Ancient writing and its influence 0z708w525

Table of contents :
Frontmatter (page N/A)
Chapter I The Origin of Writing (page 3)
Chapter II The Origin of Our Alphabet (page 10)
Chapter III The Greek Alphabet (page 20)
Chapter IV The Italic Alphabets (page 32)
Chapter V The Development of the Latin Alphabet (page 41)
Chapter VI The Development of Greek Script (page 46)
Chapter VII The Writing of the Roman Empire (page 59)
Chapter VIII The National Hands of the Early Middle Ages (page 79)
Chapter IX The Carolingian Script (page 105)
Chapter X The Gothic Script of the Late Middle Ages (page 118)
Chapter XI The Writing of the Italian Renaissance (page 137)
Chapter XII The Invention of Printing and the Modern Period (page 145)
Chapter XIII The Spread of the Latin Alphabet (page 159)
Chapter XIV The Names of the Letters (page 167)
Chapter XV Abbreviations and Ligatures (page 174)
Chapter XVI Numerals (page 189)
Chapter XVII Writing Materials and Practices (page 196)
Chapter XVIII Our Debt (page 217)
Index of Plate Descriptions (page 224)
Notes (page 227)
Bibliography (page 231)
List of Authors and Titles (page 238)

Citation preview

Our Debt to Greece and Rome

ANCIENT WRITING AND ITS INFLUENCE BY

B. L. ULLMAN

COOPER SQUARE PUBLISHERS, INC. NEW YORK 1963

Published 1963 by Cooper Square Publishers, Inc. 59 Fourth Avenue, New York 3, N. Y. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 63-10299 "PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ty SENTRY PRESS, NEW YORK, N. Y. 10013

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE I. THe OriciIn oF WRITING . . 3 Il. THe Orictn or Our ALPHA-

BET. ....... 2.4. IO

II]. THe Greek ALPHABET... 20 IV. THe Iratic ALPHABETS. . . 32 V. Tue DEVELOPMENT OF THE

Latin ALPHABET. .... 4! Vi. Tue DEVELOPMENT or GREEK

ScRIPT ......... 46

VII. Tue Writinc or THE RoMAN

EMPIRE... ...... §9

VIII. THe Nationat HANDS OF THE

Karty Mippite AGEs .. = 79 IX. THe CAROLINGIAN SCRIPT . 105

X. THe Gotruic ScripT OF THE

Late MippLe Aces ... 118

XI. Tue Writinc or THE ITALIAN

RENAISSANCE ..... . 137

XI. Tue Invention or PRINTING

AND THE MoDERN PERIOD. 145

XIII. THe Spreap or THE LATIN

ALPHABET. ....... I99

XIV. THe Names or THE LETTERS 167 Lv]

ANCIENT WRITING

CHAPTER PAGE XV. ABBREVIATIONS AND LiGaA-

TURES ......... I74

AVI. Numerats ........ 189

XVII. Writtnc MatTERIALS- AND

PRACTICES ...... . 196

XVIJJ. Our Dest ........ 217 InpDEx oF PLATE DEscrip-

TIONS . . . 1. we ee ee DDG

NoTes .......... 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... . 231

List oF AUTHORS AND TITLES 238

[vi]

NOTE

The author desires to express his thanks

to his colleague, Professor Charles H. Beeson, for reading the manuscript of this book.

Plates I to XVI illustrating inscriptions and manuscripts will be found following page 224 of the text.

[ vii |

ANCIENT WRITING AND ITS INFLUENCE

ANCIENT WRITING AND ITS INFLUENCE I. THE ORIGIN OF WRITING S WE look back over the history of civilization, we see the prime importance of

Az inventions for man’s progress. The invention, or rather, the evolution of speech was one of these epoch-making events since it made possible the cooperation of great numbers of people in social groups. It was thus not only a, product of man’s social instinct, but also an

important factor in developing that instinct. But speech itself did not satisfy primitive man, for it was not easy to surmount the barriers of time and space by speech alone. A messenger carrying a verbal message might or might not repeat it with absolute fidelity. Tradition was a meager source of information about the past.

The “invention” of writing, while not so epochal an event as that of speech, was far more important than one would at first suspect. [3 J

ANCIENT WRITING

In Thomas Astle’s succinct phrasing: * “‘ The noblest acquisition of mankind is SPEECH, and

the most useful art is WRITING. The first eminently distinguishes MAN from the brute creation; the second, from uncivilized savages.” Breasted puts it more strongly: * “ The inven-

tion of writing and of a convenient system of records on paper has had a greater influence in uplifting the human race than any other intellectual achievement in the career of man. It was more important than all the battles ever fought and all the constitutions ever devised.” Nor was the importance of writing ended with its first development. It is still constantly producing new and important results as one or

another phase is evolved. Two of the three k’s —reading and writing—are dependent upon it; the third, arithmetic, makes large use

of it. The invention of printing, a thing so recent that we can appreciate the enormous changes in civilization which it has wrought, is

but a stage in the history of script. The system of writing which we have inherited from the Romans has had an influence in shaping our civilization which it is impossible to measure. It is not without significance that the nations which use the Roman system of writing [4 J

THE ORIGIN OF WRITING

are the most advanced in the world. In no field

is our debt to Rome greater than in that of writing. In other fields, such as language, literature, law, architecture, there are important forms which are not derived from the Roman, but the Roman script is admittedly the best in existence, and it is only a matter of time, ap-

parently, until it will be almost universally adopted.

Whatever the precise origin of language, it cannot be denied that an important, if not the chief, factor in its creation was the imitation of sounds. In much the same way writing grew out of the imitation or sketching of objects. The

earliest form of writing was pictographic, in which the writer conveyed his ideas by means of

pictures of objects. This form of crude writing was therefore an outgrowth of the art of drawing and painting. Or one may perhaps say that painting itself owes its.origin in part to the de-

sire to convey information to others. Probably there was some such motive in some of the palaeolithic paintings and carvings found in the

caves of France and Spain. Pictographic writing going back to the neolithic and bronze ages

has been found in many parts of Europe. A familiar example that has survived to our own

[5]

ANCIENT WRITING

times is that of the American Indians. In the nature of things, such writing is often merely an aid to memory. For example, on a Dakota buffalo robe a figure of a man covered with spots represents a winter in which smallpox was epi-

demic. But ideas can be more explicitly expressed. In Southern Alaska, Indian hunters who found no game drew upon a piece of wood

a human figure with arms stretched out sideways to represent the idea of “ nothing,” another human figure with the right hand raised

to the mouth to represent “eat,” and a hut. The total means, therefore, “‘ nothing to eat in

the house.” Such pieces of wood were put along trails and were pointed to show possible rescuers the proper direction to take. One remarkable fact about picture writing is its general similarity in all parts of the world.

The sign for “ nothing” just mentioned appears in a similar form in the pictographs of the Mayas of Yucatan and in the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians. The modern mother

with the newest ideas of child-training will be discouraged to learn that the symbol for “child”? is apparently the same in ancient Egypt, China, and North America — an infant

sucking its thumb. It is obvious that in pic[6 ]

THE ORIGIN OF WRITING

ture writing there is much imitation of gesture — a form of communicating ideas very common

among primitive peoples. Even abstract ideas can be expressed by picture writing as, for example, the pipe is used as the symbol of peace. We, too, still have traces of picture writing,

such as the pointing arrow and the pointing hand used on signs and in books. Many trademarks are of this nature. The Boy Scouts also use signs of this sort for trail marks.

In the course of time, pictographs tend to become conventionalized in forms often difficult to recognize. It is in such conventionalized forms that Chinese is written. Like the Indian languages, Chinese expresses abstract ideas by concrete objects. The word for “ friendship,” for example, is represented by a conventionalized form of two hands, one above the other. In

a similar way, we represent friendship by clasped hands. The Chinese also combine words to make new ones: so in early Chinese the word

for “wife” is represented by the signs for “woman” and “broom.” ‘The greatest advance made by the Chinese was in applying a sign which had been adopted for a certain word to other words of the same sound — and there are many such words (homonyms) in Chinese.

[7]

ANCIENT WRITING

This was a first step towards alphabetic writing.

But Chinese writing has remained so complicated that one must learn at least 1500 signs and a large number of combinations of these signs.

The impossibility of conveying more than a few simple ideas by Indian pictographs and the

enormous difficulty of learning to write and read Chinese are significant indications of the value of our alphabetic method of writing. The Japanese adopted some of the Chinese characters at an early period but, because their

language is polysyllabic instead of monosyllabic, as Chinese is, they were able to make a preat step in advance: many of the characters represent, not words, but syllables. But the exceedingly large number of homonyms in Japanese (ko has fifty-five different meanings) makes it necessary for Japanese to retain many

of the Chinese word signs. The Japanese schoolboy must still learn hundreds of these. The cuneiform (‘‘ wedge-shaped ’’) script of Babylonia had much the same history as the Chinese, but it went farther. The characteristic appearance to which it owes its name is due

to the material on which it was used. The characters were inscribed with a stylus on soft

[8 |

THE ORIGIN OF WRITING

clay tablets; at the point where the stylus was first applied, a broader and deeper mark was made. This script reached a syllabic and even a semi-alphabetic stage. The Egyptians at a very early period began to use a picture script which became conventional-

ized thousands of years ago. This script went farther in its development than those described above, in that signs for separate letters came

to be used. But the Egyptians continued to use with them the older signs, both syllabic and ideographic (#.e. picturing objects or thoughts). About three thousand hieroglyphic signs have

been found, of which, however, only about three hundred are very common. The Egyptian hieroglyphics were not deciphered until one hundred years ago, when the then newly discovered Rosetta Stone, with its triple text — hieroglyphic, Coptic, and Greek — gave Champollion

the key for which he was searching. Another script of pictographic origin is the Crétan, extensive records of which were found only a few years ago. A Champollion has not yet appeared to decipher this script for us.

