Advances in Ergonomics in Design : Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, July 17-21, 2017, The Westin Bonaventure Hotel, Los Angeles, California, USA 978-3-319-60582-1, 3319605828, 978-3-319-60581-4

Table of contents :
Front Matter....Pages i-xx
Front Matter....Pages 1-1
A Preventive Ergonomic Approach Based on Virtual and Immersive Reality....Pages 3-15
Improving the Design of Virtual Reality Devices Applying an Ergonomics Guideline....Pages 16-25
Virtual Reality Self Induced Cybersickness: An Exploratory Study....Pages 26-33
Comparing Three Stimulus Presentation Types in a Virtual Reality Experiment to Human Wayfinding Behavior During Emergency Situation....Pages 34-44
Methods and Procedures to Usability Testing in Virtual Reality Systems....Pages 45-51
Review of Virtual Reality Technology: An Ergonomic Approach and Current Challenges....Pages 52-61
Shape Analysis of Pottery Using Elliptic Fourier Descriptor and 3D Scanning....Pages 62-70
Evaluation of the Relationship Between Virtual Environments and Emotions....Pages 71-82
Simulation as a Pedagogical Strategy in Product Design....Pages 83-91
Eye Tracking-Based Reverse Inference Approach for Design of Restaurant Information Display....Pages 92-99
Evaluation of a Virtual Environment Prototype for Studies on the Effectiveness of Technology-Based Safety Signs....Pages 100-111
Front Matter....Pages 113-113
Do Zenware Applications Reduce the Digital Distraction of Knowledge Workers? A Qualitative Study Based on Expert Interviews....Pages 115-126
Human Work Interaction Design: Beyond Human Factors....Pages 127-133
Effect of Driving Context on Design Dialogue....Pages 134-144
Should Tractors’ Ergonomic Evaluation Index System in Different Life Cycle Stage be Different? A Delphi Survey Conducted in China....Pages 145-156
Ergonomics Evaluation of a Manual Braking System for Skateboards....Pages 157-164
The Effect of Ergonomics to Improve the Convenience of the Consumer Packaging of Edible Oil Industry....Pages 165-176
Juice Packaging Design: Effects of Transparency on Consumers’ Perception Leading Toward Purchase Preference for Packaged Juice....Pages 177-184
Front Matter....Pages 185-185
Techniques for Managing Stale Mission Information Through Card-Based User Interfaces....Pages 187-198
The Effect of Font Type on Character Legibility for Different Age Groups....Pages 199-210
Front Matter....Pages 185-185
A Story of Misencounters: Graphic Design and the Production of Digital Interaction....Pages 211-221
The Influence of Different Style of Icons on Users’ Visual Search in Touch Screen Interface....Pages 222-232
Ergonomics and Warning Design: Standardization of Graphical Symbols for Safety Signs....Pages 233-240
Effect of Smartphone Use on Upper Extremity and Neck....Pages 241-249
An Elastic Interface for Artistic Composition and Performance....Pages 250-257
Front Matter....Pages 259-259
Improving HMIs of Vehicle Exterior Design Using Adaptive Structures and Systems....Pages 261-273
Co-designing an Arthritis Nurse-Call Device, with Lead Aged-Care Users....Pages 274-285
Ergonomic/Human Factors in the Design Process: Methodological Tool for Context Characterization and Analysis of Accessibility....Pages 286-292
The Role of Human Factors in Surface Design....Pages 293-302
Information Characteristics in the Operation of a Healthcare Service from the Staff Perspective....Pages 303-313
User-Centered Design and Theory of Innovation: Problem Solving Integration Approach for Ergonomic Product Design....Pages 314-320
A Quick Method to Extract Earphone-Related Ear Dimensions Using Two-Dimensional (2D) Image....Pages 321-328
Evaluation of Macroergonomic Methods for the Application of Organization Analyzes in Startups....Pages 329-339
Design Strategies for Inclusive Environments....Pages 340-348
Biomimicry as Metodological Tool for Technical Emancipation of Peripheral Countries....Pages 349-356
The Constructive Advantages of Buckminster Fuller’s Geodesic Domes and Their Relationship to the Built Environment Ergonomics....Pages 357-368
Front Matter....Pages 369-369
Potentialities of a Face Reading Tool to a Digital Game Evaluation and Development: A Preliminary Study....Pages 371-381
The Importance of Physical Elements and Their Influences on Users’ Concentration of Academic Library....Pages 382-389
Aerial Surveillance: A Theoretical Comparison Study on Remote Controlled Aircrafts....Pages 390-399
How Design the Future Hydrogen Users’ Needs? A Contribution of Prospective Ergonomics....Pages 400-410
Front Matter....Pages 369-369
Color in Glossolalia: White in Western Culture....Pages 411-420
Dream and Reality in the Film Storytelling and Their Boundaries: Viewer Inner Self Centered Cognitive and Ergonomic Consciousness....Pages 421-431
Inspædia Report: An Inspired Research Itinerary....Pages 432-442
White Space in Editorial Design....Pages 443-452
Strategic Design: Enhancing Experiences and Developing Local Products....Pages 453-461
Inspædia: Changing the Landscape of Cultural Reflection and Influence Through User Experience Design....Pages 462-468
How the Design Processes Add Innovative Capacity in Startup Companies....Pages 469-476
Front Matter....Pages 477-477
Optimization and Ergonomics of Novel Modular Wheelchair Design....Pages 479-487
Industrial Manufacturing Workstations Suitability for People with Disabilities: The Perception of Workers....Pages 488-497
External Breast Prostheses: Brazilian Performance Parameters....Pages 498-505
Design Management Contributions in the Diagnosis of a Psychiatric Hospital in Brazil: Identifying Opportunities in Assistive Technology....Pages 506-517
Design and Development of a Bionic Hand Prosthesis....Pages 518-528
Design of Assistive Devices and Occupational Therapy: Case Study in a Brazilian Psychatric Hospital....Pages 529-540
Requirements’ Literature Review for the Development of Furniture for People with Motor Impairments....Pages 541-548
Implementation of Integrated Instrumentation in Assistive Technology....Pages 549-560
Research and Development of Pedagogical Objects to Support Inclusive Education....Pages 561-568
Modularity and Variety in the Customization of Functional Clothes for People with Disabilities....Pages 569-580
Use Perception Analysis in Custom Made Footwear for People with Physical Disability....Pages 581-590
Usability Evaluation of Mining Machinery Interface Based on Eye Movement Experiment....Pages 591-599
Clarifying the Concept of Corporate Identity: From a Collective Vision to Cultural Interface....Pages 600-609
Front Matter....Pages 477-477
Visual Perception and Contemporary Portuguese Type Design....Pages 610-620
Usage of Mobile Phones Amongst Elderly People in Pakistan....Pages 621-630
The Influence of Ergonomics Aspects on the Use of Hydrotherapy Equipment by Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Specialists Perspective....Pages 631-642
Front Matter....Pages 643-643
A Descriptive Study on the Influence of Wheelchair Design and Movement Trajectory on the Upper Limbs’ Joint Angles....Pages 645-651
Contribution to the Design of Hospital Bed: Systematic for Surveying the Design Requirements and Functional Requirements for Synthesis of Mechanism....Pages 652-662
Ergonomic Aspects in the Redesign of a Child’s Inclusive Textbook....Pages 663-670
Application of Assistive Technologies in Rehabilitation of the Visually Impaired....Pages 671-682
Ergonomic Evaluation of Human-Computer Interfaces Through the Ergonomic Aspects of Scarpin and Bastien....Pages 683-689
Product Development of Assistive Technology for the Feet of a Person with Cerebral Palsy....Pages 690-700
Development and Evaluation of Low-Cost Custom Splint for Spastic Hand by Additive Manufacturing....Pages 701-711
Applications and Interface Requirements to Engage the Citizens to Share Information in a Smart City Project....Pages 712-721
Study and Design of a Tactile Map and a Tactile 3D Model in Brazil: Assistive Technologies for People with Visual Impairment....Pages 722-731
Front Matter....Pages 733-733
Cultural and Creative Elements of Digital Technology Art and Product Design....Pages 735-745
New Concepts in Flexible Packaging....Pages 746-754
User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI): An Ergonomic Evaluation Tool for User-Chair Compatibility....Pages 755-761
Sustainable Product Design and the Wood Furniture Sector....Pages 762-772
Ergonomics in the Design Process - Study of Adaptability of Evolutive High Chairs....Pages 773-779
Design of an Innovative Mattress to Improve Sleep Quality by Increasing Deep Sleep Time....Pages 780-785
Pillow Design and Evaluation of Shoulder and Neck Surface Pressure to Sleep Quality....Pages 786-795
Design Requirements to Enhance the Postural Control in Patients with Severe Spastic Quadriplegia....Pages 796-806
Front Matter....Pages 733-733
Drawing as Reasoning Tool in UX Design - Doodling and Drawing as Foundation for Project Planning....Pages 807-812
Ergonomics in the Design Conceptual Process: The Case Study Daciano da Costa....Pages 813-820
A Study Exploring the Facets of Visual Elements in Ethnic Products: Case Study of Sarees from West Bengal....Pages 821-831
Research and Innovative Design of the Motorcycle Gloves....Pages 832-840
Could the Design Features of a Wheelchair Influence the User Experience and Stigmatization Perceptions of the Users?....Pages 841-850
Risk Assessment for Small Scale Gold Surface Mining at Licuan Baay, Abra in the Philippines....Pages 851-856
Ergonomic Evaluations and Design Interventions for Shop-Floors Dealing with Chemical Conversion Coatings: Case Study from India....Pages 857-868
An Ergonomic Design of Senior High School Science Laboratories in the Philippines....Pages 869-881
Front Matter....Pages 883-883
A Study on Examining User Comfort in Hospital Beds....Pages 885-896
Reachable Domain of Adults’ Right Leg in Sitting Posture....Pages 897-904
Screen Design of Portable Terminal to Promote Users’ Motivation to Use the System....Pages 905-915
Travel Kit Organiser for Carry on Luggage Design: Contribution to Traveller’s Comfort....Pages 916-923
Online Posture Feedback System Aiming at Human Comfort....Pages 924-935
Front Matter....Pages 937-937
Garment Design and Engineering for Hospital Use....Pages 939-950
Human Factors Applied to the Understanding of the Importance of Therapeutic Clothing Textiles for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders....Pages 951-957
A Study on Maternity Dress Based on the Development Situation of Ergonomics and Design of Hygiene and Safety....Pages 958-963
Ergonomic Assessment on the Tasks Performed by Hairstylists in Quezon City, Philippines....Pages 964-972
Discussion of the Design of Sanitation Workers’ Clothes Based on Ergonomics....Pages 973-981
Dynamic Understanding of Human-Skin Movement and Garment Design of Golf Apparel....Pages 982-994
Design Solution of Shoe Sole (Base of the Footwear) Preparation in Traditional Hand Sewn Footwear Manufacturing: A Case Study on Kolhapuri Chappal....Pages 995-1003
Front Matter....Pages 1005-1005
Analysis of Characteristic Features of Juvenile Female Aged Between 15 and 17 in Guangdong Province P. R. China....Pages 1007-1016
Development of a Design Protocol for Customized Swimming Goggles Using 3D Facial Scan Data....Pages 1017-1021
Comparison of Anthropometric Data for the Design of Chairs Between Seven Countries....Pages 1022-1028
Segmentation of Anthropometric Data of the Brazilian’ Female Population....Pages 1029-1036
Back Matter....Pages 1037-1040

Citation preview

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588

Francisco Rebelo Marcelo Soares Editors

Advances in Ergonomics in Design Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, July 17–21, 2017, The Westin Bonaventure Hotel, Los Angeles, California, USA

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing Volume 588

Series editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

About this Series The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern intelligent systems and computing. The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily textbooks and proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of research results.

Advisory Board Chairman Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India e-mail: [email protected] Members Rafael Bello Perez, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba e-mail: [email protected] Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain e-mail: [email protected] Hani Hagras, University of Essex, Colchester, UK e-mail: [email protected] László T. Kóczy, Széchenyi István University, Győr, Hungary e-mail: [email protected] Vladik Kreinovich, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, USA e-mail: [email protected] Chin-Teng Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected] Jie Lu, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia e-mail: [email protected] Patricia Melin, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] Nadia Nedjah, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Jun Wang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong e-mail: [email protected]

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Francisco Rebelo Marcelo Soares •

Editors

Advances in Ergonomics in Design Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, July 17–21, 2017, The Westin Bonaventure Hotel, Los Angeles, California, USA

123

Editors Francisco Rebelo Faculdade de Motricidade Humana Universidade de Lisboa Cruz Quebrada Portugal

Marcelo Soares Federal University of Pernambuco Recife, Pernambuco Brazil

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic) Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing ISBN 978-3-319-60581-4 ISBN 978-3-319-60582-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017943066 © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2017

AHFE 2017 Series Editors Tareq Z. Ahram, Florida, USA Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

8th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics and the Affiliated Conferences Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, July 17−21, 2017, The Westin Bonaventure Hotel, Los Angeles, California, USA Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Engineering Advances in Design for Inclusion Advances in Ergonomics in Design Advances in Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, and Performance Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Healthcare and Medical Devices Advances in Human Factors in Simulation and Modeling Advances in Human Factors and System Interactions Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Leadership Advances in Human Factors in Robots and Unmanned Systems Advances in Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation

WonJoon Chung and Cliff (Sungsoo) Shin Carryl Baldwin Giuseppe Di Bucchianico and Pete Kercher Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo Soares Ronald L. Boring Vincent G. Duffy and Nancy Lightner Daniel N. Cassenti Isabel L. Nunes Denise Nicholson Jussi Kantola, Tibor Barath and Salman Nazir Jessie Chen Terence Andre Neville A. Stanton (continued)

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Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2017

(continued) Advances in Human Factors, Software, and Systems Engineering Advances in Human Factors in Energy: Oil, Gas, Nuclear and Electric Power Industries Advances in Human Factors, Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure Advances in the Human Side of Service Engineering Advances in Physical Ergonomics and Human Factors Advances in Human Factors in Sports, Injury Prevention and Outdoor Recreation Advances in Safety Management and Human Factors Advances in Social & Occupational Ergonomics Advances in Ergonomics of Manufacturing: Managing the Enterprise of the Future Advances in Usability and User Experience Advances in Human Factors in Wearable Technologies and Game Design Advances in Communication of Design Advances in Cross-Cultural Decision Making

Tareq Z. Ahram and Waldemar Karwowski Paul Fechtelkotter and Michael Legatt Jerzy Charytonowicz Louis E. Freund and Wojciech Cellary Ravindra Goonetilleke and Waldemar Karwowski Tareq Z. Ahram Pedro Arezes Richard Goossens Stefan Trzcielinski Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão Amic G. Ho Mark Hoffman

Preface

Successful interaction with products, tools, and technologies depends on usable designs and accommodating the needs of potential users without requiring costly training. In this context, this book is concerned with emerging ergonomics in design concepts, theories and applications of human factors knowledge focusing on the discovery, design and understanding of human interaction, and usability issues with products and systems for their improvement. This book will be of special value to a large variety of professionals, researchers, and students in the broad field of human modeling and performance, who are interested in feedback of devices’ interfaces (visual and haptic), virtual reality, user-centered design, design for special populations, particularly the elderly and assistive technology. We hope this book is informative, but even more that it is thought provoking. We hope it inspires, leading the reader to contemplate other questions, applications, and potential solutions in creating good designs for all. This book is organized into eleven sections focusing on the following subject matters: Virtual Reality Challenges, Devices and User Interfaces and Digital Environment, User Studies, Product Design and Evaluation, and Prospective Ergonomics. In the sections that cover Assistive Technology and User Interfaces, the focus is on optimization of user devices, with emphasis on visual and haptic feedback. In the sections that cover Product Design and Human Work Interactions, the focus goes to the limits and capabilities of special populations, particularly the elderly, which can influence the design. Generally, the effect of changes in force and kinematics, physiology, cognitive performance, in the design of consumer products, tools, and workplaces is discussed. The sections that cover Virtual Reality and Digital Environment, Product and Design Evaluation and Sustainable Design employs a variety of research methods and user-centered evaluation approaches, for developing products that can improve safety and human performance and at same time the efficiency of the system. Usability evaluations are reported for different kinds of products and technologies. Section 1: Virtual Reality Challenges in Design Section 2: Product Design and Human Work Interactions

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Preface

Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

3: Interaction and Interface Design 4: Methodology Issues in Design 5: Prospective Ergonomics 6: Assistive Technology I 7: Assistive Technology II 8: Ergonomics Design and Evaluation 9: Design for High Performance and Comfort 10: Ergonomics in Clothing, Fashion and Footwear Design 11: Anthropometry in Design

This book will be of special value to a large variety of professionals, researchers, and students in the broad field of human performance, who are interested in feedback of devices’ interfaces (visual and haptic), user-centered design, and design for special populations, particularly the elderly. We would like to thank the Editorial Board members for their contributions. Pedro Arezes, Portugal Amilton Arruda, Brazil Erminia Attaianese, Italy Eric Brangier, France Ralph Bruder, Germany Marcelo Cairrão, Brazil José Juan Canãs, Spain Miguel Carvalho, Portugal F.M. da Silva, Portugal J.C.P. da Silva, Brazil Emilia Duarte, Portugal José Pinto Duarte, Portugal E. Filgueiras, Portugal M. Goebel, South Africa Sougata Karmakar, India L.B. Macedo, Brazil Beata Mrugalska, Poland Mitsuo Nagamachi, Japan Andre Neves, Brazil P. Noriega, Portugal M.L.L.R. Okimoto, Brazil L. Paschoarelli, Brazil L. Prado, Mexico Pradip Kumar Ray, India Sarbjit Singh, India Peeyush Soni, Thailand Steve Summerskill, UK Ming Sun, USA

Preface

ix

Patel Thaneswer, India Bruce Thomas, The Netherlands Steve Ward, Australia T. Yamaoka, Japan July 2017

Francisco Rebelo Marcelo Soares

Contents

Virtual Reality Challenges in Design A Preventive Ergonomic Approach Based on Virtual and Immersive Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Francesco Caputo, Alessandro Greco, Egidio D‘Amato, Immacolata Notaro, and Stefania Spada Improving the Design of Virtual Reality Devices Applying an Ergonomics Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalina Mariani and Pere Ponsa Virtual Reality Self Induced Cybersickness: An Exploratory Study . . . . Ana Almeida, Francisco Rebelo, Paulo Noriega, and Elisângela Vilar Comparing Three Stimulus Presentation Types in a Virtual Reality Experiment to Human Wayfinding Behavior During Emergency Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elisângela Vilar, Francisco Rebelo, and Paulo Noriega

3

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34

Methods and Procedures to Usability Testing in Virtual Reality Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Carol Pontes de França, J. Pereira Neto, and Marcelo Márcio Soares

45

Review of Virtual Reality Technology: An Ergonomic Approach and Current Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Carol Pontes de França and Marcelo Márcio Soares

52

Shape Analysis of Pottery Using Elliptic Fourier Descriptor and 3D Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jin Wang, Wei Qian, and Haixiao Liu

62

Evaluation of the Relationship Between Virtual Environments and Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tiago Oliveira, Paulo Noriega, Francisco Rebelo, and Regina Heidrich

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xii

Contents

Simulation as a Pedagogical Strategy in Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . Johana Ruíz Hoyos and Gustavo Sevilla Eye Tracking-Based Reverse Inference Approach for Design of Restaurant Information Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hirotaka Aoki and Satoshi Suzuki

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Evaluation of a Virtual Environment Prototype for Studies on the Effectiveness of Technology-Based Safety Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Lara Reis de Amaral, Emília Duarte, and Francisco Rebelo Product Design and Human Work Interactions Do Zenware Applications Reduce the Digital Distraction of Knowledge Workers? A Qualitative Study Based on Expert Interviews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Damian Gerbaulet and Oliver Korn Human Work Interaction Design: Beyond Human Factors . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Arminda Lopes, Pedro Campos, and Barbara Rita Barricelli Effect of Driving Context on Design Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Luca Giuliano, Claudio Germak, and Joseph Giacomin Should Tractors’ Ergonomic Evaluation Index System in Different Life Cycle Stage be Different? A Delphi Survey Conducted in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Bianbian Qiu, Jiping Zhou, Zaixiang Zheng, and Hui Shen Ergonomics Evaluation of a Manual Braking System for Skateboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Uzairulhassan Syed, Manoj Patil, Yueqing Li, and Brian Craig The Effect of Ergonomics to Improve the Convenience of the Consumer Packaging of Edible Oil Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Rahul Tirpude, Tanweer Alam, and N.C. Saha Juice Packaging Design: Effects of Transparency on Consumers’ Perception Leading Toward Purchase Preference for Packaged Juice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Swati Pal, Shivani Holkar, Abhishek Yevalkar, and Amrita Bhattacharjee Interaction and Interface Design Techniques for Managing Stale Mission Information Through Card-Based User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Erika von Kelsch, Stephanie Kane, and Chris Muller

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The Effect of Font Type on Character Legibility for Different Age Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Yunqian Zhao, Li Ding, Linghua Ran, and Yan Li A Story of Misencounters: Graphic Design and the Production of Digital Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Marco Neves The Influence of Different Style of Icons on Users’ Visual Search in Touch Screen Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Tianyang Xi and Xiaoli Wu Ergonomics and Warning Design: Standardization of Graphical Symbols for Safety Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 João Neves, Fernando Moreira da Silva, Daniel Raposo, and José Silva Effect of Smartphone Use on Upper Extremity and Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Saishyam Akurke, Yueqing Li, and Brian Craig An Elastic Interface for Artistic Composition and Performance . . . . . . . 250 Carlos Arce-Lopera, Juan Salamanca, and Daniel Gomez Methodological Issues in Design Improving HMIs of Vehicle Exterior Design Using Adaptive Structures and Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Andrea Hein, Elena Patzer, and Thomas Maier Co-designing an Arthritis Nurse-Call Device, with Lead Aged-Care Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Alexander Walker and Peter Schumacher Ergonomic/Human Factors in the Design Process: Methodological Tool for Context Characterization and Analysis of Accessibility . . . . . . . 286 Gustavo Sevilla, J. Hoyos Ruíz, and Luz M. Sáenz The Role of Human Factors in Surface Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Maria João Pereira Neto, Gianni Montagna, and Luís Santos Information Characteristics in the Operation of a Healthcare Service from the Staff Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Zuli T. Galindo-Estupiñan, Carlos Aceves-Gonzalez, Genaro Ortiz, John Rey-Galindo, and Mario Mireles-Ramirez User-Centered Design and Theory of Innovation: Problem Solving Integration Approach for Ergonomic Product Design . . . . . . . . 314 Fanglan Zhang and Sharon Joines

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A Quick Method to Extract Earphone-Related Ear Dimensions Using Two-Dimensional (2D) Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Liang Ma, Liuxing Tsao, Chen Yu, and Wei Zhou Evaluation of Macroergonomic Methods for the Application of Organization Analyzes in Startups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Luiza Debastiani Silva, Elton Moura Nickel, and Flávio Anthero Nunes Vianna dos Santos Design Strategies for Inclusive Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Miguel de Aboim Borges and Fernando Moreira da Silva Biomimicry as Metodological Tool for Technical Emancipation of Peripheral Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Justino Barbosa, Amilton Arruda, Theska Laila, and Edna Moura The Constructive Advantages of Buckminster Fuller’s Geodesic Domes and Their Relationship to the Built Environment Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Theska Laila, Amilton Arruda, Justino Barbosa, and Edna Moura Prospective Ergonomics Potentialities of a Face Reading Tool to a Digital Game Evaluation and Development: A Preliminary Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Yanick Trindade, Francisco Rebelo, and Paulo Noriega The Importance of Physical Elements and Their Influences on Users’ Concentration of Academic Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Thao-Hien Dang and Wenzhi Chen Aerial Surveillance: A Theoretical Comparison Study on Remote Controlled Aircrafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Wilian Daniel Henriques do Amaral, Guilherme Valle Loures Brandão, and Jose Alberto Barroso Castañon How Design the Future Hydrogen Users’ Needs? A Contribution of Prospective Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Robin Vivian, Eric Brangier, and Corinne Bornet Color in Glossolalia: White in Western Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Leonor Ferrão Dream and Reality in the Film Storytelling and Their Boundaries: Viewer Inner Self Centered Cognitive and Ergonomic Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Carlos Figueiredo and Inês Coimbra

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Inspædia Report: An Inspired Research Itinerary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Paulo Maldonado, José Pinto Duarte, António Câmara, Nuno Correia, Leonor Ferrão, and Pablo Ermida White Space in Editorial Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Elisabete Rolo Strategic Design: Enhancing Experiences and Developing Local Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Pablo Bezerra, Amilton Arruda, Theska Laila, and Isabela Moroni Inspædia: Changing the Landscape of Cultural Reflection and Influence Through User Experience Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 Paulo Maldonado, Leonor Ferrão, and Pablo Ermida How the Design Processes Add Innovative Capacity in Startup Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Isabela Moroni, Amilton Arruda, Pablo Bezerra, and Theska Laila Assistive Technology I Optimization and Ergonomics of Novel Modular Wheelchair Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Nadir Skendraoui, Fabien Bogard, Sébastien Murer, Tareq Ahram, and Redha Taiar Industrial Manufacturing Workstations Suitability for People with Disabilities: The Perception of Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Edson S.M. Teixeira and Maria Lucia L.R. Okimoto External Breast Prostheses: Brazilian Performance Parameters . . . . . . . 498 Lucia Regina Branco and José Aguiomar Foggiatto Design Management Contributions in the Diagnosis of a Psychiatric Hospital in Brazil: Identifying Opportunities in Assistive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Giselle Schmidt A. Merino, Renata Hinnig, Arina Blum, Susana Domenech, and Eugenio A.D. Merino Design and Development of a Bionic Hand Prosthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Marcelo H. Stoppa, Guilherme F. Neto, Stéfany M. Rezende, and José A. Foggiatto Design of Assistive Devices and Occupational Therapy: Case Study in a Brazilian Psychatric Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Giselle S.A.D. Merino, Rosimeri F. Pichler, Susana Domenech, Zelita Rech, and Eugenio A.D. Merino

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Requirements’ Literature Review for the Development of Furniture for People with Motor Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Raffaela Leane Zenni Tanure and Maria Lúcia Leite Ribeiro Okimoto Implementation of Integrated Instrumentation in Assistive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Eugenio Merino, Giuliano Mannrich, Bruno Guimarães, Giselle Speck, Diego Matos, Susana Domenech, and Giselle Merino Research and Development of Pedagogical Objects to Support Inclusive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Janete Cícero, Saul Mizrahi, Gil Brito, Felipe Sampaio, and Gabriel Ferreira Modularity and Variety in the Customization of Functional Clothes for People with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Bruna Brogin, Maria Lúcia Ribeiro Okimoto, and Carlo Martino Use Perception Analysis in Custom Made Footwear for People with Physical Disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Rosangela Monteiro dos Santos, Flavio Cardoso Ventura, Francienne Hernandes, Ademir Marques Junior, João Eduardo Guarnetti, and Luís Carlos Paschoarelli Usability Evaluation of Mining Machinery Interface Based on Eye Movement Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 Hongxia Li, Shuicheng Tian, Fang Li, and Yixin Huang Clarifying the Concept of Corporate Identity: From a Collective Vision to Cultural Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 Daniel Raposo, Fernando Moreira da Silva, João Neves, and José Silva Visual Perception and Contemporary Portuguese Type Design. . . . . . . . 610 Teresa Olazabal Cabral Usage of Mobile Phones Amongst Elderly People in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . 621 Zunaira Ilyas Bhutta, Javed Anjum Sheikh, and Azeem Yousaf The Influence of Ergonomics Aspects on the Use of Hydrotherapy Equipment by Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Specialists Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Ricardo Schwinn Rodrigues, Susana Cristina Domenech, and Marcelo Gitirana Gomes Ferreira

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Assistive Technology II A Descriptive Study on the Influence of Wheelchair Design and Movement Trajectory on the Upper Limbs’ Joint Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Guilherme Bertolaccini, Frode Sandnes, Idnei Filho, Luis Paschoarelli, and Fausto Medola Contribution to the Design of Hospital Bed: Systematic for Surveying the Design Requirements and Functional Requirements for Synthesis of Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 Elias Renã Maletz, Henrique Simas, Rodrigo Luís Pereira Barreto, and Daniel Ergonomic Aspects in the Redesign of a Child’s Inclusive Textbook . . . 663 Fernanda Domingues and Laís Cristina Licheski Application of Assistive Technologies in Rehabilitation of the Visually Impaired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Tainá A. Bueno de Oliveira, João Moura, Felipe Wojcikiewicz, Luiz Maia, Elton Nickel, and Marcelo Gomes Ferreira Ergonomic Evaluation of Human-Computer Interfaces Through the Ergonomic Aspects of Scarpin and Bastien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Marly de Menezes, Ricardo Bontempo, Marcelo Falco, and Augusto Gottsfritz Product Development of Assistive Technology for the Feet of a Person with Cerebral Palsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 Márcio F. Catapan, Eugenio Fossile Filho, Luane C. Araium, Luísa Dieter, Maria Lucia L.R. Okimoto, Mateus N. Villas Boas, Caio Marcio Silva, and Christian Strobel Development and Evaluation of Low-Cost Custom Splint for Spastic Hand by Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 Gabriel C. Rosenmann, Mateus C. Weigert, Paloma H. Poier, José A. Foggiatto, Maria Lúcia L. Okimoto, Neri Volpato, and Leandra Ulbricht Applications and Interface Requirements to Engage the Citizens to Share Information in a Smart City Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Francisco Rebelo, Paulo Noriega, Tiago Oliveira, Daniela Santos, José Carvalhais, and Teresa Cotrim Study and Design of a Tactile Map and a Tactile 3D Model in Brazil: Assistive Technologies for People with Visual Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . 722 Sabrina Oliveira, Laura Doro, and Maria Lucia Okimoto

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Ergonomics Design and Evaluation Cultural and Creative Elements of Digital Technology Art and Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 Lung-Wen Kuo and Chih-Chun Lai New Concepts in Flexible Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 Álvaro M. Sampaio, Cátia Silva, André Lima, André Fernandes, and António J. Pontes User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI): An Ergonomic Evaluation Tool for User-Chair Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 Namrata Arora Charpe Sustainable Product Design and the Wood Furniture Sector . . . . . . . . . . 762 José Vicente, Rui Frazão, and Fernando Moreira da Silva Ergonomics in the Design Process - Study of Adaptability of Evolutive High Chairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 Cristina Salvador Design of an Innovative Mattress to Improve Sleep Quality by Increasing Deep Sleep Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 Chih-Yang Huang and Fong-Gong Wu Pillow Design and Evaluation of Shoulder and Neck Surface Pressure to Sleep Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786 Tsung-yao Li and Fong-gong Wu Design Requirements to Enhance the Postural Control in Patients with Severe Spastic Quadriplegia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796 Paulina Manzano-Hernandez, David Vidana-Zavala, Irma C. Landa-Avila, and Carlos Aceves-Gonzalez Drawing as Reasoning Tool in UX Design - Doodling and Drawing as Foundation for Project Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 José Silva, Fernando Silva, Daniel Raposo, and João Neves Ergonomics in the Design Conceptual Process: The Case Study Daciano da Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 Ana Moreira da Silva A Study Exploring the Facets of Visual Elements in Ethnic Products: Case Study of Sarees from West Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 Chirapriya Mondal and Sougata Karmakar Research and Innovative Design of the Motorcycle Gloves . . . . . . . . . . . 832 Shu-Jen Hu and Wei-lung Kao

