Anatomy Of A Technical Report [1]

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Anatomy of a Technical Report Westinghouse Research Laboratories

Forward The report is the major means of passing on accumulated ideas and facts from one person to others, who need the information to carry on their work. At a research laboratory, it is actually the major product of all R&D effort. As a scientist or engineer, your value to your company and your profession depends to a large extent on your reporting. Of course, no report can make poor engineering valuable. But, first rate engineering can be rendered ineffective by poor reporting or even late reporting. The primary responsibility for reporting must rest with the engineer who has done the work, for he, better than anyone else, is aware of the subject. He has studied the details, thought out the implications, sensed the importance. Supervisors can help him clarify his thinking and his writing, but no one else can describe the work as well as the one who did it. To do its job well, a report must be efficient. Like other instruments, it is expected to perform rapidly and accurately; none of the readers has much time to spend, and none wishes to be confused, misled or delayed by the writing. Further, the report must be adaptable to the purposes of different people, for the readers are not all equally familiar with the subject nor are they all interested in the subject from the same point of view. Going from one extreme to the other, some will read the abstract only, whereas others will study the report in detail. The purpose of this document is to give you some guidelines on the organization of a report to meet the readers’ needs. These rules are flexible, intended for modification to suit the occasion. A results section might be added to the front matter; the recommendations section might be dropped; a statement of coverage might replace the main idea; and so on. But, like the ideals of 100% efficiency, infinite life and perfect reliability in any environment, the discussed guidelines provide the ideals by which to set practical objectives and measure success. Each of the following sections of this document has the form of the comparable section in an actual report. For example, the section on abstracts is a sample abstract, the section on tables of contents is a sample contents page, the section on conclusions is a sample conclusions section, etc. Appendices are included for greater detail on most of the topics.

Abstract The abstract, a bird’s-eye view of the report, serves as a combination introduction/conclusion, stating the problem, the approach to solving it, the main conclusions and the significance. Since it may be read by people educated and trained in a variety of technical disciplines, the abstract should not contain symbols, highly technical terms, unusual abbreviations or mathematics. It should be limited to approximately 75 to 100 words to fit easily on a library card. For exceptionally long reports, a longer summary may follow.

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Contents Abstract

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Introduction

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Conclusions

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Recommendations

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Body of Report 4.1 Anatomy . . . . . . 4.2 Designing the Report 4.3 Writing the Report . 4.4 Headings . . . . . . 4.5 Illustrations . . . . . 4.6 Bibliography . . . .

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Appendices

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Appendix A A Reader-Oriented Organization

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Appendix B What’s in a Title?

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Appendix C The Abstract . . . Moth or Butterfly?

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Appendix D Put Action in Those Abstracts

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Appendix E The Introduction: Well begun is half done

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Appendix F A conclusion is a conclusion is a conclusion

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Appendix G How to be objective without hedging

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Appendix H To Recommend or Not to Recommend

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Appendix I

Pictures Speak Louder than Words

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Appendix J

Report Writing Checklist

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Use of a contents page and a following list of illustrations depends on the number of pages in the report. As an arbitrary rule of thumb, you may decide to include these if the report is over seven pages.

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Introduction

The introduction should give the reader the background information which he needs to understand and evaluate the conclusions and recommendations which follow. In this section, you should describe the technical problem, why it was investigated, and the scope of the effort, including the procedures used. Usually the introduction is about a page long, although the length varies considerably depending on the program and the complexity of the background information. Occasionally a subject pertinent to the introduction requires an extensive treatment: the history of the problem, the test equipment used, the characteristics of the specimens tested, and the like. In this case, you may mention the matter briefly in the introduction and detail it in an independent section following the conclusions and recommendations. Since most of the people receiving the report will read the introduction, and of these some will not be particularly familiar with the subject, you should avoid symbols and highly technical terms.

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2

Conclusions

1. A conclusion is stated in a single sentence if possible. 2. Conclusions are numbered and given in separate paragraphs. 3. Conclusions are neither results nor opinions; they are reasoned judgments based on the collected facts or results. 4. Conclusions are written positively and not qualified with words like “it seems”, “probably” and “it may be”. 5. No discussion or explanation appears in this section, although expressions such as “This study shows”, “On the basis of basic information”, and “Until more accurate data are available” are permissible. 6. When true conclusions are not possible, as for example in describing a newly developed material, another section may replace this section: e.g. a “description of development” section, a results section or a summary.

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Recommendations

1. Use a single, numbered sentence for each recommendation. 2. Use either commands (as in this sentence) or “should” sentences (as in recommendation 3) or “I recommend” sentences (as in recommendation 4), but don’t mix the three types. 3. Recommendations should be based on the collected facts or results and also on the author’s applicable technical experience and/or knowledge of any special circumstances bearing on the proposed action. 4. I recommend that you find out whether or not your supervisor wants you to make recommendations, since they are not always necessary.

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What Do Managers Read?

Abstract or Summary

Introduction

Conclusions and Recommendations

Discussion

Appendices

See Page B-1

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Body of Report

4.1

Anatomy

The next sections in the report constitute the body of the report. They will vary considerably with the report with one important stipulation: that a results section and a discussion section must be included. As an example, they might be: 4. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND 5. DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT 5.1 Specimens 5.2 Test Equipment 5.3 Experimental Procedures 6. RESULTS 7. DISCUSSION 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY You should start the body of the report with a technical background section if the introduction does not give this material in adequate detail. In deciding what constitutes adequate detail, it is always safe to assume that your readers do not know the area as well as you do, being educated and trained in a different technical discipline. As aids to interested readers, cite other technical reports, articles and hooks which supply pertinent information. Next, detail what was done; what materials, equipment and procedures were used; and why they were selected over obvious alternates. Include enough details here so that your results can be duplicated. If the work was experimental, supply illustrations showing laboratory setups. From there, you should summarize your results and illustrate the most significant ones, leaving lengthy but substantiating data for the appendices. A successful results section hinges not only upon a painstaking devotion to accuracy but upon your conditioning as to what to look for and your familiarity with sound scientific procedure. The data must be complete enough to enable meaningful conclusions and must be reliable, whether obtained by experimental or theoretical means or from a secondary source. References to original figuring books should be included when possible.1 If the report is lengthy, consider including a list of your major results placed either before or after the conclusions and recommendations sections. After reporting your data, you need to interpret it. You should justify your conclusions and recommendations: analyze, evaluate, make comparisons and contrasts. Along with objectivity and knowledge of the field, you need a logical mind at this point. You must take into account all variables, identify and relate cause and effect, avoid non-sequiturs and false analogies, etc. Base your discussion on facts and long-term experience, consistently avoiding unsubstantiated opinions. The suggested format for the discussion sections at first glance looks chronological: technical background. . . methods and materials. . . results. . . interpretation of results. But, within each part, the organization should be in order of importance, so that the readers will get the highlights regardless of where they stop reading. Even when step-by-step procedures are called for, avoid detailing false leads and dead ends. 1 In