Lo]

Il. THE ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET T IS clear, as we shall see, that our present

| script goes back, via Rome and Greece, to the ancient Semites, though there is dispute about some of the details. The invention of this alphabetic script was, as Renan said, one of the greatest creations of the human spirit. Roman writers tell us that the Semites (or rather, more specifically, the Phoenician Semites) obtained it from Egypt. In modern times this tradition has at times been accepted,

at times rejected. An attempt was made by the French scholar Rougé, whose results were accepted and ably set forth by Isaac Taylor, to show that the Semitic alphabet came from an early form of Egyptian hieratic (a cursive

form of hieroglyphic). This theory is now generally discredited. Sporadic attempts have been made to derive the alphabet from cunel-

form, from Cretan, and from various other Mediterranean systems of writing, but none of these has found wide acceptance.

[0|

THE ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET

It may occur to some that the Phoenicians developed their alphabet from a pictographic script of their own invention, but the fact that there are no traces of Phoenician pictographs is a conclusive proof that the Phoenician alphabet was based on the script of some other peo-

ple. That script must have been one that was still pictographic in the third or second milIennium B.c. ‘The only script that seems to meet the requirements is the Egyptian, and Egypt, after all, was the natural place to look for this script. Recent discoveries have, as a matter of fact, made it very plausible that the alphabet was developed under Egyptian in-

fluence, though not in the way that Rougé thought. In 1905 inscriptions were found in the Sinaitic peninsula, the full significance of which was

not pointed out till 1916. The probable date of the inscriptions is about the nineteenth century B.c. The fact that out of 200 characters, there are not over twenty-five varieties, makes it seem that the script is alphabetic. ‘That the language of the inscriptions is Semitic is now almost generally conceded, but they have not

been interpreted to the satisfaction of all scholars. In these inscriptions there are several

[rr |

ANCIENT WRITING

signs which bear a striking resemblance to char-

acters in the oldest Semitic writing on the one

hand, and to Egyptian hieroglyphics on the other. The oldest Semitic inscription of any extent known thus far was discovered in 1923 at the ancient Byblus (the Gebal of the Bible),

Syria, in the tomb of King Ahiram. It has been assigned to the thirteenth century B.c. The oldest inscription the date of which is fixed

by its contents is the Moabite stone of King Mesha. In this inscription the letter alepk (a; meaning “ ox’) has a form easily derived from the character instantly recognized as the head

of an ox found in the Sinai inscriptions. In Egyptian hieroglyphics the head of an ox is used

to represent the word “ox.” One very interest-

ing thing is that the Sinai inscriptions have some characters more like those used in the South Semitic script than those of the North Semitic of the Byblus inscription and Moabite

stone. This is true, for example, of the letter pe (p; meaning “ mouth”). The explanation must be that the two branches of the Semitic were derived from an older common form of proto-Semitic. The old theory that the South Semitic alphabet was derived from the Phoenician must be abandoned.

[12]

THE ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET

In tracing the relation of the Semitic letters to the Egyptian hieroglyphs, we must start from the Semitic names of the letters. Most of them have clear and definite meanings. The Sinai inscriptions have removed all doubts as to the

value of the names for finding the original forms of the letters. Only where the meaning of the letter is uncertain do we have diffi-

culty in finding the appropriate Egyptian form.

In establishing the relation between Egyptian and Semitic, the crude Egyptian hieroglyphs found in Sinai furnish good transitional material. In their way they are quite as valuable as the Semitic inscriptions from Sinai. Though it is likely that the Semitic alphabet was evolved from Egyptian hieroglyphs, it is in

no sense true that our alphabet is of Egyptian origin. The hieroglyphs were merely convenlent pictures of which some Semite made use. He did, however, get something more important from Egyptian script, the acrophonic principle.

This means simply that the picture of a given object comes to be used as a permanent representation for the initial letter of the word for that object. So the plan of a house (a common Egyptian hieroglyph) came to represent the [13 ]

ANCIENT WRITING

letter 5 because that is the first letter of the Semitic word for house. beth.

It may be difficult tor some to accept the theory that symbols were taken at random from

the Egyptian script. But the older hypothesis of Rougé that the Semitic signs were taken from the Egyptian alphabetic signs which had the same value was quite as difficult, if we can

put ourselves in the position of the ancient Semites and give up our feeling for the “ naturalness ” of expressing our words by alphabetic signs. The Egyptians themselves, as we have seen, had not progressed so far as to trust their alphabetic signs. Therefore, by way of example, the wavy line primarily represented “ water,”

and only secondarily, the first letter of the word for water. In other words, Egyptian was still largely pictographic. It therefore was the natural thing for a Semite who wished to adapt the Egyptian symbols to his own language to take over the pictographic values, along with the acrophonic principle, and thus to say that the wavy line represented the first letter of the Semitic word for water (Hebrew majim, mem). The time at which the Semitic alphabet was invented is a matter of dispute, but recent discoveries make it clear that we must attribute the 114 |

THE ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET

O~: rat fx :ic Hw 6 6 : s | aifloO 64be=z for — and ®2 for W in xovy-

[29 ]

ANCIENT WRITING ypad(ce), of O for w in azoptoGooat and for ov in vos, of E for » in oxede and for e& in orxodopec(at). This illustration and the next are taken from Otto Kern, Inscriptiones Graecae, Bonn, 1913, Nos. 14 and 44.

Another invention of those who used the Eastern Greek alphabet was the doubling of consonants. This began in the eighth century, apparently at Miletus. Before that time consonants were doubled in speech, but not in writing. The poet Ennius introduced this practice into Latin in the second century B.c.,

and from Latin it has come into the modern languages. As a result we have the curious situation that in early Greek and Latin, consonants pronounced double were written single,

whereas in modern English they are written double, but pronounced single. Italian is the best example of a language which has the doubled pronunciation.

The modifications made in the Eastern alphabet account for the chief differences between it and the Latin alphabet which we use in Eng-

lish. Whether they are all desirable; whether,

in other words, the Eastern Greek alphabet in its final form is a better alphabet than our own, is an interesting question. Some of the [30 ]

THE GREEK ALPHABET

modifications, as the distinction of long and short e and 0, are valuable; others, as the use of one character for two consonants in the case of ps, are superfluous. By the fifth century the Ionic form of Eastern Greek was fully developed. In the course of its growth it gradually influenced the other Eastern Greek alphabets, in spite of the strong individualism of the Greek states. In 403 B.c.

during the archonship of Euclides, the Ionic alphabet was officially adopted in Athens, the leading Greek state, though it had been in use there for some time before, especially in literary productions. Gradually the Ionic spread over the whole of Greece. This is essentially the alphabet which we know as the ancient Greek alphabet. Only the so-called capital letters were in use in ancient times; small letters are a mediaeval development. See Plate I, 6. Athens. Second century a.p.

[31]

IV. THE ITALIC ALPHABETS T IS clear that the various Italic dialects

| (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) as well as

Etruscan, which is still a language of mystery, received their alphabets from a Western

Greek source. It is also clear that the Oscan and Umbrian alphabets were derived from the Etruscan. Differences between the Latin and Etruscan alphabets led to the view that the Romans borrowed their alphabet directly from the Greeks. But recent discoveries have brought about a modification of this view. There was

an earlier and a later Etruscan alphabet. The Latin alphabet is descended from the former, the Oscan and Umbrian from the latter. This is more In accordance with what one would expect. For in its early days Rome’s contact with Etruria was very close (witness the rule of the

Tarquins during the sixth century, if tradition is right), and many of Rome’s cultural borrowings from Greece were through the intermediation of Etruria. The Western Greek source from which the [ 32 |

THE ITALIC ALPHABETS

Etruscans borrowed their alphabet was, perhaps, the Chalcidian colony, Cumae, an an-

cient city near Naples. This is not certain, however. The best example of the earliest Etruscan alphabet is an abecedarium found a few years ago at Marsiliana, near Orbetello. It is one of the earliest examples of Greek writing we have, and the earliest abecedarium, dating from about 700 B.c. Inscribed on the ivory edge of a wax tablet, it may have been used for school purposes. See Plate I, c. Marsiliana abecedarium (from right to left).

The later Etruscan alphabet is chiefly char-

acterized by a new letter in the shape of the figure 8 with the value of f. The fact that a letter of this unusual shape is found also in Lydian inscriptions has led some scholars to believe in the truth of the ancient tradition that the Etrus-

cans came from Lydia. But this letter is not found in the earliest Etruscan, nor does the Etruscan alphabet resemble the Lydian in other respects. We have the choice of attributing the identity of the unusual letters to coincidence, or of explaining it as due toa late borrowing by

the Etruscans from the Lydians. If it is coinL331

ANCIENT WRITING

cidence, then the probable explanation of Etruscan 8 is that it is derived from the H(=—£) of

FA. In Latin FA (found on the Praenestine fibula) was later reduced to F. Just when the Rorrans obtained their alpha-

bet is difficult to say. The oldest inscription (on the Praenestine fibula) probably dates from the seventh century, certainly not later than the sixth century, B.c. Another early inscription is

in the Forum at Rome; it dates from the sixth century. Probably it was during the seventh century, when Etruria was dominant in Central Italy, that the alphabet was introduced. See Plate II, a. Rome, Forum inscription. The

writing is boustrophedcn; reading up the right column, down the middle, and up the left: guotho|

sakros es|ed sor. Note the shapes of g, hk, r and the variation in the direction of e to suit the direction of writing.

