

( 1974 , 3 1). B oth s pecies r equire a t

I n

t he

C 1 4 t o L ake

S ahara, F aure

a round

C had

( 1966 ,

1 69-75)

2 0 ,000-5 ,000 a nd

a reas .

H e

d ated

t wo

s ub-pluvial

3 ,5001,200 B P i n

c oncluded

t hat

t he

t he

p eriod

p eriods

T ibesti, H aggar

b efore

6 ,000

b y a nd

B P

w as

c haracterized b y ac ool a nd m oist c limate.

2 .2 .3 T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL E VIDENCE N eolithic

i mplements

a nd

t he

' wavy

l ine '

p ottery

o f

t he

K hartoum

t radition h ave b een f ound s cattered o ver m any s ites i n W adi H awar a nd t he a rea t o t he n orth o f i t M ohammed-Au

1 981,

s ites

S ahara a s

i n

t he

( 1980a , 4 63)

( Newbold

1 924 ,

1 0 ; S haw

3 4 ; A rkell

1 935 ,

1 964 ,

1 8 ;

1 01 ) . S uch p ottery h as a lso b een r ecorded f rom s everal

r eported

f ar

w est

a s t he

T ibesti

t he o ccurance o f d otted

t o t hat o f K hartoum f rom E ast

T orha

i n

a nd

T imbukto. A . B . S mith

' wavy l ine ' p ottery s imilar

L ibya, a nd

f rom T amaya

M ellet

i n

N iger, d ated r espectively 9 ,080 t 7 0 B P t o 7 ,990 ± 7 0 B P , a nd 9 ,350 t 1 70 B P t o 7 ,990 ± 7 0 B P . I t w as a lso r eported f rom O uteidat , T imbukt .o . M ost o f t he e vidence

w as

( A . B . S mith

f ound

a ssociated

w ith

a

l acustrine

b ased

e conomy

1 980a , 4 52).

T he b est e xample o f s uch a r iverine/lacustrine e conomy i s t o b e f ound a t K hartoum w here b one h arpoons 1 23)

o n

t he

' dotted

( Arkell W hite

l ine ' p ottery w as

1 953 ,

N ile

f ound

a ssociated w ith b arbed

5 5-57). T he w ork o f A damson e t a l

a t

T agara

a nd

G uli

r evealed

t hat

( 1974 ,

1 20-

a r iver-based

e conomy w ith i ndustry s imilar t o t hat o f E arly K hartoum w as f lourishing o n t he s hores o f t he W hite N ile i n t he 4 th m illennium B C . B y

5 ,800

B C

a rchaeological

d omesticated a nimals M uhuggiag 5 9 52

e vidence

d emonstrates

( cattle, s heep a nd g oats)

i n

t he

t he

a ppearance

S ahara , e .g . a t

o f U an

i n t he A caca M ountains w here c attle r emains h ave b een d ated t o

t 1 00

B P .

T his

p astoral

e conomy

h ad

r oulette

a nd

r ocker-stamped

p ottery , b ifacial f laked d iscs , k nives a nd p rojectile p oints . T his c ulture i s

t ermed

a dzes

' Teneranian'

t o

t hose

( Krzyzaniak

1 974 ,

M ohammed-Al 's

b y

A . B .

o f

a l

S mith

( 1980a , 4 52-453)

S haheinab

( Arkell,

a nd

1 953)

h ad a nd

s imilar K adero

3 1) . s urvey

o f

U mm-Barou

i n

N orth

D arfur

r evealed

b asket-

o rnamented a nd p lain u ndecorated p ottery s tyles a nd g round s tone o bjects w hich h ad p arallels f urther w est, a nd i ndicated n omadic g roup s ettlements i n

t he

a rea

t hat t he

a round

l arge

5 ,000-4 ,000

f ragments o f

B C

b ovid

( Mohammed-Ali b one

f rom

1 982 , 9 7).

U mm-Barou

H e

c oncluded

s uggest

a w etter

p hase t han t oday d uring t he 5 th m illennium B C . T his

a rchaeological

e vidence

c ould

a lso

b e

s upported

b y

s ome

r ock

d rawings i n t hese a reas , e ven t hough t heir d ates a re n ot a greed u pon b y a ll t he

s cholars

e lephant, c ompletely H uard t he

w orking

o strich d esert

a nd

i n

t his

j ackal

( Lhote

1 984). T his h as b een

c limatic

c onditions

i n

f ield. w ere

1 965 ,

A nimals

d rawn

9 2 ;

s uch

a reas

2 5

a reas

A . B . S mith ,

i nterpreted

s upport s uch a nimals .

i n

s uch

a s

g azelle ,

w hich

a re

1 980a , 4 57 ;

a t

g iraffe, p resent

L eclant

e t

a s e vidence o f a d eterioration o f b ecause

t hey

c annot

a t

p resent

T hus p oints

t he t o

h uman

a rchaeological

t he

a nd

f act

a nimal

t hat l ife

e vidence

p art

s upports

t he

c limatic

s tudies

o f t he p resent d ay d esert u sed t o

s imilar

t o

t hat

o f

t he

p resent-day

a nd

c ontain

S ahel

a nd

s avannah.

2 .3 R ECENT E NVIRONMENTAL C HANGES ( 2 ,000 B C T here

i s

v ery

l ittle

e vidence

f rom

t his

p eriod

P RESENT)

-

o f

t he

e nvironmental

c onditions i n t he a rea. H owever, a n a ttempt w ill b e m ade t o g ive a g eneral o utline .

2 .3 .1 C LIMATIC C HANGES A FTER 3 ,000 B P T hat t here h ad b een a g eneral d eterioration i n t he c limatic c onditions i n t he a rea a fter 3 ,000 ( section 2 .2 .1) i s e vident , b ut i t i s v ery d ifficult t o s uggest a d ate f or t he b egnning o f t his d eterioration , o r t o

a ccount

f or t he f actors w hich h elped t o c reate t he p resent c onditions . A ccording t o

M auny i t c ould

b e t hat b etween

3 ,0001,200 B C t he

S ahara

w itnessed a r apid d esiccation , a nd f rom t hat t ime o nwards i t a cquired i ts p resent

p hysiography

o pinion

t hat

i ncreasingly

b y

( Mauny

2 ,000

d ifficult

B C

1 969 ,

1 35) .

c onditions

f or

p eople

C lark

( 1980 ,

t he

S ahara

i n

t o

l ive

t here .

5 68)

i s

w ere

T he

U pper

N ile ,

a s

w ell

a s ,

b y

8 50

B C ,

i nto

t he

b ush

t he i t

a rchaeological

e vidence s uggests t hat h uman g roups w ere a lready m oving t o t he t he

o f

m aking

S ahel a nd

s avannah

( as

a t

K intampo i n G hana) . T he e vidence o f M eroitic a nd N ile

V alley ,

r etreat

o f

( 750

i sohyets

s ettlement

w as

s ettlement

B C

-

7 50

C hristian

A D),

t owards

t he

c onstructed

o n

( Adams

1 968 ,

N ubian d ocuments o f t he M iddle

J ackson s outh, d unes

1 81 ) . T he

( 1957 , a nd

6 1)

a t

w hich

l evel

o f

t he

s uggests

a g radual

M einarti

t he

o verlaid

t he

N ile

a s

C hristian M eroitic

s hown

b y

P opper

( 1971) w as d ecreasing d uring t he p eriod 7 50-1800 A D i n b oth n orthern S udan a nd

i n

E gypt .

T his

d ecrease

i n

t he

i ndirect i ndication o f d ecrease

i n

N ile t he

w ater a nnual

l evel

m ay

r ainfall

b e

t aken

f urther

a s

a n

s outh i n

t he E thiopian h ighlands a nd i n C entral A frica .

2 .3 .2 WEST A FRICA A ND T HE C HADIC B ASIN M auny ( 2 ,500 a reas

( 1978 ,

B C)

g roups

w ith

s outh .

2 75) i n

s uggests A lgeria

u nderground

H owever,

t hat

s tarted

w ater ,

N icholas 's

a t

a nd

( 1980 ,

t he t o

e nd

o f

r etreat

a lso

b egan

1 95)

r esearch

t he

t o

N eolithic

w atering

m igrating b ased

p eriod

p oints a nd

f urther o n

t o

l ake

t he

l evels,

g eographical d ata a nd w ritten h istorical d ocuments s trongly s uggested t o h er t hat t he t he

1 6th-18th c enturies A D s howed w etter c limatic c onditions t han

1 9th-20th

c enturies ,

i n

t he

S ahel

a rea

a s

w ell

a s

i n

t he

n eighbouring i t . I bn H aukal, w ho l ived i n t he

1 0th c entury A D , h ad

m entioned

E gypt

t hat

t he

d irect

r oute

b etween

e ndangered b y t hieves a nd d eterioration o f t he c aravans

h ad

c limatic

c onditions

1 873 ,

p erished h ad

b ecause f urther

o f

t he

m oving

d eteriorated

a nd

W est

z ones

a lready

A frica

w as

c limatic c onditions ; m any s and . b y

T his

t hat

s uggests

t ime

( Ibn

t hat

H aukal

1 53) . H owever, i t s hould b e n oted t hat A rab t ravellers m entioned t hat 2 6

t he Z aghawa a nd T ajawiin t ribes i n t he S ahel a rea w ere r ich i n h orses a nd s heep a s w ell a s c amel a nd h ad g ood g razing . T hus t he c limate o f t he S ahel m ust

h ave

b een

m uch

w etter

t o

p ermit

t he

s urvival

o f

s uch

a nimals

a s

h orses , w hich a re n ot f ound i n t he a rea t oday .

2 .3 .3 D ARFUR T he o nly d ocumentary e vidence c omes

f rom B rowne

f or t he

( 1799 , 2 35) , w ho

" are s upplied w ith w ater

c limatic

m entioned

t hat

c onditions

i n

1 791

i n

D arfur

p eople i n K obe

f rom w ells , o f s mall d epth , w hich a re d ug w ithin

t he e nclosure o f m any o f t he h ouses; b ut t he b est o f t hem a re t hose w hich a re i n o r n ear t he b ed o f t he t orrent" . T his , s eason

a nd

h is

d escription

( June-September)

a nd

o f t he

t he

r ainfall,

v egetational

t he

l ength

c over

i n

B ora

D ulu

o f

t he

t he

a rea

r ainy

s uggest

w etter c limatic c onditions t han a t p resent. T he

f inding

o f

p ig

b ones

i n

t he

s ite

a t

( an

a rea

t oday

r eceiving a m ean a nnual r ainfall o f l ess t han 3 00 m m) i ndicates t hat t here w as a b etter c limatic r egime i n t he a rea , w ith a bove 4 00 m m m ean r ainfall, s uitable

f or

t he

s urvival

o f p igs

( Appendix V I). A ll t hese

s uggest

t hat

t here w as a c limatic d eterioration i n t he a rea , b ut c onditions w ere s till n evertheless f avourable e nough f or b oth m an a nd b east t o l ive t here . 2 .3 . 1 1 C OMMENT I t

s eems

f rom

t he

a bove-mentioned

p oints

t hat

d uring

t he

l ater

P rehistoric p eriod i n D arfur t he d eterioration o f t he c limatic c onditions w as

m ore

p ronounced

p rehistoric

D arfur

t han

m ight

d uring

h ave

t he

p eriod

e xperienced

p receding

a b etter

i t ,

a nd

c limate t han

t hat

t hat o f

t he p eriod t hereafter. T he r easons

f or t he w orsening o f c limatic

r egime a nd t he

i ncrease o f

d esertification m ay b e a ttributed t o t he f ollowing f actors : [ 1] S ince t he 6 th m illennium B C , a gricultural a ctivities a nd t he c learance o f f ields m ust

h ave c aused

t he d estruction o f t he d elicate

f lora o f

t he a rea. T he c omplete c learance f rom f arms o f t rees , s o a s t o d eprive l ocusts a nd b irds o f s helter, i s a lso c ommon t oday . T his s ituation m ay h ave

b een

a ggravated

b y

t he

i ncreased

u se

o f

i ron

i n

t he

i st

m illennium A D , f or m ore l and c ould b e c olonized w ith t he h elp o f i ron t ools a nd, m ore i mportant , t he u se o f w ood a s a f uel f or i ron s melting a nd s mithing w ould q uickly d estroy t he t ree c over. [ 2] T he h usbandry o f a nimals a nd a n i ncreasing n umber o f h erds c ould h ave c aused

t he o vergrazing o f s ome a reas , e specially t hose

w atering

p oints.

v egetational

c over;

d esert

o r

l east

( A . B .