the case of Westinghouse Research Laboratories’ research reports, these should be placed immediately following the reference section or, if there is no reference, after the last text section.

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4.2

Designing the Report

The writing of a report can be thought of as a problem in design and construction. The design is the planning and organization. The construction is the writing. The first step in the design is to decide on the basic purpose of the report and select a main idea to satisfy that purpose. For example, Purpose: To evaluate capacitors for power plant use. Main Idea: Capacitors are useful for correcting plant power factor and for protecting motors from damage due to over voltages. The next step is to select the material which will help make the main point, much as one selects components in designing an engineering system. Extraneous material should be eliminated ruthlessly. Material of secondary importance should be relegated to appendices. Along with the completeness of the material, the order of its presentation is most important during the design phase. The latter is governed by the needs of the readers, since you are writing the report for them, not for yourself. First things come first, and the main points should come before the details. A reader can better grasp details if they fit into an over-all frame of meaning which he already understands than if they are gradually accumulated to reveal a general point not yet stated. The principle of emphasizing by placing first applies both on the level of the whole report, as we have already seen; on the level of the section, where the first paragraph should summarize the important points of the section; and on the level of the paragraph, where the topic sentence should be placed first. There are of course exceptions to these rules, notably short sections requiring no introduction and transitional paragraphs on two or more topics. Besides the beginning of sections and paragraphs, emphatic positions include illustrations, captions and headings. Make a list of your main points early in the planning stage and try to distribute them into these key positions.

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4.3

Writing the Report

Many a well designed report is made ineffective by bad writing. On the other hand, everyone can recall writing that he has found easy to follow. The words are either simple or carefully explained. Sentences are economical and unambiguous. The rules of grammar are observed. The short report derives its excellence primarily from simplicity and directness, as well as message of course. As reports grow longer, continuity and plan become more and more important, with placement of important material in emphatic positions ever increasing in importance. But even the longest reports are bad without clarity and correct grammar. Another aspect of report writing, which receives far too little attention, is the technical level of presentation. Trite as it may sound, not only the organization but also the technical level and detail at which a report should be written depend upon the readers. And since most readers are interested only in the significant material and in the general concepts that grow out of detail, there is seldom real justification for a highly technical and detailed presentation in the body of the report. However, highly technical, mathematical and other detailed material which supports the main points of the report can be placed in appendices. Detailed specifications, lengthy tables of results, complicated mathematical derivations, all belong in appendices. The over-all report, then, goes from the general to the specific: from the highlights of who. what, when, where and how. . . to more detailed results and discussion sections. . . to still more detailed appendices. Since the generalities are normally formulated from the details, rather than vice versa, the report format reverses the usual order of report development. So the body of the report is usually written first, the introductions to the sections in the body of the report next, the conclusions and recommendations later, and the abstract last.

4.4

Headings

Headings serve two purposes in a technical report: they help the reader follow the plan and they serve as guides for someone using the report as a reference. Since the text must not depend on the headings, it is best to insert them after the report is written. Within the main sections, subsections identified by headings should be used sparingly . . . say not more than two or three per page. . . fewer if possible. Too many headings gives a choppy effect. On the positive side, appropriate subheadings are generally less stereotyped than main headings and they keep the reader from becoming discouraged by long stretches of unbroken prose. In any section of a report, one subdivision calls for a second subdivision of the same class. If the subject matter being reported doesn’t require a second subdivision, the section title should be sufficient to indicate the contents. All headings and captions should be short but as specific as possible. One way of showing the main outline and the specific slant at the same time is to use a two-part title like “Experiment 1: Effect of Increased Pressure”. Note the omission of “The” preceding “Effect”: this is standard usage for technical reports.

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4.5

Illustrations

Within limits, it is always best to make as many of your main points as possible by using illustrations in the body of your report. Illustrations are easier to understand than words alone, and they add emphasis. You should never publish a report with an important phase of your work unillustrated when you can conceive of a graphical way of demonstrating that phase well. Major limitations on the use of illustrations are only two. First, the feature of emphasis is lost if there are too many illustrations, for the reader stops looking at them. At a maximum, there should be no more than one illustration for each page of text so that it can face or immediately follow the commentary; additional illustrations can be placed in appendices. Second, there is a limit on how much illustrating can be done in a short time for one document, so that special items like renderings must of necessity be chosen sparingly. Plan your illustrations before you do any writing, because writing is not the same with or without illustrations. You need fewer words when you can refer to a drawing or photograph. Explain the significance of each figure and describe specific features which might not be immediately clear to the less knowledgeable reader. If a figure illustrates a long description or other lengthy passage, the figure should be mentioned early in the text (i.e. “See Fig. 3”) and subsequently referred to from time to time. Also, give specific captions to all illustrations so that the reader who is rapidly scanning the text will get the utmost out of looking at just the pictures and not the text.

4.6

Bibliography

4.6.1 Technical Report Writing - Overall (1) Joseph Nelson, Writing the Technical Report , McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940. (2) Robert Rathbone, Communicating Technical Information, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, 1966. (3) H.J. Tichy, Effective Writing for Engineers, Managers, Scientists, Wiley, New York, 1966. (4) Joseph Ulman, Technical Reporting, Holt, New York, 1952.

