An Analysis of Classic Lowland Maya Burials 9780860545255, 9781407346892

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Tables in Appendix I
List of Figures
List of Figures in Appendix II
Acknowledgements
CHAPTER ONE Introduction
CHAPTER TWO Grave Typology
CHAPTER THREE The Locational and Structural Context of the Burials
CHAPTER FOUR Methods of Disposal of the Dead
CHAPTER FIVE Head Orientation
CHAPTER SIX Urn and Pot-Skull Associated Burials
CHAPTER SEVEN Skeletal Mutilation
CHAPTER EIGHT Grave Type and Grave Context
CHAPTER NINE Grave Goods
CHAPTER TEN Social Implications of the Burial Data
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Evidence for Human Sacrifice
CHAPTER TWELVE Ancestor Worship
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Maya Burial Customs
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Conclusions
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX I: BURIAL DATA TABLES
APPENDIX II: Illustrations of Grave Types and Varieties
APPENDIX III: Additional Burials Not in the Analysis

Citation preview

An Analysis of Classic Lowland Maya Burials

W. B. M. Welsh

BAR International Series 409

1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S409, 1988: 'An Analysis o f Classic Lo wland Jlaya Burials' ©_v,B.X.Welsh, 1988

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545255 paperback ISBN 9781407346892 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545255 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age T able o f C ontents L ist L ist

o f T ables o f

v i

F igures

x iii

A cknowledgements

x v

C hapters 1 .

I ntroduction

1

2 .

G rave T ypology

7

3 .

T he L ocational

4 .

M ethods o f D isposal o f

5 .

H ead O rientation

5 2

6 .

U rn a nd P ot-Skull A ssociated B urials

6 4

7 .

S keletal M utilation

8 1

8 .

G rave T ype a nd G rave C ontext

9 0

9 .

G rave G oods

a nd

C ontext

o f

t he B urials

t he D ead

2 5 3 5

1 02

1 0 .

S ocial

1 .

T he E vidence f or H uman S acrifice

1 67

1 2 .

A ncestor W orship

1 86

1 3 .

M aya B urial C ustoms

2 15

1 4.

I mplications

S tructural

o f

t he B urial D ata

1 53

C onclusions

2 32

B ibliography

2 34

A ppendices I .

I II .

B urial D ata T ables

2 43

I llustrations o f G rave T ypes a nd V arieties

3 39

A dditional B urials N ot i n t he A nalysis

3 53

L IST O F T ABLES P age 1 .

T he d istribution o f g rave t ypes p er s ite

2 2

2 .

T he d istribution o f g rave v arieties p er s ite

2 3-24

3 .

T he

n umber

m ultiple ,

o f

p rimary

& s econdary ,

i nterments p er s ite .

s ingle

I ncludes

o r t he

n umber o f c remations a nd e mpty g raves f ound i n t he s ample .

3 8

4 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t M ountain C ow

4 3

5 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t B aking P ot

4 3

6 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t B arton R amie

4 4

7 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t S an J osé

4 4

8 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t H olmul

4 5

9 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t U axactun

4 5

1 0 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t T ikal

4 6

1.

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t A ltun H a

4 7

1 2 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t D zibilchaltun

4 7

1 3 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t A ltar d e S acrificios

4 8

1 4 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t S eibal

4 8

1 5 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t C opan

4 9

1 6 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t P iedras N egras

4 9

1 7 .

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t P alenque

5 0

1 8 .

S keletal

5 0

1 9.

T otal

p osition p er g rave t ype a t T onina

n umber o f

f lexed a nd e xtended s keletons

i n

s imple , c ist , c rypt a nd t omb

5 1

2 0 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t M ountain C ow

5 7

2 1 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t B aking P ot

5 7

2 2.

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t B arton R amie

5 8

2 3.

H ead o rientation p er g rave

5 8

2 4 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t H olmul

5 8

2 5 .

H ead o rientaion p er g rave c ontext a t U axactun

5 9

c ontext a t

S an J osé

P age 2 6 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t T ikal

5 9

2 7 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t A ltun H a

6 0

2 8 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t D zibilchaltun

6 0

2 9 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t A ltar d e S acrificios

6 1

3 0 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t S eibal

6 1

3 1.

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t C opan

6 2

3 2 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t P iedras N egras

6 2

3 3 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t P alenque

6 3

3 4 .

H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t T onina

6 3

3 5 .

T he b urials w ith a b awl o r m etate ,

3 6 .

U rn b urials

3 7 .

B urials o f s evered s kulls i n ,

3 8 .

B urials w ith s hell ( conch) o ver s kull ,

3 9 .

D istribution o f t he v arious b owl a nd s hell m ode b urials

8 0

4 0 .

B urials c onsisting o f s keletons w ith e vidence o f m utilation

8 3-88

4 1 .

A ge &

8 9

4 2 .

T he c ontext o f t he m utilated i nterments

8 9

4 3 .

T he n umber o f m utilated i nterments p er g rave t ype

8 9

4 4 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t M ountain C ow

9 5

4 5 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t B aking P ot

9 5

4 6 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t H olmul

9 6

4 7 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t U axactun

9 6

4 8 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t T ikal

9 7

4 9 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t A ltun H a

9 7

5 0 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t D zibilchaltun

9 8

5 1 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t A ltar d e S acrificios

9 8

5 2 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t S eibal

9 9

5 3.

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t C opan

9 9

o ver o r u nder ,

a s kull

6 7-74 7 5-77

b etween o r u nder ,

b awls

f ace o r m outh

s ex o f t he m utilated s keletons

7 8 7 9

P age 5 4 .

G rave t ype p er g rave

c ontext a t P iedras N egras

5 5 .

G rave

5 6 .

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t T onina

5 7 .

O verall

t ype p er g rave c ontext a t P alenque

1 01

a t

M ountain C ow

t ype

a t

M ountain C aw

6 2.

6 3 .

g rave t ype a t B aking P ot

15

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t B arton R amie

16

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach

a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment 19

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext a t H olmul

6 7.

6 8.

6 9.

g rave t ype a t H olmul

1 21

oods p er g rave f or e ach T he m ean n umber o f g rave g c ontext a t U axactun

1 22

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach 1 23

oods p er g rave f or e ach T he m ean n umber o f g rave g a dult ,

7 1.

1 20

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach

g rave t ype a t U axactun 7 0 .

18

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach a dult , c hild , a t S an J osé

6 6.

17

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext a t S an J osé

6 5.

14

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach

a dult , c hild , a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment a t B arton R amie 6 4.

13

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext a t B aking P ot

6 1.

12

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave

6 0.

1 01

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext

5 9 .

1 00

c orrelation o f m ost g rave t ypes a nd g rave

c ontexts 5 8 .

1 00

c hild ,

a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment

a t U axactun

1 24

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext a t T ikal

1 25

P age 7 2.

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t T ikal

7 3.

1 26

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach a dult , c hild , a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment a t T ikal

7 4 .

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext a t

7 5 .

A ltun H a

1 28

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t A ltun H a

7 6.

1 29

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach a dult ,

c hild , a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment

a t A ltun H a 7 7.

1 30

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach ' c ontext a t D zibilchaltun

7 8.

1 31

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t D zibilchaltun

7 9.

1 32

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach a dult ,

c hild , a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment

a t D zibilchaltun 8 0 .

1 33

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext a t A ltar d e S acrificios

8 1.

1 34

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t A ltar d e S acrificios

8 2.

a t S eibal

1 37

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t S eibal

8 5.

a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment 1 39

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext

8 7 .

1 38

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach a dult , c hild , a t S eibal

8 6 .

a t

C opan

1 40

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t C opan

8 8 .

1 36

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext

8 4.

1 35

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach a dult , c hild , a dult m ale & a dult f emale i nterment a t A ltar d e S acrificios .

8 3.

1 27

1 41

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach a dult a nd c hild i nterment a t

C opan

1 42

P age 8 9 . T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach 1 43

c ontext a t P alenque 9 0 .

T he m ean n umher o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach g rave t ype a t P alenque

9 1.

9 2.

9 3.

9 4 .

1 44

T he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave f or e ach c ontext a t T onina

1 45

T he r ank o rder o f t he s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epresented b y t he p ercentage o f b urials w ith 2 0 o r m ore g rave g oods p er s ite

1 49

T he r ank o rder o f s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epresented b y a n i ndex o f t he a verage n umber o f g rave g oods p er b urial p er s ite

1 50

T he r ank o rder o f s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epresented b y t he s ingle ( number o f i tems) p er s ite

9 5 .

r ichest

b urial 1 51

T he r ank o rder o f s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epresented b y a n i ndex o f t he a verage n umber o f i tems o f j ade p er b urial p er s ite

9 6.

T he b est f urnished h ousemound , p alace

9 7 .

b urials ,

i .e .

T he a pproximate d ate s hrine a nd c eremonial

9 8 .

9 9 . 1 00 .

1 52

r esidential a nd

w ith 2 0 o r m ore i tems o f

t he b est

1 59

f urnished t emple ,

p latform b urials ,

i . e .

h ousehold

w ith 2 0 o r m ore

i tems

1 60

T he b est f urnished t emple , h ousehold s hrine a nd c eremonial p latform b urials , i .e . w ith 2 0 o r m ore i tems

1 61-65

T he b urials o f t he k nown M aya r ulers

1 66

B urials s ome

c ontaining

s tingray s pines ,

o bsidian

l ancets ,

Or

o ther a rtefact a ssociated w ith b loodletting

1 01 . A dult(s) a nd c hild(ren ) b urials 1 02 .

1 74-75 1 76-77

P rimary i nterments a ccompanied b y ( a) s acrificial 1 78-80

v ictim (s) 1 03 . D edicatory c ache b urials

1 81-82

1 04 .

1 83-85

1 05 .

S acrifice b y m utilation b urials T he h ousehold s hrines

l ocated o n t he e astern p erimeter o f

r esidential p lazas 1 06 .

2 02-03

T he h ousehold s hrines w ith a n u ncertain o r n on-eastern l ocation

2 04

P age 1 07. T emple a nd c eremonial p latform b urials

2 05-09

1 08 .

2 10

B urials c ommemorated w ith a t emple o r c eremonial p latform

1 09 . T emple b urials w ith a s tructural m emorial

2 11-12

10 . B ench b urials

2 13

11 . B urials w ith t he r emoval o f f ace o r s kull

2 14

12 . T he p revailing h ead o rientations

2 26

13. S ite

d istribution

i nstances

o f

u nusually

o f P an M aya b urial

r egional c ustoms

h igh

c ustoms

a nd

o r

l ow

t he f ew 2 28-9

L IST O F T ABLES I N A PPENDIX I P age I

M ountain C ow

2 53

I I

B aking P ot

2 55

I II

B arton R amie

2 57

I V

B enque V iejo

2 64

V

S an J osé

2 65

V I

H olmul

2 70

V II

U axactun

2 72

T ikal

2 80

I X

A ltun H a

2 88

X

D zibilchaltun

3 06

X I

A ltar d e S acrificios

3 14

X II

S eibal

3 23

X III

C opan

3 27

X IV

P iedras N egras

3 32

X V

P alenque

3 33

X VI

T onina

3 36

V III

'

L IST O F F IGURES P age

1 .

Map o f

t he M aya

m entioned 2 .

s ites

t ext

e astern p erimeter

d eceased

4

1 87

a t

e ach o f

t he

1 6

s ites

2 27

M ap i llustrating t he a reas o f p rimary a rchitectural s tyles

5 .

i n t he

t he

M ap d esignating t he p revailing h ead o rientations o f t he

4 .

o r d iscussed

i ndicating

T ypical r esidential p laza w ith ' household s hrine ' o n t he

3 .

l owlands

o f t he l owland M aya

2 30

M ap i llustrating s uggested a reas o f r egional b urial c ustoms ( based o n u nusually h igh o r l ow i nstances o f s ome P an l owland M aya p ractices)

2 31

L IST

O F F IGURES

I N A PPENDIX I I P age

I I:1

G rave T ype I :1

3 40

1 1:2

G rave T ype 1 :2

3 41

1 1:3

G rave T ype 1 :3

3 42

1 1:4

G rave T ype 1 :4

3 43

1 1:5

G rave T ype 1 :5

3 44

1 1:6

G rave T ype I II:1

3 45

1 1:7

G rave T ype 1 11:2

3 46

1 1:8

G rave T ype 1 11:3

3 46

1 1:9

G rave T ype 1 11:4

3 48

I I:10

G rave T ype 1 11:5

3 49

I I:11

G rave T ype I V :2

3 50

1 1:12

G rave T ype I V :3 - E xamples A & B

3 51

1 1:13

G rave T ype V :3

3 52

A cknowledgements

T hls w ork , l argely a d evelopment o f m y d octorial t hesis , c ould n ot h ave b een w ritten w ithout t he h elp a nd s upport o f m any p eople . F irst o f a ll , W arwick B ray .

Lm ust g ive s pecial t hanks t o m y t hesis s upervisor ,

D r .

H e a t a ll t imes m ade h imself a vailable f or a dvice a nd

g uidance , a s w ell a s t he o ccasional s ounding b oard f or s ome p retty o utrageous i deas a bout d eath a nd t he a fterlife . H e m ade c ertain I u nderstood w hat h e t hought a bout s ome o f t hem ! S econdly ,

Im ust t hank a ll

t hose w ho m ade t he c ollection o f t he d ata

p ossible . F irst t here i s P rofessor G ordon W illey w ho i nvited m e t o t he P eabody M useum t o c onsult u npublished d ata a nd d iscuss t hings ' Maya ' w ith h im ; t hen t o D r . G air T ourtellot w ho a llowed m e t o c onsult t he u npublished S eibäl m aterial

a nd s ent m e a n e arly d raught

o f h is

r eport ;

t o D r .

B ill

H aviland w ho p rovided m e w ith s ome o f t he u npublished T ikal b urial d ata ; t o D r . D avid P endergast w ho a llowed m e t o c onsult h is u npublished r eports o f t he b urials f rom G roups D a nd E , A ltun H a ; a nd t o P rofessor B ob S harer a nd D r . C hris J ones f or p assing o n s ome o r t heir Q uirigua r eports . T o e ach o f t hese g entlemen I a m i ndebted f or t heir e xtraordinary k indness, u nselfishness a nd a ssistance . Is hall n ever f orget t heir h elp .

k ind

I n as imilar v ein , Is hould l ike t o t hank D r . M arshall B ecker f or h is a ssistance . D iscussions w ith h im h ave h elped t o p ut m any t hings i n

p roper p erspective . I h asten t o a dd , h owever , t hat a ny e xamples s equiturs o r m uddled t hinking i n t his r eport a re e ntirely m y o wn .

o f n on

T hirdly , Is hould l ike t o t hank t he m any s taff a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology ,

L ondon ,

t his m agnum o pus .

w ho a ssisted o ne w ay o r a nother i n t he p roduction o f

S pecial m ention m ust

b e m ade

t o P rofessor E vans ,

M rs .

H unt , M rs . B rown a nd M iss W itchell, a ll o f w hom h elped a rrange t he g rant t hat e nabled m e t o g et t o A merica i n t he f irst p lace . I m ust a lso t hank Mrs . S helagh M eade a nd D r . J ames R itchie f or t heir h elp w ith t he i llustrations , F inally ,

p roofreading a nd t heir c onstant e ncouragement . I m ust

t hank m y p arents

t o w hom t his w ork i s d edicated .

M y

a ttempts t o i nvestigate a nd u nderstand h uman h istory , d evelopment a nd s ociety w ere u ltimately i nspired b y t hem . D espite t he m any y ears t hat h ave p assed s ince I b egan , t heir m oral, a nd a t t imes, f inancial, s upport w as c onstant . Iw ould n ever h ave e mbarked u pon , n or c ompleted , t his w ork w ithout t hem .

B ruce W elsh L ondon J anuary ,

1 988

C HAPTER O NE I ntroduction

D eath i s a n i nevitable o utcome o f e very h uman l ife ,

i ndeed ,

o f e very

l iving t hing . I t c annot b e a voided . B ut o nly h uman b eings, o r s o w e b elieve , a re c apable o f a ppreciating t his f act . M oreover , h uman b eings b elieve t hat s omehow o r a nother i ndividuals c an c ontinue t heir e xistence i n a nother w orld a fter b odily d eath . O ne o f t he e arliest i ndications w e h ave o f s uch b elief c omes f rom a m ultiple N eanderthal b urial i n S hanidar C ave , I raq ( Solecki 1 971) . l t w as f ound t hat t he N eanderthals h ad b een b uried w ith a bout 8 s pecies o f p lant, 7 * o f w hich c ould b e u sed f or m edicinal p urposes . P resuambly t he s urvivors h ad e xpected t he p lants t o " revive" t he d eceased t o a n ew l ife e lsewhere . T hat w as 6 0 ,000 y ears a go . S ince t hen j ust a bout e very h uman c ulture , i f n ot a ll, h as d eveloped s ome s ort o f b elief s ystem a bout l ife a fter d eath . B eliefs v ary b ut t hey u sually e ntail a n e xistence o f a nother l ife i n a nother w orld w hich i s n ot t hought t o b e t erribly d ifferent f rom l ife o n e arth . T hus e very h uman c ulture d oes n ot c onsider d eath a s a n e nd i n i tself s o m uch a s a n e nd t o e xistence o n t his e arth a nd t he b eginning o f a n ew l ife i n t he h ereafter , w hatever a nd w herever t hat m ay b e . I n e ffect , d eath i s a r ite o f p assage : t hose r ites w hich a ccompany t he i mportant c hanges o f p lace, s tate, s ocial p osition a nd a ge i n a n i ndividual's l ife ( Van G ennep 1 960) . T hese c hanges a re m ore o r l ess p ermanent , a nd t hough t here m ay b e a f urther c hange o f s tatus a t a l ater d ate , o ne i s n ot e xpected t o r eturn t o t he o riginal s tate f rom w hich o ne h as m oved o n . T he l ife c hanges w ith w hich r ites o f p assage a re n ormally a ssociated a re p uberty , m arriage , b irth o f a f irst t hrone , e ntry t o a s ecret s ociety a nd d eath . Every

r ite

o f

p assage

c onsists

o f

c hild ,

3 p hases .

T he

a ccession t o a

f irst

i s

t he

s eparation o f t he i ndividual(s) d esignated t o g o t hrough t he c hange , i .e . t he p erson s et t o j oin a s ecret s ociety , t he c ouple e ngaged t o b e m arried , o r t he p erson w ho h as d ied . T his i s f ollowed b y a l iminal o r t ransitional p hase i n w hich t he i ndividual(s) i s n o l onger i n t he f ormer s tate b ut n ot y et e ntered t he n ew . T his i s t he p eriod w hen i mportant r ituals a re p erformed , i .e . t he m arriage c eremony, r ituals o f a ccession , i nitiation r ites o r f uneral r ites . T he t hird p hase i s t he f inal e ntry o f t he i ndividual(s) i nto t he n ew s tatus , i .e . t he c ouple b ecome m an a nd w ife , h eir t o t he t hrone b ecomes k ing, o r t he d eceased i s f inally b uried . W ith r espect t o d eath , t he r ite o f p assage c onsists o f a n i ndividual d ying , o f r ituals b eing p erformed t o b less t he d eceased a nd a ssist h is/her p assage t o t he h ereafter , a nd t he b urial o r c remation o f t he b ody t o i ndicate t he f inal s eparation f rom t he l iving w orld a nd t he a rrival i nto t he n ext .

* T hese 7 p lants w ere y arrow , b lue b ottle , g rape h yacinth , a nalysis.

j oint

p ine a nd h ollyhock .

1

S t . B arnaby 's T hey w ere

t histle ,

r agwort ,

i dentified b y p ollen

A n a dditional a ssociation d evelops d uring r ites o f p assage : ac hange i n t he r elationship b etween t he o bservers a nd t he p articipant ( victim?) . F or e xample , a fter t he i nitiation i nto a s ecret s ociety t he e ntrant l earns a ll t he s ecrets a nd i s t reated a s a b rother . B eforehand , h e w as a n o utsider a nd i gnored . A fter m arriage t he c ouple r eceive p roperty r ights , ah ome a nd a n e stablished r ole i n t he c ommunity , w hereas b eforehand t hey h ad n one . W ith r espect t o d eath , t here i s a c hange i n t he r elationship b etween t he d eceased a nd t hose s till l iving . T here a re t he i mportant m atters a bout w ho i s t o t ake o ver t he p roperty r ights, w ealth , r esponsibilities, s ocial p osition , e tc . o f t he d ead i ndividual. F uture c ommunication w ith t he d eceased i n t he a fterlife m ay b e e xpected u nder s pecial c onditions a nd r ituals e stablished i n o rder t o r eceive a dvice , g ive t hanks , o r a sk t he a ncestor t o a ct a s a n i ntermediary i n c ommunication w ith t he g ods . T hus d eath , w ith a ll i ts r ituals a nd r epercussions , i s a n i nevitable b ut v ery i mportant e vent i n h uman e xistence . D eath w as n o d oubt a s i mportant a n e vent f or t he a ncient M aya a s f or a ny o ther c ulture . T hey t oo b elieved i n a n u nderworld - X ibalba - a nd s o m ust s urely h ave e stablished a r etinue o f c ustoms, p ractices a nd r ituals i nvolving b urial t o e nsure a s uccessful t ransfer f rom t his w orld t o t he n ext . T he p urpose o f t he p resent a nalysis i s t o e xtract a nd i dentify , b y a rchaeological m eans, m any o f t he b urial c ustoms a nd p ractices o f t he a ncient M aya . M ost a rchaeologically i dentifiable c ustoms w ill b e t hose d irectly r elated t o t he m anner a nd p lacement o f b urial, t he w hat , h ow a nd w here o f b urial . I t m ay e ven b e p ossible t o s uggest w hy i n s ome i nstances . A scertaining w hether a nd w hat r ituals o ccurred a t t he t ime o f d eath a nd i nterment s hould a lso b e p ossible , t hough p recisely w hat t he r ituals w ere i s n ot l ikely t o b e e vident a rchaeologically . T he i mportance o f d eath a nd b urial f or t he a ncient M aya w ill s till b e r evealed .

B ackground L owland M aya b urials h ave b een a s ource o f a ttraction t o a rchaeologists a nd o ther i nvestigators

f or a c onsiderable

t ime .

E xcavations

h ave b een r ecorded s ince l ate l ast c entury ( e .g . G ordon 1 896) . e arly e xcavations w ere m ore t reasure h unts

t han c areful

o f

b urials

S ome o f t he

a rchaeological

e xcavation ( e .g . G ann 1 916 ; G ann & G ann 1 939) . U nfortunately , i t h as b een , a nd i s, c ommon k nowledge t hat b urials a re a s ource o f s ome o f t he m ost a rtistically e xquisite , a nd m aterially m ost v aluable i tems o f t he c ulture . H ence b urials h ave b een s ought a nd l ooted b y t reasure h unters r ight u p t o t he p resent t ime . D espite t his l ooting a nd d estruction , t here h as b een s ome c areful s tudy o f b urials b y a rchaeologists d uring g eneral s ite e xcavation . T he b urials w ere u sually s econdary t o t he m ain o bject(s) u nder s tudy b ut t he r ecording a nd d escription o f

t hem w ere o ften o f a h igh s tandard ,

e .g .

T hompson ( 1939) a t S an J osé , S mith ( 1950) , R icketson a nd R icketson ( 1937) , a nd W auchope ( 1934) a t U axactun , a nd m ore r ecently, A ndrews a nd A ndrews ( 1980) a t D zibilchaltun , P rendergast ( 1979 a nd 1 982) a t A ltun H a , H aviland ( 1981,

1 985 a nd i n p ress) ,

W illey e t a l .

C oggins ( 1975) a nd a v ariety o f o thers a t T ikal,

( 1965) a t B arton R amie ,

T ourtellot ( in p ress) a t S eibal,

a nd

S mith ( 1972) a t A ltar d e S acrificios . I n o ther i nstances, b urial d escriptions h ave b een o f a p oorer s tandard o ften b ecause s uch e xcavation w as n ot

s o i ncidental, e .g . T hompson ( 1931) a t M ountain C ow ; t he r eports w ere c ompleted b y t he o riginal e xcavator , c reating l imited a nd c onfused

d escriptions f rom i nadequate c ommunication ,

e .g . G ordon ( 1896) a t C opan ,

a nd

M erwin a nd V aillant ( 1932) a t H olmul ; o r b ecause t he b urials w ere b adly d isturbed , e .g . L ongyear ( 1952) a t C opan . T hey n onetheless s till p rovide

2

u seful

d escriptions .

C han ( 1948) o n J aina . c ontext

a nd

a re

t oo

O ther

r eports

d o n ot ,

e .g .

M oedano

( 1946) a nd P ina

T heir r eports l ack v ital i nformation o n b urial i ncomplete

t o

b e o f m uch u se ,

a r ather e xasperating

c onsequence b ecause J aina s eems t o h ave h ad a l arge n umber o f b urials . T he

v alue

o f t hese r eports ,

h owever ,

i s

l imited .

E ach i s p rimarily

r estricted t o ad escription a nd d iscussion o f t he b urials a t t he r espective s ites . A s a r esult , t he u niqueness o r u niversality o f s ome b urial c ustoms i s n ot w ell k nown n or t he g eneral i mplications c ompletely u nderstood . T here h ave b een t oo f ew a ttempts t o s ynthesize a nd a nalyze t hese d ata g enerally . I n f act , t here h ave o nly b een t hree . R icketson ( 1925) m ade

t he

f irst a ttempt .

B ut t here w as

t oo l ittle a nd

t oo u nreliable i nformation t o p rovide a ny s ound c onclusions a bout l owland M aya b urial c ustoms . B ut i t w as a s tart . S ome 4 0 y ears l ater , R uz ( 1968) p roduced a v oluminous t ome s ummarizing m any o f t he b urial p ractices h e h ad o bserved o f t he l owland M aya a s w ell a s v irtually e very o ther a ncient , n ative c ulture i n M esoamerica . I t w as a g rand p iece o f w ork b ut s o a ll e ncompassing t hat m any o f t he f iner p oints b ecame l ost . I t a lso l acked p recision a nd p rovided n o d efined a nalytical a pproach . R ecognizing t he s hortcomings o f R uz 's w ork , b ut f ully a ware o f t he i nformation t hat c ould b e e xtracted f rom a p roper a nalytical s tudy o f M aya b urials , R athje ( 1970) p resented u s w ith t he t hird a ttempt . H e d id n ot p resent a ny f urther r evision o f b urial c ustoms . I nstead , h e o utlined a m ethod o f a nalysis a nd p rovided a n umber o f h ypotheses r egarding t he s ocial, p olitical a nd e conomic i mplications o f C lassic , l owland M aya b urials . A t t he t ime o f w riting , h owever , t here w ere s till o nly a l imited n umber o f r eliable b urial d ata w ith w hich t o w ork a nd t herefore h is t ests a nd h ypotheses c ould a t b est b e c onsidered t entative . S ince h is a rticle w as w ritten t here h as b een a s ubstantial i ncrease i n t he a mount o f b urial d ata , b ut n o f urther a ttempt t o s ynthesize a nd a nalyze t he d ata a s R athje h ad d one . G iven t he a mount o f b urial d ata n ow a vailable , a ny s ynthesis a nd a nalysis s hould p rove m ore f ruitful . T his w ork i s a n a ttempt t o d o j ust t his. T here h ave b een , h owever , u navoidable r estrictions p laced o n t he b urial d ata c ollected . D ata f rom 1 6 s ites w ere a cquired , s ome p ublished , s ome n ot , a nd w ith 3 e xceptions, a ll t he k nown b urial d ata f or e ach s ite . T he 3 e xceptions a re T ikal, A ltun H a a nd C opan .

F or T ikal a nd A ltun H a , a ll

t he

d ata w ere s imply n ot a vailable , b ut I w as p rovided w ith s ubstantial u npublished i nformation f or b oth , i .e . H aviland ( in p ress) a nd P endergast ( in p ress) t o a cquire w orkable s amples o f 1 07 b urials f or T ikal a nd 2 55 f or A ltun H a . I nformation o n m ethods o f d isposing o f t he d ead w as n ot a vailable w ith s ome o f t he T ikal s ample , h owever .

W ith r espect t o C opan , i t h as

s imply n ot b een p ossible t o c onsult t he d ata f rom t he r ecent C opan e xcavations . C onsequently , t hese a re n ot i ncluded a nd I h ave h ad t o r ely o n t he d ata f rom t he m uch e arlier C opan e xcavations , i .e . ( Gordon ( 1896) a nd L ongyear ( 1952) . D ata f rom c ave b urials h ave n ot b een i ncluded e ither . T hese w ere o mitted f or t wo r easons : b ecause f ew d escriptions o f s uch b urials w ere a vailable - P endergast

( 1971) b eing o ne o f t he f ew - t hough m ore a re

n ow b eing d iscovered a nd d escribed : e .g . N aj T unich ( Brady & S tone 1 986) a nd L oltun (neon 1 986) , a nd I a m o f t he o pinion t hat b urials m ay h ave h ad a d ifferent r ole a nd p urpose f rom s ite b urials a nd s hould t herefore b e c onsidered s eparately . I t

h as

a lso

b een n ecessary,

p rimarily

3

b ecause

o f

t he a mount

o f

F igure 1 : M ap o f t he M aya l owlands i ndicating t he s ites m entioned o r

. Dzibilchaltun

d iscussed i n t he t ext

.C obä a ina

N ohm

• 1

E l M irad.

•

'R o A zul

. Palenq

h a u n Ha

OS

U axacten* T ikal •

P iedras Z egras . Toninä

c hilän

B epe V i(u nantun c

0

a rton a mie i ng P ot 1 1 1

' Mountain C

B onampak• A lt S acrifici

* Holm

e ibal s Naj T unich

•u irigua

' Copan

1 90 k m

2 09 k m

S cale

4

i nformation , a nalysis .

t o r estrict t he c hronological a nd g eographical e xpanse o f t he

I t c oncentrates o n l owland M aya b urials o f t he L ate P reclassic

a nd C lassic p eriods . A h andful o f P ostclassic b urials a re i ncluded b ut o nly o n a ccount o f t heir p resence i n af ew s ite s amples .

T he S tudy P erusal

o f

a ny

o f

t he p revious d escriptions

o f

l owland M aya b urials

w ould r eveal i nconsistent a nd c onfused d efinitions o f t he t erminology r elating t o b urials a nd t he c lassification o f g raves . T he f irst p rocedure i n t his s tudy , t herefore , w as t o e stablish a w ell d efined c lassification s cheme o f g raves , a nd t o d efine s ome o f t he t erms t hat h ave b een e mployed i n r elation t o l owland M aya b urials . T he i .e .

s econd

s tep w as

t o d etermine

t he s tructural

c ontext

c lassify t he t ype o f s tructure i n w hich t hey w ere f ound .

o f

b urials ,

O n a ccount

o f t he l imited r emains o f s ome s tructures , i nadequate d escriptions b y t he e xcavators , o r t he s imple a mbiguity o f a b uilding 's p urpose ( and f unction ) , i t w as n ot a lways p ossible t o d etermine t he p recise n ature o f s ome s truC tures c ontaining b urials . U pon e stablishing g rave

t ype a nd g rave

c ontext ,

a ll

a vailable d ata

r elating t o d ate , p rovenance , s keletal p osition , a nd a mount a nd t ype o f g rave f urniture f or e very b urial i n e ach s ite w ere l isted i n A ppendix I . T he i nformation i ncludes a pproximate d ate , l ocation , s tructural c ontext , g rave t ype , n umber o f b odies , s keletal p osition , h ead o rientation , a ge a nd s ex , p resence o f s keletal m utilation* , b awl o ver s kull a ssociation , s hell o ver s kull a ssociation , u rn m ode a ssociation , a nd t he a mount a nd v ariety o f g rave g oods . S ince t hese a spects o f t he b urials a re d iscussed, a nd c orrelations o f s ome o f t he d ata m ade i n t he t ext, s uch a c atalogue i s n ecessary f or c onsultation p urposes . S everal c orrelations o f t he d ifferent a spects o f b urial a re m ade a nd t heir s ignificance d iscussed , b ut o ther o bvious c orrelations a re n ot m ade . T he r eason i s t his . I t w as d iscovered t hat g rave c ontext w as a n i mportant f actor i n b urial . T he t ype o f b uilding s elected f or a b urial s eems t o h ave d epended u pon a n i ndividual 's w ealth a nd s tatus . T he t ype o f g rave a nd t he n umber a nd v ariety o f g rave g oods a lso d epended u pon t his w ealth a nd s tatus . C orrelations c learly d emonstrate t his . T hus , t he t ype a nd w ealth o f g raves f ound , d epended o n t he t ype o f b uildings e xcavated . S ite e xcavation s trategy c an t herefore c reate a s ample e rror . C onsequently, a s imple d escription o f g rave t ype w ould b e m eaningless u nless c orrelated w ith g rave c ontext . T he s ame w ould a pply t o t he d istribution o f g rave w ealth . B ut a r elated c onsequence i s t hat c orrelation w ith c eramic p hase b ecomes d ifficult s ince a ny d istribution c an r esult, n ot f rom a ny c hronological t rend , b ut f rom t he t ype o f s tructures t hat w ere e xcavatcd d ating t o t hat p eriod . c eramic p hase w ere m ade .

T herefore , n o c orrelations w ith

T he n ext s ection i s a n a nalysis o f s ome o f

t he s ocial i mplications o f

t he b urial d ata a nd b urial p ractices . T he d iscussion i s e nhanced w ith

* This r efers

t o m utilation d one a t o r a fter t he t ime o f d eath .

I t d oes n ot

r efer t o s kull d eformation o r d ental m utilation w hich , t hough i nteresting , a nd i mportant i n l ife , w ere n ot m ortuary c ustoms a nd s o n ot e xamined h ere .

5

r eferences t o a ncient Maya a rt a nd i conography ,

a nd t he e thnohistoric

l iterature t o s ubstantiate a ny c laims t hat a re m ade . s pecial a ttention :

T hree

i tems

r eceive

t he a pparent a ssociation b etween a n i ndividual 's s tatus ,

g rave w ealth , a nd t he s tructural c ontext o f t he b urial;

t he a pparent e xtent

a nd v ariety o f s acrifice ; a nd t he e vidence f or t he p ractice o f a ncestor w orship . I t i s i n t his s ection t hat t he i mportance o r d eath a nd b urial a re r evealed . T he

l ast

s ection

c onsists

o f

a s ummary

o f

t he

b urial

c ustoms

d iscovered . R uz ( 1968) a lready r ecognized s ome o f t hem . B ut I d o n ot s imply r elist t he c vstoms h e o bserved , e .g . j ade b ead i n t he m outh . T here i s l ittle n eed f or d oing s o . I nstead , t he d iscussion c oncentrates o n t hose p ractices w hich b ecame a pparent f rom t he p resent a nalysis a nd f rom w hich m ore d etails a nd t he s ocial i mplications m ay b e g leaned . I d o n ot s eek t o r elate t he c ustoms t o M aya m ythology . S uch a s tudy w ould b e i nteresting b ut t oo v oluminous t o b e a dditionally u ndertaken h ere . T he s ection c loses w ith a n a ttempt t o d istinguish s ome o f t he r egional f rom t he p an l owland M aya b urial

c ustoms .

F inally ,

i n A ppendix I II ,

Ip rovide a s ummary o f t he d ata f rom b urials

t hat ' have r ecently b een p ublished b ut w hich I w as n ot a ble t o i nclude i n t he o riginal a nalysis .

6

C HAPTER T WO C rave T ypology

N umerous d efinitions o f g raves h ave b een p resented b y s everal a uthors , b ut n o c o-ordinated o r c onsistent t ypology h as b een u sed . E ach a uthor h as o nly b een c oncerned w ith c lassifying b urials o r g raves w ithin t heir r espective s ites . A s ingle t erm , e .g . c ist, o ften m eans t wo d ifferent t hings t o d ifferent a uthors . T he s ame a pplies t o c rypts , c hambers , v aults , v aulted c hambers,

e tc .

I n o ther w ords,

t here h as n ot

d efinition o f a ny g rave t ypes a nd a s a r esult

b een a n a greed

t here h as n ot b een a ny

c onsistent a pplication o f a s pecific g rave t ype t erminology . I t i s h oped t his m ay b e s olved n ow b y e stablishing a c lassification s cheme o f l owland M aya g raves b ased o n g rave m orphology . i ts d efinitions ,

B efore p resenting t his s cheme a nd

l et u s f irst e xamine s ome o f t he p revious o nes .

U axactun R icketson & R icketson ( 1937) f irst e xplain t he c onditions i n w hich s keletal m aterial w as f ound a t U axactun . T here w ere 2 c onditions: t he i nhumation o f h uman r emains i n g raves , t o w hich t hey r efer a s b urials , a nd t he i nhumation o f s kulls a ssociated w ith p ottery i n h ollowed o ut s paces , t o w hich t hey r efer a s c ists 1 39) . I n t he f ormer i t i s e vident t hat a h uman b ody h ad b een i nterred e ven i f t he s keleton w as n ot c omplete , a nd i n t he l atter i t i s e vident t hat t he b urial o f s kulls a lone h ad a c eremonial p urpose ( ibid .) . I s uspect t he l atter m ay b e i ndicative o f n ot j ust c eremony , b ut a lso s acrifice . I n e ither c ase , b oth s hould b e c onsidered i nhumations . T he R icketsons g o o n t o d istinguish c ist , t he i nhumation o f s kulls w ith p ottery i n h ollowed o ut s paces , f rom c ache , t he s cattered a nd f ormless p lacing o f o bjects a s a n o ffering t hat d oes n ot h ave r ecognizable n or

t angible

b oundaries

( ibid .) .

T he

e ssential

d ifference

r ests w ith t he

f act t hat h uman r emains a nd t angible o utlines m ay o ccur w ith c ists , c aches. A s u seful

a s

t hese c onditions a nd d istinctions

b ut n ot

o f i nhumation m ay b e ,

t hey a re m ore c oncerned w ith g rave c ontents a nd m ethods o f d isposing o f t he d ead r ather t han g rave m orphology , a nd s o n ot q uite t he i nformation n ow s ought . A t l east i t w as a b eginning . I t w as R .E .

S mith w ho w ent

f rom t he U axactun m aterial . S mith 1 937 : 1 95) : 1 )

o n t o p rovide a c lassification o f g raves

T here w ere

4 t ypes

d efined

a s

f ollows

( R .E .

s imple - s imple b urial s ignifies t he d eposition o f h uman r emains i n t he

g round o r w ithin a s tructure w ithout e arth o r r ubble ;

a ny

c overing

p rotection

o ther

t han

2 ) c ist - c ist b urial i s a h ollowed o ut s pace h aving a d efinite b oundary w ithin w hich h uman r emains o r o ther o bjects w ere p laced w ith i ntent, c eremonial o r o therwise . T he b urial w as u sually s econdary , a nd c onsisted o f b ones i n ap ottery v essel p laced i n t he c ist ;

7

3 )

c rypt

- c rypt b urial

i s

a m ore c omplicated a ffair i nvolving t he

c onstruction o f ac offin-shaped g rave b uilt o f c ut s tones . T he s ides, n ormally m ade o f r oughly h ewn b locks a nd m ortar , w ere b uilt o n ap lastered f loor a nd t he c hamber w as r oofed w ith c apstones . T he c rypt t ype o f m ortuary v ault v aries c onsiderably i n l ength b ut i s g enerally a bout 6 0 a n s . b road a nd 6 0 c ms . d eep ; 4 ) b urial c hambers - b urial c hambers a re t he l argest m ortuary c onstructions . T hey a re r ooms e ither b uilt e specially f or t he i nterment o r r eady m ade a nd s ealed u p a fter t he b ody h as b een p laced w ithin . S mith 's d efinitions s eem t o b e a f airly o rderly a rrangement .

H owever ,

h e d efined c ist i n t erms o f m ethods o f d isposal o f t he b ody, n ot g rave m orphology , a nd t he d efinition o f r efers t o 2 t ypes o f c hamber .

b urial

c hambers

i s

v ague

a nd

a ctually

R ecognizing s ome o f t he s hortcomings o f h is b rother 's d efinitions , A OS mith p resented a c lassification w hich d efined 5 t ypes o f g raves , b ased o n d ata f rom U axactun . T he 5 t ypes a re d efined a s f ollows S mit l ; 1 950 : 8 8 ; 1 972 : 2 12) : 1 )

a gain ( A . 1-

s imple - s imple g rave i s a n i nhumation i n a n u nlined h ole i n t he g round

o r i nclusion o f ab ody i n f ill d uring c onstruction ; 2 )

c ist

-i t

i s a g rave w ith d efinite o utlines ,

u sually t he s ides o f a n

e xcavation i nto s tructural f ill, o r o ccasionally s ides w ith s tone w alls , b ut n o c apstones ; 3 ) c rypt - c rypt i s am ore c arefully w alled g rave w ith c apstones , s ometimes ap lastered f loor , a nd w hich m ay o r m ay n ot h ave b een f illed w ith e arth ; 4 ) c hamber a - i t i s a v ery t uary p urposes ;

l arge c hamber s pecially c onstructed f or m or-

5 ) c hamber b - i t i s a l arge c hamber o riginally c onstructed f or p urposes o ther t han m ortuary , i .e . a s a c hultun . A .L .

S mith 's

d efinitions

a re

a n

i mprovement

o ver R .E .

h e h as d istinguished t he 2 d ifferent t ypes o f c hambers

S mith 's

t hat R .E .

b ecause

S mith d id

n ot a nd e ach t ype i s d efined w ith r eference t o g rave m orphology . T he o ne s hortcoming i s t hat t he d efinitions o f c hamber a a nd c hamher b a re s omewhat v ague . B ut t hese a re a c onsiderable i mprovement a nd t his i s c learly d emonstrated b y t he f act t hat m ost o ther M ayanists w ho h ave s ince a ttempted t o c lassify l owland M aya g raves h ave u sed A .L . S mith 's a s ab asis .

C opan L ongyear p resented a nother t ypology b ased u pon t he C opan e xcavations o f t he 1 890 's ( Gordon 1 896) a nd 1 938-46

( Longyear 1 952) .

T he b urials a re

c lassified i nto 2 t ypes , g raves a nd t ombs, a nd d efined a s f ollows 1 952 : 3 5 &4 0 a nd G ordon 1 896 : 2 9-30) : 1 )

( Longyear

g raves - g raves a t C opan a re d efined a s s imple i nterments n ot e nclosed

b y d efinite b oundaries o f s labs o r c ut s tones . p laced

i n a h ole d ug

T he b odies a nd a rtefacts a re

i nto t he g round a nd a re u sually c overed u p w ithout

8

f urther m ortuary e mbellishment , a lthough r arely a f ew b oulders m ay b e p laced a round , o r e ven o ver , t he c orpse ; 2 )

t ombs - t ombs a t C opan a re u sually s mall c hambers , o f e ither s labs a nd

b oulders o r o f s quared s tone b locks ,

o ften c ontaining s mall n iches i n t he

w alls a nd s ometimes b eing r oofed b y c orbeled a rches . L ongyear 's d efinitions h ave m ore s pecific r eferences t o g rave m ophology t han A A- S mith 's b ut t end t o i nclude t oo m any v ariables . I t w ould h ave b een b etter h ad a d istinction b een m ade o f s imple g raves w ith n o d efinite b oundaries f rom t hose w ith a f ew b oulders p laced a round o r o ver t he c orpse . A d istinction o f t ombs w ith c orbeled a rches f rom t hose w ithout s hould a lso h ave b een m ade . T he d efinitions a re a t l east u seful a nd c an b e i mproved b y d istinguishing s ome o f t he m orphological v ariables m entioned . T his w ould c reate m ore g rave t ypes w ith e ach t ype r eferring t o a s pecific g roup o f m orphological a ttributes . I t i s a lso u nfortunate t hat L ongyear u sed t he t erm g rave f or o ne o f h is t ypes b ecause a d ictionary d efinition o f g rave r efers t o d ifferent t ypes o f e xcavations , h oles , o r s tructures m ade f or t he i nterment a nd a ccommodation o f t he d ead , n ot a s ingle , s imple t ype .

P iedras N egras N ext

i s

C oe 's

c lassification

o f g raves b ased o n t he

e xcavations

a t

P iedras N egras . H e c lassified h is g raves i nto 4 t ypes a md d efined t hem a s f ollows ( Coe 1 959 : 1 20) : 1 ) s imple - a n u nlined h ole i n t he g round o r i nclusion o f a b ody i n f ill d uring c onstruction - a t ype a nd d efinition b orrowed f rom A .L . S mith ; 2 )

c overed b urial c ist - u sed b y

B urials

2 & 3 a t P iedras N egras .

s ingle c ourse , S mith c rypt ; 3 )

S atterthwaite t o d esignate t he g raves o f T hese h ave

c over s labs

s upported b y a

r ough s tone p erimeter - a nd t hus c orresponds t o t he A .L .

c overed b urial c hamber - S atterthwaite

d istinguished t his f rom t he

p receding b y i ts h aving a g reater v ertical d istance b etween t he f loor o f t he c hamber a nd i ts c over . I t i s a gain s imilar t o t he A A- S mith d efinition o f c rypt b ut a lso i ncludes t he p arameter o f g reater v ertical d istance . r epresented b y P iedras N egras B urial 1 ; 4 )

I t i s

t omb - a c omparatively l arge m ortuary s tructure w ith d efinite w alls t hat

r ise t o a r oof

t hat m ay e ither b e f lat o r v aulted ,

a nd d efinitely l arger

t han i s r equired t o s imply l ay o ut a c orpse . T his t ype i s r epresented b y B urials 5 & 1 0 a nd i s e quivalent t o t he A O- S mith c hamber a . T he a dvantages o f C oe 's s cheme a re t hat h e c onfines h is d efinitions t o v ariations i n p hysical a ttributes a nd s pacial d imension o f g rave m orphology , a nd b ases t hem o n t he d efinitions a lready e stablished b y A .L . S mith . T he o ne p roblem r evolves a round t he i ntroduction o f n ew t erms t hat i n f act r efer t o p reviously d efined t erms o f A A- S mith . I t w ould h ave b een s impler h ad C oe u sed t he s ame t erminology , b ut a t l east h e a ttempts t o e quate h is t erms a nd d efinitions w ith A .L . S mith 's . D espite t he u nnecessary n ew t erminology , i t i s a n a ttempt a t c onsistency .

9

D zibilchaltun A nother a rchaeologist w ho c lassified g raves o n t he b asis o f A .L . S mith 's d efinitions i s A ndrews V .

F rom t he g raves d iscovered a t D zibilchaltun f ive

t ypes w ere d istinguished, o r s o h e s ays, d istinguished ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 : 3 14) :

1 ) 2 )

s imple

g rave

-a s

d efined

b ut

i n f act o nly f our w ere

b y A A. - S mith ;

u rn b urial - r emains o f a n i ndividual i n ap ottery v essel, m ost o ften a

l arge j ar , s ometimes c apped b y a l id, o r i nverted d ish o r p late . T hey u sually c ontained a n i nfant o r c hild a nd m ost o ften r ested i n a n u nlined h ole i n s tructural f ill . T hey w ere m oderately c ommon t hroughout t he s equence . N o s keleton r emains i n u rns e ver s howed a ny s igns o f b urning a nd c remation d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een p ractised a t a ny p eriod a t D zihilchaltun ; 3 )

c ist - a s d efined b y A .L . S mith ;

4 )

c rypt - t his t ype ,

w hich i n i t 's m ost c haracteristic f orm b egan d uring

t he C opo I c eramic p hase , r emained t he p referred t ype u ntil t he P ostclassic . T here w as l ittle v ariation , e xcept i n l ength , a nd i t i s r eferred t o a s t he s tandard C opo c rypt s ince o ver 9 0% o f t he e xamples d ate f rom t his p hase . T his t ype i s s imilar t o A .L . S mith 's c rypt a nd C oe 's c overed b urial c ist .

a s

T his t ypology f ollows A .L . S mith 's w ithout a dding a ny n ew t erminology C oe h ad d one , a nd h ence g oes s ome w ay i n a chieving a m easure o f

c onsistency . H owever , i dentifying u rn b urial a s a g rave t ype m akes t he s ame s ort o f m istake a s R .E . S mith m ade w ith h is d efinition o f c ist b urials : t hey b oth r efer t o am ethod o f d isposing o f ab ody i n ag rave , r ather t han a g rave t ype b ased o n i ts m orphological c haracteristics .

T onina F ollowing t heir e xcavation o f t he s ite o f T onina ,

B ecquelin a nd B audez

p resent t heir v ersion o f ac lassification o f l owland M aya g raves . f ollows ( Becquelin & B audez 1 979 : 1 33) :

I t i s a s

1 )

f osse ( simple) - a n u nlined h ole i n t he g round o r f ill;

2 )

n iche ( urn b urial) - a p lanned c utting i n c onstruction f ill i n o rder t o

r eceive a c remation u rn ; 3 )

c iste ( cist) - a b ox w ith o utlined s idewalls , u sually v ertically p laced

s tone s labs , a nd a c eiling o f s tone b locks ; 4 )

t ombe ( crypt) - a c onstruction o f d ry w all m asonry ( horizontally p laced

s tone s labs) s upporting a f lagstone c eiling ; 5 )

t ombeau ( tomb) - a l arge v aulted s tone c hamber .

T his i s a nother u seful c lassification w hich , a lthough n ot e xplicitly b ased o n A .L . S mith 's d efinitions, d oes h ave s ome c orrespondence t o h is t ypes:- f osse i s e quivalent t o S mith 's s imple g rave , c iste i s e quivalent t o S mith 's c rypt , t ombe i s a r ather m ore s ophisticated v ersion o f S mith 's c rypt , b ut s till r ecognizable a s s uch , a nd t ombeau i s e quivalent t o S mith 's

1 0

c hamber a .

T here i s n othing e quivalent t o S mith 's c hamber b - a c hultun -

b ut t hen n one w as d iscovered a t T onina . A .L . S mith 's c ist t ype , o r w hat i s i n f act a p it, i s i mplied i n B ecquelin 's a nd B audez's f osse t ype . T hus, t here i s s ome c onsistency . T he o ne p roblem i s t he c lassification o f n iche a s a g rave t ype . A s p reviously m entioned , a n u rn b urial r efers t o am ethod o f d isposal o f a h uman c orpse a nd i s n ot a r eference t o g rave m orphology , a nd h ence s hould n ot b e i ncluded i n a ny g rave t ypology . O therwise , t heir t ypology i s u seful a s a pplied t o T onina g raves .

S eibal F ollowing e xtensive e xcavations a t S eibal, T ourtellot p resents a nother c lassification o f Maya g raves . T he s cheme w as e stablished t o f it t he m orphology o f S eibal g raves ( Tourtellot: i n p ress), a nd f rom t his h e c lassifies t he g raves ( receptacles) i nto 8 t ypes . T he d efinitions a re b ased u pon c onsideration o f d eliberate i ntrusion , w alling , f looring a nd c overing , a nd a re a n e xtension a nd s ubdivision o f A .L . S mith 's . T he s cheme i s a s f ollows ( Tourtellot : i n p ress) : A )

E arthen g raves

1 )

s imple - a n i nterment c ontemporary w ith t he s urrounding d eposit .

i s n o p it v isible , g rave a t a ll ; 2 )

B )

p it

h ence ,

s trictly s peaking ,

t here

i s

T here

n o o utline a nd

n o

-i nterment i n ah ole w hose o utline w as v isible ;

S tone g raves

3 )

s lab - p art o f ab ody l ay o n as tone s lab i ntentionally p laced f or i t ;

4 )

c ist - a s tone-lined p it;

5 )

c ap - a n u nlined p it c ontaining c apstones

l ying o ver t he s keleton b ut

n ot r esting o n t he w alls o f t he p it ; 6 ) 7 )

c ap-slab - s keleton s andwiched b etween s labs p laced a bove a nd b elow i t ; p it c rypt

- a n u nlined p it

c overed

b y c apstones

r esting

o n

t he

s idewalls; 8 )

c rypt - a s tone

l ined p it

c overed b y

c apstones .

I t

i s

c alled a h ead

c rypt w hen t he s tones s urrounded t he s kull a rea o nly .

T ourtellot g oes o n t o m ention t hat n o t ombs o r c hambers , n o u rn b urials a nd n o e vidence o f c remation w ere f ound a t S eibal . S o n one o f t hese w as i ncluded i n h is c lassification . W hat w e h ave i s as cheme b ased o n A .L . S mith 's d efinitions b ut w ith m ore t ypes i n o rder t o a ccount f or t he a dditional v ariety e xisting a t S eibal . T ourtellot i s t he o nly o ne o f o ur a uthors w ho t akes i nto a ccount t he e xtensive v ariety i n g rave m orphology , v ariety w hich m ay b e p articularly e vident a t S eibal b ut w hich i s c ertainly n ot e xclusive t o i t . T here i s h ere t he m akings o f a r ather g ood c lassification s imply b ecause T ourtellot h as b ased h is t ypes a nd d efinitions o n A .L . S mith 's s cheme , d efined h is t ypes o n t he b asis o f g rave m orphology

1

o nly ,

a nd

e stablished m ore

t ypes w hich t ake i nto a ccount

t he

v ariety o f

g rave m orphology , ap oint t o w hich w e s hall r eturn w hen d iscussing t he f ramework o f at ype-variety c lassification o f l owland M aya g raves .

L oten & P endergast C lassification I n a n a ttempt

t o p rovide s ystematic d efinitions o f M aya a rchitectural

t erms , L oten a nd P endergast ( 1984) a lso p rovide b rief d efinitions o f a f ew g rave t ypes . T hese a re a s f ollows ( Loten & P endergast 1 984 : 5 -14) : 1 ) c ist - a s mall p it , g enerally w ith s tone l ining a nd c ap , u sed e ither a s a c ache c ontainer o r f or s torage ; 2 ) c rypt - a ) a c hamber f or a b urial,

e ither b uilt f or t he p urpose o r

r eused . I t h ouses a b urial t hat d oes n ot o ccupy a ll t he s pace p rovided ; b ) i n n orthern Y ucatan , a m asonry l ined a nd c apped g rave n ot a ppreciably l argher t han t he v olume o f i ts c ontents ; 3 )

g rave - a b urial h ousing t hat i s n ot a ppreciably l arger t han t he v olume

o f t he c ontents . A g rave m ay b e c apped a nd/or l ined w ith m asonry ( often r eused f acing s tones) , o r m ay l ack t hese f eatures , w hether i t i s c ut i nto a n e xisting s tructure w ithin c ore ; 4 )

a nd c apped b y s ubsequent

t omb - a n e lite i nterment :

c onstruction ,

o r

i s

c ontained

t he t erm e ncompasses t he c rypt t ogether w ith

i ts f unerary c ontents a nd f urnishings , o fferings i n , o n , o r b y t he t omb .

i ncluding

p re

a nd

p ost

T heir d efinitions a re r ather d ifferent f rom p revious o nes .

i nterment

F or t hem ,

a

c ist i s n ot e ven c onsidered a s tone-lined c ontainer f or i nterments b ut o ne f or c aches o r s torage . I nstead o f c ist , t hey u se t he t erm g rave t o a pply t o s tone-lined c ontainers f or i nterments , a nd i n t his r espect t he d efinition i s s imilar t o C oe 's c overed b urial c ist , a nd t he B ecquelin a nd B audez c iste . B ut t he L oten a nd P endergast d efinition i ncludes g raves t hat m ay l ack s tone l ined f eatures , l eaving a r ather f lexible m orphology i n as ingle d efinition . A s p reviously n oted , a d ictionary d efinition o f g rave r efers t o t he s tructure(s) , o f w hatever d imension a nd c onstruction , m ade t o a ccommodate t he d ead , n ot a s ingle , s imple t ype . T heir d efinition i s s o l oose a s t o a lmost i mply t his b ut t hey d o n ot s pell i t o ut , a nd c onfuse t he i ssue w ith r eference t o m asonry l ining o r c ap . S uch i nability t o a dopt s ingle t erns o f r eference a lso e xists w ith t heir d efinition o f t omb , w hich r efers t o t he c ontents o f a b urial a s w ell a s t he s tructure h ousing i t , t o w hich t hey r efer a s a c rypt . U sing c rypt i n t he d efinition m akes i t u nclear ( to m e) q uite h ow a t omb i s d ifferent , e specially s ince t heir d efinition o f c rypt m akes n o r eference t o c ontents . T his i mprecision l eaves c onfused d efinitions a nd c onfused r eaders .

R uz C lassifications N o d iscussion o f p revious t ypologies o f M aya g raves w ould b e c omplete w ithout c ommenting o n t he w ork o f R uz . R uz, b est k nown f or h is d iscovery o f P acal 's t omb i n t he T emple o f I nscriptions , P alenque ( Ruz 1 954 , & 1 973) , c onducted a r ather e xtensive , b ut n evertheless l imited , s urvey o f M aya b urial c ustoms ( Ruz 1 965 & 1 968) . H e p rovides u seful, b ut g eneral, o bservations o n t he t ypes o f g raves f ound a t m any s ites , a nd t he p revalent

1 2

t ypes f or e ach c hronological p hase . c lassification s chemes . 1 965 : 4 41) : 1 )

I n

s o d oing , h e p resented 3 d ifferent

I n t he f irst h e d istinguished 5 t ypes o f g rave ( Ruz

s imple - m erely h oles i n t he g round o r i n t he f ill o f ab uilding w ithout

s pecial f eatures ; 2 ) c aves o r c hultuns - f unerary u se o f n atural c aves a nd h ollows,

o r

c isterns d ug i n t he g round ; 3 )

c ists - b etter d efined b urial t han s imple o nes w ith c rudely c onstructed

w alls o f s tone t o o utline t hem , w ithout l ids , a nd g enerally s maller t han a n e xtended b ody ; 4 )

g raves - t ypes o f c offins c onstructed o f m asonry o r s labs , w ith a c over ,

w ith o r w ithout a s tucco f loor , a nd l arge e nough f or a t l east o ne e xtended b ody ; 5 )

c hambers - r ooms o f v arying s ize ,

o f a t l east a m an 's s tature i n h eight ,

w ith w ell c onstructed m asonry w alls a md v aulted r oofs .

T his c lassification i s e ssentially t hat o f A .L . S mith 's, w hich R uz a cknowledges , e xcept t hat h e o ddly u ses t he t erm g rave t o d esignate a b urial r eceptacle t hat i s e ffectively e quivalent t o A .L . S mith 's c rypt . W hy h e u sed t he t erm g rave, r ather t han r emain w ith c rypt, i s a b it p uzzling b ecause g rave s imply r efers t o t he e xcavation i n t he e arth f or t he i nterment o f a b ody . I ts u se h ere i s u nnecessarily c onfusing . T he o ne o ther m inor d ifference b etween t he R uz a nd A . 1- S mith c lassifications i s t hat R uz s imply r efers t o S mith 's c hamber b a s a c hultun o r c ave . I p refer R ues t erms t o S mith 's, b ut s ix o f o ne I n t he s econd c lassification , R uz e stablishes 8 t ypes o f i nterment w hich a re a s f ollows ( Ruz 1 968 : 1 ) 2 ) 3 )

s imple

- e xtended

8 0-81) :

i n s oil w ith n o b orders ;

c ave o r c hultun ; c ist - b urial w ith o utlined w alls , b ut r arely w ith r oof o r f loor .

M ost

o ften f ound i n m ounds o r b elow d wellings ; 4 )

t omb w ith s idewalls,

5 )

r oom w ith a s tructure w hich b ecomes s elected

6 ) s arcophagus c hamber t omb ;

o f

r oof a nd f loor o f s tone ;

s tone w ith c apstone ,

f or f unerary p urposes;

a nd w hich

i s u sually f ound i n a

7 ) u rn b urial; 8 )

p lacing o f a b ody j ust u nder t he f loor o f a t emple o r d welling . H e t hen e xpands t his c lassification i nto a t hird o ne b ased o n t he

p lacement o f t he i nterred .

T he c lassification i s a s f ollows ( ibid . :

1 ) i n s oil w ith n o p rotection ;

1 3

1 49) :

2 ) i n s oil w ith b owl o ver s kull; 3 ) i n c aves; 4 ) i n c enotes; 5 ) i n c hultuns; 6 )

i n h ouse p latforms ;

7 )

i n

t he

i nterior o f

c eremonial

s tructures ;

8 )

i n i nterior r ooms o f c eremonial

9 )

i n f unerary m ounds ;

o r h ouse s tructures;

1 0) i n c ists ; 1) i n t ombs ; 1 2) i n f unerary

c hambers ;

1 3) i n s arcophagi ; 1 4) i n u rn s . T hese 2 c lassification s chemes , h owever ,

a re c onfusing .

R uz d oes n ot

i n f act d efine g rave t ypes i n e ither c lassification . W hat h e h as d one i s m ix 2 d iscrete f orms o f c riteria t o p roduce , f irst , a t ype b ased o n w here a nd i n w hat t he d eceased i ndividuals w ere p laced , a nd s econd , a t ype r eferring t o g rave m orphology b ut w ithout a ctually s pecifying t he m orphological d etails o r d efining t he t ypes . A s a r esult, t he c lassifications a re c onfused a nd c onfusing . T hey a re n evertheless o f i nterest b ecause a lthough n either c lassification d efines o r c lassifies g raves , b urials a re c lassified a ccording t o t he d ifferent m ethods a nd p laces o f d isposing o f t he d ead . W ith R uz w e

c ome

t o

t he

l ast

i ndividual w ho h as

d efined g raves

( or

b urials) . I t s hould b e o bvious t hat e ach p erson h as t o s ome d egree d efined t hem i n t erms o f t he m orphological v ariation , b ut m ost h ave c onfused b urial w ith g rave , a nd m orphology w ith m ethod o f d isposal . A .L . S mith , T ourtellot a nd R uz m ight b e p ossible e xceptions t o t his b ut e ach h as o nly c oncentrated o n h is r espective s ite , i .e . U axactun , S eibal a nd P alenque , r espectively . I t i s t his c oncentration u pon d efining g raves w ithin o ne s ite o nly t hat c reates p roblems b ecause t here i s at remendous v ariation o f g rave m orphology b etween s ites , a f act o nly T ourtellot s eems t o f ully a ppreciate . D efinitions b ased u pon o ne s pecific s ite m ay n ot b e s uitable g enerally . T his r ather d iminishes t he v alue o f t he r espective c lassifications , a lthough a dmittedly c onsistency w as m aintained b y t he d efinitions b eing b ased o n t hose

o f A .L .

H owever ,

S mith . t his p ropensity

t o p roduce g rave

d ata f rom i ndividual s ites i s n ot

t he b asis

o f

t he o nly f actor c reating d ifficulty

i n

e stablishing a n o verall c lassification .

t ypologies

o n

I t i s c ompounded b y o ther a uthors

u sing t erms w hich a re n ot d efined, p roviding p oor a nd i nadequate d escriptions, o r p roviding g ood d escriptions b ut n o t erminology . A t

1 4

M ountain C ow ,

f or e xample , T hompson ( 1931) d escribes m any g raves a s v aulted

c hambers w ithout c learly d efining w hat h e m eans b y v aulted c hamber , a nd a pplying t he t erm t o g raves i n w hich t here i s e ither c onsiderable d escriptive v ariety o r i nadequate d escription . H is d escription o f V aulted C hamber I I , T zimin K ax ( ibid . : 2 95-303) , i ndicates t hat i t i s w hat t he t erm i mplies . B ut h is d escription o f V aulted C hamber X , T zimin K ax ( ibid . : 3 17) i s o f ag rave o f c onsiderably l ess s ophistication , w hile t he d escriptions o f V aulted C hamber I X , T zimin K ax , a nd V aulted C hamber I V, C ahal C unil a re t oo i nadequate t o a scertain p recisely w hat t hey a re . T he s ame p roblem e xists w ith M erwin 's a nd V aillant 's ( 1932) d escription o f H olmul b urials , a nd i f a nything t heir d escription i s m uch w orse . M uch o f t he t ime i t i s u ncertain w hether t hey a re r eferring t o p its , c hambers , v aults , r ooms o r w hatever e lse a s r eceptacles f or b odies . T his p articularly a pplies t o t he S tr . B , G roup I I b urials . I nadequate g rave d escriptions a lso p revail i n t he s ite d escriptions o f C opan , P alenque a nd T ikal ( though i n t he l ast i nstance i t i s t hose u nder ( 1931)

b ecause I w as u nable t o a cquire m uch o f t he d ata) . T hen t here a re a uthors w ho p rovide g ood d escriptions b ut r arely c lassify t he g raves a ny p articular t erm , e .g . B ullard & B ullard ( 1965) a nd R icketson a t B aking P ot , a nd P endergast ( 1979 & 1 982) a t A ltun H a . T his n eed

n ot c reate a d ifficulty s o l ong a s t he d escriptions a re g ood e nough t o b e p lacbd w ithin o ne ' s o wn t ypology . A lthough n one o f t he a uthors e ver d escribes e ach g rave i n q uite t he s ame w ay o ne r eceives a g ood e nough i mpression . I n a ny c ase , e stablishing a g rave t ypology i n t hese c ircumstances c an b e f rustrating .