S mith

t he

a t

c oming

a field r each

C onsequently , t his

g radually

" helped

t o

t hey

w ere

a ssisted

e xacerbate

t he

d eprived

i n

t he

a d eteriorating

o ther

l ivestock .

A f urther

2 7

f actor

i s

t he

n ear t heir

o f

t he

s ituation"

i ncreased a fter

i st m illennium A D ; i t g razes

t han o ther a nimals , w hich o pened n ew g razing o f

o f

a dvancement

1 980a , 4 64). T his e ffect m ight h ave b een

o f t he c amel

s ituated

f urther

a reas b eyond c onstruction

t he o f

f ences z eriba f or a nimals f rom t ree b ranches f or e ach s hort p eriod o f t he n omadic T he

c ycle; n ew o nes h ave t o

e ffects

o f

d estruction

b e c onstructed

a re

s trengthened

i n e ach l ocality .

b y

e xamples

f rom

e thnographic s tudy o f t he p resent a nnual c ycle o f t he c attle a nd c amel n omads . T he

w riter

a round

A l

b ecome

d evoid

F asher

o bserved

t hat d uring t he

r ainy

s eason

t he

p lains

a re c overed w ith d ifferent t ypes o f g rass, b ut s oon

o f

a ny

v egetational

c over

a fter

n omadic

p eoples

h ave

c rossed t he a rea. N ear p ermanent s ettlements t here i s a lso t he c utting o f g rass a nd i ts t ransport t o c entres f or c ommercial p urposes . I t w as a lso o bserved t hat m uch g rass i s u sually d estroyed b y f ires d uring t he d ry s eason. [ 3] E rosion m ay b e a dded a s a f actor b ecause t he w inds u sually b low a way t he

t opsoil

a nd

t he

o rganic

m atter

l ying

o n

i t .

T his

l essens

t he

f ertility o f t he s oil. [ 4] W ickens

( 1976 , 6 3)

s uggests t hat

t he

P leistocene

s and

i nvasion m ust

h ave d estroyed m uch o f t he f lora a nd p ushed t he r emainder s outhwards . H e a ttributed t he p overty o f t he p resent f lora t o s and i nvasion . [ 5]

T he

c ommon

c ontributed

p ractice t o t he

o f

b uilding

i n

p rocess , b ecause

w ood

a nd

s traw

m ay

w ell

h ave

i t i s n ot r estricted t o o ne t ree

s pecies n or t o t he c utting o f b ranches ; i t i nvolves t aking t runks . O ne

m ay

c onclude

t hat

a lthough

b y

t he

l ate

i st

m illennium

B C

e nvironmental c onditions i n D arfur w ere r oughly t he s ame a s t hose o f t he p resent , s ome a reas w hich a re n ow w aterless c ould h ave a ccommodated h uman a nd

a nimal

s ettlement .

T his

w ould

b e

a p ossible

i ndication

t hat

i n

P rotohistoric t ime c limatic c onditions w ere s lightly b etter t han t hose o f t oday . H owever, o ne s hould b e c autious a bout g eneralization i n t his r egard b ecause c limatic c onditions v ary f rom o ne l ocality t o a nother.

2 . 1 4 T HE C LIMATE O f

s pecial

i mportance

i s

t he

i ntertropical

c onversion

z one ,

f or

t he

p ressure b elt i n t he N orthern H emisphere d irectly a ffects a nd c ontrols t he a mount

o f

r ain

w inter, p ressure

p recipitation i s

h igh

i n

i n

t he

t he

S ahara/Sahel,

S ahara

a nd

i ncluding

n ortherly

w inds

D arfur. b low

I n

a cross

C entral D arfur o n t heir j ourney s outhward. T hey a re c ool a nd d ry a nd b ring n o

r ain

t o

t he

a rea .

m oves n orthwards , s o

I n

t he

s ummer

t he

z one

o f t he

i ntertropical

f ront

t hat o ver D arfur t he u nstable h umid w inds f ollowing

i t m eet d ry w inds c oming f rom t he A tlantic. B oth w inds a re h igh e nough t o a llow t he f ormation o f c oncentrated c louds w hich p recipitate o ver C entral D arfur ( Barbour

1 961,

4 0) .

I n D arfur t he w eather m ay b e d ivided

i nto t wo

p hases o n t he

b asis o f

r ainfall; a l ong d ry p hase a nd a s hort w et o ne . B arbour h as f urther d ivided t hese t wo c limatic p hases i nto f our s easons : [ 1] T he d ry s ummer n ormal

m ean

s eif .

d aily

T his

i s

t he

t emperature

h ottest o f

m ore

s eason t han

o f t he

3 90 C .

T he

y ear

w ith a

s eason

i s

c haracterized b y ad usty w ind l ocally k nown a s h aboob . I t i s a t ype o f t ropical ' squall' c onsisting o f s and a nd c lay p articles b lown u p b y t he e ast

a nd

n orth-east

w inds . W hen

w ell

2 8

a ccumulated,

i t

f orms a m oving

w all o f d ust. T he l ocal p opulation a nd o bservers a gree t hat i t c reates a n o ppressive a tmosphere , a nd g ives n o r ain. E2 T he

r ainy

s eason k harif .

t emperature , a bout

s ometimes

2 00 C .

e scape

T he

r ainfall

p recipitation

n atural

l ike

J abal

i n

t he

s eason. I t

v egetation M arra

t his

s eason

5 -8 0 C ,

a nd

a rea

i s

t here t he

a ll m )

( 3 ,042

1 ,000 m m w hile t he p lains o f A l

i n

a d rop

i n t he

t emperature S ome

A ugust

i s

a reas

w hich

m ay

i s t he

s hould b e n oted t hat r elief , a ltitude

a ffect t he

i s

m ean

i rregular.

f or d ays o r w eeks, e ven

w ettest m onth o f t he a nd

D uring

r eaching

t he

t otal

a mount m ean

o f

r ainfall.

a nnual

F asher, a t t he

r ainfall

e astern

I n

a reas

i s a bout

f oot o f

J abal

M arra , r eceive l ess t han t han 3 00 m m . I n t he d esert r egion o f n orthern D arfur, w here t he g round i s d evoid o f a ny v egetational c over a nd t here a re

f ew

a reas

o f

h igh

r elief ,

1 961,

4 6).

n egligible ( Barbour

t he

a mount

o f

r ainfall

i s

q uite

[ 3] T he l ate s ummer d art . A fter t he e nd o f t he r ainy s eason, m oist a ir

i s

d rawn o ver t he a rea a nd a llows t he f ormation o f s ome c louds a t al ower h eight, b ut n ot h igh e nough t o p romote t he b uilding o f c louds t o g ive r ain. A s ar esult , t he w eather b ecomes d isagreeably h ot a nd h umid. T his i s t he s eason i n w hich p eople h arvest t heir d ry f ield c rops . [ L I]

T he d ry w inter s hitta . I n t his s eason t he t emperature s ometimes f alls t o b elow ' I° C , e specially w hen a h igh p ressure f ront m oves t o t he s outh . T he

w eather

f rost f all

i n

m ost

i s o bserved i n

a reas

i s

c loudless

a nd

d ry .

H owever,

s ometimes

i n s ome p arts o f w estern D arfur w hich e xperience a

t emperature

t o

30 C .

T he

a tmosphere

i n

t he

n orthern

a reas

s ometimes b ecomes h azy b ecause o f t he d ust b lown f rom t he S ahara.

2 .5 T HE S OIL T he

s oil

o f

D arfur

h as

b een

l ittle

s tudied,

l argely

b ecause

s cientists h ave c oncentrated t heir e fforts i n a reas , s uch a s J abal

s oil M arra ,

c onsidered t o b e o f a gricultural a nd e conomic p otential.

2 .5 .1 T HE D ESERT S OIL T he d esert s oil i s m ainly c omposed o f w aste d erived f rom t he w eathering p rocess a nd t ransported b y e rosion a gencies . H ere t he d unes a re m obile a nd w inds p lay a c onsiderable r ole i n s haping a nd d epositing t hem . T he d esert s oil i s v irtually d evoid o f a ny v egetational c omponent .

2 .5 .2 T HE SEMI-DESERT S OIL T his a djoins t he d esert z one i n t he

s outh . H ere t he

d unes s how g ently

u ndulating r elief a nd t he s parse v egetation h elps t o s tabilize t he d unes w hich

h ave

i mmature

d epressions , t he

s oil

s oils .

I n

s ome

p a'ts ,

w here

t here

a re

c lay-filled

i s g rey, s aline a nd c alcareous. T he s table d unes i n

t his z one h ave a r ed s urface c olour a nd a re

f ormed f rom m edium o r c oarse

s and, u sually w ith a g rain s ize b etween 0 .02 m m a nd 0 .04 m m . T here r uns

f or

i s l ittle z onation i n t he Q oz s oil p rofile, a nd i n m any a reas i t s everal

k ilometres

w ithout

2 9

a ny

n oticeable

c hange

i n

r elief

( Lebon

1 965 , 2 1 a nd 6 0).

2 .5 .3 T HE S AVANNAH S OIL H ere

t he s oil

i s

i n t he f orm o f

s tabilized

d unes

o n

t he

s urface

a nd

b ecomes d arker i n c olour w ith d epth u ntil i t c hanges f rom l ight b rown t o d ark

y ellowish—red .

r eveals a nd

t hat

c lay

n early

f ractions

I t

h as

a m edium o r

a ll p articles a re

v ery

r are

a re

c oarse

g rain .

l ess t han

e xcept

i n

P hysical

a nalysis

1m m i n d iameter . S ilts

w ater

d eposits .

M icroscopic

a nalysis s uggests t hat t he p articles a re a ngular q uartz g rains . T he s mall a mount o f p recipitation a nd t he v egetation c over p revent t he m ovement o f s urface s oil .

2 .5 .4 T HE WADI A LLUVIAL S OILS T he

b est e xample o f t his s oil t ype

i s

f ound

i n t he

J abal M arra a rea ,

e specially i n t he b eds o f w adis s uch a s W adi A zum . T he s ubsoil i s u sually s tratified ,

a nd

d arkened

b y

o rganic

m atter

w here

t he

w ater

t able

i s

p robably l ess t han 1 m m d eep . A nother e xample i s t he w adi—filled d eposits o f

W adi

A l

K u

a nd

W adi

B ora

i n

J abal

S i .

H ere

t he

s oil

o f

t he

l ower

t erraces i ncludes bar ns a nd c lay , a nd i t b ecomes m ore c layey w ith d epth . I t i s f riable w hen w et , a nd i s n on—saline a nd s lightly a lkaline . I n t he J abal M arra a nd J abal S i a reas b oth t he p lains a nd t he h igh a reas h ave f ertile c alcareous

s oils

c ontaining o rganic c arbon , n itrogen a nd p otassium . T his

i s t he m ost f ertile t ype o f s oil i n C entral D arfur

( Barbour

1 961, 5 3) .