4.6.2 Organization (5) James Souther, Technical Report Writing, Wiley, New York, 1957. (6) Robert Tuttle, Writing Useful Reports, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1956.

4.6.3 Style (7) Robert Gunning, The Technique of Clear Writing, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952. (8) William Strunk and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, MacMillan, New York, 1959.

4.6.4 Other (9) E. Sick and M. Herwald, “An Annotated Bibliography on Technical Writing and Related Subjects (Based on Books in the Research Library)"’, Westinghouse Research Laboratories Scientific Paper 68-1R4-LIBRY-P1, August 21, 1968.

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APPENDICES

A. A Reader-Oriented Organization

B. What’s in a Title?

C. The Abstract. . .Moth or Butterfly?

D. Put Action in those Abstracts

E. The Introduction: "Well Begun Is Half Done"

F. A Conclusion Is a Conclusion Is a Conclusion

G. How To Be Objective without Hedging

H. To Recommend or Not To Recommend?

I. Pictures Speak Louder than Words

J. Report Writing Check List

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Appendix A: A Reader-Oriented Organization Several years ago, Westinghouse made a study to determine what management looks for in a technical document. Nearly 100 managers were interviewed - at all levels from vice president to section manager. One of the questions asked each manager was what he reads in a report. Answers were as shown in the bar chart.

WHY THIS OLD HISTORY? Why this old history? First, because what managers read is vital to the progress of every corporation and everyone in every corporation. Second, because the stress on titles, abstracts, introductions, conclusions and recommendations in subsequent articles will be more readily understood. To fully appreciate the abstract as a bird’s-eye view of the document, you need to realize that nearly 50 percent of your management readers read nothing else. To fully appreciate the need for detailed functional analysis of your raw material, you should know that 75 percent of your management readers will miss any point which is not in the abstract, introduction, conclusions or recommendations sections of your report. Knowing the emphasis placed on conclusions and recommendations also helps explain why it is so important to distinguish between them and results (which involve no interpretation) and opinion (which is interpretation without substantiation).

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ORGANIZE FROM THE GENERAL TO THE SPECIFIC The management survey also showed that sequence of reading usually corresponds with frequency of reading, so that the order of report components shown in the chart became a standard for report preparation in some company departments. The report format thus established consists of three basic sections, each of increasing complexity, so that a reader stopping at the end of any one of these sections has a unified view of the subject. Of course, a reader stopping at the end of the first section does not have as much detailed information as the reader who stops at the end of the second; and for full details, the reader must finish the third. The first section is the abstract. This is for the reader who wants to know whether the report as a whole will be helpful or who wants only general information about what was done. As a matter of fact, all readers will see the abstract. Those who read farther will find that the abstract has provided them with the major outlines of the subject, enabling them to fit the more detailed information of later sections into a general framework. The second section consists of the introduction, the conclusions, and the recommendations, if any are made. This section is for the reader who wants information about the problem, the reason the work was done, the method of attack and the outcome of the work. The third section presents the detailed story of the investigation. This section explains how the conclusions were reached. The majority of the readers read only the first two sections. Those who continue are likely to read on because they doubt one or more of the conclusions, have a special interest in the subject, or are carrying on a related investigation. As the readers move away from the front of the report, they find that they are coming to more and more specialized information. The first two sections are written for all readers. The third section is more technical and is written primarily for engineers in the same discipline. A GOOD REPORT RESEMBLES A NEWS STORY A well-organized technical report resembles a well-organized newspaper story. Both start by telling who did what, when, where and how. And both go from the general to the specific so that the reader may cut off or be cut off at any point. News reporters pay much attention to reader interest; you should do so too.

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Appendix B: What’s in a Title?

A good title is a gem, precious and rare. It fulfills its function: to inform readers of the precise subject matter of the document in as few words as possible. In addition, it includes key words for easy indexing by libraries and indicates the author’s point of view on the subject to guide the typical harried reader. Westinghouse examples are: Peaking Plants Can Provide System Cost Reductions Antithetic Variates: A Technique for Improving the Efficiency of PERT Network Simulations Development of a Low-Cost Iron-Base Alloy To Resist Corrosion in Hot Sea Water BE SPECIFIC Poor titles are like leaves, found everywhere. The major problem is lack of specificity . . . failure to distinguish the scope of the document from the scope of other documents on a similar subject. Consider the following titles: Investigation of Superconducting Interactions Investigation of Desalination by Freezing These could just as easily read: Elevated Superconducting Transition Temperatures in Rhenium Thin Films Determination of the Partition Coefficient for HCl in the Water-Ice System If the original titles must be used because they are project titles, how about two-part titles: Investigation of Superconducting Interactions: Elevated Superconducting Transition Temperatures in Rhenium Thin Films Investigation of Desalination by Freezing: Determination of the Partition Coefficient for HC1 in the Water-Ice System

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BE BRIEF Note that the word “investigation” adds nothing to the two titles discussed above. The same is generally true of “research”, “study”, “evaluation”, “analysis”, “report”, “consideration”, etc. Words which are inappropriate for indexing should be kept to a minimum. Computerized title lists, where meaningful words are successively aligned by computer, are only as useful as the words in the title are specific. In the following list, note the uselessness of the entries under “too”.

Image on Original is unclear; shows a cool 1970's era computer text printout.

To take some technical examples, here are a couple of report titles incorporating many unnecessary words: A Method for the Prediction of the Effect of Impurities upon the Behavior of the Low-Pressure Mercury-Vapor Fluorescent Lamp Unit Costs Need Not Be Well Known To Do a Good Job of Minimizing Product Costs Using Geometric Programming

How about these concise revisions: Predicting Effect of Impurities on Low-Pressure Mercury-Vapor Fluorescent Lamp Geometric Programming Minimizes Product Costs without Firm Unit Costs

Whenever possible, you should try to limit the number of words in a title to ten. But remember that the narrower the study area the greater the number of words needed to describe it.