As may be seen from their inscriptions, the Etruscans made no use of B, D, O, X and only sparing use in the earlier period of K and Q. They used K only before a and Q only before z,

a restriction which they had learned from the Greeks. In other positions C (at first the Greek gamma or g) was used for the sound £,; later

C alone was used for this sound. For the [34 |

THE ITALIC ALPHABETS

voiced palatal g, the Etruscans had no more need than for the other voiced mutes, 0 and d. The early Etruscan abecedaria show, however, that the unused letters were not forgotten,

and so it is that the Romans borrowed them along with the rest, for they had real need of them. But the original distinction between C and K had been lost sight of, and the Romans adopted the early Etruscan practice of limiting the use of the three identical consonants, C, K,

Q to certain positions. The Latin names of these letters (ce, ka, gu) preserve this distinction. The sound of g as well as of c was expressed by the character C. Thus the Romans had three characters to express one sound (k), but no character to differentiate g from k&. In the course of time they realized and corrected the difficulty. Strange to say, they did not assign the & function to the character K. The k sound had, in fact, taken such complete possession of the character C that the original and legitimate owner, g, was looked upon as the intruder and was made to find another home. Its new form is probably a C with a differentiating

mark; the early form is G. It took as its place in the alphabet the one vacated by the Greek zeta, for which the Romans had no need. An-

[35]

ANCIENT WRITING

other explanation derives G directly from zeta. The new letter first came into existence in the

fourth or third century, but it was some time before its use was general. In the abbreviations

C. (Gaius) and Cn. (Gnaeus) the older use

of C for g was preserved throughout the Roman period. ‘These names were always spelled with a G when written out, but never

in abbreviation. There was no Latin word “Caius.” Another abbreviation which preserves an old form is W (which we write M.’), standing for the praenomen Manius, which retains the original five-stroke m, and was used

to differentiate from the abbreviation for Marcus. K eventually disappeared from the language, except as an abbreviation in a few words beginning with ka (é@.g. Kalendae). But when the Roman alphabet was adopted by English and German, & again came into honor. And so we see that letters, like human beings, have their ups and downs. Q was retained, but used only before z; eventually it was used only before consonantal uz, that is, only when w was followed by another

vowel. It is still employed in that way. Ever since that restriction was made, the wz has been superfluous in writing, but in our conservatism L 36 |

THE ITALIC ALPHABETS

we have failed to take even this slight step toward doing away with the superabundance of k sounds foisted upon the world by the Etrus-

cans more than 2500 years ago. The famous orator Calvus, contemporary of Cicero and Caesar, refused to use the letter g. Nigidius Figulus, the learned grammarian of about the same period, did not use g, k, or x.° For some reason this excellent example did not meet with favor. The Greek digamma was used with a following H in early Etruscan and in the earliest Latin to represent the sound of f. Later this was sim-

plified by omission of the H. H retained its original sound as a consonant. The letter I, which as the Semitic yod shows, was originally a consonant and then in Greek became a vowel, returned in part to its original function as con-

sonant, in part kept the Greek function as vowel. V retained its original vowel sound but, like I, also reverted to the consonantal value, since digamma or vau, originally the consonantal zw, had taken on a new value. Other Western

Greek letters (theta, phi, chi) used by the Etruscans, were not needed by the Romans and were therefore dropped, except as numerals, as

we Shall see later. It will be seen that in reL371]

ANCIENT WRITING

taining F and Q and the original values of H and V, Latin was more conservative than Ionic Greek. The same is true of the shapes of some of the letters. In Etruscan, Oscan, Umbrian, and Faliscan, the direction of writing is regularly from right

to left. In the earliest Latin inscription, that on the Praenestine fibula, we find the same order. Later there cccur some examples of boustrophedon, but almost from the first the Latin order is from left to right. Whether this was due to Greek influence or to native intelligence, it is a tribute to Roman common sense. The developed alphabet of the Republic, including the new letter G, consisted of 21 letters, from A to X. During the last few centuries of

the Republic, Rome had close contact with Greece and introduced a number of Greek words

into its own language. For some of the Greek letters the Romans found no exact equivalents. This was true of the Greek upsilon, which had changed in sound from that of the correspond-

ing Latin V (vowel) to that of the modern French uw. At first they wrote zw or z for it, but

in the first century B.c., they introduced the upsilon in the shape then current and placed it

at the end of the alphabet. Thus there were L 38 |

THE ITALIC ALPHABETS

now three forms of the same original Semitic letter in the Latin alphabet: F, V, Y. Similarly with zeta. The Romans had this letter in their alphabet at the outset, but soon discarded it because they had no use for it and gave its place to G.’. When Greek words were introduced the need for a z was felt and accordingly Z was placed at the end of the alphabet.

The letter g had been displaced by c and had in turn driven away 2, which after a long absence had to be content with last place. Such is the struggle for existence. The Greek aspirates,

0, ©, X, were represented at first by T, P, C, later by TH, PH, CH. These led, therefore, to no additions to the alphabet. Thus the complete Latin alphabet of 23 letters was formed. Attempts were made at various times to add new letters. The Emperor Claudius made an effort to add three more: an inverted F (A) for consonantal wu, - for the sound between z and wu, ) for ps and bs. The first two are found in inscriptions of the period, but they did not survive; of the third no certain example has been found. The first of these was certainly meritorious, but Claudius was fifteen centuries ahead of his times, for it was not until

the sixteenth century that our present distinc-

[39]

ANCIENT WRITING

tion between the vowel uw and the consonant v became fixed. May the emperor whose stupid-

ity was made famous by Tacitus and Serieca have the satisfaction of knowing that his cleverness in at least one respect was so far in advance of his age!

As previously stated, the doubling of consonants was introduced by Enntus in the second century B.C., in imitation of Greek practice. A

little later the poet Accius tried to distinguish Jong vowels from short by writing them double, but the innovation did not find favor.’ If it had been successful, we should undoubtedly be us-

ing it to-day. By mere chance it happens that in English we use a double e with the value of

Jong (English) e: feed. For a long time the Romans used a mark (apex) like an accent, made over long vowels exceptz. The long 7 was

indicated by an z that was literally long, 2.e. Ionger than the other letters in the line. But these methods did not survive antiquity.

[ 40 ]

V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATIN ALPHABET HE LETTERS of the Western Greek alphabet of course suffered changes in form as they passed via Cumae or some

other Western Greek colony to Etruria and thence to Rome. During the thousand or more years between their introduction to Rome and

the downfall of the Roman Empire further changes took place.

One important factor in altering the shapes of letters was the material on which they were used. From the earliest days of the alphabet stone and papyrus were the chief recipients of

writing. Chiseling on stone naturally led to the use of straight lines, writing with pen and ink on papyrus led to the development of curves.

But the two scripts tended to influence each other. As a result the history of alphabetic writing well down into Roman times reveals a pendulum swing which tends to settle down to a compromise between straight lines and curves, though the curves gradually have the better of

[4z ]

ANCIENT WRITING

it. Even the earliest extant Phoenician inscriptions betray the influence of pen and ink writing. In the Roman period the same influence continued.

The rounded B, C, D, P, R, S, all of which may be paralleled in Greek, became the standard forms during the Roman Republic. Later, as we Shall see, the same tendency affected other

letters. On the other hand, the influence of stone chiseling is seen in occasional examples of the angular forms of these letters and even

of O and Q, which had always been curved. But these angular shapes did not last.

Another element in the evolution of letters

was the tendency towards beautification through regularity and symmetry. The letter A is a good example. Closely related to this tendency was the influence of one letter on another. The development of F was affected by that of its neighbor E, Q by its near neighbor O, M by its neighbor and relative N, G by its

cousin C—so much so that, as we saw, it is hard to say whether G is a C with a distinguishing mark or a zeta affected by C. When P took

on a shape similar to that of its near neighbor R, the latter received its distinguishing stroke, and ever since the two have developed along [42 |

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATIN ALPHABET

parallel lines. B too has been influenced by its

cousin P, or perhaps the influence has been mutual. Nearness of position in the alphabet and similarity of sound value account for this interaction of one letter on another. The process is still going on. Environment as well as heredity has had its effect on the letters we use to-day. Indeed the process of evolution can be illustrated almost as well in the history of the alphabet as in the field of zoology. The crea-

tion of “sports” differing slightly from the typical forms is as characteristic a feature in the development of the letters of the alphabet as of animal or plant species. Numerous variants of the letters, some of them very strange and unusual, may be found in the records which

have been preserved to us. But they have dis-

appeared as a result of the operation of the law of the survival of the fittest. The chief factors which have tended to preserve certain forms as against others are implied in the foregoing account. The letter forms evolved by use of pen and ink have survived because they are more suited to the environment which has become typical of writing, #.e. writing material

made of paper. The change from stone to papyrus, parchment, and paper may be com[43 J

ANCIENT WRITING

pared to the environmental change from a cold to a warm climate. But the element of beauty is due, of course, to human choice, just as human choice has at times affected the development of species of plants and animals. Still another factor bearing on the question of what form is fittest to survive is simplicity. A form that is hard to make because of a complicated series of lines yields to one whose lines

are fewer or simpler. The same is true of a form that takes up a large amount of space. This is from the standpoint of the scribe, a con-

sideration no longer of importance in this era of the printed book. From the point of view of the reader, the more legible form is more likely to survive. One or another of these factors exceeds the others in importance as conditions vary. Hence thealphabet has always been in a healthy state of growth. As a result of all this, there was evolved during the last century of the Roman Republic a formal style of writing of a monumental character which remained the typical style of the Empire. This style is seen at its best in official inscriptions of the early Empire. At various periods in the later history of script, recourse has been had to this style as to a fountain-head [44 |

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATIN ALPHABET

of inspiration or, perhaps better, to a perfect model for what we now call capital letters. Even now this is true, with the result that the letters of a Roman inscription of the best period

are as easily read as the capitals in a modern Inscription or book. See Plate II, 6. Inscription found in the Largo Argentina at Rome. Time of Vespasian (first century A.D.). c. Inscription from a columbarium at Rome (C. I. ZL. VI. 5035). First century A.D.

