Analog Photography: Reference Manual for Shooting Film 1616898178, 9781616898175

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Copyright
FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
GENERAL NOMENCLATURE
General Nomenclature
Lens Elements & Groups
Numbers on a Lens
Aperture & Diaphragm
f/stop
Focal Plane / Mark
Focal Length
Angle of View (AOV)
Prime Lens
Zoom Lens
Coatings
Lens Characteristics & Flaws
Lens Hoods
LENSES
Leaf Shutters
Focal-Plane Shutters
Shutter Speed
Fast & Slow Shutter Speed Dials
Self-Timer
Film Speed (ASA/ISO)
Stops
Exposure & Exposure Compensation
Simple Exposure Marks
Multiple Exposures
EV / Exposure Value
LV / Light Value
LV Tables
The Sunny 16 Rule
Double & Half
Light Meters
Be Meter Free
Guide Number (GN)
Flash Sync(hronization)
Flash Connections
SPEEDS & EXPOSURE
Depth of Field
Depth-of-Field Scale
Bokeh
Motion Blur / Apparent Subject Motion
Sharpest Aperture
Diffraction
Vignetting
Priority
EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED
Rangefinders & SLRs
Rangefinder / Coupled Rangefinder
Parallax
TTL / Through the Lens
MLU / Mirror Lock-Up
Pentaprism & Roof Pentaprism
Viewfinder: Rangefinder
Viewfinder: SLR
Viewfinder: Half Frame
Viewfinder Magnification & Brightness
Focusing a Rangefinder
Focusing an SLR
Rangefinder Double-Image Focusing Spot
SLR Microprism
SLR Split-Image
SLR Split-Image Microprism
Zone Focusing
RANGEFINDERS & SLRs
35mm Film
Negative & Slide Film
Resolution & Sharpness
Processing Color Film
Processing Black-and-White Film
Full Frame & Half Frame
Filters
Stepping Rings
Polarizing Filters
Neutral Density (ND) Filters
Graduated ND Filters
Ultraviolet (UV) Filters
Skylight & Haze Filters
Color Balance
Conversion Filters 80 & 85
Filters for Black-and-White Film
FILM & FILTERS
Camera Care & Storage
Aperture Area Calculation
Angle-of-View Calculation
Stopping Down ½
Stopping Up ×2
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
V
W
X
Y
Z

Citation preview

Published by Princeton Architectural Press A McEvoy Group company 202 Warren Street, Hudson, NY 12534 Visit our website at www.papress.com Princeton Architectural Press is a leading publisher in architecture, design, photography, landscape, and visual culture. We create fine books and stationery of unsurpassed quality and production values. With more than one thousand titles published, we find design everywhere and in the most unlikely places. In collaboration with

First English edition © 2017 Ars-Imago International s.r.l. © 2017 Texts: Andrew Bellamy © 2017 Vetro Editions Princeton Architectural Press edition, 2019 All rights reserved No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written permission from the publisher, except in the context of reviews. Every reasonable attempt has been made to identify owners of copyright. Errors or omissions will be corrected in subsequent editions.

A project by Andrew Bellamy, ILOTT Vintage Curated by Vetro Editions - vetroeditions.com Design, photography & illustration: Andrew Bellamy Editing: John Z. Komurki Project management: Luca Bendandi Technical advice: Giorgio Di Noto Typeset in 35-FTR & 64-SRC by ILOTT-TYPE For Princeton Architectural Press: Editors: Nina Pick and Parker Menzimer Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bellamy, Andrew, author. Title: Analog photography : reference manual for shooting film / texts, Andrew Bellamy. Other titles: Analogue photography Description: First edition. | New York : Princeton Architectural Press, 2019. | Originally published: Analogue photography. Rome : ars-imago, 2017. Identifiers: LCCN 2018044627 | ISBN 9781616898175 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781616898267 (epub, mobi) Subjects: LCSH: Photography—Handbooks, manuals, etc. Classification: LCC TR150 .B39 2019 | DDC 770—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018044627

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Reference manual for shooting film

Princeton Architectural Press · New York

004

FOREWORD

A few years ago, it would have been unthinkable for you to be reading these words printed with real ink on real paper. Around the end of the last century, it was clear and obvious to anybody that the digital revolution had finally advanced to the point where it could at last kill off boring old analog technologies and outdated media like the book, the LP, and the photograph. There was simply no reason left why someone would imagine that the existence of such real, physical goods would make sense, barring irrational sentimental hangovers. Fortunately, however, things have turned out a little differently. In today’s world, in which we spend more and more time in front of glass screens, it has never felt better to touch and turn the pages of a beautiful publication such as you are holding in your hands. Rather than sounding analog’s death knell, digital has, in my humble opinion, given rise to the biggest opportunity in the history of humanity to create analog products. Because people have had to learn the hard way that the biggest problem of digital vis-à-vis analog is not quality, but the boring fact that digital does not give rise to anything real. Digital content cannot engage all five senses, but merely tickles your eyes and ears. And you are an all-analog human being with five hungry senses— this is why, suddenly, books like this little beauty have begun to seek you out. The fact that this book exists as a real object is surprising, and makes my analog heart beat faster. But there are several other important aspects of this wonderful publication that make me—and hopefully you as well—very happy, and more certain in my conviction that the future of analog is just about to begin.

1. This is a book about the beauty of analog photography, and a celebration of all these breathtaking, magical cameras that have been consigned to the trash for too long. This book will connect these devices with a new generation of photographers, helping them not only to fall in love with them, but also—and most importantly—start using them again, with passion. 2. I myself have dedicated many years of blood, sweat, and the occasional tear to analog photography’s comeback, by rescuing, at the very last minute, the world’s last Polaroid factory and rebooting the production of instant film in 2010. I share this book’s philosophy: that of inspiring people to dive into something that is for me still one of the most mindblowing adventures life has to offer—capturing your magic moments in light and silver. 3. This book is a perfect example of the new value analog productions have acquired over recent years. The outstanding work of Andrew Bellamy shows how a young and passionate author and designer with an obvious respect for and detailed understanding of the past can bring together iconic elements in a contemporary style. This book is simply an irresistible object. So, please don’t just read this wonderful book; let it activate all five of your senses and help you fall back in love with analog! Florian Kaps Founder of Polaroid Originals and Supersense

005

006

INTRODUCTION

Analog Photography focuses on mechanical cameras manufactured between the mid-1930s and the late 1960s. This was a period of great quality and attention to detail in camera design, before the days of planned obsolescence, before plastic became the material of choice, and while fast-paced development was still being driven by competition between companies in Germany, Japan, and the USA. It was a time when film speeds were slow, lenses fast, and an object was an investment to be used for years and handed down to the next generation. This book concentrates on cameras that take film, whether they are fixed or interchangeable lens, rangefinder, or SLR. You may have found an old Konica at the thrift store or inherited a Leica, or you may be one of the many younger photographers who are being drawn to analog for the first time as a way to enrich and expand their practice. In either case, this book provides all the information needed to help you understand your camera and get out and start using it.

The fundamental technical sides of both cameras and photography are covered. There are, however, no tips on how to take “better” photos, no sections on lines and shapes, silhouettes, texture, or composition. There is no advice on how to hold your camera or how to look through the viewfinder. This is purely a technical manual: once you have mastered the mechanics of photography, you will have total creative control over your camera, a tool for taking photos exactly as you want them. Divided into six main sections, the book is structured so that it can be accessed in either a linear or nonlinear way. It opens with a concise description outlining the basic mechanics of taking a photograph. The beginner can then read through from cover to cover, while a more advanced photographer can dip in and out. It is designed to be easily navigated: cross-references are underlined in the text and listed with their relevant page number at the top of each page, and there is a complete and detailed index at the back. So, whether as a primer or a reference manual, this is the perfect book to (re)kindle your love of analog photography.

007

008

The word camera comes from camera obscura, Latin for “dark chamber.” The chamber of an analog camera is the body, a lightproof box that houses light-sensitive film in complete darkness. The film is held tightly against the rear side of the box. Opposite the film is a lens with a built-in aperture that controls the amount of light entering the interior of the camera and reaching the film. Between the lens and the film is another device— the shutter—that protects the film from exposure until a picture is taken. When the shutter release is pressed, the shutter opens and closes in a fraction of a second, and a segment of film is exposed to light that has been reflected from the subject into the lens. This causes a photochemical reaction in the film, recording the image. When the shutter has closed and the interior is once again dark, the film can then be advanced to the next unexposed segment of the roll, ready for a new exposure. The exposures produce latent images in the film that cannot be seen until it is processed. Of course this is only a sketch of the basic mechanics of shooting film. In the pages that follow you will gain a greater understanding of how these components and steps interact, helping you acquire a deep understanding of the process of analog photography.

009

010

CONTENTS

011

016–035

036–059

060–099

100–115

116–149

150–175

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE LENSES

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED RANGEFINDERS & SLRs FILM & FILTERS

018

General Nomenclature

039 041 043 045 047 048 053 054 055 056 057 059

Lens Elements & Groups Numbers on a Lens Aperture & Diaphragm f/stop Focal Plane / Mark Focal Length Angle of View (AOV) Prime Lens Zoom Lens Coatings Lens Characteristics & Flaws Lens Hoods

063 067 068 070 071 075 076 077 079 080 082 085 087 088 090 092 093 095 096 099

Leaf Shutters Focal-Plane Shutters Shutter Speed Fast & Slow Shutter Speed Dials Self-Timer Film Speed (ASA/ISO) Stops Exposure & Exposure Compensation Simple Exposure Marks Multiple Exposures EV / Exposure Value LV / Light Value LV Tables The Sunny 16 Rule Double & Half Light Meters Be Meter Free Guide Number (GN) Flash Sync(hronization) Flash Connections

103 105 106 107 110 111 113 115

Depth of Field Depth-of-Field Scale Bokeh Motion Blur / Apparent Subject Motion Sharpest Aperture Diffraction Vignetting Priority

119 121 123 124

Rangefinders & SLRs Rangefinder / Coupled Rangefinder Parallax TTL / Through the Lens

125 127 130 131 136 138 140 141 142 144 145 146 149

MLU / Mirror Lock-Up Pentaprism & Roof Pentaprism Viewfinder: Rangefinder Viewfinder: SLR Viewfinder: Half Frame Viewfinder Magnification & Brightness Focusing a Rangefinder Focusing an SLR Rangefinder Double-Image Focusing Spot SLR Microprism SLR Split-Image SLR Split-Image Microprism Zone Focusing

153 154 155 156 157 159 162 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174

35mm Film Negative & Slide Film Resolution & Sharpness Processing Color Film Processing Black-and-White Film Full Frame & Half Frame Filters Stepping Rings Polarizing Filters Neutral Density (ND) Filters Graduated ND Filters Ultraviolet (UV) Filters Skylight & Haze Filters Color Balance Conversion Filters 80 & 85 Filters for Black-and-White Film

179 180 181 182 184 187

Camera Care & Storage Aperture Area Calculation Angle-of-View Calculation Stopping Down ½ Stopping Up ×2 Index

016–035

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

General Nomenclature

Shutter Cocking Lever Film Catch 03 Film Winding Knob 04 Film Advance / Rapid Film Advance Lever 05 Shutter Release Button 06 Shutter Release Socket 07 Frame / Film / Exposure Counter 08 Distance Scale 09 Depth-of-Field Scale 10 Self-Timer Lever / V 11 Accessory / Hot Shoe 12 Focal Plane Mark 13 Mirror Lock-Up Control 14 Film Rewind Crank (& Back Cover Release) 15 Back Cover Release / Lock 16 Viewfinder Window 17 Rangefinder Window 18 Frame Illumination Window 19 Shutter Speed Ring 20 Shutter Speed Dial 21 Fast & Slow Shutter Speed Dials 22 Diaphragm / Aperture Ring 23 Photocell Window / Electric Eye 24 Flash Setting Selector / Lever 25 Flash Unit Connector Socket (PC) 01

02

018

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Film Take-Up Spool Sprocket 28 Rewind Spindle 29 Film / Cartridge Chamber 30 Film Guide / Track 31 Focal-Plane Shutter 32 Film Pressure Plate 33 Viewfinder Eyepiece 34 Rangefinder Eyepiece 35 Viewfinder Magnification Selector 36 Film Load Window / Transport Indicator 37 Film Speed Set Lever 38 Film Speed Dial 39 Film Rewind Button / Reversing Lever 40 Focusing Ring / Collar / Lever 41 Tripod Socket / Bush 42 Lens Release Button / Lever / Bayonet Lock Button 43 Film Type Indicator / Reminder 44 Base Plate 45 Depth-of-Field Preview Button 26

27

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

||||||||||

019

01 Shutter Cocking Lever: used to cock (or charge) the shutter so it is ready to take a photo.

02 Film Catch: rarely seen, this is held down to start winding the film, and released to stop at the next frame.

03 Film Winding Knob: found on earlier cameras, it advances the film one frame with one complete turn in the direction of the arrow. If the camera has no separate cocking lever, winding the knob also cocks the shutter. (In this case, the knob should only be wound just before taking a picture, as leaving it wound can weaken the shutter spring.)

Film Advance Lever: also called the Rapid Film Advance, this advances the film and the frame counter by one frame with every full movement. In most cases it also cocks the shutter, preventing double exposures. Depending on the camera, this requires a single long stroke or multiple short strokes. The winding distance of each varies, for example, 170° or 220°. While the first 20° often has no effect on the film (free play), the length of the winding stroke will affect how easy it is to advance the film. The film must be advanced fully to the next frame for the shutter to release. Once the last frame of film is exposed, the lever will no longer operate. 04

Shutter Release Button: this is pressed to take a picture, releasing the shutter from its cocked position so it opens to make an exposure and then closes again. 05

020

||||||||||

06 Shutter Release Socket: a threaded hole in the center of the shutter release button, into which a standard cable release can be screwed for remote operation of the shutter.

07 Exposure Counter: indicates the number of pictures taken on a roll of film, from 1 to 36. The number increases automatically each time the film is advanced.

08 Distance Scale: a set of numbers found on the focusing ring of a lens that indicate how far away the subject in focus is from the film plane of the camera (in meters and feet).

09 Depth-of-Field Scale: a fixed ring or marking next to the distance scale of the lens, which indicates depth of field.

Self-Timer Lever / V: see 071 Accessory / Hot Shoe: see 099 12 Focal Plane Mark: see 047

10

11

Mirror Lock-Up Control: featured on some SLRs; when turned, the mirror of an SLR is locked in an “up” position to allow the mounting of lenses which extend into the mirror box, or to eliminate image blur caused by mirror slap.

13

14 Film Rewind Crank: a wheel found most commonly on the top, but in some cases the base, of the camera that, when turned in the direction of the arrow (with the rewind button depressed), rewinds the film back into the film cartridge. This crank often also functions as a back cover release (if there is no separate back cover lock); when it is pulled up, the back cover automatically pops open.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

15 Back Cover Release / Lock: found on the back of the camera, on the opposite edge to the hinges. It holds the back cover closed, and opens it when released.

Viewfinder Window: see 130 Rangefinder Window: see 130 18 Frame Illumination Window: see 130

16 17

Shutter Speed Ring: found on the lens barrel (of fixed-lens cameras), it can be rotated to select shutter speed. The markings on the ring are fractions of a second (for example, 250 is 1/250th of a second). The speed opposite the index mark is the selected speed.

19

20 Shutter Speed Dial: found on the top of interchangeable-lens camera bodies (as the shutter is part of the body, not the lens), it can be rotated to select shutter speed. The markings on the ring are fractions of a second (for example, 250 is 1/250th of a second). The dial may also be found on the front of the camera body. The number opposite the index mark on the camera body is the selected speed.