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INCLUDE POINT OF VIEW Including the major conclusion through the use of evaluatory words is an additional bit of human engineering too rarely found in technical titles. For examples, see the use of “cost reductions”, “improving the efficiency”, “low-cost” and “resist corrosion” in the first three titles in this article. Your reader wants to learn your point of view as soon as possible; he reads mystery novels, not technical documents when he desires suspense. So why not give him what he will most appreciate: a thesis title. LIST OF DO’S Here is a summary list of “do’s” for titles: • Be specific. • Be brief - ten words or less, preferably less. • Include point of view. • Use standard terminology. (avoid new acronyms like “RGT” for Resonant Gate Transistor). • Keep titles unclassified and nonproprietary. If you can’t fulfill all of these requirements, look for an effective trade-off

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Appendix C: The Abstract . . . Moth or Butterfly?

Once upon a time, in the 17th and 18th centuries, an abstract was a lowly thing . . . a moth in the midst of butterflies. Maybe because the scholar still had hopes of acquiring all significant knowledge in his lifetime. Today the abstract is perhaps the major means of communication with one’s scientific peers. It is more often then not the only part of a report that is read. When informative, it can convey knowledge as the honeybee conveys nectar; when uninformative it is still a moth. EXTRACT THE ESSENCE Only when you can call your abstract an epitome of your report should you be satisfied. It should be the briefest possible condensation, yet extremely accurate. . . a distillation of the whole. In brief, it should serve the following purposes: (1) State your main idea (core idea, thesis, etc.). (2) Answer your reader’s questions: (a) What is this report about? (b) Why is it significant? (c) What should I do about it? (3) Serve as a combination introduction/conclusion (4) Contain the essentials of our report in 75 to 150 words to fit easily on a library card.

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The essentials of your report which should be included are: (1) the reason the work was undertaken, (2) key conclusions, (3) key recommendations, (4) enough about the scope of the work (method and limits of investigation) to show the basis for your conclusions and recommendations, and (5) the significance or the work. If anything has to be omitted, give preference to items 1 and 2 and consider item 5 of least importance.

Your objectives and methods can often be covered in a phrase as a part of a conclusion. Here, for example, is how one abstract began:

Metallographic examination of aluminum reflector sheet used by the Bedford Lighting Division indicates. . .

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SAMPLE ABSTRACTS - WHICH ARE MOTHS? Following are four typical abstracts, each of which can be described by one of the following phrases: (a) Fulfills the requirements itemized above. (b) Too short. (c) Too long. (d) Lacks explanation of why work was undertaken (e) Doesn’t say what was done. (f) Lacks key conclusions and recommendations.

Abstract No.1 The influence of dimensional and environmental factors on the superconductivity of thin films is discussed with reference to our corporate program in this area. This abstract is best described by (b), with (f) as a close runner-up. How about your trying to grade the next three abstracts, using the above criteria? Then look on the next page for the answers.

Abstract No. 2 Machining-type damage has been experienced on some main propulsion turbine bearings on submarines as well as on other types of equipment. A series of tests were run in order to duplicate this type of damage and to evaluate various materials including carbon steel, chromium alloy steels, chrome-plate, and monel are to their degree of susceptibility to machining-type wear. Two oils, 2190T-nonFP and 2190-FP, were also tested.

Abstract No. 3 An electron gun was set up which can fire a confined 6 kW beam of 140 kV electrons under water at a welding or cutting specimen. A first set of tests showed that the presence of the water does not interfere with the electron beam welding of steel and copper, but aluminum could not be welded. Weld quality has not yet been assessed in detail. It has also been demonstrated with this electron gun that a piece of rock, like granite, can be cut under water, the beam producing a ????? about 2” deep and, in addition, thermal stress cracking of the rock.

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Abstract No. 4 The fabrication of InAs TFT’s is described and the device characteristics are analyzed. The transistor is a depletion type device which requires -1 V, -4.5V gate voltage for pinch-off. From this value a carrier concentration of ???? in the InAs film is derived. With typical values for transconductance gm = 5.5 × 107 A·V and for dynamic output resistance cds = 20 kΩ, a voltage amplification factor of 110 was obtained although the following best individual values gm = 1.2 × 10− 2 A·V and rds = 40 kΩ were achieved. From the transconductance and saturated drain current, a field-effect mobility of 300 cm2 Vsec was deduced. The gain-bandwidth product was measured and found to be 3 MHz. This result confirms the large value of the field-effect mobility for an InAs TFT having a channel length of 10−2 cm if the gate capacitance of 200 pF is taken into account. Shortening the channel length to 5 × 10−3 cm yielded a transconductance gm = .5 × 10−2 A/V from which field-effect mobility µF = 4000 cm2 Vsec was computed, hence assuring a gain-bandwidth product of 250 MHz. An inverted TFT design, the feasibility of which is experimentally demonstrated, is necessary to obtain a gain bandwidth product of 1 GHz since then the coarse crystalline InAs films having Hall mobilities µH = 10,000 cm2 /Vsec can be used. Such TFT’s do not require a channel length smaller than 2 × 10−3 cm, thus the drift mobility is not field dependent, hence UHF TFT’s built with ease of fabrication can confidently be expected.

My answers are: 2.

(f)

3. (a) or (d)

4.

(c)

If your answers are different, you may need to work on abstracts. Pull out a couple of your own and ask your manager and coworkers what they think of them. And keep this in mind: an abstract should be the epitome of your report.

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Appendix D: Put Action in Those Abstracts

Human beings love action. The major action words are active verbs. Is it any surprise, then, that active verbs are one criterion of a good style? AN ABSTRACT IS AN EXCERPT NOT A COMMENTARY Unfortunately, most of our technical abstracts are cluttered with passive verbs. The major reason is that many authors think of the abstract incorrectly as a commentary on their report instead of a selection from it. They start out with “this report presents” or “this paper presents”. Then what happens?