[45]

VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SCRIPT ECAUSE of its lesser direct influence on

B our modern script we may make our

survey of the development of Greek

handwriting a hasty one before proceeding to a more leisurely and detailed discussion of Roman writing. In an earlier chapter we noted that the Ionic form of the Eastern Greek alphabet was offi-

clally adopted by Athens in 403 B.c. From there it spread to the entire Greek world. The letter forms are essentially those of the capitals used to-day to reproduce ancient Greek. Up to this point the history of the alphabet and writing has been based on the evidence of inscriptions on stone and metal for the simple reason that we have no documents written with pen and ink from the early period. The further history of inscriptional writing need not concern us here because it had no important influence on the history of writing in general and because we have available the much more valu[ 46 |

DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SCRIPT

able evidence of papyrus manuscripts for trac-

ing the evolution of Greek writing. It is sufficient to point out that styles changed from time to time and place to place. See Plate III, a. Berlin, P. 9875. Fourth century B.c. Timotheus, Persae 187-198: Baotrevs evs Pu ynv OPMWVYTA TAMELLYN OTPATOP yovuTETNS atkiCe Twa haro dE

Kupawov Tvxatow Iw Karackadat douwy ceptar TE vaes EdAavides at kata pev ndtka wrecaTe nPav vewy wovardpov vaes de ouktomtacomopeuTov cfouctu mupos b€ atadoep

pevos. This manuscript, published in 1903, is our only

source for the text. Note theform of w. This illustration and the next two are taken from W. Schubart, Papyrt Graecae Berolinenses, Bonn, 1911, Nos. 1, 4b, r9gc.

The papyrus finds of Egypt have furnished us with material for a study of Greek writing from the fourth century B.c. to the eighth century A.D. Essentially there are two styles — the literary book hand and the cursive hand of everyday use. ‘These interact on each other from time to time. The book hand starts out with a character very similar to that of the inscriptions, as may be seen from the fourth-cen-

tury manuscript of Timotheus. In the third century, as a result no doubt of cursive influence, it becomes uncial, z.e. some of the letters become rounded. First > becomes C; next E

47 |

ANCIENT WRITING

becomes €, and (2 becomes w. Soon after we find Z for I and A for A, and this eventually becomes 4. At the beginning of our era M has become \, the typical later uncial form. Under obvious cursive influence the three-stroke = becomes 3. Thus we see a gradually developing uncial script from the third century B.c. to the second century A.D.

See Plate III, 6. Berlin, P. 9771. Third century B.c. Euripides, Phaethon: vmep de euas xepadas rieva pede. Oe devdpect AerrTav andwy apoueva yoots Iruv Iruy qwoAvepnvoy piBarat Kivovai Totmvay eXarat 6 ets Boravay

Eavday .. .wy av | TOL UT ELPeTlal. .. .ay aelpapevot QxXEouclY. ..TVL GU AKUMOVE TOTAL OLyYWP. .v ave“ TE Kat diAtas adoyxous owwdwy O€ 7 COM werafer TA L.V OUY ETEPWY ETE KOT ELV VEvaL. ... cet Oeamrwouy. Note the

addition of de above the line in vs. 2 and the forms

of o and « (with a hook). c. Berlin, P. 6845. First or second century A.D. Homer, J/. VIII. 439-443. In the second and third centuries we find side

by side with the broad uncial a sloping, compressed uncial, much as to-day we find vertical and slanting forms of writing side by side. In the meantime there arose a cursive hand, used for business purposes, in which letters were

written together instead of separately. This was at times written quite as carefully as the book hand, just as our cursive hand also has its [ 48 ]

DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SCRIPT

regularized type form, called “script.” The details of its evolution are of no interest to us

here. It is sufficient to point out that the changes in the book hand were due to its influence. We can definitely say, for example, that the round alpha came into the book hand from the cursive, for it is found two centuries earlier in cursive than in the book hand. Simi-

larly with other letters. It seems to be true that the chief borrowings from cursive came at two periods, one about 300 8.c., when Alexandria

became the most important city of the Greek world, and the other nearly three hundred years later, when the Romans tock over Egypt. It is natural that new political situations should af-

fect the style of writing; history shows many

such examples. To the earlier of these two periods we owe the forms &, C, uv; to the lat-

ter, A and 4,U,&. Itis also worth noting that not all cursive forms affected the book hand, but those which did generally required a century or two to succeed. It is not impossible that Roman writing had an influence on both cursive and book hands in the earlier period as it surely did in the later.

The earliest Greek parchment manuscripts that have survived date from the third or fourth [49 ]

ANCIENT WRITING

century A.D. ‘They are written essentially in the uncial characters of the papyrus rolls. But the new material led to a differentiation in that it permitted the shading of letters to a much

greater extent. It is true that some papyri show shading, but this probably is due to imitation of writing on parchment. The Ambro-

sian Homer of the third or fourth century is thought to be our earliest example of a parch-

ment book. Other manuscripts of the fourth century are the Vatican and the Sinai Bibles; the Codex Alexandrinus 1s attributed to the following century. See Plate IV, a. Rome, Vat. Gr. 1209, p. 672. Fourth century. Psalm 77. 8-12. Note the abbreviation of Qeod in lines 1 and 6, the way o is crowded between 7 and » at the ends of lines 6 and g, and the

superposed corrections of rétov to rdéous (line 4), éredabevro to éweddOovro (line 9), ratdiw to medi (line 14). Accents and punctuation were added later.

The handsome, broad uncial, with its square

and round letters, continued to be used until about the sixth century, and was contemporary with its Roman counterpart. But the sloping, compressed uncial found in the papyri was also used on parchment, though at first it was less common. The reason is obvious: it is a time-

[50 |

DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SCRIPT

and space-saving script, and in the earlier centuries, at least in Egypt, parchment was still the

more expensive material and was used only when the saving of time and space was not a

consideration. The most important early manuscript in sloping uncials is the Washington (Freer) manuscript of the Gospels, which is thought to have been written in the fourth century.*° This style of writing eventually be-

came the dominant type. It developed as its chief characteristic very heavy lines contrasted with fine ones and tended to become pointed,

like the Gothic style of Roman writing. Upright forms with the same characteristics are also found. This type, which became common in the ninth century, is called Slavonic uncial

because it formed the basis for the alphabet used in the Slavic languages. After that the uncial became more and more artificial. It lasted

in an upright form until about the twelfth century. see Plate IV, 6. Washington, Freer collection, p. 372. Fourth century. Gospels, Mark 16. 18-20. Note the abbreviations of Ktpios *Incotds Xpiorés (line 4), Ocod (line 6), Kuptovu (line 7) and the stroke for v above the last letters in lines 5 and 6. c. Rome,

Vat. gr. 1666, f. 3r. Written in 800, probably at

[51 |

ANCIENT WRITING

Rome. Greek version of Gregory, Dial. I (Migne, Pat. Lat. 77, 150): alas. Tept wodtrefas dtaddpwv TaTepwy Tay Ev TH Iradeig drarayupavrwv. BrBXrlov a.

Mia trav jyep@v aododpais riow dvayKats Kooptkats. Note the wrong accents in woNreias, "Iradela, Mig.

With the ninth century we come to a cross-

roads in the history of Greek writing. The main road of uncial goes on, but its traffic is that of the Slavic alphabet. The Greek traffic is diverted to a road that before crossing the main road was little known but now becomes

the main highway for the Greek alphabet. That road, known as the cursive before it crosses the other highway, is the minuscule.

It is only necessary to examine the highly artificial uncial writing of the tenth or eleventh

century to see that something was bound to happen. Writing such as this could not last. It is not surprising therefore that in the ninth century a minuscule style of writing based on the old cursive came into use as a formal book hand.

This style of writing, called ‘‘ old minuscule,”

is at its best in the ninth and tenth centuries. Though the letters are connected, there are no extreme ligatures; many of them involve the letter sigma. The letters are well rounded. In shape they are in general similar to modern

[52]

DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SCRIPT

Greek minuscules, except beta, which is similar to our #4; zeta, which is at first like our 3, later has the uncial Z form; eta, which is like our /; kappa, which looks like our # without a dot; nu, which is round at the bottom like a mu without the last stroke; pi, which has the form @. The

script may be compared in general with the Caroline minuscules of the Roman alphabet in the ninth and tenth centuries, to which it pos-

sibly owes its inspiration. The ninth century is noteworthy also because the use of accents and breathings becomes general, in both uncial and minuscule manuscripts. See Plate V, a. Rome, Vat. gr. 190, f. 114Vv. Ninth century. Euclid VIII. I: ’Eav dow dootdnqorour apiGuot éEnjs avadoyov’ of b€ Akpot alta@yv mpwrot mpos GAAHAOUs wow, EXaXLOTOL eioly TaY TOY abTov AOyorv éxdvTwrv abtrots: *'EaTwoav droccowoty apiOyot

éfjs avadoyov ot a B y 5 ot 6€ axpot a’rGy ot a 6 pd.

In the following centuries we find what is called the “ middle minuscule,’ whose chief characteristic is the use of uncial forms of many

letters, especially beta, eta, and kappa. Weare on the way to a welding of uncial and minuscule scripts. At times it seems as if the result might

be a cursive uncial. In fact uncial forms of every letter can be. found in one or another

[53]

ANCIENT WRITING

manuscript of this period, but they are joined together in the cursive manner. Ligatures and abbreviations become more numerous.

See Plate V, 6. New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, MS. 639, f. 294r. Twelfth century. Gospels, Luke 4. 16.