2 .6 T HE V EGETATION T his v aries c onsiderably f rom o ne z one t o a nother ; f rom a bsolute d esert i n t he n orth t o t ropical f orest i n t he s outh , w ith u pland ' montane' f orest a t h igh a ltitudes . H owever , i t s hould b e n oted t hat v egetational z ones i n t he a rea a re n ot s trictly d efined , b ut g radually m erge i nto o ne a nother . I n. g eneral , r elief a nd a mount o f r ainwater d ictate t he g rowth o f t he n atural v egetation i n t he r egion ( Figure 2 .2).

2 .6 .1 T HE D ESERT V EGETATION T his

z one

v egetational

( rainfall

l ess

c over e xcept

t he

7 5 m m p er a nnum) i s d evoid o f a ny j uzzu s parse c amel p asture w hich g rows i n

t han

r are y ears o f r ainfall . T he f ollowing e ight s pecies o f d esert p lants h ave b een i dentified i n i t

( Table 2 .1) . T he n ames a re g iven

A rabic ( after A lam A l D in

1 969 ; L ebon

i n L atin a nd l ocal

1 965) :

T hey h ave a n umber o f b ranches a nd a w oody s tem . T hey a re u sually l ess t han r ainy

o ne

m etre

i n

h eight ,

c oming

i nto

g rowth

a round

s eason a nd r emaining g reen u ntil F ebruary

O ctober

( Barbour

1 965 ,

a fter

j uzzu a ttracts n omadic g roups f rom b oth t he S udan a nd C had R epublics .

3 0

t he

1 51) . T he

L atin

A rabic

I ndigofera b rachteolata

d erma

N eurada p orocumbens

s aadan

I ndigofera a renaria

k ushrein

A rillida p apposa

n issa

C rotalaria t hebaica

n atash

T ribulus a latus

g uttub

F agonia c retica

a gul

T riraphis p umilio

s aleiyan

T able 2 .1 j uzzu P lants

2 .6 .2 T HE S EMI—DESERT V EGETATION T his

t ype

o f

v egetation

( rainfall

7 5-250 m m

p er

a nnum)

i s

f ound

a djacent t o t he d esert z one . I t i s a m ixture o f g rasses a nd s hrubs w ith a f ew s crub b ushes i ncludes s uch s pecies a s B alamites a egyptiaca h eglig a nd C alatropis

u shar .

A ccording

t o

A lam

a l

D in

( 1969 , 2 17)

t he

s tocking

d ensity i n t his z one i s a bout 1 8 b ushes p er a cre . T hey u sually s eparated b y b are g round a nd h ave a n a verage h eight o f a bout 1 m .

2 .6 .3 T HE S AVANNAH V EGETATION T his

t ype

s avannah

o f

v egetation

( rainfall 2 80

1 1 50

m erges

f rom

t he

s emi—desert

t o

w oodland

m m p er a nnum) . I t i s c haracterized b y am ixture

o f t rees , b ushes a nd g rasses

( Barbour

1 961; L ebon

1 965 ; A lam a l D in

1 969) .

T he n orthern a rea i ncludes t he a cacia b elt o f N orthern S udan . T he m aximum h eight o f t he a cacia i s a bout 1 0 m . A cacia s enegal h ashab w hich i s g rown i n d ensely c ultivated a reas a nd s ometimes h as a h eight o f 3 m . I t i s u sually f ound

g rowing

i n

a reas

o f

1 60-200 m m a nnual

r ainfall .

A cacia

n ubica

i s

f ound g rowing i n d epressions . O ther

t rees

o f

t he

s avannah

a re

C ambretum

c ordofamon

s eriocephale . A dansonia d igitada t abaldi ; u sually g rows c lay m ixed w ith s and . I t h as a h eight o f 1 8-2 ' t runk i s u sually , l arge m ore t han

a nd

P albergie

i n d epressions o f

ma nd a g reyish c olour . T he

1m d iameter . L ess c ommon i s C ommiphora

s pp . g afal w hich g rows t o t he h eight o f a bout 5 m , w ith s mall l eaves . T here a re b ushes s uch a s A cacia r addiana , A cacia m ellifera a nd M aerua c raffifolie . T he p redominant g rass i s A ristida p lumosa g au . T he f ollowing a re a lso f ound i n C entral D arfur : A lbizza s ericocephala b enth , A mara b oivia a rrad , L annea h umilis l eiyum a nd T ermir ialia b rownhi s ubakh . I t s hould b e n oted t hat a s o ne g oes s outh t he v egetational c over t ends t o

b ecome

d enser

a nd

t he

t rees

a re

f orest z one o f s outhern D arfur .

3 1

m uch

h igher

u ntil

o ne

r eaches

t he

F igure 2 .2 V egetation a nd R ainfall M aps

T he

m ost

c ommon

t rees

i n

t he

s outhern

p art

o f

t his

a rea

a re

A cacia

a lbida , A cacia t ortiles a nd A cacia s yal . T erminalia s chrocarga a nd P rosopis a fricana a re f ound i n a reas o f h igh r ainfall o n t he m argin o f t he w oodland z one . T he

d ominant

g rasses

i n

t his

a rea

a re

A ruslida

p ullida ,

B ullida

c enchrus , P yparr l enia , C onfinis a ndropogon a nd T erminalia b rownii s ubakh . T he l ast c ategory n eeds a n a verage r ainfall o f a bout

3 2

4 00 m m .

2 .7 T HE S URVEYED R EGIONS O F D ARFUR A s

a b ackground

t o

t he

r egions

s urveyed

i n

C entral

D arfur

i n

1 979

3 ) ab rief o utline o f t he g eographical s etting o f e ach a rea w ill

( Chapter

b e d iscussed h ere .

2 .7 .1 T HE T AGABO R ANGE T he

T agabo

( Figure

a re

s ituated

a bout

1 30 k m

n orth-east

o f

A l

F asher

a nd 3 ) w here t hey f orm a s emi-circular r ange o f s ome 8 0 h ills

1 . 1

b etween

h ills

0 0

a nd

1 ,000 m i n

n orthward d rainage

h eight .

s ystem t o W adi

T hey

f orm

a w atershed

b etween

H awar a s r epresented b y W adi

t he

D ibelibo

a nd t he e astward d rainage s ystem t o e astern D arfur a s r epresented b y W adi S iyah . T hey a re m ostly o f N ubian s andstone c apped w ith v olcanic r ock . I t s eems t hat t he

c entre o f

v olcanicity

w as

a l ocal

o ne

i n

T agabo

i tself

a round

T osal w here a lkaline m agma o verflowed a nd o verlaid t he N ubian s andstone . I n t he e astern p art t here a re s ome s teep r idges b ut o ther r anges

( e .g .

J abal M abo) h ave f lat s ummits . S ome h ills i n t his a rea , s uch a s t he J abal H addadin ,

h ave

f erruginous

s andstone

f ormations

( Babikir

1 962 , 8 ) .

T he

w hole r ange i s s urrounded b y p lains w ith Q oz s oils o f r eddish b rown s and o f m edium q uartz

g rains . T his

Q oz e xtends a bout

5 0 k m a nd s eparates t he

T agabo f rom t he M eidob s eries . T he

s urveyed a rea

s outh-west

d irection

i s

d rained b y t he W adi

a nd

t hen

t o

t he

M ao

s ystem w hich

e ast , w here

i t

l oses

r uns

i ts

i n

w ater

a i n

s and-dunes . I t i s a bout 5 0-70 m w ide a nd h as a s andy b ed . T he f lora o f t he a rea b elongs t o t he p oor l and s avannah t ype , i ncluding A cacia m ellifora , B oscia s enegalese a nd A cacia s yal ; t he l ast t wo g row i n t he h igher

a reas .

T he

p rincipal

g rass

i s

p lumosa .

T he

a rea

r eceives

a n

a verage a nnual r ainfall o f l ess t han 2 00 m m d uring t he k harif s eason . T he a rea h as f our s ystems o f l and u se : [ 1]

T he

e xploitation

m illets

o f

( Pennisetum

t he

r ainy

t yphoideu i n

s eason

f or

d ukhun) ,

d ry

f ield

o ckras

a nd

c ultivation c hillies ;

o f

s ome

s esame a nd g round n uts a re a lso g rown . [ 2] A fter t he

r ainy s eason

g um a rabic i s

c ollected

b etween F ebruary a nd

M ay . [ 3] T he p lumosa d onkeys ,

a nd

g au g rass

i s

t ransported

c ollected t o

m ajor

f rom t he h ills c entres

t o

b e

b y

s old

t hose a s

w ho

o wn

f odder

f or

a nimals . A lso t hose w ho o wn c amels c ut a cacia w ood f rom t he t op o f t he h ills a nd s ell i t i n c entres l ike M ellit . [ 4] S ome s horthorn , h umped c attle a re k ept i n t he a rea , b ut g oats a re m ore w idespread . T hese a nimals a re k ept a round t he v illage d uring t he r ainy s eason , a nd i n t he d ry s ummer t hey a re t aken t o w ater-points n ot f ar

3

a way f rom t he v illages b y y oung b oys. T hey a lso b reed s heep , b ut t hese a re

l ess n umerous t han

h orns .

D onkeys

p eople

i n

t he

a re

g oats; t hey a re o f m ixed b reed

u sed

a rea .

f or

t ransport

C amels a re a lso

a nd

u sed

f ew p eople . H orses a re v ery f ew i n t he a nd u sed f or p ersonal t ransport o nly . T he

a rea s elected

a re

o wned

a nd h ave s hort b y m ost

o f t he

f or t ransport , b ut owned b y

a rea a nd a re owned b y t he r ich

f or s urvey i n t his r egion w as a t t he n orth-west e nd

o f t he r ange i ncluding M ao , M abo , N amudu , B ongbong, U sungra a nd M erbo . T he l ast i s l ocated o n t he p lain, a nd t he o ther f ive o n t he h ills .

2 .7 .2 T HE J ABAL S I R ANGE T his

i s

i n

t he

( Figure 2 .3). T he d istinctive b asement

p arts .

c omplex

n orth-east

p art

r egion o f a bout I n

t he

r ocks .

p lains

T he

o f t here

v olcanic

p honolite, b est r epresented

t he

J abal

M arra

4 00 k m2 i s d ivided a re

o utcrops

r ocks a re

m ountain

i nto o f

m ainly

r ange

g eographically v olcanic

b asalt

w ith

a nd s ome

i n t he h ills w hich e xtend 2 4 km e ast a nd w est

a nd 5 4 k m s outh-west; t he h ighest p eak i s 2 ,500 m etres a bove s ea l evel a nd t he

r est

a re

b etween

d issected

b y

s andstone

o utcrops.

1 ,500

p eneplains , T he

a nd

a nd

7 00 m . T he

t o

a rea

t he

h as

p lateaux w ithin t he r ange a re

n orth-east

m any

w adi

s outhern d irection : K ebkabiya, D ora , S igring a nd t he

W adis

K aja

a nd

A zum w hich

f low i nto

t he

o f

t hem

s ystems

t here

w hich

a re

m any

f low

i n

o thers . T hese d rain

r iver

a

i nto

S hari, w hich i n

t urn

f lows i nto t he C hadic B asin. T heir b eds a re u sually c omposed o f a m ixture o f

s and

a nd

g ravel, s ometimes c ontaining

b oulders e roded

w ater. C urrents i n t he w adis a re u sually s wift a nd c ut

i n s itu

b y t he

1 5 m d eep c hannels .

T he p lains a re c overed w ith q uartz g ravel w hich c ontains a f ew b asalt a nd

p robably

p latform

s ome

c over

s andstone

w hich

h as

p ebbles .

T he

e roded.

T he

b een

l ast

m ay

h ave

s andstone

r ock

c ome

f rom

a

f ragments m ay

h ave w ell b elonged t o t he N ubian s andstone f ormation w hich i s e xposed e ast a nd

w est

o f

J abal

M arra .