This paper presents the derivation of the stiffness and mass matrices of a curved triangular shell element on an arbitrary shell surface. The boundaries of the curved element are defined in terms of the principal coordinates of the middle surface of the shell. The characteristics of the middle surface of the shell are represented in the equations by their radii of curvature and Lamé parameters. Numerical examples of several shells under static loading are presented. Comparisons with classical results are made.

To avoid undue repetition of “this report”, “this paper” or “it”, they switch to the passive voice (e.g., ‘are defined”). In many cases, the author does not even use an active verb in the first sentence but immediately adopts the passive with “it is shown that” or some such weak expression.

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Definitions Active verb

Doer is subject. We tested the part . . . The part broke.

Passive verb

Doer is object of preposition or is not expressed. The part was tested [by the Mechanical Evaluation Laboratory].

Linking verb

There is a predicate adjective modifying the subject or a predicate noun meaning the same as the subject. The part is strong enough . . . The first phase will be a library search.

For comparison, let’s look at an abstract which is based upon excerpts from a report: The massive steam injection gas turbine is attractive as a peaking-power generator because of its low capital cost per kilowatt of installed power. This machine differs from a dry gas turbine in that combustion is required with steam admission in the secondary combustion zone. We have operated a small scale test generator with good combustion efficiency, no smoke and no steam plume except on cold windless days. The steam adequately cooled the secondary combustion wall. There are no passive verbs at all, and the linking verb in the first sentence reads well as it is. THE NONABSTRACT When is an abstract not an abstract? When it’s a table of contents, a foreword or a summary. The abstract which comments on the report lays still another trap for the unwary writer. It often tricks him into writing a table of contents instead of a summary of the scope of the work and the key conclusions and recommendations. The last sentence in the following abstract is a particularly good example: This report presents the combined l966 data on the operational analysis of the Cleanlife Disposal Company’s Portland, Maine, Composting Plant. The collected daily data of 13 parameters is tabulated, statistical conclusions are made and chemical analyses of samples from a 10 ton load through the 5 digesters is presented. Conclusions are made from the data and recommendations for improved sampling procedures and digestion process are presented.

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A commentary on the report may be necessary in special cases, but such a commentary is called a foreword not an abstract. The following “abstract” is properly a foreword, but the mislabeling is understandable since specifications and standards are generally not adaptable to abstracting. This paper was prepared for submission to the International Standards Organization, ISO/TC85 SC3/WG6, for use in International Code for Reactor Vessels. In this Code, as presently planned, the preliminary design will be covered by formulas and charts for sizing the parts, and final acceptance will be dependent on a more detailed design appraisal covering fatigue, fast fracture, excessive deformation, and elastic instability. This report is a proposed section on fatigue for the design appraisal section. It follows the basic principles used in Section III, Nuclear Vessels, of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and is a revision of a first draft submitted by the United Kingdom delegation. When an abstract is too long to fit on a library card (say, over 175 words), it should be called a summary and a shorter abstract should be written. Incidentally, you may properly use all four elements - foreword, table of contents, abstract and summary - in special cases, such as for long reports on continuing programs. DIG OUT THOSE BURIED VERBS When an abstract is written properly as a summary of excerpts from a report, the verbs will generally have the same voice as in the report. If those are mostly passive, you still have a problem. A future article will deal with active verbs in greater detail. Suffice to say here that the occasional use of “I” and ‘we’ is acceptable in technical reports and the best way to ferret out an appropriate active verb is to look for “buried verbs’: that is, infinitives, participles, and nouns or adjectives ending in such suffixes as: ion, tion, ing, ment, ant, ent, ance, once, ancy, ency.

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Appendix E: The Introduction: Well begun is half done

’The beginning, as the proverb says, is half the whole.’ (Aristotle)

The introduction is as important as the conclusions and recommendations. If well written, it answers the question “Why?” and gives the essential “How’s”. It justifies the study and permits the reader to skip the methods and materials sections. WHAT, WHY AND HOW In brief, the introduction should cover: • Technical problem - “what”. • Reason the work was undertaken - “why”. • Scope of study - what is included, what is omitted and the procedures used - the essential “how’s”. • Author’s objectives in performing the study. • Unique problems in planning, doing or interpreting the work. • Unique approaches to the study.

Here is a sample introduction:

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Sample Introduction The Underseas Division is interested in the development of strong buoyant structural materials for its deep submergence programs. Composite structures of glass microspheres dispersed in an epoxy matrix have emerged as the most promising class of materials to meet the rigid specifications of low density and high strength. Commonly called syntactic foams, these materials are approximately two thirds the density of water, yet are able to withstand the tremendous pressures encountered in deep submergence. The hydrostatic strength of these foams is limited by the glass bubbles whose strengths are approximately an order of magnitude lower than that of epoxy resins. The high strength of the foam is due to that of the resin which supports most of the load and prevents transmission of full pressure to the spheres. To yield further improvements in strength and in buoyancy, i.e., by use of lighter but weaker matrix materials, stronger microspheres are clearly necessary. As a partial solution to this problem, the X Company recently supplied samples of new glass microspheres “of identical glass type but having greater strength developed through special fabrication techniques.” Physical properties of these materials were provided by the manufacturer and are summarized in Table I. This report summarizes the results of a comparative analysis of these spheres. In addition, techniques to further improve the strength of these spheres are proposed. Finally, evaluation of other candidate microsphere materials is discussed.

In general, the first paragraph states the reason for the investigation, the second paragraph details the technical problem, the third paragraph mentions a special aspect of the problem, and the last paragraph summarizes the scope of the study. Note also that the final paragraph provides a smooth transition into the body of the report, which follows the conclusions and recommendations. ALL THE READER NEEDS TO KNOW After reading the introduction, conclusions and recommendations, the reader should know: • What the report is about. • What it contributes. • What action should be taken. In general, those who read farther will do so because: (1) they are especially interested in the subject; (2) they are deeply involved in the study; or (3) the urgency of the study requires it. If any of your readers read farther because (4) they cannot understand your conclusions or (5) they are skeptical of your conclusions, you may need two additional writing tips. To help the reader understand your conclusions, write the introductory sections for someone who does not know the technical area as well as you do, being educated and trained in a different technical discipline. If you cannot do this within a reasonable space limit, also supply a technical background section after the conclusions and recommendations. To keep skepticism to a minimum, follow the suggestions in the article entitled ”How To Be Objective without Hedging” on being at once positive and objective. In time your name will acquire its own authority to vanquish the doubters. Until then, don’t worry if your manager is a skeptic; keep in mind that he is merely doing his job.