From the thirteenth century on we have preserved to us a number of more carelessly written manuscripts, filled with ligatures and ab-

breviations. In this respect the script recalls the contemporary Gothic of Western Europe, though in appearance they are quite unlike. Some letters have many shapes in the same manuscripts; most have at least two. It was a period of formlessness and carelessness, produced or at least assisted by political turmoil. Furthermore, the introduction of paper, the new

cheap writing material, was responsible for a lesser degree of care in writing. see Plate V, c. Rome, Vat. gr. 144, f. 1r. A.D. 1439. Cassius Dio 36.1: kai drt ioxupa 77H ThxN En” auporepa exexpynto ewérpever’ nrrnOets TE yap oda Kal Kpatyoas ovK éd\aTTw Kal oTpaTynyiKwrepos am’ abrov évreTioTEVTO YEeyovevat. alrol TE oY ws Kal TOTE WPWTOY

apxduevot TOU 7ohE“ou TapecKevafovTo Kai xpos TOUS qeptxwpous Tous Te &AAovs Kai ’Apaoakny tov TapGov

Kaimep’ éx@pov tr Teyparvy dca xwpav tiva dudicBy-

[54 |

DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SCRIPT THolpwov ovTa érpecBevovTo’ Kai Talrns TE AUTO adioravTo Kat trols “Pwyaious dcéeBaddov AEeyovTes OTL AV povwhev-

Tuv copay Kpathjaowet kal. lotasubscript is not indicated.

With the reawakening of interest in Greek in

fifteenth-century Italy, Greek scholars and scribes came to Italy, especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Naturally they brought with them the undesirable writing then current. It was at this unfortunate time that printing be-

gan, and the early Greek books printed in Italy preserve all the numerous ligatures and other peculiarities of this writing. In the course

of centuries the printed forms gradually became simplified under the influence of the Roman script, but it was not until the nineteenth

century that all ligatures disappeared. Even so the present printed form of Greek is less beautiful and less legible than Roman type. As Rutherford said: “‘ Nothing could well be imagined less likely to call up ideas of art or beauty

than a modern page of printed Greek.” ** Very recently there have been suggestions in Greece that the Greek alphabet be abandoned in favor of the Roman for the printed and written forms of modern Greek. Unfortunately it is unlikely by reason of national pride that this movement

will make much headway. Curiously enough

[55]

ANCIENT WRITING

the cursive script of Greece was reformed during the nineteenth century on the model of the slanting style at that time in vogue in Western Europe and is therefore much more Roman (e.g.

in the beta) than the printed type fonts. It would be helpful if the Roman forms were used at least for those letters which correspond ex-

actly and in the case of which no ambiguity would result.

As for the printing of ancient Greek for the use of non-Greeks, there certainly is no good reason for not using Roman types. At times attempts have been made to improve the Greek type fonts but without much success. A few years ago a rather handsome font was designed by a committee of the Hellenic Society of England,** but apparently it has met with little or

no success. An earlier design has had only slight vogue."*

We may conclude this chapter with a discussion of some alphabets derived from the Greek.

The Copts of Egypt in the early centuries of our era abandoned their own cumbersome script, descended from hieroglyphs, in favor of

the Greek uncial letters then current in their country, supplementing these with seven characters taken from their original script.

[56 |

DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK SCRIPT

In the ninth century the Bulgarians adapted the current Greek minuscule to the writing of

their language. That is, they accepted the minuscule forms of the letters but did not connect them in cursive form. They added a num-

ber of characters based on Greek ligatures. This script is called Glagolitic, and was current

in Bulgaria and Croatia. There are manuscripts in existence as old as the tenth and elev-

enth centuries. This form of script came into use in the Eastern Orthodox Church, in the writing of the language known as Old Church Slavonic (7.e. Old Bulgarian), and spread with

it. At the same time another script was introduced, based on the ninth- and tenth-century uncials that, as we saw, are called Slavonic because of their use as a base for the Slavic alpha-

bet. This second script, called Cyrillic, did not come into general use for several centuries, after the Glagolitic had developed complicated

forms. At first the Cyrillic may have been used as a sort of majuscule script for special purposes. The Cyrillic too needed additional characters; these it took in part from Greek ligatures, in part from the Glagolitic alphabet. The new alphabet spread throughout the Eastern Slavic territory, wherever the Orthodox

[57]

ANCIENT WRITING

Church is dominant, z.e. Jugoslavia, Bulgaria,

Russia. Roman Catholic Slavs use the Latin alphabet. The Glagolitic maintained itself in general use among the Croats until the seventeenth century. Modern Russian is a form of Cyrillic modified and simplified in the time of

Peter the Great. As in the case of modern Greek, the Russian cursive script reveals greater influence on the part of the Roman writing of Western Europe than the printed type does. The early Germanic runes were at one time

thought to be derived from Latin and Greek, but a more plausible explanation has recently been given, that they were derived from very early North Italian alphabets akin to but essentially independent of the Latin alphabet. This explanation accounts for the similarities to both Latin and Greek.** The alphabet devised by Ulfilas in the fourth

century A.D. for his translation of the Bible into Gothic was based on Greek uncials, with some borrowings from Latin and the runes.

[58 |

VII. THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE inscriptions were also used in forma T* SQUARE capitals of the Roma: books written on papyrus and parch ment down to the fifth century A.D. Example: of this script on parchment are found only in twc

fragments, both of which are of Virgil manu-

scripts — notably the one now partly in the Vatican (3256) and partly in Berlin (lat. fol. 416) and known as the Augusteus because it was once thought to have been written in the age of Augustus. It is now usually dated as fourth or fifth century. Fragments of a Virgil at St. Gall (1394) in palimpsest may belong to

the fourth century. There are also papyrus fragments of a Virgil from Oxyrhynchus. In this script the letters have the monumental and geometrical appearance familiar from inscriptions. The straight lines are really straight and

are usually horizontal or vertical. The O and Q tend to be perfect circles, and C and G are arcs of a circle. But the influence of writing

[59]

ANCIENT WRITING

with a slanted pen is shown in the tilted O and in the strong shading of the oblique stroke of N. This strong shading is general and is produced by the flat side of abroad pen. The earliest examples of such shading are in inscriptions of the Augustan Age, which presuppose a still earlier use in writing with a pen. Some of the letters have finishing strokes, or serifs, as they still do in our writing. These are found in Latin inscriptions as early as the second century B.c.; in Greek inscriptions they occur even earlier. Only F and L project slightly above the line, and the tail of the Q is below, but this is not enough

to change the cast of the writing. The letters are written in the main between two lines, which

is the distinguishing characteristic of majuscule script, in contrast with minuscules, which, because of the letters projecting above and be-

fy.

low, are written between four lines: BD PO

See Plate VI, a. Rome, Vat. lat. 3256, f. 4r. Square capitals. Virgil, Georg. I. 253-256. The “Augusteus”’ of Virgil. At the ends of the lines the letters are smaller so that the lines may not

run over. In line 1 gue is abbreviated.

Rustic capitals are a somewhat less stiff form of majuscule writing. They reveal to a greater | 6o |

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

extent the influence of pen and ink on papyrus

or parchment. It is true that they are also found in inscriptions, but this is due to imitation of pen and ink writing. Besides fragments of about twenty manuscripts we have four more

or less complete manuscripts of Virgil (Vat. 3225, 3867, Pal. 1631; Florence, Laur. 39. 1) and one of Terence, called Bembinus (Vat. 3226), of the fourth and fifth centuries. The script was in use much earlier; we have papyrus fragments and inscriptions from the first century.

See Plate VI, 6. Rome, Vat. lat. 3225, f. 64r. Rustic capitals. Virgil, Aen. VII. 302-305. The punctuation was added later. The first letter of the page (shown here) is somewhat larger.

In comparing this script with the square capi-

tals we note that the letters are compressed; thus O and Q are no longer circles but have el-

liptical form. Straight lines tend to curve, as in A, X, and V; the latter has indeed become a U. The ends of lines do not always meet, as we note in the case of A and M; the former is well on the way to the shape of our modern small a. Serifs are not as common or regular but sometimes more prominent, especially in [ 6x |

ANCIENT WRITING

A, P, and T. Because of the short cross stroke at the top and the long finishing stroke at the bottom the T looks like an I. More letters dip below the line, e.g. N and V.

The abbreviations in both kinds of capital script are discussed elsewhere (Chapter XV). Here we merely need to note that at first the horizontal abbreviation sign was used for n and

m. Later a distinction was made by putting a dot under the stroke to indicate m. A ligature

of NT (in the form N) and occasionally of other letters was permitted at the end of a line.

Words were generally written continuously without space between them.

Of almost thirty complete or fragmentary manuscripts In square or rustic capitals only two are Christian —a Prudentius and a Sedu-

lius. Only a few pages of the latter are in rustic capitals, the rest, significantly enough, in

uncials. Prudentius was the Christian Virgil and received the special honor of being treated, in this manuscript, like Virgil. It may be said

then that square and rustic capitals were employed almost exclusively for de luxe copies of

the pagan authors and that the use of square capitals persisted especially to honor Virgil. Thus far we have been discussing the formal [ 62 |

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

script of the early centuries of our era. There was also the much less formal writing to be found in letters, business papers, documents, etc. This form of writing was characterized by its tendency to keep pen on papyrus without removing it. Thus it has been given the name

of cursive, “‘running,” just as our writing is cursive as compared with printing. Naturally there was much variation, depending on the haste, care, or experience of the writer. Ligatures were numerous. The material for the study of cursive writing consists of papyrus documents and letters found in Egypt (which, however, do not begin to com-

pare in amount with the Greek documents), graffitt scratched in the stucco walls of Pompeii, inscriptions painted on these same walls, such

as election posters and announcements of gladiatorial contests, and wax tablets found at Pompeii and in Dacia. The earliest examples of cursive show striking deviations from the formal capitals in use at the same time, but in comparison with later cursive the earlier style is distinctly closer to capitals. It is therefore sometimes called majuscule cursive in contrast to the later minus-

cule cursive. Yet minuscule characteristics [ 63 |

ANCIENT WRITING

manifest themselves very early: letters extend above and below the line more frequently and

more decidedly, in true minuscule fashion. Letter forms that we are accustomed to call minuscule make their appearance. In fact, the beginning of nearly all our minuscule forms may

be found in the cursive writing of the first three centuries. The cursive script becomes increasingly important on account of its influence on the formal

book hand. Thus it affected first the uncial hand. The name “ uncial ” means “ inch high ” and is an exaggerated term used by St. Jerome for the large size letters found in de luxe books but applied specifically in modern times to a

variety of majuscule script. It has been extended also to the formal Greek writing in use from the third century B.c. to the twelfth century A.D., as we have seen in Chapter VI. Our earliest Roman uncial manuscripts belong to

the fourth century, but the script must have been used earlier, as there are examples in inscriptions of the third century.