21

Fast & Slow Shutter Speed Dials: see 070

22 Diaphragm / Aperture Ring: found on the lens barrel, this can be rotated to select the size of the aperture. The markings on the ring are f/stops. The f/stop opposite the static index mark on the lens is the selected aperture.

23 Photocell Window (or photoresistor): a sensor that reacts to light. In a camera it is used to measure light (light meter).

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

24 25

Flash Setting Selector / Lever: see 096 Flash Unit Socket: see 099

26 Film Take-Up Spool: a metal or plastic cylinder found on the back of the camera body, directly below the film advance lever. As the film is advanced the exposed frames are wound tightly around the spool, and in turn unexposed film is pulled along the film guide to sit behind the shutter. The spool usually has a slot to feed the film leader into when loading the film.

Sprocket: a cylinder next to, and mechanically connected to, the film take-up spool. It has gear teeth at the top and bottom with which the perforations along the top and bottom edges of the film engage, to advance it and keep it aligned correctly.

27

28 Rewind Spindle: a forked prong inside the back of the camera, connected to the film rewind crank. It engages with the film cartridge when placed in the cartridge chamber, allowing the film to be rewound with the rewind crank.

29 Film / Cartridge Chamber: the area inside the back of the camera where the film cartridge sits, usually at the far left.

30 Film Guide: two smooth rails inside the back of a camera that run along the film plane parallel to the film edges. They meet with the film pressure plate when the camera back is closed, ensuring smooth transport of the film and keeping it aligned and flat as the film is exposed.

31

Focal-Plane Shutter: see 067

||||||||||

021

32 Film Pressure Plate: a smooth, spring-loaded panel in the back cover of the camera that presses the film tightly against the film guide when the camera back is closed. It supports the film on the film plane and keeps it flat and steady as it is exposed. 33 34

Viewfinder Eyepiece: see 130 Rangefinder Eyepiece: see 130

35 Viewfinder Magnification Selector: featured on some interchangeable lens rangefinder cameras to optimize the view in the viewfinder according to the focal length of the lens being used, most commonly 35mm, 50mm, 100mm or 135mm lenses.

36 Film Load Window: a feature on some cameras which confirms the film is loaded correctly and provides a constant check on film alignment and advancement while using the camera. (As a rule, the film is loaded correctly if the rewind crank rotates when advancing the film.)

37 Film Speed Set Lever: found on a fixed-lens rangefinder that has a built-in light meter. It is usually a notched lever on the underside of the lens barrel which slides when pressed in, allowing you to match the speed number of the meter with the speed of the film.

38 Film Speed Dial: on a changeable lens camera with a built-in light meter this is normally part of the shutter speed dial, and is adjusted by lifting and rotating the shutter speed dial until the figure which corresponds to the speed of the film is visible in the film speed window. The dial may also be its own independent wheel on the front of the camera body.

022

||||||||||

Film Rewind Button: usually found on the base of the camera body, when depressed it allows the film to be rewound into the cartridge. There may instead be a Reversing Lever on the top or base of the camera labeled R for rewinding the film and A for advancing the film. (When set to R, the automatic coupling of the film advance and shutter mechanism is disengaged.)

39

40 Focusing Ring: a ring on the lens body that is rotated to adjust the focus of the camera.

41 Tripod Socket: a threaded hole (3/8” or 1/4”) on the base of a camera into which accessories—typically a tripod—can be screwed.

42 Lens Release Button / Lever: found in the vicinity of the lens on the front of a changeable lens, bayonet-mount camera body. This is a small button that, when pushed downward, releases the lens so the lens can be rotated and lifted out. Mounts of early cameras were threaded, and lenses screwed in and out of the flange of the camera body.

43 Film Type Indicator: some cameras feature an indicator which can be set to remind you of the speed or type of film loaded in the camera. It will commonly feature symbols for black-andwhite film, color film balanced for daylight, and color film balanced for artificial light.

44 Base Plate: a removable plate on the base of loading cameras, this is removed in order to load and remove the film cartridge. It is opened by turning the locking swivel from Closed to Open (labeled AUF and ZU on German cameras).

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

45

Depth-of-Field Preview / Diaphragm StopDown Button: featured on some SLRs; for the brightest TTL viewfinder preview possible, lens apertures should be wide open during viewing, focusing, and exposure setting. When pressed, the depth-of-field preview button closes the diaphragm to the preset aperture in order to preview the depth of field directly in the viewfinder. (When previewing the depth of field the image in the viewfinder will get progressively darker the further the lens is stopped down.)

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

||||||||||

023

08

Distance Scale Depth-of-Field Scale 10 Self-Timer Lever 19 Shutter Speed Ring 22 Diaphragm / Aperture Ring 24 Flash Setting Selector 37 Film Speed Set Lever 09

024

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

37

10

22

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

09

19

08

||||||||||

24

025

23

11 12

14

24

06

17

23

18

25

07

16

04

04

05

Film Advance Lever Shutter Release Button 06 Shutter Release Socket 07 Exposure Counter 11 Accessory Shoe 12 Focal Plane Mark 14 Film Rewind Crank 16 Viewfinder Window 17 Rangefinder Window 18 Frame Illumination Window 23 Photocell Window 24 Flash Setting Selector 25 Flash Unit Socket 05

026

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

14

Film Rewind Crank Back Cover Release / Lock 19 Shutter Speed Ring 22 Diaphragm / Aperture Ring 25 Flash Unit Socket 33 Viewfinder Eyepiece 40 Focusing Ring 15

19

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

22

25

40

14

15

||||||||||

33

027

13

10

45

42

25

10

Self-Timer Lever Mirror Lock-Up Control 45 Depth-of-Field Preview / Diaphragm Stop-Down Button 25 Flash Unit Socket 42 Lens Release Button / Lever 13

028

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

37

37

Film Speed Set Lever Film Rewind Button 40 Focusing Ring 41 Tripod Socket 39

39

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

41

40

||||||||||

029

15

01

03

33

34

43

20

43

01

Shutter Cocking Lever Film Catch 03 Film Winding Knob 15 Back Cover Release / Lock 20 Shutter Speed Dial 33 Viewfinder Eyepiece 34 Rangefinder Eyepiece 43 Film Type Indicator 02

030

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

02

11

36

04

05

04

Film Advance Lever Shutter Release Button 11 Accessory / Hot Shoe 14 Film Rewind Crank 16 Viewfinder Window 35 Viewfinder Magnification Selector 36 Film Load Window 05

14

16

35

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

||||||||||

031

38

06

07

04

Film Advance Lever Shutter Release Button 06 Shutter Release Socket 07 Exposure Counter 11 Accessory / Hot Shoe 12 Focal Plane Mark 20 Shutter Speed Dial 38 Film Speed Dial 05

11

032

||||||||||

12

20

04

05

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

17

21(a)

39

07

05

Shutter Release Button Exposure Counter 17 Rangefinder Window 21(a) Slow Shutter Speed Dial 21(b) Fast Shutter Speed Dial 39 Film Rewind Button 07

21(b)

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

05

||||||||||

033

14

11

16

11

Accessory / Hot Shoe Film Rewind Crank 16 Viewfinder Window 28 Rewind Spindle 29 Film / Cartridge Chamber 30 Film Guide 31 Focal-Plane Shutter 41 Tripod Socket 14

034

||||||||||

28

29

30

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

31

41

32

30

27

39

26

26

Film Take-Up Spool Sprocket 30 Film Guide 32 Film Pressure Plate 39 Film Rewind Button 27

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

||||||||||

035

036–059

036

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

LENSES

SECTION TITLE

||||||||||

037

7 ELEMENTS

1

2

1

2

3

4

5

3

6

4

7

5

5 GROUPS

038

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

047 Focal Plane

Lens Elements & Groups

A lens is one or more pieces of optical material (most commonly glass or plastic) designed to collect and focus all wavelengths of light at a single focal point, to form a sharp image on the focal plane. When you look at the specifications of a camera you will notice that its lens is made up of elements and groups. The term element refers to the individual pieces of glass used in the lens. The term group refers to two or more elements joined together to create one unit. So a lens that has seven elements in five groups has seven pieces of glass with two groups of two pieces joined together. The use of multiple elements allows more optical aberrations to be corrected than is possible with a single element, but by itself the number of elements is no guarantee of quality. Aberrations are optical defects resulting in image distortions such as color “fringes” along boundaries that separate dark and bright parts of the image (chromatic aberration) or straight lines appearing curved (spherical aberration).

LENSES

||||||||||

039

040

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

048 053 043 054 056 039

Focal Length Angle of View Aperture Fast Lens Coatings Lens Elements & Groups

Numbers on a Lens

Each lens has specific details inscribed on its name plate that give information about how it will perform. The most important information will read something like “1:1.8 f=45mm” (which could also be written “45mm F1.8,” depending on the manufacturer). These are the two fundamental parameters of a lens. The number specified in mm is the focal length. This gives us an idea of the angle of view (AOV), as shorter lengths give wider angles. Here the focal length is 45mm. The other set of numbers refer to the maximum aperture of the lens. 1:1.8 indicates that the maximum aperture is f/1.8. This is useful as we can tell how fast the lens is. Lenses will also carry the manufacturer or brand name and possibly its individual serial number. There may also be information about the type of coating and the number of elements and groups in the lens. If the lens has a thread for accessories, the size may be given with the diameter symbol ø and a number specified in millimeters.

LENSES

||||||||||

041

PUPIL

IRIS

APERTURE DIAPHRAGM

042

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

045 f/stop

Aperture & Diaphragm

The aperture is the opening of the lens that determines the volume of light that is let through to expose the film. The aperture is variable and the size is indicated by a series of numbers known as f/stops or f-numbers, which are found on the aperture ring of the lens. The aperture is controlled by the diaphragm, and their relationship can be compared to that of the iris and the pupil of the eye. The iris (diaphragm) controls the size of the pupil (aperture). In a dimly lit room, the pupil needs to be wide open to allow lots of light through to register an image; the opposite applies in bright light, when it has to shrink to minimize the intensity of light.

LENSES

||||||||||

043

2

044

2.8

4

||||||||||

5.6

8

11

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

16

22

048 043 076 090 180

Focal Length Aperture Stops Double & Half Aperture Area Calculation

f/stop

The “f” in f/stop (or f-number) stands for the focal length of the lens. The focal length of the lens divided by the diameter of the aperture is the f/stop: for example, f/8 means the aperture diameter is 1/8th the focal length. f/8 on a 45mm lens means that the diameter of the aperture is 45/8, or 5.6mm. These ratios allow the use of the same number series for all lenses. f/8 on a 45mm lens lets in exactly the same volume of light as f/8 on a 135mm lens (although the actual diameter of the aperture of these two lenses at these settings is different). The amount of light let through the aperture does not depend on the diameter but the area of the aperture. Typical f/stop scale: 2

2.8

4

5.6

8

11

16

22

Although the numbers seem irregular, each of the stops represents a halving to the right, or doubling to the left, of the aperture area and therefore the volume of light, from its immediate neighbor on the scale (see Aperture Area Calculation in the Appendix). The smaller the f-number, the larger the aperture. The larger the f-number, the smaller the aperture.

LENSES

||||||||||

045

046

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Focal Plane / Mark

The focal plane is the flat surface in the camera onto which the lens focuses the image. It is marked on the top of the camera body using what looks like a horizontal version of the Phi symbol (the focal plane mark, also the film plane mark). The line represents the exact location and orientation of the film in the camera body. This gives a consistent fixed point from which measurements such as the minimum focal distance can be made.

LENSES

||||||||||

047

Focal Length

047 Focal Plane Mark 053 Angle of View

With the lens focused at infinity, the focal length is the distance measured from the center of the front lens element to the focal point in the camera, indicated by the focal plane mark on the camera body. The focal length indicates both the angle of view (AOV) and the magnification of any given lens.

Wide-Angle Lenses 15—35mm

These have a wide AOV allowing more of a scene to be recorded in a photograph, and are thus popular for shooting interiors. They give images a characteristic convex appearance. Normal Lenses 40—55mm

These are “normal” because they render scenes approximately as they are seen by the naked eye. Moderate Telephoto Lenses 85—135mm

These are favored for portrait photography as they can frame a face tightly with minimal distortion (a face framed tightly with a wide-angle or even normal lens will be spherically distorted, appearing rounder than in real life). Long Telephoto Lenses 200—400mm and longer

A 200mm lens magnifies an image by an order of four relative to a 50mm lens (and to a 400mm by an order of eight), making these popular when it’s impossible to get close to the subject, for example in wildlife and sports photography.

048

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

When combined with different shooting distances from the subject, the focal length of a lens can alter the apparent distance between foreground and background, and therefore alter size relationships between subjects in the foreground and subjects in the background. Each of the following examples (illustrated on the next page) will keep the subject in the foreground approximately the same size in the frame but alter the appearance of the background: • At a close shooting distance a wide-angle lens will exaggerate foreground to background distance, making subjects in the background appear far-off and small. • At a medium shooting distance a normal lens will show approximately the same as the eye would see. • At a far shooting distance a telephoto lens will shorten the perceived distance from the foreground to background, making background elements appear closer and larger than in real life; this is known as “background compression.”

LENSES

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049

Focal Length Background Compression

24mm lens / 5ft

50mm lens / 10ft

5ft 10ft

40ft

80ft

050

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

200mm lens / 40ft

400mm lens / 80ft

5ft 10ft

40ft

80ft

LENSES

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051

052

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

048 Focal Length 159 Full Frame & Half Frame 181 AOV Calculation

Angle of View (AOV)

Angle of view (AOV) is measured in degrees of arc and describes the breadth of image, or fieldof-view, that is seen by the camera. AOV varies according to the image format and the focal length of the lens, with small formats and short lenses giving the widest angles. A wide angle captures more of a scene than a narrow angle. Subjects outside the AOV of the lens when the picture is taken are not recorded in the photograph. The table below shows the AOV of various focal length lenses for full-frame and half-frame cameras (see Angle-of-View Calculation in the Appendix).

35mm Film Lens FL 200mm 135mm 85mm 58mm 55mm 50mm 48mm 45mm 40mm 38mm 35mm 32mm 30mm 28mm

LENSES

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Full Frame AOV 12.4° 18.2° 28.6° 40.9° 43.0° 46.8° 48.5° 51.4° 56.8° 59.3° 63.5° 68.2° 71.6° 75.4°

Half Frame AOV 36.9° 41.1° 43.1° 46.4° 50.2° 53.1° 56.4°

053

Prime Lens

048 055 043 068 075

A prime lens has a fixed focal length (FFL), as opposed to a zoom lens, which has variable focal lengths. Prime lenses are generally simpler in terms of construction and have fewer moving parts, making them smaller and lighter than zoom lenses. The simpler construction also allows them to have a large maximum aperture, making them faster than zoom lenses. Most importantly, prime lenses are optimized for their one focal length, thus giving superior quality images with fewer problems with regard to aberrations (any disturbance of rays of light that result in imperfections in the recorded image).

Fast Lens The speed of a lens and how fast it is refers to the maximum aperture of the lens. The larger the maximum aperture, the more light is delivered to the focal plane, the faster the shutter speed can be set, and the faster the lens.

Focal Length Zoom Lens Aperture Shutter Speed Film Speed

Fast lenses can be advantageous over slower ones in certain shooting conditions. They excel at night and in low light conditions, as they allow more light in to expose the film, increasing the chance of a faster shutter speed and avoiding the use of a tripod. Fast lenses were common until the late 1960s, as color film speeds available at that time were still relatively slow.