T he

a rea

o utcrops, i n t he f orm o f s cattered t o I smail M usaba

a lso

h as

m agmatic

i nselbergs i n t he

( personal c ommunication , B ora , M ay

a nd

m icrogranite

D ora a rea . A ccording

1 979) t he g ranite r ock

f ormation a t B ora m ay b e o f g reater a ge , b ut h ad n ever b een r ecorded b efore t he w riter's f ield-work . T he

v egetational

c over

i n

t he

a rea

i s

m ixed.

T he

v egetation

o f

t he

p lains i s o f s avannah t ype, m ainly o f A cacia s yal m ore t han 1 5 mi n h eight a nd d ense g au g rass , w ith a m ean

a nnual

r ainfall

o f l ess t han

3 00 m m .

I n

t he h ighland z one t he v egetational c over i s d enser a nd g reen. I t i s o f r ich s avannah

t ype

w hich

r equires

m ore

t han

4 00 m m m ean

a nnual

r ainfall ;

i t

i ncreases a t h igher a ltitude t o 4 00-500 m m . T he p eople a re m ostly F ur

w ho

c laim t hat t hey a re o f

' pure ' F ur

r ace ,

u nlike t he r est o f t he i nhabitants o f J abal M arra w ho, t hey s ay , a re m ixed w ith o thers . Af ew p eople o f T unjur o rigin a re a lso f ound i n t he a rea . T here a re t hree l and-use s ystems i n t he a rea . [ 1]

T he

m ain

p eople

i n

o ccupation J abal

S i

i s

u se

a griculture . a t errace

3 4

U nlike

o ther

s ystem . F lat

a reas

i n

D arfur,

t erraces o f d ifferent

s hapes a nd s izes i n t he p lains a nd h illtops, a nd s tep t erraces , b uilt i n c ontours f rom t he t op o f t he h ills d ownwards , a re c ultivated i n t he r ainy s eason . L emons , o ranges , m angoes a nd

o nions a re c ultivated, a nd

i rrigated f rom s hallow w ells d ug i n w adi b eds . I n K ebkabiya p alm t rees a re a lso g rown a round J abal S i, a s i s w ild k owal C leome v iscosa

( linn.)

a s ucculent p lant w hich i s c ollected d uring t he r ainy s eason w hen i t c an b e p ulled u p g reen. F ermented f or a bout 5 w eeks a nd t hen d ried i t i s u sually a dded t o as auce ( see T othill [ 2] F ew p eople k eep c attle o r g oats , a nd s hort h orns a nd a re b lack i n c olour b urden

i n

t he

a rea

i s t he

d onkey

1 34) .

1 953 ,

s heep a re r are a nd m ainly h ave

( Tothill a nd

T he m ain b east o f

1 953).

a f ew r ich

p eople o wn

h orses .

C amel k eeping i n t he a rea i s a n ew o ccupation; t hese a nimals a re o nly u sed f or t ransportation i n t he p lains . [ 3] O ther

a reas o f c ommercial

i mportance a re l eather

t anning

a nd

b asket

m anufacturing , b ut o nly f or l ocal c onsumption . 1 !a reas w ere s ampled f or s urvey i n t his r egion ( Bora D ulu , T asi, D io a nd S igring) a nd w ill b e d ealt w ith i n t he n ext c hapter.

2 .7 .3 T HE S IMIAT R ANGE T he S imiat H ills l ie 3 4 k m e ast o f A l F asher. T hey c onsist o f t wo c urved m ountain r anges r unning e ast-west t o a d istance o f a bout 2 5 k m w here t he w estern r ange

e nds , w hile t he e astern r ange r uns s outh t o

a d istance o f

1 8 k m . T hey a re o f v olcanic r ock , o verlying N ubian s andstone h ills i n t he e ast. T he w hole a rea i s s urrounded b y s and-dunes f orm

t he

w estward

e astern

D arfur

Q oz ,

w hich

e xtends

s tretching e astwards t o

t o

c entral

t o f orm t he A l F asher Q oz . T his l ies o n t he

p oor

K ordufan

a nd

s avannah/Sahel

b order z one ( receiving l ess t han 2 00 m m m ean a nnual r ainfall) w here a cacia t rees a re t he m ain v egetational c over w ith s ome a rad b ushes a nd g au g rass. I t i s i nhabited b y t he s peak

o nly

A rabic

S imiat

t ribe w ho c laim t o b e o f B erti o rigin b ut

t oday. A ccording t o o ne v ersion o f t he o ral

t radition

c ollected b y t his w riter, t hey a re t he i ndigenous p opulation o f t he a rea . A nother

v ersion s uggests t hat t hey m igrated f rom t he T agabo h ills . T o t he

k nowledge

o f t he

w riter

l ittle

p ublished

l iterature

a bout

t hem

e xists .

A mong t hem o ne f inds a f ew Z aghawa-speakers w ho w ork a s c raftsmen i n i ron s mithing a nd p ottery m aking . T he m ain l and u se s ystem i n Q oz

d uring

t he

r ainy

s eason

t he

a rea

i s d ry f ield

( July-October).

M illet

c ultivation i s

t heir

i n

t he

p rincipal

c rop . S ome o f t hem c ollect g um a rabic i n t he w inter. F ew p eople k eep c attle o r g oats, a nd d onkeys a re t he m ain b east o f b urden. T he i n

a rea h as b een s everely a ffected b y t he d rought o f r ecent y ears a nd

1 979 t he i nhabitants w ere s uffering f rom a cute w ater s hortage , d espite

e fforts F ashar

t o c onstruct d ams . M ost o f t he p eople c arry t heir w ater D am

o btained i n t he

( 20 k m)

a nd

o thers

f rom t he r eservoirs

w inter

W ara ( Figure

t ime .

I n

3 5 k m

( hafirs)

t his a rea

t wo

1 . 1).

3 5

f rom

A l

F asher.

D rinking

f rom t he w ater

i s

i n t he r ainy s eason a nd a f ew w ells l ocalities

w ere

s urveyed: W ima

a nd

2 .7 . 1 4 T HE A L F ASHER R EGION T his

w as

s ampled

a s

p osition r elative t o s and-dunes

w hich

t he

f ourth

t he o ther

a re

s urvey

f our

u ndulating

a reas

a rea . a nd

I t

i s

w ind-deposited

l ies

i n

a p lain s ands

a c entral

m ainly

a nd

e astwards t o f orm t he s andy Q oz o f W estern K ordufan ( Figure

o f

w hich

Q oz

e xtend

2 .3). A l F asher

t own i s s ituated a t t he w est e nd o f t he s and-dunes f rom w hich e merges t he c lay p lain e xtending t o t he J abal S i/Marra c omplex. I t l ies o n t he e astern b ank o f t he W adi v alley

c ontains

c ultivation

A l

K u, a nd

i s b uilt o n t wo d unes w here

a s easonal

( Barbour

1 961,

l ake

s urrounded

1 45) .

T he

a rea

b y a d ark l ies

t he

i ntervening

c lay s uitable f or

b etween

t he

S ahel

a nd

s avannah z ones a nd r eceives l ess t han 3 00 m m a verage a nnual r ainfall. T he a rea i s d evoid o f a ny v egetational c over e xcept a f ew t rees w hich g row

a round

r egions

d epressions

w hich

s easonally

h old

w ater.

I n

t he

f ew

h illy

( Jabals K uosa a nd S hagra) t he d ominant s pecies a re A cacia s enegal

a nd B alatorites a egyptiaca . T he g rass i s m ainly o f P enienans c irchrus u mm s imima s pecies ( Figure 2 .2). I t i s d ominated b y t he W adi A l K u s ystem w hich r uns

s outh-west

a nd

h as

H egilig

d ominant

t ree

s pecies

H arrison

1 926 ,

8 3 ; B arbour

T he a ll

p eople

t he

S udan

i n

t ribal a nd

a nd

m any

M ajdoub,

t he

t ributaries ;

S hagra . a re

I n

t he

A cacia 1 961,

c lay

n ubica

m ajor p lains

a nd

a rea a re o f m ixed

A frica .

O ral

A cacia

a re

t he

t he

w adi

a lbida

H alluf ,

b eds

t he

( Jackson

a nd

6 7). e thnic o rigins , e mbracing

g roups o f t he r egion a s w ell

w est

o nes o f

t radition

a s

g roups

s uggests

f rom

t hat

t he

t he

a lmost r est o f

o riginal

i nhabitants w ere I sira . T he m ain l and u se s ystem i s t he c ultivation o f m illet i n t he d ry f ields d uring t he r ainy s eason

( July-October) a nd s ome t obacco i n t he w inter. A t

W adi G olo a nd a round A l F asher a nd t omatoes a re i rrigated c lay p lains o f W adi

A l

L ake c itrus f ruits , o nions , o kra , c hillies

i n t he d ry s eason , a nd t obacco i s g rown o n t he

K u.

T he

s urvey

c overed

a n

a rea

o f a pproximately

214 0 k m 2.I n t his r egion 6 s ites w ere s urveyed.

2 .7 .5 T HE K UT L JM R EGION T his w as t he f ifth r egion s elected f or t he s urvey a nd l ies a bout 9 7 k m n orth o f A l F asher a nd 7 2 k m n orth-west o f K ebkabiya

( Figure 2 .3). I t l ies

a t t he j unction b etween t he s avannah a nd t he S ahel z ones i n as emi-desert a rea w ith a f ew v olcanic i nselbergs , e .g . K utum , F urnung a nd F ana . T he W adi K utum d rains i n

a w esterly d irection a nd

t hen r uns s outh u ntil

i t l oses

i tself i n t he s andy p lains a round K obe . I n t he

t his a rea t he m ain

v egetational

n ear

t he

w ater

c over c ourses

a verage r ainfall

t hat a nd

o f t he s ome

i s l ess

s emi-desert

A cacia

t han

2 00 m m

a nnually ,

z one , s hort a cacia t rees

m ellifera

a t

t he

t ops

o f

t he

m ountains . T he s easonal i nhabitants o f t he r egion a re n omadic a nd i nclude Z aghawa, T unjur, F ur a nd R eziggat c amel-keeping g roups . T he s ystem o f l and u se i s o f h erding a nd a l ittle c ultivation , t he m ain h erd a nimal b eing t he c amel. T he

3 6

a rea i s t he b est p art o f t he r egion f or c amel h erding. M illet,

s orghum ,

s eseme

a nd

c otton

a re

c ultivated

d uring

t he

r ainy

s eason a nd o nions , c hillies a nd o kra d uring t he d ry s eason i rrigated f rom t he s hallow w ells d ug i n t he b ed o f W adi K utum . T here a re a lso o rchards o f d ate

p alms .

T he

n orthern

p art

o f

K utum

h as

s uffered

g reatly

f rom

d esertification i n r ecent y ears . I n t his r egion t wo a reas w ere s urveyed

i n

1 979 :

( a)

a n

a rea o f

1 5 k m2

w as s elected a long t he e astern b ank o f W adi K utum , ( b) M ount F arah i n J abal F urnung,

( a r egion c haracterized

b y a r ocky v olcanic o utcrop o n w hich i s

t he w ell—known s ite o f A in F arah). E ast o f b oth l ie s andy p lains w hich a re c overed

w ith a t hin l ayer o f c oarse g ravel a nd e xtend n orthwards t o f orm

t he ' Ergs ' o r d unes o f t he m ain

S ahara

D esert . B oth a reas a re a t p resent

i nhabited b y a m ixture o f T unjur a nd F ur p eople w ho a re a griculturalists c ultivating m illet, s orghum , a nd s eseme i n t he r ainy s eason. I n t he s ummer t hey i rrigate

t heir

l emon g ardens , p alm t rees a nd o nions f rom t he s pring

o f F arah , w hich i s ap ermanent s ource o f w ater.

