Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics: Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Social and Occupational Ergonomics, July 24-28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA [1st ed.] 978-3-030-20144-9;978-3-030-20145-6

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xvii
Front Matter ....Pages 1-1
Gamifying Onboarding: How to Increase Both Engagement and Integration of New Employees (Louisa Heimburger, Lea Buchweitz, Ruben Gouveia, Oliver Korn)....Pages 3-14
The Role of Building Construction Project Planning in Accommodating Ergonomic Considerations of the Aging Workforce (Steven J. Kangisser, Young Mi Choi)....Pages 15-26
Ergo + 50: Ergonomic Assessment Methodology Aimed at Older Workers (Alberto Ferreras Remesal, Carlos Chirivella Moreno, Alicia Piedrabuena Cuesta, Rakel Poveda Puente, Sonia Serna Arnau, Consuelo Latorre Sánchez et al.)....Pages 27-36
Social Design, Innovation and Ergonomics: Reflections on Education, Transdisciplinarity and New Blurred Models for Sustainable Social Change (Ana Margarida Ferreira, Nicos Souleles, Stefania Savva)....Pages 37-48
Well-Being Through Design for Dynamic Diversity: The Voice of Minorities in Design for All (Marcin Butlewski)....Pages 49-56
Towards an Expert System for Assigning Optimal Workplaces to Workers with Disabilities (Gregor Harih, Nataša Vujica-Herzog)....Pages 57-66
Front Matter ....Pages 67-67
Social Art – “Echoes of Machim” (Ana Nolasco)....Pages 69-79
Threshold Concepts and Design for Social Change (Nicos Souleles, Ana Margarida Ferreira, Stefania Savva)....Pages 80-89
Sustainable Collaborative Design Practices: Circular Economy and the New Context for a Fashion Designer (Lucinda Morrissey, Roberta Barban Franceschi, Ana Margarida Ferreira)....Pages 90-101
Cultural Heritage, Collaborative Practices and Sustainable Fabric Design: Ottoman Sultans’ Life Stories on Jacquard Design (Pınar Arslan, Ana Margarida Ferreira, Hatice Feriha Akpınarlı)....Pages 102-113
The Common-Sense Assessment of Sustainability (David Camocho, José Vicente, Ana Margarida Ferreira)....Pages 114-125
Collaborative Practices Through Design and Engineering: The Phases of a Pilot Project to Improve the Human Condition of Vulnerable Communities (João Bernarda, Ana Margarida Ferreiral, Carlos Santos Silva, Rui Costa Neto)....Pages 126-134
Sustainable Human Environment: Mouraria, Local Color and Sense of Place of a Historical Lisbon Neighbourhood (Cristina Pinheiro, Lambert Rozema, Ana Margarida Ferreira)....Pages 135-140
Developing Portable Clean Cart with Broom and Dustpan for Street Sweepers Needs (Bing-Cheng Zhu, Chien-Hsu Chen)....Pages 141-152
Front Matter ....Pages 153-153
The Reporting System as a Feedback Tool to Improve the Process of Entering Data to the IT System (Maciej Siemieniak, Katarzyna Siemieniak)....Pages 155-164
The Conditioning of Macroergonomic Design and Improvement of the Intelligent Building’s Use and Service (Joanna Kalkowska, Leszek Pacholski)....Pages 165-172
The Macroergonomic Improvement of Total Quality Management Industrial Systems (Milena Drzewiecka-Dahlke, Leszek Pacholski)....Pages 173-183
The Ergonomics of Work Conditions as Force Element of the OHS Management (Adam Górny)....Pages 184-194
The Improvement of Women Professional Entrepreneurial Attitude in a Context of Social Expectations (Paulina Siemieniak)....Pages 195-205
Monitoring Personnel Presence and Displacement in Production Facilities Using RFID Technology (Robert Waszkowski, Tadeusz Nowicki, Andrzej Walczak)....Pages 206-213
Front Matter ....Pages 215-215
Effectiveness in Prosthetic Adaptation and Users’ Satisfaction: Comparison Between Different Technologies (Maria Patrizia Orlando, Claudia Giliberti, Fabio Lo Castro, Raffaele Mariconte, Lucia Longo)....Pages 217-227
Handheld Grass Cutter Machine with Supporting Wheel (Mayur Mhamunkar, Sagar Bagane, Lokesh Kolhe, Vikrant Singh, Mohit Ahuja, Yueqing Li)....Pages 228-235
Ergonomic Evaluation in the Ecuadorian Workplace (Oswaldo Jara, Fanny Ballesteros, Esteban Carrera, Pablo Dávila)....Pages 236-244
Ergonomics Study in the Productive Process in Civil Construction in the External Plastering Activity (Ariel Orlei Michaloski, Juliano Prado Stradioto, Antônio Augusto de Paula Xavier)....Pages 245-255
The Ergonomics of Sorting Recyclable Materials: A Case Study of a Brazilian Cooperative (Hebert Silva)....Pages 256-265
Quality of Labor Life in Workers of the Informal Economy in Guadalajara, Mexico (Raquel González-Baltazar, Mónica I. Contreras-Estrada, Silvia G. León-Cortés, Brenda J. Hidalgo-González, Gustavo Hidalgo-Santacruz)....Pages 266-276
Front Matter ....Pages 277-277
Reducing the Risk of Falls by 78% with a New Generation of Slip Resistant Winter Footwear (Z. S. Bagheri, J. Beltran, P. Holyoke, G. Sole, K. Hutchinson, T. Dutta)....Pages 279-285
Risk Factors Identification for Metal Washing Process Based on QOC Matrix the Workers’ Voice and Ergonomic Mapping (Brenda Trujillo-Sandoval, Martha Roselia Contreras-Valenzuela)....Pages 286-293
Ergonomics During the Construction of the Stations and the Drilling of the Tunnel in the Metro of the City of Quito (Esteban Carrera, Oswaldo Jara, Pablo Dávila, Fanny Ballesteros, Pablo Suasnavas)....Pages 294-301
Comparisons of Three Observational Ergonomic Tools for Risk Assessment on Upper Extremities in a Pump Assembly Plant – A Pilot Study (Meng-Chuan Ho, Ei-wen Lo)....Pages 302-308
The Impact of Work Environment in Concurrence to Productivity in Higher Institutions (Timothy Laseinde, Ifetayo Oluwafemi, Jan-Harm Pretorius, Jesusetemi Oluwafemi)....Pages 309-320
Front Matter ....Pages 321-321
Thermal Performance of Equestrian Helmets (Merlin Bauwens, Sarah de Graaf, Alexandra Vermeir, Shriram Mukunthan, Guido De Bruyne)....Pages 323-331
The Importance of Baselining Division 1 Football Athlete Jumping Movements for Performance, Injury Mitigation, and Return to Play (Reuben F. Burch, Lesley Strawderman, Anthony Piroli, Harish Chander, Wenmeng Tian, Fredrick Murphy)....Pages 332-344
Synergistic Effect on the Characteristics of the Seductive Appearance (Fuminori Matsuura, Yumie Osada, Isao Matsumoto, Yoshinori Hirano, Xiaodan Lu, Hiroyuki Hamada et al.)....Pages 345-352
Effective Measures for Minimizing Playing-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Tertiary Education Student Pianist in Malaysia (Titi Rahmawati Hamedon, Chia-Ying Ling, Fung-Chiat Loo)....Pages 353-357
The Effects of University Students’ Physical Activity Experience on Communication Skills and Anxiety (Jun Egawa, Yasuyuki Hochi, Takumi Iwaasa, Emiko Togashi, Kentaro Inaba, Motoki Mizuno)....Pages 358-366
Front Matter ....Pages 367-367
The Development of a Comprehensive List of Risk Factors for Hip Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders: Delphi Survey (Ardiyanto Ardiyanto, Steven Lavender, Stephanie Di Stasi, Carolyn Sommerich)....Pages 369-378
Ergonomic Risk Assessment of Sea Fisherman Part III: Manual Handling and Static Posture (Alessio Silvetti, Elio Munafò, Alberto Ranavolo, Antonella Tatarelli, Lorenzo Fiori, Sergio Iavicoli et al.)....Pages 379-392
Psychosocial Risk Management and Psychological Attachment: Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction (Michael Akomeah Ofori Ntow, Evans Sokro, Ophelia Dogbe-Zungbey, Noble Osei Bonsu)....Pages 393-402
Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Impact on Low Back Pain Among Nurses in a Thai Public Hospital (Manutchanok Jongprasithporn, Nantakrit Yodpijit, Varisara Saengdaeng, Manutsamon Treralertpanith, Supatra Poemoon)....Pages 403-414
Mobbing in Service Companies in Colombia. A Silent Enemy (Carlos Marín, Olga Piñeros)....Pages 415-423
Changes and Differences in Mental Status of Nurses: Using Mind Monitoring System by Voice (Takumi Iwaasa, Yasuyuki Yamada, Yasuyuki Hochi, Yuki Mizuno, Emiko Togashi, Hidenori Hayashi et al.)....Pages 424-429
Neck and Shoulder Muscle Fatigue in High Performance Aircrafts Pilots: Effects of a Training Program (Part 2) (Giorgia Chini, Alessio Silvetti, Roberto Vitalone, Valeria Di Muzio, Marco Lucertini, Elena Lucertini et al.)....Pages 430-442
Comparative Analysis of the Assessment Methods of the Rehabilitative-Prosthetic Path of the Patient with Lower Limb Prosthesis (Francesco Draicchio, Antonella Tatarelli, Simona Castellano, Ida Poni, Lorenzo Fiori, Alessio Silvetti et al.)....Pages 443-457
Front Matter ....Pages 459-459
Analysis of the Short-Term Absences of Poultry Slaughterhouse Workers in Brazil (Natália Fonseca Dias, Adriana Seára Tirloni, Diogo Cunha dos Reis, Antônio Renato Pereira Moro)....Pages 461-472
The Prediction Models of the Maximum Power Grip Strength and Pinch Strength in Taiwan Manufacturing Workers (Shu-Min Chao, Yi-Chen Chiu, Ei-Wen Lo)....Pages 473-479
Path Analysis of the Antecedents and Occupational Stress Among the Managers of the Textile Industries: A Cross-Sectional Study from Pakistan Using PLS-SEM (Aftab Ahmad, Amjad Hussain, Mohammad Pervez Mughal, Nadeem Ahmad Mufti, Muhammad Qaiser Saleem)....Pages 480-490
Inclusion of the Informal Sector Pension: The New Pensions Act (Olivia Anku-Tsede)....Pages 491-502
Construction Ergonomics: Temporary Works’ Manufacturers’ Perceptions and Practices (John Smallwood)....Pages 503-510
Case Study of Science Communication in Ergonomics: Introduction of ErgonomicThon Workshop (Yasuyuki Yamada, Takeshi Ebara)....Pages 511-515
Front Matter ....Pages 517-517
A Hazard Analysis of a Gas-Fired GMH8 Goodman Furnace (Sarah Poelman, J. P. Purswell)....Pages 519-527
Hazard Analysis of a Handheld Angle Grinder (Franchesca Montoya, J. P. Purswell)....Pages 528-535
Safety Training and Occupational Accidents – Is There a Link? (Celina P. Leão, Susana Costa)....Pages 536-543
Evaluation Method for Safety Management Characteristic of Medical Workers (Haruna Yamazaki, Kana Kimura, Yusaku Okada)....Pages 544-548
Study on Exit Strategy to Promote Introduction of New Technology to Safety Management Activities (Naoko Sakata, Risako Shiraishi, Yusaku Okada)....Pages 549-557
Front Matter ....Pages 559-559
Cross-Cultural Difference of Free Agency (FA) System Between MLB and NPB (Nippon Professional Baseball) (Atsuo Murata)....Pages 561-571
Language and Cultural Learning in a Short-Term Study Abroad: An Investigation of Japanese Sojourners in Canada (Chihiro Tajima)....Pages 572-577
English Education for Young Learners in China and Europe (Pingfang Yu, Jiali Du, Xinguang Li)....Pages 578-586
Employee Satisfaction, Task Performance, and Emotional Labor: An Empirical Examination (Noriko Okabe)....Pages 587-597
Sensitivity Analysis of Intercultural Relationship Based on DMIS Model (Zhenbin Wu, Baocui Chen, Xuebo Chen)....Pages 598-608
Cross-Cultural Analysis of Top Page Design Among Brazilian, Chinese, Japanese and United States Web Sites (Toshihisa Doi, Atsuo Murata)....Pages 609-620
Globalization, Cultural Differentiation and Pluralism Processes and Proactive Dimension of Human World of “Boundary-Less Careers” (Agnieszka Cybal-Michalska)....Pages 621-629
Design Benchmarking Study Between Alessi Products and Chinese Commodities (Li-xia Hua, Jian-ping Yang, Jun-nan Ye, Jing-ping Li)....Pages 630-641
Influential Factors in Cross-Country Standards Adoption from a Macroergonomics Perspective (Qinyi Liu, Liang Ma, Phairoj Liukitithara)....Pages 642-648
Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management at Major Events (Guadalupe Hernández-Escobedo, David K. Allen, Alan D. Pearman, Claudia Alejandra Ituarte-González)....Pages 649-661
Back Matter ....Pages 663-665

Citation preview

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 970

Richard H. M. Goossens Atsuo Murata   Editors

Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Social and Occupational Ergonomics, July 24–28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing Volume 970

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science & Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, UK László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University, Gyor, Hungary Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Faculty of Computer Science and Management, Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuroscience, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems, Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning paradigms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia. The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of research results. ** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings, EI-Compendex, DBLP, SCOPUS, Google Scholar and Springerlink ** More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Richard H. M. Goossens Atsuo Murata

•

Editors

Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Social and Occupational Ergonomics, July 24–28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA

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Editors Richard H. M. Goossens Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering Delft University of Technology Delft, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands

Atsuo Murata Okayama University Okayama, Japan

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic) Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing ISBN 978-3-030-20144-9 ISBN 978-3-030-20145-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2019

AHFE 2019 Series Editors Tareq Ahram, Florida, USA Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

10th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics and the Affiliated Conferences Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Social and Occupational Ergonomics, held on July 24–28, 2019, in Washington D.C., USA

Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Engineering Advances in Design for Inclusion Advances in Ergonomics in Design Advances in Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, and Performance Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Healthcare and Medical Devices Advances in Human Factors and Simulation Advances in Human Factors and Systems Interaction Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Leadership Advances in Human Factors in Robots and Unmanned Systems Advances in Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences Advances in Human Factors of Transportation

Shuichi Fukuda Hasan Ayaz Giuseppe Di Bucchianico Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo M. Soares Ronald L. Boring Nancy J. Lightner and Jay Kalra Daniel N. Cassenti Isabel L. Nunes Tareq Ahram and Waldemar Karwowski Jussi Ilari Kantola and Salman Nazir Jessie Chen Waldemar Karwowski, Tareq Ahram and Salman Nazir Neville Stanton (continued)

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Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2019

(continued) Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software and Systems Engineering Advances in Human Factors in Architecture, Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure Advances in Physical Ergonomics and Human Factors Advances in Interdisciplinary Practice in Industrial Design Advances in Safety Management and Human Factors Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Advances in Manufacturing, Production Management and Process Control Advances in Usability and User Experience Advances in Human Factors in Wearable Technologies and Game Design Advances in Human Factors in Communication of Design Advances in Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Systems and 3D Prototyping

Tareq Ahram Jerzy Charytonowicz and Christianne Falcão Ravindra S. Goonetilleke and Waldemar Karwowski Cliff Sungsoo Shin Pedro M. Arezes Richard H. M. Goossens and Atsuo Murata Waldemar Karwowski, Stefan Trzcielinski and Beata Mrugalska Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão Tareq Ahram Amic G. Ho Massimo Di Nicolantonio, Emilio Rossi and Thomas Alexander

Preface

This book provides an exploration on how ergonomics can contribute to the solution of important societal and engineering challenges. Advances in Social and Organizational Factors discusses the optimization of sociotechnical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. It includes coverage of communication, crew resource management, work design, design of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work paradigms, organizational culture, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management. Human factors in sports, injury prevention, and outdoor recreation aim to address the critical cognitive and physical tasks which are performed within a dynamic, complex, collaborative system comprising multiple humans and artifacts, under pressurized, complex, and rapidly changing conditions that take place during the course of any sporting event. Highly skilled, well-trained individuals walk a fine line between task success and failure, with only marginally inadequate task execution leading to loss of the sport event or competition. This conference promotes cross-disciplinary interaction between the human factors in sport and outdoor recreation disciplines and provides practical guidance on a range of methods for describing, representing, and evaluating human, team, and system performance in sports and amusement park domains. The book also highlights issues with special populations, detailing how to design and adapt products and work situations for these groups. In addition to exploring the challenges faced in optimizing sociotechnical systems, the book underlines themes that play a role in all the challenges and how they are linked to each other. It concludes with an exploration of emotional ergonomics and the important positive effects of making people happy and healthy. With chapter authors from around the globe, the book supplies a broad look at current challenges and possible solutions. This book contains a total of ten sections, concerned with different issues in social and occupational ergonomics (sections 1 to 9), and with cross-cultural research (Section 10).

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Preface

Section Section Section Section Section

1 2 3 4 5

Section Section Section Section Section

6 7 8 9 10

The Present and Future of Macroergonomic Systems Social Design, Innovation and Ergonomics Macroergonomic Systems Design and Improvement Evaluation, Optimization and Job Design Social and Occupational Factors of Comfort, Risk Assessment and Pain Sports, Injury Prevention and Outdoor Recreation Stress, Mental Factors and Musculoskeletal Disorders Social and Occupational Ergonomics: Applications Safety Training and Occupational accidents Cross-Cultural Decision Making

The organizers would like to thank all the authors for their contributions. Each of the chapters was either reviewed by the members of the Editorial Board or germinated by them. For these, our sincere thanks and appreciation go to the members of the Board listed below. Jerzy Charytonowicz, Poland Diana Horn, USA S.-L. Hwang, Taiwan Jussi Kantola, Finland Brian Kleiner, USA Leszek Pacholski, Poland Michelle Robertson, USA Susumu Saito, Japan Mike Smith, USA Hannu Vanharanta, Finland Z. Wisniewski, Poland R. Yu, China Jeff Appleget, USA Madalina Alama, USA Umer Asgher, Pakistan Erman Cakit, Turkey Vladimira Cavojova, Slovakia Ajay Divakaran, USA Toshihisa Doi, Japan Cali Fidopiastis, USA Jim Frank, USA Michael Hail, USA Amy Heaton, USA Mark Hoffman, USA Ayaka Itoh, Japan David King, USA Martin Kruger, USA Sue Numrich, USA Noriko Okabe, Japan

Preface

ix

Jonathan Pfautz, USA Peter Picucci, USA Elaine Raybourn, USA Emilie Reitz, USA Alicia Ruvinsky, USA Lelyn Saner, USA Dominique Scapin, France Sae Schatz, USA Julian Stodd, UK Redha Taiar, France Jacqueline Urakami, Japan C. Dallat, Australia Chi-Wen Lung, Taiwan Roman Maciej Kalina, Poland Damian Morgan, Australia Timothy Neville, Australia Eduardo Salas, USA Daniel Simmons, UK Neville Stanton, UK Scott Talpey, Australia Guy Walker, UK P. Waterson, UK Sam Abramovich, USA We hope this book will contribute to increase in knowledge in the field of social and organizational ergonomics and that you find the papers in this book interesting and helpful to you and your work. July 2019

Richard H. M. Goossens Atsuo Murata

Contents

The Present and Future of Macroergonomic Systems Gamifying Onboarding: How to Increase Both Engagement and Integration of New Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Louisa Heimburger, Lea Buchweitz, Ruben Gouveia, and Oliver Korn The Role of Building Construction Project Planning in Accommodating Ergonomic Considerations of the Aging Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steven J. Kangisser and Young Mi Choi Ergo + 50: Ergonomic Assessment Methodology Aimed at Older Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alberto Ferreras Remesal, Carlos Chirivella Moreno, Alicia Piedrabuena Cuesta, Rakel Poveda Puente, Sonia Serna Arnau, Consuelo Latorre Sánchez, and Mercedes Sanchís Almenara Social Design, Innovation and Ergonomics: Reflections on Education, Transdisciplinarity and New Blurred Models for Sustainable Social Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Margarida Ferreira, Nicos Souleles, and Stefania Savva

3

15

27

37

Well-Being Through Design for Dynamic Diversity: The Voice of Minorities in Design for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marcin Butlewski

49

Towards an Expert System for Assigning Optimal Workplaces to Workers with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gregor Harih and Nataša Vujica-Herzog

57

Social Design, Innovation and Ergonomics Social Art – “Echoes of Machim” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Nolasco

69

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Contents

Threshold Concepts and Design for Social Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicos Souleles, Ana Margarida Ferreira, and Stefania Savva Sustainable Collaborative Design Practices: Circular Economy and the New Context for a Fashion Designer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lucinda Morrissey, Roberta Barban Franceschi, and Ana Margarida Ferreira

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Cultural Heritage, Collaborative Practices and Sustainable Fabric Design: Ottoman Sultans’ Life Stories on Jacquard Design . . . . . . . . . . 102 Pınar Arslan, Ana Margarida Ferreira, and Hatice Feriha Akpınarlı The Common-Sense Assessment of Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 David Camocho, José Vicente, and Ana Margarida Ferreira Collaborative Practices Through Design and Engineering: The Phases of a Pilot Project to Improve the Human Condition of Vulnerable Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 João Bernarda, Ana Margarida Ferreiral, Carlos Santos Silva, and Rui Costa Neto Sustainable Human Environment: Mouraria, Local Color and Sense of Place of a Historical Lisbon Neighbourhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Cristina Pinheiro, Lambert Rozema, and Ana Margarida Ferreira Developing Portable Clean Cart with Broom and Dustpan for Street Sweepers Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Bing-Cheng Zhu and Chien-Hsu Chen Macroergonomic Systems Design and Improvement The Reporting System as a Feedback Tool to Improve the Process of Entering Data to the IT System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Maciej Siemieniak and Katarzyna Siemieniak The Conditioning of Macroergonomic Design and Improvement of the Intelligent Building’s Use and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Joanna Kalkowska and Leszek Pacholski The Macroergonomic Improvement of Total Quality Management Industrial Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Milena Drzewiecka-Dahlke and Leszek Pacholski The Ergonomics of Work Conditions as Force Element of the OHS Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Adam Górny The Improvement of Women Professional Entrepreneurial Attitude in a Context of Social Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Paulina Siemieniak

Contents

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Monitoring Personnel Presence and Displacement in Production Facilities Using RFID Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Robert Waszkowski, Tadeusz Nowicki, and Andrzej Walczak Evaluation, Optimization and Job Design Effectiveness in Prosthetic Adaptation and Users’ Satisfaction: Comparison Between Different Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Maria Patrizia Orlando, Claudia Giliberti, Fabio Lo Castro, Raffaele Mariconte, and Lucia Longo Handheld Grass Cutter Machine with Supporting Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Mayur Mhamunkar, Sagar Bagane, Lokesh Kolhe, Vikrant Singh, Mohit Ahuja, and Yueqing Li Ergonomic Evaluation in the Ecuadorian Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Oswaldo Jara, Fanny Ballesteros, Esteban Carrera, and Pablo Dávila Ergonomics Study in the Productive Process in Civil Construction in the External Plastering Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ariel Orlei Michaloski, Juliano Prado Stradioto, and Antônio Augusto de Paula Xavier The Ergonomics of Sorting Recyclable Materials: A Case Study of a Brazilian Cooperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Hebert Silva Quality of Labor Life in Workers of the Informal Economy in Guadalajara, Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Raquel González-Baltazar, Mónica I. Contreras-Estrada, Silvia G. León-Cortés, Brenda J. Hidalgo-González, and Gustavo Hidalgo-Santacruz Social and Occupational Factors of Comfort, Risk Assessment and Pain Reducing the Risk of Falls by 78% with a New Generation of Slip Resistant Winter Footwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Z. S. Bagheri, J. Beltran, P. Holyoke, G. Sole, K. Hutchinson, and T. Dutta Risk Factors Identification for Metal Washing Process Based on QOC Matrix the Workers’ Voice and Ergonomic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Brenda Trujillo-Sandoval and Martha Roselia Contreras-Valenzuela Ergonomics During the Construction of the Stations and the Drilling of the Tunnel in the Metro of the City of Quito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Esteban Carrera, Oswaldo Jara, Pablo Dávila, Fanny Ballesteros, and Pablo Suasnavas

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Comparisons of Three Observational Ergonomic Tools for Risk Assessment on Upper Extremities in a Pump Assembly Plant – A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Meng-Chuan Ho and Ei-wen Lo The Impact of Work Environment in Concurrence to Productivity in Higher Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Timothy Laseinde, Ifetayo Oluwafemi, Jan-Harm Pretorius, and Jesusetemi Oluwafemi Sports, Injury Prevention and Outdoor Recreation Thermal Performance of Equestrian Helmets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Merlin Bauwens, Sarah de Graaf, Alexandra Vermeir, Shriram Mukunthan, and Guido De Bruyne The Importance of Baselining Division 1 Football Athlete Jumping Movements for Performance, Injury Mitigation, and Return to Play . . . 332 Reuben F. Burch, Lesley Strawderman, Anthony Piroli, Harish Chander, Wenmeng Tian, and Fredrick Murphy Synergistic Effect on the Characteristics of the Seductive Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Fuminori Matsuura, Yumie Osada, Isao Matsumoto, Yoshinori Hirano, Xiaodan Lu, Hiroyuki Hamada, and Noriyuki Kida Effective Measures for Minimizing Playing-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Tertiary Education Student Pianist in Malaysia . . . . 353 Titi Rahmawati Hamedon, Chia-Ying Ling, and Fung-Chiat Loo The Effects of University Students’ Physical Activity Experience on Communication Skills and Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Jun Egawa, Yasuyuki Hochi, Takumi Iwaasa, Emiko Togashi, Kentaro Inaba, and Motoki Mizuno Stress, Mental Factors and Musculoskeletal Disorders The Development of a Comprehensive List of Risk Factors for Hip Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders: Delphi Survey . . . . . 369 Ardiyanto Ardiyanto, Steven Lavender, Stephanie Di Stasi, and Carolyn Sommerich Ergonomic Risk Assessment of Sea Fisherman Part III: Manual Handling and Static Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Alessio Silvetti, Elio Munafò, Alberto Ranavolo, Antonella Tatarelli, Lorenzo Fiori, Sergio Iavicoli, Pasquale Di Palma, and Francesco Draicchio

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Psychosocial Risk Management and Psychological Attachment: Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Michael Akomeah Ofori Ntow, Evans Sokro, Ophelia Dogbe-Zungbey, and Noble Osei Bonsu Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Impact on Low Back Pain Among Nurses in a Thai Public Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Manutchanok Jongprasithporn, Nantakrit Yodpijit, Varisara Saengdaeng, Manutsamon Treralertpanith, and Supatra Poemoon Mobbing in Service Companies in Colombia. A Silent Enemy . . . . . . . . 415 Carlos Marín and Olga Piñeros Changes and Differences in Mental Status of Nurses: Using Mind Monitoring System by Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Takumi Iwaasa, Yasuyuki Yamada, Yasuyuki Hochi, Yuki Mizuno, Emiko Togashi, Hidenori Hayashi, Aya Okada, and Motoki Mizuno Neck and Shoulder Muscle Fatigue in High Performance Aircrafts Pilots: Effects of a Training Program (Part 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Giorgia Chini, Alessio Silvetti, Roberto Vitalone, Valeria Di Muzio, Marco Lucertini, Elena Lucertini, and Francesco Draicchio Comparative Analysis of the Assessment Methods of the Rehabilitative-Prosthetic Path of the Patient with Lower Limb Prosthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Francesco Draicchio, Antonella Tatarelli, Simona Castellano, Ida Poni, Lorenzo Fiori, Alessio Silvetti, and Patrizio Rossi Social and Occupational Ergonomics: Applications Analysis of the Short-Term Absences of Poultry Slaughterhouse Workers in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Natália Fonseca Dias, Adriana Seára Tirloni, Diogo Cunha dos Reis, and Antônio Renato Pereira Moro The Prediction Models of the Maximum Power Grip Strength and Pinch Strength in Taiwan Manufacturing Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Shu-Min Chao, Yi-Chen Chiu, and Ei-Wen Lo Path Analysis of the Antecedents and Occupational Stress Among the Managers of the Textile Industries: A Cross-Sectional Study from Pakistan Using PLS-SEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Aftab Ahmad, Amjad Hussain, Mohammad Pervez Mughal, Nadeem Ahmad Mufti, and Muhammad Qaiser Saleem

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Inclusion of the Informal Sector Pension: The New Pensions Act . . . . . 491 Olivia Anku-Tsede Construction Ergonomics: Temporary Works’ Manufacturers’ Perceptions and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 John Smallwood Case Study of Science Communication in Ergonomics: Introduction of ErgonomicThon Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Yasuyuki Yamada and Takeshi Ebara Safety Training and Occupational Accidents A Hazard Analysis of a Gas-Fired GMH8 Goodman Furnace . . . . . . . . 519 Sarah Poelman and J. P. Purswell Hazard Analysis of a Handheld Angle Grinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 Franchesca Montoya and J. P. Purswell Safety Training and Occupational Accidents – Is There a Link? . . . . . . 536 Celina P. Leão and Susana Costa Evaluation Method for Safety Management Characteristic of Medical Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 Haruna Yamazaki, Kana Kimura, and Yusaku Okada Study on Exit Strategy to Promote Introduction of New Technology to Safety Management Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Naoko Sakata, Risako Shiraishi, and Yusaku Okada Cross-Cultural Decision Making Cross-Cultural Difference of Free Agency (FA) System Between MLB and NPB (Nippon Professional Baseball) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Atsuo Murata Language and Cultural Learning in a Short-Term Study Abroad: An Investigation of Japanese Sojourners in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 Chihiro Tajima English Education for Young Learners in China and Europe . . . . . . . . 578 Pingfang Yu, Jiali Du, and Xinguang Li Employee Satisfaction, Task Performance, and Emotional Labor: An Empirical Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Noriko Okabe Sensitivity Analysis of Intercultural Relationship Based on DMIS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Zhenbin Wu, Baocui Chen, and Xuebo Chen

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Cross-Cultural Analysis of Top Page Design Among Brazilian, Chinese, Japanese and United States Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Toshihisa Doi and Atsuo Murata Globalization, Cultural Differentiation and Pluralism Processes and Proactive Dimension of Human World of “Boundary-Less Careers” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Agnieszka Cybal-Michalska Design Benchmarking Study Between Alessi Products and Chinese Commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Li-xia Hua, Jian-ping Yang, Jun-nan Ye, and Jing-ping Li Influential Factors in Cross-Country Standards Adoption from a Macroergonomics Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 Qinyi Liu, Liang Ma, and Phairoj Liukitithara Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management at Major Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 Guadalupe Hernández-Escobedo, David K. Allen, Alan D. Pearman, and Claudia Alejandra Ituarte-González Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663

The Present and Future of Macroergonomic Systems

Gamifying Onboarding: How to Increase Both Engagement and Integration of New Employees Louisa Heimburger, Lea Buchweitz, Ruben Gouveia, and Oliver Korn(&) Offenburg University Affective & Cognitive Institute (ACI), Badstr. 24, 77652 Offenburg, Germany {lheimbur,lea.buchweitz,ruben.gouveia}@hs-offenburg.de, [email protected]

Abstract. New employees are supposed to quickly understand their tasks, internal processes and familiarize with colleagues. This process is called “onboarding” and is still mainly realized by organizational methods from human resource management, such as introductory events or special employee sessions. Software tools and especially mobile applications are an innovative means to support provide onboarding processes in a modern, even remote, way. In this paper we analyze how the use of gamification can enhance onboarding processes. Firstly, we describe a mobile onboarding application specifically developed for the young, technically literate generations Y and Z, who are just about to start their career. Secondly, we report on a study with 98 students and young employees. We found that participants enjoyed the gamified application. They especially appreciated the feature “Team Bingo” which facilitates social integration and teambuilding. Based on the OCEAN personality model (“Big Five”), the personality traits agreeableness and openness revealed significant correlations with a preference for the gamified onboarding application. Keywords: Onboarding
Gamification
Human resource management Human factors
Human-systems integration




1 Introduction Companies with engaged employees perform significantly better than those without [1]. However, only 15% of employees worldwide consider themselves as engaged in their jobs [2]. In order to retain a positive attitude and feel engaged at work, a focus has been placed on the intrinsic motivations of workers. Traditional incentives, such as reward systems work on the surface, but progressively change towards the desire of employees to do something “with a purpose” [2]. Values like freedom for creativity, social integration and professional and personal development are of increased importance [3]. Career starters representing the generation Y (born between 1980 and 1994 [4]) and Z (born after 1995 [5]) have differing expectations and wishes towards their working life compared to previous generations. Generation Y and Z are both characterized by © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 3–14, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_1

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being highly technically literate [4]. Individuals of generation Y are in search for intellectual challenge, seek those who will further enhance their professional development and desire immediate feedback about their performance [4, 6]. Further, they desire to perform meaningful work with committed co-workers [4]. This value is also shared by individuals of generation Z. Both generations expect a high level of digitalization in their workplaces and appreciate innovative, new approaches. Gamification is one possible innovative means to enhance user experience (UX) and engagement within the workplace [7]. Enriching non-gaming situations (e.g. work contexts), with game elements can make tedious tasks more fun and motivate employees, as well as alleviate stress in social situations and make learning more playful. When entering a new company, the first weeks strongly influence the level of commitment and the overall length of employment [8]. However, there is little research on the effects of gamification on onboarding processes. In this paper, we investigate the effect of a gamified onboarding application on onboarding processes, from an employee perspective. Further, we investigate the effect of specific personality traits on the users’ preferences. As a main research hypothesis, we expect users to significantly prefer gamified onboarding applications over non-gamified approaches. Secondly, we suggested correlations between personality traits and the preference for gamified onboarding. In the next section, we provide a short overview of recent developments using gamification in working contexts, followed by a short description of the OCEAN personality model. The implementation of the onboarding application is presented in Sect. 3. Subsequently, the procedure of the study is described in Sect. 5 and the results are documented and discussed in Sect. 5. The last section concludes the paper and gives a short summary on the limitations of our approach.

2 State of the Art 2.1

Gamification in Work Contexts

The number of projects and research approaches using gamification in corporate contexts has highly increased in recent years [9]. In the service sector, for example in call centers, gamified approaches have been successfully used to promote employee motivation and optimize standard processes [10]. The attitude towards gamified work is especially affirmative among younger employees: 86% of young job applicants rated gamification elements as enjoyable and fun [11]. Thus, it is no surprise that gamification approaches are now also used beyond the service domain, even trying to enrich repetitive work in production environments. After the first ideas emerged in 2012 [12], systems combining assistance and gamification have been designed [13] and evaluated in several studies [14, 15].

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5

Gamification in Human Resources (HR)

A study with over 32,000 employees, published in 2012 [16], showed the critical role of motivation and psychological backgrounds in working contexts. One of the key findings was that motivated employees lead to increased economic success. The German Haufe Group performed a related study in 2017, with a total of 227 participants [17]. The results revealed that only 16% of the employees are satisfied with the current onboarding processes and that many companies see considerable potential for improving these processes. Depura et al. [18] suggest that employees of generations Y and Z desire technologically integrated workplaces with up-to-date software. Their study showed that social media, mobile applications and gamification can improve the engagement and learning success of new employees [8]. While conventional methods, such as introductory events or special employee sessions are common, more innovative approaches like mobile apps and platforms for onboarding are scarcer. 2.3

“Big Five” Personality Traits

The OCEAN model, also known as the “Big Five”, is a model defined in the mid-1980s to describe the human personality. The model features the personality traits openness, consciousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (OCEAN). Paul Costa and Robert McCrae demonstrated that these factors are robust and stable dimensions of the human personality, independent of the empirical instruments, statistical methods, sample type and the cultural area [19]. The “Big Five” personality test used in this study is derived from the model of Satow [20].

3 Implementation In order to determine the effects of gamified onboarding applications on the integration process of new employees from the generations Y or Z, two versions of such an application were developed: one featuring gamification elements, and one without such elements. We drew inspirations from commercially available applications (see Table 1) to design this app. Five major gamified features were implemented in the gamified onboarding app: QR-Hunting, Company-Quiz, Team Bingo, Company-Whisper, and the Onboarding Tree (summary in Table 2). Additionally, the following features were supported in both versions of our application: (1) a newsfeed, where information about upcoming events and (2) the possibility to contact someone from HR or a personal “Buddy” (i.e. a dedicated person who is responsible for the training of one specific new employee and works closely with him or her).

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Table 1. Sources of inspiration and elements used for designing the onboarding application: Application

Description

QuizClash [21]

Players can challenge each other with questions on different topics. The one who scores more correct answers, wins Players keep a personal plant alive and growing. Thus, users are reminded to drink water themselves. The visual feedback motivates users to drink water in a playful way Players capture virtual monsters in the real world using augmented reality. Collected monsters can be used in virtual fights Social media platform that allows users to publish content (short texts or images) anonymously

Plant Nanny – Water Reminder [22]

Pokémon GO [23] Jodel [24]

Extracted Elements for the Onboarding-App - time pressure - compete against others - collect points - playful visual feedback

- smartphone serves as a means of exploring the real world - publish content anonymously

Team Bingo: This feature aims to help new employees to playfully get to know other colleagues. When tapping on a blue field, the person with whom the appointment should be arranged, is randomly selected from a predefined pool. The new employee can then make an appointment for a coffee or a casual after work meeting via the app (Fig. 1). In addition, new employees can contact their “buddy”. Team Bingo is inspired by the popular American gambling game “Bingo” [25]. It aims to enhance social interaction between new colleagues and other employees.

Fig. 1. Screenshots of Team Bingo. From left to right: Which persons have been met and how many meetings are still missing? Arrangement of appointments. Accepted appointment.

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QR-Hunting: The QR-Hunting feature is about finding a specific destination in a dedicated time. QR codes are distributed at various locations in the company and offer detailed knowledge about the related topics once scanned. When a new challenge is started, the onboarding app provides the new employee with information about the location of a specific QR-code and starts a timer. The new employee needs to find and scan the QR-code within the given time period. In search for QR-codes, young employees can explore the company in a playful way. The game Pokémon GO, designed for mobile devices, served as a major inspiration for this gamification approach: digital tasks can only be completed while exploring the real world. Company-Quiz: This feature of the onboarding application was designed to motivate new employees to learn important facts about the company. The quiz can be played alone or against other users of the application. This playful way of gathering information about the company was inspired by the widespread game QuizClash. Onboarding Tree: Drawing inspiration from the application Plant-Nanny, this feature visualizes a user’s progress during the onboarding process by a tree, which grows as he or she progresses through the onboarding process [20, 23] (Fig. 2). The more an employee is integrated into the new company, the taller the tree grows. This visual representation of progress addresses the common wish of career starters of generation Y and Z for regular feedback on their own performance.

Fig. 2. Onboarding-Tree: visualization of the own progress.

Company-Whisper: Based on Jodel, a social media application mainly used among students, Company-Whisper allows to publish posts anonymously. They are only visible for other users of the company’s onboarding app.

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L. Heimburger et al. Table 2. Summary of implemented game-design elements [10]:

Feature QRHunting

CompanyQuiz

Game mechanics Timer

Game dynamics Time pressure

Points, rankings

Collecting, competition Time pressure, comparison Collecting, competition Competition

Time display Points, rankings

Team Bingo OnboardingTree

Show quiz opponent Activity documentation Documentation of advancement

Goal Cognitive stimulation (many new stimuli) Iterations, higher performance Cognitive stimulation Iterations, higher performance Social recognition

Exploration

Curiosity: who else can I meet?

Visual feedback

Feel connected to process of onboarding

4 Study 98 participants (54 female, 44 male, average age = 27) took part in the study. All were from generations Y and Z. They were either students (62%, n = 61) or young careerstarters (38%, n = 37). The study consisted of an online questionnaire with two parts. In the first part, participants watched a video introducing the onboarding app and rated 11 statements about the app (see Table 3), using a 5-point Likert scale (from 1 = “I totally disagree” to 5 = “I totally agree”). Participants had the opportunity to add additional comments in two open questions: “Which features do you like best?” and “Is there a feature missing?” In the second part, the participants completed the “Big Five” personality test [20].

Table 3. Statements on the onboarding app (OA) in the first part of the questionnaire: S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11

The video has made me curious and stimulated me to download the OA I would use the onboarding OA even before my first day of work I can imagine that the OA will make it easier for me to get started in the new company Offering such an OA would welcome me as a new employee I can imagine that the OA helps me to get to know future colleagues more easily I can imagine the OA helping me get to know the company faster I do not see any added value in the OA and therefore would not download it The OA shown in the video appeals to me The OA design appeals to me The way the OA is built will be intuitive to use Frequency of the usage of the OA. (Never, monthly, weekly, daily, several times a day)

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The participants were divided into two groups: while the experimental group (62 participants) watched a video presenting the gamified onboarding app, the control group (36 participants) watched a video of the same app without gamification elements (i.e. QR-Hunting, Company-Quiz, Team Bingo, Company-Whisper and Onboarding Tree). The rating statements and the personality test questions were identical in both groups.

5 Results In the analysis of the first part of the questionnaire, t-tests were used to evaluate the preferences for the gamified or non-gamified onboarding application. In the second part, we investigated correlations (r = correlation coefficient, Spearman’s rho) between the rated statements on the gamified onboarding app and the “Big Five” personality traits (openness, consciousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism). 5.1

The Rating Statements

All in all, the gamified onboarding application was preferred over the non-gamified version for all 11 statements. In the following, we discuss the five statements revealing higher differences in participants’ preferences (see Fig. 3). Statement 10: I perceive the onboarding app as intuitive. The non-gamified app’s mean rating was 3.64 (SD = 0.87) while the gamified app scored 4.16 (SD = 0.68). This highly significant difference (t(96) = 3.30, p < .002) strongly supports the hypothesis that a gamified onboarding application has advantages over nongamified approaches. One reason why the gamified onboarding app was experienced as more intuitive might be due to familiar elements, which participants might already know from other applications (e.g. writing messages, or a visual representation of the own progress [26]). Statement 8: I perceive the onboarding app to be fun and appealing. Participants in the non-gamified condition ranked this question with a mean of 3.39 (SD = 1.23), while the gamified app’s mean was M = 3.90 (SD = 1.00). The difference is significant with t(62) = 2.14, p < .040. One might suspect the gamified onboarding app to be perceived as more fun and appealing due to the various playful elements. The stressful task to familiarize with the new company and new colleagues is enriched by gamification elements offering playful, social interactions. New employees might appreciate the engaging, fun way their nervousness is reduced – as one participant framed it: “information before the first day, reduces uncertainties” [P13]. Statement 5: I perceive the onboarding app as supportive in getting to know future colleagues. The mean of the gamified onboarding application was significantly higher for S5 (M = 3.97, SD = 0.91), than that of the non-gamified approach (M = 3.50, SD = 1.08), with t(63) = 2.19, p < .040. The feature Team Bingo, for example, provides an anonymous and fast way to contact new colleagues. By

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providing the opportunity to get in touch virtually, the hurdle to address them in person is by-passed. Statement 2: I would rather use the onboarding app before my first day of work scored the mean rating M = 3.94 (SD = 1.35) for the non-gamified app, compared to the mean of M = 4.44 (SD = 0.84) of the gamified app. This marginally significant difference shows that the gamified onboarding application addresses the important need for social interaction and integration of new colleagues [27] better than the non-gamified version, with t(51) = 1.97, p < .060.

Un-gamified app

Gamified app

Fig. 3. Mean values of the four significant statements regarding the onboarding app.

5.2

The “Big Five” Personality Test

The analysis of the “Big Five” revealed significant correlations between the two personality traits agreeableness and openness and four of the statements from the first part of the questionnaire (see Table 4). In the following, we will give a short explanation on the personality traits which have been found to be connected to the preference of our gamified approach: • Agreeableness: This trait describes the tendency to be compassionate, cooperative warm-hearted, helpful, tolerant and forgiving towards others [28]. • Openness: Openness, sometimes also called “Intellect” [28], is commonly associated with being curious, broad-minded, intelligent and imaginative. The gamified application has an appealing design (r = 0.362) and strongly arouses the curiosity of persons with the trait agreeableness (r = 0.255). Further, agreeable individuals assume that the app would help them to get in contact with future colleagues more easily (r = 0.250). Individuals with the trait openness believe that the

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gamified onboarding app would facilitate getting started in the new company (r = 0.303). In the following paragraphs we discuss the significant correlations in more detail.

Table 4. Significance level of correlations between statements of the gamified onboarding app and personality traits. Bold underlined values: significance levels below a = 0.05. The video has made me curious and stimulated me to download the onboarding app I can imagine that the onboarding app will make it easier for me to get started in the new company I can imagine that the onboarding app helps me to get to know future colleagues more easily The app design appeals to me

Extraversion Neuroticism Conciousness Agreeableness Openness 0.681 0.078 0.953 0.045 0.130

0.934

0.541

0.580

0.242

0.017

0.147

0.255

0.476

0.050

0.547

0.436

0.365

0.115

0.004

0.294

Agreeableness The Gamified Onboarding App Arouses Curiosity. According to the analysis, watching the video of the gamified onboarding app arouses the curiosity of agreeable persons. In contrast to the non-gamified version, the gamified one has playful elements, such as Team Bingo. As agreeableness is the main dimension by which interaction partners are first judged [29], the gamified app allows open-minded persons to get to know interaction partners more easily. The Gamified Onboarding App Supports the Process of Getting to Know Future Colleagues more Easily. Agreeable individuals are often described as team players, warm-hearted, cooperative and helpful. Several features of the gamified onboarding app promote community and team cohesion, such as Team Bingo, Company-Whisper or Company-Quiz. The App Design is Appealing. The results show a highly significant correlation between the agreeableness and the rating of the app design. As the design is characterized by a clear and intuitive structure and agreeable persons are particularly in search of harmony [30], one may assume that they like the straightforward, harmonious design.

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Openness The Gamified Onboarding App helps to Facilitate the Start in the new Company. The fact that open-minded individuals think that the gamified onboarding app can facilitate the start in a new company is not surprising. After all, open-minded persons are characterized by being curious, imaginative and having a positive attitude towards new experiences. An onboarding app which supports meeting new colleagues and conveys the values of a company easily is, therefore, appreciated by persons who are welcoming and broad-minded. 5.3

Qualitative Findings

In this sub-section we briefly note some of qualitative statements from the two open questions in the questionnaire (“Which features do you like best?”, “Is there a feature missing?”). The most frequently mentioned positive feature was Team Bingo. Many participants stated that getting to know other colleagues is very important for new employees, e.g. “getting to know the team, organization of appointments even after work” [P6] or “contact to other employees through Team Bingo” [P19]. This supports our initial research hypothesis that a gamified onboarding app offers benefits over non-gamified approaches. Further, it is notable that several participants especially appreciated the “Buddy” concept, for example by stating “I also like the Buddy idea” [P26]. Several participants expressed that they would like to regularly receive information on the new company even before the first day of work: “information before the first day, reduces uncertainties” [P13] or “tips on the many little things that you would only understand after days/weeks in the company” [P31]. These qualitative findings support our suggestion that innovative and modern approaches for onboarding like apps are in general appreciated by young employees of generation Y and Z.

6 Conclusion In this work, we analyzed how gamification can affect onboarding processes. Firstly, we described a mobile onboarding application specifically developed to support onboarding processes for those in generations Y and Z. Secondly, we reported a study with 98 participants of these young generations (either students or young career starters). Our goal was to determine if a gamified version of the onboarding application is preferred over a version without playful elements. According to our expectations, the gamified onboarding app was preferred to the non-gamified version. Four out of 11 rating statements revealed statistically significant differences: users perceived the gamified onboarding app as more intuitive, more fun and appealing, more supportive in meeting future colleagues, and they would rather use the gamified version before their first day of work. Also, the expectations on correlations with personality traits were confirmed: the study showed that especially agreeableness and openness correlate with the preference

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for the gamified onboarding app. Furthermore, qualitative findings indicate that features promoting social integration are particularly well received, especially the playful feature Team Bingo. In conclusion, we believe that the integration of gamified features makes onboarding solutions more effective and more user-oriented, especially for employees of the generations Y and Z. Important information can be learned in a playful way and contact with advisors and future team members is facilitated. Limitations and Future Work To obtain more in-depth results, the survey should be repeated at a later stage in the development process of the gamified onboarding application. As a result, the user experiences could be tested with a fully implemented application, rather than a video demonstration of the app. Acknowledgements. This research was enabled by a co-operation between the Affective & Cognitive Institute of Offenburg University and the Haufe Group. The onboarding app and the gamification features were implemented in the Haufe Corporations & Public Sector business unit under the supervision of Christian Kempter.

References 1. The Best Employee Engagement Statistics You Should Know. https://dynamicsignal.com/ 2018/01/08/the-best-employee-engagement-statistics-you-should-know/ 2. Autry, A.: 2018 Employee Engagement & Loyalty Statistics. https://blog.accessperks.com/ 2018-employee-engagement-loyalty-statistics 3. Deterding, S.: GamifyConference 2017 - Dr. Sebastian Deterding - Gamification Missverständnisse und Lösungen. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1v8mxnNOaHM 4. Eisner, S.P.: Managing Generation Y. SAM Adv. Manage. J. 70(4), 4–12 (2005) 5. Tulgan, B.: Meet Generation Z: the second generation within the giant “Millennial” cohort (2013) 6. Francis-Smith, J.: Surviving and thriving in the multigenerational workplace. J. RECORD (2004). Online Research Library: Questia. https://www.questia.com/newspaper/1P22120458/surviving-and-thriving-in-the-multigenerational-workplace 7. Deterding, S., Sicart, M., Nacke, L., O’Hara, K., Dixon, D.: Gamification: using game design elements in non-gaming contexts (2011) 8. Depura, K., Garg, M.: Application of online gamification to new hire onboarding. In: 2012 Third International Conference on Services in Emerging Markets, pp. 153–156 (2012) 9. Dale, S.: Gamification: making work fun, or making fun of work? Bus. Inf. Rev. 31, 82–90 (2014) 10. Korn, O., Schmidt, A.: Gamification of business processes: re-designing work in production and service industry. Procedia Manuf. 3, 3424–3431 (2015) 11. Kupka, K.: Online-assessments im recrutainment-Format: Wie gefällt das eigentlich den Bewerbern in der echten Auswahlsituation? In: Diercks, J., Kupka, K. (eds.) Recrutainment: Spielerische Ansätze in Personalmarketing und -auswahl, pp. 53–66. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden (2013) 12. Korn, O.: Industrial playgrounds: how gamification helps to enrich work for elderly or impaired persons in production. In: Proceedings of the 4th ACM SIGCHI Symposium on Engineering Interactive Computing Systems, pp. 313–316. ACM, New York (2012)

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13. Korn, O., Funk, M., Schmidt, A.: Design approaches for the gamification of production environments: a study focusing on acceptance. In: Proceedings of the 8th ACM International Conference on PErvasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments, pp. 6:1–6:7. ACM, New York (2015) 14. Korn, O., Muschick, P., Schmidt, A.: Gamification of production? A study on the acceptance of gamified work processes in the automotive industry. In: Chung, W., Shin, C.S. (eds.) Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design. Proceedings of the AHFE 2016 International Conference, pp. 433–445. Springer, Heidelberg (2016) 15. Korn, O., Lang, J., Korge, A., Causegic, H., Schmidt, A.: Gamification of a workday: a study on the effects in sheltered employment. In: CHI 2016 Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 3114–3121. ACM, New York (2016) 16. Towers Watson ed: Global Workforce Study. Geld, Karriere, Sicherheit? Was Mitarbeiter motiviert und in ihrem Unternehmen hält. Ergebnisse für Deutschland 2012/2013. Presented at the July 2012 17. Haufe-Lexware GmbH & Co KG: Noch viel Verbesserungspotenzial beim Onboarding. https://www.haufe.de/personal/hr-management/umfrage-zum-onboarding-in-unternehmen_ 80_396926.html 18. Gen Z & Millennials Collide At Work. https://workplacetrends.com/gen-z-millennialscollide-at-work/ 19. Simon, W.: Persönlichkeitsmodelle und Persönlichkeitstests: 15 Persönlichkeitsmodelle für Personalauswahl, Persönlichkeitsentwicklung, Training und Coaching. Presented at the (2006) 20. Satow, D.L.: Big-Five-Persönlichkeitstest (B5T): Testmanual und Normen (2012) 21. QuizClash – Quiz against your friends!. http://www.quizclash-game.com/ 22. Fourdesire: Plant Nanny - Water Reminder with Cute Plants. http://plantnannyapp.com/ assets/plantnanny/features-grow-up.png 23. Niantic, Inc.: Produkte. https://nianticlabs.com/de/products/ 24. Jodel – Impressum. https://jodel.com/de/imprint/ 25. Instructions on How to Play BINGO. http://www.dltk-cards.com/bingo/instructions.htm 26. Gouveia, R., Pereira, F., Karapanos, E., Munson, S.A., Hassenzahl, M.: Exploring the design space of glanceable feedback for physical activity trackers. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, pp. 144–155. ACM, New York (2016) 27. Blohm, I., Leimeister, J.M.: Gamification. WIRTSCHAFTSINFORMATIK 55, 275–278 (2013) 28. Barrick, M.R., Mount, M.K.: The big five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta-analysis. Pers. Psychol. 44, 1–26 (1991) 29. Paulus, J.: Das Fünf mal Eins der Psychologie | Wissen | SWR2. https://www.swr.de/swr2/ programm/sendungen/wissen/das-fuenf-mal-eins-der-psychologie/-/id=660374/did= 5488364/nid=660374/1iydduq/index.html 30. Philipps, G., Lebek, S.: Erfolgreich durchs assessment-center. In: Strategien - Aufgaben Testverfahren: Experten zeigen, worauf es wirklich ankommt, p. 92. Linde Verlag GmbH (2012)

The Role of Building Construction Project Planning in Accommodating Ergonomic Considerations of the Aging Workforce Steven J. Kangisser(&) and Young Mi Choi Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The construction industry has long experienced a shortage of skilled labor. This paper is intended to identify ergonomic problems that foreshorten older workers’ involvement in the industry in order to address the shortage of new workers and an exodus of often injured old ones. Challenges exist to attracting workers. These include resistance to technologies, tasks that must be performed by hand, mandatory lifting in excess of recommended limits, need for repetitive motions, existence of irregular and hazardous surfaces, noise levels exceeding safe limits, exposure of workers to vibration, frequent dust, and inadequate lighting, use of building materials that cause skin irritation, need to work in inclement weather, and work schedules that cause disruption to circadian rhythm. This study shows management must plan for older workers’ ergonomic needs, starting by creating site-specific plans more broadly focused on workers’ wellbeing than are safety plans, to extend older workers’ involvement in the field. Keywords: Aging
Cognitive
Construction
Ergonomics
Human factors
Labor
Sensory
Training

1 Introduction The construction industry requires a very large workforce, however, over the past several decades the industry has experienced a shortage of skilled craft labor. Factors that effect this continued shortage include the lack of appeal the industry has for young people. These young, potentially skilled craft labor individuals are being steered toward college degrees rather than blue collar jobs. Of great concern to any industry that is suffering from a chronic shortage of skilled labor, the construction industry has a labor demographic with median ages far in excess of the national average. The greatest number of craft skills in the industry are filled with workers over the age of 45. A possible solution is to encourage workers to remain in the labor pool for additional years. Many physical factors exist that make remaining in the industry difficult for older workers. If the industry is to retain older skilled craft labor, the needs of older workers must be considered. By considering human factors and ergonomics it is possible to accommodate older workers in the construction industry, prolonging the number of

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 15–26, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_2

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years the worker can remain gainfully employed on construction project sites. This requires analysis of the way workers interact with tools, materials, and fellow craft laborers in the conduct of the required tasks.

2 Craft Labor Shortage The building construction industry requires an enormous workforce, employing over seven million employees, both full and part time. For the past several decades the industry has experienced a shortage of skilled craft labor. There is no indication that this labor condition will change soon. Although skilled labor shortages are not unique to construction, the condition is compounded by the slow rate of technology-driven productivity increases within the industry (D. Olson, M. Tatum, How Industrial Contractors are Handling Skilled Labor Shortages in the United States, 2012). Factors that effect this continued shortage include the lack of appeal the industry has for young people. Tucker and Haas have discussed how young, potentially skilled craft labor individuals are being steered toward college degrees rather than blue collar jobs (Tucker et al. 1999). Currently the status of construction craft labor jobs has diminished, making it difficult to recruit new workers. A Clemson University survey of 1,800 construction craft workers revealed that 70% did not want their children to take up their career path (BNA Construction Labor Reports, 46, no. 2296, 2000). Additionally, a lack of organizational investment and promotion opportunities within construction companies, make the industry less appealing (Carley et al. 2003). The effects of these and other factors can be observed when comparing the number of unfilled positions to the total number of current jobs. Figures 1, 2, and 3, below, demonstrate that as the industry recovered from the recent recession, the labor market was not able to fill the needed positions. This condition exists even though wages have grown consistently from year to year.

Fig. 1. Unemployment construction industry, 2008–2018

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Fig. 2. Job openings, 2008–2018

Fig. 3. Earnings per hour, 2008–2018: construction industry sector

3 Aging Workforce Of great concern to any industry suffering from a chronic shortage of skilled labor, the construction industry has a labor demographic with median ages far in excess of the national average. The greatest number of craft skills in the industry are filled with workers over the age of 45. The chief economist for the National Association of Home Builders, Robert Dietz PhD, reports that it’s number of members over 55 has increased by a dramatic 57% over the past decade, with the average age of the group’s members is now 57 years old. The Burau of labor Statistics reports that in the overall builder related sector, 17% of workers are between 55 and 64 years of age and six percent are over this age. For the economy in general, this number is 13% between 55 and 64 and

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only three percent are above. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate construction age distribution relative to all occupations and by craft.

Fig. 4. Construction age distribution relative to all occupations

Fig. 5. Median age by craft position

4 Why Workers Leave Relative to other industries, building construction is slow to adopt new technologies. Most work tasks are still performed similar to historical norms. Movement of materials and tools are assisted by mechanical methods; however, much is still performed by hand. Lifting in excess of recommended limits occurs on a regular basis. Loads are positioned by means of pushing, pulling, and lifting (Fig. 6). Mounting and finishing requires repetitive motions. Walking surfaces are irregular and often hazardous, resulting in slips and other falls. Climbing of ladders is frequently required. Workers

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must, at times, pull themselves up or use arm and shoulder strength to lower their body weight. Noise levels can exceed safe limits for short durations and may be elevated for longer length of time. Many tools and work tasks also expose workers to vibration levels of varying degrees. Dust is a frequent nuisance and may require shielding if of a hazardous nature. Lighting is often installed as a temporary measure and may be far less than adequate for even those with excellent vision. Workers are exposed to a wide range of materials, some of which can cause skin irritation. Construction continues in all ranges of weather, exposing workers to rain, ice, heat, solar rays, cold and high humidity. Additionally, work frequently continues around the clock. (Koningsveld, H. Van der Molen, History and Future of Ergonomics in Building and Construction, Ergonomics, 2010). Workers must therefor adjust to changes in shift times and disrupts to circadian rhythm.

Fig. 6. Routine physical stress (from us-ergo)

In a German study of older workers, construction workers between the ages of 40 and 64 years where monitored for vocation related health conditions. The study group included 4,958 workers from a variety of construction crafts. Job specific prevalence and age adjusted relative prevalence were calculated for hearing loss, lung auscultation, blood pressure, heart conditions, body mass, liver disease, musculoskeletal system abnormalities, and skin diseases. Disabilities and all types of mortality was ascertained. Using Cox’s proportional hazards model, job specific risks, adjusted for outside factors, were obtained. The study concluded that older construction workers can be expected to exhibit a higher prevalence of hearing deficiencies, signs of obstructive lung diseases, increased body mass, musculoskeletal abnormalities, than those in other industrial sectors. Compared with white collar workers, those in construction crafts have a 3.5 to 8.4-fold increase in the rate of disability (Arndt et al. 1996). This study offers a clear argument as to why older craft workers find it difficult to remain employed. In fact, during the course of the study 141 men died and 341 men left the labor market due to disability.

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The construction industry does not have a good reputation of promotion opportunities for craft workers. Projects can be of relatively short duration and some crafts are needed for only a small portion of the overall project. Workers must, therefore, seek new opportunities and change job sites frequently. This is not only stressful, it hinders the construction managers ability to identify workers deserving of reward.

5 Needs of Older Construction Workers As has been demonstrated, there is a shortage of craft workers within the construction industry. Various factors are making it difficult to recruit new workers. A possible solution is to encourage workers to remain in the labor pool for additional years. The previous section of this report discussed physical factors that make remaining in the industry difficult for older workers. If the industry is to retain older skilled craft labor, the needs of older workers must be considered. Older workers differ from the general labor pool in several ways. One of these is that aerobic capacity has been found to decline in both males and females over the course of their career. This has been found to equate to a reduction by 10% for each decade of life. This reduction in capacity is from reduced ventilation rates, reduced maximal cardiac output and reduction in peak heart rates associated with ageing (Shephard 1999). The reduction in aerobic capacity has an impact on physical work, where younger workers may outperform the capacity of older workers. Reports of fatigue from older workers are not frequent, however. his may be attributed to mitigating factors including experience and seniority allowing for selection of lighter tasks. Although physical strength and endurance characteristics are different for each worker, they have been found to remain mostly constant until around 40 years old then to reduce slightly between 40 and 65 years (Shephard 1999). There is an average decline of 10–25% in muscular capacity at age 65 compared with the peak lifetime value. Research has identified that spinal flexibility; isometric trunk strength and hand grip strength decreases with age. Research also identifies reductions in specific strength and flexibility but that older workers involved in heavy physical tasks had maintained strength and there were suggestions of a training effect from work (Schibye et al. 2001). The need for recovery between activities has been addressed by two studies. The studies identified that there is a significant increase in the need for recovery associated with increasing age, high physical and high psychological demands, monotonous work and working full time. Musculoskeletal disorders have been found to increase in both prevalence and incidence with age. However, a recent review of work, equalities and musculoskeletal health identified that there are varied results when examining relationships between musculoskeletal disorders and age. It can be generally stated that there is an increased risk of many musculoskeletal disorders with age (Crawford et al. 2010). Older workers demonstrate increased sway when standing normally and age has been associated with a reduction in physical balance. Reduction in balance with age must be kept in mind in when planning construction activities (Punakallio 2003). Anthropometric changes also occur with ageing. Body mass index (BMI) increase, reduction in height and increase in weight have been observed. Evidence of age-related change in body dimensions can dictate consideration in construction planning.

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Older workers are also more susceptible to heat-related stress. Heat tolerance decreases due to age-related cardiovascular changes. Although otherwise healthy older workers appear to be no more susceptible to serious adverse effects from working in heat than younger workers, construction activity planning should consider that aging individuals within a construction workforce are more prone to develop conditions such as type 2 diabetes which can predispose workers to heat-related illness (Pandolf 1997). Along with aging comes a slowing of reaction times. Often older workers slow down to accommodate a need for accuracy. This lowing can be compensated for with accumulated knowledge and experience. Performance measures using speed will show a decrease in speed with age. However, accuracy of performance in relation to quality or safety may increase with age. In terms of maintaining and improving intellectual functioning, studies support the ‘use it or lose it’ hypothesis. Maintenance of intellectual abilities has been associated with high levels of educational attainment, high occupational mental workload, regular intellectual stimulation and cognitive exercises. Long-term maintenance of health is dependent on physical activity, diet and intellectual stimulation. Despite assertions on the impact of ageing on psychological processing, there are large individual differences. However, 95% of 1600 people surveyed over the age of 65 showed no signs of impairment (K. Benjamin, S. Wilson, Facts and Misconceptions about Age, 2005). Age-related changes in visual acuity and hearing are also a consideration. For the most part, these changes can be accommodated within the construction workplace. Changes in visual acuity, loss of accommodation, reduction in depth perception and loss of color discrimination can be compensated for at both an individual (use of glasses and hearing aids) and an organizational level (improved lighting and signage). Mandatory use of hearing protection can help prevent auditory problems as the worker ages.

6 Human Factors and Ergonomics By considering human factors engineering and ergonomics it is possible to accommodate older workers in the construction industry. This will prolong the number of years the worker can remain employed on construction project sites. Such an effort requires analysis of the way workers interact with tools, materials, and fellow craft laborers in the conduct of required tasks. The first efforts to study human performance in the workplace were time and motion studies conducted in the early twentieth century, emerging as a scientific discipline following World War II when the interaction of body position and control designs was evaluated in relation to the person performing a task, such as pilots. Collecting data on human factors on a construction project site is particularly challenging given the large amount of activity ongoing and the everchanging nature of the work environment. It is highly unlikely that a work situation, including the distractions surrounding the worker, will ever exactly repeat itself. Also, every work site is vastly different from each other. Nonetheless, human factors specialists have made great strides in applying ergonomic considerations to tools and equipment used in the construction industry. This is evident from the design of simple hand tools to the design of controls found in heavy construction machinery.

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In order to better accommodate older workers in the construction industry, better design of tools and machinery is not, however, adequate. Instead, the design of individual tasks and the overall construction process must consider the abilities and limitations of those who are relied upon to perform them. In many cases, the inability of a worker to perform an assigned task is not the fault of the worker, but that of those who planned the actual work activity. Management must take human factors and ergonomic considerations into account early in the planning stage for building construction projects.

7 Sensory and Cognitive Considerations As discussed earlier in this report, older workers may process information differently than their younger counterparts. With the large amount of activity surrounding the worker, including noises from many sources, the volume of information to be observed and processed can be enormous. It is important to understand how this information is collected and processed. First registered by the sensory system, including vision, hearing, and touch, information is gathered by the individual. Some, but not all, of this information is processed by the brain and a decision on how to react is made (see Fig. 7, below). Workers do not have the ability to process all the information received in real time. As a result, only a fraction of all the information received is processed consciously. This occurs in short term memory. As a limited amount of information can be retained, most information in short term memory fades away quickly. Information deemed to be more important is then transferred to long term memory.

Fig. 7. Cognitive processing (from Atkinson and Shiffron)

Information stored in long term memory is available to guide the worker for decisions required when a similar situation occurs in the future. As many tasks in the construction industry are performed repetitively, long term memory allows the worker to perform these tasks more rapidly than when a large amount of new information is required to make a decision before taking an action (Atkinson and Shiffrin 1971). As the ability to collect and process information is limited, a large amount of competing sensory information causes the worker to focus more closely on the task at hand. This can result in the worker not observing other events occurring nearby. The vast amount of hazardous activities taking place on a construction project site can lead

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to safety concerns. This also holds true for instances were too many warning signs are posted or too many instructions given simultaneously. These may compete with more important sensory signals such as the audible warning signal from a crane or forklift. If a worker must devote attention to a large number of direction or warnings at the same time, eventually an error or accident may occur. For older workers, the ability to register information visually or audibly may be reduced and reaction time may be slower. By reducing the amount of distractions, older workers can better observe and process information. As illustrated, the primary source for gathering on-site information for decisionmaking is visual. Given the reduced visual capability of typical older workers, and the shift nature of building construction projects, job site illumination is critical to accommodating older workers. As workers age the clear substance between the lens and the retina becomes clouded. This causes light to scatter and reduces contrast of visual images on the retina. Proper job site lighting is more critical to older workers. The primary goal of job site lighting is to provide the best possible visual environment for site activities that must be performed by craft labor. Most existing research on this subject has been focused on highway construction but typically translates to building construction sites when working at night or in closed environments lacking permanent lighting installations. Nighttime lighting standards of various State Departments of Transportation are formulated to maximize average illuminance and lighting uniformity in the work area while reducing glare levels (K. El-Rayes, K. Hyari, Automated DSS for Lighting Design of Nighttime Operations in Highway Construction Projects, 2003). As such, construction site lighting systems are designed to simultaneously maximize average illuminance, maximize lighting uniformity, minimize glare, and minimize costs. This requires consideration of luminous intensity (brightness of point source), luminous flux (flow of light) and illumination (amount of light reflected or emitted from a surface). In a study conducted by El-Rayes and Hyari, a model is presented that optimizes ambient construction site lighting (El-Rayes and Hyari 2003). The system is developed in three main stages: • Incorporating all relevant decision variables and constraints that affect lighting conditions in nighttime construction projects • Formulating the optimization objectives in this design problem • Implementing the system as a robust design tool that provides the required effectiveness and efficiency Generally, older workers’ needs can be adequately accommodated by providing construction site illumination that avoids bright lighting within 60 degrees of the center of visual field, use of indirect lighting, employing a large number of dim light sources rather than a few bright lights, and providing polarized light protection shields to block glare for older workers required to perform tasks in confined spaces (Helander 2005).