054

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

054 048 053 107

Prime Lens Focal Length Angle of View Motion Blur

Zoom Lens

As opposed to a fixed focal length prime lens, a zoom lens is an assembly of moveable lens elements that together allow for variable focal length (and therefore angle of view). Adjusting the focal length changes the size of the subject and the crop of the image captured without having to change the physical distance from the camera to the subject. One zoom lens can be used instead of several different fixed length lenses, meaning you don’t need to spend time changing lenses or carrying several different ones. The convenience of a zoom lens comes at a cost, however. They are generally larger, heavier, and slower than prime lenses. In addition, they aren’t generally as sharp at any given focal length and are more likely to create aberrations and distortions. Note that when zooming from shorter to longer focal lengths it is important to increase the shutter speed to the reciprocal of the new length, so that it is fast enough to prevent motion blur from camera shake.

LENSES

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055

Coatings

Coatings on a lens reduce reflections from the lens surface and therefore increase light transmission. Coatings also help to eliminate wayward light reflecting inside the lens—which causes flaws such as flare and ghosting—thus increasing image brilliance and contrast. While all internal lens elements may be coated, the coating of the front lens element is most critical to the performance of the lens assembly as a whole. Coatings were initially applied as single layers (single coating) and later as multiple layers (multicoating). Amber coatings common on lenses from the 1950s and 1960s improve light transmission and also provide color correction, so the light exposing the film is true to nature. This is desirable for accurate color photography, but also leads to better contrast in black-and-white images.

056

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Multicoatings became common in the 1970s and were even better than single coatings, cutting down more wavelengths of reflected light. Generally speaking, more layers reduce more light reflection from the lens surface, in turn improving light transmission and therefore the quality of the images the lens can record. As a rule of thumb, you can tell what sort of coating a lens has by the colors of the reflections seen in the front lens element. No coating gives bright white reflections from the glass. Single coating gives bright reflections of blue and amber. And multicoating gives reflections of many colors, green and purple in particular.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

069 Bulb & Time 179 Care

Lens Characteristics & Flaws

Checking the glass of a lens will give an idea of its condition and in turn the quality of images you can expect to record with it. With lens caps removed and the aperture wide open, shine a bright light through the lens and you will see some effects of age, which may or may not affect the quality of the images. For a fixed-lens camera, open the back door and keep the shutter open with the speed set to T or B.

Dust will gravitate toward and collect on the front element but will not have an impact on photos, and can easily be removed.

High grade optical glass may sometimes contain tiny bubbles from the time of manufacture. These bubbles do not interfere with lens quality and have no negative effect on pictures. Older lenses may have scratches on the front element that could be the result of improper handling or cleaning. The odd clean scratch will rarely affect an image, but if there is so much wear that the lens appears dull, photos may appear dull or foggy. Internal elements of old lenses may exhibit haze, which has an even and uniform oily appearance. Haze is caused by lubricants used in the lens that have evaporated over time and settled on the glass. This will in turn create hazy and diffused images with low contrast, most notably when shooting into light.

LENSES

It is likely that there also be dust visible inside the lens, but unless there is so much that you can’t see through the lens clearly, it shouldn’t affect the quality of images. Although dust inside the lens may not cause a problem on its own, if combined with moisture (a result of wet conditions such as rain or a humid environment) it can lead to the growth of fungus. Fungus is an organic microbial growth and manifests as white patches that, when inspected closely, resemble webbed patterns, fluff, or whiskers. It will continue to grow over time and can cause permanent etching in the coatings of the glass—irreversible damage that will eventually render the lens unusable. Fungus obstructs light and will have a serious negative effect on lens performance causing low contrast, color shifts, and soft images.

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057

Top, the petals of a tulip hood as seen from the top and side; bottom, the vents of a vented hood seen from behind

058

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

053 113 055 048 166 162

Angle of View Vignetting Zoom Lens Focal Length Stepping Rings Filters

Lens hoods (or shades) are used to prevent stray light from hitting the sides of the front lens element. Undesirable angles of light can lower the overall contrast of a photograph and cause glare and lens flare. A lens hood is a tube or cone which attaches to the front of the lens, either clipping onto the outside, attaching with a bayonet, or screwing into the lens thread (size marked with ø and mm). They come in either metal, plastic, or rubber, and should have a black antireflective surface. They are available in various shapes including round, rectangular, and tulip (or petal). Round lens hoods are simple cylindrical sections that extend beyond the front of the lens. Rectangular lens hoods are generally more efficient than round hoods. Their shape closely resembles the format of the recorded image so they can be longer than cylindrical lens hoods without blocking the lens’s angle of view (AOV), which would cause vignetting. Vignetting by a lens hood is called mechanical vignetting. It usually results in an abrupt transition from bright to black in the corners of an image.

Lens Hoods

The AOV of the lens is a vital consideration when choosing a lens hood. If a lens hood designed for a telephoto lens was used on a wide-angle lens, it would block part of the scene, especially the corners of the frame. If a lens hood designed for a wide angle lens was used on a telephoto lens the hood would have no effect and stray light rays would still be able to hit the sides of the lens. One should therefore choose a dedicated lens hood that is optimized to provide the maximum shading for the specific focal length of the lens being used. When using a rangefinder, it is important to consider the length and size of a lens hood, not only to avoid blocking the corners of the recorded image, but also because they can block the bottom right corner of the view in the viewfinder. Vented lens hoods have openings around the lens and taper inward, minimizing the amount of hood that can obstruct the framing of the picture in the viewfinder. Below is a basic guide to the use of the specific hood types: Shallow hood Deep hood Tulip hood Vented hood

wide-angle to normal lens telephoto lens wide to telephoto zoom lens rangefinder camera

Tulip lens hoods (also known as flower or petal hoods) have a more complex design: a cone with four shapes cut out to avoid blocking the corner points of a photo. This type of hood delivers the best possible shading effect for zoom lenses, as the AOV of a zoom lens is variable according to the focal length being used. Tulip hoods provide a compromise for getting the best shade at long focal lengths, while the cut-out portions of the hood prevent the lens hood from intersecting with the AOV at short (wide angle) focal lengths, thereby reducing the amount of vignetting in the final image.

When using a screw-in hood in conjunction with a stepping ring or filter, remember that they will slightly extend the length of the hood and could cause it to encroach on the AOV. Lens hoods may also be used to protect the front lens element from accidental impact.

LENSES

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059

060–099

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

062

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

119 068 039 067 096

Rangefinders & SLRs Shutter Speed Lens Elements & Groups Focal-Plane Shutters Flash Sync

Leaf Shutters

Most fixed-lens rangefinders use what is called a leaf shutter: a shutter consisting of very fine overlapping metal blades—leaves—that open fully and then close in order to expose the film for a specified period of time. The shutter is a clockwork mechanism that comprises a complex series of gears and is powered by a strong spring, which is tensioned by setting the shutter speed. It is usually inside the lens next to the diaphragm, between the front and rear elements. Leaf shutters are not capable of such high shutter speeds as focal-plane shutters, but they are quieter, more compact, and can sync with flash at any speed because the whole image frame is exposed simultaneously. The manufacture of these shutters is highly specialized, and camera manufacturers do not make their own. Leaf shutter manufacturers include Prontor, Compur, Citizen, Copal, and Seiko, and their name will be specified somewhere on the lens barrel.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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063

064

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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065

FILM APERTURE

SECOND CURTAIN

066

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FIRST CURTAIN

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

047 077 119 063 068 096

Focal Plane Exposure Rangefinders & SLRs Leaf Shutters Shutter Speed Flash Sync

Focal-Plane Shutters

Focal-plane shutters consist of a pair of lightproof curtains usually made from cloth, metal, or plastic (cloth being the least durable). They work by opening one curtain across the focal plane to begin an exposure, and closing a second curtain after the appropriate delay to end it. The two curtains slide in the same direction, either horizontally or vertically. Cocking the shutter returns the curtains to their starting position. Focal-plane shutters are found directly in front of the focal plane (the film or image sensor) in the body of interchangeable-lens cameras (rangefinders and SLRs). Lenses can therefore be removed and replaced midway through shooting a roll of film, as the shutter prevents light from reaching the focal plane. Focal-plane shutters are much louder than leaf shutters but are capable of much higher speeds. These speeds are achieved by the second curtain closing before the first one has fully opened, creating a slit that travels across the film. The faster the speed, the narrower the slit. However, at these shutter speeds (generally faster than 1/125) they cannot sync with a flash, as the moving slit does not expose the whole image frame to the full duration of the flash, resulting in only a portion of the frame being correctly exposed (clipping).

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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067

Shutter Speed

Shutter speed denotes the time that the shutter remains open when taking a picture. It is measured in fractions of a second (so you can imagine that each number has a 1/ in front of it): the bigger the number, the faster the speed. Just as with aperture stops, shutter speeds are set as stops on a scale. The typical standardized shutter speeds are: 1

2

4

8

15

30

60

125

250

500

Each of the numbers in this sequence (each stop) represents a halving to the right on the scale, or doubling to the left on the scale, of the duration the shutter remains open. Shutter speeds weren’t universally standardized until the late 1950s, so earlier cameras may have a slightly different scale, such as 10, 25, 50, 100, 200.

068

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Fast speeds freeze moving subjects, and slow speeds record motion. If you want to avoid motion blur and record sharp images, assuming a normal camera and a steady hand, you should use a minimum shutter speed of as close as possible to 1 over the focal length of the lens: a 28 mm lens, for example, can be held steady at 1/30. If your shutter speed is slower than the reciprocal of the focal length of your lens, you should use a tripod to get a sharp image. As a general rule you can’t achieve sharp, handheld shots at speeds slower than 1/60. With rangefinder cameras, however, you can go down to 1/30 or even 1/15, even though this is below the reciprocal of a normal lens.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

076 090 107 048 119 077

Stops Double & Half Motion Blur Focal Length Rangefinders & SLRs Exposure

Bulb (B) Exposure When the shutter speed ring or dial is set to B, the shutter is operated manually and will remain open for as long as the shutter button is depressed. This is used for exposure time in excess of the longest shutter-speed setting. For very long exposures, for example at night, a tripod should be used to keep the camera steady, with a cable release to open and close the shutter, in order to not move the camera while exposing the film (which would blur the image).

Time (T) Exposure Like the B setting, T is used for long exposures. However, when the shutter button is pressed at the T exposure setting, the shutter will remain locked open even when pressure is taken off the button. It is canceled by pressing the button again, or by turning the dial away from the T setting (either on the slow shutter speed or a dedicated dial).

“Bulb” is derived from “air bulb release,” a pneumatically actuated shutter release that has a small rubber bulb at the end. Squeezing the bulb opens the shutter and releasing the bulb closes it. The B can also stand for Beliebig, the German word for “any,” and may also in some cases be labeled with a Z for Zeit, German for “time.”

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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069

Fast & Slow Shutter Speed Dials

068 Shutter Speed 069 Bulb & Time

Older, interchangeable lens rangefinder camera bodies may have two shutter speed dials, one on the top of the body for fast speeds (1000 to 30, B) and a smaller dial on the front for additional slow speeds (30 to 1 sec., T). If the camera was made before shutter speeds were standardized, the number 25 may appear instead of 30. With these cameras the fast shutter speed dial can only be set once the film has been advanced for the next exposure and the shutter primed. To change the setting raise the dial and rotate it until the required speed is opposite the index line; release the dial and it will drop into the chosen setting. (Be sure that the slow shutter speed dial is set to the fastest of the slow speeds, usually 1/30 sec., when using high speeds.) When the shutter is fired the dial spins back to a neutral position (keep your fingers out of the way), but when the film is wound again the dial returns to the speed to which it was set before release. The dial need only be adjusted if a different speed is required. For the slow speed dial to be used, the fast dial has to be set to the slowest speed available, which is usually marked in red and matches the fastest speed on the slow dial, for example, 30. A sprung safety catch on the top of the front dial holds the dial at 30 and must be pushed back to unlock the dial and change the slow speeds.

070

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

096 Flash Sync MX 063 Leaf Shutters

Self-Timer

The self-timer is a built-in mechanism that trips the shutter after a variable amount of time from the moment you activate it by pressing the shutter release or the dedicated release button. The delay is commonly of intervals of up to ten seconds. The most common use of the self-timer is for the photographer to be included in a group photo or a self-portrait. The self-timer can also be used in place of a cable release for long exposures (with the camera resting on a steady surface or on a tripod) in order to avoid moving the camera by manually pressing the shutter release. If your camera has an MX flash setting lever, it has to be set to X for the self-timer lever to wind. M type bulbs cannot be used with the self-timer, so the self-timer cannot be used when the selector is at M. Some leaf shutter cameras label the selftimer lever with a V for Vorlaufwerk (German for “self-timer”). The shutter must be cocked to be able to set a self-timer labelled with a V. On older cameras, especially those which have not been used for a long time, it is very common for the tiny springs and gears of a self-timer to be clogged with grime or dust, causing them to get stuck when operated. If the self-timer sticks before the shutter has fired, there is no way to trigger the shutter, rendering the camera useless until repaired. This is often the cause of a jammed shutter. It is therefore advisable to avoid using the self-timer on vintage cameras unless they have been serviced.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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071

072

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Magnified view of the self-timer mechanism from a Copal SV shutter

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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073

074

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

076 090 182 184

Stops Double & Half Stopping Down ½ Stopping Up ×2

Film Speed (ASA/ISO)

Film speed refers to the sensitivity of film to light. In general, films with a higher sensitivity (larger number, fast) have coarser grain and do not register detail or reproduce enlargements as well as films with lower sensitivity (lower number, slow). Slower film speeds equate to better detail and sharpness in your photographs, but need to be exposed for longer than faster film speeds. Film sensitivity is measured by a set of standards established by the American Standards Association (ASA) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). For all practical purposes, ASA and ISO numbers are interchangeable. A typical number series for film speed, from slow to fast, is: 25

50

100

200

400

800

Each stop on this scale is twice as sensitive as the number to the left on the scale, and half as sensitive as the number to the right. When using a light meter, set it to the same number as is specified on the film to get the correct exposure readings. Vintage cameras will feature DIN and ASA, while modern cameras use ISO. The DIN system was defined by the German standards body (Deutsches Institut für Normung) and was published in January 1934. It was originally only meant for black-and-white negative film and, along with ASA, was superseded in the 1980s by ISO.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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075

Stops

077 043 068 075 090 184 182

Exposure Aperture Shutter Speed Film Speed Double & Half Stopping Up ×2 Stopping Down ½

When the aperture control ring of a lens is adjusted it mechanically clicks into a detent, causing it to stop precisely at the next setting (this is also true of most shutter speed and film speed dials). The term stop is therefore used to represent a unit of exposure change in aperture, shutter speed, or film speed. If any of these three settings is adjusted one stop up, the exposure of a photograph is doubled. Adjusted one stop down, the exposure is halved. Two stops up means four times the amount of light (doubled twice) and three stops down means 1/8th the amount of light (halved three times).

076

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

068 043 082 075 162 080

Shutter Speed Aperture Exposure Value Film Speed Filters Multiple Exposures

Exposure denotes the amount of light reaching the film. It is controlled by shutter speed and aperture. The shutter speed determines the duration of light and the aperture controls the volume of light that is allowed into the camera to expose the film. Various combinations of aperture and shutter speed will give the same or equivalent exposure value. To get the proper exposure of a given scene one also has to take film speed into account.

Exposure & Exposure Compensation

Exposure compensation is a technique for adjusting the recommended exposure in consideration of factors that may result in a lighter or darker image. Exposure compensation may be required for predominantly light or dark scenes (high-key/low-key), for the use of lens filters, or for deliberate multiple exposures.