The most characteristic letters of uncial writing are 4, 0, € m — suggesting that we can remember the writing as the ‘‘ adem ”’ script.

Perhaps we might even so name it instead of [ 64 ]

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

using the meaningless term “uncial.” The d and qg have taken on our minuscule form. The curving forms of these letters clearly: indicate

their origin in the use of pen and ink and in the desire to make letters in the fewest possible strokes. Thus the e can be made in two strokes

instead of the four required for the capital E, though it will be noted that once a script 1s formalized, as is true of uncial writing, this ad-

vantage is given up. ‘Thus it costs the scribe

only one less stroke to make the uncial m (three) than the capital M.

The new shapes of the letters are due to cursive influence. In the Vercelli Gospels, thought to date from about A.D. 371 and to be our oldest example of uncial writing, the a is without a loop, as in our earliest cursive writing. The initial stages of the looped a are found in papyri of the second century and the finished form in the fourth. Uncial forms of d, e, # are found in the cursive writing of the first century of our era — the earliest that is preserved to us. Cursive forms of m which suggest the uncial m are also found in that century, though they are not so close in shape. The uncial m, even

in its earliest examples, has an individuality which suggests a fairly long period of independ-

[65 |

ANCIENT WRITING

ent development. It should be remembered that we think of uncial script only in its fully developed book form, chiefiy because of the lack of earlier less formal material. But both the material we have and the analogy of Greek writing show that the uncial is the crystallized form of a script which experimented with cursive forms. ‘Thus a third-century inscription from Africa ** has uncial forms of @ (fully developed), d, e, but still preserves the capital m. On the other hand, tt has the minuscule 0 in a

form rarely found in papyri before the fourth century. Another inscription, also from Africa, has a good example of uncial m.*° Our discussion of the relation of cursive and uncial will be resumed when we come to the half-uncial script. See Plate VI, c. Rome, Vat. lat. 5757, p. 254. Palimpsest; both scripts are uncial. Augustine, Enarr. in Psalm. cxxxviii, 31 (VII-VHI century) over Cicero, De rep. V. 5. The latter reads: p(ublicam) et in ea quo|dam modo | vilicare pos|sit summi in|

nim illis ad ar|tem suam ultitur sed se | a suo mune.

Uncial letters, especially in the later period,

go above and below the main lines of script more freely than capitals, but not enough to

take them out of the majuscule class. Abbreviations and ligatures are similar to those in [ 66 |

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

capital writing. In the ecclesiastical works the nomina sacra are in contracted form.

Well over four hundred manuscripts and fragments of uncial written between the fourth and eighth centuries have been preserved to us. Of these 390 have been listed.** The great bulk

of them are biblical, patristic, or mediaeval. Virgil, represented by the only manuscripts in square capitals left to us and by four in rustic capitals, is not found at all in uncial form. In fact, only one classical poem (Ovid, Ex Ponto) is preserved in this script. This fact alone was enough to cast suspicion on the forged fragment

of Catullus published a few years ago.*’ Of prose writers Cicero is represented six times, and the scholza on his speeches once. Livy is represented seven times; Pliny the Elder, six times; Fronto, once; Hyginus, once; Granius Licinianus, once. We may now add the Morgan copy of Pliny’s Letters. There are also a number of fourth- and fifth-century writers on technical subjects such as geography, medicine, law,

grammar. The interest in Pliny the Elder was largely medical. The legal writers include a few earlier ones like Ulpian and Gaius. The collection of writers on surveying was put together in the sixth century, though it contains | 67 |

ANCIENT WRITING

some earlier works. The Latin Anthology was

assembled at the same time and in similar fashion. See Plate VII, a. New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, MS. 462, f. 6v. Uncial, about A.D. 500. Pliny, Epzst. II. 4. 7-8. The correction in line 2 is of about the same period.

On the other hand, we have no copy of the Bible in capitals, either square or rustic, and almost no Christian work. It is obvious that the uncial script was in a peculiar sense a Christian development. The hand was formalized by

the early copyists of the Bible. In doing this they may well have been influenced by the uncials then current in the Greek Bibles, just as

they were in the writing of the nomina sacra

(Chapter XV). It is interesting to note that besides Bibles several of the Latin uncial books are Greek-Latin glossaries and others are trans-

lations from the Greek. At any rate, the later uncial script shows decided Greek influence. Early uncial is distinguished chiefly by the shape of e and m. The former is almost like the minuscule letter, as in our printed form, though the loop is not quite closed; m has a straight first stroke, or at least one that does not turn in at the bottom. In both letters the [ 68 |

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

early uncial is more like the cursive. In late uncial both letters become symmetrical and artificial: the cross stroke of the e is in the exact

center of the arc, and the first and last strokes

of the m curve inward in identical fashion. This symmetry characterizes Greek uncial as early as the fourth century. The late uncial e of Latin is similar to the Greek epsilon. Latin m did not imitate Greek mu because that letter had developed along different lines; rather it was influenced, at least indirectly, by omega. In some manuscripts omega is almost closed at the top and looks very much like Latin uncial m. ‘Thesame principle of symmetry appears in

other late Latin uncials. Thus o at first is

shaded in an unbalanced way, with heavy lines at the lower left and the upper right; this was due to writing in the natural way with the pen slanting. Later the heaviness is centered right and left, owing to a more artificial way of writing with the pen held straight. The same is true of Greek omicron. Compare also sigma and c. Also the later Latin ¢ has a long cross stroke like the Greek tau.**

See Plate VII, 6. New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, MS. 334. Uncial, a.p. 669. Augustine, In Epist. Ioh. ad Parth. Tract. VI. 3 (Migne, Pat. [ 69 |

ANCIENT WRITING Lat. 35, 2021): per cupiditatem mundi multa mira faciunt sintstra operatur non dextera. Dexira debet operart et nesciente sinistra ut nec misceat se cupiditas saecult quando.

Of course it may be held that these are independent developments in Latin and Greek. But

the fact that the Latin uncial script is so predominantly ecclesiastical ties it up with the Greek, much in the same way as the use of nomina sacra in contraction shows Greek influence. The interaction of Greek and Roman writing on each other from the earliest times down to the present deserves further study. Among the best-known uncial manuscripts are the Vercelli Gospels (written about A.D. 371), Cicero, De re publica (palimpsest; Vat. 5757), scholia Bobiensia on Cicero’s Orations (Vat. 5750, Milan, Ambr. E. 147 sup.), Livy, third decade (Paris 5730), Livy, fifth decade

(Vienna 15), Jerome’s Chronicle (Oxford, Bodl. Auct. T. 2.26), Fulda Gospels, Codex Amiatinus of the Bible (Florence, Laur. Am. 1),

the Morgan fragments of Pliny’s Letters, Verona Gaius. Uncial writing as such did not have much influence on the forms of writing which succeeded

it nor has it been resorted to in modern times [70 |

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

to any great extent. It did maintain itself for a time in headings and titles; as we use capitals. The a passed into the minuscule hand and is still used in our lower case roman type. The uncial d was also used in later minuscule but has disappeared from our type fonts. Uncial forms of e, d, or m are now occasionally used for ornamental purposes. The importance of cursive writing in its effect on the book hand has already been pointed

out. As a matter of fact the development of the cursive hand in the first four centuries of our era is definitely responsible for the origin not only of uncials as distinguished from capitals but also of the minuscule hands of the Middle Ages and to-day. It should be remembered that the formalized book hands went on with relatively little change until they decayed, while the ever young and vital cursive grew this way

and that. By the fourth century the cursive had developed a decidedly minuscule cast, and most of its letters had attained the form of the later minuscules. ‘This writing 1s the cursive an-

cestor of mediaeval and modern minuscule writing. See Plate VII, c. Strasbourg, Pap. lat. 1. Cursive,

fourth century. Letter of recommendation: refi-

[72]

ANCIENT WRITING cenitae tuae traduntur quod honeste respicere velit non

dubtto domine praedicabtlis quapropter theofanen ortundum ex civitate hermupolitanorum provinciae thebaidos qui ex suggestione domini met fratris nostrt.

The illustration is taken from Archi fir Papyrusforschung, III (1904).