C aches , B urials , G raves a nd I nterments B efore p resenting t he g rave t ypology a c omment o n t he d ifference b etween c aches a nd b urials i s n ecessary . B urials a re i nterments o f h uman s keletal m aterial a nd a ssociated o bjects i n a g rave ( A . I. S mith 1 972 : 2 12) . C ache r efers t o o ne o r m ore o bjects f ound t ogether a nd w hose g rouping a nd s ituation , e xcluding b urials , i mply i ntentional i nterment a s a n o ffering ( Coe 1 959 :

7 7) .

B ut t here a re a f ew i nstances

i n w hich h uman r emains h ave

b een p laced i n ac learly d edicatory f ashion w ith t he u sual v otive o fferings, e .g . B urials E 21-23 a nd A 27 a t U axactun , e ach c onsisting o f a h uman s kull p laced b etween 2 c ache b owls ( see T able 1 03 f or o ther e xamples) . S hould s uch d edicatory o fferings b e c lassified a s c aches o r b urials? I n m y o pinion , o fferings c ontaining h uman s keletal m aterial s hould b e c onsidered a s b urials . W hy? B ecause r egardless o f w hether t hey a re d edicatory o fferings o r n ot , t heir p resence d oes i nform u s o f o ne o f t he m ethods o f i nterment o r d isposal o f t he d ead b y t he l owland M aya . T hus , I i ntend t o r ecord e very i nterment o f s keletal m aterial a s ab urial, i ncluding t he s kull b urials , C -13/34 a nd C -13/35 o f A ltun H a , w hich w ere n ot r ecorded a s b urials b y P endergast ( 1982 : 1 98) . A n e xception t o t his r ule a pplies t o t he m any p roblematical d eposits , e specially a t T ikal, w hich , b ecause o f d isturbance m ade t o t he o riginal p rimary b urial,

e ach n ow c onsists o f a s econdary

i nterment . H aving b een d isturbed , p roblematical d eposits c an n ot r eally i nform u s a bout t he o riginal m ethod o f i nterment . H ence , I h ave i gnored m ost p roblematical d eposits b ut i ncluded s ome f rom S eibal, T ikal a nd A ltun H a , m erely t o a cknowledge t heir e xistence . Is hould a lso a dmit t hat I h ave s imply n ot b een i n ap osition t o r ecord m ost o f t hem I t i s a lso n ecessary t o s pell o ut t he d istinction b etween b urial a nd g rave .

B urials a re i nterments

a ssociated

o bjects

o f h uman s keletal

i n a g rave

( A .L .

S mith

m aterial w ith o r w ithout

1 972:

2 12) .

G raves

a re

t he

d ifferent t ypes o f e xcavations, h oles, p its o r r eceptacles d esigned t o

1 5

a ccommodate t he d ead . T he f act t hat g rave a nd b urial r efer t o t wo d ifferent t hings h as f requently b een o verlooked b y m any a rchaeologists, b ut t he d istinction m ust b e k ept i n m ind . A ny m ode o f b urial, i .e . m ethod o f d isposal, m ay ,

i n p rinciple ,

o ccur i n a ny t ype o f g rave .

I t s hould n ow b e

m ade v ery c lear t hat t he f ollowing c lassification i s ag rave t ypology b ased o n g rave m orphology .

T he C lassification o f G raves I t i s a pparent f rom t he r eview o f p revious g rave c lassifications t hat t hese c ontain d ifferences a nd i nconsistencies . T his o ccurred b ecause e ach c lassification w as b ased o n t he g rave m orphology f rom a s ingle s ite . A c omprehensive a nd c onsistent t ypology m ust d raw u pon d ata c ollected f rom a s m any s ites a s p ossible . C onsequently , m y o wn t ypology a nd c lassification i s b ased o n t he m orphology o f 170 g raves f rom 1 6 d ifferent s ites , a nd a lt hough b y n o m eans e xhaustive i t i s h oped a nd e xpected t hat t he s ize a nd v ariety o f t he s ample w ill i ncorporate a ll t he m orphological d ifferences i n l owland M aya g raves . T he c lassification c losely f ollows t he t ypes e stablished b y A . 1- S mith a s w ell a s a ccounts f or t he e xtensive v ariety r evealed b y T ourtellot . O ne w ay o f d escribing t he t otal m orphological r ange o f M aya g raves i s b y at ypev ariety s ystem o f c lassification . T he s ystem c onsists o f t ypes b ased o n d efined m orphological a ttributes , a nd v arieties w ithin e ach t ype b ased o n m inor a ttribute v ariations . T he c lassification i s p resented b elow o utlining t he t ypes ,

v arieties ,

a nd r espective d efinitions o f e ach . T here a re 6 b asic t ypes , i ncluding a n u nknown o r u nclassifiable c ategory , w ith 1 6 v arieties ( see A ppendix I I) . T ype I ) S imple : I nterment i n a n u nlined h ole o r p it i n t he g round o r s tructural f ill,

o r

i nclusion o f a b ody i n f ill d uring c onstruction . A ny s tone t hat m ay b e p resent w as n ot i ntentionally p laced f or i nterment , b ut u sed i f a vailable . V arieties: 1 )

s imple

-f ormless

g rave

i n

c onstruction f ill

o pportunistically m ade

d uring s tructural r econstruction ; 2 )

p it - u nlined h ole o r p it d ug i nto s oil,

3 )

c eiling s lab - t he c orpse ,

b edrock ,

o r p ortion o f i t ,

i .e .

f ill o r r ubble ; t he h ead ,

r ested o n

s tone s lab o f ap re-existing s tone c apped g rave ; 4 )

b locked u p r oom - t echnically s hould b e i ncluded w ith s imple v ariety

b ut

i s

c onsidered

a s eparate

v ariety

d escriptions o f b urials i n R ooms 1 t o 4 ,

t o

a ccount

f or

S tr . B , G roup I I ,

t he

H olmul ,

c onfused a nd t he

g raves o f B urials T 1-40 , C opan , a nd 1 8 , M ountain C ow ; 5 ) i nterment p laced b etween e xisting s tone l ined g raves , b enches o r r oom w alls a nd t hus f orming t he i llusion o f b eing s tone l ined w hen i n f act t here w as n o s pecial g rave p reparation .

1 6

T ype I I) L arge

C hultun :

c hamber o riginally d ug

o ut

o f

t he

s oil

a nd/or b edrock f or p urposes

o ther t han m ortuary , a nd w ith o r w ithout a s haft .

T ype I II)

N o v arieties .

C ist :

O utlined g rave c onsisting o f s tone l ining o n a t l east o ne o f i ts s idewalls , c ap o r f loor , b ut r arely , i f e ver , b eing c ompletely l ined w ith s tone ; o r i ntentional p lacing . o f s tone , f requently h aphazard , d irectly o n o r a round s keleton a s am eans o f s eparation a nd p rotection f rom o ther g raves . T he f act t hat s tone w as u sed d istinguishes i t f rom s imple g raves a nd b ecause i t w as n ot c ompletely s tone l ined o n a ll s ides d istinguishes i t f rom c rypts . C ists w ere r arely c apped i f s tone l ining w as p resent . V arieties: 1 )

h aphazard c ist - r andomly p iled o r p laced s tones l ying d irectly o n ,

o r

h aphazardly p laced a round , c orpse ; p robably s o p laced i n o rder t o s eparate b urial f rom o thers s urrounding i t a nd t hus , a lthough t he p lacing o f t he s tones m ay a ppear h aphazard , t he a ct o f p lacing t hem w as i ntentional ; 2 )

p artial c ist - u se o f r ough , u nshaped s tones o f r ubble f ill p laced a s a

p artial o r i ncomplete l ining a round , u nder o r o ver , b ody . R ather s imilar t o a bove v ariety b ut l ess h aphazard i n a ppearance . F requent u se o f e xisting s tructural w alls a s a dditional l ining t o g rave ; 3 )

h ead c ist - g rave i n w hich s ome s ort o f s tone , m ortar o r p laster l ining

h as b een p laced o n , u nder o r a round c ranium o f c orpse f or p rotection , w ith l ittle o r n o a ttention p aid t o p rotecting t he r est o f t he b ody ; 4 )

a nd

c apped p it - a n u nlined , o r p artly w alled p it , p artly o r t otally c overed

b y c apstones r esting o n a t l east o ne , b ut n ormally b oth , s ide walls ; 5 )

u ncapped c ist - g rave p artly o r c ompletely

l ined b y

a c rude

u nshaped s tones , b oulders , o r r ough , v ertically p laced s labs . w alls m ay b e c overed w ith p laster . N one w as c apped . T ype

I V)

r ing

o f

S ome g rave

C rypt:

G rave c onstructed w ith p artly o r c ompletely s tone

l ined w alls a nd a lways

c overed b y c apstones f or a c eiling . M ay o r m ay n ot h ave a p lastered f loor . S ome c rypts w ere m ore c omplex o r e laborate t han o thers b y t heir g reater d imensions a nd/or m ore c arefully p laced s tones i n am ore c omplex s tone w all c onstruction , i .e . w ell c ut h orizontally p laced s tone s labs , a s o pposed t o v ertically p ositioned , r oughly s haped s labs . V arieties: 1 )

u nspecified c rypt - d esignated a s a c rypt b y e xcavators b ut , b ecause o f

d isturbance o r i nadequate d escription a nd i llustration , t he a ctual s ophistication o f c onstruction o f t he g rave i s u ncertain , t hough t he e xcavator 's i mplication t hat t he g rave w as a c rypt i s a ccepted , i .e . s tone w alls w ith a c apstone ; 2 )

s imple c rypt - g rave w hose w alls a re u sually

1 7

l ined ,

o r p artly

l ined ,

w ith

v ertically

c apstones . o f 3 )

p laced

s tone

s labs

o r u nshaped

s tones ,

a nd

r oofed w ith

W alls , f loor a nd c apstones m ay b e c overed w ith p laster .

H eight

1 0-75 c ms . ; e laborate c rypt - g rave w hose w alls a re

l ined w ith s tone s labs ,

h orizontally p laced , a nd c apped w ith c ut a nd o ccasionally h ave s tone f loors , n iches i n w alls , w alls . W alls , f loor a nd o r c apstones s ometimes c ontain a n a ntechamber . H eight i s h igher t han r anging f rom 4 0 t o 1 35 c ms .

o ften

d ressed c apstones . May a nd/or b enches a long s idec overed i n p laster . M ay t he s imple c rypt v ariety ,

T ype V ) T omb : A n e laborate s tone l ined o r r ock-cut c hamber o f c onsiderable d imensions , f ar e xceeding t hose o f t he c orpse . U sually c ontains a s haft l eading d own t o t he c hamber , w ith a n o ccasional a ntechamber . H eight i s s ufficient f or a h uman t o s tand, i .e . c a . 1 35 c ms . o r m ore . T ombs m ay b e v aulted o r h ave v ertical w alls w ith a c ap . a nd/or p ainted .

W alls , f loor a nd c eiling a re u sually p lastered

V arieiies: 1 )

u nspecified t omb - i nsufficient

o f c onstruction a nd/or d imensions , w as a t omb ; 2 )

d escription t o d etermine p recise n ature b ut a ccept a uthor 's i mplication t hat

r ock-cut t omb - l arge c hamber c ut o ut o f b edrock ,

a nd s teps l eading t o t omb e ntrance . p laster a nd l ine p aintings ; 3 )

i t

c omplete w ith s haft

W alls a nd c eiling u sually c overed i n

s tone l ined t omb - l arge c hamber l ined w ith s tone a nd e ither v aulted o r

c apped w ith s tone s labs . T ype V I)

M ay h ave s haft a nd s teps l eading t o c hamber .

U nclassifiable o r U nknown

G raves i n w hich t here w as i nsufficient o r n o i nformation ,

o r t hey w ere t oo

d isturbed t o d etermine m orphology . H ence , i t w as n ot p ossible t o k now w hat t hese g raves w ere n or h ow t o c lassify t hem A s w ith a ny t ypology t his o ne i s n ot p erfect a nd t here a re a dmittedly a f ew g raves w hich c ould f it i nto a c ouple o f v arieties . T here i s a n e specially f ine l ine b etween h aphazard c ist a nd p artial c ist , p artial c ist a nd u ncapped c ist , a nd e laborate c rypt a nd t omb . G raves e xist w hich c ould f it i n e ither o f t he a bove c ombinations . N evertheless , a lthough a f inal d ecision t o p lace a g rave i n a s pecific v ariety i s s ubjective , Ih ave a ttempted t o f ollow m orphology a s c losely a s p ossible w here d escription a llows , a nd t o c lassify e ach g rave a ccording t o t he m ain m orphological c haracteristics ( see g rave t ype i llustrations , A ppendix I I) .

N ature o f S ample I n c onstructing t his t ypology , 170 g raves f rom 1 6 d ifferent s ites h ave b een u sed . T his s ample , h owever , i s b y n o m eans e xhaustive . B urials f rom s ome o f t he 1 6 s ites w ere n ot i ncluded b ecause o f e ither i nadequate d escription o f t he g raves a nd/or b urials , o r b ecause t he d ata o n s ome o f t he g raves w ere n ot p ublished a nd n ot e asily o btainable .

1 8

Id id m anage , h owever ,

t o a cquire u npublished d ata o n t he s ites o f S eibal* ,

A ltun H a* a nd T ikal* ,

a nd I h ave u sed t his i nformation i n t he s ample . I h ave n ot u sed t he p ublished d ata f rom c ertain s ites, e .g . Q uirigua a nd C olha , b ecause t he n umber o f b urials a t

t hese s ites

i s n ot e nough t o p rovide a ny s ignificant

a ppraisal o f t he b urial p attern w ithin e ach s ite . B ut t he m ere t hree b urials f rom T hompson 's e xcavations a t B enque V iejo ( 1940) a re i ncluded b ecause o f t he s ite 's p roximity t o s everal o ther B elizean s ites w hose g raves a re a lso i ncluded i n t he s ample . T ogether , t hey m ay r eveal i nformation o n r egional p atterns o f b urial p ractice a nd g rave c onstruction . T he d ata o n t he b urials m entioned b y G ann ( 1912 , 1 916 , & 1 918) , G ann & G ann ( 1939) , a nd J oyce e t a l . ( 1927 . , 1 928 & 1 929) w ere n ot i ncluded b ecause o f t he i nadequate d escription o f b urials a nd g raves , a nd t he l ack o f i nformation r egarding c ontext a nd l ocation o f e ither t he b urials o r t he m ounds i n w hich t he b urials w ere f ound . F urthermore , G ann 's d escription o f b urials a nd b urial m ounds m ay n ot b e v ery r eliable b ecause o f t he i mprecise w ay i n w hich h e a ssociates b urials w ith g rave g oods f ound i n t he b urial m ounds, a nd b ecause o f t he a bsence o f a ny c ommentary o n t he p ossible d ating o f s ome b urials . N one o f t he b urials f rom J aina w as i ncluded b ecause t he p ublished d ata ( Moedana 1 946 a nd P ina C han 1 948) d o n ot p rovide i nformation o n g rave m orphology , b urial c ontext , n or p ossible d ates o f t he b urials . F inally , b urial d ata f rom a f ew s ites t hat h ave r ecently b een p ublished a ppeared t oo l ate t o b e i ncorporated i n t he a nalysis b ut a re l isted a nd c ommented u pon i n A ppendix I II .

A s ar esult , m y s ample i s n ot e xhaustive .

T he f ollowing i s a l ist o f t he s ites c omprising t he

s ample ,

a nd

t he

n umber o f b urials f rom e ach s ite : 1 )

M OUNTAIN C OW ( Thompson 1 931) - 1 8 ;

2 )

B AKING P OT ( Bullard & B ullard 1 965 ;

1 965) - 2 7 ( 7 , 3 )

1 5 , a nd 5 b urials ,

B ARTON R AMIE ( Willey e t a l .

R icketson 1 931;

a nd W illey e t a l .

r espectively) ; 1 965) - 14 ;

B urials 2 , 3&4o f M ound 1 47

w ere s o m ixed I h ave c onsidered t hem a s a s ingle , m ultiple b urial, 1 47-2 , a nd n ot s eparately a s o riginally p ublished ( ibid . : 1 42 & 5 54) , a nd B urials 1 & 1 2 o f M ound 1 23 a re c onsidered a s ingle b urial o f am other a nd c hild , B urial 1 23-11, a s o riginally s uggested b ut f or s ome r eason p resented s eparately ( ibid . :

18 & 5 49) ;

4 )

B ENQUE V IEJO

( Thompson 1 940)- 3 ;

5 )

S AN J OSE ( Thompson 1 939) - 7 0 ;

c onsidered a s o ne b urial, ( ibid .: 1 99) ; 6 )

B 4,

B urials B 4 & B 5 w ere s o m ixed t hey a re

a nd n ot s eparately a s T hompson h ad d one

H OLMUL ( Merwin & V aillant 1 932) - 2 2 ;

h ave

c onsidered

i ndividual

t hem a s

i nterments ;

a s ingle ,

B urials B 17-B19 w ere s o m ixed I

m ultiple b urial,

B urials B 3 & B 4 ,

B 17,

a lthough d isturbed ,

a nd

n ot

a s

c onsisted o f

o nly o ne b ody a nd s hould t herefore b e c onsidered a s o ne b urial, B 3 ; a nd B urials B 13 a nd B 14 w ere s o m ixed t hat a re b est c onsidered a s o ne b urial, B 13

( ibid . :

2 9-38) ;

*s ee a cknowledgements

1 9

7 ) U AXACTUN ( Ricketson & R icketson 1 937 ; A .L . S mith 1 932 , 1 937 , 1 950 a nd 1 973; R .E . S mith 1 937; a nd W auchope 1 934) - 1 16; G roup E b urials f rom R icketson & R icketson ; S tructure A -I b urials f rom R .E . S mith ; h ousemound b urials f rom W auchope ; a nd t he r est f rom A .L. S mith ; 8 )

T IKAL

( Adams & T rik 1 961;

C oe 1 962 , 1 963 , 1 965 ,

B roman 1 958 ; C oe & M cGinn 1 963 ; C oggins 1 975 ; a nd K idder 1 961; a nd T rik 1 963) - 1 07; 9 )

A LTUN H A ( Pendergast

1 969 ,

1 979 ,

1 982

1 965a & 1 967 ;

C oe a nd

H aviland ( in p ress) ;

& i n p ress) - 2 55 ;

S hook

i ncludes

2

s kull b urials, C -13/34 & C -13/35, w hich w ere n ot l isted a s b urials b y P endergast ( 1982 : i nterments , a , b , 1 0)

1 98) a nd a s eparation o f B urial C -23/1 i nto a nd c , a s i mplied b y P endergast ( ibid . : 2 50) ;

D ZIBILCHALTUN

( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 ;

3 s eparate

a nd F olan 1 969) - 16 ;

B urial

9 6-6 i s s eparated i nto t wo b urials , 6 a a nd 6 b , s ince t he t wo a ppear t o h ave b een d istinct, n on-contemporary i nterments ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 : 2 14); 1)

A LTAR D E S ACRIFICIOS

( A .L . S mith 1 972) - 1 36;

1 2)

S EIBAL ( Sabloff 1 975 ;

A .L .

S mith 1 982 ;

T ourtellot 1 982 & i n p ress) -

5 1; 1 3)

C OPAN ( Gordon 1 896 ;

a nd L ongyear 1 952) - 6 7 ;

B urials 3 4 &3 5 , a nd 2 5 &

2 6, a re b oth c onsidered a s c ontemporary , s ingle, m ultiple i nterments, B urials 3 4 &2 5 , r espectively , r ather t han i ndividual b urials a s o riginally p resented ( Longyear 1 952 : 3 6-37) ; 1 4)

P IDREAS N EGRAS ( Coe 1 959) - 1;

1 6 o r C ache R -3-2 b y C oe ( 1959 : 1 5)

P ALENQUE

1 952a , 1 6)

1 952b ,

( Blom 1 954 ,

t he i nfant s acrifice ,

9 5) ,

i s

& L aFarge 1 925-27 ; 1 958 ,

1 958a ,

1 958b ,

d esignated a s L ot

l isted a s B urial R ands 1 958c ,

T ONINA ( Becquelin & B audez 1 979) - 2 5;

&R ands

1 6 h ere ;

1 961;

a nd R uz

1 952 ,

1 962 & 1 973) - 3 2 ; t here a re 2 5 b urials i n 2 1

g raves b ecause t he g raves o f t he I V-1, I V-2 , I V-3 & I V-9 b urials w ere a ll r eused .

M ode o f B urial A p oint m ust n ow b e m ade r egarding s kull(s) b etween b owl,

a nd u rn b urials .

S ome M ayanists h ave p reviously c onsidered a nd c lassified u rn b urials a s a s eparate g rave t ype ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 ; B ullard & B ullard 1 965 ; a nd T hompson 1 939) . O thers c onsidered a nd c lassified s kull o r i nfant b etween b owl b urials a s t he g rave t ype , c ist ( Ricketson & R icketson 1 937 ; a nd R .E . S mith 1 937) . Id o n ot b elieve i t i s c orrect t o d o e ither . B urying a n i ndividual i n a n u rn , a nd a s kull o r i nfant b etween b owls a re b oth m ethods o f d isposing o f t he d ead . T hey a re n ot g rave t ypes a nd n ot t reated a s s uch h ere . C onsequently , u rn b urials a nd t he i nterments b etween b owls a re o nly c lassified a ccording t o t he m orphology o f t he g raves i n w hich t he u rns a nd b owls h ave b een p laced . T hese m ethods o f i nterment a re c orrelated w ith g rave m orphology t o s ee w hat s ort o f p attern e merges . A

s econd p oint m ust b e m ade t o e xplain w hy s ome m ultiple i nterments

a re c onsidered a s as ingle b urial, w hile o thers a re n ot . i s

c onsidered

Am ultiple b urial

a s ingle i nterment i f t he b ones w ere s o m ixed a s t o s uggest

2 0

a s ingle , c ontemporary p lacing o f t he b odies i n ag rave .

Am ultiple b urial

i s c onsidered a s a s eries o f s eparate i nterments i n t wo p ossible w ays :

i f

t he c ontemporaneity o f t he p lacing o f t he b odies i s o pen t o q uestion , s uch a s t he c ase a t T onina w here i nitial b urials h ave b een b undled i nto a g rave c orner t o m ake w ay f or s uccessive i nterments , o r i f t here i s c learly m ore t han o ne g rave p resent .

T he D istribution o f t he G raves H aving e stablished a c lassification o f

l owland M aya g raves ,

i t w ould

s eem a ppropriate t o c ompare t he d istribution o f g rave t ypes a nd v arieties f rom s ite t o s ite . T able 1 r eveals t he n umber o f g rave t ypes p er s ite , a nd T able 2 , t he g rave v arieties p er s ite . H owever ,

i t i s n ot s imply t he d istribution o f Maya g raves t hat i s

w anted . O ne o f t he m ain p urposes o f t his e xercise i s t o c orrelate g rave t ype w ith o ther f actors r elated t o b urial p ractices t o d etermine w hether t here a re a ny s ignificant a ssociations . I ndeed , i t w ill b ecome a pparent t hat t here i s a n a ssociation b etween g rave t ype a nd g rave c ontext: a s pecific g rave t ype i s u sually f ound i n a s pecific t ype o f s tructure , e .g . s imple g raves i n r esidences a nd t ombs i n t emples ( see c hapter 8 ) . O n a ccount o f t his f act , as imple t abulation o f g rave d istribution i s n ot v ery u seful . T he r esulting d istribution w ould m erely i ndicate t he l ocation a nd t he t ype o f s tructures i n w hich e xcavation h ad b een c oncentrated a t e ach s ite . B ut a c lose e xamination o f t he l ocational a nd s tructural c ontext o f Maya b urials c an r eveal i n w hat s ort o f m ound , s tructure, p laza , e tc" b urials h ave b een p laced , a nd t he g eneral c orrespondence e xisting b etween s pecific g rave t ypes a nd s pecific g rave c ontexts . I t i s t o t his w e s hall d irect o ur a ttention , a nd i n s o d oing , w e s hall c heck f or c orrespondences b etween g rave t ype a nd g rave c ontext w ith t he v arious m ethods o r m odes o f d isposal o f t he d ead , i .e . h ead o rientation , b ody p osition , s keletal m utilation , b owl o ver s kull a nd s o o n . B ut t he c orrelations c oncerning g rave t ype w ill o nly b e m ade w ith r espect t o g rave t ype , n ot g rave v ariety , f or t he f ollowing r easons : 1 )

T here a re t oo m any v arieties t o m ake a s imple c orrelation .

I t i s m uch

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E

C HAPTER T HREE T he L ocational a nd S tructural C ontext o f t he B urials

D etermining t he c ontext o f t he Maya b urials h as n ot b een a s imple p rocedure . I n m any i nstances m ounds w ere p oorly d escribed . F or e xample , T hompson ( 1931 : 2 37) ' S imply s tates t hat m ost b urials w ere f ound i n m ounds o f s quare , p yramid s hape w ith f loors i ndicating t hey s erved a s s ub-structures . S uch d escription p rovides l ittle i ndication o f t he p urpose , u se o r f unction o f t he m ound ( structure) . C onsequently , w here d escriptions a re l imited , i t i s n ot p ossible t o d efine t he n ature o f as tructure w ith c omplete p recision . I t i s m ore b y m eans o f a n e ducated g uess . M oreover , s ome s tructures , s uch a s c eremonial p latforms , t emples a nd h ousehold s hrines , a re s imilar i n a ppearance a nd t heir d efinitive c haracteristics c an o verlap . T his i s f urther c ompounded b y t he f act t hat s tructures m ay u ndergo c onsiderable r econstruction a nd t ransformation d uring t he p eriods o f t heir e xistence . T heir f orm a nd f unction m ay a lter c onsiderably . A f inal p roblem i s t hat a t s ome s ites, t he c ontext i s p urely a nd s imply n ot k nown . T his i s e ither b ecause n o d escription w as p rovided o r m any b urials w ere f ound i n a r iverbank , m odern a irfield ,

o r f ields o utside o f t he a ncient s ite w here t he

o riginal c ontext w as c ompletely o bliterated . s everal d ifferent c ontexts w ere i dentified . F irstly ,

t here a re h ousemounds

B ut d espite t hese d ifficulties

o r h ouse p latforms .

T hese a re s mall

m ounds , a psidal o r r ectangular , w ith o ccupational a nd d omestic d ebris a nd t he o ccasional p osthole w hich i mply t he e xistence o f a s mall, p erishable d omestic s tructure . T here w ere h undreds o f s uch s tructures a t e very s ite . T hey w ere e specially c hosen f or e xcavation a t B arton R amie ( Willey e t a l . 1 965) a nd s lightly l ess s o a t A ltar d e S acrificios ( Smith 1 972) , U axactun ( Wauchope 1 934) a nd D zibilchaltun ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980). S econdly ,

t here a re e lite o r v aulted r esidences .

A n e lite r esidence

c onsists o f a v aulted s tructure , u sually o f o ne v ery l arge r oom o r 2 -4 s maller r ooms , c onstructed o n a p latform w ith t he u sual d omestic d ebiris . S ince s uch s tructures w ere v aulted, w hich r equires g reater e xpense i n c onstruction , t hese a re c onsidered e lite r esidences . T his s ort o f r esidence w as r estricted t o D zibilchaltun ( see A ndrews a nd A ndrews ( 1980) f or t heir d escriptions) , T ikal ( Str . 5 D-46 & 7 F-29) , ( Str . V -1) . T hirdly,

t here

a re

p alaces .

P alaces

a re

a nd P iedras N egras

m ulti-roomed,

v aulted

b uildings , f requently c ontaining c entral c ourts a nd t erraces a nd n ormally r esting u pon e xtensive a nd s ubstantial p latform s . P alaces a re n ot t all, b eing l imited t o o ne o r t wo s toreys, b ut t hey h ave a l arge h orizontal e xpanse . T heir u se(s) o r f unction (s) a re a rguable , b eing e ither d omestic o r a dministrative ( see A dams 1 970) ,

b ut t heir d esign a nd a ppearance a re

u nmistakeable . P alace b urials w ere p rimarily d iscovered i n S tn A -V , U axactun , S tr . A -I , A ltar d e S acrificios , a nd S tr . B 4 , C 4 a nd C 5 , S an J osé . A f ew o thers w ere f ound a t T ikal, D zibilchaltun , S eibal a nd P iedras N egras . N ot e very r esidence c ould b e c lassified i nto o ne o f t hese t ypes .

I n

s ome i nstances, i t w as n ot c ertain w hether a s tructure h ad b een a h ouse

2 5

p latform o r av aulted r esidence . e .g .

S tr .

C -16 ,

C -10 a nd C -21,

T hese a re s imply c onsidered a s r esidences ,

A ltun H a .

I n a nother i nstance ,

5 s tructures

w ere f ound t hat a ppeared l arger t han t he 2 -4 r oamed e lite r esidences b ut s maller t han t he m ulti-roomed p alaces . T hese b uildings , S tr . E -14 , E -54 , E 5 1, B -3 & B -5 , A ltun H a , a re c onsidered p alatial r esidences . F ourthly , t here e xists a g roup o f c eremonial a nd r eligious b uildings w hich a re f airly d ifficult t o d istinguish b y d efinition a s w ell a s b y a ppearance . T hese a re c eremonial p latforms , h ousehold s hrines a nd t emples . T here i s c onsiderable o verlap i n d efining t hem . A t emple i s a v ery t all s tone b uilding w ith a l arge s ubstructure a nd p latform , a nd u sually s urmounted b y a s mall,

t wo o r m ore r oom s uperstructure w ith r oof c omb .

T heir v ertical h eight i s a lways m uch g reater t han t heir h orizontal w idth . T hey m ay v ary i n s ize b ut a re a lways f airly s ubstantial a nd a lways l ocated i n t he c entral

c eremonial

p recinct

o f a s ite .

T hey a lso t end

t o c ontain

b urials o f s ome w ealth . H ousehold s hrines r efer t o b uildings t hat m ay h ave h ad a s imilar p urpose a s t emples , a nd t hough h igh a nd s quare , a re m uch s maller , s ingle r oom s tructures . T hey a re u sually , t hough n ot e xclusively , f ound o n t he e ast . side o f r esidential c ourts o r p lazas , s ometimes w ith a n a ltar o r a s tela ( Becker 1 971 & 1 986 ; M orley 1 983) . R egardless o f t heir l ocation , t hese b uildings w ere p urpose b uilt u nits c onstructed t o h ouse b urials, u sually o f s ome w ealth . I t i s o n t his b asis t hat h ousehold s hrines s hare a s imilar c haracteristic a nd p urpose w ith t emples : t o h ouse b urials a nd t o a ct a s c ommemorations t o s ome i nterred ( see c hapter 1 2) . A s i f s imply t o c reate c onfusion ,

t here a lso e xist s mall c ommemorative c onstructions t o t he

d ead t hat a re n ot e xactly l ike t ypical h ousehold s hrines . T hese a re s mall, a ltar t ype b uildings n ot a ttached o r a ssociated t o a ny o ther b uildings . O nly 3 w ere f ound t hat c ontained b urials , U nits 2 6d , C -33d a nd A -30e , a ll o f S eibal. D espite t he d ifference i n a ppearance, t heir s imilarity i n c ontaining b urials s uggests t hey s hould b e c onsidered a s h ousehold s hrines . T he l ast c eremonial b uilding o f t his g roup , c eremonial p latforms , a re s ubstantial s tructures w ith n o d efinite e vidence o f a ny s uperstructures . B ut t his i s f requently n ot e asily d etermined a nd m any c eremonial p latforms m ay h ave h ad s uperstructures d uring d ifferent p hases o f t heir c onstruction . A t s uch t imes t hey m ust h ave b een r emarkably s imilar i n a ppearance , i f n ot f unction , t o t emples . S uch t emple-like , c eremonial p latforms a re S tr . A -I , A -II & B -XI , U axactun , a nd A -II & A -III , A ltar d e S acrificios . A lthough c lassified a s c eremonial p latforms h ere , o ne c ould a rgue f or t heir i nclusion a s

t emples . T he r emaining 3 c ontexts i n w hich b urials w ere f ound w ere p lazas , p laza

s telae a nd t emple a ltars . T he p laza c ontext i s s elf-explanatory b ut t he l atter t wo a re n ot . P laza s telae a nd t emple a ltar b urials a re d istinguished f rom p laza a nd t emple b urials , r espectively , b ecause t hese b urials h ad a s pecial p urpose . T he b urials s eem t o h ave b een p laced a t t he s telae a nd a ltars a s d edications . C onsequently , Ih ave t ermed t hem a s d edicatory c ache b urials ( see c harter 1) . T hese t hen a re t he d ifferent c ontexts i n w hich b urials w ere f ound . H owever , a lthough t hese t ypes o f s tructures e xisted a t e very s ite , e xcavation s trategies a t d ifferent s ites w ere n ot a lways t he s ame . A t s ome s ites e xcavation w as c oncentrated o n t he m ain c eremonial b uildings o f t he c entral p recinct, e .g . P iedras N egras a nd P alenque . A t o thers a m ore e xtensive s trategy w as a dopted a nd a c ross-section o f s tructures w as

2 6

s elected ,

e .g . U axactun ,

T ikal,

A ltun H a a nd A ltar d e S acrificios .

A nd a t

s till o thers , e xcavation w as c oncentrated o n h ouse p latforms o r r esidences , e .g . B arton R amie a nd D zibilchaltun . T hus , t he s tructural c ontext i n w hich b urials w ere f ound d epends o n t he r espective s ite e xcavation s trategies . S ince c ontext w ill b e s hown t o b e a n i mportant f actor i n d etermining t he t ype a nd w ealth o f b urials , a s w ell a s s ome b urial p ractices , t hen s ome o f t he p revailing p ractices o bserved a t s ome s ites m ay b e ar esult o f ac ontext b ias . T his w ill n ot n egate t he i mportance o f w hat i s o bserved . I n f act i t m ay b e ab lessing b ecause t his v ariation i n e xcavation s trategy a t d ifferent s ites s hould p rovide t he c omplete v ariety o f M aya b urial p ractices . B ut i t c ould m ake c ertain s ite c omparisons d ifficult . F or e xample , t he c ustoms o bserved o f t he h ousemound b urials o f B arton R amie w ill b e r ather d ifferent f rom t he t emple b urials o f P alenque . T he d ifference w ill n ot n ecessarily b e r egional, s imply c ontextual . T his p otential e ffect m ust b e k ept m ind . I n t he f ollowing s ite b y s ite d istribution o f b urial c ontext , s ite e xcavation s trategy a nd p otential c ontextual b ias w ill b e e vident s imply b y t he n umber o f b urials i n e ach c ontext . T he p ossible e ffect o n w hat i s a ctually o bserved i s d iscussed u nder e ach o f t he b urial p ractices s tudied a nd/or t he d iscussion o n p an l owland M aya a nd r egional b urial p ractices ( chapter 1 3) .

Mo untain C ow T he s tructural c ontext o f t he b urials a t t his s ite w as n ot r eally s urmized b y T hompson ,

a nd h ence

o nly d etermined h ere o n t he b asis

o f h is

d escriptions . T he 7 p laza b urials w ere e vidently j ust t hat,

i ncluding t he o ne

i mmediately o utside a p laza b oundary ( Burial 2 ) . T he h ousehold s hrine b urials a re l isted a s s uch b ecause o f t he s imilarity i n a ppearance a nd l ocation o f t he m ounds i n w hich 7 o f t he 9 h ousehold s hrine b urials w ere l ocated . T he m ounds i n q uestion , M ounds A o f P lazas I & I I a nd t he e ast m ound o f P laza X II , a ll a t T zimin K ax , a re p oorly d escribed , l imited t o s aying t hey w ere m ounds o f a h igh a nd s quare , p yramid s hape , l ocated o n t he e ast s ide o f t he t ypical r esidential p laza ( Thompson 1 931: 2 37) . T his d escription o f h igh a nd s quare m ounds o n t he e ast s ide o f r esidential p lazas i s c onsistent w ith B ecker 's

d escription o f h ousehold

s hrines

o f

t he P laza

P lan B a rrangement ( Becker 1 971 & 1 986; a nd s ee F ig . 2 ) . Moreover , t he m ounds s eem t o h ave s imply s erved t he p urpose o f h ousing t he b urials , a n a dditional h ousehold s hrine c haracteristic . T herefore , Ib elieve t he m ounds w ere h ousehold s hrines . T he o ther t wo h ousehold s hrine b urials ,

B urials 1 7 & 1 8 o f M ounds N &

M , r espectively , H atzcap C eel, w ere i n m ounds o f p urpose b uilt s tructures t o h ouse t he g raves ( Thompson 1 931: 2 56-57) . T hough n ot l ocated o n t he e ast s ide o f a p laza t hese m ounds a re c onsidered h ousehold t heir s uggested p urpose b uilt r ole t o h ouse t he b urials.

s hrines

b ecause o f

T he r emaining 2 b urials , B urials 4 & 1 0 o f M ound N , C ahal C unil, a re b elieved t o h ave b een i n a r esidence . M ound N w as l ong a nd l ow i n s hape , t ypical

o f a r esidence p latform .

T herefore ,

t he 1 8 b urials o f t his

s ite

a re c omposed o f 7 f rom p lazas, 9 f orm h ousehold s hrines a nd 2 f rom a r esidence ( see T able I o f A ppendix I ).

2 7

B aking P ot T here

i s

l ittle d ifficulty d etermining b urial c ontext a t t his s ite

b ecause t he m ounds a nd s tructures i n w hich t he b urials w ere f ound w ere e ither w ell d escribed o r c learly i dentified b y t he e xcavators . T he b urials w ere f ound i n t he f ollowing c ontexts ( see T able I I , A ppendix I ) : 1 )

t here

w ere

1 5

b urials

f ound

i n

Mound

G which,

without

s uperstructure , m ust h ave b een a c eremonial p latform ,

( Ricketson 1 931 :

2 )

3w ere f rom a h 6usemound ( Willey e t a l . 1 965:

3 06-307) ;

3 )

2w ere f ound i n a p laza ( ibid .:

4 )

t here w ere 5 b urials f rom S tr . A , G roup I I,

2 7

a ny 7 -8) ;

3 06) ; i dentified a s a t emple

( Bullard & B ullard 1 965 : 1) ; 5 )

1w as f rom t he t emple a ltar i n t he s ame b uilding ( ibid :

6 )

1 .w as f ound i n ap laza ,

1 5);

i n f ront o f t he o nly s tela a t B aking P ot ( ibid . :

1 6).

B arton R amie A ll

o f

t he b urials

( see T able I II ,

e xcavated a t

t his s ite w ere f ound i n h ousemounds

A ppendix I ) .

B enque V iejo T he 3 b urials w ere a ll f ound i n S tr . B 1 .

T his w as a h igh a nd s quare ,

v aulted b uilding , l ocated o n t he e ast s ide o f ar esidential p laza ( Thompson 1 940 : 2 ) . T his s uggests t o m e t hat i t w as a h ousehold s hrine , a nd t herefore t he b urials a re o f t his c ontext ( see T able I V , A ppendix I ) .

S an J ose O n a ccount o f T hompson ( 1939) ,

t he g ood d escription a nd i dentification o f b uildings b y

t he s tructural

c ontext

o f

t he 7 0 b urials a t

S an J ose i s

w ell e stablished . T he b urials w ere f ound i n t he f ollowing c ontexts ( ibid . : 4 7 f f a nd S ee T able V , A ppendix I ) : 1 )

1 i n c eremonial p latforms ( Str . D 1, D 2, A 5, B 3 &B 2).

2 )

2 5 i n r esidences ( Str . C 7, B i, A 8 a nd C 6);

3 )

3 0 i n p alaces ( Str . B 4, C 4 &C 5);

4 )

4i n at emple ( Str . A 4).

H olmul M ost

o f

t he

b uildings

c ontaining

2 8

b urials

a t

H olmul

a re

n ot

e asily

d istinguished .

T he

e xcavators

s eem f irst

t o h ave b elieved t hat S tr .

B ,

G roup I I h ad b een a r esidence w hich w as c onverted i nto a b urial m ound ( Merwin a nd V aillant 1 932 : 2 0) , o nly t o l ater c all i t a t emple ( ibid . : 4 0) . T he f act t hat i t h ad a f ew v aulted r ooms, w as v ery h igh a nd s teep , a nd c ontained w ell f urnished c aches a nd b urials , c haracteristics c onsistent w ith a t emple ,

s uggests t his i s e xactly w hat i t w as .

I t i s c onsidered a t emple

h ere a nd i ts 1 4 b urials c omprise t he t emple b urial s ample . A nother b uilding , S tr . F , G roup I , w as l ocated o n t he e astern e dge o f a p laza . T his f act a nd t he c laim t hat i t h ad b een i ntended s olely f or b urial p urposes a nd n ot c onverted f rom a d omicile i nto a t omb ( ibid . : 1 5) , s uggests t hat i t v i 's a h ousehold s hrine . S o t oo, I b elieve, w as t he m ysterious S tr . X , 1 00 m etres e ast o f G roup I . I t h ad l ittle e vidence o f o ccupation ,

b ut m uch e vidence o f o ccasional b urning a nd t he s ealing o f t he

b uilding f or b urials ( ibid . :

5 0-53) .

T hese 2 b uildings c ontained 4 b urials

a nd c onstitute t he h ousehold s hrine b urial s ample . T he r emaining 4 b urials w ere d iscovered i n S tr . E &F , G roup I I , b oth r esidences ( Merwin & V aillant 1 932 : 4 3-45) . T hus t here w ere 1 4 t emple b urials , a nd 4 i n r esidences ( see T able V I , A ppendix 1 ) .

4 i n h ousehold

s hrines

U axactun O n a ccount o f e xtensive e xcavation a t t his s ite b urials w ere f ound i n s everal d ifferent c ontexts a nd w ith f ew e xceptions t he c ontexts h ave b een w ell i dentified . T he e xceptions a re 3 b uildings w hich I h ave c lassified a s c eremonial p latforms , b ut a re v irtually i ndistinguishable f rom t emples . T he t hree , S tr . A -I , A -II & B -XI , h ave l arge s ubstructures l ike t emples b ut d id n ot a lways h ave s uperstructures d uring t heir r espective c onstruction p hases ( see R .E . S mith 1 937 a nd A .L . S mith 1 950) . O nly b ecause t hey l acked o ccasional s uperstructures h ave I c lassified t hem a s c eremonial p latforms . I t m ay n ot b e c orrect b ut i t i s o ne w ay o f d istinguishing c eremonial p latforms f rom t emples i n t heir a ppearance . F unctionally , h owever , t hey m ay h ave b een t he s ame . T he b urials w ere f ound i n t he f ollowing c ontexts ( Table V II , A ppendix I ): 1 )

2 1

i n

h ousemounds,

i .e .

i n

e arly

a nd H ousemounds I -IV ( Wauchope 1 934 : 2 )

4 7 i n p alaces ,

i .e .

S tr .

A -V

( Smith

1 950 :

1 7-19)

1 37-168) ;

S tr . A -XVIII ( Smith 1 937),

S tr . A -V a fter i ts

c onversion t o ap alace f rom a t emple , a nd S tr . B -XIII ( Smith 1 950) ; 3 )

1 6 i n p lazas ;

4 )

2 n ear p laza s telae ;

5 )

5 b eneath t emple a ltars ,

R icketson

6 ) 1 6 i n t emples , ( Smith 1 950) ; 7 )

Le . a ltars i n G roup E t emples ( Ricketson a nd

1 937) ; i .e . S tr . C -I ,

9i n c eremonial p latforms ,

B -VIII , A -XV , a nd E arly C lassic S tr . A -V

i .e .

S tr . A -I ,

2 9

A -II & BXI .

T ikal A s

a t

d ifferent

U axactun ,

e xtensive

c ontexts,

i denitified .

a nd

e xcavation p rovided

w ith

o ne

e xception

T he e xception i s S tr . 6 E-sub .1 .

t he

b urials

f rom s everal

c ontexts

a re

w ell

T hough n ot o n t he e astern

e dge o f ap laza , t he b uilding i nitially s eems t o h ave s erved a s ah ousehold s hrine . I t c ontained a w ell c onstructed a nd w ell f urnished g rave , B urial 1 28 , a nd a s pecial b urial c onstruction m ade a bove t he g rave . H aviland ( forthcoming i n T .R . 2 0) b elieves t he b urial w as d edicated t o t he c onstruction , w hile I b elieve t he c onstruction w as a m emorial t o t he b urial, a s w as t he c ase w ith a ll o ther s pecial b urial c onstructions . I n a ny c ase , t hereafter t he b uilding S ince i t i s n ot u nusual h istory , e .g . S tr . A -V , T herefore , t he c ontext

s eems t o h ave b een c onverted t o a r esidence ( ibid .) . f or a b uilding 's f unction t o h ave c hanged d uring i ts U axactun , i t m ay h ave o ccurred w ith t his b uilding . o f B urial 1 28 i s b elieved t o h ave b een a h ousehold

s hrine , b ut a s a h ouse p latform f or t he 1 31, 1 51 & 1 53 .

l ater b urials ,

i .e .

B urials

1 30 ,

T he b urial c ontexts a re a s f ollows ( see T able V III , A ppendix I ) : 1 )

h ousemound p latform - 3 2

2 )

e lite r esidence - 3 ( Coggins

i n T .R .

( ibid .) ; 1 975 :

3 09-312 ;

a nd H aviland ( forthcoming

2 2)) ;

3 )

p alace

- 1 ( Coggins

4 )

m idden - 3 ;

5 )

p laza - 5 ;

6 )

c eremonial

7 )

t emple - 1 5

1 975 :

2 01-203) ;

p latform - 7 ( Coe

1 965 ;

( Adams & T rik 1 961;

a nd C oggins

C oe 1 963 ;

1 965 ;

1 975 :

9 3

& 1 965a ;

& 5 52-585) ; a nd C oggins

1 975); 8 ) T .R .

h ousehold s hrine - 4 1 ( Coggins 1 975 ; 2 0 & 2 2) .

H aviland 1 981 a nd f orthcoming i n

A ltun H a A s a t U axactun a nd T ikal ,

e xcavation a t A ltun H a h as u nearthed b urials

i n s everal d ifferent c ontexts . b uildings w as l imited . I t w as

H owever , d escription o f m any r esidential n ot p ossible t o d istinguish w hether s ome

b uildings w ere h ouse p latforms o r e lite r esidences .

A s a r esult , I s imply

c lassified a ll o f t hem a s r esidences . A nother 5 r esidences w ere d escribed a s b eing o f a l arger s ize t han 2 -4 r oomed v aulted r esidences b ut s maller t han m ulti-roomed p alaces . Ih ave c lassified t hese a s p alatial r esidences . T hus, t he b urial c ontexts a re a s f ollows ( see T able I X , A ppendix I a nd P endergast 1 979 ; 1 982 ; a nd i n p ress) : 1 )

c eremonial p latform ( Str .

2 )

p laza - 1 ;

3 )

t emple ( Str . A -3 ,

A 1,

C -13 & B -6) - 3 5 ;

A -5 , A -8 ,

3 0

A -6 & B -4) 25 ;

4 )

h ousehold

s hrine

( Str .

5 )

r esidence ( Str . C 10 ,

C -6 ,

C 16 ,

E 1 C 18 ,

&E -7) - 5 3 ; C -22 ,

C -23 ,

C -43 ,

C -44 , D -2 ,

D -10 ,

E -

2 , E -3, E -5 , E -13 & E -21) - 16 ; 6 )

p alatial r esidence ( Str . E -14, E -51, E -54, B -3 & B -5) - 2 5.

D zibilchlatun A lthough e xtensive e xcavation w as c onducted a t D zibilchaltun i n ag ood c ross-section o f s tructures , m ost b urials w ere i n f act d iscovered i n w hat s eem t o h ave b een s ome f orm o f r esidential p latform o r b uilding , 9 8/116 b urials t o b e p recise . U nfortunatley , a f ew b uildings , S tr . 2 25 , 2 26 , 4 50 a nd 5 00 , h ad v ery l imited r emains a nd a re v ery d ifficult t o i dentify . S tr . 4 50 c onsisted o f am assive p latform a nd s tepped p yramid s tructure ( Andrews a nd Andrews 1 980 : F ig . 4 1) a nd S tr . 5 00 o f am assive p latform a nd s mall p yramidal s tructure ( ibid .: 4 1 & 5 6) . N either w as r esidential b ut i t i s n ot c lear w hat s ort o f c eremonial b uilding t hey w ere . Ic lassify t hem b oth a s c eremonial p latforms b ecause t heir a ppearance , l ocation a nd l ack o f c ommemorative b urials w ould s uggest t hey w ere n either t emples n or h ousehold s hrines . S tr . 2 25 & 2 26 a re p resumed t o b e r esidences , n ot b ecause t hey w ere p ositively i dentified a s s uch b ut m ore b ecause t hey w ere n ot o bviously a nything e lse , i .e . t emple , c eremonial p latform o r h ousehold s hrine . U se o f n egative e vidence i n t hese e xamples i s n ot t he m ost s atisfactory w ay o f i dentifying b uildings , b ut i t i s i f t here i s n o a lternative . T he b urial c ontexts a re a s f ollows ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 a nd T able X , A ppendix

I ) :

1 )

t emples ( Str . 6 ) - 1 ;

2 )

h ousehold s hrines ( Str . 6 12, 6 969, 3 8 &3 8-sub .) - 1 3;

3 )

c eremonial p latforms ( Str .

4 )

p alaces ( Str . 5 5) - 2 ;

5 )

v aulted r esidences ( Str . 5 7, 9 5, 3 84, 3 85, e tc .) - 5 6;

6 )

r esidences ( Str . 6 05, 6 965, 8 25, 2 26, e tc .) - 4 0 .

1 2, 4 50 & 5 00) - 4 ;

A ltar d e S acrificios T his

i s

y et

a nother s ite

t hat

r eceived e xtensive e xcavation t hereby

p roviding a l arge n umber o f b urials i n a v ariety o f c ontexts . E xcept f or S tr . A -II & A -III , t he n ature o f t he b uildings w as c learly i dentified . S tr . A -II & A -III a re c lassified a s c eremonial p latforms h ere, n ot t emples, b ecause n o s uperstructure e xisted d uring s everal c onstruction p hases ( Smith 1 972 : c ase ,

) :

1 )

19-121 & 2 12-213) . H owever , t hey m ay h ave s erved a s t emples . I n a ny t he b urial c ontexts a re a s f ollows ( Smith 1 972 a nd T able X I , A ppendix

h ouse p latform - 5 3;

3 1

2 )

p laza - 4 ;

3 )

p alace ( Str . A -I) - 3 7;

4 )

t emple ( Str . B -I ,

5 )

c eremonial p latform ( Str . A -II , A -III & C -I) - 3 1 .

B -II & B -III) - 1;

S eibal T he S eibal b urials w ere f ound i n t he f ollowing c ontexts ( see T ourtellot ( in p ress) , a nd T able X II , A ppendix I ) : 1 )

h ouse p latform - 2 7 ;

2 )

p alace ( Str .

3 )

m idden - 1 ;

4 )

p laza - 6 ;

5 )

c eremonial p latform ( Str . A -2, A -13 , C 10 & D -24) - 4 ;

6 )

h ousehold s hrine ( Str .

A -14 & D -3) - 2 ;

4 E-10 ,

A -30e ,

2 6d & C -33d) - 1.

W ith t he e xception o f t he h ousehold s hrines ,

t he b urials a re l isted i n

t he c ontexts a scribed b y T ourtellot ( ibid .) . T he 4 b uildings t hat c omprise t he h ousehold s hrines w ere l isted e ither a s C lass C a ltar s hrines , i .e . S tr . A -30e, 2 6d & C -33d, o r a s a t emple , i .e . S tr . 4 E-10 ( ibid .) . H owever , I b elieve t hat s ince S tr .

4 E-10 w as l ocated o n t he f ringe o f t he s ite r ather

t han t he c entral p recinct , i t s hould b e c lassified a h ousehold s hrine . A s f or t he C lass C a ltar s hrines, a lthough o f a d ifferent a ppearance t o h ousehold s hrines o f o ther s ites , t hey s erved a s imilar r ole i n h ousing a nd c ommemorating b urials o f s ome i mportant i ndividuals . T herefore , i n o rder t o m aintain c onsistency I s tick w ith t he t erm , h ousehold s hrine .

C opan T he p ublished e xcavations c arried o ut a t C opan ( Gordon 1 896 & L ongyear 1 952) h ave n ot b een a s t horough n or a s e xtensive a s t he m ore r ecent e xcavations o f t he C opan P roject , t he d ata o f w hich I h ave b een u nable t o c onsult .

T he G ordon a nd L ongyear e xcavations w ere

c onducted

i n a reas

i n

w hich l ittle o r n o d escription o f t he m ounds o r s tructures w as g iven , M ounds 3 0 a nd 3 6 , o r c arried o ut i n t he o ld r iverbank a nd l anding f ield w here t he o riginal c ontexts h ave b een c ompletely o bliterated . C onsequently , o nly t he c ontext o f t he 1 3 p laza b urials i s k nown f or s ure . T he 2 1 b urials f rom Mounds 3 0 a nd 3 6 a re p resumed t o b e f rom a h ousemound . W ith l imited d escription I s imply m ust a ccept L ongyear 's a ssertion t hat t hey p robably w ere ( Longyear 1 952 : 3 5) . T he c ontext o f t he 3 3 b urials f rom t he l anding f ield a nd r iverbank i s n ot k nown ( see T able X III , A ppendix I ) .

P iedras N egras T he

1

b urials

f rom t his

s ite w ere

3 2

e xcavated

i n t he m ain c eremonial

p recinct . 1 943-54 ;

T he b urial c ontexts a re a s f ollows ( see C oe 1 959 ;

S atterthwaite

a nd T able X IV , A ppendix I ) :

1 )

c ave - 1 ;

2 )

p laza - 1 ;

3 )

e lite r esidence ( Str . V -1) - 3 ;

4 )

c eremonial p latform ( Str . R -2) - 1 ;

5 )

t emple p latform ( Str . R -3) - 3 ;

6 )

b all c ourt ( Str . K -6) - 1 ;

7)

p alace ( Str . J -5) - 1 . O ne p roblem e xists w ith S tr . J -5 .

I t w as n ot a ctually d efined b y

S atterthwaite ( ibid .) . H owever , i ts d escription s uggests a p alace a cropolis . T he w ealth o f i ts b urial s uggests a t emple c omplex . T o b e o n t he s ide o f c aution a nd c onvention , a cropolis.

I h ave c lassified i t a s a p alace

P alenque E xcavation

a t

P alenque

h as

u nfortunately

b een

r ather

h aphazard

a nd

t here h as n ot r eally b een a ny g rand e xcavation s trategy a dopted f or t he s ite ( see R uz 1 958 , 1 958a , 1 958b , 1 958c & 1 973 ; B lom & L aFarge 1 925-27 ; a nd R ands & R ands 1 961) . E ach o f t heir p rojects h ad a l imited s cope . R uz c oncentrated o n b urials i n t emple c omplexes, t he R ands o n a p resumed c emetery , a nd B lom & L aFarge o n n othing i n p articular . C onsequently , t he c ontexts i n w hich t he b urials w ere d iscovered i s l imited , a nd u nknown i n t he c ase o f t he p latforms o f t he R ands , a nd B lom & L aFarge . c ontexts a re a s f ollows ( see T able X V , A ppendix I ) : 1 )

t emples - 1 3;

2 )

p laza - 2 ;

3 )

u nknown - 1 7.

T hus ,

t he b urial

T onina T he F rench e xcavation o f T onina ( Becquelin

& B audez

1 979) ,

a lthough

v ery t horough , w as n ot v ery e xtensive . E xcavation w as c oncentrated o n t he m ain a cropolis a rea a nd t hus t he b urials w ere f ound i n a l imited n umber o f c ontexts . T hese a re a s f ollows ( see T able X VI , A ppendix I , a nd b ecause o f t he r euse o f 4g raves i t m ust b e r emembered t hat 2 5 b urials w ere f ound i n 2 1 g raves):

1 )

r esidence - 1;

2 )

p laza - 5 b urials i n 3g raves;

3 )

t emple - 9 b urials i n 7g raves .

3 3

T he b urials l isted i n a p laza c ontext i s s lightly s purious .

I n f act ,

t hese b urials w ere l ocated i n t he t errace o f a t emple . I l ist t hem a s p laza b urials t o d istinguish t hem f rom t he b urials o f t he s ame t errace b ut f ound u nder t he s pecial p edestal c onstructions , E 5-8 .

3 4

S tr . E 510 , E 513 , E 515 &

C HAPTER F OUR M ETHODS O F D ISPOSAL O F T HE D EAD

A q uick

p erusal

o f

t he t ables

i n A ppendix I r eveals

a c onsiderable

a mount o f d ata t hat c omprise t he m ethods a nd m anner o f d isposing o f t he d ead . T his i ncludes W hether a b urial i s p rimary o r s econdary , t he n umber o f b odies , t he h ead o rientation , t he p osition o f t he i nterred , t he p resence o f a n u rn t o c ontain t he b ody , e vidence o f s keletal m utilation a nd , f inally , t he p resence o f p ots o r s hells ( conch) p laced o ver o r u nder t he s kulls o f t he d eceased . T he f irst t o b e c onsidered a re p rimary a nd s econdary b urials a nd t he d istinction b etween t hem .

P rimary a nd S econdary B urials A p rimary b urial i s o ne i n w hich t he s keletal r emains o f o ne o r m ore i ndividuals a re m ore o r l ess c omplete a nd a rticulated . h ave b een m anipulated a fter d eath n or b efore b urial .

T he b ody s hould n ot

A s econdary b urial, o n t he o ther h and , i s o ne i n w hich t he s keleton h as b een i ntentionally d isarticulated a nd b een m oved o r m anipulated a fter d eath , b ut b efore b urial . T he s keleton m ay b e c omplete, b ut r arely i s, a nd f requently h as r eceived s ome f orm o f m utilation , e .g . d ecapitation , r emoval o f f emurs, o r c onsists o f o nly a s kull . I nterments p laced i n u rns o r b etween b awls , e ither t he e ntire b ody o r s kull(s) o nly , a re a lso c onsidered s econdary ,

e .g .

B urials

1 24-1,

B arton R amie ,

B 7,

B aking P ot ,

a nd E 10 ,

E l,

a nd E 21, U axactun ( see A ppendix I ) . I n s uch i nstances t he b odies w ere o bviously m anipulated a fter d eath b ut b efore b urial . T here a re 4 t ypes o f i nstances i n w hich b urials h ave b een d isturbed o r t he b odies m anipulated b ut w hich a re s till c onsidered p rimary . T he f irst t ype c onsists o f h eadless b odies , i .e . B urials R 4 &R 5 , B aking P ot , C 16/22 , C -22/2 & C -22/5 , A ltun H a , 4 50-1, 6 05-3 & 2 26-3 , D zibilchaltun , a nd 1 08 , 8 9 , 7 9 & 6 6 , A ltar d e S acrificios , i n w hich i t i s u nclear w hether t he m issing s kulls w ere a r esult o f p oor p reservation , d eath b y s acrifice o r r emoval a fter d eath . G iven t he a mbiguity , t hey a re c onsidered p rimary . T he s econd t ype c onsists o f b odies w ith a l eg o r f acial b ones r emoved , i .e . 2 60-3, B arton R amie , C l &A 20 , U axactun , a nd 7 -46 , C opan . S uch r emoval p robably o ccurred a fter d eath b ut b ecause t he o riginal e xcavators s eem t o h ave c onsidered t he b urials p rimary I h ave f ollowed t heir t erminology ( e .g . S mith 1 950 : T able 6 ) . T he t hird t ype a pplies t o 4m ultiple b urials a t T onina , B urials I V-6 , I V-2 , I V-3 & I V-9 , a nd p ossibly 4 m ore a t P alenque , B urials R 7 , R 3 , R 5 &S 2 ( see A ppednix

I n f act ,

t hese a re o nly m ultiple b urials

g raves w ere r eused f or s uccessive i nterments .

b ecause

t he

F or e ach s uccessive b urial

t he p revious o ccupant ( skeleton ) w as b undled i nto a c orner t o m ake w ay f or t he n ew o ccupant . T hough t he b undles w ere f ound d isarticulated , t hey w ere n ot o riginally i ntended t o b e s o . H ence t hey a re c onsidered p rimary . T he f ourth t ype c onsists o f b urials i n w hich p oor p reservation , o r n atural o r e xcavation d isturbance o f t he g rave(s) m ade i t d ifficult t o a scertain w hether t he b urial w as p rimary o r n ot .

3 5

T here a re a bout

10 s uch b urials ,

o ften o f a s ingle c hild .

T hese a re c onsdiered p rimary b ecause t here i s n o

i ndication o f d eliberate m anipulation o f t he b odies a nd t he o riginal e xcavators s eem t o h ave c onsidered t hem p rimary . T hese 4 t ypes o f i nterment d emonstrate t he d ifficulty i n d istinguishing p rimary f rom s econdary b urial . T he d istinction w as n ot a lways m ade c lear b y t he o riginal e xcavators b ut I f ollow t heir i nterpretations w here p ossible . O therwise I o nly c onsider a b urial a s s econdary i f t here i s u nambiguous e vidence f or m anipulation a fter d eath . I n t he a ccompanying t able ( Table 3 ) p rimary a nd s econdary b urials h ave b een c lassified a nd d istinguished a s d escribed , b ut s ome a dditional c omment i s r equired a bout t he c ategories . A f ew m ultiple b urials c onsist o f a p rimary i nterment a ccompanied b y a c ontemporary p laced , s econdary i nterred , e .g . B urials 5 , Mountain C ow , C -13/5, C -13/10 , C -13/8 & E - 7 /2 , A ltun H a , 1 67 , T ikal, a nd 9 5-2 & 6 969-1, D zibilchaltun . S uch b urials a re c onsidered p rimary a nd s econdary, a nd c ounted t wice, s ince t he g raves c ontained c ontemporary ,

p rimary

a nd

s econdary i nterred .

T he

e mpty

g raves

c ategory

r efers t o t hose t hat c ontained n o e vidence o f t here h aving b een h uman r emains . W hether t he g raves h ad b een l ooted o r n ever u sed i s u ncertain . W ith 3 1/32 e xamples f ound a t D zibilchaltun , t his c ategory s eems t o b e m ore o r l ess c onfined t o t here . T he n o d ata c ategory r efers t o 3 s orts o f b urial : t hose w hich I w as u nable t o a cquire i nformation o n t he m anner o f d isposal ( Tikal) ; t hose i n w hich i t w as n ot r ecorded ( primarily a t P alenque) ; a nd t hose w hich w ere f ound b ut n ot , o r o nly p artially , e xcavated . T his , t hen , i s h ow p rimary a nd s econdary b urials w ere d istinguished a nd t abulated . T hough t here m ay b e s ome r oom f or a rgument a bout t he c lassification , I h ave f ollowed o riginal c lassifications w here p ossible . I n a ny c ase , a n a bsolute d istinction b etween p rimary a nd s econdary b urials , t hough d esirable , i s n ot a ll t hat i mportant n or a lways p ossible . I t s hould m erely b e n oted t hat b oth o ccur . W hat i s i mportant i s t hat s ome b urials , m ainly s econdary b ut a lso p rimary , r eveal t he p resence o f s acrifice, a p ractice w hose i mplications w ill b e d iscussed b elow ( chapter 1) . F inally , i t s hould b e n oted f rom T able 3 t hat i nhumation , n ot c remation , w as t he f ashionable w ay o f d ealing w ith t he d ead d uring t he P reclassic a nd C lassic p eriods.