Film that is exposed to too much light results in overexposure, a lighter, washed-out image with loss of highlight detail. Too little light results in underexposure, a darker image with loss of shadow detail. High contrast scenes that exceed the dynamic range of the film (the difference between the lightest light and darkest dark you can capture in one photo) will inevitably either have blownout highlights or muddy dark areas indistinguishable from black.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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077

078

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

077 Exposure 043 Aperture 075 Film Speed / ASA / DIN

Simple Exposure Marks

Some early automatic cameras have simple exposure marks on the lens barrel. These indicate indoor, cloudy, and sunny lighting conditions. With the aperture ring set to AUTO and the film speed setting lever set to the speed of the loaded film, turn the entire shutter speed ring until the film speed setting lever is in line with the relevant icon. In this example the film speed is 200 ASA/24 DIN, and the film speed setting lever, and therefore the shutter speed, are set for cloudy conditions.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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079

Multiple Exposures

If you shoot with a camera that doesn’t have a coupled film advance and shutter cocking lever, the chances are you have accidentally shot some multiple exposures by forgetting to wind the film on after each frame. This creates overlapped images and yields unexpected effects.

Two basic examples: Correct exposure at shutter speed 1/125 would need to be set to 1/250 for a double exposure (two exposures, each one stop underexposed), and 1/500 for a quadruple exposure (four exposures, each two stops underexposed).

Results can be fairly unpredictable even when shooting multiple exposures deliberately, and cumulative exposure in overlapping areas will result in overexposure. If you aim to create one correctly exposed image from two exposures on the same frame in the same lighting conditions, you need to halve the exposure for a single correctly exposed frame.

Correct exposure at aperture f/8 would need to be changed to f/11 for a double exposure (two exposures, each one stop underexposed) and f/16 for a quadruple exposure (four exposures, each two stops underexposed).

080

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The above assumes that you are shooting each exposure in the same lighting conditions and want equal emphasis on both exposures in the resulting image.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

077 077 090 068 076 043 045

Exposure Exposure Compensation Double & Half Shutter Speed Stops Aperture f/stop

For deliberate multiple exposures with a camera that automatically cocks the shutter when the film is advanced, make the first exposure, then take up any film slack by turning the film rewind crank in the direction of the arrow until there is some resistance. In order to cock the shutter without advancing the film, depress the film rewind button on the bottom of the camera before cocking the film advance lever. This will cock the shutter without advancing the film so you can make another exposure on the same frame of film. This can be repeated for as many exposures as you wish. When you are done with the frame of multiple exposures, advance the film and make one blank picture with the lens cap on (to prevent the multiple exposure overlapping with the next photo you take).

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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081

EV / Exposure Value

068 043 077 076 107 103

EV numbers are a shorthand substitute for the shutter speed/aperture combination using a single number instead of two. Each EV number represents any of many different but equivalent combinations of shutter speed and aperture that will provide the same exposure (it might help to think of EV as Equivalent Value). For the same exposure, a change in shutter speed requires an equal and opposite change in aperture, and vice versa. The EV unit is equal to one stop.

It is important to note that, although camera settings with the same exposure value give the same exposure, they do not necessarily give the same picture. The shutter speed determines the amount of motion blur, and the relative aperture determines the depth of field.

082

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Shutter Speed Aperture Exposure Stops Motion Blur Depth of Field

1 second at f/1.0 equals EV0; all other EV numbers are defined with respect to this definition. Some user manuals will specify an EV range as a quick way to compare shutter speed and aperture settings between cameras. For example, a camera with the range EV2–18 has more shutter and aperture settings than a camera with the range EV4–17.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

1/30

1/60

1/125

1/250

EV13 f/16

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

f/11

f/8

f/5.6

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083

084

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

077 068 043 075 088 087

Exposure Shutter Speed Aperture Film Speed The Sunny 16 Rule LV Tables

LV / Light Value

LV is a numerical scale used to judge the correct exposure for the level of light in a given scene. Although LV is often confused with EV, the two are in fact very different. EV is simply a shorthand way of combining shutter speed and aperture settings and therefore only describes how much of the light from a scene is allowed into the camera. EV does not, by itself, give a correct exposure for a given level of light, as it does not take into account the speed of the film being used. LV, by contrast, factors in all three of the essential parameters for exposure: film speed, shutter speed, and aperture. The EV and LV scales are the same at ISO 100. However, because EV does not take film speed into account, if you change the speed of the film, the exposure changes and the EV numbers change accordingly. At ISO 100 the EV for scenes in full daylight is EV15, but at ISO 400 it’s EV17: two stops down to compensate for the increased sensitivity of the film. This can get confusing as you have to remember a different EV for each film speed. LV numbers are constant and always represent the same lighting conditions. The Sunny 16 Rule (for scenes lit by full daylight) is always LV15, regardless of the film speed. It is therefore easier to deal in LV when mentally calculating camera settings for specific lighting conditions.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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085

f/stop

50

100

200

400

800

1.4

2

1

0

-1

-2

1

3

2

1

0

-1

2

1

4

3

2

1

0

4

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

8

4

2

1

6

5

4

3

2

15

8

4

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

30

15

8

4

2

1

8

7

6

5

4

60

30

15

8

4

2

1

2.8

4

5.6

8

11

16

22

9

8

7

6

5

125

60

30

15

8

4

2

1

10

9

8

7

6

250

125

60

30

15

8

4

2

1

11

10

9

8

7

500

250

125

60

30

15

8

4

2

12

11

10

9

8

1000

500

250

125

60

30

15

8

4

13

12

11

10

9

1000

500

250

125

60

30

15

8

14

13

12

11

10

1000

500

250

125

60

30

15

15

14

13

12

11

16

15

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13

12

17

16

15

14

13

18

17

16

15

14

19

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17

16

15

20

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18

17

16

50

100

200

400

800

ASA/ISO

086

2

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1000

500

250

125

60

30

1000

500

250

125

60

1000

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125

500

250

1000

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1000

1000 1.4

2

2.8

4

5.6

8

11

16

f/stop

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

22

SHUTTER SPEED

LV

ASA/ISO

077 Exposure 092 Light Meters 088 The Sunny 16 Rule

LV Tables

An understanding of LV numbers allows you to recognize common lighting values and estimate exposures correctly without using a light meter. For instance, the number for correct exposure of a subject under clear daylight is LV15 (The Sunny 16 Rule). Below are examples of some scenes under common lighting conditions alongside their respective LV numbers. LV 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 8 7 LV 10/9 8 7 6 5 4

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

Natural light Predominantly white image, e.g. solid, light walls in full sun, a snow scene Bright sunlight (The Sunny 16 Rule) Hazy / afternoon sunlight Cloudy with some light (soft shadows) Very faint shadows Overcast / raining (no shadows) Sky at sunset Full shade, sunny day Inside house, soft shadow Inside house, overcast outside or near sunset Artificial light Inside supermarket Inside brightly lit shop / underground train Subway station Illuminated shop window or house window Neon sign Evenly lit home interiors at night Subjects lit by bright street lamp / spotlight

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087

The Sunny 16 Rule

043 068 075 082

The Sunny 16 Rule is a simple rule of thumb for taking photos in daylight without a light meter. It’s easy to remember: if you’re taking a photo of a subject under bright daylight, the aperture should be set to f/16, and shutter speed to the closest reciprocal of the film speed.

If the sun isn’t shining you can still take a wellexposed photo without a light meter. Below are some variations, still keeping the shutter speed as close as possible to the speed of the film:

f/16 + 1 /≈ISO For example, on a sunny day with the aperture set to f/16, using 100 ISO film, set the camera to approximately the equal (≈) shutter speed; ideally 1/100, but more likely to be 1/125. With the aperture set to f/16 using ISO 400 film, set the aperture to approximately the equal shutter speed, 1/500. From this starting point you can also use equivalent combinations based on whether you want to prioritize a specific aperture or shutter speed, for example, f/11 1/250 or f/22 1/60.

088

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Aperture Shutter Speed Film Speed / ISO Equivalent Value

f/16 f/11 f/8 f/5.6 f/4 f/2.8

Sunny Hazy / afternoon light Cloudy, soft shadows Very faint shadows Overcast / sunset sky Full shade

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

LV15 LV14 LV13 LV12 LV11 LV10

Sunny + f/16 + 1/≈ISO SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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089

Double & Half

076 075 068 043 045 088 182 184

Each stop on the camera—whether film speed, shutter speed, or aperture—is an increment of either double or half the exposure of the adjacent stop. So by dividing and multiplying by two, you can calculate exposure mentally.

This is essential knowledge for calculating exposure without the aid of a light meter or tabulated charts. For example, LV tables show that using ISO 100 film, f/16 at 1/125, gives the correct exposure in daylight (The Sunny 16 Rule). Given that all factors either double or halve, we can calculate which settings we need to get the correct exposure at ISO 200. ISO 200 is twice as sensitive to light as ISO 100, so the amount of light reaching the film has to be halved. There are two ways to go about this: either halve the shutter speed to 1/250 and stay at f/16, or keep the shutter speed at 1/125 and stop down to f/22.

ISO 400 is twice as sensitive to light as ISO 200, four times as sensitive as ISO 100, and half as sensitive as ISO 800. Although the f/stop numbers may seem irregular, f/8 is double the size of f/11 and therefore lets in twice the amount of light. Conversely, f/16 lets in half the amount of light as f/11.

Stops Film Speed Shutter Speed Aperture f/stop The Sunny 16 Rule Stopping Down ½ Stopping up ×2

1/500 is twice as fast as 1/250 and therefore halves the duration that the film is exposed to light. Conversely, 1/125 is half as fast as 1/250 and thus doubles the duration that the film is exposed to light.

090

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

×2 ÷2 SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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091

Light Meters

077 075 179 068 043 115

A light meter is an instrument that measures the intensity of light that is falling upon a subject (incident light) or that is bouncing off the subject (reflected light). They are used to calculate exposure settings, taking into account the speed of the film being used. There are two main types found on older cameras. Both are designed to measure light reflected from the subject and are calibrated to show the appropriate exposure for average scenes.

The second type use cadmium-sulfide (CdS) cells, which require a battery to operate. They are smaller, so they take up less room and are more sensitive, working better than selenium cells in low light conditions. They became common in the late 1960s and rendered selenium light meters obsolete.

Selenium meters generate their own electric current that is proportional to the light shining on them, so the meters don’t need batteries to function. Although these cells put out very little power, they became the basis of the first electronic light meters. Multiple “insect eye” lenses covering the photocell are characteristic of a selenium meter (they are often mistaken today for LEDs). The cells inevitably deteriorate over time and eventually expire (especially if they are not stored properly or are exposed to light for long periods), so they may no longer function on an old camera.

092

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Exposure Film Speed Care & Storage Shutter Speed Aperture Priority

The earliest built-in meters had no coupling (connection) to the camera’s shutter speed or aperture settings. The photographer was expected to set both settings manually, based on the readings given. Later meters were semicoupled, meaning the meter was connected to either the aperture or the shutter, with a readout indicating how the user should set the other. This is known as shutter or aperture priority. Finally, both aperture and shutter speed settings were coupled, creating a camera that can set both the aperture and shutter speed in fully automatic mode.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

077 076 075 043 068 085 087

Exposure Stops Film Speed Aperture Shutter Speed Light Value LV Tables

It is important to note that reflected light meters aren’t as clever as the educated photographer when it comes to exposure compensation. Expecting an average scene, reflected light meters can easily be fooled, giving too short an exposure for a predominantly light subject or too long an exposure for a predominately dark subject, resulting in images that could be up to three stops off the result the photographer had envisioned. In scenes where there are two different lighting conditions, such as a window view of the outside from the inside of a house on a sunny day, the dynamic range is too wide to record an image with the view of both the inside and outside exposed correctly. A reflected light meter will take an average of the two conditions—one bright, one dark—resulting in a flat image with an incorrect exposure of both the inside and outside of the house. The camera should be set manually for one of the two conditions, either LV15 for the view through the window (resulting in a dark interior) or LV9 for the interior (resulting in a well-exposed interior but a blown-out window).

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

Be Meter Free

Although this problem can be overcome by taking a meter reading directly from either the inside or the outside, an understanding of the relationship between film speed, aperture, and shutter speed allows the photographer independent creative control. If you understand the principles of photography you can be self-sufficient, with no need to worry about batteries being discontinued. Light meters are not essential to the operation of analog cameras in which the shutter and aperture are mechanically driven. These cameras only require batteries to power the light meter and auto mode. Most electronic cameras need a battery to operate the light meter, the shutter, and aperture, so if there is no battery for it, the camera won’t function at all. Without a light meter, shutter speed and aperture stops can be set for specific lighting conditions and judged mentally with knowledge of LV numbers, LV tables, and simple arithmetic.

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093

Guide No. ÷ Distance = Aperture 094

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

077 043 020 075 045 096 068 067 063

Exposure Aperture Distance Scale Film Speed f/stop Flash Sync Shutter Speed Focal-Plane Shutters Leaf Shutters

Guide Number (GN)

A guide number (GN) indicates the strength (power and distance capability) of the flash in a flash bulb or electronic flash. GNs are usually given for ISO 100 and used mainly for the shoe mounted flash (as you need to know the exact distance from flash to subject). A higher guide number indicates a more powerful flash.

Aperture = Guide Number ÷ Distance to Subject (feet)

Exposure is affected by the light generated by the flash, and the intensity of this light falls off rapidly with distance from its source. This phenomenon is described by the inverse square law, which states that intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the flash-to-subject distance. For example: • light at 2x the distance is 1/4 as bright as at the source (two stops); • light at 4x the distance is 1/16 as bright as at the source (four stops); • light at 5x the distance is 1/25 as bright as at the source (approx. 4.5 stops).

Not all calculations are so straightforward. At 6 feet, for example: 64/6=10.66, but this doesn’t correspond to an exact aperture. You should thus choose the closest matching f-number (f/stop), in this case f/11. This might seem confusing, but makes sense when compared to our other results, as f/11 for 5 feet lies between f/16 for 4 feet and f8 for 6 feet.

You therefore have to take into account both the intensity of the flash and the distance from flash to subject. To calculate the aperture setting for the correct exposure, divide the guide number by the measured distance from the flash to subject (read from the distance scale on the camera’s focusing ring, once focused).

For example, if the GN of a flash unit at ISO 100 is 64 feet, for a subject at 4 feet the aperture would be f/16 (64/4=16); for a subject at 8 feet, the aperture would be f/8 (64/8=8); and so on.

Shutter speed used with flash is assumed to be the sync speed (the fastest shutter speed you can use with flash) for the particular camera you are using (usually 1/60 or 1/125 with a focal-plane shutter camera, but any speed for an electronic flash with a leaf shutter camera; the faster the better if you plan on freezing motion). Some automatic cameras can automatically set the aperture according to the distance of the subject in focus. They may also prevent the shutter from firing if the subject is too close to or too far from the flash, which would result in overexposed or underexposed images. It is worth noting that the actual range of a flash will change according to the environment and the ambient light. A small room with white walls and ceiling will reflect and therefore intensify the light from the flash. Conversely, the light from the flash will fall off in an expansive hall, so the resulting exposure of a subject at the same distance and therefore with the same GN could render different results in different environments.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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095

Flash Sync(hronization)

063 119 067 068 119

Some flashes have a delay (time lag) before reaching the peak of their light output. To function properly, flashes therefore need to be synchronized precisely to the opening of the shutter. When using a flash with a leaf shutter rangefinder, it is important to select the correct setting for full synchronisation at all shutter speeds. The flash setting selector should be changed to M, F, or X, according to the flash type. Unless you have found some obsolete bulbs at auction, it’s more than likely today that you will be using an electronic flash (X).