± U Ummbarou •T agabo * Kutum

0

O s i

8 00k r r

•S im iat

-

I

A l F asher

"

/

• 1

/ /

• 1

/

)

„ N J !

Z e igart ( 1973 75)

a

Mohammed ( 1 978)

• Musa

( 1979- 8 1)

0

I

F igure 2 .3 M ap s howing a reas s elected f or s urvey

3 7

2 00km S

C HAPTER 3 THE A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY O F C ENTRAL D ARF L JR ( 1978-1981)

I n

t his

c hapter,

a

d escription

o f

t he

f ield-work,

m ethod

o f

i nvestigation a nd r esults o btained f rom t he f ive s elected r egions ( Tagabo , S i, S imiat, A l F asher a nd K utum) i n C entral D arfur w ill b e g iven. I n

o rder

D arfur w hich

t o

r ecover

t he

d ata

w as

d ivided

i nto

f ive

w ere

d ivided

i nto

z ones .

r equired

f or

r egional

r egions; e ach w as t hen T he

a rtefacts w ere

s tudies ,

C entral

d ivided

i nto

a reas

c ollected

f rom

z ones

a ccording t o o ne o f t he m ethods o utlined i n s ection 1 . 10 . T est e xcavations w ere u ndertaken

i n

f ollowing

I t w as

t ext .

a f ew s elected a reas ; t he r esults a re i ndented i ntended

t o

e xplore

t he

i n t he

r elationship b etween

t he

s urface a nd t he s ub-surface r emains i n e ach m ain s ite. S amples o f c ultural a nd e nvironmental m aterial w ere c ollected

f rom t he e xcavated

a reas .

E ach

e xcavated p osition w as b ack-filled a fter t he c ompletion o f t he w ork . S ites w ere e ntered i n t he 1 : 12500 m aps o f t he p rovince a nd t hen e ach o ne w as g iven

a n umber

p receded

b y a n

a bbreviation o f s ite n ame e .g . B or f or

B ora . T his w as f ollowed b y t he n umber o f t he z one o f t he s ite a nd t he g rid s quare

i n

w hich

t he

o bject

o r

f eature

w as

f ound.

W hen

o bjects

w ere

c ollected f rom a n e xcavated c ontext , t he p osition n umber w as e ncircled a nd t rench a nd

l ayer

n umber

w ere t hen a dded. M easurements f or t he e nclosures

a re g iven t o t he n earest m etre . T he m easurements f or w alls a re f or l ength ( or d iameters o f c ircular s tructures), h eight a nd t hickness c onsecutively .

3 .1 S URVEY O F T HE T AGABO R ANGE ( AREA A ) A s

h as

b een

m entioned

1 30 k m n orth-east o f A l

( section

F asher.

I t

2 .7 .1)

t he

T agabo

r ange

i s

s ituated

c onsists o f a bout 8 0 h ills , m ostly o f

N ubian s andstone o verlain b y v olcanic r ock f ormations . T he s urveyed a rea i s d rained b y W adi M ao, w hich r uns i n a s outh-east d irection . T he a rea i s a t p resent i nhabited b y t he s edentary a griculturalist B erti p eople . Ar adius o f c .

1 2 k m w as s urveyed, t aking M ao a s ac entral p oint, i n a ll

d irections . S ites w ere o nly f ound s outh a nd w est o f M ao ( Figure 3 .1). A fter t he

g eneral

s urvey ,

a ttention

w as

c oncentrated

o n

t he

f ollowing

s even

a reas:

3 .1.1 J ABAL M AO A t t he s ea

n orth-east e nd

l evel,

i s

( Figure 3 .1)

J abal

o f t he T agabo r ange , a t a h eight o f 7 00 m a bove

M ao,

s urrounded

b y

2 50 1 4 6 ' E s cree

-

s lopes

114 0 3 1 4 ' N , d ominated

a n

b y

s ummit. T he s outhern r idge s lopes g radually w estwards t o h ill, w here B eyond

t he

a n

e xtensive

W adi

e xtends

d rainage a f lat

s ystem , t he W adi

p lain

i solated

a c liff t he

h ill

n ear

t he

f oot o f t he

M ao, r uns s outhwards .

( 1000 x 7 00 m )

o f

c lay m ixed

w ith

g ravel. T he w hole a rea i s s urrounded o n t he n orth-east a nd w est b y ac hain o f f our h ills a nd o n t he s outh b y a n e nclosing w all a bout 2 m m aximum

h eight

a nd

1 .70 m w idth

r unning

3 8

e ast-west

9 00 m l ong w ith

( Plate I ).

A cacia

F igure 3 .1 T agabo R egion : A reas o f d etailed s urvey

t rees g row a ll o ver t he a rea , m ore d ensely o n t he

e astern a nd u pper

p art

t han t he w estern a nd l ower o ne ( Figure 3 .2 a nd C hapter 7 ) . A ll

o ver

t his

e nclosed

a rea ,

s tructural

r emains

w ere

v isible

a nd

a

s catter o f a rtefacts c ould b e s een i n a nd a round t hem . A lthough s ome o f t he b uildings h ad b een d estroyed b y e rosion g ulleys c oming f rom t he m ountain t ops , a nd

o thers a t t he l ower w estern e nd

h ad

b een d isturbed

b y m en

a nd

a nimals , m ost o f t he w alls c ould b e t raced e ven i f o nly i n o utline a nd t he s ite c ould

g enerally b e d escribed a s ' well p reserved' a ccording t o

t erminology ( Vila a nd

s urveyed

1 976). T he e nclosure w as d ivided

b y m ethod

i nto f our

z ones

A . B eyond t he e nclosing w all a f ifth z one

e xamined i n d etail.

3 9

V ila 's ( 1-1V) ( V) w as

I U

c

&

‚-

o Q J A O cO O c , - . Q j

00

' I

®W e l l

0 S me l t ing f u rna ce

C ave 8 oHou s e s 0B u r ia l

5 00M

Wa l l _ _

( i.

R .T er race

A

I r on Work ing

& I r on S l ag ZZ bne

W a te r c our se s

F igure 3 .2 M ao: S urvey a rea

M ao Z one I T his

i s

f orming

i n

a s hallow

a r ough

d epression

f lat a rea o ccupying

o n

t he

s outhern

r idge

a bout 7 00 x 5 00 m .

o f

I n t his

t he

h ill

z one t he

f ollowing f eatures w ere s urveyed: 3 0 S ingle-room H ouses w ere

e xamined.

T hey

( a t erm u sed t o m ean a c ircular/oval e nclosure)

m easured

o n

a verage

6 x 1 .80 x 3 .80 m ( Figure 3 . 3) .

M ore t han 8 8 D ouble-room H ouses ( Figure 3 .) w ere p resent; o f t hese e xamined H ouses 5 .5 x

a nd

w ere

m easured f ound,

o f

( 5 .50 x 0 .80 x 2 m ). w hich

9 w ere

A bout

s urveyed.

T he

i nner

1 .80 x 1 .20 m a nd t he c entral s pace h ad a 24 m2 a rea . 40

1 0 w ere

3 9 c ases o f T hree-room r ooms

m easured

P lan

E l eva t ion

0

l Om

F igure 3 .3 At ypical S ingle-room h ouse

( example M ao)

P l an

S ec t ion

0

l Om

F igure 3 .4 At ypical D ouble-room C ompound H ouse

4 1

( example M ao)

T he e nclosing w all m easured 1 6 .00 x

x 1 .90 m ( Figure 3 .5).

1 .70

P l an

S e c t ion

0

HOr n

I .

I

F igure 3 .5 At ypical T hree-room C ompound H ouse ( example M ao)

T he s urface a rtefacts w ere m ainly d isc a nd

p otsherds ,

( Table 3 .1 a nd

i nside C hapter

s ome 7 ). T he

o nly a f ew p otsherds a nd

h ouses

a s

q uerns , g round w ell

a s

i n

t he

i ntervening s pace b etween

1 2 b roken d isc q uerns

( Table 3 .1

s tone a rtefacts c entral

s pace

h ouses p roduced a nd C hapters

1

a nd 7 ). A 1m

2

t est

p it w as d ug t o

a d epth o f

0 .55 m a t t he

j unction

p oint b etween t he e nclosing c ompound w all a nd a w all o f r oom 1 4 , t o a d epth o f 0 .50 m b elow t he l owest c ourse. T he e astern p art o f t he p it w as t hen r emoved u ntil i t w as s hown t hat t he t wo w alls w ere n ot d irectly j oined a nd o nly a g ap 0 .15 m w ide f illed w ith r ubble w as f ound a bove b edrock ( Figure 3 .6) .

4 2

P lan

S ect

: 1Clay

i on

2m

&g rave l

F igure 3 .6 T est p its 1 ( Mao)

At est p it 0 x 1 x 0 .66 m ) w as d ug i n r oom 3 o f C ompound 1 0 . T he b edrock , r eached a t 0 .7 m , c onsisted o f s andstone . T he d eposit a bove i t w as o f g rey c layey s oil m ixed w ith g ravel, a nd s howed n o s tratification . T his s uggested t hat i t w as p robably b rought t o t he a rea f rom s omewhere e lse t o m ake a f loor ( Figure 3 .7A). A t est p it ( 1 x 1x0 .40 m ) w as m ade i n t he s ame r oom a t t he p oint w here t he w all e nds t o f orm t he d oorway . B edrock w as f ound 0 .35 m b elow t he t ermination o f t he l owest w all c ourse. I t w as f ound t hat t he w all w as p laced i n a 0 .15 m f oundation t rench . T he s tones of t he l ower c ourse w ere b igger ( 0 .10 x 0 .11 x 0 .04 m ) t han t hose o f t he u pper c ourses ( 0 .07 x 0 .05 x 0 .03 m ) ( Figure 3 .7B). T wo r ows o f s labs w ere l aid i n c ircular h orizontal c ourses t o m ake a d ouble w all a nd t he g ap b etween t hem w as f illed w ith r ubble. T he s labs h ad b een r oughly s quared ( Figure 3 .7C).

4 3

B

C lay & g r ave l 0

B edrock

2m

F igure 3 .7 T est p its 2 ( Mao)

M ao Z one I I T his l ies i mmediately w est o f Z one I i ncluding p art o f W adi M ao; a n a rea o f 3 00 x 2 00 m w as e xamined. I n i t w adi;

1 6 w ere c ircular

( Figure 3 .8) . W ell d eep b uilt

1 7 , w hich h ad a r ectangular m outh o f

2 x 7m , w as

1 9 m

( Figure 3 .9). I t w as t he o nly o ne i n t his z one w ith a n i nternal w all o f

c urrently A hmed

1 7 w ells h ad b een d ug i n t he b ed o f t he

i n s hape . , o f a verage d iameter 0 .65 m a nd 2 0 m d eep

a s ingle u sed

H amid,

b y

c ourse l ocal

J une , 1 980)

i nhabitants d iscovered

o f

f ine

( Berti) t old

t he

s labs .

p eople .