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8 Older Workers’ Exposure to Extreme Conditions Older workers are typically less able to accommodate extreme work conditions. In the building construction industry workers may often be exposed to site conditions not typical in most work environments. Among these are very high or low ambient temperatures. ISO 9886:2004 describes methods for measuring and interpreting body core temperature, skin temperatures, heart rate, and body-mass loss. These factors should be considered to be more important to the performance of older workers. Construction site planning should provide shade and wind protection whenever possible. Older workers should be scheduled to avoid the most extreme climatic exposure and should be permitted time to acclimate if possible. Water and liquids formulated to hydrate workers (such as Gatorade) should be provided. Daily schedules should also include additional short breaks at the most severe times of the shift. Assigning older workers to hot, confined spaces should be avoided. Another extreme condition is the cognitive effect of shift work. Major health effects of changes in shift times are lack of sleep and changes in dietary habits. Shift work may also influence social life as workers are removed from friends and family. While single night shifts have minimal effect on circadian rhythm, multiple shifts cause workers to adjust to the change and to readjust when returning to day shifts. Some workers require a full week to adjust to a change from day to night shift. A 1994 study by Tankova and Adon demonstrated the effects of changes in working schedules on circadian rhythm. The study measured the effect of age on the ability to adjust to changes in shift hours. The authors rated participants based on ability to function better in morning as compared to evening hours. It appeared that the changes in the morningness-eveningness preference covaried with age related changes in the internal body clock. Older age was associated with morningness while younger subjects tended towards eveningness. A critical age tipping point for the circadian typology change was estimated to be 50 years of age (Tankova et al. 1994). Approximately 20% of the population experiences severe difficulty in adjusting to shift changes. This may be for either social or physical reasons. Workers who are unable to adjust experience an elevated incidence of nervous problems or gastric disorders. Factors that may affect a worker’s ability to adapt to shift changes include a lack of a strong social support group, presence of gastric or digestive disorders, and persons with a history of sleep problems or who lack a quiet place to sleep during the day (Helander 2005). Older workers often fit these criteria more than those who are younger. For these reasons, older workers should be discouraged from accepting night shifts in excess of a single shift.

9 Training for Older Workers The aging workforce, accompanied by advances in technology, are bringing about changes to the construction work environment. While older workers typically have elevated amounts of traditional experience and knowledge, they are often lacking in skills associated with new technology. Continued employment of older workers, particularly those of lower levels of formal education, requires ongoing training programs

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to ensure job competence. A study of 37 unemployed older adults was conducted by Lee and Czaja in order to gather information about barriers and obstacles for returning to work, training needs, work experiences, and job perceptions. Participants indicated a perception of age discrimination and lack of technology skills. They expressed a desire to receive additional training on technology and a preference for classroom training (Lee et al. 2008). Evidence, however, suggests that many older workers benefit more from on job training as compared to lecture methods. Learning is itself a skill. Workers that are exposed to regular skill training can be expected to be better able to assimilate new information and to be able to keep up with new skill practices. On going training that combines formal instruction with on job practice is likely to have a positive effect on the skill levels and confidence of older workers.

10 Conclusion and Recommendations As earlier stated, every construction job site is unique. This aspect of the construction industry offers challenges in many regards, including that of project planning and management. For this reason, an early step in the project process is the compilation of various site-specific plans. Among these are site access, staging, utilities, and safety. If contractors are to fully consider all aspects of human factors and ergonomics, a plan devoted to these considerations should also be prepared. Managers may feel that human factors and ergonomics are covered in safety plans. Safety, however, is focused on accident avoidance. This is not the same as ergonomics planning which considers not only safety, but also the long-term wellbeing of the worker. By considering the wellbeing of each worker, laborers will be able to experience reduced physical and mental stress over their career. This can extend the number of years a worker can remain actively engaged in the construction field. Ergonomic site plans must serve as a living document, continually being updated. Revisions and updates should include new activities, new technologies, and lessons learned on site. Project managers must remain engaged in observing worker habits and how they align with ergonomic guidelines. One way of analyzing worker habits is referred to as PATH (Posture, Activity, Tools and Handling). PATH is a work samplingbased approach, developed to characterize ergonomic hazards of construction and other non-repetitive work. The PATH method assigns codes based on the Ovako Work Posture Analyzing System, with additional codes included for describing worker activity, tool use, loads handled and grasp type. This method can be used by project teams to identify site specific ergonomic hazards. Once identified, plans can be revised to correct such issues as poor lifting situations imposed by project layout (Buchholz et al. 1996).

References Arndt, V., et al.: Older workers in the construction industry: results of a routine health examination and a five year follow up. Occup. Environ. Med. 53(10), 686–691 (1996) Atkinson, R.C., Shiffrin, R.M.: The control of short-term memory. Sci. Am. 225(2), 82–91 (1971)

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Buchholz, B., Paquet, V., Punnett, L., Lee, D., Moir, S.: PATH: a work sampling-based approach to ergonomic job analysis for construction and other non-repetitive work. Appl. Ergon. 27(3), 177–187 (1996) Carley, L.A., Haas, C.T., Borcherding, J.D., Goodrum, P.M.: Experiences with multiskilling among non-union craft workers in US industrial construction projects. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 10(6), 374–381 (2003) Crawford, J.O., Graveling, R.A., Cowie, H., Dixon, K.: The health safety and health promotion needs of older workers. Occup. Med. 60(3), 184–192 (2010) Helander, M.: A Guide to Human Factors and Ergonomics. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2005) International Organization for Standardization 9886:2004. Ergonomics–Evaluation of thermal strain by physiological measurements. CEN-European Committee for Standardization (2004) Lee, C.C., Czaja, S.J., Sharit, J.: Training older workers for technology-based employment. Educ. Gerontol. 35(1), 15–31 (2008) Pandolf, K.B.: Aging and human heat tolerance. Exp. Aging Res. 23(1), 69–105 (1997) Punakallio, A.: Balance abilities of different-aged workers in physically demanding jobs. J. Occup. Rehabil. 13(1), 33–43 (2003) Schibye, B., Hansen, A., Søgaard, K., Christensen, H.: Aerobic power and muscle strength among young and elderly workers with and without physically demanding work tasks. Appl. Ergon. 32(5), 425–431 (2001) Shephard, R.J.: Age and physical work capacity. Exp. Aging Res. 25(4), 331–343 (1999) Tankova, I., Adan, A., Buela-Casal, G.: Circadian typology and individual differences. A review. Personality Individ. Differ. 16(5), 671–684 (1994) Tucker, R.L., Haas, C.T., Glover, R.W., Alemany, C., Carey, L., Rodriguez, A., Shields, D.: Key workforce challenges facing the American construction industry: an interim assessment. Report No. 3, Center for Construction Industry Studies, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas (1999)

Ergo + 50: Ergonomic Assessment Methodology Aimed at Older Workers Alberto Ferreras Remesal(&), Carlos Chirivella Moreno, Alicia Piedrabuena Cuesta, Rakel Poveda Puente, Sonia Serna Arnau, Consuelo Latorre Sánchez, and Mercedes Sanchís Almenara Instituto de Biomecánica de Valencia, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Edificio 9C, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain {alberto.ferreras,raquel.marzo,alicia.piedrabuena, rakel.poveda,sonia.serna}@ibv.org

Abstract. The ageing of population in Western societies has a marked impact on social reality and its effects affect many areas, including work. Ageing has implications, both positive and negative, in people’s abilities and skills. While some abilities (vision, hearing, strength …) may decrease, some cognitive functions, such as controlling the use of language or the ability to process complex problems, may improve with age. Although the effects of ageing on skills have been widely studied, the variability of the evolution of people makes it necessary to have assessment methods that consider older workers and, in particular, that value the ability to work and guide towards criteria that favour labour insertion and ergonomic adaptation of jobs. These are the principles that have guided the development of the “Ergo + 50” methodology, an ergonomic assessment procedure aimed at detecting working conditions that have a specific relationship with the ageing process. The methodology includes two interrelated modules that analyse, on the one hand, the characteristics of tasks and jobs (environmental conditions, cognitive aspects, physical load, design, organization, policies …) and, on the other hand, the perceived abilities of older workers, to carry out the tasks. The results obtained include the prioritized diagnosis of the situation, as well as recommendations for improvement. Keywords: Ergonomics assessment
Older workers
Ageing Workplace design
Workplace adaptation
Work ability




1 Introduction 1.1

The Ageing Workforce

As society ages, so does the workforce. According to data from the European Labour Force Survey [1], workers aged 55+ currently make up for 16% of the total workforce in the European Union. By 2030, workers aged 55–64 are expected to make up 30% or more of the workforce in many European countries. The retirement age is increasing in many countries and many workers are likely to face longer working lives [2]. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 27–36, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_3

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Ageing at work is, therefore, a reality that affects both the health and safety of workers and the productivity and competitiveness of companies. Ageing at work is conditioned by the work ability, which is determined by the interaction between the characteristics of the workers and the working conditions. Work ability is a complex concept that encompasses the individual and occupational aspects that are essential when facing the demands of work [3]. Individual resources that influence work ability include the person’s health, functional capacity (physical, mental, social), professional competence (training, skills, experience), motivation and job satisfaction. Regarding the occupational factors that influence the way individual resources are used, the demands of work (physical, mental), the environment, and the organization of work can be included. As the World Health Organization [4] indicates: “changes that occur during ageing are not linear or uniform, and only vaguely associated with a person’s age”. Individual variables and life history make the difference in the forms of ageing: an elderly person may be full healthy and another may be dependent to carry out the activities of daily living. However, from a biological point of view, ageing reduces the physiological reserves and therefore there is a greater chance of having diseases and a reduced functional capacity. Changes in the roles and social positions during the life cycle are very frequent, these changes are important and it is necessary to consider them to understand the process and the heterogeneity of the ageing process. The functional capacity of a person is determined by physical, sensory and cognitive level, as well as the interactions associated with different environments throughout life. • At the physical level, as people age, we can find a reduction in joint mobility, especially in the hands and neck, due to different factors such as loss of bone mass, loss of tissue flexibility, disorders of the nervous system and vascular disorders, among others. There are also other aspects such as decrease in strength, balance alterations or changes in gait, due to different pathologies [5–7]. • At the sensory level, we can highlight the reduction of visual acuity, changes in sensitivity to contrast or glare, worse adaptation to darkness and less colour discrimination, decreased hearing capacity and less tactile discrimination of forms [3, 8, 9]. • In the cognitive area, there is a reduction of the sustained attention and less flexibility in the areas of memory and learning [3, 8]. Nevertheless, these changes have many individual differences. That is what we know as “individual ageing” [10]. The association between work and ageing can be seen, therefore, from two complementary perspectives: • First, due to the natural ageing process of all people, older workers may face problems related to the design of their jobs (for example, hand force decreases with age, therefore a 55 year old person is not going to be able to perform the same efforts as when he or she was young).

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• On the other hand, certain jobs can be a major hazard on people, which can lead workers to face an accelerated process of ageing or deterioration (for example, shift work, work on heavy tasks, under extreme environmental conditions, etc.). The work ability is not only related (negatively) with the age deterioration and the lack of adaptation of the environment. The performance of the career can provide certain advantages to older workers, such as experience, ability to solve complex problems, tricks and shortcuts in certain tasks, global vision of the company and their job, etc. These aspects are very important because, being well managed, they can be an important asset when assigning tasks, organizing work or redesigning jobs, so that workers are able to adapt satisfactorily to work. 1.2

The Ergonomics Perspective on Ageing

In a broad sense, we could define ergonomics as the multidisciplinary field of knowledge that studies the characteristics, needs, abilities and skills of human beings, analysing those aspects that affect product design or production processes. All the applications have a common objective: to adapt the products, tasks, tools, spaces and the environment to the ability and the needs of people to improve the efficiency, safety and welfare of users or workers [11]. The poor ergonomic conditions in the workplace can cause lack of efficiency, low productivity, errors or discomfort. However, the most visible and problematic effects of the absence of ergonomics in the workplace are musculoskeletal disorders [12, 13]. Ergonomics plays an important role in this association between work and ageing. Ergonomics, from a work perspective, deals with the adjustment between the demands of the job and the worker’s abilities, so demands are never higher than capacities and, therefore, work performance is healthy, comfortable and efficient. Ergonomic assessment aims to detect the mismatches that exist between the characteristics of the work and the worker’s abilities and assess the potential risks that the work may cause to the worker. In this sense, it is important to consider the workers’ diversity and pay special attention to those that can be sensitive to working conditions. Age is an example of the human diversity and, therefore, should be take into account in the ergonomic studies. The two most relevant aspects when considering older workers in the ergonomics assessment are: • Assess the actual capacity (not the age) and compare it with the job requirements. • Focus especially on risks that are more likely to affect older workers: physical (repetitiveness, efforts), organizational (shift and night work), environmental (extreme temperatures), psychosocial (obsolete skills, lack of updated training), etc. The ergonomics assessment methods make possible the identification and evaluation of the risk factors present at the workplaces in order to put forward redesign options to reduce the risk to an acceptable level for workers: • For an initial assessment, the use of checklists is recommended. Checklists are quick methods of assessing ergonomics and psychosocial working conditions. They are used to determine qualitatively the conditions of the workstation or a worker’s activities that could contribute to an injury.

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• The specific (or quantitative) ergonomic methods make an objective assessment of the ergonomics conditions of a workplace. The goal of these methods is to identify ergonomic risk factors, quantify them, and then make measurable improvements in the workplace. There are many methods, normally classified depending on the physical strain (or the type of task) to be assessed: load handling, postures, repetitiveness, etc. The NIOSH equation [14], REBA [15], ERGO-IBV [16] or OCRA Index [17] are examples of quantitative methods. Both checklist and quantitative methods are normally addressed to general population, so they don’t consider that some workers (e.g.: older workers) can have limited or different capabilities. In some cases, there are different strategies or recommendations to adapt these methods to older workers, for example [18]: • Lowering the “recommended weight limit” to calculate the risk of manual material handling tasks. • Adding additional penalty factors to the postures assessment (e.g.: kneeling, crouching, long-term standing/sitting…). • Adding a multiplicative corrector of 0.6 to the risk index when the worker affected is over 50 years. These approaches, although interesting, are not completely useful, as they don’t consider the individual capacity. To solve these issues, some methods try to specify which the work ability of specific individuals is. One of the most known proposals to do that is the Work Ability Index (WAI) [19]. The work ability index gives an idea of individuals’ perceived work ability and involves a questionnaire complemented by an interview; it can also provide an indication of the potential for disability in the future or early retirement. The WAI questionnaire covers several dimensions of individuals (current work ability, number of diagnosed illnesses or limiting conditions, own prognosis, etc.). Each answer has a different score. The minimum total score is 7 (bad work ability), the maximum is 49 (very good work ability). The WAI can be used for individual employees and groups of workers. However, it can also be applied as an analysis tool to the whole company or the whole workforce of a company. It offers the possibility of comparing individual departments or company sections as well as individual groups of employees and age groups according to their WAI values. Although being widely used, WAI has several disadvantages: • It is founded on subjective data collected by a self-assessed questionnaire. • There is no direct comparison between specific demands and specific capacities. Therefore, it is not possible to locate the exact source of the problems and propose accurate adaptation measures. To solve these issues, some ergonomic tools consider that it is necessary to analyse work and worker features using similar criteria and common assessment levels to facilitate their comparison and interpretation of results. These are the job matching methods. The ultimate purpose is to match the worker capacities with the work

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requirements, in order to ensure the best possible job placing under given circumstances. Job matching methods try to determine the relationship between work demand (W) and the capacity of a person (P). As shown at Table 1, there are three possible relations between these two factors: Table 1. Relation between demand and capacity in job matching methods Relation W=P W

P

Meaning Ideal Sub-demand Over-demand

When discrepancies between demands and capacities appear, and before taking the final decision about the case, the analyst must consider whether the work demands can be modified (by decreasing the workload, providing new equipment, adapting the workflow, etc.) and/or if is possible to improve the worker’s ability (through training, personal assistive devices, etc.). Job matching methods are intended mainly for workers with functional limitations: impaired workers (back-to-work situations, e.g. NedLabor method [20]) or workers with disabilities (e.g.: IMBA [21], JobFit [22], ErgoDis [11]). Nevertheless, they can also be used with older workers to identify if there are functional limitations associated with age that may be causing mismatches with the work requirements. These are the principles that have guided the development of the “Ergo + 50” methodology, an ergonomic assessment procedure aimed at detecting working conditions that have a special relationship with the ageing process (ergonomic assessment) and compare them with the perceived abilities of older workers.

2 Results. The Ergo+50 Methodology Ergo+50 is an ergonomic assessment tool intended to help with age management in companies. The tool allows identifying the main working conditions that are related with age. The methodology includes two interrelated modules that analyse, on the one hand, the characteristics of tasks and jobs and, on the other hand, the perceived abilities of older workers, to carry out the tasks. The results obtained include the prioritized diagnosis of the situation, as well as recommendations for improvement. The tool is structured in two questionnaires: • The questionnaire to assess working conditions must be filled out by the company. It contains items related to the working conditions, the workplace design, the environment, the task organization and the age management activities. • The questionnaire for the self-evaluation of older workers’ abilities is individual, voluntary and confidential. It is filled out by the older workers of the company. It contains items aimed at the assessment by the staff of their ability to carry out the

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work requirements and at the assessment of the measures of the company related to age management. Both questionnaires are optional, meaning that it is possible to fill in only one of them or both. The results and recommendations will be different depending on this choice. The tool offers a report for each one of the questionnaires, including recommendations to help controlling the detected risks and, in case of completing both questionnaires, a report that links the working conditions with the evaluations of the workers. The Ergo+50 tool is a module integrated at ErgoIBV [23], a software that allows evaluating ergonomic and psychosocial risks associated with the job. 2.1

Working Conditions Questionnaire

This questionnaire includes 48 questions structured in the following sections: • • • • • • • • •

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Physical load: Manual material handling & efforts. Physical load: Postures and movements. Cognitive aspects. Workplace design: Anthropometry, space and equipment. Vision. Hearing. Environmental conditions. Work organisation. Age Management

The first eight sections include questions about the working conditions. The questions that have been selected include aspects in which there is a greater probability of age being a risk factor. For example: • • • • • • • •

Tasks that require a high and continuous effort. Prolonged standing/sitting. Exposure to a lot of information and/or stimuli. Side reach or reaching behind the body. Situations of direct or indirect glares. Sound signals and/or noise that can mask important auditory messages. Shift work (including night shifts). Etc.

The ninth section includes questions about how the company is managing age. Topics treated here include: • • • • • •

Health promotion. Health surveillance. Return-to-work policies. Training. Hiring and recruitment policies. Transition to retirement.

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The first eight sections can be addressed to a specific task, workplace or department and should be filled in by OSH technicians. The ninth section inquire aspects about the whole company (although could be restricted to specific departments or workplaces) and should be filled in by managers or human resources’ staff. All the questions are structured in the form of a checklist, in which any marked condition implies a potential problem to be solved. Additionally, some questions include performing simple calculations or an extended questionnaire: • Manual material handling: calculation of the acceptable mass. The program calculates the acceptable mass by multiplying the recommended theoretical mass, depending on the handling zone, by a series of correction factors associated with the vertical displacement of the load, trunk twisting, coupling, duration and frequency of the handling. Once these data have been entered, the program automatically displays the value of the acceptable mass. Thus, when the actual mass handled in the task is higher than the calculated acceptable mass the item should be ticked to indicate that the risk factor in question exists. The procedure is based on the Spanish Technical Guide for Manual Material Handling [24]. • Reaches. The program calculates if the reaches that are performed by the worker are comfortable, forced or not accepted. To do that, reach depth and height (cm) must be introduced. The calculations distinguish the acceptable reaches for men and women. The calculations are based on a study to identify the design criteria for the elderly [25]. • Work tools (extended checklist) • Working space (extended checklist) • Lighting levels. The program analyses if lighting levels in the workplace are adequate. To do that, it is necessary to select the type of task and/or the area where the work is performed and the actual lighting level (in Lux). Calculations are based on international standards [26]. After completing this questionnaire, the company can obtain a report that includes the potentially negative items and recommendations for improvement. 2.2

Self-Evaluation of Older Workers’ Abilities

Although the Working Conditions Questionnaire is aimed to detect aspects that are highly related with age, many conditions will be a real problem depending on the specific capabilities of the older workers. To find out what capabilities are those, the Self-evaluation of older workers’ abilities questionnaire can be used. This questionnaire is individual, voluntary and confidential. It is filled out by the older workers of the company (or of the specific workplaces or sections that are being analysed). It contains items aimed at the assessment by the older staff of their ability to carry out the work requirements and the assessment of the measures of the company related to age management. The assessment of own ability to carry out the tasks contains similar items to those inquired at the working conditions, but in this case each worker has to assess their perceived capacity to accomplish the requirements. The assessment is done using the following scale:

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Not applicable = this requirement does not exist in my workplace Bad (it’s very hard for me or I cannot) Moderate (I can do it, but with problems or discomfort) Good (I do not have limitations)

The second part of the questionnaire includes questions so that the worker can assess the company’s measures related to age management. The questions are similar to those asked at the working conditions questionnaire. The assessment is done using the following scale: • Disagree (these measures are not implemented in the company or, even if they are, they do not benefit me) • Neutral (they do not affect or interest me, regardless of whether they have been implemented or not) • Agree (the measures have been implemented and benefit me) After this questionnaire has been fulfilled by the workers, the company can obtain a report that includes the percentages of perceived capacity of the staff. 2.3

Joint Results

If the two questionnaires have been fulfilled, Ergo+50 software offers the following results: • The potentially negative items that have been detected at the working conditions and recommendations to improve them. • The percentages of perceived capacity of the staff. • The relationship between the working conditions and the perceived capacity of the workers. Here the Ergo+50 tool works can be used as a Job matching method, allowing the detection of mismatches between requirements and capacities. The possible results are three: • MATCH: Working condition is adequate; or working condition is not adequate but the worker has good capability. • MODERATE MISMATCH: Working condition is not adequate and the worker has capacity problems or discomfort. • HIGH MISMATCH: Working condition is not adequate and the worker has a bad capacity. The match/mismatch results are shown as a percentage of the workers that have fulfilled the questionnaire. The Ergo+50 tool offers the results ranked depending on the mismatch severity, the percentage of workers having capacity problems/mismatches and the occurrence of negative working conditions. Recommendations are provided for each result.

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3 Conclusions and Further Work Ergo+50 is an ergonomic assessment tool intended to help with age management in companies. This tool merges the ergonomic assessment with the evaluation of the workers capacities. The combination of both aspects allow detecting the mismatches between working conditions and workers capacities. The results obtained include the prioritized diagnosis of the situation, as well as recommendations for improvement. The tool will be tested in different companies, in order to validate the methodology used and the results developed. The validation process will allow refining the evaluation procedure and will facilitate the development of new applications and recommendations to help companies managing the ageing of their workers.

References 1. European Union Labour Force Survey - Eurostat. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/ microdata/european-union-labour-force-survey. Accessed 14 Feb 2019 2. EU-OSHA, ‘e-Guide Healthy Workplaces for all Ages’ (2017). https://eguides.osha.europa. eu/all-ages. Accessed 08 Nov 2018 3. Ilmarinen, J.: Ageing workers in the European Union: status and promotion of work ability, employability, and employment. Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Ministry of Labour (1999) 4. World Health Organization: World report on ageing and health. World Health Organization (2015) 5. Kenny, G.P., Yardley, J.E., Martineau, L., Jay, O.: Physical work capacity in older adults: implications for the aging worker. Am. J. Ind. Med. 51(8), 610–625 (2008) 6. Ilmarinen, J.E.: Aging workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 58(8), 546 (2001) 7. Kenny, G.P., Groeller, H., McGinn, R., Flouris, A.D.: Age, human performance, and physical employment standards. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 41(6), S92–S107 (2016) 8. Fozard, J.L.: Sensory and cognitive changes with age, Mobility and transportation in the elderly, pp. 1–61 (2000) 9. Page, A., Tortosa, L., Poveda, R., Küster, A., López, F., Ferreras, A.: Guía de recomendaciones para el diseño y selección de mobiliario para personas mayores. Instituto de Biomecánica de Valencia (IBV). Documentos Técnicos 76, Instituto Nacional (1995) 10. Pagán, P., Ferreras, A., Mena, S., Poveda, R., García Molina, C., Ruiz, R.: Adaptación de puestos de trabajo para trabajadores mayores. Guía de buenas prácticas, Instituto de Biomecánica de Valencia (2011) 11. Ferreras, A., et al.: Ergonomic adaptation of workplaces for people with disabilities: methodology and examples. In: Challenges for Assistive Technology, AAATE 2007 Conference Proceedings, pp. 136–140 (2007) 12. Pheasant, S.: Bodyspace: Anthropometry, Ergonomics and the Design of Work: Anthropometry, Ergonomics and the Design of Work. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2014) 13. Punnett, L., Wegman, D.H.: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders: the epidemiologic evidence and the debate. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol. 14(1), 13–23 (2004) 14. Waters, T., Putzanderson, V., Garg, A., Fine, L.: Revised NIOSH equation for the design and evaluation of manual lifting tasks. Ergonomics 36, 749–776 (1993) 15. Hignett, S., McAtamney, L.: Rapid entire body assessment (REBA). Appl. Ergon. 31, 201– 205 (2000)

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16. García-Molina, C.: Evaluación de riesgos de lesión por movimientos repetitivos. Biomecánica 12, 16–19 (1996) 17. Colombini, D., Occhipinti, E., Grieco, A.: Risk Assessment and Management of Repetitive Movements and Exertions of Upper Limbs: Job Analysis, OCRA Risk Índices, Prevention Strategies and Design Principles. Elsevier, Amsterdam (2002) 18. Ferreras, A., Piedrabuena, A., Molina, M.C.G., Castelló, P., Page, A., Tortosa, L.: Trabajo y envejecimiento: mejora de las condiciones ergonómicas de la actividad laboral para la promoción de un envejecimiento saludable. Prevención, trabajo y salud: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo, 30 (2004) 19. Tuomi, K., Ilmarinen, J., Jahkola, A., Katajarinne, L., Tulkki, A.: Work ability index, Institute of Occupational Health Helsinki (1994) 20. Peydro de Moya, F., Vivas, M.J., Pitarch, S., Garrido, D., Bermejo, I., Belda, J.M.: NedLabor/IBV, an application to evaluate the functional capacity of workers. Revista de Biomecánica, 62 (2015) 21. ‘IMBA’. http://www.imba.de/. Accessed 08 Feb 2019 22. Legge, J., Burgess-Limerick, R.: Reliability of the JobFit System Pre-Employment Functional Assessment Tool, p. 14 23. García-Molina, C., et al.: ERGOIBV. Evaluación de riesgos laborales asociados a la carga física. Instituto de Biomecánica de Valencia, Valencia (2000) 24. Ruiz, L.R.: Manipulación Manual De Cargas. Guía Técnica Del INSHT. Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo (2011) 25. Sanahuja, J.S.S., de Rosario Martínez, H.: Capacidades de las personas mayores en escenarios problemáticos. Revista de biomecánica 40, 23–27 (2003) 26. ISO: ISO 8995-1: 2002 (CIE S 008/E: 2001) Lighting of Indoor Work Places. International Organization for Standardization (2002)

Social Design, Innovation and Ergonomics: Reflections on Education, Transdisciplinarity and New Blurred Models for Sustainable Social Change Ana Margarida Ferreira1,2(&), Nicos Souleles3, and Stefania Savva3 1

IADE, Universidade Europeia, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 2 UNIDCOM/IADE - Unidade de Investigação em Design e Comunicação, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal 3 Art + Design: Elearning Lab, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus {nicos.souleles,stefania.savva}@cut.ac.cy

Abstract. Social innovation is not a new fact, but it has grown in importance over the last years as a driver for social change [1]. Although there is no universal definition of it, one widely-used is ‘ideas that are social in their ends and in their means’ [2] and concerns the process of developing and deploying new solutions to often systemic and complex social and environmental issues. On the other hand, social art is seen as any artistic expression that aims at inspiring social impact and change effectively society through emotionally captivating experiences [3]. Also, social ergonomics is understood as responses to social aspects of system use, envisioning, among others, socially proactive design and discussing the possibilities for embedding new paradigms for communication and problem-solving in specialized information systems [4]. Based on these ideas, this paper will elaborate on the above concepts, confronting and correlating them as complementary human actions and domains. Some considerations and challenges on the theme, as outputs of a post-doc research, will be also offered. It will be shown transdisciplinary approaches, methods, social actors, and complementary and blurred practices to an effective and meaningful design and implementation of new products, services, and systems. Its social, cultural and, educational relevance or holistic understanding will be underlined as strategies to achieve the sustainability of social systems, to share social value and promote resilience and wellbeing in a highly complex and changing world. Keywords: Social design
Social innovation
Collaborative learning
Transdisciplinarity
Systemic drivers
Holistic approach
Sustainability Social change

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 37–48, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_4




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1 Introduction As clear presented in the United Nations’ report: Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [5], we face nowadays a lot of challenges to sustainable development. Too much people still live in poverty and do not have a life of dignity being inequalities and enormous disparities of opportunity, wealth and power among countries realities in place. Challenges such as gender inequality, youth unemployment, more frequent global health threats or spiralling conflict and violent terrorism and, consequent humanitarian crises will question the development progress made in recent decades. To those, we should add, natural resource depletion and adverse impacts of environmental degradation, desertification, degradation, water scarcity or loss of biodiversity. Climate change, as underlined, is one of the greatest challenges of our time and its adverse impacts undermine how countries will achieve sustainable development. It is crucial to be aware that the survival of many societies, and the natural environments and support biotic systems could be at risk.

2 Finding Common Grounds and Crossed Roads 2.1

Social Design, Social Art and Social Ergonomics

It does not exist a unique definition of “social design”. In fact, looking for some theoretical background, is possible to find three different roots. Firstly, linking it to action research, community trust building processes and the design ability to build up community capacities, leadership and promote organizational transformation. Second line of thoughts linked its origins to participatory design and literature on social innovation where society as seen as a whole of interconnected parts. In this case, change comes through small and local studies and is scaled through networks. The third root is linked to the designers and researchers ideological and practical background and on its reflection on design projects. Nevertheless, as pointed out by Chen [6], and reinforced by Souleles [7], the last ten years social design has gained strength in design research well supported in writings of Papanek [8], Whiteley [9], or Margolin [10]. It is also worthy of notice the Scandinavia and UK research on the topic, the Italian movement headed mainly by Manzini [11], the promotion of it by consultancies as IDEO [12] or the evident relationship between design and the social sciences exposed by Frascara in his book from 2002 [13]. Social art is seen, on the other hand, as any artistic expression that aims at inspiring social impact and change through emotionally experiences. In this case, the artist intention is crucial. Art engages in questioning and rethinking existing systems and paradigms. For Loeser and Trosien [3], artists are visionaries, utopists, agents for change, with the ability to affect society by creating unique and emotional experiences, envisioned, from times to times, as aesthetic revolutions that preludes societal transformations [14]. The artists create impact and inspire change. They positively explore diversity and promote cultural encounters in and to social wellbeing. As presented by Institute for Art and Innovation [3], the artists “help to develop the discourse on opportunities to shape a positive future for the majority of society on many social levels”. It opens up different

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perspectives, identifies alternatives, and establish collaborations between different professions and people with a different background to nurture a better world. Brown and Newman [4] present social ergonomic as the responses to social aspects of system use. They explore, for instance, the possibilities for embedding new paradigms for communication and problem-solving in specialized information systems based on social constraints or opportunities. In fact, looking through a broad lens, we can easily say that social ergonomists have similar motivations and explored the same subject matters as the social designers or even artists. Efforts to regulate social interactions, considerations about personal and collective spaces or how life and work can be better are under the spectrum of analysis and are designed to create a full human experience [15]. 2.2

Social Innovation: Making the Web

In line with was already noticed in relation to social design, social innovation has also grown in importance over the last years as a driver for social change [1]. Without an universal definition, is widely understood as presented by Nesta in 2010 as “ideas that are social in their ends and in their means” [2]. It concerns the process of developing and deploying new solutions - products, services and models - to systemic and complex social problems. These solutions meet social needs and create new social relationships or collaborations. They also enhance society’s capacity to act. The fact that some existing structures and policies have not been able to address and surpass most of the current or emerging challenges of our time makes it even more relevant. A pertinent aspect of it was underlined by Young Foundation and Mulgan [16], reinforcing the idea that it is dual by nature. It gets better ways to meet human needs and, simultaneously, has interest in strengthening bonds of commitment and solidarity. In what concerns social innovation research, it has gone through significant developments in the last two decades. Theory building, case-study analysis, action research, improvement of empirical research methodology, reflections on epistemological viewpoints, are worthy of notice and reinforce the importance of it, by practical reasons, to societal players and innovators [17]. All these developments made possible to understand it as a “pragmatic approach”, as called by Mulgan, or as a “systemic approach”, according to Waterloo Institute for Social Innovation and Resilience [2]. In this last view, social innovation is closely connected to the concept of “resilience”, since radical encouraged changes contribute to adjust existing systems to the emergence of new needs, preventing them from collapsing under complex and fast changing realities. Along with new frames, its characteristics of multi-disciplinarily, cross-sectorality and multi-dimensionality and practical vocation, make social innovation a “fuzzy” concept particularly interesting as a bridge between theory and practice, which also explains why it is often very effective in informing policy-making. According to Murray et al. [2], four key elements are to be found in most social innovation practices: (a) need-driven or outcome-oriented production; (b) open process of co-creation or collaborative innovation networks; (c) fundamental change in the relationships between stakeholders and; (d) public value allocation and/or reallocation. Furthermore, it should scale as any successful innovations and brings about systemic change over time. This process, so-called spiral of social innovation, can been seen in the Fig. 1 below.

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Fig. 1. Spiral of social innovation [18].

3 Stimulating Creativity and Social Innovation by CrossFertilization of Knowledge As presented, we are facing today extra and complex problems. That means that innovative practices and human actions must change in order to adapt to the new emergent realities [19]. Innovation, differently from invention, means invention implemented, taken to market and diffused on social systems, sometimes times in a quite disruptive way changing radically the socioeconomic dynamics [20–22]. Nowadays, the landscape has shifted again. Disruptive innovations are transforming society in a lot of different ways and domains – from ever present smart phones to digital platforms, social media, and big data economy. Technologies such as artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and smart devices are disrupting economies and societies in ways not previously experienced [17]. This is also true to driverless transport, automated production, renewable energy, cloud-based big data, nuclear medicine or private investment in space exploration. However, as notice by the European Commission, the benefits of innovation are not distributed equally. 1% of population enjoy increasing material wealth, life choices and wellbeing, while many others are at risk of losing their jobs, social standing, and dignity as the result of innovative, mostly radical changes, with profound societal impact, as we can see in the next table (Table 1).

Table 1. Levels of social innovation [27]

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Looking in an evolutionary perspective, society has been able to respond to these constant challenges and continually reinvent itself in its approaches, methods and tools to survive and keep healthy [22]. That is the case of the transition from close to open innovation concept, framed in a new different knowledge landscape with a different logic and renewed understanding about the sources and uses of ideas. Open Innovation means that valuable ideas can come from both inside and outside organizations and have the potential to go to market. This framework places on the same level of importance external and internal ideas and paths. Naturally, as presented by Chesbrough [20], the availability and quality of these external ideas change the logic that led to the formation of the centralized R&D environments linked to closed innovation paradigm. It also makes us consider new challenges to address in relation to social dynamics and change as well stated by the European Commission [19]: “The current innovation dynamic may seem unique to our time, but it is not. Modernity, through waves of innovation, has always stimulated fantasies of brave new worlds and fears of social decline and imminent collapse. Radical innovation in technology and economy entails social transformation: a dramatic process that forces profound changes in the lives of people, their ideas, values, habits, norms, and institutions. It transforms the world in which we live and who we are. Without such deep-seated change, there would not be social progress. And it is the hope in the “happy ending” that gives the strength to endure the discomfort associated with change. The question to address, then, is what is the happy ending and what is the best path to reach it?”

Supported in these assumptions, is possible to believe that social innovation can play an important role in this matter and social innovators have the space to make visible the social relevance of their critical thinking and practical actions. 3.1

Overcoming the Spiral Model: Social Innovation as a Systemic, Open and Context Dependent Phenomenon

Although useful, the spiral understanding of social innovation, as previously presented, does not reflect the complexity and the interconnectedness and systemic nature of the global challenges that social innovation is called to answer. Furthermore, it does not consider the fact that innovation is not a linear process. These perceptions are of importance when reflecting on scaling-up processes of social innovations. In fact, as marked by some authors, most known initiatives seem stuck in the upper left quadrant of the social innovation spiral at the prompt, proposal, and prototype stages. That make emerge and become evident why the systemic approach is a necessary condition. This paradigm shift means acknowledging that is not possible to intervene on a single problem or target a specific person or group, without intervening at the same time on interrelated problems and groups. Likewise, our interventions are likely to be modified by the actions of other stakeholders and people, while also being affected by ongoing trends. This line of thoughts is also true for the interconnectedness of innovation problems, spaces and solutions, possible to notice below at the right side of the Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Comparing knowledge and action landscapes in closed and open innovations [19].

According to Nesta [2], it is hard to define specific elements, properties, structures or tools to spark systemic innovations by its intrinsic complexity. Nevertheless, based on historical evidence, it was possible to notice some recurrent strategies such as the formation of progressive coalitions that bring together different partners, the intensive processes to build up shared diagnoses and visions or, among others, the implementation of legal and regulatory devices to embed change. Based on those evidences, exists a broad consensus about the need look at social innovation in its systemic and open dimension to achieve long-lasting and positive impact, answering in an effective way to the crises and challenges that humanity face in the 21st century. 3.2

Transdisciplinary Approaches, Blurring Boundaries and Multidimensional Complexity

The aspects related to systemic, open and interdependency of social innovations bring along another important topic that also must be addressed: the need to transdisciplinary actions and frameworks. As presented by Madni [23], transdisciplinarity emerged in the second half of twentieth century in response to the hiper specialization and compartmentalization of knowledge, to the globalization of economy, shifts in the knowledge production centers and, mostly, to the environmental crisis. It has grown into more than a critique of disciplinarity and emerged as a valid mode of applied research dealing with real world but wicked problems that need to be understood under new perspectives and demand innovative and effective solutions to it. In regarding the educational benefits of transdisciplinarity, we can consider Macdonald [25] perspective, as cited in Bernstein’s review [24]: “transdisciplinarity is as much about the liberal arts, and about cultural symbolisms, as it is about the so-called social and natural sciences, or professions like medicine, engineering, or law. What sets transdisciplinarity apart from other approaches and what assures its role in twenty first-century education is its acceptance of, and its focus on, the inherent complexity of reality that is seen when one examines a problem or phenomenon from multiple angles and dimensions with a view toward discovering hidden connections between different disciplines”.

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Collaborative Practices, Networks and Social Learning

Also important to education and methodology-building processes, is looking at concrete experiences through case-studies because of the multidimensional role of social innovation researchers – with questions about the links or boundaries between multiples realities and concerns. As pointed out by NESTA [28], central to this building processes is the ‘joint’ or social learning process in which different social agents or networks share their perspectives, expectations and experiences. Through this exercise, new insights on sources of social innovations, creative strategies and methods to study experiences and innovations are settled. This interactivity between dimensions of social innovation and between social innovation agents feeds into the interdisciplinary character of social innovation practice and research.

4 Going Complex: New a Pool of Memes, Creative Combinations and Cluster of Innovations “A novel solution to a social problem that is more effective, efficient, sustainable, or just than existing solutions and for which the value created accrues primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals”. (Phills et al., 2008, p. 36) 4.1

Toward a Sustainable Social Change?

Economic activity is often considered the driver of social change. This idea is reinforced if we link it to the social mission of some organisations. As an example, the social enterprise sector in the UK employs approximately one million people, in 70,000 organisations, contributing more than £24 billion to the economy. All these organisations are driving social change by means of business. Traditional businesses are also being aware to the need to deliver both social and financial value as result of customers demanding of more socially responsible products and services. Yet, many organisations struggle to balance their social mission with their commercial reality and thus face challenges sustaining the positive changes they make. still, it is possible to verify the appearance of hybrid business models that combine business capacities with social goals. Three core principles must be found to be align with these goals [28]: (a) Purpose over profit, having social good over financial return; (b) Personal over professional, looking internally at how we treat each other and respecting each other’s personality, beliefs, and life to be possible a sustainable social change and an inclusive organization, and, at last but not least; (c) Trust over control to have motivated, driven people. Moreover, it should happen in all human realms. In fact, social innovations cross all sectors, from public to non-profit and private organizations and results from bridging and joining forces of all people that promote it. Policymakers who can help to create the right conditions, foundations and philanthropists who can fund and support, social organisations trying to meet social needs more effectively, and social entrepreneurs and innovators are part of this multidimensional and complex ecology [15] (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Social innovators in a multidimensional and complex ecology (authors).

In this ecology, many new forms of collaboration and co-operation are emerging. These are having profound implications on services and models of collective action. In many cases, although these supports are not themselves mutual, they provide the underpinning for mutual exchange and systemic action and change. 4.2

Strategic Spaces, Partnerships, and New Social Dynamics

As already stated, one important conceptualization presents social innovation as a process of redesigning social relations to maximize productivity and economic development. Supporting this idea is the assumption that the benefits of these changes will be shared equally across society and that social entrepreneurship represents the reconciliation of an historical division between private and public sector mechanisms of productivity growth. This understanding is linked to systems level of analysis and is mostly related to a disruptive vision of social innovation, one of the different dimensions of it as presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Dimensions of social innovation [26]

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Common to all these processes are a series of complex and multifaceted social contexts and environments that drive innovation not only in processes and outcomes but also, increasingly, as boundary blurring activities across the conventional sectors of society. Each of the three sectors of society – civil society, public and private – has its own internal logic of action and defining features. Between each of the three ideal-type points lies a spectrum of hybrid institutions and organizations that represent sites for social innovation as a boundary-blurring practice. 4.3

Share Spaces, Innovation Hubs, Participatory Actions and Platforms

In this new complex reality and social dynamic, new spaces gain importance. Innovation hubs become spaces and places which bring people together to learn, share, and collaborate. For most, they are much more than shared work spaces. They are places where social entrepreneurs, community activists, non-profits, and others, can come together to share ideas, insights, and experiences, having mutual support. They also provide economies of scale and scope through sharing associated costs. As the business models, the streets, public spaces and community centres are redesigned and gain renewal dimensions as extensions of domestic production and individual-collective new dynamics in the emergent social economy [11, 28]. In addition to this reality, an interesting study promoted by the European Union, in 2013, entitled “EU Social Platforms: A review on an experiment in collaborative research design” [29] deserved our attention. In it, participatory practices between researchers and stakeholders from civil society were promoted to work on urgent and complex socio-economic policy matters. This fact resulted from the awareness that the spread of the internet has made possible (a) a range of new tools to mobilize people and energies quickly and effectively and (b) provided an infrastructure to extend the range and capacity of social movements, including consumer movements, as well as enabling new forms of collaborative purchasing and management and in and in which all participants are engaged as equal in the research or implementation processes [30].

Fig. 4. New skills for the contemporary [31], and social learning and innovators in a social economy (authors)

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As marked by Rocha et al. [31], in the design of these interactive and social dynamics - materialized in new collaborative tools, processes and environments and set of skills, the designers and social innovators are of utmost importance and worthy of notice (Fig. 4).

5 Systemic Innovations and Strategic Actions for Social Resilience and Wellbeing To most of us, innovations are seen as changing factors in all sectors of the economy and the society and important to overcome everyday challenges. On the other hand, social innovations are deeply connected with the transformation of society, the improvement of human life and, the fostering of inclusion, wellbeing and a flourishing society [32]. To achieve these goals, some strategic issues should be considered, as recognized in ‘the Open Book of Social Innovation’ [2]. It addresses topics such as the linkage of innovation to strategy, the importance of leaders clearly shows that innovation matters, the necessity of formation and training to integrate innovation into personal development, training, and culture or the need of the user and citizens engagement to the efficiency of innovative products and practices. Mostly, it underlines the relevance of learning cultures, the trial and error learning methods and the ability to solve complex and unforeseen problems that are still to emerge. These considerations were also emphasized by the OECD, in a recent study about the Higher Education System [33]. Today and for the future, it is possible to social innovators to find clues, strategies and tools to boost social value and to promote resilience and wellbeing in a highly complex and changing world. Empathy, social creativity, artistic practices and political engagement are nourished and are on the way.

References 1. European Commission, Social Innovation toolkit, European Social Innovation Competition [CC BY 4.0] (2018). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 2. Murray, R., Caulier-Grice, J., Mulgan, G.: The Open Book of Social Innovation, Social Innovator Series: Ways to Design, Develop and Grow Social Innovation, NESTA & Young Foundation (2010) 3. Loeser, N., Trosien, V.: The Social Art Award: Invigorating The Rise of Social Art, Institute for Art and Innovation, no. 1, Berlin (2017) 4. Brown, J.S., Newman, S.E.: Issues in cognitive and social ergonomics: from our house to Bauhaus. Hum.-Comput. Interact. 1(4), 359–391 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327051 hci0104_4 5. United Nations: Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/RES/70/1 (2015). Sustainabledevelopment.un.org 6. Chen, D.-S., Cheng, L.-L., Hummels, C., Koskinen, I.: Social design: an introduction. Int. J. Des. 10(1), 1–5 (2015)

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7. Souleles, N.: Design for social change and design education: social challenges versus teacher-centred pedagogies. Des. J. 20(sup1), S927–S936 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14606925.2017.1353037 8. Papanek, V.: Design for the Real World. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1984) 9. Whiteley, N.: Design for Society. Reaktion, London (1993) 10. Margolin, V.: Design e Risco de Mudança. [Design and the Risk of Change]. Edições ESAD, Caldas da Rainha (2014) 11. Manzini, E.: Design When Everybody Designs: An Introduction to Design for Social Innovation. MIT Press, Cambridge (2015) 12. IDEO: HCD - Human Centered Design Toolkit, 2nd edn. (2011) 13. Frascara, J. (ed.): Design and the Social Sciences: Making Connections. Taylor & Francis, New York (2002) 14. Ferreira, A.M., Devezas, T., Carvalho-Rodrigues, F.: Modelling a design cycle using an evolutionary approach. In: Proceedings 5ª International Conference of UNIDCOM/IADE – 40 IADE 40, pp. 232–242. Edições UNIDCOM/IADE, Lisboa, 1–3 October 2009 15. Acosta, G.G., Morales, K.L., Lagos, D.E.P., Ortiz, M.O.: Addressing human factors and ergonomics in design process, product life cycle, and innovation: trends in consumer product design. In: Karwowski, W., Soares, M.M., Stanton, N. (eds.) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques, Chap. 9 (2011) 16. Mulgan, G.: The study of social innovation – theory, practice and progress. In: Nicholls, A., Simon, J., Gabriel, M. (eds.) New Frontiers in Social Innovation Research. x-Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke (2015) 17. Moulaert, F., MacCallum, D., Mehmood, A., Hamdouch, A.: General introduction: the return of social innovation as a scientific concept and a social practice. Int. Handb. Soc. Innov. Collective Action Soc. Learn. Transdisciplinary Res. 21, 1–6 (2014) 18. European Commission: Vision and Trends of Social Innovation for Europe, Working Paper, Publications Office of the European Union, November 2017 19. Chesbrough, H.W.: Open Innovation - The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology. Harvard Business School Press, Brighton (2003) 20. Schumpeter, J.: The Theory of Economic Development (1934). In: Fagerberg, J., Mowery, D.C., Nelson, R.R. (eds.) Innovation: A guide to the literature, The Oxford Handbook of Innovation, pp. 1–26. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2005) 21. Fagerberg, J., Mowery, D.C., Nelson, R.R. (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Innovation. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2005) 22. Ferreira, A.M.: Caracterização e Quantificação da Inovação no Processo Evolucionista do Design: análise de um século da prática médico-cirúrgica em Portugal [Characterization and Quantification of Innovation in the Evolutionary Process of Design: a one-century analysis of the medical-surgical practice in Portugal], Dissertação para a obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Engenharia de Produção. Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã (2008) 23. Madni, A.M.: Transdisciplinarity: reaching beyond disciplines to find connections. J. Integr. Des. Process Sci. 11(1), 1–11 (2007) 24. Bernstein, J.: Transdisciplinarity a review of its origins, development, and current issues. J. Res. Pract. 11(1), 10–11 Article R1 (2015) 25. Macdonald, R.: The education sector. In: Somerville, M.A., Rapport, D.J. (eds.) Transdisciplinarity: Recreating Integrated Knowledge, pp. 241–244. EOLSS, Oxford (2000) 26. Nicholls, A., Simon, J., Gabriel, M.: Dimensions of Social Change, New Frontiers in Social Innovation Research, pp. 1–26. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke (2015) 27. Nicholls, A., Murdock, A. (eds.): Social Innovation: Blurring Boundaries to Reconfigure Markets. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke (2012)

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28. Nicholls, A., Simon, J., Gabriel, M. (eds.): New Frontiers in Social Innovation Research. Palgrave Macmillan, Macmillan Publishers, Basingstoke, London (2015) 29. European Union: EU Social Platforms: A review on an experiment in collaborative research design, Directorate-General for Research & Innovation Directorate B, European Research Area Unit B.5, Social Sciences and Humanities (2013) 30. Bernarda, J., Ferreira, A.M., Silva, C.S., Inês Queiroz, I.: Design as a process tool of collaborative and multidisciplinary learning in society. Des. J. 20(sup1), S900–S914 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/14606925.2017.1353035 31. Rocha, H., Ferreira, A.M., Azevedo, J.M.: Paradigm shift in design education: an overview on issues and possibilities for change. In: Proceedings of DRS 2018 International Conference: Catalyst, vol. 7, pp. 2914–2926. Limerick, Ireland, June 2018 32. Cuéllar-Gálvez, D., Aranda-Camacho, Y., Mosquera-Vásquez, T.: A model to promote sustainable social change based on the scaling up of a high-impact technical innovation. Sustainability 10, 4532 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124532 33. OECD: Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance: Conceptual framework and data. OECD, Internal Documents, 97 (2017). http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyondschool/benchmarking-higher-education-systems-performance.htm

Well-Being Through Design for Dynamic Diversity: The Voice of Minorities in Design for All Marcin Butlewski(&) Department of Ergonomics and Quality Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Strzelecka 11 Street, 60-965 Poznan, Poland [email protected] Abstract. Producers and employers are still looking for ways to better understand the recipients of their services. This ability allows you to build a competitive advantage and gain or retain the interest of customers and employees. The dynamics of demographic changes and requirements related to technological development (including contextual requirements such as sustainable development) mean that the existing users’ groups and their needs are also changing. This results in the need to search for ways to better address technical features to the needs of individual. The article presents the concept of developing the Designing for Dynamic Diversity approach in designing for Wellbeing using similar for Kansei Engineering approach. The article presents the concept of dynamic adjustment of the user’s environment through the use of feedback and dynamic changes in work environment. In this way, a method of continuous improvement is supported, supported by the actual needs of the user. The problem in this area is to determine the level of dynamics of the technical system as well as the manner of its responsiveness to the user’s feelings. Due to the dynamics of demographic processes mentioned above, it was proposed to use the approach that engages the user in the process of creating a solution - through an innovative “senior customer” called “Innosumers” (Peine, Rollwagen, Neven 2014). The combination of these concepts allows us to present a holistic approach to design oriented to human well-being, and at the same time dynamically responsive. Keywords: Human factors


Mass customisation
Systems engineering

1 Introduction The idea of mass production is not the only way in the pursuit of successful economics of enterprises. More and more often, enterprises strive for a differently perceived balance [1], and at the same time they also see the needs of smaller groups of their product users. In the case of sufficiently modal solutions, thanks to mass customization approach, almost fully personalized customization can be obtained. However, it requires recognizing the scope of needs and building a communication system that will energize the elastic productive structures or the work environment with the necessary information regarding the individual’s preferences [2]. It is possible if the needs are recognized and they can be cataloged to a number of solutions in a specific category. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 49–56, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_5

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The number of combinations of the final product versions rises geometrically with the number of diversified categories. However, this situation may occur in the case of conscious choice of specific variants. In the case of many situations (eg work environment), the user does not realize what solutions will enable the multi-criteria ergonomic quality of the H-M system to be achieved. The time dimension should also be added to this consideration. Because the changes of needs do not have only an external inter-individual character, but occur within the same person during the use of a certain solution. In the short-term perspective, the factor determining the need for change may be, for example fatigue or burnout. Additionally technology changes, should be considered, that create new previously unknown human needs. It can therefore be concluded that dynamic ways of satisfying needs are needed in a dynamic world. Therefore, we search for methods that support a novel look at the implementation of the needs of users/employees and ensure that they achieve multi-dimensional well-being. This effect can be achieved by adopting the Design for Dynamic Diversity paradigm in a cohortwise cross-analysis of users’ needs. The problem in this respect is both the scale of differentiation of needs and the dimensions of its provision. This article will deal with determining the dimensions of differentiation of employees’ needs and the problems of their dynamic recognition.

2 Well-Being as an Immeasurable Goal of Ergonomic Design Contemporary and future work systems will be directed at searching for a combination of factors affecting the employee, in the way that work environment will allow to maintain homeostasis at many levels of workers functioning. It should be noted, however, that the employee and user terms will be interchangeable due to the increasing fuzziness of the work status and phenomenon of coming work environment closer to home conditions. The pursuit of the multi-criteria goodness of the system of use requires defining the overriding purpose of designing a work organization such as well-being. It is not an alternative to previously postulated human effectiveness [3], or the humanization of work, but rather merges it into a holistic approach. The well-being criteria are according to different authors [3–8]: Happiness, Satisfaction, Satisfaction with work, Feeling of fulfillment, Quality of life, Physical health, Mental health, Emotions, Motivation, achieving purpose, Social life Possibilities, Safety and Security, Job and nonprofessional satisfaction, Sense of fulfillment, Quality of life, Physical health, Mental health, Emotions, Motivation, Social life, Opportunities. Achieving these dimensions of well-being through the organization of work seems to be a utopia. In particular, if there are going to be common conditions for many different groups of employees. Therefore, the desired effect of the work system will be the achievement of well-being by the employee through individualized and dynamic adjustment of the work environment to a specific unit or group of employees - when individual adjustment is impossible (eg. multi workstation room temperature). A significant part of the well-being criteria is beyond direct control from the level of the work environment or product use, however the occurring relationships between factors indicate the need to highlight those that control will maximize the likelihood of achieving the main goal.

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Through the working conditions, it will be possible to influence general well-being in successive areas considered to be key in overall well-being. Verification of the achieved levels of well-being requires the use of battery tests aimed at the area in which we expect to experience results [9]. The subjective character of well-being requires tools with psychological characteristics and therefore its application in the area of management of working conditions is not obvious and rather unpractical. It requires adaptation to the applied designable areas and in many cases takes the form of statements regarding individual dimensions of human functioning in the structure of, for example an enterprise [10]. However, without the use of a feedback loop allowing for improvement in low-rated areas and re-evaluation after the lapse of time, the research carried out has a characteristically philosophical nature. The question then arises whether well-being can be a measure of the working environment and can be useful for controlling changes in the organization of work and its environment.

3 Idea of Design for Dynamic Diversity Idea of Designing for Dynamic Diversity [11] was developed due to the search for a solution for the problem of “designing for older people”, which was a problem because previously design for elderly was based on a set of rigid features assigned to a specific group of users. Meanwhile, the elderly changed significantly with the passage of time as more users and workers cohort, enter so called autumn of life. Today’s elderly people, for example, cannot be considered as computer illiterate, as happened a dozen or so years ago. The idea of Dynamic Diversity assumes the variability in time of the user’s needs, and hence the need to ensure greater diversity in matching [12], but also to develop a system for acquiring and applying knowledge in this field - through an innovative “senior customer” called “Innosumers”. Dynamic Diversity seems to be a remedy for very frequent treatment of universal design, and so design for all user groups as axiomatic good [13], without considering the effects of its actual implementation, defining the quality of use for individual user groups, such as in specific age groups [14]. Designing for Dynamic Diversity therefore opposes the idea that global adaptation can be achieved by universalizing the needs and solutions of satisfying them. Design for Dynamic Differentiation is not oppositional to Universal Design, but rather complementary [15]. Designing for Dynamic Diversity requires, after applying a universal design principle, leaving a certain area of controllability of the system, which could be adjusted dynamically or by the principle of delayed development. This means that some of the aspects want be they will not be determined until the user begins to determine the need in a given sphere. The total individualization and making all aspects of controllable solutions is of course impossible, therefore the effect of using an individualized or universalized approach should be compared. Based on effect compartment proper choice can be made. Due to the considerable variability of possible project situations, the author did not dare to give one way of acting in the field of Design for Dynamic Diversity, but there can be indicated some general principles in this respect [15]:

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1. When designing a work environment or product one should take into account the variability of users over time, in terms of the available level of resources and the ability to perform specific functions. The designer should look for features that differentiate users, but also experiences that will allow for higher ergonomic quality levels (which is consistent with the approach of ergonomic quality as humancentred quality). According to ISO/CD 25065:2017 human-centred quality requires four areas of interest: accessibility, usability, user experience and avoidance of harm. The user experience is understood as the ability to combine individual user’s circumstances in achieving specific personal goals with efficiency, performance and satisfaction in a specific environment 2. Visible features of users such as disability are only theoretical points for categorizing a specific group of abilities. Each user at a particular moment is more or less or more efficient (or disabled). These conditions change over time and during lifespan of a product. 3. Needs are not inherent to the observed situations, but only more or less correlated with them. 4. Each formulated need is a generalization of the distribution of needs in a given group of users, with a smaller group of users the distribution of needs may vary considerably. 5. Designing a work environment requires a specific approach that is empathetic to the recipient, which means that it engages it in the process of creating a solution, an example may be the previously mentioned “Innosumers”. Due to point 4, it should be noted that solutions will be sought, which in the scope of the proposed solution will allow for dynamic adaptation of the work environment characteristics to the individualized needs of small groups or individual users. As part of the verification of results does not interfere with the work process, nor does it excessively interfere with the privacy of the employee. Therefore, two groups of variables have been proposed, designated in Fig. 1 as PAH and PWE. Control system (CS)

Decision system (DS)

Monitoring system (MS)

control based on incenƟves (PAH)

Physical activity and Health factors Worker

(PWE)

Parameters of the work environment factors

Feedback Performance tests

Fig. 1. The system of controlling the factors of the work environment and employee’s activity

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As already mentioned, the work environment adopted in the diagram does not mean that the application of the proposed system is limited to professional applications. Currently, in the era of ubiquitous digitization and implementation of the Industry 4.0 idea, the work environment and outside of work will increasingly come closer to each other. PWE can be understand as general environmental factors.

4 Control Categories in Dynamic Diversity for Well-Being While designing the working environment for a significant part of the factors responsible for the well-being of the employees, the seemingly designer has no impact, but indirectly this impact will be present. Due to ergonomic factors, the attitudes of employees will be shaped both in the sphere of occupational activities [16] and behavioral resulting for example in biomechanical burden [17]. The level of influence of voluntary factors such as content and scope of performed tasks will be the physical impact of the working environment, and thus the employee’s projectable environment. While the factors of the impact of work on people are known [18], the indirect impact of the work environment on the perceived severity of work can be very diverse. Hence the need for dynamic differentiation in the pursuit of well-being. When preparing a list of measurable factors that can be an element of the employee well-being management system, WELL Performance Verification Guidebook version 2018 was used (Table 1). However, the well-being of employees includes a much greater number of factors that can be influenced by the work space, such as the equipment used, which will determine the way the work is carried out. For this reason, it is important to look for such solutions that will strengthen the pro-well-being behavior of the employee, as well as eliminate those that are not recommended. Therefore, the factors related to the employee’s activity should also be analyzed. They are presented in the table below and categorized in two groups: related to the biomechanical scheme and physical activity of the employee (Table 2). The second category of factors, which are measurable and controllable anthropogenic factors of well-being are much more difficult to assess and control. The existing norms in this area and especially in the range of minimum recommended values are of a very general nature, therefore, any recommendations should be adapted to individual and dynamically changing needs. Most ergonomic schemes refer to the upper recommended load limits, whereas underload as a factor of ergonomic risk only takes on importance as the situation in which employees and users are forced to remain static (work at the computer or machine). A significant problem of the proposed approach is to provide a non-interfering way to verify the impact of individual factors on the resulting signs of employee well-being. Well-being will be available to a large extent through the employee’s activity.

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Table 1. Measurable and controllable factors of well-being in the field of material working environment (independent of the employee) Category

Measured factors

Requirements and measurement problems

Feedback

PM2.5, PM10, Formaldehyde and According to the Well standard - Medical other VOCs, Carbon monoxide, depends on the number of floors conditions Feeling short Ozone, Nitrogen dioxide, Radon and space of breath Light Visual Lighting Measurement on work surfaces - Performance Fitness tests Circadian Lighting difficult to do because of interference with working means Psychomotor In the case of Circadian Lighting, Vigilance the measurement in the anticipated Test (PVT) working space near the eyes of the The Karolinska employee (the meter integrated Sleepiness with the glasses) Scale (KSS) Measurement in the surroundings Scale of Microclimate Dry-bulb Temperature thermal of the work area of workers, at Mean Radiant Temperature comfort several heights, a problem Relative Humidity Bedford primarily at many measuring points - measurement by multiple ASHRAE meters or at different time points As above - many measuring Acoustics Exterior Noise Intrusion (dBA) Internally Generated Noise (NC or points, the need to empty internal noise from the external (effective NR) impact of HCAC) - various test Background Noise Levels conditions Speech Privacy Potential (SPP) and Noise Isolation Class (NIC)

Air

Table 2. Measurable and controllable anthropogenic factors of well-being (depending on the employee) Category

Measured factors

Biomechanics Positions at work Repeatability of movement Exerted forces Physical Energy activity expenditure Time to sit Daily balance of steps

Requirements and measurement problems

Feedback

Performing measurements in a non-obstructing manner, non-invasive and aggregating results to indicators that allow you to apply

Muscle and skeletal complaints

These measurements require an instrument worn by the user or limited area of his/her observation

Accelerometers and biofeedback Pulse rate

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5 Conclusions The general design framework presented in the article for dynamic diversification in order to build welfare systems requires the assumption of not taking into account nonoccupational factors affecting well-being. This is due to both the complexity of interactions and the difficult quantification of individual factors such as food intake, sleep quality or non-professional physical activity on well-being as well as the pragmatism of designing working conditions. Due to the application of the system in actual implementations, information that would significantly harm the privacy of the user should not be collected. Nevertheless, as purposeful implementations, systems powered by such data will certainly arise.

References 1. Golinska-Dawson, P.: Sustainability in remanufacturing process—the challenges for its assessment. In: Golinska-Dawson, P., Kübler, F. (eds.) Sustainability in Remanufacturing Operations. EcoProduction (Environmental Issues in Logistics and Manufacturing). Springer, New York (2018) 2. Więcek-Janka, E., Sławińska, M.: Improvement of interactive products based on an algorithm minimizing information gap, advances in social & occupational ergo-nomics. In: Goossens, R.H.M. (ed.) Part of the Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing book series (AISC, volume 605), Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Social & Occupational Ergonomics, pp. 101–109, 17–21 July 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-60828-0 3. Renee Baptiste, N.: Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: a new dimension for HRM. Manag. Decis. 46(2), 284–309 (2008) 4. Menard, J., Brunet, L.: Authenticity and well-being in the workplace: a mediation model. J. Manag. Psychol. 26(4), 333 (2011) 5. Staffelbach, B.: Glück am Arbeitsplatz Was steigert das Wohlbefinden am Arbeitspltatz aus? konomischer Sicht?, Semesterarbeit am Institut für Strategie- und Unternehmens?konomik Universität Zürich, Lehrstuhl für Human Resource Management (2005) 6. La Placa, V., McNaught, A., Knight, A.: Discourse on wellbeing in research and practice. Int. J. Wellbeing 3, 116–117 (2013) 7. Žižek, S.Š., Mulej, M., Milfelner, B.: Determinants of subjective emotional well-being and self-determination of employees: slovene case. Naše gospodarstvo/Our Econ. 63(4), 55 (2017) 8. Diener, E., Seligman, M.: Beyond money. Toward an economy of well-being. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 5, 1 (2004) 9. Linton, M.J., Dieppe, P., Medina-Lara, A.: Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time. BMJ Open 6(7), e010641 (2016) 10. Butlewski, M., Misztal, A., Ciulu, R.: Non-financial factors of job satisfaction in the development of a safety culture based on examples from Poland and Romania. In: International Conference on Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety, Ergonomics and Risk Management, pp. 577–587. Springer, Cham (2014)

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11. Gregor, P., Newell, A.F., Zajicek, M.: Designing for dynamic diversity: interfaces for older people. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies, pp. 151–156. ACM, July 2002 12. Oliveira, J., Guerreiro, T., Nicolau, H., Jorge, J., Gonçalves, D.: Blind people and mobile touch-based text-entry: acknowledging the need for different flavors. In: The Proceedings of the 13th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility, pp. 179–186. ACM, October 2011 13. Gawron, G.: Universal Design-Projektowanie uniwersalne jako idea w dążeniu do osiągania partycypacji społecznej osób niepełnosprawnych. Roczniki Nauk Społecznych 43(1), 125– 144 (2017) 14. Butlewski, M.: Unit package opening design for the elderly by applying the principles of universal design. Appl. Mech. Mater. 809, 1263–1268 (2015) 15. Butlewski: Projektowanie ergonomiczne wobec dynamiki deficytu zasobów ludzkich. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej (2018) 16. Górny, A., Sadłowska-Wrzesińska, J.: Ergonomics aspects in occupational risk management. In: Arezez, P., et al. (eds.) Occupational Safety and Hygiene SHO2016 – Proceedings Book, Portuguese Society of Occupational Safety and Hygiene (SPOSHO), pp. 102–104, ISBN 978-989-98203-6-4 17. Lasota, A.M., Hankiewicz, K.: The conceptual framework for physical risk assessment in multi-purpose workplaces. MATEC Web Conf. 137, 03007 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1051/ matecconf/201713703007. Modern Technologies in Manufacturing (MTeM 2017 AMaTUC) 18. Mościcka-Teske, A., Sadłowska-Wrzesińska, J., Butlewski, M., Misztal, A., Jacukowicz, A.: Stressful work characteristics, health indicators and work behavior. the case of machine operators. JOSE, Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. Taylor & Francis Group, London. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/10803548.2016.1197577

Towards an Expert System for Assigning Optimal Workplaces to Workers with Disabilities Gregor Harih1(&) and Nataša Vujica-Herzog2 1

Laboratory for Intelligent CAD Systems, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia [email protected] 2 Laboratory for Productions and Operations Management, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia [email protected]

Abstract. Data shows that workers with disabilities are still lagging in employment rates compared to healthy workforce. They report high job insecurity, are less likely to receive employer-based benefits, are more likely to be laid off and are also more likely to work in part-time jobs. Since many companies do not employ ergonomists, employers have a problem to identify a suitable workplace, yet alone to propose the needed accommodations. To mitigate these problems, we developed a decision support system that aids in the whole process of categorizing and identifying disabilities of workers and assigns a suitable workplace in an integrated work environment inside the company to ensure high safety, productivity and satisfaction of workers and employers. Keywords: Decision support system


Occupational ergonomics
Disability

1 Introduction Socio-economic welfare of every adult individual is highly dependent on employment [1]. Unemployed individuals are usually excluded from several important activities impacting mental health and defining a healthy relationship with a social group [2]. The barrier is even higher for unemployed people with disabilities [3, 4]. Throughout history, before lying the legislative groundwork, employers would rarely employ people with disabilities at important workplaces in the company. It has been shown that people with disabilities report high job insecurity, are less likely to receive employer-based benefits and are more likely to be laid off [5, 6]. Studies have shown that workers with disabilities are more likely to work in part-time jobs, which often provides low paid work and also does not allow flexible hours [7]. All this leads to low job satisfaction among workers with disabilities [8]. It has been shown that 23,5% of workforce in the EU-27 region have some kind of chronic illness and 19% have long-lasting illness [9]. Workers older than 55 years show the highest prevalence of disabilities. Data also shows there is no difference in © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 57–66, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_6

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prevalence rates between males and females [10]. Most common reported disabilities are back and neck problems, followed by heart problems, blood pressure and finally leg and feet problems. Around 50% acquired their disability outside the work environment, 17% of people were born with the disability and 18% had work-related injuries or disorders [10]. Authors have also reported that severity of disabilities has also great impact on the rate of employment [11]. People with disabilities may show a wide range of different physical and also mental impairments, where some of them are not obvious and sometimes even the worker is not aware of his disability [12]. This makes identifying and categorizing the disabilities extremely hard even with trained medical personnel and standardized classification methods [1]. Employers in EU members must according to the Directive 89/654/EEC provide minimum health and safety requirements for the workplace and the needed changes to be suitable for workers with disabilities [13]. They must provide reasonable accommodation according the disabilities of the specific worker. Since many companies do not employ ergonomists, responsible persons in the human resources department do not know which workplace position is suitable for workers with disabilities, yet alone the needed accommodations to provide maximum safety, comfort and performance. Therefore, many of the workers with disabilities do not get the job despite having a successful job interview. These workers with disabilities that get the job, are most likely to be put into segregated work environments, where they work together and are usually supervised by workers without disabilities [14]. It has been also shown that this model of employment assumes that the workers with disabilities are less productive and therefore they also usually get lower wages. Isolation also increases the work dissatisfaction between workers with disabilities. They also do not have any options for promotion to advance from sheltered work environment, which makes them to rely on additional government funding. This consequently lowers the productivity confirming the initial employers beliefs [15]. In order to increase the employment rates of workers with disabilities and increase the productivity a supported integrated employment model has emerged, where workers with disabilities are assisted during the job search, training and assistance during employment with individual support and needed accommodations: This kind of employment model also usually results in competitive wages and higher worker satisfaction [16]. A upgraded version has gotten traction in recent years in form of customized employment model [17]. The employment relationship is customized for everyone based on the needs, strengths, aspiration, skills and interests of the person with disability. Workers with disabilities receive support and are placed in competitive workplaces which fit their individual needs. Previous research has shown such integrated employment model shows positive employment outcomes for workers with disabilities [16, 17]. However, it has been shown that there are numerous challenges in finding a suitable workplace according to the disabilities of the worker and provide the needed accommodations. To overcome the limitations in employment of workers with disabilities as outlined above, the aim of this research was to develop a decision support system that would aid in the whole process of categorizing and identifying disabilities of workers and assign

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the most suitable workplace with needed accommodations in an integrated work environment to ensure high safety, productivity and satisfaction.