Note that leaf shutters have an extra speedgoverning mechanism which synchronizes delay at the M and F positions. This mechanism can put stress on the shutter, but it is not engaged at the X position. The shutter can therefore be saved from extra wear by keeping the flash setting selector at X.

M (medium) flash bulbs Twenty-millisecond delay between the start of the flash and the shutter opening fully, to allow the bulb to reach peak brightness before exposing the film.

Leaf Shutters Rangefinder Focal-Plane Shutters Shutter Speed Rangefinders & SLRs

Focal-plane shutter cameras may have another flash setting labelled FP, for focal plane flash or flat-peak bulbs, designed specifically for use with focal-plane shutters. They only generally sync with the flash at one or two shutter speeds, commonly 1/60 or 1/125; this is the sync speed. The sync speed is the fastest shutter speed that can be used with flash. On an SLR it is often highlighted in red on the shutter speed dial.

F (fast) flash bulbs Five-millisecond delay between the start of the flash and the shutter opening fully, to allow the bulb to reach peak brightness before exposing the film. X (xenon) electronic flash Zero time delay; flash responds instantly and coincides exactly when the shutter is fully open.

096

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

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097

098

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Flash Connections

Accessory Shoe & Hot Shoe Common up until the 1970s, an accessory shoe, or cold shoe, is a square panel, generally found on the top of the camera, to which accessories, such as the flash, light meter, or special viewfinder, can be attached. There is no electronic connection between the accessory and the camera; a flash can be mounted to the camera and connected electronically via a cable. A hot shoe looks the same as an accessory shoe but has a metal contact point in the center used for flash synchronization. When a flash is attached it completes a circuit that fires the flash when the shutter is released. There is no need for a cable in this case. More complex contacts allow for more advanced communication between the camera and the accessory.

SPEEDS & EXPOSURE

Flash Unit Connector Socket (PC Socket) A PC Socket (or synchroflash socket) is often found on the body of pre-hot shoe cameras. It was introduced in the 1950s by two German leaf shutter manufacturers (Prontur-Compur) as a standardized way to synchronize their shutters with a flash via a sync cable. It is still featured on some modern cameras and is mainly used to fire a studio flash that isn’t mounted directly to the camera. Some cameras will feature multiple PC sockets, each labeled for a specific type of flash.

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099

100 –115

EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED

DISTANCE

DEPTH OF FIELD

102

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

047 045 043 048 106

Focal Plane f/stop Aperture Focal Length Bokeh

When a subject is brought into sharp and accurate focus, the lens generates a zone extending in front of and behind the subject plane (parallel to the focal plane) within which all objects will register sharply and clearly on the film. This zone is called the “depth of field.” Sometimes you will want everything in the foreground and background in focus. Sometimes you will want a subject in the foreground to be in focus while keeping a busy background out of focus.

Depth of Field

Depth-of-field tables help calculate this effect, but they vary according to the specific focal length of a lens (the shorter the focal length, the more depth of field; the longer the focal length, the shallower the depth of field). As a simple guide, remember that the larger the aperture and the closer the focal distance, the shallower the depth of field. Stopping down to smaller apertures increases the depth of field (or focusing tolerance). Depth of field is greater beyond the point of focus than in front.

f/stops are the main factor that controls this effect, with blurring most apparent at large apertures. Small apertures keep more of the frame in focus than larger apertures. For example, f/16 will keep most if not all of the image in focus. f/2 will keep just the subject plane in focus, leaving the rest of the image blurred.

EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED

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103

FOCUSING RING

APERTURE RING

NEAR LIMIT

FAR LIMIT

DISTANCE SCALE

DEPTH-OF-FIELD SCALE

INDEX MARK

104

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

103 Depth of Field 043 Aperture 045 f/stop

Depth-of-Field Scale

Depending on the distance from the camera to the subject, the depth of field for a given aperture size is indicated on the depth-of-field scale. A stationary marking adjacent to the distance scale on the focusing ring, the depth-of-field scale features f-numbers that radiate out from a central index mark. When you refer to this scale after bringing the subject into focus, the depth of field is the distance range bracketed by the aperture value in use.

An alternative technique is to use the scale to identify an f/stop, which puts the depth of field wherever you want it:

In the example to the left, the index mark indicates that the lens is focused at 15 feet. With the aperture set to f/8, the depth-of-field scale shows that everything from approximately 10 to 30 feet will register sharply. All objects not closer than 12 feet nor farther than 22 feet will register sharply at f/4, and at f/16 the depth of field will be greatly extended so that everything from 9 feet away to infinity will be reproduced sharply and clearly.

EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED

1. Focus on the nearest subject you want sharp, and note the distance indicated on the distance scale of your lens. 2. Do the same for the farthest object you want sharp. 3. Turn the focusing collar until the near and far distances you noted bracket the same f/stop indicator lines on either side of the distance index mark on the depth-of-field scale. Set the lens to the aperture that corresponds to those marks for the best overall sharpness for the zone you chose.

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105

Bokeh

103 Depth of Field

Bokeh is often confused as being the same as depth of field. Bokeh (Japanese for “blur”) is actually used to refer to the aesthetic quality of the blurred areas of the image that lie outside the depth of field. Each lens will render its own unique bokeh that is dependent on the lens’s inherent aberrations and the shape of its aperture.

106

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

068 Shutter Speed 119 Rangefinders & SLRs 048 Focal Length

Motion Blur / Apparent Subject Motion

There are times when you will want to freeze the motion of a moving subject; at others, you may want to exaggerate movement by recording motion blur. Decisions about these matters are related to apparent subject motion. This is controlled by the shutter speed. Faster shutter speeds stop action better than slower speeds. 1/500 second will stop most motion, while 1/15 second will blur even slow-moving subjects. Motion is best recorded when using a tripod, as the blur of the moving subject contrasts with the static content which remains sharp. Motion blur can also refer to an unintentional and therefore undesirable effect created in an image as a result of movement of the camera (either from unsteady handling or as the result of the mirror slap of an SLR) rather than the movement of the subject. This can be avoided by setting the shutter speed no slower than the closest reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in use; for example, a 55mm lens set to at least 1/60.

EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED

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107

Bokeh

108

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Motion Blur / Apparent Subject Motion

SECTION TITLE

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109

Sharpest Aperture

043 103 113 111 155 045 068

Lens performance varies according to aperture. When wide open, lenses are subject to depth of field and vignetting; when they are fully closed they suffer from loss of sharpness due to diffraction. The sharpest aperture is not the aperture that records the most evenly sharp image, but the aperture at which the lens is able to resolve the most fine detail—its “resolving power.” A high resolving power records more visible image detail; the finer and more distinguishable the detail, the higher the resolution and the sharper the image.

As previously stated, when comparing apertures there are other factors to take into account. Depth of field is deeper at smaller apertures, so at f/16, for example, a scene will be in focus all the way to the corners. On the other hand, diffraction becomes a problem at smaller apertures, so although the image appears to be in focus throughout the frame at f/16, its sharpest point, the center is not as sharp as the center of a photo of the same scene taken with a larger aperture. The photo taken at the larger aperture will not, however, be in focus throughout the frame and will get increasingly soft away from the focal plane as the depth of field gets shallower. Vignetting common at large apertures will add to this effect of softness in the corners.

A lens does not uniformly record a single resolution. Depending on the aperture setting and where in the frame it is recorded, resolution will vary considerably, with sharpness falling off from the center to the corners. Most lenses have the highest resolving power in the center of the frame, two stops above the widest aperture, through to two stops below the smallest aperture. The typical f/stop scale is: 2

2.8

4

5.6

8

11

16

For a camera with an f/stop scale as above, the sharpest image would come from f/4, f/5.6, and f/8, although the actual sweet spot will differ from lens to lens. Most lens tests record optimal resolving power at f/4 and f/5.6, but as a rough guide you can assume that the optical sharpness in the middle f/stop will be twice as sharp as the f/stops at either end of the scale.

110

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Aperture Depth of Field Vignetting Diffraction Resolution & Sharpness f/stop Shutter Speed

Larger apertures (but not fully open, where sharpness is reduced) will therefore record images that are sharp in the center but soft in the corners; smaller apertures will be evenly bright and sharp throughout the frame, but not as sharp as possible, due to diffraction. Note that maximum sharpness and maximum depth of field are therefore mutually exclusive. No matter how sharp the lens, resolution also depends on the film used, with slow, fine-grain films recording more information than fast films. Sharpness will also depend to an extent on shutter speed and camera steadiness, as even the slightest amount of camera shake will affect detail.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

043 Aperture & Diaphragm 110 Sharpest Aperture 054 Prime Lens

Diffraction

4

With small apertures the edges of the diaphragm blades can bend and disperse light waves just before they reach the film. This diffraction effect results in a loss of resolution and sharpness and is common at the two smallest f/stops of a lens.

5.6 2.8 8 2 11 16

16 11 8 5.6 4 2.8 2

This graph shows a sample result for a typical 1:2 45mm prime lens. The Y axis (vertical) is sharpness, excellent at the top and poor at origin. The X axis (horizontal) represents the center of the image at origin and extends to the image corners. The graph lines show that the lens wide open at f/2 is almost as sharp as f/8 in the center but deteriorates more dramatically towards the corners. Stopping down improves sharpness across the frame even at f/2.8. The resolving power of this lens is best at f/4, which gives the sharpest results, just above f/5.6. The images start to level off throughout the frame at f/11, but this is the point where diffraction starts to have an impact, and sharpness is worst at the smallest aperture, f/16.

EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED

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111

112

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

053 043 076 162

Angle of View Aperture Stops Filters

Vignetting

When more light reaches the center of the negative than reaches the periphery, the result is an image that is bright in the center but dark in the corners: a vignette. Vignetting is inherent to most lenses (especially lenses with a wide angle of view). It becomes most apparent when the aperture is wide open, but will disappear when it is set a stop or two down from maximum. The effect of this light falloff will largely go unnoticed, but is often visible when the subject being photographed has large solid areas of even color and brightness. In a very wide-angle lens, the falloff can leave the periphery two stops darker than the center. This can be corrected with a graduated neutral density filter, which is clear at the edges and darker at the center, ensuring the frame is evenly illuminated.

EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED

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113

114

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

092 103 107 043 068

Light Meters Depth of Field Motion Blur Aperture Shutter Speed

Priority

Aperture priority and shutter priority are semimanual (or semiautomatic) modes often featured on cameras with built-in light meters. They allow you creative control, prioritizing depth of field or motion blur while enabling you to be confident that the light meter will ensure a well-exposed image. Aperture-priority (A or Av [aperture value]) allows you to select an aperture manually, letting the camera’s exposure meter automatically determine the appropriate shutter speed to get the correct exposure. The main purpose of using aperturepriority is to control the depth of field. Shutter-priority (S or Tv [time value]) allows you to select the shutter speed manually, letting the camera’s exposure meter automatically determine the appropriate aperture to get the correct exposure. This allows you to quickly choose a fast shutter speed to capture action or a longer speed to achieve motion blur.

EFFECTS OF APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED

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115

116–149

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

RANGEFINDER CAMERA

VIEWFINDER WINDOW

VIEWFINDER

FILM

SLR CAMERA

ROOF PENTAPRISM VIEWFINDER

FOCUSING SCREEN

REFLEX MIRROR

FILM

DISTANCE BETWEEN REAR LENS ELEMENT AND FILM PLANE

118

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

127 129 047 124 123 063 107 067 096

Pentaprism Mirror & Roof Pentaprism Focal Plane Through the Lens Parallax Leaf Shutters Motion Blur Focal-Plane Shutters Flash Sync

A single lens reflex camera (SLR) uses a pentaprism and an angled mirror to redirect light up from the lens to the viewfinder, allowing the photographer to see precisely the image that the film will record. The word reflex refers to the mirror reflection and is derived from the German word reflexion. A lens will invert light both horizontally and vertically, so the mirror and pentaprism reinvert the image in the viewfinder, making it appear exactly as it is seen with the naked eye. These optics are housed in a mirror chamber between the rear of the lens and the focal plane and directly above this in the top of the camera body. This chamber takes up considerable space, increasing the size of the camera. When the shutter of an SLR is released, the mirror moves up out of the light path so the image can be directed onto the film. This causes the viewfinder to black out when you take a picture (mirror blackout), making it impossible to see the exact moment you capture on film. (The mirror isn’t in place to redirect the image into the viewfinder.) The movement of the mirror is called a slap. This is relatively noisy and causes the camera to shake, which can make an image blur at slower shutter speeds. Unlike an SLR, a rangefinder camera does not allow the photographer to look directly through the lens. Images are instead previewed through a viewfinder window usually found on the top right corner of the camera body when viewed from the front. (Assuming a dominant right eye, this is more comfortable for shooting with both eyes open.) A rangefinder’s simpler optical design requires less space than the pentaprism and mirror chamber of an SLR, and although the separation of viewfinder and lens can cause problems with framing the image (see parallax), the most noticeable benefit is in the size of the camera. Rangefinders are much smaller and lighter than most SLRs and hence

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

Rangefinders & SLRs

more portable. The lack of mirror chamber also improves the quality of image, as the lens can be mounted deeper into the camera body, shortening the distance between the rear lens element and the film. This means that the image can be projected from lens to film with minimum loss of color and detail, since light travels a much shorter path. With no moving mirror, a rangefinder doesn’t suffer from mirror slap, and the radial motion of a fixed-lens rangefinder’s leaf shutter induces less vibration than the lateral motion of a focal-plane shutter. This not only makes it quieter than an SLR, it makes it less susceptible to motion blur caused by camera shake, allowing the photographer to achieve sharp images with a handheld camera at slower shutter speeds. This also means that there is no mirror blackout in a rangefinder, so you can witness the decisive moment when the shutter is released: you are able to see if your subject moved and can be sure that you captured the image you were aiming for. Focal-plane shutters on SLRs (and interchangeable-lens rangefinders) are capable of much faster speeds than leaf shutters but cannot sync with a flash at all speeds. Because SLRs don’t have to compensate for parallax, they are generally capable of focusing much closer than rangefinders. The closest focusing distance on a rangefinder is around 3 feet, whereas an SLR with equivalent lens will be able to focus at least 1 foot closer. However, it’s much quicker to focus a rangefinder lens from the closest distance to infinity than it is with the equivalent SLR lens.

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119

DIRECT IMAGE THROUGH VIEWFINDER WINDOW

INDIRECT IMAGE THROUGH RANGEFINDER WINDOW

RANGEFINDER WINDOW

VIEWFINDER WINDOW

RANGEVIEWFINDER EYEPIECE

ROTATING MIRROR

BEAM SPLITTER

120

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

020 103 130 140 142

Distance Scale Depth of Field Viewfinder: Rangefinder Focusing a Rangefinder Double-Image focusing

Rangefinder / Coupled Rangefinder

The distance from the camera to the subject is the most important factor when focusing an image, and a rangefinder camera achieves sharp focus with a device that measures this distance: a rangefinder. This rangefinder is usually coupled to the focusing mechanism of the camera (coupled rangefinder). The backward and forward movement of the lens as it focuses is communicated by a lever to adjust the rangefinder optics, allowing you to focus accurately on a subject in the viewfinder simply by operating the focusing lever of the lens. Once focused, the distance to the subject in focus can be read on the distance scale on the lens. This is valuable when calculating depth of field and determining flash exposures. Rangefinder designs will vary from camera to camera. The key components are the rotating mirror (or rotating prism) and the beam splitter (a half-silvered mirror that reflects light and also allows light to pass through it). The rotating mirror reflects the image from the rangefinder window into the beam splitter, which reflects it into the viewfinder without obstructing the view through the viewfinder window. This is what creates the double-image focusing patch in a camera with a combined range-viewfinder eyepiece. The image is focused when the two images coincide.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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121

1 2

2

1

SEEN IN VIEWFINDER

122

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RECORDED BY LENS

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

119 Rangefinder 130 Viewfinder 139 Frame Lines

Parallax

Parallax describes the difference between what is seen in the viewfinder and what the lens records on film. This difference is caused by the separation between the viewfinder and the picture-taking lens on a rangefinder camera.