S ingle a nd M ultiple I nterments T able 3 a lso i ndicates a s econd a spect

o f b urials :

w hether t hey a re

s ingle o r m ultiple . S ingle i nterments a re b y f ar a nd a way t he m ost c ommon , e specially p rimary , s ingle b urials . T hey w ere t he p revalent m ode a t e very s ite a nd w ith 8 66 o f t hem , a ccounted f or a bout 7 4% o f t he b urials . ( Even i f t he 10 d isturbed o r b adly p reserved b urials a nd t he d ozen o r s o a mbiguous i nterments t hat h ave b een c onsidered p rimary a re n ot i ncluded , 6 3% w ould s till b e d efinitely p rimary a nd s ingle .) S o s ingle i nterment s eems t o h ave b een t he m ost c ommon w ay t o b e b uried , w ith t he p ossible e xception o f w ealthy i ndividuals o r s acrificial v ictims ( see b elow a nd c hapter 1) . T he r emaining , a nd f ar f ewer , s ingle b urials ( 88) w ere s econdary a nd s eem t o h ave b een s acrificial i n n ature . S everal c onsisted o f s ingle s kulls , e .g . B urials C -13/34 & C -13/35 , A ltun H a , a nd 4 9 &8 5 , A ltar d e S acrificios , o r s ingle s kulls o r s ingle b odies p laced b etween b owls , e .g . B urials A 8 , S an J osé , E 21, E 22 & E 23 , U axactun , a nd 1 22 , 1 23 & 1 26 , T ikal . T he m ultiple ,

p rimary i nterments s eem t o b e o f 2 t ypes .

3 6

T he f irst i s

w hat a ppear t o b e m other-child o r p arent-child b urials ,

e .g . B urials 1 23-11,

B arton R amie , E 15 & A 44 , U axactun , E -7/27 & E -3/2 , A ltun H a ,

1

& 3 6 , A ltar

d e S acrificios , a nd 1 0 &3 5 , S eibal . A f ew c ontained m ore t han o ne p arent o r m ore t han o ne c hild , a nd m ay i mply s acrifice ( see c hapter 1 1) . T he s econd t ype i s m ore c learly s acrificial a nd c onsists o f p rimary i nterred i ndividuals a ccompanied b y s econdary i nterments . T he p rimary i nterred w ere u sually o f s ome w ealth w hile t he s econdary i nterred f requently c onsisted o nly o f s kulls, e .g . B urials 1 66, T ikal, a nd 6 969-1 & 3 8-sub .2, D zibilchaltun . T his a lso a ccounts f or m any o f t he m ultiple , s econdary i nterments, s ince t he b urials w ere m ultiple a nd s econdary a s w ell a s m ultiple a nd p rimary : T he r emaining i nterments w hich w ere m ultiple a nd s econdary o nly , c onsist s olely o f a n umber o f s kulls o r m andibles a nd s o s eem t o h ave b een s acrificial t oo , e .g . B urials 8 & 1 6 , M ountain C ow , a nd 4 , S eibal . T his s acrificial a spect w ill b e d iscussed f ully b elow ( chapter 1) . F or t he m oment t his o utline o f t he s ort o f i nterments f ound i s s ufficient . S keletal P osition T he t hird a spect

o f d isposal

o f

t he d ead t o b e e xamined i s s keletal

p osition . O n a ccount o f p oor p reservation o r d isturbance o f s ome g raves t he p osition o f t he s keletons h as n ot a lways b een d iscerned , b ut i t h as b een f ound t hat i ndividuals w ere p laced i n a v ariety o f f lexed o r e xtended p ositions, e .g . f lexed l eft o r r ight, o r e xtended s upine o r p rone . O ccasionally a f ew w ere f ound t o b e s eated . I t w as d ecided t o c orrelate b ody p osition w ith g rave t ype b ecause i t i s b elieved t his w ill d emonstrate t hat e ither t he p osition o f t he b ody d etermined t he s ize o f t he g rave ,

o r

t he s ize o f t he g rave d etermined t he p osition o f t he b ody . W e a re o bviously n ot i n a p osition t o a scertain w hich d etermined w hich , b ut a c orrelation s hould b e a pparent i f o ne i nfluenced t he o ther . I t i s e xpected t hat a n e xtended p osition , w hich r equires m ore s pace , s hould b e f ound i n l arger g raves ( crypts a nd t ombs) , w hile a f lexed p osition , r equiring l ess s pace , s hould b e f ound i n s maller g raves s imple a nd c ists) .

A c orrelation i s m ade

f or e ach s ite . I n s o d oing , a ny s ite p references f or a s pecific p osition (s) o f t he d eceased , r egardless o f g rave t ype a nd s ize , s hould b e v isible .

M ountain C ow T here w ere o nly 8 i ndividuals w hose p ositions w ere d etermined : 4 f lexed, 3 s eated, a nd 1 e xtended ( Table 4 ) . C ontrary t o w hat I h ave s uggested , t he o ne e xtended b ody w as i n a s mall s imple g rave a nd t he f our f lexed w ere i n l arger c rypts ( 2) a nd c hultuns ( 2) . A ll t hree s eated s keletons w ere i n c rypts . T he s ample , h owever , i s r eally t oo s mall i nformative , a nd d oes n ot t ell u s i f t here w as a p referred p osition .

t o b e

B aking P ot I n c ontrast t o M ountain C ow , t he d ata o n s keletal p osition a re m ore r evealing a nd n umerous a t B aking P ot . O f t he 2 3 i ndividuals w hose p ositions w ere n oted, 2 1 w ere e xtended a nd 1 5/21 e xtended w ere i n a n e xtended p rone p osition ( Table 5 ) . S ince b oth e xtended a nd e xtended p rone b urials w ere f ound i n e very o ne o f t he g rave t ypes a t t he s ite - t hough o nly 4i ndividuals w hose b ody p osition w as k nown w ere n ot i n s imple g raves - t hen e xtended , a nd s lightly l ess s o , e xtended p rone, s eem t o h ave b een t he p referred p ositions f or i nterment . P osition w as n ot d ependent o n g rave s ize o r c onstruction b ecause f lexed , n ot e xtended , s hould h ave b een t he p referred p osition f or t his t o b e t rue .

3 7

T able 3 : T he n umber o f p rimary & s econdary,

I ncludes t he n umber o f c remations a nd e mpty

g raves f ound i n t he s ample.

1

i nterments p er s ite.

s ingle o r m ultiple,

w 1 e

w 1

> . , i ' C i

l i >

a )

G

N o . o f S e c o n d a r y B u r i a l s

S i n g l e I n d i v d u a l s

E 4

M u l t i p l e I n t e r m e n t s

C r e m a t i o n s

/ E m p t y G r a v e s

N o D a t

0

c t )

M u l t i p l e I n t e r m e n t s

8

2 0

T w o I n d i v d u a l s

B u r i a l s

N o . o f P r i m a r y

U )

M ountain C ow

e

7

-

1

8

-

-

5

2

1

-

B aking P ot

2 5

2 5

-

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

B arton R amie

1 12

1 10

1

1

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

B enque V iejo

3

3

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

S an J osé

6 3

6 2

1

-

5

4

1

-

-

-

2

H olmul

2 0

1 8

1

1

2

2

-

-

-

-

-

U axactün

9 7

9 3

3

1

1 7

1 7

-

-

-

-

2

T ikal

8 8

7

5

6

1 5

8

3

3

1

-

8

A ltun Ha

2 19

1 76

3 4

9

4 3

2 5

7

-

-

2

D zibilchaltun

5 9

4 7

6

6

3 2

1 7

7

6

- 3 1

-

A ltar d e S ac.

1 28

1 22

5

1

8

7

1

-

-

-

-

S eibal

4

4 1

2

1

4

3

-

1

-

-

4

C opan

6 1

5 4

6

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

6

6

1

1

2

2

-

-

-

-

1

P iedras N egras

8

1 1

P alenque

2 0

1 2

7

1

6

-

5

1

-

- 1

T oning

1 7

1 3

1

3

2

1

-

1

3

-

1 46

8 8

T otal

9 72

8 66

7 3

3 3

3 8

2 8

2 4

6

3 2

3

4 1

B arton R amie A s imilar p icture t o B aking P ot e xists a t B arton R amie .

T he e xtended

a nd e xtended p rone p ositions w ere p referred f or e very g rave t ype ( Table 6 ) , t hough a gain t here w ere f ew ( only 1 0) t o c ompare i n n on-simple g raves . S till, w ith 7 5% o f i ndividuals b uried i n a n e xtended p rone p osition a nd 9 2% i n a n e xtended p osition , i t s trongly s uggests t hese p ositions w ere p referred d espite g rave s ize o r t ype .

B enque V iejo T he s ite s ample c onsists o nly o f t hree a nd s o c an h ardly b e c onsidered i nformative ( Table I V , A ppendix I ) .

S an J ose U nlike

B aking P ot

a nd B arton R amie ,

t he e xtended p osition d oes

n ot

p revail. T here a re n ot e ven a ny e xtended p rone b urials . I nstead , t he f lexed p osition p revails w ith 4 5/55 s keletons s o p ositioned , t he m ajority o f t hem t o t he r ight ( 18) o r l eft ( 17) ( Table 7 ) . S ince a ll 4 5 w ere g raves o r c ists , t his c onforms t o t he e xpected p attern o f f lexed b eing p laced i n s maller g raves . B ut t here w ere n o b odies f ound g raves o f c rypts a nd t ombs, a nd i t i s t herefore d ifficult t o

i n s imple s keletons i n l arger d etermine

w hether t he f lexed p osition w as a s ite p reference o r ar esult o f t he s maller d imensions o f s imple g raves .

H olmul T he H olmul s ample c ontinues w ith t his p roblem o f t oo f ew b odies i n d ifferent t ypes o f g rave . E leven o f t he f ifteen s keletons w hose p osition w as

d etermined w ere i n o nly o ne g rave

t ype :

s imple .

N evertheless ,

s ince

b oth f lexed a nd e xtended p ositions w ere a dopted i n s imple g raves , 6 & 5 , r espectively , a nd c rypts , 3 & 1 , r espectively ( Table 8 ) , n o c orrelation b etween a g rave t ype a nd a p osition e xists . W ith 9 /15 s keletons i n af lexed p osition , t his m ay i mply a s ite p reference . B ut t he s ample i s f rankly t oo s mall t o b e r eliable .

U axactun T his s ite p rovides a l arge s ample o f s keletons i n k nown b ody p ositions ( 91) f rom a v ariety o f g raves . T able 9 r eveals t he f ollowing . T he f lexed p osition s eems t o h ave b een p referred w ith 6 3/91 i ndividuals s o i nterred . O nly 2 6 w ere e xtended b ut 1 5 o f t hese w ere i n t he ( 11

a nd 4 ,

r espectively),

a nd t he o ne s eated

l arger c rypts a nd t ombs i ndividual,

a p osition

r equiring m ore s pace t han f lexed , a lso a ppeared i n a l arger c rypt . S o w ith 4 6/63 f lexed s keletons i n t he s maller c ists a nd s imple g raves , t hen t his f ollows t he e xpected p attern o f f lexed b odies i n s maller g raves , a nd w ith 1 5/27 e xtended s keletons i n t he c rypts a nd t ombs t his f ollows t he e xpected p attern o f e xtended b odies i n l arger g raves . T herefore , w e h ave a p robable c orrelation o f g rave t ype a nd s ize w ith e xpected s keletal p osition a t U axactun . B ut w ith f lexed s keletons o utnumbering t he e xtended b y m ore t han 2 :1, t he f lexed p osition w as s till p referred a nd o ften a dopted r egardless o f g rave t ype .

3 9

T ikal Au seful n umber o f s keletons i n ak nown p osition i n e very g rave t ype i s f ound a t T ikal . F irstly ,

2 2 i ndividuals w ere e xtended ( 14 e xtended s upine) ,

a nd 1 9 w ere f lexed . O n t his b asis t here d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een a p referred p osition . H owever , s everal i ndividuals w ere m erely l isted a s b eing l eft , r ight , s upine o r p rone ( Table 1 0) . I s uspect t hat i ndividuals w ho w ere l eft o r r ight w ere a lso f lexed a nd t he s upine o r p rone s keletons w ere a lso e xtended ,

s ince f lexed b odies w ere n ormally o n t he l eft o r r ight

s ide a nd e xtended o n b acks o r f ronts .

T his m ay o r m ay n ot b e t rue ,

b ut i f

s o t his w ould m ake 2 5 'flexed ( 13 f lexed r ight) , a nd 3 7 e xtended ( 27 e xtended s upine) . I f t his i s t he c ase, t hen w ith 3 7/67 e xtended s keletons, t he e xtended ( and e xtended s upine) w as p referred . B ut i s

t here a c orrelation b etween s keletal p osition a nd g rave s ize ,

t he e xtended i n l arger g raves a nd t he f lexed i n s maller o nes? T his i s s ort o f s uggested w ith 1 5/19 f lexed , o r 2 1/25 p robably f lexed b odies a ppearing i n s imple g raves a nd c ists . O nly o ne w as f ound i n a c rypt a nd n one i n t ombs . B ut t he e xtended b urials d o n ot c onform a s o nly 1/22 e xtended i ndividuals a ppeared i n c rypts o r t ombs, a nd o nly 1 3/37 o f t he p robably e xtended i ndividuals , t he o pposite o f w hat w ould b e e xpected . S o p osition m ay o r m ay n ot b e r elated t o g rave t ype a nd s ize, b ut e xtended w as t he p referred p osition a t t he s ite .

A ltun H a A ltua H a p rovides t he l argest s ample f rom a ny s ite a nd a v ery c lear p attern .

T here w as a v ery d efinite p reference f or b odies t o h ave b een

p laced i n a n e xtended p osition ( Table 1) . A t otal o f 1 69/189 i ndividuals w as e xtended . T his i s a c onsiderable p roportion . T he p referred e xtended p osition w as s upine w ith 10 b odies s o p laced . G iven s uch p roportions a nd t he f act t hat a n e xtended p osition w as p referred i n e very g rave t ype ( Table 1) , t hen p osition w as n ot a ffected b y g rave d imension o r t ype .

D zibilchaltun T he

e xtended

p osition

a lso

a ppears

t o

h ave

b een

p referred

a t

D zibilchaltun . N o l ess t han 4 2/58 s keletons w ere e xtended ( Table 1 2) . M ost o f t hem , h owever , w ere i n c rypts ( 31) , a nd t he o nly k nown p osition o f b odies i n t ombs w as e xtended .

G iven t his a nd t he f act t hat 9 /13 f lexed s keletons

w ere i n t he s maller c ists a nd s imple g raves , a c orrelation e xists b etween g rave s ize a nd t ype , a nd s keletal p osition . T he p revalence o f t he e xtended p osition a lso c orrelates w ell w ith ( Table

t he p revalence o f

c rypts a t

t he s ite

1 ) .

I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he D zibilchaltun s ample h as s uch a l arge n umber o f g raves t hat h ad b een l ooted o r n ever u sed . T hirty-one s uch g raves e xist t hat w ere s imply e mpty u pon d iscovery ( Table 3 & A ppendix I ) . T heir e xistence i s u nique ,

a nd t o s ay t he l east ,

c urious .

I f t hey h ad b een u sed

d ata o n t he s keletal p osition w ould h ave b een u seful .

A ltar d e S acrificios T his l arge s ite s ample r eveals t hat t he f lexed p osition s eems t o h ave

4 0

b een t he p referred p osition f or t he d eceased .

A t otal o f 7 8/113 b odies w ere

p laced i n a f lexed p osition ( Table 1 3) . F lexed l eft ( 22) , r ight ( 26) , o r s upine ( 21) w ere c omparably p referred . U nfortunately, s ince 1 02/113 s keletons w hose p ositions w ere o bserved w ere f ound i n t he s maller s imple g raves - 10 i f o ne i ncludes t hose i n c ists - t he f lexed p osition m ay n ot b e ap reference b ut a p revalence r esulting f rom t he h igh i ncidence o f s imple g raves , at ype o f g rave i n w hich a f lexed p osition w ould b e e xpected . n ot i n s imple g raves a re t oo f ew t o p rovide a m eaningful c omparison .

T hose

S eibal T he f lexed a nd e xtended p ositions a ppear i n n ear e qual n umbers a t S eibal, w ith 1 9 a nd 1 5, r espectively ( Table 1 4) . G iven t he c omparable n umbers t here w as o bviously n o p reference . M oreover , b ecause b oth f lexed a nd e xtended s keletons a ppear i n r oughly e qual n umbers i n e ach t ype o f g rave , 1:8 , 7 :5 , 1 :2 , r espectively , f or s imple , c ist a nd c rypt , g rave t ype d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een a f actor i n a ffecting p osition .

C opan T he f lexed p osition s eems t o h ave b een t he p revailing p osition o f i nterment w ith 2 6/41 s keletons ( Table 1 5) . I t w as t he p revailing p osition i n e very g rave t ype e xcept t ombs i n w hich 3 i ndividuals w ere d etermined t o h ave b een e xtended . S ince t he f lexed p osition p redominates i n s maller c ist a nd s imple g raves , 1 5/23 , a nd e xtended i n l arger t ombs , 3 /3 , p osition m ay b e c orrelated w ith g rave t ype a nd s ize . H owever , 1/15 b odies i n c rypts w ere f lexed , l arger g raves i n w hich o ne m ight e xpect e xtended s keletons . S o t he f lexed p osition m ay h ave b een t he s ite p reference f or b urial .

P iedras N egras T he p osition o f o nly 1 0 s keletons w as d iscerned f rom t he P iedras N egras b urials . W ith 9 o f t hose 1 0 e xtended ( Table 1 6) , t his m ay h ave b een t he p referred p osition . B ut 6 /9 w ere i n c rypts a nd t ombs, g raves i n w hich e xtended s keletons w ould b e e xpected . T herefore , t he e xtended p osition m ay h ave b een p referred b ut g rave t ype m ay a lso h ave b een a f actor .

P alenque L ike P iedras N egras ,

t he s keletons w hose p ositions w ere d iscerned a t

P alenque w ere m ostly e xtended . T here w ere 1 4/20 ( Table 1 7) . T his s uggests ap reference f or t his p osition b ut a s a gain w ith P iedras N egras , m ost o f t he e xtended b odies , 1 2/14 , w ere f ound i n c rypts a nd t ombs . m ay a lso h ave b een a f actor .

G rave s ize ,

t hen ,

T onina T he s keletons w hose p ositions w ere o bserved a t T onina w ere o verwhelmingly e xtended w ith 1/12 ( Table 1 8) . D espite t he s mall s ample , t his s uggests t he e xtended p osition w as p referred f or b urial . e xtended s keletons w ere i n l arge c rypts , f actor .

4 1

B ut a s 8 /11

g rave s ize m ay a lso h ave b een a

C orrelating t he t otal n umber o f f lexed a nd e xtended s keletons f rom a ll s ites w ith g rave t ype p rovides a mbiguous s tatistics ( nable 1 9) . T he e xtended p osition p revails i n e ach o f t he r elevant g rave t ypes .

T his w ould

b e e xpected f or c rypts a nd t ombs b ut n ot f or s imple g raves a nd c ists i f s ize w ere a f actor i n d etermining p osition . T herefore , i t w ould s eem t hat g rave t ype s ize m ay h ave b een a f actor a t t imes , o f s ite p references .

b ut p osition w as o ften a r esult

T here i s , o f c ourse , t he p ossibility t hat s ampling b ias a ffects t he r esults . I n t he e vent t hat c ontext a ffected s keletal p osition a q uick c orrelation o f t he t wo w as m ade . B ut n o c onnection s eemed t o e xist . E ither t he s keletal p osition w as e venly d istributed i n r espective p roportions ( flexed t o e xtended ) i n t he d ifferent c ontexts ( Tikal, A ltun H a a nd A ltar d e S acrificios) , o r i f t here h ad b een a p revailing p osition , g iven t he r ange i n t he n umber o f g raves i n t he d ifferent c ontexts t hat p osition p revailed p roportionally i n e ach c ontext ( Baking P ot , S an J osé , U axactun , D zibilchaltun , S eibal , C opan , P iedras N egras, P alenque a nd T onina) . r emaining s ites , t he s ample w as e ither t oo s mall ( Mountain C aw ) ,

A t t he o r t he

b urials w ere f ound i n o nly o ne , o r p rimarily o ne , c ontext , i .e . h ousemounds a t B arton R amie, s hrines o r t emples a t B enque V iejo a nd H olmul, a nd t herefore t here w as n othing w ith w hich t o c ompare . C orrelation w ith c eramic p hase w as a lso c onducted t o d etermine i f a ny s ite p references w ere c hronological . O nly a t A ltar d e S acrificios a nd S eibal d id t here s eem t o h ave b een a ny t rends : e xtended d uring t he B ayal p hase a t S eibal, a nd f lexed d uring t he L ate C lassic a t A ltar .

S ummary A t 7 s ites ,

B aking P ot , B arton R amie , A ltun H a , D zibilchaltum , P iedras

N egras , P alenque a nd T onina , e xtended w as t he p revalent p osition f or b urial . O f 4 o f t hese , D zibilchaltun , P iedras N egras , P alenque a nd T onina , t his p osition w as f ound i n t he l arger c rypts a nd t ombs a s w ould b e e xpected i f g rave s ize a nd p osition w ere c orrelated . T he f lexed p osition p revailed a t S an J osé , U axactun , A ltar d e S acrificios a nd C opan . C opan e xcepted , t his p osition w as p rimarily f ound i n c ists a nd s imple g raves a s w ould b e e xpected s o m aybe g rave s ize a nd p osition w ere c orrelated a t 3 o f t hese s ites . O f t he r emaining s ites , t he M ountain C ow a nd B enque V iejo s amples a re t oo s mall t o b e m eaningful; t he T ikal s tatistics a re , t o s ay t he l east , a mbiguous ; a nd t he S eibal a nd H omlul s tatistics p rovide n o i ndication o f s ite p reference o r c orrelation b etween g rave s ize a nd p osition . T herefore , t he s uggestion t hat s keletal p osition d etermined g rave t ype a nd s ize ,

o r g rave

t ype a nd s ize d etermined p osition i s n ot w ell s uprorted . B ut t here m ay h ave b een s ome c onnection a t s ome ( 7?) s ites ( see a lso C hapter 1 3) .

4 2

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t M ountain C ow

1

T able 4 :

G rave T ype

w

c h u l t u n

S keletal N P osition

1 >

1 :14

.

f lexed f lexed l eft

1

f lexed r ight

1

e xtended

0

I I

m

4 3

4 .

0

I

1

2 /

I

1

1

4 .

1

#

I

s eated t otal

4 ) l a ,

u n c l a s i f e d

w — 1

2

3

3

5

8

T able 5 : S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t B aking P ot

0

4 . p . , 0

. r ) ö 4 -2

t o t a l

c h u l t u n

4 . s i m p l e

S keletal P osition

[ u n c l a s i f i e d

G rave T ype

f lexed l eft

1

1

f lexed r ight

1

1

3

3

e xtended

e xt . s upine

2

1

3

e xt. p rone

1 2

2

1

1 5

t otal

1 9

3

1

2 3

4 3

T able 6 :

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t B arton R amie

G rave T YPe

4 -1 1,

4 e . _ , e . , 2 0 o o

f lexed s upine

1

1

9

9

e xtended e xt.

s upine

e xt. p rone s eated t otal

c h u l t u n

S kele t al P osition

s i m p l e

t ‚ -

, 1 W W

7

1 0

P .

0

i,

5

1

5

6 9 4

8

7 5

1

7

3 9

9 0

4 ,

1 00

1

T able 7 : S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t S an J os4

ype

f lexed l eft

1 6

f lexed r ight

1 81 8

f lexed s upine

3

f lexed p rone1

1

l eft1

1

e xt.

s upine8

s eated1

t otal

u n c l a s i f i e d

6

E 0 4 >

c i s t

f lexed

c h u l t u n

g o

S keletal P osition

s i m p l e

h

I e P o P

1 7

1

3

8 1

5 4

1

5

4 4

T able 8 :

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t H olmul

o

f lexed

C . )

4 -)

u n c l a s i f e d

P osition

c h u l t u n

S keletal

s i m p l e

Grave T ype

,

1

1

f lexed l eft

4

1

5

f lexed r ight

2

1

3

e xt.

4

1

5

s upine

e xt. prone

1

t otal

1 1

1

1 5

4

T able 9 : S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t U axactün

Grave T ype

f lexed l eft

6

f lexed r ight

6

1

f lexed s upine

2

1

f lexed p rone

2

e xtended

1

e xt.

4

e xt. p rone

4

s upine

1

1

2

2

8

3

1 4 1

6

8

1 7 1

4 1

2

1 0

3

1

2

1 9 5 1 1

1

2 9 _

2 8

6

2

2

s eated

t otal

o

• , ;

t o t a l

3

, .

u n c l a s i f i e d

s i m p l e

f lexed

s upine

4 )

M

S keletal P osition

3

2 9

2 5

4 5

5

9 1

Table 1 0:

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t T ikal

. , -i

m

3

r ight

2'

s upine

3

p rone

1

f lexed

1

1

f lexed l eft

2

1

f lexed r ight

8

s upine

e xt.

p rone

s eated t otal

4 2

1

1

8

1

1 3

1

2 2 1

1

5 1 1

2

1

1

f lexed s upine

e xt.

0

1

l eft

e xtended

, 1 '

• H

t o a l

o a c h u l t u n

S keletal P osition

u n c l a s i f e d

Grave T ype

2

1

1

3

7

2

5

2

5

1 4 1

1 1

1 2 5

4

2 0

1

2

7

1 0

4 6

5 1

6 7

T able 1 1:

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t A ltun H a

Grave T ype

4 -,

. 2

PI

4 :3

g

1

p rone

t o a l

s i m p l e

2

u n c l a s i f e d

. 1

S keletal P osition

1

f lexed l eft

1'

1

2

f lexed r ight

7

2

9

f lexed s upine

5

5

f lexed p rone

1

1

e xtended

1 5

e xt.

s upine

4 2

e xt.

p rone

1 5

s eated

2

t otal

8 9

T able 1 2:

7 3 8 9

7 2 5

2 9

4

1

6

1 10 3 0 2

5 7

4

3 8

1

1 89

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t D zibilchaltun

G rave T ype

f lexed

. 9 c o A 0

. 2 0 0

4

r c i

+3

t o t a l

5 u n c l a s i f i e d

( 1 ) S keletal P osition

8

4

f lexed l eft

2

2

f lexed r ight

2

2

f lexed p rone

1

1

e xtended e xt.

s upine

2

1

2

4

s eated

t otal

1 5

1

2

2 3

2

30

8

1 2

1

1

3 6

2

4 7

5 6

T able 1 3:

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t A ltar d e S acrificios

Grave T ype

ic h u l t u n

s i m p l e

4-'

4 -,

• • -i

F i

— 4 0

l u n c l a s i f e d

S keletal P osition

7

f lexed

0

7

f lexed l eft

2 0

2

2 2

f lexed r ight

2 5

1

2 6

f lexed s upine

1 8

3

2 1

f lexed p rone

2

2

e xt.

l eft

1

1

e xt.

s upine

2 6

s eated

3

t otal

1 02

T able 1 4:

2

2

3 0

4

1

8

3

1 13

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t S eibal

c h u l t u n

s i m p l e

4 -, S keletal P osition

w . . 1

f lexed l eft

6

2

f lexed r ight

5

5

e xtended e xt.

s upine

1 1

1

6 5

9

2

1

1

s eated s upine

1

t otal

2 0

— 4 c e 4 , o 8

6 2

0 a o

' u n c l a s i f e d

Grave T ype

1

1 3

3

4 8

3 6

1 1

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t C opan

3

o 1 0

t o a l

f lexed

• , 4

u n c l a s i f e d

P

S keletal P osition

s i m p l e

G rave T ype

c h u l t u n

T able 1 5:

1 3

1

f lexed l eft

4

f lexed r ight

4

2

6

f lexed s upine

1

1

2

1

1

2

e xtended e xt.

s upine

e xt. p rone s eated t otal

T able 1 6:

5

3

3

2

1

1

2

2

1

3

_ 4

1 9

1 5

8

4 1

3

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t P iedras N egras

G rave T ype P

u n c l a s i f e d

l eft

1

e xtended e xt.

i 1

c h u l t u n

s i m p l e

S keletal P osition

s upine

t otal

1 2

2

1

2

I

3

2

2

4

3

4 9

6

1 0

T able 1 7:

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t P alenque

f lexed

1

s upine

1

c h u l t u n

e, W

. 1 o 2

1

s upine

2

T able 1 8:

e

0 4 -,

2

c d i, 0

42

5

8

1

1 0

1

2

3

1

1

6

2 0

s eated

t dtal

. 1: )

1

e xtended e xt.

Pi › >

P 0

u n c l a s i f e d

S keletal P osition

s i m p l e

G rave T ype

3

9

S keletal p osition p er g rave t ype a t T oning

G rave T ype

e xt.

s upine

2

0 8

1

2

9

5 0

t o t a l

r L D

1

s eated

t otal

p

c h u l t u n

s i m p l e

4) W

u n c l a s i f i e d

S keletal P osition

1 1 1

1

1 2

T able 1 9: T otal n umber o f f lexed a nd e xtended s keletons i n s imple, c ist,

c rypt a nd t omb

G rave T ype

S keletal P osition

+3

a

A 0

0

4 . )

s i m p l e

w

0

f lexed

2 08

5 4

3 5

e xtended

2 57

9 1

1 16

5 1

4

2 6

C HAPTER F IVE H EAD O RIENTATION

H ead o rientation o f t he d eceased i s t he n ext a spect o f d isposal t o b e e xamined . B y h ead o rientation I m ean , w here d iscernible , t he d irection t o w hich t he h ead o f t he d eceased p ointed i n ag rave , o r w ould h ave p ointed h ad t hey k ept t heir h ead !

W here p ossible , t he o rientation i s r ecorded w ith o ne

o f t he c ardinal d irections o f t he c ompass , i .e . n orth , s outh , e ast a nd w est . O f c ourse n ot e very b ody w as o rientated p recisely o n a c ardinal d irection . C onsequently , s ome o rientations a re a pproximate , a nd s imply r ounded o ff t o t he n earest c ardinal p oint . T hus, a ll a reas b etween N NE a nd N NW a re r ounded o ff t o N orth , E SE a nd E NE t o E ast , S SE a nd S SW t o S outh , a nd W NW a nd W SW t o W est . W here h ead o rientation w as b etween N E , N W , S E a nd S W , t he h ead o rientation i s n oted a pproximation a gain , a ll a reas b etween N NE a nd E NE a nd W NW t o N W , S SE a nd E SE t o S E , a nd S SW a nd W SW

t he c ardinal p oints , i .e . a s s uch . A nd b ecause o f a re r ounded o f t o N E , N NW t o S W . T his m ight a ppear

t o l adk p recision , b ut t his m ethod o f a pproximation d oes e stablish g eneral o rientation w hich s hould s uit o ur p urpose . B esides , m any e xcavators s imply r ecorded a pproximate h ead o rientations i n t he f irst i nstance . U pon

e stablishing

t he

o rientations ,

t hree

t hings w ere

s ought :

1 )

t o

d etermine w hether p revailing o rientations o ccurred w ithin e ach s ite ; 2 ) t o c ompare t he p revailing s ite o rientations , i f t here w ere a ny , t o a scertain r egional p atterns a nd a ssociations ; a nd 3 ) t o c orrelate h ead o rientation w ith g rave c ontext . T hese w ere s ought b ecause i t i s b elieved h ead o rientation i s s ignificant , a nd i f s o , c ould b e r elated t o r eligious b elief . T herefore , c ontextual c omparison w as n ecessary t o f ind w hether r esidential o rientations d iffered f rom t hose i n t emples a nd s hrines . T he f ollowing i s a s ummary o f t he c orrelations f rom e ach s ite .

M ountain C ow A t M ountain C ow , 6 /9 d eceased w hose h ead o rientation w as n oted , w ere o rientated t o t he N E a nd i n p lazas ( Table 2 0) . H owever , 5 /6 o f t hese s keletons w ere s econdary i nterments i n o ne g rave ( Burial 5 ) . S ince s econdary i nterred w ere p robably d eposited w ithout m uch r egard t o p osition o r o rientation , N E m ay n ot h ave b een a n i ntended o rientation . M oreover , t he s ample i s t oo s mall t o b e s ignificant .

T he i ncidence i s n oted n onetheless .

B aking P ot T his s ite d oes r eveal a d efinite p revailing o rientation .

A t otal

o f

1 7/23 i ndividuals w as b uried w ith t heir h eads t o t he s outh ( Table 2 1) . A dding t he o ne o rientated t o t he S E m akes 1 8 o rientated i n as outherly d irection .

S ince i t

i s

t he p revalent o rientation i n e ach c ontext ,

e xcept

t emple a ltar ( with a s ample o f o nly o ne) , t hen i t w as p robably i ntentionally d one .

5 2

B arton R amie L ike B aking P ot ,

t he h ead o rientation o f t he i nterred i s a lso t o t he

s outh , b ut e ven m ore e mphatically . N o l ess t han 8 5/96 s keletons h ad t heir h eads t o t he s outh , 8 7 i ncluding t he t wo o rientated t o t he S W ( Table 2 2) . S ince a ll t he b urials w ere f ound i n h ousemounds w e c an n ot c ompare c ontexts . B ut i t i s w orth n oting t hat a ll 5 o f t he i nterred w hose h ead o rientation w as o bserved d uring t he J enney C reek a nd B arton C reek p hases h ad t heir h eads o rientated t o t he n orth ( Table I II, s ignificant , t hereafter .

b ut

A ppendix I ) .

a s witch t o a s outherly

I t m ay o r m ay n ot b e

o rientation b egan

i n a b ig w ay

B enque V iejo W ith a s ample o f o nly 3 b urials a nd a ll i n t he s ame h ousehold s hrine , a p revailing h ead o rientation t o t he s outh w as v isible a t B enque V iejo . T he t wo i ndividuals w hose h ead o rientation w as d iscernible , h ad t heir h eads p ointed i n t hat d irection a nd s o c orresponds w ith t he p attern a ppearing a t B aking P ot a nd B arton R amie ( see T able I V , A ppendix I ) . N ot a u seful s ample s ize ,

b ut c onsistent w ith i ts n eighbours .

S an J ose N earby S an J ose f urther c onfirms t his a pparent r egional p reference f or h ead o rientation t o t he s outh . A t otal o f 5 0/60 i ndividuals w as b uried w ith t his o rientation , a nd 5 5/60 i ncluding t he f ive o rientated t o t he S E a nd S W ( Table 2 3) . T here w as n o c ontextual p revailed i n a ll c ontexts .

v ariance a s

a s outherly

o rientation

H olmul T he

H olmul

b urials

h ave

t he

s ame

p revailing h ead

o rientation

t o

t he

s outh , b ut o nly j ust . O nly 9 /16 w ere s o i nterred ( Table 2 4), b ut i t i s s till c onsistent w ith t he a pparent r egional p attern .

U axactun T urning t o U axactun w e

c ome

t o t he f irst

s ite

i n w hich t he d eceased

w ere n ot p rimarily o rientated t o t he s outh . I nstead , h ead o rientation t o t he n orth p revailed . A t otal o f 4 5/92 s keletons , w hose h ead o rientations w ere n oted , w as d irected t o t he n orth . A n a dditional 1 0 w ere o rientated i n an ortherly d irection , e ither N E ( 3) o r N W ( 7), m aking a t otal o f 5 5/92 ( Table 2 5) . B ut t he U axactun s tatistics r eveal a c ontextual a nomaly . T he n ortherly o rientation p revailed i n 4 c ontexts , h ousemounds ( 11/18) , p lazas ( 8/11) , c eremonial p latforms ( 5/8) , a nd p alaces ( 27/40) . B ut o nly 4 /15 b odies w ere o rientated t o t he n orth i n t emples . I nstead , e ast w as t he p rev ailing o rientation w ith 8 i ndividuals . T his m ay b e s ignificant . N o o rientation w as v isible f or t he s keletons l ocated i n t emple a ltars o r b y p laza s telae . T his i s b ecause t he b odies c onsisted o f s kulls o nly , o r h ad b een p laced b etween b owls .

5 3

T ikal T ikal,

l ike U axactun , d emonstrates a p revalence f or h ead o rientation t o

t he n orth w ith 4 5/66 i ndividuals s o i nterred ( Table 2 6) . t here d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a c ontextual a nomaly .

U nlike U axactun , I ndividuals w ere

n ot p rimarily o rientated t o t he n orth i n e lite r esidences, c eremonial p latforms,

a nd a m idden ,

b ut w ith o nly 5 s keletons

t he s tatistic

i s

m eaningless . O rientation t o t he n orth p revailed i n a ll o ther c ontexts : 2 1/31 i n h ouse p latforms, 2 /4 i n p lazas, 3 /5 i n t emples, a nd 1 9/21 i n h ousehold s hrines ( Table 2 6) .

A ltun H a T he p revalence f or h ead o rientation a t A ltun H a i s u nusual .

T wo ,

n ot

o ne , o rientations p redominate . T here w ere 6 1 s keletons o rientated t o t he s outh ( 76 i ncluding t he 1 5 t o t he S E a nd S W) , a nd 6 4 o rientated t o t he e ast ( 78 i ncluding t he 1 4 t o t he N E a nd S E) ( Table 2 7) . T hese a re w ell d istributed

p revalences .

B ut

t he

i nteresting p oint

i s

t hat

t here w ere

m ore i ndividuals o rientated i n a n e asterly d irection ( 46) t han s outherly ( 36) i n r esidential b uildings , a nd t he p recise o pposite ( 34 s outherly a nd 2 3 e asterly) i n t emples a nd h ousehold s hrines ( Table 2 7) . T hus, t he t wo p revailing o rientations s eem r elated t o t wo d ifferent c ontexts : e asterly i n r esidences a nd s outherly i n t emples a nd h ousehold s hrines .

D zibilchaltun O f t hose i ndividuals w hose h ead o rientation w as d iscerned , 2 9/49 h ad t heir h eads o rientated t o t he e ast a nd 3 3/49 i n a n e asterly d irection ( Table 2 8) . W ith t his p roportion i t i s t he p revailing o rientation . O nly i n p alaces d id t his o rientation n ot p redominate , b ut w ith o nly 4 i ndividuals t he s ample i s t oo s mall t o b e m eaningful .

A ltar d e S acrificios H ead o rientation t o t he e ast a lso p revails a t A ltar d e S acrificios , t hough o nly 4 0/114 s keletons w ere s o o rientated , a nd 4 8 i n a n e asterly d irection ( Table 2 9) . T his i s o nly 3 5% a nd 4 2% r espectively . T his l imited p revalence

i s

a ccounted

f or

b y

t he

e venly

d istributed h ead

o rientation o f d eceased i n h ouse p latforms a nd t emples . O nly i n p alaces a nd c eremonial p latforms d id t he m ajority o f h eads h ave a n e asterly o rientation , 1 4/27 a nd 1 8/27 ,

r espectively ( Table 2 9) .

S eibal L ike A ltar d e S acrificios, h ead o rientation t o t he e ast o nly j ust p revails w ith 2 1/42 i ndividuals s o p laced ( Table 3 0) . T his m ay b e i ncreased t o 2 3 i f o ne i ncludes t he s keleton i n t he m idden w ho w as o rientated t o t he N E a nd t he p erson i n B urial 1 8 w ho w as r ecorded w ith h ead t o t he n orth i n o riginal n otes - a nd h ere - b ut h ead t o t he e ast i n t he o riginal s ite i llustration ( for e xplanation s ee T ourtellot O nly i n c eremonial p latforms d id t his o rientation n ot p revail .

5 4

( in p ress)) .

C opan A s w ith t he p revious t hree s ites , h ead o rientation t o t he e ast p revails a t C opan b ut a gain o nly j ust . A t otal o f 1 4/37 w as o rientated i n t his d irection a nd 1 8/37 i n a n e asterly d irection ( Table 3 1) . T his i s n ot v ery p revalent a nd p artly a ccountable b y t he f act t hat o nly 2 /8 s keletons i n p lazas w ere o rientated i n a n e asterly d irection . a nd s outh e qually p revailed i n t his c ontext .

O rientation t o t he w est

P iedras N egras H ead o rientation t o t he n orth p revailed a t P iedras N egras .

O f t he o nly

1 0 b odies, 7 w ere o rientated i n an ortherly d irection b ut o nly o ne w as a ctually o rientated d ue n orth ( Table 3 2) .

P alenque T he 2 0 s keletons w hose o rientations w ere a scertained a t P alenque w ere o verwhelmingly d irected t owards t he n orth w ith 1 7/20 i ndividuals , a nd 1 8/20 i n a n ortherly d irection ( Table 3 3) . av ery p ervasive t rend .

T his i s n ot a l arge s ample b ut i t i s

T onina T he

s ame

o rientation p ersists

a t

T onina .

O nly

1 2

i ndividuals

h ad

a

d iscernible o rientation , b ut 9 o f t hese w ere d irected w ith h eads t o t he n orth ( Table 3 4) . An ortherly o rientation s eems t o p revail i n t his r egion .

S ummary T his

e xercise

r eveals

t hat

s ite

p revalences

e xist

f or

t he h ead

o rientation o f d eceased a t e very s ite ( the r easons f or w hich a re d iscussed b elow , c hapter 1 3) . H ead t o t he s outh p revails a t t he s ites o f B aking P ot , B arton R amie, B enque V iejo , S an J osé a nd H olmul; h ead t o t he n orth a t P iedras N egras , P alenque , T onina , U axactun a nd T ikal ; h ead t o t he e ast a t C opan , D zibilchaltun , S eibal a nd A ltar d e S acrificios ; h ead t o t he s outh a nd e ast a t A ltun H a ; a nd h ead o rientation t o t he N E a ppears t o p redominate a t M ountain C ow b ut b ecause 5 /6 s keletons w ith s uch a n o rientation w ere s econdary i nterments t he o rientation w as p robably u nintentional . A t a n umber o f t hese s ites t he p revailing o rientation w as j ust b elow o r b arely 5 0% , e .g . C opan , S eibal , A ltar d e S acrificios a nd H olmul, o r t he s ample a t t he s ite w as t oo s mall

t o b e m eaningful

o n i ts a wn ,

e .g .

B enque V iejo a nd

P iedras N egras . H owever , i n e ach c ase t he p revailing o rientation w as s imilar t o i ts n eighbours , t hus p roducing a n i nteresting r egional p attern . T hese w ere n ot j ust s ite p revalences , b ut r egional a s w ell ( see F ig . 3 ) . I t i s a lso r evealed t hat 3 s ites h ave d ifferent p revailing o rientations f or d ifferent c ontexts . A t U axactun , o rientation t o t he e ast w as p revalent i n t emple c ontexts a nd h ead t o t he n orth i n r esidential b urials . A t A ltun H a , h ead t o t he s outh p revails i n h ousehold s hrines a nd t emples a nd h ead t o t he e ast i n r esidences . A nd a t C opan , h ead o rientation t o t he e ast w as p revalent i n t he p resumed h ousemound c ontexts b ut w ith h ead t o t he w est a nd s outh p revailing i n t he f ew p laza g raves .

5 5

T hese p revailing o rientations m ay

b e ar esult o f d esired o rientations f or d ifferent c ontexts , p ossibly r elated t o s ome r eligious b elief . O n t he o ther h and t he a pparent c ontextual p revalences m ay s imply r esult f rom s ite e xcavation b ias . Ih ave n o d ata t o p ositively s ubstantiate e ither p ossibility ( but s ee c hapter 1 3) . s tatistical a nomalies m ust s imply b e p ointed o ut .

5 6

T he

T able 2 0: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t M ountain C ow

Grave C ontext

, 1 c d P

s h r i n e

h o u s e h o l d

O rientation

p l a z

H ead

0 4 ,

N E

6 ,

6

E ast

1

1 1

S outh S W

1

t otal

8

1 1

1

9

T able 2 1: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t B aking P ot

1

1

N orth

t o t a l

t e m p l e

t e m p l e a l t a r

p l a z a s t e l a

p l a z a

p l a t f o r m

c e r e m o n i a l

H ead O rientation

h o u s e p l a t f o r m

Grave C ontext

E ast

3

3

W est

1

1

S outh

2

9

2 1

S E t otal

4

2

1 3

2

1

5 7

1 7 1

1

4

2 3

T able 2 2 : H ead o rientation p er

T able 2 3: H ead o rientation p er g rave

g rave c ontext a t B arton R amie

c ontext a t S an J ose

r ave C ontext

N orth

5 .

5

N orth

N E

1

1

N W

S outh

8 5

8 5

E ast

S W

2

2

W est

f aced N

1

1

S outh

f aCed W

1

1

S E

f aced S

1

1

s w

t otal

9 6

9 6

t otal

R 0 a )

o

N orth

t e m p l e

W P

0 r1

h o u s e h o l d s h r i n e

H ead O rientation

1

1

E ast

1

3

4

W est

1

1

2

S outh

2

3

8

1

1

S E

t otal

3

4

4

8

1 6

5 8

p a l c e

r e s i d e n c e

1

1

7

2

1

1

1

1 9

1

1

2 3

5 0

4

4

1

1

9

, 1 c d 1 , o p

1

1

T able 2 4: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t H olmul

Grave C ontext

c e r m o n i a l p l a t f o r m

H t e m p l e

H ead O rientation

' t o a l

h o u s e p l a t f o r m

H ead O rientation

Grave C ontext

2 0

1

3 0

6 0

T able 2 5: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t U axact i ln

Grave C ontext

N orth

o 4 .

5

2 5

6

c e r m o n i a l p l a t f o r m

— 1 a

5

t e m p l e

W

p a l c e

O rientatio

N

h o u s e p l a t f o r m

H ead

4

4 5

N E

1'

1

1

3

N W

5

1

1

7

E ast

1

3

1

1

W est

1

9

1

2

S outh

5

1

1

f aced W

t otal

1 8

4 0

1 1

8

8

1 4 1 3

2

9

1

1

1 5

9 2

T able 2 6: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t T ikal

Grave C ontext

N orth

3

W est

2

S outh

3

1

1

1

1

1 9

4 5

1

8

1

4

1

5 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3 1

t o t a l

s h r i n e

h o u s e h o l d 1

1

f aced S

t otal

t e m p l e

m i d e n

r e s i d e n c e

c e r e m o n i a l p l a t f o r m

3

2

S W f aced E

N W

, I a

2 1

E ast

S E

e l i t e

e h o u s e p l a t f o r m

H ead O rientatio

1

1

4

3 5 9

5

2 1

6 6

1

T able 2 7: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t A ltun H a

p a l t i a l r e s i d e n c e

c e r m o n i a l P l a t f o r m

t e m p l e

h o u s e h o l d s h r i n e

Grave C ontext

, 4 e 4 . o 4 .

3

2

2

3

2 7

O rientation

' r e s i d e n c e

H ead

N orth

1 7

4

2

N E 1

N W

3 1

E ast

7

W est S outh

2 6

S E

3

S W

2

4

3 9

4

6

7

3

1

4

1

1 0

1

5

1 4 6 2 0

1

6 4

2 4 6 1

1 0

3

5

f aced S

1

1

f aced S E

1

1

t otal

T able

8 9

2 4

2 0

2 1

4 7

2 01

2 8: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t D zibilchaltun

G rave

N orth

1

N E

2

E ast

4

3

1

1 9 4

1

2

r e s i d e n c e

c e r e m o n i a l p l a t f o r m

5

4

1

1

1

2

7

4

2 8

2 9

6 5

2

S E t otal

1

, 4 e 4 . o 4 ,

2

W est S outh

v a u l t e d r e s i d e n c e

p a l a c e

H ead Orientation

h o u s e h o l d s h r i n e

C ontext

2

8

2

6 0

4 9

T able 2 9: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t A ltar d e S acrificios

G rave C ontext

1 2 ' l

N W

3

E ast

8

W est

6

S outh

7

S E

3

S W

2

f aced N

3

t o a l

N E

a

c d N c d r I

t e m p l e

N orth

0 W r 4 c d

h o u s e P l a t f o r m

H ead O rientation

c e r m o n i a l p l a t f o r m

w

1

4

1

2 1

1

1

1

a

3 1 6

2

4 0

4

2

2

1 4

3

3

3

1 6

1 4

1 1

4 2

1

5 1

f aced N W

2

2

f aced E

t otal

4

4 3

2 7

, 2

2 7

1

1

1 2

1 11

T able 3 0: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t S eibal

c e r e m o n i a l p l a t f o r m

h o u s e h o l d s h r i n e

, 1 w +' o

6

1

1

2

2

1 2

. g

N orth N E

p l a z a

w e e

p a l a c e

H ead O rientation

h o u s e p l a t f o r m

G rave C ontext

1

1

1 0

E ast W est

1

S outh

3

t otal

1

« .

2 0

4

1

6

1

1

2

2 1

5 3

1

6

4

6 1

1 0

4 2

T able 3 1: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t C opan

G rave C ontext

c d A

2

g o

C

. s 4 S

t o a l

N orth

N

h o u s e p l a t f o r m

H ead O rientation

c d

2

4

3

N E

1

1

1

E ast

5

1

8

W est

1

3

2

6

3

2

5

S outh

1 4

S E

1

1

S W

2

2

f aced N W

1

f aced E t otal

1 1 2

9

1 1

1 6

3 7

T able 3 2: H ead o rientation p er g rave c ontext a t P iedras N egras

N orth

1

N E N W E ast

1

1

3

3

1

3 1

1

S W

1

1

1

t o t a l 1

1

S outh

t otal

v a u l t e d r e s i d e n c e

p a l a c e a c r o p l i s

t e m p l e

o > 0 u

c e r e m o n i a l _ p l a t f o r m

H ead O rientation

b a l c o u r t

r ave C ontext

1

1

1

1

2

6 2

4

1 0

T able 3 : H ead o rientation p er

T able 3 4: H ead o rientation p er

g rave c ontext a t P alenque

g rave c ontext a t T oning

G rave C ontext

G rave C ontext

6 .

2

S outh

c t i o

1 0

1 8

H ead O rientation

PI

N orth

6

1

c d

2

+ )

9

1

1

E ast

1

1

1

1

S outh

1

1

f aced S t otal

r i

N

r e s i d e n c e

N orth N E

u n k n o w n

t e m p l e

r 1

m

r i

N

t e m p l e

c i H ead O rientation

8

2

1 0

1

1

2 0 t otal

6 3

8

1

3

1 2

C HAPTER S IX U rn a nd P ot-Skull

A ssociated B urials

U rn b urials , a nd l ess s o , b owl o ver s kull b urials , h ave b een c onsidered b y m any a s v irtual g rave o r b urial t ypes . T his , a s I p reviously s uggested ( p . 2 0) , i s n ot r eally c orrect . U rn a nd b owl o ver s kull b urials s hould r eally b e c onsidered a s m odes o f d isposing o f t he d ead . I ndeed , t here a re s everal d ifferent a ssociations b etween s kulls a nd b odies , a nd b owls ( dishes) a nd u rns , s o d ifferent t hat t hey a re d ifferent m odes . T he f irst a ssociation i s

t hat

o f b owls

p laced o ver o r u nder a s kull

Cable 3 5) . T his a ssociation i s d istinct b y t he f act t hat o nly t he s kull o f a b ody i s c overed o r s upported b y a d ish . T he i nterment i s n ot s econdary . A b owl o ver o r a b owl u nder m ode c ould b e d istinguished b ut t he a ct a nd i ntent m ay w ell h ave b een t he s ame ( see b elow) . U rn b urials ( Table 3 6) a re d istinct b y t he f act t hat t he e ntire b ody i s p laced i n a c ontainer , u sually c overed . T he i nterment i s s econdary . B ut t his a ssociation t oo s eems t o b e o f 2t ypes: b odies i n u rns o r d ishes, a nd b odies p laced b etween b owls . T hey a re g rouped t ogether b ecause t he a ct o f p lacing a b ody b etween b owls o r i n ac overed u rn i s m ore o r l ess t he s ame . T he i ntent , h owever , m ay o r m ay n ot b e ( see b elow ) . T he t hird a ssociation c onsists o f b urials i n w hich a b owl c ontains o r c overs a s evered s kull ( Table 3 7) . S ince t hese a re o nly s evered s kulls i n b owls , t he p resence o f w hich c learly i mplies s acrifice , t his i s c onsidered d istinct . F inally , Ih ave i ncluded a nother m ode o f b urial h ere t hat h as n o a ssociation w ith p ottery a t a ll , b ut w ith s hells ( Table 3 8) . I t i s i ncluded b ecause i t i s a lso a m ode o f d isposal a ssociated w ith p lacing a n o bject o ver a s kull, r egardless o f t he d ifference i n t he m aterial o f t he o bject a nd p robably t he i ntent ( see b elow ) . T he b owl o ver o r u nder s kull m ode s eems t o h ave b een t he m ost c ommon o f t he 4 p ractices . T here w ere a t otal o f 14 b urials f rom 1 0 s ites w ith t his m ode p resent ( Table 3 9) . T he f act t hat t hese w ere f ound i n a ll c ontexts ( 79 i n r esidences a nd 3 5 i n t emples , h ousehold s hrines , c eremonial p latforms a nd p lazas) s uggests i t w as p ractised t o s ome d egree b y, a nd f or , a ll M aya c itizens . M ore i mportant , b ecause 77 /11 4 w ere i n s imple g raves s uggests t hat t he p ractice w as d one p rimarily f or t he p rotection o f t he s kull . T his m ay e specially h ave b een t he c ase w ith t he f aceless i nterred o f B urials 3 852 a nd 3 85-3, D zibilchultun . T hough 1 2/15 b owl o ver s kull b urials a t D zibilchaltun w ere

i n

c rypts ,

g raves a t t he s ite w ere c rypts ,

p rotection

i s

s till

i mplied .

S ince

7 5/116

s ome a ssociation w ith t his g rave t ype w ould

b e e xpected . T he o ne i nstance o f a m etate o ver a s kull, B urial E 6, U axactun , p robably s erved t he s ame p urpose . A t T ikal , h owever , b owl u nder s kull,

n ot o ver ,

w as t he f avoured m ode ( 9/13) a nd 8 o f

t hese w ere n ot

i n

s imple g raves . T he p urpose w as m ore s upport f or t he h ead r ather t han p rotection o f t he s kull . T he u se o f b owls w ith k ill h oles w as c onfined t o A ltar d e S acrificios a nd S eibal ( 8 & 1i nstances , r espectively) . Iw ould s uggest t hat t he b owls w ere h oled t o i ndicate t hat t he b owls, l ike t he d eceased , w ere d ead . P erhaps e ach b owl h ad b een t he d eceased 's f avourite . F inally , t here w as t he u nique i nstance o f ab owl h aving b een s ubstituted f or a s kull , i .e . B urial 4 501, D zibilchaltun . O bviously p rotection o f t he s kull c ould n ot h ave b een t he p urpose i f t here w as n o s kull t o p rotect . i nstead , t he i ntent m ay h ave h ad s omething t o d o w ith t he v eneration o f t he

6 4

d ead

( see c hapter 1 2 b elow ) . T here w ere 3 3 i nstances o f t he u rn m ode o f b urial f rom 8 s ites ( Table

3 9) m aking t his t he s econd m ost c ommon o f t he 4 m odes . I t w as m ost c ommon a t D zibilchaltun w ith 1 2/33 e xamples ( Table 3 6) . A s w ith t he b owl o ver s kull b urials , m ost w ere i n s imple g raves ( 27/33) . O f t he s ix t hat w ere n ot , 3w ere m ultiple b urials , i .e . B urials 1 67 , T ikal , E -7/30 , A ltun H a , a nd 1 4-1, D zibilchaltun , 2w ere v ery w ell f urnished , i .e . B urials 1 28 a nd 8 5 , T ikal, a nd t he l ast w as a c hild p laced b etween 2 b owls, B urial A 66, U axactun . T hese 6 b urials d emonstrate t he p ossible d iversity i n t he p urpose o f t his m ode . T he p lacing o f t he i nterred i n v essels i n t he 2 w ell f urnished T ikal b urials m ay j ust i ndicate v eneration o f t he d eceased . T he m ultiple b urials c onsist o f s econdary i nterred w ho w ere s acrificed i n h onour o f t he p rimary i nterments . S acrifice m ay a lso a pply t o e very b urial i n w hich t he b odies w ere p laced b etween b owls , i .e . B urials E 10 , E l, E 21 a nd A 66 , U axactun , 1 22 , 1 23 & 1 26 , T ikal, a nd 1 6 , P iedras N egras . I n e ach c ase t hese b urials r esemble c aches, o fferings t o s tructures t hat c onsist o f v aluable i tems p laced b etween o r i n b owls .

T he b urials s eem t he s ame b ut

i nclude h uman v ictims . M oreover , t he b urials w ere f ound i n f ront o f s telae o r a ltars , o r i n at emple o r c eremonial p latform , s tructures w hich t ypically h ad c aches . T herefore , I b elieve t hese 8 b urials w ere d edicatory c ache b urials a nd i mply a n a ct o f s acrifice ( see c hapter 1) . A s f or t he r emaining u rn b urials ,

Ia m n ot a bsolutely c ertain o f t heir

p urpose . I t i s v ery c onceivable t hat t hey s hould a lso b e c onsidered a s c ache b urials . B urials 3 8-sub . 7&3 8-sub . 8 , D zibilchaltun , a nd 1 01, A ltar d e S acrificios p robably w ere , a nd p ossibly B urials 1 24-1, B arton R amie , a nd C -18/11 & C -18/6 , A ltun H a ( see T able 1 03) . B ut m any a re n ot i n s tructures t hat n ormally h ad c ache b urials , i .e . r esidences . C aches a re n ormally p laced a s d edications t o c eremonial p latforms , t emples , s telae a nd t emple a ltars , b ut t hey h ave b een f ound i n p alaces, S tr . B 4 , C 4 & C 5 , S an J ose ( Thompson 1 939 : 1 84-192) , r esidences, S tr . F 4-6 & F 4-3, T onina ( Becquelin a nd B audez 1 979 : T able 2 ) , a nd h ousemounds , S tr . B R-123 , B arton R amie ( Willey e t a l . 1 965 : 1 25 & 5 52) a nd Mounds 3 8, 2 , 7 , 3 6, 1 5 & 2 4, A ltar d e S acrificios ( Smith 1 972: T able 4 ) . S o t hough e very t ype o f s tructure

m ight

r eceive

a d edicatory

c ache

a t

t he

c ommencement

o f

c onstruction o r p erhaps a fter s ome c yclic r itual, I s hould h ave t hought a h uman d edication i s t hat m uch m ore s pecial a md m ore l ikely t o b e r eserved f or b uildings o f t he m ost s ocial a nd r eligious i mportance . T his i s i mplied b y t he n ext a ssociation w ith 1/11 s evered s kull i n b owl b urials i n o r b y c eremonial s tructures ( Table 3 7) . E ven t hough I i nclude t he r esidential b urials , 1 241, B arton R amie , a nd C -18/11 & C -18/6 , A ltun H a , a s d edicatory c ache b urials , t hey a re d efinitely n ot t ypical ( Table 1 03) . T hat a ll u rn b urials s hould b e c onsidered d edicatory c ache b urials i s c ompelling , b ut I a m n ot a bsolutely c onvinced . T he t hird a ssociation , s evered s kulls i n , b etween o r u nder , b owls ( Table 3 7) ,

i s

v ery c learly a ssociated w ith s acrifice ,

s tructures o r ,

e ither a s d edications

i n t he c ase o f m ultiple i nterments ,

t o

t o t he p rimary i nterred .

S acrifice i s e mphasized b y t he v ery p resence o f s evered s kulls . D edication i s i mplied b y t he r esemblance t o c aches - b etween b owls - a nd b y t he f act t hat 1/11 b urials w ere i n o r b y s tructures o f e nough r eligious i mportance t o r equire s acrificial d edication , i .e . s telae , t emple a ltars , t emples , c eremonial p latforms a nd h ousehold s hrines . T he f inal a ssociation , p ractised

f or

a c ompletely

s hell o ver s kull

( Table 3 8), w as p robably

d ifferent

A ll

6 5

p urpose .

8 o f

t he

s hell

m ode

b urials w ere w ell f urnished a nd l ocated i n i mportant b uildings , b ut t hey d id n ot r esemble c aches . T he b uried i ndividuals m ust h ave b een i mportant a nd n ot s imply t he b uildings . T his i s i ndicated b y t he f act t hat t wo o f t he b urials w ere o f T ikal r ulers , J aguar P aw S kull i n B urial 1 60 a nd Y ax K in i n B urial 1 96 ( Table 9 9) . P erhaps t he s hell w as p laced o ver t he s kull a s a m ark o f r espect . B ut a l ook a t t he e thnohistoric l iterature r eveals t here m ay h ave b een m ore t o i t . L anda r eports t hat a c onch s hell w as u sed t o c all t he g ods i n s ome r ites ( Tozzer 1 941: 1 44) . P erhaps i n t his m ore a ncient a nd d ifferent a ssociation w ith t he d ead , t he c onch w as p laced t o p ermit a c ontinued d ialogue b etween t he g ods a nd a n i mportant m ember o f t he r eligious c ommunity . W hatever t he r eason , t he i ntent s eems r ather u nrelated t o t he p urposes o f p ro tectidh o f t he s kull o f t he b owl o ver s kull m ode , o r t he d edicatory a nd s acrificial n ature o f t he b ody i n u rn a nd s evered s kull i n u rn b urials .

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C HAPTER S EVEN S keletal M utilation

S keletal m utilation i s t he e xamined .

l ast a spect o f s keletal i nformation t o b e

S everal f orms e xist ( Table 4 0) :

d ecapitation ,

r emoval

o f h ands

a nd f eet , r emoval o f h ands a nd s kull, r emoval o f f emurs , r emoval o f f acial b ones , i ntentionally s mashed , d rilled o r h oled s kulls a nd l ongbones , a nd i n o ne b izarre i nstance , t he c utting a nd f lipping a round o f t he p elvis o f a n o ld a dult f emale i n B urial E -14/1, A ltun H a . S he l ay p rone , t he p elvis l ay s upine . I n a ny c ase , e very b urial f or w hich t here i s s uggested e vidence o f m utilation i n o ur s ample i s r ecorded i n T able 4 0 . I t i s s uspected t hat m any o f t he m utilated i ndividuals h ad b een s acrificed a nd t hat t he m utilation w as e ither t he c ause o f d eath o r h ad f ollowed i mmediately a fter . T his e specially a pplies t o t he s evered s kull, m andible o nly a nd d ecapitated i ndividuals ( see c hapter 1) . F urthermore , i nstances i n w hich l egs w ere d efleshed, i .e . B urials 3 85-1 & 3 85-2, D zibilchaltun , m ight r eveal t he p ractice o f c annibalism ( see c hapter 1 2) . B ut m any o ther m utilated s keletons a re p robably n ot t he r esult o f s acrifice . A t l east 1 0 b urials , i .e . A 36 , U axactun , A -1/2,

C -16/17,

C -6/3 ,

C -22/2 & C -

2 2/5 , A ltun H a , 2 26-2 & 2 26-3 , D zibilchaltun , 4 4 , S eibal , a nd 9 -46 , C opan , w ere b adly d isturbed a nd/or p oorly p reserved . T he m issing b ody p arts i n t hese e xamples a re m ore p robably t he r esult o f d isturbance o r d isintegration a nd n ot i ntentional m utilation . I ndeed , a n a dditional 4 b urials a t A ltar d e S acrificios , B urials 1 8 , 3 2 , 9 1 &3 3 , c onsisted o f l egs a nd p elvis o nly i n e ach , a nd a nother t wo h ad n o p elvis o r l egs , B urials 7 6 & 8 0 , b ut t he m issing u pper o r l ower b odies w ere s o c learly a r esult o f p oor p reservation t hat t hey h ave n ot e ven b een l isted i n t he T able . A f urther 1 i nstances o f f acial r emoval a nd/or d ecapitation m ay n ot b e t he r esult o f s acrifice e ither , b ut t he r esult o f m utilation a fter d eath f or a r ather d ifferent p urpose :

a ncestor w orship

( see T able 11,

c hapter 1 2) .