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Appendix F: A conclusion is a conclusion is a conclusion

Have you ever stopped to think that you were hired to help management make decisions? You are expected not only to do library research and to take meticulous notes while performing an experiment but also to interpret the data you collect. You should offer conclusions based on library research, experimental results or theoretical analysis every time you write a project report. Interpretation is as fundamental to the technical document as the electric field is to the electronic system or motion to the mechanical system. A few of your readers with expertise in the field under consideration and with adequate time to study a piece of informative writing may want to draw their own conclusions. However, most of your readers will lean on you to demonstrate significance and suggest the appropriate next step. Don’t ask your managers to do your work as well as their own. A HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE Let us take a hypothetical case. You are about to write a report on bandwidth compression techniques which might be suitable for a particular application. You have made a literature survey and a mathematical analysis of various concepts, developing information on such factors as performance characteristics, reliability, operability, miniaturization potential and state-of-the-art. Now what do you do? The chances are that you are expected to provide answers to such questions as: Which concept and hardware best suits the application technically? How long might it take to develop this particular data link in comparison with other candidate systems? Would there be likely to be any significant difference in development and manufacturing cost between the selected system and the others? The answers to questions such as these are your conclusions. You may also be expected to perform the tradeoff of performance, development time, cost, etc., and give your recommendation on the best overall approach for development. Such recommendations as whether to consider novel coding and storage techniques, whether to make or buy particular subsystems, etc., may also be welcomed. Don’t jump to the conclusion that this is all obvious. It it is obvious, why are there so few reports with clear-cut conclusions and recommendations?

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A RESULT IS NOT A CONCLUSION

In the first place, there seems to be occasional confusion about the difference between a result and a conclusion. So let’s start with definitions and examples: • Result: Something obtained by calculation or investigation. • Conclusion: A reasoned judgment: the necessary consequence of two or more proposition. A typical use of results is this paragraph from the results section of a technical report:

Figure 1 illustrates the stress trajectory patterns for two parallel cracks with an increasing overlap length. The stress trajectories are no longer symmetrical with respect to each individual crack. As the overlap increases, the direction of the principal tensile stress at the crack tips changes from a perpendicular direction (with respect to an individual crack plane) when the overlap is zero, to nearly a parallel direction for large overlap. This can be observed by following the change in direction of the compressive stress trajectory which passes through the opposite crack tip, i.e., as the overlap increases, it dips further towards the opposite crack. A typical example of the use of interpretation of facts or results is the following paragraph from a discussion section:

Diffusion of gases in metals is generally believed to occur through single crystal grains as opposed to along grain boundaries. The present results support this view since the permeation constants for tubes having grains of appreciably different size agree within experimental accuracy. The good agreement between the permeation constants for the tungsten tubes made in the two widely different fabrication processes is good evidence that the value found for the permeation constant is an intrinsic property of pure, recrystallized tungsten.

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Now, if you understand the distinction between a result and a conclusion, can you say which of the following statements belong in a conclusion section? (a) The average bulk weight of the ground return was 14 lb/cu ft at 38% average moisture when leaving the first grinder and entering the digestion process. (b) Simple 180◦ wall motion was not and cannot be obtained in these samples by an application of stress (c) Liquid crystal inspection is considerably faster and less expensive than the present visual inspection. The answers are (b) and (c). Statement (b) actually combines a result (“was not”) with a conclusion (“cannot”), but it would make an acceptable conclusion. IS AN OPINION A CONCLUSION? There also seems to be confusion among some technical authors on the difference between a conclusion and an opinion. To me, a conclusion is substantiated; an opinion is not. The decision as to whether the evidence justifies a conclusion can properly be made only by a competent authority. Too many opinions are being tailored to fit into the conclusions section of our reports by the addition of “it seems”, “it appears”, “maybe”, etc. One topic of the next article is how to write a conditional conclusion properly. . . that is without hedging.

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Appendix G: How to be objective without hedging

There is no contradiction between being positive and being objective, as is sometimes thought by the technical author. In fact, being both at once is a consummation devoutly to be wished. Being objective and positive simultaneously requires sound thinking, honest statement of things as they are, and strict avoidance of hedging. Hedging of course means evading the risk of commitment by including “outs” such as: Apparently, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, it appears, it may be, it is likely, it seems, the chances are, there is reason to believe. In some cases an author will employ more than one of these words in a double, or even triple, hedge: It seems likely that a double bond could possibly exist between the two atoms. GOOD CONCLUSIONS HAVE NO "OUTS" Here are a couple of conclusions which hedge: For future models it seems reasonable to investigate the feasibility and economics of designing the cabinet from the beginning with scaling the noise in as one of the major design criteria. The improvement in strength of the new "D" microspheres may be primarily due to better control of sphere size and density parameters. Such “conclusions” imply that there is a lack of substantiating evidence and that your statements are mere speculations. However, the reader does not really know why you are not sure enough to say, “For future models, we should investigate. . .” and “The improvement in strength. . . is due to. . .” Maybe instead of having too few data, you are afraid that your data are inaccurate? Or perhaps you are merely incapable of making a decision?

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If you hedged merely because of the usual limitation on the scope of the study and/or because the state-of-the-art may change in the near future, why not say so? This study indicates that we should investigate the feasibility and economics of designing the cabinet tor future models with sealing the noise in as one of the major design criteria. On the basis of present information, the improvement in strength of the new “D” microspheres is primarily due to better control of sphere and density parameters.