Parallax Compensation To combat parallax error, some rangefinder cameras have automatic parallax compensation, where frame lines in the viewfinder move to reframe the image as the focus is adjusted. At close ranges, the frame lines in the viewfinder will shift toward the optical axis of the lens. Anything outside the frame lines will be cropped. In some cases the area of the frame even contracts very slightly to match the narrowing of the picture angle as the distance between lens and film is increased.

This means that rangefinder cameras aren’t fully “what you see is what you get” because the image is framed with the viewfinder while the photo is taken with the lens, which is typically a few inches below and to the side. This parallax error is most evident at close distances and is the reason that most rangefinder lenses cannot focus closer than 3 feet. Any distance closer than this would differ dramatically from what the lens sees, resulting in unpredictable framing of photographs. In the example to the left (shown reversed from the front of the camera) frame 1 illustrates what is seen in the viewfinder, and frame 2 shows what is seen by the lens, highlighting the discrepancy between what is framed and what is recorded with no compensation for parallax.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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123

TTL / Through the Lens

119 092 130 123

TTL—a term most commonly associated with single lens reflex (SLR) cameras—is used to refer to incamera exposure metering and viewfinder designs that preview the image directly through the lens.

Analog TTL viewfinders employ a special optical design that enables you to see precisely the image that will be recorded through the lens: what you see is what you get. This is desirable because it eliminates parallax inherent to rangefinder cameras. This is caused by framing an image through a viewfinder window that is separated from the lens.

TTL metering is provided by cameras that have a light sensor inside the camera body behind the lens. Light levels from the scene are therefore measured precisely through the lens, as opposed to a separate metering window. Cameras with light meters mounted to the body of the camera are less precise as they can be affected by stray light.

124

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Rangefinders & SLRs Light Meters Viewfinders Parallax

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

119 129 127 124 107

SLR Mirror & Roof Pentaprism Pentaprism Through the Lens Motion Blur

This is a feature of some SLRs. When the MLU switch is turned, the mirror is locked in an up position to prevent it from coming into contact with the rear element of ultra wide-angle lenses, which physically project into the interior of the camera. The mirror must be locked up prior to mounting such lenses and then kept up in order to prevent damage to the lens and camera. The MLU switch operates independently of the shutter release and film advance, and it can therefore be activated at any time. The mirror returns to its usual operation when the lock switch is returned to its original position. With the mirror locked in an up position, the subject is no longer visible through the viewfinder eyepiece (which blacks out). This is because the mirror isn’t in the correct position to reflect light from the lens up to the pentaprism. For the same reason, a TTL light meter will not operate when the mirror is locked up.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

MLU / Mirror Lock-Up

The up position of the mirror is the position the mirror flips to in order to clear the light-path just before the shutter opens to expose the film. The mirror can therefore be locked up—once the image has been composed and focused with the camera steady or on a tripod—in order to eliminate the effect of motion blur caused by mirror slap. In some vintage SLRs the mirror may fail to return to its standard position after the shutter has been fired, causing the viewfinder to black out. This may be because the mirror sticks to a degraded foam bumper when flipped up, or because the mirror return mechanism needs adjustment by a professional. However, it is possible to return the mirror to a down position manually by using the MLU control (thus restoring vision to the eyepiece).

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125

PENTAPRISM

ROOF PENTAPRISM

126

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

119 SLR 124 Through the Lens 129 Mirror & Roof Pentaprism

Pentaprism & Roof Pentaprism

A pentaprism is what allows the user of an SLR to see directly through the lens (TTL) in the viewfinder. On its own, a camera lens renders an image that is both vertically inverted and laterally reversed. While the mirror of a reflex camera reinverts it vertically, the image is left laterally reversed. A regular pentaprism is a five-sided optical glass element that is used to deviate a beam of light by 90 degrees. The beam reflects inside the prism twice, allowing the transmission of an image through a right angle without reversing it. SLR cameras therefore require a variant of a pentaprism which will not only deviate light by 90 degrees but also reverse it laterally (left-right). The roof pentaprism does this by replacing one of the flat reflective surfaces with a roof section, two additional surfaces angled toward each other and meeting at 90 degrees. Combined with the mirror this allows light from the lens to be reflected into an eye-level viewfinder with the picture appearing the normal way to the photographer (illustrated on the following page). This avoids the problem suffered by the twin-lensreflex viewfinder system, which has the image laterally reversed, making framing difficult and following a moving subject confusing. The signature bump on top of an SLR is where the pentaprism is housed.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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127

128

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Mirror & Roof Pentaprism

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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129

Viewfinder: Rangefinder

119 140 142 139 123 092 077

The viewfinder of a rangefinder camera is an optical system that is not connected to the lens. When looking into the viewfinder eyepiece you see through the viewfinder window directly opposite. With an SLR, by contrast, you see directly through the picture-taking lens.

To get an idea of the mechanics of the combined range-viewfinder system, if you cover the rangefinder window from the front while looking through the eyepiece, you will see the focusing spot disappears from the viewfinder. Likewise, if you cover the viewfinder window while looking through the eyepiece, you will see only the focusing patch.

Next to the viewfinder eyepiece—used for framing the image—early rangefinder cameras had a separate rangefinder eyepiece for focusing the image. But it is fairly rare to find a camera with two separate eyepieces, as they are much more commonly combined into one range-viewfinder eyepiece. The view from the rangefinder is superimposed into the center of the viewfinder via a series of prisms or mirrors, allowing you to compose and focus your picture in one go. The shape seen from the front in the center of the rangefinder window is the shape that you see as a double-image focusing spot in the rangeviewfinder eyepiece.

130

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Rangefinders & SLRs Focusing a Rangefinder Double-Image Focusing Spot Frame Lines Parallax Light Meter Exposure

In most cameras with a combined range-viewfinder eyepiece you will also see frame lines that indicate the area that will be recorded on your film. These may move when focus is adjusted to compensate for parallax. If the camera has a built-in light meter, there will also be an exposure scale with a meter needle.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

119 124 129 141 068 092

Rangefinders & SLRs Through the Lens Mirror & Roof Pentaprism Focusing an SLR Shutter Speed Light Meter

Viewfinder: SLR

In the viewfinder of an SLR, you see directly through the lens via the mirror and roof pentaprism housed in the body. There is no viewfinder window on the front of the body, as the lens itself is the window. This means that you see exactly the image that the lens will record. Not just the exact composition and framing but the exact point-ofview and the exact perspective: what you see is what you get. In the center of the viewfinder is a focusing area. You may also be able to see a shutter speed scale, and if the camera has a built-in light meter, there will be an exposure scale as well.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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131

Viewfinder: Rangefinder

PARALLAX CORRECTION

OVEREXPOSURE MARK

FOCUSING SPOT

VIEWFINDER FRAME

METER NEEDLE UNDEREXPOSURE MARK

EXPOSURE SCALE

132

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Viewfinder: SLR

OVEREXPOSURE MARK

FOCUSING SPOT

METER NEEDLE UNDEREXPOSURE MARK

SHUTTER SPEED SCALE

EXPOSURE SCALE

There are many different viewfinder layouts that vary depending on the manufacturer and year the camera was made. These illustrations are generic examples to demonstrate possible features and may not be exactly what you see in your viewfinder.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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133

Viewfinder: Rangefinder

134

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Viewfinder: SLR

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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135

Viewfinder: Half Frame

PARALLAX CORRECTION

OVEREXPOSURE MARK

VIEWFINDER FRAME

METER NEEDLE UNDEREXPOSURE MARK

EXPOSURE SCALE ZONE FOCUS ICONS

136

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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137

Viewfinder Magnification & Brightness

Magnification refers to how big the image seen in the viewfinder appears. For cameras with changeable lenses, it is specified for a normal 50mm lens focused at infinity. A magnification of 1x would be the same as you see with the naked eye. Higher magnifications give a bigger image in the viewfinder and greater focusing precision, but it can be hard to see the whole frame and in-viewfinder readings without shifting your gaze within the viewfinder. Most viewfinders actually make things appear smaller than they are when seen with the naked eye. A viewfinder that has 0.65x magnification makes objects appear approximately two-thirds of the size they appear in reality. Some rangefinders with interchangeable lenses are able to increase magnification in the viewfinder by up to 1.5x, to increase accuracy and ease of focusing. Adjustable magnification in the viewfinder is also employed to change the field of view (or the frame lines) to optimize for the different focal length lenses that can be mounted, either within the viewfinder or with special viewfinder adapters. This is not an issue for fixed-lens cameras or SLRs.

138

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

119 048 123 092 043 082 077 068

Rangefinders & SLRs Focal Length Parallax Light Meter Aperture EV Exposure Shutter Speed

Bright Frame Viewfinder Brightness refers to how bright or dim the image appears in the viewfinder. A bright viewfinder is important as it allows you to frame and focus your image accurately, especially in low light conditions. Brightness isn’t measured or specified in user manuals, which might only read “bright viewfinder.” Viewfinder Frame Lines Rangefinder cameras may display a larger field of view through the viewfinder than is actually covered by the lens; i.e., it is larger than the image recorded on the film. The actual field covered by the lens is outlined in the viewfinder by bright frame lines (superimposed onto the viewfinder from the frame-illumination window). The excess image around the frame lines allows space for the lines to move within the frame to correct parallax while the frame lines allow pictures to be composed exactly to the edge of the frame. Anything that falls outside the frame lines will not be recorded in the image. A bonus of the excess is that it allows you to see moving subjects before they enter the frame.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

Viewfinder Readings Cameras that have a built-in light meter will display an exposure scale in the viewfinder on one of the four sides of the frame lines. This is most commonly found on the right-hand side, where a needle indicates the recommended aperture, EV, or an index mark against which the needle must be centered for the correct exposure. The scale is bracketed at either end by a marked zone that indicates when there is either too much or not enough light to expose the film properly. The selected shutter speed may also be visible in the viewfinder.

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139

Focusing a Rangefinder

Double-Image Focusing Spot / Patch (p. 142) When you look through the rangefinder (or rangeviewfinder eyepiece of a rangefinder camera) and adjust the focus, you see two images coinciding or separating within a comparatively bright spot (square, diamond, or rectangle) in the center of the frame. When focus is adjusted, one of the overlapping images will shift from side to side. When the camera is out of focus for a particular subject, a double image appears within this bright focusing spot. When the two images overlap perfectly and fuse into one sharp image, the subject is in focus.

140

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Focusing an SLR

Microprism (p. 144) With a microprism-focusing system, the subject is in focus when the image in the microprism spot in the center of the frame is clear and sharp. If your subject is not in focus, the microprism will break up the image into a grid of tiny fragments or triangles. Split-Image (p. 145) The split screen in the center of the framed image is a circle split horizontally into two halves. Similar to the double image focusing spot on a rangefinder, when the two image halves are perfectly aligned, the image is in focus. This is especially useful for a subject with vertical lines. It requires fairly fast lenses, as with slower lenses (f/4 and slower) it can be difficult to clearly define the two halves of the focusing image, especially in low light conditions. Split-Image Microprism (p. 146) Some lenses combine the two methods detailed above as a split-image circle with microprism ring/ collar, giving you the best of both worlds.

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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141

Rangefinder Double-Image Focusing Spot / Patch

Out of focus

142

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

In focus

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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143

SLR Microprism

Out of focus

In focus

144

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

SLR Split-image

Out of focus

In focus

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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145

SLR Split-Image Microprism

Out of focus

146

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

In focus

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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147

148

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

020 130 159 136

Distance Scale Viewfinder Full Frame & Half Frame Viewfinder: Half Frame

Zone Focusing

Zone focusing is a method of focusing by estimating the distance from the camera to the subject and setting the focus using a distance scale printed on the camera lens. It is most commonly used in candid photography where there is no time to set the focus through the viewfinder, or when shooting from the hip. Very compact cameras (especially half-frame) that focus manually (but that don’t have a precise method of adjusting focus in the viewfinder) may feature focus guides broken down into three or four distances and labeled with icons for ease of use. These values are specific to the focal length of the lens on which they are featured.

Icon Portrait Head–Hip Group Scenery

RANGEFINDERS & SLRs

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Distance Guide Close Close–Medium Medium Distant

149

150–175

FILM & FILTERS

152

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

159 Full Frame 154 Negative & Slide Film 075 Film Speed

35mm Film

Cameras for still photography were developed to take advantage of the flexibility and length of 35mm film—initially introduced for recording motion pictures—at the turn of the twentieth century. A large number of exposures could fit on each length of film and could be rolled tightly and compactly in the camera. In 1913 the frame size for still photography was set to 24×36 mm (the modern day full-frame format) and the first 35mm cameras were made available to the public with black-and-white film.

Kodachrome II (ASA 25), a faster (but still not particularly fast) and more versatile version of the original Kodachrome, came out in 1961, and although it made color photography more appealing to the general public, it still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions.

Although color photography is almost as old as black-and-white photography, it did not become widely available to the public until 1936 when Kodak introduced the first modern color film, Kodachrome (ASA 10), a 35mm positive slide film. Although it cost $3.50 a roll (the equivalent of $50 today), it became the first commercially successful amateur color film.

By 1970, prices had come down, film sensitivity had been improved, convenient electronic flash units were replacing flash bulbs, and color had become the norm for snapshots. It is testimony to the success of 35mm film that it remained, by far, the dominant film format until the advent of digital photography at the turn of the twenty-first century. It remains the most popular and accessible film for analog photography, although others are still available, including 120 film for medium format cameras, and large format sheet film.

In addition to being more expensive than blackand-white film, color film was very slow and often required the use of large and inconvenient flash bulbs. To get an idea of the disparity in film speed, Kodak introduced TRI-X, a high-speed 400 ASA 35mm black-and-white film in 1954. The comparatively slow Kodak High Speed Ektachrome 160 ASA became the fastest color film on the market when it was introduced five years later in 1959.

FILM & FILTERS

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153

Negative & Slide Film

077 Exposure 075 Film Speed 173 Conversion Filters

There are two basic types of photographic film: negative and slide. Negative film (the inverse of the actual image) is used to make positive color or black-and-white prints. Slide (reversal) film is generally only available in color and makes positive transparencies for projection.

Color films are color balanced for either daylight or tungsten light. Daylight film used in tungsten light produces images with a warm orange cast, while tungsten film used in daylight gives a blue cast. Conversion filters can be used to combat this, but ideally the correct film should be chosen to get true colors from the lighting. Black-and-white films work well with all common light sources.

Color negative film has the advantage of greater exposure latitude, which means you can over- or underexpose up to 3 stops and still get acceptable detail in prints, and it is available at higher speeds. With an exposure latitude of only 1 stop, slide film is far less forgiving but gives more faithful saturated color and higher contrast. It is generally slower so has less perceptible grain. Film grain or granularity is the random optical texture of photographic film and—depending on specific stock—becomes more noticeable as film speed is increased, especially in images with even or delicate tone.