O ther i nstances i n

w hich o nly a p ortion o f a l eg o r t he f eet a re r emoved , i .e . B urials 2 60-3 , B arton R amie , a nd C -16/21, A ltun H a , a re n ot , I s hould t hink , s acrifices , t hough I d o n ot k now w hat o ther p urpose s uch m utilation m ight h ave . N or h ave I a ny n otion w hy t he p elvis o f t he a dult f emale i n B urial E -1 4 /1 ,A ltun H a w as c ut a nd f lipped r ound . Iw ould c onfidently s uggest , h owever , t hat t he r emainder o f t he m utilations t abulated w ere s acrifices , t he r easons f or w hich a re d iscussed i n d etail b elow ( see c hapter 1) . B ut I s hould l ike t he a nswer t o o ne q uestion : d o a ny o f t he s evered s kulls o r m andibles b elong t o a ny o f t he h eadless b odies? T ables 4 1 , 4 2 , a nd 4 3 r eveal t hree a dditional p oints .

F irstly , a lthough

a dults a nd a dult m ales s uffered t he m ajor p roportion o f m utilations , 4 7 a nd 3 7, r espectively, i t i s n ot e xclusive t o a ny o ne s ex o r a ge g roup . S econdly , t he m ajority o f m utilated s keletons ( 46/74) w ere b uried i n a reas o f p ublic d isplay o r c eremonial i mportance, i .e . c eremonial p latforms, t emples, p lazas a nd h ousehold s hrines . S uch l ocations o f m utilated i nterments m ay b e i ndicative o f s acrifice . O nly a t D zibilchaltun w ere m any m utilated s keletons f ound i n r esidences ( 1 4 /18 ) . B ut t his s tatistic i s p robably a ffected b y t he h igh i ncidence o f r esidential b urials i n t he s ite s ample, 9 8/116, a nd s o t he p revalence o f m utilations i n r esidences a t D zibilchaltun m ay b e m ore a pparent t han r eal. T heir e xistence i s

8 1

n onetheless o f i nterest . A nd t hirdly , t he m ajority o f m utilated s keletons ( 44/74) h ad b een p laced i n s imple g raves . T his m ay s uggest t hat g rave p reparation w as n ot i mportant f or s ome , a nd i n t hese i nstances, b e i ndicative o f s acrifice .

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se

C HAPTER E IGHT G RAVE T YPE A ND G RAVE C ONTEXT

W e n ow d epart f rom m ethods o f d isposal o f t he d ead t o a n e xamination o f t he a ctual g raves a nd t heir r elation t o g rave c ontexts . G rave t ype i s c orrelated w ith g rave c ontext a t e ach s ite t o d etermine w hether t here w as a g eneral i nclination 'to c onstruct o r h ave a s pecific t ype o f g rave i n a s pecific t ype o f s tructur e .

M ountain C ow T he s mall s ample r estricts w hat m ay b e l earned f rom t he c orrelation a t M ountain C ow . P erhaps t he o ne i nteresting p oint i s t he a pparent p revalence o f c rypts a nd t ombs i n h ousehold s hrines ( 6/9) ( Table 4 4) .

B aking P ot W ith t he e xception o f t he g raves i n t he t emple a ltar a nd p laza s tela , s imple g raves p revail i n e very c ontext ( Table 4 5) . S ince 2 1/27 g raves f ound a t t he s ite w ere s imple , t his i s h ardly s urprising . T he e xistence o f a c ist a nd c rypt a s g raves o f ( Burial B 3) m ay b e c onsistent b urials t hat , i n t he a bsence c onstructions ( see c hapter d edicatory c ache b urials) .

t he p laza s tela ( Burial B 2) a nd t emple a ltar w ith t he f act t hat t hese w ere d edicatory c ache o f b urial i n b owls , r equired b ox l ike , s tone 6 a nd c hapter 1 1 f or t he r ationale b ehind

B arton R amie , B enque V iejo a nd S an J os ' e ' C orrelation o f g rave t ype a nd g rave c ontext i s v irtually i mpossible a t t hese 3 s ites . T he B arton R amie b urials w ere a ll i n o ne c ontext ( housem ounds) a nd o verwhelmingly o f 1g rave t ype , s imple ( 104/114) . T he B enque V iejo s ample c onsisted o f o nly 3 b urials , a ll i n h ousehold s hrines .

A nd t he

S an J osé b urials , t hough f ound i n 4 d ifferent c ontexts , 6 8/70 g raves w ere s imple . W ith l ittle o r n o c omparative g rave t ypes o r g rave c ontexts, c orrelation w ould b e p ointless . T here i s , h owever , t he p ossibility t hat t he p revalence o f s imple b urials a t B arton R amie a nd S an J osé m ay b e o n a ccount o f b urials b eing p redominantly f ound i n r esidential c ontexts a t b oth s ites , 1 1 4 /1 1 4 a nd 5 5/70 , r espectively . J osé i nclude t hose i n t he p alaces) .

( The 5 5 r esidential b urials a t S an

H olmul T he p redominance o f s imple g raves a pparently p ersists a t H olmul ( 13/22) , a nd i n t wo o f t he t hree c ontexts i n w hich b urials w ere f ound ( Table 4 6) . W hat m ay b e s ignificant , t hough , i s t hat a ll n ine o f t he n on-simple g raves w ere c onstructed i n t he t emple a nd h ousehold s hrines, p erhaps i ndicating a c onnection f or m ore s ophisticated g rave c onstruction i n t hese c ontexts.

9 0

U axactun T his i s o ne s ite t hat c onsists o f a l arge a nd v aried e nough s ample o f g rave t ypes i n s everal o bservations

a nd

d ifferent

c omparisons .

c ontexts w ith w hich

T able

4 7

r eveals

a n

t o m ake u seful

i nteresting

p attern .

T he s impler g rave c onstructions , c ists a nd s imple g raves , p revailed i n h ouse p latforms ( 19/21) a nd p alaces ( 34/47) , a nd a ll o f t he p laza , p laza s tela a nd t emple a ltar g raves w ere s imple ( 23/23) . O n t he o ther h and , t he m ore s ophisticated c onstructions o f c rypts a nd t ombs p revailed i n t emples ( 10/16) , i ncluding t he o nly 4 t ombs a t t he s ite , a nd c eremonial p latforms ( 6/9) . T his s uggests t hat p articular g rave c onstructions w ere p referred f or s pecific c ontexts : T he s impler g rave t ypes m ay h ave b een s elected i n r esidences b ecause t hat i s a ll a f am ily c ould a fford t o c onstruct f or t he d eceased ( housemounds) , o r f elt o bliged t o p rovide a nd f or w hich t hey c ould p ay ( palaces) . T he p laza , p laza s tela a nd t emple a ltar g raves w ere s imple b ecause m ost ( all?) o f t hese b urials w ere e ither s acrificial o r d edicatory i n n ature ( see c hapter 1 1) : i t w as t he p lacing o f t he g rave, n ot g rave c onstruction , t hat w as i mportant . T hough t he g raves o f t he t wo s imilar d edicatory c ache b urials a t B aking P ot c onsisted o f a c ist a nd c rypt , i n n either o ne w as t he i nterred p laced b etween b owls a s t hey h ad b een i n 6 /7 U axactun s tela a nd a ltar b urials . I n t he a bsence o f b awls a s c ontainers o f t he d eceased , s mall, b ox t ype , s tone c onstructions w ere n ecessary . C rypts

a nd

t ombs w ere p robably p referred f or t emples

a nd c eremonial

p latforms b ecause i mportant m embers o f t he c ommunity w ere b uried i n t hese b uildings a nd t he c ost o f g rave c onstruction w as n o o bject . G rave l ocation a lmost c ertainly w as .

T ikal T he d istribution o f g raves a t T ikal s eems t o f ollow a s imilar p attern t o t hat o f U axactun , d espite t he p resence o f a l arge n umber o f u nclassified g raves

( Table 4 8) .

O f t he 3 6 r esidential g raves ( housemounds,

e lite

r esidences a nd p alaces) , 2 9 a re s imple o r c ist, a nd o nly o ne i s o f a s ophisticated c onstruction ( crypt) . T he p laza g raves a re a lso o f as imple n ature, i .e . s imple o r c hultun , a s a re 2 ( and p robably 3 ) o f t he m idden g raves . T he c eremonial p latform g raves a re p rimarily s imple ( 4/7) b ut 3 o f t hese b urials , B urials 1 22 , 1 23 & 1 26 , w ere c ertainly s acrifices ( chapter 1) a nd i n b awls , t herefore a ccounting f or t he s imple c onstructions . F or t emples a nd h ousehold s hrines , c rypts a nd t ombs o nly j ust p redominate o f t he c lassified g raves ( 21/40) . H owever , 2 1/24 c rypts a nd t ombs a t t he s ite e xisted

i n

t hese

b uildings

a nd

s o

s till

a ffirms

a n

a ssociation

b etween

s ophisticated g raves , a nd t emples a nd h ousehold s hrines .

A ltua H a F or A ltun H a a n a ssociation o nly s eems t o e xist b etween s impler g raves a nd r esidences , a md s imple g raves a nd c eremonial p latforms . r esidential g raves, 1 18 w ere s imple o r c ist ( Table 4 9) .

O f t he 1 41 O f t he 3 5

c eremonial p latform g raves , 3 2 w ere s imple . T his c ontinues t he a ssociation s een a t U axactun a nd T ikal, a nd p robably f or t he s ame r easons ( at l east 9 o f t he c eremonial p latform b urials w ere s acrificial ; s ee T able 1 04 , c hapter 1). N o a ssociation s eems t o e xist b etween c rypts a nd t ombs w ith t emples a nd

9 1

h ousehold s hrines .

A lthough a ll 4 o f t he s ite 's t ombs w ere l ocated i n

t emples , s imple g raves , c ists a nd c rypts w ere e venly d istributed . T here w ere 2 5 , 2 1 &2 2 s uch g raves , r espectively , i n h ousehold s hrines a nd t emples ( Table 4 9) .

D zibilchaltun T he

g rave

s ample

o f D zibilchaltun

s uffers f rom t he s ame p roblem a s

e xists w ith t he B arton R am ie a nd S an J osé s amples : t he p redominance o f o ne g rave t ype . I n t his c ase , c rypts , n ot s imple g raves , p revail w ith 7 5/116 g raves . T here a lso e xists t he p roblem o f a n a bundance o f g raves i n o ne c ontext : 9 8/116 g raves w ere i n r esidences . A s a r esult a ny c orrelation b etween g rave t ype a nd g rave c ontext w ould b e d ifficult . A n a ssociation b etween s imple g raves a nd r esidences s hould s till b e v isible i f s uch a c onnection e xists , b ut s ince r oughly e qual p ercentages o f c rypts a nd s imple g raves w ere f ound i n r esidences, i .e . 8 8% ( 66/75) , a nd 8 0% ( 28/35) , r espectively ( Table 5 0) , n o s uch c onnection e xists . T he p resence o f c rypts p revails i n e very o ther c ontext w ith a m eaningful s ample , a nd t hus , c rypts s eem t o h ave b een a s ite p reference .

A ltar d e S acrificios L ike

B arton

R amie

a nd

S an

J ose ,

t he

g raves

a t

t his

s ite

a re

p redominantly s imple g raves ( 125/13 0 . T hough t he g raves w ere f ound i n s everal d ifferent c ontexts , s imple g raves p revail i n e ach ( Table 5 1) . T he p revalence , h owever , m ay b e ar esult o f e xcavation b ias ( see p . 2 18) .

S eibal T he g raves

g rave ( 29/5 0 .

s ample a t

S eibal

a lso c onsists

C oincidentally ,

s tructures ( Table 5 2) .

o f a n a bundance o f

2 9 g raves w ere a lso i n

s imple

r esidential

P erhaps t he p revalence o f s imple g raves m ay t hen b e

r elated t o t he f act t hat m any b urials w ere f ound i n s uch c ontexts ( 19 o f t he 2 9 w ere s imple) , b ut s ince t he s ame n umber o f s imple g raves a nd c ists w ere f ound i n c eremonial p latforms a nd h ousehold s hrines ( Table 5 2) s imple g raves m ay b e a s ite p reference .

C opan T he

d ata o n g raves a t C opan s uffer f rom a d ifferent b ut e qually

d ifficult p roblem o f h aving 3 3/67 g raves i n a n u nknown c ontext ( Table 5 3) . L ittle i nformation m ay b e e xtracted f rom t hese . T he r emaining s ample s uggests a p revalence o f s imple g raves i n h ousemounds ( 18/21) , a nd p ossibly p lazas ( 7/13) .

P iedras N egras T he r ather s mall

s ample o f

g raves a t P iedras N egras

l imits

t he

i nformation t hat m ay b e g leaned . T he f ew g raves t here a re g o a gainst p reviously n oted a ssociations : s imple g raves , n ot c rypts o r t ombs , i n t he t emple ,

a nd c rypts , n ot c ists o r s imple g raves ,

9 2

i n t he r esidence ( Table 5 4) .

P alenque T he P alenque d ata a re h indered b y t he p resence o f u nknown c ontexts

( Table 5 5) .

1 7 g raves f ound i n

T his i s u nfortunate b ecause c rypts a nd

a re t he p revalent g rave t ype a t t he s ite ( 24/32) .

t ombs

B ut i s t his b ecause o f a

s ite p reference o r b ecause m ost g raves a re f rom c eremonial s tructures? k nowing t he c ontext o f t he 1 7 g raves p rohibits a n a nswer .

N ot

T onina W ith 1 8/25

g raves ,

c rypts

a re

t he p revailing g rave t ype a t t he s ite

( Table 5 6) . W hether t his i s as ite p reference i s q uestionable s ince m ost o f t he b urials w ere e xcavated f rom t he c entral c eremonial p recinct . A n o verall c orrelation w as m ade f or t he m ore r elevant g rave t ypes , i .e . s imple ,

c ist,

c rypt a nd t omb , a nd g rave c ontexts,

i .e . r esidential v s .

c eremonial s tructures ( excludes t he g raves f ound i n u nknown c ontexts, m iddens , a nd t he c ave a nd b all c ourt a t P iedras N egras) . A f ew g eneral p oints m ay b e m ade ( Table 5 7) : 1 )

S imple

g raves

p revail

i n

e very

c ontext

e xcept

v aulted o r p alatial

r esidences . T his a nomaly i s p artially a ccountable b y t he f act t hat 5 6 o f t he v aulted r esidential g raves w ere f rom D zibilchaltun , a s ite a t w hich c rypts p revailed . T his a nd t he f act t hat m ost p alace g raves w ere s imple i mply t hat t he a nomalous s tatisitc f or e lite r esidences i s n ot n ecessarily i ndicative. 2 )

T he o verall p revalence o f s imple g raves s uggests s ophisticated g rave

p reparation w as n ot a n ecessary o r i mportant c riterion f or m ost b urials ( but s ee p oint 4 b elow ) . 3 ) M any o f t he s imple g raves i n t emples , c eremonial p latforms a nd p lazas a re b elieved t o h ave c ontained s acrificied i ndividuals , t hus a ccounting f or s uch g raves ( see c hapter 1) . A gain g rave p reparation w ould n ot h ave b een i mportant , b ut l ocation i n ar eligious s tructure a nd/or a t ap lace p roviding m aximum d isplay ( of t he s acrifice) p robably w ould b e . 4 )

M ost

t ombs w ere f ound i n t emples

a nd h ousehold s hrines

s uggesting a n

a ssociation b etween s uch g raves a nd s uch b uildings . T hese g raves p robably c ontained r elatively w ealthy i ndividuals f or w hom g rave p reparation a nd l ocation w ere i mportant ( see c hapters 9 & 1 0).

S ummary T his c orrelation o f g rave t ype a nd g rave c ontext p rovides a n umber o f p oints . F irstly , a t 7 s ites , B aking P ot , B arton R amie , B enque V iejo , S an J ose , H olmul, Altar d e S acrificios a nd S eibal, s imple g raves w ere t he p revalent t ype o f c onstruction . T he s ample s ize a t B enque V iejo w as t oo s mall t o b e n ecessarily i ndicative , a nd b ecause a ll o r m ost g raves a t B arton R amie a nd S an J osé w ere f ound i n r esidences t his c ould i ndicate a n a ssociation b etween s imple g raves a nd r esidences p reference . p revailed . S ince

r ather t han a s ite

S econdly, a t D zibilchaltun , P alenque, a nd T onina , c rypts H owever , t his d ominance m ay b e a r esult o f e xcavation b ias .

e xcavation w as c oncentrated

i n t he c entral

9 3

c eremonial

p recincts

o f

P alenque

a nd T onina ,

a nd 9 8/116 D zibilchaltun g raves w ere

i n r esidences ,

c rypts m ay o nly p revail i n t hese r espective c ontexts . T hirdly , a t U axactun , T ikal, A ltun H a a nd C opan ( and p robably B arton R amie a nd S an J osé) , s impler g raves ( simple & c ist) d ominate i n r esidential b uildings , s uggesting a n a ssociation . C onversely , a t M ountain C ow , H olmul, U axactun , T ikal a nd P alenque , t he m ajority o f m ore s ophisticated g raves ( crypts a nd t ombs) w ere f ound i n h ousehold s hrines a nd t emples, s uggesting a n a ssociation b etween t hese t ypes a nd s tructures . F ifthly , s imple g raves p revailed i n c eremonial p latforms a t A ltun H a , a nd i n p lazas , p laza s telae a nd t emple a ltars a t U axactun . M any o f t hese b urials w ere s acrificial .

9 4

T able 4 : Grave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t M ountain C ow

h ouse p latform

1

4 -3

p laza

c h u l t u n

m ' H C )

4

h ousehold s hrine

2

3

t otal

0 .

A

0

4 -,

r i

1

2

3

7

1

3

3

9

1

7

3

1 8

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t B aking P ot

_ . 1

G rave T ype o

a .

' H

m

c h u l t u n

G rave , C ontext

+ )

A

. 0

' H

4

0

0

0

P

u n c l a s i f i e d

T able 4 5 :

4

4 -,

u n c l a s i f e d t o a l

G rave C ontext

s i m p l e

G rave T ype

m o

+3

h ouse p latform

3

3

p laza

2

2 1

p laza s tela

1

t emple a ltar t emple c eremonial p latform

t otal

1 1

1

4

5

1 2

1

1

1

1 5

2 1

3

2

1

2 7

o c

T able 4 6: G rave

t ype p er g rave c ontext a t H olmul

G rave T ype

r esidence

. H

o

P

o

. o o . 1 -)

0 o

4 -3

4

4

h ousehold s hrine t emple

4

9

t otal

T able 4 7:

4 . a .

u n c l a s i f e d

c h u l t u n

,

s i m p l e

4 -,

G rave C ontext

1 3

4

2

3

1 4

2

7

2 2

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t l axactün

G rave T ype G rave C ontext

, 1 s i m p l e

u n c l a s i f i e d

+ I

h ouse p latform

8

p alace

1 6

p laza

1 6

1

1 1 1 8

1

0 2 1

1 3

4 7 1 6

p laza s tela

2

2

t emple a ltar

5

5

t emple

2

c eremonial p latform

3

t otal

5 2

2

2

6

4

6

3

3 1

h

2 6

1 6

9

4

16

T able 4 8:

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t T ikal

G rave T ype

s i m p l e

0

G rave C ontext

, c

h ousemound

1 5

2

e lite r esidence

C )

P C I )

,i C . )

1 3

4 ,

P . › )

P C . )

, n H 0

1

1

1

'

p alace m idden

2

p laza

3

c eremonial p latform

4

1

t emple

1

1

h ousehold s hrine

T able 4 9 :

3 2

3

1

1

1

3 5

5 4

c d o

i >

2

2

1 2

3 7

t otal

r — I

u n c l a s i f e d

§ r — I

2 1

2 1 2

7 8

2 1 6

7 1

1 5

1 5

4 1

2 1

1 07

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t A ltun Ha

r ave Type

r esidence

, s i m p l e

r 4

7

p laza

1

t emple h ousehold s hrine

t otal

. i , 1 2 4 2 9

7 4

p alatial r esidence

c eremonial p latform

2

4 -1

8

4 )

PI

X, Ö

1 0

cd

u n c l a s i f i e d

§ G rave C ontext

3

1 0

4 >

o

1 16 2 5 1

3

3 2

7

7

3 5 7

1 8

1 4

1 5

1 39

6 1

4 2

9 7

2 5

4

4

6

5 3

9

2 55

T able 5 0 : G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t D zibilchaltun

G rave T ype

a

1 c o

r esidence

1 7

v aulted r esidence

9

p alace

2

c eremonial p latform

3

h ousehold s hrine

3

t emple

1

t otal

T able 5 1:

3 5

r , i

c h u l t u n

G rave C ontext

0

1

3

P

0

f o

1 >

• • I

u n c l a s i f e d

0 a

e o

I -)

I >

2 2

4 0

4

5 6 2

1 1

8

4 1

1 3 1

1

4

7 5

1

1 16

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t A ltar d e S acrificios

G rave T ype

h ousemound

5 0

p alace

3 6

p laza c eremonial p latform t emple t otal

. + 0

0

3

5 3 1

1

3 2 7

9 1 25

3 7 4

3

1

3 1

1

1

1 1

_ 8

9 8

f E i o + 3

t o t a l

4 ö 2

u n c l a s i f e d

c h u l t u n

+ 3 ! s i m p l e

G rave C ontext

3

1 36

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t S eibal

u n c l a s i f e d

1

T able 5 2:

G rave T ype

G rave C ontext

m , 1 a . e , 4

m idden

1

h ousemound p latform

1 8

6

p alace

1

1

p laza

2

3

c eremonial p latform

2

2

h ousehold s hrine

5

5

1

2 9

1 7

3

t otal

T able 5 3 :

§ , o

4 -, U . 4

e o

jä )

P

o

1

1

2

2 7 2

1

6 4 1

2

5 1

G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t C opan

h ousemound p laza

4, , i m " o 0

1 8

i I n , 4 0

. 4 -, e . i 40

. 2 o p

u n c l a s i f e d

G rave C ontext

s i m p l e

G rave T ype

3

2 1

3

7

, . 4 )m P o 4 )

2

1

1 3

u nknown

1 2

3

1 5

1

2

3

t otal

3 7

6

1 8

3

3

6 7

9 9

T able

5 4 : Grave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t P iedras N egras

Grave Type

s i m p l e

P

, c C )

o

v aulted r esidence

4 ' g l ,

0

, -

X )

o

4 -3

W

u n c l a s i f e d

5 G rave C ontext

3

3

p alace

1

I

1

c ave

o

P

1

p laza

1

1

b all c ourt

1

1

t emple

3

3

c eremonial p latform

5

t otal

T able

1

1

1

3

2

5 : Grave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t Palenque

e w

G rave T ype

t emple

, s i m p l e

5 Grave C ontext

1 1

. z 0

4 1 , 1

+ m a . H

4 -,

2 0

C . )

8

3

C ! , .

2

2

p laza

e , 1

0 g

. 1 w 4 , 0

1 3 2

u nknown

1

4

9

3

1 7

t otal

4

4

1 9

5

3 2

1 00

T able 5 6: G rave t ype p er g rave c ontext a t T oninä

G rave T ype w , t P.

r esidence

c h u l t u n

. 1 c o

t o

P 0

2

o

4 -3

1

t emple

2

m

2

7

p laza

2

2

1 8

G rave T ype

4 '

I s i m p l e

G rave C ontext

• u , i c . )

+2 P I ,

, 0

ö

0

4 -)

39

7 4

4 4

1 6

1 3

5 7

palace

8 4

2 0

1 4

1

p laza

3 4

1

5

r esidence & h ousemound v aulted & p alatial residence

p laza s tela & t emple a ltar

1 1

9

2

2

2 5

c orrelation o f m ost g rave t ypes a nd g rave c ontexts

]

O verall

1

o

+I

5

9

t otal

T able 5 7 :

r I AZ

u n c l a s i f e d

G rave C ontext

7

5 1

1

t emple

4 3

1 4

3 4

c eremonial p latform

9 3

1

1 0

2

h ousehold s hrine

4 3

2 6

3 8

6

1 01

2 2

C HAPTER N INE G RAVE G OODS

T he f inal a spect o f t he b urial d ata t o b e c onsidered f or c orrelation i s t he g rave f urniture: t he t ype a nd q uantity o f g oods a ccompanying t he i nterments . T here w as a c onsiderable r ange i n t he v ariety o f t his f urniture a nd t his h as b een c lassified i nto t he f ollowing c ategories : 1 )

p ottery ,

i .e .

2 )

p olychrome

b awls ,

p lates ,

d ishes ,

o r s tuccoed p ottery ,

b ut

e tc . i ncludes

s tuccoed c lay o r w ooden

f igurines ; 3 )

j ade b eads, d iscs, e arflares, e tc .;

4 )

j ade f igurines a nd p endants;

5 )

s hell b eads, d iscs, e arflares, e tc .;

6 )

s hells a nd s hell p endants;

7 )

f lint a nd o bsidian , b oth u tilitarian a nd e ccentric ;

8 )

g roundstone, u nidentified s tone, m anos o r m etates;

9 )

b one, t eeth o r a nimal s hells, i .e. t urtle c arapace o r a rmadillo s hell ;

1 0) 1)

c lay o bjects o ther t han p ots, u sually w histle f igurines; p earls ,

p yrite ,

1 2) t extiles ,

m ica o r c oral ;

a nimal p elts

o r w ooden o bjects ;

1 3) s tingray s pines ; 1 4) c odices; 1 5) m osaic m asks , 1 6)

p laques

o r v essels ;

c opal . W hy w as

t he

g rave

f urniture

c lassified

i n t his w ay?

F irstly ,

p olychrome a nd s tuccoed p ottery w ere d istinguished f rom p lain p ottery b ecause i t i s t hought p olychrome a ud s tuccoed p ots w ere o f m ore v alue t han p lain p ots . J ade b eads , d iscs , e tc . , w ere d istinguished f rom j ade f igurines a nd p endants b ecause i t i s b elieved t hat, f or e xample , a n 8 l b . j ade f igurine o f K inich A hau i s s ignificantly d ifferent f rom a s imple , m iniscule j ade b ead . B ecause o f t he p otential d ifference i n t he v alue o f t he t wo t hese w ere d istinguished . S hells a nd s hell p endants w ere d istinguished f rom s hell b eads f or e xactly t he s ame r eason .

T he r est o f t he g rave g oods

w ere c lassified o n t he b asis o f t he n ature o f t he m aterial, i .e . b one , c lay , s tone o r f lint , o r t heir r espective p urpose i n t he g rave , e .g . t extiles ,

1 02

a nimal p elts a nd w ooden b iers w ere u sed t o c over o r s upport t he b ody o f t he d eceased, a nd c harcoal, c innabar a nd c arbon r emains r eflect s ome p osti nterment o ffering o r r itual a ct . F inally , t he p earl , p yrite , c oral, m ica , e tc" c ategory i s a s ort o f m iscellaneous o ne . I t i s r ecognized t hat f unction w ould h ave b een a s g ood a m ethod o f d istinguishing g rave g oods, i .e . a s b one t ools, s pear p oints, s pindle w horls , e tc . S ome o bjects c ould i ndicate t he o ccupation o f t he d eceased a nd w hether s ome o ccupations w ere s ex s pecific . B ut I d id n ot d o s o f or 3 r easons . F irstly , o riginal l ists o f g rave g oods f rom s ome e xcavations w ere o ften m erely l isted a ' s o bjects o f c lay , b one o r s tone , o r a s t ools w ithout s pecifying w hat s ort o f t ool . S econdly, s pecific t ools w ere p laced i n g raves o f i ndividuals o f d ifferent s ex a nd a ge g roups , e .g . s tone s pindle w horls w ith t he a dult m ale o f B urial R 11, B aking P ot , t he c hild o f B urial B 3, B aking P ot, t he y outh o f B urial X l, H olmul, o r t he a dult f emale o f B urial 1 84 , T ikal . T hirdly , t he g raves c ontained f ew t ools t hat c ould b e s pecifically i dentified a s t ools f or u se i n l ife . T he v ast m ajority o f g rave g oods s erved o ne o f t he f ollowing r oles : 1 )

a , s pecific f unction i n t he g rave ,

e .g .

a nimal s kins t o c over t he b ody

o r w ooden b iers t o s upport i t ; 2 )

a r eflection o f

t he s ocial a nd p olitical

s tatus o f

t he d eceased ,

e .g .

t he j ade a nd s hell b eads , n ecklaces , p endants , h eaddresses a nd o ther f inery ; 3 )

a n i ndicator o f

l ancets ,

r eligious

a nd r itual

s ignificance,

e .g .

o bsidian

s tingray s pines a nd e ccentric f lints .

C onsequently ,

t hough a f unctional c lassification c ould b e a scertained a nd

s eem u seful i n t heory , b e g leaned f rom i t .

i n f act o nly l imited a nd a mbiguous i nformation c ould

T he s tatistical c ount o f m ost i tems a nd t he r esulting m ean v alue s hould o nly b e c onsidered a s a pproximate . T his i s p rimarily t he c ase w ith j ade b eads , s hell b eads , s hell p endants, f lint , a nd o bsidian a t t he s ites o f U axactun a nd T ikal . I n s ome o f t he b urials a t t hese s ites , t he e xcavators d id n ot s tipulate t he n umber o f s hells, j ade b eads, e tc" b ut m erely i ndicated t heir p resence o r t hat a n ecklace w as f ound w ith j ade , s hell o r w hatever .

I n s uch i nstances, I c ounted t his p resence a s o ne i f i n t he

s ingular , o r t wo i f i n t he p lural .

I n o ther i nstances , s hell o r f lint w ere

l isted a s b eing s everal, i n t he t ens , o r i n t he h undreds . I n s uch c ases t his p resence i s c ounted a s 4 , 1 0 o r 1 00 , r espectively . T hus , a t t he s aid s ites t he n umber o f s hells , j ade b eads o r s hell b eads , a nd t he r esulting t abulated m ean a re u nderestimated .

E xamples o f s uch b urials a re B urials

A 66 , A 22 & A 2 , U axactun , a nd 1 66 , 1 67 , 4 8 , 1 95 , 16 , 1 96 & 7 7 , T ikal . W ith t he e xception o f B urials A 66 & A 2, t here w ere s uch l arge q uantities o f f urniture i n e ach b urial t hat t he u nderestimation w ould n ot b e n oticed l et a lone c reate a m isleading v alue . A f inal b een

n o

p oint a bout g rave f urniture m ust b e e mphasized .

a ttempt

t o

q ualitatively

e valuate

t he

d ifferent

t ypes

T here h as o f

g rave

g oods . A f ew c ategories w ere c reated w ith t his d ifference o f v alue i n m ind , m erely t o m ake t he s tatistics e asier t o w ork w ith s hould a m ethod o f e valuating f urniture b e d evised - a n e valuation n ot a ttempted i n t his w ork ( but s ee b elow ) . I h ave m erely p rovided m ean v alues o n t he b asis o f t he t otal a mounts o f t he d ifferent t ypes o f f urniture f ound i n a ll t he g raves a t e ach s ite .

T here

i s

n o d oubt

t hat

d ifferent

1 03

i tems

o f

a s ingle m aterial ,

e .g .

j ade ,

a nd t he d ifferent m aterials ,

e g .

j ade ,

s hell,

p ottery ,

o bsidian ,

e tc" w ere e ach e valuated d ifferently b y t he Maya g enerally , p robably d ifferently f rom s ite t o s ite d epending o n t he a vailability o f t he d ifferent a rtefacts , a nd d ifferently a gain b y t he i ndividual M aya . H owever , Ih ave n o i dea h ow t he M aya e quated j ade w ith f lint o r s hell w ith o bsidian , a nd s o o n , s o e ach m aterial a nd t he r espective a rtefacts a re t reated a s m ore o r l ess e qual ( and s ee b elow ) . F rom t his g rave t ype ,

t abulation o f g rave g oods ,

a nd t he a ge a nd

s ex o f

t he

c orrelations w ith g rave c ontext , i nterred a re d one f or m ost

s ites .

C orrelation w ith c eramic p hase i s n ot a ttempted b ecause o f r espective s ite e xcavation b iases . I t w ill b e s hown t hat b urials f rom t emples , h ousehold s hrines , a nd t o a l esser e xtent, c eremonial p latforms, w ere b etter f urnished . T he d ifferent e xcavation s trategies w ould p roduce v arying n umbers o f b urials f rom t hese c ontexts d uring s pecific c eramic p hases . S ince b urials f rom t he d ifferent c ontexts h ad s uch v arying a mounts o f f urniture , s uch s tatistics.

a c orrelation w ould y ield

d istorted

a nd v ery m isleading

M ountain C ow T able 5 8 r eveals t hat , w ith t he e xception o f j ade b eads a nd f lint/ o bsidian , t he 9 h ousehold s hrine b urials c ontained t he m ost f urniture a nd t he l argest v ariety o f f urniture p er g rave . Moreover , t he 2 r ichest b urials , B urials 6 & 8 , w ere i n h ousehold s hrines ( Table I , A ppendix I ) . O ne r esidence p latform b urial, B urial 4 , a nd 2 p laza b urials , B urials 3 & 1, w ere m oderately w ell f urnished b ut d o n ot r eally c ompare w ith B urials 6 a nd 8 . W ith r espect t o g rave t ype ( Table 5 9) ,

t ombs a nd c rypts h ad m ore a nd a

g reater v ariety o f f urniture p er g rave , t hough t he o ne c ist b urial h ad m ore f lint , o bsidian , s tone a nd t eeth . S ince 6 /10 o f t he c rypts a nd t ombs w ere l ocated i n h ousehold s hrines b etter

( Table 4 4) ,

t hen i t

s hould f ollow t hey w ere

f urnished .

I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat p ottery , s hell , a nd t o a l esser e xtent , j ade , w ere t he p revailing f orms o f f urniture a t t he s ite . N o c orrelation w ith a ge a nd s ex w as a ttempted b ecause t oo f ew o f t he i nterred h ad t heir a ge o r s ex d iscerned .

B aking P ot A s a t Mountain C ow a s imilar p attern e merges .

A part f rom j ade a nd

p ossibly p yrite , t he 5 t emple b urials h ad a l arger v ariety o f , a nd m ore , f urniture p er g rave ( Table 6 0) . I ndeed , 3o f t he 4 r ichest b urials a t t he s ite, B urials B 5, B l &B 7, w ere i n t he t emple , a nd o nly o ne c eremonial p latform b urial , B urial R 15 , h ad a c omparable n umber o f g rave g oods ( Table I I , A ppendix I ) . M ost o ther b urials h ad l ittle f urniture , a nd t he p laza a nd p laza s tela b urials h ad n one a t a ll . B ut t here i s n ot s uch a d isparity i n t he a mount o r v ariety o f f urniture i n t he d ifferent g rave t ypes . C ists h ad t he g reatest v ariety o f f urniture p er g rave , w hile c rypts h ad m ore o f c ertain t ypes o f g oods , i .e . p ottery , j ade

a nd

p yrite

( Table

6 1) .

I n a ddition ,

t hough

t he

b est

f urnished

c eremonial p latform b urial w as a c rypt ( R15) a nd t he b est f urnished t emple

1 04

b urial, g raves

a c ist ( Bl

( B5) ,

& B 7) .

t wo o ther w ell f urnished t emple b urials w ere s imple

T his ,

a nd t he

l ess o bvious d isparity i n t he a mount a nd

v ariety o f g rave f urniture p er g rave i n t he d ifferent g rave t ypes ,

s uggest

t hat c ontext w as t he m ore i mportant f actor i n w ealth a ssociation . J ade , s hell, p ottery , o bsidian , b one a nd s tone w ere t he m ost p revalent g rave g oods f ound a t t he s ite , w ith j ade m ost p revalent i n c eremonial p latf orms ,

a nd p ots , s hell , o bsidian a nd s tone i n t emples .

N o c orrelation w ith a ge a nd s ex w as a ttempted b ecause t here w ere o nly 2 c hild b urials, a nd t he 1 1 b urials i n w hich i ndividuals h ad b een s exed c ontained l ittle o r n o f urniture ( Table I I , A ppendix I ) .

B arton R amie T his i s t he o ne s ite i n w hich a ll t he b urials w ere f ound i n h ouse p latforms . N o c orrelation w ith c ontext w as m ade a s a r esult . P robably b ecause t here w ere n o t emple o r h ousehold s hrine b urials , m ost g raves w ere p oorly f urnished , 5 1/114 c ontaining n one a t a ll . M ost o f t he g raves w ere s imple ( 104) , b ut t he 9 c ists a nd 1 c rypt w ere n ot m uch b etter f urnished e xcept i n s hell b eads - a nd d id n ot h ave a s m uch a v ariety o f f urniture a s s imple g raves ( Table 6 2) . T he

c orrelation w ith t he d ifferent a ge g roups

r eveals

t hat

a lthough

a dults w ere g enerally b uried w ith m ore v arieties o f f urniture , s ome c hildren h ad b een b uried w ith p lenty o f s hell a nd f lint ( Table 6 3) . B ut , i n f act , o nly 2 b urials c ontaining c hildren w ere w ell f urnished : am ultiple b urial o f 2 a dults a nd a c hild ( 147-2) , a nd o ne o f a y outh ( 123-22) . ( It s hould b e m entioned t hat t he c hild c ategory o f b urials c onsists o f a ll n on-adults , i .e . i nfants, c hildren a nd y ouths, a nd s ee A ppendix I f or t he a ge c onstitution o f t he d ifferent a ge g roups) . A nd r eally o nly 2 a dult b urials w ere w ell f urnished : B urials 1 -6 & 2 60-3 . T hus , t here w as n ot a g reat d isp arity i n t he f urnishings o f a dult a nd c hild b urials . N either w as

t here a d isparity b etween m ale a nd f emale b urials .

M ale

b urials h ad m ore s hell b eads a nd b one p er g rave , w hile f emale b urials s eem t o h ave h ad m ore p ots , s hells, f lint a nd s tone ( Table 6 3) .

s hell ,

T here w as n ot a g reat d eal o f f urniture a t t he s ite, b ut p ottery , f lint , s tone a nd b one w ere t he m ost p revalent o f w hat l ittle t here

w as.

B enque V iejo W ith o nly 3 b urials a ny c orrelation i s o f s ince o ne b urial w as r obbed a nd a nother w as e mpty . o f ac hild b ut w ell f urnished , B urial B 3 .

l ittle v alue ,

e specially

T he r emaining b urial w as

S an J osé T he b urials o f t he d ifferent c ontexts a t t his s ite s howed l ittle d isparity i n t he a mount a nd v ariety o f f urnishings p er g rave . B urials i n c eremonial p latforms h ad m ore p ots , j ade b eads a nd s hell b eads , w hile p alace a nd r esidential b urials h ad m ore s hells a nd b one p er g rave ( Table 6 4) .

1 05

O therwise ,

t he f urnishings w ere c omparable .

T here w ere o nly 8 b urials w ith

m ore t han 1 0 i tems o f f urniture , i .e . B urials C 15 , D 1, A 7 , B 8 , B 16 , B 18 , C ll & D 3 . T wo w ere f rom r esidences , 3 f rom c eremonial p latforms, a nd 3 f rom p alaces . I s hould h ave t hought t he t emple b urials w ould b e b etter f urnished , b ut s ince 3 o f t he 4 c onsisted o f s kulls o nly , a nd w ere p robably s acrifices ( see c hapter 1) , t here w ere f ew g rave g oods . S ince 6 8/70 g raves w ere s imple t here w as

l ittle t o b e g ained i n

c orrelating g rave g oods w ith g rave t ype . N or w as i t p ossible t o d ecently c ompare m ale a nd f emale b urials s ince t here w ere o nly 2 i dentified f emale i nterments . W ith r espect t o a dult a nd c hild b urials, a dult b urials c ontained m ore f urniture p er g rave a part f rom c lay f igurines a nd b one ( Table 6 5) . A pparently , a ll 1 o f t he c lay w histle f igurines w ere f ound i n c hild b urials , i .e . B urials A ll , B 8 , B ll & B 21 . P erhaps t hey w ere c hildr en 's t oys.

H olmul . There i s n o q uestion t hat t he 1 4 t emple b urials a t H olmul w ere m uch b etter f urnished

i n b oth v ariety a nd

h ousehold

b urials

s hrine

( Table 6 6) .

a mount

t han

I n a ddition ,

t he

4 h ousemound

a nd

4

t he 4 r ichest b urials

w ere i n t he t emple , B urials B 13 , B 5 , B i &B 6 ( Table V I , A ppendix I ) . W ith r espect t o g rave t ype , s imple g raves w ere t he b est f urnished ( Table 6 7) , a nd i ndeed , t he 4 r ichest b urials w ere i n s imple g raves . T his s uggests t hat c ontext , n ot g rave t ype , w as t he i mportant f actor i n w ealth a ssociation o f b urials ( at H olmul) . P ottery,

s hell,

b one,

p yrite a nd m ica w ere t he p revalent t ypes o f

f urniture . A s n one o f t he i nterred w as s exed a nd n o c hild b urials e xisted , a n a ge a nd s ex c orrelation w as n ot p racticable .

U axactun W ith t he e xception o f s hell b eads a nd c lay b eads , t he 1 6 t emple b urials c ontained t he m ost a nd

t he

l argest

v ariety o f f urniture p er g rave

( Table

6 8) . T he 4 r ichest b urials, B urials A 29 , A 31, A 22 & A 20, w ere a lso i n t emples . O nly B urial B 2, i n a c eremonial p latform , S tr . B -XI, w as a s r emotely a s w ell f urnished a s t he 4 m entioned , a nd g enerally o nly c eremonial p latform b urials h ad c omparable a mounts o f f urniture p er g rave a s t emple b urials . T here w as l ittle d ifference i n t he w ealth o f p alace a nd h ouse p latform b urials . P laza , p laza s tela , a nd t emple a ltar e xcess o f j ade a nd s hell, b ut l ittle e lse ( Table 6 8) .

b urials

h ad

a n

D ifferent t ypes o f f urniture p redominated i n d ifferent g rave c ontexts ( Table 6 8) . J ade , p yrite a nd p ots p revailed i n t emples , j ade , s hell a nd p yrite i n c eremonial p latforms , p ots i n h ouse p latforms, b one a nd c harcoal i n p alaces , j ade i n p lazas , a nd j ade a nd s hell i n p laza s tela a nd t emple a ltar i nterments . S tingray s pines , c odex r emains a nd j ade m osaic m asks w ere o nly f ound i n af ew c eremonial p latform a nd t emple b urials , i .e . B urials A 6 , C l, A 29, A 22, A 20, A 20 & A 23 . T he r easons f or t his d istribution m ay b e b ecause t emple a nd c eremonial p latform b urials c onsisted o f i ndividuals o f s ome w ealth a nd s ocial s tanding ; p laza s tela , t emple a ltar a nd m any p laza b urials r epresent d edicatory c ache a nd s acrificial b urials i n w hich t he j ade a nd s hell w ere p rovided f or t he o bjects a ncestors,

a nd n ot

o f

v eneration ,

t he i nterred ( see c hapter 1 1) ;

1 06

i .e .

t he g ods a nd

a nd t he p alace a nd

h ousemound b urials

c onsisted o f t he l east w ealthy m embers i n w hose g raves

u tilitarian o bjects w ere

t he p rimary

f urniture ,

i .e .

p ots

a nd b one

t ools .

O verall, j ade , s hell, p ottery a nd b one p revailed a t t he s ite . W ith r espect t o g rave t ype ( Table 6 9) , c rypts a nd t ombs w ere t he b est f urnished g raves . G iven t hat a ll 4 t ombs w ere i n t emples , a nd 1 2/26 c rypts w ere i n t emples o r c eremonial p latforms ( Table 4 7) , t his i s n ot s urprising . F urthermore , m ost o f t he m oderately f urnished p alace b urials w ere c rypts , e .g . B urials A 38 , A 40 , A 41 & A 43 . I t p robably f ollows t hat i f o ne h ad t he w ealth t hen o ne c ould a fford t o p ay f or t he c onstruction o f ac rypt o r t omb . A dult b urials t ended t o h ave m ore f urniture p er g rave t han c hild b urials ( Table 7 0) ,

h ardly s urprising s ince t he r ichest t emple b urials w ere

o f a dults . F ew c hild b urials c ontained m uch f urniture a nd t hose t hat d id w ere e ither d edicatory c ache b urials t o a t emple , e .g . B urials E l &E 4 , o r t he c hildren a ccompanied a dults f or w hom t he f urniture b elonged , e .g . B urial B l . S imilarly , m ale b urials w ere g enerally b etter f urnished t han f emale o nes , a gain h ardly s urprising g iven t hat 3 /4 r ichest b urials w ere o f a dult m ales . A dult f emale b urials w ere n ot i mpoverished , h owever , e .g . B urials B l & B 2 , m ale .

a nd t here w ere m ore s hells ,

p yrite a nd f lint p er f emale g rave t han

T ikal A s a lready o bserved a t o ther s ites , t emple g raves c ontained t he m ost a nd l argest v ariety o f f urniture p er g rave t han i n a ny o ther c ontext ( Table 7 1) . B ut h ousehold s hrine b urials d id h ave c omparable a mounts a nd v ariety , a nd i n o nly t emple , h ousehold s hrine a nd c eremonial p latform i nterments w ere s tingray s pines a nd j ade m osaic m asks f ound . ( The m osaic p laque i n t he m idden b urial ( PD50) i s d isturbed a nd t he p laque w as p robably r emoved f rom a nother g rave) . I ndeed , t he r ichest b urials o f t he s ite w ere f ound i n t hese 3 c ontexts, i .e . B urials 1 66, 1 67, 8 5, 2 2, 1 0, 4 8, 1 95, 2 3 & 1 16 i n t emples, 1 28 , 1 60 & 1 32 i n h ousehold s hrines, a nd 1 96 i n c eremonial p latforms . S ince s o m any g raves w ere f ound i n t hese c ontexts ( 63/107) b ecause o f e xcavation d esign - t here w as m ore g rave f urniture f ound a t T ikal t han a t a ny p revious s ite , e specially i n p ottery , s hell, j ade , f lint , b one , a nd r elatively s peaking , s tingray s pines a nd j ade m osaic o bjects . T his c orrelation r eally d oes i ndicate w here t he w ealthy w ere b uried . W ith r espect t o g rave t ype ( Table 7 2), s ince a ll 1 6 t ombs a nd 7 /8 c rypts w ere i n t emples , h ousehold s hrines o r c eremonial p latforms Cable 4 8) , t hen i t w ould b e e xpected t hat s uch g raves w ould h ave h ad t he m ost f urniture p er g rave . T hey d id . A dult a nd c hild b urials w ere b oth c omparably f urnished .

A dults w ere

g enerally b uried w ith m ore p ottery , j ade a nd s hell b eads , c hildren w ere g enerally b uried w ith m ore s hells , f lint/obsidian , s tone , b one , p yrite a nd s tingray s pines ( Table 7 3) . I w ould n ot h ave a nticipated m any s tingray s pines t o h ave b een p laced w ith c hildren , b ut s tingray s pines w ere b uried w ith t he y outh i n B urial 1 32 , a nd i n a m ultiple b urial c ontaining a y outh ( Burial 1 60) . T he f act t hat s ome c hild ( and y outh) b urials w ere w ell f urnished h as s ome i nteresting i mplications ( see c hapter 1 0) . M ale a nd f emale b urials w ere a lso c omparably f urnished . a veraged m ore

f lint ,

o bsidian a nd

b one w hile

g reater a mount o f s hell p er g rave ( Table 7 3) .

1 07

f emale

M ale b urials

b urials

h ad

a m uch

C learly f emales e njoyed a

s tatus t hat w as c omparable w ith m ales .

A lt un H a A ltun H a c ontinues w ith t his p attern o f t emple a nd h ousehold s hrine b urials h aving m ore g oods a nd m ore v ariety o f g oods p er g rave . B ut t he a mount o f f urniture i n s ome o f t hese b urials i s t ruly s taggering . T hree b urials h ad m ore t han 1 ,000 i tems o f f urniture , i.e B urials T A-1/1, A -1/2 & T E-1/2 , a nd 7 o thers h ad b etween 2 50 a nd 1 ,000 i tems , i .e . B urials T A- 6 /1, T B-4/7, T E-1/3, T B-476, T B-4/2, T E-1/1 & T B- 4 /1 ( Table I X , A ppendix I ) . S uch w ealth i s o f c ourse v isible b y t he m ean v alues i n t he c orrelation o f g rave g oods w ith g rave c ontext ( Table 7 4) . T hese v alues p oint t o t emple b urials b eing v ery m uch b etter f urnished t han t hose i n e very o ther c ontext i ncluding h ousehold s hrines . T hough t he h ousehold s hrine b urials w ere g enerally b etter f urnished t han t hose i n r esidences a nd c eremonial p latforms, a nd 3 o f t he 1 0 b est f urnished b urials w ere i n a h ousehold s hrine , S tr . E -1, a ll a ppear p ositively i mpoverished i n c omparison t o t he a verage w ealth o f t he t emple b urials ( Table 7 4) . W ith r espect t o g rave t ype ( Table 7 5) ,

c rypts a nd t ombs e ach h ad m ore

f urniture p er g rave t han s imple g raves a nd c ists . B ut a s w ell f urnished a s c rypts m ight h ave b een , t ombs w ere v ery m uch b etter f urnished . T he 4 t ombs o f t he s ite w ere i n t emples , i .e . B urials T A-1/1, T B-4/7 , T B-4 /1 a nd T B-4 /5 , a nd 3 /4 w ere a mong t he 1 0 b est f urnished b urials . T able 7 6 r eveals t hat a dult b urials w ere r icher t han c hild b urials p er g rave , n otwithstanding t he f act t hat t he b est f urnished g rave a t t he s ite c ontained a y outh ( Burial A -1/2) . M ost o ther c hild b urials w ere n ot v ery w ell f urnished . U nlike T ikal, f emale b urials a veraged m uch f ewer g rave g oods p er g rave t han m ale b urials . I ndeed , o nly 2 p rimary a dult f emale i nterments w ere w ell f urnished , i . e . B urials T E-1/3 a nd C -16/17 ( Table I X , A ppendix I ) . E very

t ype

o f

f urniture w as f ound a t A ltun H a ,

p articularly i n t he

t emple b urials . J ade , s hell , f lint , o bsidian , b one a nd p yrite w ere f ound i n c onsiderable q uantities . G iven t he q uantity o f s ome g oods , t here w ere r elatively f ewer p ots p er g rave t han a t U axactun a nd T ikal .

D zibilchaltun T he n umber o f g rave g oods p er g rave a t D zibilchaltun i s r ather s parse c ompared t o t he a mounts a t A ltun H a , T ikal a nd U axactun ( Table 7) . T wo c ontributing f actors t o t his r elative s carcity a re t he f act t hat a t l east 1 2 g raves h ad b een l ooted o r n ever u sed , a nd o nly 1 8/116 b urials h ad b een f ound i n t emples o r h ousehold s hrines .

E ven t hough t he s ingle t emple b urial w as

u nfurnished , t he 1 3 h ousehold s hrine b urials d o s how t he t rend o f b eing b etter f urnished t han t hose i n r esidences , v aulted r esidences , p alaces a nd c eremonial p latforms ( Table 7 7) .

T he 4 r ichest b urials , B urials 6 9691, 3 8-

s ub .2 , 3 8-sub .6 & 6 12-1, w ere i n h ousehold s hrines . t emple b urial i s n ot i ndicative o f t he s ite . T here i s

I t i s p robable t hat t he

l ittle d isparity i n t he a mount o f g rave g oods p er g rave i n

r esidences a nd v aulted r esidences, a nd t he b urials o f b oth h ad m ore f urniture p er g rave t han t hose o f e ither p alaces o r c eremonial p latforms . P ots , s hell a md w orked s tone w ere t he p revailing g rave g oods o f w hat l ittle

1 08

t here w as a t t he s ite . W ith r espect t o g rave t ype ( Table 7 9) ,

c ists a nd t ombs a ppear t o h ave

h ad m ore f urniture p er g rave i n t he l imited v ariety o f f urniture e ach h ad . B ut t his i s m isleading o n a ccount o f t he s mall s ample o f e ach , 4a nd 1 g rave , r espectively .

Al arger s ample w ould b e r equired t o d etermine i f t his

w ere t ypical . T he m ore n umerous s imple g raves a md c rypts w ere n ot w ell f urnished a nd d o n ot s how m uch o f a d isparity i n f urnishings . G iven t hat t he 4 r ichest b urials , 6 969-1, 3 8-sub .2 , 3 8-sub .6 & 6 12-1, c onsisted o f a t omb , c rypt, c ist a id s imple g rave, r espectively, s uggests c ontext ( household s hrines) , n ot g rave t ype , w as t he m ore i mportant f actor i n t he w ealth o f b urials . W ith r espect t o a ge a nd s ex ( Table 7 8) ,

a dult a nd c hild b urials w ere

c omparably f urnished . A s f or m ales a nd f emales, m ales h ad a g reater v ariety o f f urniture p er g rave, b ut w ith t he e xception o f s hell b eads, f emales h ad m arginally m ore g oods p er g rave i n t he f urniture t hey h ad .

A ltar d e S acrificios O nly b urials i n c eremonial p latforms h ad a m uch l arger n umber o f g oods p er g rave a t t he s ite ( Table 8 0) . T hough t emple b urials h ad a g reater v ariety o f f urniture t han t hose o f r esidences, p alaces a nd p lazas, t he a mounts e ach h ad w ere c omparable . T he s tatistics , h owever , a re m isleading . T here w ere , i n f act , o nly 2 w ell f urnished b urials , B urials 1 28 & 8 8 . O nly b ecause t hese w ere s o m uch b etter f urnished d oes t he m ean n umber o f g oods f or c eremonial p latform b urials a ppear s o m uch h igher . T he f act t hat t hese w ere i n c eremonial p latforms s hould n ot b e i gnored , b ut a part f rom t hem n o o ther b urials i n a ny c ontext w ere w ell f urnished . O nly B urials 1 28 & 8 8 c ontained p lenty o f j ade , s hell, f lint/obsidian , a nd s tingray s pines . T he s ample o f c ist a nd c rypt g raves i s v ery s mall, 8 & 3 , r espectively , s o t he c orrelation o f g rave g oods w ith g rave t ype c an n ot h elp b ut b e m isleading ( Table 8 1) . S ince B urial 1 28 c onsisted o f a c rypt, i t h as d istorted t he m ean n umber o f g rave g oods f or t his t ype . B urial 8 8 w as s imple b ut w ith 1 24 o ther s imple g raves i ts w ealth d oes n ot d istort t he s tatistics . W ithout B urial 1 28 , c rypt g raves w ould o therwise h ave c ontained s imilar a mounts o f f urniture t o s imple g raves a nd c ists . B urial ( Table 8 2) .

1 28 & 8 8 a lso a ffect t he s tatistics w ith r egard t o a ge a nd s ex A part f rom t hese 2 a dult b urials ,

a dult a nd c hild b urials w ere

c omparably f urnished , a s w ere m ale a nd f emale b urials . H owever, t heir p resence m ake a dult , a nd f emale b urials s eem r icher . I n r eality t hey w ere n ot . B ut i t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat B urial 1 28 , c ontained a n a dult f emale .

t he

r ichest

b urial

o f

t he s ite ,

A ttention t o g rave w ealth i n t he d ifferent c eramic p hases i s n ot n ormally c onsidered b ecause o f s ite e xcavation b ias a nd t he p otential f or d istortion .

H owever , T able X I o f A ppendix I r eveals t hat e very o ne o f t he

2 0 B oca-Jimba p hase b urials c ontained n o f urniture .

W hy?

I a m n ot

r eally

s ure b ut w ould s uggest a c hange i n b urial c ustom : i tems o f w ealth w ere k ept a t h ome a nd n o l onger p laced i n g raves ( but s ee p . 3 08) .

1 09

S eibal T his i s a nother s ite w here m ost b urials h ad a m inimum o f f urniture . S eibal w as d ominated b y b urials i n h ousemounds ( 27/51) , b ut e ven t he 1 h ousehold s hrine b urials w ere n ot b etter f urnished ( Table 8 3) . I ndeed , p alace b urials a veraged t he m ost g rave g oods o nly b ecause o f t he p resence o f B urial 1 , t he r ichest b urial o f t he s ite . S o S eibal b urials w ere p oorly f urnished r egardless o f c ontext . N either c an i t r eally b e s aid t hat a ny g rave t ype h ad s ignificantly m ore f urniture p er g rave t han a ny o ther ( Table 8 4) . I f a nything , c ists w ere m ildly b etter f urnished , b ut t hen B urial 1 w as ac ist . T able 8 5 r eveals t hat a dult a nd c hild b urials h ad c omparable a mounts o f f urniture p er g rave , t hough a dult b urials h ad a g reater v ariety . I t a lso r eveals t hat f emale b urials a ppear t o h ave b een s lightly b etter f urnished . T he s tatistics a re s lightly d istorted b y t he r ichest b urial, B urial 1 , b eing t hat o f af emale , b ut t hat i n i tself i s o f i nterest . F inally ,

b urials w hich d ate t o a c ontemporary p hase o f t he B oca-Jimba

p hase a t A ltar d e S acrificios , t he T epejilote-Bayal, a lso c ontained n o f urniture . T here w ere o nly 4 s uch b urials b ut t his c ould s uggest a r egional p attern s ince S eibal a nd A ltar d e S acrificios w ere n ot f ar a part .

C opan W ith 3 3/67 b urials i n u nknown c ontexts a t C opan t he i nformation a cquired f rom t he c ontext c orrelation i s l imited . T able 8 6 d oes r eveal t hat b urials f rom p lazas a nd u nknown c ontexts w ere c omparably f urnished . T hose f rom h ousemounds w ere l ess w ell f urnished . G enerally , b urials w ere n ot v ery w ell f urnished , p robably b ecause n one w as f ound i n at emple o r h ousehold s hrine . T he 5 r ichest b urials , T i, T 2 , T 3 , T 4 &T ll, o nly c ontained 1 0 -2 0 i tems o f f urniture , m ost o f i t p ottery ( Table X III , A ppendix I ) . W ith r espect t o g rave t ype ( Table 8 7) ,

t he 3 t ombs a veraged t he m ost

g rave g oods , f ollowed b y c rypts . C ists , h owever , h ad m ore f lint a nd b one p er g rave t han c rypts . S imple g raves h ad t he l east g oods . S ince n o f emale s keletons w ere p ositively i dentified , c orrelation o f t he s exes w as n ot p ossible . C orrelation w ith a dults a nd c hildren ( Table 8 8) i ndicate t hat b urials o f e ach w ere c omparably f urnished , t hough 4 /5 r ichest b urials c ontained a dults .

P iedras N egras N o c orrelation t ables w ere m ade f or P iedras N egras b ecause t here w ere o nly 1 b urials a nd o f t hese , o ne w as u nexcavated ( Burial 9 ) , o ne l ooted ( Burial 1 ) , a nd o ne d isturbed ( Burial 1 0) . A ny r elevant o bservations c an b e m ade f rom t he d ata t able ( Table X IV , O f t hese b urials ,

A ppendix I ) .

t wo , B urials 1 0 &5 , w ere n oticeably r icher t han t he

r est . B oth w ere t ombs, o ne i n ap laza a nd o ne i n a p alace a cropolis ( though i t m ay b e at emple?; s ee c hapter 3 ) . T he 3 t emple b urials w ere p oorly f urnished ( though o ne w as u nexcavated), a nd o ne o f t he v aulted r esidence b urials w as m oderately w ell f urnished , B urial 2 .

10

T here are

t wo

t he l ack o f p ots .

i nteresting f eatures o f t hese 1

b urials .

T he f irst i s

D espite t he p resence o f t he 2 w ell f urnished

w hich p lenty o f

j ade ,

f ew p ots w ere . r ichest b urials

O nly 4 p ots w ere f ound i n t he 1 g raves . b oth c ontained c hildren . I s uspect t hat

s hell ,

b urials i n

c lay o bjects a nd s tingray s pines w ere f ound , S econdly , t he 2 t he c hildren i n

t hese b urials w ere d edicatory s acrifices t o t he p rimary a dult U nfortunately , t he s upposed a dult i n B urial 1 0 i s m issing !

i nterments .

P alenque B urials i n t he t emples w ere v ery m uch b etter f urnished t han t hose i n t he o ther c ontexts ( Table 8 9) . T he t emple b urials c ontained a l arge q uantity o f j ade , s hell , f lint a nd o bsidian , a nd w ere t he o nly o nes t o c ontain m osaic m asks a nd s tingray s pines . T here i s , h owever , ac urious s carcity o f p ottery w ith o nly 2 5 p ots i n t he 1 3 t emple b urials, a nd 4 0 f rom t he 3 2 b urials f ound . T his i s a s ituation s imilar t o t hat o f P iedras N egras . T he s mall n umber o f g oods f rom b urials i n t he u nknown c ontext s uggest t hat t hese w ere r esidences. W ith r espect t o g rave t ype ( Table 9 0) , t he b est f urnished g raves . i tems o f f urniture .

t he t ombs a nd c rypts w ere b y f ar

T he 8 c ists a nd s imple g raves c ontained o nly 1 2

N o c orrelation w ith a ge a nd s ex w as m ade o n a ccount o f t he f ew s keletons t hat w ere s exed ( 4 f emale a nd 5 m ale) , a nd t he e xistence o f o nly 3 c hild b urials . T he p resence o f P acal 's v ery w ell f urnished b urial , B urial I l, w ould g reatly d istort t he s tatistics o f s uch s mall s amples a nd t he 3 c hild b urials w ere a ll e mpty a nyway .

T onina B urials i n p lazas h ad m ore a nd a l arger v ariety o f f urniture p er g rave t han t hose i n r esidences ( Table 9 1) , b ut u nusually , m osaic m asks w ere f ound i n r esidential a nd p laza g raves . T hese w ere u sually f ound o nly i n t emple , c eremonial p latform o r h ousehold s hrine g raves . T here w as n ot a v ast a mount o f f urniture h ere , p ossibly b ecause o f t he d isturbance c aused i n r eusing s everal g raves f or s uccessive i nterments . I t i s n ot i nconceivable t hat s ome o r a ll o f t he f urniture o f p revious i nterments w as r emoved w hen s ucceeding o nes w ere p laced . S till, t here w ere p lenty o f p ots , j ade , s hell, c opper a nd p yrite , b ut a s carcity o f f lint , o bsidian , s tone a nd b one . P ostclassic a nd L ate C lassic t emple b urials h ad c omparable a mounts o f f urniture a nd c ertainly n o d ecline i n f urnishings w as v isible ( Table X VI , A ppendix I ) . C orrelation w ith g rave t ype w as n ot m ade b ecause o f t he p reponderance o f c rypts ( 15/21) a nd b ecause o f t he r euse o f 4 g raves . T he s mall s ample o f t he o ther g rave t ypes a nd t he r euse o f 4 g raves w ould d istort t he s tatistics . C orrelation w ith s ex w as n ot m ade b ecause t he g raves i n w hich t he s ex o f t he i nterred w as d etermined w ere d isturbed o r r eused . i t

i mpossible t o k now w ho b elonged w ith w hat

f urniture .

T his m akes

W ith r espect

t o

a ge , o nly 1 i nfant b urial, B urial I II-1, h ad a ny f urniture , a nd s o o bviously a dult b urials w ere b etter f urnished .