2 Methods Decision support system for designing and assigning ergonomics workplaces to workers with disabilities has been developed in such manner that it shows users the following informations: • Which workers with disabilities from database could perform selected work, • Which workplaces from the database are suitable for these workers, • The number of workers with disabilities according to the selected criteria. Decision support system has been designed modularly, which allows for transparency and easy updatability (Fig. 1). Each module and its purpose are described in following.

Fig. 1. Schematics of the modules of the decision support system.

2.1

Module for Classification of Disabilities

The aim of this module is to classify workers with disabilities regarding their health problems and restrictions. Since workplace design is specific for different working environments, in our research we focused on working environments where mostly

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manual work is present (e.g. manual handling in assembly) and create classification related to this type of work. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) or The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) proved to be too broad regarding the working environment, therefore for testing the developed decision support system a simpler classification has been developed as outlined later in manuscript. 2.2

Database of Workers with Disabilities

The database of workers with disabilities has been designed with updatability in terms of number of workers with disability and criteria, which categorizes them according to workplace suitability. The database allows input of worker serial number, which anonymizes them to the decision support user. This way their privacy is maintained, which should not bias the end results. Afterwards, the database provides an option to add a descriptive information of the disabilities of the workers, which are usually provided by the medical specialist or the disability committee. Based on this information, the system operator needs to determine as many disability restriction such as working hours, type of work (sitting, alternately sitting and standing, no work on heights, without forced posture,…), lifting restrictions (max 5 kg, 10 kg,…), restrictions on mobility (lumbar spine area, shoulder joint, hand joints,…) and other noncategorized restrictions (no aerosol exposure, no conveyor belt type work, no vibration tools, sight and hearing restrictions, without working norm,…) from a dropdown menu (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Database of workers and determination of restrictions based on their disabilities.

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2.3

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Database of Workplaces with Restrictions

Workplaces need to be designed according to ergonomic recommendations from the beginning to ensure safety, high performance of the system and worker satisfaction. Many of the production companies also have internal standards and suppliers, which limits the possibilities to improve the ergonomic value of the workplaces. In this regard companies should validate their design using well established methods such as RULA, OWAS, etc. inside virtual environment (Fig. 3). Using these methods, design mistakes can be identified and mitigated even before the workplace has been set up.

Fig. 3. Validation of workplace with a healthy worker using OWAS and Jack 8.4.

Another problem is that widely known ergonomics methods such as RULA, OWAS and others do not forecast use for workers with disabilities. The same situation is with program packages that use digital human models for workers movement simulation and analysis. This is a great defectiveness of all existing methods, which shows that development of our decision support system is a step in right direction. The module Database of workplaces with restrictions allows to input type of work (insertion/assembly, screwing, quality control…), the name of the workplace and restrictions, which must be considered for that workplace. Restrictions are classified into three categories: type of work (no height work, not set, etc.), mobility restrictions (hand joints, neck, simple work, not set) and other restrictions (no motor vehicle, hearing and sight impairments, no aerosols, no vibration tools, not set) (Fig. 4). 2.4

Module for Assigning the Most Suitable Workplace

The essence of decision support activities can be summarized in three steps: Step 1. Decision support system first checks the restrictions from the database of workplaces that are acceptable for selected type of work and the values are extracted in separate table. Program code in this first step compares the cell value (in text form) from the list of work type with the text values in workplaces database (IF function). For corresponded values, the acceptable restrictions are extracted in separate table.

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Fig. 4. Database of workplaces with restrictions.

Step 2. Regarding to these acceptable restrictions, the next code checks if worker has prescribed acceptable restrictions from three main groups (IF function with preliminary condition AND and OR). OR function checks acceptable restrictions within single group of restrictions and function AND checks upon all three main groups (type of work, mobility restrictions and other non-categorized restrictions). If the combination of restrictions, that individual worker has, correspond with acceptable restrictions for selected type of work, the program code allocates the attribute value (suggested type of work) regarding the selected type of work. Step 3. In third step the program provides a list of suitable workers (anonymous) presented with successive numbers. After that, a list of suitable workplaces for these workers is generated. Function IF checks correspondence of values “selection of work type” in decision support system and in database “workplaces”. For corresponding values, the workplaces are extracted that were written by selected type of work. 2.5

Statistics Module

This module performs relevant statistical analyses automatically. It provides the information regarding which disabilities are more prevalent. In current form, it allows to show the restrictions in form of working hours, type of work, lifting/pushing restrictions, mobility restrictions and other restrictions (Fig. 5). The statistics module also allows to search and check for various combinations of restrictions. The module searches and presents affected workers and shows the number of those workers and percentage compared to the whole population of the workers with disabilities (Fig. 6).

Towards an Expert System for Assigning Optimal Workplaces

Fig. 5. Statistics in form of charts.

Fig. 6. Module for searching combinations of restrictions.

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All modules of decision support system are interrelated. Results gained in statistics module can serve as the input data to update e.g. classification module.

3 Results and Discussion It has been shown that employment rates of workers with disabilities are still lagging the healthy workers. Employers still think workers with disabilities are less capable and are therefore excluded from an integrated workplace. Legislation in most modern countries requires that employers design their workplaces to ensure health and safety for all workers while providing equal treatment for people with disabilities. Later group is especially vulnerable, since they mostly need additional adjustments to ensure health and safety. It has been shown that correct adjustments provide basis for increased productivity and satisfaction among workers with disabilities. However, data shows that there is still huge difference in terms of employment of healthy workers and workers with disabilities. Employers are therefore faced with a complex task of finding a suitable workplace, yet alone to propose suitable adjustments. Most small to medium companies do not employ ergonomists, therefore they do not present the needed knowledge and experience to be able to perform such safety analysis and workplace adjustments. Data shows that most of the workers are then put into a segregated workplace with other workers with disabilities, which has negative influence on the mental health of the workers in terms of perception, which also lowers the productivity. Additional problem presents also the classification of disabilities, which different countries tackle in different manner. Usually, the final decision of restrictions or limitations is not according to a standardized classification, however it is descriptive, which makes it even harder for non-specialists to deal with. The result is presented decision support system, which has great potential to mitigate these problems, since it enables assigning most suitable workplaces to workers with disabilities even with unexperienced users. The structure of the system and its integrated logics provides simple user experience, which is straightforward and understandable to non-specialists. Users are guided from each module to the other and simple entry fields and dropdown menus allow to enter all needed data to run the program. With the statistics module, the user gets a powerful tool for analyzing the current situation regarding the disabilities of the workers with disabilities. It also allows to present annual reports in form of trends. It provides crucial information which disabilities are more prevalent and thereby helps the designers of future and existing workplaces what adjustments need to be undertaken to accommodate most of the workers with disabilities. The analysis of the statistics results can also provide information, which are needed for a custom classification of the disabilities for even better assignment of the workplaces to workers with disabilities. The system has been developed as a closed loop system, which allows to utilize the statistics data and gained knowledge as output, which can be fed back to the input in form of customized and refined classification of disabilities. In this manner the errors are reduced, and the system provides even better matchmaking of workplaces to

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workers with disabilities. The system has been also designed in such way that it allows expandability and updatability in terms of disability categorization, workplace restrictions, logics, etc. To confirm adequacy of presented decision support system for assigning workplace to workers with disabilities a case study in a large sized company was also performed. In large sized companies, problems with incorporating workers with disabilities to regular practice are more visible than in small companies and systematical approach can be more evidently tested. From about 3500 employed workers in selected company, 176 workers with disabilities were considered for testing our decision support system. The company provided anonymized data of workers with their disabilities in form of a medical specialist recommendation and decision of the committee for workers with disabilities. Based on the provided information, each worker has been assigned a maximum working hours per day, type of work, restrictions regarding lifting and pushing, mobility restrictions and other non-categorized restrictions. Based on provided information, the program already recommends a general workplace type such as insertion/assembly, screwing, quality control, etc. Afterwards the relevant workplaces have been input into the system. For each workplace type of workplace was determined (insertion/assembly, screwing, quality control…). After that, acceptable restrictions according to the specifics of the workplace were added: type of work (no height work, not set, etc.), mobility restrictions (hand joints, neck, simple work, not set) and other restrictions (no motor vehicle, hearing and sight impairments, no aerosols, no vibration tools, not set). Finally, the program was run and it provided a list of suitable workers, presented with successive numbers, the year of their birth and the number of workers for selected type of work. A list of suitable workplaces for these workers was also generated. The matchmaking based on the decision support system has been then checked manually and it has been confirmed that the decision support system was able to successfully assign a suitable workplace to each worker with disability. Future work should also include more comprehensive approach in terms of workplace assignment. It should also propose needed or recommended changes to make the workplace even safer and more productive. Additionally, a more comprehensive approach to disability classification in terms of standardization should be undertaken.

4 Conclusion A modular decision support system for assigning most suitable workplaces to workers with disabilities has been developed. The system allows a comprehensive approach in the occupational ergonomics of workers with disabilities. The effectiveness of the system has been proven based on case study in a medium sized production company, since the system allowed most suitable assignment of workplaces to workers with disabilities inside the integrated production environment of the company and proposed the needed adjustments for increased safety, performance and satisfaction.

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Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge the project (Development of a computational human hand model for ergonomic product design, Project ID: Z2-8185) was financially supported by the Slovenian Research Agency.

References 1. Schur, L., Han, K., Kim, A., Ameri, M., Blanck, P., Kruse, D.: Disability at work: a look back and forward. J. Occup. Rehabil. 27, 482–497 (2017) 2. Obermann, C.E.: A History of Vocational Rehabilitation in America. TS Denison, Minneapolis (1968) 3. Jones, M.K., Latreille, P.L., Sloane, P.J.: Disability, gender, and the British labour market. Oxf. Econ. Pap. 58, 407–449 (2006) 4. Yelln, E.H., Trupin, L.: Disability and the characteristics of employment. Mon. Lab. Rev. 126, 20 (2003) 5. Schur, L., Kruse, D., Blasi, J., Blanck, P.: Is disability disabling in all workplaces? Workplace disparities and corporate culture. Ind. Relat. J. Econ. Soc. 48, 381–410 (2009) 6. Mitra, S., Kruse, D.: Are workers with disabilities more likely to be displaced? Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 27, 1550–1579 (2016) 7. Jones, M.K.: Does part-time employment provide a way of accommodating a disability? Manch. Sch. 75, 695–716 (2007) 8. Jones, M.K.: Disability and perceptions of work and management. Br. J. Ind. Relat. 54, 83– 113 (2016) 9. Knoche, K., Sochert, R., Houston, K.: Promoting healthy work for workers with chronic illness: a guide to good practice. In: European Network for Workplace Health Promotion (ENWHP), Edinburgh, UK (2012) 10. Dupre, D., Karjalainen, A.: Eurostat, statistics in focus: employment of disabled people in Europe in 2002, Eurostat, theme 3: population and social conditions. Statistical Office of the European Communities, Brussels (2003) 11. Greve, B.: The labour market situation of disabled people in European countries and implementation of employment policies: a summary of evidence from country reports and research studies. In: Academic Network of European Disability Experts (ANED) (2009) 12. Panush, R.S.: Occupational and recreational musculoskeletal disorders. Kelley and Firestein’s Textbook of Rheumatology, 10th edn, pp. 520–532. Elsevier, Amsterdam (2017) 13. Directive, C.: 89/654/EEC of 30 November 1989 concerning the minimum safety and health requirements for the workplace (first individual directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1) of Directive 89/391/EEC)[Eлeктpoнний pecypc]. Official J. L 393, 12 (1989) 14. Kregel, J., Dean, D.H.: Sheltered vs. supported employment: a direct comparison of longterm earnings outcomes for individuals with cognitive disabilities. In: Achievements and Challenges in Employment Services for People with Disabilities: The Longitudinal Impact of Workplace S (2002) 15. Murphy, S.T., Rogan, P.M.: Closing the shop: conversion from sheltered to integrated work. In: ERIC (1995) 16. Parent-Johnson, W., Owens, L.: Supported and customized employment. In: Shogren, K., Wehmeyer, M., Singh, N. (eds.) Handbook of Positive Psychology in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, pp. 329–338. Springer, Cham (2017) 17. Riesen, T., Morgan, R.L., Griffin, C.: Customized employment: a review of the literature. J. Vocat. Rehabil. 43, 183–193 (2015)

Social Design, Innovation and Ergonomics

Social Art – “Echoes of Machim” Ana Nolasco(&) UNIDCOM/IADE, Universidade Europeia, Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Taking the project “Echoes of Machim” by RIGO 23 as a starting point, I will attempt here to reflect on the meaning of the emergence of practices which aim to do social good, in both art and design, and on their potential as agents for the remodelling of society and for social emancipation. “Echoes of Machim” is a social interaction project directed by RIGO 23 under the orientation of curator Michelle Kasprzak, in the neighbourhood of Palmeira, also known as Malvinas, a much-degraded district of the municipality of Câmara de Lobos, on the island of Madeira. The project attempts to improve the selfesteem of members of the community through a number of initiatives with a group of 12 young people with learning difficulties. RIGO 23’s creative process has in common with social design the fact that it attempts to tackle social injustice by activating social creativity, thereby feeding the public sphere and fostering the necessary debate to create new visions of the future. Keywords: Social art Echoes of Machim


Social design
Collaborative practices
RIGO 23


1 Introduction “Echoes of Machim” evokes the folk tale that tells of how Robert Machim – in most versions of the story an English knight1 – arrived in Madeira before the discovery of the island by Tristão Vaz Teixeira and João Gonçalves Zarco in 1419. According to the legend, having fallen in love with an English woman of high birth, Anne d’Arfet, and facing being forced into a marriage of convenience, he fled with his beloved to Bristol, from where they hoped to reach France. However, due to their lack of seafaring experience and the intervention of a storm, their ship ended up in Madeira. Here they came ashore in a bay that they named “Machico”. Anne d’Arfet died a few days later, followed by Robert Machim. RIGO 23 provisionally entitled the project “Echoes of Machim” as a metaphor for globalisation, an invitation to reflect on this founding myth and its repercussions: “it’s a kind of revisiting of this first documented wave of globalisation, as a way of commenting on the current process of globalisation.” [1]. The ongoing project involves residents of Palmeira, a very rundown neighbourhood in the parish of Câmara de Lobos

1

The first known text is from the end of the 15th century and claims a written account from one of João Gonçalves Zarco’s companions as its source material. Many more texts would follow this first document, each attempting to provide a foundation for the oral tradition [2].

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on the Island of Madeira, and works with a number of partners, including IHM – Investimentos Habitacionais da Madeira (Housing Investment Madeira). The neighbourhood was built in the 80s as a solution to the lack of housing affecting many families, as well as due to problems of poverty, violence and drugs. From then on the neighbourhood has also been known as “Malvinas”, in reference to the war over the islands of the same name being fought between the United Kingdom and Argentina at the time. Beyond the more universal reflection on globalisation and colonisation that it proposes – the myth of the explorer and discoverer symbolised by the ship is contradicted by the legend of Machim; the oral tradition undermines the official tradition – the other guiding principle of the project seeks to improve the self-esteem of those who live in Palmeira through a number of initiatives, such as the involvement of members of the community in the renovation of the neighbourhood through the collaborative creation of murals, the themes for which are not pre-decided but seek to represent the untold stories of people living in the neighbourhood, and the building of a boat, among other projects [1]. In this way, considering “Echoes of Machim” as a metaphor for the circumnavigation of the planet – initially maritime, now digital and aeronautical – we will take this embryonic project as a starting point for the analysis of recent cross-fertilizations between different practices in art and design which seek to do social good. In this context, it is important to highlight that I will refrain from commenting on the visual and textual aspects of the finished pieces of RIGO 23 in this project, which are also an integral part of his work. Furthermore, I will not be entering into the ontological debate which is part of all art and which differentiates, in my opinion, the geneses of art and design. This is partly because, as the project is still ongoing, such an approach would make no sense, but it is also because my objective here is to focus exclusively on the collaborative production model that the project proposes, as well as its underlying dynamics and its conceptual framework, using this analysis as a starting point for a wider-ranging reflection on the questions raised by the new paradigms of art and design implicit in these practices.

2 Echoes of Machim RIGO 23 was born on the island of Madeira, Portugal, in 1966 and moved to San Francisco in 1985, where he was part of the first generation of the Mission School artistic movement. He is known on the San Francisco art scene for his large public murals with eye-catching text and for his strong sense of social responsibility. RIGO 23’s involvement in this project came about through an invitation he received from the curator Michelle Kasprzak to participate in the initiative, which is part of her PhD at the Critical Technical Practice Lab of the Madeira Interactive Technologies Institute (MITI) in partnership with the University of Porto, the result of which will be exhibited at MUDAS – Museu de Arte Contemporânea da Madeira at the end of 2019. In December 2017, RIGO 23 came to the island of Madeira to meet 12 young people between the ages of 12 and 15 from Palmeira, all of whom were students with learning difficulties in the seventh year of basic education at Torre middle school [1]. The group

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of young people visited M-ITI on two occasions, as well as RIGO 23’s mother’s house. Here the artist showed them his mother’s embroidery and the place where he grew up, and the youngsters also opened their houses to him. In May, the group of teenagers went on a trip on a replica of Christopher Columbus’ ship, the Santa Maria, with RIGO 23, Michelle Kasprzak and Jorge Oliveira, who built the ship between 1997 and 1998. The master shipwright known locally as “Bailinha”, who is also a member of the Palmeira community, explained to them how the vessel was made [1]. During one of the meetings with RIGO 23 at the beginning of the project, a small mural was painted in Palmeira with the group of teenagers, making for the only splash of colour in the grey and delipidated neighbourhood. After several years of thwarted hopes, in June 2018, with European, legislative and regional elections approaching along with the commemoration of the 600th anniversary of the discovery of the Madeira archipelago, which will take place in 2019, IHM – Investimentos Habitacionais da Madeira (Housing Investment Madeira), a public agency linked to the regional government of Madeira, finally began renovation works in the neighbourhood. Nonetheless, when I visited Palmeira in October 2018, I was shocked by the level of disrepair, despite the fact that there are similar neighbourhoods in Lisbon, where I live. The community is like a completely separate world from the rest of the island and the difficult lives of its residents are reflected in their faces. But despite the neighbourhood’s neglected and dirty aspect, which is regarded with scorn by the residents themselves, I noticed that the little blue mural had been preserved immaculately. This is proof of the pride that the young people take in having participated in the project with RIGO 23, a well-known figure in the community even among those who know little of the art world, serving as an example of someone who emigrated, like so many others, and made a success of his life in the USA. The valorisation of positive role models from within the community itself – such as “Bailinha”, who shared his experience and knowledge with the teenagers, or the collaborative creation of murals – contradicts the messages conveyed by the media about the neighbourhood, messages which only serve to perpetuate stereotypes and segregation. The timing of the project’s implementation conveniently coincides with the year of the commemoration of the 600th anniversary of the discovery of the archipelago. The exposition of the dark side of the touristic paradise of Madeira through the visibility that this fortuitous timing gives to the project should hopefully put pressure on institutions to undertake the complete rehabilitation of the neighbourhood and improve its living conditions. Collaborations with people from outside of the world of art, especially minorities with no political representation, have been a constant in RIGO 23’s creative process since the turn of the millennium. Sometimes these collaborations are extended over a period of decades, as is the case of the artist’s creative partnership with Leonard Peltier, a Native American activist and member of the American Indian Movement who has been incarcerated for the last 41 years. This collaboration has continued for almost two decades, during which RIGO 23 organised the Taté Wikikuwa museum, a touring exhibition and installation which pays tribute to Peltier and has been shown in a number of different locations since 1999. The pop-up museum of Peltier’s paintings also features artisanal pieces made by the Oglala subtribe of the Lakota people, as well as documents, books, various other writings and educational materials.

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RIGO 23 has also been collaborating with former Black Panther Robert King since his release from prison in 2001, having, in his own words, “been listening to, traveling and dialoguing with, and occasionally making art for and with Robert King” [3]. RIGO 23 identifies King with the turning point in his own artistic practice towards total collaboration and claims that he was inspired by King’s description of his supporters as “justice-loving people” [4]. Although RIGO 23 orientates the process, in most cases those involved participate in the final decision about what the collaboration will entail, as is the case with Teko Mbarate: Struggle for Life (2005–2008) and Autonomous InterGalactic Space Program (2009–2012). Teko Mbarate: Struggle for Life was the result of six journeys undertaken by RIGO 23 to Brazil from 2005 to 2008, where, as stated on the project’s website, he established “strong connections with three local communities: the Guaraní community of Pindoty, an indigenous community; the Quilombola communities of Ivaporunduva and Sapatú, founded hundreds of years ago by escaped and freed slaves; and the Caiçara Community of Itacuruçá, a fishing village near São Paulo” [5]. This collaboration with local craftsmen led to the construction of two sculptures using traditional techniques and methods. As a starting point, RIGO 23 chose objects which he thought were as far removed as possible from local ways of life: the blueprints of an American Ohio-class ballistic missile submarine and information about a CBU-94 cluster bomb [5]. After lengthy negotiations and discussions with the communities in Brazil, RIGO 23 and the local artisans built their own versions of these advanced weapons systems, which were thereby transformed from symbols of “death” into commemorations of life and were later presented as part of a diorama and hung from the ceilings of the museums of Berkeley and San Diego [5]. Autonomous InterGalactic Space Program is the result of an interdisciplinary collaboration with weavers, seamstresses, painters, carpenters and cultural activists in Chiapas, Mexico, which took place over the course of ten visits in three years, during which the artist had numerous conversations with indigenous craftsmen and the autonomous government of Chiapas [3]. What began as a submarine was transformed through a process of co-creation into an installation featuring a rocket covered in Zapatista symbols designed by a Zapatista artist, surrounded by small paintings and tapestries, sculptures of the sun and the moon, and videos of marches and Zapatista women sewing [3]. Since the turn of the millennium, countless social projects that include collaborative practices have been undertaken, although the level of participation of those involved and the degree of responsibility of these participants varies. Proof of this trend can be found in the Living as Form project created by Creative Time, which is a digital archive of 350 social projects undertaken in various areas around the world between 1991 and 2011. Many of these projects are situated at the border between art and design, as will be demonstrated by the projects that I compare in the next chapter, seeking to reflect on the emergence of these practices and the ways in which they could contribute to the development of social creativity in a sustainable manner.

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3 The Emergence of Artistic Practices Which Aim to Change Society for the Better Although it is often neglected, social sustainability is also an essential pillar of economic and ecological sustainability. Indeed, the UN’s Agenda for 2030 recognises the link between sustainable development and processes which take place in the economic, social and environmental sectors, declaring as its twelfth objective to guarantee sustainable production and consumption patterns. In this regard, Manzini highlights the importance of the strengthening of the social fabric in ensuring humanity’s capacity to face the risk society that it is moving towards, adding that “We can summarize these observations by saying that social resilience requires the existence of groups of people who interact and collaborate in a physical context. Proximity and relationship with a place are what enable these people to self-organize and solve problems in a crisis” [6]. In parallel to the movement of homogenisation and uniformization enacted by globalisation, a counter current characterised by a return to local communities, ethnic identity and singularity has surfaced [7]. In this context, since the beginning of the millennium, there has been an intensification in the number of art and design projects which seek to do social good. In the art world these practices were given a range of different names, some of the best-known being new genre public art [8], relational art [9], dialogical art [10] and participatory art (the history of which was famously outlined and summarised by Claire Bishop, 2012 [11]. The principal characteristics of these practices have remained the same since they were defined as “New Genre Public Art” by Lacy [8]. As noted by Kwon [12], that which Lacy designated as “New Genre Public Art” “[…] shifts the focus from artist to audience, from object to process, from production to reception, and emphasizes the importance of a direct, apparently unmediated engagement with particular audience groups (ideally through shared authorship in collaborations)” [12]. Bourriaud in turn, defines relational art as art which uses interpersonal relationships as materials to create situations, “micro-utopias”, emphasising the role of art as an encounter [9]. Generally speaking, all of these authors highlight the shift in focus from object to project, from the site-specific to the issue-specific [12]. In my opinion, however, the main issue thrown into focus by these practices is the question raised around art’s evaluation criteria and discourses of legitimisation, as epitomised by the firm opposition seen between Grant Kester and Claire Bishop. Kester defines dialogical art as “a kind of conversation”, basing his definition on the works of Bakhtin [10] and giving as one example among others, Wochenklausur’s Intervention to Aid Drug-Addicted Women (1994, Zurich). This project involved the organisation of discussions on a docked boat between those who were dealing with the situation and resulted in the establishment of a shelter for the women. While Kester evaluates the projects above all in terms of their social effects and the collaborative production models that they propose (one of his criteria is if the collaborators are paid or not, for example), Bishop criticises the use of ethical, rather than formal, criteria to evaluate art, arguing that the best intentions of good Samaritans “push us toward a Platonic regime in which art is

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valued for its truthfulness and educational efficacy rather than for inviting us (…) to confront darker, more painfully complicated considerations of our predicament” [13]. Since the turn of the century, various other movements have emerged from within this vein of design set on social change, a vein which conceives of design not as the shaper of objects but as the art of creating nexuses that unite people, of facilitating possibilities. We can see the roots of these movements – beyond Victor Papanek, the “father” of social design [14] – in participatory design – currently often described as “co-design” – which traces its origins back to Scandinavian experiments in “workplace democracy” in the 1970s, experiments which encouraged the participation of workers in decision making. Currently, as well as participatory design, a wide range of different terms associated with collaborative practices are in use, including co-design, co-creation, social design, and design for social innovation, the definitions of which often overlap, with some authors using the first three terms as synonyms [15]. However, in its strictest sense, codesign is a design process which involves all stakeholders at all times, including people who are not trained in design [16]. In this respect it differs from participatory design, where collaborative work can be a single step in a longer process where the final decision ultimately rests with a designer. In turn, Manzini’s notion of “social innovation” [17] differentiates itself from social design in that it covers the whole social spectrum and not only those who are most disadvantaged and marginalised. Seeing as the role of the designer in these practices is to invert his/her gaze in an attempt to work out what the best assets of each participant are in order to create an environment in which these can develop, everybody is a potential advantage to the project. In both art and design, the majority of the projects aiming to do social good combine various characteristics from these different definitions, and the projects that I will be examining are examples of this tendency. Detroit’s Museum of Contemporary Art is currently in the process of finishing “Mobile Homestead”, a monument to the late Mike Kelley, who died in 2012. The monument is a recreation of Kelley’s childhood home, but it does not contain any of his artwork, rather it offers food, educational programmes and other social services. In 2012, artist Rachel G. Barnard founded Young New Yorkers (YNY), a programme which seeks to help rehabilitate teenagers tried as adults in criminal courts through art. As the artist’s website explains, “teens sentenced to YNY use art to become advocates for themselves and for criminal legal reform. Each program culminates in a participant-led public art project that addresses a criminal legal issue of their choice.” “To date over 600 young people have been sentenced to make art at YNY instead of jail or other adult sanctions” [18], the site continues. Miguel Luciano’s DREAMer Kites (2013) was a public art project which aimed to raise awareness and mobilise people to support the DREAM Act, as well as wider immigration reform. Various young undocumented activists created large-scale handmade kites featuring life-sized self-portraits and flew them in the National Mall, letting the images loom over the skies of New York. The central idea of Gregory Sale’s Future Ids (2016-present) is to encourage citizens undergoing rehabilitation to create new ID cards for their future selves and includes workshops and exhibitions, among other events. The project’s website explains that it “was designed in collaboration with members of the Anti-Recidivism Coalition

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(ARC) whose members share their turnaround stories with elected officials to convince them that rehabilitation is possible, leading to more humane sentencing laws” [19]. The Makeright project by Lorraine Gamman and Adam Thorpe sought to develop prison inmates’ capacity for empathy, communication and collaboration by teaching them design methods [20]. The initiative was first launched in HM Prison Thameside, London (UK) in 2015 and was later reproduced in India’s Sabarmati Central Jail in 2016. To avoid negative connotations with traditional prison education programmes, the sessions were carried out in a workshop, a fact which also gave a pretext for remuneration [6]. The idea was to help the inmates makes bags, using principles of design thinking which could be useful for them in their future lives. The process was planned in such a way as to give the participants the chance to use the knowledge they had gained through their contact with marginal society as an advantage, the objective being to make an anti-theft bag. The designers highlighted that they wanted to learn from the inmates as they knew how to “apply human-centered and behavioral insights using an understanding of human psychology that many designers would benefit from emulating,” further stating that they wanted to understand the similarities between the populations of prisons and art schools, considering their greater propensity for taking risks, for example [20]. At the end of the programme, an exhibition was organised to which other prisoners and family members were invited [20]. The bags are currently being sold with profits from sales in the UK going to national healthcare charity Sue Ryder. One of the conclusions of the project’s promoters is that the initiative could have been more effective had it been complemented with the use of similar spaces outside of the prison in order to allow for gradual social reintegration [20]. The Ecobox project was launched by French collective Atelier d’Architecture Autogérée (AAA) and operated from 2001 to 2005 in a suburb in the North of Paris with a number of social problems, including drug use and unemplyment. The project invited residents to participate in the design of a series of gardens using recycled material, as well as facilities for meetings and spaces for play and gatherings. Around the garden was built a wall with holes which limit voyeuristic gazes, thereby inverting the regime of visibility to which the residents of the suburb were usually subjected through security cameras and the police, a regime which consolidates unequal power relations. All of these projects are based around democratic models, tending to do away with the hierarchy between specialists and non-specialists and to show individuals not as victims but as creative subjects. Examining Makeright and Ecobox as examples within the field of design, we see how a facilitator, not a producer of “goods” or “services”, exemplifies the tendency to take into account the “assets” of others and to focus not on working “for” the community but “with” the community [21]. This conceptual framework is in line with Melles’ reformulation of the practices of social design in response to the concept of the “triple bottom line” proposed by John Alkingston in 1997, a concept which is the basis of social design and which defines the designer as a “facilitator of flexible solutions that meet local needs and resources” [22]. In this context, the question of turning the gaze of society towards people and the gaze of people towards themselves has been described in design as asset-based community development (ABCD), “a methodology that seeks to uncover and utilise the strengths within communities as a means for sustainable development” [22].

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As we saw with Makeright and its careful choice of location for the project, with Ecobox and with Young New Yorkers and its transformation of court employees into exhibition visitors, both the art and the design projects cited above seek to create what Manzini described as “safe places, where meaningful and relational encounters can happen in a de-risked environment” through “relational things, capable of triggering relational/empathic encounters” [6]. In this way, the projects create spaces that exist outside of official institutions and their routines, spaces where it is hoped that participants will be able to make the most of their assets. In summary, these social projects, most of which involve collaborative practices, are therefore characterised by the renunciation of individual authorship, by the role of the artist or designer as a mediator or a facilitator, by the dematerialisation of the object and a focus on the process and the local context. Above all, they are fuelled by a sense of urgency linked to the environmental crisis, the growing extinction and/or marginalisation of non-hegemonic minorities and knowledge, and the impoverishment of the contemporary social fabric.

4 Final Considerations - Ex-Machina In the projects analysed above and the creative process of Echoes of Machim, there is not so much an attempt to denounce art and design institutions, so much as an endeavour to bring about social change by testing out possible futures. However, in my opinion, there is still a disconnect between social projects and the world of art and design. In the field of design, for example, the curriculums of design schools do not, for the most part, cover the necessary skills for social design, which requires the development of interdisciplinary competencies and the capacity to collaborate with a range of different entities, including institutions, NGOs and communities from different social contexts. As for art schools, they mostly train artists to work individually, while critics continue to develop discourses which promote a notion of authorship reminiscent of the Romantic ideal of the solitary artist, and the majority of museums are still unequipped for transmitting the experiential dimension of this kind of collaborative project. In my view, Echoes of Machim can be seen to exemplify the conflicts inherent to a paradigmatic transition in which two contrary forces are pushing against each other: institutionalised artistic authorship and a new conception of art where the artist renounces individual authorship. In this way, due to the fact that its audience is still not being reached via a direct channel, if the culmination of the project is its presentation in a museum, this results in the paradoxical situation of it being attributed a brand or authorship by the kind of art institution whose paradigm the project is trying to break with. This is where art could learn something from design, a field in which, as I see it, the notion of authorship is less pervasive, as there is often more focus on the project than on the designer, while in artistic discourse, it is the artist who tends to be emphasised, leaving the other people involved in the project in their shadow. In this way, we can see that in the social art projects which achieve the greatest social change, such as Young New Yorkers, the difference between social art and design is practically non-existent.

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Art has the potential to mobilise symbolic capital and encourage empathy through “meaningful encounters” [6, pp. 4–5], recuperating the untold stories of minorities and creating “momentary, fluid, short-lived connections in place can be as powerful as long-term relationships” [23]. Design, in turn, has developed methodologies which can mobilise this empathy and creativity for a project, making this change sustainable. Until recently, the separation between art and design was based on the supposition of the incompatibility of the aesthetically enjoyable and the useful, as aesthetics where linked to luxury and leisure. However, the aesthetic experience is not limited to the contemplative Platonic experience reiterated by Kant [24], it is also expressed through the deepening of relationships with the other, a fact which allows it to be a transformative experience. The aesthetic effect can therefore be intensified by a social effect, while the project methodologies of design can contribute to intensifying the aesthetic experience by making its social effect more sustainable. If we follow the line of thinking of Rancière and understand aesthetics in the Greek sense of the term “aiesthesis” – perception through the senses – the social art and design projects explored in this article can be seen to have an aesthetic effect, as they change peoples’ perception of themselves, as well as society’s perception of these people. The dichotomy that Claire Bishop established between the art of consent, following a Platonic model, and the art of dissent tends, in my opinion, to be reductive, as well as artificial, as the majority of projects contain both of these elements, although in different proportions. Indeed, I believe that it is necessary for a project to have both elements – dissent and consent – in order for it to be able to carry out effective social change. I consider that, on the one hand, the social design projects analysed in this article contain elements of dissent, articulating disruptive objectives in that they “are also an attempt to disrupt existing paradigms of shared meaning, values and purpose to replace them with new ones” [25]. On the other hand, although they highlight existing social conflicts, thereby provoking dissent, artistic projects such as Echoes of Machim also present new social models, collaborating constructively with local people and organisations: although it is necessary to denounce conflicts, it is also necessary to present constructive proposals and be capable of making compromises with institutions in order to achieve social change. Evidently, from an objective perspective, any artistic or design practice which seeks to do social good can be seen to follow Bishop’s Platonic pedagogic model [13], even if what Plato understood to be an ideal society is often quite different from the vision of contemporary artists and designers. But the projects studied here stand out for the fact that they value the assets of others, without attempting to change them to fit their worldview. They offer “spaces of possibilities” for “meaningful encounters” in the sense that Manzini gave to these terms in the field of design [6], which is to say that they are spaces which foster the creation of solutions by the participants themselves. In Echoes of Machim, there are, in my view, three important axes in play: visibility; empathy and interpersonal nexuses; creativity and social emancipation. In a society where power is held by the media and social networks, which between them make up the entire public sphere, fighting against inequality means putting excluded people on the map, just as RIGO 23 does. As an international artist, he can channel both

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immaterial resources – such as the public’s attention – and material support – such as funding from art institutions or other organisations – redirecting them towards the margins of society, as he does with Echoes of Machim. In the sense that this project alters the division between the public – an objective reality shared by all – and the private – a subjective reality – it alters the regime of visibility and can be seen to participate in what Rancière named the “sharing of the sensible,” which constitutes, in his opinion, the distinguishing characteristic of art [26]. This regime of visibility works in two directions, as it not only alters the way in which minorities are seen by others, but also the way in which they see themselves, contributing, in this way, to their social emancipation. Empathy is essential for mobilising people (…) and is developed over time through personal relationships which are, for RIGO 23, both the material and the result of his work: “I collaborate with individuals and communities in resistance through art, but they collaborate with me through their own practices. What results, therefore, can’t be measured only through visual or aesthetic lenses. Together, we nurture relationships that need strengthening. Each brings their own context and expertise, their personal and collective history, their regrets and aspirations. A work of art results, sure; but so does a network of social relations, a set of shared experiences, and a community” [4]. “Echoes of Machim” echoes the term “Ex-Machina”, and it would certainly appear that we need an unexpected solution, something outside of the box, in order to get out of the situation in which we currently find ourselves. This is to say that we need to come up with visions of the future that are totally removed from their preceding paradigms which, as has been clear for some time now, are unsustainable. In this way, Echoes of Machim does not evoke the founding myth of Robert Machim simply in order to question it but also uses it to explore new visions of the future, symbolised by the project’s intention to build “a more or less fantastical ship”: something ex-machina can only be born from inventiveness, the only way of finding an alternative to that which neoliberal ideology aims to convince us is inevitable. I believe that social art and social design can work together to create bonds between people, feeding the public sphere and preserving the debate necessary to create new visions of the future. Acknowledgments. Thanks to the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal for the Post-PhD Grant SFRH/BPD/108392/2015, my Supervisor, Prof. Dr. Rodrigo Cunha and CoSupervisor Prof. Dr. Carlos Garrido.

References 1. Henriques, P.: 12.05. RIGO 23 nas Malvinas com novo projecto, Diário de Noticias, p. 33 (2018). https://www.dnoticias.pt/impressa/hemeroteca/diario-de-noticias/rigo-23-nas-malvin as-com-novo-projecto-YC3136122 2. Alcoforado, F.: Relação. In: de Casto, M. (ed.) Descobrimento da Ilha da Madeira – Ano 1420: Epanáfora Amorosa. Livraria Ler, Lisboa (1975)

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3. Donovan, T.: 5 Questions (for Contemporary Practice) with Rigo 23. Art21 magazine (2011). http://magazine.art21.org/2011/01/20/5-questions-for-contemporary-practice-with-ri go-23/#.XEEGG1z7TIU 4. Lyle, E.: Guided by Justice. Art in America (2017). https://www.artinamericamagazine.com/ news-features/magazines/guided-by-justice 5. Edlich, M.: The possibilities and potential pitfalls of contemporary global environmental(ist) imaginaries. Ecozon 1(2), 51–66, 57, 58 (2010) 6. Manzini, E.: Weaving people and places: art and design for resilient communities. She ji J. Des. Econ. Innov. 4(1), 1–10, 1, 3, 6, 7 (2018) 7. Santos, B.: Epistemologias do Sul. Almedina, Lisboa (2009) 8. Lacy, S. (ed.): Mapping the Terrain New Genre Public Art. Bay Press, Seattle (1995) 9. Bourriaud, N.: Esthétique relationnelle, pp. 30, 31. Les presses du réel, Paris (1998) 10. Kester, G.: Conversation Pieces: Community and Communication in Modern Art. University of California Press, Berkeley (2004) 11. Bishop, C.: Artificial Hells – Participatory Art and the Politics of Spectatorship. Verso, London (2012) 12. Kwon, M.: One Place After Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity, pp. 106, 109–112. The MIT Press, Cambridge (2002) 13. Bishop, C.: The social turn: collaboration and its discontents. Artforum 3, 178–183, 183 (2006) 14. Papanek, V.: Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change. Pantheon Books, New York (1971) 15. Sanders, E., Stappers, P.: Co-creation and the new landscapes of design. CoDesign 4(1), 5–18 (2008) 16. Szebeko, D., Tan, L.: Co-designing for society. AMJ 3(9), 580–590 (2010) 17. Manzini, E.: Design, When Everybody Designs: An Introduction to Design for Social Innovation. The MIT Press, Cambridge (2015) 18. Rachel barnard. https://www.rachelgbarnard.com/about 19. Gregory Sale. http://gregorysaleart.com/portfolio-items/future-ids/ 20. Gamman, L., Thorpe, A: Makeright—bags of connection: teaching design thinking and making in prison to help build empathic and resilient communities. She Ji: J. Des. Econ. Innov. 4(1), 91–110, 95, 96, 105, 108, 109 (2018) 21. Brown, T.: Change by Design. HarperCollins, New York (2009) 22. Melles, G., de Vere, I., Misic, V.: Socially responsible design: thinking beyond the triple bottom line to socially responsive and sustainable product design. CoDesign 7(3–4), 143–158, 143, 228 (2011) 23. Eggebert, A.: The unlikeliness of us. She Ji: J. Des. Econ. Innov. 4(1), 11–30, 20 (2018) 24. Kant, I.: The Critique of Judgment. Clarendon Press, Oxford (1952) [1790] 25. Fuad-Luke, A.: Design Activism: Beautiful Strangeness for a Sustainable World, p. 10. Routledge, London (2009) 26. Rancière, J.: Le partage du sensible: Esthétique et politique. La Fabrique Editions, Paris (2000)

Threshold Concepts and Design for Social Change Nicos Souleles1(&), Ana Margarida Ferreira2,3, and Stefania Savva1 1

Art + Design: elearning Lab, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus {nicos.souleles,stefania.savva}@cut.ac.cy 2 IADE, Universidade Europeia, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 3 UNIDCOM/IADE - Unidade de Investigação em Design e Comunicação, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. The transition from ambiguous and unclear areas of academic enquiry towards well-defined knowledge boundaries confronts design for social change. Research relevant to the epistemological dimensions of the related academic discipline is limited. Identification of Threshold Concepts (TCs) unique to this academic area can help define appropriate knowledge boundaries. TCs are essential knowledge portals that, once mastered, can result in a transformed way of developing knowledge. Transformation may be emergent or protracted. This paper identifies a number of TCs and elaborates on their significance. Data were collected through a questionnaire with participants from academic and social design practice. This paper argues that it is of educational value to consider that some TCs in the related Higher Education (HE) curricula have to do with ways of thinking and practice, rather than the mastering of discrete conceptual ideas. This has implications for curriculum development in the area of design for social change. Keywords: Threshold Concepts
Design for social change Higher education curricula
Social design




1 Introduction Friedman [1] asserted that there comes a time in the evolution of an academic discipline when the core principles of the field it rests upon shift from being ambiguous and undefined into a state of reasoned inquiry and articulated philosophy and methods. The transition from ambiguous and unclear areas of academic enquiry towards the elaboration of well-defined knowledge boundaries confronts all disciplines as they gradually evolve and transform into distinct areas of study and research. One aspect of this metabasis is the identification and articulation of Threshold Concepts (TCs). These were originally articulated by Meyer and Land [2], who proposed that in all academic disciplines there are conceptual passageways or knowledge gateways that must be passed through by learners, however difficult that transition might be, to arrive at significant new disciplinary understandings and learning. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 80–89, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_8

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In recent years Higher Education (HE) started to offer programmes of study in the area of design for social change [3, 4]. There were persistent calls to do so. For example, the Arts and Humanities Research Council [5] argued that HE has barely begun to discuss what social design might mean and suggested that there is an absence of a recognizable instructional pipeline for design for social change, from undergraduate teaching through to postdoctoral research. Similarly, the Smithsonian Institution [6] recommended that HE should offer pilot programmes in design for social change either as tracks in existing programmes or stand-alone interdisciplinary programmes. More recently, in a study by Rocha, Ferreira and Azevedo [7], the authors concluded that with few exceptions the skills and competencies that relate to design for social change are not properly and systematically embedded in related HE programmes of study. This is not surprising, considering the newness of the academic field, and the fact that overall it remains under-developed and under-researched [4, 8]. There is limited literature across the various design disciplines on TCs, with some research undertaken in the areas of product, automotive design, and interior architecture [10]. More specifically, TCs for design for social change have not been investigated previously. The aim of this study is to identify from the perspective of those engaged in the field (academics and practitioners) the characteristics of TCs that are pertinent to this academic discipline. This can contribute towards defining and developing the knowledge boundaries of this newly emerged academic area. Over the last few decades it is possible to discern a gradual switch of focus in design practice and a parallel change in the related academic disciplines from where design for social change emerged. This paper starts with the necessary contextual background to this investigation by elaborating on the evolution in design practice. This highlights the changing and evolving instructional challenges confronting the academic delivery of design for social change. This contextual background is followed by an elaboration on TCs and what they entail. It is suggested that the knowledge gateway that learners transcend in the broad area of design education relates more to design thinking and practice than the mastering of conceptual ideas, and this is relevant to instruction in design for social change. The methodology section describes how data were gathered through an online questionnaire, and the analysis that was undertaken. Finally, the findings that emerged from this investigation are presented within the limitations and parameters of this investigation.

2 Design for Social Change as an Instructional Endeavour Social design is a general term that covers a broad range of practices with a focus on dealing with social issues, albeit through varied strategies and from different perspectives [5, 9]. Similar terms are ‘public-interest design’, ‘social design’, ‘social impact design’, ‘socially responsive design’, ‘social entrepreneurship’, ‘transformation design’, ‘social innovation’ and ‘humanitarian design’. These terms indicate the focus of the social design activities and the impetus behind them. They entail a range of strategies underpinned by social responsibility and designled social innovation [3, 12]. An additional common denominator between the above

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terms is that social design practices employ predominantly participatory and co-design approaches to the research, generation and delivery of various and diverse outcomes [9, 11]. There is some debate on whether design for social change is an attitude that design and other practitioners can adopt under the wider idea of social responsibility that informs their professional practice, or if it can be packaged as a discrete and clearlydefined educational programme of study. The former view is advocated by professional designers, who do not draw upon past academic and educational experiences to explore and create new forms of practice in social design [8]. The proponents of the latter consist mostly of academics, who claim that design for social change is a distinct discipline founded on well-thought educational routes of progression rather than ad-hoc professional experiences alone [6]. However, social design practices indicate that both views are valid, and the attribute of self-efficacy, i.e. the belief in one’s ability and attitude to effect positive social change can play a significant contributing role [4, 13]. The emergence and evolution of design for social change as a professional and academic path can be traced within the broad area of pre-existing, well-established and diverse design disciplines. There is a recognition that these disciplines share a generic commonality, i.e. the fostering and promotion of some mode of creativity and innovation. The pursuit of creativity provides a foundation for a set of skills, tools and strategies that can guide people towards new socially innovative solutions – using design-based strategies – to address social needs usually neglected by traditional forms of private or public provision [8]. The focus of design disciplines gradually moved from symbolic and visual communications for the demands of market-led designs towards the provision of activities and organized services that often entail dealing with complex (social) systems and environments [9, 14–16]. Significant in this evolution of practice is the contribution of Papanek [25], who argued for the designers’ social and moral responsibility towards their audience and the need to address people’s needs rather than their artificially created wants. To address the diverse and open-ended challenges design disciplines tend to employ participatory and collaborative solution-focused strategies. For example, a well-known strategy is design thinking as a tool and a process to generate new and socially innovative solutions [8, 9, 17]. These strategies tend to be iterative in process, abductive and mostly qualitative in approach. employing among other methods action research and ethnography [18]. In terms of the appropriate disciplinary content to foster the skills that address diverse and open-ended challenges in HE, Friedman [1] highlights an underlying principle and truism that is widely accepted in academic design discourse. Effective design requires multidisciplinary teams and interdisciplinary knowledge [19, 20]. A report by the European Commission [21] provides a list of ‘inter-connected ecosystems’, consisting of attitudes and cross-disciplinary knowledge domains relevant to design for social change. This list includes diverse items such as awareness of social, personal, economic, cultural, technological, physiological and political factors, as well as interaction with the areas of technology and behavioural and economic sciences. To

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this list can be added the knowledge of tools and strategies that support participatory and collaborative solution-focussed strategies. A study by Alden-Rivers [3] has further refined the instructional objectives by developing a list of attributes and personal competencies that learners ideally should develop through relevant programmes of study. These are: Self-confidence at personal and social level, perseverance and resilience when dealing with ambiguous and complex tasks, internal locus of control and ability to self-regulate and self-direct, selfawareness of weaknesses and values and ability to develop further, action oriented and goal-driven, innovation and creativity when pursuing original outcomes, critical thinking and ability to interpret a wide range of evidence, ability to practise empathy and consider others’ perspectives, ability to reflect as a means for problem-solving, effective communication and networking skills in diverse contexts, emotional and social intelligence, leadership qualities that can inspire change, and being value-driven and an advocate for social justice. This multiplicity of diverse knowledge domains, competencies and personal attributes that comprise the ‘inter-connected ecosystems’ of social design education suggests that there is a significant role in the curricula for the development of integrative skills practised in cross-disciplinary contexts. It is vital to foster these skills in social design education due to the nature of social challenges that are often open-ended and not well defined. The social designer needs to be able to handle diverse knowledge and expertise to address complex design challenges that have been described as ‘wicked problems’ [22]. This is the instructional challenge confronting social design curricula.

3 Threshold Concepts Threshold Concepts (TCs) were originally developed by Meyer and Land [2], who described them as similar to a portal that opens up a new and previously unable to be reached way of thinking about something. The mastering of TCs represents a transformed way of developing understanding, or explaining, or becoming aware of something without which the learner cannot progress. The acquired view or new knowledge can represent how individuals consider their discipline, or how they perceive, understand, or experience particular phenomena associated with the discipline. It is argued that this can lead towards a changed internal view of the subject matter and wider knowledge of it. This transformation may be emergent, or it may be protracted over a period of time, with the transition towards understanding often being troublesome and challenging for the learners. Meyer and Land [2] outlined the following five qualities of TCs: (a) They are transformative. Once TCs are mastered the potential effect on learning is to bring about a significant change in the perception of a subject, or part of it. (b) They are possibly irreversible, in that the change of perception triggered by the knowledge of a TC is only likely to be unlearned by considerable effort. (c) TCs are integrative in that they expose previously hidden interrelations between concepts and ideas, and thus enable learners to make connections that were hidden from view. (d) They are bounded, in the sense that they have a borderline beyond which there are other TCs that can lead into new

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conceptual areas of knowledge. Lastly, (e) TCs are likely to entail the mastery of knowledge or understanding that is perceived in the beginning as counter-intuitive and seemingly incoherent or extrinsic. While attempting to master a TC, learners occupy a space described by Meyer and Land [23] as a ‘liminal’ state. It is a space compared to that which adolescents inhabit. They are not yet adults, and they are not quite children. Characteristic of the liminal space is that it is unstable. Learners may switch between old and emergent understandings, just as adolescents often move between adult-like and child-like responses to their transitional status. However, once the learners enter the liminal space, they are engaged with the mastery process unlike those who remain in a state of pre-liminality where understandings are at best vague. Rodrigio [10] put forward the view that for design disciplines the notion of TCs holds more value when considered from the perspective of ‘ways of thinking and practising’, rather than discrete conceptual ideas. This is due to the interpretive nature of the design process. Learners bring to the instructional process their own experiences and ways of perceiving design challenges. How they address the challenge ahead is a matter of interpretation, an act of positioning, of situating their ideas within a set of relationships. “Understanding emerges from this dialogical process between the part and the whole” [10]. This hermeneutic approach to address design questions entails the domain of the written text as well as all processes and practices that are components of interpretative acts. Subsequently, the author argues that the development of interpretive thinking skills in design constitutes a TC that is by nature a transformative, irreversible, integrative, bounded and troublesome mode of thinking and practising. The view that professional practice in design is a TC was also argued by Gray and Siegel [24]. The authors suggested that learners need to master – incrementally and through appropriate teaching and learning – practitioner thinking and the dynamics of design thinking in professional practice. When the mastery of the latter occurs, learners make the transition from academia to professional practice.

4 Data Collection and Analysis Data for this investigation were collected through an online questionnaire (SurveyMonkey) that was developed to solicit replies from both academics and practitioners associated with social design. It comprised three (3) questions so as not to become tiresome for the participants. Subsequently, the call for participants was posted in design-related online forums, and forty-five replies were received (n = 45) over a period of six months. Due to the low number of participants a margin of error is likely, and the results can only be treated as indicative. This is one of the limitations of this study, while a delimitation is that the gender of the participants was not sought. Replies to each question are collated and analysed below. Question 1: Please indicate if you are an academic in the broad area of social design, a practitioner in the same area, or something else (Table 1).

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Table 1. Questionnaire participants. Other 19 (42.22%)

A practitioner in the broad area of social design 10 (22.22%)

An academic in the broad area of social design 23 (51.11%)

About half of the participants in this study (51.11%) identified themselves as academics in the broad area of social design, and less than a quarter (22.22%) as practitioners. The remaining (42.22%) includes participants who described themselves as both academics and practitioners, designers with no specific area stated, an architect, an industrial designer, a doctorate student and a ‘theorist’. What can be discerned from this first question is the relevance of the study beyond the academic boundaries of social design for a wide variety of academic disciplines and practitioners. Question 2: Threshold Concepts are similar to a knowledge portal that opens up a new and previously unable to be reached way of thinking about something. Once mastered, a Threshold Concept has the potential to bring about a significant change in the perception of a subject, can reveal previously hidden interrelations between concepts and ideas and is difficult to unlearn. Thinking about Social Design, please suggest concepts and/or attributes that you consider as essential Threshold Concepts for higher education learners, and please provide briefly your reasoning. Firstly, when analysing the replies to the above question, it was possible to confirm that the proposed TCs fall into the two distinct categories identified above in the literature review of this study. They comprise codified and explicit knowledge, or they involve ways of practising and thinking. Secondly, there are overlaps between the two categories. Some of the proposed TCs entail the combination of codified knowledge and practice. To comprehend this better, the replies were mapped in the table below. To avoid redundancy where similar or identical replies coincided, these were removed, but where different statements within a group provide a dimension of the same TC these were retained (Table 2). Table 2. Emergent TCs. Codified/explicit knowledge

X

Practice-based knowledge

Overlap

Cross functional multidisciplinary working ability Experience of working with other disciplines on complex problem solving Ethnographic research and Community participation and coappreciative creation Promotion of eco-centric rather than ego-centric interactions Empathic approach to community working Ethnographic research and appreciative enquiry Capacity to suspend judgement (continued)

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Codified/explicit knowledge

X

X X X

X

Practice-based knowledge Mindfulness approach to working with others Mindfulness and mindful design Problem naming and framing skills Toleration of ambiguity of problem structures Core skill in design thinking and practices Capacity to facilitate creativity amongst stakeholders Root-cause analysis and systems thinking Visualisation skills to convert big data into meaningful representations Ability to distinguish between different artifact kinds/outcomes (social, technical, artistic) Knowledge of social economy

Overlap

Core skill in design thinking and practices

Root-cause analysis and systems thinking Visualisation skills to convert big data into meaningful representations Ability to distinguish between different artifact kinds/outcomes (social, technical, artistic) Knowledge of social economy

Question 3: Please select from the list only the items you consider relevant to social design as TCs: (a) Empathy, deep listening, careful observation, adaptability (b) Generation of new knowledge, integration of multi-disciplinary/cross-disciplinary information, synthesis (c) Positive self-efficacy, resilience and resourcefulness (d) Effective collaboration, co-operation, team work, participatory and collaborative mindset (e) Sustainability of collaborations and synergies (f) Multidisciplinary/Interdisciplinary practice (g) Effective problem-solving strategies, analytical approach (h) Assessing and evaluating impact of work The above list was informed by a previous study that investigated the knowledge domains that are relevant to the academic area [4]. The participants were not required to select all the items listed in the question. Replies are listed below from highest to lowest in terms of their overall accumulated score (Table 3).

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Table 3. Ranking of proposed TCs. Score 22 13 11 10 7 9 9 6

Items Empathy, deep listening, careful observation, adaptability Generation of new knowledge, integration of multi-disciplinary/cross-disciplinary information, synthesis Positive self-efficacy, resilience and resourcefulness Sustainability of collaborations and effective synergies Assessing and evaluating impact of work Multidisciplinary/Interdisciplinary practice Effective collaboration, co-operation, team work, participatory and collaborative mindset Effective problem-solving strategies, analytical approach

When comparing the replies between the two questions – the first one being openended and the second one closed-ended – there are a number of overlapping answers comprising elements that can be grouped together to cohere into distinct TCs. The first group comprises ethnographic research, appreciative enquiry, community participation and co-creation, promotion of eco-centric rather than ego-centric interactions, an empathic approach to community working and one that suspends personal judgment. This group also involves empathy, deep listening, careful observation and adaptability, and comprises knowledge developed predominantly through practicebased instructional and real-life approaches. The second group encompasses the ability to work in cross-functional and multidisciplinary environments towards complex problem-solving. The new knowledge generated through this process entails a synthesis of multi-disciplinary/crossdisciplinary information. This group too requires practice in real-life scenarios. The third group incorporates effective competencies in design thinking and problem-solving strategies. Additional aspects of this group are problem-naming and problem-solving skills in ambiguous contexts. This grouping straddles both codified and practice-based knowledge. Another distinct group revolves around the notion of mindfulness and mindful design. This relates to the ability to reflect upon and consider the ethics and impact of outcomes on individuals, society and the environment. It requires social awareness of one’s actions and a contemplative and reflective approach towards outcomes. Although it is possible to identify codified knowledge that relates to ethics, it would be difficult to advance and refine the related competencies without real-life practice. The latter applies for further emergent TCs from this study, such as root-cause analysis and systems thinking, visualisation skills to convert big data into meaningful representations, ability to distinguish between different artifact kinds/outcomes (social, technical, artistic), knowledge of social economy, positive self-efficacy, resilience and resourcefulness, sustainability of collaborations and effective synergies, and assessing and evaluating the impact of outcomes.

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5 Conclusion The aim of this study was to identify from the perspective of those engaged in the field (academics and practitioners) TCs and their characteristics that are pertinent to the discipline of design for social change. Irrespective of the debate between practitioners in social design and academics as to whether design for social change is an attitude that can be developed through ad-hoc professional practice, or comprises knowledge that can be packaged and delivered in discrete and clearly-defined programmes of study, considering that the latter are on offer for some years now, the task confronting HE is to address the instructional challenge of defining and delivering the relevant TCs. The contribution of this study, beyond the identification of some discrete areas of knowledge that can function as TCs, is to support the argument that the identified TCs entail a significant level of practice-based knowledge. The next objective is how to effectively embed such knowledge in the instructional process. Following on from this, we need to assess through long-term studies how learners experience the practice-based learning process and if indeed there is integrative and transformative potential through such endeavours. It can be argued that until there is sufficient research in this area, we continue to function in a liminal state.

References 1. Friedman, K.: Models of design: envisioning a future design education. Vis. Lang. 46(1), 132–153 (2012) 2. Meyer, J.H.F., Land, R.: Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: linkages to ways of thinking and practising. Enhancing Teaching-Learning Environments in Undergraduate Courses. Occasional Report (2003) 3. Alden-Rivers, B.: Social innovation education: designing learning for an uncertain world innovation and entrepreneurship in education, pp. 75–90 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1108/ S2051-229520160000002004 4. Souleles, N., Savva, S., Ferreira, A.M.: The challenge of embedding design for social change and innovation in Higher Education curricula and the role of DISCERN. In: 9th International Conference Senses and Sensibility. Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Madeira (2017) 5. Armstrong, L., Bailey, J., Julier, G., Kimbell, L.: Social Design Futures: HEI Research and the AHRC. Arts and Humanities Research Council, Swindon (2014) 6. Lasky, J.: Design and Social Impact, a white paper based on the Social Impact Design Summit, a convening by the Smithsonian’s Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the Lemelson Foundation at The Rockefeller Foundation, New York (2013) 7. Rocha, H., Ferreira, A.M., Azevedo, J.: Paradigm shift in design education to boost strategic innovations. In: DDC 4th Conference on Sustainable Solutions and Social Change, Design Doctoral Conference 2017. IADE, Universidade Europeia, EDIÇÕES IADE (2017) 8. Chick, A.: Design for social innovation: emerging principles and approaches. Iridescent 2(1), 78–90 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1080/19235003.2012.11428505 9. Souleles, N.: Design for social change and design education: social challenges versus teachercentred pedagogies. Des. J. 20, S927–S936 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/14606925.2017. 1353037

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10. Rodrigio, R.: Design as interpretation: exploring threshold concepts in first year design education. In: Connected 2010 – 2nd International Conference on Design Education. University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia (2010) 11. Manzini, E.: Designing in a changing, connected world. Strateg. Des. Res. J. 7(2), 95–99 (2014) 12. Thorpe, A., Gamman, L.: Design with society: why socially responsive design is good enough. CoDesign 7(3–4), 217–230 (2011) 13. Smith, I.H., Woodworth, W.P.: Developing social entrepreneurs and social innovators: a social identity and self-efficacy approach. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 11, 390–407 (2012) 14. Buchanan, R.: Design research and the new learning. Des. Issues 17(4), 3–23 (2001) 15. Jones, P.H.: Systemic design principles for complex social systems. In: Social Systems and Design, pp. 91–128, Springer, Japan (2014) 16. Vande Zande, R.S.: Teaching design education for cultural, pedagogical, and economic aims. Stud. Art Educ. 51(3), 248–261 (2010) 17. Fierst, K., Diefenthaler, A., Diefenthaler, G.: Design Thinking for Educators. Riverdale, CA, IDEO (2011) 18. Westley, F., Goebey, S., Robinson, K.: Change Lab/Design Lab for Social Innovation. Waterloo Institute of Social Innovation and Resilience, University of Waterloo, Waterloo (2012) 19. Cope, B., Kalantzis, M.: Design in principle and practice: a reconsideration of the terms of design engagement. Des. J. 14(1), 45–63 (2011) 20. Dykes, T., Rodgers, P., Smyth, M.: Towards a new disciplinary framework for contemporary creative design practice. CoDesign 5(2), 99–116 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15710880902910417 21. Thomson, M., Koskinen, T.: Design for growth & prosperity. Report and Recommendations of the European Design Leadership Board. DG Enterprise and Industry of the European Commission (2012) 22. Buchanan, R.: Wicked problems in design thinking. Des. Issues 8(2), 5–21 (1992) 23. Meyer, J.H.F., Land, R.: Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge (2): epistemological considerations and a conceptual framework for teaching and learning. High. Educ. 49, 373–388 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-6779-5 24. Gray, M., Siegel, M.A.: Sketching design thinking: representations of design in education and practice. In: DRS//CUMULUS 2013, 2nd International Conference for Design Education Researchers. HiOA, Oslo, Norway (2013) 25. Papanek, V.: Design for the Real World, 1st edn. Knopf Doubleday, New York (1971)

Sustainable Collaborative Design Practices: Circular Economy and the New Context for a Fashion Designer Lucinda Morrissey1(&), Roberta Barban Franceschi2,3, and Ana Margarida Ferreira3 1

Facultad de Bellas Artes de Cuenca, Universidad Castilla La Mancha, Calle Benito, 2, 16002 Cuenca, Spain [email protected] 2 Design Department, ESNE - Escuela Universitaria de Diseño, Innovación y Tecnología, Plaza Fernando Álvarez s/n, 33006 Montecerrao, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain [email protected] 3 UNIDCOM/IADE - Unidade de Investigação em Design e Comunicação, IADE, Universidade Europeia, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The change of models required to implement circular design brings real problems closer to the field of design education. The complexity of today’s world [8] favours the integration of systems, here a collaboration between the non-governmental organisation and university. Our understanding of sustainability requires understanding how affects everything in our lifestyle, governing and social corporate strategies adopted [1]. Innovation requires creativity, critical analysis and ethics, to understand the complexity of social behaviour, technology and business [6]. To observe that local and global issues are closely related [4] and solving design problems requires interdisciplinary teams, the praxis [3] and periphery, the dominated and primitive [2]. Keywords: Circular design
Circular economy
Design education
Ethics Sustainability
Social change




1 Our Context Collaboration projects between universities and companies make it possible to work with the actual commercial world and introduce topics that are not covered in the official degree studies. The Esne Go-Circular Project has precisely this objective, to incorporate a contemporary issue that is not addressed in the Fashion Design and Textile Degree syllabus allowing the students to participate in a professional project and have direct contact with the client. In this case, the Esne Asturias University is collaborating with the ONG Humana People to People Foundation on the theme of circular design and sustainable fashion. The participating students are first and second year students from the fashion studies, in addition to first and second year students from

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 90–101, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_9

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the Graphic Design Degree who will be responsible for the development of communication and branding for the fashion show to be held at the end of the course. The project also aims to provide the student with a reflective practice [11], they will work with a real dilemma to be resolved, reflect on their actions and learn during the process as they draw their conclusions, this will provide them with broader knowledge having worked within a real setting and with a real company. The change of models required in order to implement circular design, with ethical and sustainable approaches, brings real problems closer to the field of design education. The role of the university is crucial as it must be able to present these contexts to the student in a manner that discerns reality and supplies the knowledge by means of solutions to problems posed in the commercial world. To develop projects in conjunction with companies or institutions is a very necessary tool for design students to become familiar with professional challenges, and hence Esne Asturias has invited the Humana to participate with this new action.

2 The Esne Go-Circular Project Humana is present in 30 countries since 1987 in Spain. Its goal is to develop cooperation and environmental protection projects, working with the commerce of second-hand clothes as is its greatest resource. In Spain they have over 5,000 containers distributed throughout the territory, each year collecting approximately 18,000 tons of clothing and footwear, of this amount approximately 15% is clothing fit for Humana’s second hand stores in Spain and 46% of clothing is sent to Africa to be sold at low prices to local wholesalers. This responds to the demand of specific countries, creates local economic activities and generates local resources for development, 29% is unusable and sold to textile recyclers with the remaining 10% of the clothing being sent to waste treatment facilities, since it cannot be reused or recycled due to low quality.1

Fig. 1. How we work (https://www.humana-spain.org/como-lo-hacemos/?&lang=en consulted, February 2019)

1

https://wellmadeclothes.com/articles/HM43BillionWorthOfUnsoldClothes/.

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Humana is committed to the maximum use of textile waste, giving a second life to the product, by reducing the volume of clothing that goes to waste treatment facilities, reusing most of the discarded clothes and upcycling clothing in poor condition into other products.

Fig. 2. Photos taken from the Humana corporate presentation to the Esne-Asturias students “Waste > Resources”, 2019. (supplied by Ricardo Rodriguez Herrero, Senior Unit Manager)

3 The Present Situation of the Fashion Sector The existing “cradle to grave” linear production model contaminates, consumes an excessive amount of raw materials and generates waste not only in the production phase but also at the end of the consumption cycle resulting in difficult or impossible to recycle and bearing little or no respect for business ethics or wellbeing of others (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). The fashion sector for many reasons, represents and functions in a linear economy, producing more than the market can absorb, an example is to be seen in the multinational H&M annual report that admits that in the last quarter of 2018 it has accumulated an excess stock of $4.3B, this will become excess waste and need incineration. H&M proudly promotes its green agenda with recycling points in stores and its Conscious Collection, had previously suffered a surplus clothing scandal in New York in 2010 when employees were caught shredding and dumping brand-new, unsold inventory. It didn’t help any that this particular H&M was located near a charity that provided clothes for the poor. The energy consumed by the fashion industry is monumental, a 2017 Ellen MacArthur Foundation reports that “total greenhouse gas emissions from textiles production, at 1.2 billion tons annually, are more than those of all international flights and maritime shipping combined” (Fig 3).

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Fig. 3. “I shop therefore I am” photolithograph on paper shopping bag by Barbara Kruger, 1990 (https://www.moma.org/collection/works/64897 consulted, February 2019)

The “I shop therefore I am” artwork by Barbara Kruger in 1990 is a prophetic image that visualizes the addiction of consumerism, and many years later the concept of fast fashion as a market-based model lead by the Spanish brand Zara has created an obsessive need to buy an excessive amount of cheap clothing irrespective of the damage to others or the planet. Only now are we realizing the full impact of our actions and looking towards responsible fashion for solutions, moving away from the linear production –no longer suitable to the world in which we live– towards a circular economy. Greenpeace since launching in 2011, the Detox My Fashion campaign has played an active role in representing the preoccupations of consumers by organizing public demonstrations to heighten awareness of foul play by too many of the large fashion companies (Zara, Nike, Adidas, Lidl, C&A…), forcing these brands to make public their production process and reconsider their suppliers, ethics and use of natural resources. In 2018 a report from Greenpeace Germany provides us with good news: “all 80 companies that took the pledge to phase out these chemicals from their production-line by 2020 have achieved significant progress…these companies represent 15% of global clothing production”.2 The present economy of excess means surplus clothing is now a big headache for many companies, not only for the luxury brands which have always needed to protect their cachet with their products always exclusive and in-demand, but now also the fast fashion faces the same dilemma but on another scale. Here, creativity will be needed to propose new strategies to tackle the issue. Little by little, ideas emerge and surprise us. For example, the Hermes “Petit h project” upcycling their discarded material into new objects of desire using the wabi-sabi concept, where imperfections of nature become assets of great beauty3. Burberry was less successful in rethinking its strategy. In 2018, news emerged that the British company had incinerated bags, clothes and perfume worth over €32 m4, the public responded outraged using the hashtag #burnberry on 2 3 4

https://www.greenpeace.org/international/publication/17612/destination-zero/. https://www.hermes.com/us/en/story/22741-us-petit-h/. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-44885983.