154

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There are many different brands and types of slide and negative film; each will result in different picture qualities and characteristics.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

075 107 068 110

Film Speed Motion Blur Shutter Speed Sharpest Aperture

While the speed of the film will give an idea of sharpness, with slower films having finer grain, the quality will vary according to type, manufacturer, and specific product line. “Quality” is of course a subjective measure; what we are actually talking about is resolution, which is defined according to the film’s ability to resolve very fine detail: its “resolving power.” The higher the resolving power, the finer the detail; the higher the resolution, the sharper the image. (Different films will of course render images with different aesthetic qualities of color saturation, skin tones, contrast, grain, etc., of which sharpness may not be the most desirable, depending on the photographer’s preference.) The resolving power and potential resolution of a type of film is measured by its ability in the laboratory to record a distinguishable difference between microscopic pairs of adjacent light and dark lines of equal width in the space of one millimeter: line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm).

Resolution & Sharpness

In addition to speed, the price of film is a good guide to quality. Expensive professional films will generally be able to resolve many more lines than cheaper consumer films. The specified resolving power of film is, however, theoretical, as it has been recorded under perfect test conditions and does not in fact translate very well to real world conditions, where a plethora of other variables apply, such as focus, steadiness, shutter speed, aperture, lighting, and contrast. Taking all of the variables into account, you can most likely expect to achieve half of the potential resolution stated by the manufacturer of the film. Resolution depends on the combination of film and camera lens. In general, a very high quality lens will have a high resolving power but will not reach its potential if paired with a cheap film with a low resolving power: the lens will be limited by the quality of the film. Equally, there is little point using an expensive professional film with a poor quality lens that has a low resolving power.

A resolution of 50 lp/mm is made of 100 lines in total, 50 dark paired with 50 light. This may also be expressed as 50 lines per millimeter, 50 l/mm, a measure which only takes into account the dark lines.

FILM & FILTERS

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155

Processing Color Film

C-41 is the standard developing process for color negative film introduced by Kodak in 1972. It is the most popular film process and is commonly available at local shops and professional labs. The E-6 process is for developing color slide film. It used to be common but is now generally only provided by professional labs.

156

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

156 Processing Color Film 075 Film Speed 174 Filters for B&W

Processing Black-and-White Film

The black-and-white gelatin silver process, developed in the 1870s, remains the standard photographic process used with black-andwhite films and printing paper. Commercially it is now generally only provided by professional and specialized labs. However, with some basic equipment it is easy to process and print blackand-white film at home. Black-and-white chromogenic films allow you to shoot black-and-white images that can be developed conveniently with C-41 color processing and printed on color negative paper with a very slight sepia tint. These films are incredibly sharp with very fine grain—finer than the equivalent speed black-and-white film. The film responds in the same way as traditional black-and-white film when using color filters, and the negatives can be used to make prints on black-and-white paper in a home darkroom.

FILM & FILTERS

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157

Full frame

36mm 24mm

24/36 EXP

35mm

Half frame

18mm 24mm

158

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48/72 EXP

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

35mm

153 35mm Film 132 Viewfinder: Full Frame 136 Viewfinder: Half Frame

Full Frame & Half Frame

The name 35mm film comes from the physical width of the film and has nothing to do with the size of the image format(s) recorded on the film. For regular full-frame cameras using 35mm film, the image format is 36x24mm, with room for either 36 or 24 exposures per roll (this correspondence is purely coincidental, however). A half-frame camera uses an ordinary 135 film cartridge but fits two images in the place of one fullframe image. Half-frame cameras make 18x24mm exposures, effectively two portrait shots for every full-frame landscape, fitting twice as many pictures onto the film, i.e., 72 exposures on a 36-exposure roll, or 48 on a 24-exposure roll. The viewfinders are therefore portrait orientation as opposed to the landscape orientation of a full-frame camera. The half-frame format allowed manufacturers to build more compact cameras and offered consumers an alternative to other less common subminiature formats. Getting two shots for the price of one also provided consumers with an attractive economical option when the costs of using color film were still very high.

FILM & FILTERS

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159

Half-frame cameras make 18x24mm exposures, fitting twice as many pictures onto a roll of film: two portrait shots for every full-frame landscape, or, as in this case, two landscapes for every portrait.

160

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

FILM & FILTERS

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161

Filters

056 171 170 059 077

Filters are used to improve image quality by altering the properties of light that enters the camera lens. They can be used individually or as combinations to affect contrast, sharpness, highlights, reflections, colors, color balance, and light intensity.

Exposure Compensation Although all filters alter qualities of light, some have no effect on the amount of light that reaches the film. Others reduce the amount of light that reaches the film, in which case you must consider exposure compensation.

Coatings applied to filters (and lenses) enhance light transmission and reduce reflections that can lead to undesirable aberrations in an image. In general, light transmission improves as more layers of coating are applied. A multicoated filter is more effective than a single coated filter, which is far more effective than a filter with no coating at all. Filters are especially beneficial for older cameras with lenses that weren’t coated.

If using a light meter away from the lens, or calculating light readings manually, exposure should be increased according to the number of stops by which the filter reduces light, increasing either the aperture size or the exposure time. For example, if a filter reduces light by -2 stops, exposure should be increased +2 stops, back up to 0. If you are using a light meter that sits behind the filter, there is no need for compensation.

Coatings Skylight & Haze Filters UV Filters Lens Hoods Exposure Compensation

A filter such as a skylight or UV filter was commonly used primarily to protect the lens barrel, the front lens element, and its coating from dust, scratches, and other damage that could lead to costly repairs. A filter is much easier and cheaper to replace than a front-lens element, and vintage cameras found with a filter attached generally have well-preserved lenses. However, a cheap filter may have a negative effect on the optical performance of a finely tuned coated lens, in which case a suitable lens hood is a better option to protect the front of the lens from accidental impact. Filters generally screw into the front of the lens barrel and come in various sizes to match the thread of your lens. The size is indicated by the symbol ø and specified in millimeters.

162

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

FILM & FILTERS

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163

164

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

FILM & FILTERS

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165

Stepping Rings

162 Filters 059 Lens Hoods

A stepping ring is a (glassless) metal ring that enables you to use filters and lens hoods that have a different diameter thread size than the lens on which you want to mount them. They are available as both step-up rings and step-down rings and are especially useful if you have a lens with an uncommon thread size. If you have more than one camera, or have an interchangeable lens camera with more than one lens, the chances are their thread sizes (marked with ø and mm) are not all the same. Rather than buying the same filter for each of the thread sizes, however, you can buy one high-quality filter for the widest diameter thread size and several step-up rings (much cheaper than filters) to adapt the filter to lenses with smaller thread sizes. For example, someone with three lenses, each with a different thread size—58mm, 55mm, and 52mm, say—could get a filter for the widest diameter thread size, 58mm, and a pair of step-up rings, 55–58mm and 52–58mm, to attach the filter to the smaller thread sizes.

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

077 Exposure Compensation 124 Through the Lens 119 Rangefinders & SLRs

Polarizing Filters

Polarizers are universally popular filters and their main use is to eliminate unwanted reflections from surfaces such as water and glass. They also make images appear clearer, with better contrast and increased color saturation, without altering the overall color balance. Polarizing filters will also darken blue sky and enhance detail in clouds. Polarizers are available as linear (PL) and circular (CPL) and need approximately 2 stops of exposure compensation. Linear polarizers can cause errors with TTL light meters and autofocus systems, whereas circular polarizers do not. CPL filters are designed specifically for use with autofocus and TTL metering of SLRs. A CPL filter is made of two glass elements (a linear polarizer and quarter-wave plate), the front of which rotates 360°. Rotating it clockwise or counterclockwise changes the amount of polarization by allowing some rays through and blocking others. The effect of a CPL filter can be seen in the viewfinder of an SLR but not in the viewfinder of a rangefinder camera, for which PLs are better suited.

FILM & FILTERS

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167

Neutral Density (ND) Filters

043 068 077 103 107

Aperture Shutter Speed Exposure Depth of Field Motion Blur

Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the intensity of light entering the lens and modify all wavelengths equally, so there should be no change in rendition of color. They therefore allow larger apertures and/or longer shutter speeds to be used when they would otherwise result in overexposure, allowing more creative control over depth of field and recording motion in moving subjects. They are available at various strengths, indicated by the number after the ND: ND

2 (0.3)

ND

4 (0.6)

ND

8 (0.9)

ND 16 (1.2)

absorbs 1 stop of light absorbs 2 stop of light absorbs 3 stop of light absorbs 4 stop of light

Sample use: Using ISO 200 film with a maximum shutter speed of 1/500, it is impossible to achieve a shallow depth of field in a scene lit by full daylight. The biggest aperture you could use would be f/11 at 1/500. If you were to add an ND2 you could shoot at f/8, ND4 f/5.6, and with an ND8 filter you could open up to f/4 (3 stops from f/11). Likewise, instead of increasing aperture you could slow down the shutter speed to blur subjects in motion.

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

168 ND Filters 113 Vignetting 077 Exposure

Graduated ND Filters

Graduated ND filters, or “grads,” are ND filters that vary light transmission by having a certain area of the filter left clear. Split ND filters have the bottom half of the filter left clear to allow, for example, the top gray half to darken a bright sky that might otherwise blow out in a landscape photograph. It’s often possible to rotate these filters to control where the gray half lies in the frame. Center-spot filters that are gray in the center and clear at the edges can be used to compensate for vignetting by darkening the center of the frame to match the amount of light fall-off in the corners, thus evening out the exposure. Vignetting is common at large apertures. Center-spot filters that are dark at the edges and clear in the middle can be used to create a vignette effect or exaggerate it. Like ND filters, grads come in various strengths. They are also available as hard edge for abrupt changes in brightness, or soft edge for gradual changes.

FILM & FILTERS

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169

Ultraviolet (UV) Filters

077 Exposure 172 Color Balance 077 Exposure Compensation

Film is sensitive to UV rays in daylight that are invisible to the eye. UV filters are used to absorb these ultraviolet rays, which can give outdoor photographs a blue color cast and a low-contrast haze that diminishes detail. UV filters absorb the UV part of the spectrum without affecting exposure or the light that is visible to us. They create little to no change in color balance, and no exposure compensation is needed.

170

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

170 UV Filters 077 Exposure Compensation 154 Negative & Slide Film

Skylight & Haze Filters

Skylight filters give the same protection from UV rays as a UV filter, but due to their light pink color will offset stronger blues and produce a warmer picture tone. Skylight filters are available as 1(A) and 1(B), with (B) absorbing slightly more of the blue and violet spectrum. Neither has any effect on exposure, so no compensation is needed. Haze filters also absorb UV light, but they have a slight yellow color to warm the bluish cast of daylight. Haze filters also help cut down the atmospheric haze often seen in open landscapes. This haze can soften an image, especially objects seen in the distance. No exposure compensation is required. Both skylight and haze filters are especially useful when shooting slide films, which typically record images with a slight blue cast, especially in scenes shot in open shade.

FILM & FILTERS

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171

Color Balance

Daylight, incandescent, fluorescent, and other light sources all have color characteristics that vary significantly. The appearance of an object’s color is therefore affected by the lighting conditions under which it is viewed. Our eyes and our brain compensate for different types of light; for example, a white object appears white whether it’s viewed outside under the sun or inside under a light bulb. But color films need to be balanced to compensate for different types of lighting and to render not only whites as white (white balance) but to give the colors in an image the same appearance as they had in the original scene. Color films are optimized to remove specific color casts from images by neutralizing the particular color temperature of a light source. The color temperature of light is defined in degrees kelvin (K), which is the standard by which the varying hues of light sources can be compared. The two most common color-balanced film stocks are 5500K daylight (D), for use outdoors or with electronic flash, and 3200K tungsten (T), for ordinary household lighting.

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

172 Color Balance 077 Exposure Compensation

Conversion Filters 80 & 85

When the specific light balance of color film is improperly matched to a light source, the colors in the recorded image won’t match those of the original scene. In this case, color balancing, or conversion filters (available in varying tones—A, B, and C), can be used to correct differences in color temperature between the film and the light source. When color film balanced for daylight is used in tungsten light, the colors in the resulting image will have a yellow cast. This effect can be corrected with the use of a blue 80A filter, which will neutralize the yellow to give balanced color. Exposure should be increased two stops when using these filters. Conversely, color film balanced for tungsten light that is used in daylight will result in an image with a blue cast. In this scenario a yellow/orange 85B filter will neutralize the blue to result in a photo with true colors. Exposure should be increased one stop when using these filters. Daylight balanced film can be used under fluorescent light and with electronic flash, as they have a similar color cast (temperature).

FILM & FILTERS

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173

Filters for Black-and-White Film

Although we see colors such as red and green very distinctly, they often appear very similar in a black-and-white image. This can result in a flat photo where striking contrasts are lost in the translation to gray. This problem can be overcome with the use of color filters, which allow analogous colors of light through to the film and block out complementary (opposing) colors. In short, they lighten similar colors and darken opposite colors, allowing the photographer to exercise some selective control over tonal values. Although as a color photo a red flower on a background of green foliage has strong chromatic contrast, as a black-and-white photo the flower and foliage will convert to a similar gray, so the flower will lack definition and blend in with the background. If a red filter were used, it would allow the red light through the lens but block the green, resulting in a light flower on dark foliage. If a green filter were used, it would do the opposite, admitting the green and blocking the red light, rendering the foliage a light gray and the flower

174

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a dark gray. Both filters create tonal differences and restore contrast between the subject and background. Yellow filters are the classic choice for use with black-and-white film. They lighten warm colors; darken cold, blue-based colors; and generally make everything, especially skin tones, look more natural. There is a large number of color filters available, and their effects can be estimated from their relative position on the color spectrum. For example, orange sits between yellow and red in the spectrum, and orange filters are in the middle of yellow and red filters in terms of effect. Orange filters give stronger effects than those given by yellow filters, but the results are not as dramatic as those given by red filters. Red filters are fairly extreme and will render a blue sky close to black. Opposite are details of the exposure compensation needed and the effects of the main color filters used with black-and-white film.

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Lightens warm colors, darkens blues, and prevents bright whites from blowing out; a subtle effect

YELLOW (1 stop)

Lightens greens and darkens blues and reds

GREEN (2 stops)

Lightens reds and dramatically darkens blues and greens to very dark gray

RED (3 stops)

FILM & FILTERS

||||||||||

175

176 –191

176

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

APPENDIX & INDEX

SECTION TITLE

||||||||||

177

178

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Camera Care & Storage

Care Always keep the camera eyepiece and lens as clean as possible and try to avoid touching them. Never try to wipe dirt off the lens, as it may scratch. To remove any loose dust or dirt always use a blower and then a fine, soft hairbrush. Once the lens is free of dust and dirt, use a lens tissue or clean soft cloth to gently wipe the surface from the center outward. If marks prove stubborn, breathing on the lens prior to wiping can be effective, but be sure to wipe all moisture away completely. External camera surfaces may be cleaned with a soft linen or silicone cloth. Avoid touching the mirror or shutter curtains (if the camera has them). For cameras with cloth curtains, keep the lens cap on at all times except when actually taking a picture. Extended exposure to direct sunlight may burn a hole in your shutter curtain.

APPENDIX & INDEX

Storage While not in use for a month or more, store the camera in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated place, away from bright sunshine and humidity. Set the distance scale of the lens to infinity and release the shutter. The shutter and self-timer should not be kept in a wound position for any length of time, as this can cause stress on the mechanisms. Remove the battery, if your camera has one, to assure that it doesn’t lose power or, worse, leak while not in use. Put the camera in its case, and if possible store it in the original packaging or airtight container with a small bag of silica gel (drying agent) to prevent damage from moisture and humidity. When not in use, lenses not mounted on the camera should be capped front and back, and stored as outlined above.