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A aall .od

1 45

S ummary T he f irst p oint a bout t he w ealth o f g raves i s t hat b urials p laced i n t emples , a nd t o al esser d egree , h ousehold s hrines a nd c eremonial p latforms , c ontained m ore f urniture t han b urials i n a ny o ther c ontext . I t w as a lso i n t hese b uildings t hat b urials c ontaining s tingray s pines , m osaic m asks a nd c odex r emains w ere u sually f ound . T his w as t he c ase t o v arying d egrees a t Mountain C ow , B aking P ot, S an J osé , U axactun , T ikal, A ltun H a , D zibilchaltun , A ltar d e S acrificios , P alenque a nd T onina . A t 4 o f t he 5 s ites w here t his w as n ot t he c ase , t wo d id n ot h ave a ny t emple , h ousehold s hrine o r c eremonial p latfo r m b urials ( Barton R amie a nd C opan ) , a nd t wo h ad s amples t hat w ere t oo s mall t o b e m eaningful ( Benque V iejo a nd P iedras N egras) . O nly a t S eibal d id t his p attern n ot o ccur . P alace b urials w ere d efinitely b etter f urnished t here . T hus , w ith t he e xception o f S eibal, t emples , h ousehold s hrines a nd c eremonial p latforms w ere g enerally s elected a s s uitable s tructures f or t he i nterment o f i ndividuals o f a s ignificant s ocial s tatus a nd w ealth . P resumably m ost o f t he g rave g oods w ere t hose a ccumulated b y t he i ndividuals i n a ttaining t heir s tatus i n s ociety ( as w ell a s r epresenting t hat s tatus) a nd p ossibly i ncluded g ifts f rom o ther m embers o f t he c ommunity . G iven t his t endency f or w ell f urnished b urials t o b e f ound i n t emples, h ousehold s hrines a nd c eremonial p latforms, I w ould s uggest t hat i f a s tructure c an n ot b e i dentified b y i ts s urface f eatures t he p resence o f a w ell f urnished g rave (s) w ould s trongly i mply t hat t he b uilding w as o ne o f t he a bove , a nd p ossibly c onstructed i n h onour o f t he r ichly e ndowed i nterment ( see c hapter 1 2) . S econdly , t ombs a nd c rypts w ere t he b est f urnished o f t he d ifferent t ypes o f g rave, e specially i f f ound i n t emples, h ousehold s hrines o r c eremonial p latforms . S imple g raves a nd c ists w ere s ometimes w ell f urnished i f f ound i n t hese b uildings , b ut n ot a s o ften o r a s w ell a s t ombs a nd c rypts . E ven i n o ther c ontexts c rypts a nd t ombs w ere o ccasionally b etter f urnished . N evertheless , c ontext a nd n ot g rave t ype w as p robably t he m ore i mportant f actor i n a ssociation w ith g rave w ealth . T hirdly , t here w as l ittle d isparity i n t he a mount o f g rave g oods b etween a dult a nd c hild b urials , t hough a t 6 s ites , S an J osé , U axactun , A ltun H a , A ltar d e S acrificios, P alenque a nd T onina , a dult b urials w ere b etter f urnished . F ourthly ,

m ale a nd f emale b urials w ere c omparably f urnished a t m ost

s ites , b ut t hose o f m ales w ere f ound t o b e r icher a t U axactun a nd A ltun H a , w hile f emale b urials w ere a t A ltar d e S acrificios a nd S eibal . T his s plit e mphasizes t he c omparable g rave w ealth o f m ale a nd f emale b urials .

G rave G oods , W ealth a nd S ite R anking T here

a re

t wo

a dditional

a nd

i nterrelated

p oints

a bout

g rave

g oods

t hat , t hough u nrelated t o a n a nalysis o f m ortuary c ustoms , a re w orth b riefly c ommenting u pon . I t w as n oted t hat c ertain t ypes o f f urniture u sually p revailed i n t he w ealthiest b urials . I b elieve s uch p revalence i ndicates a rtefacts a nd m aterials t hat w ere o f t he m ost v alue . T hese i tems w ere j ade f igurines, s hells o r s hell p endants, e ccentric f lints, f lint b lades, o bsidian b lades a nd l ancets, s tingray s pines , c odex r emains , s tuccoed a nd p olychrome p ottery , w ere o bjects m ust h ave

a nd j ade m osaic p laques a nd m asks .

o f w ealth ,

b een h ighly

e .g . v alued

N ot a ll o f

s tingray s pines o r e ccentic f lints , o n i ts

1 46

o wn t erms .

T his

b eing

t hese

b ut e ach

t he c ase ,

i t

w ould s eem t o m e t hat t he p resence o r a bsence o f s uch i tems a t t he d ifferent s ites m ight b e u sed a s as uitable m ethod f or m easuring r espective s ite w ealth .

T his

l ed m e t o s peculate a nd a sk :

" is i t p ossible t o r ank s ites o n

t he b asis o f t he w ealth r epresented b y t he g rave g oods f ound i n t he b urials a t d ifferent s ites?" . T he d ata a re a vailable t o a ttempt a n a nswer , b ut w ith t he d ata a nd t he i mplementation o f a ny m ethod(s) e xist e normous, i f n ot i nsurmountable , p roblem s . T he p roblems a re a s f ollows : 1 )

I t w as n ot p ossible t o c onsult a ll o f t he k nown b urial d ata f rom 3

s ites , C opan , T ikal a nd A ltun H a . C onsequently , t he b urial s amples u sed f rom t hese s ites a re n ot c omplete, a nd t hough a s ubstantial s ample w as a cquired f or A ltun H a a nd T ikal, a ny r anking o f t hese s ites c ould c hange w ith t he i nclusion o f t he a dditional d ata . 2 )

M any o f t he b urials a t a f ew o f t he s ites h ad b een b adly d isturbed o r

l ooted . T his w as p articularly t he c ase w ith t he D zibilchaltun a nd C opan d ata b ut a lso e vident f rom a f ew b urials a t P iedras N egras , M ountain C ow a nd B enque V iejo . T he r emaining u ndisturbed o r u nlooted b urials a t t hese s ites m ay n ot r eflect a n a ccurate p icture o f s ite w ealth . 3 )

A r elated p roblem l ies w ith t he t he s ize o f t he s ample a t t he d ifferent

s ites . T he s maller t he s ample t he l ess r epresentative i t i s o f a s ite . T he B enque V iejo , P iedras N egras , M ountain C ow , H olmul a nd B aking P ot s amples a re a ll p robably t oo s mall t o a ccurately r epresent t he w ealth a nd r anking o f e ach . 4 )

T he

b urial

s amples

c hronological p eriod .

f rom

t he

s ites

s pan

a f airly

c onsiderable

Even t hough t he b urials o f t he d ifferent s ites

g enerally s pan t he s ame p eriod ,

a r anking o f s ites f or a s ingle s pecific

d ate i s n ot e asily a ttainable . F urthermore , s ome o f t he T onina b urials a lso d ate t o t he P ostclassic p eriod , a nd t herefore a ny r ank e stablished b y g rave g ood w ealth f or t his s ite i s n ot r eally r elevant t o t he o ther 1 5 s ites . I ts i nclusion f or t his p urpose i s t herefore q uestionable . 5 ) S ince t emple , h ousehold s hrine a nd c eremonial p latform b urials w ere u sually t he b est f urnished , t hen t he s ites w here e xcavation w as c oncentrated o n s uch s tructures w ould p rovide m uch b etter f urnished b urials t han a t s ites w here e xcavation w as c oncentrated i n h ousemounds , p alaces a nd p lazas . A m isleading r anking w ould r esult f rom a c omparison o f s ites w ith b urials o riginating f rom d ifferent c ontexts . F or t he r anking t o b e r emotely a ccurate a ll

t he b urials m ust c ome f rom t he s ame c ontext ,

a nd p referably ,

t emples . 6 )

T he m ost

s erious p roblem c oncerns

t he g rave g oods

t hemselves a nd t he

d ifficulty i n d etermining e quivalent v alue f or t he d ifferent i tems .

T here

f irst e xists t he t ask o f e quating d ifferent o bjects o f t he s ame s ubstance , f or i nstance , a j ade b ead w ith a n 8 l b . f igurine o f K inich A hau . H ow m any j ade b eads w ould e qual t his o ne f igurine? S hould i t b e c alculated i n t erms o f n umbers o r b y w eight? More d ifficult s till i s t he t ask o f e quating a rtefacts

o f

d ifferent

s ubstances ,

e .g .

s hell

b eads w ith p olychrome p ots ,

f lint b lades w ith s tingray s pines , o r o bsidian l ancets w ith j ade f igurines . T here i s c ertainly a d ifference i n v alue o f e ach b ut o n w hat t erms c an w e e stablish a n e quivalency? W eight c an n ot b e u sed f or d ifferent s ubstances a nd a ny n umerical e quivalency w ould b e t oo o pen t o q uestion . M oreover , m any g oods d o n ot e ven r epresent w ealth , e .g . s tingray s pines , o bsidian l ancets

1 47

a nd e ccentric f lints .

T he

m easurable i n m onetary t erms .

v alue o f

t hese a rtefacts

i s

s trictly n ot

T o s imply u se t he a mount o f t he g rave g oods

t o d istinguish w ell f urnished f rom p oorly f urnished b urials i s f ine , b ut t o t ry t o e stablish a s ite r anking f rom t he w ealth r epresented b y t hese a rtefacts i s l udicrous i f t he w ealth e ach o bject r epresents h as n ot b een d etermined . T he o nly p ossible w ay f or a ny a ccurate r anking t o b e e stablished i s t o u se o nly o ne m aterial, p referably j ade b ecause i t i s a g ood i ndicator o f w ealth , m easure i t b y w eight r ather t han b y n umbers , a nd r estrict t he j ade w eighed t o t hat f ound i n t emple , h ousehold s hrine a nd c eremonial p latform b urials . I n t his w ay, t he m aterial, j ade , w ould r epresent w ealth a nd o riginate f rom t he b urials o f i ndividuals w ho w ere t he w ealthiest a nd o f t he h ighest s ocial s tatus o f t he s ites .

T he g reater t he w ealth a nd s tatus o f

t he i ndividuals s o t he g reater t he r ank o f t he s ite . S ince I a m i n n o p osition t o w eigh a ny o f t he j ade a nd m any o f t he s ites h ad l ittle o r n o t emple b urials , t his i deal m ethod i s n ot y et f easible . C onsequently,

I i nstead p resent 4 d ifferent m ethods

s purious i n o ne w ay o r a nother ,

t hat,

t hough

s hould p rovide a g uide t o w hat c an b e d one .

T he r anking e stablished i n T able 9 2 i s a lmost c ertainly o nly a m easure o f t he r ank o rder o f t he c oncentration o f e xcavation o f t he a reas w ith t he r ichest b urials . T he r anking i n T able 9 3 m erely i ndicates t he a verage w ealth o f t he a verage Maya c itizen a t e ach s ite . C onsidering t he d ifficulties i n e stablishing a n a ccurate m easure o f t he w ealth o f t he v arious g rave g oods, i t c ould n ot b e d one a ccurately h ere a nd e ven i f i t w as , d oes t he a verage w ealth o f t he a verage c itizen i ndicate t he o verall w ealth ( and s tatus) o f t he s ite? I s omehow d oubt i t . T he t hird m ethod ( Table 9 4) r anks t he s ites b y t he s ingle r ichest b urial a t e ach s ite . I t o f c ourse i s r anking i ndividuals a nd n ot s ites , b ut o ne a ssumes t he r icher p eople l ived i n t he r icher ( and h igher r anked) s ites . T his m ay o r m ay n ot f ollow ,

b ut h ow d o w e k now t hese w ere t he r ichest

b urials a t e ach o f t he s ites? R icher b urials m ust s urely e xist a t s everal o f t he s ites , e .g . D zibilchaltun . I n a ddition , t his m ethod d oes n ot s olve t he i ssue o f a ccurately m easuring t he w ealth o f f urniture.

t he d ifferent g rave

T he f inal m ethod ( Table 9 5) r anks s ites o n t he b asis o f t he n umber o f j ade a rtefacts i n t he b urials o f e ach s ite . T his i s p robably t he b est o f t he f our m ethods p resented b ut b ecause i t d oes n ot m easure t he j ade b y w eight n or s olely f rom t emple b urials ( as s uggested a bove) , t he m ethod a nd r esulting r anks a re p robably i naccurate .

1 48

T able 9 2: T he r ank o rder o f t he s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epresented b y t he p ercentage o f b urials w ith 2 0 o r m ore g rave g oods p er s ite

S ite

P ercentage o f B urials ( Actual n umber i n b rackets)

P iedras N egras

2 7 % ( 3 )

H olmul

2 3 % ( 5 )

T oninä

2 0 % ( 5 )

P alenque

1 6 % ( 5 )

T ikal

1 5 .8 % ( 1 7 )

M ountain C ow

1 % ( 2 )

A ltun H a

9 %( 2 2 )

U axact i in

7 . 8 % ( 9 )

B aking P ot

7 %( 2 )

B arton R amie

3 . 5% ( 4 )

D zibilchaltun

3 . 4% ( 4 )

A ltar d e S acrificios

2 . 9 % ( 4 )

S an J ose

2 .e . ( 2 )

S eibal

2 %(1 )

C opan

1 . 5% ( 1 )

B enque V iejo

0

1 49

T able 9 3 :

T he r ank o rder o f s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epresented b y a n i ndex o f t he a verage n umber o f g rave g oods p er b urial p er s ite

S ite

I ndex

M ean

P iedras N egras

1 9.29

7 0.72

P alenque

6 .8

4 3. 6 8

H olmul

6 .2

2 7.3

A ltun H a

4 .74

5 4 .9

T onin4

3 .97

1 9 .84

T ikal

3 .1

1 9.5

U axactün

1 .12

1 4.4

M ountain C ow

1 .04

9 .33

B aking P ot

0 .36

4 .81

A ltar d e S acrificios

0 .33

1 1.2

D zibilchaltun

0 .18

5 .15

S an J osé

0 .14

4 .94

B arton R amie

0 .12

2 .93

C opan

0 .05

3 .3 8

S eibal

0 .04

2 .0

B enque V iejo

0

4 .67

1 50

T able 9 4 : T he r ank o rder o f s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epresented b y t he s ingle r ichest b urial ( number o f i tems) p er s ite

S ite

B urial

N o. o f G rave G oods

A ltun H a

T A-1/1

4 9 00

A ltar d e S acrificios

1 28

1 170

P alenque

I l ( Pacal)

9 30

P iedras N egras

5

6 70

T ikal

1 28

5 97

U axacten

B 2

5 33

H olmul

B 5

3 00

D zibilchaltun

6 969-1

1 60

T oninä

I V-7 & I V-1B,C

1 10 e ach

S an J ose

B 18

9 1

B arton R amie

1 23-22

5

M ountain C ow

6

4 6

B aking P ot

B 5

4 5

S eibal

1

2 4

C opan

T i

1 9

B enque V iejo

B 3

1 2

1 51

T able 9 5 : T he r ank o rder o f s ites o n t he b asis o f w ealth a s r epr epresented b y a n i ndex o f t he a verage n umber o f i tems o f j ade p er b urial p er s ite

I ndex

M ean

P alenque

1 3 .29

3 5 .44

P iedras N egras

8 .54

2 3.73

T oninä

1 .8

5 .64

A ltun H a

1 .55

7 .4

T ikal

1 .13

5 .67

U axacten

0 .98

4 .48

H olmul

0 .68

1 .91

A ltar d e S acrificios

0 .58

4 .13

B aking P ot

0 .36

1 .44

M ountain C ow

0 .17

0 .77

C opan

0 .15

0 .5

S an J osé

0 .13

0 .81

D zibilchaltun

0 .06

0 .6

S eibal

0 .01

0 .18

B arton R amie

0 .009

0 .11

B enque V iejo

0

S ite

1 52

C HAPTER T EN S OCIAL I MPLICATIONS O F T HE B URIAL D ATA

O ne o f t he s timuli p rompting t his i nvestigation o f l owland M aya b urial c ustoms w as R athje 's , ( 1970) a rticle o n t he s ocio-political i mplications o f l owland M aya b urials . I t w as h is b elief ( and m ine) t hat M aya b urials c ould t ell u s m uch a bout t he s ocial, p olitical a nd r eligious a spects o f a ncient Maya s ociety : " burials a nd a ssociated a rtefacts w ere n ot r andomly d istributed b ut v aried i n d irect r elation t o o ther a spects o f C lassic M aya s ociety" ( Rathje 1 970 : 3 60) . F urthermore , t he d egree o f w ealth a nd i mplied s tatus v isible i n as pecific b urial w ere c onsidered t o b e e quivalent t o t he d egree o f w ealth a nd s tatus a ttained b y t hat i ndividual d uring h is/her l ife . W ith

t hese a ssumptions

i n m ind h e

u sed

t he

l imited

d ata

t hen a vailable ,

p rimarily f rom B arton R amie a nd U axactun , t o c onduct f our p reliminary t ests a nd p rovide t entative c onclusions . T he m ain , a lbeit t entative , c onclusion w as t hat t here h ad b een a c hange i n e mphasis w ithin C lassic M aya s ociety i n t he r ecruiting o f p olitical a nd r eligious o fficials f rom t he e ntire M aya p opulation t o t he r ecruiting o f o fficials f rom s mall a scribed s egments o f t he p opulation . T he b urial a nd o ther d ata s uggested t hat o ne o f t he f actors u nderlying t his c hange w as e conomic o rganisation a nd a s ystem i nvolving w ealth a s a p rerequisite f or a chieving o ffice d id h e a rrive a t t his? F rom t he h ousemound b urials

a t B arton R amie ,

( ibid . :

3 59) .

H ow

d ifferences b etween t he

E arly a nd L ate C lassic b urials w ere a pparent . D uring t he E arly C lassic , y oung a dult i nterments w ere t he w ealthiest . O nly 2 2% o f t he b urials w ere y oung a dults b ut t hey c ontained 5 0% o f t he g rave g oods ( ibid .: 3 62) . C onversely , d uring t he L ate C lassic 1 8% o f t he b urials w ere y oung a dults c ontaining o nly 1 0% o f t he g rave g oods ( ibid .) . Moreover , 5 9% o f t he b urials w ere o f a dults a s o pposed t o 4 4% d uring t he E arly C lassic ( ibid .) . S o i n t he E arly C lassic t here w ere f ewer a dult b urials w ith t hose o f y oung a dults b eing t he r ichest , w hilst i n t he L ate C lassic m ore a dults w ere b uried i n h ousemounds , b ut f ew , a nd m ature a dults o nly , h ad m uch o f a ny f urniture . Y oung a dults w ere t he p oorest b urials . A n e xpected p roportion o f a dults a nd d istribution o f w ealth w ere m issing i n t he E arly C lassic s uggesting ( to R athje) t hat t he w ealthy a dults l iving i n t he o utlying a reas s urrounding c eremonial c entres w ere n ot i nterred i n t he p latforms o n w hich t hey r esided ( Rathje 1 970 : 3 68) . I n c ontrast , m ore a dults w ere b uried i n h ousemounds d uring t he L ate C lassic b ut f ew o f t hese w ere c itizens o f w ealth . W here h ad t he w ealthy c itizens g one? T o a nswer t his R athje e xamined t he a vailable d ata f rom U axactun .

H e

f ound t hat t he r ichest b urials o f b oth t he E arly a nd L ate C lassic w ere i n t emple a reas ( ibid .) . B ut a d ifference a rose w ith t he a ppearance o f p alaces a t t he e nd o f t he e arly C lassic , t emple t o p alace a t t hat t ime .

e .g . t he c onversion o f S tructure A -V f rom D uring t he E arly C lassic , S tructure A -V

c ontained f our w ell f urnished b urials . A s aL ate C lassic p alace , h owever , i t c ontained 2 4 a dult a nd 1 2 a dolescent i nterments w ith n o e xtreme i n w ealth o f t he a ssociated g rave g oods . P alaces c ontained b urials s imilar i n a ge , s ex a nd a rtefact d istribution t o t he L ate C lassic B arton R amie h ousemounds e xcept t hat t hey w ere s lightly r icher t han t he r ural c ounterparts . I n

1 53

r econstructing t he s ocial m odel ,

R athje i magined a n E arly C lassic i n w hich

t he w ealthy f rom r ural a reas w ere i nterred i n t he t emple a reas o f c eremonial c entres . L ater , w ith t he b uilding o f p alaces, a r esident e lite, w ho n o l onger r ecruited p ersonnel f rom t he h interlands , d eveloped i n t he c eremonial c entres a nd s ocial m obility b etween r ural p opulations a nd c eremonial c entre p opulations c eased ( ibid . : 3 68) . H e i magined t he s ocial

s ystem t o h ave o perated a s f ollows ( ibid . :

3 66-

6 9) . D uring t he E arly C lassic y oung a dults s pent t ime a ccumulating w ealth t o e nhance t heir p restige a nd p osition . I f d eath o ccurred w hile a y oung a dult w as s till i n t he p rocess o f a ccumulating w ealth h e w ould b e i nterred i n ah ousemound . T hose w ho l ived t o a ttain h igh o ffice w ere b uried i n c eremonial c entres , t he h ub o f w ealth m obilization . T he c onstant i nflux o f w ealth i nto c eremonial c entres w as m aintained b y w ealth b eing a p rerequisite f or a chieving o ffice . Y oung a dults w ould t ake t heir w ealth w ith t hem . W ealth f lowed o ut b y t he o ffice h olders s ending w ealth t o k insmen . S o a t d eath , o ffice h olders w ere b uried i n c entres a nd t his w ould a ccount f or a dults m issing f rom o utlying a reas . T he a ppearance o f p alaces m arked t he e nd o f t he E arly C lassic . W ith t heir a ppearance , t he p alaces r eplaced h ousemounds i n t he t emple-housemound r elationship . C eremonial c entre o fficials w ere n o l onger d rawn f rom d ispersed h ouse p latforms b ut r ecruited f rom s mall p opulation s egments l iving i n , o r a ssociated w ith , p alaces . I ndividuals i n h ousemounds n o l onger h eld o ffice a nd w ere n o

l onger b uried i n c eremonial c entres .

T his

w ould a ccount f or t he i ncrease i n a dult h ousemound b urials d uring t he L ate C lassic . T hus , a s c ompetition a nd t he n umber o f c ompetitors i ncreases , t he n ecessary w ealth b ecame m ore d ifficult t o c ollect . O nly t hose w ho h ad a ccess t o c eremonial c entre p ower a nd w ealth c ould a fford t o p rovide t he g oods n ecessary t o o btain o ffice . S uch w ealth w ould f ollow f amily l ines . A ccretion a nd r edistribution o f w ealth b ecame a c ircular m ovement w ith p roportionally f ewer a nd f ewer p eople : a n i ncipient h eredity m echanism . A lthough a uthority h ad c hance o f a chieving i t .

t o b e

a chieved ,

b irth

d etermined

t hose w ho h ad

a

R athje p rovides a n i ntriguing i nterpretation : r otating o fficials b ased o n w ealth c ollection i n t he E arly C lassic t o l imited h ereditary r ule b y t he L ate C lassic . I t i s a v ery b road a nd w ell d eveloped c onclusion b ased o n l imited d ata , a nd o n t he i dea ( then c urrent) t hat c argo s ystems o bserved a mong t he m odern M aya w ere a s urvival f rom t he p rehispanic e ra ( e .g . C ancian 1 965) . I t hink h e o ught t o h ave c hecked f or a lternative i nterpretations , h owever , b ecause t he d ata c ollected h ere c onfirm f ew o f h is o bservations , q uestion o thers , p rovide n ew o bservations , a nd i n t otal s uggest a r ather d ifferent i nterpretation . F irstly , an umber o f h is s tatistics a re q uestionable . i mprecision i n d ating m any b urials

i t

i s

d ifficult

O n a ccount o f t he

t o k now p recisely

a t

w hich p oint h e s eparated t he E arly a nd L ate P eriod b urials . N evertheless , f ollowing h is d esignation ( Rathje 1 970 : 3 60) , a nd B urials 1 51-2 a nd 1 -6 , B arton R amie , a s t he s eparation p oint ( see T able I II , A ppendix I ) , t here w ere i n f act 1 6 ,

n ot 1 0 , m ature a dult b urials i n t he E arly P eriod ,

a nd 2 0 ,

n ot 2 4 , o f o ther a ge g roups . O ddly e nough , t he p ercentage o f m ature a dult b urials f or t he p eriod s till w orks o ut t o 4 4% ( 16/36) . A s f or t he L ate P eriod , t here w ere 4 3 m ature a dult b urials, n ot 4 4, a nd 3 5 o f o ther a ge g roups , n ot 3 0 , p roducing a p ercentage o f 5 5% ( 43/78) , n ot 5 9% o f m ature a dult b urials . T hough a d iscrepancy p ersists , 1% , i t i s n ot a s l arge a s R athje s uggested a nd p robably n ot s ignificant . T he d ifference i n t he

1 54

n umber o f m ature a dult b urials

i n t he t wo p eriods m ight b e a ccountable b y

e rrors i n s ampling a nd i n d etermining t he p recise a ges o f t he d ead . F urthermore , t he a ge a t w hich R athje d istinguished y oung f rom m ature a dults i s n ot c learly s pelled o ut , a nd e ven i f i t w as w ould i t n ecessarily c oncur w ith t he M aya c onception o f t he a ge a t w hich o ne w as c onsidered m ature? T hus, t here i s n o n eed t o s uggest t hat B arton R amie a dults w ere b uried a t a nother s ite d uring t he E arly P eriod . S econdly , Ib elieve t here a re e rrors r egarding h is p ercentages f or g rave g ood d istribution a t B arton a dult

b urials w ere . not

t he

R amie . b est

C ontrary t o w hat i s s tated , y oung

f urnished

d uring t he E arly P eriod .

H e

s uggests t hat y oung a dults w ere a ccompanied b y 5 0% o f t he g rave g oods o f t he P eriod . I n f act , i t i s o nly 1 8% ( 15/85 a rtefacts) . M ature a dult b urials , o n t he o ther h and , w ere a ccompanied b y 7 5% ( 64/85 a rtefacts) , n ot 5 0% , o f t he g rave g oods . I a m a t a l oss t o e xplain t he d iscrepancy i n o ur s tatistics . T here i s t he p ossibility t hat t he 4 2 s hell b eads f ound i n B urial 1 23-30 w ere c onsidered a s o ne n ecklace b y R athje , r ather t han 4 2 b eads ( by m e) . H owever , t he i ndividual i n t his b urial w as a m ature a dult , a nd s ubsequently t he p ercentage o f f urnishings c ould o nly a lter t o 3 4% ( 15/44 i tems) f or y oung a dults a nd 5 2% ( 23/44 i tems f or m ature a dults . E ither w ay , m ature a dults , n ot y oung a dults , h ad t he l arger p ercentage o f E arly P eriod g rave f urniture . M oreover , d uring t he L ate P eriod , b urials o f y oung a dults c ontained a l arger p ercentage o f f urniture t han s uggested , 2 2% ( 55/250) a s o pposed t o 1 0% , a nd 4 2% ( 104/250) a s o pposed t o 8 0% f or m ature a dults . I ndeed , t he r ichest L ate P eriod b urial, 1 -6 , w as t hat o f ay oung , n ot m ature , a dult ! T hese p ercentages v ary c onsiderably f rom R athje 's a nd i t s eems t hat t he a mounts o f f urniture i n m ature a nd y oung a dult b urials f or t he t wo p ersons w ere v ery n early t he o pposite o f w hat h e s uggested . T here i s a s trong p ossibility

t hat t he d iscrepancy i n o ur s tatistics

m ay b e a r esult o f d ifferences i n c lassifying s pecific b urials i nto t he d ifferent p eriods b ecause o f t he d ifficulty i n d ating t hem . G iven t hat m any b urials w ere v aguely d ated t o t he T iger R un - S panish L ookout T ransition , o r T iger R un o r S panish L ookout , t he w hole s tatistical e xercise m ay b e d ubious . I t m akes m e w onder w hether R athje p laced c ertain b urials i n a r espective p eriod f or s tatistical c onvenience a nd o n t he b asis o f p reconceived i deas . ( I h ave l isted t he b urials i n t he p recise o rder a s s uggested b y t he d ating s equence o f W illey e t a l . ( 1965) .) T hirdly , R athje

p roblems a rise w ith h is o bservations o n p alace b urials .

c orrectly

E arly C lassic .

o bserved

t hat

f ew p alace

b urials

c ould b e d ated

t o t he

T here w ere n one a t U axactun , a nd t he o nly d efinite o ne f rom

o ur s ample w as B urial 1 77 a t T ikal ( Table V III , A ppendix I ) . W hy s o f ew E arly C lassic, p alace b urials? C ould R athje y et b e r ight t hat p alace c omplexes w ere o nly c onstructed o nce a n e lite e ntourage h ad d eveloped a t s pecific c entres b y t he b eginning o f t he L ate C lassic, w hen h itherto a dministrators h ad h eld o ffice a nd r esidence o n a r otational b asis e liminating t he n eed f or s uch s tructures? A t t he t ime o f w riting h is a rticle , t he a vailable e vidence m ight h ave s uggested t hat p alaces w ere o nly b eginning t o b e b uilt f rom t he e nd o f t he E arly C lassic . T he e arly d ating a nd t he e arly s equence o f c onstruction o f m ost p alaces w ere/are o ften n ot k nown , e specially i n c onjunction w ith t he d ating o f a ccompanying b urials . I t i s a lso d ifficult t o d etermine w hen a p alace b ecomes a p alace d uring t he i nitial p hases o f c onstruction , o r i ndeed , w hether a s tructure w as e ver a p alace a t a ll . T he r emains c an o ften b e t oo f ew , t oo m ixed , o r u ndatable t o r esolve t he s ituation . V ery f ew s tructures i n o ur s ite s ample c ould b e p ositively i dentified a s p alaces . T hese w ere S tructures , B -4 , C -4 & C -5 ,

1 55

S an J osé, A -V, A -XVIII & B -XIII, U axactun , 5 D-71, T ikal, A -I, A ltar d e S acrificios , A -14 ,

S eibal ,

a nd 5 5 ,

D zibllchaltun .

O ne m ight a lso i nclude

t he p alatial r esidences o f S tructures E 14 , E -51, E -54 , B -3 & B -5 , A ltun H a . A part f rom S tr . 5 D-71, n one c ould b e d escribed a s b eing p alace-like u ntil t he e nd o f t he E arly C lassic . T hus , i t w as h ardly s urprising t hat p alace c omplexes s eem o nly t o h ave b een c onstructed a t t hat t ime . M ore t horough e xcavation h as n ow c hanged t his b elief .

E xcavation a t E l

M irador h as r evealed a s eries o f l arge , s tone s tructures , i ncluding p alaces , t hat h ave b een d ated t o t he L ate P reclassic ( Matheny 1 986) , a nd H ammond ( 1986) h as f ound a t . least 3 r ange t ype s tructures ( palaces) - S tr . 1 , 1 7 & 2 1 -f rom h is e xcavations a t N ohmul d ated t o t he s ame p eriod . S o n ow w e h ave p alaces d ated n ot j ust t o t he E arly C lassic b ut t o t he e ven e arlier P reclassic .

S ince p alaces d ate t o t he P reclassic ,

s o t oo ,

p resumably ,

d id

t he e lite e ntourage w ho i nhabited t hem . T he p athological

e vidence o n t he s tature o f t he b urial p opulation o f

T ikal s ubstantiates t his . H aviland ( 1967) d iscovered t hat t he a dult m ale t omb p opulation h ad a g reater p hysical s tature t han t he a dult m ales n ot b uried i n t ombs f rom t he t ime o f B urial 8 5 o nwards, i .e . a s o f t he C auac p hase o f t he L ate P reclassic . H aviland c oncluded t hat a h ereditary r uling c lass h ad d eveloped a t T ikal b y t hat t ime ( ibid . : 3 23) . I ndeed , e vidence f rom C erros , U axactun , T ikal , E l M irador a nd L amanai h as s uggested t o S chele a nd M iller ( 1986: 1 07-109) t hat t he f orm , s ymbols a nd r ituals o f Maya k ingship h ad d eveloped t hroughout t he l owlands b y t he L ate P reclassic . C ertainly h ieroglyphic d ecipherment h as d etermined t hat a r uling l ineage w as e stablished a t T ikal f rom t he t ime o f J aguar P aw ( Burial 2 2) o nwards , i .e . f rom t he b eginning o f t he E arly C lassic ( Coggins

1 975 :

T able 4 ;

H aviland

1 967) . R uling l ineages a re a lso k nown f or D os P ilas Mauston a nd M athews 1 985), B onampak ( Mathews 1 980) , a nd P alenque ( Robertson 1 983) . W hat i s m ore , C armack 's s tudy o f t he Q uiche M aya i ndicates t hat t he r otational f orm o f l eadership ( cargo s ystems) e nvisaged b y R athje f or t he E arly C lassic M aya o nly d eveloped b y t he m iddle o f t he c olonial e ra w hen i t w as n o l onger p ossible t o s upport t he l uxury o f a n ative a ristocracy ( Carmack 1 981: 3 24) . R otational l eadership d oes n ot h ave t he a ntiquity R athje i magined w hereas r ule b y a n a ristocratic l ineage d oes . B ut t here a re m ore b urial d ata w hich c onflict w ith R athje 's h ypothesis . H e s uggested t hat p alace b urials d id n ot s how e xtremes o f w ealth b ut a c ontinuum i n t he r ange o f f urniture f rom r ich t o p oor ( Rathje 1 970 : 3 64) . B ut w ith t he e xception o f B urials B 18 , S an J osé , E -14/3 & E -54/9 , A ltun H a , 1 , S eibal, a nd 5 , P iedras N egras ( Table 9 6) , t here w ere o therwise n o a bundantly w ell f urnished p alace b urials . T hey w ere o nly m oderately f urnished ,

i .e .

0 - 2 0 i tems .

A nd t hough t he 5 b est f urnished p alace

b urials h ad m ore g oods t han t he 9 b est f urnished h ousemound b urials, i ncluding o ne v aulted r esidence b urial ( Table 9 6) , o nly B urial 5 , P iedras N egras , w as e xcessively b etter f urnished ( but t he b uilding i n w hich i t i s l ocated m ay i n f act h ave b een a t emple , s ee p . 6 8) . O therwise , t here r eally w as n ot m uch o f a d isparity i n t he w ealth o f b urials i n t he t wo c ontexts . T he p alace b urials o f S an J osé ( Table 6 4) , U axactun ( Table 6 8) , A ltun H a ( Table 7 4) , a nd S eibal ( Table 8 3) a veraged o nly s lightly m ore a rtefacts p er g rave , a nd t hose o f A ltar d e S acrificios a veraged f ewer g oods p er g rave t han h ousemound b urials ( Table 8 0) . A ny c ontinuum i n t he r ange o f f urniture d id n ot r eally i nclude v ery w ealthy b urials . A ssuming t hat t he n umber o f g rave g oods

r eflected o ne 's

m aterial

p rosperity

t hese p alace b urials w ere n ot

a nd

s ocial

s tatus

d uring

l ife ,

s ufficiently b etter f urnished t o s uggest

i ndividuals o f a s h igh a s ocial s tatus a s s uggested b y R athje .

1 56

T hey c ould

o nly h ave b een o f am ildly h igher s tatus , r etainers .

I ndeed ,

s uch a s s ervants ,

o fficials a nd

i n P alenque t he p alaces i n w hich P acal a nd h is d ynasty

l ived h ave b een i dentified ( Robertson 1 985) , a nd w e k now t hey w ere n ot b uried t here . S o w here w ere m embers o f t he e lite b eing b uried? : t emples , h ousehold s hrines , a nd i n s ome i nstances , c eremonial p latforms . I t i s i n s uch s tructures t hat i nterments w ere f ound w hich c onsistently c ontained t he m ost f urniture ( see T able 9 8) . R athje a ctually o bserved

t hat

t he

r ichest b urials a t U axactun w ere

p rimarily l ocated i n t he E arly C lassic t emple c omplex ( Rathje 1 970 : 3 64) . « He b elieved t his s ubstantiated h is a uthorities h eld o ffice b y r otation d uring t his p eriod a dults b uried i n t he t emple a rea a ccounted f or t he

o f S tructure A -V c laim t hat r uling b ecause t he r ich a dults w ho w ere

' supposedly ' m issing f rom t he o utlying ( Barton R amie) a reas ( ibid .: 3 68) . T he b urial d ata f rom o ur s ites c onfirm t hat m any t emple , h ousehold s hrine , a nd c eremonial p latform b urials w ere t he b est f urnished , b ut n ot o nly d uring t he E arly C lassic ( Table 9 7) . T hey w ere t he r ichest r egardless o f d ate , a f act w hich R athje a lso n oted ( ibid .: 3 64) . B ut h e d oes n ot s eem t o h ave f ully a ppreciated t he m eaning o f t his f act : t he i ndication o f a p ermanent r uling e lite , n ot r otating o fficials . T hese w ere t he s tructures o n w hich R athje s hould h ave f ocused h is o bservations a nd a nalysis . H e a dmittedly h ad o nly a bout a d ozen t emple b urials i n h is U axactun s ample w ith w hich t o w ork b ut t he s taggering n umber o f g rave g oods i n s ome o f t hese s hould h ave i nformed h im t hat a h ereditary e lite , w ith p henomenal t rappings o f w ealth , w ere b eing b uried i n t hese t emples . S ome o f t his w ealth c ould n ot h ave b een a cquired s imply i n as ingle l ifetime a nd m uch o f i t , j ade a nd s hell c ollars , c arved f igurines a nd m osaic m asks, r epresented s upreme a nd p ermanent p olitical, r eligious a nd e conomic p ower . E pigraphic

d ata

n ow

s how

t hat

s ome

o f

t he

r ichest

t emple b urials

a t

T ikal ( Coggins 1 975 ; M orley 1 983) a nd P alenque ( Ruz 1 973 ; R obertson 1 983) b elonged t o h ereditary r ulers ( Table 9 9) . F urther a dvances w ill n o d oubt e stablish o ther b urials w ith s pecific r ulers . A n a ccurate g uess c ould a lready b e m ade b ased o n t he d ata f rom T able 9 9 . A dult m ales p laced i n t ombs a nd t emples w ould b e t he f irst o bvious t hing t o l ook f or . T he v ariation i n t he a mount o f g rave g oods , h owever , s uggests g rave f urniture i s n ot a g ood g uide t o u se . B ut t his i s m isleading . I n f act , o nly 2 b urials , B urial 1 60 , T ikal, a nd I l , P alenque , h ave v ery a ccurate e stimate s . B urial 2 2 ( Jaguar P aw) w as l ooted a nd t he a moumt o f f urniture i n t he o thers i s r ather u nderestimated .

T he n umber o f j ade a nd s hell b eads a nd d iscs

c omprising n ecklaces , c ollars , b racelets, e tc . , w as n ot c ompletely t abulated b y t he e xcavators . N either w ere t he n umbers o f s hell , p earl, f lint a nd o ther i tems s imply b ecause o f t heir s heer v olume . B ut t hese a re t he v ery a rtefacts t hat i ndicate t he p resence o f aM aya k ing , e ven t hough w e m ay n ot k now t he p recise n umber . T he p resence o f c odex r emains , j ade m osaic m asks a nd p laques , s tuccoed p ottery , s tingray s pines , a nd a m ass o f f lint a bove a g rave a re a lso g ood i ndicators o f a r uler 's b urial . I t i s a lso a pparent t hat t he b urials o f s ite r ulers s hould b e f ound i n a s ingle s tructure o r a cropolis a rea o f e ach s ite . O n t his e vidence I w ould s uggest t he f ollowing a dult m ale b urials w ere o f M aya k ings : 1 ) B urial 8 5, a P reclassic b urial o f t he N orth A cropolis, T ikal; 2 )

B urials A 29 , A 31 & A 22 o f t he E arly C lassic t emple , S tr . A -V, U axactun ;

3 )

B urials T A-1/1, T B-4/7 , T B-4/6 , T B-4/2 & T B-4/4 , A ltun H a .

b urials i n S tr .

B -4 w ere p robably k ings,

1 57

T he 3 o ther

b ut t hey w ere n ot p ositively

i dentified a s a dult m ales. T he w ealthy

i nterments

o f

t he

h ousehold

s hrine ,

S tr .

E -1,

w ere p robably

r elated t o Altun H a r oyal l ine, j ust a s m any o f t he i nterred i n t he h ousehold s hrine , S tr . 7 F-30 , T ikal, e .g . B urial 1 60 , w ere r elated t o t he T ikal r oyal l ine ( Coggins 1 975: 2 15-33; T he

p resence

H aviland 1 981:

1 05-110).

o f w ealthy i nterments w ho w ere n either k ings n or a dult

m ales i s a nother t elling p oint a gainst R athje .

O f t he 6 5 b urials i n T able

9 8 , t he p rimary i nterment o f a t l east 1 0 w ere a dult f emales, 6 w ere o f y ouths , a nd 3 o f c hildren . T heir p resence c learly i mplies t hat w ealth a nd s tatus w ere i nherited , n ot a cquired . T his i s e specially e mphasized b y B urials A -1/2 & T E-1/3, Altun H a , a nd B urial 1 28, A ltar d e S acrificios ( Table 9 8) . T he f ormer i s o f ay outh a nd t he l atter o f t wo a dults f emales . T he y outh i s p articularly i nteresting . S ome 2 900 i tems o f f urniture a ccompanied h im . T his r epresents w ealth t hat c ould n ot p ossibly h ave b een a ccumulated t hrough c ompetitive o r r otational l eadership a t s uch a y oung a ge . S ince t he t hree o ther s ingly i nterred y ouths h ad o nly 2 0 -1 25 i tems o f f urniture e ach , t his i ndividual, a ssuming h e w as m ale , h ad p robably b een d estined t o i nherit t he l eadership b efore h is u ntimely d eath . T he m urals f rom Sonampak i ndicate t hat t he d esignation o f a n h eir c ould t ake p lace a t a bout t he a ge o f s ix ( Miller 1 986 : b een d esignated a s s uch . F inally ,

2 4) .

P resumably t his y outh h ad a lready

s ince t hese w ell f urnished t emple b urials a re d ated f rom t he

P reclassic o nwards ( Table 9 7) , i t c onfirms t he e pigraphic a nd o ther e vidence o f a n h ereditary e lite b y t hat t ime . A ltogether t hen , i t s eems t hat R athje 's h ypothesis b oat.

i s q uite u ntenable a nd t hat h e

1 58

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t he

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c v C " )

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Cr.

CM

N \ C \ I

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a ) , I c d E

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4. 34 3

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+

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C HAPTER E LEVEN T he E vidence f or H uman S acrifice

R ecent

r esearch

o n M aya

a rt

a nd

i conography

h as

p rovided

c ompelling

e vidence t hat h uman s acrifice w as p ractised t o a c onsiderable e xtent b y t he l owland M aya ( e .g . S chele 1 984 ; S chele & M iller 1 986 ; a nd M iller 1 986) . S o f ar a s Ia m a ware n o a rgument h as b een p resented o n t he b asis o f s keletal o r b urial d ata . W e a re i n ap rime p osition t o d o s o h ere . I t i s p robably f rom b urials t hat t he b est e vidence f or r itual s acrifice m ay b e f ound . T wo f orms m ay b e i nferred .

T he f irst,

b loodletting,

c an o nly b e

i mplied i ndirectly . T he i ndirect e vidence c onsists o f s tingray s pines, i mitation s tingray s pines a nd o bsidian l ancets a ccompanying t he i nterred i n t he b urials ( Table 1 00) . b loodletting .

T hese a re t he s ort o f i mplements a ssociated w ith

T he a ccompanying t able ( Table 1 00) r eveals t hat 1 4 b urials o f

k nown o r p robable r ulers h ad o bsidian l ancets o r s tingray s pines , n eatly c omplying w ith t he d epictions o f b loodletting o f s uch e minent p ersons . T he s econd f orm , h uman s acrifice , h as m ore d irect - t hough n ot a lways - e vidence f rom t he b urial d ata . S ince i t i s t he b urial d ata u nder a nalysis h ere , i t i s t he e vidence f or h uman s acrifice o n w hich w e s hall c oncentrate . B ut r eference t o e thnohistoric l iterature a nd a ncient M aya a rt a nd i conography w ill a lso b e m ade i n o rder t o h elp e xplain t he n ature o f t he a cts o f s acrifice . T he e vidence f or s acrifice c onsists p rimarily , o f s keletal m utilation . f urniture ( or l ack o f) ,

t hough n ot e xclusively ,

B urial l ocation , n ature o f p lacement , a ccompanying c ombination o f b odies, a nd/or o ther c ircumstantial

e vidence a lso e xist . B ut n o l ess t han 1 31 b urials o f t he s ample ( 11%) h ave e vidence o f o ne s ort o r a nother t hat s uggests t he i nterred w ere s acrificed , o r a t l east s uffered a s udden a nd u nnatural e nd . T his t otal c ould b e e ven h igher b ut b urials i n w hich m issing p ortions o f s keletons a re m ore p robably t he r esult o f d ecomposition a nd/or g rave d isturbance ( see T able 4 0) a re n ot c onsidered s acrifices a nd e xcluded f rom t he f ollowing t ables a nd d iscussion . O thers, i n w hich m issing s keletal p arts a re n ot c learly a r esult o f d ecomposition , d isturbance, o r d eliberate m utilation , a re c onsidered s acrificial . T hese a re c onsidered a s s uch b ecause o f t he s imilarity t o o ther d eliberate i nstances o f s keletal m utilation , a nd/or b ecause o f t he s imilarity t o s acrificial p ractices a s d escribed i n t he e thnohistoric l iterature o r d epicted i n t he a ncient a rt . T hese i nstances a re n oted i n t he t ables a nd d iscussion . I n a ny c ase , t hese 1 31 b urials s uggest t hat n ot j ust

o ne

b ut

f our d istinct

f orms

o f h uman s acrifice w ere a pparently

p ractised .

A dult a nd C hild B urials M ultiple i nterments w hich c onsist o f a c ombination o f a n a dult f emale a nd c hild(ren), a dult m ale a nd c hild(ren) o r a n umber o f a dults a nd c hild(ren ) a re t he f irst t ype i n w hich s acrifice i s s uspected . T here a re 3 5 i nstances f rom 9 s ites ( Table 1 01) .

W hy i s s acrifice s uspected?

1 67

F irstly , i t i s b elieved t he i nterred i n t hese b urials w ere r elated , a nd p ossibly c onsisted o f m other a nd c hild , f ather a nd c hild , o r p arents a nd c hildren . I n t he p resumed m other-child c ombinations , m any o f t he c hildren a ccompanying t he a dult f emales w ere f oetuses o r v ery y oung i nfants . I t i s c onceivable , t herefore , t hat t he m other d ied w hile g iving b irth a nd t he c hild s acrificed s hortly a fter . B ut w hat h appened i n t he o ther c ombinations o f i nterred? A dult m ales a nd o lder c hildren c ertainly d id n ot d ie i n , o r a s a r esult o f , c hild b irth ! F ortunately , t hough n ot c ontemporary , t he e thnohistoric l iterature i nforms u s o f w hat m ay h ave h appened . L anda o bserved a mong t he Y ucatan M aya t hat a fter t he d eath o f b oth p arents , c hildren o f s laves , o rphans, o r t he o ffspring o f d eceased m ale r elatives a nd s lave w omen , w ere s acrificed ( Tozzer 1 941: 17 & n ote 5 35) . S ome o f t he b urial c ombinations i n T able 1 01 c an b e e xplained b y t his p ractice . T hose w ith 2 a dults a nd c hild(ren ) m ay b e t he p arents w ho h ad d ied a ccompanied b y s acrificed s lave c hildren , o rphans, o r r elated o ffspring . T he a dult m ale a nd c hild(ren ) b urials m ay c onsist o f t he d ead m ale p arent a nd t he s acrificed o rphans o r o ffspring . A nd t he a dult f emale(s) a nd c hild(ren) m ay b e t he f emale p arent w ith t he o rphans o r o ffspring . S ince L anda d id n ot p rovide d etails o f w ho w ould h ave b een b uried w ith w hom , t here i s af air b it o f s upposition h ere . N onetheless , t he d ata d o f it h is d escription , a nd t herefore , t he c ustom o f s acrifice o bserved b y L anda m ay b e o f s ome a ntiquity . Is till c ontend , h owever , t hat a f ew o f t he a dult f emale - c hild i nterments a re o f as acrificed c hild a nd m other w ho d ied i n c hild b irth . I n e ither c ase , s ome s ort o f s acrifice i s i mplied . T wo f urther p oints a re w orth n oting .

M ost o f t he b urials w ere f ound i n

r esidence p latforms b ut a f ew w ere n ot . B urials E 15, U axactun , a nd 1 1, A ltar d e S acrificios , w ere f ound i n p lazas , a nd B urial C -13/10 , A ltun H a , w as f ound i n ac eremonial p latform . S uch a reas w ere o pen t o p ublic d isplay a nd g iven t hat t he a dult f emale i n B urial E 15 w as k illed b y a b low t o t he s kull, c ould i t b e t hat t he i ndividuals i n t hese b urials w ere k illed i n a p ublic r itual r ather t han a c hild b eing s acrificed a fter t he d eath o f i ts p arents?

S econdly ,

t he a dults i n 2 b urials

s ubstance a ad w ealth .

B urial 5 ,

s eem t o h ave

P iedras N egras,

w as

b een p eople o f

v ery w ell

f urnished ,

a nd B urial 1 62 , T ikal, c ontained W oman o f T ikal, d escendent o f S tormy S ky , a p rominent T ikal R uler ( Coggins 1 975 : 2 34-35) . O n a ccount o f t he w ealth a nd s tatus o f t hese i ndividuals, c ould c hildren h ave b een a utomatically s acrificed i n t heir h onour u pon t heir d eaths? T his i s w hat a ppears t o h ave h appened w ith t he i nterred o f o ur n ext c ategory , s o t hese 2 b urials c ould b e i ncluded i n i t t oo . T he p oint i s , t here c ould w ell h ave b een m ore t han o ne p urpose o r i ntention , a nd m ore t han o ne c ustom o f s acrifice a mong t hese a dult-child b urials .

P rimary I nterments A ccompanied b y S acrificial V ictims T he s econd t ype o f b urial s uspected

c onsists

o f m ultiple

i n w hich a nother b urials

o f

f orm o f

a p rimary

a ccompanied b y o ne o r m ore s econdary i nterred .

s acrifice i s

i nterred

i ndividual

T he s econdary i nterred s eem

t o h ave b een s acrificed o n a ccount o f t he f ollowing :

1 )

t he g rave f urniture w as p laced a round t he p rimary i nterred i ndividual(s) ;

2 )

t he a ccompanying i ndividuals w ere p laced i n u rns ,

o f , o r o utside ,

t he g rave ;

1 68

o r a t t he e xtremity

3 )

t he a ccompanying i nterred f requently c onsisted o f p ersons w ho h ad b een

s everely m utilated i n s ome w ay , u sually d ecapitation . T here w ere 2 5 s uch b urials f rom 7 s ites

( Table 1 02) ,

a nd t hough s ome

m ay n ot a ppear t o b e a s c onvincing c ases o f s acrifice a s o thers , e specially t he A ltun H a e xamples, t hey a ll s hare s ome o f t he c haracteristics t hat s uggest t he p ractice . T he s ort ( the

o f

s econdary

s acrifice

t hat

i s i mplied i s

i nterred) i n h onour o f,

a nd

t he k illing o f i ndividuals f or

t he a ccompaniment

o f,

i ndividuals o f w ealth a nd s tatus w ho h ad d ied ( the p rimary i nterments w ith t he f urniture) . T his i s p recisely t he c ustom o bserved b y Z amora o f A lta V erapaz : s laves o f b oth s exes b elonging t o t he d eceased w ere k illed " so t hat t hey - w ould . s erve h im i n t he n ext w orld j ust a s t hey h ad s erved h im i n t his" ( Tozzer 1 941: n ote 6 04 , p . 1 29-30) . S ome o f o ur e xamples s uggest c hildren w ere s acrificed a s w ell, e .g . B urials 1 67 & 1 60 , T ikal, E -7/10 & E -7/12 , A ltun H a , 1 41 & 3 8-sub .2 , D zibilchaltun , a nd 1 0 , P iedras N egras . B ut p resumably t his c ustom c ould o nly h ave b een p ossible a mong t hose w ealthy e nough t o o wn s laves a nd o r o f s ufficient r ank t o w arrant s acrifice u pon t heir d eath . • T his i s s upported b y o ur s ample b ecause 1 5 o f t he b urials w ere w ell f urnished , i .e . B urials B 2 , U axactun , 1 66 , 1 67 , 2 2 , 1 0 , 4 8 & 1 60 , T ikal, E - 7 /2 & E -7 /10 , A ltun H a , 6 969-1, 3 8-sub .2 & 9 5-2 , D zibilchaltun , T i, C opan , 1 0 , P iedras N egras , a nd I l, P alenque ; e ight w ere b uried i n c entral z one t emples o r c eremonial p latforms , i .e . B urials B 2 , U axactun , 1 66 , 1 67 , 1 25, 2 2, 1 0 &4 8, T ikal, a nd I l, P alenque ; a nd a t l east 5 c ontained t he b odies o f k nown r ulers, i .e . B urials 2 2, 1 0, 4 8 a nd 1 60, T ikal, a nd I l, P alenque ( Table 9 9) . F urthermore , t hese 2 5 b urials w ere f ound a t t he 7 l argest s ites o f t he 1 6 s ite s ample , U axactun , T ikal, A ltun H a, D zibilchaltun , C opan , P iedras N egras a nd P alenque , s ites w here s ufficient e conomic a nd p olitical a ctivity o ccurred t o c reate a w ealthy , s lave-owning c lass a nd p olitical e lite .

T he p rimary i nterred o f s ome o ther b urials m ay

h ave h ad s ufficient s tatus t o w arrant s acrifice u pon t heir d eaths , e ven t hough t hey o therwise l acked g reat m aterial w ealth a nd t he r ight o f b urial i n a t emple . T he t wo p rimary i nterred y ouths o f B urials E -7/10 & E -7/12 , A ltun H a , a nd t he p rimary i nterred c hild o f B urial 3 8-sub .2 , D zibilchaltun , a re e xamples . T hey h ad i nherited t he s tatus b ut h ad n ot y et t he c ontrol o f w ealth a t t he t ime o f d eath . T he r emaining i nterments m ay b e i nstances o f f amilies i mitating a p ractice o f t he r uling e lite . T he f act t hat t here i s e vidence f or t his p ractice i s I mportant .

T here

a re m any e xamples o f s acrifice i n M aya a rt b ut n one s pecifically r eferring t o v ictims a ccompanying a l ord o r o ther i mportant p ersons u pon t heir d eath . M ost d epictions a re i n a ssociation w ith i mportant r ites o f p assage d uring a l ord 's

l ife ,

i .e . a ccession t o t he t hrone , m arriage ,

( Schele & M iller 1 986) .

v ictory i n b attle ,

e tc .

T hese b urials c learly i mply a n a dditional r ite o f

s acrifice a s p art o f t he r ite o f p assage a t t he d eath o f a r uler a nd o ther i mportant p ersons . T he r ite w ould p resumably h ave a ided p assage t o t he a fterlife a nd a cted a s f ood f or t he g ods s o t hey w ould a ssist t he t ransfer o f p ower t o a n ew k ing a nd e nsure t he c ontinued e xistence o f s ociety . R itual s acrifice , t hen , w as p ractised i n h onour o f a r uler u pon h is d eath , a s w ell a s d uring h is l ife .

D edicatory C ache B urials T he e vidence f or a t hird

f orm o f h uman s acrifice

1 69

c omes

f rom b urials

w hich

c losely r esemble

c aches .

A c ache

i s a d eposit

o f

f lint ,

o bsidian ,

j ade , s hell o r o ther o bjects u sually p laced i n ac eramic o r s tone c ontainer w hich i s f ound u nder s telae, a ltars, t emple s tairs o r s ome s ort o f s tructural f oundation . T he c omposition a nd l ocation o f ac ache s uggest t hat i t w as i ntentionally p laced a nd m eant a s ad edication o r v otive o ffering t o t he b uilding u nder c onstruction , o r t he a ltar o r s tela b eing e rected . I t s eems t hat t here w ere a lso b urials m ade w ith t he s ame p urpose . T wenty—six b urials f rom 9 s ites ( Table 1 03) h ave b een f ound w hich p rimarily c onsisted o f i nfants o r t he s kulls o f a dults p laced b etween , i n o r u nder c eramic d ishes, a nd.which w ere d eposited i n f ront o f, o r u nder , s telae , a ltars , t emple s tairs a nd s tructural f oundations . A f ew w ere s imply p laced i n f ront o f a n a ltar o r s tela , o r u nder a s tructural f oundation w ithout a c ontainer , i .e . B urials B 3 & B 2 , B aking P ot , E 4 , U axactun , a nd 4 , P iedras N egras , a nd s ome c ontained a dditional f urniture w hile o thers d id n ot . G iven t he s imilarity o f t hese b urials t o c aches, t hey p rohably h ad t he s ame p urpose a s v otive o fferings , b ut i ncluded h uman v ictims . O ne c ould a rgue t hat s ince t hese b urials a re v irtually i dentical t o c aches t hey s hould b e c onsidered a s s uch . W ith t his I a gree , b ut b ecause t hese a re a lso m ethods o f d isposing o f t he d ead t hey s hould a lso b e c onsidered a s b urials . t he r eason f or c alling t hem , d edicatory c ache b urials .

H ence

E vidence o f o fferings o f h uman v ictims c omes f rom C lassic M aya c eramic v essels . O ne p olychrome v essel ( Vessel 1 8) d epicts a s cene o f ad ignitary p resenting a n o ffering o f a d ead c hild i n ab asket t o a n o verlord ( Robicsek 1 981: 2 1 &4 0) . A nd o ne i ncensario f rom t he g rave o f C url N ose ( Burial 1 0 , T ikal) w as m ade i n t he s hape o f a d ignitary r eaching f orward w ith a n o ffering o f ah uman s kull i n h is h ands ( Coe 1 965a : 2 4) . T hough p ots d o n ot e xist a s c ontainers i n e ither i nstance , i t i s c lear h uman o fferings a re d epicted . T he f act t hat t he o fferings c onsist o f a h uman s kull a nd i nfant c omply w ell w ith o ur e xamples ( Table 1 03) . F urther s upport f or t hese b urials b eing a nother f orm o f o btained f rom t he e thnohistoric

l iterature .

s acrifice i s

I n r eference t o t he Y ucatan

M aya , L anda s tates t hat t he h earts o f s acrifice v ictims w ere p laced b etween i nverted b owls a nd o ffered t o i dols a nd/or a ltars ( Tozzer 1 941: 1 43 a nd n ote 6 84) .

T he s imilarity i s o bvious ,

b ut i n t he m ore a ncient t imes a n e ntire

b ody o r as evered s kull w as p rovided .

T he i ntent w as s till t he s ame .

S acrifice b y M utilation T his i s t he f ourth a nd f inal f orm o f h uman s acrifice I b elieve t o h ave b een p ractised . Most o f t he e vidence c onsists o f b urials i n w hich t he i nterred h ad b een m utilated i n s ome w ay . T here w ere 4 5 f rom 9 s ites ( Table 1 04) . B ut t here a re s ome p roblems w ith t he a pparent m utilation . F irstly , i t i s n ot a bsolutely c ertain t hat m utilation h ad o ccurred i n s ome i nstances . S ix h eadless b odies i n B urials R 4 & R 5,

B aking P ot ,

6 05-3 ,

D zibilchaltun ,

a nd 1 08 , 8 9 & 6 6 , A ltar d e S acrificios , w ere n ot p ositively i dentified a s b eing d ecapitated . T heir h eadless s tate m ay b e a r esult o f p oor p reservation t hough o nly B urial 6 05-3 s howed s igns o f t his . D ecapitation i s s uspected b ecause o f t he i ncidence o f s kull o nly i nterments . O bviously d e— c apitation h ad b een o ccurring t o s ome , s ix . S econdly,

b ut n ot n ecessarily t o a ny o f t hese

a f ew o f t he s keletal m utilations m ay b e t he r esult o f

k illing u nrelated t o s acrifice .

T his a pplies t o t he a dult f emale i n B urial

1 70

B 4, B aking P ot, w ith t he o bsidian p oint i n h er e ye, t he a dult m ales i n B urials 6 05-6 & 6 05-2 , D zibilchaltum , w ith d eath b lows t o t heir s kulls , a nd t he d ismembered a dult m ale i n t he r efuse p it ( Burial 2 9) , S eibal . E ach o ne m ay h ave b een k illed d uring s ome s ort o f c onflict .

T ourtellot ( in p ress)

a rgues p ersuasively t hat t his i s w hat h appened t o t he a dult m ale i n B urial 2 9, S eibal . T hirdly ,

t he

D zibilchaltun ,

t wo i nterred w ith h oles

a nd b roken f emurs

i n B urial

i n

l ongbones

9 2,

i n B urial

6 965-2 ,

A ltar d e S acrificios ,

a re

m utilations t hat m ight h ave o ccurred a fter d eath a nd u nrelated t o s acrifice . O ne c ould e ven a rgue dthat t he s econdary i nterments a nd t he b urials w ith o nly m andibles m ay n ot b e ar esult o f s acrifice e ither . P erhaps o nly t he s kull i nterments c ould b e c onsidered a s v ictims o f s acrifice . G iven t hese a mbiguities , w hy h ave I l isted t hese b urials a s e vidence f or s acrifice? O n a ccount o f t he f act t hat t ogether t he c ondition o f m any o f t he s keletons i s s imilar : h eadless b odies , b odies w ithout f emurs o r l ower l egs , s kulls w ithout b odies , l egs w ithout b odies , a nd s econdary i nterments o f d umped o r s cattered i ndividuals . F urthermore , m ost o f t he i ndividuals w ere a dult m ales , m ost w ere b uried i n t emple c ourts , p lazas , a nd c eremonial p latforms , a nd w ith 2 e xceptions , B urials 8 , M ountain C ow , a nd I V-IB ,C , T onina , e ach c ontained l ittle o r n o g rave g oods .

T he a pparent s imilarities s uggest t hat

t hese p eople s uffered s imilar f ates : d eath b y s acrifice . T he b urials w ith s keletal m utilations t hat m ay r esult f rom v iolent d eath u nrelated t o s acrifice , e .g . B urials B 4, B aking P ot, a nd 2 9, S eibal, o r p ost-burial m utilation , i .e . B urials 6 965-2, D zibilchaltun , a nd 9 2, A ltar d e S acrificios, I i nclude a s c ases t hat a re i nteresting . I n a ny c ase , c onsultation w ith t he e thnohsitoric l iterature a nd a ncient M aya a rt a nd i conography p rovide d escriptions a nd d epictions t hat e xplain t he s tate o f m ost o f t he b odies i n t hese b urials , a nd t he b urial l ocations a s a r esult o f p ublic s acrifice . F rom a d escription o f t he Y uacatan M aya , L anda r eports t hat I f t he h eart o f t he v ictim w as t o b e t aken o ut , t hey l ed h im w ith a g reat s how a nd c ompany o f p eople i nto t he c ourt o f t he t emple , a nd . t hey b rought h im u p t o t he r ound a ltar , w hich w as t he p lace o f s acrifice, a nd . - p laced . [ him] o n h is b ack u pon t he s tone a ltar . A t t his c ame t he e xecutioner , t he N acom , w ith a k nife o f s tone , a nd s truck h im w ith g reat s kill . a nd h e a t o nce p lunged h is h and i n t here a nd s eized t he h eart . a nd , . p laced i t u pon a p late , . .

s acrifice o n t he s tone a nd h igh a ltar o f t he b ody, 18-119).

n ow d ead,

o ut a live

S ometimes t hey m ade t his t he t emple ,

r olling d own t he s teps . .

a nd t hrew

( Tozzer 1 941:

H e g oes o n t o s ay t hat " the c ustom w as u sually t o b ury i n t he c ourt o f t he t emple

t hose w hom

t hey h ad

s acrificed"

( ibid . :

1 20) ,

a nd

" if

t he

v ictims

w ere s laves c aptured i n w ar t heir m aster t ook t heir b ones , t o u se t hem a s a t rophy i n t heir d ances a s t okens o f v ictory" ( ibid .) . F inally , A fter t he v ictory t hey t ook t he j aws o ff t he d ead b odies a nd w ith t he f lesh c leaned o ff, t hey p ut t hem o n t heir a rms . a nd i f t hey m ade a p risoner o f s ome d istinguished m an , t hey s acrificed h im i mmediately ( ibid .:

1 23).