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Could the Design Features of a Wheelchair Influence the User Experience and Stigmatization Perceptions of the Users? . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 Luciana Carneiro, Francisco Rebelo, Paulo Noriega, and J. Faria Pais Risk Assessment for Small Scale Gold Surface Mining at Licuan Baay, Abra in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 Isachar Bernaldez and Virginia Soriano Ergonomic Evaluations and Design Interventions for Shop-Floors Dealing with Chemical Conversion Coatings: Case Study from India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 Sougata Karmakar and R. Solomon An Ergonomic Design of Senior High School Science Laboratories in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869 Jerielle Trini S. Santiago, Pauline Hannah P. Dizon, Mary Agnes C. Espina, and Melen M. Tamayao Design for High Performance and Comfort A Study on Examining User Comfort in Hospital Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885 Güzide Güzelbey Esengün and Ekrem Cem Alppay Reachable Domain of Adults’ Right Leg in Sitting Posture . . . . . . . . . . . 897 Ai-ping Yang, Wen-yu Fu, Xin Zhang, Ming-ju Wang, and Chau-Kuang Chen Screen Design of Portable Terminal to Promote Users’ Motivation to Use the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 Suguru Ito, Masahiko Sakata, and Miwa Nakanishi Travel Kit Organiser for Carry on Luggage Design: Contribution to Traveller’s Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 Paula Mercedes Neves and Fernando Moreira da Silva Online Posture Feedback System Aiming at Human Comfort . . . . . . . . . 924 Thiago Beckert Otto, Alexandre Campos, Marcos Aurélio de Souza, Daniel Martins, and Eduardo Bock Ergonomics in Clothing, Fashion and Footwear Design Garment Design and Engineering for Hospital Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939 Miguel Carvalho, Liliana Fontes, Elazer Edelman, and Jorge Santos Human Factors Applied to the Understanding of the Importance of Therapeutic Clothing Textiles for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951 Su-Jeong Hwang Shin and Kristi Gaines

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A Study on Maternity Dress Based on the Development Situation of Ergonomics and Design of Hygiene and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958 Yuting Shang Ergonomic Assessment on the Tasks Performed by Hairstylists in Quezon City, Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 Maricella D. Valdivia, Patrizia Gayle P. Godinez, M. Marjorie R. Sintor, and Benette P. Custodio Discussion of the Design of Sanitation Workers’ Clothes Based on Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973 Jiahui Xu and Xiaoping Hu Dynamic Understanding of Human-Skin Movement and Garment Design of Golf Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982 Ziting Hu, Li Liu, Zhengdong Liu, and Mengdi Xing Design Solution of Shoe Sole (Base of the Footwear) Preparation in Traditional Hand Sewn Footwear Manufacturing: A Case Study on Kolhapuri Chappal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 Urmi R. Salve, Ganesh S. Jadhav, and Hemant K. Shete Anthropometry in Design Analysis of Characteristic Features of Juvenile Female Aged Between 15 and 17 in Guangdong Province P. R. China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 Huajuan Lin and Xiaoping Hu Development of a Design Protocol for Customized Swimming Goggles Using 3D Facial Scan Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017 Jose Coleman, Christopher Hernandez, Joshua Hernandez, Shane Hubenak, Aric McBride, Mehrube Mehrubeoglu, and Jangwoon Park Comparison of Anthropometric Data for the Design of Chairs Between Seven Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 Linghua Ran, Xin Zhang, Hong Luo, Taijie Liu, Huimin Hu, and Chaoyi Zhao Segmentation of Anthropometric Data of the Brazilian’ Female Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 Carla Capelassi, Miguel Carvalho, Raquel Campos, Cristina Kattel, and Bugao Xu Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037

Virtual Reality Challenges in Design

A Preventive Ergonomic Approach Based on Virtual and Immersive Reality Francesco Caputo1(&), Alessandro Greco1, Egidio D‘Amato1, Immacolata Notaro1, and Stefania Spada2 1

Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa, CE, Italy {francesco.caputo,alessandro.greco, immacolata.notaro}@unicampania.it, [email protected] 2 FCA Italy – EMEA Manufacturing Planning and Control – Ergonomics, Gate 16, Corso Settembrini 53, 10135 Turin, Italy [email protected]

Abstract. The introduction of new information and communication technologies (ICT) in factory environment is leading the world of manufacturing industry to a change. Indeed, we talk about Industry 4.0, the fourth industrial revolution, that facilitates the vision of a Smart Factory in which systems become cyber-physical, interact between themselves, monitor and validate physical processes, creating a virtual copy of the physical world and making decisions based on complex numerical analysis. Virtualization and simulation of production processes generate several benefits, in terms of costs and time, optimizing the assembly line design and studying human-machine interaction. Regarding the last topic, this paper proposes an innovative method for ergonomic analysis of workplaces on automotive assembly lines in a virtual environment. The method can represent an innovation for human-centered design of workplace in developing new products, reducing costs and improving job quality thanks to a preventive ergonomic approach. Keywords: Virtual ergonomics
EAWS simulation
Motion capture system




Human-centered design




Virtual

1 Introduction The world of manufacturing industry, during the last years, is knowing a period of changes, thanks to the increasing use of new technologies in the factory. It can be seen as a new industrial revolution, from which the name Industry 4.0. Industry 4.0 proposes the realization of smart factories in which systems become cyber-physical and can interact between themselves, simulating the real world in a virtual scenario and making decision based on numerical analysis. In this way, factories have chance to become more flexible and collaborative, in order to satisfy the current demands of an increasingly competitive market.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_1

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The main characteristics of this new industrial paradigm is the use of PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) software that allows to manage the whole lifecycle of products and processes, generating several benefits, principally in designing manual workplaces and defining cycle time, based on a human-centered approach. Modern factories cannot ignore the continuous development of virtual reality software. For this reason, an important aspect of Industry 4.0 is represented by Digital Manufacturing (DM), the industrial declination of virtual reality, that integrate a wide set of technologies to support the production, from the design to the product realization, monitoring and optimizing the production processes. From an ergonomic point of view, these aspects give the opportunity to create manual workplaces in a virtual scenario, where it is possible to simulate manual tasks and evaluate ergonomic indexes, according to which they are designed. In Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) factories a preventive ergonomic approach in designing new workplaces has been developed during the last years: Ergo-UAS method. This method is applied during both Process/Product Design and Process Industrialization and it is composed by EAWS (European Assembly Work Sheet) and UAS (Universal Analyzing System). EAWS [18] is a first level ergonomic screening for the evaluation of biomechanical overload risk. The UAS is a typical example of MTM (Method-Time-Measurement) system which is used for the definition of times and methods of work, describing the sequence of operations of a specific work task, assigning a predetermined standard time from the direct observation of the worker and the nature of the movements during the given task. In order to achieve these results, a lot of information, principally related to human factors, are necessary to satisfy mandatory ergonomic standards. In fact, at FCA Mirafiori Plant, it has been established an ergonomics laboratory, called ErgoLab, where many physical parameters concerning the assembly tasks can be investigated, reproducing a real workplace, with a real Body in White car, in which manual tasks are carried on. The main analysis conducted concern postural aspects and effort exerted by the workers by means of innovative tools [1]. To prove the effectiveness of the proposed strategy and to compare simulation results with real experimental data, a modular motion tracking system, based on inertial sensors [2], has been developed at the Dept. of Industrial and Information Engineering of the University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, and used during real work tasks execution. The aim of this research is to propose an innovative method for a preventive ergonomic evaluation, creating a virtual workplace, using the Tecnomatix Process Simulate software by Siemens®, in which a mannequin simulates the whole task described by operation cards, assessing the EAWS index and validating the results in the physical world, using the proposed motion capture system. According to this approach, it is possible to realize human-centered designed workplaces, allowing, on one hand, costs and time reduction, and, on the other hand, a workers’ well-being improvement.

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2 Virtual Ergonomics: Assessment Work Flow Virtual ergonomics can be seen as the natural consequence of the technologies developed within Industry 4.0 and it represents for the companies a chance of safe workplaces designing, reducing drastically corrective interventions indicated by standard procedures. The product development in a typical industrial environment, above all in automotive field, consists in four phases: style definition, design, engineering and production. During both design and engineering phases, it is possible exploiting virtual reality technologies, applying Virtual Ergonomics techniques, which results in a preventive ergonomics approach, which allows to perform analysis and tests in a simulated environment, giving the possibility to anticipate problems solution, satisfying the international standards (Table 1). Table 1. Technical standards and related ergonomic factor analyzed. Technical standard EN 1005-4 ISO 11226 EN 1005-3 ISO 11228-2 EN 1005-2 ISO 11228-1/2 EN 1005-5 ISO 11228-3

Ergonomic factor Postures Forces Manual handling of loads Upper limbs

In particular, as written above, during both designing and industrialization phases, EAWS is the ergonomic risk assessment method applied as screening tool of first level for the evaluation of biomechanical overload risks. The method is designed to evaluate all kind of risks described in Table 1, linking corrective and preventive ergonomics, pointing out the main problems and offering design solutions to overcome them. The EAWS checklist is composed by four section, each of which evaluates: – – – –

working postures and movements with low additional physical effort; action forces of the whole body or hand/finger system; manual material handling; repetitive loads of the upper limbs.

In order to fill-in the checklist, several physical parameters are necessary to be evaluated (joint angles, forces, pressures, reaction forces, accelerations, etc.) that would require the use of several tools (i.e. motion capture systems, dynamometers, electromyography) for a proper design of the workstation. This is particularly ambitious when the development of a new product needs a new design of assembly lines, because of the high number of workstations.

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Thanks to virtual ergonomics it is possible to overcome these problems. Applying DM tools, it can be realized a virtual model of the plant that contains virtual models of the car components and all resources of the production plant (robots, tools, equipment, etc.). Inserting digital human models, able to simulate operating tasks of each workstation, a human-centered design is possible, based on the Ergo-UAS method.

2.1

Work Flow

In order to increase the reliability of a human-centered design of the workstations, based on Ergo-UAS system, by means of VR technologies, this paragraph will describe the work flow for the best implementation of the method proposed by this research.

Fig. 1. Human-centered workstation design: work flow.

The work flow shown in Fig. 1, starting from a preliminary design of the workstation based on operation cards, is composed by two macro-steps: – virtual analysis and validation; – physical analysis and definitive validation.

2.2

Virtual Analysis

For the virtual simulation step, two softwares are used: TECNOMATIX PROCESS SIMULATE by Siemens® and EAWSdigital by MTM®.

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Process Simulate is a PLM software that allows to create a virtual scenario in which one or more workstations, or the whole work line, can be created. In that scenario, the software module “Human” allows to create a digital cinematized mannequin, having realistic biomechanical properties, composed by 71 segments and 69 joints, whose ranges of motion are natural, on the base of results from several NASA studies [19]. The digital mannequin is able to carry out all tasks that characterize the workstation. He can pick and place objects, apply forces, push and pull carts, handle loads, simulate several operations (Fig. 2). Process Simulate allows to realize both time-based and event-based simulations. The proposed method is based on the first one. Once the simulation is completed, a tool integrated in the Process Simulate software, called EAWSdigital for Tecnomatix, is able to acquire the whole simulation, to divide it in a number of subtasks that depends on the set sampling time. Once the simulation has been acquired, it is possible to evaluate the EAWS index by the EAWSdigital software by MTM®, that can be used standalone or integrated in Process Simulate software environment. EAWSdigital is able to fill-in all the EAWS sections, allowing the manual characterization of each acquired sub-task. Once EAWS index is evaluated, it is possible to validate the virtual workstation in case of green value and re-organize the simulation, or design a new workstation, in case of red value.

2.3

Physical Analysis

Once the virtual workstation has been validated, physical tests are necessary in order to deliberate the workstation design definitively. The main analysis concern postural aspects end efforts exerted by the workers. These parameters can be evaluated operating on the Body in White car or by means of immersive reality technologies (Fig. 2) applied to physical workstation as previously virtually designed. The use of wearable devices is necessary for a proper analysis.

Fig. 2. Example of 3D immersive reality.

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Motion tracking devices represent an important research area for ergonomic issues. A research team from the department of Industrial and Information Engineering of the University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli realized a motion tracking system, based on inertial sensors, able to accurately estimate the orientation of specific body segments. The system, described in the next chapter and already presented at AHFE2016 [2], can be used to analyze the postural angles trend, to evaluate static (symmetric or asymmetric) postures and to validate the virtual workstation analysis, filling-in the EAWS checklist. Other devices can be used to estimate arms/fingers forces. From EAWS index evaluated by physical analysis it is possible to validate the designed workstation. In case of red value a new design is necessary to iterate a new analysis cycle.

3 Body Motion Tracking One of the first work in which inertial sensors were used to measure human movements for health purposes was in the 1950s [9]. However, until MEMS sensors were not commercially available, the development was impossible. In the last decade, motion tracking systems have been strongly developed, for general purpose applications. Surely, from the point of view of sensors, the main reason is related to smartphone evolution. Activity tracking and human motion analysis are becoming a new market area for the so-called health applications [3–5]. As MEMS inertial sensors are compact and light, they have been a popular choice for applications such as motion tracking, human-computer interface, and animation. Some interesting uses is described, for example, in [10], where the study of the difference between static and dynamic activities using uniaxial accelerometers is reported. Similar methods have also been reported in [11–13, 15]. One of the most important problem that affects the application of inertial sensors in a poorly controlled environment is the drift. As a possible solution, robotics or mechatronics (i.e. [16]) have been explored due to their stable and reliable performances. These robotic systems use potentiometers or gyroscopes to estimate limb rotation. Other sensors such as CCD cameras can be integrated within an inertial based system so as to mitigate drifts [17]. As in [6–8], in this paper multiple micro inertial measurement units (IMU) are involved to analyze human poses. A Kalman filter is used to compute the estimation of the attitude for each IMU, by combining a series of measurements affected by noise and other uncertainties. Schematically speaking, the upper limb can be considered as composed by five segments/bones on which we will focus our attention: the trunk, two arms and two forearms. Hands will be neglected in this work, because in phase of development. Considering the legs in a steady state, bones’ attitude estimation allows to compute the whole upper-body pose. Each segment can be equipped with a complete Inertial Measurement Unit, composed by a tri-axial accelerometer, a tri-axial gyroscope and a tri-axial magnetometer and used to estimate the orientation in a fixed frame.

A Preventive Ergonomic Approach

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The orientation of the fixed frame XEYEZE is such that the Z axis is parallel to the gravity vector, the x axis points to the right of the body at the initial time and the y axis creates a left-handed reference system with the other two axes. Each segment has a local frame in agreement with its orientation that is overlapped to the fixed frame at the initial time. The orientation of each segment can be determined using the Tait-Bryan angles that describe a rotation around the z axis (w yaw angle), a rotation around the y axis (h pitch angle) and a rotation around the x axis (/ roll angle). This global orientation relates the flexion-extension angles of arms with the global roll angle / 2 ½p; p. To avoid singularities, a quaternion based orientation for each segment is used. Quaternion q ¼ ½q1 ; q2 ; q3 ; q4 T can be defined as follows: 80 1 q1 > > < @ q A ¼ r sin / 2 2 > q3 > : q4 ¼ cos /2 Where r 2 R3 is the unit vector and / is the rotation of the reference system about r. Note that the elements of the quaternion satisfy the condition: q21 þ q22 þ q23 þ q24 ¼ 1 The transformation of an arbitrary vector x between the fixed frame (E) and the local frame (B) can be written as follows: xb ¼ C BE ðqðtÞÞxE Where q ¼ ½q1 ; q2 ; q3 ; q4  is the quaternion vector and C BE is the rotation matrix defined as follows: 2 2 q1  q22  q23 þ q20   C BE q ¼ 4 2ðq1 q2 þ q3 q0 Þ 2ð q1 q3  q2 q0 Þ

2ð q1 q2  q3 q 0 Þ q21 þ q22  q23 þ q20 2ð q2 q3 þ q1 q0 Þ

The transformation between q and the Euler angles is: w ¼ tan

1

/ ¼ tan

1

2ð q1 q2  q0 q3 Þ   1  2 q22 þ q23 2ð q2 q3  q0 q1 Þ   1  2 q21 þ q22

! !

h ¼ sin1 ð2ðq1 q3 þ q0 q2 ÞÞ

3 2ð q1 q3 þ q2 q0 Þ 2ð q2 q3  q1 q0 Þ 5 q21  q22 þ q23 þ q20

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The upper limb pose is composed of an absolute orientation of the trunk, plus the relative orientation of arms about shoulder and the relative orientation of forearm about elbow. Given the symmetry of the arm problem, generally speaking, let’s call q0 the orientation of trunk, q1 the orientation of arm and q2 the orientation of forearm, the relative transformation matrices can be written as follows:  T C01 ¼ CBE ðq1 Þ CBE ðq0 Þ  T C02 ¼ CBE ðq2 Þ CBE ðq0 Þ  T C12 ¼ CBE ðq2 Þ CBE ðq1 Þ Where C01 is the transformation matrix between trunk and arm, C02 is the transformation matrix between trunk and forearm and C12 is the transformation matrix between arm and forearm.

4 Test Case: Results In order to validate the innovative procedure for ergonomic index evaluation, proposed by this research, a test case has been implemented. The test consists in carrying out a simple activity in which the worker takes two parts, one with left hand and the other with the right one, from a 1.7 m high shelf, overlapped them and keeps on with a tightening on a 1 m high worktable, by means of an eclectic screwdriver. At the end, the worker picks the assembly and places it in a cart, positioned on her right. A female 5th percentile has been used as test worker. The first step, as indicated by the workflow in Fig. 1, is the realization of the virtual simulation. In Tecnomatix Process Simulate® virtual environment, the workplace has been reproduced, respecting the dimension of the real one, represented by mechanics laboratory in which our research team works (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Operating tasks in virtual and real environment.

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Once carried out the simulation, the next step is characterized by experimental tests, in which the worker wears the motion capture system described above. The test has been repeated two times, at the end of which posture angles of trunk and upper limbs, derived from numerical and experimental tests, have been analyzed and compared. The Euler angles data, provided by the motion capture system, have been opportunely manipulated in order to plot posture angles required for ergonomic analysis. About the angle trends analyzed afterward, that one from numerical data is plotted in red, while the others, from experimental data, are plotted in blue, for the first test, and in green for the second one. First of all, trunk angles of flexion and lateral flexion have been analyzed.

Fig. 4. Trunk flexion/extension angles.

Regarding trunk flexion-extension angle (Fig. 4), the experimental data substantiate the numerical one. Most of the task is carried out in standing posture, except in the final part, from the second 26 onwards, during which the worker flexes trunk to place the assembly in the cart.

Fig. 5. Trunk lateral flexion angles.

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The angle trends about trunk lateral flexion (Fig. 5) present some difference between numerical an experimental data, due to a more realistic way to carry out the task by the real worker respect to the virtual mannequin, where the first one flexes laterally her own trunk in picking the first part and the screwdriver (circled in grey).

Fig. 6. Right shoulder abduction angles.

About shoulder abduction angles, for right (Fig. 6) and left (Fig. 7) limbs, the trends are qualitatively consistent, less than some pick values in picking tasks, because the worker flexes her own trunk in reaching the gripping zones.

Fig. 7. Left shoulder abduction angles.

In the same way, also about shoulder flexion/extension angles, not shown in this paper, the trends are similar to abduction ones and qualitatively coherent. The last angle trends analyzed (Figs. 8 and 9) regard the elbow flexion/extension, evaluated as the angle between arm and forearm. About this angle, the experimental data trends are qualitatively coherent with the numerical one, except for right limb in test #2, in which the worker uses her forearm in a different way w.r.t. the test #1.

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Fig. 8. Right elbow flexion/extension angles.

Fig. 9. Left elbow flexion/extension angles.

5 Conclusions A preventive approach in workplaces design, based on ergonomic index evaluation in a virtual environment, is a fundamental activity to improve work organization and safety on the one hand and, on the other hand, to reduce time and costs, especially in the start phase of production. Virtual simulations of operating tasks provide a high number of data, useful for preventive evaluations of ergonomic indexes, according to which workplaces can be efficiently designed. This research proposes an innovative method of workplaces design that, starting from a preliminary design, validates its goodness, carrying out the operating tasks, on the base of operation cards and evaluating EAWS index in a virtual environment, thanks to specific software, as Tecnomatix Process Simulate® EAWSdigital®. Once the virtual workplace is validated, to strengthen the design method, physical tests can be carried, using wearable devices and replicate in laboratory, or in a virtual immersive environment, in order to acquire data helpful to fill-in the EAWS checklist. For this research, a motion capture system realized by a research team of Dept. of Industrial and Information Engineering from University of Campania has been used.

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Comparing posture angles trends, the results prove that the method proposed is ready to be applied and to give support to ergonomist and designer for a humancentered factory design.

References 1. Spada, S., et al.: FCA Ergonomics approach in developing new cars: virtual simulations and physical validation. In: Proceedings 19th Triennal Congress of the IEA, Melbourne 2. Caputo, F., et al.: Upper body motion tracking system with inertial sensors for ergonomic issues in industrial environment. In: Proceedings of the AHFE 2016 International Conference on Physical Ergonomics and Human Factors, Walt Disney World, Florida (2016) 3. Dobkin, B.H.: Wearable motion sensors to continuously measure real-world physical activities. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 26(6), 602 (2013) 4. Pascu, T., White, M., Patoli, Z.: Motion capture and activity tracking using smartphone-driven body sensor networks. In: 2013 Third International Conference on Innovative Computing Technology (INTECH), pp. 456–462. IEEE (2013) 5. Bai, L., et al.: Application of low cost inertial sensors to human motion analysis. In: 2012 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC). IEEE (2012) 6. Roetenberg, D., Luinge, H., Slycke, P.: Xsens MVN: full 6DOF human motion tracking using miniature inertial sensors. Xsens Motion Technologies BV, Technical report (2009) 7. Zhou, H., Stone, T., Hu, H., Harris, N.: Use of multiple wearable inertial sensors in upper limb motion tracking. Med. Eng. Phys. 30(1), 123–133 (2008) 8. Yun, X., Bachmann, E.R.: Design, implementation, and experimental results of a quaternion-based Kalman filter for human body motion tracking. IEEE Trans. Robot. 22 (6), 1216–1227 (2006) 9. Inman, V.T., Eberhart, H.D.: The major determinants in normal and pathological gait. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 35(3), 543–558 (1953) 10. Veltink, P., Bussmann, H., de Vries, W., Martens, W., van Lummel, R.: Detection of static and dynamic activities using uniaxial accelerometers. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 4, 375–385 (1996) 11. Boonstra, M., van der Slikke, R., Keijsers, N., van Lummel, R., de Waal Malefijt, M., Verdonschot, N.: The accuracy of measuring the kinematics of rising from a chair with accelerometers and gyroscopes. J. Biomech. 39, 354–358 (2006) 12. Lyons, G., Culhane, K., Hilton, D., Grace, P., Lyons, D.: A description of an accelerometer-based mobility monitoring technique. Med. Eng. Phys. 27, 497–504 (2005) 13. Mayagoitia, R., Nene, A., Veltink, P.: Accelerometer and rate gyroscope measurement of the kinematics: an inexpensive alternative to optical motion analysis systems. J. Biomech. 35, 537–542 (2002) 14. Najafi, B., Aminian, K., Paraschiv-Ionescu, A., Loew, F., Bula, C., Robert, P.: Ambulatory system for human motion analysis using a kinematic sensor: monitoring of daily physical activity in the elderly. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 50, 711–723 (2003) 15. Krebs, H., Volpe, B., Aisen, M., Hogan, N.: Increasing productivity and quality of care: robot-aided nero-rehabilitation. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 37, 639–652 (2000)

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16. Barbour, N., Schmidt, G.: Inertial sensor technology trends. IEEE Sensors J. 1, 332–339 (2001) 17. Luinge, H.: Inertial sensing of human movement. Ph.D. thesis, Twente University, The Netherlands (2002) 18. Schaub, K., Caragnano, G., Britzke, B., Bruder, R.: The European assembly worksheet. Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci. 14(6), 1–23 (2012) 19. NASA: Man-system integration standards (NASA-STD-3000). In: N.J.S. Centre (ed.) Houston, Texas (1987)

Improving the Design of Virtual Reality Devices Applying an Ergonomics Guideline Catalina Mariani and Pere Ponsa(&) Automatic Control Department, Technical School of Vilanova i la Geltrú, Av. Víctor Balaguer, 1, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Barcelona, Spain [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. A methodology with the objective of evaluating the aesthetics and ergonomics of virtual reality glasses is presented. Many developers apply best practices taking into account hardware features, physiological considerations and interactive patterns that provide a safe and comfortable user experience. Usually, the user tests a virtual reality application in laboratory conditions. In this work, authors are paying attention to the first time that a user tries virtual reality glasses. In this initial phase, it is necessary to analyse the first impression considering the comfort of glasses on the face and head of the user. Using ergonomics principles, this work shows the creation of heuristics inside a guideline with the aim of improving the design of low-cost virtual reality glasses. Keywords: Ergonomics


Virtual reality
Human-centred design

1 Introduction Many researchers are using virtual reality to assess user experience [1]. These developers apply criteria (interaction, immersion and imagination) [2], best practices taking into account hardware features, physiological considerations and interactive patterns that provide a safe and comfortable user experience [3], Oculus Best practices [4], and Designing for Google Cardboard [5]. Direct involvement of users is a key factor in the human-centred design process [6]. The benefits of an HCD approach include increased satisfaction. For this reason, this work proposes to study the iteration of virtual reality glasses to entail the feedback of users following their use of early design systems [7]. Some researchers argue that dedicated headsets are required for true Virtual reality, and those makeshift devices that hold a smartphone close to the user’s face fall short of providing a truly immersive virtual reality experience [8]. In this work, authors are paying attention to the first time that a user tries virtual reality glasses. In this initial phase, before the use of a virtual reality application, it is necessary to analyse the first impression considering the comfort of glasses on the face and head of the user. To sum up the method: Initial Test to evaluate aesthetics and ergonomics (Sect. 2), Build a set of Heuristics (Sect. 3), and VR Guideline (evaluation and re-design recommendations) (Sect. 4). Finally, conclusions and future lines are exposed. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_2

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2 Initial Test The test was designed to evaluate the aesthetics and ergonomics of VR glasses. It consisted of a self-explanatory questionnaire and four VR glasses from different brands so that the user could compare them. This was carried out during a Human-System Interaction course on 2nd of December 2016, in the Design of Interactive Systems laboratory at the Technical School of Vilanova i la Geltrú. The facilitator in this test was the first author of this paper (assisting the respondents during the test), with the support of the first author of this paper, who allowed it to take place during his class and who offered different sources of information to make the most out of the test.

2.1

Method

16 Industrial Design Engineering students taking the Person-Machine Interaction class were asked to voluntarily participate in the study. One by one, they were taken to the room in which the test was carried out, they were given a consent form (with an extra copy for them to keep) and asked to sit in order to fill in a Google Forms questionnaire. The four glasses were presented to them and they could then hold them and try them on to evaluate their design. These were: • • • •

VR1: VR2: VR3: VR4:

Easy Phone: Cardboard Black Woxter: Neo VR1 Samsung: Gear VR Juguetrónica: VR Phone Glasses

The only intervention of the facilitator was when the respondent had any doubt in the way questions were asked or in recognizing which brand was which. After three tests, the questionnaires were answered by three students at once (without any contact between them) to optimise time. The group of students who took the test were mostly men (56.3%). All respondents were within the age range of 21–31, classifying as young adults, and used either Android (68.8%) or iOS (31.3%) operating system on their smartphones. Most students (81.3%) had never used VR glasses before.

2.2

Findings and Recommendations

First impressions on Easy Phone Carboard Black: uncomfortable (sharp edges), light, too small for people wearing glasses, aesthetics (poor, simple, fragile), cheap. First impressions on Woxter glasses: comfortable (foam), pain on cheekbones, good subjection, lighter than they look, too big, big enough for people wearing glasses, good aesthetics (Fig. 1). First impressions on Samsung glasses: comfortable (foam, curves), good ergonomics, poor subjection, light, big, very good aesthetics.

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Fig. 1. One user is trying to adjust the virtual reality glasses

First impressions on Juguetrónica glasses: comfortable (curves), pain on nose, good subjection, light, big, too small for people wearing glasses, functional (headphones), fragile.

2.3

Comparison

Samsung glasses are the most attractive device. Easy Phone Cardboard are the least favoured. From the point of view of the users, the Juguetrónica glasses look the most expensive and the Easy Phone Cardboard the cheapest. Juguetrónica glasses are the heaviest and Easy Phone Cardboard are the lightest. Juguetrónica glasses are the most comfortable and the Easy Phone Cardbard are the most uncomfortable. The Table 1 shows the mean value (MV) and the standard deviation of the comfort assessment.

Table 1. How comfortable are the glasses? From a 5-point Likert Scale (from very uncomfortable 1 to very comfortable 5) VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4 MV 1 3,5 2,5 4,5 SD 0 0,7 0,7 0,7

2.4

Design of VR Glasses

When asked about the most important aspects in VR glasses design, the students considered that, in regards to form, these should take into account: • Weight/size: they should be as small and light as possible to avoid balance problems • Subjection to the head

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• Accessibility: they should adapt to any kind of face (especially nose and eyes) and allow the user to wear regular glasses simultaneously • Usability: intuitive access to buttons and other elements of the interface. On function, the respondents had different points of focus, namely: • Good immersion: good video quality, movement detection, sound, exterior isolation • Easy to use: connectivity to devices • Adjustability: both physical and virtually, without having to take off the glasses. Use of VR technology. Most respondents were unsure whether VR glasses can be useful or not, but some of the suggested applications were: • • • • • •

Videogames Practicing different activities 3D modelling Shopping catalogues Visiting places virtually Films or videos.

3 Building a Set of Heuristics The heuristics are classified into four features (glasses, subjection, face and control). The evaluation of the heuristics is qualitative (YES/NO) or quantitative (1/0). When the heuristic has a positive evaluation the quantitative assessment is 1. When possible, each heuristic has a re-design recommendation. GLASSES1 H1 The device is compatible with the use of glasses. When using glasses, the device can be comfortably placed. [YES (1) NO (0)]

Recommendation 1: The designer can vary the VR device design to allow compatibility with glasses. If this is not possible, the user shall change the VR device until they find a compatible model. SUBJECTION H2 After the necessary adjustments, the device is well subjected. The device is well subjected if it is not displaced when the user makes different movements while using it after correctly adjusting it. [YES (1) NO (0)]

H3 When adjusting the device, long hair makes subjection difficult.

1

Do not confuse the glasses of the user with the device “Virtual reality glasses”.

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Long hair might get tangled with the subjection elements when making adjustments, making this a difficult procedure. [YES (0) NO (1)]

H4 The user needs assistance to adjust the device. If the user needs assistance, they will take longer than what is considered normal when adjusting the device and will be quicker once assistance is given. [YES (0) NO (1)]

H5 When adjusting the device, there is a noticeable change in the head’s orientation. The user might need to adopt an uncomfortable position to adjust the device. [YES (0) NO (1)]

H6 After the necessary adjustments, there is a noticeable change in the head’s orientation. The user might need to adopt an uncomfortable position when using the device due to its weight or design. [YES (0) NO (1)]

Recommendation 2: The designer must improve the subjection method (straps, Velcro, etc.) to prevent the device from being displaced when the user changes the head’s orientation. These should also allow maximum adjustability for different types of people. Recommendation 3: The designer should modify the device so that it is easily adjusted without assistance. If this is not possible, the designer should properly indicate that assistance is necessary when adjusting the VR device. Recommendation 4: The designer must check the weight of the VR device if an uncomfortable posture is observed when adjusting or using it. FACE H7 The device rests comfortably on the nose. The user might report some discomfort on the nose during or after using the device. [YES (1) NO (0)]

H8 The device rests comfortably on the cheekbones. The user might report some discomfort on the cheekbones during or after using the device. [YES (1) NO (0)]

H9 The device leaves marks on the face. The user might have noticeable marks on the face during or after using the device. [YES (0) NO (1)]

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H10 The device triggers a noticeable increase in sweat. The user might show a noticeable increase in sweat during or after using the device. [YES (0) NO (1)]

H11 The device triggers some type of pain on the back side of the head. The user might report some discomfort on the back side of the head during or after using the device. [YES (0) NO (1)]

Recommendation 5: The designer must check the mass distribution between subjection straps and the VR device’s chassis to avoid overloading the nose and cheekbones. Recommendation 6: The designer must check the device’s materials (heat dissipation, refrigeration). Recommendation 7: The designer must check the adjustment methods to avoid pain. CONTROL H12 The user can adjust the focal distance. The device’s design allows the user to adjust the focal distance. [YES (1) NO (0)]

H13 (In the case of headphones) The user can adjust the distance between face and ears. If the device has headphones, they can be adjusted to be comfortably used by the user. [YES (1) NO (0)]

Recommendation 8: The designer must make control and adjustments easy for the user by the use of an instruction guide or adjustment buttons/mechanisms conveniently indicated.