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179

Aperture Area Calculation

if F/STOP = FOCAL LENGTH ÷ DIAMETER then DIAMETER = FOCAL LENGTH ÷ F/STOP RADIUS = DIAMETER ÷ 2 π= 3.142 AREA OF CIRCLE = π × RADIUS2

043 090 182 184

Aperture Double & Half Stopping Down ½ Stopping Up ×2

EXAMPLE: APERTURE AREAS OF 45mm LENS – 45mm f/2.8 DIAMETER = 45 ÷ 2.8 = 16 RADIUS = 16 ÷ 2 = 8 AREA = π × 82 = 200 – 45mm f/4 DIAMETER = 45 ÷ 4 = 11.2 RADIUS = 11.25 ÷ 2 = 5.6 AREA=π × 5.6252 = 100 – 45mm f/5.6 DIAMETER = 45 ÷ 5.6 = 8 RADIUS = 8 ÷ 2 = 4 AREA = π × 42 = 50 – 45mm f/8 DIAMETER = 45 ÷ 8 = 5.6 RADIUS = 5.6 ÷ 2 = 2.8 AREA = π × 2.82 = 25 – etc...

Each stop down the area of the aperture is exactly half that of the previous stop. Each stop up the area of the aperture is exactly double that of the previous stop.

180

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ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

Angle-of-View Calculation

053 Angle of View 159 Full Frame & Half Frame

FOCAL LENGTH

AOV = 2 × Arctan((d ÷ 2) ÷ f)

EXAMPLE 1: AOV FOR 45mm LENS & full-frame 35mm 35mm full-frame FORMAT = 36 x 24mm FORMAT DIAGONAL = d d = √w2 + l2 d = √362 + 242 d = 43.3mm FOCAL LENGTH = f f = 45mm

FORMAT DIAGONAL

AOV = 2 × Arctan((43.3÷2)÷45) = 51.4°

EXAMPLE 2: AOV FOR 45mm LENS & half-frame 35mm 35mm half-frame FORMAT = 18x24mm FORMAT DIAGONAL = d d = √w2 + l2 d = √182 + 242 d = 30mm FOCAL LENGTH = f f = 45mm AOV = 2 × Arctan((30 ÷ 2) ÷ 45) = 37°

APPENDIX & INDEX

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181

Each stop down represents half as much exposure as the previous stop.

Stopping Down ½

½ BETWEEN EACH STOP APERTURE

½ 2

•

½ 2.8

•

½ 4

•

½ 5.6

•

½ 8

•

½ 11

•

STOPS

•

•

•

•

•

•

No. OF STOPS

1

2

3

4

5

6

½ TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

1/2

1/22

1/23

1/24

1/25

1/26

TOTAL FRACTION

1/2

1/4

1/8

1/16

1/32

1/64

½ BETWEEN EACH STOP

½

½

½

½

½

½

SHUTTER SPEED

8

•

15

•

30

•

60

•

125

•

250

•

STOPS

•

•

•

•

•

•

No. OF STOPS

1

2

3

4

5

6

½ TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

1/2

1/22

1/23

1/24

1/25

1/26

TOTAL FRACTION

1/2

1/4

1/8

1/16

1/32

1/64

½ BETWEEN EACH STOP

½

½

½

½

½

½

FILM SPEED

1600

•

800

•

400

•

200

•

100

•

50

•

STOPS

•

•

•

•

•

•

No. OF STOPS

1

2

3

4

5

6

½ TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

1/2

1/22

1/23

1/24

1/25

1/26

TOTAL FRACTION

1/2

1/4

1/8

1/16

1/32

1/64

182

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

16

500

25

It’s easy to halve between adjacent stops, but if you want to find the difference between multiple stops, you don’t want to have to halve the value, then halve it again, and again, and again.

½ 2

•

½ 2.8

•

An easy way to remember is to count the number of stops between the settings and use the total as the power to 1/2. For example, 4 stops = 1/2 to the power of 4 = 1/16. Stopping down by 4 stops is 1/16 the amount of light as the stop you started at.

½ 4

•

½ 5.6

•

½ 8

•

½ 15

•

•

800

•

•

60

11

•

16

•

APERTURE STOPS

4

No. OF STOPS

1/24

½ TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

1/16

TOTAL FRACTION

½ 125

•

•

½ BETWEEN EACH STOP

½ 250

•

500

•

SHUTTER SPEED STOPS

5

No. OF STOPS

1/25

½ TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

1/32

TOTAL FRACTION

½ 400

•

•

½ BETWEEN EACH STOP

½

•

½

•

½

•

APPENDIX & INDEX

30

8

•

½

•

½ 1600

•

•

½

Using this theory we can see in the examples below that: f/16 is 1/16 the size of f/4; 250 is 1/32 as long as 8; ISO 100 is 1/8 as sensitive as ISO 800.

• •

½ 200

•

½ 100

•

•

½ BETWEEN EACH STOP

½ 50

•

25

FILM SPEED STOPS

3

No. OF STOPS

1/23

½ TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

1/8

TOTAL FRACTION

||||||||||

183

Each stop up represents twice as much exposure as the previous stop

Stopping Up ×2

×2 BETWEEN EACH STOP APERTURE

×2

16

•

×2

11

•

×2

8

•

×2

5.6

•

×2

4

•

×2

2.8

•

STOPS

•

•

•

•

•

•

No. OF STOPS

1

2

3

4

5

6

×2 TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

2

22

23

24

25

26

TOTAL MULTIPLICATION

×2

×4

×8

×16

×32

×64

×2 BETWEEN EACH STOP

×2

×2

×2

×2

×2

×2

SHUTTER SPEED

500

•

250

•

125

•

60

•

30

•

15

•

STOPS

•

•

•

•

•

•

No. OF STOPS

1

2

3

4

5

6

×2 TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

2

22

23

24

25

26

TOTAL MULTIPLICATION

×2

×4

×8

×16

×32

×64

×2 BETWEEN EACH STOP

×2

×2

×2

×2

×2

×2

FILM SPEED

25

•

50

•

100

•

200

•

400

•

800

•

STOPS

•

•

•

•

•

•

No. OF STOPS

1

2

3

4

5

6

×2 TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

2

22

23

24

25

26

TOTAL MULTIPLICATION

×2

×4

×8

×16

×32

×64

184

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

2

8

1600

It's easy to double between adjacent stops, but if you want to find the difference between multiple stops, you don't want to have to double the value, then double it again, and again, and again.

×2

16

•

×2

11

•

•

×2

8

•

×2

500

•

•

•

×2

5.6

•

×2

250

An easy way to remember is to count the number of stops between the settings and use the total as the power to 2. For example, 5 stops = 2 to the power of 5 = 1/32. Stopping up 5 stops is 32 times the amount of light or exposure as the stop you started at.

•

25

•

×2

50

• •

APPENDIX & INDEX

• •

2.8

•

•

2

•

APERTURE STOPS No. OF STOPS

26

×2 TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

×64

TOTAL MULTIPLICATION

×2

60

•

×2

30

•

×2

100

•

×2 BETWEEN EACH STOP

×2

6

•

×2

4

•

×2

125

•

×2

Using this theory we can see in the examples below that: f/2 is 64 times the size of f/16; 15 is 8 times as long as 125; ISO 1600 is 32 times more sensitive than ISO 50.

15

•

8

•

SHUTTER SPEED STOPS

3

No. OF STOPS

23

×2 TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

×8

TOTAL MULTIPLICATION

×2

200

•

×2 BETWEEN EACH STOP

×2

• •

×2

400

• •

×2 BETWEEN EACH STOP

×2

800

• •

1600

FILM SPEED STOPS

5

No. OF STOPS

25

×2 TO THE POWER OF No. OF STOPS

×32

TOTAL MULTIPLICATION

||||||||||

185

186

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

INDEX

18x24mm. See half frame 35mm 153, 159 36x24mm. See full frame 135. See 35mm A / Av. See aperture priority aberrations 039, 054, 055, 162 American Standards Association. See ASA angle of view 041, 048, 053, 055, 059 AOV 041, 053 aperture 041, 043, 054, 105 sharpest 110 aperture area 045, 180 aperture priority 092, 115 aperture ring 021 apparent subject motion 107 ASA 075 back cover release 020 release / lock 021 background compression 049, 050 base plate 022 beam splitter 121 Beliebig 069 black-and-white 153, 154, 157, 174 black-and-white chromogenic 157 blackout 119 mirror 119 viewfinder 119 blur. See motion blur bokeh 106 bulb (B) 069

coatings 056, 162 color balance 154, 172, 173 daylight 154, 172, 173 fluorescent 172 incandescent 172 tungsten 172 color photography 153 color temperature 172, 173 conversion filters 154, 173 cos4. See cosine fourth law coupled 092 coupled rangefinder 121 CPL 167. See curtains 067 darkroom 157 degrees kelvin (K) 172 degrees of arc. See angle of view depth of field 082, 103, 105, 106, 110, 115, 168 depth-of-field scale 020, 105 Deutsches Institut für Normung. See DIN diaphragm 021, 043, 111 diaphragm stop-down button 023 diffraction 111 DIN 075 distance scale 020, 105, 149 double & half 090, 180 film speed 075 f/stop 045 shutter speed 068 stops 076 double-image focusing spot 140, 142

C-41 156, 157 cadmium-sulfide 092 camera care 179 cartridge chamber 021 CdS. See cadmium-sulfide

E-6 156 elements 039, 056 equivalent exposure 077 equivalent value 082

APPENDIX & INDEX

||||||||||

187

EV 082, 085 exposure 077, 082, 085, 093 cumulative 080 multiple 080 over 077 under 077 value 077, 082 exposure compensation 077, 093, 162 exposure counter 020 eyepiece 130 range-viewfinder 130 viewfinder 130 F 096 falloff 095, 113 fast lens 041, 054 fast speed dial 070 field-of-view 053, 138, 139 film 153 35mm 153, 159 black-and-white 154 color 154, 172 color balance 154, 172 full frame 159 grain 154 half frame 159 negative & slide 154 processing 156 tungsten 154 white balance 172 film advance lever 020 film catch 020 film chamber 021 film guide 021 film load window 022 film plane mark 047 film pressure plate 022 film rewind button 022, 081 film rewind crank 020 film speed 075, 153, 154 film speed dial 022 film speed set lever 022 film take up spool 021 film type indicator 022 film winding knob 020 filters 113, 162 80 & 85 173 center-spot 169 conversion 154, 173 for black & white film 174 graduated ND 169 graduated neutral density 113, 169 green 174 haze 171 multicoated 162 neutral density 168 orange 174 polarizing 167 188

||||||||||

red 174 skylight 162, 171 split ND 169 ultraviolet (UV) 170 UV 162 yellow 174 fixed focal length 054 flash 095 bulb 095 clipping 067 electronic 095 flash connections 099 flash sync 063, 067, 096, 119 F 096 FP 096 M 096 X 096 flower. See tulip fluorescent 172 f-number 043, 045 focal length 041, 045, 048, 050, 053, 054 fixed 054 variable 055 focal plane 039, 047, 067 focal plane mark 047, 048 focal-plane shutters 063, 067, 096, 119 focusing 140 double-image 140, 142 microprism 141, 144 rangefinder 140 SLR 141 split-image 141, 145 split-image microprism 141, 146 split-screen 145 split-screen microprism 146 zone 149 focusing ring 022 focusing tolerance 103 FP 096 frame lines 123, 139 f/stop 043, 045, 090 full frame 053, 134, 159 fungus 057 gelatin silver process 157 GN. See guide number grads. See graduated ND filters graduated ND filters 113, 169 center-spot 169 hard edge 169 soft edge 169 split 169 grain 154 green filter 174 groups 039 guide number 095 half frame 053, 135, 159, 160 ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY

haze 057 haze filters 171 hoods. See lens hoods hot shoe 099 incandescent 172 International Standards Organization. See ISO inverse square law 095 ISO 075, 090 Kodachrome 153 Kodachrome II 153 Kodak 156 leaf shutters 063, 119 lens angle of view 041, 053 aperture 041, 043 characteristics 057 coatings 056 elements 039 fast 054 flaws 057 focal length 041 groups 039 hoods 059 normal 048, 049 prime 054 resolving power 110 sharpness 110 telephoto 048, 049 thread 162 wide-angle 048, 049 zoom 055 lens flaws 057 bubbles 057 dust 057 Fungus 057 haze 057 scratches 057 lens hoods 059, 162 angle of view 059 deep 059 mechanical vignetting 059 rectangular 059 round 059 shallow 059 tulip 059 vented 059 lens release button / lever 022 light falloff 095, 113 light meters 092, 093, 115, 139 cadmium-sulfide 092 incident light 092 reflected light 092, 093 selenium 092

APPENDIX & INDEX

light value 085 LV 085, 088, 093 LV tables 087 M 071, 096 magnification 138 microprism 141, 144 mirror 119, 125 mirror lock-up control 020 mirror slap 020, 107, 119, 125 MLU. See mirror lock-up motion blur 068, 069, 082, 107, 115, 119, 125, 168 multicoating 056 multiple exposures 080 MX flash setting lever 071 ND. See neutral density filters negative 154, 156 neutral density filters 168 normal lens 048, 049, 138 orange filter 174 overexposure 077 parallax 119, 123, 124, 139 parallax compensation 123, 139 PC socket 099 pentaprism 119, 127 roof 127, 129 petal. See tulip photocell window 021 PL 167. See polarising filters polarizing filters 167 circular (CPL) 167 linear (PL) 167 prime lens 054 priority 092, 115 aperture 092, 115 shutter 092, 115 processing black-and-white 157 color 156 rangefinder 063, 119 coupled 121 range-viewfinder eyepiece 130, 140 rapid film advance. See film advance lever rectangular lens hoods 059 red filter 174 resolution 110, 111, 155 resolving power 110, 111, 155 rewind spindle 021 roof pentaprism 127, 129 round lens hoods 059

||||||||||

189

S. See shutter priority selenium 092 self-timer 071 semicoupled 092 shades. See lens hoods sharpest aperture 110 sharpness 110, 111, 155 shoe 099 accessory 099 cold 099 hot 099 shutter cocking lever 020, 024, 026, 027, 028, 029, 030, 031, 032, 033, 034, 035 shutter priority 092, 115 shutter release button 020 shutter release socket 020 shutters 063 focal plane 063 leaf 063 shutter speed 063, 068, 070, 090 shutter speed dial 021, 070 shutter speed ring 021 simple exposure marks 079 single coating 056 single lens reflex 119 skylight filters 162, 171 slide 156 slide film 171 slow speed dial 070 SLR 125, 127. See single lens reflex split-image 141 split-image microprism 141 split ND 169 split-screen 145 split-screen microprism 146 sprocket 021 stepping rings 166 step-down 166 step-up 166 stopping down 182 stopping up 184 stops 045, 076, 082 storage 179 Sunny 16 Rule, The 085, 087, 088, 090 sync speed 095

ultraviolet (UV) filters 162, 170 underexposure 077 UV. See ultraviolet V 071 vented lens hoods 059 viewfinder 123, 127, 138 bright frame 139 frame lines 139 half frame 136 magnification & brightness 138 rangefinder 130, 132, 134 readings 139 SLR 131, 133, 135 viewfinder magnification selector 022 viewfinder window 130 vignetting 059, 110, 113, 169 mechanical 059 Vorlaufwerk. See V white balance 172 wide-angle lens 048, 049, 113, 125 window viewfinder 130 X 071, 096 yellow filter. See filters Zeit 069 zone focusing 149 zoom lens 055, 059

telephoto lens 048, 049, 059 thread size 162, 166 through the lens 124 time (T) 069 tripod socket 022 TTL 127, 167. See through the lens tulip 059 tulip lens hoods 059 tungsten 172, 173 Tv. See shutter priority twin lens reflex 127

190

||||||||||

ANALOG PHOTOGRAPHY