F ourteen

o f

t hese

I nformants

( Botolo

t hat

t en

w riter

o nly

t hat t here w ere w ells h ere a nd

w ells T agabo

y ears

a go

s tarted t o

a re a nd t he

r eopen

t hem . A ll t he w ells w ere s aid t o b e o ld o nes . T he

e xcavation

o f

W ell

3 , w hich

h ad

n ot

b een

r e-used,

w as

u ndertaken. A h eap o f s tones i rregularly p iled u p t o t he h eight o f 0 .70 m w as r emoved a nd s oon a p art o f a w ooden ( 25 x 2 5 c m) b eam a ppeared. A s t he p rocess c ontinued, 2 w ooden b eams 1 . 2 m l ong w ere s een t o c ross a t t he m outh o f t he w ell. W hen t hey w ere r emoved, i t w as f ound t hat t he w ell h ad b een d ug i nto t he s andstone r ock b ed

44

0

8 m F igure 3 .8

R ectangular w ell ( Mao)

F igure 3 .9 C ircular w ell ( Mao)

4 5

b elow t he w adi b ed w ith a h eavy i nstrument; t he s ides h ad b een s ubsequently s moothed. N o f inds w ere r ecovered o ther t han t he 2 b eams o f a cacia w ood, a nd w ater a t a d epth o f 1 5 m . T he f ill w as o f s and a nd a ppeared t o h ave a ccumulated n aturally . M ao Z one I II T his l ies t o

t he n orth-west o f

Z one

I I

( Figure 3 .2). S tructures a nd a

c ave w ere l ocated. T he m outh f aces w est a nd i s r oughly r ound i n s hape, a nd t here w ere t wo c overed

s mall

o penings t o t he o utside f acing e ast; t he w alls w ere

w ith p aintings .

d iscussed

i n

T hese

w ere

t raced

a nd

p hotographed, a nd

w ill

b e

s ection 6 .2 .1. N o o ther a rtefacts o r t races o f u se w ere f ound

i nside t he c ave o r o n t he s urface o f t he z one . S ome 3 0 ms outh-west o f t he c ave , ac omplex o f s tructures w as l ocated . A s urvey

r evealed

2 C ompound

H ouses ;

o ne

w as

o f

7 r ooms

w hich

m easured

5 .90 x 2 x 1 m a nd h ad a n e nclosing w all o f 2 6 x2 x 1m ( Figure 3 .10) .

P lan

S ect io n

Or n

0

F igure 3 .10 Ac omplex h ouse o f s even r ooms ( example M ao)

T hey w ere o f t he

s ame c onstruction a s t hose o f Z one

I . S ome

5 0 s herds

w ere f ound i n r ooms 3 , 5a nd 7 a nd a ll w ere c ollected ( Table 3 . 1) . T he o ther w as a F ive-room C ompound

H ouse n ext t o 4 6

C ompound

1 . T he r ooms m easured o n

a verage ( Figure

5 .80 x 1 .20 x 1 .30

i n .

T he

e nclosing

w all

m easured

2 0 x 2 x 1m

3 .11).

l Om

0

F igure 3 .11 At ypical F ive-room C ompound H ouse ( example M ao)

N o

a rtefacts

o ther

t han

t he

s herds

w ere

f ound

o n t he

s urface o f a ny o f

t hem . T hese c ompounds w ere 1 i na part . M ao Z one I V T his w as 8 00 m s outh-west o f Z one I II a nd 5 00 m w est o f f lat

a rea

o f

s tructural ( Figure T he p art

o f

t races

2 15 x 2 20 m a c omplex

s ettlement

r emains ,

o f

s ites

i ndustrial

w as

Z one

l ocated,

w orkings

a nd

I I ; i n

a

i ncluding

a

c emetery

3 .12) . I n t his z one f ive t est e xcavations w ere u ndertaken. s tructural t he o f

a rea .

1 31

r emains T here

w ere

w ere

8 3

i rregularly w ell

d ispersed

p reserved

r uined o nes . T hey m easured

o n a verage

w ere o f t he s ame c onstruction a s t hose o f Z one I .

4 7

i n

t he

S ingle-room

n orth-east H ouses

a nd

5 x 1 .20 x 1 m . T hey

00

0 /

2 e '

00 0

l b 0g 0 0 1 0

_

_

\

a

0

\

-—0

o \ -

0

Q

O O

a

L

\

0

0' ,,

0

0

c a2\

0

0

g 0

0 24

0

0

0

0 0

0

\

oB ur ia l s 0

I r on

w o rk ing

/T er race

H ou se s

S Om

F igure 3 .12 L ocation o f s ites i n z one I V ( Mao)

A n

i ndustrial

a rea

i ndicated

b y

i ron

s lag

a nd

2 0

s mall

b lack

a reas

s howing s igns o f b urning o n t he s urface o f t he s oil, w as f ound e ast o f t he c emetery . O ne

c oncentration o f

i ron

s lag

a nd

p otsherds

o ver

a n

a rea o f

( 2 x 4m ) w as c ompletely c ollected, a nd t he a rea u nderneath i t w as e xcavated ( Figure 3 .13). A c ircular p it w as f ound, 1 .10 m d iameter a nd 0 .75 m d eep . I t w as f illed w ith a shes a nd c harcoal, l oose e arth s howing s igns o f b urning a nd s herds . A n i ron r eaping k nife a nd a h oe w ere f ound a mong t he i n-filling r ubble o f t he p it ( Chapter 5 ) w hich s eemed d eliberately f illed. B ecause n o f urnace s tructure w as f ound i n t he p it o r o n t he s urface a nd b ecause c omplete i ron t ools w ere f ound i n t he p it , t his z one w as c onsidered b y l ocal i nformants t o h ave b een a n i ron f orging a rea . A c emetery w as l ocated

i n t he w estern p art o f t his r egion . T he g raves

w ere m arked b y s tones a nd i t w as p ossible t o i dentify 5 0 o f t hem . A s ample o f f our g raves w as s elected

f or e xcavation, t hree o f t hem o n t he b asis o f

4 8

0

I m

I

I

F igure 3 .13 T est p it 3 ( Mao)

t heir

p osition

a nd

t he

f ourth

b ecause

i t

w as

t he

s mallest

i n

s ize

( Figure 3 .12). G rave f orm a

Ih ad a s uperstructure o f s tone b locks p iled t ogether t o c airn o f 1 -2 m d iameter w ith a h eight o f 0 .50 m

( Figure 3 .14) . W hen t his w as r emoved, t he s ubstructure w as f ound t o b e a n e longated p it 2 m l ong a nd 0 .8 m w ide a t t he c entre , b eneath t he c airn . T he b ody w as b uried i n t he c entre o f t he p it i n at ightly c ontracted p osition , l ying o n i ts l eft s ide f acing w est. K nees a nd e lbows w ere b ent t owards t he c hest. S ome 2 03 b one b eads w ere f ound s cattered o ver t he c hest o f t he s keleton ( Plate I I). T he d eceased w as a w oman w ho d ied a t a bout t he a ge o f 2 1 ( Appendix V a nd T able 3 .1). G rave I I h ad a s maller s tone c airn s uperstructure t han G rave

I ,

m easuring 1 m i n d iameter a nd 0 .05 m i n h eight. B eneath i t w as a n o val p it 1 .50 m i n d iameter a nd 0 .25 m i n d epth . T he b ody w as l aid i n a t ightly c ontracted p osition f acing w est, w ith t he h ead b etween t he h ands a nd t he k nees b ent t owards t he e lbows ( Plate I II). A round t he w aist o f t he b ody 9 5 b one b eads w ere f ound a nd a n i ron b racelet w as f ound o n t he r ight f orearm . T he d eceased w as a f emale a ged 1 72 0 y ears a t t he t ime o f d eath . ( Appendix V ). G rave I II's s uperstructure ( if i t h ad h ad o ne) h ad a lready b een r emoved. I t w as m arked b y o nly o ne b ig s tone a nd a l ow m ound o f s and. W hen t he s and w as r emoved t he i nternal p it w as f ound t o h ave a d iameter o f 1 .20 m a nd a d epth o f 0 .30 m . T he b ody h ad b een d isturbed a nd t he c entral p art o f t he s keleton b roken i n p ieces . N o g rave g oods w ere f ound. H owever, t he r emaining p arts o f t he s keleton s uggest t hat t he b ody w as p robably b uried i n ac ompletely c ontracted p osition . G rave I V h ad a s imilar s uperstructure t o t hose p reviously m entioned, b ut w as t he s mallest o f a ll, b eing 1 m i n d iameter a nd 0 .20 m h igh .

T he

i nternal p it h ad

a n o val

s hape 0 .90 m i n d iameter

a nd 0 .15 m d eep . T he b ody w as l aid o n i ts l eft s ide i n a t ightly c ontracted p osition i n t he e astern p art o f t he p it , f acing w est w ith t he h ead b etween t he h ands a nd k nees d rawn u p . M ore t han 1 02

4 9

P l an

S ect ion

0

F igure 3 .14 Ap lan o f G rave I ( Mao)

b one b eads w ere f ound s cattered o ver t he u pper p art o f t he b ody . A bout 3 0 p otsherds w ere f ound i n t he w estern p art o f t he g rave . A ll s eem t o b e f rom o ne p ot . 0 .10 x 0 .10 m w as u ncovered.

N ear t hem a s mall c ircular I t c ontained s herds , a bout 2 0

p it o f g rammes

o f c harcoal a nd n umerous s eeds . I t w as n ot p ossible t o s ay w hether t he p it w as c ontemporary w ith t he g rave o r e arlier, b ut i t w as c ertainly n ot l ater b ecause t he p it w as s uperstructure s lab o f t he g rave ( Table 3 .1).

c overed

w ith

t he

M ao Z one V T his l ies a bout 3 00 m o utside t he d efensive w all a nd w as e xamined i n d etail. I t o ccupies a f lat z one o f a pproximately 4 00 x 3 00 m o f a g rey c lay s oil m ixed w ith g ravel. I t w as w alked a t 2 m i ntervals a nd

2 0 s mall

m ounds ( 0 .20 x 0 .50 x 0 .18 m ) o f s lag w ere f ound d istributed i n a n i rregular m anner ( Figure 3 .2) ; n orth-west o f t hem w as a g roup o f S ingler oom H ouses . T he s urviving s tructures w ere 1 89 S ingle-room H ouses , a nd t rades o f 7 5 b adly r uined o nes w ere i dentified. T hey w ere i ndividually c onstructed w ithout l inks b etween a ny o f t hem a nd n one o f t hem h ad a n e nclosing w all o r a ny s maller s tructure a ttatched t o i t . T he a verage d iameter w as 5 .51 m , w ith 1 .20 m w all h eight a nd 0 .40 m w all t hickness . T hey

5 0

s howed n o p articular p attern o f e ntrance o rientation . T he w all o f a d isturbed h ouse ( from t he g roup o f S ingle-room H ouses m entioned a bove) w as t ested b y e xcavation . I t w as f ound t hat t he t ype o f c onstruction w as d ifferent f rom t hat w ithin t he e nclosed a rea . T he h ouses w ere b uilt o f a s ingle r ow o f u pright f ixed s tone b locks s et i n f oundation t renches a bout 0 .30 m d eep a nd 0 .70 m w ide ( Figure 3 .15) . T he b locks w ere o f s andstone a nd h ad b een

0

I m

F igure 3 .15 T est p it 4 ( Mao)

r oughly s quared. C hapter 7 .

T he

s ignificance

o f

t his

s ite

i s

d iscussed

i n

I n t he s outh o f t his z one a g roup o f 2 5 f urnaces w as l ocated. T hey w ere a ll o n a l evel a rea a t ah eight o f 7 ma bove t he n earby W adi M ao . T hey w ere a ll o f o val s hape, a round 0 .80 m i n d iameter a nd b uilt a t ad istance o f 3 — m f rom

e ach

o ther,

c overing

a n

a rea

o f

2 0 x3 0 r n .