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social media. However, this is perhaps not the most worrying part of the fashion business’ attitude towards sustainability. It needs to go further and change the linear model of production that fits a capitalist economy showing clear signs of losing touch with the 21st C consumer’s needs. The Fashion Revolution Day5, created in 2003 after the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh and headed by leading figures like the British model Lily Cole, actresses Emma Watson and Cate Blanchett, sustainable designer and activist Livia Firth, allows activists, celebrities, designers, models, celebrities and the general public to join together and call for a change in the fashion system with its Fashion Transparency Index6. Over 275 million people participated last year, with valuable educational activities in schools and centers, much interest in the media and powerful figures in the fashion sector voicing their concerns. The movement clearly appeals to all ages, but more importantly reaches the young fashionistas, the future generations of designers and consumers, through influencers like Kristen Leo with 2.5 million followers who advocates quality over quantity or the hashtag #whomademyclothes. Fortunately there several institutions working in Europe towards a circular production model, such as: the Ellen MacArthur Foundation in London, an independent charity established in 2010 with its multiple initiatives/agreements/festival promoting circular design, the Global Fashion Agenda in Copenhagen with its 2020 Circular Fashion System Commitment initiative and the interactive Fashion for Good museum in Amsterdam advocating the ‘take-make-waste’ model7 among many other emerging actions. “A New Textiles Economy: Redesigning Fashion’s Future”8 report explains how clothing is increasingly underutilized, people buy far more than they need, in countries like Germany or China where they may only use a piece 6 or 7 times before discarding it. Consumers recognize this as a problem, with used clothing practically all the textile value is lost: “As much as 73% of material going into the clothing system is lost after final garment use, 10% is lost during garment production (e.g. as offcuts) and 2% is sent to landfill or incineration.”9 With this data we observe the importance of the Esne Go-Circular Project in order for the student to appreciate the problem not only at a local or immediate scale (while creating their own fashion collection) but also the global scope of the problem faced (with the collaboration of the NGO Humana with projects in 45 countries on 5 continents reaching more than 14 million people). In a survey conducted in 2016 by Wrap [14] in the UK regarding consumer habits, people were asked why they donate their clothes, reporting that 42% replied because

5 6 7 8

9

https://www.fashionrevolution.org/. https://www.fashionrevolution.org/about/transparency/. https://fashionforgood.com/about-us. https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-Economy_ Full-Report.pdf https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Textiles-Economy_ Full-Report.pdf.

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the clothes no longer fit them, 26% because they no longer liked them, 19% due to damage, stains, loss of shape or worn out, 7% because they did not need them any more and 6% for other reasons.10 An ongoing investigation by UK MPs as part of the Environmental Audit Committee investigates the social and environmental impact of fast fashion according to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 - ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns - by questioning “What typically happens to unwanted and unwearable clothing in the UK? How can this clothing be managed in a more environmentally friendly way?”11 Ironically, as clothes production increases garments are worn less, and textiles disposed in household recycling end up as landfill creating methane emissions, solutions need to be identified.

4 The Need for a Circular Economy In 1976 the idea of an economy in loops was proposed in the European Commission report “The Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy” [12]. Later the concept of a circular economy based on non-linear systems was outlined in 1989 by the environmental economists Pearce and Turner [9] when they wrote that the traditional open-ended economy lacked the tendency to recycle and treated the environment as a rubbish bin. This idea forms the basis of the following sustainable theories: cradle to cradle, laws of ecology, looped and performance economy, regenerative design, industrial ecology, biomimicry and blue economy. In 2013 the authors of the Cradle to Cradle concept, McDonough and Braungart, updated their concept with the publication of “The Upcycle: Beyond Sustainability - Designing for Abundance” [7], where 10 years later they suggest that instead of limiting sustainability to protecting the planet from human impact, we have the opportunity to improve the planet by producing beneficial projects. The British economist Kate Raworth proposes the Doughnut of Social and Planetary Boundaries in 2012 “to ensure that no one falls short on life’s essentials - from food and housing to healthcare and political voice, while ensuring that collectively we do not overshoot our pressure on Earth’s life-supporting systems.”12 She is a member of the Club of Rome and serves on several advisory sustainable boards, her work expands on the 9 planetary boundaries proposed in 2009 by environmental scientists led by Johan Rockström from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the Australian National University (Fig. 4).

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http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/valuing-our-clothes-the-cost-of-uk-fashion_WRAP.pdf. https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/environmentalaudit-committee/news-parliament-2017/sustainability-of-the-fashion-industry-inquiry-launch-1719/. https://www.kateraworth.com/doughnut/.

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Fig. 4. The Doughnut of social and planetary boundaries (2017) https://www.kateraworth.com/ doughnut/

5 Education’s Role in the Learning by Doing Project The Esne Go-Circular Project aims to incorporate sustainability issues and circular design, contemporary dilemmas that are not addressed within the Esne Fashion Degree syllabus, but are essential for the preparation of future designers, it is vital for students to understand and implement ecological aspects in their designs, for the physical health of all and general well-being of current and future populations [10]. In this context of a systems change, it is essential that design education pay attention to the evolution of society and progress in parallel. Present models of design education tend to be based on models that originate from the 19th C industrial revolution, in workshops and practice-based research [13]. Today’s society is facing changes towards new and much more complex contexts [8], currently professionals work with ever changing contexts and amidst a constant technological evolution, where the need is not only for theoretical knowledge, but also to develop skills and attitudes that contribute to the working life and society, and this means higher education needs to offer a new approach to the development of skills. This transformation is accentuated when the teaching does not occur in a central nucleus, where a polarized continuous flow of information, actions and exchanges exists. Cities not part of this exchange network are located in the periphery, dominated by the centre, [2] establish an anthropological analogy between the civilized and primitive, between the dominated and dominant. It is possible to observe that in the periphery the incorporation of the models used by the centre are perceived with less dynamism resulting in a decompensation of the dynamics between the centre and periphery. In the Esne Go-Circular Project we can observe the imbalance in the field of the circular design and sustainable design. De Moraes [3] comments that the praxis of the centre is also imposed on the periphery. Design currently works with interdisciplinary teams with a transdisciplinary approach [6], collaborative organizations that exchange knowledge, visions and contributions to the problematic in hand, enabling the creation of new possibilities and opportunities. The Esne Go-Circular Project includes professors from the fashion and graphic areas, the Humana team with its multiple knowledge and the Esne students from fashion and graphics areas, will work together to visualize new possibilities to communicate and add value to second-hand clothes. New practices of teaching and creation of expertise are emerging, just as Gibbons [5] sees a change in society, the traditional model structured in disciplines moves

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towards a new type of knowledge production. In the new model know-how is produced in the context of application as opposed to within specific areas of academia, as in the case of the Esne Go-Circular Project where the student will work within the context of garment recycling using diverse problem-solving skills to identify a system of use for the discarded clothing, as well as to adding value to second-hand clothes. Social and ethical changes in present day society has, as explained by Ezio Manzini, added value to offering innovative products and/or services requiring accurate creativity, critical analysis and respectful/ethical design. Observing a growing concern in the change of the mode of consuming clothes, the Project 333 is a useful example, Courtney Carver in 2010 launched on the internet the challenge #project 33313, with currently thousands of followers around the world. The project aims to simplify a wardrobe and use just 33 pieces of clothing and shoes per season, increasing frequency use and combinations of garments, reducing consumption and encouraging a conscious attitude towards fashion. These changes in habits means you need clothes that last longer, in the article “The effect of consumer attitudes on design for product longevity: The case of the fashion industry”, it highlights what affect consumers when purchasing, using and disposing of their clothes. It suggests some basic requirements for clothing longevity; to ensure that customers perceive clothes as good value for money, consider practical considerations such as selecting materials that ensure straightforward laundering, providing clearer care instructions and avoiding fabrics that do not wear well.14 In a circular design, the lifecycle of clothing must be controlled from its production, through to use and final disposal, of course the consumer has an important role, as we have seen, but the designer and fashion industry are fundamental in the process. An example of actions carried out by education, with student collaboration, to offer transparency to the fashion industry is the Fair Fashion Center project created by the NYC Glasgow Caledonian University along with Arup. Launching an online one-stop tool that “assesses the performance of a company’s entire portfolio, delivering tailor made solutions and allowing for scenario modeling of facilities that consider energy reduction, cost savings, initial investment, and payback periods.”15 Both Project 333 and ARUP, are excellent initiatives that aim to bring the circular model to the fashion sector.

6 A New Context for the Fashion Business Professional design practices at present need precise knowledge. No longer can they rely on pure talent and willingness to solve design briefs, instead a designer needs to understand the complexity of human and social behaviour, technology and business, ethical and social issues. We are seeing a new breed of designer who is building their brand thinking green from the beginning, where ecology, quality and innovative designs unite thanks to the circular design concept. 13 14

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https://bemorewithless.com/project-333/. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/55ca3eafe4b05bb65abd54ff/t/5741a1e959827e2ef7468cf2/ 1463919084774/456+McLaren.pdf. http://ffact.gcufairfashioncenter.org/.

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Renown eco fashion designer Stella McCartney is part of a new sustainability charter at the UN to promote low-carbon production methods and reduce waste in the fashion industry. Signatories will agree to a series of commitments covering sustainable sourcing and design through to manufacturing in an effort to reduce the cost of sustainable approaches and improve access to greener technologies and materials. The Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action aims to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, it “aims to connect the diverse stakeholders in the fashion industry, including raw material producers, textile producers, apparel manufacturers and brands, to identify new areas for action and to scale up existing initiatives that connect the value chain.”16 Curatorial investigation and recent exhibitions like “Fashioned From Nature”17 at the V&A in London or “Items: Is Fashion Modern?”18 at the MOMA in New York, have made the public reflect on the impact that items of clothing and accessories have in our daily life, the first exhibition showed fashion items beside natural history specimens, taxidermy and unprocessed plant and animal fibers, thus making us very aware of the raw materials used and their sources. The general public’s awareness of the fashion dilemma is undoubtedly increasing as can be seen in the creation of the Fashion for Good19 interactive museum with an Innovation Hub in Amsterdam, a startup accelerator in Silicon Valley and a global network of change makers to redefine how to design, make, wear and reused clothing on a sustainable basis. Also the XXII Triennale di Milano, has chosen for 2019 the theme of “Broken Nature: Design Takes on Human Survival”20 working with research and projects on restorative design and observing the connection between humans and their natural environments. A clear definition and true application of the circular design concept is proving to be elusive. Often projects that advocate this model are in fact applying the upcycling of materials or extending the life cycle of a product. However, these efforts should be encouraged as it would be impossible to change from the linear model of production to the circular from one day to the next. Also these projects offer the designer the opportunity to think out of the box and move closer towards the circular economy. In 1993 the Spanish fashion brand Vacas Flacas comprised of Carolina Azcona and Miriam Cobo, took surplus stocks, recycling materials such as napkins, tablecloths, gloves, zippers, scarves and dust rags to create garments that appeared in Pedro Almodóvar’s films and were worn by celebrities. In 2012 the young Chinese designer Si Chan presented the Hug Me Collection clearly inspired by the Vacas Flacas’ designs for coats and tops using discarded gloves, where the hand movements are accentuated, in particular the hug, to express Chan’s disconnection and loneliness (Fig. 5). Other projects of interest in Spain (in order to provide the Esne students with a local context) include: • Saako Design (1990) with Portuguese designers, Ines Brito and Joana Gouveia, in Barcelona transforming Portuguese jersey fabric into unique neckwear that sells in 16 17 18 19 20

https://unfccc.int/climate-action/sectoral-engagement/fashion-for-global-climate-action. https://www.vam.ac.uk/exhibitions/fashioned-from-nature. https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/1638. https://fashionforgood.com/the-experience/. http://www.brokennature.org/exhibition/theme.

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Fig. 5. Vacas Flacas fashion, 1993 (www.modaydecoracion.com). Figures 1+1: Hug Me by Si Chan, 2012 (https://www.notjustalabel.com/collection/sichan/hug-me-si-chan-aw12)

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the V&A Museum in London. In 2013, become part of the Runway Incubator in San Francisco with work/showroom space and the opportunity of business investment from Fortune 500 companies.21 Tytti Thusberg (1996) a Finnish slow fashion designer, artist and artisan dressmaker in San Sebastian who recycles waste to make her clothes.22 Ecolínea (2003) in Madrid, used recycling to promote employment for people at risk of social exclusion, transforming Almodovar film posters into clothes, in 2005 they collected and reused 4 tons of pvc tarpaulins to create wallets, pouches, bags, folders and cases.23 Camper shoes created the « Together » brand (2006) working with international designers Jasper Morrison, Hella Jongerius, Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec, Fernando and Humberto Campana, and Jaime Hayon to create shoes from recycled and organic materials, with ethical values.24 Fun&Basics (2009) fashion accessories brand in Spain presents its Ecoalf textile made from PET plastic bottles and fishing nets. In 2010 the brand officially changes its name to Ecoalf and all their product collections are made from fabrics developed by the company. In 2012 they are the first to obtain the B Corp certification in Spain and the Ecoalf Foundation launches the Upcycling the Oceans project to help clear waste in the Mediterranean in partnership with local fishermen.25 Maria Rosenfeldt (2017), an it girl and daughter of the Spanish artist Ouka Leele, reworks vintage and second hand clothing in her first collection.26

Clearly exciting innovation and creativity will make upcycling viable and appealing and move designers towards circular design. However, in addition legislation to ensure retailers, manufacturers and distributors is also needed, as we have seen recently

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https://saakodesign.com/. https://www.tyttithusberg.com/. https://www.madridiario.es/noticia/821/gas-natural/hechos-de-desechos.html. https://www.camper.com/es_ES/together. https://ecoalf.com/es/content/27-upcycling-ocean-spain. https://www.dezeen.com/2015/08/18/pharrell-williams-g-star-raw-ocean-plastic-clothing-range-aw2015/. Accessed 30 May 17

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in France27, to ensure they take responsibility for the end of life of the clothing they produce. Working with the issues of waste and resources is leading to interesting projects. The jean business is renown for its vast use of water in the production, dyeing and finishing of cotton, several actions offer solutions by applying ingenuity. In 2012 Levi’s launched its new line Waste < Less from made from recycled plastic bottles and food trays and the brand Mud Jeans28 was created to lease jeans and after leasing the garment during one year, consumers can swap them and continue leasing or return them for upcycling. Clearing plastic waste is another preoccupation where the creativity of designers and engineers has permitted great advances. In 2015, the musician Pharrell Williams and the Dutch fashion brand G-Star launched the RAW collection29 of denim garments made from recycled plastic removed from the ocean with the strap line: “Turning the tide on ocean plastic pollution,” in collaboration with textile company Bionic Yarn and environmental group Parley for the Oceans. Changing to a sustainable model of business can, in fact, be very beneficial for a brand’s awareness, quoting Donatella Versace “There’s no bigger luxury than our future. The new Versace concept is a commitment towards Versace’s sustainable legacy”30. Great news from a brand that until recently has ignored ecology issues.

7 In Conclusion: Our Brief A holistic approach towards sustainability requires an investigation into the historical context and evolution of the design sector in Europe in recent decades. Thus, (a) providing a theoretical framework and context for the role of a “sustainable” fashion designer, (b) allowing the circular economy in this sector to be understood and applied, (c) identifying the current context of fashion and (d) proposing new ways of action for the designer in the case study: Humana + Esne Fashion Students Go-Circular Project, are a must. Our appreciation of sustainability requires understanding how it began as a relatively marginal concept to become a way of life that affects everything in our lifestyle, the manner of governing with both local and international policies and the social corporate strategies adopted by the brands that shape our economy [1]. The Esne Go-Circular Project is divided into three main phases: the first stage comprising research, context definition, and brief elaboration; the second one, related with creative and development processes and; lastly, the third phase, having communication and design implementation as main activities materialized in a fashion design show. In this article we have presented the first phase of the project. The project aims to start addressing circular economy issues in the Fashion Design and Graphic degrees having as main objective to understand how students can incorporate this approach in

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https://mudjeans.eu/mud-method. http://www.ecotlc.fr/page-297-information-in-english.html. https://www.heridadegato.com/spring-summer-17. https://vmagazine.com/article/versace-joins-the-eco-revolution/.

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their designs while working with and attending the needs of a real institution, such as the NGO Humana, dealing with the upcycling of second hand clothing. • The Esne Go-Circular Project, will develop a harvesting system for unwanted clothing, identifying existing data and knowledge in Humana. • Design a technique to incorporate old textiles in to new clothes (upcycling). • Design the flow of the materials (waste necessary for or system-of-use/creation of garments). • Characterize the physical, human and social dimension (target public, characteristics, user routines, etc.). • Design and prototype an approach to sustainability, a product and/or system that allows a method of incorporating used clothing to a new one (economic, low technology, modeling, etc.), in addition to carrying out a SWOT analysis and estimating the unit value of the product. • Concluding with the annual Esne Fashion Show in the Philharmonic Theatre of Oviedo. As presented, the students will create a fashion collection, attending the fashion, branding and communication needs within the framework of the Circular Economy and Sustainability. Through presented analysis, it was possible to make clear and bold two critical domains of the briefing of the project: (a) the need to upcycle second-hand clothes into a better perceived commodity and (b) the communication of the graphics content in a responsible manner to inform consumers of the circular economy.

References 1. Caradonna, J.L.: Sustainability: A History. Oxford University Press, Hardcover ASIN: B011DB2JMQ (2014) 2. Bonsiepe, G., Fernández, S., Fernández, S.: Historia del diseño en américa latina y el caribe: Industrialización y comunicación visual para la autonomía. Blücher, São Paulo (2008) 3. De Moraes, D.: Limites do design. Studio Nobel, São Paulo (1997) 4. Gausa, M.: Tiempo dinámico-orden (in)formal: trayectorias (in)disciplinadas. Quaderns 222, 6–11 (1999) 5. Gibbons, M.: Changing research practices. In: Brennan, J., Fedrowitz, J., Huber, M., Shah, T. (eds.) What Kind of University? International Perspectives on Knowledge, Participation and Governance, pp. 23–35. The Open University Press, Buckingham (1999) 6. Manzini, E.: Design, When Everybody Designs: An Introduction to Design for Social Innovation. The MIT Press, London (2015) 7. McDonough, W., Braungart, M.: The Upcycle: Beyond Sustainability - Designing for Abundance. Editorial North Point Princeton, New York (2013) 8. Morin, E.: Introducción al pensamiento complejo. Editorial Gedisa, Barcelona (2007) 9. Pearce, D.W., Turner, R.K.: Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (1989) 10. Quan, A.: Integrating Sustainability Literacy into Design Education. DRS2016 Design + Research + Society Future-Focused Thinking, pp. 525–538 (2016) 11. Schön, D.: The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Basic Books, New York (1983) 12. Stahel, W., Reday, G.: The Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy. Vantage Press, New York (1982) 13. Valtonen, A.: Designing Universities of the future. In: DRS2016 Design + Research + Society Future-Focused Thinking, pp. 525–538 (2016) 14. WRAP Valuing Our Clothes: Valuing our customers: behavioral research and campaigns. http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/valuing-our-clothes-the-cost-of-uk-fashion_WRAP.pdf

Cultural Heritage, Collaborative Practices and Sustainable Fabric Design: Ottoman Sultans’ Life Stories on Jacquard Design Pınar Arslan1(&), Ana Margarida Ferreira2,3, and Hatice Feriha Akpınarlı1 1

Faculty of Art and Design, Department of Textile Design, Ankara Haci Bayram Veli University, Gölbasi Campus, 06830 Gölbasi, Ankara, Turkey [email protected], [email protected] 2 IADE, Universidade Europeia, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 3 UNIDCOM/IADE - Unidade de Investigação Em Design E Comunicação, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. In the textile industry, the jacquard weaving industry is an important branch. Jacquard weaving industry offers rich varieties thanks to computer-aided design system used in pattern design. In parallel to changing fashion trends and consumer perceptions, design of the jacquard fabric is as important as the technology used in design. In researches to determine fabric-designing trends, the cultural perceptions embraced by the society are used. Accordingly, the themes that reflect the experiences and practices of the society are incorporated in the fabric designs. The fact that the designer emphasizes the culture of society and uses it in fabric designs emphasizes the culturally rich design concept. The aim of this research is to emphasize the social phenomena by making new designs inspired by the life stories of Ottoman sultans in jacquard fabric designing. This study was performed by scanning method. The population of the study was the life stories of the Ottoman Sultans, while the sample of the study was the study of the life story of the Ottoman Sultan “Mehmed the Conqueror”. Stories from the life of Fatih Sultan Mehmed were compiled based on the resources available within the scope of the study. Rumeli Fortress and the Map to which the Sultan attached importance, were determined as the theme. Jacquard weaving technique and the fabric patterns are created from in line with the themes and designed in detail from sketching phase to digital design phase and produced as jacquard fabric. In this study, the fabric designs and the images of the fabrics produced are included. Keywords: Fabric design
Jacquard weaving design Life stories
Mehmed the conqueror


Ottoman sultans


1 Introduction Culture is a synthesized concept formed as the result of several characteristics of the society which create its own identity based on language, religion, genotypes, customs, traditions, common historical experiences gone through. Also the culture of the society © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 102–113, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_10

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reaches to a level and gets shaped thanks to the lifestyle, belief, feeling, idea, value, art, design mechanisms lasting for a particular time [1]. Art concept which is the product of human mind to transfer feelings and ideas enables the originality of the designer and the culture which he or she has to be transferred while it spread inspiration to produce new concepts and ideas. Also the designer who is in contact with the society can observe the cultural environment. Textile products can reflect the development level and other cultural values in a society in terms of art. Therefore, the designers can grant place to their cultural values in their design studies via art [2]. Weaves are the textile materials which have a large usage are varying from clothes to interior decoration figures and have been used for a long time. Textile products have had a usage purpose different than the covering purpose since past. To illustrate, clothing has been the symbol of prestige, social status, special one’s desire to be symbolized or shining out among the other people. They have been manufactured in high values through intense efforts, endeavors with raw material of quality, color usage and rich design understanding and sold and granted as special gifts for statesmen [3], [4]. Weaving art in the Ottoman Period was under the protection and the control of the palace since it made significant economical, commercial and social developments and contributions to the treasury [5]. Mehmed the Conqueror who is an absolute authority figure in the state administration and government used to reflect his regulatory and organizer identity during his reign [6]. An important construct in this term is the construction of the organization of Ehl-i Hiref. Starting with the transfer of the craftsmen from Edirne Palace to İstanbul, Old Palace in the period of Mehmed the Conqueror (1451–1481) and then being institutionalized, this construction had an impact on the style of the palace. The craftsmen taking role in this organization provided opportunity of creating praiseworthy works appreciated by people beyond the boundaries of the empire with their original art and design works produced in compliance with the art principles and order of palace [7]. Cooperation of the foreign craftsmen who were under the auspices of the palace helped the creation of the palace art style. The craftsmen working within Ehl-i Hiref organization attached importance for originality and creativity in their production and they were in a struggle for constant development. Original production, qualified craftsmanship and raw material in the creation of the product formed through naive perspectives reflects that the art identity of the period was highly developed [8]. Rich traditional weaving understanding in Ottoman Empire where the labor was blessed left its place to industrial weaving production with the development of the technology. Joseph Marie Jacquard invented the jacquard machine which had an electronical mechanism within itself at the beginning of 19th century [9]. Electronic jacquard loom is a loom which can move the warps as in big groups and since warps can be located differently thanks to the wide movement principle opportunity and weft yarns can be organized in various ways, the designs with big reports and details are easy to be produced. Computer-aided systems provides saving within time and creates diversity in designs. Innovative fabric designs which are strong in terms of design are of great importance in the production of jacquard fabric as the result of the ease in technological opportunities [10].

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The purpose of this study is to create jacquard fabric design where the life story of Mehmed, the Conqueror, has been built by adapting the culture-oriented past effects to current lives and transferring to textile products industrially in jacquard fabric designs. Scanning and trial method have been used in the study. Data on the life of Mehmed the Conqueror have been collected from various resources and within the scope of the study. The Rumelian Castle, which is the symbol of the conquest of Istanbul by Mehmed the Conqueror, his interest and curiosity towards mapping have been used as theme in the designs. Designs based on this theme have been developed.

2 The Life of Mehmed the Conqueror Mehmed, the Conqueror, the 7th Ottoman Sultan, was born in 1432 in Edirne which had been the capital city of the Ottoman Empire. His father is II. Murat and his mother is Hüma Hatun. The sultan who came to the throne for the first time when he was 12 in 1444 reigned for 1 year 9 months. Because of janissary revolts, his father took the throne again. However, because of the death of his father in 1451, he came to the throne for the second time and his reign term lasted for 30 years 3 months. He deceased in 1481 [11, 12]. The most significant success of Mehmed the Conqueror, the Sultan of Ottoman Empire who had a high military competency and consciousness, who was a competent commander and showed his warrior spirit is assuming the title of “Conqueror” by realizing the conquest of Istanbul. Unprecedented and determined Ottoman Sultan who determined strong strategies and realized those strategies through his firm determination and reflected his warrior spirit participated in approximately 25 expeditions during his reign lasting for 30 years [13]. The first step taken for the conquest of Istanbul which was one of his expeditions was to develop a strategy which would rule over the Bosphorus. The Sultan who examined the narrow places which posed obstacles for entrance and exits of Bosphorus decided to have the Rumelian Castle constructed just across the Anatolian Fortress to rule out Byzantine Empire. Three towers of the Rumelian Castle, one of which was constructed on land and two of which were constructed in a way that they could control over the sea and the security of Bosphorus was enabled. According to this, navigation of the ships was brought under control in Bosphorus by brining the traffic of Black Sea - Marmara transition under control and toll procedure was applied. And the ships which broke this rule were sinked by being shelled [14–16]. Having an important castle role in the realization of the conquest of Istanbul which reflects the struggle example of the period where the modern weapons and war methods were used in advanced level, the Rumelian Castle was completed in 4 months, and therefore, a tour de force of Turkish army in Bosphorus was deeply felt [17]. Following the struggle which lasted so long, Byzantine army lost on 29 May 1453 and the war ended up with unprecedented victory of the young sultan who closed the Medieval who said that: “Either I take Byzantine, or Byzantine takes me!” [18]. Barbaro [19] mentioned about the prophecy about the splendid victory of the Conqueror that the Conquest of Istanbul would be realized when the moon on the sky gave the sign and the other prophecies about the victory.

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Having a distinctive place among Ottoman Sultans, Mehmed the Conquerer reflects an emperor example which is an East and West synthesis with his intellectual identity. The Conqueror who gave life to conventionalism but felt pleasure in modernism and adapted it to his life had the characteristics of being a sultan who knew various languages such as Greek, Persian, Arabic, etc. had deep history knowledge and interest in different cultures in art and literature [17, 20–22]. The value attached to both art and craftsmen in the period of the Conqueror in the Ottoman Empire topped out and thus Ottoman Sultans continued art occupations by being interested in music and poetry. Mehmed the Conqueror who had interest in fine arts attached importance in works in poetry and music fields as well as the painting art. He expressed his feelings with a deep and naive soul, enthusiasm, love and his whole sincerity in his poems under the pseudonym of Avni [23, 24]. Mehmed the Conqueror supported scientists and craftsmen and took care of science, culture and science works during his period. With the effect of science renaissance, Istanbul turned out to be a culture bridge where East and West met with each other. Significant scholars of the term were interested in religion (İbni Humam, Hızır Bey, Hayali Ahmed Efendi, Mustafa Muslihiddin Hocazade, Kestelli ve Molla Lütfi), mathematics - astronomy (Ali Kuşçu) and medicine (Şerefeddin Sabuncuoğlu). Along with this, the Sultan was especially interested in geography. Because of the curiosity towards the maps, he had Geographike Hyphegesis by Batlamyus (Ptolemaios) translated by a scholar named as Gregios Amyrutzes in his period [25]. In line with the events in the life of Mehmed the Conqueror, the following subjects are included in the study. 1. Design: Cartography Hobby of Mehmed the Conqueror “One of the hobbies of the Sultan that was almost an obsession for him, was cartography. Under his rule, Venetian mapmakers would compete to offer the sultan the best map. He commissioned an Arabic translation of the Geographike Hyphegesis of Batlamyus (Ptolemaios) and also a world map from Georgios Amiroutzes and his convert son Mehmed. There is also a map depicting Istanbul of Mehmed II’s which that was printed in Europe during Selim II’s rule, which is known to have been prepared by the order of Mehmed II” [26]. The themes of map, compass have been handled starting from this story (See Figs. 2 and 3). 2. Design: Mehmed the Conqueror and the Rumelian Castle The stories as the theme in the design on the Rumelian Castle are as follows; Mehmed II’s words to the envoys of the Byzantine Emperor during the construction of the Rumelian Castle When Mehmed II started the construction of Rumelian Castle to cut the supply lines of Constantinople, control the Bosphorus and to ensure the safe passage of his armies and supplies in order to ease the conquest of Constantinople; the Byzantine emperor sent his envoys to protest. After listening to them the Sultan explained to them that the castle was built for a just purpose and was necessary for the safety of the strait. But he got angry when the envoys insisted:

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Your emperors’ best hopes and desires cannot grasp the reach of my power. I will allow your return this time. But if more envoys with the same message arrive, I will make sure to skin them alive! He sent the envoys away. According to a narrative, the Emperor got so afraid that he even sent food for the people working on the construction. The plans of the Rumelian Castle on the narrowest point of the Bosphorus were prepared by Architect Muslihuddin. In some sources, quoting from Evliya Celebi’s Seyahatname, it is argued that the castle was designed to reflect the Arabic writing of the name of Prophet Muhammad [27]. The plan of the Rumelian Castle “The castle, whose plans were prepared together by the Sultan and Architect Muslihuddin and in whose construction even the Sultan himself worked to carry stones together with six thousand other workers who labored day and night in the sweetness and excitement of belief and faith, was finished in the unbelievable duration of one hundred and thirty-two days. The castle was constructed to reflect the Arabic writing of the word “Muhammad.” [28]. Starting from this story, key words of the Rumelian Castle, tower were inspired.

3 Jacquard Designs Inspired by the Themes I made sketches about the key words of map, compass, Rumelian Castle and tower which are the source of inspiration in jacquard fabric design within the study. Following route was followed in pattern drawing in black and white, color search and produced jacquard fabric design (See Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Jacquard fabric design process

The theme was specified by getting inspired by the key words explained before at the first step of jacquard fabric design and sketch drawings of the fabric designs were made (See Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Practices of sketch (Arslan, 2018)

The most suitable one among the 14 different sketches related to the story of cartography curiosity of Mehmed the Conqueror for the theme. When the design is reviewed in detail, map and coordinate lines symbolize the map passion of Mehmed the Conqueror, compasses symbolize finding directions and leftward bird’s-eye segment of

Fig. 3. Black and white sketch drawing [left], color research [right] (Arslan, 2018)

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the map symbolizes the tent of the Sultan. Firstly, the design was made by hand drawing in black and white, and then color search to be used in the pattern was conducted (See Fig. 3). At the last step, the design was scanned on the scanner and transferred into the jacquard weaving program. 4 different operation steps in the sketch design are: Redrawing of the unit design for 20  20 which took place in jacquard fabric design over the program was carried out (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Unit design [left], redraw unit design in the programme [right] (Arslan, 2018)

Pantone colors of the design of which sketch was completed have been determined and 8 different colors have been used to color the design where cream is used at the bottom of the fabric, black is used in lines of the map, light turquoise and dark blue are used in lines of the map; dark turquoise, red, yellow and indigo blue are used in the compasses, moon and tent (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Colored of unit design (Arslan, 2018)

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The design of colored jacquard fabric was reiterated for size and length in a composition format as it will be suitable for 60 warp, 13 weft density and jacquard capacity for 2400 (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Rapport of jacquard fabric design (Arslan, 2018)

Technical information of jacquard fabric of which design was completed and which consists of single warp and 5 wefts (cream in warp, yellow, black, turquoise, indigo blue and red in weft) was saved in the warp and weft information fields in the program. After the technical information on warp and weft and jacquard composition were saved, warp assignment to the colors in the jacquard fabric design was made one by one. According to this, complex warp was obtained by assigning different warps to 5 wefts which were used in jacquard fabric to obtain floor color. Complex warp was obtained by assigning different warps to 5 wefts which were used in jacquard fabric to obtain the colors used in the pattern. After the warps and corner warps were set into the program, jacquard fabric patter became ready to production process (Figs. 7, 8 and 9).

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Fig. 7. Front view of the weaved jacquard fabric pattern (Arslan, 2018)

This study explained the methods used in the creation of the jacquard fabric design. As the same, Jacquard fabric design has been made and weaved by reiterating the same stages in the second design with the theme of “the Rumelian Castle” created by getting inspired by the construction of the Rumelian Castle for the Conquest of Istanbul by Mehmed the Conqueror (Fig. 10).

Fig. 8. Back view of the weaved jacquard fabric pattern (Arslan, 2018)

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Fig. 9. “Map” themed jacquard fabric (Arslan, 2018)

Fig. 10. “Rumelian Castle” themed jacquard fabric (Arslan, 2018)

4 Conclusion Just like for each type of the design, maintaining design in textile product designs based on traditions and cultural foundations in today’s world is of great importance for preserving and experiencing social characteristics. Original and effective designs in jacquard fabric designs can be put forward as long as we emphasize that we have the inspiration sources within ourselves and underline this fact by the events integrated with our own culture in order to prevent the increase of cultural products’ homogenization reinforced by the current technological capacity (Fig. 9). Historical period when Ottoman Empire reigned, Ottoman Sultans took their places within the history stage with their own various life characteristics. Mehmed the Conqueror who broke the grounds has a distinctive place among the Ottoman Sultans.

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Since the Sultan has drawn attention with the Rumelian Castle, which is the symbol of the Conquest of Istanbul, the historical victory of the Sultan whose majority of life passed through expeditions and his interest in maps, fabric designs have been focused on these details. As the result of the inspired stories, culture-bases sustainable jacquard fabric designs have been produced. This study is an example of using the cultural and exclusive experiences of the societies in fabric design. Reproducing these designs enables putting forward original and innovative designs and creating new trend fabrics by transferring the characteristics of the country of which experiences are reflected in the designs into weaved fabric sector (Fig. 10).

References 1. Candan, E.: Türkler’in kültür kökenleri, 7th edn. Sınır Ötesi Yayınları, İstanbul (2008) 2. Debeli, D., Jiu, Z.: Analyzing the cultural background of textile designers’ on their innovative thinking. In: International Conference on Education Technology and Management Science (ICETMS 2013), pp. 1239–1242. Atlantis Press (2013) 3. Yılmaz, Y., Boynak, S.: Hereke Fabrika-i Hümâyûnu ve İpekli Jakar Dokumaları. In: Milli Saraylar Koleksiyonunda Hereke Dokumaları ve Halıları. Graphic Matbaacılık Ltd. Şti., pp. 22–40. İstanbul (1999) 4. Akpınarlı, H.F., Başaran, F.N.: Geleneksel Kumaşların Özellikleri ve Kullanım Alanları Çankırı Örneği. In: Arslan, Kalay H. (ed.) Multidisciplinary Studies-4 (Fine Arts), pp. 21– 39. Ivpe Cetinje, Paris (2018) 5. Gürcan Yardımcı, K.: Some examples from the Ottoman period weaving products. Uluslararası Kültürel ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi (UKSAD), vol. 2 (Special Issue 1), pp. 219–241 (2016) 6. İnalcık, H.: Osmanlı Padişahı. AÜ SBF Dergisi 13(4), 68–79 (1958) 7. Tuna, C.: Tekstil Tasarımında bir Ar-Ge Örneği: Ehl-i Hiref Teşkilatı. In: 3rd International Congress on Political, Economic and Social Studies (ICPESS), vol. 3, pp. 36–44. Social Studies, Ankara (2017) 8. Kalyoncu, H.: Location and importance of the ‘Ehl-I Hiref-I Hassa’ organization within the Ottoman culture and arts. J. Acad. Soc. Sci. Stud. 33, 279–294 (2015) 9. Holyoke, J.: Digital Jacquard Design, 1st edn. Bloomsbury Academic, UK (2013) 10. Akpınarlı, H.F., Arslan, P.: Implementation of new designs through the jacquard system in fabric patterning, Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi. J. Int. Soc. Res. 9(44), 603–609 (2016) 11. Mert, O.: Osmanlı Padişahları Albümü (An Album Of The Ottoman Sultans). Plato Matbaacılık, İstanbul (2007) 12. İnal, Hİ.: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Tarihi, 1st edn. Nokta Kitap, İstanbul (2007) 13. Yücel, Y., Sevim, A.: Osmanlı Klasik Döneminin Üç Hükümdarı Fatih-Yavuz-Kanuni. Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara (1991) 14. Kritovulos.: Fetih 1453. (First Edition). (Translator. M. Demirer). Panama Yayıncılık, Ankara (2012) 15. Greene, M.: Dirilen İslam. In: Abulafia, D (ed.) Tarih Boyunca Akdeniz Uygarlıkları, (Translator. N. Elhüseyni), 1st edn, pp. 219–250. Oğlak Yayıncılık ve Reklamcılık Ltd.Şti, İstanbul (2003/2005) 16. Dabağyan, L.P.: Fatih ve Fetih Olayı. Kum Saati Yayınları, İstanbul (2005) 17. Ortaylı, İ.: Osmanlı’yı Yeniden Keşfetmek. Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul (2006)

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18. Sertoğlu, M.: Fatih ve İstanbul. Resimli Tarih Mecmuası. 3(29), 1449–1454 (1952) 19. Barbaro, N.: 1453 Konstantinopl Kuşatma Güncesi. 2nd edn. (Translator. Y. Fincancıoğlu). Büke Kitapları, İstanbul (1969/2005) 20. Dedeoğlu, A.: Osmanlılar Albümü. Osmanlı Yayınevi, İstanbul (1981) 21. Ortaylı, İ.: Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı. Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul (2007) 22. Bahadıroğlu, Y.: Cihan Sultanları, 1st edn. Paradoks Kitap, İstanbul (2011) 23. Koçu, R.E.: Fatih Sultan Mehmed, 2nd edn. Istanbul: Dogan Kitapçilik A.S., Istanbul (2002) 24. İsen, M.: Sultanların Şiirleri. In: Üçer, Münevver (ed.) Sultanların Sanata Yansıyan İzleri, pp. 14–23. İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür A. Ş. Yayınları, İstanbul (2016) 25. Öztürk, N.: İmparatorluğun Kurucuları Gazi Padişahlar Osman Gazi’den II. Bayezid’e. 1st edn. Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul (2012) 26. Armağan, M.: Osmanlı’nın Mahrem Tarihi. Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul (2012) 27. Taylan, N.: Yaşanmış İlginç Hikayelerle Osmanlı Padişahları. Ekim Yayınları, İstanbul (2012) 28. Vural, C.: Osmanlı’dan Hikayeler. Panama Yayıncılık, Ankara (2013)

The Common-Sense Assessment of Sustainability David Camocho1,2,3(&), José Vicente2, and Ana Margarida Ferreira1,2 1

IADE, Universidade Europeia, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected], [email protected] 2 UNIDCOM/IADE - Unidade de Investigação em Design e Comunicação, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 3 Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia, I.P., Estrada do Paço do Lumiar 22, 1649-038 Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. Products claiming sustainability benefits have been spreading all over the world in response, manly, to the consumer’s behavior change towards a healthier and more sustainable way of life. However, what guarantee do consumers have that the products they are consuming are in fact more sustainable? Apart from certified products, the consumer believes in a common-sense assessment of sustainability supported in part by self-declarations and allegations from designers, producers, and retailers focusing only in few aspects of the life cycle, and in some cases, misleading consumers through greenwashing approaches. This paper is part of a Ph.D. research aiming to support a transition to circular economy and sustainability through design. The authors explore in this article the consumer perceptions of sustainability in products and communication strategies adopted. The results will support the development of guidelines to promote a more effective design practice for the development of sustainable and circular economy-based products. Keywords: Design
Circular economy
Consumer perception
Common-sense assessment
Sustainability assessment
Sustainability

1 Introduction The paper presents the research under development which aims to help the transition to a more sustainable and circular economy through design. The authors believe that design practice has a crucial role in defining the characteristic of the products and services that fulfill the needs of society. Also, that their impacts in the life cycle are defined in the design and development phase. In order to promote design and the practice of design, it is important to understand how eco and sustainable products and services are developed and placed on the market, how they communicate to users their

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 114–125, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_11

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profile; how consumers understand that information; and which are their perceptions about the profile of products. To integrate successfully circular economy, a holistic approach is fundamental considering all aspects from the production to consumption. In this paper, the authors look to one part of the process related to the communication on products and the consumer perceptions of sustainability aspects. Today, designers and product developers face a new challenge. The design practice has been recognized as a catalyst to transition from the traditional model of take-makedispose to achieve a more restorative, regenerative and circular economy. To attend the needs for circular economy, products need to be designed for closed loops and adapted to generate revenues [1]. Design for circular economy, like design in general, has the responsibility of responding to product-service system problems, integrating various criteria and expertise in problem-solving in an innovative way adjusted to the needs of users, businesses, and society’s dynamics as a whole [2]. In the circular economy approach, the designer has the function of translating the strategies and concepts of circularity in the development of products, services, and systems that promote an efficiency and sustainable transition from the current linear model to a circular model focused on narrowing, slowing and closing resources cycles [3], in the efficiency and sustainability of the entire system [4], however, there is a need to provide design practitioners, business stakeholders, and other product developers guidelines and practices of how to apply particular design strategies for different circular business models [1, 3]. Product design directly influences the way a value chain will be managed. Building circular and sustainable value chains inevitably imply a fundamental change in the design practice [5–7]. To develop innovative, efficient and sustainable products, the designers should be able to translate the needs from several actors in the value chain. The needs of the users who will buy and consume the products, the ones from the business, who will develop, produce and place them on the market and the ones from Society, who will indirectly benefit or suffer with the sustainability impacts of the products. These processes and concerns have been influencing the design practice since many decades along the development of the eco-design, and design for sustainability with relative success in some niche markets, but not in a large scale as expected. Nowadays, a new approach is being developed on a global scale based on a circular economic model. Yet, in order to be practical and successful, our society needs innovative products and services that supply the needs of consumers and businesses complemented by a more informed and accurate sustainable consumption behavior.

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Fig. 1. Four pillars to circular production and consumption

For a successful transition to a circular economy through the design of products and services, it is essential to have a holistic vision based on an approach that integrates four fundamental pillars (Fig. 1): – The business of the companies responsible for placing the products on the market. In this context, it is important to understand which the needs of companies are, and how they can generate wealth and growth. Many of the sustainability projects developed, despite presenting innovative concepts and sustainable solutions, did not respond to the needs of the business and failed to penetrate the market, thus leaving behind solutions that could have had significant impacts. It is in this pillar that designers must be able to implement methodologies and tools (eco-design, design for sustainability, design for the circular economy, etc.) for the development of innovative and efficient solutions. – In the second pillar, it is important to provide the products with direct and indirect information that allows the consumers to perceive the message conveyed. In this regard, labels, certification and other intrinsic characteristics that products must contain in order to communicate with consumers. – The third pillar is related to the importance of knowing the consumer. Relatively little is known about consumer perceptions as a pre-decision mechanism that impact their preferences and choice behaviors [8]. Which are the behaviors of consumers and their needs? It is fundamental to be able to effectively translate these needs into the design project. On the other hand, although there is already a growing awareness, the way consumers perceive sustainability issues is not always the right way, or they are influenced by socio-economic factors that divert the focus. There is a gap between attitudes and behaviors. The levels of concern and awareness of the need to

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change consumption styles are high in general. However, this is not accompanied by the adoption of more sustainable consumption styles [9]. – In a fourth moment, in order to close the cycles of products and materials in line with the concept of circular economy, it is necessary to adopt an approach that integrates circular economy strategies aiming to close resource cycles through the valorization of products and materials. A holistic approach, focused on the role of design, adopting various methodologies and tools at a strategic level, could allow the transition to a more efficient, healthier and more circular economy. In the next section, is explored how sustainable products are placed in the market.

2 Eco/Sustainable Products There are several terminologies to define products with improved profiles. Eco products, green products, sustainable products, circular products, and many other terms. Within this research, the authors aim to explore products that have a better sustainability performance considering their life cycle and products that are placed on the market claiming those features. Therefore, it was decided to use the term “Sustainable products” which is a more comprehensive term that includes all the other concepts. 2.1

Types of Products

According to the specificities of the product and to the strategies of the producers, distributors and other stakeholders, within the current research, the products were defined according to four different typologies: 2.2

Type A: Silent Products

These are more eco-efficient and sustainable products that were developed considering sustainability aspects in their process, however, these aspects are not communicated to the user/client. The sustainability aspects (environmental, social and economic) can be important factors for the innovation of the product, their efficiency, quality, etc. However, the company does not communicate it as part of their strategy. 2.3

Type B: Naturally Sustainable

These products due to their characteristics, materials, production process, etc., have a good sustainability profile. In their development process, sustainability measures and tools were not considered, but, in the end, the result is a sustainable product. 2.4

Type C: Eco/Sustainable Products

These are the products that were developed with sustainability objectives. In their development, methodologies and tools were applied to support the creation of products with reduced impacts in the product lifecycle compared to previous products of the same type.

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Type D: Sustainability Influencers

These are products that per se are not sustainable, but when included in a system they have a positive influence on the overall performance of the system. This type of products includes also the ones that influence users to have a more sustainable behavior. In our society today, we face several gaps that may jeopardize the future success of circular economy approaches. One important topic is the gap between what producers and business place on the market and how the consumer perceives the sustainability features and information. Many products include certification labels and information that the consumer does not recognize and do not appreciate it. Another gap is the difference between what consumers say and what they actually do. Several studies show this problem [10, 11]. How the information on the sustainability profile of products reaches the consumers is presented next.

3 Sustainability Communication in Products To promote the information and awareness of consumers about the sustainability profile of products, several methods have been used, such as campaigns, green marketing initiatives, and claims. The most adopted and successful ones seem to be ecolabeling schemes which rely on credible informative instruments. Environmental labeling or eco-labels are important tools that companies can and are using to communicate and guarantee that their products and services comply with environmental requirements beyond what is established by law. The use of labels as part of an effort to make green claims more trustworthy, providing the consumer with clear and homogeneous information on the environmental aspects of products and services, avoiding confusing information and influencing greener consumer choices is emphasized by the European Commission in its Action Plan for the Circular Economy [12]. Companies have at their disposal many environmental labeling possibilities, some of them are regulated under International Standards, based on the ISO 14020 family standard, while others, do not meet this requirement. According to ISO, there are three types of environmental labels: – Type I labels (ISO 14024): “third party” labels that indicate voluntary conformance to pre-determined, multi-attribute criteria that identify environmentally preferable products within a particular product category, based upon life cycle considerations. – Type II labels (ISO 14021): self-declarations made by manufacturers, importers, distributors, retailers, etc., focusing on environmental improvement of some specific aspect of their products, such as energy consumption, compostable, degradable indoor air quality, recycled content, etc. – Type III labels (ISO 14020 and 14025): These labels, often referred to as Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs), present comprehensive product information based on quantitative validated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

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As said before, there is a wide and growing range of possibilities to inform about sustainability criteria or content. Nonetheless, companies will have to be proactive and assure that their messages do not get lost or fall victim to incorrect perceptions [8]. Although, do consumers perceive the information included in product communication conveyed by companies and it influences, in fact, their choice? These concerns were subject of a survey carried out to consumers in Portugal.

4 Consumer Perceptions Production and consumption have a symbiotic relationship that must be nurtured, educated and promoted with a sustainability perspective. The market is shaped and reshaped continuously by the consumers through the messages/information about consumption, purchasing choices and practices they send, directly and indirectly, in a conscious or unconscious manner to decision makers in governments, industries, business, designers and other stakeholders in the value chain. Companies also create needs and demands by placing more and more products on the market. Thus, the way our society consume will determine supply and the way production is organized will influence demand in a complex and symbiotic relation. Several studies demonstrate that the sustainable behavior is changing, and the awareness is high and increasing in most consumers segments. There has been a growing trend in informing consumers about the environmental aspects to take into account when buying products [13]. If a consumer wants to buy a more sustainable product, it is difficult to have sound comparative information. The data consumers need to compare impacts in products is usually missing, incomplete, or even, not reliable. Apart from products with certified labels, consumers only have access to information regarding the features of the product in terms of price, technical characteristics, and marketing information [14]. Even products that claim to be sustainable do not have often clear and trustful information. The consumer believes in a common-sense assessment of sustainability supported in part by self-declarations and allegations from designers, producers, and retailers focusing only in few aspects of the life cycle, and in some cases, misleading consumers through greenwashing approaches. In this sense, it is important to understand which the consumer’s perception of the sustainability profile is and what are the physical attributes of corresponding artifacts. Making informed decisions about what to buy also helps in achieving a more sustainable approach [15]. The information gap between producers and consumers is still a huge flaw in our society. The ignorance and lack of information hinder the efficiency of the market while sound and reliable information let consumers make a smarter and conscious choice [14]. Another important aspect to consider is the lack of consumer awareness regarding the link between their personal behavior and the direct impact on the environment or society [10]. In this regard, we must define the type of consumers with sustainability concerns. According to the study “Identifying the green consumer” by Arminda Finisterra do Paço, we can define three main types of users [16]:

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Type 1 – The uncommitted, composed mainly by young people with high educational levels, and living in urban environments. This group claims to have knowledge about the issue; however, this segment has very negative behaviors in relation to environmental aspects. Type 2 – ‘The green activists’, composed by individuals with the highest education levels, have a favorable position in relation to all environmental aspects, particularly towards perceived efficiency, environmentally friendly buying behavior, recycling, sensitivity to the economic factor and resource saving. The segment tends to be sceptical about the promotional and advertising claims made by firms. Type 3 – ‘The undefined’ consider that their individual action does not contribute to the improvement of the environment. This segment includes individuals with lower educational levels than the other segments and has very negative positions towards environmental issues. Claiming to have little knowledge about environmental issues, they have a positive attitude towards recycling and are highly sceptical about the promotional and advertising claims made by companies. However, the environment does not occupy a prominent position among their concerns. By knowing the types of products defined above, the types of consumers and their perceptions, the design teams can manage the design practice in a more effective and more successful way. 4.1

Method to Assess Consumer’s Perception of Sustainability in Products

To better understand consumer habits, perceptions and general knowledge regarding the sustainability aspects of products and their knowledge on communication elements of a product such as labels, certifications, self-declarations, etc., was applied a survey in January 2019 to collect data from Portuguese consumers, using two different approaches: (a) an online questionnaire built with google forms with potential survey respondents contacted through social media and email databases to participate by filling in the form online; (b) a paper version of the questionnaire, aiming to broader dissemination and a collection of feedback. The questionnaire was composed of 5 sections and was based in a trade-off between the complexity/length and the amount of data to collect. After the introduction, aims and objectives of the survey, the first section of the questionnaire included basic questions regarding the demographic characteristics of the interviewee. The second section was built to access the knowledge regarding ecodesign, design, sustainability, and circular economy. Section 3 included questions to evaluate consumer habits and the influence of environmental labeling on products. In Sect. 4, through images of products, the aim was to understand if the sustainability perception of the consumer corresponds to the reality and how consumer rate sustainable products based only in perception. To end the survey, Sect. 5 included an area to add remarks, suggestions, ideas and the indication to follow the research.

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5 Findings/Analysis With the main objective of identifying the consumer perceptions regarding sustainable products placed on the Portuguese market, the authors did a study, understood as a pretest, based on a sample of 105 individuals aged over 18. Since the questionnaires were sent by social media, and the respondents were asked to share the questionnaire with other consumers, it is difficult to have concrete numbers of the scope of the research. However, it is estimated that around 500 individuals were sent questionnaires, representing a response rate of around 20%. The sample, composed by 105 individuals includes 55% women and 45% man with different educational levels, 36% graduation, 31% 12° year, 24% master, 5% less than 12° year, 3% Ph.D. and 1% with a professional degree, with a diversified professional activity. From the total number of questionnaires, 75% consider having a sustainable behavior in daily activities, which also is a clear indication of the gap between what consumer say and what they really do. When analyzing this data by gender, between male and female respondent we do not identify a significant difference, 70% male and 78% female consider having a sustainable behavior. The difference in behavior according to education is also not relevant, 73% in respondents with higher education and 79% in lower education respondents. This is in line with several consumer surveys like for instance, the sustainable consumption paradox referred by Vringer Kees when studying the Dutch consumers [11]. 5.1

General Knowledge in the Field

To access the knowledge in the topic, respondents were asked to express their perception of knowledge regarding Design, Ecodesign, sustainability and Circular economy. The majority of the respondents claim to have basic notions about the 4 concepts (in average, around 78% consider to have basic notions or above), and in general, the concepts with a higher knowledge level is sustainability (49% have basic notions, 30% high level of knowledge and 6% are experts in the field) and Design (51% have basic notions, 22% high level of knowledge and 12% are experts in the field) and the less knowledgeable level is circular economy (18% do not know the concept and 24% have heard about it, which is understandable, since it’s a new concept for the majority of respondents. 5.2

Sustainability Attitudes and Practices

When questioned about their practices, only 7% do not make a waste separation for recycling, 2% do not apply water saving measures, 9% do not buy organic products and 9% do not buy sustainable products. As shown in Fig. 2, consumers claim to have sustainability considerations in their day-to-day life, especially in the separation of waste for recycling. The purchase of sustainable products, in general, is one that has a lower application rate.

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Fig. 2. Sustainability attitudes and practices

5.3

Influence of Ecological and Sustainability Factors in the Acquisition of Products

The influence of these factors is considered moderate to high in most of the cases. In all types of products included in the survey, only less than 30% consider that sustainability criteria do not influence their choice. 5.4

Influence of Labels and Environmental Certification in Purchasing Decision and Related Trust in the Allegations

Most consumers (76%) indicate that labels and certification influence the selection of products. However, only 18% have a high level of confidence in the allegations, 62% have a medium level of confidence, 19% a low level and only 1% do not trust in the allegations form producers. 5.5

Knowledge About Labels

To access the knowledge about products’ label included, a selection of 10 units was displayed and consumers were asked to express if: (a) they know the label and its meaning; (b) they recognize it but do not know what it is, or; (c) they do not recognize the label at all. From the analysis, was possible to conclude that in most of the examples, the consumer do not know the labels or do not know the meaning of it. In the case of the European eco-label - only 26% know the label and the meaning, 32% recognize it and 42% do not know it. Regarding Cradle to Cradle, 65% do not know the label and only 13% know it. The more known labels are the Green Dot Society symbol (EoL packaging management system in Portugal), the Energy efficiency label and the recycling symbol. These are known by more than 90% of the consumers. The labels that are less known are the Cradle to Cradle, the European eco-label, the Fair-trade label, and the Euro leaf.

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Perception of the Sustainability Profile of Products

To access the perception of consumers, the questionnaire presented 3 products to serve coffee, a ceramic cup, a paper cup, and a polystyrene cup. Based on the images and indication of the material, consumers were asked to indicate which one they consider more sustainable and less sustainable. The examples in the questionnaire were selected form the LCA study Disposable Cups vs. Reusable Cups developed by Carbon Clear [17]. The product considered more sustainable was the Ceramic cup (75%), followed by the paper solution (23%). The polystyrene was indicated as the more sustainable by 2% of the sample. When asking about the more sustainable solution, despite the fact that the majority have selected the ceramic, a relatively high percentage of consumers considered the paper as more sustainable. This asymmetry can be explained by the absence of the indication of the functional unit. Some consider the ceramic artifact because it can be used several times, while the others may have considered only one unit of each product, not considering the number of paper cups that are necessary for long-term use. However, when asked to select the less sustainable, 90% of the consumers selected the polystyrene product and 2% the ceramic product. According to the LCA study performed by Carbon Clear, based on the energy and emissions required per 2,000 servings for paper, polystyrene and ceramic cups the ceramic is the more efficient solution and the paper is the less efficient one. This means that the perceptions of most consumers regarding the more efficient solution were correct. However, their perceptions regarding the less sustainable solution were wrong in 90% of the cases.

6 Conclusions Our society is changing along with the way we produce and consume. Nevertheless, to have a positive impact under the sustainability framework we need to change radically our approach and the business models from the past. Despite all the efforts being done, Our world is only 9% circular [18], and the changes implemented still don’t have a positive impact on our society. The availability and dissemination of products and services with sustainability considerations is increasing worldwide, though sustainability in most cases, is still a marketing flag or a greenwashing tool. In the current approach on the transition to a circular economy aligned with the European and national objectives, it is fundamental to understand where we have failed and learn with the errors from the past to define an effective approach based in the relation between production and consumption and the translation of the needs from the consumers, the needs of the business and the needs of society in the development of new products, services and systems. Regarding consumers, which were the main focus of this paper, we are facing remarkable changes in the sustainable behavior. In general, consumers, are more aware of the societal and environmental problems and challenges and demand for new and

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better products and services. Yet, the gap between what is placed in the market by producers and what the consumer perceives is an important issue to overcome. The communication on products, the inefficiency of labels for the most users who do not understand these topics needs to be designed in a more efficient way. The survey undertaken indicates that consumer believes in a common-sense assessment of sustainability based on their perceptions, which are not always correct and are partially supported in part by self-declarations and allegations from designers, producers, and retailers focusing only in few aspects of the life cycle, and in some cases, misleading consumers through greenwashing approaches. For an effective transition to a more circular and sustainable economy, the market and consumers perspective has to be integrated into a holistic approach through the design practice.

7 Further Research For the above-mentioned holistic approach, the next steps in the current research will be the analysis of the designers and product developers’ perceptions, methods, and approaches on the development of sustainable and circular products. How designers translate the user and business needs in product development, which methodologies and tools are applied in practice to integrate sustainability and circular design strategies, will be some topics addressed and under scrutiny.

References 1. Moreno, M., De los Rios, C., Rowe, Z., Charnley, F.: A conceptual framework for circular design. Sustainability, Switzerland (2016) 2. Ferreira, A.M.: Caracterização e Quantificação da Inovação no Processo Evolucionista do Design: análise de um século da prática médico-cirúrgica em Portugal, Dissertação para a obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Engenharia de Produção. Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã (2008) 3. Bocken, N.M.P., Bakker, C., De Pauw, I.: Product design and business model strategies for a circular economy. J. Ind. Prod. Eng. 33(5), 308–320 (2016) 4. Rocha, C., Camocho, D., Alexandre, J.: KATCH_e Design for Circular Economy (2019) 5. Camocho, D., Ferreira, A.M., Vicente, J.: TRANSition to circular and sustainable economy through design. In: DDC 2018: Transgression - 5Th Design Doctoral Conference (2018) 6. Centres, European network of ecodesign. Motivations for and Barriers to Ecodesign in Industry, pp. 1–20 (2013) 7. De los Rios, I.C., Charnley, F.J.S.: Skills and capabilities for a sustainable and circular economy: the changing role of design. J. Cleaner Prod. 160, 109–122 (2017) 8. Campbell, B., Khachatryan, H., Behe, B., Dennis, J., Hall, C.: Consumer perceptions of ecofriendly and sustainable terms. Agric. Resour. Econ. Rev. 44(1), 21–34 (2015) 9. Rousseau, J., Loureiro, A., Rosa, C.A.: Relatório de 2015-16 do Observatório do Consumo Consciente, Fórum do Consumo, Universidade Lusófona, IADE-Universidade Europeia & GFK (2016) 10. Bhamra, T., Lilley, D., Tang, T.: Design for sustainable behaviour: using products to change consumer behaviour. Design J. 14(4), 427–445 (2015)

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11. Vringer, K., et al.: Sustainable consumption dilemmas. OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 84, OECD Publishing, Paris (2015) 12. European Commission. Closing the loop - An EU action plan for the Circular Economy (2015) 13. Young, W., Kumju, H., Seonaidh, M., Caroline, J.O.: Sustainable consumption: green consumer behaviour when purchasing products. Sustain. Dev. J. 31(July), 20–31 (2008) 14. Goleman, D.: Ecological Intelligence - The Coming Age of Radical Transparency. Broadway Books, New York (2009) 15. United Nations. Responsible consumption & production: three planets. Responsible consumption & production: three planets, (responsible consumption & production: why it matters) (2016) 16. Finisterra Do Paço, A.M., Barata Raposo, M.L., Filho, W.L.: Identifying the green consumer: a segmentation study. J. Target. Meas. Anal. Mark. 17(1), 17–25 (2009) 17. Disposable Cups vs. Reusable Cups: Solving the Carbon Intensity Question. www.carbonclear.com 18. Circle Economy. The circularity gap report, 36, January 2018

Collaborative Practices Through Design and Engineering: The Phases of a Pilot Project to Improve the Human Condition of Vulnerable Communities João Bernarda1,2(&), Ana Margarida Ferreiral1,2, Carlos Santos Silva3,4, and Rui Costa Neto3,4 1

IADE, Universidade Europeia, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal {joao.nbernarda, ana.margarida.ferreira}@universidadeeuropeia.pt 2 UNIDCOM/IADE - Unidade de Investigação em Design e Comunicação, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal 3 IST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal {Carlos.santos.silva,costaneto}@tecnico.ulisboa.pt 4 IN+, Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research, IST – Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. This paper presents a pilot project, developed under a research Ph.D. framework, showing that the multiplicity of actors from different branches allow the construction of innovative and framed projects. This dynamic and open process result in knowledge, skills and competences construction among themselves and, above all, their applicability in the context of social intervention. This reality emerges the need for integrated multidisciplinary social agents that are an added value for society, analyzing the capacity of cooperation between two different but complementary scientific areas of projectual nature, although with different methods and the practices, Design, and Engineering. The developed prototypes were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively allowing the researchers to perceive some restrictions when assembling the different materials tested, for a solution more focused on the usability/mobility bearing in mind issues such as budgetary matters and product symbolic character, its main characteristic, related to the thermal efficacy. Keywords: Co-design
Collaborative methodologies
Product innovation Homeless people
Urban communities
Social sustainability




1 Research Worldview The intervention approach defined for the development of a project that responds to the needs of the most vulnerable groups and communities of social exclusion, identified in Lisbon, is based on a pragmatic and participatory approach through the collaboration of different sciences for the development of a proposal. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 126–134, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_12

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In the participatory intervention model, the compiled information from the public is provided by social agents who have the capacity to examine, describe and facilitate applicability in order to change the situation of the person through the construction of an alternative that desirably triggers their emancipation from the current psychological or physiological state. The collection of data through practices to identify opportunities also allowed us to obtain a set of data that updated us on the current state of the situation of these communities, more specifically the elderly in isolation and the homeless, which can be distinguished in the two qualitative and quantitative strategies (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Intervention with homeless person in Lisbon (photo by Cofina Media)

As has been reported and according to data obtained by the national media, it was possible to register, in November 2018, more than 4 thousand homeless people in mainland Portugal, some 1500 in the metropolitan area of Lisbon (Lusa Agency). According to data from the City Council, a growing number of elderly are in isolation, which can define about a quarter of the population in Lisbon This perception led to the creation of recognition programs (Radar Project, 2018) in order to obtain viable numbers and factual data, about needs and risks of urban citizens. Both targets (seniors and homeless) reported different data from the context under study from a narrative and practical perspective. It is intended to effect a behavioral change favoring improvement, state progress, capabilities, development and social justice [1]. Participatory action research favors commitment to the cause, making it an actor, agent of change and facilitator of practices and it was in this sense that the present case study was developed [2].

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2 Collaborative Practices and Social Intervention In order to know the reality, it was crucial to work with some of the entities that operate in the field, in direct or indirect relationship with the most disadvantaged. The main objective is to defend fundamental human rights and ensure that everyone has the necessary conditions to exercise citizenship and a dignified life. Also important is to promote an ecosystem that allows the participation of people from different branches in the fight against poverty and social exclusion, networking and the involvement of the entire civil society. On these matters, it is possible to say that each day design becomes closer to citizens and more aware of the role it plays in culture, politics and society (EAPN, 2017). With the purpose establishing and stimulating an interaction between institutions, groups and people who work in the field fighting against poverty and social exclusion and in order to collaborate in the design of action programs and social policies to encourage the promotion of (a) innovative actions, (b) social integration and (c) cultural, economic, moral and physical development of people living in situations of poverty and social exclusion, it was crucial to know better those that are closer to the users. We are talking about non-governmental organizations whose foundation was based on improving the quality of life of the population and contributing to their wellbeing, such as Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa (a non-profit Portuguese Catholic secular organization), EAPN (European Anti-Poverty Network), ACA (Associação Conversa Amiga), Comunidade Vida e Paz and Legião da Boa Vontade, as well as the administrative divisions of the Municipalities, Junta de Freguesia da Estrela and Polícia Municipal de Lisboa, with whom it was also possible, despite all the restrictions and availability, to establish systematic contacts and share knowledge about each stages of the intervention (Figs. 2 and 3). The stages can be named as problem definition, situation analysis and social diagnosis, were the knowledge about the target is collected and organized to trigger project development and implementation stages After the implementation of the project, an evaluation of the results is necessary in order to evaluate the changes in the various factors (material, emotional, social, psychological, intellectual and relational) and, finally, the end of the action [3]. In a context in which two target audiences are increasingly worrisome, namely, the elderly in isolation, with an estimated a number around 30,000, and homeless individuals, about 350 in Lisbon, the motivation to undertake a pilot project between Design (IADE-U/EU) and Engineering (IST) was worthy of notice. The intervention of these disciplines in social action aims to trigger new practical methodologies focusing on the concept of behavior’s change. These practices left open a reflection on the integrated collaborative and multidisciplinary processes, lighting up the opportunity for new collaborations together with the social intervention units. This understanding will be contributing to a new civilization based on new ways of acting, being and intervening, accentuating the direction of a modernity fluid by the potentiality of new adaptation, transformation and rhythmic capacities equivalent between the sciences and dynamics of methodological and theoretical transformation that will result in actions or projects that materialize the change in interventions [4, 5].

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Fig. 2. Presentation of EAPN (European Anti-Poverty Network) at IADE/UE

Fig. 3. RADAR project presentation in the social commission of the Parish of Estrela (Lisbon)

3 Case Study: Thermal Stability - Homelessness (Lisbon) The project developed results from the multidisciplinary collaboration between design and engineering, thus ensuring a proposal for comprehensive and in-depth intervention to the problem. Knowing in depth the reality of the homeless and the elderly in a state of isolation and their notorious exposure to bad weather, especially in winter, the proposal has as its main objective the development of an optimized prototype that minimizes the loss of heat from the human body while sleeping through its capacity to

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minimize thermal perturbations absorbing them before the human body be affected [6, 7] (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. RTP1 footage about homeless people in Lisbon city (Portugal)

With regard to homeless people and focusing on the National Strategy for the Integration of Homeless People 2017–2023 (ENIPSSA 2017–2023), the case study aims to achieve one of the intervention axes, the strengthening of an intervention that promotes the integration of people, thus meeting some of the strategic objectives proposed, among which, the promotion of the technical quality of the intervention, the provision of training solutions (objectives E2.OE1, E2.OE1, E2.OE3, E2.OE 7B in ENIPSSA 2017–2023) [8]. Within the objectives described above and combining the product development process in a combined methodology and divided between design and engineering practices, it was possible to obtain a series of intervention possibilities that would respond to one responsible for accentuating the fragility of the vulnerable state of the human being, the cold. Even so, after the definition of the general problem, a network of consequences or sub-problems that surround the main topic can be worked on and solved. Concentration on a shared resolution can even achieve, as a consequence of favorable results, a greater number of interdependent sub-response, such as body heat/consumption, and consequently, psychical well-being and benefits neuronal plasticity, thereby supporting brainfunction and cognition. Sleep deprivation impairs hippocampus-dependent learning and memory and contributes to cognitive disorders and psychiatric diseases [9–11].

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4 The Concept - PCM Mattress The initial idea came up with a concept that would result in an individual and portable climate shelter for the homeless, so they could feel less exposed and to minimize the loss of body heat. The portability of the product would also allow them to adjust any location to their needs and security (Fig. 5). By transforming and humanizing the way people sleep on the street we hope, through sensorial thermal comfort, to convince them to go to communal shelters [12].

Fig. 5. Proposal A – design development

Through the collaboration between IADE and IST - Instituto Superior Técnico, the proposal got updated on design development and materials composition, redefined with the inclusion of Phase Change Material (PCM) (Fig. 6). These materials can absorb and release thermal energy during the process of liquefy and solidify. In the form of microcapsules, they can be incorporated within fibers or foams or may be coated into fabrics. PCM fabrics adapt to the wearer and maintain optimum body temperature by keeping wearers cool or retaining body heat, improving thermal insulation and more temperature storage during sleep and contributing indirectly to an improvement on their mental condition and thermal comfort during cold winter nights [13].

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Fig. 6. Proposal B – 3D prototype and 3D rendering

5 PCM Mattress Prototype As the project was being developed, the need to test the PCM on the mattress was necessary (Fig. 7). The prototype was tested, and some pre-conclusions were collected. The test was performed in a garage in Oeiras (Lisbon) at 9:00 am on January 11, 2018. The ambient temperature was 10 °C and after 5 min of use, the mattress retained the human body temperature from the time the user left the mattress until 20 min from 55%

Fig. 7. Proposal 2 prototype test development

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to 35% of the user’s heat (≅35 °C) in areas of greater muscle mass (legs) and blood concentration (head). This study confirmed the feasibility of integrating PCM in the mattresses favoring the body’s heat stability. The making of a functional prototype was taken into account, as well as the potential costs associated with its large-scale production. In an initial phase of production and optimization, through tests and different design proposals made by a specialized team in an estimated time of 2 months, the estimated values would be around $14,000. In a large scale, considering the production of 1,000 copies, the values would approach $15 per unit.