4 Evaluation From the point of view of the authors of this report, the obtaining and evaluation of VR heuristics allows us to create a VR guideline. The aim of this VR guideline is to assess the design of a VR device before the usability/user experience testing. The main question: How can a heuristic pass be evaluated in VR devices? Authors have defined a Global_Index: all the heuristics have the same weight and the total number of heuristics is n = 13.

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Pi Hi wi Global Index ¼ P1 i 1 Hi

ð1Þ

The first problem appears in the calculation of this Global_Index. The first criterion is that it is not possible to compare VR glasses with this method if the same heuristic list is not applied to all the VR glasses. Heuristics 3–6 and 8–11 have not been assessed (NA) in the initial test. Heuristic 13 has only been assessed on Juguetrónica glasses because they are the only studied device that includes headphones. Thus, it is possible to apply a new heuristic list taking into account these criteria (applied only on the initial test presented in this paper): • avoid the non-assessed heuristics for all the glasses evaluated • avoid the Heuristic H8 (only measured for VR2 glasses) • avoid the Heuristic H13 in this study (three out of four VR glasses don’t have headphones) With these criteria in mind, Table 2 is simplified into a new version, Table 3, where it is possible to compare results. Table 2. List of heuristics (H) of the four VR glasses evaluated H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

VR3 1 1 NA NA NA NA 1 NA NA NA NA 1

VR2 1 1 NA NA NA NA 0 0 NA NA NA 1

VR1 0 0 NA NA NA NA 0 NA NA NA NA 0

VR4 0 1 NA NA NA NA 0 NA NA NA NA 1 0

Table 3. Simplified list of heuristics (H) of the four VR glasses evaluated H 1 2 7 12

VR3 1 1 1 1

VR2 1 1 0 1

VR1 0 0 0 0

VR4 0 1 0 1

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Finally, the Global_Index is calculated from i = 1 to 4, w1 = w2 = w3 = w4 (Table 4).

Table 4. Simplified list of heuristics (H) of the four VR glasses evaluated Global_Index VR3 VR2 VR1 VR4 1 (4/4) 0.75 (3/4) 0 0.5 (/4)

To sum up, the Global_Index allows the comparison between VR glasses (if the list of heuristics evaluated is the same for the VR glasses evaluated). The method does not show the calculation of the optimum VR glasses (it is out of the scope of this study, perhaps it is convenient to review the list of heuristics in more detail). If the researcher is developing user testing in a laboratory analysing the performance and task effectiveness of VR applications and would choose a VR glasses model, the Global_Index could be useful because there are clear differences between the compared devices. The designer could use the qualitative information to re-design the VR glasses with poor Global_Index. The qualitative information of the evaluated VR glasses is: • VR3 – Gear VR (Samsung): Positive evaluation on 4 assessed heuristics. Users highlight comfortability and adjustment ease on face and head. • VR2 – Neo VR1 (Woxter): Positive evaluation on 3 out of 4 assessed heuristics. Recommendation: The design must improve nose support, pointed out by several users. Placement on cheekbones should be minimised to avoid pain suffered by one of the users. • VR1 – Cardboard (Easy Phone): Positive evaluation on 0 out of 4 assessed heuristics. Recommendation: The device is incompatible with the use of glasses. The device should be re-designed to allow this. Recommendation: The device is not well adjusted. The subjection method should be revised for its re-design. Recommendation: The device does not rest well on the nose. The device should be re-designed, adding foam for padding between the device and the user’s face. • VR4 – VR Phone Glasses (Juguetrónica): Positive evaluation on 2 out of 4 assessed heuristics. Recommendation: The device is incompatible with the use of glasses. The device should be re-designed to allow this. Recommendation: The device does not rest well on the nose. The device should be re-designed, adding foam for padding between the device and the user’s face. Recommendation: The device allows distance adjustment between face and ears, but this personalization makes the global adjustment suffer. The re-design should allow a height adjustment for headphones.

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5 Conclusions It is well known that the use of a user-centred design approach improves the human performance [6]. When methods and tools from the human factors and ergonomics domain are applied, the result is a well-designed product, improving the performance and reducing the problems of use (mental effort or physical fatigue, for instance). In the context of use of virtual reality glasses it is necessary to search for best practices. Following the words of Oculus: The practices are intended to help developers produce content that provides a safe and enjoyable consumer experience on Oculus hardware. Developers are responsible for ensuring their content conforms to all standards and industry best practices on safety and comfort, and for keeping abreast of all relevant scientific literature on these topics [4]. The question is: Do all VR device developers have a document of best practices? Google has a set of physiological considerations and interactive patterns for Google Cardboard VR devices [5]. For instance: head tracking, user control of movement, use of constant velocity, etc. In this paper, a preliminary approach before the use of VR glasses is presented. An initial test with 16 users and research in the field allows authors to obtain data and information to develop a list of heuristics and a guideline for the ergonomics design of low-cost VR glasses. The first results show that a VR guideline could be useful with the aim of choosing a VR glasses model taking into account, for instance, the perception of comfort. An in-depth study is necessary with new VR glasses models to refine the guideline (improving the list of heuristics and the assessment method of the Global_Index). Further research is necessary, for instance usability testing with VR applications, with the aim of measuring metrics (task effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction, motion sickness) [9] and advancing in the comprehension of a good user experience [10]. Acknowledgements. This work was partially supported by the Spanish CICYT program under Grant TIN2016-81143-R.

References 1. Rebelo, F., Noriega, P., Duarte, E., Soares, M.: Using virtual reality to assess user experience. Hum. Factors 54(6), 964–998 (2012) 2. Burdea, G.C., Coiffet, P.: Virtual Reality Technology, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York (2003) 3. Leap Motion: Ergonomics in VR design. http://blog.leapmotion.com/ergonomics-vr-design/. Accessed 27 Feb 2017 (2016) 4. Oculus: Documentation. Introduction to best practices. https://developer3.oculus.com/ documentation/intro-vr/latest/concepts/bp_intro/. Accessed 7 Feb 2017 (2017) 5. Google: Designing for Google Cardboard. Physiological considerations. https://www. google.com/design/spec-vr/designing-for-google-cardboard/physiological-considerations. html. Accessed 27 Feb 2017 (2017)

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6. ISO: ISO 9241-210:2010 Ergonomics of human system interaction – Part 201: Human-centred design for interactive systems. https://www.iso.org/standard/52075.html. Accessed 27 Feb 2017 (2017) 7. ISO: ISO/TR 16982:2002 Ergonomics of human system interaction – Usability methods supporting human-centred design (2017). https://www.iso.org/standard/31176.html 8. IAB: Is virtual the new reality? A karket snapshot of VR publishing and monetization. IIAB Report (2016). http://www.iab.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/IAB_VR_Report-Sep2016.pdf 9. Kennedy, R.S., Lane, N.E., Berbaum, K.S., Lilienhal, M.G.: Simulator sickness questionnaire: an enhanced method for quantifying simulator sickness. Int. J. Aviat. Psychol. 3(3), 203–220 (1993) 10. Riva, G., Mantovani, F., Capideville, C.S., Preziosa, A., Morganti, F., Villani, D., Gaggioli, A., Botella, C., Alcañiz, M.: Affective interactions using virtual reality: the link between presence and emotions. CyberPshycol. Behav. 10(1), 45–56 (2007)

Virtual Reality Self Induced Cybersickness: An Exploratory Study Ana Almeida1,2,3 ✉ , Francisco Rebelo1,2, Paulo Noriega1,2, and Elisângela Vilar1,2 (

)

1

CIAUD, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 2 Ergonomics Laboratory, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal 3 CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, DF 70040-020, Brazil Abstract. Virtual reality (VR) has been used successfully in several studies, namely in the area of safety warnings design. However, regarding cybersickness, this technology it is not innocuous. We report results concerning cybersickness related with awareness of the secondary effects of VR before doing an experiment. Two groups of participant were found. A group that read the consent form (CF) with attention and a group that did not pay attention to the CF and just signed it. The consent contained information about the experiment and also an alert on the secondary effects of VR. In the VR experiment, participants were asked to accom‐ plish a task in a virtual environment (VE) related with other study. Findings suggest that for those who read the consent form carefully, thus, were more aware about VR side effects, there were more symptoms of cybersickness and more withdraws. These reported results rise some practical and also ethical issues related with VR experiments that are discussed in this paper. Keywords: Cybersickness · Virtual environment · Virtual reality

1

Introduction

Virtual Reality (VR) is a technology which has the ability to immerse the user in a 3D virtual environment through the use of, among other devices, the head mounted display (HMD) [1]. Extant literature has showed that research regarding safety warnings and emergency situations has already been done using VR [2, 8]. VR offers the possibility of overcoming important research methodological limitations, particularly ethical and safety issues. It also allows systematic manipulation of the environment’s features and experimental variables to profit internal validity. However, a threat to the use of this technology are unwanted side effects that can occur. Users may experience some discomfort during or after a VR session [9]. Discomfort can be related with some symp‐ toms such as dizziness, eyestrain, nausea, sweating, among others, which are commonly defined as cybersickness. Symptoms of cybersickness are similar to those of motion sickness and, according Stanney and colleagues [10], they are more serious than the simulator sickness. Although similar, the three types of sickness are caused by exposure to different situations. Simulator sickness happens in aviation simulators, cybersickness © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_3

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is related to immersion in VR and motion sickness is relative to daily situations, such as being a passenger in a car, bus, or vehicle in general. The causes of cybersickness are not fully explained but are supported by three main theories, (i) the poison theory, (ii) the postural instability theory, and (iii) the sensory conflict theory [1]. The first suggests that the discomfort felt in the VE is similar to a poison ingestion, which causes physiological effects involving coordination of the visual, vestib‐ ular and other sensory input systems. Thus, a defense of the body acts as a warning and try to remove the toxic substances from the stomach through vomiting [11]. The second states that the individual tends to create tools to maintain a stable posture in the VE. However, due to the constraints of certain environments stable posture can not be maintained and indi‐ vidual remains in a prolonged constant postural instability, it can provoke cybersickness. An example is the motion sickness, which results from prolonged instability in the control of posture [12]. According Riccio and Stoffregen [12], it is related to the behavior and not to the sensorial stimulus. The third, and the most accepted theory, considers that cybersick‐ ness can be caused by a conflict between the visual system and the vestibular system. These conflicts arise when the individual expects a kind of stimulus based on their experience but receives different sensory information [1]. For example, the visual system receives infor‐ mation that suggests movement, but the vestibular system informs the individual that he/she is stopped, or that his/her movement is not synchronized with the visual movement [13, 14]. Beyond these theories, several authors relate some factors that increase the likelihood of users developing symptoms, that are individual factors and those associated with device and task. For more details on other factors that cause cybersickness see [9]. Device. One of the main factors associated to device is flicker. Several aspects affect the perception of flicker. Display flicker induces eye fatigue and has been shown to be a factor that causes cybersickness [1, 9, 15]. Flicker is related to contrast, which in turn is related to luminance level. Contrast is the ratio of the highest and lowest luminance provided by the display [16]. Refresh rate is another aspect that influences the perception of flicker, when refresh rate is slow, promotes flicker [16]. Refresh rate is the number of frames per second that a display hardware updates its buffer. Likewise, a wider fieldof-view increases the likelihood of flicker perception, since peripheral vision is more sensitive to flicker than the central vision [9, 17]. Task. Individuals who have control in a simulator are less susceptible to motion sick‐ ness, likely because it can anticipate future motion and eliminate or reduce a possible cue conflict [9]. Longer exposure to virtual environments also results in incidences of sickness [18]. McCauley and Sharkey [18] also suggest that the same can occur if the tasks in the virtual environment have high linear and rotational acceleration rates. Individual. Included in the individual factors are gender, age, and experience with the simulator. Women have a larger field of view than men and wide field of view increases the incidence of cybersickness [1, 9, 19, 20]. Children from 2 to 12 years old are more likely to develop symptoms but this decreases rapidly to age 21 and then decreases more slowly. Around 50 is almost non-existent [9, 21]. Increased experience with the simu‐ lator leads to a decrease in the incidence of the sickness [9]. Kolasinski [9] says that

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individual creates a tolerance to the stimuli that trigger the sickness while learning how to behave in order to avoid the sickness. This work aim to report some differences in individual factors related with their awareness of the secondary effects of VR at the time of simulation, namely available time to read and be aware of all possible secondary effects of a VR simulation/experi‐ ment written in a consent form. The main hypothesis is that subjects who have more time to make the experiment and pay more attention to consent form have a higher probability of get cybersickness symptoms than the ones who had less time to make the experiment and just signed the consent form without a very deep reading of it.

2

Method

2.1 Participants Participants was volunteers that was participating in a study about compliance with safety warnings using dual task procedures with different levels of cognitive workload. Fifty four volunteers participated in this study. They were 27 male and 27 female within the ages of 17–58 (M = 29.7; SD = 10.6). Six participants dropped out the experience, two male and four female. Therefore, the valid sample was 48 participants within the ages of 17–53 (M = 28.7; SD = 9.7). 2.2 Apparatus Tasks were performed on a Desktop Station with an Intel® Core™i7 – 4790K CPU processor, 8 GB, NVIDIA GeForce GTX 980 video card. Virtual environment interac‐ tion was performed using a gamepad, Head Mounted Display (HMD), model DKII, OCULUS Rift (OLED display, resolution 960 × 1080 per eye, 100° field of view) and wireless PHILIPS earphones, model SHC5102/10. 2.3 Measurements To assess participant’s cybersickness symptoms, the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) [22] was used. This instrument was adapted from the translation into Brazilian Portuguese language made by Carvalho et al. [23] to measure whether there was some kind of discomfort or sickness during the simulation. Participants indicate the level of severity of 16 symptoms on a 4-point scale, where 0 meant “None” and 3 “Severe”. 2.4 Procedure Before start the experimental session and after explaining the purpose of the experiment, participants were asked to sign the consent form and fill the demographic questionnaire. The consent form provided the explanation of the procedure as well as the possibility of risks and discomfort, such as nausea, during the simulation, and stated the feasibility of quit the experience at any time. Participants who may experience vertigo or conditions such as heart disease, depression or pregnancy were excluded. The experimental session was divided into 3 parts: (1) training session; (2) VR simulation session and (3) response to some questionnaires, among them the SSQ. The average total time was 30 min.

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29

Results

Six participants dropped out of the test before it ended. Of these, 5 were in the read consent form condition (readers) and 1 in the non-reading consent form (no readers). Results from SSQ are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1, for total score, nausea, oculo‐ motor and disorientation scores. These scores were obtained according procedure described by Kennedy et al. [22]. Table 1. Results from SSQ. CF reading Mean Median StDev p value

Total score Yes No 25.7 13.8 15 7.5 29.2 16.3 0.179

Nausea Yes 15.8 0 26.6 0.598

No 8.4 0 13

Oculomotor Yes No 24.1 11.5 15.2 7.6 23.5 13.2 0.069

Fig. 1. Box plots for scores of SSQ.

Disorientation Yes No 28.5 17.9 13.9 13.9 36 23.9 0.402

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Observation of Table 1, data reveals in the group that read carefully the consent forms (readers), higher average values and more variability of results. The mean of total score for readers was 25.7 and for the other group (no readers) 13.8. The values for readers in nausea, oculomotor and disorientation was 15.8, 24.1 and 28.5 respectively. The no readers group had minor mean values with 8.4, 11.5 and 17.9 respectively for nausea, oculomotor and disorientation scores. Nonetheless higher values for mean scores in the readers group, there was not obtained statistically significant differences using a nonparametric test for two independent samples (p < 0.05 for all independent tests). Only in the oculomotor score test, a p value near 0.05 was obtained (p = 0.0069). Results for the 16 symptoms evaluated are illustrated in Table 2 and Fig. 2. Table 2 present means and standard deviations obtained from each symptom, as well the p value of a non-parametric test for independent samples. In the 14 of the 16 symptoms averages and standard deviation are higher for readers group. Exception is the blurred vision symptom in which standard deviation is higher for no readers, and burping symptom in which mean was higher for no readers. This tendency is clearly illustrated in Fig. 2 that shows average values for readers and no readers. Nonetheless this tendency for higher values for symptoms in the readers group, there was only a statistically significant difference in the fatigue and sweating symptoms. Table 2. SSQ symptoms, mean and standard deviation.

General discomfort Fatigue Headache Eyestrain Difficulty focusing Increased salivation Sweating Nausea Difficulty concentrating Fullness of head Blurred vision Dizziness (eyes open) Dizziness (eyes closed) Vertigo Stomach awareness Burping **sig < 0.005; *sig < 0.05

Readers Mean 0.435 0.739 0.217 0.870 0.435 0.217 0.304 0.304 0.130 0.435 0.348 0.217 0.174 0.130 0.174 0.087

StDev 0.843 0.864 0.518 0.757 0.662 0.518 0.559 0.703 0.344 0.662 0.487 0.518 0.388 0.458 0.388 0.288

NO readers Mean StDev 0.080 0.277 0.080 0.277 0.120 0.332 0.560 0.651 0.280 0.458 0.120 0.332 0.040 0.200 0.240 0.523 0.120 0.332 0.240 0.436 0.280 0.678 0.160 0.374 0.040 0.200 0.040 0.200 0.080 0.277 0.200 0.500

p value 0.080 0.001** 0.567 0.147 0.499 0.567 0.031* 0.952 0.914 0.336 0.304 0.848 0.133 0.491 0.331 0.429

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Fig. 2. Scores for SSQ symptoms for readers and no readers of the consent form.

4

Discussion and Conclusions

Although we do not have statistically significant differences, there is a clear tendency that knowledge of the side effects of VR causes a higher level of symptoms, suggesting in some way a self-induced effect of cybersickness. Significant differences appeared only in the variables fatigue and sweat, which, for Bouchard and colleagues, [24] are associated with anxiety. These authors found the same symptoms in clinical populations that used VR and had anxiety induced to confront feared stimuli. Indeed, it can be assumed that knowledge of possible side effects of VR can generate anxiety and trigger these symptoms. However, this suggestion obtained from these results will have to be confirmed with a larger sample and with a methodological approach developed for this objective. One of the fundamental rules of ethics in science is the non-deception of subjects; however, as these results seem to point out, the knowledgement of possible adverse effects seems to increase the symptoms of cybersickness. On the one hand this is also unethical, because in this way we are increasing the symptoms so as not to cause nondeception of subjects. To solve this ethical conflict between deception and generate symptoms, one most try to study the individual characteristics better and try to predict, before the experiment, which subjects are most susceptible to cybersickness to start avoiding their inclusion in these samples. This observation, reported here, began when data from the RV experiments were collected from a state public service (Lisbon Municipality). The coincidence of these participants (n = 5) have more time available for the experience and have read the consent form in detail, and consequently had more cybersickness was the reason for a

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more detailed, but still incomplete, analysis of the differences in self induction of cybersicness by knowledge of the side effects of immersion in RV. In addition to the ethical issues related to the consent form, where participants often lacked the patience to read the information, we encountered other ethical issues in our experiences. It is known that the participant must be informed about the objectives of the study before starting the experiment. However, this procedure is incompatible with the objectives of our tests, where we want to evaluate the behavioral compliance with safety warnings. Knowledge of this objective compromises the effectiveness of this kind of study. In order to not disappoint and motivate the participant, we inform that the objective is the evaluation of a game in VR, that has a history and a goal to fulfill to obtain a reward. Acknowledgements. This work was supported by grants BEX 0660-13/2 to Ana Almeida from CAPES Foundation Ministry of Education of Brazil.

References 1. LaViola, J.J.: A discussion of cybersickness in virtual environments. ACM SIGCHI Bull. 32(1), 47–56 (2000) 2. Gamberini, L., Cottone, P., Spagnolli, A., Varotto, D., Mantovani, G.: Responding to a fire emergency in a virtual environment: Different patterns of action for different situations. Ergonomics 46(8), 842–858 (2003) 3. Tang, C.H., Wu, W.T., Lin, C.Y.: Using virtual reality to determine how emergency signs facilitate way-finding. Appl. Ergon. 40(4), 722–730 (2009) 4. Duarte, E., Rebelo, F., Teixeira, L., Vilar, E., Teles, J., Noriega, P.: Sense of presence in a VR-based study on behavioral compliance. In: Aaron, M. (ed.) DUXU 2013. LNCS, vol. 8014, pp. 362–371. Springer, Heidelberg (2013) 5. Duarte, E., Rebelo, F., Teles, J., Wogalter, M.S.: Behavioral compliance for dynamic versus static signs in an immersive virtual environment. Appl. Ergon. 45(5), 1367–1375 (2014) 6. Duarte, E., Rebelo, F., Teles, J., Wogalter, M.S.: Behavioral compliance in virtual reality: effects of warning type. In: Kaber, D.B., Boy, G. (eds.) Advances in Cognitive Ergonomics, pp. 812–821. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2010) 7. Vilar, E., Rebelo, F., Noriega, P., Duarte, E., Mayhorn, C.B.: Effects of competing environmental variables and signage on route-choices in simulated everyday and emergency wayfindings situations. Ergonomics 57(4), 511–524 (2014) 8. Vilar, E., Rebelo, F., Noriega, P.: Indoor human wayfinding performance using vertical and horizontal signage in virtual reality. Hum. Factors Ergon. Manuf. Serv. Ind. 24(6), 601–615 (2014) 9. Kolasinski, E.M.: Simulator Sickness in virtual Environments. No. ARI-TR-1027. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Alexandria (1995) 10. Stanney, K.M., Kennedy, R.S., Drexler, J.M.: Cybersickness is not simulator sickness. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, pp. 1138–1142. Sage Publications, Los Angeles (1997) 11. Treisman, M.: Motion sickness: an evolutionary hypothesis. Science 197(4302), 493–495 (1977) 12. Riccio, G.E., Stoffregen, T.A.: An ecological theory of motion sickness and postural instability. Ecol. Psychol. 3(3), 195–240 (1991)

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13. Sharples, S., Cobb, S., Moody, A., Wilson, J.R.: Virtual reality induced symptoms and effects (VRISE): comparison of head mounted display (HMD). Deskt. Proj. Disp. Syst. Disp. 29(2), 58–69 (2008) 14. Balk, S.A., Bertola, M.A., Inman, V.W.: Simulator sickness questionnaire: twenty years later. In: Proceedings of the Seventh International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, pp. 257–263 (2013) 15. Howarth, P.A., Costello, P.J.: The occurrence of virtual simulation sickness symptoms when and HMD was used as a personal viewing system. Displays 18(2), 107–116 (1997) 16. Pausch, R., Crea, T., Conway, M.: A literature survey for virtual environments: military flight simulator visual systems and simulator sickness. Presence Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 1(3), 344–363 (1992) 17. Boff, K.R., Lincoln, J.E.: Engineering Data Compendium: Human Perception and Performance, vol. 3 (1988) 18. McCauley, M.E., Sharkey, T.J.: Cybersickness: perception of self-motion in virtual environments. Presence Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 1(3), 311–318 (1992) 19. Davis, S., Nesbitt, K., Nalivaiko, E.: Comparing the onset of cybersickness using the oculus rift and two virtual roller coasters. In: Proceedings of the 11th Australasian Conference on Interactive Entertainment (IE 2015), Sidney, Australia (2015) 20. Kennedy, R.S., Frank, L.H.: A Review of Motion Sickness with Special Reference to Simulator Sickness (1985) 21. Reason, J.T., Brand, J.J.: Motion Sickness. Academic Press, New York (1975) 22. Kennedy, R.S., Lane, N.E., Berbaum, K.S., Lilienthal, M.G.: Simulator sickness questionnaire: an enhanced method for quantifying simulator sickness. Int. J. Aviat. Psychol. 3(3), 203–220 (1993) 23. De Carvalho, M.R., Da Costa, R.T., Nardi, A.E.: Simulator sickness questionnaire: translation and cross-cultural adaptation. J. Brasil. Psiquiatr. 60(4), 247–252 (2011) 24. Bouchard, S., Robillard, G., Renaud, P., Bernier, F.: Exploring new dimensions in the assessment of virtual reality induced side effects. J. Comput. Inf. Technol. 1(3), 20–32 (2011)

Comparing Three Stimulus Presentation Types in a Virtual Reality Experiment to Human Wayfinding Behavior During Emergency Situation Elisângela Vilar1,2(&), Francisco Rebelo1,2, and Paulo Noriega1,2 1

Faculdade de Arquitetura, Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura, Urbanismo e Design, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 2 Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Laboratório de Ergonomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal {frebelo,pnoriega}@fmh.ulisboa.pt

Abstract. Understanding and predicting people’s displacement movement is particularly important for professionals involved in planning complex buildings (e.g., hospitals, convention centers, subway stations and university campus). An interesting approach to consider when studying human wayfinding behavior within buildings, namely considering the detection of visual stimuli, is the use of psychophysics methods. This paper aims to discuss the use of stimulus presentation comparing three methodological approaches. Three types of stimulus presentation with an increasing increment of visual information and interaction were considered: (i) constant stimuli method with fixed images, (ii) constant stimuli method with movies, and (iii) virtual reality simulation of a real environment. For this, the results of three studies were analyzed in order to verify the existence of agreement between users’ route-choices. Findings suggest, as expected, that increasing the visual information and interaction level also increase the results dispersion. Keywords: Virtual reality choice
Complex building


Methodology
Wayfinding
Emergency
Route

1 Introduction Understanding and predicting people’s displacement movement is particularly important for professionals involved in planning complex buildings (e.g., hospitals, convention centers, subway stations and university campus). Some decisions taken by the visitors while choosing what route to follow during emergency situation can be influenced by some environmental cues which can act as a factor of attraction, influencing the wayfinding process. An interesting approach to consider when studying the Human wayfinding behavior, namely the variables which can influence the route-choice in decision points (detection of visual stimuli) within a building is the use © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_4

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of psychophysics methods. According to Pelli and Farell [1], psychophysical methods are the tools for measuring perception and performance that reveal basic perceptual processes. Psychophysics tries to solve the problem of how to describe and investigate individual percepts so that they can be communicated and shared by others closely linking perceptual experience to physical stimuli. Thus, physical stimuli are used as a reference system and have their characteristics carefully and systematically manipulated. Observers are asked to report their perception of the stimuli [2]. According to Ehrenstein and Ehrenstein [2], psychophysical methods rely on the observers’ subjective report of what they have perceived, thus this method is usually termed as subjective. However, the forced-choice method, in which the observer is required to make a positive response on every trial, provides a more objective approach. Presentation of stimulus considering a constant stimuli method combined with two-forced choices methods were used in previous studies [3–5] to verify the influence of brightness and width over the route selection within a complex building. Three types of stimulus presentation with an increasing increment of visual information and interaction were considered in these three studies: (i) constant stimuli method with fixed images (static presentation) [5], (ii) constant stimuli method with dynamic presentation [4], and (iii) virtual reality simulation of a real environment [3]. In this context, this paper aims to investigate and to discuss the effect of increasing increment of visual information and interaction on stimulus presentation. For this, results attained in previous studies [3–5] that used the method of constant stimulus presentation combined with a forced-choice method were compared and analyzed.

2 Methodology Three previous studies [i.e., 3–5] were used for this paper to investigate the effect of increasing increment of visual information and interaction on stimulus presentation. Results from these studies were compared and analyzed to verify the existence of differences in observer’s response when confronted with different environmental variables (i.e., corridors width and brightness), considering both, perception and perception-action paradigms. The participants’ circulation along simulated corridors (i.e., escape routes) was the studies’ focus, with special attention to their decision-taking (i.e., path selection) at the corridors’ intersection points. First and second studies [3, 4] used the same corridor intersections. For the third study [5], only six of those twenty-seven corridors were used. The main hypothesis is that increasing the visual information and interaction will also increase the variability on corridor’s intersection chosen by the participants. However, changes on corridor’s intersection most chosen by the participants across the results from the three studies are not expected.

2.1

First Study – Fixed Images

Perception paradigm was considered in the first study [5], in which the environmental variables were manipulated and a set of static images of virtual indoor hallways was

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presented to participants using a stereoscopic projector and 3D shutter glasses. To collect the participants’ responses, the images’ sequence was presented using a constant stimulus method combined with a two-forced choice method and participants had to choose between left or right corridors using the gamepad buttons. Twenty-seven experimental conditions were defined considering the environmental variables (i.e., corridors width and brightness) and left and right options (i.e., “T-type” corridors), which were repeated eight times and randomly presented to participants (see Fig. 1). An inter-stimulus screen that was a gray screen with the image of a black cube in the center was considered. The inter-stimulus interval varied from 800 to 1000 ms and the stimulus maximum duration was 1400 ms, but it could be less because in the moment that the participant pushed the button to select an answer (i.e., a direction), the corridor’s image disappeared and an inter-stimulus screen was presented. Participant’s responses were automatically collected by the VR system. Figure 2 shows examples of images presented to the participants. Eleven subjects, one male and ten females, aged between 20 and 68 years old (mean age = 36 years; SD = 14.59) participated as volunteers in this study.

Fig. 1. The twenty-seven corridor intersections used for studies 1 and 2.

Fig. 2. Examples of the images of corridors presented to the participants. In the left image there is an example of the narrower corridor with more lighting vs. the wider and darker corridor. The middle image has an example of a situation in which the lighting is in the wider corridor. The right image show the situation where left and right corridors have the same width but the right corridor has more lighting.

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37

Second Study – Controlled VR Navigation

For the second study [4], a set of virtual indoor hallways and intersections were constructed via systematic manipulation of independent variables such as corridor width, corridor brightness. and hallway intersection configuration, representing a set of different virtual environments (stimuli). Fifty-seven experimental conditions were designed to represent indoor situations formed by two corridors linked by a “T-type” or an “F-type” intersection (Figs. 3 and 4). These were repeated eight times and randomly organized and presented to participant’s through a sequence of VR interactions projected onto a screen using a stereoscopic projector and visualized through 3D shutter glasses. Participants were able to navigate within the virtual hallways using a joystick to indicate their intended path. These directional preferences were automatically recorded when participants moved themselves through the chosen path. The presentation of each stimulus had a maximum duration of 7 s and when it appeared, participants had to navigate through the corridors to follow the path they believed would lead them to the building egress. The maximum duration was defined as twice the minimum time required to traverse the distance from the start point to the end (where the decision was recorded). Stimuli were automatically changed when participants made their choice (i.e., navigate through the beginning of the side and front corridors) or when the limit of 7 s of exposure was reached without a participant’s choice. Between stimulus presentations, an inter-stimulus interval was inserted and it varied from 800 to 1000 ms. This inter-stimulus screen was gray in color and contained the image of a black cube in the center. Thirty undergraduate students, equally distributed across gender, aged between 18 and 32 years old (mean age 21.27 years; SD 3.20) participated as volunteers in this study. Twenty-seven declared themselves, through a questionnaire, to be right-handed and three declared themselves to be left-handed.