T wo

o f

t hem

w ere

s elected f or e xcavation . F urnace I s howed r emains o f a c ircular m ud w all 0 .05 m t hick , o f w hich 0 .08 m p rojected a bove g round l evel ( Figure 3 .16A) . E xcavation o f t he s ubstructure s howed t he s hape o f a n o val c lay s tructure w hose u pper d iameter w as 0 .80 m , n arrowing t owards t he bottom t o 0 . 14 0 m a nd f inally t o 0 .30 m . T he i nner p art o f t he f urnace h ad b een s moothed w hen w et a nd c oloured b rown, r ed a nd b lack b y f iring. I nside t he p it , i ron s lag a nd c harcoal w ere f ound p acked i n a lternate l ayers . I t h ad a pparently b een a bandoned a fter i ts f inal s melt . F urnace I I h ad a s imilar s uperstructure t o F urnace I , w ith i rregular p arts p rojecting a bove g round l evel b etween 0 .05 m a nd 0 .12 m i n h eight ( Figure 3 .16B). T he i nner p it h ad 0 .51 m u pper a nd 0 .025 m l ower d iameters . I nside t he f urnace i ron s lag a nd c harcoal w ere f ound a ssociated i n a lternate l ayers ; i t t oo h ad b een a bandoned a fter t he l ast s melt ( Plate I V) . A f ew p otsherds l arge s tone b locks w ere c ollected f rom t he s urface o f t he a rea .

5 1

a nd

A

B

C har co a l

r

S l ag 0

I m

F igure 3 .16 H alf-section F urnaces I -II ( Mao)

3 .1.2 J ABAL H ABO T wo z ones w ere l ocated

i n t he a rea o f 6k m

2

s urveyed, 3 k m n orth-west

o f J abal M ao ( Figure 3 .17) . M abo Z one I Z one

Iw as l ocated a t t he t op o f J abal M abo . T he h ill

h as a n aturally

f lat t op m easuring 3 0 x7 0 mo verall a t a h eight o f 7 00 m a bove s ea l evel. M any s tone r eservoirs a nd 2 m t ransects .

T he

b asins w ere

f lanks o f t he

f ound

b y c arrying

o ut a s urvey o f

m ountain h ave m any r ocky u neven

r idges

a nd s urface s tones . T his p robably e xplains w hy n o e nclosing w all w as e ver b uilt. T he a rea w as d ivided i n T he

3

p arts f or s urvey p urposes .

f irst p art l ies a t t he e astern e nd o f t he h illtop , w here

r oom C ompound

H ouses w ere l ocated, o f w hich 5 c ompounds

1 5 T hree-

w ere e xamined

i n

d etail. T hey g ave t he f ollowing a verage m easurements : 4 .60 x 1 . 50 x 1 .80 m . T he

c entral

1 3 x 2 x 1m .

s pace

w as

1 m

2 5 p otsherds ,

i n

s ize.

1g rinding

5 2

T he d isc

a verage ( upper

e nclosing

g rindstone),

w all

w as

3q uerns

z i g

I d

4

8 ° H ou se s OQ

P l a t form

B a s in s &r e se rvo ir s

S u rvey l i m i t s

0

F igure 3 .17 M abo : S urvey a rea

( lower g rindstone)

a nd g round s tone t ools w ere c ollected

s tructures a nd

t he s pace b etween t hem ( Table 3 .1 a nd C hapter 1 4 ).

T he

s econd

S ingle—room l ocally

a s

f r o m p art

H ouses g iltas

i s a nd w ere

i n 1 6

t he

c entre

o f

r eservoirs

f ound.

T he

f ound w as c ircular, 6 m i n d iameter

d ug

g iltas a nd

t he

p lateau ,

i nto v ary

i n

1 2 m d eep

t he

f rom i nside t he

w here

a g roup

h illtop

s ize; t he

a nd

k nown

b iggest

( Figure 3 .18A)

o f

a nd

o ne t he

s mallest w as 3 m i n d iameter a nd 2 m d eep ( Figure 3 .18A a nd C hapter 7 ). T he 6 b ig

r eservoirs

e ach

h ad

a S ingle—room

1 .20 x 1 .15 m a verage m easurements .

5 3

H ouse

n ear

t o

i t

o f

1 4 .50 x

P l an

A

S ec t ion

P l an

S ect ion

( _-1

B

0

F igure 3 .18 P lan o f B asins a nd R eservoirs ( Mabo)

T he s ome

t hird

2 0

p art l ies e ast

s hallow

o f t he r eservoirs a nd, w hen w alked, r evealed

( 0 .20 m d eep)

r ectangular

b asins

( 2 x 1m )

d ug

a t

a

d istance o f a pproximately 0 .5 m f rom e ach o ther i nto t he c lay s oil o f t he h illtop , w ith c hannels i nto t hem f or r ain-water. A s ample o f 1 5 o f t hem w as e xamined w ere

i n d etail

f ound

i nside

o ther

s ome

o f

( Figure 3 .18B). I n t he w hole o f t his z one n o a rtefacts

t han t he

r eservoirs a nd h ouses .

N o

p otsherds

a reas

o f

i ron

n ear

t he

w orking,

r eservoirs a nd c emeteries

o r

p latforms w ere f ound h ere . A s ection o f o ne r eservoir ( Figure 3 .18A) w as c leared; a ppeared t o h ave b een d ug d irectly i n t he s andstone b edrock . a rtefacts w ere f ound i nside t he r eservoir.

i t N o

M abo Z one I I Z one I I w as l ocated o n t he s outhern r idge o f J abal M abo . I t o ccupies a r ocky

a rea

o f

a pproximately

1 80 x 9 0 m g radually

s loping

d own

t o

t he

s outh . T he a rea w as m uch o vergrown b y t rees a nd b ushes . I t i s d issected b y m any

e rosion

g ullies

c oming

d own

f rom

5 4

J abal

M abo

w hich

c ut t hrough t he

l ower p arts o f t he s ite, a nd m any a rtefacts l ay r evealed. I t w as p robably t he

s ite

r eported

b y A rkell

( 1937 ,

3 20) w ho n ever v isited

i t b ut k new o f

i t . I t h ad n ever b een s urveyed b efore 1 9791980 . S ystematic

w alking

i n

2 m t ransects

s howed

t hat

t he

w hole

a rea

w as

b uilt o ver w ith s tructures c lose t o e ach o ther. M ost o f t hem w ere D oubler oom a nd C ompound H ouses w ith a ncillary s tructures . I n ac entral p osition , a p latform s urviving

1 0 m i n d iameter

w as r aised

2 m , w ith a s urrounding w all. T he

s tructures c omprised 4 5 S even-room C ompound

H ouses ,

2 00 T hree-

r oom H ouses a nd 8 0 F our-room H ouses ( Figure 3 .17) . T o

s implify

t he

s urvey

a nd

t o

s tructures, t he a rea w as d ivided d rainage

f acilitate

t he

m easurement

o f

t he

i nto 3 a rbitrary p arts s eparated

b y t he

s ystem . B ecause o f t he r ocky n ature o f t he a rea t he g rid

s ystem

w as a bandoned

i n

f avour o f p lanning b y s tructural

u nits .

I t

w as

s urveyed

b y m ethod A a nd 3 0% o f e ach u nit w as c losely e xamined ( Figure 3 .17) . 5 S even-room

C ompound

H ouses

w ere

e xamined

a nd

m easured,

5 .80 x 1 .13 x 1 .80 m f or t he i nner r ooms . T he c entral a verage

s ize

a nd

t he

e nclosing w alls m easured

a veragin

s paces w ere o f

1 7 m

2 6 x 1x 2 m . O ne w all

C ompound 2 3 h ad a b roken d isc q uern o n t op o f i t

o f

( Table 3 .1 a nd C hapters

L I

a nd 7 ). 2 8 F our-room C ompound H ouses w ere s urveyed a nd t hey g ave t he f ollowing a verage r oom d imensions: 5 .7 x

x 1 .80 m ; o f t hese

1 .32

9w ere l ocated n ear

t he g ateways o f S even-room C ompound H ouses . 6 0

T hree-room

C ompound

a verage

r oom

c entral

s paces w as

H ouses

d imensions: 1 4 m2

5 .01 a nd

‚

w ere

s urveyed,

x 1 .82 x 1 . 15 m .

a nd

T he

g ave

t he

a verage

t hat o f t he e nclosing w alls

v ery f ew s urface

a rtefacts

o f

t he

1 3 x 1 x2 m .

T his s ite

s howed

t ools a nd

b roken d isc q uerns w ere f ound i n t he s paces b etween s tructures .

T he q uerns w ere m easured, p hotographed a nd

7 ) .

I n

t his

a rea , d espite

a nd

b ut

f ollowing

s ize

l eft

p otsherds , i n

g round

p osition

s tone

( Chapters

L I

a t horough s earch , n o c emeteries , w ells o r

i ndustrial a reas w ere f ound. Ap latform w as c onstructed i n ac entral p osition w ithin t he s ettlement; i t w as c ircular

i n

s hape

w ith a d iameter o f

i rregularly l evelled a t t he t op ( Figure o f

1 8 m d iameter,

f illed

w ith

2 m h eight

r ubble

w ith

a nd

3 .19).

1m w idth

a s ingle

g ate

1 0 m a nd

a h eight o f

1 .5 m ,

I t w as e nclosed w ith a w all a nd

w hich

m ade o f

o pened

2 f acing

t o

t he

w alls

s outh .

N o

a rtefacts w ere f ound n ear t he p latform o r i nside i ts e nclosing w all. N o e xcavation w as u ndertaken i n t his a rea . T he s tructures w ere b uilt i n t he s ame m anner a s t hose o f M ao Z ones I a nd I I .

3 .1.3 N AMUDU ( JABAL S lAB) A bout ( 1

3 . 5 km

w est

o f

t he

J abal

M abo

s urvey

a rea ,

a nother

s ite

x0 .6 k m) w as f ound n ear t he c rest o f t he s outhern r idge o f J abal S iab,

w hich i s a n

i solated h ill

a bout

8 5 m i n

h eight

l ocated

b etween

M ao

a nd

M abo ( Figure 2 0). A t i ts b ase a re r ocky p lains , w hich r un t o j oin t he s andy

5 5

P l an A M

S ect ion

0

F igure 3 .19 S ingle p latform ( Mabo)

p lains o f M ao. W alking i n 2 mt ransects r evealed a n a rea o f a bout 3 ,200 m2 o n

a r ocky

p lateau

w ith

s tructures

a nd

a r ectangular

w ell

b uilt

i n t he

s ame m anner a s t hat o f J abal M ao Z one I I . I t w as f ound i nside a n e nclosing w all s imilar i n c onstruction t o t he o ne a t M ao. T he

f ollowing f eatures w ere f ound i nside t he e nclosing w all, w hich h ad

i ts t wo g ateways a t t he w est a nd e ast s ides . 1 6

F ive-room

m easurements:

C ompound

H ouses ,

4x 1 .02 x 1 . 13 m ,

g iving

a c entral

t he

s pace

f ollowing o f

5 m2

a rea

a verage a nd

a n

e nclosing w all 1 5 x 2 x 2 m . 1 7 F our-room C ompound H ouses , w ith t he f ollowing a verage m easurements : L

x 1x 1 .5 m ,

1 3 x 1 .73

a c entral

s pace

o f

5 .5 m2

x 1 .32 n i . 5 6

a rea

a nd

a n

e nclosing

w all

F igure 3 .20 N amudu s ite

1 3 T hree-room C ompound H ouses w ere l ocated a t t he e astern s ide o f t he s ettlement ,

g iving

t he

f ollowing

a verage

m easurements :

5 x 1x 1 .5 m ,

a

c entral s pace o f 1 2 m2 a rea a nd a n e nclosing w all 9 x 2 x 1 .1 40 m . 8S ingle-room H ouses w ere f ound ; f our o f t hem w ere l ocated i n f ront o f a p latform ( see b elow), 1 a t e ach g ate o f t he e nclosure a nd 2 a t t he e astern p art

o f

1 0 x2 .03

t he

s ettlement .

T hey

g ave

t he

f ollowing

a verage

m easurements :

x 1 .80 m .