T he a ncient M aya a rt i s e qually e xplicit .

H eart e xcision i s v isible o n

S telae 1 a nd 1 4 o f P iedras N egras ( Schele 1 984 :

1 71

8 ) a nd a lso d epicted i n a

s cene

o n a p olychrome

P iers b a nd f ,

v ase

( Coe

1 982 :

1 617) .

D ecapitation i s

s hown o n

o f H ouse D i n t he p alace c omplex o f P alenque ( Schele 1 984 :

9 ) . E leven o f t he t hirteen s teps o f S tr . 3 3 , Y axchilan , f eature s cenes o f am an w hose n eck i s b roken , s napped b ack , a nd t he b ody t hen h urled d own t he s teps ( Schele & M iller 1 986: 2 49) . D ecapitation s cenes a re f ound o n p olychrome v essels a s w ell . b eheaded i n a p ublic d isplay

O n o ne ( Vase 4 2) , ( Coe 1 973 : 9 0-93) ,

a c aptive i s a bout t o b e a nd o n a nother ( Vase 4 6)

t hree d eath g ods a pproach a p edestal b earing t he s evered h ead o f ay oung m an ( ibid . : 1 00-101) . A nother v essel ( Vase 3 3) p ortrays a n u nfortunate v ictim i n t he p rocess o f b eing p ublicly d isembowelled ( ibid . : 7 6-77) , w hile a J aina f igurine h as b een m oulded t o d epict a b ound a nd d isembowelled c aptive ( Schele & M iller 1 986 : 2 28 & P late 9 4) . T he m ost e xplicit a nd c omplete r ecord t he p ainted m urals i n S tr . 1 , B onampak . c aptives , c aptives s hown u ndergoing s ome

o f h uman s acrifice c omes f rom

T he m urals d epict a r aid f or j udgement r itual w hich i ncludes

t orture a nd o ne d ecapitation , a nd a c ulmination w ith a m ass d ance o n a p yramidal f açade a nd c aptives b eing t hrown d own t he t erraces t o t heir d eath ( Schele 1 984 : 1; M iller 1 986) . I ndeed , i n o ne s cene f rom R oom 2 , M iller s tates B eneath t hese 3 c aptives o n t he s tep s it s ome p oorly a rticulated b ody p arts . A s evered h ead r ests o n ab ed o f l eaves , u nbloodied a nd t idy . T o i ts l eft m ay b e o ther p arts o f t he b ody , p erhaps a p air o f l egs . T his g ruesome d ismemberment m ay b e r eflected i n M aya

t ombs ,

-

( Miller

1 986 :

1 24) .

S ome o f o ur b urials c ertainly d o r eflect s uch g ruesome d ismemberment , e .g . B urials E 12 , U axactun , C -13/7 , A ltun H a , 9 5-1, D zibilchaltun , a nd 7 -46 , C opan , f or l eg r emoval ; C -13/34 , C -13/35 & E -14/5 , A ltun H a , a md 1 20 , 4 9 a nd 8 5, A ltar d e S acrificios, f or s kull r emoval; a nd 1 2, Mountain C ow , B 7, B aking P ot , A S , U axactun , C -13/16 , A ltun H a , a nd p ossibly 2 9 , S eibal, f or g eneral d isarticulation a nd d ismemberment . F inally , S chele & M iller ( 1986 : n ote 6 1, p .61) r egard t he i conographic d epiction o f b leeding v ictims w ith a h and g ripping t he l ower j aw a s o ne m ethod o f s acrifice i nvolving t he r emoval o f t he j aw o f a l iving v ictim . T he m andible o nly b urials s eem t o c onfirm t his , e .g . B urials 8 & 1 6 , M ountain C ow , 5 6 , A ltar d e S acrificios , a nd I V1 B ,C , T onina , a nd L anda 's d escription s uggests t he c ustom p ersisted f or s ome t ime . ( I a m r ather s urprised t hat B urials 8 a nd I V-1B ,C w ere s o w ell f urnished . I t i s n ot t ypical a nd I w ould h ave e xpected v ictims t o h ave h ad t heir j aws r emoved i n s uch a f ashion n ot t o h ave r eceived w ell f urnished g raves . T he f act t hat t he g raves w ere d isturbed m akes t hem q uestionable e xamples.) T hus ,

t he

a ncient

d epictions

a nd L anda 's

d escriptions

a re

r emarkably

s imilar , a nd m ost o f t he 4 5 b urials d isplay t he r esults o f w hat i s d escribed , b oth i n t he a ctual m utilation a nd b urial l ocation , i .e . d isarticulated o r d ismembered v ictims s cattered a round c ourts a nd p lazas o f t emples a nd c eremonial p latforms . B ut o ur s ample a lso i ncludes a n umber o f v ictims b uried i n r esidences , i .e . B urials E -14/5 , A ltun H a , 6 05-6 , 6 05-3 , 6 05-2 , 2 26-5 , 6 965-2 & 9 5-1, D zibilchaltun , a nd 2 0 , A ltar d e S acrificios ; m utilated f emales , i .e . B urials B 4 , B aking P ot , E 2 &A 18 , U axactun , a nd 4 2 , 3 9 &6 6, A ltar d e S acrificios; a nd a s acrificed b all t eam i n B urial 4 , S eibal ( rourtellot : i n p ress) . T he d ata n ot o nly c onfirm t he d epictions a nd l iterature o f p ublic s acrifice , b ut r eveal t hat d eath b y s acrifice w as c onducted p rivately i n r esidences ,

a nd d id i nclude

t eams a nd f emales .

1 72

t he s acrifice o f b all

S ummary E vidence f rom s ome M aya b urials h ave b een s hown t o i mply t he c ustom o f h uman s acrifice . a nd

i conography ,

U sing t his e vidence i n c onjunction w ith a ncient M aya a rt a nd

t he

p ractices a ctually w ere . 1 ) t he p arents,

s acrifice

o f

e thnographic

l iterature ,

i llustrates w hat

t hese

I n f act , 4c ustoms a re a pparent . T hese a re :

o rphans

a nd

o ffspring

o f

s laves

t o

a ccompany d ead

2 ) t he s acrifice o f . slaves a t t he d eath o f t heir m asters i n h onour o f t hem a nd i n o rder t o e nsure t hat t hey c ontinue t o w ork f or t heir m asters i n t he a fterlife , 3 )

t he s acrifice o f i ndividuals w ho a re p laced o r b uried l ike a c ache t o

a ct a s a v otive o ffering f or a b uilding c onstruction , e rection , a nd 4 )

o r s tela o r a ltar

t he p ublic s acrifice o f p risoners o f w ar a nd o thers , a nd t he d eliberate

m utilation o f m any o f t hem i n o rder t o r etain s kulls , a s t rophies .

1 73

f emurs ,

a nd m andibles

T able 1 00:

B urials c ontaining s tingray s pines,

o bsidian l ancets,

o r s ome o ther a rtefact a ssociated w ith b loodletting

S ite H olmul

U axactün

B urial

T ype o f B loodletter

B 16

s tingray s pine

B 5

i nscribed s tingray s pine

B l

s tingray s pine

B 2

s tingray s pine

A 6

s tingray s pine

B 2

5o bsidian l ancets

A 29**

s tingray s pine

A 31**

4o bsidian l ancets a nd a n o bsidian i mitation

T ikal

A 22**

1 r ed p ainted s tingray s pine

A 2

s tingray s pine

A 23

s tingray s pine

A 45

2 o bsidian l ancets

1 64

s tingray s pine

1 66

s tingray s pine

1 28

s tingray s pine

85 **

s tingray s pine

1 0*

s tingray s pines

4 8*

s tingray s pines

1 60*

s tingray s pine &

1 95 *

s tingray s pine

1 40

2 s tingray s pines

1 32

6s tingray s pines

2 3*

s tingray s pine

2 4

s tingray s pine

1 16*

3 imitation

s tingray s pines a nd c arved b one i mitations

1 74

T able 1 00:

B urials c ontaining s tingray s pines,

o bsidian l ancets,

o r s ome o ther a rtefact a ssociated w ith b loodletting

S ite

B urial

T ype o f B loodletter

T ikal

1 96*

2 s tingray s pines

A ltun H a

T A-l/ i -*

s tingray s pines

T E-1/2

s tingray s pine

T B-4/7 "

3s tingray s pines

C -16/21

s tingray s pines

T B-4/ 2 **

6s tingray s pines

T E-1/1

8 s tingray s pines

T B-4/1

2 s tingray s pines

E -7/18

2o bsidian l ancets

D -2/1

s tingray s pine

E -54/9

2 s tingray s pines

9

s tingray s pine

1 16

s tingray s pine

1 28

s tingray s pines

5

s tingray s pines

2

s tingray s pine

P alenque

C 3

s tingray s pine

T oninä

I II-1A , B

s tingray s pine

A ltar d e S acrificios

P iedras N egras

nown M aya r uler * d enotes b urials o f k ulers robable M aya r * * d enotes b urials o f p

1 75

T able 1 01: A dult (s) a nd c hild(ren) b urials

S ite

B urial

B arton R amie

1 23-11

a dult f emale & c hild

1 47-2

2a dults & c hild

E l5

y oung a dult f emale & c hild ; a dult f emale's s kull c rushed b y b low

B 1

2a dult f emales & 3 i nfants

A 44

a dult f emale & c hild

1 62

a dult f emale & c hild

1 51

y oung a dult m ale w ith 2 c hildren

C -13/10

a dult f emale & c hild p lus a nother a dult

D -10/1

o ld a dult f emale & c hild

E -7/30

o ld a dult & c hild p lus a nother a dult

E -7/40

a dult m ale & c hild

E -7/27

a dult f emale & c hild

E -7/28

a dult m ale & c hild

E -3/2

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4 50-1

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A ge & S ex

1 76

T able 1 01: A dult(s) a nd c hild (ren) b urials

S ite A ltar d e S acrificios

S eibal

C opan

P iedras N egras

B urial

Age & S ex

9 7

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1

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3 4

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3

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C HAPTER T WELVE A ncestor W orship

W e h ave s een t hat t he a ncient Maya b uried t heir d ead i n j ust a bout e very c onceivable 6 7pe o f s tructure a nd l ocation . T hey d o n ot a ppear t o h ave r esorted t o p lacing t heir d ead i n a ny n ecropolis o r c emetery , t hough o ne m ay y et b e f ound . ( Jaina m ay y et p rove t o b e h allowed g round b ut s o f ar a s Ic an t ell a ll J aina b urials h ad b een p laced i n b uildings o f s ome k ind o r a nother ( Moedano 1 946 ; P ina C han 1 948) .) C onsequently , t he b urial o f t he d ead m ay a ppear o nly t o h ave b een a h aphazard c ustom c onducted i n ap lace o f c onvenience o r i n t he m ost c onvenient f ashion . I n f act , s uch a t hought c ould n ot b e f urther f rom t he t ruth . T here i s a p attern t o t he b urial o f t he a ncient M aya d ead , a nd c ertain s tructures w ere b uilt w ith t he s pecific p urpose o f c ontaining a nd h onouring s ome , t hough n ot a ll, o f t he d eceased . M oreover , a n umber o f c ustoms a ssociated w ith i nterment w as a dopted a s a m eans o f v eneration a nd w orship .

B uilding R enovation o r C onstruction a nd A ssociated B urials V irtually a ll b urials f ound h ad b een c overed o ver i n s ome way .

T he o nly

e xceptions t o t his r ule w ere a n umber o f i nterments c onsisting o f i ndividuals w ho h ad b een d iscarded o n m iddens , i .e . P D 5 0 & P D 7 4 , T ikal, B urial 2 9, S eibal, a nd 9 7, A ltar d e S acrificios, a nd f our P ostclassic b urials t hat w ere m ade s ome t ime a fter t he b uildings w ere a bandoned , i .e . B urials E -7/46 , C -43/1, A -8/2 & A -8/3 , A ltun H a . A ll o ther b urials h ad b een c overed o ver e ither b y b eing p laced b elow g round o r c overed o ver i n a b uilding . M ost b urials i n o ur s ample w ere s imply m ade d uring b uilding r enovation , a lteration o r e xpansion . T his a pplies t o a ll t he s imple, u nlined b urials o f h ousemounds a nd o ther r esidential t ype b uildings . B ut i f s omeone d ied w hen s uch a lterations h ad n ot o ccurred , a p it w ould b e d ug b eneath t he h ouse o r a ssociated s tructure , p erhaps a f ormal w alled g rave w ould b e a ttempted a nd t he d eceased w ould b e p laced i n i t . T he g rave w ould t hen b e c overed b y an ew f loor , p latform , w all, o r e ven a r econstruction o f t he h ouse o r b uilding . O nly t hen w ould t he p lace b ecome h abitable a gain . B ut i n n o w ay w as a ny c onstruction m ade t o c ommemorate t he d eceased . T he v ast m ajority o f b urials f it t hese d escriptions . B ut t here w ere s ome o ther b urials w hich r eceived m uch g reater s omething m uch m ore w as i nvolved .

a ttention ,

a nd

t herefore

i mply

t hat

H ousehold S hrines T he e xcavation o f s everal r esidential g roup p lazas a t T ikal h as r evealed t he e xistence o f b uildings o n t hese p lazas ' e astern e dges w hich w ere d ifferent f rom t he o ther r esidential p latforms . T he a rrangement h as b een c alled ' Plaza P lan B ' b y B ecker ( 1971 & 1 986) . O n t he b asis o f a n a nalysis o f a rchitecture , b urials , a rtefacts a nd c aches , t hese s tructures w ere f ound t o h ave t he f ollowing c haracteristics ( Becker 1 986 ; 1 975 ;

a nd s ee F ig .

2 ) :

1 86

H aviland 1 981;

C oggins

F igure 2 : T ypical r esidential p laza w ith ' household s hrine' t he e astern p erimeter

1/ E1 1 I-

. .. . .m. .

M . .

. . .

I

I

I

_ _ _ .

1 I

I

I

I

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I

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j

_ 1 : 171 1_

1 87

-

. . .. . .. . . I

o n

1 )

l ocation o n t he e ast s ide o f r esidential p lazas,

2 )

m ore e laborate a rchitecture ,

u sually o f a h igh a nd s quare s hape

l ike

s mall t emples, 3 )

b etter f urnished g raves,

4 )

a pparently p urpose b uilt t o h ouse t he b urials.

T he

f unction (s)

o f

t hese

s tructures

h as

b een d etermied

a s

c eremonial

a nd

t hey h ave b een c alled t emples ( Haviland 1 981: 1 00) , o r c eremonial e astern s tructures ( Coggins 1 975: 4 21 & 4 35) . S tructures w ith t he s ame c haracteristics w ere e ncountered a t o ther s ites, e .g . S tr . 3 8-sub ., D izbilchaltun ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980) , a nd S tr . A -30e , 2 6d & C -33d , S eibal ( Tourtellot i n p ress) . A ndrews a nd A ndrews ( 1980) c alled S tr . 3 8-sub , a s hrine , a nd T ourtellot ( in p ress) c alled t he S eibal s tructures , C lass-C a ltar s hrines . S uch a v ariety o f t erms f or s tructures t hat w ere e ffectively t he s ame s eems u nnecessarily c umbersome . T hey a re s imply c alled ' h ousehold s hrines ' i n t his d issertation f or t he f ollowing r easons : 1 ) i n o rder t o e mphasize t heir r esidential a ssociation , 2 ) t o d istinguish t hem f rom t he m ore e laborate ,

c entrally l ocated ,

t emples ,

3 ) t o s implify t erminology, 4 )

t o i nfer a n a ssociation w ith a ncestor v eneration w hich w ill b ecome

a pparent b elow . H ousehold s hrines w ere f irst f ound a t T ikal b ut t hey a re b y n o m eans c onfined t o t hat s ite ( see T able 1 05) . T he e xamples a t M ountain C ow c onform w ell t o t he g eneral p attern . T hompson ( 1931: 2 37) d escribed t hem a s b uildings

o f

h igh

r esidential p lazas .

a nd

s quare

s hape

l ocated

o n

t he

e astern

e dge

o f

T he b urials w ere a lso w ell f urnished ( Table I , A ppendix

I ) . S tr . B -1, B enque V iejo , i s s hown t o h ave b een t he e astern b uilding o f a r esidential p laza ( Thompson 1 940 : F ig . 1 ) w hich c ontained t he b urials . T he s ame a pplies t o S tr . F , G roup I , H olmul ( Merwin & V aillant 1 932 : 1 5 & F ig . 1 ) . A s f or t he D zibilchaltun e xamples, S tr . 3 8-sub , w as a lready c onsidered s ome s ort o f s hrine o f h igh a nd s quare s hape b y t he e xcavators ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 : F igs . 1 71, 1 73 & 1 75) , a nd i t w as a lso p laced o n t he e astern e dge o f t he p laza h ousing s ome r elatively w ell f urnished b urials ( Table 9 8 &T able X , A ppendix I ) . S tructure 6 969 w as c onsidered a t emple b y t he e xcavators b ut s ince i t w as o n t he e astern p erimeter o f ar esidential p laza ( ibid . : 2 65ff & F ig . 2 53) i t i s c onsidered a h ousehold s hrine h ere . S tructure 6 12 , w hich w as n ot m apped , i s p resented a s b eing o n a r esidential p laza 's e astern p erimeter ( ibid .: F ig . 7 6) a nd s o i t t oo i s c onsidered a h ousehold s hrine . T he f inal e xamples f rom S eibal h ave s imply b een r enamed . M any o f t hese s tructures s hare a nother i mportant f eature : t he b uildings a ctually a ppear t o h ave b een p rimarily b uilt a s c ommemorations t o p articular i nterments , e .g . S tr . 7 F-30 t o B urial 1 60 ( Coggins 1 975 : 2 15 ; H aviland 1 981: 1 05) , S tr . 5 G-8 t o B urial 7 2 ( Coggins 1 975 : 3 29) , a nd S tr . 7 F-31 t o B urial 1 59 ( ibid . : 3 25) . A lternately , a n a ltar , b ench , o r s ome o ther c onstruction w as b uilt o ver a b urial a s a c ommemoration t o t he d eceased i n , o r b y , t he h ousehold s hrine .

F or e xample ,

a n a ltar w as e rected o ver B urial

1 4 ,

S tr .

2 6d , S eibal ( Tourtellot : i n p ress) , b enches b uilt o ver B urial B 2 , S tr . B -1, B enque

V iejo

( Thompson

1 940:

2 7) ,

1 88

a nd

B urials

6 12-3

a nd

3 8-sub .

5 ,

D zibilchaltun ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 : 8 1 & 1 67) , a nd , e xcept f or B urials 4 & 1 94 ,

s pecial

c onstructions w ere b uilt

T ikal ( l aviland 1 981:

9 4) .

o ver e very b urial

i n S tr .

7 F-30 ,

A s pecial c onstruction w as e rected o ver B urial

1 93 i n S tr . 7 F-31, T ikal, a s w ell ( ibid .) a nd a s pecial e xtension o f S tr . 3 F-27 w as m ade o ver B urial 7 0 ( laviland , i n p ress: t o a ppear i n T ikal R eports, n o . 2 0) .

I n a ddition , S tr . 6 12, D zibilchaltun , m ay h ave b een

e rected a s a c ommemoration t o B urial 6 12-1 b ecause t he b urial w as s et i n p lace j ust p rior t o , o r d uring , b uilding c onstruction ( Andrews & A ndrews 1 980 :

7 9) , a nd S tr , 6 969 , D zibilchaltun , m ay b e am emorial t o B urial 6 969-1

s ince t he t omb a nd t he s tairs l eading d own t o i t c ould o nly h ave b een m ade d uring t he b uilding 's c onstruction ( ibid . : 2 65) . F inally , S tr . 4 H4 , T ikal, m ay h ave b een b uilt a s a m emorial t o B urial 1 07, a nd s ubsequent c onstructions t o B urials 1 01, 9 4 , 1 05 & 9 7 , b ecause a ll o f t hem w ere p laced o n t he m ain a xis o f t he b uilding ( Coggins 1 975: 2 11, 4 33 & 4 35, r espectively) . T his w as a f eature o f m any h ousehold s hrine b urials, p articularly m ost b urials

i n S tr . 7 F-30 a nd 3 1 ( Haviland 1 981: F igs . 5 .2-5 .5) . S ince i n t hese 2 b uildings h ad s ome s ort o f m emorial t o t hem , t he

s ame m ay a pply t o t he s tr . 4 H-4 b urials . F or t he r emaining h ousehold s hrines a nd t heir b urials l isted i n T able 1 05, i .e . t he Mountain C ow s hrines , S tr . 2 G-59 , 5 G-11, 4 G-9 & 6 B-9 , T ikal, C -33d , S eibal, a nd S tr . F , G roup I , H olmul, e ither c ommemorative c onstruction d id n ot a pparently o ccur o r i nformation t o v erify a n a ssociation w as n ot a vailable . Is hould n ot b e s urprised i f s uch a n a ssociation o ccurred , h owever . S even o ther s tructures h ave a lso b een l isted a s h ousehold s hrines e ven t hough t hey w ere n ot l ocated o n t he e astern p erimeter o f a p laza ( Table 1 06) . 1 )

Id o s o f or t he f ollowing r easons :

M ounds M & N o f M ountain C ow ( Hatzcap C eel ,

i n f act) w ere d escribed a s

b eing p urpose b uilt t o h ouse t he g raves ( Thompson 1 931:

2 56-57) ;

2 ) S tr . X , H olmul, w as t hought t o h ave b een s pecially s ealed f or b urials ( Merwin & V alliant 1 932: 5 0-53); 3 ) S tr . E -7, A ltun H a, h ad l ittle r efuse a nd w as c onsidered a s pecial p urpose b uilding ( Pendergast: i n p ress); 4 )

S tr .

A -30e

& 4 E-10 ,

S eibal

w ere

c onsidered

t emple , r espectively , b y T ourtellot ( in p ress) , s ame p urpose a s h ousehold s hrines ; 5 )

S tr .

6 E-sub .1,

T ikal,

C lass-C a ltar s hrine a nd w hich e ffectively h ad

w as b uilt a s am emorial t o B urial

t he

1 28 ( l aviland ,

i n p ress : t o a ppear i n T ikal r eports n o . 2 0) ; 6 )

S tr . E -1 a nd U nit 1 w ere r ather u nusual a nd s eem t o h ave b ene p urposely

b uilt t o h ouse t he w ell ( Pendergast: i n P ress).

f urnished b urials o f T E-1/2,

T he s imilarity w ith h ousehold s hrines

T E-1/3 & T E-1/1

l ocated o n t he e astern p erimeter o f

r esidential p lazas i s o bvious a nd t hus, t hey a re i ncluded i n t he s ame c lassification . T his d iscussion s hould e xplain t he u se o f t he t erm ' household s hrine ' f or t hese s tructures . T hey a re a djacent t o t he h ousehold g roups o f p laza d wellings a nd t heir p rimary p urpose s eems t o h ave b een t o h ouse m ost o f t he b urials o f t he r espective c ommunities l iving r ound e ach p laza . T hough b urials m ay b e f ound i n t he a djacent r esidences ,

1 89

t he b etter f urnished o nes

a re

c ertainly f ound i n t he h ousehold s hrines ( see c hapters 9 & 1 0 a bove) .

I t h as e ven b een a rgued t hat t hese p lazas o r c ourtyard g roups h ad b een o ccupied b y e xtended f amilies o r l ineage g roups ( Hammond 1 982 : 1 67) , a nd H aviland ( n .d .) h as a rgued p ersuasively t hat t he i nterred o f S tr . 2 G-59 o f G roup 2 G-1, T ikal, w ere a ll r elated ; a s w ere t he i nterred o f S tr . 7 F-30 a nd 3 1 o f G roup 7 F-1, T ikal ( iaviland 1 981) . P roving t hat t he i nterred w ere r elated o r t hat t he p lazas w ere o ccupied b y e xtended f amilies i s n o e asy m atter a nd n ot a ttempted h ere . B ut t he h ousehold s hrines w ere p robably u sed t o b ury t he m ore i mportant m embers o f e ach r esidential p laza r egardless o f

t heir r elationship .

s pecial

T he a ltars ,

p latforms ' would

b e

b enches - a ltars

s uitable

f or

o f

s orts

c onducting

t oo?

r ituals

-a nd

t o

t he

i ndividuals i mportant e nough t o b e b uried i n t hem . T he b uildings w ould t hen b ecome i dentified w ith t he b urials a nd t he d ead a ncestors o f t hose b uried ( see b elow ) .

T emples a nd C eremonial P latforms H ousehold s hrine c ommemorations p ale i n c omparison w ith t he s tructural m emorials t o t he d ead i n t he c eremonial p recincts . W e h ave a lready s een t hat t he r ichest a nd m ost s ignificant b urials w ere p laced i n t he c entrally l ocated t emples a nd c eremonial p latforms o f t he b ig s ites ( see T able 9 7 o r 9 8) . L ike h ousehold s hrines, m any t emples w ere l ocated o n t he e astern p erimeter o f t he c entral p lazas ( Table 1 07) . M ore i mportant , h owever , a re t he i mpressive c onstructions a ssociated w ith t he b urials . T here a re 3 t ypes. 1 )

T he m ost p rofound t ype o f c onstruction w as f or a n e ntire t emple t o b e

e rected o ver a g rave i n h onour o f t he d eceased . T here w ere 1 2 s uch e xamples ( Table 1 08) : S tr . B -VIII o ver B urial B l, U axactun ( Smith 1 950 : 1 01 a nd 5 2) ; S tr .

5 D-sub .11 o ver B urial 1 66 ( Coe 1 965 :

1 412) ,

S tr .

5 D-sub .10 o ver B urial

1 67 ( Umk i .) , S tr . 5 D-sub .2-2nd o ver B urial 8 5 ( Coe & M cGinn 1 963 : 2 9-30) , S tr . 5 D-26 o ver B urial 2 2 ( Coggins 1 975: 1 23) , T emple o f t he R ed S tela ( Str . 5 D-34) o ver B urial 1 0 ( Coe 1 965a : 2 7-29) , T emple 1 o ver B urial 16 ( Coggins

1 975:

4 56) ,

S tr .

5 D-73

( ceremonial p latform) o ver B urial

1 96

( ibid . : 5 52) , a nd S tr . 5 D-11 o ver B urial 7 7 ( ibid . : 5 85) , a ll o f T ikal ; S tr . A -1 o ver B urial A -1/2 ( Pendergast 1 979 : 4 8) , a nd S tr . A -5 o ver B urial A -5/2 , A ltun H a ( ibid . : 1 68) ; a nd t he T emple o f I nscriptions o ver P acal 's g rave , P alenque ( Ruz 1 973) . 2 )

T he s econd f orm o f c onstruction w as f or a p latform ,

a ltar b lock ,

s tair

b lock , p edestal, e tc" t o b e e rected o ver a g rave p laced i n a n a lready e xisting t emple o r c eremonial p latform ( Table 1 09) . T he e xamples a re : t he a ltar b lock o ver B urial A 6, S tr .A-I ( Smith 1 937: 2 11-214) , a s unken e nclosure t o c ontain B urials A 2, A 3, A 4 & A 10 i n t he s ame s tructure ( ibid .) , C onstruction F b uilt o ver B urial A 29 , S tnA-V ( Smith 1 950 : 2 3 & 9 7), C onstruction G o ver B urial A 31, s ame s tructure ( ibid .: 2 4 & 9 7) , C onstruction H o ver B urial A 22, s ame s tructure ( ibid .: 2 4-5 & 9 6) , C onstruction I o ver B urial A 20 , s ame s tructure ( ib IA .) , a nd C onstruction V o ver B urial

A 23 ,

s ame s tructure

( ibid . :

2 6

& 9 6) ,

a ll

o f U axactun ;

t he

s tairway o f 5 D-33 o ver B urial 4 8 ( Coggins 1 975 : 1 87) a nd 5 D-33-1st o ver B urials 2 3 &2 4 ( ibid . : 3 87) , a ll o f T ikal; a s tair b lock o r p latform b uilt o ver a ll 7 o f t he S tr . B -4 b urials ( Pendergast 1 982 : 5 4ff) , P latform 5 o ver B urial T A-1/1

( Pendergast 1 979 :

8 1) ,

S tair 5 o ver B urial A -3 /1 ( ibid . : ( ibid . :

1 75) , a ll o f A ltun H a ;

S tair 2 o ver B urial A -1/3

( ibid . :

4 8) ,

1 54) , a nd a s tair b lock o ver B urial T A- 6 /1

S tair 2 a nd A ltar P 18 o ver B urial

A -III ( ceremonial p latform) , A ltar d e S acrificios ( Smith 1 972 :

1 90

1 28 ,

5 7 &6 0) ;

S tr . a nd

t he T onina p edestals o ver t heir b urials ,

E 5-13 o ver I V-6 , E 5-10 o ver I V-2 ,

E 515 o ver I V-4 & I V-5 , a nd E 5-8 o ver I V-9 ( Becquelin & B audez 1 979 : 7 7) . S ince m any o f t hese b urials w ere l ocated o n t he a xis o f t he c onstruction o r o f t he t emple i tself , e .g . B urials 4 8 &2 3 , T ikal, A -5/2 , A -1/2 , T A-1/1, T A6 /1, T B-4/7, T B-4/6 , T B-4 /2 , T B-4 /1, T B-4/5 a nd T B-4/3 , A ltun H a , i t f urther e mphasizes t hese c onstructions a s m emorials t o t he i nterments . 3 )

T he

t hird

f orm o f

b uilding , S tr . 1 932 : 1 8-20) .

c onstruction c onsisted o f

t he c onversion o f a

B , G roup I I , H olmul, t o a b urial m ound ( terwin & V aillant T his w as r ather s imilar t o t he c onversion o f S tr . 4 E-10 , a

h ousehold s hrine , a t 'Seibal ( Tourtellot , i n p ress) . A lthough n o s tructure w as m ade t o c ommemorate t he b urials p er s e , t he w hole b uilding b ecame a m emorial b y i ts n ew r ole a nd p urpose . A n a dditional f orm o f s tructural a ssociation e xisted w ith t he b urials i n t he G roup E T emples , U axactun , S tr . 5 D-14 , T ikal a nd M ound A 4 , S an J osé ( see T ables 1 03 a nd 1 07) . B ut t he m utilated c ondition o f m any o f t he s keletons , t heir p lacement i n b awls a nd t he f act t hat t he g raves w ere m ade a fter t he e rection o f t he a ltars a rgues t hat t hese b urials c onsisted o f i ndividuals w ho w ere s acrificed a s d edications t o t he a ltars o r t emples ( see c ommentary o n d edicatory c ache b urials) . T he c onstructions i n t hese i nstances w ere i n n o w ay c ommemorations . f orm o f s tructural a ssociation . N ow w hat

p recisely

i s

I t i s

t he s ignificance o f

t herefore a v ery d ifferent

t hese m emorials

t hat w ere

m ade i n h onour o f s pecific i nterments? Ib elieve t here a re s everal c lues . T he f irst i s t he c onstructions t hemselves . T he c onstructions o ver t he t emple b urials s eem t o h ave b ecome t he r aison d 'etre o f t he t emples ' e xistence, m ore s ignificant t han t heir c eremonial u se t hough p ossibly c onnected t o i t . T hey w ere d esigned a nd b uilt f or r oyal i nterment . T hat t hese i ndividuals w ere i mportant i s s ubstantiated b y t he l abour i nvestment n eeded t o b uild t he m ausoleum a nd t he w ealth i n q uantity a nd q uality o f g rave g oods w ith s everal b urials . T hirtye ight o f t he s ixty-five r ichest b urials h ad s ome s ort o f m emorial o ver t he g raves , n ine c ontained i ndividuals a ccompanied b y s acrificial v ictims , a nd a ll n ine k nown b urials o f r ulers h ad c onstructions b uilt o ver t heir g raves ( compare T ables 9 8 , 9 9 & 1 02 w ith T ables 1 08 , 1 09 a nd t he d iscussion o f t he h ousehold s hrine m emorials) . T hese w ere i ndividuals o f s ignificant w ealth a nd s ocial s tatus . ( It s hould b e n oted t his i ncludes t he t wo y outh b urials , A -5/2 a nd A -1/2 .) . T he f act t hat t he c onstructions w ere m ade a t t he t ime o f t heir d eaths i mplies t hat t heir d eaths a nd n ot j ust t heir s tatus w ere i mportant . T his i s a lso s uggested b y t he s econd c lue . I t c onsists o f c arbon a nd a sh r emains

l eft o n t he s urface o f s ome o f

t he o verlaying g rave c onstructions . A r itual o f s ome k ind m ust h ave o ccurred o nce t he c onstruction w as c omplete a nd/or a t c ertain p eriods t hereafter . P resumably c opal, i ncense a nd s ome o ther m aterials w ere b urned d uring a r itual h onouring t he d eceased . S uch e vidence w as f ound w ith B urials T B-4/7,

T B-4/6 ,

T B-4 /1 , A -1/3 a nd A -3/1,

A ltun H a .

T his i s r ather

l imited e vidence b ut t he e vidence f or i t e lsewhere m ay h ave b een o verlooked . T here w as c onsiderable e vidence f or c arbon a nd a sh r emains o ver m any b urials

i n

S tr .

C -13 , A ltun H a ,

a P reclassic

c eremonial

p latform .

B ut

b ecause t here w ere n o c onstructions p laced o ver t he b urials i n t his p latform a nd m any c ontained m utilated s keletons w ho h ad o bviously b een s acrificed ( as e xist w ith s ome c eremonial p latform b urials a t o ther s ites - s ee T able 1 04) ,

1 91

t he r ituals a nd b urials m ay h ave b een a cts o r r ites c onsecrating e vents o r b urials m ade e lsewhere . T he t hird c lue c onsists o f a n umber o f b urials t hat h ad b een c overed o ver b y b enches ( Table 10) . S ome w ere l ocated i n h ousehold s hrines a nd t emples , b ut m ost w ere i n p alaces a nd r esidences . T he f act t hat 3 1/37 b ench b urials w ere i n r esidential s tructures m ay b e m ost r evealing . B enches m ay b e t he s ort o f c onstructions t hat c ommemorated t he d ead i n r esidences .

S ince

t hey c ould

e asily

d ouble

f or

a ltars ,

b enches m ay

a t

t imes h ave b een u sed f or c onducting t he s ame r ituals t o t he d ead a s o ccurred a t h ousehold s hrines , t emples a nd c eremonial p latforms . T his p ractice i s k nown f rom t he P ostclassic p eriod . S everal b urials w ere f ound i n b enches/altars a t M ayapan ( Pollock e t a l . 1 962 : 2 46-51) a nd S anta R ita C orozal ( Chase 1 985 : 14) . S ome b enches d oubled a s a ltars . T hey w ere l ocated i n t he c entre r ooms o f f amily s tructures t hat a cted a s s hrines t o t he d ead a ncestors ( Thompson 1 966: 1 44) . I ndeed, e ach i mportant r esidence h ad i ts f am ily o ratory , e ither i n a s pecial r oom o f t he h ouse o r i n an earby b uilding , t he s hrines b eing u sed f or a ncestral c ults w ith f amily o ssuaries b efore t he a ltar ( bench) ( ibid . : 1 47) . T he s imilarity w ith o ur s ample s uggests t hat t his P ostclassic c ustom h ad a c onsiderable a ntiquity . I n a ddition , o f t he 3 7 b ench b urials , 1 3 a re o f c hildren , B urials C 8 , C 9 &C 7, S an J osé, A 48 & A 57, U axactun , a nd E -7/25, C -10/6, 8 , 3 , 4& 7 , a nd E -14/8 & 9 , A ltun H a ; 1o f am other a nd c hild , A 44 , U axactun ; 1o f a y outh a nd c hild , E -14 / 4 , A ltun H a ; a nd 1 o f am utilated i ndividual i n a n u rn , B 7, B aking P ot . E ach o f t hese b urials m ay h ave b een s acrificial o r d edicatory i n n ature . T hough n ot t he f ocus o f v eneration , t heir p lacement m ay h ave b een d edicated t o f amily a ncestors . T he f inal c lue c onsists o f 1 b urials i n w hich t he i nterred , o r p rimary i nterred , h ad t he f ace o r s kull r emoved , i n s ome i nstances a long w ith t he h ands o r f emurs ( Table 11) . I d o n ot b elieve a ny o f t hese i nstances o f m utilation i ndicate s acrifice , a nd a lthough B urial 7 9 , A ltar d e S acrificios , w as d isturbed i t i s t oo s imilar t o t he o thers n ot t o b e i ntentional r emoval o f t he s kull r ather t han a ccidental d isplacement . S ince a t l east 3 o f t he i nterred h ad t heir m issing f ace o r s kull s ubstituted b y am osaic m ask , t his i mplies r emoval f or a p urpose o ther t han s acrifice .* Is uggest t he f ace o r s kull w ere r emoved f or t he p urposes o f w orshipping t hem o r e ven w orn a s m asks i n l ater r ituals . T he i nstances o f t he 2 f aceless a dults w ith d efleshed l egs i n S tr . 3 851& 3 85-2 , D zibilchaltun , a re i nteresting .

T hese i nstances s uggest a cts o f

* T here w ere 8 o ther i nstances o f i nterments w ith s kulls r emoved t hat r esemble t he 1 i n T able 11 b ut w hich h ave b een l isted a s s acrifices , i .e . B urials R 4 &R 5 , B aking P ot , E 12 & E 2 , U axactun , C -13/7 , A ltun H a , a nd 1 08 , 8 9 & 6 6, A ltar d e S acrificios ( Table 1 04) . I b elieve t hese 8 w ere s acrifices b ecause s kulls , n ot f aces , w ere r emoved , o nly 1 h ad a ccompanying g rave g oods - 8 9 -a nd n one h ad m asks . T his i mplies a l ack o f c are a nd r espect t hat w as p resent w ith t he f urnished , f aceless b urials i n T able 11 . T herefore ,

t he f ormer a re c onsidered s acrifices ,

1 92

t he l atter a re n ot .

c annibalism t o m e . C ould i t b e t hat t he f lesh o f t he d eceased w as d evoured i n o rder t hat t he s pirit o f t he a ncestor l ived o n i n e ach w ho h ad a b ite? N ot i nconceivable c onsidering t he i mportance t hat r etaining t he f acial b ones o r c alvaria ( see b elow ) . T ogether ,

s eems

t o e xist

i n

t hese 4 c lues p rovide t he i mplication t hat t he C lassic

l owland M aya p ractised a ncestor w orship . T he p resence o f b enches , a ltars , s pecial p latforms a nd t emples o ver s ome b urials r eveals t hat s ome i ndividuals w ere v enerated . T he c arbon a nd a sh r emains s uggest t hat r ituals w ere c onducted i n h onour o f t hese i ndividuals a t t he t ime o f t heir b urial a nd/or a t c ertain p eriods t hereafter . F aces a nd s kulls o f s ome d ead a ncestors w ere p ossibly r etained t o b e d isplayed a nd w orshipped a t a ppropriate t imes . S o l ike t he P ostclassic M aya o f M ayapan , Ib elieve t he C lassic

l owland

M aya

a lso

p ractised

a ncestor w orship

a nd

p robably

t o

a

f airly p errasive l evel , i .e . f rom a f amily l evel i n r esidences t o l ords o f t he r ealm i n t emples . T he e thnographic a nd e thnohistoric l iterature , a nd t he a ncient M aya a rt a nd i conography s upport t his c ontention , a s d oes , I b elieve , t he p ractice o f r itual s acrifice . F urhermore , a ncestor w orship m ay w ell h ave b een t he p rimary f actor s timulating m any s ocial, r eligious a nd p olitical a cts a nd r ituals . I n e xamining t he s upporting e vidence , l et u s w ork b ack i n t ime .

E thnographic a nd E thnohistoric L iterature . T he p ractice o f a ncestor w orship h as n ot a ttracted m uch a ttention f or s tudy b y m any o f t he S panish c onquistadores , p riests o r m erchants , n or h as i t a ttracted m uch s tudy t oday . H owever , e nough o bservations h ave b een m ade t o p rovide c ompelling e vidence f or i ts e xistence a nd t he n ature o f i ts p ractice . A ncestor w orship s eems

t o e xist t o t his d ay i n d istricts o f H ighland

G uatemala . F or t he H ighland M aya i n M omostenango , a ncestors c omprise 1 /3 o f t he n atural p antheon t hat a ffects h uman ( Mayan ) e xistence . T he o ther t wo p arts a re G od , g hosts , a ngels a nd s aints a s a dopted f rom C hristianity , a nd t he W orld ( redlock 1 982: 4 1) . S o i mportant a nd i nfluential a re t hese a ncestors t hat e ach p atrilineage h as 3 g roups o f s hamans p erform r ituals f or t he l ineages t o t heir a ppropriate d ays ( ibid .: 3 6 & 7 7) . T he a ncestors p revent b ad t hings f rom h appening a nd e ncourage g ood F or t he n eighbouring A guacatecs, i mportant

d imension i n

t he

s ociety .

l ineage s hrines w here a ncestors o n s pecific h ad t o b e p raised t o t hings t o h appen .

a ncestor w orship a lso o ccupied a n F rom t ime

t o t ime a c ommunity d ance

f estival w ould b e h eld f or t he a ncestors t o t emporarily f ree t hem a nd a llow t hem t o m ix w ith t he l iving ( McArthur 1 977 : 1 2) . A mong t he L acandones , e ach s ettlement

( plaza

g roup)

c ontained

a s acred

h ut w here

a ll

t he

r eligious

o bservances w ere c arried o ut a nd w here t he g ods o f t he f amily - a ncestors? w ere k ept ( Tozzer 1 907 : 3 9) . I f t hese f amily d eities w ere a ncestors t his d escription p arallels t he p laza g roups o f t he a ncient M aya a nd s uggests n ot o nly t he c ustom o f a ncestor w orship b ut t hat p laza g roups w ere o ccupied b y f amilies a nd t he s acred h ut w as t he h ousehold s hrine f or f am ily a ncestors . H owever ,

t here i s c onflicting e vidence f rom a nother c ommunity .

Q uichg M aya d istrict o f H ighland G uatemala ,

I n a

a ncestor w orship w as r eserved

f or h igh r anking l ords, n ot c ommoners, b ecause i t i s k nown f rom m odern e thnographic s tudies t hat

1 93

N o a ttempt w as m ade c ommoners .

t o p reserve t he b odies o r m emories o f

T he b ody o f t he v assal w as f ood f or t he e arth ,

w hile t he e ssence o f t he d eceased w as b elieved t o e nter t he a ir a nd c louds , w here i t w ould c oalesce w ith t he o ther d ead , t o b e c arried t o a nd f ro w ith t he w inds . T he i ndividual l ost h is p ersonal i dentity , r eturning t o t he e arth a nd s ky f rom w hich h e h ad n ever b een f ar r emoved ( Carmack 1 981: 1 50) . T his i s h ardly a uspicious e vidence f or m y c ontention .

T he l imited e vidence

f or a ncestor w orship a mong a ncient M aya c ommon h ouseholds m ay b e b ecause t hey h eld t he v ery s ame b elief a nd t he c ustom w as o nly r eserved f or , o f a nd b y t he M aya a ristocracy . T he e thnohistoric l iterature i s m ore s upportive , h owever . T he Q uiche M aya h ad 2 4 p rincipal p atrilineages a nd a n umber o f v assal l ineages ( Carmack 1 981: 1 56 & 1 60 . E ach l ineage w as a l andholding u nit ( ibid . : 1 61) a nd e ach h ad a l eader t o r epresent t he g roup , t he l eaders o f t he

p rincipal

s tatus ,

l ineages

a nd o f c ourse ,

h aving

p ositions

o f

g reater

o wnership o f m ore l and .

p olitical

p ower

a nd

E ach l ineage c ould t race

i ts l ine b ack t o a n a ncestor o f 5o r 6g enerations ( ibid .) , u seful k nowledge f or d etermining l and h olding r ights , a nd e ach l ineage h ad a p atron d eity t hat w as a ssociated w ith a f orce o f n ature a nd a t otem ( ibid . : 6 2) . T he p atron d eity c ould l ink a l ineage t o af orce o f n ature a nd t he l ink w ould b e m ade b y t he s acred r ituals p ractised b y t he l ineage l eaders . S ometimes t his w ould i nclude s acrifice a nd/or t he s hedding o f t heir o wn b lood ( ibid . : 6 3) . T he l ands o f e ach l ineage h ad s acred s pots w here a ltars w ere b uilt t o p ermit t hese a nd o ther s imilar r ituals, a nd t he m ost i mportant o ne w as t he ' sleeping h ouse ' , a s hrine f or t he a ncestors ( ibid . : 1 61) . A l ineage t erritory c ould b e r iddled w ith c ountless n umbers o f t hese a ltars ( sacred p laces) , s ome n ear r esidences , s ome i n t he w ilderness , b ut m ost w ere f or c onducting r ituals t o t he a ncestors . P eople i n t he r ural a reas c ould v isit t heir r ural a ltars t o m ake c ontact w ith t heir a ncestors a nd , t hrough t hem , c ontact t he m ore p owerful d eities w ho w ere o nly a vailable f or c ontact i n t he t own t emples o bviously a ct a s g o-betweens . I t

i s

t empting

( ibid .:

t o e nquire w hat m ight

2 85) .

T he a ncestors

b e f ound b eneath s ome

o f

c ould

t hese

a ltars . W eeks r emarks t hat a fter a Q uiche n oble w as e ntombed , t he g rave w as c overed b y a n a ltar o n w hich t hey c ommonly b urned i ncense a nd o ffered s acrifice ( Weeks 1 983 : 6 0) . E lsewhere w e f ind t hat " afterward a bove t he t omb t hey [ Quiche] m ade a n a ltar a c ubit h igh, o f l ime a nd s tone w ell w hitened , o n w hich t hey c ommonly b urned i ncense a nd o ffered o ther s acrifices" ( Las C asas a s t ranslated b y M iles 1 957 : 7 50) . C ould i t b e t hat p laces w ere c onsidered s acred a nd h ad a ltars b uilt b ecause l ineage l eaders h ad t heir g raves t here? A part f rom t hese t wo s tatements I h ave f ound n o f urther i nformation t o c onfirm o r d eny t his b ut i t s hould p rove o f i nterest t o

f ind

o ut .

O bviously a ncestor w orship w as p ractised a mong

t he Q uiche

M aya t o s ome e xtent , t hough t he e mphasis a ppears t o h ave b een w ith l ineage h eads w ho c onducted i mportant r ituals a nd t hrough w hom l ineage l and w as o wned a nd d istributed . N onetheless, i ts i mportance c an n ot b e o vere mphasized b ecause e ven t oday a mong t he Q uiche M aya t he e ssence o f a ncestors l ives o n a s a g reat m oral f orce o f t he u niverse , a nd t he c emetery i s a n i mportant s ite f or r ituals t o t he a ncestors ( Carmack 1 981: 3 52) . I s uspect t his i mplies a c ontinued c onnection b etween w here a ncestors w ere b uried a nd w here t he r ituals w ere t o b e c onducted .

1 94

T urning

t o

t he Y ucatan ,

m ostly i nferences ,

L anda

a lso

p rovides

a bout a ncestor w orship .

i nteresting

c ommentary ,

H is d escriptions a re a lso v ery

u seful i n i nforming u s o f t he e xtent o f i dolatry a mong t he Y ucatan M aya , m uch o f w hich , a s i t t ranspires , w as a ssociated w ith a ncestor w orship . W e a re f irst i nformed a bout t he e normous n umber o f i dols t hat w ere w orshipped b y t hem . T hey

W e r ead t hat

[ Yucatan M aya]

h ad

a v ery g reat

n umber o f

i dols

[ in t emples]

a nd t he l ords, p riests a nd t he l eading m en h ad a lso o ratories a nd i dols i n t heir h ouses , w here t hey m ade t heir p rayers a nd o fferings i n p rivate ( Tozzer 1 941:

1 08) .

T his i nforms u s t hat i dols w ere w orshipped n ot o nly p ublicly b ut a lso p rivately i n t he p rivate h omes o f t he w ell-to-do , w hich f its i n w ell w ith t he d escriptions o f s hrines a nd o ratories o f f amily w orship i n P ostclassic M ayapan ( see a bove p . 2 70) . B ut w e a re a lso t old t hat " the c ommon p eople a lso h ad p rivate i dols t o w hom t hey s acrificed "( ibid .: 1 08, n ote 4 97) . S o j ust a bout e very o ne h ad t ho u . B ut w hat d o t he i dols r epresent? L anda b egins t o g ive u s c lues : T hey h ad s uch a g reat q uantity o f i dols t hat e ven t hose o f t heir g ods w ere n ot e nough ; f or t here w as n ot a n a nimal o r i nsect f or w hich t hey d id n ot m ake a s tatue , a nd t hey m ade a ll t hese i n t he i mage o f t heir g ods a nd g oddesses ( rozzer 1 941 : 10) . T his p rovides t he f irst i ndication o f w hat t he i dols r epresent : g ods a nd g oddesses . B ut s urely t he c omment t hat t here w ere i mages o f e very a nimal a nd i nsect c an n ot a ll r epresent g ods ; g iven m ore c lues : . . .

i n o ur

o pinion

b ut i f g ods ,

g ods o f w hat? W e a re t hen

t here m ust h ave b een m ore

t han

1 00 ,000

[ idols]

[ made] o f s tone, o f w ood a nd o f c lay . O thers w ere m ade o f g round m aize S ome [ were] f igures o f b ishops . . s ome a re f igures o f m en a nd o thers o f w omen , o thers o f f ierce b easts a s l ions a nd t igers, a nd d ogs a nd d eer , o thers a s s erpents o thers a s e agles , frogs

a nd o thers a s o wls a nd a s o ther b irds . and of fish ( ibid.:

T his i s q uite a c ollection o f i mages

O thers o f t oads a nd o f 1 10, Note 496).

a nd I h ave

t he

i mpression t hat

m any i dols w ere t he s ymbols o f t he t otemic a nimals o f d ifferent c lans a nd l ineages . B ut c ould t he f igures o f m en a nd w omen b e i mages o f a ncestors? T here a re m ore c lues : T he w ooden

i dols

w ere

s o m uch e steemed

t hat

t hey w ere c onsidered a s

h eirlooms t he m ost i mportant p art o f t he i nherited p roperty b ut t hey h eld t hem i n r everence o n a ccount o f what t hey r epresented ( ibid .: 1 11) .

B ut w hat

d id

t hey

r epresent?

W hatever

i t w as

i t

s eems

r ather

i mportant .

L anda a t l ast t ells u s i n t his f ollowing p assage o n ad iscussion o f b urying t he d ead . H e r ead : T hey b uried

t hem i nside o r i n t he r ear o f t heir h ouses ,

t he g rave w ith t hem s ome o f t heir i dols ,

1 95

c asting i nto

A s f or t he n obles a nd

p ersons o f h igh e steem , t hey b urned t heir b odies a nd p laced t heir a shes i n u rns a nd w hen t hey w ere o f v ery h igh r ank t hey e nclosed t heir a shes i n s tatues o f p ottery m ade h ollow . T he r est o f t he p eople o f p osition m ade f or t heir f athers w ooden s tatues o f w hich t he b ack o f t he h ead w as l eft h ollow a nd p laced i ts a shes t here T hey p reserved t hese s tatues w ith a g reat d eal o f v eneration a mong t heir i dols . T hey u sed t o c ut o ff t he h eads o f t he o ld l ords o f C ocom , w hen t hey d ied [ and] t hey k ept t hese t ogether w ith t he s tatues w ith t he a shes a ll o f w hich t hey k ept i n t he o ratories o f t heir h ouses w ith t heir i dols , h olding t hem i n v ery g reat r everence a nd r espect . A nd o n a ll t he d ays o f t heir f estivals a nd r ejoicings t hey m ade o fferings o f f oods t o t hem s o t hat t he f ood s hould n ot f ail t hem i n t he o ther l ife , w here t hey t hought t hat t heir s ouls r eposed, a nd w here t heir g ifts w ere o f u se t o t hem ( Tozzer 1 941: 1 30-31) . T his

r evealing p assage

i nforms u s t hat s ome i dols d id r epresent

a ncestors . I n s ome i nstances n ot o nly d id t hey r epresent a ncestors t hey l iterally w ere t hem , e ither a s a h uman f igure c ontaining t heir c remated r emains, o r b y b eing t he a ctual h eads ( or j ust f aces?) . L anda a lso r eveals t hat ‚ they w ere k ept i n t heir h ouses w here o n c ertain d ays o f t he y ear t he h ead o r i dol c ould b e b rought o ut a nd o fferings m ade t o i t . I n o ther w ords , p rivate w orship . W hat i s n ot c lear i s t he e xtent t o w hich t his w as p ractised . L anda i nitially r efers t o p ersons o f h igh e steem b ut t hen r efers t o t he c ustom a mong t he r est o f t he p eople o f p osition . Ip resume h e i s s till r eferring t o p eople o f s ome s tatus . T here i s l ittle r eference t o t he c ommoners s o n o r eal k nowledge o f t he e xtent o f i ts p resence a mong t hem . T hough w e a re t old t hat e ach l ineage h ad i ts o wm p atron d eity i n Y ucatan s ociety ( Roys 1 943 : 3 5) , w e a re n ot i nformed w hether a ll h ouseholds w orshipped t hem I n a nother s eries

o f p assages L anda r eveals t he s ort o f r ituals

i nvolved w ith t he w orship o f i dols : A nd t hey r eturned t o t he w orship o f t heir i dols a nd t o o ffer t hem s acrifices n ot o nly o f i ncense b ut a lso o f h uman b lood 7 5-76).

( Tozzer

1 941:

a nd T hey o ffered s acrifices o f t heir o wn b lood

t hey p ierced t heir

t ongues i n a s lanting d irection f rom s ide t o s ide a nd p assed b its s traw t hrough t heir h oles w ith h orrible s uffering ( ibid . : 13) .

o f

a nd H oles w ere m ade i n t he v irile m ember o f e ach o ne o bliquely f rom s ide t o s ide a nd t hrough t he h oles w hich t hey h ad t hus m ade ,

t hey p assed t he

g reatest q uantity o f t hread t hat t hey c ould , a nd a ll o f t hem b eing t hus f astened a nd s trung t ogether , t hey a nointed t he w hich f lowed f rom a ll t hese p arts ( ibid . : 14) .

i dol w ith t he

b lood

R ather g ruesome t o s ay t he l east b ut w e s hall s ee t hat h is o bservations w ere o f r ituals v irtually i dentical t o w hat i s d epicted i n t he a ncient M aya a rt ( see b elow ) . I t w as a pparently o ne m ethod o f c ommunicating w ith t he d ead . T hese p assages c learly r eveal

t he p ractice o f a ncestor w orship a mong

Q uiche a nd L acandon M aya i n t he 1 6th c entury .

1 96

T he f ormer w orshipped t heir

a ncestors

a t

t heir l ineage .

a ltars

i n

v arious

l ocations w ithin t he

l andholding a rea o f

I t i s c onceivable t hat i ndividuals h ad b een b uried a t t hese

a ltars . E xcavation o f P ostclassic S anta R ita C orozal h as r evealed 3 d ifferent t ypes o f a ltars, 2 o f w hich w ere c onstructed o ver b urials: a f ormal s quare c onstruction , l ike a b ench , a ttached t o t he r ear w all o f a n i nterior s hrine , a nd a l ow , s quare s tone c onstruction s et i n o pen a reas i n f ront o f l arger b uildings ( Chase 1 985: 1 14) . T he L acandon Maya , o n t he o ther h and , c oncentrated o n t he w orship o f i dols w ho r epresented f ormer a ncestors , o r o n t he a ctual h eads t hemselves . T he w orship w as p ractised i n t heir o wn h omes , a s w ell a s i n p ublic . B oth g roups p erformed r ituals t o t heir a ncestors a t v arious t imes o f t he y ear a nd s elf-mutilation a nd s acrifice w ere i nvolved i n c arrying o ut t hese r ituals . M uch o f t hese o bservations c onfirm s ome i nterpretations o f o ur b urial d ata a nd t he p resence o f a ncestor w orship , e .g . t he u se o f r eal h eads o f r eal a ncestors ; t he c onducting o f r ituals a t a ltars o ver b urials o r a t b enches w ithin a h ouse o r s hrine ; a nd t he f act t hat r ituals t ook p lace a t a ll . W hat i s n ot k nown i s t he e xtent t o w hich t he c ustom w as p ractised b y t he c ommon f olk . T he e thnohistoric l iterature d oes n ot r eally e nlighten u s m uch i n t his r espect . A ncestor w orship w as n evertheless p ractised t o a c onsiderable e xtent a mong t he w ell-to-do .

A ncient M aya A rt & I conography T he a ncient M aya a rt a nd i conography a re a s e nlightening a bout a ncestor w orship t oo . T his i s a r esult o f r ecent d evelopments a nd t he m eaning o f m uch i conographic a nd r elated a rtistic d epictions h ave o nly r ecently b ecome d eciphered a nd u nderstood . T hese p rovide a r ather d ifferent c omplexion o f M aya b ehaviour t han w as h itherto b elieved . T he e vidence f or a ncestor w orship i s n ot d irect . W hat t he a rt a nd i conography r eveal a re t he a cts t he M aya c onducted i n t heir v arious r ituals . T he d epictions p ortrayed a re p recisely t he g ruesome s acrificial a nd s elfm utilating a cts d escribed b y L anda . T he d epictions o f h eart s acrifice , d ecapitation ,

a nd t he

l ike h ave

a lready

b een d escribed

( see

c hapter

1) .

B ut t here a re a lso d epictions o f s elf-mutilation o f t he t ongue a nd p enis a s d escribed b y L anda . T wo e xamples o f t ongue m utilation c ome f rom L intels 2 4 a nd 1 7, Y axchilan . L intel 2 4 s hows L ady X oc , w ife o f t he r uler , S hield J aguar ,

p ulling

a t horn-lined

r ope

t hrough

h er

m utilated

t ongue .

T he r ope f alls t o aw oven b asket , w hich h olds b lood-spotted p aper a nd a s tingray s pine . H er l ips a nd c heeks a re s meared w ith d otted s crolls , s ymbolic o f t he b lood s he s heds t o s ustain t he g ods

( Schele & M iller 1 986 : 1 86-87 a nd P late 6 2) .

L intel 1 7 s hows v irtually t he s ame s cene , o nly t he a ctors a re L ady B alam-Ix a nd B ird J aguar , d escendents o f L ady X oc a nd S hield J aguar ( ibid . : 1 89 a nd P late

6 4) .

T he r itual

o f p enis m utilation h as e ven m ore v ivid d epictions . A

C lassic p eriod v ase o f u nknown p rovenance d epicts 3 d ancers p erforming i n t his r itual f or a M aya l ord : T heir w hite l oincloths a re s pattered w ith b lood b ecause t he

1 97

d ancers h ave p erforated t heir p enises . A s t hey w hirl, b lood i s d rawn i nto t he p aper p anels e xtending f rom t heir g roins ( ibid . : 1 93 a nd P late 7 2) . T his s cene i s o f c ourse v ery s imilar t o t he s cene i n R oom 3 o f t he B onampak m urals i n w hich 7 d ancing f igures a t t he b ase o f t he p yramid a nd a nother t hree o n t he s teps h ave h ad t heir p enises p erforated w ith p aper p anels . T hey a re p erforming a s imilar d ance f or t he M aya l ord a fter h is v ictory i n w ar a nd t he s ecuring o f c aptives f or s acrifice

( Miller 1 986 :

P late 3 ) .

a ddition , t here a re a n umber o f f igurines d epicting t he r ite , c onsists o f am an s if ting c ross-legged a nd

I n

o ne o f w hich

l aying h is e xposed p enis a cross a s tack o f b lue p aper a s h e m akes t he c uts t o d raw b lood

( Schele & M iller 1 986 :

1 92 a nd P late 7 0) .

A nother t ype o f b loodletting d epicts i ndividuals c onducting t he s elfm utilation f or t he p urpose o f i nducing a n h allucinatory v ision , a v ision q uest . O n L intel 2 5 o f Y axchilan , L ady X oc i s s een k neeling . I n h er r ight h and s he h olds a p late c ontaining b loodied p aper a nd l ancets , a nd i n h er l eft, o ne c ontaining b loodied p aper , a s tingray s pine a nd a n o bsidian l ancet . A nother p late s its o n t he f loor i n f ront o f h er h olding l ancets , b loodied p aper a nd a r ope , a nd f rom t his a h uge d ouble-headed V ision S erpent h as r eared u p ( ibid . : 1 87 a nd P late 6 3) . A s econd i mage c omes f rom L intel 1 5 , a lso o f Y axchilan . O ne o f B ird J aguar 's w ives s its i n f ront o f a c lay b owl l ined w ith b loody p aper f rom w hich a b earded V ision S erpent r ears u p t hrough a b eaded b lood s croll . F rom i ts m outh e merges t he a ncestor w hom t he l ady h as c ontacted i n t he r ite ( ibid . : 1 90 a nd P late 6 5) . B oth i mages c learly a ssociate t he q uest f or t he v ision o f a n a ncestor w ith c ompleted a cts o f b loodletting . T hese s even e xamples o f b loodletting p resent t wo d ifferent, r elated , t ypes o f r itual . a cts c ommitted i n r ituals a ccession t o t he t hrone . k ing

h ad

t o

b e

o f

b ut

B oth t he t ongue a nd p enis s elf-mutilation w ere c ommemorating t he d esignation o f a n h eir o r a n T hese w ere i mportant e vents b ecause a lthough t he

l egitimate a ncestry a nd

l ineage ,

r itual

s acrifice a nd

b loodletting w ere a lso n ecessary p arts o f t he p rocess t o s anctify t he n ew r uler ( ibid . : 10) . T hey c ontinue : T o t he M aya , h uman b eings w ere c reated t o n ourish a nd s ustain t he g ods t hrough s acrifice . T he r uler w as b oth h uman a nd g od a nd , t hus, t he v ehicle t hrough w hich t he s acred a nd p rofane i nteracted . T he t ransformation o f a n h eir i nto t he k ing r equired s anctifications o f t he m ost s acred k ind - h uman b lood ( Schele & M iller 1 986 : 10) . S o i f h e w ere o f t he r ight b lood ( ancestry) , a nd s acrifice a nd b loodletting w ere c onducted a s r ites, h is r ule w ould s ucceed . T he p roper a ncestry l egitimised h is r ule a nd t he b lood w as t he s ubstance t hat s ealed t he c eremonial e vents . A k ing 's r ightful p lace c ould o nly b e s ecured b y t hese r ites a nd b y h is a ncestry , s ometimes t raced t o a g od h imself ( ibid . : 1 04) . H ence t he r eason f or t he e xtent o f w arfare t o a cquire c aptives s acrificed , a nd f or s elf-mutilation .

t o b e

T he s econd t ype o f s elf-mutilation d epicted, t he v ision q uest, i s c losely r elated t o t he r ites o f t he f irst . l t i s k nown t hat e ndorphines a re a c hemical r esponse i n t he b rain a s a r esult o f m assive b lood l oss . T his w ill

i nduce

a n

h allucenogenic

e xperience

1 98

( ibid . :

1 77) .

T he

p urpose

o f

i nducing a ncestors .

s uch T he

v isions w as v ision

i n o rder t o c ommumicate w ith t he g ods

s erpent w as

t he

c ontact

b etween

t he

a nd

s upernatural

r ealm a nd t he h uman w orld . I f c ontact w ere e stablished , t he r ite w ould s anctify t he e vent . A ll s tages o f l ife , a nd e vents o f p olitical o r r eligious s ignificance , e .g . p lanting o f c rops , b irth o f c hildren , b uilding c onstruction , m arriage, o r t he b urial o f t he d ead, r equired t he r ite o f b loodletting t o i nduce a n a ppearance o f t he V ision S erpent a nd s o p ermit c ommunication w ith t he g ods a nd a ncestors . O nly t hen w ould t he s uccess a nd c ontinuation o f l ife b e s ecured . F or M aya l ords , c ontact w ith t he a ncestors w as v ital, b oth t o s ecure t heir s uccession a nd t o e nsure t he s uccess o f s ociety. I t w ould h ave b een p articularly i mportant f or t he Maya t o h ave c ontacted t he a ncestors a t t he t ime o f ap erson 's ( lord 's) d eath i f t he M aya c onsidered d eath t o h ave b een a r ite o f p assage . A r ite o f p assage r efers t o t he r ituals p erformed o n a n i ndividual a s h e/she i s p ermanently p rocessed o r t ransformed f rom o ne s tate ( status) t o a nother . B irth , p uberty, m arriage a nd d eath a re s uch i nstances .