Fig. 3. Examples of the virtual corridors presented to the participants considering an “F-type” intersection. In the left image, there is an example of a situation with the right corridor being brighter than the front corridor. The middle image has an example of a narrower and brighter corridor (front) vs. the wider and darker corridor (left). The right image shows the situation where all corridors have the same width without lighting effects (neutral condition).

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Fig. 4. Top-down view of the fifty-seven different corridor combinations. The small squares are the location of lighting into the corridors for the conditions considering the variable corridor’s brightness.

2.3

Third Study – Free VR Navigation

In this third study [5], participants were given the tasks of finding three publicly accessible central points in a virtual hotel and convention center, and while navigating through the building they were confronted with a two forced-choice task of local scenes where the situations of conflicting environmental variables (i.e., corridors width and brightness) varied systematically. Considering this, a Virtual Reality (VR)-based methodology was considered to overcome the financial and time consuming costs of creating real environments suitable to the experimental design. With this approach, people can interact with a virtual model in real-time [6], allowing them to visualize and manipulate representations of the real world [7]. A Virtual hotel was developed with twelve decision points with two alternative paths and participants were forced to find these decision points and to choose between one alternative path to move forward.

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In this study, participants were able to freely interact with the virtual environment with no time limit. They only need to accomplish wayfinding tasks that were given to them along the interaction, when they reached pre-defined points. Images from the virtual environment can be seen on Fig. 5. Thirty-two participants in the neutral conditions (mean age = 21.88 years, SD = 3.62), 16 males (mean age = 22.63 years, SD = 4.19), 16 females (mean age = 22.00 years, SD = 2.58), were considered. Figure 6 shows the corridors selected from studies 1 and 2 and used for study 3.

Fig. 5. Examples of the virtual corridors presented to the participants considering “T-type” and “F-type” intersection. In the left image, there is an example of a situation with the left corridor being brighter and wider than the right corridor. In the right-side image, there is an example of “F-type” corridor with the left corridor darker than the front corridor.

Fig. 6. Twelve corridor intersections selected from first and second studies and used for the third study to design the plant for the virtual hotel.

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Data Analysis

Results from those three studies were grouped considering the following criteria: • For the first and second studies, only the first choice for each stimulus was considered; • For the third study, only participants assigned to the neutral condition were considered; • When comparing results from first and second studies, only data for “T-type” intersections where considered; • When comparing results from second and third studies, only data for the twelve corridors used for the third study were considered; • When comparing results from all studies, only data for the six “T-type” intersections used in the third study were considered.

3 Results and Discussion All statistical analyses were performed with the software IBM SPSS v.24 and a significance level of 5% was considered. Analysis were made considering each corridor individually to verify significant differences between the methodological approaches.

3.1

First and Second Studies Comparison

As the first and second studies used the same corridors configuration, an analysis was performed only considering their results to investigate the influence of stimulus presentation (static images vs. dynamic presentation) and results selection (gamepad buttons vs. joystick). Descriptive statistics and Fisher’s Exact Test were performed and results revealed that the choices made by participants concerning the path to follow for each corridor intersection were not different between first and second studies. Results can be seen on Table 1. Only for corridor intersection C20 statistically significant difference was found. This finding suggests that, for a task that the main requirement is based on visual search, simpler stimulus presentation made through static images and collect using buttons can be enough to acquire users’ perception.

3.2

Second and Third Studies Comparison

For second and third studies comparison, the twelve corridors used in both studies were analyzed. In this way, the influence of a free navigation approach on users’ route-choices into a building was considered. Descriptive statistics and Fisher’s Exact Test were performed and results (Table 2) suggest that the choices made by participants concerning the path to follow for each corridor intersection can be influenced by a more ecological approach, in which participants were confronted with a situation closer to a real situation.

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Table 1. Table with results from first study (static presentation) and second study (dynamic presentation), considering, percentage of choices for left and right sides, number of occurrence (n) and Fisher’s Exact Test. Corridor’s intersection Corridor’s number

C1

C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17

Corridor and environmental variable types and location T-Neutral (same corridor’s width and brightness) T-Right corridor (width) T-Left corridor (width) T-Right corridor (width) T-Left corridor (width) T-Right corridor (width) T-Left corridor (width) T-Right corridor (width) T-Left corridor (width) T-Right corridor (brightness) T-Right corridor (brightness) T-Right corridor (brightness + width) T-Right corridor (brightness + width) T-Left corridor (brightness + width) T-Right corridor (brightness + width) T-Left corridor (brightness + width) T-Right corridor (brightness + width)

Static presentation % % Left Right (n) (n)

Dynamic presentation % % Left Right (n) (n)

Fisher’s Exact Test

18.18 (2)

81.82 (9)

6.7 (2)

93.3 (28)

p = .288; n = 41

0 (0)

100 (11) 9.1 (1) 90.9 (10) 9.1 (1) 90.9 (10) 9.1 (1) 90.9 (10) 0 (0)

10 (3) 83.3 (25) 6.7 (2) 90 (27) 6.7 (2) 86.7 (26) 10 (3) 86.7 (26) 40 (12) 30 (9) 66.7 (20) 40 (12) 80 (24) 23.3 (7) 66.7 (20) 26.7 (8)

90 (27) 16.7 (5) 93.3 (28) 10 (3)

p = .551; n = 41 p = 1.00; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = .559; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = .238; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = .716; n = 41 p = .167; n = 41 p = .288; n = 41 p = 1.000; n = 41 p = .233; n = 41 (continued)

90.9 (10) 9.1 (1) 90.9 (10) 9.1 (1) 90.9 (10) 9.1 (1) 100 (11) 36.4 (4) 9.1 (1) 63.6 (7) 27.3 (3) 100 (11) 18.2 (2) 90.9 (10) 36.4 (4)

63.6 (7) 90.9 (10) 36.4 (4) 72.7 (8) 0 (0) 81.8 (9) 9.1 (1) 63.6 (7)

93.3 (28) 13.3 (4) 90 (27) 13.3 (4) 60 (18) 70 (21) 33.3 (10) 60 (18) 20 (6) 76.7 (23) 33.3 (10) 73.3 (22)

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E. Vilar et al. Table 1. (continued)

Corridor’s intersection Corridor’s number

C18 C19 C20 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 C27

3.3

Corridor and environmental variable types and location T-Left corridor (brightness + width) T-Left corridor (brightness) T-Left corridor (brightness − width) T-Right corridor (brightness − width) T-Left corridor (brightness − width) T-Right corridor (brightness − width) T-Left corridor (brightness − width) T-Right corridor (brightness − width) T-Left corridor (brightness − width) T-Right corridor (brightness − width)

Static presentation % % Right Left (n) (n)

Dynamic presentation % % Right Left (n) (n)

Fisher’s Exact Test

54.5 (6) 90.9 (10) 45.5 (5) 27.3 (3) 63.6 (7) 27.3 (3) 63.6 (7) 36.4 (4) 72.7 (8) 18.2 (2)

66.7 (20) 93.3 (28) 86.7 (26) 23.3 (7) 80 (24) 13.3 (4) 90 (27) 20 (6) 83.3 (25) 20 (6)

p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n

45.5 (5) 9.1 (1) 54.5 (6) 72.7 (8) 36.4 (4) 72.7 (8) 36.4 (4) 63.6 (7) 27.3 (3) 81.8 (9)

33.3 (10) 6.7 (2) 13.3 (4) 76.7 (23) 20 (6) 86.7 (26) 10 (3) 80 (24) 16.7 (5) 80 (24)

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

.701; 41 .491; 41 .013; 41 1.000; 41 .413; 41 .361; 41 .069; 41 .288; 41 .658; 41 1.000; 41

Three Studies Comparison

A comparison among the three studies were performed with the six “T-type” corridor’s intersection that are present in all studies. Environmental variables were grouped and global percentages of choice favoring the environmental variables is presented on Table 3. Thus, the distribution of percentages of route-choice can be observed. Findings suggest that increasing the level of presence bringing participant’s experience closer to real world also increase the variation of responses related to route-choices into complex buildings. However, the tendency of most of the participants in following the corridor’s intersections with the environmental variables remains across the three studies. The attained results grouping the environmental variables and comparing the three studies suggest that when variables are less conspicuous (in this case the wider corridors and narrower but brighter corridors), static presentation presented lower percentages of choice favoring the environmental variables than dynamic presentation. It seems to occur because in dynamic presentation participants had more time to visually explore the environment and perceive differences between the opposite corridors.

Comparing Three Stimulus Presentation Types

43

Table 2. Table with results from second study (Dynamic presentation) and third study (free navigation), considering, percentage of choices for left, right, and front sides, number of occurrence (n) and Fisher’s Exact Test. Corridor’s intersection Corridor’s number C8 C55 C18 C40 C20 C43 C11 C34 C5 C50 C21 C35

Dynamic presentation Corridor and environmental % % variable types and location Left Right (n) (n) T-Right corridor (width) 10 90 (3) (27) F-Front corridor 53.3 – (brightness − width) (16) T-Left corridor 66.7 33.3 (brightness + width) (20) (10) F-Right corridor – 26.7 (brightness + width) (8) T-Left corridor 86.7 13.3 (brightness − width) (26) (4) F-Left corridor 30 – (brightness + width) (9) T-Right corridor 30 70 (brightness) (9) (21) F-Right corridor (width) – 93.3 (28) T-Left corridor (width) 90 10 (3) (27) F-Front corridor – 53.3 (brightness − width) (16) T-Right corridor 23.3 76.7 (brightness − width) (7) (23) F-Left corridor (width) 93.3 – (28)

navigation % front (n) – 46.7 (14) – 73.3 (22) – 70 (21) – 6.7 (2) – 46.7 (14) – 6.7 (2)

% Left (n) 34.4 (11) 25 (8) 65.6 (21) – 81.2 (26) 62.5 (20) 31.2 (10) – 68.7 (22) – 28.1 (9) 40.6 (13)

% Right (n) 65.6 (21) – 34.4 (11) 84.4 (27) 18.7 (6) – 68.7 (22) 53.1 (17) 31.3 (10) 59.4 (19) 71.8 (23)

Fisher’s Exact Test % front (n) – 75 (24) – 15.6 (5) – 37.5 (12) – 46.9 (15) – 40.6 (13) – 59.4 (19)

p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n p n

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

.033; 62 .036; 62 1.000; 62 .000; 62 .733; 62 .013; 62 1.000; 62 .000; 62 .061; 62 .798; 62 .775; 62 .000; 62

Table 3. Table with results from the three studies, considering global percentages of choice for environmental variable Environmental variables Width Width + brightness Width − brightness

Static presentation Dynamic presentation Navigation 78.4 86.45 67.18 99.43 75.69 67.18 72.15 82.63 76.56

4 Conclusion This exploratory research has as main goal to investigate and to discuss the effect of increasing increment of visual information and interaction on stimulus presentation. For this, results from three previous studies were compared and analyzed to verify the existence of differences in observer’s response when confronted with different environmental variables (i.e., corridors width and brightness). It was hypothesized that

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participants tend to follow the same corridor’s intersection for the three considered studies. However, increasing the visual information and interaction will also increase the responses” variability. Findings suggest that when similar methodological approaches were considered (i.e., studies 1 and 2), in which a constant stimulus presentation method was used, only varying from static images to dynamic presentation and with responses being acquired using gamepad buttons and a directional joystick, no differences related to route-choices were found. However, when a more ecological approach was considered, in which stimulus were presented in a context created by a narrative (in this case, a virtual hotel), and choices were made considering a free navigation approach (participants’ move themselves along the corridors naturally making the directional choices as part of a path to follow), more variability in participants’ responses occurred, as well as the appearance of some differences between the most chosen corridors in first and second studies compared to third study. This result is very interesting for Ergonomics and Human Factors fields of study, which consider the ecological perspective as main approach to study human behavior. Main limitations are related to the small sample size of the first study and with the fact that the experimental design was developed with other objective that was different from the one of this study. In this way, considering the pertinence of the attained results, this exploratory research should be extended to consider an experimental design developed to investigate issues related to methodologies to study perception and perception-action paradigms. Acknowledgments. Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT) grant SFRH/BPD/ 93993/2013.

References 1. Pelli, D.G., Farell, B.: Psychophysical methods. In: Bass, M., Van Stryland, E.W., Williams, D. R., Wolfe, W.L. (eds.) Handbook of Optics, 2nd edn, pp. 29.1–29.13. McGraw-Hill, New York (1995) 2. Ehrenstein, W.H., Ehrenstein, A.: Psychophysical methods. In: Windhorst, U., Johansson, H. (eds.) Modern Techniques in Neuroscience Research, pp. 1211–1241. Springer, Heidelberg (1999) 3. Vilar, E., Teixeira, L., Rebelo, F., Noriega, P., Teles, J.: Using environmental affordances to direct people natural movement indoors. Work A J. Prev. Assess. Rehabil. 41, 1149–1156 (2012) 4. Vilar, E., Rebelo, F., Noriega, P., Teles, J., Mayhorn, C.: The influence of environmental features on route selection in an emergency situation. Appl. Ergon. 44(4), 618–627 (2013) 5. Vilar, E., Rebelo, F., Noriega, P., Duarte, E., Mayhorn, C.: Effects of competing environmental variables and signage on route-choices in simulated everyday and emergency wayfinding situations. Ergonomics 57(4), 511–524 (2014) 6. Whyte, J.: Virtual Reality and the Built Environment. Architectural Press, London (2002) 7. Aukstakalnis, S., Blatne, D.: Silicon Mirage: The Art and Science of Virtual Reality. Peachpit Press, Berkeley (1992)

Methods and Procedures to Usability Testing in Virtual Reality Systems Ana Carol Pontes de França, J. Pereira Neto ✉ , and Marcelo Márcio Soares (

)

Department of Design, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. The development of devices and applications based on Virtual Reality (VR), with inviting and affordable prices, is increasingly attractive to consumers eager for novelty. Even with all the sophistication, the design and development of these technologies have the challenge of proposing devices and apps that could be used by any kind of user. So that, this context makes it necessary to investigate the usability of these technologies as well as the ergonomic constraints and risks inherent in both the physical devices and the characteristics of the virtual envi‐ ronment adopted by the user. During the usability test, both verbal and nonverbal behaviours can be observed. In such situations, the methods and procedures adopted will require the ergonomist to use specialized equipment for the recording and/or monitoring of this information. These, in turn, provide support for ergo‐ nomic recommendations, suggestions for improvement and even for product/ system redesign. Keywords: Virtual Reality · Usability testing · Methods and procedures

1

Introduction

The development of devices and applications based on Virtual Reality (VR), with inviting and affordable prices, is increasingly attractive to consumers eager for novelty. However, this context still lacks studies that assess in depth the ergonomic constraints and risks related to these products and systems, both with respect to the physical world and the adopted virtual environment. The fact that the user is simultaneously engaged in the physical and virtual worlds1 requires the ergonomist to adopt a new attitude, since he/she must be attentive (1) to the human factors related to the experience with the physical and virtual body in the use of these products and systems and (2) to the users’ safety, effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction.

1

According to this study under development at UFPE Design Department.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_5

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A.C.P. de França et al.

About Virtual Reality (VR)

According to Britannica’s Encyclopedia,2 Virtual Reality (VR) is characterized by the use of computational modeling and simulation in order to allow the person to interact with an artificial three-dimensional (3-D) visual or other sensory environment. In VR applications, the user is immersed in a computer-generated environment that simulates reality through interactive devices. These devices send and receive information and are used as goggles, helmets, gloves or body suits. Typically, the VR user, wearing a helmet with a stereoscopic screen, sees animated images of a simulated environment. Although performed in a simulated, synthetic environment, VR takes the physical body as a reference and keeps characteristics and similarities with the physical world so the user him/herself feels present and contextually perceives the experience through his/ her own sensation of physical involvement [1]. Similar to a book or a picture, which transports the reader or the observer from the physical environment to that of the story or painting, VR transports the person from the physical world to an environment in which he/she is not physically present, although he/she feels like he/she was [2]. Even when resorting to the fictional, the simulation in this environment presents situations with a degree of realism that allows the user to make decisions and solve problems in the physical world [3]. Such feature has by definition the coexistence of biological and virtual bodies which act in a coordinated way so that the VR user can present him/herself, interact with and even modify the virtual world [4]. In other words, by using multimedia resources, computer graphics, image processing and others, to create synthetic environments, VR allows the body to act both as a support for cultural prostheses (user dressed with VR devices) and as sign (user immersed, metaphorized, in the virtual environment) [4]. In this context, concepts such as immersion, presence, interaction and involvement, fundamental to the study of VR, become indispensable to the understanding of the users physical and psychological experience in these systems [2, 3, 5]. Thus, this study focuses on the concept of immersion, which is related to the psycho‐ logical state in which the user perceives him/herself involved by, included in and inter‐ acting with an environment that provides a flow of stimuli [2].

3

VR Usability Testing

ISO 9241-11 [6] defines usability as the extent to which a product can be used by certain users to achieve specific objectives with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a given context of use. To Jordan [7], effectiveness corresponds to the extent to which a goal is achieved or a task is performed. Efficiency is characterized by the effort required to achieve a goal. The lower the effort, the greater the efficiency is. And the satisfaction both relates to the comfort level during the product use and the level of acceptance of the product by its users. 2

https://global.britannica.com/technology/virtual-reality.

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Iida relates usability to ease and convenience in products use, both in the domestic and professional environments. However, he warns that usability depends on the inter‐ action between the user, the product, the task and the environment, so that the same product may be suitable for certain types of users and unsatisfactory for others or even suitable for certain situations and not suitable for others [8]. Due to the dispute between manufacturers, who constantly seek to improve the quality of their products, and also due to the increase of technological evolution over the years, usability becomes a strategic factor of competitiveness, differentiation and good practice [9]. In view of the above, it is indispensable: Efficiency; Efficacy; Easy of learning; Easy to remember; Few errors in use; Feedback of users actions; Safety; And user satisfaction so that the product presents a good usability. In this regard, when evaluating VR devices and applications, it is important that both physical products and virtual environments could be tested while the user performs a specific task.

4

Physical Evaluation in VR Usability Testing

In a global, competitive economy, the design and development of products and systems needs to consider the wide variation of users’ characteristics [8]. All this diversity requires adapting the product/system (scaling, weight, shape, etc.) to human characteristics to ensure that the demands of this product/system are adequate to the capabilities and limitations of the user. Thus, the usability evaluation process is present in the product/system design since the initial stages, with the definition of specifications, passing by the prototype until culminate in the final product/system. In this context, the product/system usability can be improved by conducting users tests in order to make a detailed examination of the users’ interactions with the product/ system. This assessment allows to thoroughly investigate the design details that may adversely affect the performance and acceptancy of these products/systems by its users. Regarding the physical aspects, this evaluation can be performed both in the labo‐ ratory and in the field and includes the measurement of biomechanical and physiological results, such as torque, muscle activity and heart rate. These results are then used to improve the design or even propose the redesign of the product already on sale.

5

Psychological and Behavioral Evaluation in VR Usability Testing

During usability testing, the participants are often asked to complete tasks and answer questionnaires. However, there are other forms of evaluation, especially with regard to psychological and behavioral aspects in situations of system use. While performing tasks, users can smile, sigh, blush, squirm in the chair, lean forward, show impatience, and so on. Although non-verbal, users behaviors can be recorded and potentially measured, in order to provide subsidies for product redesign.

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Both verbal and nonverbal behaviors can be observed. In some cases, these behaviors can happen fast enough that the observer can not record in time, as occur with facial expressions, for example. In such situations, video recordings of user actions are often employed [10]. In other cases, vital signs are investigated to assess the physiological response of the user during the task and thus obtain information about increased heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, capillary glycemia and body temperature, among others. In some cases, even without conscious control, some behaviors may be observable. Sweating and pupil dilation, for example, requires monitoring. Such procedures will require the ergonomist to use specialized equipment for recording and/or monitoring this information.

6

Equipments to Capture the Users Behaviour

A more refined analysis of verbal and non-verbal behavior in usability testing requires the use of equipments for capturing facial expressions, physiological variations, body temperature variations, ocular tracking and brain mapping, among others. The information obtained with such equipments provides objective and reliable indicators for the identification of ergonomic risks and difficulties in users performance during the task, in order to contribute to an adequate usability evaluation of the system under analysis. 6.1 Videographic Records of the Users’ Actions and Facial Expressions Recognizing and interpreting users actions and facial expressions is critical to under‐ standing human communication and interaction. In addition, it should be noted that facial expressions provide greater accuracy on what users are really feeling in relation to what is said [10] as well as about the users reactions facing the product. In such situations, the videographic records of the users actions and facial expres‐ sions contribute to a more detailed analysis of the product usability, in order to offer subsidies to ergonomic recommendations and suggestions of improvement for the eval‐ uated system. 6.2 Eye Tracking In recent years the use of eye tracking to usability evaluation of products and systems has become quite common. With its development, this technology has become increas‐ ingly reliable and easy to use [10], as well as offering valuable information about where the user looks while performing the task. Tullis and Albert [10] define this fixation as a pause in eye movement in relation to a well-defined area on the system screen. These fixations are enumerated and indicate a sequence. The size of each circle is proportional to the length of the eye fixation. The movements between the fixations, also known as saccades, are evidenced by lines. This

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real-time eye tracking provides information that would be difficult to obtain in any other way. 6.3 Digital Infrared Thermal Imaging The digital infrared thermal imaging consists of an advanced non-invasive, painless, precise and safe medical examination technique that captures the heat emitted by the body in the form of infrared radiation. The records are obtained from a digital thermographic camera that captures the surface temperature of the skin through a specific software which transforms this infor‐ mation into scanned images called thermograms.3 By not contacting the body, the equipment does not cause pain or discomfort to the user. Composed by individual pixels, each thermogram represents the exact measure‐ ment of the temperature at a specific point of the body, with an accuracy of 0.01 °C. From these images a colored mapping of the body surface is obtained. 6.4 Galvanic Skin Response (Skin Conductance) It consists of a technique used to evaluate psychophysical changes by monitoring the electrical activity of the glands that produce sweat on the palms of the hands and finger‐ tips that are more sensitive to emotions and thoughts. It allows to detect strong emotions through the electrodes in contact with the fingers and can be used in the identification of situations that generate stress and anxiety [11]. Obtained through the equipment, the biofeedback or biological feedback enables the user to voluntarily regulate his/her physiological and emotional reactions in order to become aware of and improve the information obtained through learning, training and self-regulation mechanisms. These sensors are connected to a person whose physiological responses are moni‐ tored and sent to a computer that processes the obtained data. When viewing the responses on the computer screen, the user is able to modify his/her own body responses, which characterizes the process of self-regulation. In education and training, biofeedback can be used to measure and increase attention and cognition potentials, speed of decision making, and ability to manage stress in chal‐ lenging or assessment situations. 6.5 The EEG Technology Considered the oldest and most common technique for measuring brain activity, the EEG can detect the tiny electrical currents produced by neurons [12]. The electrodes located on the user’s scalp detect the electrical potential immediately underneath the electrode and the reference electrode placed at the spot that is electrically inert (e.g. earlobe) [12].

3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1nwKwVIWQbA.

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The EEG is composed by three types of neural activity: (1) spontaneous activity not correlated with any particular task; (2) task-related induced activity, but not related to particular events; And (3) evolutionary activity related to particular events [13]. The maps produced by the electrical activity of neurons, measured from the EEG, illustrate the differential of activation of the brain. Although it does not provide good detail, the EEG allows scientists to observe the occurrence of events on a time scale of milliseconds [12]. As a result of neural activity, the EEG presents a graph of electrical brain activity in which the vertical axis represents the voltage difference between two different locations of the user’s scalp (measured by electrodes attached to the scalp) and the horizontal axis, the time interval. Techniques such as electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures and maps brain electrical activity, appear as allies in the hypothesis test on neural circuits related to VR users experience. These measurements and electrical signals, in turn, can provide detailed information about the duration and course as well as the location of the activity in the brain of these users, which helps the ergonomist to construct a narrative about the events and psycho‐ logical aspects related to the use of these products and systems. 6.6 The EEG Emotiv EPOC® Because of the low cost, simpler versions of the EEG can be found in commercial prod‐ ucts [12] such as Emotiv.4 Emotiv EPOC® consists of a headset with 14 data channels, arranged in main and secondary stems where sensors are responsible for capturing the electrical activity of the human brain. The data are obtained through the EEG measurement system, which analyzes the user experience according to the electrical signals produced by the neurons, which in turn are captured by sensors arranged on the users scalp. These data will be recorded and stored in a computer by a simplified Brain-Computer Interface (ICC) through the wireless hardware device known as Emotiv EPOC®, which allows to observe what the user does and thinks during the execution of the task [14]. Currently, Emotiv® uses brain activation as an alternative means of controlling computer games and electronic devices.

7

Conclusion

The evaluation of VR products and systems requires to the ergonomist be aware about the ergonomic constraints and risks related to the use of physical devices (e.g., goggles, haptic gloves, body suits), as well as to the user’s representation and actions performed on the virtual, simulated environment.

4

https://www.emotiv.com/.

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As the user assumes new body configurations, the physical and virtual bodies act in coordination. Although metaphorized as an Avatar, it is possible for the user to both physically feel the experience and to learn from that experience in order to solve prob‐ lems in the physical world. Paradoxically, the user, as an avatar, takes as reference the physical body and everything that is familiar to act and interact in the synthetic, simu‐ lated environment. In such situations, it is up to the ergonomist to investigate how the virtual body interferes in the physical body and vice versa, since the user’s experience with the product/system may or may not contribute to its acceptancy by VR consumers and, consequently, to a greater competitiveness of the product/system.

References 1. França, A.C.P., Soares, M., Meira, L.: Is reality real? Thoughts and conjectures about culture, self, intersubjectivity and parallel worlds in digital technologies. In: Marcus, A. (ed.) Design, User Experience, and Usability: Design Philosophy, Methods, and Tools. Second International Conference, DUXU 2013, Held as Part of HCI International 2013, Las Vegas, NV, USA, Proceedings, Part I (2013) 2. Soares, M., et al.: Virtual reality in consumer product design: methods and applications. In: Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques. CRC Press (2011) 3. França, A.C.P., et al.: A comparative usability analysis of virtual reality goggles. In: Design, User Experience, and Usability, Held as Part of HCI International 2017, Vancouver, Canada (2017) 4. França, A.C.P., Pereira Neto, J., Soares, M.M.: We are all cyborgs: body-machine and bodyinformation in virtual reality systems. In: Design, User Experience, and Usability: Technological Contexts. 5th International Conference, DUXU 2016, Held as Part of HCI International 2016, Toronto, Canada, Proceedings, Part III (2016) 5. França, A.C.P., Soares, M.: Dialogical self on virtual reality systems: presence and embodiment in human situated interaction. In: 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE) and the Affiliated Conferences, AHFE (2015) 6. ISO 9241-11 (1998) https://www.iso.org/standard/16883.html 7. Jordan, P.W.: An Introduction to Usability. Taylor & Francis, London (1998) 8. Iida, I.: Ergonomia: Projeto e Produção. Blucher, São Paulo (2005) 9. Falcão, C.S., Soares, M.M.: Usabilidade de Produtos de Consumo: Uma Análise dos Conceitos, Métodos e Aplicações. Estudos em Design 21(2), 01–26 (2013) 10. Tullis, T., Albert, B.: Measuring the User Experience: Collecting, Analysing and Presenting Usability Metrics. Elsevier, Atlanta (2008) 11. Pereira, G.S., Lima, J.C.M.: Monitoramento da Resistência Galvânica da Pele. PUCRS, Faculdade de Engenharia, vol. 3, no. 1 (2010). http://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/ojs/ index.php/graduacao/article/view/6758 12. Forsythe, C., et al.: Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Systems: Work and Everyday Life. Taylor & Francis, New York (2015) 13. Johnson, A., Proctor, R.: Neuroergonomics: A Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Human Factors and Ergonomics. Palgrave Macmillan, London (2013) 14. Soares, M., et al.: A Usability Study of a Brain Computer Interface Equipment: An Ergonomic Approach. HCI International, Los Angeles (2015)

Review of Virtual Reality Technology: An Ergonomic Approach and Current Challenges Ana Carol Pontes de França(&) and Marcelo Márcio Soares Department of Design, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. Virtual Reality (VR) technology utilizes computer graphics to create a realistic world, in a synthetic environment which responds to the users’ actions. Although transfigured, the flesh and blood user, metaphorized in the virtual environment, coordinates his/her own actions through various devices. Converting physical body movements by sensory channels (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, proprioceptive) in order the user feel as if he/she was physically present in the simulated environment. This feature, in turn, allows the user to read the context, interpret the situation and make decisions to solve problems in the physical world. As a consequence, evaluators can observe the efforts to popularize this technology in order to produce physical devices and virtual environments more ergonomically adapted, avoiding dangers, and with affordable costs. In this context, the design and development of VR products and systems still faces challenges that in some extent interfere with the quality of the user experience. That said, the present study aims to discuss VR technologies and its challenges from an ergonomic perspective, aiming to improve the quality of user experience. Keywords: Virtual reality challenges


Ergonomics
Simulated environment

1 Introduction In Matrix, the movie (USA/Australia, 1999, color, 136 min), directed by Wachowski brothers, Keanu Reeves plays Neo, the chosen one. In one section of the fiction, while waiting to consult the Oracle, the avatar1 Neo encounters a boy dressed in Buddhist vests who can bend spoons without exerting any level of physical force. In the plot, the characters talk about what would be ‘the truth’ on the ‘Matrix’: Boy: Do not try and bend the spoon. That’s impossible. Instead, only try to realize ‘the truth’. Neo: What truth? Menino: There is no spoon. 1

Avatar: Graphical representation of the user in virtual reality. According to technology, it can range from a sophisticated 3D model to a simple image.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_6

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Fig. 1. The avatar Neo and the Buddhist boy (Dialogue about “the truth”. Source: https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=uAXtO5dMqEI)

Neo: There is no spoon. Menino: Then you will see that it is not the spoon that bends. It’s only yourself. (Fig. 1) Menino: Then you will see that it is not the spoon that bends. It’s only yourself. In the plot, the spoon physically is not there. It has been metaphorically incorporated into the context: everything happens through the human mind and the neural circuits that form the basis of mental processes. However, what seemed like a science-fiction scene takes shape in our everyday life: parallel to the development of graphic Internet, the development of Virtual Reality (VR) systems, with creative and dynamic interfaces, allowed the user to simulate fictitious and non-fictional situations based on experiences lived in the physical world [1]. This development, in turn, enabled the user to progressively feel part of this world of screens, displays and icons, in order not only to dive into an illusion but to contextually undergo the experience that lead to the sensation of physical involvement [2]. In order to provide the users engaging and realistic experiences, closer to what the user thinks, feels and desires in the physical world, the VR industry has been investing in the development and popularization of products and systems, proving to be a promising field, of significant changes in world economy. With ever more developed interfaces to support human interaction, VR progressively began to integrate virtual worlds to metaphorized, immersed bodies, to the point where it is possible for the users to manipulate and feel virtual objects. By the orchestration of visomotor aspects and by semiotic mediation, the active subject then constructs a perception of self and the medium that allows the senses to act in and actualize the synthetic world [1]. Given the current situation, we often wondered: would current interfaces be good enough for this purpose? What about the subjective aspect? In terms of possibilities, skills, needs, expectations and desires, how to integrate users’ perspective? The virtual environments evaluation, with sign-based interfaces and rich in metaphors, requires us to adopt an integrated perspective, in which human experience, even

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if abstract, is interpreted from everything the user knows about the physical world, including his/her own corporeity [1]. Based on such considerations, the present study is anchored in the premise that the thought is the locus of metaphor, as a sociocognitive construction of the real. Despite the peculiarities inherent in digital culture, the behavior of the user In the virtual world does not differ totally from the behavior performed in the physical world [3], so that actions, emotions, expectations and user desires are similar to what is observed in the physical world. In these terms, this study focuses on the immersion, which is related to the psychological state characterized by being involved in, included in and interacting with an environment that provides a continuous flow of stimuli [4, 5]. In this sense, the less the user perceive the physical world (see, touch or hear), the greater the VR immersion is [5, 6].