6 External Decision Making and Implementation Strategy Following the results obtained, the team decided that the most effective way to implement the project would be through partnerships with organizations or companies involved in the social action sector. After some established contacts it was possible to meet with some of them, e.g. the Cruz Vermelha Portuguesa, Santa Casa da Misericórdia and Comunidade Vida e Paz, which showed interest not only in the results but also in the production and development values. The same happened with the companies in mattresses’ industry (Flexipol and Eurospuma), whose interest was mainly centered in the combination of the foam with the PCM and the values associated with its production over the humanitarian cause. In all cases, project presentation meetings were held. However, no collaboration was undertaken for the development of a prototype. This raises questions about: (a) Whether organizations in social intervention are open to collaborate with sciences whose contact or relationship is not so familiar or usual? and (b) Will the companies in the industry be open to collaborate with sciences whose contact or relationship is not so familiar or usual in favor of social or humanitarian projects? This fact increases the urge to reinvent new corporate and organization conducts to generate new values by doing and intervening on the most vulnerable communities [14, 15].

7 Future Steps In order to prove the concept in a more detailed way, it is necessary to proceed with more tests and studies about human thermal discomfort during winter, when subjected to temperatures below 15 °C, up to 8 h per day. The expected procedures can be named in stages, initially in the homeless registry and testimonials to determine the causes of their thermal discomfort; the modelling the distribution of the temperature in the human body and experimental validation with thermography and the use of tests with prototypes in climatic chambers simulating the conditions of winter nights. The approval of these tests and the making of several prototypes combining different types of functional materials (PCM) will also determine the final design. The final evaluation will be reported after implementation and testimonials through a comparative study of the impact of thermal discomfort on the welfare of the homeless during the various seasons of the year.

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References 1. Manzini, E.: Politiche del quotidiano : progetti di vita che cambiano il mondo [Policies of Everyday Life: Life Projects that Change the World]. Edizione del communità, CheFar (2018) 2. MacDonald, C.: Understanding participatory action research: a qualitative research methodology option. Can. J. Action Res. 13(2), 34–50 (2012) 3. Robertis, C.: Metodologia da Intervenção em Trabalho Social [Méthodologie de L’intervention en Travail Social]. Porto Editora, Porto (2011) 4. Bauman, Z.: Liquid Modernity. Polity Press, Cambridge (2001) 5. Koskinen, I., Zimmerman, J., Binder, T., Redström, J., Wensveen, S.: Design Research Through Practice. Morgan Kaufman, Waltham (2011) 6. Holling, C.S.: Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 4 (1973), 22 (1973) 7. Lisbon activates plan to protect homeless from the cold [Lisboa ativa plano para proteger sem-abrigo do frio]. https://www.rtp.pt/noticias/pais/lisboa-ativa-plano-para-proteger-semabrigo-do-frio_v1056292. Accessed 5 Feb 2018 8. National Strategy for the Integration of Homeless People 2017–2023. http://www.enipssa.pt/ documents/10180/11876/Plano+de+A%C3%A7%C3%A3o+2017-2018/b1bb09e5-e4f547a0-a1e1-0a00abf7c9fa 9. Haskell, E., Palca, J., Walker, J., Berger, R., Heller, H.: The effects of high and low ambient temperatures on human sleep stages. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 51(5), 494– 501 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(81)90226-1 10. Kreutzmann, J., Havekes, R., Abel, T., Meerlo, P.: Sleep deprivation and hippocampal vulnerability: changes in neuronal plasticity, neurogenesis and cognitive function. Neuroscience 309, 173–190 (2015) 11. Pilcher, J.J., Morris, M.D., Donnelly, J., Feigl, H.B.: Interactions between sleep habits and self-control. Neuroscience 9, 284 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00284 12. Heller, S., Vienne, V.: Citizen Designer. Perspectives on Design Responsibility, 2nd edn. Allworth Press, New York (2018) 13. Song, G.: Improving Comfort in Clothing, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge (2011) 14. Bernarda, J., Ferreira, A.M., Silva, C., Queiroz, I.: Design as a process tool of collaborative and multidisciplinary learning in society. Des. J. 20(sup1), S900–S914 (2017). https://doi. org/10.1080/14606925.2017.1353035 15. Reznick, R.: Developing Citizen Designers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, London (2016)

Sustainable Human Environment: Mouraria, Local Color and Sense of Place of a Historical Lisbon Neighbourhood Cristina Pinheiro1,2(&), Lambert Rozema3, and Ana Margarida Ferreira1,2 1

IADE, Universidade Europeia, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal {cristina.pinheiro, ana.margarida.ferreira}@universidadeeuropeia.pt 2 UNIDCOM/IADE - Unidade de Investigação em Design e Comunicação, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal 3 NHL Stenden University, Rengerslaan, Leeuwarden, Holland [email protected]

Abstract. At present time, many urban centres of European cities are losing their historical and socio-cultural identity due to ageing populations and a significant increase in tourism. If, on the one hand, there are many cases of revitalisation of the economic activity of these contexts, all very service focused, on the other hand, the network of human relations has become very fragile or nonexistent. This has a significant impact on the wellbeing of remaining residents. For the new generation of dwellers and tourists, as a result, these neighbourhoods are less significant from a cultural and symbolic perspective. Adding to these arguments, in rehabilitation processes, chromatic proposals for neighbourhoods often are aimed at establishing or maintaining the architectural identity of the place. This type of colour research suggests that heterogeneity and unity of colours can contribute to cultural identity. Colour proposals often aim at increasing actual liveability and wellbeing of the users of the public space of the area under scrutiny. Yet, relatively little is known about how residents can use the colours of their neighbourhood to strengthen their own sense of place particularly when the area is under pressure from the tourism industry. This paper will address this research topic and present, in an initial phase, the methodology, some collected data and conclusions of a case study in Mouraria, a historical Lisbon neighbourhood. Keywords: Co-design
Local colour Urban communities
Sustainability




Sense of place




Cultural identity




1 Introduction This investigation takes Mouraria in Lisbon as a case study as this neighbourhood is going through a rehabilitation process. We suggest its genius loci, the prevailing character or atmosphere of a place, can be built on a distinctive local palette in turn contributing to a strong sense of place. Previous case studies in Lisbon have shown that © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 135–140, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_13

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this can be done by using an evolutive method zooming out from the colour morphology of single buildings to the urban landscape in which they are situated [4]. The research aims to explore the link between this colour-based genius loci and the sense of belonging of members of the community. It builds further on the L3 project which explores empowerment and resilience in three neighbourhoods in Lisbon [1]. The results are expected to inform design processes aimed at changing urban human environments where terms such as heritage and authenticity are key to these processes. This ethnographic research proposes to shed light on how local colours could contribute to the residents’ place identity. It aims to contribute to them becoming cocreators of their environment, sharing their stories with tourists and thus contributing to the sustainability of their neighbourhood. This hypothesis was tested by other experts in the field of colour and environment during a workshop held at the International Colour Association (AIC) Congress in Lisbon in 2018. It provided useful input for the envisaged research.

2 Theory 2.1

On Local Color

Local colour research has provided vital input for designers and planners as it shows an accurate map of the colour identity of an area. Urban areas under pressure of tourism and its inherent gentrification can lose much of its identity when undergoing change as a result of this pressure. During the pilot research it was observed that guest houses in Lisbon e.g. often receive salient colours presumed for commercial reasons. This increased heterogeneity can profoundly alter the identity of the street. Jean Philippe Lenclos developed a systematic colour research method based on general, specific and manifest colours [7]. This method zooms in on an area while taking colour samples and comparing them to standardized systems such as NCS. This method is partly inspired by the Gestalt theory. As claimed by the Gestalt theory, the whole is more than the sum of the parts. “When viewing “whole”, the mind no longer sees the individual parts, but rather only the aggregate of the whole along with the thoughts and feelings associated with that whole” [6]. Recent studies have proposed a holistic approach to colour mapping urban areas. Catarina Diz de Almeida and Cristina Caramelo Gomes mention in their paper the use of an evolutive method using NCS as their benchmark [4]. This approach is supported by methods developed by Lenclos and Boeri taking into account the colour of all fixed, ephemeral, natural and background elements of the environment [2, 7]. 2.2

On Co-design

It is common practice to involve experienced colour designers to reveal the colour character of a place and educate members of the community. They document and analyse the colours that occur naturally in the landscape and the colours of buildings which, where they still exist, represent the traditional response of the vernacular eye.

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From the analysis, colour charts are produced which illustrate the character of appropriate colour combinations. Within design the value of dialogue should be rising compared to the value of production. It becomes more important to know how many co-creators you will get talking and with which social and cultural differences [5]. During the AIC workshop it was commented that co-creation may slow down decision making processes or result in a drawn-out political procedure. Yet, it may well be a sound alternative to current developments in globalisation spreading a bland McDonalised style, as proposed by Farinha [10], all over the world while disregarding locals and their cultures. The following was proposed as an idea for execution of a renovation involving a shortened co-design process: planners and politicians could provide the framework for the planned change of a neighbourhood after which locals get their say in the execution of the details such as the application of specific and manifest colours. 2.3

On Identity

Understanding and mapping the physical conditions of a place may be at the foundation of research into sense of place. Sense of place describes what it is like to be there, how people are attached to this place. ‘A concrete term for environment is place. It is common usage to say that acts and occurrences take place. In fact, it is meaningless to imagine any happening without reference to a locality. Place is evidently an integral part of existence’ [3]. Meerwein et al. argued “(…) it is possible to establish relationships between users, their activities, and the architectural space. Colour links these factors, thereby establishing an identity. It affects our body and mind deeply, influences our well-being and “psychological comfort” [8]. The outcome of this research could or should inform co-design in rehabilitation processes but for mostly it hopes to re-join the local story with the local people using colour as a tool to create cultural identity and for wellbeing purposes. The workshop participants agreed that encouraging awareness of local colour by e.g. colour matching or just taking pictures of colour could make people more perceptive of the environment they move around in daily.

3 Method 3.1

Mapping Local Color

So far, the method involved photographing colour fragments of Mouraria. The aim was to register colour details of the environment and cross reference these visual data with demographics, cultures and religions present in the area. During the workshop questions arose regarding validity of such intuitive and artistic approach. Therefore, the validity and reliability of the proposed research was increased by adopting an evolutive method as suggested in the research of Catarina Diz de Almeida and Cristina Caramelo Gomes [4].

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This method suggests that first the colour morphology of each building is studied. This initial stage takes into account the building’s façade shape, age, materials, textures and their reflections. The next stage registers the colour typology of all buildings in the street. Now the focus is on the relationship between all buildings in terms of colour, age and shape. The last stage is observing and documenting the urban landscape that the street is part of. This allows for a three-dimensional registration of colours of all elements in the visual field including street furniture, ephemeral and natural elements, but also background colours during different seasons. These colours are all measured by using the NCS colour system (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1. Example of NCS façade colour survey in Ajuda, Lisbon [4]

Fig. 2. Colour survey in the urban landscape [4]

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Community Mapping

The input of the residents of the area is the corner stone for the envisioned co-creation process; their experience of the surroundings in the context of local colour allows for the development of a narrative owned by locals. Urban Mind is a tested tool which measures the user’s experience of urban living during a two-week period. Participants are prompted at regular intervals through an app to answer questions about how they feel about the environment. The geographic position of the participant is registered each time a question is answered. These data can then be used to construe a community map displaying locations of interest and their colours [9]. These subjective experiences are then offset against the NCS colour map. Local stories in their relevant colour context can then be shared with visitors to the area thus allowing for a more direct communication and valuable experience for both residents and tourists.

4 Conclusion The workshop held at AIC – International Colour Association conference, provided valuable input for this research study. This has benefitted its validity and underlined its relevance in times of globalization, pressured by tourism activities, and the resulting gradual wearing down of cultural identity of urban communities and lack of sense of place, critical for a more sustainable human environment. Several presentations at AIC showed a growing awareness of the link between local architectural colour design and diminishing agency due to globalization. It means that deeper research would be pertinent considering the social and cultural challenges that are emerging, such as cultural intolerance, underlying the importance of social and personal comfort and wellbeing as key aspects to be addressed by creative agents, from designers, artists, architects, or urban planners. Acknowledgments.. The authors thank Isabel Farinha, Cath Carver, Saara Pyykkö, Sharyn Adler Gitalis, Elisa Cordero-Jahr and Sharon Avital for their valuable input.

References 1. Bernarda, J., et al.: Design as a process tool of collaborative and multidisciplinary learning in society. Des. J. 20(sup1), S900–S914 (2017) 2. Boeri, C.: A perceptual approach to the urban colour reading. In: Zennaro, P. (ed.) Colour and Light in Architecture, pp. 459–463. Knemesi, Verona (2010) 3. Schulz, C.N.: Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, pp. 5–6 (1976) 4. Diz de Almeida, C., Gomes, C.C.: Historic urban landscape: construction of a methodology for integrated colour proposals. In: Proceedings Book of AIC Lisboa 2018, Colour and Human Comfort, pp. 53–58, 25–29 September 2018 5. Ethics for Design. https://vimeo.com/232973887. Accessed 27 Nov 2017 6. Kopec, D.: Environmental Psychology for Design. Fairchild Books, New York (2012) 7. Lenclos, J.P.: The Geography of Colour. San’ei Shobo Publishing Company, Tóquio (1989)

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8. Meerwein, G., Rodeck, B., Mahnke, F.: Colour – Communication in Architectural Space, 74. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel (2007) 9. Urban Mind, Andrea Mechelli Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience King’s College London. https://www.urbanmind.info/#hometop. Accessed 05 Dec 2018 10. Farinha, I.: School media: a place for consuming a “McDonalled” culture? Doctoral thesis, ISCTE-IUL (2013)

Developing Portable Clean Cart with Broom and Dustpan for Street Sweepers Needs Bing-Cheng Zhu1(&) and Chien-Hsu Chen2(&) 1

2

National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Road, Tainan 70101, Taiwan, R.O.C. [email protected] Hierarchical Green-Energy Materials (Hi-GEM) Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, R.O.C. [email protected]

Abstract. Street sweepers are an indispensable part of urban cleaning. Unlike ordinary indoor cleaners, street sweepers need to face the outdoor environment and fields. Because of the long distance and extensive area, street sweepers have developed their own clean process. Due to the environment and process, street sweepers have more needs for cleaning tools. For example, carrying mobility. Through observations and interview, researchers found that different types of work and vehicles are used by street sweepers. After analyzing the advantages and disadvantages, different types of works can be merged into one new process. Then, use the insights found in the interview to design a new clean equipment set. This set can accord with the new process and meet street sweepers needs. In the design part, sketches are used to develop multi ideations. Then 3D printers are used to make prototypes to verify the usability of mechanism. In this study, a portable clean cart is proposed. It can reduce the size to be suitable for motorcycle carrying, and also expand the structure to facilitate the garbage bag. The newly designed broom and dustpan can easily fit into the cart. Since street cleaning system developed so far, though Taiwan has employed street sweep machine, still there are many special street types that can only clean by the human. Therefore, study for the work experience of street sweepers is valuable. Keywords: Street sweepers


Broom
Dustpan
Clean cart
Carry

1 Introduction Street sweepers are indispensable part of urban cleaning. Unlike ordinary indoor cleaners, street sweepers need to face outdoor environments and fields. Take Tainan street sweepers for example, each person need to clean around three kilometers per day [1]. Long distance cleaning makes movement a major problem. When sweeping the streets, the street sweepers need to bring a broom and a dustpan to sweep the sidewalk

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 141–152, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_14

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or roadside garbage. Therefore, the street sweepers need carry the broom, dustpan and container which place the garbage. In Taiwan it is easy to see street sweepers riding motorcycles on the road in the early morning. On their small motorcycles, they use special tube or iron frame to carry the broom and use a rope to hang the dustpan aside. And place the garbage bag in the space where the foot placed in front of the motorcycle (see Fig. 1). They clean the street in that way. When street sweepers see the dirty area in sidewalk, they get off the motorcycle and clean it. After that, they keep riding to the next section. However, with regard to this way of carrying equipment, because of getting on and off frequently and carrying the long shape tools like broom and dustpan, it is easy to influence the posture and balance while riding a motorcycle. Especially on the road, the potential safety problem as a result of inconvenient tool carrying is obvious.

Fig. 1. Street sweeper and her motorcycle.

It is worth noting that most of the way using motorcycle to clean the street is in the situation of cleaning a long and straight road. The street sweepers need to clean the two sides of the road. Thus, they will clean one side to the end of the road and go to the other side of the road. Then clean back. However, there are many road types in Taiwan that are radial. If the street sweepers are assigned to this type of road, most of them use the clean cart to carry the sweeping tools and garbage bag (see Fig. 2). The disadvantage of clean cart is the big size of clean cart. They can’t be carried easily. So, when the street sweepers finished their job, they will hide the clean cart in the roadside and use it tomorrow.

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Fig. 2. Street sweeper and his cart.

Usually, when the street sweepers go to work, they will go to an office to sign and pick up the sweeping tools first. Then they will ride the motorcycles which assigned from the government to their own road section. As soon as they arrived, some of them start to use motorcycles to move and clean the roadside, and some of them park their motorcycle beside the road then use clean carts to move and clean. During the process of clean streets, if there is a full garbage bag, they can place it in specific spot. And there will a garbage truck to pick it up. Thus, they do not need to carry the garbage from street along their side all the time. In addition to carrying problems, crude sweeping tools is also a problem. After the street sweepers finish cleaning the streets, they return to their office. Usually they start to tie the new broom head and make the new dustpan. Because the sweeping tools on the market can not meet street sweepers’ needs and environment. They don’t only buy bamboo sticks and loop to make bigger dustpan, but also buy bamboo branch to produce the broom head. Due to the large amount of using the broom, the head of broom will get sparse and hard to use it. Therefore, they need to replace the broom head every two or three days [1]. This kind of work of making sweeping tools is undoubtedly increasing the workload of street sweepers. The reasons for these problems are not only because of the special road type in Taiwan, but also because the sweeping tools sold in the market are mostly for indoor environments. The amount of garbage is small and does not require too much moving range to design. And there is not design for outdoor street sweeping environments. Thus, a street clean set which is specially designed for outdoor street sweeping is proposed in this study. It can let street sweeper carry the sweeping tools more easily. And the design according to the outdoor needs can reduce the extra workload of making their own sweeping tools.

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2 Method 2.1

Nonparticipant Observation Method

For the observation phase, the process of street sweepers starting from home to office, picking up the sweeping tools, and then going to the designated road section is recorded by researchers. It is necessary to keep low profile and observes the subjects with his or her knowledge, without taking part in the situation [2]. The aim of observation is to understand the specific work process of street sweepers, and the differences resulted of different transportation. The defect of this method is if the observation is overt, it may lead the subject behave differently, thus the affect he reliability of the data collected, the participants performance may be affected by Hawthorne effect. The participants may change their behavior improve or reduce in response to their consciousness of being observed [3, 4]. However, because the street sweepers usually work in public, and the researcher informed the participants without confirming the current date to observe. Thus, the participants do not notice that the researchers begin to observe, thereby taking the Hawthorne effect to the lowest. This stage consists of two street sweepers which use motorcycles to clean street, all are women, one 57 years old and the other 50 years old. One other street sweeper which use the clean cart to clean the street is 70 years old male. The three above all have more than 15 years of street sweeping experience. By observation, the researchers are able to sort out the difference of work process between two transportation tools (see Fig. 3 and 4).

Fig. 3. The process of using motorcycle to clean up the streets.

(a) Street sweepers leave form home to office. (b) After picking up the sweeping tool from office, ride the motorcycle to carry them to the road section. (c) Use the motorcycle as transportation tool to clean the street. If the garbage bag is full, it can be placed at the roadside. Replace this cycle until the road section is cleaned up. (d) Back to the office.

Fig. 4. The process of using a clean cart to clean up the streets.

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(a) Street sweepers leave form home to office. (b) After picking up the sweeping tool from office, ride the motorcycle to carry them to the road section. (c) Park the motorcycle at the roadside after reaching the road. (d) Use the clean cart as transportation tool to clean the street. If the garbage bag is full, it can be placed at the roadside. Replace this cycle until the road section is cleaned up. (e) Back to the office. Two work processes are compared by the researchers. Because using motorcycles to clean streets need to shuttle on the road, and it is prone to be dangerous while working on the road in the earlier morning with the poor sight. The safer way is to use clean cart to clean the street on the sidewalk. However, in the process of carrying sweeping tools to the designated road section, motorcycles are still highly mobility tools. Because some of the street sweepers are assigned to the farther road section, some of them are assigned to the nearer road section. To sum it up, it is better to merge two processes and design a new clean cart and sweeping tools. This clean cart and sweeping tools can be carried by the motorcycles to the designated road section. And start to clean up the street by using the clean cart. After finishing the work, the street sweeper can use the motorcycle to bring the clean cart and the sweeping tools back to the office, so they don’t need to leave the clean cart at the roadside. 2.2

Unstructured Interview

After deciding on the design specifications of the clean cart, interview for the street sweepers is used to understand their needs of brooms and dustpans. An unstructured interview or non-directive interview is an interview in which questions are not prearranged. These non-directive interviews are considered to be the opposite of a structured interview which offers a set amount of standardized questions [5]. The form of the unstructured interview varies widely, with some questions being prepared in advance in relation to topic that the researcher or interviewer wish to cover. They tend to be more informal and free-flowing than a structured interview. This stage was carried out twice (see Fig. 5). 12 street sweepers are recruited in this stage, 7 men and 5 women, with an average age of 45.

Fig. 5. Unstructured interview with street sweepers.

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Through the interviews, the most demanding and troublesome situations of street sweepers for brooms and dustpans are sorted out by the researchers (see Table 1).

Table 1. The needs and problems of broom and dustpan from street sweepers. Item Broom

Needs and Problems How many people said that Hard to carry 8 Need to replace the head every two days 10 Dustpan Hard to carry 7 No suitable handle 7 Need bigger capacity 8

3 Design Process 3.1

Brainstorming and KJ Method

At the beginning of the design, brainstorming method is used to envisage many solutions based on the insights gained from the previous research. The concept of brainstorming method is to suppress group stress and not reject any proposal. Because there will no stress of being denying, participants will not spend too much time thinking about the possibility of a single proposal, and let the thoughts continue to conceive the next proposal. Thus, a large amount of proposal will be raised in short period of time, then examine the possibilities one by one. During the process of brainstorming, post-it notes are used to record ideas on the whiteboard (see Fig. 6). Then KJ method is used to categorize the ideas into several sorts. KJ method is a method that can categorize a group of unknown imagine or data, then draw the affinity map in a short time. The classification results will be discussed and deleted quickly. After brainstorming, researchers find that redesign the clean cart to be suitable carrying by the motorcycles is the helpful way to the commuting of street sweepers.

Fig. 6. Using KJ method to categorize the ideas and information.

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Experience and Sketches

After the brainstorming, the researchers set out to draw sketches (see Fig. 7) and discuss the usability. The advantage of the sketch is that it can be quickly confirmed with the members. And when the design has bias, it can be corrected immediately. In the sketch phase, the researchers are committed to the actual implementation of the previously derived insights, using the form shape or mechanism to achieve the design specifications. At this stage, user experiences are required to participate in, in order to design the users’ products with actual needs. So, in this stage, the researchers repeatedly interview street sweepers and experience the street sweeping work (see Fig. 8).

Fig. 7. Sketches of ideas.

Fig. 8. Experiencing the work process of street sweeper by the researcher.

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Prototype

After the sketch phase, it begins to enter the stage of prototyping. Because there are many difficulties in use, and it can not be found in the sketches easily. It depends on the prototypes to do the test. For the prototype making, the researchers use wood chip and cardboard to make scale model of clean cart and use 3D printer to make the prototypes of broom adapters (see Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Prototype of the clean cart and broom adapters.

4 Result Combining the above design specification for the clean cart, broom, and dustpan, a new clean tool set is proposed in this study. The broom and dustpan can be packed into the clean cart and let the street sweepers carry the cart easily to the designated road section to clean up the street (see Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Using scenario of new clean cart, broom and dustpan.

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Clean Cart System

The main of this design is a clean cart, with a collapsible dustpan, and a detachable broom. When commuting, pack the broom and dustpan into the cart (see Fig. 11), and place the cart in the front part of the motorcycles, then the street sweepers can ride them to the road section.

Fig. 11. The clean cart system with broom and dustpan inside it.

For the clean cart, in order to hold the large amount of garbage while using, and also need to reduce the volume to adapt the motorcycle carrying, the special shaft mechanism is designed in this cart. When it is usually folded, the exterior looks like a normal suitcase. The flat shape makes it easy to place on the front side of the motorcycles. When it opens, the special mechanism design can increase the bottom area and increase the load of carrying the garbage (see Fig. 12). The garbage bag holder can allow the street sweepers to replace the garbage bag easily. And the height of the garbage bag is lower than the original one on the motorcycles. It let the street sweepers be less laborious while dumping garbage.

Fig. 12. The process of expending a clean cart and putting trash bag on it. The structure that folded down can enlarge the area which can hold the trash bag.

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In addition, the new clean cart can be used to integrate the two street sweeping processes. The street sweepers can use the motorcycles to carry the cart and the sweeping tool to the designated road section. And park the motorcycles at the roadside, then start to use the clean cart to clean the sidewalk. During the cleaning, if the garbage bag is full, the street sweepers can throw the garbage at the roadside and their colleague will come to pick it up. When the road is cleaned up, the street sweepers can pack the broom and dustpan into the clean cart, then carry them back to the office by the motorcycle. This kind of new process and tool design can let the tool carrying problem be solved. The cleaning of the road section by the cart can also make the safety concerns of the motorcycle street sweeper no longer occur. Broom. For the broom, during the interview stage, the researcher found that due to the large amount of use, the street sweepers need to replace the broom head every two or there days. And the process of replacing the broom head is very cumbersome. It needs to (1) trim the bamboo branches (2) arrange them (3) insert the bamboo stick inside the bamboo branches (4) use iron wire to tie the bamboo branches (5) repeat(4) several times. The whole process takes twenty to thirty minutes. Besides, the length of bamboo stick is fixed, and it is hard to carry such a long shape item while riding. The fixed length is also hard for every street sweeper to adopted it. Based on the above reasons, the new broom proposed in this study has a new broom adapter. This adapter has upper and bottom parts, connected with a rotating shaft. There is toothed structured inside the adapter to help clamping the bamboo branches. In the process of replacing the broom head, the street sweepers only need to place the bamboo branched which is well trimmed into the adapter and press the upper and bottom parts tightly together. Then screw them up and attach the broom handle to complete the operation of replacing the broom head. The whole process takes only six to ten minutes (see Fig. 13).

Fig. 13. Process of replacing broom head

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The broom handle is a telescopic rod which can adjusted in length so that people of different heights can use it properly. The handle part can be quickly separated and joined with the broom head, which can provide higher convenience in carrying commuting. In addition, because the bamboo branches are tied to the bamboo sticks in the past, the special broom adapter allows the street sweeper to prepare a number of spare broom heads in advance, and once the broom head is broken, it can be replaced immediately. Dustpan. In order to meet the needs of convenient carrying and large capacity, the new type of dustpan has a structure that is folded and bent, so that the dustpan can be combined into a small volume when not in use. And when it expands, it has large capacity to fill the garbage (see Fig. 14). In addition, due to the original dustpan made of bamboo sticks, there is no suitable handle for street sweepers to use. When the street sweeper uses the dustpan, the wrist tends to be biased or deflected [7], and the newly designed dustpan has the handle with appropriate angle so that the street sweepers can use it suitable (see Fig. 15).

Fig. 14. Process of expand new dustpan.

Fig. 15. The posture of holding the new dustpan. The handle will let the hand in a suitable posture to work for a long time.

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5 Conclusion After observation and interviews, the difficulties and obstacles encountered by many street sweepers are shown. Further analysis shows that these difficulties are caused by the special working environment of the street sweepers and the work process, so the improvement of the work process is the first step, combined with the proper equipment integration design, is the helpful solution for street sweepers. The limitation of this research result is that the choice of product material, the model currently used for prototyping, is made by 3D printing. Its material is photosensitive resin, its durability and weight are not so suitable for the needs of street sweepers. In the future, the design can be made with lighter and stronger materials, which will contribute to the universality of the new design. Since Taiwan has developed street sweeping system so far, although many street sweeping machines are applied. However, for some special street types, it is still only suitable for human street sweeper. For today’s street sweeping equipment, it is still too simple and difficult to carry. The design of the street sweeper and the task of improving their work experience remain important social issues. In addition, during of research, many problems that are not related to this study are found, such as the public’s poor perception, lousy procurement process, and heavy workload. These problems are difficult to solve by design. It need better policies from government and recruit more staff for street cleaning. At the same time, street cleaning is only part of the urban cleaning. In order to achieve better urban cleaning, it needs the joint efforts of all citizens.

References 1. Environmental Protection Bureau of Tainan City Government. http://www.tnepb.gov.tw/dep_ green_page.asp?num=20110921163127&page=25&m=20110919112247 2. non-participant observation. A Dictionary of Sociology. Encyclopedia.com. http://www. encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nonparticipant-observation. Accessed 08 Jan 2017 3. The Economist. The Hawthorne Effect, 3 November 2008. http://www.economist.com/node/ 12510632. Accessed 9 Jan 2017 4. Fox, N.S., Brennan, J.S., Chasen, S.T.: Clinical estimation of fetal weight and the Hawthorne effect. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 141(2), 111–114 (2008). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ejogrb.2008.07.023 5. Thorpe, R., Holt, R.: The SAGE Dictionary of Qualitative Management Research. Sage Publications, London (2007) 6. IdeaConnection. https://www.ideaconnection.com/thinking-methods/k-j-method-00011.html 7. ErgoVancouver (2018). http://www.ergovancouver.net/wrist_movements.htm

Macroergonomic Systems Design and Improvement

The Reporting System as a Feedback Tool to Improve the Process of Entering Data to the IT System Maciej Siemieniak(&) and Katarzyna Siemieniak Poznan University of Technology, 11 Strzelecka Street, 60-965 Poznan, Poland {maciej.siemieniak, katarzyna.siemieniak}@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. A subject of the paper is the reporting system that monitors the correctness of data in the IT production management system. The reporting system is also a feedback tool which helps to improve the process of entering data into the IT system. The IT system administrator created reports on the erroneous data to monitor the completeness and correctness of the data in the system. The research provided with the knowledge about quality of communication between company departments involved in the entering data process. The aim of the paper is to show the reporting system as a feedback tool, which is also a part of process of improving data entering into the IT system. The presented reporting system illustrates not only a data set for IT system users, but also provides a useful feedback about errors and lack of data in the IT system, improving this way the process of entering data and internal communication process as well. Keywords: Reporting system
Feedback Communication
Improving organization


Process of entering data


1 Introduction Historical data, presented in various sources, allow to state that man from the beginning of his existence had skills, which today is called organizing and managing various activities. At the beginning it was related to the conscious and purposeful use of tools simplifying everyday activities. The arising human awareness of the necessity of improvements and more effective use of tools has contributed to the development of innovation. Well-thought-out and organized activities began to appear. Initially, the organizational activities were carried out in a spontaneous manner. This was related to the abilities of leaders. There was a lack of thought-out, organized, researched, structured activities and a methodical approach to the matter [14]. The beginnings of a scientific approach to organizing and solving problems can be found in the ways of thinking of ancient philosophers and in the principles they proclaim. They are a generalization of practical experience from various areas of activity [14]. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 155–164, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_15

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2 Main Directions of Organizational Improvement Reviewing the main directions of organizational improvement, it can be said that the so-called classic approach to the problems of organization and management included two trends: scientific management and administrative management. The first one concerned methods of improving the work efficiency of physical workers. The second one, on ways to increase the performance and effectiveness of the organization’s activities [3–9, 11, 12, 14]. Proponents of the theory of classical approach to organization and management focused on the study of working methods, standardizing and controlling employee work processes in the company. On the other hand, proponents of the behavioral approach focused on research the attitudes and behaviors of the individual in the company and on group processes. Behavioral research has provided knowledge in the field of work psychology: motivating to work, job satisfaction, stress, leadership, team work, conflict solving and organizational structure [3–9, 11, 12, 14]. Another important approach to organizational problems dates back to the times of the Second World War. At that time, teams of specialists were formed, which developed ways to more efficiently and more effectively use war resources. The approach uses quantitative methods to solve management problems. The basic trends creating the quantitative approach are quantitative management theory and operational management [4, 12, 14]. The quantitative management theory provided solutions to organizational problems by developing mathematical models describing a simplified model of a process, system or relationship. The mathematical models are also support for decision-making processes. The second of the quantitative approach trends, the operational management, is used to optimize organizational activities, especially to increase production efficiency in a company. The above-mentioned three organization and management approaches: classic, behavioral and quantitative, can be combined and complement each other, although they have different assumptions, concern different areas of interest and provide different results of scientific research. The correct approach to solving organizational problems and understanding the principles of organization and management sometimes requires a combination of all other approaches. Such the combination makes another direction in the field of organizational improvement. Thus, a systemic approach and situational approach arise [4, 12, 14]. Considering the company as one organizational unit is a domain of the systematic approach. The second approach, situational, criticizes the classical, behavioral and quantitative approach, accusing them of universality and too large generalization, which make these approaches not very useful, because each company is different, its activity and behavior is conditioned by various factors that are typical only for a specific company.

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3 Communication as a Process According to psychology, communication between people, understood as the process of communicating or exchanging information, is one of the oldest social processes. This process develops from the moment when the man began to live in groups, communities and organized structures. The contemporary functioning of societies is based on creating, collecting, processing and transmitting information, so it can be said that communication processes are the basis for the existence of society. Depending on the situation and social conditions, communication processes may occur at various levels. At the lowest level there is communication between individuals, then communication within a group and communication between groups. At a higher level there is communication within the company, then public communication, and mass communication at the highest level [2, 13]. There are two ways in the subject literature that define the concept of a communication system [2, 13]: • in institutional terms – shows types of connections and relations between elements of the system (groups), • in functional terms – shows the system as a process, presents actions and interactions taking place between elements. The communication process can be transformed into the communication system. Then the communication of individuals and small groups will be replaced by a complex, multi-faceted and multi-layered communication process, where a message sender and a recipient form an organized group. One of the most important processes related to the organization and management is an adequate flow of message. It determines a proper and efficient functioning of the company [1, 13]. The communication system inside the company is a process that takes place between groups and within the group. The participants of the system are employees of the company. The relations between the employees are formal, determined by the organizational structure and position. Everyone has clearly defined roles, responsibilities and tasks [2, 13]. Communication that takes place inside a closed structure may involve communication at group level and individuals. Group communication is the processes occurring inside the team working together on a task. On the other hand, the communication of individuals concerns transfer of messages between manager and subordinate [13]. The increased interest in the communication processes within the organization contributed to intensification of research on the processes. The result was the development of management literature on creation of effective organizational structures.

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4 Entering New Data into the IT System The process of entering new data into the IT system is an example of a communication system inside the company. It takes place between various departments, which are responsible for the preparation and input of data. The process, using clearly defined steps, describes the method of filling the IT system with new data, which significantly improves a quality of the process and, the most importantly, improves the communication process between departments [13]. The following phases of the method can be distinguished [13]: • • • • • • •

preparation and input of technological data, designing manufacturing process, entering purchase and subcontracting data, creating product structure (bill of material), entering production planning data, verification of implemented data, cost calculation.

The process of entering data into production management system starts with preparation of technological data in the department of manufacturing processes design. The data is sent to the product master database (PMDB) coordinator. The technological data is entered to PMDB and then distributed to other IT systems transferring various types of data for requirements of the master production scheduling system (MPSS), manufacturing system (MS) and customer service system (CSS). Then, the PMDB coordinator informs departmental technologists about the distribution of data to the MS. Technologists start working in the MS with design manufacturing process in a form of defined technological operations and product structure creation. In case a product is manufactured from purchased material, then purchasing department enters purchase data to the MS. Than production planner implements planning data, necessary for proper scheduling production in the system. In the next step, the MS administrator, who is the process coordinator also, verifies correctness and completeness of the implemented technological, manufacturing, purchasing, subcontracting and planning data in order to send information to controlling department with a request for cost calculation in the MS [13]. Analysing the process described above, it can be seen that it provides knowledge about its multi-aspect. Due to the large number of IT system users involved in the process, including many departments of the company, moreover, the ability to perform activities by various departments in parallel, as well as the need to provide information to the next department, make the whole process complex. The level of quality of communication between users of the IT system entering new data is determined by completeness and correctness of data, as well as is evidence of teamwork skills. The whole process of entering new data can be presented graphically using a block diagram that shows logically ordered activities, the order in which they are executed, the overall structure of the process, and the relationships between the components of the process (Fig. 1).

The Reporting System as a Feedback Tool to Improve the Process START

new product?

NO

YES

new component?

NO STOP

YES

preparation of technological data to PMDB

preparation of technological and cost data to PMDB

entering data into PMDB, distribution to MPS, CSS, MS

design manufacturing process in MS

material exists in MS?

NO

entering purchase data into MS

YES creating product structure (BOM) α entering production planning data into MS

verification of implemented data

data complete?

NO

complementing missing data

YES cost calculation in MS

calculation completed?

NO

YES STOP

Fig. 1. A diagram of the process of entering new data into the MS [13]

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5 Feedback A feedback is a part of every process in the organization because it allows to assess whether taken actions have ended according to the assumptions. Lack of feedback does not allow to correct input data and makes improvement impossible. Feedback is an important component of communication process within a company and is a management function. A proper communication between the IT system users (from different departments) and the IT system administrator, affects the proper behaviour of employees: involvement, motivation to work and identification with an organization. Feedback - reports - is a kind of interaction between two objects - the IT system users and the IT system administrator – that plays a very important role - return impact of phenomenon effect on its cause. In systemic terms, feedback is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of elements forming a unified whole. By returning a part of result to the system, a perfect adjustment mechanism can be obtained. Feedback can be divided into formal and informal. Formal feedback can take the form of a report, it concerns top-set goals. Informal feedback is mainly based on interactions with employees. The most important function of feedback is the corrective function, and its aim is to make changes in current activities [10].

6 Essence of the Reporting System The reporting system is a response of the production management IT system administrator to the needs of the management and of the IT system for quick and easy access to data and information coming from the IT system in various forms of detail, which the IT system does not offer. The data entered into the IT system goes to SQL Server database, where queries are created using programming tools, and then reports are created in the form of an active server pages. The reporting system (as the active server pages) consists of several thematically grouped areas, in which the reports as collected data are stored: • technological – products, routings, product structure (BOM – bill of material), work canters parameters, manufacturing operations, technical specifications, • production – products stock, production scraps, material and component issue from warehouse to production, works orders, good items production registration, work in progress, product shipment, • purchasing – suppliers’ data, purchase orders, contracts, delivery conditions, invoices, • planning – delivery schedule, customer orders, capacity, safety stock level, production schedule, • subcontracting – subcontracting items, operations, costs, orders, • warehouse – material and components stock, receiving items, issue items, finished items shipment,

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• controlling – production and subcontracting costs, • quality – scraps items with causes, • other – administrative and supporting data, monitoring. These reports are usually in the shape of data set in table or graphical form. They are often a simple combination of detailed data. This is due to the fact that it is not possible to compile data in the production management IT system - MS (manufacturing system) - data are displayed on the screen in the form of a single record. There are reports that present aggregated data, grouped according to the criterion, summarized. The source of the reports can be data coming from one table (from one MS screen) or data from several tables (from several MS screens).

7 The Reporting System as a Feedback The main purpose of the reports is to give the IT system users a set of data for the purpose of their further processing or to provide information (processed data) for the management needs to analyse the current situation and make the right decisions. There is a group of reports created specifically for the IT system administrator to supervise the correctness and completeness of data entered into the IT system and for monitoring errors and mistakes appearing in the daily work of the IT system users. The reports of errors, mistakes and lack of data provide the IT system administrator with information by comparing the IT system data with ideal, standard, normative data. The reports for monitoring errors and mistakes are in the table form and present those parameters that are incorrect, inconsistent or do not exist in the IT system. The graphical form of these reports - charts - allow to analyse the situation and make the right decision to prevent incompatibilities and deviations from the norm. The graph showing the trend over a period of several months gives a feedback on a quality of work performed by IT system users and a quality and effectiveness of implemented corrective actions. The reports of the lack of data in the IT system inform the IT system administrator about the need to take actions coordinating the process of entering new data into the IT system. Lack of data in the IT system (technological, purchasing, BOM) makes impossible correct and timely work for people involved in production planning and controlling. The reports of incorrect data in the IT system inform the IT system administrator about the need to take corrective actions. Errors and mistakes generate false information and the IT system. It usually concerns information on stock and work in progress level, a quantity of material and components needed for production, which significantly affects the production planning process. The idea diagram of the reporting system is shown in the Fig. 2.

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IT system (MS)

SQL Server Database

technological data

ReporƟng Reporting System

provides aggregated data or information to analyze the current situation

production planning data

manufacturing data

subcontracting data

purchasing data

warehouse data

controlling data

other data

quality data

a group of reports to supervise data correctness and completeness and for monitoring errors and mistakes in the IT system. reports of errors, mistakes

reports of lack of data

• parameters incorrect, inconsistent or not exist; • analyze the situation and make right decision to prevent incompatibilities and deviations; • the graph shows the trend gives a feedback on a quality of IT system users work and a quality and effectiveness of implemented corrective actions;

• impossible correct and timely work for people involved in production planning; • need to take actions coordinating the process of entering new data into the IT system;

Fig. 2. An idea diagram of the reporting system

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8 Conclusions The subject of the paper is the reporting system that monitors the correctness of data in the IT production management system. The reporting system is also a feedback tool which helps to improve the process of entering data into the IT system. The IT system administrator created reports on the erroneous data to monitor the completeness and correctness of the data in the system. The research provided with the knowledge about quality of communication between company departments involved in the entering data process. The aim of the paper is to show the reporting system as a feedback tool, which is also a part of process of improving data entering into the IT system. The presented reporting system illustrates not only a data set for IT system users, but also provides a useful feedback about errors and lack of data in the IT system, improving this way the process of entering data and internal communication process as well. A feedback is a part of every process in the organization because it allows to assess whether taken actions have ended according to the assumptions. Lack of feedback does not allow to correct input data and makes improvement impossible. Feedback is an important component of communication process within a company and is a management function. The main purpose of the reports is to give the IT system users a set of data for the purpose of their further processing or to provide information for the management needs to analyse the current situation and make the right decisions. There is a group of reports created specifically for the IT system administrator to supervise the correctness and completeness of data entered into the IT system and for monitoring errors and mistakes appearing in the daily work of the IT system users. The reports of errors, mistakes and lack of data provide the IT system administrator with information by comparing the IT system data with ideal, standard, normative data. The reports of incorrect data in the IT system inform the IT system administrator about the need to take corrective actions. Errors and mistakes generate false information and the IT system. It usually concerns information on stock and work in progress level, a quantity of material and components needed for production, which significantly affects the production planning process.

References 1. Adamczyk, M., Jurga, A., Kałkowska, J., Pawłowski, E., Włodarkiewicz-Klimek, H.: Projektowanie systemów informacyjnych zarządzania. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej, Poznań (2010) 2. Dobek-Ostrowska, B.: Podstawy komunikowania społecznego. Astrum, Wrocław (1999) 3. Gilbert, D.R., Stoner, J.A.F., Freeman, E.R.: Kierowanie. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa (2011) 4. Griffin, R.W.: Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami. Wydawnictwo naukowe PWN, Warszawa (2017)

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5. Kisielnicki, J.: Zarządzanie organizacją. Zarządzanie nie musi być trudne. Szkoły zarządzania i prekursorzy teorii organizacji i zarządzania (2004) 6. Klincewicz, K.: Zarządzanie, organizacje i organizowanie – przegląd perspektyw teoretycznych. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Wydziału Zarządzania Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa (2016) 7. Koźmiński, A., Piotrowski, W.: Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka. PWN Warszawa (2013) 8. Lachiewicz, S., Matejun, M.: Ewolucja nauk o zarządzaniu. Podstawy zarządzania (2012) 9. Mioduszewski, J., et al.: Metody organizacji i zarządzania. Wydawnictwo Expol, Olsztyn (2013) 10. Nadolna, B.: Formalne i nieformalne informacje zwrotne w rachunkowości zarządczej. Zeszyty naukowe Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego nr 757, Finanse, Rynki Finansowe, Ubezpieczenia nr 58, s. 243–251 (2013) 11. Stabryła, A.: Podstawy organizacji i zarządzania. Podejścia i koncepcje badawcze. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego, Kraków (2012) 12. Siemieniak, M.: Identification of the Production Working Time Losses. Publishing House of Poznan University of Technology, Poznan (2014) 13. Siemieniak, M.: Diagram process as a tool to improve communication process inside a company – case study. In: Goossens R. (eds) Advances in Social & Occupational Ergonomics. AHFE 2017. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol 605. Springer, Cham (2018) 14. Siemieniak, M., Siemieniak, K., Pacholski, L.: Improvement method of subcontract phase of production process in IT production management system – case study. In: Goossens R. (eds) Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics. AHFE 2018. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol 792. Springer, Cham (2019)

The Conditioning of Macroergonomic Design and Improvement of the Intelligent Building’s Use and Service Joanna Kalkowska(&) and Leszek Pacholski Faculty of Engineering Management, Poznan University of Technology, Strzelecka 11 Str., Poznan, Poland {joanna.kalkowska,leszek.pacholski}@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. The subject of this study are the processes of macroergonomic design, use and service as well as improvement of intelligent buildings. These processes involve both the technological-organizational component as well as human communities – users of these buildings subjectively treated in this system. Authors have made an attempt to determine few following notions: the intelligent building and macroergonomic conditions of designing and improving objects and processes. The main research stream of this study regards the relations combining the structural, technological and organizational design with their future exploitation understood as usage and service the objects. The issue of macroergonomic improvement of using and service the intelligent buildings as well as processes of their exploitation is based on the Deming cycle. Keywords: Macroergonomics Exploitation


Intelligent building’s
Improvement


1 Introduction In seventies of the twenties century, was created an attempt of universal defining the subject of the research and technological results of the ergonomic engineering. This subject was determined as the system combining: human societies and the organizational & technological component [1]. This approach has an universal exploitation and improvement character because in both encloses: Man-Technology Object Interface and Multiobject Manufacturing Systems – Human Society vs Organization-Technology Systems & Processes [2, 3]. Hendrick and Kleiner called above mentioned overall interfaces: Macroergonomic Systems [4]. The macroergonomic design and improvement of the both exploitation and exploration of the functioning systems focuses on the particular role of their “essence”, which is a composition of human communities with their technological and managerial innovative solutions [5, 6]. For a correct design and improvement of macroergonomic systems it is necessary to have cultural and knowledge assets of engineering methods, tools and technics for exploitation and exploration. The term engineering is interpreter as a skill for design, production, exploitation and utilization of technological creations. In the present paper mentioned skills refer to a specific group of technological creation of the construction © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 165–172, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_16

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engineering included in the conceptual category: intelligent buildings. Buildings of this kind are perceived in the range of design and improvement of use and service as engineer examples of macroergonomic systems.

2 Macroergonomic System of Intelligent Buildings The macroergonomic system of intelligent buildings means a full system functionality of a sustainable creation of a construction technology (building) that is equipped with self-steering subsystems that also have abilities to adjust to the environment. Such adaptation concerns both an exploitation’s reaction to changes in the external and internal environment and the ability for improvement along the process of the technological and social progress. “… It is a relatively autonomic environment – it has all the necessary functionalities built in. Its principal characteristics are hybrid connections, like: Smart Economy, Smart People, Smart Governance, Smart Mobility, Smart Environment and Smart Living. Such combinations are creating a completely new perspective on building objects as a whole” [7]. Intelligent buildings can have various designations. They can be residences, hotels, offices, banks, hospitals, schools, etc. their design, production (construction) and exploitation (use and service) and exploration (improvement) requires expanding the classic engineering from the range of construction, technology and organization. Energy efficiency and thermal isolations are also key characteristics of intelligent buildings, just like sustainable use of natural resources, safety of the user, protection from environmental parameters’ levels that can be harmful for human health (noise, air pollution, microclimate, and vibrations), accessibility, low costs of use and service and pro-environmental performance during the entire life cycle of the construction. Intelligent neighborhoods or intelligent cities must fulfill similar requirements. The macroergonomic system of intelligent buildings should meet six following criteria: – – – – –

provide full protection and steering of the building’s assets, ensure the required technical and communication infrastructure of the building, provide the control of the functioning of the entire, enable an efficient connection with the exterior, maintain stable parameters of the material internal environment independently from changes outside and facilitate the adjustments of these parameters to changing needs of the user, – meet demands of the ecological rationality of resource management (electric energy, heat energy, water energy) and the criterion of the human factor (health, safety, identity, visual comfort, esthetic design, intelligent management of usage costs).

In practice, the realization of enumerated criteria in an intelligent building is steered by three principal groups of technological systems: – security system, – system of monitoring and steering technical installations, – computing system.

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The first system usually encloses: the system of fire security, the transmission of fire alarms system and defects signals, audible warning system, smoke and heat spread control, fire suppression and extinguishing system, a system integrating fire protection devices, evacuation system, air quality monitoring and ventilation for underground garages, systems for removing smoke from evacuation paths, intrusion detection system, access control system, closed circuit television system. It is possible to divide a system of monitoring and steering technical installations into two subsystems: power supply and electricity control, and comfort steering. The electric subsystem includes: the division of energy, measuring and energy accounting, the monitoring of technical installations, the electric installation cabling, lighting control inside and outside of the building, emergency power supply, photovoltaic subsystem. The comfort subsystem includes control of sources of the heat and coolness (including renewable energy sources), air conditioning and ventilation steering, heat steering, lighting and shading steering (shutters), horizontal and vertical transport subsystem, audio-video subsystems, sound system steering, subsystem of parking facilities. Intelligent building has a computing system that encloses: a subsystem of structural cabling and of active devices, computing networks, data transmission devices, security subsystem, links with external networks, vision and sound transmission subsystem, telephone exchanges. The four systems of macroergonomic management ensure an efficient functioning of technical installations in intelligent buildings are following: – BMS (Building Management System) – a system for power supply management and for steering electricity, comfort, information and communication systems. – SMS (Security Management System) – security system for the building. – BMCS (Building Management and Control System) – global system of management and steering in the building, superior to BMS and SMS (its goal is gathering and analyzing information from the entire object and exchanging data with all cooperating systems and subsystems). – EMS (Energy Management System) – system of control of the energy supply in the building. All mentioned systems and automation and management processes in the building require determined norms and standards. Standardization topics enclosing issues in the design, realization, exploitation and improvement of intelligent building’s is largely diversified. It refers to areas like construction, ergonomics and health protection, fire security, telecommunication, informatics, energy, automation, data transmission in control systems, electronics, property protection.

3 Smart Building Center Authors of the publication know an office and production intelligent facility named Smart Building Center [8], which is a seat of a design and construction company specialized in intelligent objects that uses practical solutions, like:

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– in the field of thermal energy production: the use of cooperation of the solar wall heating assembly hall for solar collectors, ground and air heat pumps (all controlled by BMS system), – in the field of production and economic use of electric energy: use of photovoltaic panels and system of lighting automation with a motion detector steered by BMS, – in the field of practical use of climate conditions: architectural solution taking into account the orientation of the building relative to the world sides (different thicknesses of thermal isolation, different type and size of glazings), – in the field of economic use of water: use of tap aerators and water flow restrictor, use of local plants that doesn’t require frequent watering, – in the field of reduction of cooling demand in the summer: reduction of the absorption of the heat from outside by using alight-colored membrane and the roof and lighting shelfs in the facade of the building and the white pavers around the building, – in the field of intelligent cost management in the exploitation of the object: use of Building Management System (BMS) that gathers and processes over a thousand variables of exploitation, reacting to meteorological conditions, adjusting the building to the work mode of the people staying in the building. A laser monitoring of the deflections of the roof structure of the assembly hall increases the safety of its users and steers the process of the snow removal in winter. Exploitation effects obtained by Smart Building Center, comparing to traditional solutions, enclose among others: – – – – –

55% lower Energy demand, 45% lower use of water, 30% lower use of electric energy for lighting, 35% smaller costs of cooling the object in the summer, 30% increase of productivity and 60% reduction of absence of the staff (information are gathered from promotion materials of the company WPIP).

4 Design, Exploitation and Improvement in Intelligent Building’s Management Technological installations of the intelligent buildings’ macroergonomic management use among others modern automation, computing, telecommunication technologies. Fast development characterizes them. The intensity for shortening the time from the appearing of a determined technological innovation and its commercialization is constantly growing. Innovations are often discontinuitive, so previous experiences become less useful. Today, the need to implement a construction, technological and organizational improvement of intelligent building’s exceeds possibilities of the user of such type of objects. The traditional model of project management including construction design, technology for realization of the object, practical realization, i.e. constructing and equipping the object and providing an exploitation instruction to the user, does not meet

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demands of clients in the field of intelligent buildings. The specific character of these objects requires entrepreneurs realizing intelligent building’s starting to realize an enriched cycle of the project management including additionally exploitation management and improvement of intelligent buildings. In the same time exploitation and improvement brings not only supplementary tasks, but also a danger of a so-called ambidexterity [9, 10]. Improvement management requires searching and developing new possibilities of providing profits to the company in the future. But exploitation management is basing on using the existing competences for the current viability of the company. Exploitation venture enclose the use and service of the existing systems: Building Management System, Security Management System, Building Management and Control System and Energy Management System. In this case, a managing company is basing on standards, repeatability and routine of actions, as well as on operational competences. Results of such type of actions a rather solid and with low business risk. From the side of the organizational structure the exploitation can be based on formalized solutions, often autocratic, demanding a conservative organizational culture [11]. Sometimes the improvement of exploitation is incremental in its character. It is based on evolutionary logic, typical for processes of selection and it concerns areas, in which the company was good until now. Innovative macroergonomic improvement of the intelligent building’s is connected to new ideas of implementing systems: BMS, SMS, BMCS and EMS, which are in the phase of development. Such approaches require specific competences, based on creativity. New solutions for products, technologies and organization, usually are revolutionary, so they can require risk inputs without the prospective of profit in short term [11]. The implementation of new solutions from the range of mentioned systems is based significantly more on the PDCA Deming cycle than a routine exploitation (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. PDCA Deming cycle [12]

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In actions of the PLAN, it is necessary to define innovations based on analysis of its assumptions, gathered data on the innovation and determining the goal and the scheme for coordination of its implementation. Action DO require preparing a computer model simulating the logic of implementation the new solution for the product, technology and organization. Action CHECK are connected to the implementation of the model for the validation of the new solution through analysis of results of the computer simulation. The phase ACT encloses the realization of the presentation of results of the simulation and it is about getting a consensus for implementation of the new product, technology or organization in the range of macroergonomic improvement of the intelligent building’s use. Macroergonomic innovations require visionary leading, flexible organizational structures and organizational culture supporting freedom of creative thinking. They require also searching development opportunities for perfecting the status quo. This research should be founded on the concept of agile management [13, 14]. One can characterize it with four features of innovation agility of the intelligent building’s (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Four features of innovation agility of the intelligent building’s based on: [14]

These features enclose: BRIGHTNESS, which is the ability of the enterprise managing the improvement of the intelligent building’s to fast perceiving development innovations and threats coming from competitors. FLEXIBILITY, which is the ability to widen the range of using own exploitation assets. SHREWDNESS, which is about the ability of benefiting from the knowledge in the range of development innovation and managing new situations in practice. INTELLIGENCE, which is the ability of the enterprise managing the project management to understand the variability of the situation and the skill to purposeful respond to it.

5 Conclusion and Acknowledgement Enterprises realizing the new variant of project management of the intelligent buildings are forced to add to their range of action issues of its simultaneous use and improvement, in addition to the preparation of the construction, technology and organization of the realization, as well as the practical realization of the object. Such

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situation requires searching for long-term efficiency of management in the company, based on balance between exploitation and exploration. It is possible to try to achieve this balance by realizing enumerated actions in different organizational units of the enterprise that puts into practice the new variant of project management. Such actions must be integrated and connected on a strategic level of company’s management. This requires eclectic organizational structure, with co-existing units having various professional competencies, different organizational culture and separate motivation systems and leadership [11]. The instrumental side of the support for decisive processes of the organization and management needs that the strategic level uses the computer simulation technology based on the Deming cycle. Acknowledgement. The present publication was prepared within the NCBiR research project, Intelligent Development Operational Programme 2014–2020 (POIR.01.01.01-00-1229/17) entitled: Development of an innovative system for project management, construction, operation and development of Intelligent Autonomous Environment (IAS) [7] carried out by WPIP and Poznan University of Technology.

References 1. Pacholski L.: Methodology of ergonomic diagnosing in the enterprise, Rozprawy, vol. 81, pp. 1 – 148, Publishing House of Poznan University of Technology (in Polish) (1977) 2. Pacholski, L., Jasiak, A.,E.: Macroergonomic effects of rapid economic renewal. In: Scott, P. A., Bridger, R.S., Charteris, J. (eds.) Global Ergonomics, pp. 855–858, Elsevier, Amsterdam - Oxford – New York (1998) 3. Pacholski, L., Pawlewski, P.: The usage of simulation technology for macroergonomic industrial system improvement. In: Goossens, R.H.M. (ed.) Advances in Social & Occupational Ergonomics, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 487, pp. 3–14. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2017) 4. Hendrick, H.W., Kleiner, B.M.: Macroergonomics: Theory, Methods and Applications. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah (2002) 5. Pacholski, L., Piotrowski, K.: Political Ergonomics, Macroergonomic Battles, Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing, vol. 18(5), pp. 515–524, Wiley-Blackwell, Malden (2008) 6. Kalkowska, J., Siemieniak, M., Pacholski, L.: The future of macroergonomic manufacturing systems. In: Goossens, R. (ed.) Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 792, pp. 365–374. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2019) 7. NCBiR research project, Intelligent Development Operational Programme 2014–2020 (POIR.01.01.01-00-1229/17) entitled: Development of an innovative system for project management, construction, operation and development of Intelligent Autonomous Environment (IAS) 8. www.wpip.pl 9. Dutta, S.K.: Dynamic capabilities: fostering ambidexterity. J. Indian Manag. 2, 81–91 (2012) 10. Kollmann, T., Kuckertz, A., Stockmann, C.: Continuous innovation in entrepreneurial growth companies: exploring the ambidextrous strategy. J. Enterp. Cult. 17(3), 297–322 (2009)

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11. Csaszar, F.A.: An efficient frontier in organization design: Organizational structure as a determinant of exploration and exploitation. Organ. Sci. 24(4), 1083–1101 (2013) 12. Kalkowska, J., Pacholski, L.: Simulation technologies in agile reconfiguration of assembly production process. Przeglad Organizacji 2, 49–55 (2017) 13. Yauch, C.A.: Measuring agility as a performance outcome. J. Manuf. Technol. Manag. 22 (3). 383–404 (2011) National Center for Biotechnology Information. http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov 14. Trzcielinski, S., Frontczak, Y., Kałkowska, J., Wypych-Zoltowska, M., Adamczyk.: The concept of agile enterprise. In: Trzcielinski, S. (ed.) Agile Enterprise Concepts and Some Results of Research, pp. 59–95. IEA Press, Madison (2007)

The Macroergonomic Improvement of Total Quality Management Industrial Systems Milena Drzewiecka-Dahlke(&) and Leszek Pacholski Faculty of Engineering Management, Poznan University of Technology, Strzelecka 11 Str., Poznan, Poland {milena.drzewiecka-dahlke, leszek.pacholski}@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. Quality based macroergonomic improvement of industrial systems involve both a technological-organizational component as well as human communities subjectively treated in this system. The essence of Total Quality Management (TQM) is a fact of current, dynamic updating the mentioned above macroergonomic relation creating the industrial system. The base of this update is current identifying and assessing the TQM reaction on changing internal and external macroergonomic conditions. The publication presents the expert method of nonconformities’ estimation and identification of TQM current state with its primary assumptions. The analysis of these nonconformities using the quantitative examinations were conducted in 384 industrial enterprises. On this base a conceptual model of undertakings aiming at permanent improvement of TQM was proposed. Keywords: Macroergonomics
Total Quality Management
Industrial systems

1 Introduction In seventies of the twentieth century, was created an attempt of universal defining the subject of the research and ergonomic industrial applications. This subject was determined as a relation (system, network, hybrid) combining: human societies (mission, strategy, objectives & tasks of the industrial systems; identity of the industrial system, qualifications & skills, interpersonal relations) and the organizational & technological component (organizational structure of the above system, functions of organizational units, procedures, scopes of activities, instructions; equipment assets of the industrial system, technology) [13, 15]. In works from the mentioned period and further (which concerned ergonomics of industrial manufacturing processes), this relation was determined consequently the Multiagent Manufacturing System [9, 12, 14]. This approach has a universal character because in both encloses: Man-Machine Interface Industrial Systems Technology (reduced to the unitary form of work station) and Overall Organization-Machines Technology [8, 10]. In eighties of the twenties century H. W. Hendrick called these overall interfaces: Macroergonomic Systems [6]. Today’s macroergonomic approach (linking human societies and the technological & organizational component) concern the internal organization of industrial systems, but they can also enclose structural conglomerations of groups of many enterprises. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 173–183, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_17

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These systems, represented by modern enterprise, have an ordered functional form, but they also can be network complex interrelation, hybrid or chaotic connections. The macroergonomic improvement of the functioning of industrial systems focuses on the particular role of their “essence”, which is a composition of human communities with their technological innovation and innovative managerial solutions (like Total Quality Management), social and business objectives [11]. The quality based macroergonomic improvement of industrial systems involve both a technological-organizational component as well as human communities subjectively treated in this system. The essence of Total Quality Management (TQM) is a fact of current, dynamic updating the mentioned above macroergonomic relation creating the industrial system. The base of this update is current identifying and assessing the TQM reaction on changing internal and external macroergonomic conditions. To ensure the proper functioning of industrial systems, business organizations need to recognize the critical importance of the quality of such systems, which is their inherent attribute and a benchmark for assessing the way every aspect of industrial operations is managed. Successful macroergonomic improvements in total quality management (TQM) require respective organizations to develop an adequate organizational culture. Organizations also need to modify their strategies, methods, tools, techniques and resource management. Such modifications require a proper understanding of the significance of human communities and the management of TQM knowledge in macroergonomic systems. Computer software designed to ensure the conformity of industrial TQM systems with ISO 9000 standards may help integrate the macroergonomic improvements of TQM into overall management systems as an alternative preferred to subcontracting the job to an external expert who is poorly placed to resolve quality issues [1]. Successful TQM implementations require the involvement of employees across the board from top executives to rank-and-file employees, all of whom need relevant continuous training and education.

2 Research Methodology The key pragmatic consideration is to identify and assess failures to adhere to standards in any existing systems. This applies to both actual and potential nonconformities. The outcomes of such identifications and assessments can then be used to make macroergonomic improvements to industrial TQM systems by means of relevant preventive and corrective measures. The author diagnoses various methods of furthering macroergonomic improvements in industrial TQM systems and increasing worker involvement in the identification and assessment of operational nonconformities. To that end, use is made of quantitative surveys and specifically the CATI (computer-assisted telephone interview) surveying technique. The target group for the surveys are Poland-based enterprises having a quality management system in place that is certified for ISO 9001 compliance. The sample size was set on the basis of the minimum sample size criterion. At the time of designing the survey, the author had access to data on 10,527 ISO-9001 certificates held by Polish companies. Upon adopting the confidence level of a = 0.95, the diagnostic sample size was set at 371. A total of 384 interviews were conducted. Those of

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the respondents who indicated they had not reported the nonconformities in question (these came from 22 organizations: 1 large, 8 medium-sized, 7 small and 6 micro) were instructed to refrain from answering further questions. This accordingly reduced the number of completed interviews [3]. A breakdown of the respondents by company size is provided in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Survey respondents by company size.

The respondents formed a mixed group of business owners, TQM experts and quality assurance staff from the concerned companies. Since all of the above respondents were required to have a knowledge of TQM, they were classified as internal TQM experts. The samples were selected by a combination of the quota and random sampling methods. The quotas were set to reflect the sizes of both the concerned companies and the respective voivodships, or regions, of Poland [3].

3 Results of Research To ascertain whether the numbers of the worker-reported nonconformities in existing industrial TQM systems were affected by worker willingness to report such irregularities, the respondents were asked the following question: “At what level, in your view, do workers in your organization report nonconformities in the existing industrial TQM systems?”. The responses were captured on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = no such nonconformities are reported, to 5 = all such nonconformities are reported. The survey found that 56% of the respondents from small, medium-sized and large companies assessed the level of nonconformity reporting in their organizations as low to medium (scores 1, 2 and 3). In micro-enterprises, the share of such responses fell below the 30% mark. This shows that each organization category faces the problem of workers unwilling to report nonconformities in their TQM system. A very high level of issue reporting (the score of 5 or 48%) was indicated by micro-companies. The reporting level declines to 18% in small, 8% in medium-sized and 10% in large companies [4]. Further details are provided in this paper – for the findings of the survey, see Fig. 2a.

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Detailed records on the variability of irregularity reporting by workers (Fig. 2b) reveal a median of 3 in the small, medium-sized and large companies participating in the survey. This means that as much as 50% of the respondents indicated an unsatisfactory level of nonconformity reporting by workers. Only in organizations employing up to 10 workers did the median reach 4.

Fig. 2. Employee reporting of nonconformities in existing TQM industrial systems (a) percentage of answers, (b) variability of answers around the middle point (the median). Source: own work based on [4].

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The statistical dispersion was the smallest for responses received from small, medium-sized and large companies, with the interquartile range falling between 3 and 4. Among such companies, nonconformity reporting at level 1 was an outlier. In microcompanies, no reporting data points (score 1) fall within range, although the median is considerably higher, at 4. Therefore, one cannot claim that the company definitively does not face an insufficient reporting problem [4]. To properly improve industrial TQM systems, it is crucial to identify nonconformities linked to management, diagnose their root causes, formulate corrective actions, implement the resulting action plan and assess the actions taken for effectiveness. To achieve the above, it is essential to employ additional industrial TQM system improvement instruments. Therefore, the following stage of the project focused on assessing the degree to which such instruments were utilized. The respondents were asked: “Does your company use managerial methods and TQM tools to support nonconformity analysis?” The findings of that survey are summarized in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Percentage of enterprises using methods and tools that support the assessment of nonconformities in the existing industrial TQM system.

Respondents from large companies were the most likely to use the majority of TQM methods and tools. The majority of respondents representing large companies (i.e. companies employing more than 249 workers) use of the Ishikawa diagram to analyze nonconformities (23.08%), followed by those that apply FMEA (15.38%), the Pareto diagram (13.46%) and 5W2H (15.54%). Clearly, the percentage share of the users of any given instrument is relatively low, not exceeding 25% of the organizations [5]. With respect to medium-sized companies, 35.6% of the respondents admitted they were using TQM instruments. Their most commonly employed method was FMEA (16.67%) and the Ishikawa diagram (8.33%). 27.5% of small-company respondents indicated they used quality management methods and tools. Their most popular tool is FMEA (14.17%), followed by 5W2H (5.83%). The percentage of the users of any specific instrument is very low, falling below 15% [5]. In micro-companies, the use of TQM instruments was indicated by 25.9% of the surveyed. Their most popular tools are FMEA and FTA (8.62%) as well as the Ishikawa diagram (6.90%) [5].

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Due to the fact that the economy is evolving towards information society, the survey was used to check whether the same results are obtained by means of the identification and assessment of the conformity of existing quality management solutions with applicable standards. To assess the share of the respondents who use applications that support the identification and assessment of nonconformities, the respondents were asked: “Do you use a dedicated computer application (software) that supports the recording of and oversight over nonconformities?”. For the findings, see Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Percentage share of enterprises using software to oversee nonconformities in existing industrial TQM systems. Source: [3].

Only a mere 23.5% of the surveyed organizations indicated they were using a computer application to oversee nonconformities. The biggest share (32.7%) of such organizations were large undertakings. The percentage of affirmative responses declines with company size, down to 13.8% in micro-enterprises. This is not to say that interest in such solution is common. The most frequently applied functionalities are the storage of nonconformity records, the attribution of nonconformities to company functions, the recording of nonconformity causes, the recording of any corrective and/or preventive measures undertaken by the concerned company, and record management. The least popular functionalities included the reporting of nonconformities by internal and external customers and the generation of reports using such quality management instruments as FMEA and the Pareto chart. Such functionalities are of key importance given the vital significance of including all company workers in the process of macroergonomic improvements to industrial TQM systems. Moreover, studies show that the enterprises that use computer applications to support macroergonomic improvements to industrial TQM systems rarely provide access to such software to all of their workers and customers, even though such an approach appears to be highly beneficial. It is also disquieting that, across all categories of the surveyed enterprises, respondents from the organizations that do not use such software find it the least urgent to acquire such applications [3].

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In order to identify correlations between company size and the analyzed aspects of macroergonomic improvement of TQM industrial systems, the correlation coefficient was used made of. The Pearson linear correlation was applied specifically to the verification of similarities between answers to Yes/No questions and answers given to the questions that required responses on a numerical scale or in the form of the Yule Phi contingency coefficient. No statistically significant correlations were discovered between the identified issues and company size. Upon analysis of the above quantitative surveys, the decision was made to develop a single universal solution for all company types (regardless of worker headcount).