T hese r ites c ontain 3 s tages a nd f or

d eath t hese w ould b e :

1 )

c hange o f c ondition ( person d ies) ,

2 )

p rocess o f c hanging ( preparation f or a nd a ct o f b urial) ,

3 )

t he n ew s tatus a fter t he c hange ( becomes a n a ncestor) . S ince t he a ncient M aya d id n ot s eem t o h ave r egarded d eath s o m uch a s a

f inal b reak b ut a s ac hange o f s tatus w hich l eft a ncestors s till c onnected t o t heir l iving d escendents ( Hammond 1 982 : 2 86) , t hen t he M aya m ust h ave c onsidered d eath a s a r ite o f p assage a nd w ould h ave c onducted r ituals a nd a ttempted c ommunication w ith t he a ncestors a t t he d eath o f ap erson t o e nsure a s uccessful t ransition o f t he s tatus , a nd t ransportation o f t he d eceased f rom t his w orld t o t he n ext . T hus ,

i t i s b ecoming o bvious w hy a ncestor w orship w as s o i mportant t o

t he a ncient M aya . T hough w e d o n ot h ave d irect i conographic e vidence f or s uch r ituals t o h ave o ccurred o n a ltars o r i n s hrines u pon t he d eath o f a l ord , L anda 's o bservations a nd t he a rchaeological e vidence s uggest i t t o h ave b een s o . P yramidal t emples w hich h oused t he t ombs o f d ead a ncestors a nd r ecorded a ncestral h istory i n t heir i nscriptions , w ere a lso t he s ites o f b loodletting ( Schele & M iller 1 986 : 2 69) . t ransformer t hrough w hom , i n r itual a cts ,

A nd s ince t he k ing a cted a s t he t he p ower o f t he s upernatural

p assed i nto o ur w orld ( ibid . : 3 01) , t he d eath o f ak ing w as n o b etter a t ime f or s uch r ites t o o ccur, b oth f or t he i mmediate a ncestor t o g ive h is b lessing a nd f or t he n ew s uccessor t o s eek i t .

T he i conography o n P acal 's

s arcophagus s tates t hat h e h as d ied a s ak ing b ut w ill b e r eborn a g od ,

i .e .

a d eified a ncestor ( Robertson 1 983: 5 6), a nd a s a g od h e w ould b e v ery c apable o f b lessing h is s uccessor . T he s uccessor w ould b e o bliged t o c onduct t he r ituals t o h is a ncestors t o c omplete t he s uccession . O nly t hen c ould t his d angerous p eriod b etween r uler 's d eath a nd s uccessor 's e nthronement b e s urmounted . H ence t he r eason f or c ontinual d estruction a nd r econstruction o f b uilding c omplexes l ike t he N orth A cropolis, T ikal . I t s uggests t o m odern e yes a p lanned o bsolescence a nd p ublic w orks p rogramme , b ut t he d emands o f a r itual b ased o n t he v eneration o f a ncestors m ust n ecessarily i nvolve r eorganisation a nd n ew m onuments w hen r ulers d ie a nd t hemselves b ecome a ncestors ( Coggins 1 975 : 5 2) . W ith c onstant c onstruction a nd r econstruction o f t he t emples a t p laces l ike T ikal, i t b ecame a v irtual

1 99

p ublic w orks

p rogramme w ith p erhaps

d eveloping s ocial

a ctivity w ould b e e xtremely d angerous : a lone w hat t he a ncestors m ight d o ! O ther

f undamental

c omplexity o f t he s ociet y .

i mportant

e vidence

f or

c onsequences

O nce s tarted ,

i magine

t he s ocial

a ncestor w orship

i s

t o t he

c easing s uch p roblems ,

a pparent

f rom

l et

t he

c ontents a nd i conography o f t he g raves a nd s hrines . T he h uman f igurines , p ainted p ots , a nd i conography i n a n umber o f g raves s eem t o s ymbolise o r d epict a ncestors . T he s hrine o ver B urial 1 67 a t T ikal h as a r epeated s ky s ignature t o i ndicate i t t o b e t he h ome o f t he a ncestors t o w hom t he s hrine w as d edicated ( Coggins 1 975) . I n a s imilar v ein , s everal p olychrome p ots w ith s cenes o f a n e nthroned r uler m ay b e d epicting r ites o f t he r uling e lite i n a ssociation w ith t he v eneration o f a d ead r uler ( ancestor) ( ibid . : 3 02) . M ore i nterestingly , h owever , t here i s t he p ossibility t hat t he m ythical a spects p ortrayed o n m any p ots w ere d ynastic i nsignia ( of r ulers) i ndicating f amily o rigin a nd a ncestry, s uch a s w ater b irds, f ish o r w ater s erpent ( ibid .) . T hese m ay h ave b een t he t otems o f t he r uling l ineages w hich b ecame t he s ymbols o f t he c ities i n w hich t hey r uled . S ome p rincipal f igures o f M aya d ynastic h istory b oasted o f m ythological a ncestries ,

e .g .

P acal

a t

P alenque ,

T urtleshell

a t

P iedras

N egras ,

B ird

J aguar a t Y axchilan , a nd T wo-Legged S ky a t Q uirigua . T heir a ncestors a re c ited a s f lourishing i n t he m ost r emote t imes a nd a s o ccupying a nother c osmological s tage ( Kubler 1 974 : 3 3) . G iven t he M aya c yclical v iew o f t ime , w as t his d one t o v alidate t heir r ule a nd p ower? T he K an C ross a nd M uan F eather m ay h ave h ad d ynastic t ies t o P iedras N egras ( Coggins 1 975 : 4 12) . T he M anikin S ceptre f igure , v isible o n S tela 3 1 a nd p laced a s a f igurine i n t wo T ikal R uler 's g raves , e .g . 1 0 & 1 95 , m ay b e t he e mblem o f t he c lan d eity o f C url N ose ( Burial 1 0) a ncestor o f S tormy S ky ( Burial 4 8) , w hose n ame i s i n f act t he s ame a s C url N ose 's a ncestral s ky d eity ( ibid . : 1 85) . I t i s a lso p erhaps t he M ayan v ersion o f T laloc 3 43) , r evealing t he f amily o rigin ( Teotihuacan ) a nd w ho m ay h ave b ecome t he a ncestor g od o f t he t wo c ities , T ikal a nd T eotihuacan . T he f igure o f ac lan d eity m ay a lso b e b uried w ith t he r ulers i n A ltun H a . T he e normous f igurine o f t he S un G od ( Kinich A hau) i n B urial T B-4/7 m ay b e t he c lan d eity o f t his A ltun H a r uler - y et t o b e p roved b ut t he w ealth o f t he t omb a nd t he i conography s uggest h e w as - w hich b ecame t he a ncestor g od o f t he c ity . S imilarly , t he c lan d eity o f t he r uling f am ily a t P alenque m ay h ave b ecome t he c ity 's a ncestor g od . T he P iers o n t he T emple o f I nscriptions i mply a s ymbolic a ssociation b etween P acal, h is s uccessor , C han B ahlum , a nd G od K ( Robertson 1 983 : 3 7-38) , w ith G od K b eing r ather v isible o n o ther s tructures . T his p erhaps i mplies a ncestral a ssociation . S chele a nd M iller ( 1986: 2 67) s uggest t hat u nderworld c reatures b ecame p atron d eities o f c ities , s uch a s t he j aguar f or T ikal . I b elieve t he a ncestral d eities o f r uling f amilies d id a lso . T he r ites o f t he v ision q uest a nd a ccession t o t he t hrone s eem t o h ave b een s o i mportant i n l egitimizing a nd s anctifying p olitical r ule i t w ould h ardly b e s urprising f or t he a ncestral d eity o f t he r uling f amily t o b ecome t he p atron d eity o f t he c ity t hey r uled . I t i s n ot c lear w hether t hese d eities w ere g ods o r d eified a ncestors b ut a ncestral d eities m ay b e f ound a t o ther s ites . I n c onclusion ,

t he d epictions o f r ituals t o a ncestors i n t he a ncient

a rt a nd i conography , a nd t he d escriptions o f r ituals i n t he e thnohistoric l iterature a re c ompelling e vidence f or t he i mplied e xistence o f a ncestor w orship f rom t he b urial d ata .

T he d epictions a nd d escriptions i nform u s o f

2 00

t he a ctions o f t he r ites a nd w hat t hey w ere f or ,

t he a rchaeology a nd e thno-

h istory p rovide a g ood i ndication w here t he r ites w ere p erformed :

t emples ,

h ousehold s hrines , a ltars a nd o ther s tructures a ssociated w ith b urials . H owever ,

t he a rt ,

i conography ,

a nd

t he e thnohistoric

l iterature o nly

d escribe a ncestor w orship a s p ractised a mong t he M aya e lite a nd t he w ell-tod o . T here i s v irtually n o c omment a bout t he c ustom a mong t he c ommon f olk . T his i s t o b e e xpected s ince t he M aya r ulers h ad a rtisans t o d epict d etails a bout

t heir r ule a nd a ncestry ,

n ot

c ommoners ,

a nd S panish o bservers w ere

l ikely t o h ave b een i n c loser c ontact w ith t he e lite t han t he p oor .

A nd

m ost o f t he a rchaeological d ata a re c onfined t o e vidence f rom h ousehold s hrines a nd t emples o f e lite f amilies a nd l ords . T hey h ad t he w ealth t o c reate t he e laborate c onstructions o n w hich t he r ituals w ere p erformed a nd w hich h ave s urvived , b ut w hich t he p oor c ould n ot e mulate . T he p resence o f b enches ( altars?) , a nd t he r emoval o f h eads f or w orship i n s ome r esidential b urials , h owever , i mply t hat i t w as p ractised . S ecuring a f amily o r ac lan l eader w ould h ave b een o f a s m uch i mmediate i mportance a s w ho t he r uler w as . I t w as t hrough t he f amily h ead t hat t hings l ike p roperty r ights a nd l and a ccession w ere d eterm ined . R ites m ay n ot h ave b een a s e laborate b ut w ere p robably j ust a s i mportant . F uture e xcavation , i f c onducted l ooking f or t he r ight s igns , t he c ommoners .

c ould b etter r eveal t he p ractice o f a ncestor w orship a mong

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C HAPTER T HIRTEEN M aya B urial

T he d escriptions ,

C ustoms

c orrelations a nd a nalysis o f t he p revious c hapters

h ave r evealed a n umber o f c ustoms a dopted b y t he a ncient l owland M aya i n b urying t heir d ead . S ome c ustoms v ary f rom s ite t o s ite a nd h ave a l imited d istribution , w hile o thers s eem t o h ave b een p ractised t hroughout t he l owlands . T hese p ractices m ay b e d istinguished a s p an l owland , r egional c ustoms a nd w e s hall n ow d iscuss e ach i ndividually .

o r a s

P an L owland M aya B urial P ractices T he P an l owland M aya b urial c ustoms t hat h ave b ecome e vident f rom t his a nalysis a re a s f ollows : 1 )

T here

i s

l ittle

e vidence

f or

P rotoclassic a nd C lassic p eriods . r ecorded f rom 3 s ites , t o t he P ostclassic , f ashionable . 2 )

c remation

d uring

t he

P reclassic,

O nly 6 i nstances o f c remation w ere

M ountain C ow , T ikal a nd T onina , a nd 3 o f t hese d ate t he p eriod i n w hich c remation b egan t o b ecome

F or t his p eriod i nhumation w as t he n orm t hroughout t he l owlands .

I ndividuals w ere i nterred u nder e very t ype o f s tructure a nd d welling . T here d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a n ecropolis o r c emetery a t a ny s ite - a n o bservation w hich m ay r equire u s t o l ook a gain a t t he b urials f rom a s upposed n ecropolis a t J aina ( Moedano 1 946; P ina C han 1 948) . H owever , b ecause o f t he l ower n umber o f b urials f ound a t s everal s ites a c emetery m ay y et b e d iscovered . 3 )

T hough

i nterments w ere m ade u nder

v irtually

s tructures u sually , t hough n ot e xclusively ,

e very

t ype

o f

b uilding ,

l ocated o n t he e astern s ide o f

r esidential p lazas s eem t o h ave b een c onstructed f or t he p urpose o f h ousing b urials . T he b urials o f t hese b uildings , c alled h ousehold s hrines , w ere g enerally b etter f urnished a nd p robably c ontained t he p eople o f g reater w ealth a nd s tatus l iving w ithin t he r espective r esidential p lazas . T his d emonstrates t hat B ecker 's ( 1971; 1 986) P laza P lan B a rrangement i s n ot e xclusive t o T ikal . 4 )

T he

a ristocratic

r uling

f amilies

i nterments r eserved f or t emples ,

a nd

r ulers

o f

s ites

h ad

t heir

a nd o ccasionally c eremonial p latforms o r

h ousehold s hrine s . T hese b urials a re p articularly n oticeable f or t heir a mount o f g rave g oods a nd a ll 9 k nown Maya r ulers w ere b uried i n s uch s tructures ( Table 9 9) . T he s ites i n w hich t he w ealthiest i nterments w ere n ot f ound i n t emples , w as e ither b ecause n o t emples e xisted a t t he s ite , i .e . B arton R amie , o r h ad n ot b een e xcavated , i .e . S an J ose , S eibal a nd C opan . 5 )

M any o f

t he

b etter f urnished g raves h ad s pecial

e rected o ver t hem ,

r anging f rom a ltars ,

b enches ,

b urial

c onstructions

s tair b locks a nd p latforms

t o e ntire h ousehold s hrines a nd t emples ( Tables 1 08, 1 09 & 1 10) .

2 15

T hese

c onstructions w ere e rected a s m emorials t o t he d eceased a nd i t w as t he s ole p urpose f or t heir c onstruction . R ituals w ere p robably c onducted a t s uch c onstructions a t t he t ime o f i nterment a nd a ppropriate t imes t hereafter . T his s trongly i mplies t he p ractice o f a ncestor w orship . 6 )

T he m ore c omplex g raves o f c rypts a nd t ombs w ere m ore u sually f ound i n

t emples , h ousehold s hrines a nd c eremonial p latforms . A s a c orollary t hey a lso t ended t o b e b etter f urnished . O f t he 6 5 b est f urnished t emple o r h ousehold s hrine g raves , 2 4 w ere t ombs , 2 2 w ere c rypts , 7w ere c ists a nd 1 2 w ere s imple ( Table 9 8) . T he g raves o f a ll k nown M aya r ulers w ere t ombs . I n c ontrast , o f t he 1 4 ' best f urnished r esidential g raves , o ne w as a t omb , 3 w ere c rypts , 4w ere c ists a nd 6 w ere s imple ( Table 9 6) . 7 )

P rimary ,

s ingle i nterment w as

t he p referred w ay o f b urial

( Table 3 ) .

T he 3 s ites w here s uch a p ractice w as n ot s o p revalent r esulted f rom g rave d isturbance ( Mountain C ow ) , a nd n o d ata o n t he m ethods o f d isposal s ignificant n umber o f b urials a t D zibilchaltun a nd P alenque . 8 )

T here s eem t o h ave b een 4 f orms o f h uman s acrifice p ractised .

f or a

T he f irst

i s t he m ultiple , p rimary b urials c onsisting o f am other a nd c hild , a dult a nd c hild o r a dult(s) a nd c hild(ren ) . T here w ere 3 5 i nstances o f t hese f rom 9 s ites 9 )

( Table

1 01) .

T he s econd f orm o f h uman s acrifice i s e vident f rom t he m ultiple b urials

t hat c onsisted o f a p rimary i nterment a ccompanied b y o ne o r m ore s econdary i nterments . T he s econdary i nterred s eem t o h ave b een s acrificed b ecause o f t he f act t hat g rave f urniture w as p laced a round t he o ne p rimary i nterment ; t he a ccompanying i ndividuals w ere p laced a t t he e xtremity o f , o r o utside , t he g rave , a nd t he a ccompanying i nterred w ere o ften i ntentionally m utilated i n s ome w ay . S acrifice w as p robably m ade i n h onour o f t he p rimary i nterred i ndividuals . T here w ere 2 5 s uch b urials f rom 7 s ites ( Table 1 02) , i ncluding 5 o f k nown r ulers ( Table 9 9) . 1 0)

T he t hird f orm i s a pparent f rom t he d edicatory c ache b urials .

I nfants

o r a dult s kulls w ere p laced b etween b owls a nd t hen d eposited b elow o r i n f ront o f t emple a ltars , s telae o r t emples a s d edications . T hese a re i dentical t o c aches e xcept t hat t hey c onsisted o f h uman v ictims . T here w ere a t l east 2 6 s uch b urials f rom 9 s ites ( Table 1 03) . 1)

T he

f inal

f orm o f s acrifice i s

s keletons i n s ome b urials :

e vident

f rom

t he

s everely m utilated

h eadless b odies , s kulls w ithout b odies ,

b odies

w ithout f emurs, l egs w ithout b odies, m andibles o nly , a nd d eliberately d isarticulated a nd s cattered s keletons . T hese i nterments w ere m ost o ften f ound i n p lazas a nd c eremonial p latforms b ut c ould b e f ound i n r esidences . T here w ere 4 5 s uch b urials f rom 9 s ites ( Table 1 04) i ncluding t he g rave o f a s acrificed b all t eam ( Burial 4 , S eibal) . 1 2)

S ome

i nstances

o f

s kull

r emoval m ay n ot i ndicate s acrifice .

E leven

i nstances o f s kull o r f acial r emoval w ere f or t he p urposes o f w orship ( Table 11) . T he g raves w ere w ell f urnished ( one w as o f S tormy S ky) a md t hree h ad m osaic m asks . T hese e xamples s eem t o f it L anda 's d escriptions o f t he w orship o f t he a ctual s kulls o f d eceased a ncestors . 1 3)

T he d isposing o f t he d ead w ith a b owl o ver o r u nder a s kull w as a v ery

c ommon p ractice .

T here w ere

1 14

i nstances f rom 1 0 s ites ( Table 3 5) .

w ere m ost c ommonly f ound i n r esidences ( 79) a nd p urpose w as p robably t o p rotect t he s kull .

2 16

s imple

g raves

( 77) .

T hese T he

1 4)

U rn

t ype

b urials w ere a lso f airly

c ommon w ith 3 3

i nstances

f rom 8

s ites ( nable 3 6) . Ia m n ot p ositive a bout t heir p urpose b ut h uman s acrifice m ay b e i nvolved , p erhaps i n as imilar v ein t o d edicatory c ache b urials . 1 5) T here w ere 8 e xamples f rom 5 s ites o f s keletons w ith a s hell o ver t he s kull ( table 3 8) . T hough n ot c ommon , i ts p resence f rom 5 s ites s uggests i t t o b e aP an M aya c ustom A ll 8 b urials w ere w ell f urnished a nd i ncluded 2 k nown r ulers , B urials 1 96 & 1 60 , T ikal ( nable 9 9) . S ince c onches w ere u sed t o c all t he g ods i n s ome r ites , t he p urpose o f t his p ractice m ay h ave b een t o c all t he g ods t o t he d eceased . 1 6)

T here s eems t o h ave b een a p reference f or a s pecific s keletal p osition

o f t he i nterred a t m ost s ites .

I t w as d iscovered ,

h owever ,

t hat

s keletal

p osition w as c orrelated w ith g rave t ype a nd d imensions a t 7s ites : f lexed i n t he s maller c ists a nd s imple g raves a nd e xtended i n t he l arger c rypts a nd t ombs . T he p revailing s keletal p ositions a t s ome s ites a re d iscussed u nder r egional p ractices . 1 7) . At e very s ite e xcept A ltun H a , am ajority o f s keletons h ad t heir h eads o rientated i n o ne d irection . A t A ltun H a t here w ere t wo p revalent o rientations . A lthough o rientations c onform t o a r egional p attern ( discussed b elow ) , t he f act t hat t here a re p revailing o rientations a t e very s ite e stablishes t his a s P an M aya . 1 8)

G enerally s peaking ,

t he s ort o f f urniture t he M aya p laced w ith t heir

d ead w as u niform t hroughout t he l owlands , t hough t he a mount v aried f rom s ite t o s ite . S tingray s pines , j ade m osaic m asks a nd p laques , c odex r emains , a nd j ade a nd s hell f igurines w ere o nly f ound i n t he g raves o f r ulers o r o f t he m ost w ealth a nd s tatus . 1 9) C lay f igurine w histles w ere m ore c ommonly f ound i n c hild b urials . b eads w ere f requently p laced i n t he m ouths o f s keletons a nd b odies o ften c overed i n o chre . 2 0)

M ale a nd f emale b urials w ere c omparably f urnished ,

J ade w ere

a nd t hough a dult

b urials w ere g enerally b etter f urnished t han c hild b urials , t he d isparity w as m inimal . T here w ere s ome v ery w ell f urnished y outh b urials . M any o f t hese P an M aya c ustoms w ere a ctually o bserved b y R uz i n h is g eneral i nvestigations f rom 15 s ites o f a ncient M aya a nd M exican m ortuary c ustoms ( Ruz 1 965 ; 1 968) . C ustoms h e n oted w ere : t he l ack o f c remation a nd p revalence o f i nhumation , t he e xistence o f a dult a nd c hild b urials , u rn b urials , ap revalent h ead o rientation a t P alenque , U axactun , B arton R amie , B aking P ot a nd S an J osé , t he p resence o f c ache t ype b urials i n f ront o f a ltars a nd s telae ,

a nd t he f act t hat w ell

f urnished b urials w ere f ound i n

t emples , t ombs a nd c rypts . S ince t his p resent a nalysis i s m ore d etailed a nd s pecific i n s cope , a nd m ore p recise d ata a re a vailable , n ot o nly a re w e a ble t o c onfirm R ues o bservations b ut g reatly e xpand a nd e laborate o n t hem t oo . M oreover , w e a re a ble t o i ndicate c ustoms h e d id n ot o bserve , e .g . s hell o ver s kull b urials , t he e xistence o f h ousehold s hrines l ocated o n t he e ast s ide o f p lazas a nd b uilt s olely t o h ouse b urials , t he e rection o f s pecial b urial c onstructions , s uch a s a ltars , b enches a nd s tair b locks , o ver w ell f urnished g raves, a nd t he e xtent o f h uman s acrifice a nd a ncestor w orship . O ur d iscoveries i n n o w ay d iminish h is , t hey s imply t ake u s a f ew s teps f urther i n u nderstanding t he a ncient M aya .

2 17

R egional B urial P ractices I t w as

o bserved

t hat

s ome p ractices

d id

v ary f rom s ite t o s ite .

w ere t hese p ractices a nd d o a ny c onstitute r egional

c ustoms?

W hat

T he a pparent

a nomalies w ere a s f ollows : 1 )

S imple g raves p revailed a t A ltar d e S acrificios r egardless o f c ontext .

2 )

C rypts w ere

t he

p revalent

g rave

t ype a t D zibilchaltun ,

P alenque a nd

T onina. 3 ) U rn b urials D zibilchaltun . 4 )

w ere

T here w ere f ew ,

f ound

p rimarily,

t hough

n ot

e xclusively,

a t

i f a ny, b owl o ver s kull b urials a t C opan , P iedras

N egras , P alenque a nd T onina . 5 )

F ew p ots w ere b uried w ith t he d eceased a t P alenque a nd P iedras N egras .

6 )

R eusing g raves f or s uccessive i nterments o ccurred e xclusively a t T onina

a nd P alenque . 7 )

L ooted o r u nused g raves w ere p rimarily r estricted t o D zibilchaltun .

8 )

A ltar d e S acrificios a nd S eibal b urials d ated t o t he T erminal C lassic ,

i .e . B oca-Jimba o r f urniture ( none) . 9 )

T epejilote-Bayal

p hases ,

c ontained

a n otable

l ack

T hough s keletal p osition m ay p rimarily b e a ssociated w ith g rave s ize ,

p revalent p osition o ccurred a t m any s ites .

o f

a

T he f lexed p osition p revailed a t

S an J osé , A ltar d e S acrificios , U axactun a nd C opan . T he e xtended p osition a pparently p revailed a t P iedras N egras, P alenque a nd D zibilchaltun ; e xtended a nd s upine a t A ltun H a a nd T onina ; a nd e xtended a nd p rone a t B aking P ot a nd B arton R am ie . 1 0)

P revalent h ead o rientations f or t he d eceased o ccurred a t e very s ite .

H ead t o t he s outh p revailed a t B aking P ot , B arton R amie , B enque V iejo , S an J osé , H olmul a nd i n t emple c ontexts a t A ltun H a . H ead t o t he n orth p revailed a t P iedras N egras, P alenque, T onina , T ikal a nd U axactun . A t U axactun , h ead t o e ast p revailed i n t emples , b ut h ead t o t he n orth p revailed i n h ousemounds a nd o verall . H ead t o t he e ast w as t he p revailing o rientation a t D zibilchaltun , S eibal, A ltar d e S acrificios ( especially i n t emples , t hough h ead t o n orth p revailed i n h ousemounds) , C opan , a nd i n r esidences a t A ltun H a . T he f act t hat t hese c ustoms h ave b een o bserved a s b eing s ite s pecific o r r egional d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply a s ignificance . T he c ustoms t hemselves m ay b e u nimportant , o r m ore l ikely , t he r esult o f s ampling e rror a nd/or c ontextual b ias . S o l et u s e nquire w hether a ny o f t hese a nomalies a re r egional a nd/or s ignificant . T he p revalence o f s imple g raves a t A ltar d e S acrificios i s a lmost c ertainly a r esult o f s ampling e rror . T hough m any g raves w ere f ound i n c eremonial p latforms a nd t emples , t hey w ere e xcavated f rom t emple t erraces a nd c ourts w here s imple g raves t end t o o ccur a t a ll s ites . M any s uch g raves c ontained s acrificial v ictims ( Tables 1 03 & 1 04) . H ad e xcavation b een c oncentrated i n t he c entre o f t he t emples o r s pecial c onstructions , t he m ore

2 18

e laborate

g rave

c onstructions

w ould

h ave

b een

f ound

a s

B urial

1 28

d emonstrates ( Table 9 8) . T he p revalence o f s imple g raves i n t he h ousemounds i s a s e xpected . ( For e xample , c ompare t he g rave t ypes w ith t hose o f B arton R amie) .

S o s ampling e rror , n ot r egional p reference , p roduced t his a nomaly .

T he p revalence o f c rypts a nd t ombs a t T onina a nd P alenque m ay a gain b e a r esult o f s ampling e rror . M ost o f t he g raves f rom t hese t wo s ites w ere e xcavated f rom t he t emples o f t he c entral p recinct , m any o f t hem b eing w ell f urnished ( Table 9 8) .

I s uspect t his p revalence i s a r esult o f e xcavation

b ias i n l ocating m any o f t he w ealthier b urials o f b etter g rave c onstruction . T he p revalence o f cepts a t D zibilchaltun i s n ot s o e asily d ismissed .

M ost

o f t he g raves w ere f ound i n r esidences , b uildings w hich n ormally c ontained s impler g raves . T herefore, t he p revalence f or c rypts m ay b e a s ite p reference . W hether i t w as r egional i s i mpossible t o t ell s ince w e h ave n o o ther c ontemporary b urial d ata f rom t he N orth Y ucatan w ith w hich t o c ompare ( but s ee A ppendix I II) . T he p revalence o f u rn b urials a t D zibilchaltun m ay b e ac ustom t hat i s m ore a pparent t han r eal . I t i s n ot a n e xclusive p attern s ince 2 1/33 u rn t ype b urials w ere f ound a t o ther s ites ( Table 3 6) . B ut u rns w ere p rimarily u sed a t D zibilchaltun t o c ontain b odies r ather t han b owls o r d ishes . I t m ay s imply b e t hat t his i s ap referred c eramic s hape a t t he s ite , o r p ossibly a r esult o f o ur c eramic c lassification ! T he f act t hat m ost , i f n ot a ll , u rn t ype b urials f rom a ll s ites h ad a s imilar p urpose - d edicatory s acrifice o f i nfants ( see c hapter 6 a nd T able 3 6) - m akes m e s uspect t hat u rn b urials a t D zibilchaltun m ay o nly b e d istinct i n t he a ctual s hape o f t he p ot u sed t o c ontain t he i nfant . T he p urpose i s o therwise t he s ame . T herefore , I r ather d oubt w hether t his a nomaly i s r egional o r e ven s ite s pecific . T he f act t hat t here w ere f ew b awl o ver s kull b urials a t C opan , P iedras N egras , P alenque a nd T onina w as p robably n ot s ignificant o r r egional . I t w as d iscovered t hat t he b awl o ver s kull m ode o f b urial o ccurred p rimarily i n r esidences . F ewer r esidential b urials w ere f ound a t t hese f our s ites , w hich p robably a ccounts f or t he l ack o f e vidence f or t his p ractice . T he

l ack o f p ots i n P alenque a nd P iedras N egras b urials i s i ntriguing .

R elatively f ew p ots w ere f ound i n t he r eally w ealthy b urials , P acal 's ,

B urial I l ( see T able X V ,

A ppendix I ) .

e specially

T he k nown r ulers o f T ikal

w ere a ll b uried w ith f ar m ore c eramic v essels , e .g . B urial 1 0 ( Curl N ose) , B urial 4 8 ( Stormy S ky) a nd B urial 1 96 ( YZ I K K in ) . A s f or P iedras N egras , t he s ample i s t oo s mall t o b e r eliable e ven t hough t he o ne w ealthy b urial, B urial 5 , h ad f ew p ots . B ut t he f act t hat p ots, h owever f ew , w ere c onsistently f ound i n t he P alenque g raves , a nd t hat m any p ots w ere f ound i n T onina g raves ( see T ables X V &X VI, A ppendix I ) s uggest t his w as n ot a r egional c ustom a nd p robably m ore a pparent t han r eal . T he

r euse

o f

g raves

f or s uccessive

i nterments

a t P alenque

( probably

B urials R 12 , R 13 , R 7 , R 3 , R 5 &R 1) a nd T onina ( Burials I V-1, I V-2 , I V-3 a nd I V-9) w as a r egional c ustom r estricted t o t hese t wo s ites . Id o n ot p retend t o k now w hy t his w as d one b ut i t w as n ot o bserved e lsewhere . T he p resence o f m any

l ooted o r u nused g raves a t D zibilchaltun ( Table

3 ), t hough p robably u nrelated t o a ny m ortuary c ustom , d oes a ttract m y a ttention . I t w ould b e r idiculous t o b elieve t hat g rave r obbing w as r estricted t o t his s ite . h ears

f rom t he

u ntrue .

S ome o f t he a larming s tories o f g rave r obbing o ne

l owlands w ould i ndicate s uch a b elief t o b e c ategorically

H owever , Ih ave t his s uspicion t hat s ome o f t he g raves w ere

2 19

p repared f or b urial b ut f or s ome r eason n ever u sed .

W hy?

Id o n ot k now t he

a nswer b ut I s ure w ould l ike t o f ind o ut . S o , t hough n ot a ctually a m ortuary p ractice , t his a nomaly i s r estricted t o D zibilchaltun . T he e xistence o f

2 0 u nfurnished B oca-Jimba p hase b urials a t A ltar d e

S acrificios a nd 4 d uring t he c ontemporary T epejilote-Bayal p hase a t S eibal i s a nother a nomaly t hat m ay r esult f rom s ampling e rror . T he 2 0 A ltar d e S acrificios b urials w ere l ocated i n t he e xtremities o f t he p alace a cropolis a nd c eremonial p latforms , a reas w here r etainers a nd s acrificial v ictims w ere p robably b uried a nd w ho w ere u nlikely t o h ave h ad m any g rave g oods - t hey c ertainly d id n ot e hoever t hey w ere! T he 4 S eibal b urials w ere f rom p eripheral h ousemounds . B urials i n s uch a c ontext w ere r arely w ell f urnished a t a ny s ite . F urthermore, S eibal a nd A ltar d e S acrificios b urials w ere n ot w ell f urnished g enerally s ince f ew b urials i n t he c ore o f t emples w ere e xcavated . T hose t hat w ere , h ad b een w ell f urnished, e .g . B urials 1 28 a nd 8 8 , A ltar d e S acrificios . S o , t hough i t m ay b e u nusual f or ac omplete a bsence o f f urniture i n T erminal C lassic g raves , t his a bsence i s n ot o ut o f l ine w ith t he g enerally p oorly f urnished g raves o f b oth s ites . B ut e xcavation b ias, n ot r egional m ortuary c ustoms, h as p roduced t his a nomaly. T he a pparent r egional a ssociations o f s keletal p osition a re p robably n ot n ecessarily i mportant o r r egional b ut p art o f a m ore c omplex p henomenon r equiring c loser e xamination . I t i s m y b elief t hat s keletal p osition a nd g rave t ype a nd s ize s hould b e c orrelated ( see c hapter 4 ) . B ut w here c an w e a ctually o bserve a d irect c onnection b etween g rave d imensions a nd s keletal p osition , i .e . e xtended i n l arge g raves a nd f lexed i n s mall? Iw ould c onfidently s uggest t hat s uch i s d efinitely t he c ase a t U axactun , P alenque a nd D zibilchaltun . A t a ll 3 s ites t he m ajority o f f lexed b odies w as f ound i n t he u sually s maller , s impler g raves ( simple a nd c ists) , 4 6/63 a t U axactun ( Table 9 ) , w hile t he c rypts a nd P alenque .

9 /13 a t D zibilchaltun ( Table 1 2) , a nd 3 /5 a t P alenque ( Table 1 7) , m ajority o f e xtended c orpses w as f ound i n t he u sually l arger t ombs , 1 5/27 a t U axactun , 3 1/42 a t D zibilchaltun , a nd 1 2/14 a t S uch s tatistics d o f ollow t he e xpected p attern , a nd t herefore

i mply t hat s keletal p osition i s s ites.

r elated

t o g rave

t ype a nd s ize a t

t he 3

T he d ata f rom S an J osé a nd A ltar d e S acrificios o nly p artly c onfirm s uch a n a ssociation . T he f lexed p osition a t b oth s ites , 4 5/55 a t S an J ost( Table 7 ) , a nd 7 8/113 a t A ltar d e S acrificios ( Table 1 3) . F ew o f t he g raves a t e ither s ite w ere o ther t han s imple s o t he f lexed p osition w ould b e e xpected t o p revail . S ince t here w ere v irtually n o c rypts a nd t ombs a t e ither s ite , w e c annot k now w hether t he e xtended p osition w as s elected f or s uch g raves . T hus t here i s o nly p artial s upport f or t he g rave t ype s keletal p osition c orrelation . T wo o ther s ites p roduce s upporting a nd c ontradictory e vidence .

M ost o f

t he e xtended s keletons a t P iedras N egras ( Table 1 6) a nd T onina ( Table 1 8) , 6 /10 a nd 8 /12 r espectively , w ere f ound i n l arger c rypts a nd t ombs , w hich i s t o b e e xpected .

H owever , t he o nly 2 i ndividuals i nterred i n s imple g raves

a t b oth s ites w ere a lso e xtended . H ardly a s uitable s ample , o f w hat w ould b e e xpected n onetheless .

b ut o pposite

A t 3 o ther s ites t here e xists w hat i s b est d escribed a s a mbiguous e vidence .

A s ignificant p roportion o f f lexed b odies w as f ound i n s impler

g raves a t T ikal ( 21/45) ,

S eibal ( 18/33) ,

a nd H olmul ( 6/12) .

O bviously t his

w ould l eave a l arge n umber o f e xtended s keletons i n t he s impler g raves a t

2 20

e ach s ite ,

a nd s o t he d ata a re h ardly s upportive o f a n a ssociation .

c rypts a nd t ombs , H olmul ( Table 8 )

A s f or

t here w ere t oo f ew s uch g raves a t S eibal ( Table 1 4) a nd t o b e i nformative , b ut a t T ikal ( Table 1 0) 1 3/17 o f t he

s keletons w ere e xtended a s o ne w ould e xpect .

C ombining t his w ith t he b arely

s upportive e vidence p rovides u s w ith n othing m ore t han d ata w ith a mbiguous a ssociation . O nly a t 4 /6

r emaining s ites w ere t here s ufficient d ata t o s ay a nything

a bout s keletal p osition ,

a nd a t t hese 4 ,

C opan ( Table 1 5) , A ltun H a ( Table

1) , B aking P ot ( Table 5 ) a nd B arton R amie ( Table 6 ) , w ere t here p revailing p ositions f or t he i hterred . A t C opan , 2 6/41 i ndividuals w ere f lexed , t hat p osition p revailing i n a ll g raves e xcept t ombs . A t A ltun H a , 1 69/189 b odies w ere e xtended , 10 e xtended s upine , t he f ormer p revailing i n e very g rave t ype . B ut n o f lexed s keletons w ere f ound i n c rypts a nd t ombs a t A ltun H a . T herefore , e ven a t A ltun H a a nd C opan p osition w as b eing i nfluenced b y g rave s ize . A t B aking P ot a nd B arton R amie , t he e xtended p rone p osition w as p rominent e ven t hough v irtually a ll g raves w ere s imple . C learly t here w as n o c orrelation b etween g rave s ize a nd s keletal p osition a t t hese t wo s ites . S o w here d oes t his a nalysis l eave u s? O nly a t 4s ites c an w e d efinitely s ay t here w as a p referred p osition : A ltun H a , C opan , B aking P ot a nd B arton R amie . O nly a t t he l atter t wo c ould w e s ay t hat t he p reference w as r egional . I w ould s uggest t hat t he e xtended p rone p osition w as s imply a dopted b y c onvention . A t 7o ther s ites, s keletal p osition , g rave t ype a nd s ize w ere g enerally c orrelated , a lbeit t o v arying e xtent . T hus , w ith t he e xception o f B arton R amie a nd B aking P ot , p revailing s keletal p ositions w ere n ot r egional c ustoms b ut o nly r elated t o g rave s ize . T his b rings u s t o t he l ast o f t he p ossible r egional c ustoms: o rientation .

h ead

T he p revalence o f o ne o rientation a t e very s ite e xcept A ltun

H a , a nd p ossibly M ountain C ow ( Table 1 12) , s uggests s ome s ort o f s ignificance . T he f act t hat s imilar p revailing o rientations c luster r egionally s uggest s ome s ort o f r egional a ssociation . I t i s m y b elief t hat t hese o rientations a re s ignificant a nd r egional, b ut d etermining t he s ignificance m ay b e e lusive . N onetheless , an umber o f p ossibilities p resent t hemselves . T hese a re a s f ollows : 1 )

H ead o rientation i s n ot ,

i n f act ,

i mportant . P eople w ere b uried w ithout

a ny r egard t o o rientation , a nd t herefore, s hould p revalences a re s imply a r esult o f e xcavation b ias . 2 ) t he

b e

r andom .

S ite

O nly o ne p revailing o rientation e xisted a t e ach s ite b ecause m ost s tructures c ontaining t he b urials h ad a p articular o rientation .

o f I n

o ther w ords , h ead o rientation c orrelates w ith s tructural o rientation . 3 ) T he d eceased o f e ach s ite w ere u sually o rientated t owards t he p rimary t emple , h ousehold s hrine , l ineage l eader 's h ouse o r s ome o ther i mportant b uilding . 4 )

M ost o f t he d eceased a t e ach s ite w ere o rientated t owards t he r egional

c apital. irection a ssociated 5 ) T he i nterred a t e ach s ite w ere o rientated i n t he d w ith t he y ear i n w hich e ach w as b orn . 6 )

T he

w ith

i nterred a t

t heir c lan 's

e ach s ite w ere t otemic

irection a ssociated o rientated i n t he d

a ncestor

2 21

a nd/or

i n

t he

d irection

o f

t heir

a ncestral h ome . 7 )

T he d eceased w ere o rientated

t owards

t he n earest C eiba t ree i n o rder

t hat t hey c ould q uickly a scend t o h eaven . L et u s c onsider e ach o f t hese a lternative s uggestions m ore c losely . 1 )

T here

i s

a lways

a p ossibility

t hat

o rientation w as

r andom a nd

e xcavation b ias c reated t he d istortion . B ut i t w ould b e s tretching t he p oint t o t he e xtreme t o s uggest t hat a b ias e xisted a t v irtually a ll t he s ites a nd t hat t he b fas p roduced a p revailing o rientation a t v irtually e very s ite. 2 )

T he

i dea

t hat

h ead

o rientation

w as

c orrelated

w ith

s tructural

o rientation s eems l ogical . T here w ere s ome b urials w hich w ere p laced o n t he a xis o r p erpendicular t o t he a xis o f a b uilding , e .g . B urials C l, U axactun , 4 8 & 2 3, T ikal, A -1/2, T A-1/1 a nd a ll b ut B urial T B-4/4 S tructure B -4 , A ltun H a , a nd a ll o f t he i nterred i n S tr . 7 F-30 , T ikal .

i n I n

a ddition , h ousehold s hrines a nd m any t emples w ere l ocated o n t he e ast s ide o f p lazas w ith a s imilar o rientation . F urthermore , A veni a nd H artung ( 1986) f ound a s trong p reference i n t he P uuc a rea ( and e lsewhere?) f or a n orth/south ( in f act , j ust e ast o f n orth) o rientation o f m ajor b uildings . S o a re h ead o rientations s imply f ollowing t he a xis o f r espective b uildings? I n aw ord , n o . W hat w e a ctually f ind i s t hat i n m ost s tructures w ith m ore t han o ne b urial, t he s keletons w ere o rientated i n s everal d ifferent d irections , e .g . B urials H M7 , H M9 , &H M10 , H ousemound I I , U axactun ; B urials A 40 & A 42 i n t he s ame r oom o f S tr . A -V , U axactun , B urials 5 0 , 5 6 &5 9 , S tr . 2 G-59 , T ikal ; B urials C -13/31, C -13/32 , C 13/27 , C -13/26 , C -13/7 & C -13/8 i n S tr . C -13 , a nd c ountless o thers i n S tr . C -18 , A -8 , A -1, C -16 , C -43 a nd s o o n , A ltun H a ; B urials 5 7-4, 5 7-5 & 5 7-6, S tr . 5 7, D zibilchaltun ; B urials 3 4, 5 2, 6 2 &3 7, S tr . A -I, a nd c ountless o thers i n S tr . B -II a nd M ounds 2 & 2 5 , A ltar d e S acrificios ; B urials 2 3 , 2 4 &2 6 , S tr . C -32 , a nd 3 6, 3 7 &4 0, S tr . 4 E-10, S eibal; B urials 1 9, 2 8, 3 1, 3 4 &3 6, Mound 3 6, C opan ; a nd v irtually a ll t he s keletons a t B arton R amie , P alenque , a nd T onina w ere o rientated a lmost e xclusively s outh , n orth a nd n orth , r espectively , i n e very s tructure r egardless o f i ts o rientation . A n atural c onsequence o f t his

i s

t hat

d ifferent

b uildings w ith

o rientations

s imilar

o rientations

c ontained

d eceased w ith

a nd b uildings w ith d ifferent o rientations c ontained

i nterred w ith t he s ame o rientation . Moreover , i ndividuals i n m ultiple b urials w ere n ot e ven o rientated i n t he s ame d irection , e .g . B urials B 1 & B 2, U axactun , 7 1

& 1 27, Altar d e S acrificios, 2 5, C opan , 5 &3 , P iedras

N egras , a nd I l, P alenque . I t i s t herefore o bvious t hat t he l owland M aya d id n ot b ury t heir d ead i n l ine w ith a b uilding 's o rientation . 3 )

T his i s a nother l ogical p ossibility t hat i s n ot s upported b y t he d ata .

l t h as a lready b een n oted a bove t hat m any o f t he i nterred i n t he s ame s tructure w ere o rientated i n d ifferent d irections . T hey , t herefore , c ould n ot a ll b e o rientated t owards t he s ame t emple , h ousehold s hrine o r c lan h ouse .

I ndeed , t hey n eed n ot b e o rientated t owards s uch a b uilding a t a ll .

F or e xample , t he s keletons i n S tr . 7 F-30 , T ikal , w ere n ot d irected t owards C entral T ikal n or a ny o ther t emple-like b uilding . F urthermore , s ince w e d o n ot k now w ho w as r elated t o w hom a mong m ost o f t he i nterred , h ow c ould w e k now t o w hich c lan h ouse o r h ousehold s hrine t hey s hould b e p ointed? S o n ot o nly i s t his h ypothesis u nlikely , i t i s a lso n ot d emonstrable . 4 )

T he

M aya

r egional

c apitals

a re

n ot k nown f or c ertain n or d efinitely

k nown t hat t here w ere a ny - b ut s ee t he w ell a rgued a nd c onvincing p roposal

2 22

o f Marcus ( 1976) .

T he p revailing o rientation o f t he i nterred a t m ost

s ites ,

n ot

h owever ,

w as

o ften d irected

t owards

l ikely

c andidates .

M ost

i nterred a t P iedras N egras a nd T onina w ere o rientated n orth t owards P alenque , a l ikely c apital, t hough n ot f or P iedras N egras a s i t w as n ot n amed t here , a nd m ost i nterred a t A ltar d e S acrificios w ere o rientated t owards S eibal, a nother p ossible c apital . H owever , t he e asterly o rientation o f t he D zibilchaltun , C opan a nd S eibal d eceased , a nd t he n ortherly o rientation o f t hose a t U axactun a nd P alenque w ere d irected a t n o l ikely c apital . T he s outherly o rientation a t t he 5 B elizean s ites w as d irected a t t he d istant s ites o f C opan a nd Q uirigua , b oth l ikely r egional c apitals b ut m uch

t oo

d istant

f rom t he m ore

l ikely a nd c loser c ontender o f A ltun H a ,

l ocated t o t he e ast o f t hese f ive s ites . T he i nterred a t A ltun H a , e ither p ointed e ast t o w ater , o r s outh t o C opan a nd Q uirigua . F inally, t he n ortherly o rientation o f m ost o f t he T ikal i nterred w ould d irect t hem t owards U axactun , n ot a l ikely c andidate f or a c apital . T ikal w as f ar m ore l ikely s ince i t i s n amed a t U axactun . T herefore , o ne w ould e xpect m ost o f t he i nterred a t U axactun t o b e o rientated s outh t owards T ikal . T hey w ere n ot . W hatever h ead o rientation i s c orrelated w ith , i t i s n ot r egional c apitals. 5 ) I t i s n ow k nown t hat t he a ncient a nd c olonial M aya a ssociated c ardinal d irections w ith , a mong o ther t hings , y ears o f t he c alendar ( Tedlock 1 982 : 1 41; T ozzer 1 941: 1 37 a nd n ote 6 35) . N orth w as a ssociated w ith M uluc y ears , e ast w ith K an y ears , s outh w ith C auac y ears a nd w est w ith I x y ears . C ould i t b e t hat a s w ith m odern d ay C hinese a strology t he y ear o f b irth o f a n i ndividual w as u sed i n m aking a ssociations w ith a nimals, c olours a nd d irections t hought t o h ave b een a ppropriate f or t hat y ear? I f s o , t hen i s i t c onceivable t hat u pon d eath i ndividuals w ould h ave b een o rientated i n t he d irection a ssociated w ith t he y ear o f t heir b irth? H owever p ossible a nd i ntriguing , e ven

I b elieve i t m ost u nlikely .

d istribution

o f

t he

o rientation

T here o ught t o h ave b een a m ore

o f

p revalent o rientations n ow o bserved .

i nterred

r ather

t han h aving

t he

I t w ould b e r ather p eculiar t o f ind

9 1% o f B arton R amie r esidents t o h ave b een b orn d uring C auac y ears , o r m ost r esidents o f T ikal, U axactun a nd P alenque t o h ave b een b orn d uring M uluc y ears , o r m ost o f D zibilchaltun a nd S eibal t o h ave b een b orn d uring K an y ears . A nd n owhere w ere t here m any i nterred t o t he w est . I t s eems m ost u nlikely t hat h ardly a nyone w as b orn d uring I x y ears . F urthermore , e ven i f i t w ere t he c ase t hat o ne 's o rientation a t d eath w as a ssociated w ith y ear o f b irth , i t w ould b e d ifficult t o d emonstrate a rchaeologically . 6 )

E vidence s upplied b y L anda

t hat

t he L acandon M aya p ractised t otemism ,

( ibid . :

9 9) a nd S oustelle i .e .

( 1935)

t he

i ndicate

t he f amily b ore a n a nimal

n ame a ssociated w itn t he p aternal l ine . L anda a lso i ndicates t hat f amilies p rivately w orshipped m any i dols i n t he f orms o f a nimals , e .g . t oads , f rogs , f ish a nd e agles

( Tozzer

1 941:110 a nd n ote 4 96) .

w orship o f t he t otems o f t he c lans?

C ould

t his

i ndicate

t he

A nd i f t otemism w as p ractised b y t he

a ncient M aya , c ould i t h ave b een t hat u pon o ne 's d eath o ne w ould h ave b een o rientated i n t he d irection a ssociated w ith t he t otem a nimal o r t he d irection i n w hich o ne w as b orn? T his s ounds i ntriguing b ut t here a re p roblems. F irstly ,

t here i s n o w ay o f r eally d emonstrating t his b ecause t here i s

n o e vidence t hat t he Maya a ssociated a d irection w ith a t otem a nimal . S econdly , h ow c ould o ne p rove a rchaeologically w hich M aya v illage s omeone w as f rom? T hirdly , t hough s uch a c onnection w ould e xplain t he p revailing o rientation a t

s mall

s ites w here t he m ajority o f a p opulation w ould h ave

b een f rom t he s ame g eneral

a rea a nd c lan ,

2 23

i t w ould n ot

f or

l arger s ites

w here a n e xtensive m ix o f p opulation w ould o ccur .

F ourthly ,

i t w ould n ot

e xplain w hy t here w ere s o f ew p eople f rom t he w est o f a ny s ite n or w hy s o f ew t otems w ere a ssociated w ith t he w est . ( The l atter m ay b e e xplained b y t he f act t he w est w as a ssociated w ith d eath ( Coggins 1 975 : 1 7) a nd n o l iving c lan w ould w ant t heir t otem a ssociated w ith t he d irection o f d eath . B ut t his b egs t he q uestion t hat i f t he w est w as a ssociated w ith d eath , w hy w as e veryone n ot o rientated i n t hat d irection?) i mplausible , a s w ell a s u ndemonstrable .

T hus ,

t his e xplanation s eems

7 ) F inally , w ere t he i nterred s imply o rientated w ith t he n earest C eiba t ree? T his m ay s eem a f lippant q uestion b ut i t i s k nown f rom L anda t hat t he Y ucatan M aya c onsidered t he C eiba a s t he m eans b y w hich d ead a ncestors a scended t o t he h eaven o f t he n ext w orld ( Tozzer 1 941: 1 31-32 a nd n ote 6 16) . I f t he a ncient M aya l ooked u pon t he C eiba i n a s imilar v ein , c ould i t b e t hat i ndividuals w ere o rientated t owards t he n earest C eiba t ree t o f acilitate a s peedy a scent t o h eaven? I f i t w ere t rue i t w ould b e d ifficult t o p rove b ut o ur d ata d o n ot s upport i ts l ikelihood i n a ny c ase . F irstly, i t i s u nlikely t hat m ost C eibas w ere s outh , n orth o r e ast o f b uildings , a nd r arely t o t he w est . S econdly , i t i s u nlikely t hat m ost C eibas h ad b een e ast o f t emples a t U axactun a nd A ltar d e S acrificios a nd t o t he s outh a t A ltun H a . T hirdly , w hy w ere t he c ontemporary i nterred i n t he s ame s tructure o r b urial o rientated i n d ifferent d irections? W ere t here s everal C eibas n earby i n s uch i nstances? N ot v ery d emonstrable , b ut p robably n ot v ery l ikely e ither . S o h ere h ave a nomalous a nd o rientations . w ith a r egional s ignificance i s

b een p resented 7 p ossible a lternatives

t o e xplain t his

s eemingly s ignificant s ituation o f p revalent s ite h ead N one i s a s ufficient e xplanation . T herefore , w e a re l eft p attern o f ac ustom w hich i s p robably s ignificant b ut w hose o bscure a nd e lusive . f ew o f

t hese s uspected r egional

p ractices w ere i n f act r egional o r s ignificant .

T his a nalysis

d emonstrates

t hat

O nly t he f ollowing t raits

c ould b e c onsidered r egional o r s ite s pecific : 1 )

t he v ariation i n p revailing h ead o rientations ;

2 )

t he p revalence f or t he e xtended p osition f or b urial a t A ltun H a , B aking

P ot a nd B arton R amie , a nd f lexed a t C opan ; 3 )

t he r euse o f g raves a t P alenque a nd T onina ;

4 )

t he p revalence o f c rypts a t D zibilchaltun ;

5 )

t he p ossible e xistence o f u nused g raves ( but w hose p resence i s p robably

n ot r elated t o a ny m ortuary p ractice) . T he s ignificance o f t hese c ustoms i s n ot c ertain . r egional b ias .

c ustoms w ere a nomalies

W hat

t his

r eveals

i s

T he o ther s uspected

c reated b y s ampling e rror a nd

t he w ide g eographical

r ange

o f

e xcavation

l owland M aya

b urial c ustoms . T here a re v ariations t o b e s ure , b ut t he v ariations a re n o m ore t han u nusually h igh o r l ow i nstances o f t raits s hared t hroughout o ur s ample . D efinite r egional c ustoms a re f ew . H owever ,

I t hought i t m ight b e i nteresting t o c ompare t he h igh a nd l ow

i ncidence o f t hese c ustoms b etween t he s ites t o s ee w hich s ites c luster w ith w hich o n a p resence/absence b asis o f t hese t raits ( Table 13) :

2 24

1 )

P alenque , T onina a nd P iedras N egras - P alenque a nd T onina s hare a t l east

6t raits a nd e ach s hares a t l east 4 w ith P iedras N egras . 2 ) U axactun , T ikal a nd S an J ose -

U axactun a nd T ikal s hare 4 c ustoms,

U axactun a nd S an J ose s hare 4 , a nd T ikal a nd S an J ose s hare 2 c ustoms. 3 )

B arton R amie , B aking P ot & B enque V iejo - T hese s ites s hare 1 t o 3

t raits. 4 ) 5 )

A ltar d e S acrificios & S eibal - T hey s hare a t l east 3 p ractices. A ltun H a -I t . i s d ifficult t o c lassify t his s ite i nto a g roup a s

s hares

3 c ustoms

w ith

S an

J ose

a nd

T ikal,

2 w ith U axactun ,

i t

3 w ith

D zibilchaltun , 4w ith A ltar d e S acrificios a nd 1 o r m ore w ith t he B elizean s ites .

I t i s s ort o f b etwixt a md b etween .

6 ) D zibilchaltun - G iven t hat D zibilchaltun s hares 3 c ustoms w ith T ikal , 5 w ith U axactun , 3w ith A ltun H a a nd 5 w ith A ltar d e S acrificios , i t t oo i s d ifficult t o c lassify . I f a nything , t he D zibilchaltun d ata a re u seful i n i llustrating t he w ide d istribution o f l owland M aya b urial c ustoms . 7 )

' Copan

-T he f ew u nusually h igh o r

s hared w ith 2 d ifferent g roups : P iedras N egras . 8 )

l ow i ncidence c ustoms

A ltar & S eibal,

a nd P alenque ,

i t h as

a re

T onina a nd

M ountain C ow a nd H olmul - T here a re t oo f ew a nd t oo u nreliable d ata t o

c lassify e ither o f t hese s ites . T he o nly s ites w ith t raits f airly u nique t o i ts g roup w ere P alenque , T onina a nd P iedras N egras . F igure 5 s hows h ow t he c lustering o f t hese s ites i nto g roups l ooks o n a m ap . I f i t l ooks f amiliar t hat i s b ecause t here i s c onsiderable o verlap a nd s imilarity w ith t he d istribution o f p rincipal a rchitectural s tyles o f t he l owlands ( Fig . 4 ) . T he o nly r eal d ifference b etween t he t wo i s t hat P iedras N egras i s p laced i n ad ifferent a rea f rom P alenque a nd T onina i n t he a rchitecture m ap . B ut P iedras N egras d oes s hare 3 i mportant a rchitectural t raits w ith P alenque - s tucco d ecoration , t hin w alls , a nd m ultiple d oorways ( Prcekouriakoff 1 963 : 1 6) . T his s imilarity i n a rchitecture a nd b urial c ustoms m ay s uggest t hat t he d istinction b etween t he W estern A rea a nd t he U sumacinta R iver A rea n eed n ot n ecessarily b e s o . Is uspect , h owever , t hat a ny l ack o f p erfect f it o f r egions u nder t hese d ifferent p arameters r esults f rom : a )

t he f act t hat m ost b urial c ustoms w ere u niversally p ractised t hroughout

t he l owlands a nd a re n ot a s s ensitive a n i ndicator a s a rchitectural s tyle i n i solating r egional t raits . b )

T he

d ifference

i n i ncidence o f

s ome b urial

c ustoms

b etween s ites

i s

a ccountable b y d ifferences i n t he s ize o f p opulation a nd t he s tatus o f i ndividuals . T he l arger t he s ite , t he m ore t he p opulation a nd t he g reater t he v ariety o f w ealth a nd s tatus , t hus p roducing , m ore o bservable b urial p ractices . c )

O ther

s ampling

A t s maller s ites , d ifferences e rror

a nd

t he r everse o ccurs .

i n s ite

i ncidence

e xcavation

o f

p ractices

i s

a ccountable

b ias .

N evertheless, t he o verlapping s imilarities o f t he m aps a re s triking .

2 25

b y

T able 1 12:

T he p revailing h ead o rientations

S ite

P revailing H ead O rientation

% S o I nterred

B aking P ot

s outherly ( Table 2 1)

7 8%

B arton R amie

s outherly ( Table 2 2)

915

B enque V iejo

s outherly

6 7%

S an J osé

s outherly ( Table 2 3)

92%

H olmul

s outherly ( Table

56%

U axacten

n ortherly ( Table 2 5)

60 %

T ikal

n ortherly ( Table 2 6)

6 8%

P iedras N egras

n ortherly ( Table 3 2)

7 0%

P alenque

n ortherly ( Table 5 3)

9 5%

T oninä

n ortherly ( Table 3 4)

7 5%

D zibilchaltun

e asterly ( Table 2 8)

6 7%

24 )

A ltar d e S acrificios e asterly ( Table 2 9 )

4 57 0

S eibal

e asterly ( Table 3 0)

5 2 7 0

C opan

e asterly ( Table 3 1)

4 85

A ltun H a

s outherly i n t emples ( Table 2 7)

3e

e asterly i n r esidences ( Table 2 7)

3 9%

n ortheast ( ?)

6 7% ( ?)

M ountain C ow

2 26

( Table 2 0)

F igure 3 :

M ap d esignating t he p revailing

h ead o rientations o f t he d eceased

E

a t e ach o f t he 1 6 s ites

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2 28

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4 4 • O

B e n q u e V i e j o

M o u n t a i n C o w

C l )

C l )

. § I ) 0 C r i r X d

0 3 = e I W X 4 4 E 1

▪ r d

§ 4 )


a )

r d

4 4 0

s a c r i f i c e

e x t e n d e d ; n o b o w l o v e r s k u l ;

s h e l o v e r

r e u s e o f

c d

4 4 c d P ,

h e a d o r i e n t a i o n c r y p t g r a v e s ;

C o

c r y p t g r a v e s

E 0 4 › C I )

h e a d o r i e n t a i o n

o

e x t e n d e d ; n o b o w l o v e r s k u l ;

> ›

h e a d o r i e n t a i o n t o N ;

, 4 c d C C l ) •

h e a d o r i e n t a i o n a d u l t & c h i l d

c d

P i e d r a s N e g r a s

T a b l e 1 3 : C I ) C

0

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a )

N rd

0 E4

2 29

F igure

4 :

M ap i llustrating t he a reas o f

p rimary a rchitectural s tyles o f

. Dzibilchaltun

t he l owland M aya

N orthern P lain

/

/

1 1 \

7 /

1

/

A rea

\

P uuc Area

/

W e s t e r n 1 1

\

' Palenq

\

\

/ N

• ‚ . . . . . ._ . ,'

/

/

C entral A rea

/

\

A rea

\

I

•

I

. Tikal

/ /

,

\ \ \

U sumacinta R iver . ,A rea

\

I

1 ,/

. • 1

1

P asion R iver

1 . Copan I 1R, ' „Iouthern A rea

0

1 01 0 k m S cale

2 30

2 00 k m

F igure

5 : Map i llustrating s uggested

a reas o f r egional b urial c ustoms ( based o n u nusually h igh o r l ow i nstances

o f s ome P an M aya

p ractices)

1 5

\

1 6

egend

1 3

•_

S cale

0

1 00 k m

2 00 k m

2 31

1-M ountain C ow 2- B aking P ot -B arton R amie 4- H enque V iejo 5 - San J osé 6 -H olmul 7 - Uaxact i ln 8-T ikal 9- A ltun H a 1 0 -D zibilchdltun 1 1 -A ltar d e S ac. 1 2 - S eibal 1 3 -C opan 1 4 -P Ledras N egras 1 5 -P alenque 1 6 -T oninä

C HAPTER F OURTEEN C onclusions

T he C lassic l owland M aya h ave b een s hown t o h ave i nstituted a r etinue o f p ractices ( and r ituals) i n a ssociation w ith t he b urial o f t he d ead .

M ost

o f t hese p ractices w ere , i n f act , e stablished t hroughout t he M aya l owlands . W ith a f ew e xceptions , s ite s pecific o r r egional c ustoms a re b est c onsidered u nusually h igh o r l ow i nstances o f P an M aya p ractices , t he u nusually h igh o r l ow i ncidence p robably r esulting f rom s ampling e rror . P eople o f e minent w ealth a nd s ocial s tatus a ttracted t he m ost a ttention i n t he m anner o f b urial . S uch p eople w ere p laced i n e laborate g raves a nd b uried i n t he t emples o r c eremonial p latforms o f t he c entral p recincts . T he w ealth o f a rtefacts m any o f t hese g raves c ontained a nd t he f act t hat t he i nterred w ere a dorned i n t he f inery t hat r epresented t heir s tation i n l ife s uggests t hey w ere e xpected t o r etain a l ife o f s imilar w ealth a nd s tatus i n t he n ext w orld . More i mportant , i t i ndicates t hat t his w as h ereditary w ealth , n ot a cquired , t hus c onfirming t he i conographic a nd a rtistic e vidence o f a n a ncient M aya e lite . I ndeed , n ine o f t he b urials a re k nown t o b e o f k ings , a nd a n umber o f o thers a re s uspected t o b e . I t i s f rom t hese b urials

o f

t he e lite t hat t he a pparent e xistence o f

a ncestor w orship i s r evealed . M ost e minent p ersons w ere b uried w ith s ome s ort o f c onstruction o ver t he g rave w hich w as i ntended t o a ct a s am emorial t o t he d eceased . T hese m emorials r anged i n s ize f rom s imple a ltars , s tair b locks o r p latforms , t o e ntire t emples . T he c onstruction o f m emorials t o t he a ncestors o f t he e lite w as t he s timulus f or t he m assive c onstruction p rojects i n t he c eremonial c entres . F or t he M aya a t l east , t he i dea o f m onumentality a nd a ncestors w as c losely l inked . T he p resence o f s acrificed i ndividuals a ccompanying e minent p ersons i n s ome i nterments s uggests t hat r itual s acrifice w as p erformed a t t he t ime o f d eath o r b urial . F urthermore , c arbon a nd c harcoal d eposits f ound a t a f ew o f t hese m emorials s uggest r ituals w ere c onducted a t t he t ime o f i nterment a nd a t c ertain t imes t hereafter . R ituals p erformed a t t he t ime o f b urial , i ncluding s acrifice , w ere c onducted i n o rder t o a ssist t he p assage o f t he d eceased f rom t his w orld t o t he n ext . R ituals p erformed t hereafter w ere i n o rder t hat t he n ew g eneration o f r uling e lite c ould c ontinue t o c ommunicate w ith t he n ow d ead a ncestors . I t i s p robably d uring t he l atter t hat m uch o f t he h uman s acrifice i nferred b y t he b urial d ata w as d one . T he b urial d ata c onfirm t he a cts o f s acrifice a nd t he r ites o f t he v ision q uest d epicted i n t he a ncient M aya a rt a nd i conography . T he r emoval o f f acial b ones o r c rania f rom t he d eceased i ndicates t hat L anda 's o bservations o f t he a ctual s kulls o f a ncestors b eing r etained f or t he p urposes o f w orship h ad a c onsiderable a ntiquity . T he e vidence f or a ncestor w orship a nd s acrifice a mong t he c ommon f olk i s m uch m ore l imited i n e xtent a nd s cale . B ut w e d o f ind b uildings , c alled ' household s hrines ' , t hat w ere o ften l ocated o n t he e astern p erimeter o f r esidential p lazas a nd s pecially c onstructed t o h ouse t he b urials o f t he w ealthier r esidents o f t hese p lazas .