2 Immersive Technologies These are technologies that integrate the physical world to virtual, simulated world, so that the user perceives, feels and manipulates the virtual world via a system which creates a sense of immersion. This perception of something beyond what happens in the physical world occurs (1) through the perception of an alternative world and (2) by the perception of the context (alternative world or physical world) from another point of view [7]. Similar to a book or a picture, which transports the reader or the observer from the physical environment to that of the story or painting, VR transports the person from the physical world to an environment in which he/she is not physically present, although he/she feels like he/she was [4]. Even if it appeals to fiction, the simulation in this environment presents situations with a degree of realism that allows the user to make decisions and solve problems in the physical world [5]. That is, in VR systems the developer expresses his/her ideas through the system, which transports the user to alternative worlds or to the representation of the physical world from another point of view, different from that of the user. The user, in turn, will be affected and respond in different ways, some of them unpredictable to the developer. Because of its high degree of sophistication, these systems provide realistic immersive and perceptual experiences. However, in order for the system to be considered immersive, it is necessary for the devices to provide users physical immersion, since other media such as radio, book, TV and cinema allow the mental immersion, which is not enough to characterize VR.

2.1

Interaction Devices

They allow the user to interact and communicate in the virtual environment. Nowadays, two modes of VR interaction devices are observed: those that support interaction in man-machine interfaces and those that support interaction in brain-computer interfaces (Table 1).

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Table 1. Devices used to support interaction

Interaction Devices Kind of Interaction

Example of Technology

BCI – Brain-Computer Interface

EEG

HCI – Human-Computer Interface

Gesture Recognition

Speech Recognition

Omnidirectional Treadmill

2.2

Perceptual Devices

Developed to stimulate the human senses, in order to create realistic perceptual sensations in VR users (Table 2). Although presented as an avatar, the flesh and blood user, metaphorized in the virtual environment, coordinates his/her own actions through various devices. Converting physical body movements by sensory channels (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, proprioceptive) in order the user feel as if he/she was physically present in the simulated environment.

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A.C.P. de França and M.M. Soares Table 2. VR devices used to create realistic perceptual sensations

Perceptual Devices Perception

Device

Visual

3D display

Holography

Head-mounted display

Fulldome

Cave

3D áudio effect Auditory

Surround sound Immersive áudio

Review of Virtual Reality Technology

Haptic glove Tactile

Machine olfaction Olfative

Artificial flavor Gustative

Body suits Kinaesthetic

Platforms Proprioceptive

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Softwares and APPs

They integrate the flesh and blood users and physical devices into simulated environments (avatars, virtual environment and objects that make up the system), providing a dynamic and synchronous response.

3 VR Applications Because they are a trend, VR and its immersive technologies are increasingly gaining new spaces, and can be applied in several areas (Table 3). Even with all the sophistication, the design and development of these technologies have the challenge of proposing devices and apps that could be used by any kind of user. So that, this context makes it necessary to investigate the usability of these technologies as well as the ergonomic constraints and risks inherent in both the physical devices and the characteristics of the virtual environment adopted by the user [8].

Table 3. VR and its immersive technologies’ applications

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4 Discussion Despite all the advances, the production of high-fidelity VR technology still presents itself as a challenge, since it requires ergonomic criteria’s of analysis that consider the perceptual aspects and the sense making in user’s experience as close as possible to what is subjectively experienced in the physical world [2]. In addition to these issues, special attention in the field of design has been given to ‘situational awareness’, which is characterized by how we react to the world [9]. From this perspective, our senses and our ability to interpret a situation allow us to contrast the current moment with our past experiences and personality traits so that we have a set of options on how to act/respond in a given situation. Based on these assumptions, the design of VR environments, considering the usability aspects, requires a combination of hardware, software, social networking and services, so that users’ personalized actions play a central role in product analysis and development. Users’ decisions will be more and more linked to the information and simulations provided by the displays and devices that will warn us whether our diet is best suited to our performance, whether we are getting enough sleep, or the force we are employing is sufficient for the execution of a given task. In this perspective, VR gains new contours, since, during the performance of the task, relevant data sets about ourselves and our decisions will contribute to provide indispensable information to the users experience analysis.

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5 Conclusion Despite the development of VR technology with low prices and higher simplicity, its products and systems still lacks studies that assess in depth the ergonomic constraints and risks both related to the physical devices and the virtual environment. In such context the ergonomist must be attentive to (1) the user experience with the physical and virtual body in the use of these products and systems and (2) the users’ safety, effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction. These conditions helps to provide a better product/system adaptation and a better user performance in order to contribute to funnier, safer, and more challenging experiences. Acknowledgements. To CAPES Research Fund.

References 1. França, A.C.P., Soares, M.: Dialogical self on virtual reality systems: presence and embodiment in human situated interaction. In: 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE) and the Affiliated Conferences (2015) 2. França, A.C.P., Soares, M., Meira, L.: Is reality real? Thoughts and conjectures about culture, self, intersubjectivity and parallel worlds in digital technologies. In: Marcus, A. (ed.) Design, User Experience, and Usability: Design Philosophy, Methods, and Tools. Second International Conference, DUXU 2013, Held as Part of HCI International 2013, Las Vegas, NV, USA, Proceedings, Part I (2013) 3. França, A.C.P.: Self digital: explorações acerca da construção do “eu” na internet. Dissertação (Mestrado). Pós-graduação em Psicologia Cognitiva, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco (2008) 4. Soares, M., et al.: Virtual reality in consumer product design: methods and applications. In: Stanton, N.A. (ed.) Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2011) 5. França, A.C.P. et al.: A comparative usability analysis of virtual reality goggles. In: Design, User Experience, and Usability, Held as Part of HCI International 2017, Vancouver, Canada (2017) 6. França, A.C.P., Soares, M.: Realidade Virtual Aplicada à Educação: a era Matrix do processo de ensino e aprendizagem. In: XIII Congresso Internacional de Tecnologias na Educação (2015) 7. Sherman, W.R., Craig, A.B.: Understanding Virtual Reality: Interface, Application and Design. Morgan Kaufmann, Burlington (2003) 8. França, A.C.P., Pereira Neto, J.V., Soares, M.M.: Methods and procedures to usability testing in virtual reality systems. In: 8th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE) and the Affiliated Conferences (2017) 9. Mortensen, P.: The Future of Technology Isn’t Mobile, It’s Contextual. http://www. fastcodesign.com/1672531/the-future-of-technology-isnt-mobile-its-contextual (2013)

Shape Analysis of Pottery Using Elliptic Fourier Descriptor and 3D Scanning Jin Wang1 ✉ , Wei Qian1, and Haixiao Liu2 (

)

1

Institute for Cultural Heritage and History of Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, People’s Republic of China [email protected] 2 School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, People’s Republic of China

Abstract. A method based on elliptic Fourier descriptor (EFD) is used for the classification of pottery ware. Traditionally, the contour lines used in elliptic Fourier descriptor is measured in 2D image. In this article, we took the pottery from Tianma-Qucun Burial site as an example, introduced a new method for obtaining data using three-dimensional scanning technology and computer programming. Compared with the traditional extraction method, this method can improve measurement speed and accuracy. The extracted data are used to classify the pottery ware by elliptic Fourier descriptor, which is different from the methods used in traditional archaeology. It provides a new tool to illustrate the relationship between objects. Keywords: Pottery · Elliptic Fourier descriptors · 3D scanning · Computer programming · Tianma-Qucun site

1

Introduction

Methods for the quantitative evaluation of shapes are valuable for researchers in various fields, such as agriculture, human body, ecology and taxonomy. Elliptic Fourier descrip‐ tors (EFDs), originally proposed by Kuhl and Giardina [1], can delineate any type of shape with a closed two-dimensional contour. EFDs have been effectively applied to the analysis of various biological shapes in plants [2, 3] and human body [4]. Traditionally, the two-dimensional contour was acquired using colour camera, the parameters and the environment was very strict, the process was complicated. In this paper, we introduce a new method to obtain data using 3D scanning technology and computer programming, which is fast and accurate. This is a new method that greatly improves data extraction in comparison to traditional methods. It is worth noting that the pottery model is obtained by 3D scanning. On the one hand, the data of pottery model can be extracted using a computer programme. On the other hand, the pottery model can also be used to make a 3D virtual display, print a 3D model, provide a virtual restoration of cultural relics, and record 3D data. The 3D model of pottery can be permanent and used multiple times as a basic model for further research.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_7

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In this article, we take the unearthed pottery from Tianma-Qucun Burial site as an example. The Tianma-Qucun site is located in Linfen, Shanxi Province, which is 2,800– 3,000 years old. As the early capital of Jin State, which existed in the 11th century until 349 B.C. during the Western Zhou Dynasty, its value has been approved by archaeolo‐ gists. It provides important data for the history of the Jin State from the Western Zhou Period [5].

2

Materials and Methods

2.1 Samples In this article, 63 pottery basins are analysed, which are from the Tianma-Qucun site and from the Western Zhou Dynasty that existed from 1029 to 771 B.C.). Our team finished scanning the pottery at the Houma archaeological workstation in May 2016. 2.2 Two-Dimensional Contour and Processing The 3D models were acquired using Creaform Go!SCAN 20 scanner1. Compared with a 3D laser scanner, this scanner uses a white light scanner with a LED light source, and fast scanning speed. Additionally, it is more suitable for a small cultural relic. VXele‐ ments2, Autodesk Meshmixer3, and 3D Builder4 are used for the post-processing stage of the 3D scanning process. The data processing process is as follows (Fig. 1). a. b. c. d. e. f.

1 2 3 4

The original model The obvious noise points are selected in Vxelements software The obvious noise points are deleted Deficiencies are detected, such as holes and cracks using the Autodesk Meshmixer The model is complete after being restored in Autodesk Meshmixer The model is adjusted in the 3D Builder

The supplier of Creaform Go!SCAN 20 is AMETEK. The supplier of Vxelements software is AMETEK. The supplier of Autodesk meshmixer is Autodesk. The supplier of 3D builder is Microsoft Corporation.

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Fig. 1. Post-process the scanning data.

The two-dimensional contour is extracted in the three-dimensional model of pottery, which is a new extraction method. This method is not only fast but also accurate and useful for a large volume of model. It is noteworthy that a little of pottery does not have standard geometry, which is common in the ancient production of pottery. The computer programmes need make adjustments to do the contour extraction for each model. The process is as follows: • In the C# language5, the STL format6 is transformed into a point cloud format, removing the coincidence points. A coincidence point is a triangular patch found when a model is saved in the STL format. When using point cloud data, many trian‐ gular patches may share a point, and therefore a coincidence point needs to be removed. The function of removing the coincidence point is accomplished using a Hash table.7 The point cloud data are stored in a TXT format. • The point cloud data are read in UG,8, which obtained in step ①. Based on the size of the model and the extraction of data, the point cloud of each model is divided into 100 layers according to the Z axis, and two extreme point clouds are selected in each layer. The characteristic curve of the model is calculated using two extreme point clouds, and the curvature of each point cloud is calculated using the characteristic curve. Point clouds can be chosen to meet the extraction requirements, according to the curvature change of each point cloud, these point clouds form a plane. • The third step is obtained using C language programming, and the file is saves the Dynamic Link Library (DLL) format. The benefits of using a DLL file are that the programme does not need to load all of the code when it starts to run. The code is 5

6

7 8

C# is a high-level programming language which is derived from C and C++. It run on.net Framework and supply by Microsoft Corporation. The supplier of STL is 3D SYSTEMS. STL (stereo lithography) is a file format of 3D image for the rapid prototyping technology. Hash table is data structure which can direct access according to Key value. UG is an interactive CAD/CAM (computer aided design and computer aided manufacturing) system. The supplier of UG is Siemens PLM Software.

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loaded in DLL only when the programmes need a function. In addition, using DLL files can reduce the volume of the programme. The DLL file of the model is calculated in UG. The calculation results include the extraction contour lines that we set. The speed of the calculation is decided by the size of the pottery model and computer configuration (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The process of data acquisition in C language programming.

a. b. c. d. e. f.

Point cloud data are read The contour is generated The point of the contour is generated according to the calculation Contour line was enlarged The plane is formed according to point of the contour Contour lines of the pottery model are output

2.3 Eliptic Fourier Descriptors The coefficient of elliptic Fourier descriptors are calculated by the discrete Fourier transformation of chain-coded contours through the procedure proposed by Kuhl and Giardina [1]. The procedure of elliptic Fourier series approximation involves represen‐ tation of the (x, y) coordinate points on the curve in two dimensions into a form of a pair of equations written as a function of a third variable (t). The Fourier coefficients are then calculated based on a discrete Fourier series approximation of chain-code boundary contours. The elliptic Fourier series approximation of closed contour projected on the x and y-axes can be defined as follow: ( ) ) 2n𝜋t 2n𝜋t + bn sin n=1 T T ( ( ) ) ∑N 2n𝜋t 2n𝜋t YN (t) = C0 + cn cos + dn sin n=1 T T

XN (t) = A0 +

∑N

(

an cos

(1)

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Where t is the step required to move a unit pixel along the closed contour, such that tp−1 < t < tp for 1 ≤ p ≤ K; N is the number of Fourier harmonics; and K is the total number of chain-coded points. A0 and C0 are coefficients corresponding to the frequency 0. These coefficients define the mean size of the contour. If the contour between the (i − 1)-th and the i-th chain-coded points is linearly interpolated and the length of the contour from the starting point to the p-th point and the perimeter of the contour are denoted tp and T, respectively, then, ty =

p ∑

Δti

(2)

i=1

T is the basic period of the chain code, which is the overall step to traverse the entire contour, T = tk, where Δ ti is the distance between the (i − 1)th and the ith points. The Kth point is denoted by xp, then, xp =

∑p i=1

Δxi , and yp =

∑p i=1

Δyi

(3)

Where Δxi and Δyi are the distances along the x and y axes between (i − 1)th and the ith point. Assuming linear interpolation between the neighbouring points, the EFDs in Eq. (1) of the n-th harmonic (an, bn, cn and dn) can be calculated using following equations: ) ( )) ( ( K 2n𝜋tp−1 2n𝜋tp T ∑ Δxp − cos cos 2n2 π2 P=1 Δtp T T ) ( )) ( ( K 2n𝜋tp−1 2n𝜋tp T ∑ Δxp bn = 2 2 − sin sin 2n π P=1 Δtp T T ) ( )) ( ( K 2n𝜋tp−1 2n𝜋tp T ∑ Δyp − cos cos cn = 2 2 2n π P=1 Δtp T T ) ( )) ( ( K 2n𝜋tp−1 2n𝜋tp T ∑ Δyp dn = 2 2 − sin sin 2n π P=1 Δtp T T

an =

(4)

The number of harmonics required is estimated from average Fourier power spec‐ trum. The Fourier power of a harmonics is proportional to the amplitude and provides a measure of the amount of shape information described by the following equation.

Fourier power =

) ∑N ( 2 an + b2n + c2n + dn2 n=1 2

(5)

In this case, the Fourier harmonics were truncated at the value N = 14, at which the average cumulative power was 99% or more of the total average power, calculated with Nmax, equal to half the number of boundary points. The boundary contour detection and Fourier series approximation with Fourier power of 99% is presented in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3. Contour lines of the pottery model approximations with different maximum harmonic numbers.

According to the maximum harmonic numbers N = 14, the Elliptic Fourier coeffi‐ cients determined using Eqs. (1–4) which is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Elliptic Fourier coefficients of pottery model. Maximum harmonic numbers Elliptic Fourier coefficients An Bn Cn 1 1 0 0 2 0.00023 0.05152 0.14752 3 −0.0545 −0.00247 −0.00223 4 0.00022 0.02893 0.0103 5 −0.03265 −0.00096 −0.00022 6 0.00167 −0.02125 −0.01925 7 −0.01013 0.00062 −0.00013 8 0.00148 −0.02615 0.00253 9 0.00232 0.0012 0.0002 10 −0.00005 −0.0089 0.00194 11 0.01067 0.00102 0.00027 12 −0.00067 −0.00022 −0.00191 13 0.00627 0.0001 0.00016 14 −0.00059 0.00287 0.00002

dn 0.77086 0.00235 0.06176 −0.00022 −0.00057 −0.00111 0.00936 −0.00027 −0.00163 −0.00016 −0.00165 −0.00014 0.0024 −0.00003

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2.4 Citations The principal component analysis is calculated according to the Elliptic Fourier coeffi‐ cients of pottery model. Based on the extraction method of Elliptic Fourier descriptor, it can obtain a vector of elliptic Fourier descriptor when Nmax = 14, the vector is [a1, b1, c1, d1, …, a20, b20, c20, d20]. All the samples of the elliptical Fourier descriptor vector can be expressed as Gi = [ai1, ai2, ai3, ai4, … , ain, bin, cin, din],

The i is number of samples, i = 1, 2, …, p, n is maximum number of harmonics. The matrix of Fourier descriptor can be expressed as Fourier power =

) ∑N ( 2 an + b2n + c2n + dn2 n=1 2

(6)

The principal component analysis using Eq. 6, which is calculated the cumulative contribution rate of principal component and Component Score Coefficient Matrix. When the cumulative contribution rate of principal component has reached 90%, the first K principal component can represent the characteristics of Contour lines and reduc‐ tion in dimensionality (Fig. 4; Table 2).

Fig. 4. Pottery shape variation of first four principle components. Table 2. The principal component scores according to the first four principle components.

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2.5 K-means Clustering Based on the principal component scores, the pottery basins shape are classified by Kmeans clustering method. The Euclidean distance is usually chosen as the similarity measure in the K-means clustering algorithm, which usually relates to all attributes. The principal component scores were processed in the K-means clustering analysis by SPSS software. The result of the classification is presented in Fig. 5. The first group have 13 samples, the overall shape is lanky; the second group have 9 samples, the overall shape is dumpy; the third group have 41 samples, the overall shape is close to square.

Fig. 5. Representative of the pottery basins.

3

Conclusions

In this article, we introduce a new method to obtain data by 3D scanning technology and computer programming. Compared with the traditional manual extraction method, this method can improve measurement speed and accuracy. This article exemplifies that this computer programme takes a pottery model in STL format (i.e., volume is approx‐ imately 0.1 cubic metres) to obtain data in three minutes using an ordinary notebook (Intel Core i7 processor, 4G memory). At a high configuration computer workstation, the computing speed will be faster, which is suitable for a large amount of pottery data extraction. At the same time, the classification process can be repeated after the data had been extracted into the 3D model. It is very convenient to adjust the extracted data. The extracted parts need to be adjusted when the classification result is not ideal by simply modifying the parameters in the programme. The extracted data are used in elliptic Fourier descriptors, which is different from the methods used in traditional archaeology. It provides a new tool to illustrate the rela‐ tionship between objects. This method can be applied to research pottery classification, which in turn can help to create a large database. It can be used to form the classification of pottery in a specific region or era in the database. Any researcher can compare and find possible classification results in real time online. At the same time, the possibility of a renewal and developing function of 3D scanners in the future means that more features of pottery can be scanned and recorded, such as decorative design, thickness and so on. This will increase the characteristic factors for pottery classification. Acknowledgments. This work was supported by University of Science and Technology Beijing, and Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology. The authors would like to thank Kunzhang Ji and Puheng Nan who work at Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology.

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References 1. Kuhl, F.P., Giardina, C.R.: Elliptic Fourier features of a closed contour. Comput. Gr. Image Process. 18, 236–258 (1982) 2. Abdullah, M.Z., Mohamad-Saleh, J.: Discrimination and classification of fresh-cut starfruits (Averrhoa carambola L.) using automated machine vision system. J. Food Eng. 76, 506–523 (2006) 3. Mebatsion, H.K.: Evaluation of variation in the shape of grain types using principal components analysis of the elliptic Fourier descriptor. Comput. Electron. Agric. 80, 63–70 (2012) 4. Xia, M.: Shape analysis of bust slice using elliptic Fourier. J. Text. Res. 35(7), 106–116 (2014) 5. Zou, H.: Tianma-Qucun site (1980–1989), pp. 33–40. Beijing University Department of Archaeology, Science Press, Beijing (2000)

Evaluation of the Relationship Between Virtual Environments and Emotions Tiago Oliveira1 ✉ , Paulo Noriega1,2, Francisco Rebelo1,2, and Regina Heidrich3 (

1

)

Ergonomics Laboratory, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal [email protected] 2 CIAUD, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal 3 Pró-reitoria de Pesquisa e Inovação, Universidade Feevale, Rodovia RS-239, 2755, Novo Hamburgo, RS 93352-000, Brazil

Abstract. This study describes the emotional responses to the use of virtual reality (VR) environments. Namely the relation between different environments and axial emotional dimensions: valence, arousal and dominance. To better understand this relation, were also evaluated presence, concentration, relaxation. We evaluated the experience of 146 participants in three virtual environments: Helix® (a roller coaster experience); Yana® (a beach sunset/sunrise experience); Surge® (an abstract environment transformation experience). Helix® proved to be a facilitator of presence and arousal. Surge® results are like the Helix® except that levels of relaxation are lower. Yana® is a facilitator of dominance but levels of arousal and presence was the lowest of the three. The presence was positively related with arousal. Relaxation had a negative relation with arousal and presence. The emotional appraisals were different for each environment. These results are useful in developing virtual environments to model emotional experience. Keywords: UX · Emotion · Virtual environments · Presence · Valence · Arousal · Dominance · Concentration · Relaxation

1

Introduction

Presently, every day new VR contents appear on VR market. The VR market grows exponentially according to Digi-Capital’s market projections [1], VR combined profits with augmented reality profits will reach $ 150 billion by 2020 [1]. The growing of internet speed and bandwidth, even for mobile smartphones, provide an excellent opportunity for development of augmented reality and virtual reality appli‐ cations. Take the example of the Nintendo successful augmented reality game Pokémon go, or the VR cardboard that allow with a smartphone and a small investment, the users enjoy a VR experience. The massification of VR demands UX evaluation of the contents, namely the eval‐ uation of emotions elicited by VR experience. Do different experiences in virtual reality also trigger differentiated emotions as in a real situation? For example, will the arousal © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_8

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caused by traveling on a VR roller coaster far outweigh an arousal of watching a sunset on a beach? How to measure the emotional response resulting from the VR content? Several definitions of emotion are presented in the literature by those who are inter‐ ested in this topic. According to Kleinginna and Kleinginna [2], the main problem in the field of emotions is the variety of proposed definitions. Different fields of study such as psychology, neuroscience, or design enrich the knowledge we have about emotions. However, consensus is difficult to find because different domains tend to focus on different phenomena of emotion [3]. In a consensus attempt between 92 definitions and 9 skeptical statements [2] the perspective that the emotion would be: “A complex set of interactions between subjec‐ tive and objective factors, mediated by the neurological/hormonal systems, which can (a) originate affective experiences such as arousal, pleasure/displeasure; (b) generate cognitive processes, such as relevant perceptual effects, evaluations, process designa‐ tions; (c) activating vast physiological adaptations to excitation conditions; And, (d) conduct behavior, which is usually, although not always, expressive, directed to a focus, and adaptive”. This definition reveals, from the outset, duality of emotion components, composed of an internal, subjective component, and the peripheral component, the expressive part of emotion as a repercussion phenomenon in the different response systems that may be reflected in changes in physiological, neurological or Behavioral, and everything is mediated by the neurological/hormonal system. Emotion research in UX, should be appropriate to the nature of the emotion, the type of product being analyzed, the characteristics of the sample, and the time we have avail‐ able to obtain and treat the results. Behavioral measures (changes in tone of voice, facial expressions), physiological (body temperature, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, electrodermal changes, muscular tension) and neurological (evoked potentials) are sensitive to emotions. However, it is more common to evaluate emotions with the appli‐ cation of questionnaires, free descriptions, response scales or lists of adjectives. Emotions have been represented in specific categories or in continuous dimensions or factors, depending in a use of a categorical perspective or a dimensional approach. Thus, the emphasis can be placed on the characterization of the different categories of specific emotions (categorical perspective) or the identification of the structure of the emotions (dimensional perspective) [4]. The dimensional model proposed by Wundt [5] structures the emotions by their position in n-dimensional space. There are some fundamental dimensions for organizing an emotional response by the dimensional model [6] for example, emotions can vary in their position in three dimensions: pleasure-displeasure, calm-aroused/excited, inatten‐ tive-attentive [5]. In some studies, the most common dimensions are: valence, arousal and approach (avoidance) [7, 8]. The dimensions’ valence, arousal is a continuous vari‐ able in the states of unpleasure - pleasure, and the arousal goes from calm to excited. According to Warriner et al. [9], in a three-dimensional perspective, three dimen‐ sions are commonly used: valence of the stimulus; arousal or excitement provoked by the stimulus; and the dominance, or degree of dominance of the control exercised by the stimulus. This three-dimensional approach is the one that will be used in this study. Affective valence is pointed out as the main measure, it reveals the emotional nature of the stimulus, and is positively related to the mobilization of cognitive resources such

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as concentration [8, 10, 11], identify the level of arousal as the second most important dimension of emotion representation [12], and increase the evidence of its importance. In some studies, [11, 13, 14] the dominance is not used, choosing only valence and arousal, thus structuring the approach to emotion in a two-dimensional perspective [15]. In this study a three-dimensional approach will be used, where it will be executed through the Self Assessment Manikin (SAM) instrument. SAM is a pictorial technique and was originally implemented in an interactive computer program, only later appears the paper version [16]. The dimensions evaluated by the SAM are respectively: valence, arousal and dominance with the respective semantic differential scales (unpleasurepleasure; calm-excited; dominated-dominant). In valence, the SAM pictograms range from a figure with a ripped smile, to a figure with an unhappy expression. On arousal, the pictograms range from a restless and excited figure to a figure who seems to be sleeping. In the dominance dimension the pictograms go from a figure that occupies the whole space, dominating completely, until a small figure inserted in the space, domi‐ nated by the event. It also presents the advantages of being able to reduce the biases associated with verbal measures and is quick and easy to administer [16]. The UX aspects of technology should also be evaluated. What is the role of immer‐ sion? In virtual environments, immersion is something objective and entirely dependent on technology. The virtual presence is the subjective state of consciousness that allows the user of a virtual system to feel that it is in this environment, even knowing that it is physically in another place [17, 18] and in the literature several studies have shown that the more immersive a technology is the greater the user’s presence in the environment [19–21]. The presence is thus a dimensional construct that is described by the extension of emotional responses to a virtual environment [19, 22, 23]. Undoubtedly the feeling of presence does not depend only on immersion, it also depends on the interaction and perceptual realism of the virtual system [24]. However, it is also unanimous to affirm that the sense of presence varies per the nature of the content experienced [19, 22, 23, 25]. Thus, the presence in this study will be measured to better know the relationship that is established between the dimensions (valence, arousal, dominance) as a function of the content experienced (VR environment). In this perspective, will also measure concentration and relaxation. In this way, it is intended to know the emotional responses generated by VR environments, identifying the relationships that are established between different environments and their respective emotional dimensions: valence, arousal and dominance. It is expected to find significant differences between the three VR environments. The Yana environment is per the authors a VR relaxation program, in this way it is expected that this environment would be perceived as an inducer of relaxation. Roller coaster riding is quite adrenergic activity; in this way, it is expected to be perceived as an inducer of arousal and Presence. It is also intended to test the possibility of gender moderation in the manifestation of responses, since the literature in other contexts refers to differences in the way emotions are felt and expressed. Women, when compared with men, tend to be more expressive [26] and to report negative emotions (fear, sadness, guilt and shame) more frequently, intensely, and triggered [27], while men tend to report

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more often and more intensely negative emotions such as anger and contempt [28], and to show greater arousal before Certain types of positive (e.g., sexual) stimuli [29]. The results obtained could help to understand the emotional relation that non-users and users have with VR, and the subjective perceptions that emerge from the use of VR content. In this perspective, this study is not only interested in the development of content from the emotional point of view, more efficient, effective and with greater satisfaction for the user, but also serves as a prelude to future studies.

2

Methodology

2.1 Stimuli Three different VR environments were chosen. The 3 environments are animated to 360°, and do not require actions on the part of the user that alter the natural evolution of the events. The contents were chosen because they are user-specific, categorically different and short-lived (less than 9 min). The involvement does not concern virtual involvement, but rather a psychological state necessary to create presence because depends to the individual degree of significance attached to the stimulus, activity or event [30]. So, we think that the activities suggested by the chosen environments (e.g. watching a sunset, or riding a roller coaster) are felt as distinct envelopes. In this way, it is expected that the user experience resulting from the visualization of distinct VR environments will trigger different emotional responses. On the other hand, we were interested in the fact that the chosen environments do not require user actions to unfold events, since the literature indicates that in addition to the immersion and the perceptual realism, the interaction when well designed, acts as a facilitator for the sensation [31]. In this paper, we present the results of the present study [24, 32, 33]. Thus, we isolate the possible interference of the interaction variable of our study, to better understand the relationship between the environments, and the users’ emotional experience. The first environment Helix® is a roller coaster experience: Helix® Roller Coaster VR, was developed by Archivision® and is a virtual roller coaster. Description: At first he stands and notices that he is sitting on a roller coaster chair, however he is not alone he has an avatar sitting next to him (Fig. 1a). When you look back you notice that all the chairs are occupied.

Fig. 1. .

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Ride starts, during the departure there are flat routes, medium and high slope eleva‐ tion, loopings, lateral rotations and steep descents (Fig. 1b). During the ride the sound environment is composed of electronic music and the enthusiastic cries of avatars. This environment was chosen because we thought it be the most adrenergic of the 3 environments. The second Yana® Virtual Relaxation environment is a paradisiac beach: Developed by The Campfire Union Inc. Description: It is a relaxing experience where the user is on a beach with palm trees and white sand. In the middle of the water a rocky formation imposes itself, its image is reflected in the calm waters (Fig. 2a). The sun goes down giving way to the night (Fig. 2b). During the night time the user observes a sky full of constellations and falling stars, on the horizon a sailboat appears from right to left. The night finally ends with a new sunrise. In the sound environment, you can hear seagulls and other birds, accompanied by the sound of Tibetan bowls, bells, and the sound of the waves of the sea.

Fig. 2. .

This environment was chosen because we thought it to be the least adrenergic of the 3. The third environment is the Surge®: A third environment, Surge®, was created by 3D artist and musician Arjan Van Meerten. This environment is considered one of the first real-time VR music videos “first real time VR music video”. This VR experience is more abstract. The user witnesses a transformation of the environment, in which the floor becomes cubes (Fig. 3a) that oscillate in coordination with the music. The cubes on the floor rise and glimpses giant humanoid silhouettes (Fig. 3b) that move to the rhythm of an electronic ambient sound. This environment was chosen because we thought it should induce a high arousal state due to its unpredictable and abstract nature.

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Fig. 3. .