4 Conceptual Model of Undertakings Aiming at Macroergonomic Improvement of TQM Industrial Systems The starting point adopted for the model developed for the purposes of this study was to utilize an expert method for the identification and assessment of nonconformities. Each step of the model follows the iterative Deming cycle of PDCA, which entails a continuous loop of four actions: P – plan, D – do, C – check, and A – act) [2]. The overall concept underpinning the method is summarized in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Conceptual model of undertakings aiming to achieve macroergonomic improvements to industrial TQM systems.

Before proceeding to any further steps of the survey, the respondents were asked to conduct an internal-expert self-assessment. To that end, a sheet was created for the assessment of nonconformities in the existing system against prescribed standards and for the identification of key macroergonomic improvements in the industrial TQM system.

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Fig. 6. Self-assessment results compared to the overall respondent population (a) radar chart, (b) the general level of maturity.

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The proposed assessment sheet supports the identification of areas in need of improvement, periodic progress assessments and benchmarking against other organizations from a representative sample of 362 companies. To define the reference scores for the assessment of particular organizations (on the assessment sheet), use was made of opinions gathered in a quantitative survey by the CATI technique. The assessment includes fife area: the way in which nonconformities are identified, the level of nonconformity reporting by employees, nonconformity analysis, the use of methods and tools to support nonconformity identification and assessment, and the use of a dedicated computer application. Thus, the focus of the assessment is dual, comprising both technological and organizational areas as well as social factors. Once the assessment is completed, enterprises receive collective results for each of the five assessment areas presented on a radar chart (Fig. 6). Figure 6 summarizes results from a simulation of a hypothetical undertaking. It shows the average rating for each assessment area recorded for the overall population of the quantitative survey respondents, so as to enable benchmarking. As a way to complement the information provided, the respondents were requested to indicate the general level of maturity in the area in question. To that end, an average rating was calculated for the five assessment areas. The average obtained for the overall population can then be referenced against the scale of qualitative maturity [7]. To encourage workers to identify and assess nonconformities in an existing industrial TQM system, the author proposes to use the VIP principle outlined in Fig. 7.

V VALIDITY

• Recognize the responsibility of workers for actively identifying nonconformities in their respective fields within the organization. • Proclaim the importance of the identification of the non-conformity by workers and specify the benefits gained - give employees credit and express appreciation. • Reward the worker for accurate reporting of nonconformity(ies).

• Tell your workers that the organization could not succeed without their involvement. Make your employees feel valued and essental! • Tell your workers who to report the nonconformities they notice to and how to do it (hold meetings or use MBWA) I • Make sure to provide feedback - employees will be more likely to INFORMATION report nonconformities if told how they are helping the organization. • Include workers in identifying the causes of nonconformities. Resolve problems together. • Encourage workers to improve the organization together. Gather their ideas. P • Look for potential nonconformities together. PARTICIPATION Make sure your workers receive proper training.

Fig. 7. The VIP principle of encouraging employees to identify and assess nonconformities in an existing industrial TQM system.

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It is recommended that employees be informed in the course of either special meetings or MBWA (management by wandering around). It is also critical to prepare an employee training plan and adopt an appropriate recognition and reward system. Should the self-evaluation analysis generate negative results, the relevant organization should proceed to make macroergonomic improvements to its industrial TQM system by the Global 8 Disciplines (G8D) method. If the company does not use any computerassisted system for macroergonomic improvements in its industrial TQM system, it should purchase an off-the-shelf software package or commission the development of such a package or develop its own.

References 1. Burr, A.: Quality software: from recording nonconformities to managing for performance. ISO Management Systems, pp. 17–22, July–August 2003 2. Dahlgaard, J.J., Kristesen, K., Kanji, G.K.: Fundamental of Quality Management. Scientific Publisher PWN, Warsaw (2000). (in Polish) 3. Drzewiecka-Dahlke, M., Pacholski, L.: Analysis of computer support of nonconformities supervision in companies with quality management systems. Probl. Qual. 12, 19–23 (2018). (in Polish) 4. Drzewiecka-Dahlke, M.: Company size as the differentiating criterion of employees engagement in the process of nonconformities identification. Probl. Qual. 7–8, 21–28 (2016). (in Polish) 5. Drzewiecka-Dahlke, M.: Use of quality instruments for analysis of nonconformity in polish enterprises. In: Scientific Papers of Silesian University of Technology. Organization and Management Series, no. 100, pp. 87–98 (2017). (in Polish) 6. Kałkowska, J., Siemieniak, M., Pacholski, L.: The future of macroergonomic manufacturing systems. In: Goossens, R. (ed.) Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 792, pp. 365–374. Springer, New York (2019) 7. Łukasiński, W.: Maturity of a Pro-Quality Managed Organization. Poland Economic Publisher, Warsaw (2016). (in Polish) 8. Pacholski, L., Jasiak, A.E.: Macroergonomic effects of rapid economic renewal. In: Scott, P. A., Bridger, R.S., Charteris, J. (eds.) Global Ergonomics, pp. 855–858. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1998) 9. Pacholski, L., Mateja, B.: Macroergonomic development of industrial production processes. In: Salvendy, G. (ed.) Advances in Occupational Social and Organizational Ergonomics, Advances in Human Factor and Ergonomics Series, pp. 802–812. CRC Press/Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton (2010) 10. Pacholski, L., Pawlewski, P.: The usage of simulation technology for macroergonomic industrial system improvement. In: Goossens, R.H.M. (ed.) Advances in Social & Occupational Ergonomics Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 487, pp. 3– 14. Springer, New York (2017) 11. Pacholski, L., Piotrowski, K.: Political ergonomics macroergonomic battles. Hum. Factors Ergon. Manuf. 18(5), 515–524 (2008) 12. Pacholski, L., Trzcieliński, S., Wyrwicka, M.: Clustered macroergonomic structures. Hum. Factors Ergon. Manuf. Serv. Ind. 21(2), 147–155 (2011)

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13. Pacholski, L.: An application of fuzzy methods in the complex ergonomics diagnostics of industrial production systems. In: Karwowski, W., Mittal, A. (eds.) Applications of Fuzzy Set Theory in Human Factors, pp. 211–225. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1986) 14. Pacholski, L.: Fuzzy logic application in ergonomic renewal of multiagent manufacturing systems. Cybern. Syst.: Int. J. 29, 715–728 (1998) 15. Pacholski, L.: Methodology of Ergonomic Diagnosing in the Enterprise Dissertations, vol. 81, pp. 1–148. Publishing House of Poznan University of Technology, Poznan (1977). (in Polish)

The Ergonomics of Work Conditions as Force Element of the OHS Management Adam Górny(&) Faculty of Engineering Management, Poznań University of Technology, ul. Strzelecka 11, 60-967 Poznań, Poland [email protected]

Abstract. The effectiveness of systemic occupational health and safety management is linked inextricably to the nature and scope of improvement measures. In improving OHS management, organizations which have a management system in place need to account for all factors affecting their ability to secure their desired outcomes. Such outcomes include the satisfaction of ergonomic criteria, whose application enhances the robustness of systemic management defined as the successful establishment of worker-friendly working conditions. In addition, one of the most critical focal points emphasized in the ergonomic principles that constitute an integral part of systemic management is the role of worker and factors related to the working environment. Organizations that recognize such factors while complying with ergonomic standards will be able to fully enjoy an effective management system and ultimately generate benefits for the organization itself and its stakeholders. The paper underlines the importance of ergonomic standards governing the effectiveness of systemic occupational health and safety management. It identifies ergonomic requirements as a key to improving the effectiveness of systemic management while recognizing that failures to satisfy such requirements will inevitably undermine such effectiveness. Keywords: Ergonomics
OHS management
Working conditions Safety improvement
Improvement principles




1 Introduction No analysis of factors for the success of an industrial organization can be complete without recognizing strong correlations between working conditions and performance. Production efficiency depends vitally on the successful establishment of conditions that enable workers to complete their work properly [1]. The above is particularly crucial in designing working conditions on the basis of systemic requirements. Since any organization aspiring to secure proper working conditions is compelled to employ the principles of systemic occupational health and safety management, one can safely presume that the successful achievement of workrelated benefits depends on the effectiveness of such a management system. To create an environment conducive to effective work performance, an organization’s occupational health and safety management system should incorporate all © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 184–194, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_18

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improvement aspects, including those that enable the company to set up a workerfriendly working environment [2]. These include ergonomic standards, which are of critical importance for creating a working environment that meets standards beyond the minimum requirements mandated by law. In seeking to comply with ergonomic standards, organizations commonly identify new requirement areas tied closely to the specific characteristics of their workers. Once such requirements have been identified, companies can fully rectify or mitigate any non-conformities that exist in their working environment causing strains and discomfort for workers [3–5]. The aim of this paper is to outline the role and significance of ergonomic requirements for improving occupational health and safety management systems and for supporting organizations in the achievement of their intended outcomes. The author notes that the incorporation of ergonomic requirements into management systems will strengthen such management helping the concerned organizations to mitigate any hazards and strains that adversely affect working comfort.

2 Occupational Health and Safety Management 2.1

Nature of Systemic Occupational Health and Safety Management

A management system is a collection of an organization’s mutually interrelated units that contribute to the formulation of policies and goals and to the ultimate achievement of an organization’s aims (section 3.10, [6]). With respect to occupational health and safety standards, OHS policy sums up an organization’s commitment to prevent workrelated injuries and diseases and secure safe and healthy working conditions. At its heart, the mission of systemic occupational health and safety management can be equated with an effort to establish conditions that ensure safe work performance [7]. Any prerequisites for the safe performance of work need to be fulfilled systemically by arranging all of the measures taken by an organization into a system of successive steps. The primary goal of systemic occupational health and safety management is to pursue and achieve the adopted OHS policy. The measures an organization takes to achieve this goal form a continuous improvement loop that helps to increase the effectiveness of improvement measures while triggering a search for new areas of improvement that will boost the effectiveness of such systemic management [7, 8]. Continuous improvement, which underpins effective management, must focus on failures to both ensure adequate working conditions and meet the requirements that relate to the system’s functioning [6, 9]. A vital goal pursued by occupational health and safety managers is to create conditions that allow workers to function well in their working environment. For this to be possible, organizations need to define the needs and expectations of all concerned parties along with the specific impacts on task performance of failures to identify factors that impede the completion of tasks. As a secondary consideration, organizations need to specify the scope of application of their adopted OHS management system. A corporate occupational health and safety management system should be designed on the basis of the outcomes of risk assessments [10–12]. Risk assessments help

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identify factors that potentially generate benefits. They also define the significance of such factors for the successful achievement of benefits through the use of systemic occupational safety management. Risk assessments focus on factors that contribute to strains, hazards and disruptions to the effective operation of a management system in an organization. 2.2

Systemic Occupational Health and Safety Management Requirements

The key requirement areas that determine the scope of systemic OHS management are to ensure the effective deployment of a management system, an assessment of the effects of such deployment and the verification of improvement measures. To that end, it is essential to account for the concerned company’s organizational background and specifically for its environment and the needs and expectations of all stakeholders, including the organization’s workers. In putting in place an occupational safety management system, organizations should take all actions necessary to achieve effectiveness and recognize mutual interrelations among such actions. The individual stages of systemic management must form a PDCA improvement loop. Such stages are [6, 13]: – – – – –

The planning of measures, The provision of the support necessary for the implementation of measures, The completion of such measures, An assessment of measure outcomes, Improvements to newly installed systems.

The measures necessary to determine the manner in which an OHS management system will be implemented should be planned on the basis of risk and opportunity assessments [6]. Such risks and opportunities have to do with the occurrence or nonoccurrence of any untoward factors that may hamper the achievement of prescribed goals. In the planning of measures, it is crucial to consider best practices and apply best technical and organizational solutions. Just as importantly, organizations should tailor their management systems to their financial, operational and business capacities [14]. The key aim in planning the application of adequate systemic measures is to build the capacity to achieve goals. This requires a proper assessment of the concerned organization’s improvement potential, the extent of risks and the potential impact of disruptions on ultimate outcome of measures. In particular, planners should account for [1, 6, 13]: – – – – –

Any relevant regulations and standards, The company’s preparedness to respond to potential failures, The ability to respond to failures adequately, The nature of the organization’s processes, The outcomes of measure effectiveness assessments.

In planning measures, due account needs to be taken of possible improvements to the existing management system. Reasonable improvements should increase the organization’s capacity to achieve its objectives. Its measures should be practical,

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achieve the desired corrective effects, eliminate the root causes of non-conformities or adverse events and prevent their recurrence [1, 13]. To support their implementation of systemic OHS management principles, organizations should [6]: – Identify ways to develop and deploy the management system, ensure a proper environment for its operation and improve such a system and environment continuously, – Assess the required worker skills, supplement any missing skills and ensure that all workers have the requisite education, training and experience, – Raise worker awareness of their impact on system operation and the potential consequences of improper behavior and violations of adopted principles, – Formulate, implement and ensure the fulfillment of prerequisites for the proper operation processes necessary for external and internal communication at all levels of management and among all concerned parties, – Keep records of any measures taken and adopt rules for oversight over any information in such records that is essential for the effective operation of the adopted management system. All management system improvements should adhere to operational plans designed to [1]: – Mitigate or eliminate risks associated with processes, actions, materials, devices, machinery and equipment, preparation for work and protective clothing and equipment, – Help manage change to ensure organizations benefit from opportunities and eliminates irregularities, – Secure the supplies needed to conduct production and/or provide services in keeping with the requirements of the adopted management system. To ensure that the measures taken are effective and contribute to the efficient operation of the existing management system, organizations need to assess them regularly. Occupational safety assessments should include: – The monitoring, measurement, analysis and assessment of compliance with legal requirements and measures adequate to any identified hazards, threats and opportunities, – An internal audit designed to assess system implementation and operation, – A management check by senior executives to ascertain the fitness for purpose, adequacy and effectiveness of the solutions in place. Improvements of an existing system should produce the desired operational outcomes. The purpose behind improvement measures is to detect and address adverse events and non-conformities. The non-conformities may apply to either the scope of the operations conducted by an organization or the satisfaction of systemic requirements. By assessing improvement measures, organizations can evaluate the effectiveness of systemic management and of the improvement measures taken to achieve the organization’s objectives.

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Through their improvement measures, organizations should be able to improve their performance in the field of OHS in keeping with their OHS policies and goals. Such actions should be in line with the suggestions and requirements of stakeholders and should ultimately ensure the achievement of better results with fewer resources. All measures taken in a company that meets systemic management requirements must result in continuous improvements in fitness for purpose, adequacy and effectiveness. The success of such improvements hinges on promoting a safety culture and workers taking ownership of relevant measures [15].

3 Ergonomics for Systemic Occupational Safety Management 3.1

Role of Ergonomic Standards Incorporated into the Systemic Management Framework

For a number of years now, ergonomic requirements have no longer been viewed as a lesser addition to safety standards. Increasingly, they are considered to be fully-fledged criteria for the assessment of safety systems, designed to ensure the effective performance of people in a working environment [16]. Thus, they are a critical part of the systemic design of workstations and workplaces that must not be neglected. In implementing measures in pursuance with such systemic occupational health and safety management guidelines as reflect ergonomic standards, one should [17]: – Formulate systemic occupational health and safety management guidelines, including those required by law and ergonomic standards, – Create conditions that ensure safety at work, – Define criteria for the assessment of measures taken to mitigate risks and strains, – Ensure conditions necessary to ensure the effective performance of work. The incorporation of ergonomic standards into safety requirements will help rectify the non-conformities that lead to issues generally described as distortions to the safety environment [16]. This applies broadly to the adverse effects of the working environment on workers and includes threats classified as social. The most common issue in this context is stress at work experienced by workers and detrimental to their health. This means also that working conditions should be designed with proper account taken of the ergonomic standards associated with the psychological aspects of work performance. The rationale behind incorporating ergonomic requirements into systemic occupational safety management guidelines is to improve the quality and scope of worker health protection and ultimately enable them to perform their jobs effectively. This helps boost the physical and mental capabilities of workers and keep their physical and mental fitness at the required level [14, 18].

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Measures to Be Taken When Incorporating Ergonomic Standards into Systemic Requirements

A key part of systemic occupational health and safety management is to prevent the occurrence of hazards and strains associated with the nature and place of work. Hence, safety can well be described in reference to [9]: – The holistic model – which is one based on the definition of health as a precondition for complete physical, mental and social well-being rather than solely as an absence of diseases and impairments, – The well-being model – which views health as a process in which individuals and groups aspire and have the ability to change so as to satisfy needs. These two approaches clearly show the need to incorporate into systemic requirements criteria that go beyond the most fundamental safety aspects and that merely ensure that risks are mitigated to an acceptable level. This need is met by ergonomic requirements. Measures that incorporate the ergonomic side of systemic occupational health and safety management are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Sample measures taken to broaden the scope of OHS management by the inclusion of ergonomic standards in the creation of working conditions and the working environment Systemic requirement Organizational context OHS policy

OHS goals

Planning

Description of measures taken with proper account taken of ergonomic considerations - Impact on the environment that includes ensuring workers’ well-being in an organization’s environment (by accounting for the ergonomic aspects of the functioning of workers in a business environment) - The incorporation of ergonomic requirements into policies and the definition of ergonomic improvement goals on that basis - Ensuring the dedication of all workers to creating worker-friendly and healthy working conditions - Having workers commit to ensure the effects of continuous improvement and comply with relevant laws and regulations - The planning for conformity with ergonomic occupational health and safety management goals and the identification of such goals - The identification of opportunities and ways to incorporate ergonomic standards into general occupational safety goals - The improvement of OHS outcomes by tailoring measures to worker needs and expectations - The planning of measures designed to address the threats and opportunities associated with ergonomic requirements and the benefits to be derived from their incorporation - The planning of measures aimed at eliminating ergonomic risks and preventing strains and other untoward outcomes - Taking proper account of ergonomic assessments to eliminate the risk of injuries (continued)

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Systemic requirement Support

Measures

Effectiveness assessment Management review

Improvement

Continuous improvement

Description of measures taken with proper account taken of ergonomic considerations - Raising the awareness of the management and workers across the board of the need for and the advisability of improvement measures going beyond minimum safety requirements - Ensuring efficient, effective and worker-friendly communication - Defining ergonomic criteria for assessing the operation of processes - Adapting working conditions to the individual needs of workers - Using protective measures (including personal protection equipment) to ensure compliance with ergonomic standards The assessment and measurement of processes with due account taken of ergonomic criteria - Assessment of the need to adopt changes that address the individual needs of workers - Assessment of the need to adopt ergonomic standards as valid criteria for the appraisal of management outcomes - Considering the option of achieving worker well-being by assessing measures and selecting the way in which they will be implemented - Identification of the causes of non-conformities associated with insufficient compliance with requirements - Adoption of changes reflecting the individual needs of workers - Recognition of ergonomic requirements as valid criteria for the assessment of management outcomes - Recognition of the need to incorporate ergonomic standards in making improvements advised by continuous improvement guidelines - The promotion of improvement measures that account for ergonomic improvement criteria, affect the resulting safety culture and rely on premises that underpin safety culture

4 The Impact of Ergonomic Requirements of Working Conditions on the Force of Systemic Safety Management The effectiveness of systemic management can be described in terms of effectiveness in creating worker-friendly working conditions. If that the purpose of systemic OHS management is to create a risk management framework and support OHS improvements [6], then the system helps organizations to meet their obligations. In the context of ergonomic requirements, due note should be taken of the role played by factors associated with workers and their working environments. Worker-friendly working conditions should be viewed as essential for worker performance and specifically for the effective completion of occupational tasks [1, 19]. Against the background of working conditions and the context of ergonomic criteria, working conditions come across as essential for assessing workers’ ability to perform, which constitutes a determining factor for their effectiveness.

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The above can be seen as crucial for an organization’s success. Such success depends on the choices made by the management as well as the commitment and involvement of workers across all levels and positions in the organization. Compliance with systemic requirements that include ergonomic standards is helpful in: – Gaining the ability to improve the effectiveness of systemic management, – Identifying improvement measures that account for the human aspects of management, – Eliminating disruptions to manufacturing processes caused by working discomfort, – Benefiting workers as a result of their improved ability to function in the working environment. The recognition of ergonomic requirements should be seen as critical for the proper performance of workers and their efficient completion of occupational tasks. The potential benefits of accounting for ergonomic requirements include [19, 20]: – – – –

More efficient performance of work, including quicker completion of tasks, More efficient performance of work, Reductions in loads that adversely affect workers, Reductions in the biological cost of work.

Working environment specifications have direct impact on occupational task completion and specifically on workers’ ability to perform work [18, 20, 21]. To improve the working environment, a range of systemic measures can be taken [18]. Some of the key categories of requirements whose fulfillment depends crucially on the satisfaction of ergonomic standards, include [22]: – Requirements pertaining to human operators and specifically to education, skills, experience, the culture of dealing with technology, the motivation to perform work, and the ability to bear physical and psychological loads, – Requirements pertaining to workstation fit-outs: devices, machinery and equipment, supplementary equipment, organizational equipment, and working spaces/company premises, – Requirements pertaining to the working environment: worker protection from adverse working environment factors and, in particular, from their impact on worker health and safety, – Requirements pertaining to work organization: support in the form of documents, tools and materials/supplies, workflow planning, as well as loads resulting from the nature of work and its organization. The application of ergonomic standards in the process of OHS management helps highlight the need for organizational and technical measures, which includes the socalled soft measures aimed at the improvement of working conditions [23, 24] and the creation of a working environment. Sample ways to adopt ergonomic standards with a view to developing a working environment and their impact on worker’s capacity to perform work are presented in Table 2 against the background of workplace and workstation lighting, which is crucial for work efficiency and accuracy.

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The ergonomic requirements to be recognized in assessing working conditions should be seen as indicative of organizations’ ability to complete processes and, by the same token, of the ability of their workers to complete occupational tasks, both of which affect business performance. The ergonomic requirements to be accounted for in an occupational safety management system should be viewed as critical for a company’s overall success. The ergonomic requirements considered in assessing the working environment reveal a certain level of adverse impact on the workers. This applies in particular to factors classified as strenuous [1, 10, 25]. Table 2. Examples of potential ergonomic non-conformities and measures needed to ensure friendly workstation lighting. Reason for nonconformity Natural light

Artificial (supplementary) lighting

Inadequate light source

Shift work

Issue/non-conformity and reasonable improvement - No or insufficient natural light undermining working comfort - Natural light should be viewed as a vital for the overall lighting of workstations - Inadequate artificial lighting and specifically insufficient or excessive light at a workstation will make it difficult (if not impossible) to perform work effectively - This issue is particularly burning where natural light standards are not met - In designing light fixture spacing and types, one should consider workplace requirements, job characteristics, lighting specifications and the individual attributes of workers - An inadequate light source will result in poorly lit workstations and working spaces compromising work accuracy and precision - In selecting a light source, account should be taken of requirements regarding the level of accuracy and precision to be ensured in the process of manufacturing - Work without natural light creates significant loads, particularly if no supplementary artificial lighting is designed and installed - In designing a shift system and the workstations to which shift workers will be assigned, due account should be taken of ergonomic lighting standards the affect the working comfort of workers

5 Summary Industrial organizations constitute a clear case of strong correlations between work efficiency and working conditions. Given that quality can be defined in terms of how well an organization satisfies customer expectations, the ergonomic conformity of a working environment can be assumed to be crucial for the quality of the working environment.

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If safety requirements are examined in relation to systemic occupational health and safety management, they must incorporate all aspects of critical importance for ensuring a proper working environment for employees. These include ergonomic standards, which constitute a vital part of management and a crucial factor for the establishment of worker-friendly working conditions. The incorporation of ergonomic standards into a management system should be recognized as crucial for the effective operation of a business organization. This is especially true for standards that significantly affect systemic management outcomes contributing to the elimination of non-conformities. The elimination of nonconformities is in fact prescribed by the systemic requirements adopted to ensure working environment improvements. By rectifying potential non-conformities, organizations help to improve the health and well-being of their workers, all the while incentivizing them psychologically, which has the effect of boosting their performance. Such efforts should be recognized as underpinning the creation of conditions that allow workers to operate properly in the working environment, regardless of whether such conditions are mandated by law.

References 1. Górny, A.: The use of working environment factors as criteria in assessing the capacity to carry out processes. In: Oancea, G., Drăgoi, M.V. (eds.) MATEC Web of Conferences (The 4th International Conference on Computing and Solutions in Manufacturing Engineering 2016, CoSME 2016), vol. 94, no. 06011 (2017) 2. Rae, A., Provan, D.: Safety work versus the safety of work. Saf. Sci. 111, 119–127 (2019) 3. Berlik, M., Dahlke, G., Sławińska, M.: The idea of modification of work conditions for the reduction of the pilot’s workload in a glider. J. KONBiN 45(1), 7–16 (2018) 4. Górny, A.: The role of safety in ensuring efficient working conditions. In: Fertsch, M., et al. (eds.) Engineering and Technology Research (24th International Conference on Production Research, ICPR 2017), pp. 348–353. DEStech Publications Inc., Lancaster (2017) 5. Jørgensen, K.: Prevention of “simple accidents at work” with major consequences. Saf. Sci. 81, 46–58 (2016) 6. ISO 45001:2018, Occupational health and safety management systems. Requirements with guidance for use. ISO, Geneva (2018) 7. Li, Y., Guldenmund, F.W.: Safety management systems: a broad overview of the literature. Saf. Sci. 103, 94–123 (2018) 8. Arntz-Gray, J.: Plan, do, check, act: the need for independent audit of the internal responsibility system in occupational health and safety. Saf. Sci. 84, 12–23 (2016) 9. Dahlke, G.: Zarzadzanie bezpieczeństwem pracy i higieną pracy. Modele systemowego zarządzania bezpieczeństwem i higieną pracy. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej, Poznań (2013) 10. Guo, Ch., Khan, F., Imtiaz, S.: Risk assessment of process system considering dependencies. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 55, 204–212 (2018) 11. Mohammed, H.K., Knapkova, A.: The impact of total risk management on company’s performance. Procedia – Soc. Behav. Sci. 220, 271–277 (2016) 12. ISO 31000:2009, Risk management. Principles and guidelines. ISO, Geneva (2009) 13. Kiran, D.R.: Total Quality Management. Key Concepts and Case Studies. ButterworthHeinemann, Elsevier, Amsterdam (2017)

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14. Wang, H., Xie, M., Goh, T.N.: A comparative study of the prioritization matrix method and the analytic hierarchy process technique in quality function deployment. Total Qual. Manag. 9(6), 421–430 (1998) 15. Warszawska, K., Kraslawski, A.: Method for quantitative assessment of safety culture. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 42, 27–34 (2016) 16. Givehchi, S., Hemmativaghef, E., Hoveidi, H.: Association between safety leading indicators and safety climate levels. J. Saf. Res. 62, 23–32 (2017) 17. Haslam, Ch., O’Hara, J., Kazi, A., Twumasi, R., Haslam, R.: Proactive occupational safety and health management: promoting good health and good business. Saf. Sci. 81, 99–108 (2016) 18. Crutchfield, N., Roughton, J.: Safety Culture. An Innovative Leadership Approach. Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, Amsterdam (2014) 19. Górny, A.: Use of quality management principles in the shaping of work environment. In: Stephanidis, C. (ed.) Posters Extended Abstracts: International Conference, HCI International 2015 (part II). CCIS, 529, pp. 136–142 (2015) 20. Burgess-Limerick, R.: Participatory ergonomics: evidence and implementation lessons. Appl. Ergonomics 68, 289–293 (2018) 21. Górny, A.: Total quality management in the improvement of work environment - conditions of ergonomics. In: Goossens, R.H.M. (ed.) Advances in Social & Occupational Ergonomics, AHFE 2017 International Conference. AISC, vol. 605, pp. 91–100. Springer, Cham (2017) 22. Górny, A., Sadłowska-Wrzesińska, J.: Ergonomics aspects in occupational risk management. In: Arezes, P., et al. (eds.) Occupational Safety and Hygiene, SHO 2016, pp. 102–104. Portuguese Society of Occupational Safety and Hygiene (SPOSHO), Guimarães (2016) 23. Khan, F., Rathnayaka, S., Ahmed, S.: Methods and models in process safety and risk management: Past, present and future. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 98, 116–147 (2015) 24. Labuttis, J.: Ergonomics as element of process and production optimization. Procedia Manuf. 3, 4168–4172 (2015) 25. Zio, E.: The future of risk assessment. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 177, 176–190 (2018)

The Improvement of Women Professional Entrepreneurial Attitude in a Context of Social Expectations Paulina Siemieniak(&) Faculty of Managerial Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Strzelecka 11, 60-965 Poznan, Poland [email protected]

Abstract. The article compiles the data of statistical offices and institutions monitoring entrepreneurship in the world, especially in Europe with results of original surveys conducted among potential female entrepreneurs in the last five years. This allows to determine what potential for use lies in the female entrepreneurship. Based on this insight social programs can be created to deal with current problems of Poland, such as aging society or poverty. Keywords: Female entrepreneurship Shaping entrepreneurial attitudes


Demand on the labor market


1 Introduction The improvement of social well-being depends on the ability to use the potential of every person capable of working. Increasing the participation of women in the labor force and raising their employment rate is the key importance for the economic development. The GDP losses per capita resulting from the gender inequalities in the labor market were estimated at up to 10% in Europe [1]. By stimulating economic growth, the social and public finance risks associated with the aging of the population can be reduced. Further efforts are also needed to eliminate the differences in the treatment of women and men and to strive to create a model in which both men and women can be earners and careers. The promotion of greater gender equality in the labor market is achieved through a combination of legislation, policy guidelines and financial support. One of the factors enabling the reduction of gender inequality is to indicate entrepreneurship as an opportunity for every woman.

2 The Concept of Entrepreneurship In the literature, the numerous definitions of entrepreneurship are formulated, which show it as a broad and multidimensional phenomenon. Undoubtedly, this is an interdisciplinary issue. Many aspects in which it can be captured is reflected in the multiplicity of scientific views on the subject. Author of one of the first definitions J. B. Say, states that an entrepreneur is someone who “transfers economic resources from a lower © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 195–205, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_19

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area to an area of higher productivity and higher yield” [2]. Entrepreneurship is at the heart of the creation of the enterprise and its development. It is inseparably connected with the pursuit of profit. Entrepreneurship consists in starting a business and taking related risks in order to obtain certain benefits, mainly of a material nature. One of the first to deal with the phenomenon of entrepreneurship was R. Cantillon, who called the ability to see opportunities and to take advantage of the opportunity created by the market in order to achieve a profit that motivates for further effective action. The essence of entrepreneurship is also sought on the basis of psychology, which captures entrepreneurship as a feature of the human personality. It is recognized as the resultant of innate properties such as temperament, intelligence and also traits acquired in ontogenetic development, such as character, motivation, attitudes [3]. Entrepreneurship as a psychological category is identified with the characteristics of the individual that enable it to effectively implement its goals. These include, inter alia, initiative and vigor, resourcefulness, ingenuity and a great need for achievement. Entrepreneurship understood in this way is called a personal entrepreneur and is a permanent element of personality. It is the result of the process of upbringing, learning and innate predisposition [4]. Entrepreneurship as a trait (or a set of mental traits) facilitates taking initiative in the field of entrepreneurial activities (starting a business activity), but it is not a sufficient factor to make them appear. In order for entrepreneurial activities to appear, there must be an intention to become an entrepreneur. The occurrence of willingness and initiative in starting own business is related to the entity’s experience in the area of entrepreneurship, including those provided by school [5]. The presented article adopted a narrow definition of entrepreneurship. It is understood not as a trait, but as an individual’s activity, an initiative that involves the establishment and conduct of a business by a natural person. Entrepreneurship in the sense that have been adopted is related to self-employment, micro, small and mediumsized enterprises1.

3 Outline of the Economic Situation in Poland and Europe The results of economic research indicate considerable differences existing in the share of poverty within the EU. A similar trend can be observed also across the world. There are 39.1 million people in the EU living in households with very low work intensity in 2016 [6]. According to Eurostat: 9.6% of employed people in the EU were at risk of income poverty in 2016 [6]. There are significant differences in the EU in severe material deprivation, which hardly occurs in some Member States, and at the same time affect around one-third of the population in other Member States. Poverty of people affected by poverty varies significantly between Member States, between 9.7% and 25.3%. In general, the share of EU citizens living in income poverty (17.3% in 2016) is relatively low compared to

1

In Poland, the economic activity carried out by natural persons constitutes the vast majority of all enterprises and clearly dominates the SME sector (over 90%).

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other major economies in the world. In most OECD countries outside the EU, the value was approximately between 20% and 25% [7]. The most at risk of poverty or social exclusion in EU are unemployed people. There are 48.6% at risk of income poverty in 2016. However, poverty can also affect employed people. The extent to which someone is poverty-stricken workers depends largely on the conditions of employment. Employees working under a temporary contract were about three times more likely to live in poverty or social exclusion than people with a fixed position (risk 16.2% instead of 5.8%) in 2016 [6]. Rankings based on available selected data show that although Poland is doing well in some measures of well-being, the average in terms of income and wealth, jobs and earnings is below [8]. From OECD data it appears that in Poland, the average household net-adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 18 906. This is much lower than the OECD average of USD 30 563 a year. Moreover, there is an appreciable gap between the richest and poorest: the top 20% of the population earn close to five times as much as the bottom 20%. The employment analysis shows that around 65% of people aged 15– 64 have paid work in Poland [8]. This is below the OECD average employment rate of 67%. About 71% of men and 58% of women perform paid work. Almost 7% of employees work in Poland for a long time, and this is less than an average of OECD 13%. 10% of men work very long compared to only 2% of women [7]. However, fewer hours of paid work for women do not mean more free time, and the number of hours spent on leisure is more or less the same for men and women in all 20 OECD countries surveyed. The right amount and quality of spending free time is very important for well-being, it can bring physical and mental benefits [9].

4 Female Entrepreneurship in the Context of the Economic Situation in Poland and Europe The development of entrepreneurship is now a very desirable phenomenon, so it is pursued at every level. It is to contribute to the development and improvement of the economic situation. The following factors determine entrepreneurship in individual countries [10]: • Macroeconomic categories: – unemployment – per capital income • Institutional factors: – government policy in the field of supporting entrepreneurship – the tax system – administrative procedures – access to financing – education system

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• Cultural and social factors: – social attitudes towards entrepreneurship – the image of the entrepreneur in society – attitude to women entrepreneurs – the level of innovation and creativity in society The above-mentioned factors can both contribute positively to the development of entrepreneurship in a positive and negative way. In addition, these dimensions interpenetrate. The influence of cultural factors that affect both education and the taking up of economic activity by women is particularly significant. As presented, unemployment is one of the factors determining entrepreneurship. Unemployment as a percentage of labour force in Poland (6,2), is lower than EU (8,5). Among the European Union countries, the highest rate reached Greece: 23.5 and Spain: 19.6 [7]. The results concerning Poland (presented in the Table 1) are referred both to the results for selected 6 countries as well as for the total of 28 European Union countries (EU28). The European countries that were analyzed were characterized by the highest rates of professional activity of women and a high position in the Global Gender Gap Index 2015 ranking prepared by the World Economic Forum. Only Slovenia is outside the first 20 countries - in 145th place, and its selection results from geographical relations with Poland, i.e. belonging to the region of Central-Eastern Europe [11].

Table 1. Share of employed women among the total number of employees (%) Country:/Year: 2010 2013 2016 Finland 48,6 48,7 48,3 Germany 46,2 46,5 46,5 Iceland 47,8 47,8 46,9 Norway 47,4 47,3 47,4 Poland 44,6 44,5 44,8 Slovenia 45,8 45,4 46,3 Sweden 47,1 47,6 47,8 UE-28 45,4 45,8 45,9 Europe 45,3 45,9 46,0 Source: own study based on data from the OECD Labor Force Statistics 2017

Skills and education determine finding a job, both taking up employment as well as working in your own enterprise. In the Better Life Index Poland ranks above the average in education. Especially women in Poland are characterized by a good

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education. 92% women and 91% of men have successfully completed high-school. Among polish people aged 25–64, 91%have completed upper secondary education [8]. This is a result higher than the OECD average of 74% and the highest in the OECD [7]. Also in the study of the quality of the education system, the average Polish student scored higher than the OECD average. In Poland, girls were above the tested skills than boys. Across the OECD employment levels are highest in Iceland (86%) and Switzerland (80%) and lowest in Turkey (51%), Greece (52%), Italy (57%) and Spain (60%). People with a higher level of education often have a job. In the entire OECD, about 82% of people with at least tertiary education have paid work, compared with an estimated 57% of people without upper secondary education. Knowledge and education are an important factor shaping entrepreneurship. It is also worth noting that the fact of having a higher education is not enough to encourage the establishment of companies. Due to the good education, graduates can find it easier to find wage labor [4], especially in large cities and at low unemployment levels. Starting a business activity is related rather to the profile of education and the demand of the labor market [10]. According to the GEM report, all over the world men more often engage in entrepreneurial activities than women. Only in three economies women declare equal or higher entrepreneurship rates than men: Ecuador, Vietnam and Brazil. A comparison of GEM survey results from 2016 and 2017 shows that the ratio of women entrepreneurs in comparison with male entrepreneurship increased by 6% [6]. Reducing gender inequality in business is a priority for decision-makers in all economies. Although the wage gap has been decreasing for several years, women still experience significant unfavorable differences in the level of remuneration in the same positions - the pay gap in Poland, reported by the Polish government, is about 7% [12]. Studies analyzing the gender pay gap show that Poland is characterized by one of the lowest wage gaps in the European Union.

5 Women’s Professional Entrepreneurship in the Context of the Need for Flexible Organization of Working Time The OECD reports that on average 59% of women had jobs, compared with 75% of men [7]. The employment rate of women is relatively high in Canada, Iceland and the Nordic countries. This can be explained by structural changes in the economy and society, but also by political factors, such as providing childcare that made it easier for mothers with young children to return to work. In general women more often limit participation in the labor market because of duties related to childcare. According to Eurostat research one third (31.4%) of women in employment in the EU worked on a part-time basis in 2016. This is a much higher percentage than the corresponding share for men, amounting to 8.2% [1].

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International comparison shows, that in Poland female share of part-time employment is below the European average (Poland 68,2, European Union: 73,8) (Table 2) [7]. Moreover: female part-time employment as a percentage of female employment: Poland: 9, European Union: 27,2. Male part-time employment as a percentage of male employment: Poland 3,4, European Union: 8,3. According to Eurostat, irrespective of whether people are employed full-time or part-time, this also affects the risk of poverty or social exclusion despite employment. As indicated, at 15.8%, part-time employees were twice as likely to be at greater risk of poverty or social exclusion than full-time workers whose risk was 7.8% in 2016 [6]. The availability of flexible working arrangements—such as telework and flextime —and of reduced working hours (part-time work) is necessary for people with caring responsibilities, particularly women to participate in the labour market. More than half of inactive mothers would prefer to work part-time [1]. Moreover, the availability of part-time work can lead to gender wage gaps and in the longer run reinforce the gender pension gap. In addition, women often take on part-time work due to high out-ofpocket costs for childcare. Long-term care services may result in women being even more dissuasive to work. This is particularly the case in Ireland, Poland and the Netherlands, where costs related to childcare constitute over 20% of family income for a couple with median earnings [1]. Therefore, what women are trying to get by working part-time should be replaced with a more profitable activity. The alternative may be professional entrepreneurship, that is self-employment, running a business by a woman. The owner herself decides how long she works, adjusts working hours to parental responsibilities. As the research shows, the need for flexible working time is one of the main needs of women - business owners and potential female entrepreneurs [4].

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6 Women’s Entrepreneurship - Economic Potential From an economic perspective, women are a resource with the same productivity as men. In combination with the knowledge and skills they have, they become a valuable element of human capital. Providing women with professional development opportunities (including in the field of entrepreneurship) will allow full and effective use of available talent resources. Women’s occupational activity also translates into an increase in income and, hence, in the well-being of households. The increase in the professional activity of women is additionally gaining importance in the context of the forecasted demographic changes, including in particular the decreasing number of people of working age in Europe, and especially in Poland, and the expected increase in average life expectancy [11]. International comparison shows that in Poland, self-employment as a percentage of employment is higher than in the EU; (Poland 20.7, European Union 15.8) [7]. The same applies in the case female self-employment as a percentage of female employment (Poland 16,8, European Union 11,8) (see Table 3). As a comparison, male selfemployment as a percentage of male employment is in Poland 23,9, in European Union 19,2. Europe has the lowest share of early-stage activity (6.1%). (For comparison, the highest average female TEA rates is in Latin America, the Caribbean 16.7% and North America 12.8%) [13]. The so-called TEA, or “Total early-stage entrepreneurial activity”, is the percentage of adults aged 18–64 who start their business activity (nascent entrepreneur) or started their business 42 months before the start of the study (owner-manager of the new company). Table 3. Percentage of self-employed women among all employed women (%) Country:/Year: 2010 2013 2016 Finland 9,0 8,8 9,4 Germany 8,4 8,1 7,6 Iceland – – – Norway – 4,4 – Poland 20,1 18,4 16,8 Slovenia 14,0 13,6 10,7 Sweden 6,4 6,2 6,1 UE-28 12,6 12,3 11,8 Europe 11,7 11,4 11,2 Source: own study based on data from the OECD Labor Force Statistics 2017

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The ratio of the participation of men and women in the early phase of entrepreneurship is very diverse in the entire sample of GEM countries, reflecting differences in culture and customs regarding the participation of women in the economy. Countries with the highest female potential TEA is Poland at 90.7%, Malaysia at 90.2%, and the US at 88%). Both in 2016 and in 2017, women were more likely to establish companies out of necessity, compared to men, in all regions except North America in 2017. The North American region is the only region where women are increasingly taking entrepreneurial activity out of opportunities, compared to men (the ratio of women to men is 1.02). In the European region, the share of companies established by women from necessity is 24.0% of TEA, while companies assumed by men 17.2% of TEA. In Poland, the situation does not reflect this trend. Only 8.3% of TEA females assume the company out of necessity, which is close to the number of 9.5% men. For both women and men in Poland, about 90% of TEA is motivated by the opportunity [13]. Thus, Poland has significant entrepreneurial potential.

7 Shaping Entrepreneurial Attitudes Among Young Women. The Results of Own Research The exploitation of women’s occupational potential is a source of economic well-being. To make this possible, it is necessary to shape the attitudes of young women, which should be preceded by the recognition of their initiative in the field of entrepreneurship. The research presented below has been conducted for the last five years. Students from universities located in Wielkopolska - the second best economically developed region in Poland - participate in them. One of the objectives was to define the entrepreneurial attitudes of women as potential and well-aimed entrepreneurs. Determination of the level of entrepreneurship, including the founding intentions at the education stage, enables the development of this area. The first in the presented research was conducted in 2013/2014 and only young women studying Management Engineering at the Technical University took part in them. The group was created on the basis of a quota selection, and the research tool was an original questionnaire. The aim of the research was to determine the support women need to run their own businesses [4]. Subsequent research was carried out at the beginning of 2017. A quantitative method was used in them, and the research tool was an original auditorium survey. The purpose of the study was, inter alia, identification of differences in entrepreneurial attitudes based on gender, preferred methods of financing and possibilities of using the Internet in the planned or conducted business activity, and their research results were presented in scientific articles [14]. The third group presented in this article participated in research aimed at recognizing the work-life balance in the context of female entrepreneurs’ work [9]. An original questionnaire was also used. Simplified characteristics of respondents from all groups are presented in the following Table 4.

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Table 4. Description of the tested sample. List of own research results. The size of the group of respondents Sex of the subjects Age: 19–25 years old Field of study

1 group 174

2 group 166

3 group 160

Women

Women and men

Women

100% of participants Management engineering

89% of participants

67% of participants

Technical and IT education, Law, Logistics, Tourism, Economics

Finance and accounting, Management Engineering, Security Engineering, Management, Health Security, Business Psychology

Source: own study.

The results of the research with the participation of the first group show that among the respondents there was a positive attitude towards starting enterprises (almost half of the respondents) (Table 5). This is understandable because the students of the economic faculty department were surveyed. Negative attitude towards professional entrepreneurship was characteristic of only about 15% of female students. The group 2 study was of comparative nature and women and men participated in it. The results show that in the surveyed group men and women just as often wanted to set up their own company (in each case about 33%). In addition, some of them have already started a business (twice as often they were men). The difference was that men were less likely to reply: “I do not know if I want to start a business. “Answered was 46.6% of the men surveyed, while among women it was 57.2%. Table 5. Attitudes of young women towards entrepreneurship. List of own research results. Entrepreneurial intentions: I want to start a business I don’t want to start a business I don’t know, if I want to start a business I already run my own business Source: own study.

1 group 2 group 3 group 48,3% 33% 42,5% 14,9% 4,5% – 36,8% 57,2% 47,5% – 5,3% 10%

In addition, in the studies of 2013/2014 (1 group), female students were asked what they would most need to effectively run their own business. Over half of the respondents indicate the need for financial support in running a business. The next place in terms of the frequency of indications is occupied by comprehensive economic and legal service, consultancy in the field of problems related to running a business and flexible working hours. Such needs related to potential self-employment are indicated by over one third of the students surveyed. Another question reveals that the most popular

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potential motive for starting a business is the desire to earn a decent income. The next place is the willingness to use the acquired knowledge and the need for independence. In the survey conducted in 2017 (2nd group), respondents were asked to choose the three most important factors in their opinion, which limit the intention to set up or run a business. Women and men are slightly different in terms of responses. The three most frequently mentioned responses by respondents are successively: difficulties in accessing financing sources, tax system and lack of a good business idea. Men indicate in turn: the tax system, difficulties in accessing financing sources, lack of knowledge about running a business. The surveyed women slightly more often than men pointed to the lack of a business idea. They also saw greater difficulties in accessing financing sources. In the third of the presented studies (with the participation of the 3rd group), respondents were asked to assess, on a scale of 1–5, the factors enabling effective reconciliation of professional requirements with personal life. The highest average grade was answered by flexible working time, then: working at home and taking over some household/caring responsibilities. At the same time, according to the results of the survey, the majority of respondents (62.5%) considered that setting up their own company could enable a more efficient reconciliation of professional duties with home and/or parental responsibilities. The comparison of results in the three groups studied allows for general conclusions: young Polish women (of the Wielkopolska region) exhibit significant entrepreneurial potential. This means that they often want to set up their own business. This is particularly evident in the group of students in management engineering. This could be an argument for the importance of knowledge in the process of shaping entrepreneurial attitudes. Promotion of entrepreneurship as a career path available to women should take place with the participation of social policy makers. The conducted research shows that the emphasis should be placed on showing entrepreneurship as a way of making a decent income, with easy access to financing and the possibility of flexible reconciliation of family and professional obligations.

8 Conclusion Women constitute half of the world’s population, but their contribution to the increase in Gross Domestic Product and the construction of well-being remains at a decidedly lower level than the potential. Despite reducing the gap between the participation of women and men in the labor market, still the share of working women is relatively small. Forecasts show that the use of resources inherent in every capable unit is an antidote to many social problems, such as poverty, aging of the population, lack of government finance for retirement benefits. And these are the problems experienced by the inhabitants of Europe, also in Poland. They are one of the most important economic challenges of the coming decades. The work of women drives the economy and increases the wealth of society. But the professional activity of women must make it possible to play a parental role. Entrepreneurship is characterized by greater flexibility in the organization of working time and thus enables reconciliation of work-family conflicts. This is important because

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part-time employment is not always enough. Often, the possibility of independent organization of working time allows women to earn more profit. This article is an attempt to justify female vocational enterprise. For this purpose, the theoretical and practical aspects of the phenomenon of female entrepreneurship were presented, described both in economic reports and literature studies, as well as the results of own research. This should be a good starting point to formulate recommendations for economic and social authorities in the field of policies to stimulate and develop female entrepreneurship.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Women in the Labour Market. European Semester Factsheet. http://www.ec.europa.eu Drucker, P.: Innowacja i przedsiębiorczość. Praktyka i zasady. PWE, Warsaw (1992) Terelak, J.F.: Psychologia menedzera. Difin, Warsaw (1999) Siemieniak, P., Łuczka, T.: Przedsiębiorczość kobiet. Wybrane aspect ekonomiczne i psychokulturowe. Politechnika Poznańska Publisher, Poznań (2016) Athayde, R.: Measuring enterprise potential in young people. Entrepreneurship. Theor. and Pract. 33(2), 481–500 (2009) Sustainable Development in the European Union. Monitoring Report on Progress Towards the Sdgs in an EU Context (2018). https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/document OECD (2018). https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/employment/oecd-labour-force-statistics-2017_ oecd_lfs-2017-en http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/jobs/ Siemieniak, P., Rembiasz, M.: Work-life balance w życiu kobiet- obecnych I potencjalnych przedsiębiorcow. In: Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Poznanskiej, vol. 76, pp. 229–242, Politechnika Poznanska Publisher, Poznan (2018) Zbierowski, P., et al.: Raport z badania GEM- Polska. PIB Publisher, Warsaw (2011) Praca I przedsiebiorczosc kobiet, Potencjal do wykorzystania w Polsce. http://publicrelations.pl/praca-i-przedsiebiorczosc-kobiet http://www.gov.pl GEM, 2017/2018 Global Report. https://www.gemconsortium.org/report Siemieniak, P., Rembiasz, M.: Determinanty przedsiebiorczosci kobiet - wybrane aspekty teoretyczne i empiryczne. In: przedsiebiorczosc i Zarzadzanie, vol. 18, pp. 349–361 (2017)

Monitoring Personnel Presence and Displacement in Production Facilities Using RFID Technology Robert Waszkowski(&), Tadeusz Nowicki, and Andrzej Walczak Faculty of Cybernetics, Military University of Technology, Urbanowicza 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland {Robert.Waszkowski,Tadeusz.Nowicki, Andrzej.Walczak}@wat.edu.pl

Abstract. The article describes a solution for monitoring the presence and movement of workers between production halls in the factory. The physical structure of the monitoring system components based on RFID antennas and chips embedded in every clothing element of an employee is presented. The hardware and software architecture of the solution is also presented and described in the article. Particular attention was paid to the algorithmic issues related to the detection of ambiguities resulting from human-machine cooperation. A number of problems resulting from different behavior of employees and their interpretation on the basis of readings for individual elements of their work attire have been solved. Keywords: Human-computer interaction Systems design
RFID
Aurea BPM


Monitoring
Algorithms


1 Introduction This article describes a solution for monitoring the presence and movement of workers between production halls in the factory. The article presents the physical structure of the monitoring system components based on RFID antennas and chips embedded in every clothing element of an employee. The hardware and software architecture of the solution is also presented and described in the article. Software modules based on business processes modeled in BPMN notation as well as implemented in a system allowing for their automation were also presented. Particular attention was paid to the algorithmic issues related to the detection of ambiguities resulting from human-machine cooperation. A number of problems resulting from different behavior of employees and their interpretation on the basis of readings for individual elements of their work attire have been solved. The developed methods for reliability testing of system structure elements and software testing methodologies are also presented. These methods are used to construct simulation software, which in an automated way examines the reliability of the described solution. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 206–213, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_20

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The described solution has been implemented and proven in practice as a system for monitoring the movement and presence of employees in the halls of a company that designs, produces and rents workwear.

2 Technical Architecture of the Monitoring System The technical architecture of the monitoring system consists of both hardware and software elements. The hardware elements are: RFID antennas, assembly items, network infrastructure, and the monitoring system server (the Middleware) [1–6]. The software elements are: operating system, database management system, application server, RFID antenna interfaces, and the monitoring system [7–9] (Fig. 1.).

Fig. 1. Monitoring system technical architecture

Sample configuration of monitored facilities, rooms and RFID readers is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Sample configuration of monitored facilities, rooms and RFID readers

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3 Reliability Testing of System Structure Elements Reliability model for personnel presence and displacement monitoring system in the environment located in many buildings and many rooms made up of many different elements, including RFID antennas, interfaces, database and application servers, as well as more than hundred RFID tags, was developed [10–13]. Each component was classified in terms of the reliability. For most of them individual reliability models were developed. The level of reliability of the employee monitoring system is dependent on the efficiency of the system’s hardware components, including a set of RFID antennas, and the reliability of system software. In the process of software reliability investigation, the software modular structure is considered. Indicator of system software reliability will be a function of this structure and values of the reliability of software components. Reliability states of individual components of the system were defined (hardware and software) and the same states for the whole system. The stochastic process associated with transitions between different reliability states was defined. It determines the characteristics of reliability for the system [14, 16, 17]. These characteristics are the basis to develop the reliability ensuring plan required for modern technical systems. As parts of reliability ensuring plan the following elements were developed: • • • • • • • •

measurement reliability of the system and its separate elements, measure software reliability and its constituent components, levels of limit values for the reliability of the system and its separate elements, list of researches necessary to investigate hardware, procedures and software components, methodology for testing various hardware components of the system, methodology for testing individual components of system software, methodology for the study of individual procedures, the form of the final report of reliability tests.

It was decided to use an innovative method to test the reliability and efficiency of the system. The simulator imitating workers displacement events was created [15]. The reliability of system elements is examined on the basis of simulation software that have been developed in order to test all the system structure elements. Particular attention was paid on methodologies for software testing. The constructed simulation software is able to act like real RFID antennas allowing us to simulate in a short period of time weeks and months of system work. The simulation software architecture is presented in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3. Simulation software architecture

4 Business Process Management Software In order to access the monitored zone an employee or their manager has to request for permissions. The request is then processed by the company authorities and as the result the access is granted to the employee. Similarly, all the requests for permission change are processed. Additionally, all these procedures may evolve in time. The best solution in that case was to use a Business Process Management System (BPMS) for process design, develop and execution. The use of Aurea BPM system allows both process design and process execution in a single environment. Several business processes were prepared and in the area of permission requests and permission management. Thank to the use of system for process automation all necessary data entry modules and workflows were prepares and implemented [18, 19]. Figure 4 shows a sample data entry form that corresponds with one of the process tasks.

Fig. 4. Data entry form for process task

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5 Detection and Interpretation of Ambiguities RFID antennas act as sensors that detect any movement of employees who wear their workwear with RFID tags embedded. When a worker approaches a specially designed enter/exit zone their tag is being read by antennas and the information about his or her presence in the zone is stored in the database. It is difficult to determine if a worker is entering or exiting the facility. That’s why a dual-antenna sensor has to be used. If we know individual time-stamps of worker’s detection by the first and the second antenna, we are able to determine his or her direction of movement and even the speed. It is then obvious if the employee is entering or exiting the monitoring area. Every worker has several peaces of clothings. That means that he or she is equipped with a number of RFID tags that could be read by sensors. The situation is clear if we detect the whole set of worker’s tags. We can accomplish that worker just crossed the exit zone wearing all their clothes. Much more difficult situation might take place if the worker moves by RFID antennas and we do not detect all of his tags. It means that he or she could leave some piece of clothings inside. Of course, we are not interested in clothings detection but in workers detection. That is why several algorithms had to be formulated in order to ensure the system that the given configuration of RFID tags detected by sensors means detection of the particular worker moving in or out the monitored facility. Test were conducted in a clothings rental company warehouse. Figure 5 shows simulated distribution of working time for clothings rental company warehouse. Figure 6 presents simulated distribution of non-effective working time for the same company and department.

Fig. 5. Working time distribution for clothings rental company warehouse

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NON-EFFECTIVE WORKING TIME DISTRIBUTION Cloakroom Canteen Toilet

Smoking area Fig. 6. Non-effective working time distribution for rental company warehouse

Effective working time was also simulated for individual employees in the company. The results are presented in Fig. 7.

Average working hours per day

Effec ve working me 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M N

O

P

Q

R

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Fig. 7. Effective working time for individual employees

6 Software Tests All the software prepared for employee displacement monitoring was tested at several stages to eliminate potential errors.

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First, the black-box testing method was used as a software testing method in which the internal structure, design and implementation of items being tested were not known to the tester. These kinds of tests covered both functional and non-functional test cases. Test design techniques include Equivalence partitioning, Boundary Value Analysis, Cause-Effect Graphing were used. At the same time the white-box testing method was used as a testing method in which the internal structure, design and implementation of the item being tested were known to the tester. In this case Control flow testing, Data flow testing, Branch testing, and Path testing technics were used. Some elements of interfaces required gray-box testing method as a combination of Black Box Testing method and White Box Testing method. All module testing was conducted by developers ad hoc, mainly with use of agile testing methods, as all the programmer’s tasks were executed with correspondence to the agile software development.

7 Conclusions In this paper, we have presented the concept of the implementation of a computer system using RFID technology for employee displacement monitoring and management. As the result, the prototype of the monitoring system was developed and all necessary antennas, interfaces, servers as well as software modules were prepared to provide workers displacement monitoring to different companies whose employees wear RFID tagged clothings. The results of the project could be used in many companies in various industries. This paper describes the system design for monitoring personnel presence and displacement. Tracking, visualizing and analyzing of employee displacement are the most important features in terms of managing a factory. The methods described above have been used in the project partially supported by EU.

References 1. Finkenzeller, K.: RFID Handbook: Fundamentals and Applications in Contactless Smart Cards and Identification, 2nd edn. Wiley, Hoboken (2003) 2. Cole, P.H., Ranasinghe, D.C.: Networked RFID Systems and Lightweight Cryptography. Springer, London (2008) 3. Zhang, Y., Yang, L.T., Chen, J.: RFID and Sensor Networks Architectures, Protocols, Security and Integrations. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2009) 4. Paret, D.: RFID at Ultra and Super High Frequencies: Theory and application. Wiley, Hoboken (2009) 5. Bolic, M., Simplot-Ryl, D., Stojmenovic, I.: RFID Systems Research Trends And Challenges. Wiley, Hoboken (2010) 6. Miles, S.B., Sarma, S.E., Williams, J.R.: RFID Technology and Applications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2008) 7. Aurea BPM system documentation - aurea-bpm.com

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8. Braude, E.J., Bernstein, M.E.: Software Engineering: Modern Approaches. Wiley, Hoboken (2011) 9. Larman, C.: Applying UML and Patterns: An Introduction to Object-Oriented Analysis and Design and Iterative Development, 3rd edn. Pearson Education India (2012) 10. Jasiulewicz-Kaczmarek, M., Saniuk, A., Nowicki, T.: The maintenance management in the macro-ergonomics context. In: Goossens, R.H.M. (eds.) Advances in Social & Occupational Ergonomics Proceedings of the AHFE2016 Conference on Social & Occupational Ergonomics. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 27–31 July, Walt Disney World®, Florida, USA, vol. 487, pp. 35–46 (2016) 11. Burduk, A.: The role of artificial neural network models in ensuring the stability of systems. In: 10th International Conference on Soft Computing Models in Industrial and Environmental Applications. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 368, pp. 427–437 (2015) 12. Jasiulewicz-Kaczmarek, M.: The role of ergonomics in implementation of the social aspect of sustainability, illustrated with the example of maintenance. In: Arezes, P., Baptista, J.S., Barroso, M., Carneiro, P., Lamb, P., Costa, N., Melo, R., Miguel, A.S., Perestrelo, G. (eds.) Occupational Safety and Hygiene, pp. 47–52. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, London (2013) 13. Kiedrowicz, M., Nowicki, T., Waszkowski, R., Wesolowski, Z., Worwa, K.: Method for assessing software reliability of the document management system using the RFID technology. In: Mastorakis, N., Mladenov, V., Bulucea, A. (eds.) 20th International Conference on Circuits, Systems, Communications and Computers, MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 76. Cedex A: E D P Sciences (2016) 14. Kiedrowicz, M., Nowicki, T., Waszkowski, R., Wesolowski, Z., Worwa, K.: Optimization of the document placement in the RFID Cabinet. In: Mastorakis, N., Mladenov, V., Bulucea, A. (eds.) 20th International Conference on Circuits, Systems, Communications and Computers, MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 76. Cedex A: E D P Sciences (2016) 15. Kiedrowicz, M., Nowicki, T., Waszkowski, R., Wesolowski, Z., Worwa, K.: Software simulator for property investigation of document management system with RFID tags. In: Mastorakis, N., Mladenov, V., Bulucea, A. (eds.) 20th International Conference on Circuits, Systems, Communications and Computers, MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 76, Cedex A: E D P Sciences (2016) 16. Nowicki, T., Pytlak, R., Waszkowski, R., Bertrandt, J.: The method for finding optimal sanitary inspectors schedules. (in English). Ann. Nutr. Metab. 63, 1027 (2013). Meeting Abstract 17. Nowicki, T., Pytlak, R., Waszkowski, R., Zawadzki, T., Migdal, W., Bertrandt, J.: Creating and calibrating models of food-borne epidemics (in English). Ann. Nutr. Metab. 63, 1027 (2013). Meeting Abstract 18. Waszkowski, R., Agata, C., Kiedrowicz, M., Nowicki, T., Wesolowski, Z., Worwa, K.: Data flow between RFID devices in a modern restricted access administrative office. In: Mastorakis, N., Mladenov, V., Bulucea, A. (eds.) 20th International Conference on Circuits, Systems, Communications and Computers, MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 76. Cedex A: E D P Sciences (2016) 19. Waszkowski, R., Kiedrowicz, M., Nowicki, T., Wesolowski, Z., Worwa, K.: Business processes in the RFID-equipped restricted access administrative office. In: Mastorakis, N., Mladenov, V., Bulucea, A. (eds.) 20th International Conference on Circuits, Systems, Communications and Computers, MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 76. Cedex A: E D P Sciences (2016)

Evaluation, Optimization and Job Design

Effectiveness in Prosthetic Adaptation and Users’ Satisfaction: Comparison Between Different Technologies Maria Patrizia Orlando1, Claudia Giliberti2, Fabio Lo Castro3, Raffaele Mariconte2, and Lucia Longo1(&) 1

3

Dipartimento Organi di Senso, Università Sapienza Rome, Rome, Italy {mariapatrizia.orlando,lucia.longo}@uniroma1.it 2 Dipartimento Innovazioni Tecnologiche e Sicurezza degli Impianti, Prodotti ed Insediamenti Antropici, INAIL, Rome, Italy {c.giliberti,r.mariconte}@inail.it CNR-INM, Sezione di Acustica e Sensoristica O.M. Corbino, Rome, Italy [email protected]

Abstract. The effectiveness of a hearing aid (HA) is commonly assessed by a questionnaire that provide information on the benefits/disadvantages of the use of the HA in real life situations. This work wants to analyze if acoustic benefit and satisfaction levels depend by an HA equipped with different technologies (Basic technology HA, Medium technology HA, Premium technology HA trough the International Outcome Inventory for Hearing Aids (IOI-HA) questionnaire administered to 60 patients and the Hearing Handicap Inventory (HHI) questionnaire administered to 14 patients. The results show that regardless of technology, persistent problems remain such as perception in noisy environments. A further effort is required by the technicians in the evaluation of the patient as a whole, from the identification of the HA that ergonomically better suits the needs of each patient until the adaptation in complex environments, for the minimization of the perception of disability. Keywords: Hearing aid


Hearing loss
Effectiveness
Benefit

1 Introduction Hearing loss is the most common sensory deficit related to aging and to occupational and or voluntary exposure to loud noise [1], increasing rapidly among adults in working age, at age 50 years and among elderly adults. Around 466 million people worldwide suffer from this disabling sensory deficit and it is estimated that over 900 million people will have disabling hearing loss by 2050 [2, 3], providing cost for their effective auditory rehabilitation [4]. In addition, the number of adults with hearing loss who continue to work later in life is growing [5], presenting a problem of safety and health of workers. Hearing loss could cause negative impact on work and family life; in working environment, hearing loss can compromise the effective realization of tasks and the safety of workers and others, when it is accompanied by difficulties in perceiving © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 217–227, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_21

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audible signals, including speech, in noisy environments, and the ability to identify where sounds are coming from. This is particularly hazardous for some specific job performance (for example law enforcement, agriculture, construction). An increased risk of accident can then occur because an alarm or danger signal was not heard or recognized, or no attention was paid to it, or it was not known where it was coming from [6, 7]. In personal environment, the difficulty in understanding speech could cause social isolation, frustration, depression, and even cognitive decline. Although hearing aids have been proven as successful interventions to restore the capability to care relationships, shared decision-making and personal autonomy towards the complete well-being [8], many technical issues remain open, especially for work environments. In fact, hearing aids are designed and adjusted to maximize the speech perception in environmental conditions that may differ greatly from noisy and echoing workplaces. Furthermore, it must be evaluated if hearing aids can optimize the hearing abilities needed by workers to carry out their tasks and to amplify useful sounds to safe levels without exacerbating the loss. Despite the large prevalence of hearing impairment and advances in hearing aid technology, working towards complete social and work rehabilitation of patients impaired, hearing aid rejection rates remain high. The poor uptake of hearing aids varies from: lack of tolerance in accepting the auditory disability or incapacity in the use of hearing aids to the cost of the equipment or low acceptability of hearing aids or shame especially for older individuals. In addition, not all adults provided with hearing aids wear them regularly, or are satisfied with them. Surveys conducted in the United Kingdom, Australia, Finland, Denmark, and the United States revealed that between 1% and 40% of hearing aids dispensed are never or rarely used [9]. Optimal outcomes of hearing aids are supported by comprehensive adaptive fitting protocols, among which the evaluation of its effectiveness and satisfaction, in working and family environments. Satisfaction of a hearing aid evaluated by a survey, could reveal the personal preferences and expectations of the patient, gaining importance in the determination of the benefit and satisfaction rate. In this sense, by means of self-report measures, a questionnaire evaluates the patient’s approach to the device and the expectations, providing information on the benefits/disadvantages of the use of the device in real life situations. The aim of this study is to reveal patients’ perceived satisfaction in hearing aidprescribed adult population, by using the International Outcome Inventory for Hearing Aids (IOI-HA) questionnaire and Hearing Handicap Inventory (HHI) questionnaire post-prosthesis, developed specifically to quantify the satisfaction of hearing aid users and the impact of these devices on their lives. The questionnaires have been applied to reveal if acoustic benefit and satisfaction levels depend by the use of hearing aids equipped with different technologies. In fact, in Italy, National Health System provides and recognizes the provision of hearing aids in relation to the hearing impairment, as a limitation of relationships, to children suffering from hearing loss or adults with hearing impairment declared by the specialist physician, in order to guarantee the auditory rehabilitation, in totally free

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form. This because the Italian National Health System (INHS) is a universalistic system, typical of States in which the right to health is guaranteed to the totality of the population. All over the world there are very few States that, outside the European Union, own or try to implement a universal health care system. The process for the supply of a hearing aid includes five steps: the prescription, the estimate, the authorization, the test, the declaration of approval. The hearing aid by the INHS provides an equipment with basic technical requirements, according with IEC 2015 [10], not expensive for the INHS, which can be adapted more or less effectively to the subject. Typically, this Basic hearing aid does not provide connectivity, listening programs and specific filters; it is instead equipped with a potentiometer, telephone coil, but with a limited number of frequency channels. Patients can take advantage of a product of a higher technical level (Medium technology), paying a charge privately. This Medium hearing aid provides: connectivity, greater number of frequency channels, telephone coil, listening and comfort programs, anti-noise and wind filters, tinnitus masking generator, directionality controls [11]. An hearing aid equipped with high-tech technology (Premium technology) can be totally purchased. This device is characterized by high performances on signal processing, listening comfort (adaptive noise reduction), binaural coordination (volume control, environmental classification), automatic adaptation to specific environments (cinemas and live music programs), directionality controls, wireless connections to TV, mobile phones, mp3 players up to 24 frequency channels.

2 Materials and Methods The IOI-HA was administered to 60 patients of an Italian hearing aid center, at the end of the minimum acoustic adaptation period (6 months). The participants were divided into 3 categories: patients with Basic technology HA (n. 20), Medium technology HA (n. 20), Premium technology HA (n. 20). IOI-HA contains seven questions (Table 1) used to subjectively estimate the use of the hearing aids, evaluating on a 5-level scale the quality of benefit, satisfaction, life quality, social communication, efficiency, associated with the use of the prosthesis, under the following parameters: (1) time for which hearing aids have been used; (2) benefit; (3) residual limitation in daily life activities; (4) satisfaction; (5) residual restrictions to participation; (6) impact on other people; and (7) quality of life [12]. For this purpose, responses from left to right are assigned a value from 1 to 5, where 1 stands for no benefit, 2 stands for minimum benefit, 3 stands with good benefit, 4 stands for discreet benefit and 5 stands for the best benefit obtained by wearing hearing aids. Then the answers to each question range from poor performance (1) to best performance (5); the values added can get from a minimum score of 7 points to a maximum score of 35, and higher scores indicate a more favorable outcome. The results collected by administrating the IOI-HA questionnaires have been statistically analyzed (chi - square test).

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M. P. Orlando et al. Table 1. International Outcome Inventory- Hearing Aids (IOI-HA) [13].

N.