IF A, THEN B Conclusions which say, in effect. “If my data, other cited data and the pertinent physical axioms are the only bases, then I conclude that. . .” are called conditional or “If A, then B” conclusions. Here’s how four scientists successfully handled “If A, then B” conclusions: Simulation results indicate that a stopping method using acceleration as the control reference signal was significantly less sensitive to instrument errors than a method using speed as the control reference signal. Until more accurate data on the latter phenomena are available, additional efforts aimed at refinement of the computer program are not necessary. The voltage waveforms confirm the presence of post arc current during the initial recovery period. Our present hypothesis is that imperfections introduced into a crystal lattice impede the generation of new dislocations, upon which both the twinning and yielding phenomena depend. If you have several conclusions, instead of explaining the limiting condition in each conclusion, you could preface them with. “The conclusions and recommendations are based upon the study herein reported and are subject to the limitations in scope of that study.” This sentence could be the last sentence in the introduction if you have an introduction before your conclusions and recommendations.

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HOW SURE ARE YOU? When your results are sets of numerical data, you can often help your reader still more by making a quantitative statement of your confidence in each conclusion: With 97% confidence, the median of the population of all measurements of breakdown voltage on this patch of oil is greater than 58 kV. At 4800 rpm, we state, with confidence 97%, that at least 95% of all future stress measurements made under the conditions of this test will not exceed 4879.

If you are not familiar with this useful technique for measuring the uncertainly of experimental results, your Mathematics or Statistics Department can advise you.

BE POSITIVE AND OBJECTIVE Remember, the advantage of properly expressed conditional conclusions is not that they meet a requirement of English composition but that they present the true situation to the reader. They are at once positive and objective. If they later prove to be incorrect, there’s no harm, for the state-of-the-art is always changing and men are after all fallible.

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Appendix H: To Recommend or Not to Recommend

An earlier article made the point that the difference between a conclusion and an opinion is the degree of substantiation. Supporting evidence for a conclusion must appear in a report. A recommendation, on the other hand, is comparable to an opinion in required degree of substantiation. It suggests a course of action on the basis of not only the results of the study being reported upon but often other information, such as the writer’s experience or someone else’s data. When the basis is is the writer’s experience, substantiating evidence generally does not appear in the report. WHAT TO RECOMMEND There are three major types of study which may call for recommendations: RECOMMENDATIONS

STUDY 1. Tests and experiments

Additional areas for study

2. Field trouble and specific design problems

Alternate design approach

3. Technical feasibility studies and market appraisals

Pro or con of new development

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Typical examples of the three types of recommendations are: 1. Additional areas for study Until more accurate data on the latter phenomena are available, additional efforts aimed at refinement of the computer program do not seem necessary. Comment: The hedge words “do not seem” should be eliminated in favor of a positive approach. How about: Until more accurate data on the latter phenomena are available, we should not undertake additional efforts aimed at refinement of the computer program. 2. Alternate design approach It is recommended that the small diameter holes be in a vertical position where their ID is being plated. Comment: “It is recommended that” should be changed to eliminate the impersonal pronoun and to use an active verb. How about: I recommend that the small diameter holes lie in a vertical position when their ID is being plated. 3. Pro or con on on new development Development of glass-ceramic and high modulus glass micro-spheres should be initiated. Comment: Good. It is not expected that all verbs be active. HOW TO RECOMMEND Note that two styles of recommendation are represented by these examples. The “should” form and the “I recommend” form. Still a third form not shown is the imperative; e.g. “Do not undertake addition efforts. . .” or “Locate small diameter holes. . .” Any one of these forms is acceptable. But be sure to use the same one for all of your recommendations in any one report. WHEN TO RECOMMEND Over 200 years ago Thomas Fuller wrote: “If thou art a person that hast good authority with the company, ’twere good to look confidently, yet not scornfully, and then mildly say, ‘This is my opinion’.” The advice still holds, even to the qualification. If you are relatively inexperienced or a new employee, you may not be expected to supply opinions and recommendations, but only results and conclusions. You need breadth in the area under study before your opinions and recommendations are worth much. They are not an integral part of a report. Be sure to ask your supervisor when in doubt about what is expected of you.

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WHERE TO RECOMMEND Too many recommendations are lost in the discussion section, instead of being up front, where everyone will see them. If you’re competent enough to write recommendations, you should be confident enough to put them where they will be read. Here’s a good report format arranged according to reader interest as established by personal interviews. This arrangement will ensure that your recommendations will be read: Abstract or Summary (or both)

Method of Test, Materials of Test, etc. (How?)

Introduction Conclusions Recommendations

Results Discussion Appendices

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Appendix I: Pictures Speak Louder than Words

“One picture is worth ten thousand words." Old Chinese proverb

When planning your report, even before you begin to write, you should decide on your illustrations. Then, when writing, you can refer to the illustrations in a few concise words instead of using a detailed discussion, which only slows the reader down. Also, you can put your illustrator and photographer to work at once to allow them adequate lead time. PICTURES ELUCIDATE. . . ACCENTUATE. . . VALIDATE Choose your illustrations for any one of four reasons: to clarify. . . to emphasize. . . to familiarize. . . to verify. People understand pictures better than words. Try interpreting the following description without an illustration and when you’ve had enough, look at the drawing on the next page. Give your reader a break when an explanation becomes unwieldy; substitute a picture for the words, even if it takes a half hour longer to work up an illustration.

He drew a square and dissected it by a pair of crossed perpendiculars into two squares and two equal rectangles. Then he drew diagonals in the rectangles, dividing the rectangles into four equal right triangles. Thus the two squares were squares on the two short sides (legs) of the triangles. Next he took the four triangles and rearranged them round the original square so that their right angles filled the corners of thy square and the hypotenuses looked inward. The short sides of the triangles met on the sides of the square, forming in turn a square on the hypotenuses of the triangles. Since the four triangles were equal to the two rectangles of the original dissection, the square on the hypotenuse was equal to the sum of the two squares into which the rectangle was first dissected.