2.2 Participants Participants (n = 146, 103 males and 43 females) with a mean age of 30.65 years, and standard deviation 14 (min = 18 years, Max = 71 years) are a convenience sample recruited for the study in three Public events held in Portugal (GreenFest 2015, n = 40; Futuralia 2015, n = 63; Portuguese Navy Day 2015, n = 43). Participants were randomly divided into 3 groups: – n1 = 40 participants experienced Yana® (70% male 30% female), mean age 24.18 and standard deviation 9,969; – n2 = 63 experienced Surge® (77% male, 33% female), mean age 28.75 and standard deviation = 13,421; – n3 = 43 Helix® - Virtual Roller Coaster (75% male, 25% female), with mean age 39.47 and standard deviation = 13,866. All the participants affirmed never had cardiac pathologies, nor manifestations of epilepsy. All female participants also stated that they were not in gestation. 2.3 Evaluation Questionnaire The focus of our study is the analysis of the relationship of the virtual environment with the conscious emotional experience, thus, as a measurement instrument, a questionnaire was used. Literature in other contexts criticizes questionnaire exclusive use [34] because nonconscious emotions, in which physiological reactivity tends to become evident, can be independent of a concomitant subjective perception of emotional response [35]. However, due to practical constrains, there was an impossibility of applying psycho‐ physiological methods. Data collection was done in public events (fairs), so the time available for evaluation for each participant was short, so it was impossible to use a psychophysiological method whose preparation is more time consuming. In order to make an evaluation compatible with the objectives of the study and the temporal constraints of this type of events, a questionnaire with two parts was constructed, one applied before the experience of the VR and another after. In the ques‐ tionnaire applied before the VR experience: some sociodemographic questions were asked (age, gender, level of education, nationality); two questions regarding prior knowledge and use of VR; two issues concerning the habit of playing FPS (first player

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shooter). As control measure, participants was asked about their expectations of the experience they were about to have regarding the same variables evaluated after the experience. Thus, valence, arousal, and dominance were measured using the SAM (selfassessment-manikin); Presence was measured with semantic anchors with 9 degrees of freedom. In the questionnaire applied after the experience in VR the same previous measures was obtained. 2.4 Experimental Design In the study, independent samples were used and participants experience in three virtual environments was evaluated. The independent variable is the environment (Helix® RollerCoaster, Yana®VirtualRelaxation, Surge®), and the emotional dimensions: valence; arousal; Dominance, the dependent variables. For greater experimental control were also measured the presence, concentration and relaxation variables. Participants answered a questionnaire before experiencing the virtual environment, and answered the second part of the questionnaire after exposure to the virtual environ‐ ment. 2.5 General Objective – Know the emotional appraisals generated by virtual reality environments. 2.6 Specific Objective – Identify relationships between different virtual environments and emotional dimen‐ sions: valence, arousal, dominance. 2.7 Experimental Protocol During all the experimental periods, we counted with help of volunteers of the degree in Ergonomics of the Faculty of Human Kinetic who duly conscientized and informed about the intent of our study registered the values and organized the participants. All participants in the study had access to informed consent and in a free and uncommitted manner, they agreed to participate in the study in exchange for experiencing an VR environment. The content of the VR experience was unknown to the participants; they just knew it was an VR environment. Thus, we can assume that participants participated in the study for the sake of curiosity in experimenting VR. Each participant only experienced an environment. Being the choice of the random environment without prior knowledge of the participant. Before entering the questionnaire, the researcher alerts the participant that there are no right or wrong answers. The answers to the questionnaire should be the participant’s

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perceptions regarding what is questioned. It is also pointed out that the participant can leave the experience at any time for any reason that the participant finds imperative. The participant then responds to some sociodemographic questions, and to a subjec‐ tive questionnaire about how he expects to feel with VR experience. After the response, the participant places the Head-Mounted-Display (HMD), which with the help of the researcher is adjusted to the head, until the participant says that he is comfortable. The researcher then supplies headphones, and informs that the participant must adjust the sound to a sound intensity that is comfortable. After all, properly adjusted, the participant tells when to start the VR experience. At the end of the experiment, the researcher helps to remove the headphones to the participant. The participant withdraws the HMD. The researcher asks the participant if he/she is willing. With the positive response, the researcher immediately manages the second moment of measurement at this point, the participant responds according to what he experienced with experience that he had in VR. The emotional responses generated by virtual reality environments.

3

Results

As described in the experimental design we used an independent sample with a total n = 146 distributed respectively by: n1 = 40 Yana® + n2 = 63 Surge®, n3 = 43 Helix® - RollerCoasterVR). Using the SPSS software, all statistical tests were performed. As a control measure the participants’ expectations of VR were evaluated and that there were no differences between these expectations. To verify if there was significant differences between the emotional responses gener‐ ated by the three VR environments, since the samples are independent and cannot be assumed normal in the distributions, a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis 1-Way ANOVA (k samples), with multiple comparisons between all pairs to compare the distribution among the k environments, where k (1, 2, 3), respectively (Yana®, Surge®, Helix®), with the hypotheses: H0 = The distributions of the measurements are identical in the k * environments VS H1 = The distributions of the measurements are different in the k * environments, with i = 1, 2, 3, (being “k” the environment), Yana®, Surge® and Helix®, respectively. We verified that there were no significant differences in the variables: • Valence (displeasure/pleasure), p > 0.05; • Dominance (dominated/domain), p > 0.05. Significant differences between the 3 environments were observed in the variables: • Arousal (calm/excited), for a test statistic value 52,118 corresponds to a p < 0.001. • Presence, for a test statistic value of 18.512 corresponds to a p < 0.001. • Concentration during RV (nothing concentrated/very Concentrated), for a test statistic value of 8.009 corresponds to a p-value of p < 0.05.

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• Relaxation during RV (nothing relaxed/very relaxed), for a test statistic value 41.423 corresponds to p < 0.001. • Relaxation at the end RV (nothing relaxed/very relaxed), for a test statistic value 31.010 corresponds to p < 0.001. To verify if there was significant differences induced by gender in the emotional states resulting from the experiment, a Mann-Whitney U test was performed for each environment. No significant differences were found in the Yana® and Helix® environ‐ ments (Tables 1 and 2). Table 1. Summary of results (mean, standard deviation) obtained in the studied environments Variables

Statistics

Arousal

Mean Std. deviation Mean Std. deviation Mean Std. deviation Mean Std. deviation Mean Std. deviation Mean Std. deviation Mean Std. deviation

Valence Dominance Presence Concentration (during) Relaxation (during) Relaxation (after)

Yana® 3.15 1.49 7.93 1.07 6.38 2.35 6.88 1.94 7.43 1.36 7.45 1.22 7.40 1.34

Surge® 5.78 2.74 7.71 1.68 5.19 2.65 7.79 1.78 7.43 1.29 4.43 2.17 5.03 2.13

Helix® 7.40 1.42 8.21 0.99 5.60 2.71 8.30 1.34 8.05 0.87 5.88 2.11 6.42 1.96

Table 2. Environment as facilitator of variables: arousal; presence; concentration; relaxation Arousal More facilitator Less facilitator

Helix

®

®

Yana

Presence Helix

®

®

Yana

Concentration Helix

®

®

Relaxation Yana®

®

Yana /Surge

Surge®

The results obtained in the Helix® environment confirm our hypothesis as the most exciting and provocative of the greater sense of presence in the 3 environments studied. On the opposite side as expected, the Yana® confirms our initial hypothesis. The Surge environment proves to be a more exciting stimulus in the arousal variable than the Yana®, however, and as expected, less than the Helix® environment.

4

Discussion and Conclusion

The results obtained clearly show that different environments elicited different emotions. For instance, participants’ arousal was as expected. Roller coaster provoked the highest

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arousal and the sunset beach of Yana the lowest arousal. Yana provoked the highest relaxation and the real-time music video, Surge, the lowest relaxation. As the three environments did not have aversive stimuli and the fair environment provided a positive disposition to the participants, all three environments had a similar level of valence. Only if one of the environments, for example, had aversive stimuli such as a snake or spider, could we expect negative valence values as observed in other studies that used virtual reality to evaluate emotions [11]. There were also significant differences in presence. The presence was higher in the environment where the arousal was also higher, in fact there is a positive correlation (r = 0.384; p < 0.01), although in all the environments we verified high levels of presence. In the obtained results, it is verified that the dimension valence is positively related to the concentration. These data are in line with other studies [12, 36, 37]. Not rejecting limitations in the study, the data obtained can be useful as guidelines in the development of environments in different contexts (work, leisure, teaching, ther‐ apeutic). The creation of environments capable of stimulating users in specific emotional dimensions, which could be relevant to improve performance in a specific task. Can be useful if we think of high-performance sports activities (e.g. athletes, etc.), or at times of decision making (e.g. court judges, etc.). Also the creation of environments capable of inducing states of relaxation could contribute to the development of new strategies of stress coping using virtual reality. Acknowledgments. Portuguese Navy.

References 1. Digi-Capital: Augmented/virtual reality report Q3 (2015). http://www.digi-capital.com/ 2. Kleinginna, P., Kleinginna, A.: A categorized list of emotion definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motiv. Emot. 5, 345–379 (1981) 3. Eirik, F., Xin, L.: The Puppet UI: tools for nonverbal communication in virtual environments (2007). http://www.thoughtbird.com/ 4. Arriaga, P., Almeida, G.: Fábrica de emoções: A eficácia da exposição a excertos de filmes na indução de emoções. Lab. Psicologia 8, 63–80 (2010) 5. Wundt, W.: Grundzuge Der Physiologischen Psychologie. Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology (1902) 6. Mauss, I., Robinson, M.: Measures of emotion: a review. Cogn. Emot. 23(2), 209–237 (2009) 7. Russell, J., Barrett, L.: Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 76(5), 805–819 (1999) 8. Lang, P., Braadley, M., Cuthbert, B.: Motivated attention: affect, activation, and action. In: Attention and Orienting: Sensory and Motivational Processes, pp. 97–135. Lawrence Erlbarm Associates, Mahwah (1997) 9. Warriner, A., Kuperman, V., Brysbaert, M.: Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas. Behav. Res. Methods 45, 1191–1207 (2003) 10. Watson, D., Wiese, D., Vaidya, J., Tellegen, A.: The two general activation systems of affect: structural findings, evolutionary considerations, and psychobiological evidence. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 76, 820–838 (1999)

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Simulation as a Pedagogical Strategy in Product Design Johana Ruíz Hoyos ✉ and Gustavo Sevilla (

)

Industrial Design Faculty, Ergonomics Research Division, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellín, Colombia {johanamilena.hoyos,gustavo.sevilla}@upb.edu.co

Abstract. Although there are several implementations and ways of carrying out a simulation, this text will emphasize on the usage of this tool within the product design and development environment. While this topic is generally performed in the testing phases, it’s important to encourage simulations in order to fully assim‐ ilate design issues and the features of the User - Object - Context system since the early stages of development. All this process is done to avoid errors in the way a designer interprets the information found in literature as inputs or design guideline [1–6]. Based on this approach, the Ergonomics Research Line of the Industrial Design Faculty of the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, propose the development of the research Project, whose general objective is to develop a system of elements that allow the designer to simulate functional states of users with particular physical characteristics. in this case the user of the elderly was approached as the theme of the project. Keywords: Pedagogical tools · Simulation · Product design · Elderly people · Product design specification · Simulation suit · Industrial design · Teaching design

1

Introduction

Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has had its biggest impact in the field of science education, helping students at different stages in their schooling and improving the performance of teaching staff [7]. Included in these educational technol‐ ogies and methodologies are simulation techniques, which are used to improve the performance of a particular system and broaden its application to cover different peda‐ gogical disciplines and approaches. Simulation techniques allow students to inhabit a context that replicates some aspect of reality, and establishes within this context certain situations, activities and/or prob‐ lems that correspond to real life. The use of simulation enhances and accelerates the quality of the student learning process, systematically integrating itself into the peda‐ gogical model [8]. Simulations can be used and applied in a variety of ways, including sensory infor‐ mation gathering, context-based laboratory work and training in different disciplines such as engineering, medicine and construction [7]. This paper, however, will focus on the use of simulation in product design and development. Moreover, although this tech‐ nique is commonly used during the testing phase of a project (once a prototype or at

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_9

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least a tangible product idea has been developed), it is important to use simulation in subsequent phases to improve understanding of those variables inherent in the design process, such as human factors and the relationship with the object and the context of use. This will enable students to accurately define the possible requirements of the user. 1.1 Simulation as a Concept in the Learning Process According to the Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy), to simulate means to “represent something, by pretending or imitating what is not.” However, from a pedagogical perspective, a better definition of simulation is provided by Cristina Davini and Litwin, who understand it as “a teaching method aimed at familiarizing students with situations and features similar to those found in reality, but which actually exist artificially. The objective is to train students in the practical and operational skills that they require to adapt those situations and elements to the real world [9, 10]. Simulation can recreate situations and establish experiments thanks to the visuali‐ zation of a physical system and the link between reality and abstraction. This helps create a dynamic and interactive learning environment during the entire student learning process. Simulation also helps explain and illuminate a particular topic by acting as a support mechanism and collaborative learning tool to establish necessary conceptual foundations, or to reinforce what has been learnt in the classroom [11]. This motivates the student and encourages greater participation; at the same time skills are developed to visualize the consequences of certain decisions, and to practically apply theoretical knowledge [12]. As part of the learning process, simulation can be used at two key moments: during the teaching-learning process, and at the evaluation phase. In addition to providing techniques for diagnosing, treating and solving problems, simulation can help improve psychomotor and relationship skills more efficiently than other methods by focusing the student’s attention on a clear objective, and then reproducing it as part of a standardized process. In the evaluation phase, simulation helps measure data search capability and interpretation, and assess the types of problems raised during the activity [13]. 1.2 Applications and Approaches of Simulation as a Pedagogical Strategy Different types of simulation techniques exist, and will vary according to their applica‐ tion, resources, objectives and required expertise. The following types can be high‐ lighted: (i) three-dimensional simulators, such as cardiorespiratory, multipurpose, obstetric, etc., which emit signals from a system that allow medical students to diagnose a particular scenario; (ii) visual and/or auditory stimuli, used in any given discipline or stage of education, and which focus on the human senses to obtain information; (iii) computer-aided simulation, used in disciplines such as design, medicine, engineering and construction to generate 3D models based on a initial idea; (iv) the simulation of a theory using case studies, applying concepts to a real-life situation [13, 14]. The concept of simulation as a pedagogic strategy has been used a lot more in the area of healthcare, specifically to: (i) define a student’s level of clinical competence; (ii) assess the effectiveness of a study plan according to a particular objective; (iii)

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understand beneficial habits and skills that can be used with healthy and sick individuals, reducing pain and discomfort, especially when dealing with large groups; (iv) carry out practices similar to real-life interaction in a particular occupational area; (v) examine reproductive techniques, algorithms and problems to help foster habits and skills; (vi) perform scientifically applied maneuvers and procedures, both under supervision and independently; (vii) link the understanding of clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic tech‐ niques and procedures with real life situations, as well as complementing them with other teaching methods [15, 16]. The area of healthcare has been fundamental in the development and evolution of simulators; the first simulator devices were used in anes‐ thesiology, such as the Resusci Anne manikin (see Fig. 1a), designed by Asmund Laerdal (see Fig. 1b) and Sim One (see Fig. 1c) designed by Abrahamson and Denson [17, 18].

Fig. 1. Examples of simulators used in medicine (a) Resusci Anne, (b) Asmund Laerdal, (c) Sim One. Source: [17, 18]

1.3 Simulation as a Tool in Product Design The conceptualization and testing phases of product design and development employ a number of different simulation tools and techniques, such as constructive interaction, mock-up, role play, resource flux, user proof, OCRA, RULA, walkthrough analysis and others. These tools and techniques should also be implemented in earlier phases that seek to gather and analyze information relating to the user-object-context system. Typi‐ cally, these phases are the most demanding for a designer in obtaining explicit, observ‐ able, tacit, and latent knowledge of the user. These phases also provide opportunities for feedback based on user perception [1–6]. Based on this idea, the Ergonomics Research Division at the Pontificia Bolivariana University’s (UPB) Faculty of Design suggested setting up a seedbed research group to develop a research project whose general objective was to create a system that allowed a designer to simulate the individual functional states of a particular user. This would allow designers to better understand the user’s listening, visual and motor characteris‐ tics, postural condition, and relationship with an environment conceived for the infor‐ mation gathering stage of the design process. What strategies in the teaching-learning process could help students better under‐ stand the physical and cognitive characteristics of the user? Based on detailed analysis of design teaching methods and other fields, it was shown that “simulating” human

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activity was imperative. For the purposes of the project, “simulation” was defined as: “The process of designing a model of a real system and conducting experiments with this model to understand the behavior of the system” [19].

2

Project: “Bodies Simulating the Functional State of Elderly Adults”

Because of the growing number of elderly people in Colombia, it was decided that the user in this particular project would be an older adult. Indeed, by 2050, the number of people aged 60 years or over is expected to reach 15 million people, or about 24% of the total population [20, 21]. Moreover, there is evidence to suggest that mass-produced, everyday products and contemporary urban arquitectual spaces have been poorly adapted to meet the needs of people between the ages of 65 and 90. From a usability perspective, activities become inefficient, limited and prone to accidents that can be harmful to the user [21]. Designers have paid too little attention to this particular niche in the market, detaching themselves from a problem that is affecting communities both nationwide (where a “rise in the elderly population in Colombia is beginning to outpace the growth of younger generations,” [22]) and at international level. Problems persist because prod‐ ucts are designed under optimum conditions of use and earmarked for users without severe physical limitations, creating commercial rather than social designs. 2.1 Methodology The following methodological process was used for the ERGO seedbed research process: Selection of Clinical Conditions. As part of the research process, this stage consists of a series of activities using bibliographical references and expert opinion to examine how an elderly person is affected by conditions related to the aging process. Following a review of the information, medical conditions that could be simulated for each of the projects are selected. State of the Art Knowledge. Alongside this enquiry process to select the medical condi‐ tions to be simulated for each of the projects, a “state of the art” study was carried out that identified a wide range of objects linked to the treatment and control of medical conditions. The study, which also identified objects used to simulate the functional state of an elderly person, aimed to gather relevant information that responded to the demands of each product. Design Process. Following the research phase and the analysis of the problems faced by elderly people linked to postural and movement degeneration and the loss of hearing, sight and fine and gross motor skills, a series of design approaches were examined that responded to the objectives of each project.

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Following on from this stage, relevant data from the project was brought together to determine the requirements of the functional-operative, techno-productive and estheticcommunicative components. During the design process, and based on the requirements of simulation, the different types of components, mechanisms, shapes and materials were established that would reproduce the selected medical conditions. This aimed to kickstart the formal research process to establish early designs and models that would enable the development of a first validation and, subsequently, a second improved prototype. 2.2 Results of the Project Visual-Hearing Simulator. The objective was to develop an element that represented the different visual and hearing limitations linked to the ageing process. The research recognized four main age-related conditions that were earmarked for simulation: (i) cataracts, (ii) glaucoma, (iii) macular degeneration, and (iv) diabetic retinopathy. The following hearing disorders were also deemed to be prevalent among the elderly: (i) presbycusis, and (ii) tinnitus. The simulator comprises a structure that supports a series of transparent screens. Polarizing film or laminate has been attached to the screens and digitally altered according to the characteristics defined by visual impairment at different stages of development. The simulator has an adjustable strap system to ensure a more comfortable fit, while the screens are prevented from coming in to direct contact with the face to ensure the structure remains hygienic (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Visual-hearing simulator concept. Source: Student presentation – seedbed ERGO – UPB

The hearing simulator is attached to the simulator structure to form a single system. The design comprises anatomical earmuffs and polymer material that can be adapted to fit the shape of the user’s head and face. Three types of foam of varying density reduce high-pitched sounds (presbycusis) to generate three levels of external noise insulation. The simulation of tinnitus is conducted through earphones incorporated in to the interior part of the simulator. A Bluetooth connection links a sounds folder, which can be down‐ loaded or reproduced using a website or mobile application (see Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Hearing application. Source: Student presentation – seedbed ERGO – UPB

Simulator of Fine Motor Skills. The objective was to develop a glove that simulates fine motor skill limitations in the hand as a result of the ageing process. The simulated condition is rheumatoid arthritis, characterized by joint inflammation. The glove was created using the elastic properties and vectorial force of the textile to generate a counterforce to hand movement. This enables applied exertion and move‐ ment precision to be reduced, simulating the loss of muscle mass. Reinforcement mate‐ rials located in the phalangeal joints allow the glove to generate a compression force. This limits the range of flexion-extension movement during different grip positions of the hand, simulating the discomfort of arthritis (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Fine motor skills simulator concept. Source: Student presentation – seedbed ERGO – UPB

Posture-Movement Simulator. The objective was to develop a harness to recreate the posture and movement of an elderly person. The aim was to reveal the following features of biomechanical and postural change linked to the ageing process: (i) the increase in the curvature of the upper back (kyphosis), (ii) the lateral curvature (left or right) of the spine (scoliosis), and (iii) the exaggerated curvature of the lumbar zone (lordosis) [23]. The harness system employs an adjustable strap mechanism that tilts the back forwards at different degrees depending on the level of curvature required, thus enabling the user to adopt the required posture. Tension control of the strap mechanism also allows

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the user’s body to tilt sideways, enabling a sideways movement of the back. The posture system’s strap mechanism is connected to the movement simulator, which in turn is fitted to the user’s knee. Flexion-extension movement is restricted in a controlled manner through tensors (thera tubes) that possess varying degrees of elasticity. The two systems are brought together to reduce stride length and walking speed thus effectively recreating the biomechanics of an elderly person (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Posture and movement simulator concept. Source: Student presentation – seedbed ERGO – UPB

3

Conclusions

• The use of “simulation” as a pedagogic strategy in the process of design allows the designer or student to: (i) demonstrate what has been learnt in the research and problem definition stages, translated into design inputs, thus reacting in advance of what may happen in a real context, (ii) obtain accurate data during the exercise, (iii) define the User-Context-Object system under analysis, based on the designer’s expe‐ rience and perception of the situation that simulates reality, (iv) develop clearer understanding of the activity’s objectives, (v) replicate the experience, (vi) stand‐ ardize the process, (vii) implement the teaching exercises, (viii) evaluate criteria related to reality, (ix) establish evaluation criteria, (x) develop a wider range that is more representative of the problems, according to the particular design case, (xi) ascertain student performance. • Despite this, it is important to clarify that simulation is still only a technique that simulates reality. An exact reproduction of people’s lives and behavior is difficult, and represents the concept’s biggest limitation. Caution is therefore advised when predicting a situation based on the findings of simulation. It is important to recognize

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that an individual may react differently to a real-life situation; therefore simulation alone is insufficient when attempting to understand a real context or user. Subsequent tests must be carried out to determine if the information gathered during the simu‐ lation phase is accurate, and if the exercise can be repeated for different individuals with the same profile. • The scope of the project is earmarked for academic use and implemented in UPB’s ergonomics laboratory, which is always striving towards improving the learning process of Industrial Design students. In addition to the prototypes, a guide and user manual has been developed for elderly people to complement the usability of the design objects. Acknowledgments. We would like to thanks the students and professors who participated in the implementation of this project: Daniela Díaz Mejía, Mathieu Harpert Correa, Sebastián Rodríguez Gómez, Cristian Camilo Ramírez Martínez, Sofía Buitrago Ángel, Daniela Bedoya Llano, Diana Marcela Restrepo, Cristian Nazar Soto, María Elisa Oquendo Flórez, Ana Catalina Valencia, Ángela María Echeverri Jaramillo y Alexander Cardona Galeano.

References 1. French, M.: Engineering Design: The Conceptual Stage. Heinemann, London (1971) 2. Stanton, N., Young, M.: Is utility in the mind of the beholder? A study of ergonomics methods. Appl. Ergon. 29(1), 41–54 (1998) 3. Mondelo, P.R., Torada, E.G., Bombardo, P.B.: Ergonomía I. Fundamentos. CPDA, Barcelona (1999) 4. Coss, R.: The role of evolved perceptual biases in art and design. In: Voland, E., Grammer, K. (eds.) Evolutionary Aesthetics, pp. 69–130. Springer, Berlin (2003) 5. Moultrie, J., Clarkson, P.J., Probert, D.: A tool to evaluate design performance in SMEs. Int. J. Prod. Perform. Manag. 55(3/4), 184–216 (2006) 6. Nelson, J., Buisine, S., Aoussat, A.: Anticipating the use of future things: towards a framework for prospective use analysis in innovation design projects. Appl. Ergon. 44(6), 948–956 (2013) 7. Sánchez, M.M.: La simulación como estrategia didáctica: aportes y reflexiones de una experiencia en el nivel superior. (U.N.-F.–D. Trelew-Chubut, Ed.) 12, 1853–9424 (2013) 8. Perea, R.S., Zulueta, P.A.: La simulación como método de enseñanza y aprendizaje. (C.N. Enseñanza, Ed.) Rev Cubana Educación Médica Superior (1995) 9. Diker, G., Terigi, F.: La formación de maestros y profesores: hoja de ruta. Paidós (1997) 10. Litwin, E.: El oficio de enseñar. Condiciones y contextos, pp. 102–103. Paidos, Buenos Aires (2008) 11. Monterrey, I.T.: Centro de investigación de técnicas didácticas (2010). http://sitios.itesm.mx/ va/dide2/tecnicas_didacticas/simulacion.htm 12. Fingermann, H.: La guía. Retrieved 9 de 06 de 2016 from Educación - Técnicas de simulación (11 de 11 de 2010). http://educacion.laguia2000.com/estrategias-didacticas/tecnica-desimulacion 13. Córdova, C.P.: La simulación como apoyo didáctico. Académico de la Factultad de Ingeniería B. U. A. P. (2010) 14. Ruiz, J.: La simulación como Instrumento de Aprendizaje. Evaluación de Herramientas y estrategias de aplicación en el aula (1998)

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15. Preciado, S.A.: La Simulación como estrategia didáctica en medicina interna. Instituto Nacional de Cancerología -E.S.E, Mexico (2010) 16. Bradley, P.T.: The history of simulation in medical education and possible future directions. Med. Educ. 40, 254–262 (2006) 17. Medical, L.: Laerdal helping save lifes. Retrieved Enero de 2017 from Resusci Anne Simulator El simulador de RCP polivalente (2017). http://www.laerdal.com/la/doc/75/Resusci-AnneSimulator 18. Scientific, 3.: 3B SCIENTIFIC. Retrieved 2017 de Enero from SiMone Simulador de nacimiento (2017). https://www.a3bs.com/simone-simulador-de-nacimiento-p801,p_895_ 27376.html 19. Shannon, R.E.: Introduction to simulation. In: Proceedings of the 24th Conference on Winter Simulation, pp. 65–73. ACM, London (1992) 20. Semana.: Semana. Retrieved Enero de 2017 from Colombia envejece a pasos acelerados Para el 2050 cerca del 24% de la población tendrá más de 60 años. Los grandes desafíos son aumentar los gastos para protección en salud y pensión (2015). http://www.semana.com/ nacion/articulo/colombia-envejece-pasos-acelerados/444211-3 21. Concha, F.S.: Fundación Saldarriaga Concha. Retrieved Enero de 2017 from COLOMBIA, UN PAÍS QUE ENVEJECE DE MANERA ACELERADA (2015). http://www.saldarri agaconcha.org/es/prensa/noticias/item/577-colombia-un-pais-que-envejece-de-maneraacelerada 22. EL TIEMPO: El Tiempo. Recuperado el Noviembre de 2016, de Colombia dejará de ser joven en el 2020 - En el 2050, el 21 por ciento de los mayores superará los 80 años. Ciudades pobres, las más jóvenes (4 de Octubre de 2015). http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/ CMS-16394192 23. Cerda, L.: Manejo del trastorno de marcha del adulto mayor. Instituto Nacional de Artritis y Enfermedades Musculoesqueléticas y de la Piel. (15 de 3 de 2010) (2014)

Eye Tracking-Based Reverse Inference Approach for Design of Restaurant Information Display Hirotaka Aoki1(&) and Satoshi Suzuki2 1

2

Department of Industrial Engineering and Economics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-W9-75 Oh-Okayama, Meguro, Tokyo, Japan [email protected] Department of Clinical Engineering, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, 1030 Shimoogino, Atsugi, Kanagawa, Japan [email protected]

Abstract. This paper develops an eye tracking-based reverse inference approach to find possible solutions for effective information display design in restaurant contexts. In the approach developed, the “reverse inference” in which eye tracking data are interpreted based on a pre-determined analysis framework, is emphasized. A series of observations were conducted in which customers’ eye movement data and their behavior while staying at a Japanese UDON restaurant named Hanamaru Udon were recorded in real working conditions. The recorded data include typical procedures at a restaurant such as entering, ordering, paying and eating). Based on the data, preliminary analysis in which the developed approach is adopted are carried out. In this paper, we present some of analysis results obtained from our on-going data analysis. Keywords: Eye tracking
Consumer behavior
Restaurant
Visual marketing

1 Introduction Application of eye-tracking technique to marketing/service engineering related domains have been recognized as one of the most promising approaches [1, 2]. In this context, a relatively new concept called reverse inference approach has been developed [3]. As indicated by the term “reverse”, this approach emphasizes its specific inference processes. In traditional eye tracking applications, human cognitive aspects are analyzed/evaluated based on each of primitive eye movement indexes such as number of fixations, fixation duration, etc. By summing up insights obtained from each index, general tendency of cognitive aspects is deductively inferred. The objective of this paper is to develop an analysis procedure for eye tracking data interpretation for design/improvement of information display in restaurant contexts. The basic idea of the proposed procedure is inspired by the general concept of the reverse inference approach. The analysis procedure is obtained by breaking down the concept to the concrete action sequences, considering actual working conditions in a restaurant. The procedure is consisted of the following three steps: (1) identification of © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_10

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contexts based on task analysis, (2) determination of gaze taxonomy and (3) interpretation of gazes observed for design of information display.

2 Restaurant Contexts Focused in the Present Study One of Japan’s leading UDON restaurant chains named “HANAMARU UDON” has been collaborating with us. With its great support in our study, preliminary task analysis of customers’ at a restaurant and a series of eye movement recordings were conducted at one of its restaurants in Kichijoji, Tokyo. This restaurant adopts a combined system of fast food and buffet systems. Customers can order UDON, and can also pick up side dishes placed in a specific area. After payment, a customer moves to a seating area to eat. The situation found in the restaurant is a typical restaurant focused in our study. This restaurant is used to represent the restaurant contexts in our analysis. The detailed explanation of the contexts can be found in our previous paper [4]. The summary of the contexts are described below. Figure 1 depicts the restaurant’s layout. A customer enters the restaurant from the entrance (shown on the right side). First he/she is required to take a tray, and proceeds to the food items area (upper side in the figure). When proceeding (as shown by blue

Fig. 1. Restaurant layout

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arcs in the figure), he/she can take side dishes such as ODEN, salads, drink etc. on his/her own tray. In the food items area, he/she orders main dishes (UDON and its toppings of TEMPURA and ONIGIRI). They are served by a restaurant staff in a kitchen. In the end of the food items area, he/she pays at a register. The customer can eat at an eating area. He/she can take a seat by himself/herself there. After finishing eating, he/she is required to take his/her tray to a tray drop stand. Figure 2 shows a photo of an area serving TEMPURA and ONIGIRI. The restaurant’s area can be divided into the following two sub-areas depending on customers’ task contexts: Order-area and eat-area (see Fig. 1). These two types of areas can be found universally in the restaurants adopting a combined system of fast food and buffet systems. Table 1 summarizes the important contexts factors (i.e., task goals and typical conditions). In “order-area,” a customer’s typical goals are choosing preferable food items and paying at a register. In most cases, there are other customers in line in that sub-area. Thus he/she feels a kind of “time pressure” when conducting the above-mentioned two tasks. In “eating-area”, on the other hand, the tasks for a customer are very simple. They are just to find a vacant seat, to eat, and to go to a tray drop

Fig. 2. Restaurant layout Table 1. Important context factors Sub-area Task goals Order-area To choose preferable food items To pay at a register Eat-area To find a vacant seat To eat the items To go to a tray drop

Typical conditions In most cases, “time-pressure” is felt by a customer since others are coming behind him her

In most cases, a customer has free time while eating

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stand. In this area, additionally, a customer does not need to feel any time pressure compared to “order-area.” Thus it may be possible to give some additional information to customers in this area that cannot be read/displayed at the busy order-area.