It is unfortunate that the terminology and classification of Latin writing was fixed at a time when the papyri of Egypt and the graffitz and other cursive materials of Pompeii were still unknown. We have found it difficult to readjust ourselves to the facts brought to light by

the new material. Let us think of uncial as a book hand which developed out of capitals under cursive influence. Let us remember further that this particular formalization is only one of many that might have taken place. The newer

finds in Egypt in fact tell us that there were many incipient hands which might have developed into book scripts. These differ in the extent and nature of the cursive influence. Some have minuscule letter forms, not found in what

we call uncial. The name mixed uncials has been applied to them — unfortunately, because

it implies that they originated in uncials. We ought rather to say that these scripts and un[72 ]

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

clals both originated in the same kind of mix-

ture of capital and cursive letters. The only difference is that uncials, as a result of some special influence, or perhaps pure accident, early

developed into a widely used book hand, while the others did not, with one exception that we

shall note. One of these so-called mixed unclals is probably earlier in date than any uncials

left tous. That is the fragment of the Epitome of Livy (Oxyrhynchus 668) assigned by some to the third century, though others put it in the fourth. This manuscript has minuscule forms

of 6, d, m, and r. Other letters are the same in form as those in uncial writing but should not be called uncial — in part they are capital, such as N, in part they are cursive, such as @ and e. In fact the long center stroke of the e, regularly

striking the following letter, clearly shows its cursive origin, for in cursive this stroke is the one which connects the e with the next letter.

There are, it is true, some late manuscripts which are mixed uncials in the proper sense of the term, z.e. they are uncials with an admix-

ture of cursive forms. Even some clearly uncial manuscripts have occasional cursive forms

in addition to the regular ones. Such forms

73 J

ANCIENT WRITING

usually occur at or near the end of a line, when Space can be gained by using a narrower cursive letter.

See Plate VIII, a. Manchester, John Rylands Library, Pap. 61. ‘‘Mixed” uncial, fifth century. Cicero, Cat. II. 15. A papyrus fragment from

Egypt. The Latin is in the left column and a

word for word Greek translation in the right —a kind of ‘Loeb translation” for those who knew little Latin but much Greek: belli | ac nefarii | periculum | depellatur | dicatur sane. srodeuov | xat abeputov | o xwvduvos | amwlndern | AexOnoeror padora.

From the New Paleographical Society, Series II, Part ITI, 55.

The term half-uncial is sometimes used loosely for mixed uncials of the type described,

but in a narrower sense it is applied to a very definite script that became a rival of uncial as a book script from the fifth to the eighth cen-

turies. Again the name is unfortunate in its suggestion that it was derived from uncial. Rather it is a younger brother of that script, making use of an almost complete minuscule alphabet. It does not use the shapes of a, d, e,

m characteristic of uncial script but rather those of modern minuscule type, except that the a is in the form used in italics, not roman.

The only letter which maintains its capital

74 J

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

form is N, and this letter readily enables one to

distinguish this script from later minuscules. The reason for the preservation of this kind of N was to avoid confusion with the minuscule r, which in some half-uncials is very much like

n. The desire to avoid ambiguity is seen also in the 8, which is in the form familiar to-day instead of the form liké d which was the commonest type in the cursive of the first four centuries. The uncial influence is seen in the artificial writing with a straight pen (e.g. in the symmetrical o) in the later examples.

See Plate VIII, 6. Rome, Vat. Reg. lat. 886, f.

o7v. Hialf-uncial, sixth century. Theodosian, Cod. X, 10, 27, 1: fuertt institutum sibt integri annt spatitum recognoscai tdoneum satis tempus muniendae

congruae tractatibus litis et mstruendi quem deserit laris habiturus nec ad taciu.

There is difference of opinion whether one should speak of half-uncials as minuscules or majuscules. Like so many other controversies, this one is due to variation in definition and use

of words. If by minuscules we mean letters which are clearly to be written between four lines instead of two, then half-uncials are minuscule. The same is true if we test this writing

by the shapes of the letters or their relatively

[75]

ANCIENT WRITING

smaller size. If we mean by minuscule a script which is used 1n the body of the text while another style is used for running heads, then both uncials and half-uncials are minuscule, for in uncial manuscripts we find running heads in rustic or square capitals, and uncial titles are found in half-uncial manuscripts. It is true that in later times half-uncial was thought of as a script suitable for titles for a minuscule text, but that does not make it majuscule any more than lower-case italics or black-face letters are majuscules when we use them in headings. The difficulty is that extreme forms of majuscules and minuscules are easily distinguished while intermediate forms are not. Lowe lists 160 half-uncial manuscripts ** but includes a number that may be called mixed un-

clals. In fact all the fragments from Egypt (seventeen) seem to belong to this class. We may examine the list from another point of view.

The older classical literature is strongly repre-

sented in the Egyptian mixed uncials. There are also three examples of mixed uncials in the

marginal notes found in one uncial and two rustic manuscripts of classical works. Only one classical author (Juvenal, in the Ambrosian L1brary, Milan) is found in standard half-uncials. [ 76 |

THE WRITING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

There are a few legal and other late works written in this script, but for the most part the books are ecclesiastical or mediaeval. Thus the

standard half-uncial, like the uncial, was a script selected by Christian scribes from among

many formalized cursive scripts. Probably each was developed first at some particular center of writing. Among the important early specimens of half-

uncial are a Hilary (Rome, St. Peter’s D. 182) written in 509-510 or shortly before, a Sulpicius Severus (Verona xxxvili, 36) written in 517, a pseudo-Ambrosius (Monte Cassino 150) written in 570 or shortly before, and a Eugippius (Vatican 3375) of slightly later date. One of the characteristic features of cursive writing was the use of ligatures. ‘These were used very sparingly in capital and uncial writ-

ing but they become much more frequent in half-uncial. Among them was the ligature for et, already found in cursive, which persisted throughout later periods. Another common feature of the half-unctal was the use of e for ae.

This cursive element, found occasionally even in uncial, continued in use until modern times. As we survey the writing of the Roman Empire we find at the outset two types, the formal L771

ANCIENT WRITING

hand which was preserved on monuments of stone but also imitated on papyrus and parchment, and the cursive hand of informal writing.

The book hands of the Empire other than the square capital are the product of the mating of the monumental with the cursive script. Their earliest offspring to achieve fame, Rustic, takes after its stiff and formal father, Square Capital,

rather than after mother Cursive. The second child which grew up:and prospered was Uncial, and he showed greater resemblance to his mother than his elder brother did. There were many other children of this curiously matched couple — the stiff, pompous father Capital and the quick, lively, rather slatternly mother Cur-

sive, but all of them died during infancy or childhood except one, Half-Uncial. This child grew up and became famous. It took after its

mother rather than its father but was like its father in showing more concern about its per-

sonal appearance. And that is the early history of this family during the Roman Empire. How the couple later separated and how the members of the family went their own ways is a Story that belongs to the Middle Ages.

[78 ]

VIIl. THE NATIONAL HANDS OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES HE DEVELOPMENT of Roman writing closely parallels that of the Latin

language. The formal style of Latin literature has kinship with the formal book hand in which it was preserved. Both are the products of professionals. The informal, even vulgar, speech of daily life suggests cursive writing. Colloquial forms such as sodes for st audes may in a way be compared to the ligatures of cursive.

But in the course of time formal Latin felt the influence of the vulgar speech just as formal

writing felt that of the cursive script. Thus the literary language of the fourth and fifth centuries may be compared to the rustic capitals and uncials of that period. Occasionally the vulgar elements predominate even in more or less literary works, such as the Peregrinatio of Saint Aetheria (Silvia). In script we have the analogy of the half-uncial, in which cursive elements play a major role. L791]

ANCIENT WRITING

With the coming of the Germanic invaders in the fifth century Italy and Rome gradually be-

came separated from the provinces. Without the unifying effect of the Roman army and the Roman government the vulgar forms of the lan-

guage and the script gradually got the upper hand. In the transitional centuries, from about the sixth to the eighth, the formal Latin language maintained itself in the written records, though under the surface the vulgar speech in different regions was getting farther and farther away from the Latin of Rome and from that of other localities and was preparing for its ultimate triumph. So uncial and half-uncial writing continued to be used in books but the cursive hand was actively developing along lines of its own in the various countries of the former

Roman Empire. The vulgar form of Gallic Latin emerges as a separate written language, French, in the ninth century; in Italy and Spain the process was perhaps slower, to judge merely

from actual survivals. In script the development was more rapid: national scripts began

to emerge as early as the seventh century. Thereafter the analogy between language and script in large part disappears. The nationalistic tendency of language increased and that

| [ 80 |

NATIONAL HANDS OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

of script decreased. By the time that the various languages had won established positions the doom of the national hands was already certain.

But there is a further analogy between language and writing which must be mentioned. From time to time the various Romance languages have borrowed words from Latin literature — “ book ” words they are called. So too the national hands borrowed from the old Latin scripts, capital, uncial, half-uncial. Furthermore the Romance languages have continually borrowed from one another. Similarly the national hands were influenced in their development by one another.

It has often been pointed out that when a radical gets into power he becomes conserva-

tive. The case of writing is not dissimilar. Half-uncial arose as a sort of radical protest

against capital and uncial. But in the end half-uncials became as formal and conservative

as uncials. They became enamored of the frock coat and the high hat, so to speak. It was time for the cursive lower class to raise another of its sons to power. The development of the national scripts in the seventh century coincides with the real be-

ginning of mediaevalism. Pope Gregory I, [ 8r |

ANCIENT WRITING

who died in 604, has been called the first mediaeval man. Education ceased to be secular and became wholly ecclesiastical. Pagan learning all but disappeared. Curiously enough it flourished most in the extreme western outpost of Roman civilization — Ireland. Here too the classical half-uncial continued to be written, though in modified form. From Ireland the all but dying sparks of interest in pagan literature spread to England and eventually to the Continent, where they joined the kindling flames that burst into the mighty fire of the Carolingian Renaissance. 1. INSULAR SCRIPT

IN THE island of Britain the Latin language and writing practically disappeared soon after the coming of the Germanic Angles, Saxons. and Jutes in the fifth century. For such writIng as these people did they used the runes

which they brought with them (page 58). But in the sixth century Latin writing was reintroduced into England by Augustine and his monks when they came to convert the island to Christianity. The Christianization of Ireland, begun in the fourth century, was completed in the fifth by St. Patrick. The language of Chris[ 82 |

NATIONAL HANDS OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

tianity was formal, not vulgar, Latin, and the writing was the formal uncial and half-uncial,

not the cursive. Thus the national hand of England and Ireland, which we call Insular, was developed, not from cursive, as were the Continental hands, but from half-uncial, under

the influence of uncial. At least that is the origin of the Irish style, which in the seventh century spread first to the north and then to the south of England and stopped the independ-

ent development of the uncial writing introduced there by the first missionaries from Rome.