Questions 1 Think about how much you used your present hearing aid(s) over the past two weeks. On an average day, how many hours did you use the hearing aid(s)? None Less than 1 h a 1 to 4 h a day 4 to 8 h a day More than 8 h day a day 2 Think about the situation where you most wanted to hear better, before you got your present hearing aid(s). Over the past two weeks, how much has the hearing aid helped in that situation? Helped not at Helped slightly Helped Helped quite a Helped very all moderately lot much 3 Think again about the situation where you most wanted to hear better. When you use your present hearing aid(s), how much difficulty do you STILL have in that situation? Very much Quite a lot Moderate Slight No difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty 4 Considering everything, do you think your present hearing aid(s) is worth the trouble? Not at all worth Slightly worth Moderately Quite a lot Very much it it worth it worth it worth it 5 Over the past two weeks, with your present hearing aid(s), how much have your hearing difficulties affected the things you can do? Affected very Affected quite Affected Affected Affected not at much a lot moderately slightly all 6 Over the past two weeks, with your present hearing aid(s), how much do you think other people were bothered by your hearing difficulties? Bothered very Bothered quite Bothered Bothered Bothered not at much a lot moderately slightly all 7 Considering everything, how much has your present hearing aid(s) changed your enjoyment of life? Worse No change Slightly better Quite a lot Very much better better

Further analysis was performed on 14 of the 20 patient with Basic technology aids and who gave their consent to undergo further screening. On these 14 patients, 8 were evaluated during the use of two pairs of hearing aids, those already used (Basic ones), and new ones proposed by the hearing care professional (Medium and Premium); the remaining 6 patients (reference group) opted to maintain their Basic technology prosthesis. All 14 patients were evaluated through instrumental tests and Hearing Handicap Inventory questionnaire (HHI) [14]. The HHI questionnaire consists of 10 questions divided into “Emotional Sphere” (from question 1 to question 5) and “Social Sphere” (from question 6 to question 10), with the purpose to identify the problems that hearing loss may be causing to the patient (Table 2). Each question corresponds to a response among the three available options (yes, sometimes, no). Four points are provided for the answer yes, 2 points for sometimes, 0 points for no.

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Table 2. HHI questionnaire N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Questions Does a hearing problem cause you to feel embarrassed when you meet new people? Does a hearing problem cause you to feel frustrated when talking to members of your family? Do you feel handicapped by a hearing problem? Does a hearing problem cause you to have arguments with family members? Do you feel that any difficulty with your hearing limits or hampers your personal or social life? Do you have difficulty hearing when someone speaks in a whisper? Does a hearing problem cause you difficulty when visiting friends, relatives, or neighbors? Does a hearing problem cause you to attend religious services less often than you would like? Does a hearing problem cause you difficulty when listening to TV or radio? Does a hearing problem cause you difficulty when in a restaurant with relatives or friends?

For the compilation of the HHI Questionnaire in the post-prosthetic phase, the patient was asked to describe and imagine the situations experienced after the approach with the hearing aid. The data collection duration was 3 months for each patient; it was designed to gather feedback on acoustic and emotional state adaption of patients, in order to compare the results obtained from patients wearing hearing aids equipped with different technologies. During the first session with the hearing care professional, the patient’s personal data were collected. The second session included the evaluation of the acoustic fitting through instrumental tests, (Tonal Audiometric Examination, Vocal Examination, signal/noise ratio) with and without the aid of hearing equipment. During the third session within 90 days, a new prosthesis equipped with best technology was proposed, applied and tested. At the end of the 3 months, the patient was subjected to the instrumental tests with the aid of the new hearing equipment, and the questionnaire HHI post- prosthesis was administered. The results collected by the HHI questionnaire have been statistically analyzed (cluster analysis).

3 Results The results obtained from the IOI-HA questionnaire to the 60 patients provide a rank of user satisfaction levels (Table 3).

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M. P. Orlando et al. Table 3. Satisfaction levels for IOI-HA questionnaire Score 1–7 8–14 15–21 22–28 29–35

Questions No benefit Little benefit Sufficient benefit Good benefit Great benefit

The patients enrolled in the study obtained a total of 1591 out of the 2100 points available, with an average of 26.51 points each, thus showing a good overall satisfaction and a good benefit from the use of hearing aids. In particular, the average patient satisfaction by technological class of devices shows that users with Basic technology have an average satisfaction of 23.8, therefore they perceive a good benefit from the use of the hearing aid; the users of Medium technology have obtained an average satisfaction of 27.3, so they also perceive a good benefit from the use of the hearing aid; the users with Premium technology have achieved a very high average satisfaction, 28.5, in the rank of those that perceive an excellent benefit from the use of the hearing aid. Table 4 shows the results for IOI-HA questionnaire, globally for all 60 patients: average scores for each question are reported, respectively from Basic technology users, Medium technology users, Premium technology users; General refers to all patients in a whole, without the reference to technology. Table 4. Results for IOI-HA questionnaire, globally for 60 patients HA technology Basic Medium Premium Average General

Question 1 4.05 4.20 4.40 4.22 4.26

Question 2 3.12 3.79 3.65 3.52 3.73

Question 3 3.07 3.70 3.80 3.50 3.64

Question 4 3.00 3.80 3.70 3.50 3.73

Question 5 3.63 3.60 4.37 3.90 3.85

Question 6 3.64 3.90 4.60 4.05 4.13

Question 7 3.50 4.05 4.00 3.85 3.60

The results allow to identify the questions that gave the interviewees fewer points. In particular, question 3, regarding residual activity limitations, shows a score of 3.64 out of 5 and question 2, regarding benefit, gives a score of 3.73 out of 5. The question 1 regarding the use of hearing aid, have registered a higher score, with a score of 4.26 out of 5 and question 6, regarding the impact on others, with a score of 4.13. These results show that patients use the hearing aid consistently, without particular inconvenience or shame. On the other hand, users do not appear completely satisfied with the benefit in some specific situations.

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The results show that the level of satisfaction for patients varies according to the technological level of the hearing aid used: patients using devices with Basic technology, obtained the highest score in question 1 (points 4.05 out of 5). On the contrary, the same group obtained the lowest score in question 4 related to satisfaction (3 out of 5 points available). This result shows that users with basic technology do not show great satisfaction in using their free of charge devices. Users who have added a small charge to purchase the higher technology devices (Medium technology), have obtained the highest score always in question 1 (4.2 points out of 5), while they found the lower score in question 5 that evaluates the influence that hearing loss has on daily user activities, revealing residual participation limitation (3.65 out of 5 points). The results show that even Medium technology users wear the aid for many hours a day, with a good level of satisfaction to the user, but resulting less effective in providing security in everyday situations. Finally, data analysis concerning patients who have privately purchased the device with Premium technology, shows that this category obtained the maximum score for question 6, regarding any difficulties perceived in the external world regarding their own hearing difficulties (score 4.6 out of 5); the minimum score was obtained for question 2 (How much has the hearing aid helped in the situation where you most wanted to hear better?) for a total of 3.65 out of 5. The results for patients using Premium technology are not dissimilar from the previous category. Despite having used a more sophisticated technology, the last group shows the maintenance of some conditions of social and communication discomfort. The chi-square test, applied to the results in Table 4, shows that there is a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the expected maximum value (5) and the answers provided by the three types of hearing aid users, also with respect to the average value calculated for each question. Therefore, all users find an effective benefit with the daily use of the prosthesis. The results of the statistical comparison between the answers provided for groups of users show that there is a strong correlation (86%) between the responses of the patients with the Basic hearing aid and premium Hi-tech, from which it can be inferred that the patients belonging both groups are both satisfied. Moreover, there is a great difference for satisfaction among patients belonging to the Medium and Premium classes (29%), while it is estimated that 6 out of 10 patients believe they have the same benefits both wearing a Basic device and one with Medium technology (60%). The results show that users of the Basic technology device are not satisfied respect to those that have purchased privately an aid which use Premium technology. A further analysis was performed on 14 among the 20 patients, all with Basic technology HA. The group included 9 men and 5 women, aged between 54 and 85 years. Six men and four women show hearing disorders related to presbycusis, two suffered from genetic neurosensory hearing loss, two show a hearing loss both due to pathology and trauma to the hearing apparatus. None of the evaluated hypoacusis was classified as professional.

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These 14 patients have been suggested to change their hearing aids, but only 8 joined, choosing a technologically advanced hearing aid. HHI post-prosthesis questionnaire was then administered to all these 14 patients. Regarding the emotional sphere (questions 1–5), the results show the effective overcoming of the main difficulties related to hearing impairment. In fact, for questions 1 and 2, which detect discomfort with strangers and relatives, the most frequent responses are respectively sometimes 78.4% and no 57%, suggesting greater safety from the use of hearing aid. The perception of disability or limitation due to hearing loss seems to improve (questions 3 and 5), especially for high-tech hearing aids users; for users of basic hearing aids the most frequent response is sometimes 53.6%, yes 43.2%, while for users of premium technology no 39.2%. Regarding the social sphere (questions 6–10), all patients have some difficulty in perceiving low intensity sounds (question 6, 42.8% yes), in wide and reverberant environments like church (question 8, 35.6% yes). Noisy environments represent an issue for both basic and hi-tech users (question 7, sometimes 57%; question 10 sometimes 50%). Conversely, users of advanced technology HA do not have difficulty in following programs on TV or radio (question 9, 64.2% no). Table 5 shows the results of the HHI post-prosthesis questionnaire for the 6 patients who continued to wear basic technology hearing aid and for the 8 patients who decided to test hearing aid with higher technology. The table reports the mean values for each question given by patients. Table 5. Results of the HHI post-prosthesis questionnaire for the 6 patients who continued to wear basic technology hearing aid and for the 8 patients who decided to test hearing aid with higher technology HHI questions 6 Basic HI patients 8 Medium-premium HI patients 1 2.00 1.50 2 2.00 0.25 3 2.00 0.75 4 1.00 0.00 5 3.67 1.50 6 4.00 1.25 7 3.33 1.50 8 3.67 1.50 9 3.00 0.00 10 3.33 1.25 Total score 28.00 9.50

According to the score interpretation given by Lichtenstein et al. [15], reported in Table 6, the comparison between the two groups demonstrate a significant differences. Basic HI patients exhibit severe handicap while Medium-Premium HI patients exhibit a light handicap.

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The results show that users of Basic technology HA still feel very limited due to hearing loss (question n. 5) and still experience great difficulty in certain listening environments, particularly in noisy environments or when more than one person speak at the same time (question n. 7 and n. 10). The users of advanced technologies HA obtained better results respect to patients who used Basic technology devices; their hearing aid effectively helps them during their life, eliminating discomfort situations and difficulty (questions n. 1, n. 7, n. 10) making them not only more involved in their lives, but also safer in themselves, no longer perceiving hearing loss as a disability (questions n. 3, n. 5).

Table 6. HHI score interpretation [15]. Total score Probability of hearing Handicap impairment 0–8 13% No 10–24 50% Mild-moderate 26–40 84% Severe

The results of the HHI post-prosthesis questionnaire show that higher technological hearing aid users express greater safety and a better quality of life in comparison to patients who use basic devices.

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Fig. 1. Dendrogram plot of the hierarchical binary cluster tree relative to the answers of the questionnaire

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The greater satisfaction of the prosthetic patient wearing high technology aid can be revealed by the instrumental tests: using the basic hearing aids, the patient, at the evaluation of the signal-to-noise ratio, recovers an average of +10% of intelligibility. Using the new Medium or Premium technology HA, the patient at the evaluation of the signal-to-noise ratio recovers an average of +25% of intelligibility. However, regardless of technology, difficulty in perceiving words when more people speak at the same time and in noisy environments can be detected, together with a perceived disability using hearing aids. Figure 1 shows the result of the cluster analysis to the responses of the patients to the questionnaire. In the dendrogram plot y-axis represents the distance between the two connected data points and the x-axis shows question number. It is possible to observe that questions 1, 2, 3, 4 and 9 are grouped together and question 5, 6, 7, 8 and 10 also. The first group is related essentially to the emotional sphere while the second group is related to the social sphere.

4 Conclusions The results show that Basic technology devices provide a good level of satisfaction among users, while Premium technology provides an excellent benefit. Patients with Basic technology devices use them for many hours a day but they are not very motivated. Even users of Medium technology HA use the devices for many hours a day but there is a perceived lack of safety in real life situations. Results from patients using Premium technology devices are not dissimilar from the previous category. Despite having used a more sophisticated technology, social and communication discomfort remain among the users, especially in complicated environments with significant background noise or in conversations with many people. The use of more advanced technologies, equipped with filters that work on multiple channels, which also have the ability to connect with other technologies (Bluetooth or wireless) or additional accessories are able to gratify much more the patient who has the possibility to optimize the vocal perception in different environments and unfavorable listening situations, effectively restoring the communication skills of the patient. The results of HHI questionnaire confirm what previously obtained. Regardless of technology, persistent problems remain such as perception in noisy environments, like working environments. A great effort is required by the technicians in the evaluation of the patient as a whole, starting from the perception of the disabling pathology to the identification of the hearing aid that ergonomically better suits the needs of each patient, to the acceptance of the hearing aid, until the adaptation of the devices in complex environments, for the minimization of the perception of disability.

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References 1. Orlando, M.P., Lo Castro, F., Iarossi, S., Mariconte, R., Longo, L., Giliberti, C.: Ergonomics and acoustics in music education. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 827, 23–32 (2019) 2. Lopez-Poveda, E.A., Johannesen, P.T., Pérez-González, P., Blanco, J.L., Kalluri, S., Edwards, B.: Predictors of hearing-aid outcomes. Trends Hear. 21, 23 (2017) 3. WHO: Deafness and hearing loss, 15 March 2018 4. Kelly, T.B., Tolson, D., Day, T., McColgan, G., Kroll, T., Maclaren, W.: Older people’s views on what they need to successfully adjust to life with a hearing aid. Health Soc. Care Community 21(3), 293–302 (2013) 5. Jennings, M.B., Shaw, L.: Impact of hearing loss in the workplace: raising questions about partnerships with professionals. Work 30(3), 289–295 (2008) 6. Trottier, M., Leroux, T., Deadman, J.E.: Le bruit. Manuel d’hygiène du travail: Du diagnostic à la maîtrise des facteurs de risque. Association québécoise pour l’hygiène, la santé et la sécurité du travail (Ed). Modulo-Griffon: Mont-Royal, Québec, pp. 159–183 (2004) 7. Picard, M., Poulin, M.: Noise as an explanatory factor in work-related fatality reports: a descriptive study. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem, 21–25 July 2008, Mashantucket, CT, USA, pp. 188–196 (2008) 8. Nkyekyer, J., Meyer, D., Blamey, P.J., Pipingas, A., Bhar, S.: Investigating the impact of hearing aid use and auditory training on cognition, depressive symptoms, and social interaction in adults with hearing loss: protocol for a crossover trial. JMIR Res. Protoc. 7(3), e85 (2018) 9. Vestergaard Knudsen, L., Öberg, M., Nielsen, C., Naylor, G., Kramer, S.E.: Factors influencing help seeking, hearing aid uptake, hearing aid use and satisfaction with hearing aids: a review of the literature. Trends Amplif. 14(3), 127–154 (2010) 10. IEC 60118-0 - Electroacoustics-Hearing Aids - Part 0: Measurement of the Performance Characteristics of Hearing Aids. IEC, 1 June 2015 11. Ralli, M., Greco, A., Cialente, F., Di Stadio, A., De Virgilio, A., Longo, L., Ciofalo, A., Turchetta, R., Cianfrone, G., De Vincentiis, M.: Somatic tinnitus. Int. Tinnitus J. 21(2), 112– 121 (2017) 12. Cox, R.M., Alexander, G.C., Gray, G.A.: Who wants a hearing aid? Personality profiles of hearing aid seekers. Ear Hear. 26(1), 12–26 (2005) 13. Cox, R.M., Stephens, D., Kramer, S.E.: Translations of the international outcome inventory for hearing aids (IOI-HA). Int. J. Audiol. 41, 3–26 (2002) 14. Ventry, I.M., Weinstein, B.E.: Identification of elderly people with hearing problems. ASHA Am. Speech-Lang.-Hear. Assoc. 25, 37–42 (1983) 15. Lichtenstein, M.J., Bess, F.H., Logan, S.A.: Validation of screening tools for identifying hearing-impaired elderly in primary care. JAMA 259(19), 2875–2878 (1988)

Handheld Grass Cutter Machine with Supporting Wheel Mayur Mhamunkar, Sagar Bagane, Lokesh Kolhe, Vikrant Singh, Mohit Ahuja, and Yueqing Li(&) Department of Industrial Engineering, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX 77710, USA {mmhamunkar,sbagane,lkolhe,vsingh3, mahuja,yli6}@lamar.edu

Abstract. Handheld grass cutter is an electronic or petrol-powered machine which is used to cut the grass. Since everyone likes their houses, offices, buildings, etc. surrounded by natural beauty, they grow plants, garden around houses. But they are also careful about maintaining it, so grass cutter plays important role in it. Traditional cutters available in the market are heavy and do not have any supports so it requires many human efforts during grass cutting. Here, we basically modified traditional hand grass cutter by providing wheel supports and rod support at the front end and middle of the cutter. The study was carried out with two subjective measures such as discomfort rating and Borg category ratio. Total 20 participants were examined with a group of 10 people performed a task on traditional and another group of 10 people on modified hand-held grass cutter. Results of both grass cutters were obtained and compared with each other. Keywords: Discomfort rating
Borg category
Ratio Traditional grass cutters
Modified grass cutter




1 Introduction Though we are living in the 21st-century people are still obsessed with greenery around their houses so today people are very careful about maintaining the house backyards, and grass cutter machines have become very essential (Fig. 1). Edwin Budding in 1830 invented first lawn mower and it was fabricated with the wrought iron and manually driven. After that in 1914, Ideal Power Company in the United States invented the first gasoline powered grass mower [1]. All those early designs were either manually driven or steam powered. And eventually, petrol powered, and the electrically powered grass cutter machine came in the market. Basically, the handheld grass cutter machine is petrol powered with cutting blades and used to cut grass on lawns. From the past until today, grass cutting at various places such as schools, fields, sports tracks, industries, hotels, public centers, house backyard, etc. was done with a cutlass (a short sword with a slightly curved blade). However, grass cutting with cutlass is very time consuming and requires human efforts. And inaccuracy in cutting level is also more when we use cutlass for grass cutting. The presently available handheld grass © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 228–235, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_22

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cutter machines in the market are quite heavy so they need extra human effort to hold and swing during grass cutting (Fig. 2). Also, vibrations are produced on large scale during this process, so prolonged exposure to hand-transmitted vibrations from handheld grass cutter machines has been associated with the increasing musculoskeletal diseases related to hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS) [2]. Normally ride on mowers gives the safest ride during grass cutting whereas lawn-mowers give high vibration levels [3]. So, there is a need to design such grass cutters which give less vibration and require fewer human efforts during grass cutting. The study was carried out with subjective measures such as Borg Category Ratio Scale and discomfort survey. The prototype of the original hand-held grass cutter was modified and supported by supporting wheels.

Fig. 1. Long lawn

Fig. 2. Edge along a sidewalk using a hand-held grass cutter

2 Literature Review A cross-sectional study carried out using an adopted HAVS questionnaire on hand-arm vibration exposure and symptoms on 168 male workers who used hand-held grasscutting machines during their daily work showed positive HAVS relationship between

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a group of people who were exposed to moderate vibration and those who were exposed to high vibration. Prolonged exposure of hand to such vibrations led fingers to turn in white and felt numbness. Results showed that it is necessary to carry out health and safety awareness programmed for grass-cutting workers who are continuously exposed to vibrations during grass cutting [2]. Line trimmer used for grass cutting creates a problem of uneven cutting because of holding cutter at fix level. At the same time, the physical strain caused due to weight limits the control of the operator over the trimmer. Hence there is a need to provide support or any attachable device that will support trimmer and reduce stresses to the user [4]. Using a flexible model, the study was carried out where local and whole-body vibrations hazards and possible health damages were studied. Results showed among all-terrain vehicles (ATV), simple lawnmowers, ride-on mowers the ride-on mowers provide the safest ride with low vibration. Lawnmowers gave high vibration levels. It is also suggested that the personal protective equipment is also necessary against vibration [3]. MSD related problems of gardeners who use hand tools were assessed using the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire. The study was conducted on 120 samples including 30 gardeners from each park. It was seen that many gardeners used a grass cutter. Consequently, they felt (11.66%) high comfort with grass cutter, (9.16%) moderate comfort with grass cutter and low comfort with shovels. They suffered from discomfort in their body parts specifically in legs, lower arms, upper arms, neck, and shoulder. It was concluded that MSD among gardeners is because of stressful work and unawareness regarding the proper handling of hand tools [5]. Grass cutting with cutlass takes a lot of time and requires many humanitarian efforts. At the same time inaccuracy in grass cutting was also observed using the manual cutting method [1]. The primary analysis was done on vibrations emitted by brush cutters and to discover daily vibration exposure. Four different brush cutters with three machines of each model were experimented during the study. Results showed that the intensity of vibration by brush cutters exceeds the daily exposure limit more than two-fold [6]. Almost 750 farmers were interviewed during a span of 4 years (1993–1996) using questionnaires. Information regarding self-reported back pain and potential risk factors were evaluated. Near 27% of farmers (194 out of 750) had one episode of back pain which last for at least one week or more. Males were highly suffered from back pain than females. Lower back was the significantly affected part for both males and females (28.6% and 22.5%). It demonstrated that back pain is an occupational health problem and affects male and female differently which requires further attention [7]. Taking all such things into consideration there is a need to eliminate human efforts, vibrations while using grass cutter so that grass cutting activity becomes easy and effortless. So, to eliminate MSDs related to back pain, especially lower back, arms and shoulder the study proposed to provide support to grass cutter by modifying the traditional grass cutter with supporting wheels.

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3 Methodology 3.1

Participants

20 participants male (M = 40, SD = 3.03) free from musculoskeletal diseases and neuro-muscular disorders were recruited to perform the experiment. 3.2

Equipment

3.2.1 Handheld Grass Cutter There were two types of handheld grass cutters used in this experiment: the traditional handheld grasscutter (Fig. 3) and the modified hand-held grasscutter (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. Traditional handheld grass cutter

Fig. 4. Modified grass cutter

3.2.2 Modified Design Prototype grass cutter is designed by using the Plastic pipe of weight approximately 7 kg. The hollow bar is used to connect grass cutter and wheel (Fig. 5). The height of the bar was based on the average height of participants. Two supporting wheels are attached to the hollow bar and front end of the prototype grasscutter (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Bar to connect to grass cutter

Fig. 6. Wheel

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3.2.3 Subjective Measures Musculoskeletal strain intensity levels were measured using a modified Borg category ratio scale (cr-20 scale). The scale of exertion levels ranges from 0 (nothing at all) to 10 (extremely strong, maximal strain). Secondly, discomfort surveys were used to measure the user subjective discomfort level. 3.3

Experimental Design

3.3.1 Independent Variables There is one independent variable that is types of grass cutter with 2 levels: the traditional one and the modified one. 3.3.2 Dependent Variables (1) Discomfort level of muscular activity of (a) Upper back (b) Left shoulder (c) Right shoulder (d) Left elbow (e) Right elbow (f) Left forearm (g) Right forearm (h) Low back (i) Hip, was measured by using the discomfort survey. (2) Average fatigue levels of the participants. This was measured by using Borg category ratio ratings. 3.4

Experimental Task

The experiment task was grass cutting either in traditional grass cutter or the modified grass cutter in an environment of 22 to 25 degree Celsius, 55% relative humidity. The task last for 15 min. The participants were requested not to participate in any physical activity a day before the experiment. 3.5

Experiment Procedure

The experiment was carried out in the following procedure: The participant was asked to fill in the demographic questionnaire. The participant height was measured using anthropometric tape. The participant was shown a demonstration of how to operate a grass cutter. The participant was asked to operate a grass cutter on a straight pathway using either traditional or modified for 15 min. 5. After completion of the task, the participant was asked to complete the discomfort survey and Borg Category Ratio Scale. Then, the participant was dismissed. 1. 2. 3. 4.

4 Results 4.1

Discomfort Survey

The discomfort survey data was analyzed using a t-Test. The results are as below.

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(a) Discomfort on Upper Back The result revealed a significant difference in upper back stress level between the traditional and modified grass cutter (t = 2.861994, p = 0.010436). The discomfort rating for upper back with modified grass cutter (M = 2.1, SD = 0.737865) was significantly less than that with the traditional grass cutter (M = 3, SD = 0.666667). (b) Discomfort on Shoulders The result revealed a significant difference in right and left shoulder stress level between the traditional and modified grass cutter (t = 2.683282, p = 0.01271 and t = 2.3312, p = 0.031431). The discomfort rating for right and left shoulder with modified grass cutter (M = 2.4, SD = 0.699206 and M = 2.1, SD = 0.666667) was significantly less than that with the traditional grass cutter (M = 3.2, SD = 0.632456 and M = 2.7, SD = 0.674949). (c) Discomfort on Elbows The result revealed a significant difference in right and left elbow stress level between the traditional and modified grass cutter (t = 3.579353, p = 0.002739 and t = 3.160827, p = 0.005408). The discomfort rating for right and left elbow with modified grass cutter (M = 2.3, SD = 0.823273 and M = 1.9, SD = 0.737865) was significantly less than that with the traditional grass cutter (M = 3.4, SD = 0.516398 and M = 3, SD = 0.816497). (d) Discomfort on Forearm The result revealed a significant difference in right and left forearm stress level between the traditional and modified grass cutter (t = 3.22047, p = 0.004744 and t = 3.488266, p = 0.003038). The discomfort rating for right and left forearm with modified grass cutter (M = 1.8, SD = 0.788811 and M = 1.4, SD = 0.966092) was significantly less than that with the traditional grass cutter (M = 2.9, SD = 0.737865 and M = 2.7, SD = 0.674949). (e) Discomfort on Lower Back The result revealed a significant difference in lower back stress level between the traditional and modified grass cutter (t = 4.57662, p = 0.000234). The discomfort rating for lower back with modified grass cutter (M = 2.1, SD = 0.737865) was significantly less than that with the traditional grass cutter (M = 3.7, SD = 0.823273). (f) Discomfort on Hip The result revealed a significant difference in hip stress level between the traditional and modified grass cutter (t = 2.44949, p = 0.02477). The discomfort rating for hip with modified grass cutter (M = 2.2, SD = 0.788811) was significantly less than that with the traditional grass cutter (M = 3, SD = 0.666667). 4.2

Borg Category Ratio for Exertion Ratings

The result revealed a significant difference in Fatigue level between the traditional and modified grass cutter (t = 5.676599, p = 0.000143). The exertion rating was significantly less with modified grass cutter (M = 2.5, SD = 0.527046) compared to the traditional grass cutter (M = 5.7, SD = 1.70293864).

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5 Discussion In Fig. 7, Y-axis shows exertion rating and X-axis shows participants feedback on traditional and modified handheld grass cutter. The modified design of the hand held grasscutter has proved a significant improvement in lowering discomfort level and fatigue level of the participants. Discomfort ratings dropped with the maximum value in lower back. From grass cutter operators’ feedback, it was showed that the discomfort rating and the exertion rating significantly reduced for lower back when modified grass cutter was used compared to the traditional grass cutter. Accordingly, the injuries related to the lower back will be expected to decrease among the operators if using the modified grass cutter.

BORG CATEGORY

6 5 4 3 2

p1 p2

p4

p7

p3 RaƟngs

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p8

p10

p17 p18

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p5 p12

p14

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8

RaƟngs

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Body Parts

1 0

TradiƟonal(Mean) ParƟcipants Number TradiƟonal

Modified

Modified (Mean)

Fig. 7. Borg category exertion rating graph

Using this design operator can work without lifting it above the ground as it has been provided with the two-wheel support with supporting rod in a front and in the middle of the grass cutter [6]. This design provides grass cutter support to stand on the ground while in work. In a case of new modified design, operator just need push or pull the grass cutter to do the straight edge cutting.

6 Conclusion Handheld grass cutter is a modern machine to cut the grass which is normally being used everywhere nowadays. For edge trimming and side cutting work one must hold it and carry it for the longest time, without any support. It is a very cumbersome job to perform. By modification of grass cutter, there is a great reduction of stresses produced

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in the body of the operators. The result showed that the discomfort rating and Borg Category Scale when using the hand-held grass cutter was significantly less than that of the traditional hand-held grass cutter at lower back and every other body part such as shoulder, forearm, upper body has reduced significantly. In a future work we are going to consider the vibration effect of the grass cutter on human work efficiency, which will give us closer view on a problem.

References 1. Ibe, G.A.: Design of a Hand-held Grass Mower. Int. J. Eng. Res. 6, 116–119 (2017) 2. Azmir, N.A., Ghazali, M.I., Yahaya, M.N., Ali, M.H., Song, J.I.: Hand-arm vibration disorder among grass-cutter workers in Malaysia. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 22, 433–438 (2016) 3. Tint, P., Tarmas, G., Koppel, T., Reinhold, K., Kalle, S.: Vibration and noise caused by lawn maintenance machines in association with risk to health. Agron. Res. 10, 251–260 (2012) 4. Clesson, T.E.: United State Patent No. 4922694 (1990) 5. Srivastava, S., Kiran, U.V.: Musculoskeletal disorders of gardening labour due to hand. Int. J. Comput. Eng. Res. 7, 17–21 (2017) 6. Krzysztof, W.: The influence of the cutting attachment on vibrations emitted by brush cutters and grass trimmers. For. Res. Pap. 76, 331–340 (2015) 7. Xiang, H., Stallones, L., Keefe, T.J.: Back pain and agricultural work among farmers: an analysis of the Colorado farm family health and hazard surveillance survey. Am. J. Ind. Med. 35, 310–316 (1999)

Ergonomic Evaluation in the Ecuadorian Workplace Oswaldo Jara1(&), Fanny Ballesteros2, Esteban Carrera1, and Pablo Dávila1 1

2

Universidad Internacional Sek, Quito, Ecuador {oswaldo.jara,esteban.carrera, pablo.davila}@uisek.edu.ec Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. In Ecuador, ergonomic risk is present in all types of work activity. 1759 ergonomic evaluations were carried out between 2012 and 2017 applying methodologies validated and used worldwide. The results establish that more than 90% of jobs have an unacceptable level of ergonomic risk which determines that technical and organizational corrective measures must be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk and avoid a high incidence of musculoskeletal problems in the working population of the country. Keywords: Ergonomic risk


Awkward postures
Manual handling

1 Introduction In Ecuador in all types of work tasks it has been possible to identify ergonomic risks by awkward postures, repetitive movements and manual handling of loads, in addition the incidence and prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders is high in the country’s working population, which allows us to presume that Ergonomic management has not been technically implemented. After having identified the ergonomic hazards, these must be evaluated by applying specific methodologies in order to establish the risk and apply corrective measures, both technical and organizational. These methodologies will allow us to establish the different levels of risk in order to prioritize our management, since the budget that exists for safety and health activities is often insufficient, so the respective management should be properly planned. The application of the methodologies depends on several factors such as the experience of the technician, the complexity of the method, and the activity evaluated [1]. The most used methods in the country in the evaluation of awkward postures are the OWAS, REBA and RULA methodologies; for repetitive tasks the OCRA Check List method; and for lifting loads the revised NIOSH equation. In a survey of certified ergonomists from several English-speaking countries, it was established that the NIOSH equation is the most used evaluation method (86.9%), followed by the RULA method (80%), the SNOOK and CIRIELLO Tables (77.8%), and the REBA method © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 236–244, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_23

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(68.9%). The OWAS (27.7%) and OCRA (13.1%) methods are used in a smaller percentage [2]. The technicians must have the technical knowledge for the correct application of the different methods, since they can be mistaken in the analysis and can overvalue or underestimate a risk with the due consequences that these situations generate. In a study it was possible to establish that, when applying ergonomic evaluation methodologies, about 30% of them have errors; in 13% of the evaluations the errors were serious and completely invalidated the results of the evaluation; in 15% of cases the errors led to unrealistic results; and 2% of the evaluations had errors due to methodological oversights [3]. The results of the evaluations will allow finding the technical and/or organizational causes that generate the risk and the technicians must know how to manage them to minimize or eliminate the risk. Ergonomists are currently being trained to be the initial responsible for these activities, since the participation of experienced personnel is important to achieve a successful program [4] Ergonomists should have knowledge based on four levels: basic knowledge, basic applications, processes and tools, and systems integration [5]. In addition, with the results of the ergonomic evaluations, statistics can be generated that can establish a partial reality of the ergonomic state in our country.

2 Materials and Methods In a retrospective study, between 2012 and 2017, 1759 ergonomic evaluations were carried out in different labor companies located in several areas throughout the country, such as administrative, banking, paper production, footwear production, steel production, tuna production, shrimp production, flour and derivatives production, hospitals, tire production, vegetable markets, companies that produce newspapers, pharmaceutical, supermarkets, textile companies, cosmetics producers, and auto shops. Prior to the application of the evaluation methods, identification criteria were established, under ISO/TR 12295: 2014 “Ergonomics. Application document for International Standards on manual Handling (ISO 11228-1, ISO 11228-2 and ISO 11228-3) and evaluation of static working postures (ISO 11226). These criteria allowed to establish uniform and technical concepts in the initial information survey, which also involved knowing all the activities carried out, materials and tools used and the area of work performance. In one workplace, an ergonomic hazard or several were identified simultaneously, which established the application of one or more methodologies in the same workplace. The methodologies used for the evaluation of awkward postures were the OWAS, REBA and RULA methods; for the evaluation of repetitive tasks the OCRA Check List and the OCRA method; for lifting and transporting of loads the ISO Standard 11228-1; and for pushing/pulling loads the ISO Standard 11228-2. Of all evaluations applied, those corresponding to forced postures were 1278 (73%), for repetitive movements 168 (9%), and manual handling of loads 313 (18%) (Fig. 1).

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Manual Handling of Loads 18%

RepeƟƟve Tasks 9%

Awkward Postures 73%

Fig. 1. Percentage of ergonomics assessments performed.

Of the evaluations applied for awkward postures, 1093 (85%) were made with the REBA method, 127 (10%) with the OWAS method, and 58 (5%) with the RULA method (Fig. 2).

RULA 5% OWAS 10%

REBA 85%

OWAS

REBA

RULA

Fig. 2. Percentage of awkward postures assessments performed.

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In the evaluations of repetitive tasks, the OCRA Check List method was used in 86% of occasions, and in 14% the OCRA method (Fig. 3).

OCRA 14%

OCRA CheckList 86% Fig. 3. Percentage of repetitive tasks assessments performed.

Regarding the handling of loads, 108 assessments were established as simple tasks, 100 assessment were composite tasks, and 105 estimations as variable tasks (Fig. 4).

120

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Fig. 4. Number of manual handling assessments performed.

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3 Results The results obtained from the evaluations of awkward postures using the REBA method determined that 11% have a low level of risk, 67% a medium level, 19% a high level, and a 3% a very high level (Fig. 5).

VERY HIGH RISK 3% LOW RISK 11%

HIGH RISK 19%

MEDIUM RISK 67%

Fig. 5. Level of risk. REBA

By applying the RULA method it was found that 91% of evaluations have a low level of risk, a 7% level of medium risk, and a 2% level of risk very high (Fig. 6).

Low Risk

Medium Risk

Very High Risk

2% 7%

91%

Fig. 6. Level of risk. RULA

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With the application of the OWAS methodology it was possible to determine that in the jobs analyzed the awkward postures were adopted more than 20% of the workday in a 60.7% (Fig. 7).

39.30% 36.20% 21.20% 3.30%

Equal or less than 20%

20-40%

40-60%

60-80%

Fig. 7. Percentage of awkward postures. OWAS

The evaluations of repetitive movements with the OCRA Check List method allowed us to establish that 10% of positions have an acceptable risk, 14% a very slight level of risk, 12% a level of slight risk, 35% a level of medium risk, and 29% a high level of risk (Fig. 8). RISK LEVEL Acceptable

Very Slight

Slight Risk

Medium Risk

10% 29%

14%

12%

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Fig. 8. Level of risk. OCRA Check List

High Risk

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With the OCRA method, the results allow us to point out that 5% of evaluated positions have an acceptable risk, 4% a medium level of risk, and 91% a high level of risk (Fig. 9).

Risk Level 5%4%

91% Acceptable

Medium

High

Fig. 9. Level of risk. OCRA

RISK LEVEL Acceptable

Low Level

Moderate Level 8% 6% 10%

76%

Fig. 10. Level of risk. Manual handling

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E rgonomics Assessment 97.40%

2.60%

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92.00%

91.10%

8.90%

8.00%

RepeƟƟve Tasks Acceptable

Manual Handling

Unacceptable

Fig. 11. Ergonomics assessment

When evaluating lifting, transport, pushing and pulling loads with the standard ISO 11228-1 and the standard ISO 11228-2, it was established that 8% of positions have an acceptable level of risk, 6% a low level of risk, 10% a moderate level of risk, and 76% a high level of risk (Fig. 10).

4 Conclusions The data were obtained applying validated methodologies and widely used at an international level and were performed by qualified ergonomists who executed the methodology technically to minimize the percentage of error that usually occurs in ergonomic studies. There are unacceptable levels of risk in a high percentage of the evaluated jobs, in all ergonomic hazards involved exceeds 90% (Fig. 11). In our country it can be concluded that the reasons for such a high risk are the inadequate job designs derived from the lack of an Ecuadorian anthropometric profile which determines a labor mismatch of a large part of workers in all types of companies. In addition, we must mention that the organization of work in many companies allows durations of the day exceeding eight hours, with short recovery times and breaks for workers, with high frequencies and moderate and intense applied forces. There are also shortcomings in health surveillance programs that do not allow determining the physical capabilities of workers due to the lack of physiological protocols and tools that allow to establish the work requirement and the aptitude of the people.

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Likewise, the manipulated mass exceed in many activities the weight limit established in our law (23 kg), with unsuitable handling environments that demand inadmissible horizontal and vertical handling distances, high frequencies, and with extreme trunk torsions; and companies think that only training is enough to minimize or eliminate risk, forgetting completely that if we do not correct the design of the jobs and guarantee adequate organizational aspects, the risk levels will be maintained or even higher, generating musculoskeletal disorders to all our workers. The ergonomic risks present in the country should be a warning signal to establish immediate corrective measures in the entire Ecuadorian workplace.

References 1. Malchaire, J.: A classification of methods for assessing and/or preventing the risks of musculoskeletal disorders. European Trade Union Institute, Brussels (2011) 2. Lowe, B.: Assessment methods used by certified ergonomics professionals. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 2018 Annual Meeting (2018) 3. Diego-Mas, J.: Errors using observational methods for ergonomics assessment in real practice. Human Factors (2017) 4. Hagg, G.: Corporative initiatives in ergonomics. In: Proceedings of the IEA 2000/HFES 2000 Congress (2000) 5. Bridger, R.: An International Perspective on ergonomics education. Ergon. Des. 20(4), 12–17 (2012)

Ergonomics Study in the Productive Process in Civil Construction in the External Plastering Activity Ariel Orlei Michaloski(&), Juliano Prado Stradioto, and Antônio Augusto de Paula Xavier Federal Technological University of Paraná, Ponta Grossa, Brazil {ariel,augustox}@utfpr.edu.br, [email protected]

Abstract. This work used as an ergonomic analysis method the OCRA checklist method, thus enabling an ergonomic risk analysis of the external plaster activity, which is indicated by International Standard ISO 11228-3: 2009 as the preferred process of repetitive action analysis. The data collection took place in construction sites in the cities of Ponta Grossa/PR and Porto Alegre/RS through the application of filming and interview. The analysis of the demand verified the higher incidence of upper limb pain and lesions, besides the question of repetitiveness in the analyzed activity. The study of the chosen activity resulted in a high level of risk requiring immediate intervention, with subsequent suggestion of improvements and confirmation by means of recalculation of the ergonomic risk to implement the advances by one of the participating companies. The progress resulted in a reduction of ergonomic risks by more than 50%, with improvement in the postures and strength requirements. Keywords: Ergonomics Civil construction


Ergonomic risk
External plastering


1 Introduction Construction workers (CW) have a high risk of developing work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD) due to the level of physical effort required in their work activities at construction sites. According to [1] WMSDs are caused by the high risk of activities and the complex nature of CW, as well as the large universe of micro, small and medium companies that are not interested, do not have expertise and investment capacity to prevent work-related disorders, thus making it difficult to cope with these risks. In this context [2] show that ergonomic actions are performed to identify the ergonomic risk factors that justify the use of ergonomics knowledge in several areas of work, but even with all the justifications presented in these studies, ergonomics is still not prioritized in production practical issues, quality and safety at work. Lumbar lesions and work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD) are the most frequent. In this way, WMSDs can be defined as “injuries to muscles, tendons, joints, © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 245–255, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_24

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nerves caused or aggravated by work”. Therefore, these pathologies occur mainly in workers involved in the transportation of heavy loads, kneeling, contact stress, vibrations, extreme temperatures and hand and wrists sprain, typical construction activities [3]. In CC, there is a prevalence of symptoms varying from 7 to 30% in the lumbar region and above 50% in the upper limbs, as reported by [4]. The repetitive use of smaller muscles and the adoption of non-neutral postures, in addition to prolonged exposure to repetitive movements, may lead to the development of WMSDs [5]. On the other hand, [6] states that by means of procedures and methods to evaluate the musculoskeletal load it is possible to analyze parameters related to biomechanical factors, that is, the exerted force and posture in sequences of time. Musculoskeletal disorders are often found in most occupations and sectors of industry, especially in construction, as this is a sector where workers carry out a continuous and heavy physical effort during their work activities, with critical physical and financial consequences for workers and companies, private and public ones [7]. In view of this, the Brazilian and international construction industry presented studies on WMSD in construction sites [8–11], among others. However, in the outside plaster service of facades or similar services there are few published studies [12, 13], highlighting the need for more studies in this specific activity of work at height to minimize risks to workers. In this context, this study aims at verifying the following problem: what are the ergonomic factors for the aggravation of the musculoskeletal disorders of the upper limbs in work at height in the construction, involving the activity of outside plastering on buildings’ facades? In order to answer this question, the objective of this study is to analyze the ergonomic demand of the outside plaster activity in facades, as well as the associated ergonomic risk. This study is part of a larger study, where the first step is the calculation itself of the ergonomic risk of the outside plaster activity, together with the analysis of the ergonomic demand. The second stage will be the subsequent reduction and mitigation of the ergonomic risk in the studied activity.

2 Literature Review 2.1

Ergonomics in the Context of Construction

The concept that ergonomics is a discipline that aims to provide systems of safety, well-being and performance necessarily includes a mixture of knowledge from areas such as engineering, medicine and behavioral sciences. [14] also points out that this discipline provides a solid foundation for analyzing, designing and creating highquality work situations for the employee, as well as valuable performance in different types of operations systems. Ergonomics in construction has a wide range of studies in several of its areas of activity. According to [15] who developed a study on the ergonomic analysis of the gypsum installer activity, where the high level of effort was found in the lumbar region and shoulders during the installation of gypsum drywall.

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Statistics in the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) database, between 2011–2015, in the US construction industry, show that the most injuries/illnesses resulted in absence from work, as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Number of non-fatal injuries and illnesses involving days off work Year 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 Total

Lumbar 1710 2470 2190 2500 3020 11890 29,50%

Arms 670 400 470 1050 540 3130 7,77%

Neck 90 310 80 250 120 850 2,11%

Hands/wrist 2140 3770 3540 3150 3580 16180 40,15%

Shoulders 4300 890 810 1360 890 8250 20,47%

The most expressive results, especially in the hands/wrist with 40.15%, followed by lumbar lesions with 29.50% and shoulders with 20.47%, considering only upper limbs. These disorders and illnesses compel workers to stay for long periods away from work, increasing the risk of chronic health problems [3]. 2.2

Method of Analysis of the Ergonomic Risk Factor

To support the choice of method for this research, the International Organization for Standardization ISO 11228-3: 2009 recommends the OCRA method for repetitive action analysis, as it considers all relevant factors, and it is also applicable in the case of complex tasks analysis based on epidemiological data (extensive database of occurrence of WMSDs) in relevant populations of exposed works (ISO 11228, 2009). According to [16], the OCRA checklist method is recommended by ISO 11228-3: 2009 also for studies of low loads with a high frequency of repeatability, which is the case of the activity of outside plastering on buildings’ facades, since this method considers several risk factors such as repetitiveness, strength and posture. 2.3

General Criteria of the OCRA Checklist Method

The OCRA checklist is a tool that aims to measure the risk of biomechanical overload of upper limbs, which can be used both in the initial stage of estimating risk levels in a given industrial environment (in the case of this research, in building sites), or at a more advanced stage of research or business management, to manage the risk of the analyzed activity [17]. OCRA checklist consists of five parts that focus on the four major risk factors (recovery time, frequency, strength, inadequate posture/stereotyped movement) and a number of additional risk factors (vibration, low temperatures, precision work, repeated impacts, etc.), and also the factor in the net duration of repetitive work in the final risk estimate [18].

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The calculation procedure to reach the final result (Fig. 1) shows how all risk factors are included; the recovery period is a multiplier that must be applied together with the duration factor to the sum of the scores for the other risk factors [18].

Fig. 1. OCRA CHECKLIST calculation procedure

The method is not only useful for accurately measuring the risk of upper limb biomechanical overload, but also for collecting vital information for risk management purposes (such as corrective actions, rotation of tasks, etc.) and damages [13].

3 Methodology Data collection was performed in small and medium sized construction companies located in the city of Ponta Grossa - Paraná and Porto Alegre - Rio Grande do Sul, data were collected from November 2017 to April 2018. The sample is non-probabilistic, that is, for convenience, due to the type of service analyzed, since the outside plaster activity only begins to be performed in a mediumsized building (from 5 to 8 floors), on average after one year from its date of beginning, that is to say, after finishing the superstructure of the building, concrete structure and sealing masonry. For the data collection in the construction sites, the strategy of scheduling an explanatory meeting about the research prior to the site visit was adopted. After the explanation meeting, the companies were more interested in the return that the research could bring to the industry, and so these companies agreed in participating. The population studied was composed of 101 employees of the construction companies’ operations sector, distributed in the works of outside plaster, according to the information provided by the companies. Being the population defined, the criterion of exclusion of the employees who were in the experience period (90 days) was applied, the total number of workers to be part of the study changed to 90. Afterwards, three more inclusion criteria were used (age from 18 to 50, registered Work and Social Security Card – CTPS and accept to sign the Free and Informed Consent Form), and the final sample was 64 workers. Filming, photographs and interviews were then carried out in a six-month period (2017 and 2018), due to the complexity and availability of the activity at each participating construction site. The filming contemplated the whole cycle of the job, showing the posture of the upper limbs with detailed visualization of the activities carried out by the employee, as well as the handling of his working tools.

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As for the data analysis procedure, the OCRA checklist method was used to describe and understand the work station and to estimate the level of intrinsic exposure of the analyzed task, that is, as if the station was the only one used for the entire shift (daily shift of 8 h, according to CLT) by a single worker. The procedure allowed to understand if the working station analyzed had “absent”, “light”, “average”, or “high” exposure, without taking into account the workers’ turnover in the working stations or tasks (Table 2).

Table 2. OCRA checklist results classification

OCRA Checklist Values Up to 7,5 7,6 – 10,0 11,1 – 14,0 14,1 – 22,5 ≥ 22,6

Risk Acceptable Borderline vey light risk Light Risk Average Risk High Risk

Actions None New checking Reduce risk Immediate intervention

4 Analysis of Results In order to adequately respond to the proposed objective, the analysis was developed in a three-step sequence. Firstly, the statistical treatment of the sample was performed, after the ergonomic demand was identified and then, based on it, the calculation of the ergonomic risk was accomplished. Regarding the statistical treatment, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Normal Test was performed in a first stage with the sample of 64 workers, because it was a sample of more than 30 cases, between the results of the right and left limbs, which resulted in a normal sample, that is, with significance level > 0,05 (Right OCRA, ƿ = 0,100; Left OCRA, ƿ = 0,098). To analyze if there was a significant difference, the results were submitted to the ANOVA test, obtaining a significant value for the sample for both groups (OCRA Right, ƿ = 0,554; Left OCRA, ƿ = 0,633). Therefore, there is no difference in ergonomic risk between the results, because these are results within the same method of ergonomic risk assessment, thus demonstrating that the sample is significant for the purpose of this study. The worst result found in the sample used for this study was taken into account for the analysis of the calculation of the ergonomic risk of the activity. 4.1

Identification of Ergonomic Demand

In order to identify the ergonomic demand, the list of medical certificates submitted by the employees who performed the activity of outside plaster was checked at the Human Resources Departments of the companies or responsible technicians or the ones responsible for Labor Safety, in the period of 12 months (from April/2017 to April/2018).

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The survey among all the sites visited in the cities of Ponta Grossa/PR and Porto Alegre/RS reached a total of 247 medical certificates, a small amount compared to the total number of workers in the worksites visited, but only the outside plaster team was taken into consideration. The medical certificates were identified by the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) and the complaints registered in the workplace by the Occupational Health and Safety team were also taken into account, as shown in Chart 1.

Chart 1. Identification of work leaves by ICD

After the identification of the most common type of injury among the employees who perform the outside plaster activity, according to Chart 1, pain or muscle injuries represent 28% of the medical certificates presented as justification for absence from work in the companies visited. Within this 28%, the upper limbs are the body parts where most of the pain or muscle injuries occurred, representing 89% of the complaints, thus meeting the first specific objective of this research regarding Ergonomic Demand in the analyzed activity, according to Chart 2.

Chart 2. Ergonomic Demand on outside plaster activity

Another important factor for the diagnosis of the Ergonomic Demand of the analyzed activity is the question of repeatability, that is, according to Rosencrance et al. [19] repeatability is the most important risk condition, so much that WMSDs related to

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pain or muscle injuries in the upper limbs were often defined by this element, or better known as Repetitive Strain Injuries. The workstations that were the object of the analysis and, therefore, observed, were the ones located on pendulums, scaffolding facades and platform rack. 4.2

Ergonomic Risk

In order to determine the ergonomic risk, as a first step, the description of the working day of the sample used for this work is essential. The working day in the large urban centers, in medium and large companies, is composed of two shifts, according to Table 3.

Table 3. Working day Description Work schedule Start 8:00 Supply pause (10 min) 8:10 Snack (10 min) 9:30 Lunch (1 hora) 12:00 Supply pause (10 min) 13:10 Snack (10 min) 15:30 Finish 17:00

For the final calculation, the working day was considered as intrinsic, that is, 8 h, only discounting the pauses for the calculation of the average effective duration of the repetitive work. As for the observation of the analysis, the activity of the two limbs was taken into account. Therefore, the ergonomic risk was based on the activities of the dominant limb. The method used can be considered solid and suitable for the activity that involves the repetitiveness question, and comparing to the OCRA Index method, which takes into consideration the calculated dominant limb index. For the application of the outside plaster, the workstations have a team with at least two people, that is, a helper who carries the material and also the supply during the shift to the collaborator (mason) who performs the plaster activity on the facades. In the calculation of the OCRA checklist for the repetitive task of the analyzed work station, the following items were determined: (a) effective duration of repetitive activity; (b) factor of lack of recovery periods; (c) frequency of action factor; (d) Strength factor; and (e) inadequate postures and stereotypy. The number of cycles observed in this position in a working shift was 480 cycles/shift for each 1 m2 of facade built, which resulted in the duration of the total effective cycle time of 45 s, being within the significant difference (less than 5%), thus allowing to move on to the next step. As for the lack of recovery periods, in the presented scenario, regarding the shift and pauses performed in the analyzed construction sites, it was verified 4 h without recovery in a working shift, with a Recovery Multiplier of 1,330.

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Regarding the frequency of action factor, four technical actions were considered (Table 4).

Table 4. Observed technical actions of the dominant limb Technical actions Preparing mortar with trowel Sawing mortar with tool Finishing with forging machine Throwing water on the wall with brush Total

Number of technical actions of the dominant limb 14

Number of technical actions of the non-dominant limb –

21

–

27

–

–

5

66

5

After calculating the frequency for each limb, the next step is the Frequency Score, this score was used in the final score of the method. The Frequency Score found for the dominant limb with a frequency of 88,0 technical actions/minute was 9. For the non-dominant limb the frequency was 6,7 technical actions/minute, which resulted in a Frequency Score of 0. Regarding the use of strength, the result of the interview of the Borg CR-10 scale resulted in the punctuation 3, moderate, since daily tools are used, besides the handling or lifting of objects, weighing less than 2 kg. For the dominant limb, the employee quantified the perceived effort as being more than half the cycle time, obtaining the Strength Score of the dominant limb 6. For the non-dominant limb, the quantification of the perceived effort resulted 1/3 of the time cycle, ending in Strength Score 2. Regarding the Inadequate Postures of the dominant limb, the following situations were identified after the analysis of the activity cycle filming, according to Table 5.

Table 5. Inadequate Postures of the dominant limb Parts of the upper limb Hand

Movement

Concept of time

Pinch

Shoulder

Arm almost at shoulder height

Fist Elbow

Extreme deviation Full rotation or large flexoextensions

About time About time About About time

Score

2/3 of the

4

2/3 of the

12

half the time 2/3 of the

3 4

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For the non-dominant member, Table 6 exposes the situations found, following the same procedure of the previous analysis.

Table 6. Inadequate Postures of the non-dominant limb Parts of the upper limb Movement Concept of time Hand – – Shoulder Arm almost at shoulder height Less 1/3 of the time Fist – – Elbow – –

Score – 2 – –

Regarding the stereotypy, for the dominant upper limb, evaluation presented the “always repeat the same technical actions” option in most of the time (more than half), resulting in a final score of 1,5. For the non-dominant limb, no stereotyped situation was found. The inadequate posture score found for the dominant and non-dominant limb, respectively, was 13,5 and 2, final score including values of inappropriate postures and stereotypy. With respect to the Complementary Risk Factors, the outside plastering activity does not fit into any of the situations of complementary organizational risks or physical risks that the method advocates, resulting in a zero score in that item. As for the final score weighted by the actual duration of the activity analyzed within the cycle, it resulted in a value of 35,06 and 4,92 for the dominant and non-dominant limb, respectively, for the analyzed work station, considered as high risk, alues 22,5, requiring immediate intervention. Therefore, interventions with ergonomic improvements in the operations procedures are recommended to rapidly reduce the ergonomic risk of employees at the workplace (Table 7).

Table 7. Output demonstration

Job

Traditional Mason

Frequency Score

Strength Score

Inadequate Posture

Final Score

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

9

0

6

2

13,5

2

35,06

4,92

Source: prepared by the author, 2018.

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5 Final Considerations The research presented as basis of its foundation, the use as a method of ergonomic risk analysis, the OCTRA Checklist methodology, for the analysis of the outside plaster activity and, consequently, it was also used to analyze the improvements for the decision making by the participating company. This study reached its proposed objectives, thus contributing to the reduction of the ergonomic risk in the work station analyzed, through the identification of opportunities for improvement in partnership with the company. As for the ergonomic demand, it was possible to identify the data collected by the Health and Safety Departments, thus demonstrating how these companies are organized and helpful with their employees, confirming the repetitiveness to the ergonomic demand for the upper limbs and the correct choice of OCRA Checklist method, observational method, low cost and indicated by International Organization for Standardization ISO 11228-3: 2009 as a preferred method of repetitive action analysis. Regarding the ergonomic analysis of the outside plaster activity in buildings’ facades, the objective was achieved, proving the high degree of ergonomic risk that the workers are submitted daily in their work stations. The result found was of high risk with need of immediate intervention, thus demonstrating the great choice of activities that construction covers and must be studied scientifically by the Academia. When observing the risk factors during the calculation of the weighted final score of the method, it is noticed that the postural question is the most relevant, with special attention to the joints of hands, shoulder and elbow, which play a fundamental role for the occurrence of RSI/WMSD in workers’ health. The current study allowed the analysis of an activity that had not yet been studied by Ergonomics, since it is a very specific activity within a very large range of activities that a construction site covers, aiming at ergonomic improvements in the performance of the activity and increase of productivity for companies. This research has as limitation the difficulties of approaching the construction companies, due to the fear that the information and names of the companies are disclosed to the general public and also because the activity is very specific, making it difficult to reach it and increasing the study period. For future studies, the suggestions are the application of the TACO method for ergonomic analysis of the lower limbs in the outside plaster activity, application of the OCRA checklist method in other specific jobs in the building construction, thus consolidating the ergonomic analysis in the sector and correlating the results obtained for productivity improvement in the activity analyzed. The possibilities are many within the construction in activities that have not yet been analyzed scientifically.

References 1. Chan, A.P.C., Guo, Y.P., Wong, F.K.W., Sun, S., San, X.: The development of anti-heat stress clothing of construction workers in hot and humid weather. Ergonomics 59(4), 479–495 (2016) 2. Salas, E.A., Vi, P., Reider, V.L., Moore, A.E.: Factors affecting the risk of developing lower back musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) in experienced and inexperienced rodworkers. Appl. Ergon. 52(1), 62–68 (2016)

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3. Ray, S.J., Teizer, J.: Real-time construction worker posture analysis for ergonomics training. Adv. Eng. Inform. 26(2), 439–455 (2012) 4. Wu, S., He, L., Li, J., Wang, J., Wang, S.: Visual display terminal use increases the prevalence and risk of work-related musculoskeletal disorders among Chinese office workers: a cross-sectional study. J. Occup. Health 54, 34–43 (2012) 5. O’sullivan, K., O’keeffe, M., O’sullivan, L., O’sulliavn, P., Dankaerts, W.: The effect of dynamic sitting on the prevention and management of low back pain and low back discomfort a systematic review. Ergonomics 55, 898–908 (2012) 6. Ziaei, M., Ziaei, H., Hosseini, S.Y., Gharagozlou, F., Keikhamoghaddam, A.A., Laybidi, M. I., Moradinazar, M.: Assessment and virtual redesign of manual handling workstation by computer aided three-dimensional interactive application. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 23(2), 169–174 (2016) 7. Gómez-galan, M., Pérez-Alonso, J., Callejón-Ferre, A.J., López-Martínez, J.: Musculoskeletal disorders: OWAS review. Ind. Health 55(4), 314–337 (2017) 8. Zare, M., Sagot, J.C., Roquelaure, Y.: Within and between individual variability of exposure to work-related musculoskeletal disorder risk Factors. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15 (5), 2–9 (2018) 9. Kathiravan, S., GunaranI, G.I.: Ergonomic Performance Assessment (EPA) using RULA and REBA for residential construction in Tamil Nadu. Int. J. Civ. Eng. Technol. 9(4), 836–843 (2018) 10. Li, X., Han, S., Gul, M., Hussein, M.A.: 3D visualization-based ergonomic risk assessment and work modification framework and its validation for a lifting task. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 144(1), 1–13 (2018) 11. Dasgupta, P.S., Punnett, L., Moir, S., Kuhn, S., Buchholz, B.: Does drywall installers’ innovative idea reduce the ergonomic exposures of ceiling installation: a field case study. Appl. Ergon. 55, 183–193 (2016) 12. Hsu, D.J., Sun, Y.M., Chuang, K.H., Juang, Y.L., Chang, F.L.: Effect of elevation change on work fatigue and physiological symptoms for high-rise building construction workers. Saf. Sci. 46, 833–843 (2008) 13. Hsu, F.W., Lin, C.J., Lee, Y.H., Chen, H.J.: Effects of elevation change on mental stress in high-voltage transmission tower construction workers. Appl. Ergon. 56, 101–107 (2016) 14. Karltun, A., Karltun, J., Berglund, M., Eklund, J.: HTO – a complementary ergonomics approach. Appl. Ergon. 59, 182–190 (2016) 15. Yuan, L., Buchholz, B., Punnett, L., Kriebel, D.: An integrated biomechanical modeling approach to the ergonomic avaluation of dryall installation. Appl. Ergon. 53, 52–63 (2016) 16. Colantini, A., Cecchini, M., Monarca, D., Bedini, R., Riccioni, S.: The risk of musculoskeletal disorders due to repetitive movements of upper limbs for workrs employed in hazelnut sorting. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 2, 649–654 (2013) 17. Jones, T., Kumar, S.: Comparison of ergonomic risk assessment output in four sawmill jobs. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 16(1), 105–111 (2010) 18. Colombini, D., Occhipinti, E. (eds.): Risk Analysis and Management of Repetitive Actions: A Guide for Applying the OCRA System (Occupational Repetitive Actions), (Ergonomics Design and Management: Theory and Applications), 3rd edn. CRC Press, New York (2016) 19. Rosecrance, J., Paulsen, R., Murgia, L.: Risk assessment of cheese processing tasks using the Strain Index and OCRA Checklist. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 61, 142–148 (2017)

The Ergonomics of Sorting Recyclable Materials: A Case Study of a Brazilian Cooperative Hebert Silva(&) Industrial Engineering Course, Federal University of Uberlandia, Ituiutaba, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents a case study of ergonomics in a materials recycling cooperative located in Brazil. Techniques of qualitative analysis and observation of the work environment were conducted to obtain data. Cooperatives are currently an outlet for municipal solid waste management, emerging as a source of income generation and labor integration for people who are marginalized from formal work. The main objective of this study is to analyze the work station of the cooperative with the largest number of workers, specifically the area for sorting recyclable materials. Given that income generation is concurrent with poor working conditions, this paper argues that ergonomics can greatly contribute to the improvement of productivity and the quality of life of the cooperative members. Keywords: Ergonomics


Sustainability
Recycling of materials

1 Introduction Selective collection induces environmental preservation by reducing the amount of garbage that accumulates in landfills, and thus greatly curtails the impact of waste. Brazil has a leading role worldwide in recycling aluminum cans for three consecutive years, among nations where this activity is not mandatory in their legislation. According to Silva, the formation of recyclable waste cooperatives is a viable way for garbage collectors to negotiate directly with the industry, as well as a way for the collective to provide its members with a better standard of living that simultaneously brings dignity to their occupations [1]. In general, the formation of a collective mitigates the exclusion of recyclable waste pickers as it changes their occupational identity in a positive way. In addition, the collective promotes the development of a social capital attuned to the political and social interests of the cooperative. Thus, the entire population benefits from selective collection, including the pickers. They have a fundamental role in this whole process, and they are able to perceive their contribution to the environment, thereby moving beyond their work-based social exclusion [2].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 256–265, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_25

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Ergonomics in this sector is crucial to provide adequate procedures for the execution of activities, with the objective of increasing productivity and preserving the health of cooperative members by regulating appropriate postures and reducing jobrelated constraints and injuries. According to NR-17 [3], employees are provided with improvements to make the work space secure and comfortable to the maximum. These enhancements create an environment that allows employees to increase their work performance and that complements their psychophysiological characteristics. Such regulations provide a standard to which a company can be compared to develop an overview of their practices and compliance. With this legislation, it is possible to monitor and evaluate what may be faulty and then take steps to fulfill all of the requirements [2], including for the company presented here. In this sense, the ergonomic analysis of work discussed in this study is a method that provides important advances in the field of recycling in Brazil. It combines analysis of two globally increasing sectors: ergonomics and sustainability.

2 Solidarity Economy By the end of the 20th century, the Brazilian working class will need to find new income sources and other possibilities for work organization and arrangements [4]. One option is the Solidarity Economy, which is the basis of cooperativism in recycling projects, with inclusivity and sustainability as its guiding principles. In [4] with the need for workers to find new income sources, at the end of the 20th century other possibilities for work organization and arrangements by the working class have emerged in Brazil. According to [5], Solidarity Economy began after industrial capitalism, which took place after the First Industrial Revolution in Great Britain and resulted in the great impoverishment of the craftsmen caused by the dissemination of machines and the production organization of production. In this context, the solidary economy, as a guide for the construction of selfmanagement models in companies, has influenced the creation of cooperatives based on socialist concepts that encourage cooperativism. According to [2], this is possible due thanks to the inclusion of people directly in the management and progress of economic enterprises in solidarity in their own neighborhood, territory, city, etc. Solidarity involves conduct that is practically and ethically oriented to the community. It assumes that the problems of society are not the result of lack of individual capacity, but of structural factors, which results in the joining of efforts to overcome the forms of degradation of individuals and their difficulties. In Silva [6] using this approach, a cooperative of recyclable materials is created for the allocation of workers aiming at development through generating work and income with social inclusion.

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Still according to [5], the Solidary Economy in Brazil appears in the decade of 80 like replica of the collaborators to the social crisis occasioned by the economic stagnation and the increase of the capitalism. It is approached as the structuring of the collective economic activities of the workers that become associated and realize the self-management. Its principle is the adequacy of the means of production for the collective, implementation of democratic management, and autonomy over the course of production, the use of leftovers and the responsibility for eventual losses. According to [7], Solidarity Economy is born as an organizational practice of some populations, such as “The Movement of Landless Rural Workers”, that is, the movement with more recognition in the country that was the result of the mobilization of isolated workers of the means of production that fought for the agrarian reform. It also seeks to reinvent the practices of power in an organization and thus fight for rights, democratic achievements and citizenship, attacking issues related to cooperation and association of groups of workers. A social thought that provides cost-effective solutions is that one of the pillars of cooperation is reciprocity itself. In the execution of Solidarity Economy, those involved must collaborate in the practice of some activity with a common benefit.

3 Evaluation of the Work Station According to Iida, the workstation is a productive unit that includes a man and the machine used to perform tasks, as well as the environment itself [8]. This includes knowledge of biomechanics (the application of laws of mechanics to the human body) and anthropometry (the study of the measurements of the human body). The ergonomic approach aims to create jobs that reduce biomechanical and cognitive demands, seeking to position the operator in the best posture possible. The tools to be used should be placed within the range of the body movements to facilitate their perception, and to make it possible to perform the work with comfort, safety, and efficiency. Per the Manual of Ergonomics (2008), on-the-job actions and tool use must account for the anthropometric measures of the worker in practice; however, behaviors and demands also need to be analyzed [9]. Furthermore, there are recommendations and norms that must be followed when dealing with some specific subjects, because different activities or workplaces have their own regulations [9]. For specifications such as work height, some guidelines should be followed to achieve good performance and an ergonomically correct activity: working height and adjustable tables for standing activity, recommendations for sitting, seat and table legroom, tables for typing, a process for alternating between standing and sitting, and the posture of the employee’s trunk in the exercise of his activity. Iida [8] notes that in a work environment with its technical specifications such as height, width, positioning, and length, other factors that influence the performance of the collaborator, such as the lighting of the place, must be studied. For example,

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lighting can affect vision and thus, cause low performance or affect results. Factors such as temperature, noise, and vibrations can also cause certain discomfort and even cause health problems and, therefore, influence work performance.

4 Methods and Techniques The present work takes a qualitative approach using the case study as a research method. According to one definition, the case study is an empirical research approach that analyzes a particular phenomenon in its real-life context, especially when there is no clear definition of the boundaries between the context and the phenomenon [2]. For this research, a case study was carried out at the Recyclable Material Collectors Cooperative, because of its importance in the municipal recycling context and the availability of the cooperative for this study. The unit of analysis here is the process of sorting materials that is carried out on the sole treadmill at the cooperative. Figure 1 represents the physical arrangement of the material sorting sector.

Fig. 1. Physical arrangement of the treadmill used for sorting.

Details of a cooperative member’s work station on the sorting mat are shown in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Work station for material selection on the conveyor belt.

This snapshot of the sorting process was taken to maximally illustrate the work process. During this stage, there are the largest number of workers concentrated and the most inherent variability in the recyclable materials. Consequently, an intense amount of physical work and greater attention to and knowledge of the materials’ characteristics are required in this process. In addition, sorting represents the main bottleneck of the recycling chain. The work station under study is composed of 12 workers tasked with sorting the materials. Sorting activity consists of the manual selection of materials stored in big bags for later pressing or for sale to processing industries. The selection of items is all manual, with a belt-controlled material line speed. However, in case of the accumulation of materials, one of the cooperative members shuts down the conveyor until the flow is normalized. The worker selects materials for the correct destination by placing it in containers that are located on the back side of the conveyor belt. This area does not have seats; sorters stand throughout the workday. For the case study, the ergonomic analysis of work method was used based on systematic observation of the work station with the following equipment: camera, notebook, pen, tape recorder, audio recorder, decibel meter, and meter of thermal stress. The interviews with the sorting workers were carried out in their own work station, while the president of the cooperative was interviewed in a reserved room. The approach to data collection and analysis will be based on Activity Ergonomics. This approach was chosen because the discipline of ergonomics focuses on the scientific study of work. In addition, the Ergonomic Work Analysis (EWA) tool was used to complement the analysis.

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5 Results 5.1

Environmental Parameters

During the study period, environmental measurements were performed, with the data presented in Table 1 for the material sorting sector. Tab. 1. Environmental data for the material sorting sector. Agent Value Noise 73.15 dB(A) Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) 28.3 °C Brightness 37.25 lx

Tolerance limit 85.00 dB(A) 26.5 °C 500 lx

According to the data collected, it is possible to verify that the noise is below the tolerance limit of 85.00 dB (A) outlined in Annex 1 of the NR-15 [10]. Note that the value of WBGT in Table 1 exceeds the tolerance limit for moderate activity as regulated in Annex 3 of NR-15 [10]. Brightness is well below the recommended values for screening activity. Taking as reference the Occupational Hygiene Standard NHO 11 [11] for screening activity in the paper industry, we have a recommended value of 500 lx. This means that according to NHO 11 brightness has a value below 10% of the recommended one an inadequate amount in the sector for this sorting of materials. 5.2

Activity Analysis

From analysis of the sorting task and other activity, several variabilities in the material can be observed in the screening process with the most important of these described in Table 2.

Tab. 2. Variabilities in screening activities. Variabilities Material status Material flow Types of materials Competence

Description Wet, dirty, bad smell Floating in quantity of material Hazardous products mixed with materials for reuse, hospital materials, and other organic materials Variation in work experience in the cooperative

The cooperative is marked by variabilities and contradictions that originate in different operative modes. The workers themselves present variations in competence, motivations, and experiences. For example, in the screening activities among them the ones described in Table 2.