2 32

T he i nterments a re r ather w ell

f urnished a nd d o o ften h ave a n a ltar , s mall c onstruction , o r e ven t he h ousehold s hrine , i tself , p laced a bove t he g rave a s am emorial . E ven s ome r esidential b urials h ad a ltars o r b enches c onstructed a bove t he g raves . E vidence o f s acrifice e xists a nd t he r emoval o f f acial b ones o r c rania o f t he d eceased f or t he p ossible p urposes o f w orship w as f ound .

T he f act t hat

t he m aterial e vidence f or a ncestor w orship i s m uch l ess a nd n ot a s g rand a s cale f or t he c ommon p opulation d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean i t w as l ess i mportant o r p revalent . I t m erely i ndicates t hat t he l arger , m ore c oncrete a nd p ermanent m emorials w ere b eyond t heir m eans . S ince l and a nd w ealth i nheritance w ere i mportant t o a ny l ineage o r f amily , r egardless o f s tatus , e nshrining t he a ncestors a nd c ontinued v eneration o f t hem w ould h ave b een a n a ccepted s ocial

a nd r eligious

p olicy

t hroughout

t he

s ociety .

b urial t hen , w ere m atters o f g reat i mportance t o t he a ncient M aya .

2 33

D eath a nd

B IBLIOGRAPHY A dams, R .E .W ., 1 970, " Suggested Classic p eriod o ccupational s pecialization i n t he s outhern M aya l owlands ," i n M onographs a nd P apers i n M aya A rchaeology , 6 1. A dams,

P apers o f t he P eabody M useum ,

R .E .W .

& A .S .

T rik ,

1 961,

" Temple

c onstructional a ctivities ," i n T ikal R eports , U niversity M useum , U niversity o f P ennsylvania . Andrews,

E .W .,

I V

& E .W .

H arvard U niversity ,

Andrews,

n o .

V ,

I ( Str .

5 D-1) :

v ol .

p ost-

7 . M useum M onograph 2 0 ,

1 980,

" Excavations

a t

D zibilchaltun , Y ucatan , M exico ," i n M iddle A merican R esearch I nstitute , T ulane U niversity , P ub . 4 8 . A veni , i n

A .

& H . H artung ,

1 986 ,

" Maya c ity p lanning a nd t he c alendar ,"

T ransactions o f t he A merican P hilosophical S ociety , v ol . 7 , p art 7 . B ecker ,

M .J"

1 971,

T he I dentification o f a

S econd P laza P lan

a t T ikal, G uatemala , a nd I ts I mplications f or A ncient M aya S ocial C omplexity , ( Ph .D . T hesis , U niversity o f P ennsylvania) . B ecker , M .J . , 1 986 , p atron d el a sentamiento e n T ikal, G uatemala , y o tros s itios m ayas d e l as t ierras b ajas: i mplicaciones p ara e l c ambio c ultural, " i n M ayab , n o . 2 . S ociedad E spanola d e E studios M ayas . B ecquelin ,

P . &C .F . B audez ,

1 979 ,

" Tonina :

u ne c itig M aya d u C hiapas

( 4exique) ," en E tudes M esoamericaines, v ol . 6 , t ome I . A rchgologique e t E thnologique F rançaise a u M exique . B enavides, C" A" G uia O ficial .

C oba : u na c iudad p rehispanica d e Q uintana R oo .

I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria .

B lom , F . &O . L a F rage, N ew O rleans: B rady ,

Mexico : M ission

1 925-27,

T ribes a nd T emples,

v ols . 1& 2 .

T ulane U niversity . J .E .

U nderworld ," B ullard ,

& A .

S tone ,

1 986,

" Naj T unich :

i n A rchaeology , v ol . 3 9, n o . 6 : W .R .

1 965,

e ntrance

t o t he Maya

1 8.

" Stratigraphic e xcavations a t S an E stevan ,

N orthern B ritish H onduras," i n R oyal O ntario Museum A rt & A rchaeology O ccasional P apers , n o . 9 , U niversity o f T oronto . B ullard, W .R . &M .R . B ullard , 1 965, P ot , B ritish H onduras ," i n P apers , n o . 8 ,

" Late C lassic f inds a t B aking

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C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington , T hompson ,

J .E .S .,

B ritish H onduras," c ontribution n o . 3 5 . T hompson , e dition .

T hesis ,

1 966 ,

T he

I nstitution

o f

W ashington , p ub . 5 28,

R ise a nd F all o f M aya C ivilization ,

2 nd

U niversity o f O klahoma P ress .

T ourtellot , G ., S ettlements a t S eibal,

( P h .D .

B ritish H onduras ,"

5 06 .

" Late c eramic h orizons a t B enque V iejo ,

i n C arnegie

J .E .S . ,

N orman :

1 940 ,

p ub .

1 982, " Appendix A : b urials," i n A ncient Maya P eten , G uatemala : P eripheral S urvey a nd E xcavation ,

H arvard ) .

T ourtellot ,

G . ,

( in p ress) ,

" Appendix :

S eibal

b urials :

a c ultural

a nalysis ," i n G .R . W illey ( ed .) E xcavations a t S eibal, D epartment o f t he P eten , G uatemala . M emoirs o f t he P eabody M useum , H arvard U niversity , v ol . 1 7. T ozzer , L acadones .

A .M .,

1 907,

A

C omparative

S tudy

o f t he

M ayas

a nd t he

N ew Y ork : A rchaeological I nstitute o f A merica .

T ozzer , A .M . , 1 941, ' Landa 's R elacion d e l as c osas d e Y ucatan ," P apers o f t he P eabody M useum , H arvard U niversity , v ol . 1 8 . T rik , A .S ., 1 963, G uatemala ," i n E xpedition , V an G ennep ,

A . ,

1 960 ,

" The s plendid t omb v ol . 6 , n o . 1 : 2 .

o f

T he R ites o f P assage .

T emple

C hicago :

I a t

i n

T ikal,

U niversity o f

C hicago P ress . W auchope , R ., 1 934 , " House m ounds o f U axactun , G uatemala ," C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington , p ub . 4 36, c ontribution n o . 7 .

i n

W eeks, J .M ., 1 983, C hisalin : AL ate P ostclassic M aya S ettlement i n H ighland G uatemala . B AR I nternational S eries , 1 69 . W illey,

G .R .,

W .R .

B ullard ,

" Prehistoric M aya s ettlements P eabody M useum ,

J .B .

G lass

i n t he B elize

& J .C .

v alley ,"

G ifford , i n P apers

1 965, o f

t he

H arvard U niversity , v ol . 5 4 .

W illey , G .R . &J .C . G ifford, f rom B arton R amie ,

B elize,"

C olumbian A rt a nd A rchaeology .

1 964,

i n S .K .

" Pottery o f t he H olmul I s tyle L othrop

C ambridge , M ass . :

2 41

( ed .)

E ssays

i n

P re-

H arvard U niversity P ress .

A PPENDIX

I : B URIAL D ATA T ABLES

T he c omposition o f t he f ollowing d ata t ables s hould , I b elieve , b e f airly c lear a nd s traightforward . B ut s ome c omment i s r equired a bout t he d ata i n a f ew c ategories .

C eramic P hase T he d ating o f t he b urials m ust o nly b e c onsidered a s a pproximate . T his i s f or t he s imple r eason t hat t he d ate o f t he c eramic p hases i s o nly a pproximate . S ince t he b urials w ere m ost o ften d ated b y t he c eram ic f ill i n w hich e ach w as f ound o r b y t he p ots p laced a s g rave g oods, t hen c onsequently , t he d ate o f t he b urials c an o nly b e a pproximate . B urials o f k nown r ulers o r t hose w hich c ontained g rave g oods w ith a d ate(s) i nscribed h ave; o f c ourse , b een r eliably a nd a ccurately d ated . B ut I b elieve i t i s s impler t o l ist a nd d ate a ll o f t hem u nder t he c eramic p hases . T he b urials d ated t o a p articular p hase a re , h owever , l isted i n g eneral c hronological o rder . S o , f or e xample , B urial 3 1, t he f irst o f t he I mix p hase b urials a t T ikal , i s o f a n e arlier d ate t han t he l ast , B urial 1 . e very b urial o f e very p hase o f e very s ite .

T his l ogic a pplies t o

B urial E numeration T he b urials o f s everal s ites h ad t o b e s pecially e numerated f or t hese t ables w hile t he e numeration a dopted b y t he e xcavators a t o ther s ites h as a l ogic t hat m ay n ot b e i mmediately a pparent . A s ar esult , o f b urial e numeration i s r equired f or e ach s ite .

s ome e xplanation

1 ) M ountain C ow : T he e numeration f ollows t he s equence o f a ppearance o f t he b urials i n T hompson 's t ext ( Thompson 1 93 0 . T hus C hultun A b ecomes B urial 1 , C hultun B b ecomes B urial 2 , C hultun C b ecomes B urial 3 , V aulted C hamber I , M ound N b ecomes B urial 4 , B urial I II b ecomes B urial 5 , V aulted C hamber I I b ecomes B urial 6 , V aulted C hamber I , M ound A b ecomes B urial 7 , V aulted C hamber I II b ecomes B urial 8 , B urial V II b ecomes B urial 9 , B urial I I b ecomes B urial 1 0 , V aulted C hamber X b ecomes B urial 1, C hultun D b ecomes B urial 1 2 , B urial I V b ecomes B urial 1 3 , V aulted C hamber I X b ecomes B urial 1 4 , V aulted C hamber I V b ecomes B urial 1 5 , B urial V III b ecomes B urial 1 6 , a nd B urials 1 7 a nd 1 8 a re t he t wo r emaining, u mnumbered b urials . a ppear u nnecessarily c onfusing b ut l isting t he b urials i n e liminates c umbersome t erms , as imple n umber f or e ach . 2 )

B aking P ot :

i ndicates t hem s imply a s b urials ,

T his m ay t his w ay

a nd p rovides

T he 2 7 b urials a t B aking P ot a re s pecially e numerated f or

t he t ables s ince b urials f ound a t d ifferent l ocations w ithin t he s ite w ere n umbered i dentically b y

t he d ifferent

e xcavators .

T o a void c onfusion ,

R icketson 's ( 1931) B urial 1 h as t o b e d istinguished f rom t he B ullards ( 1965) B urial 1 , a nd t he W illey e t a l . ( 1965) B urial 1 a nd s o o n . T he s implest m ethod t o d istinguish t hem i s t o a dd t he f irst l etter o f t he l ast n ames o f t he r espective e xcavators t o t he b urials t hey f ound . T hus , R icketson 's 1 5 b urials f rom M ound G a re r eferred t o b y t he l etter R a nd f ollow h is o riginal

2 43

n umerical o rder .

T hey a re n umbered R 1 t o R 15 .

T he s ame a pplies t o t he

B ullards b urials w hich a re r eferred t o a nd l isted a s B l t o B 7 . T he s ame p rinciple a pplies t o t he W illey b urials b ut b ecause 4 b urials w ere n umbered t he s ame f rom d ifferent m ounds , t he f ollowing a rrangement i s m ade : B urial 1 o f G roup I , P laza I i s W l, B urial 2 o f G roup I , P laza I i s W 2 , B urial 1 o f M ound 3 i s W 3 , B urial 2 o f M ound 3 i s W 4 , a nd B urial 3 o f M ound 3 i s 3 )

B arton R amie:

W 5 .

T he b urials f or t his s ite f ollow t he e numeration

i mplemented b y t he o riginal e xcavators , i .e . p roviding t he n umber o f m ound i n w hich t he b urial w as f ound f ollowed b y t he b urial n umber .

t he

H owever , t he c omposition o f 2 b urials , 1 47-2 a nd 1 23-11, a re d ifferent f rom t he o riginal . B urials 2 , 3 & 4 o f M ound 1 47 w ere s o m ixed t hey a re c onsidered h ere a s a s ingle , m ultiple b urial , 1 47-2 , a nd n ot s eparately a s o riginally p resented ( Willey e t a l . 1 965 : 1 42 & 5 54) . T herefore , t here a re n o B urials 1 47-3 o r 1 47-4 i n t he t ables . B urials 1 a nd 1 2 o f M ound 1 23 a re c onsidered a s ingle b urial o f a m other a nd c hild , B urial 1 23-11, a s s uggested b y t he o riginal e xcavators b ut f or s ome r eason p resented s eparately ( ibid . : 18 & 5 49 . C onsequently , t here i s n o B urial 1 23-12 i n t he t ables . 4 )

B enque V iejo & S an J ose :

A t b oth s ites t he b urials a re e numerated i n

t he w ay o riginally a dopted b y T hompson ( 1940 & 1 939 , r espectively) , w hich w as t o n umber t he b urials s eparately f or e ach p laza g roup i n w hich t hey w ere f ound . T here i s o ne e xception . i ncludes B urial B 5 . T he i nterments b urial , B 4 , a nd n ot s eparately a s T herefore , t here i s n o B urial B 5 i n

I n t hese t ables, B urial B 4, S an J osé , w ere s o m ixed t hey a re c onsidered a s o ne T hompson h ad d one ( Thompson 1 939 : 1 99) . t he t ables .

5 ) H olmul: My e numeration f ollows t he n umerical o rder o f M erwin & V aillant ( 1932) , b ut s ince t hey d id n ot a dopt a ny f ormal n umbering s ystem I h ave i nserted t he l etter o f t he b uilding i n w hich e ach b urial w as f ound i n f ront o f t he b urial n umber . T hus, t he b urials o f B uilding B , G roup I I, c onsist o f B urials B l, B 2, e tc ., a nd t he b urials o f B uildings E a nd X , c onsist o f E l a nd X l, e tc . , r espectively . B ut a p roblem a rises b y t he f act t hat b urials w ere d iscovered i n t wo d ifferent B uilding F 's . T o a void c onfusion , t he b urials o f B uilding F , G roup I , a re p refixed w ith t he n umber 1 , a nd t he l etter F , a nd t he b urials o f B uilding F , G roup I I , a re p refixed w ith t he n umber 2 , a nd t he l etter F . S o , f or e xample , B urial 1 o f B uilding F , G roup 1 , i s 1 F1, a nd B urial 1 o f B uilding F , G roup I I , i s 2 F1 . T he c omposition o f 3g roups o f b urials a re c onsidered d ifferently . B urials B 17 - B 19 w ere s o m ixed I h ave c onsidered t hem a s as ingle , m ultiple i nterment , B urial B 17 , a nd n ot a s i ndividual b urials . B urials B 3 a nd B 4 , t hough d isturbed , c onsisted o f o nly 1 b ody a nd s hould t herefore b e c onsidered a s ingle i nterment , B urial B 3 . A nd B urials B 13 & B 14 w ere s o m ixed t hey a re b est c onsidered a s t he s ingle , m ultiple i nterment , B urial B 13 . T hus , B urials B 18 , B 19 , B 4 &B 14 h ave b een e liminated f rom t he t ables . 6 )

U axactun :

e xcavators ,

A ll b urials a re e numerated a s o riginally e stablished b y t he

i .e .

p refixed w ith t ke

l etter o f t he p laza g roup i n w hich e ach

w as f ound a nd f ollowed b y t he b urial n umber , e .g . A l, B l, E l, e tc . b urials f ound i n h ousemounds a re p refixed w ith t he l etters H M . 7 )

T ikal:

T he

1 07

b urials

o f

t his

s ite f ollow t he

o riginal m ethod o f

e numeration a nd a re n umbered i n t he o rder o f t heir d iscovery . p roblematical d eposits a re p refixed w ith t he l etters P D .

2 44

T he

T he f ew

8 )

A ltun H a :

T he e numeration f or t his s ite i s t he s ame a s t hat a dopted b y

P endergast ( 1979, 1 982 & n .d .) . T he b urial n umber i s p refixed b y t he s tructure i n w hich e ach w as f ound, e .g . B urial E -14/7 . B urials t hat P endergast c onsidered a s t ombs w ere p refixed w ith t he l etter T , e .g . T B-4/7 . Id o t he s ame e ven t hough I h ave n ot c lassified a ll h is t ombs a s t ombs , e .g . T E-1/2 w hich I c lassified a s as imple c rypt . I n t he t ables a re i ncluded t he s kull b urials f ound i n f ront o f S tr . C 13 w hich w ere n ot l isted b y P endergast . T hese a re n umbered a s B urials C -13/34 a nd C -13/35 . I n a ddition , B urial C -23/1 i s s eparated i nto 3 d istinct i nterments, a , b&c , a s i mplied b y ( Pendergast 1 982: 2 50) b ut f or s ome r eason n ot a ctually l isted a s s uch . T hey a re i n t he t ables . 9 ) D zibilchaltun : T he e numeration i s t he s ame a s t hat u sed b y A ndrews a nd A ndrews ( 1980) . I t c onsists o f ab urial n umber p refixed b y t he s tructure i n w hich i t w as f ound , e .g . B urial 1 2-1 . O ne b urial, 9 6-6 , i s s eparated i nto 2 b urials , 6 a &6 b , b ecause t he 2 s keletons a ppear t o h ave b een d istinct , n onc ontemporary , i nterments . 1 0) A ltar d e S acrificios & S eibal : T he A ltar b urials a re e numerated a s t hey w ere b y S mith ( 1972) a nd t he S eibal b urials a re e numerated a s t hey w ere b y T ourtellot ( in p ress) . T he S eibal p roblematical d eposits a re p refixed b y P D , a nd t he b urials o f b oth s ites w ere s imply n umbered b y t he o rder o f d iscovery. 1)

C opan :

T he e numeration f ollows t he m ethods a dopted b y G ordon ( 1896) a nd

L ongyear ( 1952) . G ordon 's b urials w ere c onsidered a s t ombs w ere p refixed w ith r egardless o f w hether I c lassified a g rave e numeration h as a r ather d ifferent a nd m ore

s imply n umbered a nd t hose h e t he l etter T . I d o t he s ame a s a t omb o r n ot . T he L ongyear c omplex l ogic . A b urial n umber

i s c omposed o f t he n umber o f a b urial i n t he o rder o f i ts d iscovery i n a p articular y ear f ollowed b y t he y ear o f d iscovery . S o , f or e xample , t he f irst b urial f ound i n 1 938 b ecomes 1 -38 , o r t he s econd f ound i n 1 946 b ecomes 2 -46 , a nd s o o n . B urials h e t hought w ere t ombs a re e numerated t he s ame w ay w ith a n a dditional p refix o f t he l etter T . Id o t he s ame r egardless o f m y c lassification o f e ach g rave . H owever , 2 s ets o f b urials, B urials 3 4 & 3 5 a nd 2 5 & 2 6, a re b oth c onsidered a s c ontemporary , s ingle , m ultiple i nterments, B urials 3 4 &2 5 , b y m e r ather t han i ndividual i nterments ( Longyear B urials 3 5 &2 6 d o n ot a ppear i n t he t ables . 1 2)

P iedras N egras :

1 952 :

3 6-37) .

T herefore ,

T he e numeration i s t he s ame a s u sed b y C oe ( 1959) b ut

i ncludes t he i nfant s acrifice d esignated a s a c ache , C ache R -3-2 o r L ot 1 6 , b y C oe ( ibid . : 9 5) b ut a s B urial 1 6 i n t he t ables . I t m ay b e a d edicatory c ache b ut i t i s a lso c learly a n i nterment a nd t reated a s s uch h ere . 1 3)

P alenque :

T he b urials

o f P alenque a re a c ompilation o f

i nterments

f ound b y d ifferent e xcavators w hich w ere e ither n ot n umbered o r n ot d istinguishe d . D istinction i s m ade b y u sing t he f irst l etter o f t hc l ast n ame o f t he r espective a rchaeologist w ho d iscovered t hem , o r t he f irst l etter o f t he b uilding i n w hich e ach w as f ound , a s ap refix t o t he b urial n umber . T hus, I l b ecomes P acal' s b urial f ound i n t he T emple o f I nscriptions ( Ruz 1 954 & 1 973) ; t he R b urials a re t hose d iscovered b y t he R ands ( 1961) , t he C b urials a re t hose f ound i n t he T emple o f t he C ount ( Ruz 1 958b) ; t he E b urials a re t hose f ound i n T emple X VIII ( Eighteen) ( Ruz 1 958a) ;

a nd t he A b urials a re t hose f rom T emple X VIII-A ( Ruz 1 962) .

2 45

T he S

b urials, w hich u nchanged . 1 4)

T onina :

w ere

d iscovered

b y

B lom & L aFarge

( 1925-27),

r emain

T he e numeration f ollows t he m ethod a dopted b y B ecquelin a nd

B audez ( 1979) . I t c onsists o f t he b urial n umber p refixed b y t he R oman n umeral o f t he o peration n umber i n w hich e ach b urial w as f ound . S o , f or e xample , V -1 i s t he f irst b urial o f e xcavation o peration , V . Ap roblem d oes a rise w ith 4 g raves w hich w ere r eused . C onsequently , t he b urials a re d istinguished b y t he a dditional l etters, A , B , a nd C . T he b urials i n q uestion a re I V-3A & I V-3B ,C , I V-9A & I V-98 , I V-1A & I V-18 , C , a nd I V-2A & I V-2B , C . B urial I II-1A , Bi s m erely a c ontemporary , m ultiple b urial .

G rave L ocation T his m eans m ore o r l ess w hat i t s ays , i .e . i n w hat s tructure , p laza o r w hatever e ach b urial w as f ound . T he f loor l evel o r s tatum i n w hich e ach b urial w as f ound i s n ot s pecified , b ut a n i ndication i s m ade i f b urials w ere f ound u nder b enches , s telae , a ltars , o r s pecial b urial c onstructions .

G rave C ontext T his r efers t o t he t ype o f s tructure i n w hich a b urial w as f ound . T he c ontexts a re a s d escribed a nd d efined i n t he t ext ( ch apter 3 ) .

G rave T ype T he g rave t ypes a re a s Ih ave c lassified t hem ( chapter 2 ) b ut i t i s t he g rave v arieties , n ot j ust t he t ypes , w hich a re l isted . C onsequently , Ih ave u sed t he R oman n umeral a nd A rabic n umber c ombination f rom t he c lassification f or s imple g raves i n o rder t o d istinguish t heir o therwise u nnamed v arieties ( see T able

2 ) .

T he

s ame

i s

d one

f or c apped p its

( III:4)

i n o rder t o

d istinguish t hem f rom s imple p its a nd e mphasize t heir i nclusion a s av ariety o f

c ist .

S keleton T he c ategories u nder t his h eading a re s traightforward a nd s imply f ollow w hat h as a lready b een e xplained i n t he t ext ( chapters 4 , 5 , 6 &7 ) . F or m ultiple b urials , s keletons a re d istinguished b y t he l etters , a , b , c , e tc . T he m ethods u sed t o a ge s keletons a re n ot p recise a nd s hould o nly b e u sed a s ar ough g uide . T he a ge g roups a re d istinguished a s f ollows :

1 )

i nfants - l ess

2 )

c hildren - 2 t o 1 2 ;

3 )

y ouths - 1 2 t o 1 7 ;

4 )

y oung a dults - 1 8 t o 2 5 ;

5 )

a dults - 2 5 t o 4 0 ;

6 )

o ld a dults - o ver 4 0 .

t han 2 ;

2 46

I t s hould a lso b e p ointed o ut t hat t he n umber o f i nterred a nd t heir a ge a nd s ex f or t he A ltun H a s ample a re b ased o n t he l ab a nalysis a nd n ot u pon t he o n s ite e stimation .

G rave F urniture T his c ategory r efers t o t he a pproximate n umber o f g rave g oods f or e ach b urial, a nd i s s eparated i nto t he s ub-headings o f p ottery a nd s tuccoed v essels , j ade , s hell , f lint/obsidian , a nd o ther . T he n umber o f g rave g oods s hould o nly b e c onsidered a s a pproximate f or s ome b urials b ecause t he p recise n umber o f a s pecific t ype o f g rave g ood w as n ot a lways p rovided b y t he o riginal e xcavators . T his p articularly a pplies t o t he v ery w ell f urnished t emple a nd h ousehold s hrine b urials . I n s uch i nstances , i t w as m erely s tated t hat , f or e xample , j ade w as p resent , j ade b eads o r s hell b eads w ere p resent , h undreds o f j ade b eads , f lint b lades , e tc . , w ere p resent , o r am any b eaded b racelet, a nklet, n ecklace o r c ollar w as p resent . S uch a pproximation d oes n ot r eally o ccur f or n on-temple b urials b ecause t here w as s imply f ar l ess f urniture , a nd e very b ead o r f ragment w as c ounted . O ne a spect o f t he g rave g oods t hat i s n ot i ndicated i n t he t ables ( nor d iscussed i n t he t ext) i s t he p osition o f g rave g oods .

T his i s b ecause t he

p ositions w ere n ot a lways i ndicated i n t he e xcavation r eports , a nd p osition m ay n ot a lways h ave b een i mportant o r ( meaningful t hough i t p robably w as i n s ome i nstances , e .g . b owl o ver s kull , s hell o ver s kull, j ade b ead i n m outh a nd s tingray s pine b y p elvis) . J ade b eads a nd s hell b eads w ere u sually f ound i n p ositions c onsistent w ith t hem h aving b een w orn a s n ecklaces, c ollars , b racelets a nd a nklets . T he l ocation o f p ots i n g raves w as n ot c onsistent s o I s uggest s pace a vailability o r t he w him o f t he b urial p arty p rimarily i nfluenced w here h owever , s hould b e n oted :

p ots

w ere

p laced

i n

g raves .

T he

f ollowing ,

1 ) s ome o f t he b est f urnished b urials c ontained g oods t hat h ad b een p laced i n w all n iches , o r i n c aches i mmediately a djacent t o , b elow , o r a top t he g rave; 2 )

p ots f requently c ontained i tems o f f urniture ,

e .g .

j ade o r s hell b eads

a nd/or f lint o r o bsidian b lades , a nd u nanalysed o rganic r emains ; 3 )

s tingray s pines w ere u sually p laced b y t he p elvis o f t he d eceased ;

4 )

j ade b eads w ere s ometimes f ound i n p ositions c onsistent w ith t hem h aving

b een p laced i n t he m outh . T he p osition o f s tingray s pines m ay b e m eaningful.

S ome a rt a nd

i conography d epict m ale i ndividuals , u sually M aya l ords , m utilating t heir v irile m ember w ith s tingray s pines ( Schele & M iller 1 986) . P lacing a s tingray s pine b y t he p elvis o f t he d eceased m ay i ndicate t hat t he p erson h ad p ractised t his b loodletting d uring l ife a nd w ould c ontinue t o p ractise i t i n t he h ereafter ( see T able 1 00) . T he p lacing o f a j ade b ead i n t he m outh o f t he d eceased w as a c ommon P an M esoamerican c ustom ( Ruz 1 968 : 1 62 & 1 66) . I t h as a lso b een w ritten a bout i n t he e thnohistoric l iterature . L anda i nforms u s t hat i t w as c ustomary i n o rder t o p rovide t he d eceased w ith m oney - j ade b eads c ould b e u sed

a s

c urrency - t o b uy f ood i n t he a fterworld

2 47

( Tozzer

1 941:

1 30) .

I t

s eems t he c ustom i s o f s ome a ntiquity p robably f or t he s ame r eason .

P erhaps

t he o rganic r esidues i n p ots w ere f ood l eft f or t he v ery s ame p urpose .

2 48

A bbreviations T he f ollowing i s a l ist o f t he a bbreviations u sed i n t he d ata t ables : I )

C eramic P hase

F l P -F loral P ark E H err n - E arly H ermitage T R - S L T rans -

T iger R un - S panish L ookout T ransition

B V -B enque V iejo S J

- S an J ose

I I) C r .

P rovenance -

G roup

S tr . - S tructure C ons .

-

C onstruction

s ub . -s ubstructure

I II)

S keleton

e xt

- e xtended

i nf - i nfant m - m ale

f l - f lexed

f- f emale

s up - s upine s ev

-

s evered

c rshd b twn S k s k

-

s ec f rgs

c rushed b etween

S keleton s kull s econdary - f ragments

o a - o ld a dult

2 49

a-

a dult

y a - y oumg

a dult

y - y outh c h

- c hild

I V)

G rave F urniture

a ni a nt,

a nimal a ntl

- a ntler

b i - b lade(s) b d ,

b ds

- b ead o r b eads

b n -

b one

b rclt

-

b racelet

c . , c rrd -

c arved

c ara -

c arapace

c har -

c harcoal

c hrd c l

-

-

c harred

c lay

c on -

c ontained

c res -

c rescent

c roc -

c rocodile

c rys

c rystalline

c yl

-

c ylinder

e cc -

e ccentric

e fl -

e arflare(s)

e ng s k -

e ngraved s kull

f ig -

f igure(s)

f l

f lint

-

f lk ,

f lks - f lake o r f lakes

f rg ,

f rgs

-

f ragment(s)

2 50

g m n-

g reen

h em -

h ematite

h um -

h uman

i mp -

i mplement

i mpr

- i mpression

i ncl - i ncluding i nl

-

i nlay

i ns -

i nscribed

i r p y - i ron p yrite j -

j ade

j & p y - j ade & p yrite ( mosaic) j&s h - j ade & s hell

( mosaic)

j ps m os - j ade , p yrite & s hell m osaic j ag

-

k n -

j aguar

k nife

i n - m other

o f

p earl

M o f P - Mother o f P earl m and - m andible m et -

m etate

m in p cs - m ineral p ieces n dl,

n dle - n eedle(s)

n od o b ,

n odule

o bj - o bject(s)

o bs o c o r ,

o bsidian o celot

o rn , o rna , o rns - o rnament(s)

p cs -

p ieces

p en ,

p end - p endant

p erf

-

p erforated

2 51

p hal - p halange(s) p igm - p igment p l, p lq - p laque p nt - p aint P ol - p olished p oly - p olychrome p td - p ainted p yr - p yrite r mn , r ims , -r emains s er , s erp - s erpentine s h &o bs m os - s hell & o bsidian m osaic s k -s keleton s l -s late s ndl , s pnd , s pndl - s pindle s pat - s patula s t -s tone S t s p -s tingray s pine t ana - t anager t ex , t ext - t extile t pr - t apir t th - t ooth o r t eeth t ur - t urtle v ert - v ertebra(e) w hrl - w horl w rkd - w orked

2 52

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A PPENDIX

I I

I llustrations o f G rave T ypes a nd V arieties

T he f ollowing f igures a re o f m ost o f t he g rave v arieties a s d escribed a nd d efined i n m y c lassification s cheme ( chapter 2 ) . T hree v arieties a re n ot i llustrated : u nspecified c rypt , u nspecified t omb a nd r ock-cut t omb . T he u nspecified c rypt a nd t omb v arieties a re n ot i llustrated b ecause o f t he o bvious r eason t hat t he c ategories o nly e xist o n a ccount o f i nadequate d escription . A r ock-cut t omb i s n ot i llustrated s imply b ecause i t h as e ffectively t he s ame a ppearance ( ideally) a s as tone l ined t omb . O ne g rave t ype , c hultun , i s n ot i llustrated e ither . T his i s s imply b ecause r eaders s hould b e f amiliar w ith w hat c hultuns a re a nd b ecause c hultuns d o n ot n ecessarily h ave o ne f orm o r d imension . T he f igures a re a s f ollows :

3 39

F igure I I:1 - G rave T ype I :1 - s imple,

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S imple G rave

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A PPENDIX I II A dditional B urials N ot i n t he A nalysis

T he f ollowing i s a l ist o f b urials w hich h ave r ecently b een p ublished b ut n ot i ncluded i n t he a nalysis . T he s ame s ort o f d ata i s p rovided a s l isted i n t he t ables o f A ppendix I . A b rief c omment i s a dded f or e ach b urial i f t here i s s ome n oteworthy a spect a bout i t o r t here i s s ome f eature i n c ommon w ith i mportamt a spects d iscussed i n t he t ext , e .g . e vidence f or s acrifice , t he e xtent o f t he f urnishings , e tc . I :

K omchen , D zibilchaltun

( Merida M useum )

B urial N o . - ? L ocation & C ontext - ? G rave T ype - u ncapped c ist B ody & P osition - e xtended ,

s upine ;

a dult

H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture - 7 p ots o f v arious f orms ; D ate

I I :

-

1p late w as o ver s kull

?

C oba

( Benavides

1 981:

9 8-99

&F ig .

4 5)

B urial N o . - ? L ocation & C ontext - b eneath a p laza a ltar i n f ront o f S tela 2 7 G rave T ype - u ncapped c ist ( but p ossibly a s imple c rypt) B ody & P osition - u ncertain ,

b ut p ossibly f lexed o r s econdary

H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture - n one v isible D ate

?

C omment - I ts p roximity t o S tela 2 7 a nd p lacement b elow a n a ltar s uggests t his w as a d edicatory c ache b urial .

I II :

C olha

( Hester ,

E aton & S hafer

3 53

1 980 :

7 7 ,

19-20 ,

1 63-72

& 1 79-80)

B urial N o . -2 0031 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . G rave T ype - p it ; B ody & P osition

I II ( residence)

I :2

- e xtended ,

s upine ;

i nfant

H ead O rientation - S E G rave F urniture - v ase a nd I s hell b ead D ate - P rotoclassic ,

i .e .

A .D .

5 0-200

B urial N o . -2 008-6 L ocation & C ontext

- h ousemound

G rave T ype - s imple ; I :I B ody & P osition - f ragmentary H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture - n one D ate - L ate C lassic

B urial N o . -2 008-7 L ocation & C ontext - h ousemound G rave T ype - s imple p it ; 1 :2 B ody & P osition - ? H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture - 1 b owl D ate - T epeu 2

B urial N o . - 2 008-1 L ocation & C ontext - h ousemound G rave T ype - s imple ; I :1 B ody & P osition - d isturbed H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture

- 3f lint c elts

3 54

D ate - L ate C lassic B urial N o .

- 2 008-3

L ocation & C ontext - h ousemound G rave T ype - s imple ;

I :1

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B urial N o . -2 008-2 L ocation & C ontext

- h ousemound

G rave T ype - s imple p it ;

1 :2

B ody & P osition - m andible

& f emurs

o nly ,

b ut

d isturbed

H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture - n one D ate - L ate C lassic C omment - T hough t he b urial

i s d isturbed ,

t he p resence o f

j ust a m andible

a nd f emur s uggests t his i ndividual w as s acrificed .

B urial N o .

- 2 008-4

L ocation & C ontext - h ousemound G rave T ype - s imple p it ; B ody & P osition

1 :2

- e xtended ;

y oung a dult m ale

H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture - n one D ate - L ate C lassic C omment

-T his

b urial w as

i n t he s ame p it a s

2 008-2 .

T he

f act t hat

t hey

w ere t ogether s uggests t he t wo s hould b e c onsidered a s a m ultiple b urial, p erhaps o f a p rimary i nterment a ccompanied b y a s acrificial v ictim . l ack o f f urniture w ould b e u nusual f or s uch a c ombination , h owever . B urial N o . -2 008-5

3 55

T he

L ocation & C ontext - h ousemound G rave T ype -

s imple ; I :1

B ody & P osition - f ragmentary H ead O rientation - ? G rave F urniture - 1 p oly b owl D ate - L ate C lassic

B urial N o . -2 011-1 L ocation & C ontext

-

s outh

s ide

o f m ain

c eremonial

p laza

i n f ront

o f

a

t emple o r c eremonial p latform G rave T ype - l arge s imple p it ; B ody & P osition - 2 l ayers

o f

1 :2 s evered

s kulls ( 27) a nd m andibles o nly ( 3 ) ;

t he 3 0 i ndividuals c onsisted o f 9c hildren , 3y ouths , a dult ; a t l east 7 w ere m ale a nd 8 w ere f emale .

1 7 a dults a nd 1 o ld

G rave F urniture - a s hell , n umerous l arge s herds a nd n umerous c hert f lakes D ate - T erminal C lassic C omment - T he p it w as c overed b y a c onsiderable a mount o f b urnt m asonry . I t i s s uggested t hat p erhaps t he s kulls r epresent m embers o f t he e lite w ho w ere k illed a nd t he c eremonial s tructure t hen i ntentionally d estroyed a s p art o f m ass d estruction a t t he s ite . T he a ct m ay h ave c ontributed t o t he c ollapse o f t he s ite i n t he T erminal C lassic . T his i s p ossible b ut I b elieve t here i s a m uch b etter e xplanation . T he f act t hat t he p it w as v ery w ell c onstructed s uggests i t w as d one t o p revent t he s kulls f rom b eing d amaged . T hey s ucceeded , b ut s uch e fforts t o p revent d estruction o f t he s kulls d oes n ot s uggest s imple k illing t o m e . S acrifice i s m ore l ikely , t hough t his w ould b e t he f irst i nstance o f a b urial o f am ass s acrifice o f am ixed a ge g roup a nd s ex . I s uggest t his b urial m ay b e i ndicative o f a s acrifice o f c aptive w arriors , s lave w omen a nd t heir c hildren a fter s ome s uccessful r aid , b attle , d esignation o f a n h eir o r c oronation . T he e xtensive a mounts o f b urnt m asonry c ould b e t he r emains o f t he r itual c elebrations a fter t he m ass s acrifice . I n o ther w ords , t his b urial m ay b e t he r esult o f t he s ort o f a ct d epicted o n t he m urals o f B onampak .

B urial N o . -2 012-1 L ocation & C ontext - u ncertain , b ut p ossible h ousehold s hrine G rave T ype -

s imple p it ; 1 :2

B ody & P osition - a : b + :

s eated a dult f ragmentary

G rave F urniture - 6 v essels a nd f ragments o f o thers

3 56

D ate - L ate C lassic C omment

-T here

i s

t he p ossibiltiy t hat

t his

g rave h ad b een r eused .

f ragmentary r emains o f h uman b ones a nd s herds m ay b e i nterment.

T he

f rom a p revious

B urial N o . -2 012-2 L ocation & C ontext - u ncertain , b ut p ossible h ousehold s hrine G rave T ype - ? B ody & P osition - s everal d isarticulated s keletons ;

s econdary

G rave F urniture- 1 v essel D ate - L ate C lassic C omment - T he o bvious d isarticulation i mplies s acrifice . A ll o f t he b urials a re n umbered a s i n t he t ext ,

b ut p refixed w ith t he

o peration n umber i n w hich e ach w as f ound .

I V : N ohmul

( Hammond 1 985: 2 39-43, 2 46-50, 2 54-57 & 5 29-31)

T he f ollowing b urials a re n umbered a s i n t he t ext b ut a re p refixed w ith t he s tructure n umber i n w hich e ach w as f ound .

B urial N o . - 1 39-1 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 1 39 ; r esidence G rave T ype -

s imple p it ; I : 2

B ody & P osition - d isturbed G rave F urniture - s herds D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . -1 39-2 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - s imple p it ;

1 :2

B ody & P osition - d isturbed G rave F urniture- 1 b owl D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

3 57

B urial N o . - 1 39-3 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove B ody & P osition -

e xtended, s upine ; a dult

H ead O rientation - h ead t o E G rave F urniture - 1 b owl D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 39-4 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - s imple p it ;

1 :2

B ody & P osition - f ragmentary H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - n one D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . -1 39-5 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - h aphazard c yst B ody & P osition - n o r emains G rave F urniture - n one D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . -1 39-6 L ocation & C ontext -

a s a bove

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - d isentegrated G rave F urniture - n one D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 39-7 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove

3 58

G rave T ype -

s imple

B ody & P osition - f ragmentary H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - v ase & b owl D ate - T epeu 3 ( Terminal C lassic)

B urial N o . -1 39-8 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - p robably a s imple c rypt B ody & P osition - f ragmentary H ead O rientation - h ead t o E G rave F urniture - n one D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 39-9 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype -

s imple c rypt

B ody & P osition - ? H ead O rientation - h ead t o E G rave F urniture - 2 v essels D ate - L ate/Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 39-10 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - u ncapped c yst B ody & P osition - ? H ead O rientation - h ead t o E G rave F urniture- v ase & p late ;

p late w as o ver s kull

D ate - T erminal C lassic

3 59

B urial N o . - 1 39-11 L ocation & C ontext - b eneath b ench , S tr . 1 39 ; r esidence G rave T ype -

s imple

B ody & P osition - n o r emains G rave F urniture - 1 d ish D ate - L ate C lassic C omment - T here i s n othing u nusual o r s triking a bout a ny o f t hese b urials . T hey a re t ypical f or r esidences.

I t i s n ice t o h ave a b ench b urial.

B urial N o . - 1 41-1 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr . 1 41;

r esidence

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - f ragments G rave F urniture - o bsidian b lade a nd c hert f lakes D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 41-2 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype -

s imple

B ody & P osition - f ragments G rave F urniture - n one D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 41-3 L ocation & C ontext -

a s a bove

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - f ragmentary H ead O rienation - h ead t o W G rave F urniture- 1 b owl D ate - T erminal C lassic

3 60

B urial N o . - 1 41-4 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - p artial c ist B ody & P osition - f ragmentary H ead O rientation - h ead t o E G rave F urniture -bowl o ver s kull D ate -Terminal C lassic

B urial N o . -1 41-5 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - f ragmentary G rave F urniture - n one D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 41-6 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype -

s imple p it ; 1 :2

B ody & P osition - f ragmentary G rave F urniture - n one D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o .

- 1 41-7

L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - s imple p it ; 1 :2 B ody & P osition - f ragmentary G rave F urniture- p oly p late D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 41-8 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove

3 61

G rave T ype -

s imple p it ; 1 :2

B ody & P osition - f ragmentary G rave F urniture - n one D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 41-9 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - s imple p it ;

1 :2

B ody & P osition - f ragmentary G rave F urniture- 1 b owl D ate - T erminal C lassic C omment - T here i s n othing u nusual a bout t hese r esidential b urials e ither . T he f ragmentary c ondition o f t he s keletal r emains i s e xasperating .

B urial N o .

- 1 38-1

L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 1 38 ; i ts l ocation o n t he e astern p erimeter o f t he r esidential p laza s uggests t his m ay b e ah ousehold s hrine G rave T ype -

s imple p it ; 1 :2

B ody & P osition - s eated G rave F urniture - n one D ate - P rotoclassic, i .e . A .D . 5 0-250

B urial N o . - 1 38-2 L ocation & C ontext G rave

T ype

a s a bove

- c apped p it ;

B ody & P osition

1 11 :4

-f lexed l eft

H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture- b owl & j ar D ate - P rotoclassic

B urial N o . - 1 38-3 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove

3 62

G rave T ype -

s imple p it ;

1 :2

B ody & P osition - s eated G raveFurniture- 1 b owl o ver s kull a nd 1 p ebble D ate - P rotoclassic C omment - T he m eagre a mount o f f urniture t hat S tr . 1 38 w as n ot a h ousehold s hrine .

i n t hese 3 g raves w ould s uggest I t o therwise f its t he P laza P lan

Ba rrangement.

T he

f ollowing

C onsequently ,

b urials

a re

l ocated

i n

u nnumbered

s tructures .

t hese b urials a re e numerated b y t he o peration n umber

o f t he

e xcavation f ollowed b y t he b urial n umber i n t he t ext. B urial N o .

-3 04B-2

L ocation & C ontext - m ound o f u nknown f unction G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - f ragmentary G rave F urniture- 1 b owl D ate -Early C lassic

B urial N o . -3 04C-1 L ocation & C ontext

-m ound

o f u nknown

3 04B G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist B ody & P osition - s kull o nly G rave F urniture -2 p ots o ver s kull D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o .

-3 04C-2

L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist B ody & P osition - s kull o nly G rave F urniture- 1 b owl D ate - T erminal C lassic

3 63

f unction ;

d ifferent

f rom m ound

o f

B urial N o . -3 04C-3 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype -

h aphazard c ist

B ody & P osition -skull o nly G rave F urniture -bowl o ver s kull a nd 3 o bsidian b lades D ate -Terminal C lassic

B urial N o .

-3 04C-4

L ocation & C ontext -

a s a bove

G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist B ody & P osition - s kull o nly G rave F urniture - p ot o ver s kull D ate - T erminal C lassic C omment - T here w ere 3 o ther s uspected s kull o nly b urials i n t his m ound . E ach h ad s tones p laced h aphazardly o ver t he s kulls i n t he s hape o f a c airn . I s uspect t hese w ere s acrifices o f s ome k ind , e ither i ndividually o r a s a m ass s acrifice .

B urial N o .

-3 04C-9

L ocation & C ontext - m ound o f u nknown f unction G rave T ype -

s imple p it ;

1 :2

B ody & P osition - f ragments G rave F urniture - n one D ate -Terminal C lassic

B urial N o .

-3 04C-10

L ocation & C ontext -

a s a bove

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - e xtended G rave F urniture - n one D ate - T erminal C lassic

3 64

B urial N o . -3 04C-11 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype -

s imple

B ody & P osition - e xtended G rave F urniture

-n one

D ate -Terminal C lassic

B urial N o .

-3 04C-15

L ocation & C ontext -

a s a bove

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - d isarticulated ;

p ossibly s econdary

G rave F urniture - j ar o ver s kull D ate - T erminal C lassic

B urial N o . -3 04C-18 L ocation & C ontext - a s a bove G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist B ody & P osition - d isarticulated ;

p ossibly s econdary

G rave F urniture - p ot o ver s kull D ate -Terminal C lassic C omment - T here i s n othing u nusual a bout t hese .

T hese l atter b urials w ould

s uggest t he m ounds w ere n othing m ore t han r esidential . m ight s uggest a c eremonial p urpose .

T he s kull b urials

N ine s keletons h ad t heir h ead o rientation d iscerned :

5w ere h ead t o E ,

3h ead t o N & 1h ead t o w est . T he p revalence o f h ead t o E i s s imilar t o D zibilchaltun , a nd t he r esidential p revalence a t A ltun H a . T he p resence o f s ome h ead t o N b rings a s imilarity w ith U axactun a nd T ikal . e xasperatingly s mall . V : Q uirigua ( Sharer 1 978 : 5 1; 1 6)

S harer e t a l . 1 979 : 5 9 ;

D espite e xtensive e xcavation a t t his s ite , T hese a re a s f ollows: B urial N o .

T he s ample i s

J ones & S harer 1 980 :

o nly 2 b urials w ere f ound .

-2 C-3/1

L ocation & C ontext -

S tr . 2 C-3;

t hough l ocated o n t he e ast s ide o f a

3 65

r esidential p laza, t he e xcavators s uggest i t w as a r esidence . G rave T ype - s imple p it ;

1 :2

B ody & P osition - e xtended , s upine ;

a dult f emale

H ead O rientation - h ead t o E G rave F urniture- 1 c elt a nd 6 c opper d iscs D ate -Terminal C lassic/Early P ostclassic

B urial N o . -1 B-6/1 L ocation & C ontext - S tr .

1 B-6 ;

a p robable h ousehold s hrine o n t he e astern

p erimeter o f ac ourt o f t he M ain A cropolis G rave T ype -

s imple c rypt w ith b enches a long s ides

B ody & P osition - e xtended , s upine ;

a dult

H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - 2 v ases & 1 b owl D ate

V I :

- c a . A .D . 6 00

X unantunich ( Benque V iejo) ( MacKie 1 985 : 6 9 ,

7 5-77 ,

8 4-87 & 1 76-79)

T he r emains o f a t l east 5 b urials w ere f ound i n o ne b uilding , 1 5, a f airly s ubstantial r esidence . B urial N o .

T he b urials

S tr . A -

a re a s f ollows:

-A -15/1

L ocation & C ontext

-

i n t opsoil

a bove R oom 2 o f

r esidence G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - i nfant ;

f ragmentary

G rave F urniture - n one D ate - B enque V iejo I V o r l ater , i .e . P ostclassic

B urial N o . -A -15/2 L ocation & C ontext - b elow f loor o f R oom 1 , S tr . A -15 G rave T ype -

s imple

B ody & P osition - e xtended , p rone ;

c hild

H ead O rientation - h ead t o S

3 66

S tr .

A -15,

a l arge

G rave F urniture - n one D ate - B enque V iejo I IIb

B urial N o .

-A -15/3

L ocation & C ontext -

i n b ench o f R oom 2 , S tr . A -15

G rave T ype - e xtended ,

p rone ;

c hild ;

n o t race o f c ranium ,

b ut a ll

o ther

b ones a rticulated H ead O rientation - h ead t o S G rave F urniture - 3 j ade b eads & 1 j ade d isc D ate - B enque V iejo I IIb C omment - s ee B urial 4 b elow

B urial N o . -A -15/4 L ocation & C ontext -in b ench b elow B urial 3 a nd d isturbed b y i t G rave T ype -

s imple

B ody & P osition - e xtended , p rone ;

a dult ;

c ranium m issing

H ead O rientation - h ead t o S G rave F urniture - 3 a nimal t eeth a nd 1 j ade d isc D ate - B enque V iejo I IIb C omment

-A t f irst g lance ,

t he m issing c rania o f B urials A -15/3 & 4 m ay b e

t hought t o b e t he r esult o f d isturbance . b y t he p lacing o f B urial 3 ,

B urial 4 c ertainly w as d isturbed

s ince t he m andible , a xis a nd r ight c lavicle o f

t he a dult w ere l ying o n t op o f t he c hild . B ut t he c ranium o f t he a dult w as d efinitely n ot p resent , n or w as t he c hild 's . T herefore , i ntentional r emoval s eems m ore l ikely . D oes t his m ean t hese 2 i ndividuals w ere s acrificed a s M acKie s uggests ( MacKie 1 985 : 8 7)? I t w ould s eem l ogical a nd t hese e xamples c ould f it w ith s ome o ther e xamples o f d edicatory c ache b urials ( Table 1 03) . H owever , t here i s a f ar b etter a rgument f or t his s tate o f a ffairs t o w hich , i n f act, M acKie a lludes ( ibid .: 8 6), b ut d oes n ot q uite j ump i n . T he m issing c rania i n t his i nstance a re i ndicative o f a ncestor w orship a nd w ere r etained a s i dols b y t he d escendants . W hy d o Ib elieve t his? T here a re 3 r easons: 1 ) P laced i n f ront o f t he b ench c ontaining t he 2 b urials w as a s mall d isc s haped l imestone a ltar . 2 ) T he r emoval o f t he c rania w ould f it w ith L anda 's d escriptions o f t he r emoval

o f t he s kulls o f a ncestors t o b e

r etained f or w orship . 3 ) Mackie f ound p ieces o f h uman c ranial b one i n d eposits o f R oom 2 a nd t he m idden t hat m ay b elong t o t he m issing c rania ( ibid . : 8 7) . T herefore , I s uggest t hat a ncestor w orship w as p racticed a t t he a ltar i n f ront o f t his b ench , s pecifically o f t he i ndividuals b uried i n i t a nd w ith t heir r emoved c rania . M oreover , M acKie 's s uggestion t hat t he a dult c ranium w as p laced i n t he u pper n iche o f t he r ear wall f or s afe k eeping ( ibid .) i s p robably d ead r ight .

3 67

B urial N o .

-A -15/5

L ocation & C ontext -

i n t opsoil a bove

S tr . A -15

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition

-f ragmentary ;

p ossibly a dult f emale

G rave F urniture - n one D ate - p ostabandonment o f s tructure ; P ostclassic G eneral C omment - T he 3 i ndividuals w hose h ead o rientation a nd b ody p osition w ere d iscerned w ere a ll e xtended p rone w ith h ead t o s outh . T his c omplies e xactly w ith t he p revailing p osition a nd o rientation o f t he d eceased a t n earby B aking P ot a nd B arton R amie , a nd t he o rientation c omplies w ith 2 /3 o f T hompson 's ( 1940) B enque V iejo b urials ( n able I V , A ppendix I ) . p rone p osition w ith h ead t o s outh c ertainly d oes c onvention .

V II: T ikal

( Haviland 1 985:

T he e xtended

s eem t o b e t he r egional

1 23-153)

T he p ublication o f T ikal r eports 1 9 p rovides d ata o n 3 1 b urials f rom G roups 4 F-1 a nd 4 F-2 . T he b urials a re a s f ollows : B urial N o . - 1 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 F-43 ; G rave T ype -

r esidence o r d omestic a ncillary

s imple

B ody & P osition - a : o ld a dult m ale w as e xtended s upine b : s evered s kull H ead O rientation - a : h ead t o N G rave F urniture - n one D ate - I k p hase , c a . A .D . 6 00-700 C omment - T his m ay b e a n i nstance o f t he s acrifice o f S k . bt o a ccompany S k . a .

U nlike o ur u sually w ell f urnished e xamples ,

h owever ( Table 1 02) ,

w as u nfurnished a nd t herefore , a typical .

B urial N o . - 1 2 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr . 4 F-1;

p robably a r esidence p latform

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - u ncertain ;

p ossibly s kull o nly

H ead O rientation - h ead t o E ?

3 68

t his

G rave F urniture- p oly b owl o ver s kull D ate

- I k-Imix t ranition ; A .D . 6 75-725

C omment b urial;

-T his i s p ossibly a s kull b urial; o r p ossibly p art o f B urial 1 8.

p ossibly

a b adly

d isturbed

B urial N o . - 1 3 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 F-15 ; G rave T ype -

r esidence

s imple

B ody & P osition - c hild w as f lexed r ight H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture -clay s pindle w horl D ate - L ate C lassic

B urial N o . - 1 4 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 F-15 ;

r esidence

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - a dult f emale w as f lexed r ight H ead O rientation - h ead t o W G rave F urniture- 2 p oly b owls a nd 2 s hell r osettes D ate

- I mix ;

A .D . 7 00-800 C lassic

B urial N o . -1 5 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 F-43 ; G rave T ype -

c apped p it ;

p robable r esidence o r d omestic a ncillary

1 11 :4

B ody & P osition - a : c hild w as e xtended p rone b : s kull & m andible H ead O rientation - a : h ead t o N G rave F urniture - n one D ate

- 1 k ; A .D . 6 00-700

C omment - T his i s a nother i nstance o f as acrificial v ictim a ccompanying t he p rimary i nterment i n w hich t here w as n o f urniture

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B urial N o . - 1 6 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr . 4 F-15 ; r esidence

G rave T ype - p it B ody & P osition - o ld a dult f emale w as f lexed r ight H ead O rientation - h ead t o E G rave F urniture- 2 b awls & 1 m etate D ate - I k ; c a . A .D . 6 00-700

B urial N o . - 1 7 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 F-43 ; G rave T ype -

r esidence o r d omestic a ncillary

s imple

B ody & P osition - y oung a dult w as s eated G rave F urniture - 1 b owl D ate - I k ;

c a . A .D . 6 00-700

B urial N o . - 1 8 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr . 4 F-1;

h ouse p latform

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - i nfant w as e xtended H ead O rientation - h ead t o S G rave F urniture- 1 p oly b owl, 1 c lay d rum & 1 w histle f igurine D ate - I k-Imix t ranstion ;

i .e . A .D . 7 00

C omment - I t i s p ossible t hat t he s evered s kull

o f B urial

1 2 i s a ctually

p art o f t his b urial . T his w ould t hen b e a nother i nstance o f a s acrificial v ictim a ccompanying a p rimary i nterment . A t l east i n t his i nstance t here i s s ome g rave f urniture .

B urial N o . -2 0 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 F-15 ; G rave T ype -

r esidence

p artial c ist

B ody & P osition -young a dult f emale w as f lexed r ight H ead O rientation - h ead t o N

3 70

G rave F urniture - n one D ate

- p robably I l e ; A .D . 6 00-700

B urial N o . -2 1 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr 4 F-15 ;

r esidence

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - n o b ones G rave F urniture- 2 p oly b owls & 1 p oly c ylinder D ate - I mix ; c a . A .D . 7 50-850 C oment - I s t his a n u nused g rave?

B urial N o . -2 5 L ocation & C ontext

- S tr . 4 E-31;

t his r are t ype s tructure w as e ither

c eremonial o r r esidential G rave T ype

-

c ircular p it

B ody & P osition -old a dult m ale w as f lexed G rave F urniture - n one D ate - E znab ;

T erminal C lassic o r p ostabandonment

B urial N o . -2 6 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 E-31 G rave T ype

- c apped p it ;

B ody & P osition - a : b :

1 11 :4

o ld a dult f emale w as f lexed r ight c hild w as e xtended

r ight

H ead O rientation - b oth w ith h ead t o N G rave F urniture- 1 p oly b owl a nd 1 s tone s pindle w horl D ate - I mix C omment - T his m ay b e ac hild s acrifice t o a ccompany t he d ying m other ( Table 1 01).

B urial N o . -2 7 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 E-31

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G rave T ype -

s imple

B ody & P osition -old a dult m ale w as f lexed l eft H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - 1 p oly p late D ate - I mix C omment - T he o ld a dult m ale m ay h ave r eceived a d eath b low t o t he s kull .

B urial N o . -2 8 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr . 4 E-31

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - a dult f emale w as e xtended r ight H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture- 1 p oly p late D ate - I mix

B urial N o . -2 9 L ocation & C ontext - S tr . 4 E-31 G rave T ype - p it B ody & P osition - a :

c hild w as e xtended s upine

b :

c hild w as e xtended s upine

H ead O rientation - a : h ead t o N b : h ead t o S G rave F urniture - n one D ate - I mix

B urial N o . -3 0 L ocation & C ontext - S tr 4 E-31 G rave T ype - p it B ody & P osition - e xtended a dult H ead O rientation - h ead t o S G rave F urniture- 2 p oly b owls & 1 p oly p late

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D ate - I mix C omment - H aviland s uggests t hat B urials 2 6-30

w ere a ll c ontemporary a nd

i mply e ither m ass m urder o r s acrifice ( Haviland 1 985:

1 32).

B urial N o . -3 1 L ocation & C ontext - S tr 4 F-3 ; G rave T ype

- c apped p it ;

B ody & P osition

p robable r esidence

1 11 :4

-a dult w as f lexed r ight

H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - 1 b owl i nverted u nder s kull, 1 0 f lint f lakes

1p late , 1p oly c ylinder a nd

D ate - E arly I mix

B urial N o . -3 2 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr 4 F-4 ;

p robable r esidence

G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist B ody & P osition - o ld

a dult m ale w as f lexed s upine

H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - n one D ate - I k-Imix t ransition

B urial N o . -3 3 L ocation & C ontext - n ortheast o f Q uarry 4 F-1 G rave T ype - p it B ody & P osition - d isturbed o r s cattered a dult G rave F urniture - 1 d ish D ate - M anik ( early C lassic)

B urial N o . -3 4 L ocation & C ontext - e ast o f Q uarry 4 F-1 G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition

-c hild w as f lexed r ight

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H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture- 1 b owl & 1 f lint f lake D ate - M anik

B urial N o . -3 5 L ocation & C ontext -

e ast o f Q uarry 4 F-1 a nd p ossibly u nder a s mall

h ousehold s hrine, S tr . 4 F-8 G rave T ype - l arge p it r esembling a c hultun B ody & P osition - a dult w as f lexed l eft H ead O rientation - h ead t o S G rave F urniture - 1 d ish i nverted b eneath h ead , o bsidian f lake

4 b owls ,

1c ylinder a nd 1

D ate - M anik C omment - H aviland ( 1985 :

1 35) a rgues t his b urial h ad b een l ocated u nder a

s mall s hrine ( household s hrine) . T he w ealth o f t he b urial w ould s upport s uch a s uggestion a nd t he b uilding m ay h ave b een c onstructed a s am emorial t o t his

i nterment .

B urial N o . -3 6 L ocation & C ontext -

e ast o f Q uarry 4 F-1

G rave T ype - s imple B ody & P osition - c hild w as f lexed l eft H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - 2 f lint b ifaces D ate - M anik

B urial N o . -3 7 L ocation & C ontext - Q uarry 4 F-1 G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist B ody & P osition - h eadless a dult m ale w as s upine H ead O rientation - n eck t o N E G rave F urniture - n one

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D ate - M anik C omment - p robably a s acrifice

B urial N o . -3 8 L ocation & C ontext - Q uarry 4 F-1 G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist o r p it B ody & P osition - v ery r obust o ld a dult m ale ; f lexed s upine H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - 1 b owl i nverted b eneath h ead,

1p oly p late & 1 p oly

c ylinder D ate - I mix

B urial N o . -3 9 L ocation & C ontext - S tr 4 F-7 ;

p robable r esidence

G rave T ype - h aphazard c ist B ody & P osition - o ld a dult f emale w as f lexed r ight H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture- 1 p oly b owl u nder h ead , 1p oly c ylinder & 1 p oly d ish D ate - I mix

B urial N o . -4 0 L ocation & C ontext - S tr 4 F-7 G rave T ype - p it B ody & P osition

-a dult m ale w as e xtended r ight

H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture- 1 c lay b arrel D ate - I k-Imix t ransition

B urial N o . -4 1 L ocation & C ontext - S tr 4 F-7 G rave T ype - s imple

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B ody & P osition - c hild G rave F urniture - n one D ate - I nix

B urial N o . -4 2 L ocation & C ontext -

S tr 4 F-7

G rave T ype - p artial c ist B ody & P osition

-a dult m ale w as e xtended r ight

H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - p oly b awl i nverted b eneath h ead , c ylinder

1p oly p late & 1 p oly

D ate - I mix C omment - H aviland s uggests t hat e ach b uilding m odification o f S tr . 4 F-7 w as a ssociated w ith a b urial ( Burials 3 9-42) ( iaviland 1 985 : 1 37-39) . I f t his i s t rue , d o t hese m odifications a mount t o m emorials t o t he d eceased? I f s o , d oes t his i mply a ncestor w orship a mong t he c ommon p opulation h ere?

B urial N o . -4 3 L ocation & C ontext - S tr 4 F-6 ;

p robable r esidence

G rave T ype - s imple p it B ody & P osition - o ld a dult m ale w as e xtended s upine ; H ead O rientation - h ead t o N G rave F urniture - n one D ate - I k-Imix t ransition

B urial N o . -4 4 L ocation & C ontext - S tr 4 F-10 ;

p robable r esidence

G rave T ype - s imple p it B ody & P osition

-c hild w as f lexed r ight

H ead O rientation - h ead t o W G rave F urniture - n one D ate - I k

3 76

f eet w ere r emoved

B urial N o . - 1 63 L ocation & C ontext - i n b edrock o f s econd c hamber o f C hultun 4 F-1 G rave T ype - c hultun B ody & P osition - i nfant w as f lexed r ight H ead O rientation - h ead t o S E G rave F urniture - n one D ate - C lassic P eriod G eneral C omment - T he

p revalence o f h ead o rientation t o t he n orth f or T ikal

d eceased p ersists w ith

t his G roup 4 F-1

a nd 4 F-2

s ample .

O f

t he

2 8

s keletons w hose h ead o rientation w as d iscerned , 1 8 h ad h ead t o n orth a nd 1 9 i n an ortherly d irection . T his e quates t o 6 4% a nd 6 8% r espectively , a bout t he s ame p roportion a s e xists w ith o ur T ikal s ample ( Table 1 12) . T he p revalence o f b owl u nder s kull a s o pposed t o b owl o ver s kull a lso p ersists w ith t his s ample . T he 5 i n t his s ample m ay b e a dded t o t he 9 /13 i n o ur s ample ( Table 3 5) .

3 77