As early as the seventh century, from which our oldest specimens date, the Irish script has easily distinguished peculiarities. Two styles developed, a formal, broad type known as the round hand, and a compressed type known as pointed. The round hand disappeared in both Ireland and England in the ninth century; the pointed lasted longer.

Among the famous early examples of the round hand are the seventh-century Book of Kells, an Irish manuscript of the Gospels, and the Lindisfarne Gospels written in England about A.D. 700. The most noticeable character-

istic is the peculiar thickening of the tops or first strokes of letters. This is triangular in [ 83 |

ANCIENT WRITING

shape and reminds one of cuneiform writing. Another characteristic is the curving of / and

6. This similarity of 5 and / is a marked peculiarity. The shading is very heavy. Following the half-uncial style on which it was modelled and the late uncial which it imitated

the writing was done largely with a straight pen. Hence the symmetrical o and other peculiarities. Uncial as well as half-uncial forms

of a, d, vr, s are found. The z is sometimes minuscule. The use of elaborate tracery of a peculiar type, especially in initials, is a marked characteristic. In general the English examples carry these characteristics to greater extremes.

See Plate IX, a. Rome, Vat. Barb. lat. 570, f. 32r. Round Insular (Anglo-Saxon), eighth century. Evangelistary, Matth. UW. 18. 16: lucratus es fratrem

tuum. Si autem te non audtertt adhibe tecum adhuc unum vel duos ut in ore duorum testuum vel trium

stet omne verbum. Quod st non audterit eos dic aeclesiae. Si autem aeclesiam non au. Note the abbreviation for autem (like an / with a hook), the

double abbreviation stroke for m, and the characteristic decoration with dots.

Much more common than the round hand was the pointed, which has continued in use until the present day in the writing of Gaelic. [ 84 |

NATIONAL HANDS OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

This was much less formal than the round hand.

Being written more rapidly and taking less room, it may in a sense be compared with cursive. It is sometimes called minuscule by those

who call the round hand majuscule or halfuncial. The letters are long and narrow instead of short and fat. The thickening of initial strokes is often found in the pointed as in the round hand, but the main strokes taper off into points, thus giving still more the suggestion of cuneiform writing. There is a tendency

toward angularity adumbrated even in the round hand. In the pointed hand 7 tends to look like z but is differentiated either by length-

ening the first stroke or shortening the second or bending it to the right. Sometimes r and s are much alike on account of the prominent

initial stroke of the s. There is an open which is sometimes confused with the long r. The half-uncial g (something like the figure 5)

is characteristic of both round and pointed styles. The earliest examples are usually put in the eighth century, though the beginning of the development may be seen in the seventh. The first dated copy is the Book of Armagh (A.D. 807). The Berne Horace belongs to the ninth century.

[85 |

ANCIENT WRITING

See Plate IX, 6. London, Brit. Mus. Cotton Tiber. C. II. Pointed Insular, eighth century. Bede, Ast. Eccl. V. I: Vir venerabilis O1dilunald qui multis annis in monasterto quod dicitur Inhrypun accepium presbyteratus officium condignis gradu ipse. Note the ligatures of en, er, si, ep, es.

Three of the old runes were preserved in the writing of Anglo-Saxon: edh, an uncial d with a line through it for ¢z; thorn, developed from

a d and also having the value of th; and wyn (wen), used for w. The edh disappeared and the wyn yielded to w, which is actually a “ dou-

ble u” (or v). The thorn ( / ) eventually came to look like y and disappeared, except in the form ye for the, as in “ ye editor,” ‘“ ye olde tavern.” In such expressions ye has no relation to the pronoun ye. Ligatures are so common in Insular script as to indicate cursive influence or cursive experience. Especially frequent are the ligatures of a tall e with a following letter and of an i extending below the line with a preceding letter. There is also a tendency to write letters in ligature below the line, as in the old cursive. But the most interesting characteristic of Insular writing is the use of numerous abbrevia-

tions. These were derived from the Tironian | 86 |

NATIONAL HANDS OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Notes and the notae turis. Among them are lr for autem (often mistaken for Zoc by Con-

tinental scribes), + for est, 7 for ef, D for con,» for etus,tfor vel, it for enim, m for mihi,

my for per, g for quia, g for quod, ti for tibi. Chiefly confined to the Irish are an for ante, g for ergo, nt for nihil, n for nisi, and many others.

In the tenth century the Carolingian hand of France supplanted the pointed hand of England in the writing of Latin while Anglo-Saxon

continued to be written in the pointed style, though this too was influenced by the Carolingian. ‘The two hands were even used side by side in the same manuscript for the two lan-

guages. The pointed hand might well have lasted indefinitely, as it did in Ireland, if it had not been for the Norman Conquest. After the eleventh century this hand disappears from England.

The Insular hand was written not only in Ireland and England but also on the Continent as a consequence of the missionary activity of

Irish and English monks. The Irish founded monasteries or in other ways brought their culture and writing to France (Luxeuil, Corbie, Reims), Germany (Wiirzburg, Cologne, Rei-

chenau), Switzerland (St. Gall), and Italy [ 87 |

ANCIENT WRITING

(Bobbio) in the late sixth and the seventh centuries, and the Anglo-Saxons did the same in

the eighth (Fulda, Hersfeld, Lorsch, Echternach, Mainz). Though the Insular hand did not last long in the Continental centers, it did affect the writing at these places and contributed to the evolution of the Carolingian hand. Alcuin, the Englishman from York, had something to do with that development, as we shall

see. But the greatest and most enduring contribution of Insular to the Continental script was its system of abbreviation, inherited from ancient sources which had in large part been neglected by Continental scribes. See Plate IX, c. New York, Academy of Medicine (formerly Phillipps 275), f. 7v. Carolingian and Continental Insular, ninth century, probably from Fulda. Apicius, II. 1. 1-3. Carolingian and Insular alternate in the manuscript. In this illustration farcimina is Carolingian, the rest Insular: Isicia fiunt marina de cammaris et astacts de lolligine de sepia de lucusta. Estcum condies pipere ligustico

cumino laseris radice esicia de lolligine sublatis crinibus in fulmento tundes stcutt adsolet pulma a in mortario et in liquamine diligenter frigatur et ex

inde esicia plassantur esicia. Photograph from Dr. Margaret B. Wilson, donor of the manuscript.

[ 88 |

NATIONAL HANDS OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

2. THE VISIGOTHIC SCRIPT

THE HANDWRITING of Spain is known as Visi-

gothic, though it has nothing whatever to do with the Visigoths except that it developed after

their conquest of Spain. Its contemporary name was littera Tolectana— Toledo script. It

has a history similar to that of South Italian writing: it grew out of the cursive and was permitted to develop along its own lines for a long time, until in the twelfth century French writing, introduced in particular by the monks of

Cluny, supplanted it. The Visigothic did not attain as much individualism as the Beneventan of Southern Italy; it is less easy to distinguish

at a glance. Its best period is the tenth century, when the letters are firm and round; later they become pointed. The writing is compact

and usually without much shading. In early examples the letters slant backward. The special characteristic of Visigothic is the uncial g, with a prolonged tail. It resembles a

figure 9, usually with a straight tail. As this form is found in Spanish half-uncial, it probably came into the national hand from that source rather than directly from uncial. This is but one evidence of half-uncial influence on | 89 |

ANCIENT WRITING

this script. The loop of g is open, to distinguish

it from g. The writer of that day had to mind his g’s and q’s. Other paired letters besides g

and g are a and 4u, tallz and/,r ands. Talli and a are distinguished from / and wu respectively by a curving last line, whereas that of / and zw is vertical. Sometimes the first stroke of a has a pronounced curve, causing the letter to resemble a joined cz. J is regularly tall at the beginning of a word unless it is followed by a tall letter, and even then tall z may be used: within a word it occurs between vowels. Thus we find Jn, Jam, ille or Ille, eIus. The letters 7 and s are differentiated in that s is not joined

to a following letter. Even when ¢ is not in ligature it has a connecting stroke turning upward. Both the uncial and minuscule forms of dare used. The # ts similar to that of Beneventan: the cross stroke makes a complete curve down at the left and touches the upright. The y is tall like our capital form. Numerous ligatures were inherited from cursive, though the extreme forms tend to disappear in the course of time. An a shaped like an epsilon occurs both in and above the line. A v-shaped zw occurs above the line, though not in

ligature. ;man zesiy fe tyge S4akl" aei. ¥LA reitd‘ke ca Sy r.tM i ‘eh? itahes, fare: h. ft+i Po 5,ee! felis ded aes .uh .i, ot are wre” Ft Bets ew ty a2,af; rl avd ass we act b “f é ote ey ri r mye ‘o> ‘i 7 ae aah cee ay. oes ta Oe pte a iBAG ea a7 frayed Hs3"be a 2a Peers er4nae “4 ‘eB ee .‘mv 4 iN ‘mee! aah tm -*, cut hd ogi ns Sg b 4a ag “i ate au: ety . 2aed é cared *, "A oF A x; “a wg tee Pe Bei E a, 3 tr oy fae a mgt Pag ' = tp ttes ‘- $ ‘4 £ + ) +, P % t 2* d : es 3 ¢ rae , Fy " 4" Pr es “hy , ft ,

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PLATE. XV

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