3 Gaze Taxonomy Developed From practical point of view, the following is the critical issue found in the restaurant operations. New customers have some difficulties in finding food items, in finding instructions of how to order items and so forth. To give solutions to such difficulty, we have to identify possible deficiency or inadequate information in the information display such as instructions, menu, food items and so on. In this paper, we aim at identifying them based on eye-tracking data. In the data interpretation, “task relevancy” is an important basis. The term task relevancy is referred to as the degree in which objects/areas are critical in a specific task at a given moment. When some objects/areas have to be looked at or touched to complete a specific task, they are considered as to be high task-relevancy ones. The high task-relevancy objects/areas are to be identified. As found in Table 1, there are multiple task-goals in restaurant contexts. Therefore, whether objects/areas are relevant to a task or not is depending on what task is ongoing at the moment. Table 2 shows the gaze taxonomy developed and corresponding possible design implications. The adequacy of gazes are determined by both of whether the gazes are directed to high task-relevancy objects/areas and when they are directed.

Table 2. Gaze taxonomy Categories Adequate gazes Inadequate gazes

Sub-categories Gazes having short to medium durations to high task-relevancy objects/areas at the moment -Gazes having long durations to high task-relevancy objects/areas at the moment (too long) Gazes to objects/areas that are not high task-relevancy objects/areas at the moment -Gazes to objects/areas that will be high task-relevancy ones in subsequent tasks (too early) -Gazes to objects/areas that were high task-relevancy ones in previous tasks (too late) -Gazes to objects/areas that will never be high task-relevancy ones at any moment (un informative)

Implications obtained

Ineffective/hard to understand information, representations or format of the objects/areas gazed at should be improved

The location of objects/areas gazed at should be moved close to the customer at the moment The location of objects/areas gazed at should be moved close to the customer at the moment Unnecessary information that should be removed

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As for the adequate gazes, they are gazes to high task-relevancy objects/areas. In addition, the gaze’s duration is not too long. This means that the gaze is directed to an object/area that is directly related to the ongoing task within acceptable time duration. This kind of gazes can be treated as reasonable ones. However, the gazes to high taskrelevancy objects/areas but their durations are too long seem to involve some problem. Inadequate gazes, on the other hand, include four types of gazes. One of sub-categories of such gazes is those directed to high task-relevancy objects/areas but having too long durations. These gazes indicates that the location to which gazes are directed is adequate, but time needed to understand the information seems problematic. From these gazes, we can obtain possible implications that the representations/format of the objects/areas in which such gazes are observed should be improved. Additionally, gazes to objects/areas that are not high task-relevancy ones are also recognized as in adequate gazes. These can be classified into three sub-categories. One of the subcategories includes gazes to the objects/areas that are not high task-relevancy ones at the moment but they will be in the subsequent tasks. For these gazes, we can understand that the objects/areas should be moved to the location where the subsequent task will be performed. We can also observe gazes to the objects/areas that are not high task-relevancy ones at the moment but they were necessary when performing previous tasks. For such inadequate gazes, we can obtain a hint for improvement that the objects/areas should be moved to the location where the previous tasks are performed. We can indicate that the gazes to objects/areas that are not high task-relevancy ones at any moment are inadequate ones. From these gazes, we may be able to identify unnecessary objects/areas. In our analysis, we first identify the gazes shown in Table 2 from recorded eye tracking data. Based on possible implications for each gaze types, we try to find design problems and possible solutions.

4 Eye Tracking Experiment A series of eye tracking experiments were carried two of HANAMARU UDON restaurants. One of the restaurant is located in Kichijoji, Tokyo, and another is in Ikebukuro, Tokyo. In the experiments, forty two participants aged from 18-68 participated. 18 were female participants and 24 were male participants. The experiments were carried out in the afternoon at a real working hours. In each experimental session, each participant was asked to mount an eye tracking system (TalkEye III, Takei Scientific Instruments) at an entrance of the restaurant. The eye tracking device is designed to have a spatial accuracy of 0.1 degree and its sampling frequency is 60 Hz. We asked each participant to keep mounted whenever he/she was in the restaurant. After performing calibration, each participant was asked to have a lunch at the restaurant by his/her own budget. During staying at the restaurant, eye movement and his/her behavior were video-recorded. When he/she came to a tray drop, we stopped the video-recordings. Figure 3 shows the experimental settings in our data recordings.

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Fig. 3. Eye movement recording at a restaurant

5 Interpretation of Gazes Observed for Design Improvement By applying the gaze taxonomy shown in Table 2, we can obtain some useful hints/insights for improvement as shown below. In this paper, we discuss some preliminary results obtained from five of our participants at a HANAMARU UDON located in Kichijoji. As found in Fig. 2, there are 54 objects (like panels, posters and so on) for information display in order area. The numbers of objects are summarized in Table 3. Table 3. Number of objects exposed at a restaurants Location Total Casher Cauldron Rice ball Tempura Showcase Pot dish Trays 4 12 7 7 4 10 10 54

Table 4 shows the number of objects corresponding with the gaze taxonomy. For example, we could recognize that 51 out of 54 objects were adequate, and that 3 were inadequate for participant 1 (P1). Among the 3 inadequate objects, one located near a cauldron was watched too long, one located near a pot dish was watched too early, and one located near rice balls was watched too late. From practical point of view, we could indicate a very problematic single object from our result (see Fig. 3). The identical single object located near a cauldron could be found in all of participants as that watched too early or too long. In participants 3 and 4 (P3 and P4), notably, this identical object was watched both of too early and too long (Fig. 4).

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P1 Adequate Inadequate Too long Too early Too late Uninformative P2 Adequate Inadequate Too long Too early Too late Uninformative P3 Adequate Inadequate Too long Too early Too late Uninformative P4 Adequate Inadequate Too long Too early Too late Uninformative P5 Adequate Inadequate Too long Too early Too late Uninformative

51 1 1 1 0 49 4 1 0 0 47 1 7 0 0 49 2 3 1 0 51 2 1 0 0

Location Casher Cauldron Rice ball

Tempura Showcase Pot Trays dish

1 1 1

2 1

2

1 2

1

1 1

1

1

2

1

1

1 1

Fig. 4. An example of problematic objects identified

1 1

1

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6 Conclusion In the present research, an eye tracking data-based analysis for identification of information display design deficiencies was proposed. The analysis enabled us to detect possible design problems at a restaurant. Based on the data obtained by a series of eye movement recording sessions at a UDON restaurant, we showed some possible design problems/implications via preliminary data analysis. The data analysis scheme is now being elaborated. The results of additional data analysis obtained will be presented in the conference. Acknowledgments. This research was partly supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) (No. 15K01182), The Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. The authors would like to thank Kiyohito Tokui and Jun Takahashi, Hanamaru, Inc. Japan, and all the staffs at Hanamaru Udon Kichijoji Minami-Guchi-Ten and Hanamaru Udon Minami Ikebukuro 2-Chome Ten, and Takuro Sugiyama for their great support for our study.

References 1. Pieters, R., Wedel, M.: Informativeness of eye movements for visual marketing. In: Wedel, M., Pieters, R. (eds.) Visual Marketing. From Attention to Action, pp. 43–71. Lawrence Erlbaum, New York (2008) 2. Logo, E., Jozsa, E., Hamornik, B.P.: Eye tracking analysis: application in a case study of a fast moving consumer goods product. In: Proceedings of Measuring Behavior 2010, pp. 215– 217 (2010) 3. Feng, G.: From eye movement to cognition: towards a general framework of inference. Commentary on Liechety et al. 2003. Psychometrika 68(4), 551–556 (2003) 4. Aoki, H., Suzuki, S.: A method to detect problems in information display design of fast food restaurants based on customers’ eye movement data. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W. (eds.) Advances in the Human Side of Service Engineering. AISC, vol. 494. Springer, Cham (2017)

Evaluation of a Virtual Environment Prototype for Studies on the Effectiveness of Technology-Based Safety Signs Lara Reis de Amaral1,2 ✉ , Emília Duarte1,3, and Francisco Rebelo1,2 (

)

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Ergonomics Laboratory, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal [email protected] 2 CIAUD, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal UNIDCOM, IADE – Creative University, Av. D. Carlos I, 4, 1200-649 Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the viability of using a Virtual Environment (VE) prototype for conducting research regarding technology-based safety signs, i.e., Augmented Reality (AR) warnings. Using a complex workrelated context (comprised of two hazardous situations with distinct salience levels) and a sample of 12 workers (27–60 years), the study’s objectives were to assess: the AR safety signs’ effectiveness in enhancing hazard-risk behaviors and promoting behavioral compliance; as well as the participants’ overall user expe‐ rience. To undergo such an evaluation, the following issues were addressed: simulator sickness; level of presence; hazard and safety sign perception; and overall usability. Results reveal that: the AR warnings were effective in identi‐ fying hazards and in prompting compliant behaviors; and despite slight simulator sickness, participants were highly engaged, as well as adequately perceived both hazards and warnings. Thus, the VE prototype proved to be adequate for safety sign research regarding AR warnings. Keywords: Virtual environments · Workplace safety sign research · Ageing · Technology-based warnings · Augmented reality · Behavioral compliance · Hazard perception · Interaction · User experience · Usability

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Introduction

One of the most important safety precautionary methods to prevent workplace accidents/ injuries consists in adequately perceiving hazards and warnings, as well as in complying with the provided information. Regrettably, this third line of hazard control is not always successful [1]. This is, they often fail to: attract attention; provide knowledge; and incite behavioral compliance [2, 3]. The latter being, according to most cognitive models [4, 5], the ultimate outcome measure when determining the success (effectiveness) of such signs. Over the years, research on behavioral compliance has identified a number of significant criteria that defines the effectiveness of safety signs. Such criteria encom‐ passes variables pertaining to warning design (e.g., location, typography, size, format/ layout color, contrast), situational characteristics (e.g., familiarity, modeling, costs of

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compliance), as well as target audience issues (e.g., gender, age, cultural background, familiarity) [6, 7]. Regarding the age parameter, various studies [8, 9] alert to the fact that with old age, the visual, auditory and cognitive capacities decline; which subse‐ quently puts older workers at a disadvantage in hazardous situations. Research on the rapidly ageing workforce population [10] points to the critical need for innovation in workplace safety signs, i.e., more adequately designed warnings. In recent years, research has highlighted that technology-based warnings may be more effective in communicating safety-related information [11, 12]. Due to their dynamic displays, such computer/sensor-based signs may provide older workers with the appropriate cognitive support needed to compensate for their age-related perceptual/ attention deficits [13]. Among the many possibilities disclosed by the use of such tech‐ nical applications, this paper presents a pilot study which proposes the use of Augmented Reality (AR) as a promising technology to enhance workplace safety. AR is an inter‐ active medium which combines/merges computer-generated information with the phys‐ ical/real world [14]. In other words, it is a technology that superimposes digital imagery/ graphics over a view of the real environment, in real-time. Such information is displayed in registration with and dependent on the geographic location, as well as the person’s perspective of the physical world [15]. Although the use of AR is on the rise in various scientific areas [16], in the field of Safety Sign Research, knowledge on workplace AR safety signs is scarce. The current body of research, in the transportation domain, has emphasized a number of advantages in using such a medium, namely its ability to detect the presence of a hazard and alert the person in a timely manner [17, 18]. In this context, this paper discusses the definition and preliminary results regarding a pilot study that was designed to assess the effec‐ tiveness of workplace AR safety signs. This study is part of an ongoing investigation that is focused on enhancing workplace safety by designing more effective warnings for older workers (55–65 years old). Such a project is driven by the premise that, due to their dynamic and interactive conspicuity, AR safety signs can be designed to enhance the older workers’ sensory perception of complex workplace environments and tailored to potentially dangerous situations. When compared to the conventional/static ISO-type counterparts, it is hypothesized that AR safety signs will be more effective in overcoming possible age-related limitations and augmenting hazard-risk perception, thereby prompting more compliant behaviors. However, since research regarding the effective‐ ness of safety signs is limited by several methodological, economical and ethical constraints, such a pilot study used an immersive Virtual Reality-based (VR) experi‐ mental set-up for such a purpose. Such a tool provided the ability to create an interactive and quasi-real Virtual Environment (VE) prototype in which behavioral compliance in simulated hazardous situations could be safely assessed, with an absolute control over the experimental conditions and variables. Therefore, in light of the larger research project mentioned above, the present pilot study aimed to assess the feasibility of using the proposed VE prototype that was specifically designed (with a similar design, experimental setup and overall interaction framework to that of a previous study [19]) for conducting such studies. Using a complex work-related context (which comprised of two hazardous situations with distinct sali‐ ence levels), the study’s main objectives were two-folded: (1) to assess the proposed

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AR warnings’ effectiveness in enhancing hazard-risk behaviors and behavioral compli‐ ance; and (2) to evaluate overall user experience with such signs and respective VE prototype. In sum, topics under the VE interaction domain (pertaining to simulator sick‐ ness, level of presence, overall VE design, as well as hazard-risk and safety sign percep‐ tion), are addressed in the current paper.

2

Method

2.1 Participants A total of 12 adult workers (with different professions), 6 men and 6 women, aged 27 to 60 years old (Mean Age = 42.8, SD = 15.3), volunteered to participate in the study. Prior to beginning the experimental sessions, participants were required to sign a consent form and complete a demographic questionnaire; as well as were screened for color deficiencies (using the Ishihara Color Vision Test [20]) and cognitive impairment (by applying the Mini-Mental State Examination [21, 22]). In sum, all of the participants had a corrected and/or 20/20 vision, absent of any color limitations, and reported to have no physical and/or mental conditions that could prevent them from partaking in the study. Moreover, they reported to have no previous experience with a VR-based system set-up and/or simulation. 2.2 System Set-Up In order to conduct such a study, an immersive VR system set-up (based on [19]) was used: the Oculus Rift Development Kit2 Head-Mounted Display, mounted with its type B lenses and set with its default pupillary distance (to sustain the sample’s homogeneity), to visualize the VE; the Xbox 360 wireless gamepad to interact with the VE; wireless Sony headphones, model MDR-RF800RK, to hear the VE’s sounds; and a Dell Alien‐ ware M18x laptop (with an Intel Core i7-3610QM processor, 16 GB of memory, and a Dual 2 GB GDDR5 Nvidia GTX 675 M SLI graphics card), to run the simulation. In order to collect quantitative data, the event log system (based on scripts and triggers that were specifically developed for this study) was adapted and used to automatically record the participants’ interaction in real-time. The VE prototype’s scenery was designed using the Sketchup Pro software, and then exported to the Unity3D game engine (version 4.6.3f1) to define the simulation’s mechanics. Smaller 3D resources, provided by both of the softwares’ assets stores, were bought/adapted and used to create the study’s settings. For methodological reasons (mainly to prevent possible simulator sickness), the 3D model was optimized in order to maintain an average image frame rate above 75 Hz per second throughout the simu‐ lation. The participants’ viewpoint was set at eye-height (1.53 m above the ground), and its Field-of-View was set using the software’s standard default settings. For the same reasons mentioned above (simulator sickness), the velocity at which the participants rotated/oriented their viewpoints was reduced to match real-life head movements, and their travel/navigational speed (which gradually increased to a maximum of 1.35 m/s) was maintained.

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2.3 VE Prototype Design Scenery. Based on an earlier prototype [19], for this pilot study the 3D model was adapted/redesigned to portray a complex work-related environment that comprised of two different types of hazardous situations (with distinct levels of salience), in which the presence of safety signs continued to be mandatory and behavioral compliance could be assessed. Subsequently, a 3rd large module was added to the original 3D model. All three modules (linked together via open spaces) represented different sections of a factory and/or with a particular dangerous situation: Module 0 remained absent of any hazards; Module 1 continued to depict an Overhead Hazard; and the recent Module 2 featured a Conveyor Hazard. Since the latter two consisted of an exposed hazard, their layout was designed to include two passages in which to circulate through, namely a dangerous path that comprised of the hazard and in which participants were to avoid crossing, plus a safety pathway void of any danger. Both lanes were clearly delineated by safety floor markings (Fig. 1). To enhance the VE’s realism, a number of objects (shelves, boxes, forklifts, trash cans, garbage, tires, truck, containers) as well as conven‐ tional/static ISO-type safety signs [23] were placed throughout the various sections and architectural elements. All visual and auditory features were individually tweaked depending on the various situations.

Fig. 1. Screenshots of the entrances to Modules 1 and 2.

Scenario and Simulation. For this pilot study, the scenario was modified and the simulation divided into three phases. Firstly, in order to enhance the participants’ user experience, a contextual narrative (in voice-over, whilst visualizing a backdrop of the factory’s entrance) was provided, in which they were asked to imagine the following situation: it is the end of the afternoon; they are back home after a day at work, and decide to take their dog for a walk; as they pass by an industrial part of town, their dog is startled by a cat and then enthusiastically runs after it into a factory; naturally, they run after their dog too; upon arrival to the factory’s gate, they realize that the security guard is not present; however, since they are worried about their dog, they enter the factory, at their own risk, to retrieve it. In light of the given cover story, in the 2nd part of the simulation, the participants were required to perform the study’s task, i.e., to catch their dog. Throughout the simulation, the background ambient noise was that of a ster‐ eotypical, yet realistic factory, accompanied by the sound of the dog barking every 15 s. When participants caught the dog, the simulation would end by thanking them for partaking in the study.

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Game Strategy. To perform the experiment’s task, participants had to search for and detect the dog, as well as retrieve it. In addition to carrying out this visual search and target detection task, participants had to keep track of the dog’s trail, as it ran after the cat throughout the factory’s divisions. In addition to running away from the participants as soon as they reached it, the dog would constantly sprint across the dangerous paths (i.e., in which the hazards were present). Such a task was designed to attract and maintain the participants’ attention throughout the course of the simulation. As participants entered Modules 1 and 2, they were confronted with a 1st set of AR safety signs that popped up to alert to the presence of a hazard, as well as to advise them to circulate on the safety path (which appeared either to their left or right). In that precise moment, participants were forced to decide between 2 pathways: to follow the dog across the dangerous path; or to take the safety route. In other words, they had to evaluate the costs of complying with the AR warnings’ information. This is: to circulate via the safety path, which was a slightly longer and less direct route to the dog; and/or follow the more direct, yet unsafe path to the dog, i.e., model the dog’s behavior. If participants chose not to comply with the AR safety signs and to follow the dog’s path, they would be confronted with another, yet similar set of AR warnings, before approaching the hazard, thus yielding them with a 2nd opportunity to adopt the safest behavior. AR Safety Signs. In light of the study’s primary objective, a set of AR warnings (visual displays) was designed for this investigation. These included two types of simple and light-weighted 2D cues, namely billboards (floating panels) and pins (target annota‐ tions). In consistency with the ISO standards [23], the billboards afforded participants with the necessary safety information, i.e., the identification of the hazard’s presence, type and level of severity, as well as the behaviors to be adopted/avoided. Whereas, the pins merely served to identify points of interest (the precise location of the safety path and hazard) and augment the hazards’ level of severity. Both types of signs were context and location-based: billboards would only appear when participants were inside the modules’ preceding demarcated entrance areas and the hazards were within their view/ sight; and pins would show up in the same context and location, plus when the partici‐ pants were travelling through the dangerous path (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Screenshots of AR billboards and pins, in Modules 1 and 2.

To enhance legibility and readability, the billboards appeared: aligned, centered and fixed at eye-height [24] and at a distance of 1.3 m [25]; with saturated texts and symbols, on a semitransparent (55%) black rectangular background [26]; and accompanied by a semitransparent (70%) white arrow that indicated the safety paths’ locations. Similarly,

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safety path pins were fixed 1.5 m above the ground [27], hovering over the factory’s floor markings and consisted of a saturated symbol on a semitransparent (70%) white background. To increase the dangerous object’s conspicuity, a hazard pin was fixed directly above it. Furthermore, to convey its level of severity, this pin’s semitransparent (70%) background would vary in color (from white, yellow, orange to red) if participants approached it. Environmental Cues. In order to replicate a complex work-related environment, comprising of attentional and perceptually demanding situational characteristics, for this pilot study, two distinct levels of hazard salience were designed for each module. In Module 1, the Overhead Hazard represented a conspicuous/explicit situation: as partic‐ ipants followed the dog’s path, at a certain point in the VE, an alarm would go off (auditory cue) and the crane/container would begin to move (visual cue) to the right hand side of the module (Fig. 2). Whereas the Conveyor Hazard, in Module 2, featured a non-conspicuous/implicit danger: the conveyor belt remained stationary, void of any visual and auditory cues. This environmental situation was designed to assess the AR safety signs’ effectiveness in both static (non-conspicuous) and dynamic (conspicuous) situations, as well as with the intention of providing participants with an engaging and life-like experience. Measures. In order to evaluate the feasibility of using the proposed VE prototype for conducting studies on the effectiveness of workplace AR safety signs, two usability test beds (one for each of the study’s objectives) were carried out, in which behavioral and subjective measures were collected consecutively. The 1st test bed was designed to assess the AR safety sign’s effectiveness in enhancing hazard-risk behaviors and invoking behavioral compliance, by observing the participants’ actions and path trajectories, namely if they followed the dog across the dangerous path, or they took the safety route. In each module, this evaluation was divided into three decision-making moments, namely if and when the participants were confronted with both sets of AR warnings, and then the hazard. The study’s hypothesis, regarding this particular assessment, was that the AR safety signs would be effective in prompting the compliant behavior of circulating on the safety path. However, if participants chose not to comply with such signs, it was hypothe‐ sized that: the Overhead Hazard’s conspicuity would influence the participants’ behavior and incite them to take the safety path; whereas, in the 2nd module participants would fail to adopt safe behaviors due the Conveyor Hazard’s lack of salience. The 2nd test bed sought to evaluate the participants’ overall user experience, by collecting their subjective perceptions on their interaction with the VE prototype and respective AR safety signs. Subsequently, the following post-hoc questionnaires (adapted from [19]) were applied: Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ). In order to evaluate to what extent the VE could be satisfactorily used, this questionnaire (applied twice, before and after the experimental session) evaluated the occurrence of possible simulator symptoms and their effects on the participants’ performance. On a 4-point scale, participants scored 23 (overall body and eye-related) symptoms, by indicating the associated level of severity (which ranged from “None” to “Severe”).

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Presence Questionnaire (PQ). In order to understand the extent at which participants acted/interacted realistically/naturally, this survey assessed the participants’ sense of presence levels and the quality of their experience with the VE. On a 9-point scale, participants ranked 37 questions which fell under categories pertaining to the VE’s features: level of immersion; control factors; sensorial quality; distraction factors; and level of realism. VE Design Questionnaire (VDQ). With this questionnaire, participants evaluated, on a 9-point scale, the VE’s overall design characteristics according to the following heuris‐ tics (divided into 12 questions): contextual narrative coherency; task compatibility; natural engagement; natural expression of action; and level of entertainment. Hazard-risk Perception Questionnaire (HPQ). In order to understand whether the participants adequately perceived the hazards’ severity, this survey (comprised of 11 questions) aimed to evaluate (using a 9-point scale) a number of factors related to hazard awareness, risk judgment and salience. It was applied twice, at the end of the experi‐ mental session, for each module/hazard respectively. AR Perception Questionnaire (APQ). This questionnaire sought to assess whether the AR safety signs had had an influence on the participants’ overall hazard-risk perception. Using a 9-point scale, participants ranked 10 questions regarding the AR safety signs’ salience, hazard identification and influence. This survey was also applied twice, accord‐ ingly to each module/hazard, at the end of the experimental session. Procedure. The study was divided into five main stages, and the average duration of the whole procedure was approximately 1 h 20 min. Throughout the experimental sessions, participants sat a desk for comfort and security reasons, as well as were accompanied by the researcher’s presence for technical and methodological reasons (i.e., in order to: observe the participants’ interaction inside the VE; monitor their dexterity in using the study’s devices; as well as program the experimental simulations). Introduction to the Study. As previously mentioned, prior to the experimental sessions, participants signed a consent form and filled in a demographic questionnaire, as well as were subsequently screened for color deficiencies and cognitive impairment. They were then debriefed about the study and its different phases, as well as introduced to its devices and system set-up. To avoid influencing the participants’ behavior, they were oblivious of the study’s real objectives. Training Session: Phase 1. Before beginning the actual experimental session, partici‐ pants underwent a pre-experimental training session, using a completely different VE which was specifically designed for the participants to: familiarize themselves with the study’s interaction and visualization devices; learn how to interact within the VE and acquire the ability to control their movements in a more realistic/natural manner; and become accustomed with the study’s virtual/immersive paradigms. This training session was divided into two key moments. Firstly, participants practiced (for approximately 15 min) using the gamepad (by performing a number of navigation tasks), while

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visualizing the VE on the laptop’s screen. Secondly, only after the participants stated to be at ease with the control device, did they place the Head-Mounted Display. Training Session: 2nd Phase. After calibrating this device, participants 1st completed a perceptual quality test regarding a series of visual stimuli placed inside the VE, and then trained the same navigation tasks, mentioned above, with both devices. As soon as the participants declared that they felt at ease to continue with the study’s subsequent phases, the training session ended. In order to check for any preliminary indications of simulator symptoms and effects, participants completed the 1st SSQ. In sum, this preexperimental training session lasted approximately 25 min in total, and served to homogenize the study’s sample in terms of its performance plus perceptual ability. Experimental Session. After a 5 min break, participants placed once again the HMD, and the experimental session began, devoid of any dialogue. As soon as the simulation’s contextual narrative was provided, participants performed the study’s visual search and target detection task. Such interactions were video/audio recorded for later analysis. Follow-Up Questionnaires. Immediately after completing the simulation, participants filled out the 2nd/last SSQ (to assess the existence and/or increase in simulator sickness, due to having been exposed to two VE’s over a time period of approximately 15 min in total). After another 5 min break, participants completed the PQ, followed by the VDQ. Once they had completed these two questionnaires, participants were confronted with a video of their interaction within the VE. While analyzing the video of their perform‐ ance, they consecutively and simultaneously filled in the HPQs and APQs for each of the VE’s modules/hazards.

3

Results

3.1 Behavioral Data The data obtained in Module 1 (Overhead Hazard), reveals that 66.7% of the participants complied with the 1st set of AR safety signs, and followed the safety path (see Table 1). Among the participants who decided not to comply with this 1st set, data discloses that half of them complied with the 2nd group of AR warnings. Amongst those who disre‐ garded this 2nd set of signs and decided to follow the dangerous path, one participant took the safety path after the crane/container began to move. Whereas, the remaining participant waited for the crane/container to be immobilized in order to continue on the dangerous path.

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics (Percentage values) for behavioral compliance measures. Module 1: Overhead Decision-making Safety path Dangerous path moments #A: 1st set of AR 66.7% 33.3% warnings #B: 2nd set of AR 16.7% 16.7% warnings #C: Hazard 8.0% 8.0%

Module 2: Conveyor Safety path Dangerous path 75.0%

25.0%

25.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

In Module 2 (Conveyor Hazard), when the participants were confronted with the 1st set of AR warnings, data discloses that there was a slight 8.3p.p. increase in compliance, when compared to the same moment in Module 1. Moreover, the remaining 25% of the participants complied with the 2nd set of safety signs. 3.2 Subjective Data Data obtained from the SSQs exposes the incident of slight simulator sickness. When analyzing both overall body and eye-related symptoms, only the following effects were accounted for: fatigue (25%); sweating (25%); and nausea (33%). After having been exposed to two VEs, approximately 15 min in total, one can infer that although the participants overall well-being was slightly affected, it did not impact their interaction and experience. Regarding the PQ, the gathered results reveals that: participants’ immersion levels were more than very high (Mean = 6.8, SD = 1.3); the VE’s interaction and control factors, as well as its sensorial quality were very high (Mean = 6.1, SD = 1.1); partici‐ pants were rarely distracted by the VE’s system set-up devices (Mean = 6.2, SD = 1.5); and the VE’s level of realism was also very high (Mean = 6.2, SD = 1.0). In what concerns the VDQ, the attained data reveals that the participants found the simulation’s: contextual narrative more than very coherent (Mean = 6.9, SD = 1.2); task compatibility was very high (Mean = 6.3, SD = 1.4); natural engagement was also very high (Mean = 6.4, SD = 1.4); natural expression of action likewise (Mean = 5.9, SD = 1.4); and entertainment factor fairly high (Mean = 5.5, SD = 1.4). As for the HPQs, the collected results indicate that in Module 1 the participants were more than aware of the Overhead Hazard (Mean = 5.6, SD = 2.4), whereas in Module 2 they were only fairly aware of the Conveyor Hazard (Mean = 4.6, SD = 2.6). Regarding their hazard-risk judgments, participants perceived the Overhead Hazard as fairly dangerous (Mean = 4.8, SD = 2.2), while the Conveyor Hazard as simply dangerous (Mean = 4.2, SD = 1.9). The most significant difference between results for this criterion pertained to the severity of injury: participants considered that the Overhead Hazard could cause a very severe injury (Mean = 5.8, SD = 2.6), whereas the Conveyor Hazard’s degree of injury was only severe (Mean = 3.9, SD = 2.2). In what concerns the hazards’ level of salience, the participants found the Overhead Hazard to be more than high (Mean = 5.6, SD = 1.9), whereas the Conveyor Hazard was only fairly high (Mean = 4.5, SD = 2.6).

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Regarding the APQs, the obtained data in Table 2 reveals that the participants found that the AR safety signs were very salient, as well as had clearly identified the hazards’ presence, type and level of severity, as well as the behaviors to be adopted/avoided. In conclusion, participants felt that the AR warnings had highly influenced their behavior in both modules. Table 2. Descriptive statistics (Mean values) regarding the AR Perception Questionnaires (APQs). 6.5 6.3 6.3

6.4 5.9 6.3 Salience Hazard identification Influence

Module 1

4

Module 2

Conclusion

The present paper presents and discusses the framework, as well as preliminary findings regarding a pilot study that aimed to assess the feasibility of a VE prototype that was specifically designed for studies regarding the effectiveness of workplace AR safety signs. In order to undergo such an evaluation, the study comprised of two key moments: (1) it assessed the AR safety signs’ effectiveness in enhancing hazard-risk behaviors and invoking behavioral compliance, by gathering behavioral data on the participants inter‐ action inside the VE; and (2) it analyzed the participants’ subjective perceptions on their overall user experience with such signs and VE prototype, by collecting data regarding simulator sickness, level of presence, overall VE design, as well as hazard-risk and safety sign perception. By analyzing the study’s results regarding the 1st usability test bed, one can infer that the AR warnings were effective in prompting the compliant behavior of circulating on the safety path, and that more than 65% of the participants complied with the 1st set of AR warnings, in both modules. The appearance of a 2nd group of warnings also proved to be significant in invoking behavioral compliance. Thus, the study’s hypothesis for this particular assessment was confirmed. As for the study’s hypotheses regarding the participants’ hazard-risk behaviors, when confronted with the hazards, one can infer that the Overhead Hazard’s conspicuity had a slight influence on the participants’ behavior. However, such findings are inconclusive due to the lack of significant data across the experimental conditions. Subsequently, further testing, with a larger sample, will have to be carried out in order to verify the effect of the hazards’ salience on the participants’ behavioral compliance. Nevertheless, when comparing such data with results gathered in the 2nd usability test bed, regarding the participants’ hazard-risk perceptions, one can infer that the participants had reasonably perceived the hazards’ severity. However, since in Module 2 there was a significant decrease in the participants’ hazard-risk judgments, one can conclude that the AR safety signs did not effectively enhance hazard perception. The

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reasons behind this finding are unclear. Nevertheless, one can infer that such low hazard awareness levels may have been associated to the following motives: that by following the AR safety signs’ indications, participants may have trusted that such a system would keep them from harm’s way; and that by circulating on the safety path, they were devi‐ ated from fully experiencing the hazards’ possible dangers. By analyzing the results gathered regarding simulator sickness and sense of presence, one can conclude that, overall, participants had: a sickness free experience, as well as very high levels of presence and engagement, thereby attesting that they had interacted with the VE prototype in a realistic/natural manner. Moreover, they found the 3D model and simulation to have been coherently and realistically designed. Lastly, when comparing the behavioral data with the results obtained in the APQs, one can infer that the AR safety signs: had a significant influence on the participants’ behaviors; and were effective in identifying the hazard, as well as in informing the participants on which behaviors to adopt/avoid. In conclusion, such a study demonstrated that the VE prototype is adequate for conducting studies on the effectiveness of workplace AR warnings, as well as highlights AR technology as a promising tool to communicate, in a timely manner, safety-related information in complex workplace environments. Acknowledgments. A Ph.D. scholarship (SFRH/BD/79622/2011) granted to Lara Reis de Amaral, from FCT: Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation), supported this study.