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Per Silva, variabilities are focused in work activities, requiring cooperative members to shape their operative modes to achieve proposed outcomes [1]. In the cooperative, the strategies developed depend on three variables: the characteristics of the cooperative (motivation, age, training), the characteristics of the task (the level of task requirement), and the degree of workload and associated work activities. These variables are in turn related to the chosen ergonomic strategy. In this context, it can be observed that the cooperative analyzed here does not have formally defined tasks. Knowledge emerges from the collective; information is transmitted from one cooperative to the other through exchanges of experiences or coexistence. These variabilities were detected and structured during the field observations, and they were then confirmed by interviews with the cooperative members. Note that the treadmill controls the working pace of the sorting. However, it contributes to collective regulation as it allows the team to accelerate its speed or to stop it completely when necessary. It was observed that work strategies to accelerate production, to prioritize the most valuable material, identification of bags with garbage to avoid picking them up or opening them, or not using gloves because they disturb the work process are examples of conducts obtained from the process of regulation, in which the cooperated mobilizes the knowledge about its activity to achieve the desired results. It was possible to identify different forms of workers’ organization of their actions to obtain desirable results in the process of sorting recyclables. As a form of regulation, the cooperative workers act on the means of work, seeking to organize them in a more functional way by considering their experience, the pace of work, and their physical limits. The large bags of materials that are part of a member’s responsibility can be repositioned in a way that the worker prefers. In certain situations, it was observed that the cooperative member prefers to leave the large materials on the left side, because it is easier to pick up small materials with the right arm. In order to carry out these observations and to identify work strategies related to the body, the author needed to get as close as possible to the employees. One tactic used was informal conversation through which it was possible to recognize the workers’ needs and initiate dialogues where workers noted necessary changes such as new facilities or changes to the organization of production. Some selected reports are presented below as examples of intervention needs. The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for the cooperative members causes discomfort and is insufficient. The cooperative does not have specific training. Other negative points that were easily noticed were related to work hygiene, especially the poor lighting at the site. There are no standardized procedures for carrying out activities, and the author noted an absence of rest breaks along with a lack of seating in the sorting sector. These omissions were verified with the cooperative, and it was discovered that there was no formal planning for the periodic, obligatory exams mandated in the regulatory guidelines.

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Time Requirement and Content

The time requirement is directly linked to the amount of materials available for sorting. This fact can be identified in the interviews with the workers and with the president of the cooperative. There is no imposition of how much material should be produced within any given time. The speed, cadence, and rhythm of the activities are directly related to the demand of the task flow. Regarding the frequency and regularity of the execution of the activities, there are no clear pressures or overloads due to the available time. The temporal constraints of sorting recyclable materials in cooperatives are related to the rhythm of work that determines the operative modes to be adopted. According to the observations, it was noted that the operational tasks are developed according to the quantity of materials available, their price, or the opportunity to sell certain material. In case of an interruption in the material supply, such as problems in the collection truck, there are idle periods in the sorting. The time spent to perform a task, or each of the activities required by the task, varies according to the demand for services. The triage goals in cooperatives are measured according to a timeframe, and specifically in treadmill screening, it was observed that this measure and cadence of work are closely related to treadmill speed. The pace in general oscillates according to the separation activities to be performed, being imposed on the worker by the quantity of materials available. However, there is variability in the tasks. The rhythm is free, and the cooperative member has autonomy to determine his own cadence. According to interviews at the cooperative, the predominant rhythm in the execution of the activities is moderate. In this way, Fig. 3 presents some of the factors that can influence the execution of activities. The great variation of material and its disposition on the mat affects the amount of time allocated for each task.

Fig. 3. Variation in the organization of big bags affecting the execution of activities.

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Diagnosis

As in Silva (2018), this study confirmed the hypothesis that the activity of cooperative tasks would be permeated by various occupational, ergonomic, biological, chemical, physical, and accident-related risks and that the Ergonomic Work Analysis (EWA) could assist in the survey of occupational risks involved in the screening activity. Based on the analysis and the interviews conducted with the cooperative, there are several points that may cause discomfort or unfavorable ergonomic conditions during the screening activity: • Trunk flex occurs when picking up materials located away from the treadmill and transferring them to the big bags. • Spindle rotation occurs to place the materials inside the big bags, because of the position of the co-worker facing the conveyor who makes a turn to store them. • There is a fixed tread height for different anthropometric profiles of the cooperative members. • Repetitive movements occur due to the imposition of the speed of the treadmill. • Sharp punch materials are placed next to the material to be recycled. • Regarding the physical environment, the lighting and temperature are outside of tolerance limits.

6 Conclusion Following analysis from the perspective of Ergonomics and Work Safety using the specific methods and tools described above, it was verified that non-conformities exist in the work environment, potentially causing the cooperative to malfunction, affecting the quality of the activities performed, and inducing the members’ illnesses. Such non-conformities in a productivity analysis allow us to consider that, in the absence of improvements in working conditions, there will continue to be negative impacts on the company’s production. From another perspective, this situation directly contributes to the loss of the quality of life of the cooperative members. With regard to physical ergonomics, it was possible to conclude that there are several problems in the workers’ sorting space and their environmental conditions. As for the internal problems of the organization, these are noticeably present and affect the social interaction among the members; namely the lack of communication and difficulties of coexistence were noted in the study. In this way, it is evident that there is a need for improvements, and, to this end, the study suggests that changes in the work environment will favor the cooperative in several aspects. The author argues that the implementation of changes will initiate a reduction in the possibility of incidences of worker absence and faults in the cooperative as a result of accidents or sickness.

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References 1. Silva, H.R.: Evaluation of occupational safety and ergonomics in the reuse and recycling of solid materials. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Taiar, R. (eds.) Human Systems Engineering and Design. IHSED 2018. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 876, pp. 716–721. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02053-8_109 2. Souza, R.L.R.: Analysis of the process of regulation of the recycling activity of recyclable materials: a case study in a cooperative. Thesis (Doctorate) - Postgraduate Program in Production Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, Sorocaba (2014). (104 f.) 3. Ministry of Labor and Employment: NR 17: Ergonomics, 17 edn., Brasília, 14 p. (1990) 4. Silva, H.R.: Ergonomics in reuse and recycling of solid materials: demand analysis. In: Goossens, R. (eds.) Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics. AHFE 2018. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 792, pp. 124–132. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94000-7_13 5. Singer, P.: Globalization and unemployment: Diagnosis and alternatives. Context, São Paulo (1998) 6. Silva, H.R.: Analysis of ergonomics in the reuse and recycling of solid materials in Brazilian cooperatives. In: Bagnara, S., Tartaglia, R., Albolino, S., Alexander, T., Fujita, Y. (eds.) Proceedings of the 20th Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2018). IEA 2018. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 825, pp. 960–969. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96068-5_104 7. de Medeiros, C.: MST: Movement of landless rural workers (2017). http://www.mst.org.br/ 2017/07/10/mst-presente-na-maior-feira-de-economia-solidaria-da-america-latina.html. Accessed 12 Jul 2018 8. Iida, I.: Ergonomics: Design and Production, 3rd edn. Blucher, São Paulo (2016) 9. Kroemer, K.H.E., Grandjean, E.: Manual of Ergonomics: Adapting the Work to the Man, 5th edn. Bookman, São Paulo (2008) 10. Ministry of Labor and Employment: NR 15: Unhealthy Activities and Operations, Brasilia, 82 p. (1978) 11. Fundacentro: Assessment of lighting levels in internal work environments: technical procedure Occupational hygiene standards - NHO 11, São Paulo, 63 p. (2018)

Quality of Labor Life in Workers of the Informal Economy in Guadalajara, Mexico Raquel González-Baltazar(&), Mónica I. Contreras-Estrada, Silvia G. León-Cortés, Brenda J. Hidalgo-González, and Gustavo Hidalgo-Santacruz University of Guadalajara, Health Sciences University Center, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico [email protected]

Abstract. Currently the Quality of Labor Life (QLL) has been studied only in formal work, regardless of economic conditions and employment policies have led to a substantial increase in the informal economy in our country. The informal worker is anyone who is part of a system of independent selfemployment. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), about 60% of workers in Mexico serve on informal employment. The aim of this research was to evaluate the QLL in the informal economy workers in the Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara. Voluntarily participated 507 informal workers, satisfaction with the QLL was measured with the CVT-GOHISALO instrument adapted to workers in the informal economy, this instrument has a reliability of 0.92 with 50 items. As for the study population, 48% of workers were men and 52% women, the highest percentage was between 15 and 29 years. The most common high school education was 43%, 67% are between 1 and 15 years of working in the informal economy and 67% work between 6 and 10 h a day, 55% of the population had a low level of satisfaction with their QLL, 39% a medium level and 6% a high level. This study found that, within the conditions of workers in this sector, they have good economic benefits, avoid paying taxes and have more flexibility with schedules; however, they have low level of satisfaction with their QLL, they do not have access to occupational safety and health, many works in unhealthy conditions and are exposed to risks in the workplace. Keywords: Quality of Labor Life


Informal economy
Informal workers

1 Introduction The Quality of Labor Life (QLL), also known in the scientific field as Quality of Work Life (QWL), is a multidimensional concept, with objective and subjective elements, which encompasses satisfaction with the work done, achievements obtained through work, personal fulfillment and the administration of free time among other aspects.

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Likewise, it has recently become an important measure of the impact that the labor activity has on workers, managing to arouse great interest for its study and measurement. Although the efforts to measure the perception of QLL are not recent, it has been studied for several decades; as it was already mentioned, a multidimensional concept that includes both objective and subjective elements, both its definition and its evaluation remain a problem of considerable magnitude. However, the existence of instruments for its measurement, that contemplate these aspects, allow to have a broad vision of the way in which workers perceive and evaluate it. It must also be considered that the perception of the QLL depends to a large extent on the values and beliefs of the workers, as well as on their cultural context and personal history, while at the same time it requires being valued in each of the dimensions that the make up, all of them related to human needs. In it, the characteristics of the work, the perception that the worker has regarding his work activity or the satisfactions he/she achieves through his/her work, among others, receive the same weight [1]. The satisfaction of the QLL in all types of workers, is essential to preserve the health of them, this has been measured in various types of workers, but the results of research that can be located in various scientific bases, are in workers of the formal economy. In the case of workers in the informal economy, there is a generalized identification of an economic and political situation that leads to the growth of this productive sector, not only in Mexico but in the world, this group of workers has been oblivious to the study of the factors that may be affected in them and therefore outside the focus of the researchers. The informal worker is anyone who is part of an independent self-employment system, whose incorporation into this system may be related to different difficulties or issues, the few possibilities of accessibility to the formal economy, lead to opting for labor informality, which does not give the benefits of legality and social protection nor provides economic stability for their life, thus decreasing their QLL. Labor informality has been increasing since the late seventies, due to the high need of the worker to have a job that provides what is necessary to survive and offers a secure economic support. For the International Labor Organization (ILO), in 2014 [2], Peru was the worst placed country, with more than 91% of workers without a stable contract; where, to explain the Peruvian case, factors such as the expansion of informality are considered and that the economy is dominated by natural resources that are not labor-intensive, according to Raymond Torres, director of the ILO’s research department [2]. This organism considers within the informal economy both the economic units constituted by microbusinesses that do not have the basic legal records to operate, as well as what he calls “other modalities of informality”; that is, agriculture (including subsistence farming), remunerated domestic service of households as well as all varieties of work that, although linked to registered or formal economic units, perform their work under conditions of lack of job protection [3]. The need to have a secure income, goes beyond the dignity of work, we can see it worldwide with the proliferation of food carts (Food truck) in the United States, mini contracts in Germany or zero-hour contracts in the United Kingdom, these are contracts that do not guarantee the worker a stability in the work schedule, he or she has to respond

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to the labor demand of the company when it requests it or that there is a work available to be done, having to be available at any time, without guarantee of a fixed job weekly. In the case of Mexico, according to the ILO, in 1993 about 60% of workers in the country worked in informal jobs. This may be due to the lack of a secure job opportunity; therefore, the population has resorted to informal employment to survive and thereby contribute to family maintenance, generating an increase in national unemployment rates, in addition to generating independent groups to the Mexican economy. The informal economy is currently a constant in Mexico resulting from the increase in labor demand due to the country’s poor economic growth [4]. According to the National Employment Survey conducted by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) [5], of the workers in the informal sector in Mexico, 44% carried out their activity in their own home; generally in selfemployment, with the help of unpaid family work sometimes, 19.8% had a micro business with a local or vehicle in which they worked, 9% did it as itinerant workers or in improvised positions, and 27.2% worked as employees in companies both in the informal sector and the formal sector itself, but lacked all kinds of benefits. Comparatively, in its 2013–2017 update, the INEGI reports that 22.7% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Mexico comes from the informal economy and is generated by 57.1% of the employed population in conditions of informality; of this 22.7%, 11.1% corresponds to those businesses not registered, of the households dedicated to the production of goods or services and 11.6% corresponds to jobs that still and when they work for economic units different from those of the non-registered microbusinesses, they do not have the protection of the legal and institutional framework, such as social security and other social benefits. On the other hand, 77.3% of GDP comes from the formal economy, where 42.9% of the working population is found [6]. The same notice presents a distribution of the informal economy with retail trade of 23.7%, the construction branch 15.4%, manufacturing 12.7%, agricultural sector 12.6%, followed by wholesale trade, transport, mail and storage, other services, as well as other sectors [6] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Percentage distribution of informal workers in Mexico, according to INEGI 2018

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With regard to the characteristics of workers in the informal economy, different sociodemographic and labor variables are also of interest; those that allow us to make a broad description of the study population and relate them to the research variable; Some of the variables that we can examine are age, sex, level of education, marital status, working hours, shift, length of the day, type of family and drug addiction, among others. The description of workers in the informal economy through these variables, will give us a broad knowledge of the characteristics that can influence the results of the research and will guide the proposals of alternative solutions to the problem that is detected with the investigation. The ILO agreed jointly with the Delhi Group to include in its statistics since December 2012 the item of informal occupation as a starting point to move from informal employment to the measurement of the informal economy and INEGI records its statistics under the same criteria; therefore, the statistical collection that the INEGI publishes of the “indicators of labor informality”, measures the informality under the same integrating scheme suggested by the mentioned organisms [7]. There is the possibility that the female sex has an excessive workload because women are responsible for the home and family, we also find minors, who due to their family situation are forced to work for several hours in unsafe places. The level of schooling can also be a factor of impact on the informal worker, since in many cases they cannot get a good job or employment by the level of schooling they request in many organizations. The QLL is a topic in which every day there is greater interest on the part of researchers, since it can vary from high to low according to the types of workers and has been recognized by other authors that can contribute to health, economy and welfare of them. Satisfaction with the QLL influences the coverage of the worker’s personal needs, among other things; however, as has already been mentioned, the worker in the informal economy has been little considered. Sotelo et al. [8] conducted a descriptive observational study titled “Health and work conditions of women in the informal economy” in 2007 in Bogotá, with the objective of determining the working and health conditions of women working in the informal sector in Bogotá and recommend priority lines of action to prevent work-related illnesses and accidents and their aftermath. Among the main results found: precarious conditions of women in this sector of the economy, reflected accurately low educational level, income below the legal minimum wage, exposure to deteriorating working conditions for health, with long working hours that they generated a low availability of time for the enjoyment of leisure activities and free time. Additionally, 75% of the women included in the study are head of the family, which predisposes them to a greater family and social burden. In the research called “Factors that influence the permanence of the informal economy, peddling mode, in the city of Cumana, Sucre”, the factors that influence the permanence of the informal economy were analyzed, having as main objective, to determine the factors (economic, social, institutional and cultural factors) that influence the permanence of the informal economy. Results such as that 70% of peddlers are young people between the ages of 19 and 25 who are forced to abandon their education and look for alternatives that allow them to solve their economic situation were found and thus improve their living conditions and those of their family. 68% of them work

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between 5 and 6 days a week, exposed to unhealthy situations, insecurity and diseases, in addition to physical exhaustion caused by lack of rest [9]. On the other hand, Cervantes and Acharya [10] of the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, prepared a study where they describe that the global economic crisis of 2008 caused serious financial imbalances for a majority of countries in the global scope, developed or developing, inhibiting economic growth in the short and medium term, however, labor markets registered differentiated effects. In this scenario, the present study consisted of a comparative analysis between the formal and informal economy in Mexico, during the period 1995–2012, to show that the country’s outstanding macroeconomic growth has not had a positive impact on the dynamics of the labor market and for on the contrary, a series of imbalances coexist that encourage and provoke a greater precarization of some parameters of work, which hinders the progress of employment. Of the results, public policy interventions are proposed, which interrelate economic development and that of labor markets. Contreras, González, León, Aldrete and Hidalgo [11], in their research “Self-care of health workers in the informal sector in Guadalajara (Mexico). A gender perspective” aimed to explore the social meaning of self-care for women in the informal sector (“tianguis” or peddling) with a gender perspective. The materials and methods used were a qualitative study based on the theory of social meanings, field observation and in-depth interviews with 6 women from the informal work of three “tianguis”, selected by propositive sampling. Among the results they found is that women expressed a desire to change their lives, said they feel worried, tired and stressed. The researchers indicated that before this type of work there are feelings of happiness, affection and joy. In the domain of the meaning of health they indicated that workers are healthy, although they justify and symbolize as anger not having time to have a medical check-up. By conclusion, the researches mention from this perspective of gender, that the participants visualize this work as little recognized and sacrificed, workers indicated that they are willing to receive information to be better in their families and continue fighting in the face of all the adversities of inequality, injustices and labor inequity. In order to show the results of the literature review corresponding to informal work and informal economy in Mexico between the years of 2002 to 2010, Velázquez et al. Conducted a study. The findings suggest that the informal economy has a wide variety of elements that make it a complex problem, whose recent emergence as a social and economic problem has attracted attention from the sectors involved [12]. Many studies refer to the poor quality of life that informal employment provides, that is why in Latin America and the Caribbean, the economically active population will be more unprotected, increasing the number of people in unemployment, the informal economy, poverty, and social exclusion, covering more than two thirds of the economically active population (EAP). For these people it is necessary to find new forms of organization in the places of life, in order to give them the power to enable them to act and be heard and solve their own living conditions, work and improve their quality of life. Martínez Luis in 2018 [13], talks about the deficient public services of social protection in Mexico and the low levels of labor productivity, which forces formal sector workers to migrate towards informality to generate higher incomes and thus

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improve the level and quality of life of large sectors of the population; since comparing the income of workers in the formal sector and the informal sector, it is questioned whether the informal sector is only an aid for the unemployed population and that informal workers are poorly paid. The QLL, is defined for its evaluation as a “multidimensional concept that is integrated when the worker, through employment and under his/her own perception, sees the following personal needs covered: Institutional work support, Job reliability, Integration to the job and Satisfaction with it, identifying the well-being obtained through the job and the personal development achieved, as well as the administration of their free time” [14]. The instrument used in this study is an adaptation of the CVT-GOHISALO instrument, which evaluates the perception with the QLL in seven dimensions, namely: Work support, Job reliability, Integration to the job, Satisfaction with the work, Well-being obtained through the job, Personal development achieved trough the work and Administration of their free time. The instrument has 50 items divided into seven dimensions, where the figure of the formal institution of the original instrument disappears [14]. The dimension Work support, represents the elements of the job that are provided by the group where the worker is inserted, as a structure that gives shape and supports employment, that of Job reliability is defined as the characteristics of employment that are related to the conditions that provide the worker with firmness in their relationship with work and include satisfaction for the way in which the work procedures, income or wages are designed, the inputs for the realization of the work, the contractual rights of the workers, workers and the growth of their individual capacities through training. On the other hand, the dimension Integration to the job, is defined for this instrument as the insertion of the worker in the work as one of its parts, in total correspondence; and includes aspects of relevance, motivation and work environment. The Satisfaction with the work dimension, is understood as the overall feeling of liking or liking that the worker has regarding his employment. As for Well-being obtained through the job, it is understood as the mental or psychological state of satisfaction of needs related to the way of life, including the enjoyment of goods and riches achieved through work activity. With respect to the last two dimensions of the instrument, the Personal development achieved through the work is defined as the process of increasing personal aspects of the worker related to his/her work activity and that of Administration of their free time is defined as the way in which the worker enjoys life in the schedule in which no work activities are carried out [14]. According to Herrera and Cassals [15], work is the most important activity for the human being, since he/she, individually or collectively, makes a series of contributions such as effort, time, aptitudes and abilities, among others, waiting for certain rewards that contribute to meet their needs, whether economic, material, psychological or social, among others, so it is essential to know the satisfaction with the QLL of workers. The work activity is the main contributor to raise the quality of life of people and when the individual has the possibility to perform a job that corresponds to his/her ability and vocation and identifies elements in it for personal growth, the level of your QLL will be greater [16] for this reason the importance of focusing on this large group of workers, which have remained invisible to many researchers.

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2 Aim The aim of this research was to evaluate the perception of satisfaction with the Quality of Work Life in workers of the informal economy in the Metropolitan Zone of Guadalajara.

3 Methodology People who work and who belong to the sector of workers in the informal economy were selected according to the ILO and INEGI definition, in the Metropolitan Zone of Guadalajara (MZG) of the State of Jalisco, which is made up of around 3,869,678 people, according to INEGI data [5]. Volunteers participated 507 MZG workers located in different sectors of the same. The inclusion criteria were, workers who were developing any work activity considered within the informal economy, that was older than 15 years and of any gender, in all geographic sectors of the MZG. Of those people who were in established premises were excluded and incomplete questionnaires were eliminated. To measure the perception of satisfaction with their CVL, the CVT-GOHISALOTEI instrument was used, which is an adaptation of the CVT-GOHISALO instrument of 2009 for workers in the informal economy. The original instrument has 74 items, validation of content, criterion and construct, the reliability with Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.9527 [14]; The adapted instrument, CVT-GOHISALO-TEI, consists of 50 items, distributed in seven dimensions, namely: Work support, Job reliability, Integration to the job, Satisfaction with the work, Well-being obtained through the job, Personal development achieved through the work and Administration of their free time. It has constructed validation and a reliability with Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.92, is in the process of publication and registration with the National Copyright Institute in Mexico. Based on the declaration of Helsinki and the General Health Law, this research was considered without risk, so that participants were given informed consent and informed signatures were not requested from the participants, the confidentiality of the data was guaranteed collected, respecting different cultures and social customs. The well-being of the subjects was carefully cared for throughout their participation, giving them the right to decide whether or not the investigation agrees with their interests or conveniences, and to withdraw without sanctions of any kind. This research was self-financed by the work team integrated by the consolidated Academic Body “Health and Work” 380 of the University of Guadalajara and had the collaboration of summer students for the collection of data. The information collected was captured and organized by variables. Frequency measures were applied to sociodemographic and labor variables as well as to the measurement of QLL, saving relational analysis for future publications.

4 Results Regarding the studied population (507), 48% of the workers were men and 52% were women, with an age range of 15 to 80 years, where the highest percentage (50. 9) was between 15 and 29 years old. The most frequent schooling was high school level with

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43%, followed by junior high school with 29%, 67% have between 1 and 15 years of working in the informal economy and 67% work between 6 and 10 h a day. According to the level of studies by gender, it can be observed that, of the total of participants, 43% have a complete high school level, making this level of study the most frequent among informal workers; of these, 48% male and 54% female. Informal workers with junior high school level are followed by 28.6% and 9.6% with a professional degree. Regarding the time of years in working in the activity, the highest frequency obtained is from 1–15 years working, followed by those less than a year, finding in minimum quantities, people with more than 30 years of work in the informal sector. Concerning the duration in hours of the working day, a greater frequency was found in the day of 6-10 h (67.1%), followed by 29.5% working between 11 and 16 h. Incomes were another important aspect asked, resulting that 82.9% get up to 2,499.00 pesos of weekly income, followed by the 13.7% who get up to 4,999.00 pesos a week in their activity. The work activity within the informal branch found in the study population was very diverse, with traders predominating with 33.3%, followed by food vendors with 19.4%, employees with 14.1%, footwear vendors 6.3%, vendors of fruits and vegetables 5.5%, vendors of flowers and plants 4.2%, waiters 2.5%, herbalists 2.3%, distributors 2.1% and in smaller percentages, grouped in others, we have shoe shiners, masons, stylists, caretakers and caregivers of sick people (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Percentage of type of informal occupation of the population studied

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The aim of the researched, which was to measure the perception of satisfaction with the quality of labor life, was covered with the presentation of a scale, qualifying the QLL in general, without subdividing by dimensions, as low, medium and high, resulting in the 55% of the population had a low level of satisfaction with their CVL, 39% a medium level and 6% a high level (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Percentage of satisfaction of QLL by level

5 Discussion There is a limited number of studies in workers in the informal economy, the largest amount of information comes from statistical data of government agencies, so neither were instruments aimed at informal workers that measure their QLL, which makes comparison with other jobs research. Regarding the age of the workers in the present investigation, only the Mata and Vásquez study [9] carried out in Sucre, mentions that these are young people, which coincides with our study where the highest percentage of workers was found between 15 and 29 years. The other studies do not mention data about schooling, but it is noteworthy that both the study by Sotelo and collaborators of 2011 [8] conducted in Bogotá and the one by Contreras in 2014 [11] carried out in Mexico mention the situation of precariousness of women, an issue that was perceived in our study, manifested by the interviewers, but was not part of the survey, therefore, it cannot be discussed, although it has been evident. It agrees with Velázquez and collaborators [12], who in 2015 mention that the informal economy contains elements that make it a complex and recent problem and that therefore it is identified as a social and economic problem that provokes the attention of the sectors involved. Of the studies mentioned above, the only one that includes an analysis of the income, is Sotelo et al. [8] who says it is below the legal minimum wage, contrary to

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our study that mentions weekly incomes of approximately 2,500.00 pesos, the difference could be in the years between the two studies, but coincides with the exposure to deteriorating working conditions for health, with long working hours that generated a low availability of time for the enjoyment of leisure activities and free time. This author also mentions that workers in the informal economy have a low educational level, a situation contrary to our study, where the highest percentage was in high school. Regarding the most prevalent informal activities, INEGI in 2018 [6] reports retail trade in the first place and construction second, while in our study construction was included in the other sector, but it coincides by presenting first to retail traders. Regarding the QLL, this research team did not find any background information on this variable in the informal economy, so it is not possible to make comparisons.

6 Conclusions In this study it was determined that in general terms, the conditions of this sector of workers, despite not being precarious, because they obtain economic benefits, evade the payment of taxes and have greater flexibility with the schedules; they have a low level of satisfaction with their CVL, they do not have access to occupational health and safety services, many works in unhealthy conditions and are exposed to risks in their workplace.

References 1. González-Baltazar, R.: “Calidad de vida en el trabajo” Elaboración y validación de un instrumento en prestadores de servicios de salud. Tesis doctoral inédita para obtener el grado de Doctora en Ciencias de la salud en el Trabajo, Universidad de Guadalajara, junio (2007) 2. OIT: La transición de la economía informal a la economía formal, Conferencia Internacional del Trabajo; Organización Internacional del Trabajo (2014) 3. OIT: Informe sobre las perspectivas sociales y del empleo en el mundo – Tendencias 2018 (2018) 4. Comisión de Estadística de las Naciones Unidas (1993). http://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/ commission.htm 5. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). Encuesta Nacional de Empleo. Economía informal (2014) 6. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). Comunicado de prensa Núm. 658/18. Actualización de la medición de la economía informal, 2003–2017 preliminar. Año base 2013, 17 dic (2018). https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2018/ StmaCntaNal/MEI2017.pdf 7. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). Nota técnica, Medición de la economía informal, 2017 preliminar. Año base 2013. 17 de Dic (2018). https://www.inegi. orgmx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2018/StmaCntaNal/MEI2017.pdf 8. Sotelo, N.R., Quiroz, J.L., Mahecha, C.P., López, P.A.: Condiciones de salud y trabajo de las mujeres en la economía informal. Revista de Salud Pública 14(1), 32–42 (2007)

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9. Mata, M., Vásquez, O.: Factores que influyen en la permanencia de la economía informal, modalidad buhonería, en la Avenida Bermúdez y calle Mariño de la Ciudad de Cumana, Municipio Sucre, Estado Sucre, año 2011. Trabajo de grado, presentado como requisito para optar al título de Licenciados en Sociología, Universidad de Oriente, Núcleo de Sucre, Ecuador (2011) 10. Cervantes, J.J., Acharya, A.K., Rivas, E.: La clase media en la economía formal e informal en México 1997-2013: divergencias con las tendencias globales y de América Latina. Revista Gaceta Laboral 22(3), 218–238 (2013) 11. Contreras, M.I., González, R., León, S.G., Aldrete, M.G., e Hidalgo, G.: Autocuidado de la salud en trabajadoras del sector informal en Guadalajara (México) Una perspectiva de género. Salud Uninorte 30(1), 1–9 (2014) 12. Velázquez, J.C., Dominguez, L.R.: Trabajo informal y economía informal en México. Un acercamiento teórico. Eur. Sci. J. 11(4), 231–251 (2015) 13. Martínez Luis, D., Caamal Cauich, I., Ávila Dorantes, J.A., Pat Fernández, L.A.: Política fiscal, mercado de trabajo y empleo informal en México. Revista Mexicana de Economía y Finanzas 13(1), 77–98 (2018) 14. González, R., Hidalgo, G., Salazar, J.G., Preciado, M.L.: Instrumento para medir la Calidad de Vida en el Trabajo CVT-GOHISALO, Manual para su aplicación e interpretación. Ediciones de la Noche, Guadalajara (2009) 15. Herrera, R., Cassals, M.: Algunos factores influyentes en la calidad de vida laboral de enfermería. Revista Cubana de Enfermería, no. 2120 (2005) 16. Pérez, D., Zurita, R.: Calidad de vida laboral en trabajadores de salud pública en Chile. Salud & Sociedad 5(2), 172–180 (2014)

Social and Occupational Factors of Comfort, Risk Assessment and Pain

Reducing the Risk of Falls by 78% with a New Generation of Slip Resistant Winter Footwear Z. S. Bagheri1,2(&), J. Beltran1, P. Holyoke3, G. Sole3, K. Hutchinson3, and T. Dutta2,4 1

University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), Toronto, Canada [email protected], [email protected] 2 Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, Canada 3 Saint Elizabeth Health Care, Toronto, Canada {paulholyoke,jocodelsole,kennethhutchinson}@sehc.com 4 The Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada [email protected]

Abstract. Personal Support Workers (PSWs) are at particular risk in slippery condition. One-hundred-and-ten PSWs were recruited and asked to report on exposure to icy surfaces, slips and falls in weekly online surveys. Fifty participants (the intervention group) were provided one of two casual winter footwear models that performed the best in our lab-based testing. The remaining sixty participants (the control group) wore their own footwear for the eight-week period. Results showed that PSWs wearing our recommended footwear reported a 68% lower slip rates (control = 1.285, intervention = 0.413, p < 0.05) and 78% lower fall rate (control = 0.0859, intervention = 0.01812, p < 0.05) compared to workers wearing their own footwear. Findings demonstrate there are clear benefits of injury prevention and sizable net cost savings that would result from encouraging/requiring slip resistant winter footwear use for PSWs. The benefits would be similar in any industry where workers are exposed to outdoor winter conditions. Keywords: Injury prevention
Personal Support Workers Slip resistant footwear
Slip
Fall




1 Introduction Slip-and-fall incidents are the leading cause of occupational injuries in worker groups exposed to outdoor winter conditions [1, 2]. Our team at Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network (TRI-UHN) worked alongside Saint Elizabeth Health (SE) occupational health team to evaluate two types of slip-resistant winter footwear in winter for men and women [3, 4]. On-going work at TRI-UHN has shown that a new generation of winter footwear greatly outperforms most existing winter footwear in terms of slip resistance. These findings suggest that many fall-related injuries may be preventable with this better footwear. We hypothesize that many fall-related injuries may be preventable with this © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 279–285, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_27

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better footwear [5, 6]. This study reports on a field study of slip resistant footwear by PSWs employed by SE Health (SE). The goal of this work is to determine if slip and/or fall frequency can be reduced in an intervention group (PSWs wearing the best slip resistant footwear available) compared to a control group (PSWs wearing their own footwear). During fall 2016, we surveyed 677 PSWs about their needs and preferences for winter footwear. Based on survey results, a representative list of 40 most popular types of footwear that PSWs wear normally on client visits was created [3]. All footwear was tested to evaluate their slip resistance using our recently developed Maximum Achievable Angle (MAA) test [1]. This test measures the steepest incline covered in ice that participants can walk up and down without experiencing a slip. A score of 7° is considered acceptable for safe use in icy weather since slopes up to 7° are permitted in the built environment based on existing standards. Of the 40 types of footwear tested, only six achieved an MAA score above 7°. Since winter 2017, the work carried out at TRI-UHN using the Maximum Achievable Angle (MAA) test has revealed that there are few winter footwear models demonstrating better slip resistant properties. Using the MAA test database, we selected Sperry Women’s Powder Valley boots and Windriver Men’s Bivy boots for field evaluation as they displayed good slip resistance properties (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Women in the group receiving new footwear get the Sperry Powder Valley boots (left) and Men receive the Windriver Bivy boots (right)

2 Methodology PSWs across Ontario were initially contacted by the SE Health and occupational health and safety team and 100 of them agreed to participate and were recruited for the field evaluation. Participants were divided into two groups, intervention and control groups. The number of participants in the control group was later increased in the control group from 50 to 60. This is because there was considerable interest from PSWs and we anticipated a higher attrition rate in the control group as compared to the intervention group. By increasing the control group, we were able to get a more even response rate across both groups. PSWs were asked to wear slip-resistant boots provided by TRI (intervention group) or winter footwear of their choice (control group) and answer weekly questionnaires regarding their perceptions of the footwear as well as their

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experience with slips-and-falls incidents throughout the evaluation period. Weekly online surveys sent to both groups for 8 weeks in January and February asked these key questions: Did you walk on any icy surfaces this week? Did you slip on any icy surfaces this week? If yes, how many times did you slip? Did you fall on any icy surfaces this week? If yes, how many times did you fall?

3 Results 3.1

Exposure to Icy Surfaces

Table 1 summarizes exposure to the icy surfaces for both control and intervention groups over six-week period. The average number of participants reported exposure to icy surfaces over the course of 6-week survey period in both control and intervention groups were not statistically different (control = 40.75 ± 8.92, intervention = 34.5 ± 10.71, p = 0.053). This highlights the point that effect of environmental-related conditions (i.e. walking on different surfaces) was minimized in the results of current report. So, any difference in the number of reported slips-and-falls incidents by control and intervention group can be related to the types of footwear worn by the groups not environmentalrelated conditions. Table 1. . Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Control 47 37 51 44 45 47 33 22 Intervention 37 46 42 33 42 31 36 9

3.2

Number of Slips-and-Falls Incidents

Figures 2 and 3 show the number of slips and falls incidents for control and intervention groups. It is best to compare fall and slip rates for each group to account for small differences in response rates and exposure to icy surfaces between the two groups. The slips and falls rates are calculated by dividing the total number of reported slips and falls incidents to the number of exposures to icy surfaces. Figures 4 and 5 show slips and falls rate for control and intervention groups over the course of six-week survey period. As it is evident from the graph slip and fall rate are significantly higher in the control group as compared to the intervention group. The results of current survey showed a substantial difference in the slip (control = 1.285, intervention = 0.413, p < 0.05) and fall rate (control = 0.0859, intervention = 0.01812, p < 0.05) between control and intervention group. Our results showed that PSWs wearing our recommended footwear reported a 68% lower slip rates (control = 1.285, intervention = 0.413, p < 0.05) and 78% lower fall rate (control = 0.0859, intervention = 0.01812, p < 0.05) compared to workers wearing their own footwear over an eight-week period in the winter of 2018.

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Fig. 2. Number of slip incidents reported in intervention and control groups

Fig. 3. Number of fall incidents reported in intervention and control groups

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Slips and Falls Rate Based on Exposure to Icy Surfaces

Fig. 4. Slip rate on icy surfaces for control and intervention groups

Fig. 5. Fall rate on icy surfaces for control and intervention groups

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4 Discussion Slip-resistance of footwear plays an important role in the prevention of slips and falls by providing traction to prevent balance loss [7, 8]. The results of current study demonstrated that the rate of slips significantly dropped for the PSWs wearing either Sperry or Windriver footwear compared to the ones wearing their own footwear. This was expected as both of these footwear models passed our MAA testing method that measures the steepest incline, covered in ice, which participants can walk up and down without experiencing a slip. This footwear testing was performed in WinterLab which is part of the Challenging Environment Assessment Labs (CEAL) at TRI-UHN. WinterLab is capable of creating winter conditions, including cold air temperatures, snow- and ice-covered surfaces, which can be tilted up to 15° to create slopes. The footwear that achieves or surpasses a rating greater than 7° receives a positive recommendation on our review website. This 7° cut-off was based on the maximum allowable slope for a curb ramp as based on existing accessibility guidelines for the built environment. The Sperry and Windriver footwear that were evaluated in this study are among the recommended footwear on our website (www.ratemytreads.com). A larger MAA indicates that the footwear is safer on all surfaces. We expected that footwear with appropriate slip-resistant properties reduce the risk of slip-and-fall incidents on icy conditions. This was confirmed with the results of current study. The Sperry and Windriver footwear have an MAA score of 9 and 10, thus they were recommended on our review website. Based on our current results, the slips and falls rates dropped dramatically for participants wearing either Sperry or Windriver footwear as opposed to the ones wearing their own footwear. This was because the outsoles of the footwear were made of surface-textured composites with microscopic fibers that are protruding out from the surface. The microscopic fiber can penetrate to the ice substrate underneath and provide traction with mechanical interlocking [9–11]. It is important to note that although these footwear models can provide safe winter mobility for PSWs, they are relatively expensive (*$200), which makes them out of reach for many PSWs. Possible ways to encourage PSWs to purchase safe footwear include bulk buying, a subsidy from employers, and etc. We expect there would also be demand for a slip resistant overshoe, which could be manufactured at a much lower price. This option may be particularly attractive for PSWs since they currently carry an extra pair of footwear that they change into when they arrive at their clients’ homes.

5 Conclusion This intervention study compared the rates of slip-and-fall incidents using slip-resistant footwear (Sperry and Windriver) in the filed over an eight-week period in January– February 2018. The slip-resistant footwear enhanced traction on ice and significantly decreased the risk of slip and fall incidents as compared to control participants who wore their own footwear. We recommend PSWs to wear slip resistant winter footwear during the winter season for safe winter mobility. The benefits would likely be similar in any industry where workers are exposed to outdoor winter conditions.

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References 1. Kemmlert, K., Lundholm, L.: Slips, trips and falls in different work groups–with reference to age and from a preventive perspective. Appl. Ergon. 2, 149–153 (2001) 2. Bagheri, Z.S., Patel, N., Li, Y., Rizzi, V., Yan, L.K.G., Holyoke, P., Fernie, G., Dutta, T.: Selecting slip-resistant footwear for personal support workers to use outdoor in winter. Work (2019, in press) 3. Bagheri, Z.S., Li, Y., Patel, N., Fernie, G., Dutta, T.: Slip-resistance and wearability of safety footwear used on icy surfaces for outdoor municipal workers. Work (2019, in press) 4. Smith, P.M.: Workplace climate, employee actions, work injury and structural equation modelling. Occup. Environ. Med. 72(7), 465–466 (2015) 5. Wustemann, L.: Slip resistant footwear. In: Health and Safety at Work (2007) 6. Bentley, T.A., Haslam, R.A.: Slip, trip and fall accidents occurring during the delivery of mail. Ergonomics 12, 1859–1872 (1998) 7. Staal, C., et al.: Reducing employee slips, trips, and falls during employee-assisted patient activities. Rehabil. Nurs. 29(6), 211–214, 230 (2004). Discussion 214 8. Verma, S.K., et al.: A prospective study of floor surface, shoes, floor cleaning and slipping in US limited-service restaurant workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 68(4), 279–285 (2011) 9. Anwer, A., Bagheri, Z.S., Fernie, G., Dutta, T., Naguib, H.E.: Evolution of the coefficient of friction with surface wear for advanced surface textured composites. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 4(6), 1600983 (2017) 10. Bagheri, Z.S., Anwer, A.A., Fernie, G., Naguib, H.E., Dutta, T.: Ice-friction characterization of multifunctional surface-textured hybrid composite materials using Taguchi design of experiment. Wear (2019, in press) 11. Bagheri, Z.S., Anwer, A.A., Fernie, G., Naguib, H.E., Dutta, T. (eds.): Improving slip resistance on ice: surface-textured composite materials for slip-resistant footwear. In: Proceedings of the 20th Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2018) (2018)

Risk Factors Identification for Metal Washing Process Based on QOC Matrix the Workers’ Voice and Ergonomic Mapping Brenda Trujillo-Sandoval and Martha Roselia Contreras-Valenzuela(&) Chemistry Sciences and Engineering College, Autonomous University of Morelos State, Av. Universidad 1001 Col Chamilpa, CP 62209 Cuernavaca, Morelos, México [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. In order to determine ergonomic risk factors to be abated during an ergonomic intervention in a metal washing process, two tools were implemented. The questionnaires from the QOC Matrix the workers’ voice was used to build a relationship diagram used to develop an ergonomic mapping. The Ergonomic risk map resulted identified the relationship, between workplace design and non-ergonomic content task. The method used to determine the risk factors was the follow: (a) define the non-ergonomic parameters inside work areas and task content using QOC results, (b) measure the results to categorise them in an ergonomic risk map, (c) using the ergonomic risk map a diagnosis was to carry out, (d) a redesign was proposed to abate non-ergonomic parameters. The activities developed for filling and discharging the washing machine included handling, lifting and carrying a plastic bucket of 40 kg above the shoulders, with an exerting force of 250 N in each lifting, for 120 times. It represented the main ergonomic problem. During the intervention, a new redesign for the working place was proposed; the improving phase incorporated two automatic sulfuric acid dilution system, two automatic mixers and an automatic production line for filling and discharging the washing machine. Consequently, workers change their character of mixers and loaders to the operators of an automatic control panel. Keywords: Ergonomics Systems engineering


Process mapping
Risk factors


1 Introduction Ergonomics is a scientific multidisciplinary discipline; it studies the effect of system elements interacting with human work. It provides a set of techniques, which aim, is the adequacy between the work system and people, to optimise their well-being and productivity [1]. Its aim is to improve the design of work that avoid worker exhaustion and minimise ergonomic risks that result in occupational diseases, seeking to promote human productivity [2]. According to Casillas and Vargas [3], ergonomics studies morphological, physiological, psychological and social aspects of work and its © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 286–293, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_28

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bases are disciplines such as medicine, physical anthropology, industry psychology, engineering, biomechanics, anthropometry, as well as applied physics and mechanics among many others. From an occupational point of view, ergonomics centralised work design to improve the relationship between: (a) workers and work environment, (b) task developed and the work area, (c) tasks developed and tools used, (d) task developed and products and materials handled, and (e) work organisation. When some of these relationships are poorly designed, the people who interact with them face risks and hazards that will affect their health; the musculoskeletal system in particular. A bad design work generates work-related illnesses, such as back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, painful shoulder, Quervain syndrome, among others. The ergonomic risks that a good design has to avoid are: • Exposure to awkward postures: Those in which, a person leaves the natural position of the body. For example, stretches to reach, release materials or crouches to activate devices. • Manual material handling: related to lift or lift down objects, where 3 kg is the minimum weight to consider risk when lifting or lowering objects repetitively and 25 the maximum weight to be handled by highly trained men [4]. • Repetitive movements are actions repeated throughout the working day and are potentially injurious [5]; they are measured by counting their frequency. For example, the number of left mouse button clicks, lift 3 kg packages all day, or the number of times the wrist is twisted during the development a screwing task. • Force exerted during the execution of an activity, for example, the muscular effort made by hand, arm and shoulder when using tweezers or a screwdriver. When there are ergonomic risks present in the workplace, it is necessary redesign the work system through an ergonomic intervention. It is the activity of diagnosis, evaluation, analysis and elimination of immediate and potential risks and hazards. A widely used definition refers to “the activity of the job and the task analysis and diagnosis that leads to a proposal for improvement from the ergonomic point of view” [6]. The elements comprise by an intervention are: (a) Describe the established work method, accounting for the number of repetitive movements, including application of force and lifting loads. (b) Identify process areas, equipment, tools and work methods that generate risks to the musculoskeletal system as the priority. (c) Developing a diagnosis for determining the immediate level and potential risk. (d) Conceptualise a proposal work redesign as improvement. Considering the above, the current study proposes an ergonomic intervention with the aim to eliminate ergonomic risks factors present during the workers performed the task by hand. Through of the ergonomic risk map, the identification of process areas, equipment, tools and work methods that generate risks to the musculoskeletal system was determined and reduced.

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2 Methods and Tools 2.1

QOC Matrix the Workers’ Voice

The QOC Matrix - the workers’ voice was to develop on the logics of QOC notation; Questions, Options and Criteria [7]. Its criteria and options are to base on ergonomic guiding principles by ISO International Standards and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health publications, quality concepts like the Voice of Customer VOC (considering the workers’ voice as a voice of customer), philosophy of quality 6’s, among others. The matrix helps people to use ergonomic information for redesign workplaces and tasks [8] as well as for solving problems and make decisions. The QOC notation was used to organise the information as follows: (a) Questions were developed for evaluate the work and the workplace to respect the standards; (b) Options represent a group of answers categorised by ergonomic risk, in this section, the workers’ voice is stored; (c) The Criterion are the ergonomic standards. The results are organised by non-ergonomic causes, relationships with musculoskeletal disorders developed. 2.2

Ergonomic Mapping

An ergonomic mapping is an exhaustive work place evaluation [9]. It objective is to identify the links, among task performed by workers and it non-ergonomic content. The map added evidence of unsafe and unhealthy areas. It parameters are anthropometric relationships vs workplace, time of exposition, maximal load manipulated according with the task, and repetitiveness by shift among others are considered as criteria.

3 Case Study The metal washing process consists of four steps. First: Inside three 200 L plastic barrels the worker mixed by hand different components and acids to obtain three different mixes. This activity involves manual material handling of a plastic bucket of 10 L, powder detergent bags of 20 kg and Acid barrels of 50 kg weight. The components were aggregated by hand and the mixture was heated with a hose that provided steam. The task is showed on Table 1. The second step was to load the washing machine using a plastic bucket of 25 kg, a total of 60 times by shift were required to fill the washing tank. And the third step consisted of add acid solution to the washing tank using a plastic bucket of 20 L a total of 90 times by shift were required. Finally, the material was to remove from the washing tank using the same plastic bucket of 25 kg, a total of 60–70 times by shift, depending of the height of the worker. The higher the repetitions the lower.

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Table 1. Metal wash procedure by worker. Task description

Load manipulated

Fill three barrels with hot water

Repetition by shift 6 times

Mixture sulphuric acid slowly using a plastic bucket of 50L

6 t i me s

Mixture powdered detergent with water, heating the mixture with steam

6 times

Load the washing tank with material using a plastic bucket.

40 kg

60 times

Fill with the sulphuric acid solution the washing tank filled with a batch of metal pieces using a plastic bucket of 20L

90 times

Rinsing the material with hot water

12 times

Remove the material from the washing tank using a plastic bucket.

40 kg

60 times

4 Methodology The method used for implementing Ergonomic Intervention was to apply as follows: (a) Define the non-ergonomic parameters and task content inside work areas using QOC results [10]. (b) Categorise the risk factors in an ergonomic risk map [9]. (c) Develop a diagnosis using the ergonomic risk map. (d) Improve the work area to abate non-ergonomic parameters.

5 Results and Discussions 5.1

Define the Non-ergonomic Parameters Inside Work Areas

The results of the questionnaire applied and the observation of the 22 workers during the shift have revealed that, nine causes were the main work system elements did not meet workers’ requirements to develop their task in safety manner. It was found nine causes, three main relationships, and five effects four MSDs developed and Heat stress (see Fig. 1). During the analysis the repetitiveness of a same cycle from 60 to 90 times in a shift of 7.5 h linked with hand grip repetitiveness and handling, lift and carry plastic bucket, powder detergent bags and acid barrels combined with awkward postures and lack recovery time cause 90% of MSDs developed by workers.

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Fig. 1. Relationship diagram resulted from QOC Matrix the workers’ voice.

The work place design allows the exposure to a hot environment and the mixture of acid gases causing to workers heat stress. 5.2

Categorise the Risk Factors in an Ergonomic Risk Map and Develop a Diagnosis

As results of the relationship diagram from the QOC Matrix the workers’ voice, an ergonomic mapping was developed. The map represented the workplace design and the non-ergonomic work system elements (see Fig. 2). In the inputs, were represented by the causes and the relationships; the workplace and task current designs that are causing injuries to workers were added. Moreover, causes defined in the relationship diagram, a specific task element was observed (which was not considered by workers’ complains). The activities developed for filling and discharging the washing machine. The activities include repetitiveness of handling, lifting and carrying a plastic bucket of 40 kg above the shoulders 120 times. It represented an accumulated load of 4800 kg by worker every shift. Thus, the activities for filling and emptying the washing machine were represented in the process section. Finally, the outputs were represented by the effects, causes and consequences to lead work-related injuries and illness developed by workers. The upper limbs were the body segments more affected due to the repetitive movements, the shoulders when carrying buckets and the back when the worker handling, lifting materials in general. The resulting ergonomic risk map is showed in Fig. 2. it is important to highlight the $30,450 USD that represents the cost of nonergonomic workplace design.

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Fig. 2. Ergonomic Risk Mapping developed for a metal washing area. Inputs: a list of risks that had been identified. It includes only the workstation and task design. Process identifies the repetitiveness of handling, lifting and carrying a plastic bucket of 40 kg above the shoulders, the workstation layout with a representation of machinery used for developing tasks; the risk level identification with a representation of body segments affected (red colour-high level). In the solution mixing area the head, upper limbs and trunk were identified in red colour, meanwhile in washing machine area only upper limbs and trunk were identified in red colour. Outputs are represented by an illustration that represents effects, causes and consequences to lead work related injuries and illness developed by workers. The cost of non-ergonomics determines the cost by year caused by temporary inabilities and workers replacements.

5.3

Improve the Work Area to Abate Non-ergonomic Parameters

In order to eliminate the ergonomic risk factors a redesign of working area was proposed accordingly with follow: • The activities of filling three barrels with hot water and mixture sulphuric acid and the anti-tarnish using a plastic bucket of 10 L six times by shift were replaced by two automatic sulfuric acid dilution systems, which distribute directly the acid mixtures to washing machines. Thus, workers change their character of mixers to the operators of an automatic control panel. A partial process diagram flow from proposed automatic process is showed in Fig. 3.

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• Activities of mixing powdered detergent and degreaser with water, heating the mixture with steam were replaced by two automatic mixers which heat the mixture with steam automatically. • Activities developed for filling and discharging the washing machine were replaced by an automatic production line. It eliminate the accumulated load manipulate by worker and the exposition to acid gases and hot environment.

Fig. 3. Partial process diagram flow from proposed automatic process

6 Conclusions In the present study two tools were implemented to determine the ergonomic risk factors to be abated during an ergonomic intervention. The questionnaires from the QOC Matrix the workers’ voice was used to build a relationship diagram used to develop an ergonomic mapping. The Ergonomic risk map resulted identified the relationship, between workplace design and non-ergonomic content task. The activities developed for filling and discharging the washing machine. The activities of handling, lifting and carrying a plastic bucket of 40 kg above the shoulders, with an exerting force of 250 N in each lifting, for 120 times, represented the main ergonomic problem.

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During the intervention, a new redesign for the working place was proposed; the improving phase incorporated two automatic sulfuric acid dilution systems, which distribute directly the acid mixtures to washing machines, two automatic mixers which heat the mixture with steam automatically and an automatic production line for filling and discharging the washing machine. Consequently, workers change their character of mixers and loaders to the operators of an automatic control panel. Thus, new studies about training requirements, the impact of automation and psychosocial factors derivate of lack workers’ scholar preparations are necessary. Acknowledgments. Thank you for the enthusiastic participation of employees and students in the present study.

References 1. International Ergonomic Association. https://www.iea.cc/ 2. Secretaria del Trabajo y Previsión Social [homepage on the Internet]. La importancia de la Prevención en los riesgos laborales [updated 1 February 2019; cited 20 February 2019]. http://trabajoseguro.stps.gob.mx/bol085/vinculos/notas_5.html 3. Department of Labor [homepage on the Internet]. Safety and health topics. Ergonomics. [updated 2019; cited 15 January 2019]. https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/ 4. Luttman, A., Jäger, M., Griefahn, B., Caffier, G., Liebers, F. et al.: Prevención de trastornos musculoesqueléticos en el lugar de trabajo. Serie protección de la salud de los trabajadores. No. 5. Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, France (2001). https://apps.who. int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42803/9243590537.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 5. ISO 11228-3:2007. Ergonomics – Manual handling – Part 3: Handling of low loads at high frequency. International Standard Organization, Switzerland (2007) 6. Cruz, J.A., Garnica, A.: Ergonomía aplicada. Cuarta Edición. Ed. ECOE Ediciones, Bogota (2010) 7. Lozano-Ramos, E., Contreras-Valenzuela, M.: Development of the QOC Matrix – the worker’s voice (Part 1). Advances in social and organizational factors. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics AHFE, pp. 433–440, Poland (2014) 8. Miranda-Sánchez, J., Contreras-Valenzuela, M.: Development of the QOC Matrix – the worker´s voice (Part 2) procedia manufacturing. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics AHFE, vol. 3, issue C, USA (2015) 9. Contreras-Valenzuela, M.R., Guzman-Clemente, A.D., Cuenca-Jimenez, F.: Methodology for detecting musculoskeletal disorders in industrial workplaces using a mapping representation of risk. In: Korhan, O. (ed.) Work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders, IntechOpen, UK (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81710) 10. Contreras-Valenzuela, M.R., Lopez-Sesenes, R., Guzman-Clemente, A.D., Duque-Alvarez, A.E., Cuenca-Jimenez, F.: How poor workstation design causes musculoskeletal disorders: research from QOC matrix the workers’ voice. In: Parker, C. (ed.) Ergonomics - New Developments for Global Change, IntechOpen (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen. 80303

Ergonomics During the Construction of the Stations and the Drilling of the Tunnel in the Metro of the City of Quito Esteban Carrera1(&), Oswaldo Jara1, Pablo Dávila1, Fanny Ballesteros2, and Pablo Suasnavas1 1 Universidad Internacional Sek, Quito, Ecuador {esteban.carrera,oswaldo.jara,pablo.davila, pablo.suasnavas}@uisek.edu.ec 2 Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. The city of Quito capital of Ecuador has a heavy traffic problem, due to its geography that prevents the city from growing, in all the geographical coordinates and can only grow towards the North and the South, reason that extends the times of the trips of citizens within the urban perimeter and is the reason why it was decided to build, the first underground train of the city and the country, work of emblematic civil engineering, which until now is the one of greatest technical difficulty developed in Ecuador, the present The article is responsible for characterizing the ergonomic hazards encountered during the construction of the fifteen stations, as well as the drilling of the twenty-two kilometers of the Quito metro tunnel, using ISO/TR 12295 as an evaluation criterion: 2014, and digitizing the results obtained within computer graphics from a spreadsheet, to facilitate the initial estimation of the Ergonomics aspects encountered throughout the execution of the aforementioned works, this information helps as a baseline for the selection of critical tasks and the subsequent evaluation of ergonomic hazards, the analysis of this work allows us to have an approximation of the ergonomic risks found during the execution of the initial works that concluded in October 2018, as well as the prevention measures used to reduce the health effects of workers. Keywords: ISO/TR 12295: 2014 Ecuador


Ergonomics
Drilling tunnel
Risk


1 Introduction Nowadays, the transportation of the city of Quito is one of the most important problems of the city and a challenge for the technicians that seek to solve the almost collapsed mobility of the city, in which the causes of the problem are mainly identified to four variables, which continuously increase vehicular traffic: the increase in the number of vehicles that increase each year and the scarce scrapping of old vehicles, the scarce supply of a public transport service, efficient and safe, the lack of a public policy oriented To manage the ordering of traffic, in view of this it was decided to start the © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 294–301, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_29

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construction of the Quito metro, which began in 2016 and is estimated to be completed by the end of 2019, a political and public decision that has become the greatest challenge in the history of engineering in the city and the country, due to the technical complexity of drilling a tunnel in the irregular geography of Quito crossed by slopes, filled ravines and elevations throughout the city, so it was an achievement for the technicians of Ecuador, the construction began Quito’s metro, since the beginning of the mega project was thought to maintain the highest standards of quality, safety, environment and adequate community relations, framed within the corporate social responsibility, as quickly as the work started, different ergonomic dangers were identified such as: manual handling of loads, forced postures, application of forces, pushing and dragging loads as of repetitive movements, to which the workers who were responsible for the execution of the work were exposed, it is for this reason that it is decided to carry out the initial and permanent evaluation of the ergonomic dangers, using the criterion included in ISO/TR 12295 : 2014, the drilling and construction phases of the tunnel with its 22 km of extension, were contemplated in the study, as well as the construction of the 15 stations that are located throughout the city of Quito and contemplate in north-south and south-north route in a single tunnel with a diameter of 9 meters; It should be noted that the number of workers fluctuated between 5,000 and 1,000 people according to the stage of the work.

2 Materials and Methods It t is a retrospective study that analyzes the results obtained in the survey in the field in the course of the tunnel as well as in the stations, by means of the identification and evaluation criterion collected in: ISO/TR 12295: 2014 Ergonomics. Application document for ISO standards on manual handling (ISO 11228-1, ISO 11228-2 and ISO 11228-3) and working postures (ISO 11226), the work was done after 15 months from April 2016. It is a first level support with the family of the previous ISO standard for the evaluation of risks due to the handling of materials and forced work postures. It is a simple guide of practical use, which offers a simple tool that can be used in industries, regardless of their size, and provides an update to the technical standards that support it [1]. It is a system that allows us to know the biomechanical response of the body during work, taking into account the own organization of the industry, the requirement that each task requires and the execution time of the same. ISO TR 12295: 2014 proposes to analyze working conditions independently in each job position. The aim is to analyze each of the ergonomic risk factors, taking into account the work organization itself, how long it is carried out and the presence or absence of recovery periods or rotations, and, in the case of rotations, with which other tasks are carried out [2]. The standard is a guiding document, divided into three parts, which will help in the application of previous norms. It proposes three phases of application, differentiated, with the aim of helping the user to decide the rules to be used when evaluating a job (Fig. 1):

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• Method of hazard identification using the pass key or pass key • Quick evaluation • Specific or analytical evaluation, with specific criteria for evaluation of multitasking tasks or very varied tasks.

Fig. 1. .

This technical report is designed to help mainly in two areas. First, to help professionals recognize the scenarios in which the standards of the ISO 11228 series and/or the ISO 11226 standard should be applied, therefore, it provides a tool for biomechanical ergonomic “hazard identification”. And secondly, to offer a “quick assessment” technical guide that can be used for the “risk estimation” of the different activities within an industry. For this reason, it is a document that helps in the management of ergonomic risks, allowing ergonomics to be incorporated into occupational health and safety management in companies. Companies can design a strategic plan of intervention, with the results of the application of this instrument to prevent the onset of musculoskeletal disorders caused at work and an annual action plan, which will allow you to allocate resources in what really is important for the health of the workers and the productivity of the company, during the realization of this study took into account the jobs of: bricklayer, tunnel boring machine operator and panel placing machine operator; and they were divided into two phases of the project: drilling and construction of stops [3].

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3 Results The results obtained during the evaluation will be presented in the following tables where the percentage of time they were exposed to ergonomic risks in the 15 months in which the information was collected.

Chart 1. .

In the Chart 1 of the percentage of times exposed to different types of ergonomic risks we can see how the mason job has 90% of the time manual lifting of loads, 90% of repetitive work, 50% of manual transport, 25% of push and drag and 90% of static work postures (Chart 2).

Chart 2. .

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In the table of the percentage of times exposed to different types of ergonomic risks we can see how the mason position has 90% of the time manual lifting of loads, 10% of repetitive work, 10% of manual transport, a 10% push and pull and 60% static work postures (Chart 3).

Chart 3. .

In the chart of the percentage of times exposed to different types of ergonomic risks we can see how the mason position has 5% of the time manual lifting of loads, 30% of repetitive work, 5% of manual transport, a 5% push and pull and 90% static work postures. (Chart 4)

Chart 4. .

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In the chart of the percentage of times exposed to different types of ergonomic risks we can see how the mason position has 5% of the time manual lifting of loads, 25% of repetitive work, 5% of manual transport, a 5% push and pull and 90% static work postures.

Bricklayer Comparison Between Drilling and Construction Tasks 60

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Chart 5. .

Comparison of the tasks of the mason between the activities of drilling and construction, in Chart 5 is observed as the work in static postures is a constant that varies in construction by 30% and it is also appreciated that the manual lifting of loads is identical in the two phases of construction with 90%, however, the type of load to be handled is different, in the case of repetitive movements it is clearly evident that the problem is majority during the construction of the stations. Comparison of the operators during the drilling and construction phase, it is necessary to consider that as the drilling progressed, the panels for the construction of the tunnel were assembled; in the tables it is observed how the work in static postures is a constant in a 90% and it is also appreciated that the manual lifting of loads is identical in the two operators with 5%, in the case of repetitive movements they are clearly values very similar with a 5% difference between 25% and 30% who respectively have both positions (Chart 6).

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Comparison between Operators During the Two Work Phases 90 90

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Chart 6. .

4 Conclusions In the present study we can demonstrate the importance of the initial evaluation of ergonomic biomechanical risks, to which the analyzed jobs are exposed in which critical and non-critical situations were found, but in which it is necessary to carry out the specific evaluation with the family of ISO standards: 11228-1,2,3 and ISO: 11226; depending on the need for analysis. The construction company carried out an efficient planning for the control of the identified risk factors, in the tunnel drilling phases and in the construction of the stations and where the ergonomic biomechanical risks had a primary consideration, both in safety management and in the monitoring of health, being a company considered a leader in good corporate practices. The construction company carried out different activities to raise awareness among its workers of the ergonomic risks in the workplace, which led to significant control in the tasks of manual lifting of load, manual transport of load as well as drag and push, but the intervention that was achieved in postural and repetitive aspects were more discreet due to the impossibility of changing the tasks that gave rise to those ergonomics dangers. One of the aspects that most call attention to the results obtained is the majority presence of static work postures, which are mainly caused by the lack of adequate designs of machines and work equipment adapted to the anthropometry of Ecuadorians. It is very important and priority to generate an anthropometric profile of the Ecuadorian.

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It should be noted that during the drilling process, the work on the construction site was rigorously supervised, and serious injuries and fatalities were avoided in the drilling and tunnel construction works, which is important to highlight since being a megaproject for the city and the country, was a pioneer in terms of techniques that seek the welfare of workers, subcontractors and civil society in general.

References 1. Lowe, B.: Assessment methods used by certified ergonomics professionals. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 2018 Annual Meeting (2018) 2. Diego-Mas, J.: Errors using observational methods for ergonomics assessment in real practice. Human Factors (2017) 3. Hagg, G.: Corporative initiatives in ergonomics. In: Proceedings of the IEA 2000/HFES 2000 Congress (2000)

Comparisons of Three Observational Ergonomic Tools for Risk Assessment on Upper Extremities in a Pump Assembly Plant – A Pilot Study Meng-Chuan Ho and Ei-wen Lo(&) Department of Occupational Safety and Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to compare the agreement of three risk assessment tools for WMSDs, KIM-MHO, OCRA Index, and RSI, on upper extremities. Three raters were recruited to evaluate the risks of 30 repetitive pump assembly jobs based on job characteristics. The highest intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) of risk scores was 0.6 (95% CI: 0.39–0.76) when using OCRA Index. Pearson’s Correlation coefficient on the averaged risk score between KIM-MHO and RSI was high (r = 0.893, p < 0.01). The highest weighted-kappa coefficient of risk category between KIM-MHO and OCRA index was 0.21, which was a little low. The possible reason may be the definition of “risk” and the cut-off values used by each assessment tools. In conclusion, KIM-MHO is a recommended screen tool to assess the WMSDs risk on the upper extremities because of easy to use and less time consuming. Keywords: Upper extremities
Risk assessment OCRA Index
KIM-MHO
Reliability


Revised Strain Index


1 Introduction The main risk factors for upper limb musculoskeletal disorder caused by job involves forceful exertion, awkward posture, high repetitiveness, long duration, etc. [1–3]. In addition, epidemiological studies confirmed that the workers exposed to high forcehigh repetitive jobs was 15 times higher to have carpal tunnel syndromes compared to the those who exposed to low force-low repetitive jobs [4], and the tendinitis in hand and wrist was more than 29 times [5]. There are many different measures to evaluate the risk factors and/or levels associated with work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs), e.g., subjective judgements, systematic observations and direct measurement. The semi-quantitative and systematic observational assessment tools are applied to occupational health researchers and practitioners commonly [6], which have the advantages of relatively low cost, systemic design, and with moderate to high validity and reliability [6–8]. Therefore, the occupational safety and health specialists should select the suitable method according to © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R. H. M. Goossens and A. Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp. 302–308, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_30

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the validity, reliability, practically and the aim of the risk assessment [6, 8]. Some semiquantitative assessment tools aim to quantify the workers exposed to WMSD risk factors in upper extremities, such as Revised Strain Index (RSI) [9], Hand Activity LevelThreshold Limit Value by American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH HAL-TLV) [10], Key Indicator Method for Manual Handling Operations (KIM-MHO) [11], Occupation Repetitive Actions Index (OCRA Index) [12], etc. Results from previous studies revealed that the reliability of some semi-quantitative assessment tools were relatively moderate to high [13–15], but other studies reported the agreement of assessment tools would be affected from experiences of raters when they compared similar semi-quantitative methods [16]. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the agreement of three risk assessment tools for the WMSDs on upper extremities.

2 Methods 2.1

Study Tasks

Physical exposure data for 30 cyclic jobs were videotaped and collected in a pump assembly plant in Central Taiwan. The basic characteristics of these jobs should be repetitive [4] and mono-tasking. A repetitive task is defined as it postulated with cycles lasting less than 30 s or when over 50% of the cycle time is spent in executing the same type of action. A mono-tasking job is defined as an operator performs only one task for at least 90% of a working day. Before recording the video, the executive officer in this facility agreed with the study procedures and all participating operators signed the informed consent. Researchers recorded the 30 tasks using handheld digital camcorders focused on the upper extremities from two of three views (right, left, and/or front) of worker. Video recordings captured a minimum of five work cycles when the operator followed the standard operating procedures to complete their job. Task duration and break/recovery times were collected by direct observation and interviews with the occupational safety and health specialist and operators. No personal or identifying information was collected and no individual data was provided or available to the employer [14]. 2.2

Raters

Three raters of ergonomic expert, scholar, and trained student participated in this study to conduct job analysis and assess the risks on 30 pump assembly tasks using the RSI, OCRA Index and KM-MHO separately. All the raters had to participate in a training session to be familiar with these tools prior to the risk assessments. All training sessions included instruction on principles and procedures as well as practice using each method. The video clips used for practices were also taken from the same facility. The criteria used to evaluate the completion of the training was the raters achieve consistency on the scores of task-related variables (e.g., force, posture, frequency, duration, etc.) by the experienced ergonomic researcher.

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Once trained, the researcher provided the digital format of 30 video clips and electronic files of Excel worksheets for RSI, OCRA Index and KIM-MHO worksheets to the three raters. The RSI worksheet was based on Moore and Garg’s original procedures [9]. The OCRA Index worksheet was based on Colombini and Occhipinti’s update of the method [12]. The KIM-MHO worksheet was based on the federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA) and revised in 2012 [11]. 2.3

Exposure Assessment

Each rater performed the risk assessment on those 30 jobs using RSI, OCRA Index and KIM-MHO separately, and they did not discuss the results with one another. Raters assigned individual rating scores of five task-related variables in the RSI system. These five variables are (1) intensity of exertion, (2) exertions per minute, (3) duration per exertion, (4) hand/wrist posture, and (5) hours per day. The same procedures were also applied to the raters for the seven task-related variables in the OCRA Index system. The seven variables include (1) force, (2) posture, (3) additional factors, (4) frequency, (5) recovery time, (6) duration per day, and (7) stereotypy. Finally, there are seven task-related variables in the KIM-MHO system, including (1) duration per shift, (2) force exertion, (3) gripping conditions, (4) work organization, (5) working condition, (6) posture, and (7) hand/arm position and movement. The present study didn’t apply direct measures to the force required to perform jobs. For RSI and OCRA Index, raters used the Borg CR-10 scale [17] to estimate the force/exertion intensity rather than using self-reported force estimates form workers based on the video observation and the motion expression when operators performed their jobs. For the KIM-MHO system, raters assigned the force values to each action based on the anchor descriptions and examples listed in the rating sheet. The information about duration per day/shift, recovery time variables were provided to raters by researchers and all were scored the same. The three assessment tools (i.e., RSI, OCRA Index, and KIM-MHO) output for each task was categorized into three risk levels - Low, Moderate, and High. The standardization of these scores is shown in Table 1. It should be noted that RSI’s 2 categories (i.e. safe and hazardous) had to be divided into 3 risk categories, and OCRA Index’s 6 levels were combined into 3 risk categories.

Table 1. Standardization of Revised Strain Index (RSI), Occupation Repetitive Actions Index (OCRA Index) and Key Indicator Method for Manual Handing Operations (KIM-MHO) scores. Risk levels Low Moderate High

RSI score