I n t he c entre o f t he c omplex a p latform w as l ocated. I t w as c onstructed o f

1 4

P late

g raded

t erraces

A , B , C a nd

D f rom

b ottom

t o

t op

( Figure 3 .21

a nd

V ). L evel A w as b uilt o f h eavy s tone s labs t o s erve a s a f oundation

f or t he w hole s tructure . I t w as w as 2 .1 40 m h igh a nd d iameter

a nd

l evel

1mi n h eight a nd 2 7 mi n d iameter. L evel B

2 1 4 m i n d iameter, l evel D 1 . 5 m i n

h eight a nd

Cw as

1 .3 m h igh a nd

2 1

m i n

1 6 m i n d iameter. O n t he t op o f

l evel D a t t he c entral p art , a D ouble-room H ouse w as b uilt . T he t wo r ooms o pened

i nto e ach o ther; t he l arger o ne

5 7

( 5 x 1 .50 x 0 .6 m ) h ad i ts e xterior

P lan

S ection

‚p

l Om

0

F igure 3 .21 R aised ( graded) P latform ( Numudu)

d oorway o pening t o t he

s outh-east

a nd

t he

s maller

( 3 x 1 .50 x 0 .6 m )

h ad

i ts o pening t o t he s outh . T he p latform w as e xamined t o f ind i ts m ethod o f c onstruction . F rom s ome d isturbed p arts o f l evel

D i t

s eems t o

h ave b een

b uilt o f s labs l aid i n h orizontal c ourses . E ach t errace s eems t o h ave b een b uilt o f c oncentric w ith

c ircular

w alls

a nd

t he

g ap b etween

e ach w as

f illed

s tones w ith e arth o n t op . N o a rtefacts o ther t han p otsherds a nd t he

s tructural r emains w ere f ound o n t he s urface o f t he c omplex . T he

a rea a t

t he s outhern s ide w as e nclosed w ith a w all o f a bout 3 00 x 2 .2 x 1 .5 m . A bout

1 00 m t o

t he

e ast

o f t he

e nclosing

w all, a n

i solated

w ell

w as

l ocated a t t he m eeting p oint o f t wo m ountain r idges . I t i s s quare i n c rosss ection w ith i ts p resent w ater l evel a t ad epth o f 1 2 m , a nd i s l ined w ith c oursed m asonry l ike t he r ectangular w ell a t M ao Z one I I . N o

a rtefacts

w ere

f ound

o ther

t han

p ieces

o f

g lass

b ottle,

b roken

m odern p ot a nd a p iece o f c otton c loth n ear t he m outh o f t he w ell, w hich i nformants t old t he w riter i s s till i n u se. N o e xcavations w ere u ndertaken. 5 8

3 .1. 11J ABAL B ONGBONG 9 .6 km s outh o f M ao l ies B ongbong, a n 3 00 m a bove

s ea

l evel.

f ormation

i n

t he

t op l ayers . T he e astern p art o f t he h ill i s m uch e roded

a nd

b oulders

m any

s upporting

a cacia

I t

h ave

i s

m ainly

f allen

t rees a nd

o n

o f

i solated s andstone h ill o f a bout

t he

s andstone , p lain

w ith

b elow ,

s ome

w hich

t horny b ushes . A t a d istance o f

i s

v olcanic o f

c lay

1k m t o t he

e ast l ies W adi M edasis . T he a rea w as w alked i n 2 mt ransects a nd a c ave w as l ocated

( Plate

V I). I t h ad 2 e ntrances ; o ne t o t he n orth a nd t he o ther t o

t he n orth-east. T he w all o f t his c ave w as p ainted w ith f igures . T hey w ere p hotographed a nd t raced, a nd a re d iscussed i n C hapter 6 . T he f loor o f t he s outh-eastern c ave w as d ivided i nto 1 5 s quares o f 1 m2 o f w hich

3

w ere e xcavated t o t he b edrock ( Figure 3 .22) .

S and & g rave l ( unexcavated) C lay & g rave l B edrock I m

0

F igure 3 .22 T est p it 1 ( Bongbong c ave)

T he u pper l ayer w as c omposed o f g oat d ung m ixed w ith c lay s oil a nd w ind-blown s and. T he f loor o f t he c ave w as m ade o f i rregular s mall b oulders , s ome o f t hem p rojecting 1 5 c m i n h eight. N o s urface f eatures w ere f ound i n i t , b ut m aterial w as c ollected f rom t he t alus a t t he t wo m ouths o f t he c ave. B oth l ithic o bjects a nd s herds w ere o btained ( Appendix

Ia nd T able 3 .1).

3 .1.5 M ARTIAL A bout

1 0 k m

w hich m easures c ultivated

i n

s outh o f 4 1 t he

M ao l ies M artial, a n

x 3 0 x 1 3 m . I t r ainy

s eason

i s b y

i solated

s urrounded t he

s andstone o utcrop

b y a c lay

i nhabitants

o f

s oil

M edasis

w hich

i s

v illage

( Figure 3 .1). W hen t ransects w ere w alked o ver t he a rea n o s urface r emains

5 9

w ere f ound b ut s ome f igures p ainted o n t he e astern f ace o f t he b oulder w ere l ocated. T hey w ere t raced a nd p hotographed, a nd w ill b e d iscussed i n C hapter 6 . 3 .1.6 J ABAL MERBO T his i s a n i solated h ill a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he T agabo r ange , r ising t o ah eight o f a bout tWO ma bove s ea l evel. I t i s 1 3 k m s outh-west o f M ao ( Figure 3 .1) . T he t ransect s urvey o f t his a rea s howed 2 c aves ; o ne c ave i s a t t he s outh-eastern e nd o pening t o t he s outh , a nd t he o ther o n t he n orthw estern e nd o pening t o t he n orth . S ome s urface r emains w ere f ound i n b oth c aves . F igures w ere p ainted o n t he w alls o f t he s econd c ave a nd o n r ock s urfaces n earby . T hey w ere p hotographed a nd t raced, a nd a re d iscussed i n C hapter 6 . T his a rea h ad b een v isited b y A rkell ( 1937) , w ho s tudied a nd p ublished s urvey.

a ccounts o f s ome o f t he r ock f igures , b ut u ndertook n o g round

O wing t o t he p ossible c hronological s ignificance o f c ave d eposits a d etailed s urface s tudy w as m ade p rior t o e xcavation a nd a rtefacts s cattered o n t he t alus o f t he s outh-east c ave a s w ell a s a ll s urface o nes i nside i t w ere c ollected ( Table 3 .1 a nd A ppendix I ). A 1 m2 t est p it w as d ug i n t he t alus, a t ad istance o f 1 5 mf rom t he m outh o f t he c ave , a nd t o

a d epth o f 0 .65 m ( Figure 3 .23A) . I t

s howed a s ingle l ayer 0 .70 m d eep w hich c onsisted o f r eddish s andy s oil h aving t he s ame t exture a s t hat o f t he p resent g round s urface . N o c ultural r emains w ere f ound i n t his l ayer . A 1 m2 t est p it 1 .50 m d eep w as t hen d ug i nside t he c ave 5 m f rom i ts m outh . I t s howed 5 l ayers ( Figure 3 .23B). L ayer

Ir epresented

t he s urface o f t he w hole c ave f loor . I t w as

c leaned a nd w as f ound t o b e d ark s oil o f a bout 0 .15 m d eep i n w hich w ere f ound g oat d ung a nd p ieces o f m odern t in c an. T his w as b ecause , a s w as o bserved b y A rkell ( 1937) a nd t he w riter, g oats u sually t ake s helter i n c aves i n t he h ot d ays o f t he s ummer. L ayer I I w as a r eddish f ine-grained s andy d eposition o f t he s ame k ind a s t he t alus a nd t he p resent g round s urface . I t w as a bout 0 .35 m d eep . O nly m at-impressed p ottey w as f ound i n t his l ayer. L ayer I II s howed a d ark g rey s oil o f f ine p articles , 0 .36 m d eep . I n t his l ayer, s mall p ieces o f c harcoal a nd f abric w ere f ound a ssociated w ith a s mall

p otsherds o f f ine a mount o f l ithic

m aterial, l ocated i n t he m iddle o f t he w estern p art o f t he t est p it . L ayer

I V w as

0 .34 m o f d ark

s oil

m ixed

w ith

q uartz

g ravel.

I n

t his l ayer o nly l ithic m aterial w as f ound, o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he t est p it . L ayer

V w as

c omposed

o f

d ark

s oil

a ssociated

w ith

a h igh

p ercentage o f q uartz g ravel a nd w as 0 .40 m d eep . I t c ontained n o c ultural r emains a nd r ested o n t he s andstone b edrock .

6 0

B

I l l ? ( * X $ .X X X X X X X ' ) X X ) ( X ' X ' Y ' V

a

S o i l

m

& g oat d ung

R edd ish

‚ C) ' .

l v

s andy

soil

Grey

c l ay

s o i l

D ark

s o i l

& q uartz

G rave l ) .

B edrock

I m

F igure 3 .23 T est p its ( Merbo C ave)

3 .1.7 J ABAL ( J SUNGRA J abal U sungra i s s ituated i n t he s outh-east o f t he T agabo r ange , s outh-west o f M ao s ea

l evel, o ne

i solated

a nd

o f t he

6k m n orth-west o f M erbo , a nd h ighest

h ills

i n

t he

r ange

h ill w ith s teep s ides o verlooking a ll

1 k m

i s a bout 7 00 m a bove ( Plate V II).

I t

i s

a n

i ts s urroundings . I t l ies

c lose t o a b ig s easonal w ater p ool, a nd 3 k m t o t he w est o f t he W adi M ao, w hich i s h ere c alled W adi M edasis ( Figures 2 .1 a nd 3 .1). O n t he f lat t op o f t he J abal a n o val e nclosure a s urrounding w all 2 .50 m w ide a nd 3 .81 C ompound e nclosure

H ouses

c onstructed

12 m i n p erimeter, w ith

mh igh w as f ound. I nside i t w ere

a djacent t o t his w all.

a 6 x 2 .50 x 1 .80 m S ingle-room 6 1

H ouse

w as

I n

L t

t he c entre o f t he

c onstructed

w ith

3

d oorways, o ne o pening e astwards a nd t he o thers t o t he s outh a nd n orth . T he w hole

a rea w as w alked

i n

2 m t ransects a nd s urveyed.

T he

i nternal

r ooms

w ere b uilt o f d ry s tone m asonry i n t he s ame w ay a s t hose o f M ao , h aving t he f ollowing a verage d imensions: 5 .80 x 1 .75 x 1 .80 m ( Figure 3 .2 14 a nd C hapter 7 ) .

-

-

0

F igure 3 .21 4 P lan o f H ouses ( Usungra)

T he o nly a rtefacts f ound w ere i n t he r ooms ; 3 22 p otsherds ( Table 3 .1 a nd C hapter

1 4 )

w ere

c ollected.

N o

i ndustrial

a rea,

c emetery,

r eservoir

o r

p latform w ere f ound.

3 .2 S URVEY O F T HE J ABAL S I R ANGE ( AREA B ) A s h as b een

d escribed

i n

s ection 2 .5 .2 , t he

S i

r ange

J abal M arra a nd F urnung r anges ; s ome g eologists ( e .g . V ail

l ies b etween t he 1 976 , 2 6) r egard

i t a s a p art o f t he J abal M arra . W ithin t he r ange t wo g eographic p arts c an b e i dentified; t he h ighlands a nd t he p lains . T he w hole a rea i s c rossed b y m any w adi s ystems ; m any o f t hem r un i n a s outh-west d irection . T he a rea i s i nhabited

b y t he

F ur

p eople .

I n

t his r egion

a t otal

a rea o f 3 80 k m2 w as

s urveyed ( Figure 3 .25). A fter t he g eneral s urvey, t hree a reas w ere s elected f or d etailed s tudy .

6 2

"\

,,,,..-

I

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