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People look at pictures. Emphasis is the function most often over-looked in planning illustrations, yet the likelihood of the reader seeing an illustration is many times greater than that his reading an explanation. As you pick your main points, always consider the possibility of emphasizing them through appropriate illustrations. People not only like to look at pictures but they remember them better than words. This is because pictures are more concrete than words, and memory is a direct function of concreteness. So always try to illustrate the points you’d most like the reader to become familiar with and remember. People believe photographs. When you need validation and the device is gone or the setup disassembled, don’t despair. If you have any photograph, it may be made acceptable in the hands of a clever illustrator. Or, if there is no photograph at all, the illustrator can prepare a line drawing or rendering which will serve the purpose.

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MAKING THE MOST OUT OF YOUR PICTURES Always use some words of direct reference to illustrations besides the laconic “See Figure 3”. An explanation of what the figure shows and its significance leads the reader to look at it a second time and examine it more carefully than he otherwise would. Illustrate as many of your important points as possible. Drawings can sometimes depict basic mechanisms. You already realize that tables clarify data otherwise presented in sentence form, but do you always remember that bar charts and graphs clarify tables? In some instances, the entire central information of a report can be presented as a sequence of figures to which the text serves as commentary. When planning the location of illustrations, it is advisable to keep the number of illustrations in the body of the report one half of the total number of pages. In this way, the illustration will either face the pertinent text or follow on the next page. Also, the reader is more likely to look at every illustration than if you include several continuous pages of graphs and photographs. When you have more illustrations than the number of pages of text, consider placing those of lesser importance in an appendix of additional results. CAPTIONS, COPYRIGHTS AND OTHER MATTERS Here are a few other tips on illustrations: • Give every figure a short but specific caption to make it self-sufficient. • Place the figures in the order in which they are mentioned in the text. • Whenever possible, place the figures on the page so that the reader can study them without turning the page. This is sometimes termed “right reading” position. • Observe the margins established by the text. • Acknowledge any illustration taken from a copyrighted source. It is not necessary to obtain permission to use an illustration when it is clear that its use cannot impair the value of the original by decreasing the demand for that work. That is considered fair use.

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Appendix J: Report Writing Checklist I. Conduct the investigation in such a way that the report writing will be as easy as possible. A. Determine the purpose of the work to he reported. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Who wants to have the work done? Why does he want it? How will he use the information? Does this reader make any special demands? Who else will see the report? How will these other readers use the information?

B. Determine the nature and extent of the investigation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is known and what is unknown? Which aspects of the problem are important, and which are less significant? Do any previous studies or reports bear in the problem? Can anyone provide useful information? What order should the investigation follow?

C. Write an outline of what is to be done. Delineate in detail the information that must be obtained. D. As the work proceeds, keep a neat, accurate and complete record of the experimental results, of any unusual aspects of the procedure, and of any ideas or conclusions which may occur to you. Do not entrust these matters to memory. The record should constitute a sort of diary. If often helps to “break the ice” when the time comes to write the report. II. Organize the report. A. Select a main idea. This should be a single sentence which states the essence of what the report should communicate to the readers. (What should the reader be able to remember from the report after he has forgotten the details?) If you cannot write this sentence at this point, do so as soon as possible and start instead by classifying the material. B. Determine what parts of the material should be reported and what parts should be dismissed as irrelevant to the main idea. C. Determine what information can be placed in appendices. D. Select the illustrations (including tables). E. Outline the report into sections supporting the main idea. Include all headings and subheadings insofar as they can be foreseen. List the appendices and the illustrations. III. Prepare a rough draft of all missing tables, graphs, photographs and other illustrations. IV. Prepare and arrange the appendices.

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V. Write the first draft of the report. Be sure to leave every second line blank and to use generous margins so that room will be available for revisions and corrections. A. Begin with whatever chapter of the report is most familiar to you. Do not feel that the abstract and introduction must be written first merely because they will appear first in the final report. In the text, be sure to discuss the tables, graphs, illustrations, etc., whenever they will clarify the writing. The body of the report may be written as follows: 1. Describe the theory, research equipment and materials tested, insofar as those are significant to the investigation and meaningful to the reader. (If any of this information is not of great importance, it may be omitted or placed in the appendices.) 2. Describe the experimental procedure. 3. Record the results. 4. Discuss, evaluate and interpret the results. (This section should explain the reasoning behind the conclusions and recommendations.) 5. If necessary, discuss costs and suggest further advisable investigation. B. Write the conclusions, the recommendations (if any) and the introduction. VI. Assemble the first draft and check its contents with the outline. A. Arrange the parts in the following order: Abstract Introduction Conclusions Recommendations (if any) Other chapters, such as procedure, results, discussion, etc. Appendices (if any) B. Make certain that every heading in the outline appears in its proper position in the text. C. Write additional material if the outline shows that anything essential has been overlooked. VII. Revise the first draft for technical accuracy, completeness and emphasis. A. Check the report against the main idea to determine whether the draft has the proper emphasis. B. Look for any “holes” in the facts or in the technical reasoning from the facts. C. Make certain that enough detailed facts are given to justify the conclusions. D. Make certain that the information in the report does not include irrelevant detail which obscures the important points. E. Get rid of any unnecessary repetition or overlapping of technical information. F. Make certain that the figures are adequately discussed and that the comments on them are accurate. Be sure that your references are more helpful than the stereotyped “See Figure 3”.

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VIII. When the first draft is technically satisfactory, read it through three times in order to improve the writing. Try to see the report through the eyes of its readers. A. First, read it from beginning to end without stopping (or pause only to put checks in the margin to indicate points which must later be considered more carefully) in order to sense the continuity or “flow”) of the writing. Add any necessary transitional material, or remove any “blocking” material. B. Second, read each sentence carefully and revise where necessary. 1. Make certain that every paragraph begins with a sentence that clearly states the over-all point of the paragraph. 2. Look for poor grammar and ineffectual punctuation. 3. Look for unnecessary wordiness. 4. Look for inaccurate words. 5. Look for pompous or unfamiliar words. 6. Look for abstract words which could be made more definite. 7. Make certain that the specific action of every statement is expressed by the main verb. 8. Make certain that the conventions of formal technical style have been observed. C. Third, read the report again from beginning to end to make certain that the revisions have not spoiled the continuity.

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