References 1. Mayhorn, C.B., Wogalter, M.S., Laughery, K.R.: Analysis and design of warnings in the workplace. In: Wilson, J.R., Sharples, S. (eds.) Evaluation of Human Work, pp. 331–358. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2015) 2. Rogers, W.A., Lamson, N., Rousseau, G.K.: Warning research: an integrative perspective. Hum. Factors 42, 102–139 (2000) 3. Ayres, T.J.: Evaluation of warning effectiveness. In: Karwowski, W. (ed.) International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors, vol. II, pp. 1094–1097. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2006) 4. Laughery, K.R., Wogalter, M.S.: A three-stage model summarizes product warning and environmental sign research. Saf. Sci. 61, 3–10 (2014) 5. Wogalter, M.S., Laughery, K.R., Mayhorn, C.B.: Warnings and hazard communications. In: Salvendy, G. (ed.) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, pp. 868–893. Wiley, Hoboken (2012) 6. Laughery, K.R.: Safety Communications: warnings. Appl. Ergon. 37, 467–478 (2006) 7. Adams, A.S.: Warning design. In: Karwowski, W. (ed.) International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors, vol. II, pp. 1517–1520. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2006) 8. McLaughlin, A.C., Mayhorn, C.B.: Designing effective risk communications for older adults. Saf. Sci. 61, 59–65 (2014) 9. Mayhorn, C.B., Podany, K.I.: Warnings and aging: describing the receiver characteristics of older adults. In: Wogalter, M.S. (ed.) Handbook of Warnings, pp. 355–361. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah (2006)

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10. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, P.D.: World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision (2015) 11. Wogalter, M.S., Conzola, V.C.: Using technology to facilitate the design and delivery of warnings. Int. J. Syst. Sci. 33, 461–466 (2002) 12. Duarte, E., Rebelo, F., Teles, J., Wogalter, M.S.: Behavioral compliance for dynamic versus static signs in an immersive virtual environment. Appl. Ergon. 45, 1367–1375 (2014) 13. Wogalter, M.S., Mayhorn, C.B.: Providing cognitive support with technology-based warning systems. Ergonomics 48, 522–533 (2005) 14. Azuma, R., Baillot, Y., Behringer, R., Feiner, S., Julier, S., MacIntyre, B.: Recent advances in augmented reality. IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl. 21, 34–47 (2001) 15. Craig, A.B.: Understanding augmented reality: concepts and applications. Morgan Kaufmann, Waltham (2013) 16. Bimber, O., Raskar, R.: Spatial augmented reality merging real and virtual worlds. Wellesley, Massachusetts (2005) 17. Rusch, M.L., Schall, M.C., Gavin, P., Lee, J.D., Dawson, J.D., Vecera, S., Rizzo, M.: Directing driver attention with augmented reality cues. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 16, 127–137 (2013) 18. Rusch, M.L., Schall, M.C., Lee, J.D., Dawson, J.D., Rizzo, M.: Augmented reality cues to assist older drivers with gap estimation for left-turns. Accid. Anal. Prev. 71, 210–221 (2014) 19. Reis, L., Duarte, E., Rebelo, F.: Research on workplace safety sign compliance: validation of a virtual environment prototype. Procedia Manuf. 3, 6599–6606 (2015) 20. Ishihara, S.: Test for Colour-Blindness. Kanehara & Co., Ltd., Tokyo (1988) 21. Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E., McHugh, P.R.: Mini-Mental state: a practice method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J. Psychiatr. Res. 12, 189–198 (1975) 22. Guerreiro, M.M., Silva, A.P., Botelho, M.A., Leitão, A.V., Caldas, C., Caldas, L.A.: Adaptação à População Portuguesa na Tradução do “Mini Mental State Examination” (MMSE). Rev. Port. Neurol. 9, 9–10 (1994) 23. International Organization for Standardization: Graphical Symbols - Safety Colours and Safety Signs (ISO 3864-1,2,3,4) 24. International Organization for Standardization: Graphical Symbols - Test Methods (ISO 9186-1,2) 25. Developers, O.: Oculus Best Practices. https://developer3.oculus.com/documentation/introvr/latest/concepts/book-bp/ 26. Jankowski, J., Samp, K., Irzynska, I., Jozwowicz, M., Decker, S.: Integrating text with video and 3d graphics: the effects of text drawing styles on text readability. In: Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1321–1330 (2010) 27. International Organization for Standardization: Graphical Symbols - Safety Signs - Safety Way Guidance Systems (SWGS) (ISO 16069:2004) (2004)

Product Design and Human Work Interactions

Do Zenware Applications Reduce the Digital Distraction of Knowledge Workers? A Qualitative Study Based on Expert Interviews Damian Gerbaulet1 ✉ and Oliver Korn2 (

1

)

Institute of Communication Technology, Ulm University of Applied Sciences, Ulm, Germany [email protected] 2 Offenburg University, Offenburg, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. Applications helping us to maintain the focus on work are called “Zenware” (from concentration and Zen). While form factors, use cases and functionality vary, all these applications have a common goal: creating uninter‐ rupted, focused attention on the task at hand. The rise of such tools exemplifies the users’ desire to control their attention within the context of omnipresent distraction. In expert interviews we investigate approaches in the context of attention-management at the workplace of knowledge workers. To gain a broad understanding, we use judgement sampling in interviews with experts from several disciplines. We especially explore how focus and flow can be stimulated. Our contribution has four components: a brief overview on the state of the art (1), a presentation of the results (2), strategies for coping with digital distractions and design guidelines for future Zenware (3) and an outlook on the overall potential in digital work environments (4). Keywords: Zenware · Human factors · Human computer interaction · Workspace optimization

1

Introduction

Since time immemorial, mankind has been producing inventions and tools of all kinds: technologies and tools which optimize or even automate processes and thus aim to make everyday life easier. Some of these inventions of the recent past, such as computers, the Internet and portable devices like smartphones, had a huge impact on work surroundings. Almost all aspects of our life have become more efficient: work processes, communi‐ cation and even dating [1]. Do these technologies make us “better” people? In any case, the human cognitive capacities do not grow in the same speed as computing capacities [2]. Instead, there is a common fear that human capabilities may not suffice to keep up the pace with computing machinery. Buzzwords like “information overload”, “infobesity”, “Internet addiction”, “Email Apnea” and “Digital dementia” show that the possible dangers incited by digital media are now a core societal interest. However, flaming criticism of new technologies is not a new phenomenon – it is at least as old as the written word. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_12

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Already Socrates rejected the idea of writing down things, as he believed this would ruin human memory [3]. This already illustrates the basic dilemma that technologies which strive to facilitate and enable, actually might also hinder concentration and thus productivity and well-being. A few years ago, the journalist Jeffrey MacIntyre coined the term “Zenware” [4] for software characterized by functional simplicity rather than a diversity of functions. The term is a short form of “concentration-promoting software”, also hinting at “Zen” – a school of Mahayana Buddhism emphasizing rigorous self-control and meditation-practice. MacIn‐ tyre describes how the computer user interface has evolved from the (simple) metaphor of the desktop to the complex cockpit of the digital self. He introduces Zenware applications as a way to visually calm down the computer desktop for the sake of productivity. Accord‐ ingly, the Macmillan dictionary defines Zenware as “software that is designed to block things that distract you on a computer so that it is easier to concentrate on what you are doing” [5]. Zenware is also frequently mentioned in the field of life-hacking, “a strategy or technique adopted in order to manage one’s time and daily activities in a more efficient way” [6]. Examples are the text editors WriteRoom and iA Writer (Fig. 1) which take up the entire screen without any menu or toolbar. This means one cannot change the font, its size, or place images and tables – only saving and printing are possible. The focus lies completely on a writing process free from distractions.

Fig. 1. Screenshot of the writing software iA Writer.

The term Zenware is also used for tools helping users to focus. An example is the software Freedom which blocks the Internet connection for a self-selected period of

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time, thus preventing the user from being distracted by incoming communication – or from distracting oneself (e.g. by surfing the web). The spectrum of these software applications is relatively broad and is increasingly expanded for mobile devices. All applications share a seemingly superordinate interest: the creation or preservation of concentration on one activity and the avoidance of distractions in human computer interaction. The increasing popularity of such applica‐ tions suggests that many users want to ‘regain’ control of their attention. Doing so, they rather rely on self-restriction (voluntary restrictions with the help of software programs) than on self-discipline (will power). One of the interviewed expert states: “You don’t adopt Zenware unless you want a distraction-free experience: the sense of entering a placid, protective space that reminds you of the sacredness of your own thinking, that won’t clutter your screen with unnecessary functionality, that appreciates the value of your attention” [7]. When interviewing the experts, our leading research question was: how does Zenware impact the use of digital technologies in the workplace of knowledge workers? Our contribution has four components: after a brief overview on the state of the art (Sect. 2) we line out the results of the interviews (Sect. 3), we extract and describe strategies for coping with digital distractions and design guidelines for future distractionaware software development (Sect. 4). Finally, we give an outlook on their overall potential in the context of digital work environments (Sect. 5).

2

Related Work

In spite of its growing impact and use, so far there has been little research on Zenware. However, the phenomenon is strongly linked to other fields of human computer inter‐ action (HCI). Several research projects focused on interruptions and attention switching at the computer [8]. These studies have consistently demonstrated the negative conse‐ quences of interruptions of ongoing tasks, including errors, delays, stress, and the nega‐ tive effects of contextual changes (“change costs”) [9–15]. While distractions due to digital media use are a frequent topic in HCI, engagement received less attention. However, with the shift from usability towards user experience, such “soft” factors gain more interest. Cognitive absorption, for example, describes the case when people experience total immersion during an activity. This experience is often characterized by intense pleasure, a sense of control, curiosity, and the forgetting of the sense of time. It is associated with perceived user-friendliness as well as a perceived benefitting from IT (information tech‐ nology) [16]. Cognitive engagement is similar to cognitive absorption, involving curi‐ osity, profound interest, and focused attention, but not the feeling of control over the particular situation [17]. Mindfulness refers to a psychological state of concentration (both on internal and external phenomena) with particular emphasis on focused attention on the present moment [18]. Within the framework of organizational work, the term characterizes the circumstance of being aware of fine details, taking the time for exploration and coping with unexpected events [19].

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The term “flow” [11] describes the optimal experience when carrying out an activity. Some sort of “positive tunnel vision”, which presumably everyone has experienced in one or the other activity – from playing video games to fileting a salmon. Time and space move into the background and attention is focused solely on the present task. A task that is neither too demanding nor too simple, and in the best case, shows noticeable progress. An uplifting feeling that seems to be becoming less and less common in computerassisted work, driven by interruptions and distractions. As a counter-design to a decrease of concentration through an excessive use of connected devices, a burgeoning movement can be observed, circulating under different names: “calming technology”, “slow web”, “conscious computing” or “contemplative computing”. The aim here, is to expand one’s attention span rather than to diminish it, and to replace the sensation of nervous distraction with calm. First impressions can be found, for example, in the form of • body-borne sensors that help to develop a quiet breathing in computer-assisted work (developed at Calming Technology Laboratory, Stanford University) [20], • apps for mobile devices that seek concentration through meditation [21] and • games that help to enjoy a communal meal without digital distractions [22]. The rise of Zenware investigated in this work reflects this movement.

3

Study

The aim of the study is to investigate the forces behind the rise of Zenware, and to derive insights for the future of digital technologies at the computer-assisted workplace of knowledge workers. We used qualitative methods, asking selected experts about their experiences, insights and opinions in guided interviews [23]. The leading research questions were: 1. Which obstacles prevent focused use of digital technologies in the work environ‐ ment? 2. How can Zenware be used appropriately in the area of computer-assisted work? 3. What are the implications for the future use of digital technologies in the workplace? 3.1 Setup The experts were selected by judgement sampling [24]. This method aims to make the best possible selection of “key informants” (experts) in a two-step process: First, a theory-based method was used to create a pool of potential experts. The persons to be interviewed were identified as potential experts by virtue of their position or function (and their associated exclusive knowledge). Within the pool, those experts were selected, who were classified as particularly capable and were available for a survey. The process resulted in the panel of eight experts. In the following, they are briefly presented.

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• Anja Baethge, Ph.D. studies as a psychologist at the Chair of Labor, Organizational and Economic Psychology at the University of Mainz. She studies interruptions and multitasking at the workplace. • Prof. Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, Ph.D. is Professor of Psychology and Management at the University of Claremont and former Head of the Faculty of Psychology at the University of Chicago. He is famous for first describing the concept of flow. • Mary Czerwinski is Head of the Research Group for Visualization and Interaction (VIBE) at Microsoft Research (MSR), the research institute of Microsoft. In her studies, she is involved with multitasking, task management and attention systems. • Abbot Muhō Nölke (civil name: Olaf Nölke) is the head abbot of the Zen Buddhist temple Antai-ji in Japan. Before ordaining, he graduated from the Free University of Berlin in Japanology. In addition to this activity, he published various books on Zen Buddhism as an author and translator. • Oliver Reichenstein majored in Philosophy, German philology and History at the University of Basel. He is the founder and managing director of the Design Agency Information Architects, with which he also develops and distributes the “minimalist” writing software iA Writer (see also Fig. 1). • Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, Ph.D. is the author of “The Distraction Addiction”. He is a senior consultant with a consulting firm, as well as an associate fellow at Saïd Business School, Oxford University, and Visiting Scholar at Stanford University. Pang is concerned with Contemplative Computing and Zenware. • Fred Stutzman, Ph.D. teaches courses about privacy and social media at the UNC School of Information and Library Science at the University of North Carolina. As a programmer and entrepreneur, he develops and distributes the applications Freedom and Anti-Social. • Damon Young, Ph.D. is an Australian philosopher, author and commentator. He is Honorary Fellow for Philosophy at the University of Melbourne. In his book “Distraction: A Philosopher’s Guide to Being Free”, he is concerned with distraction as a fundamental obstacle to freedom. 3.2 Results The results are the experts’ assertions. A complete documentation would overstretch the boundaries of this work. Nevertheless, we want to present some of the key messages in respect to each of the three leading research questions. Obstacles for a focused use of digital technologies in the work environment “Obviously, you aren’t as productive when you are interrupted and you can’t get back on task. […] It has been shown that interruptions and multitasking both cause stress, which leads to other, related, mental and physical problems, as well as lower mental ability to make decisions and solve problems.” (Czerwinski) “We’re not multi-tasking, we’re switching between tasks. And we’re doing it badly, because we take time to regain attention. […] This can cause stress and frustration – we are creatures of rhythm, and constant disruption causes anxiety.” (Young)

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“We are still not sure what the side-effects of personal computers, cell-phones, and so on will be. But certainly we are already suffering from a lack of privacy, of uninterrupted freedom, as a result of these wonderful new appliances. If you care for the quality of your life, you will have to develop strategies to protect your mind from the random incursions of irrelevant information.” (Csíkszentmihályi)

The use of Zenware in the area of computer-assisted work “I’m not familiar with the term “Zenware” but I am aware of movements like mindfulness, meditation and calming technologies. It has been shown empirically that these practices, if done well and for long enough, actually change the way you process information — changes to the brain.” (Csíkszentmihályi) “It’s driven by a desire to eliminate or reduce distraction, particularly in the workplace or while engaged in intellectually demanding or creative tasks. […] Giving people the opportunity to practice focus is always a good thing. And the focus itself improves one’s capacity for intro‐ spection and satisfaction.” (Soojung-Kim Pang) “I’ve seen some of these programs, and they make sense […]. The basic principle is sound: we know we’ll be distracted, so we remove the temptation. This requires two things: a sense of value (i.e. THIS is more important that THAT) and of our own psyche (I know I will be seduced by THAT). […] However, the label ‘Zenware’ is a little misleading. Zen Buddhists often learn, not only to be more aware of their mental states, but to more carefully train them. Like the Stoics, they learn psychological discipline. When we let the program set limits for us, we might be more productive, but we lose capacities ourselves: to be more self-controlled. So it’s a very specific kind of freedom: freedom from (distraction) rather than freedom to (set our own rhythms and focus).” (Young) “I look at people who use this software as people who are fighting back against broken computers. […] They’re expressing agency, they’re expressing control and that is very powerful. Part of the reason why the software is so empowering is that you’re saying to your computer: “I’m the one in control”, rather than the other way around.” […] In the end it comes down to discipline and willpower but it’s not a fair game, it’s not a fair conflict. Because at the same time these companies [like Facebook and Twitter] all have PhDs and psychologists working for them to figure out ways to make themselves more and more addictive. […] In essence the software evens that playing field a little bit.” (Stutzman) “It’s pretty clear, from both experimental studies and one’s own experience, that certain kinds of environmental cues can nudge us to greater focus or creativity. […] The challenge is figuring out what kinds of environments help you: whether you’re the kind of person who is stimulated by the buzz of a coffeehouse, for example, or requires absolute silence. […] I think programs like OmmWriter and WriteRoom bring some of that experience to the computer screen.” (Soojung-Kim Pang)

Implications for the future use of digital technologies in the workplace “Workplace training on the use of technology ought to involve discussion of distraction and its costs – and not just the financial costs. Workplaces should also, where possible, provide spaces for employees to ‘retreat’ to, without wireless, phones, screens, and so on. Niches to withdraw into one’s own company. In other words, freedom from distraction ought to be a more general design principle rather than just a matter for software.” (Young) “I’m no expert on trends in HCI, but I think Zenware highlights the degree to which successful software usage depends on the intent of the user. Zenware doesn’t succeed because it breaks your internet connection or gives you a blank screen to write on; it succeeds because it exter‐ nalizes and mirrors back to users their own desire to focus and be mindful.” (Soojung-Kim Pang)

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“I think the reality is that Zenware is the next generation of computing. […] I think that these programs are really pushing forward and almost pushing back on the notion that we should always move towards something bigger, better, faster. We really need to slow down and think about the extent to which we can design for simplicity, functionality and effectiveness.” (Stutzman)

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Discussion

In this summarizing discussion, attention will be given to aspects that have been mentioned frequently in the survey, or those that contain a new or high-impact view. 4.1 Dependency The minimization of disturbing distractions and interruptions seems to be advisable since they are regarded as one of the most important stressors by most experts. However, it is important to bear in mind that many different factors influence productivity. First and foremost, the nature of the activity: Is it a challenging task that requires absolute concentration? What is the motivation of the person against this background? Is it intrinsic or extrinsic? If it is extrinsic: Is it self-determined or not self-determined extrinsic motivation [25]. It is assumed that a sensation of flow is most likely if the person is motivated self-determined extrinsically or preferably intrinsically [26]. But what if the task at hand is a routine task, or a task which is asking too little or too much from the worker? How fast can progress be observed? And what about the time frame? The dynamics of the workplace lead to changing states of attention that are influenced by a variety of factors, such as the nature of the task, the mood of the person, interactions or circumstances such as time of day, weekday, temperature, noise, etc. [27]. The minimization of disruptive distractions and interruptions is accordingly an advocated (yet not all-embracing) measure in the pursuit of concentration and produc‐ tivity. 4.2 Isolation External interruptions benefit by the perceived necessity of permanent reachability. In this context self-binding has been identified as an effective means to commit oneself to undisturbed, concentrated work on a task and to create optimal conditions by preventing potential distractions and interruptions [28]. Such an intermittent isolation in the service of focused attention is therefore an appropriate self-binding strategy. Employers in the field of knowledge work should examine in detail whether they offer their employees sufficient retreats – both spatially and temporally. 4.3 Stimulation The boundaries of self-determined limitation lie in the observation that liberation from distraction and interruption improves the prerequisite for concentration but cannot

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guarantee it. Against this background, the desire to specifically stimulate concentration was examined. Some experts argue that certain environmental stimuli can be beneficial to concentration and creativity. The perception, whether a stimulus is hindering or conducive, seems to be highly individual. While one person may find focus in absolute silence, the other might prefer sitting in a café or playing music to set a certain surround sound atmosphere. This aspect provides a clue for further studies. In any case, it seems advisable to regularly reflect and assess the own work situation and productivity in regard to what improvements may be possible. 4.4 Digital Technologies Computers nowadays are more than just working tools. They are the main entertainment medium and command center of the ‘digital self’. Private and professional use blur increasingly: Business e-mails are retrieved after working hours [29], while working hours are spent surfing the web for personal matters [30]. The experts did not agree on whether there should be a clear separation of roles in human-computer interaction (“man thinks, computer calculates”) – or if human intel‐ ligence should be augmented by digital technologies. The opinions also diverge regarding the question of whether computers should be better adapted to the users – or if the users need to increase their level of digital literacy. 4.5 Zenware as a ‘Middle Way’ Against this background, Zenware seems to be a middle way. Users seem to be dissat‐ isfied with the status quo, strive for a better user experience, and tailor their systems to their personal preferences and requirements using specific programs. In any case, Zenware is predominantly perceived as a useful concentration aid. While critical voices fear a related ‘outsourced self-discipline’, others regard it as an ‘antidote’ for technologies that do not adequately meet the needs of their users. The experts are also in disagreement on whether an increase in productivity through Zenware entails the risk of weakening one’s ability to self-control or if it even strengthens it. Certainly the use of Zenware, as one expert stated, can be understood as a reflection of one’s own self-commitment to greater concentration and mindfulness – and thus as an expression of the will to control one’s own attention. Clearly, a strength of Zenware lies in the reduction to the essentials. Just as absolute concentration ignores unimportant things of the periphery, most Zenware programs dispense unnecessary functions and interface elements in favor of the very task at hand. A lower cognitive load is also assumed here, which must be investigated further. The high degree of specialization of the programs at the same time ensures a certain openness and flexibility. This gives users the possibility to set up their own system according to individual requirements. Thus an expert advocates to view Zenware programs as ‘life-enhancing tools’, which understand limitation as a means – not an end. One of the experts even regards Zenware as the future of computer development. Several of them advocate a general rethinking. They point out that on the part of those responsible in the companies the understanding of the importance of concentration and

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a (temporarily) quiet working environment often falls short. Therefore, developers and designers should be aware of the interests of the users (Is absolute concentration desired in this task?) and design and optimize their software to the best of their knowledge. A large part of the responsibility lies with the developers of operating systems, since they greatly influence the digital work environment. A conceivable starting point would be turning away from a thoughtless striving to increase efficiency and performance and a return to the basic design principle of ‘less but better’ [31]. Such pausing and reflecting could allow digital technologies to better support their human users by acknowledging the importance of concentration and by respecting the workers’ attention. The degree of unobtrusiveness seems to be a potential criterion for future software development. This seems to be particularly relevant against the backdrop of the rise of “wearable computing”. Here, the possibility to raise the awareness for one’s own behavior, to identify potential stressors and to change habits is given. For this purpose, it would be desirable if not only metric data were collected and evaluated, but also mental aspects would be considered. Whether such and other technologies will be helpful tools or merely entertaining gadgets depends on the question of the right degree of simplicity, expediency, efficiency and unobtrusiveness. These attributes should be further explored in relation to a potential contextual adaption and optimization of the user interface.

5

Conclusion

After a brief overview of the related research on possible risks of frequent interruptions and distractions at the workplace (and their potential circumvention) we presented some of the key statements from the expert interviews. Based on the interviews, we discussed aspects that have been mentioned frequently – dependency, isolation, stimulation and finally Zenware as a ‘middle way’. Rather than summarizing this discussion, we want to present six recommendations for coping with digital distractions and design guidelines for distraction-aware software development: 1. More Mindfulness: Reflection enables insights that in turn can mean less stress and more productivity. 2. Set Priorities: Not every stimulus deserves attention, a stricter selection prevents fatigue and stress. 3. Develop and test strategies for protecting the mind: Multitasking and information processing cost energy – saving resources means acting tactically wise. Workers could divide working hours into time slots which meet both demanding and less demanding activities and requirements. For example, fixed “communication times” could be created for emails and telephone calls, or similar activities could be bundled (instead of switching back and forth between different types of activities). 4. Self-discipline and concentration: the disciplined ability to concentrate is a valuable and necessary feature in the work environment. Whether meditation or brain training – there are many possibilities.

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5. Know and prevent temptations: Some distractions are designed to be as irresistible as possible – software can help avoiding temptations from the start. Distractions (such as social media) should be understood as a ‘snack’, which is deliberately ‘enjoyed’ for a limited period of time. 6. Search, find and use the personal nudge: One of the most promising enablers for deep focus is intrinsic motivation – additionally certain rituals or environmental stimuli seem capable of inspiring concentration and flow [32]. 7. Use and/or create applications that meet the high dynamics of different states of attention in the work environment. Such applications share the following properties: simplicity, expediency, efficiency, and unobtrusiveness. The discussion on the use of digital technologies must not ignore the role of human beings. Knowledge workers should critically reflect their personal patterns of use and take responsibility and control in dealing with digital technologies. The fact that this is not an easy task has been shown by the dynamism of the contemporary workplace, the computer and the Internet against the background of distraction and interruption. The avoidance of distraction and interruption through “digital helpers” may improve the chances of concentrated work, but it is the individual’s will and ability to make use of such circumstances. The self-imposed restriction by software can be interpreted as a signal for the desire of numerous users for a more sustainable use of the ‘resource’ attention. The extent to which this desire of individuals is related to a general necessity should be the subject of future consideration. Limitations. This work is only a first approximation on a subject that requires more research. Without a user study and quantitative data, we could not provide an answer to the extent in which Zenware affects productivity, efficiency or well-being of users. In any case, the knowledge of the risks of distraction and interruption is a first step towards digital literacy in the workplace (and in general). If the first step is realization, the second may lie in taking responsibility and control. Digital technologies open up possibilities and facilitate processes – they expand the ‘performance spectrum’ of human beings. Zenware is, in this sense, not a solution to the problem (of distraction and inter‐ ruption), but a supporting means for the purpose (better concentration) in the form of ‘liberating restriction’.

References 1. Zytko, D., Lingel, J., Birnholtz, J., Ellison, N.B., Hancock, J.: Online dating as pandora’s box: methodological issues for the CSCW community. In: Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference Companion on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing (2015) 2. Moore, G.E.: Cramming more components onto integrated circuits. Electronics 38(8), 114– 117 (1965) 3. Johnson, C.A.: The Information Diet. O’Reilly, Sebastopol (2012) 4. Slate. http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2008/01/thetaoofscreen.html 5. Macmillan Dictionary. http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/zenware 6. Oxford Living Dictionaries. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/lifehack

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Human Work Interaction Design: Beyond Human Factors Arminda Lopes1 ✉ , Pedro Campos1, and Barbara Rita Barricelli2 (

)

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Madeira-ITI, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9000 Funchal, Portugal {arminda.lopes,pedro.campos}@m-iti.org Department of Computer Science, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy [email protected]

Abstract. Human work analysis is traditionally focused on user goals, user requirements, task and procedures, human factors, cognitive and physical processes, and contexts (organizational, social, cultural). In this paper, we aim to introduce the IFIP 13.6 Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) approach to the Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE) audience. The HWID working group aims at establishing relationships between extensive empirical work-domain studies and HCI design. Secondly, it aims to develop a new and harmonized interdisciplinary framework for trans-mediated and smart work‐ places that addresses the core challenge: how do you take a balanced and holistic design approach to improve the work experience in the organization? It aims to engage with and learn from partners’ research in different work domains when identifying key attributes in the effective trans-mediation of pervasive and smart technologies from one work domain to another. This paper also focuses on answering this question to support professionals, academia, national labs, and industry engaged in human work analysis and interaction design for the work place. Conversely, tools, procedures, and professional competences for designing human-centered technologies for pervasive and smart workplaces. Keywords: Human factors · Human Work Interaction Design · Human-systems integration · Systems engineering · Pervasive and smart workplaces · Humancomputer interaction · Internet of things

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Introduction

In a world where just about anything can be connected and communicated in an intel‐ ligent fashion, the work and the workplace environment should both be reconfigured in order to improve the quality of workers’ experience and outputs. Equally, the demand for anytime, anywhere tools gives us opportunities which outweigh by far the challenges to dynamically perform research and design the work, from physically or spatially unusual workplaces, mentally demanding or specifically repetitive work to stimulating social situations. In many organizations, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the application of workplace technologies and how to develop their prac‐ tical use and relevance. In this paper, we aim to introduce the IFIP 13.6 Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) approach to the Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE) audience. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_13

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The HWID working group aims at establishing relationships between extensive empir‐ ical work-domain studies and HCI design. We gather participants from both the industry and academia with an interest on empirical work analysis, HCI, interaction design and usability and user experience in work situations and in the workplace. Secondly, it aims to develop a new and harmonized interdisciplinary framework for trans-mediated and smart workplaces that addresses the core challenge: how do you take a balanced and holistic design approach to improve the work experience in the organi‐ zation? It aims to engage with and learn from partners’ research in different work domains when identifying key attributes in the effective trans-mediation of pervasive and smart technologies from one work domain to another. This paper also focuses on answering this question to support professionals, academia, national labs, and industry engaged in human work analysis and interaction design for the workplace. Conversely, tools, procedures, and professional competences for designing human-centered technologies for pervasive and smart workplaces. This includes the following objectives: • Learning from different researchers’ experiences in different work domains when applying work analysis to support the interaction design of pervasive and smart workplaces; • Exploring how work analysis and interaction design have evolved, have to evolve, and can be made to co-evolve in order to support workers in pervasive and smart workplaces; • Identify novel ideas, principles, and techniques for how interaction design for perva‐ sive and smart workplaces can ensure high quality usability and user experience for workers. • Addressing the sociotechnical gap in work analysis and interaction design, specifi‐ cally the little understood gap between social requirements and technical designs. We know that artifacts such as requirements analysis reports, design models, or prototypes help bridge the gap, but we do not know if, how, and why this helps; • Designing simple interactions for complex work domains. How to be heedful of other agents’ intentions and plan, and how to align one’s own with those of others and with technologies in simple ways within complex work domains? Display and monitoring are traditional activities to support coordination, but this is not enough, and we need to know more about to humans can manage the workers’ user experiences in perva‐ sive and smart work places. The remaining of this paper is structured in the following way: the next section describes the background behind human work interaction design in terms of a framework that illustrates the approach. Section 3 describes the need to move beyond human factors especially in terms of the shifting workplace and how creativity and productivity can be induced by designing better workplaces. Finally, section “Conclusions” summarize our main points and draw some lines for future work.

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Human Work Interaction Design

Today, it is a true challenge to design applications that support users of technology in complex and emergent organizational and work contexts. To meet this challenge, the Working Group 13.6 (WG13.6) on Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) was established in September 2005 as the sixth working group under the International Feder‐ ation for Information Processing specifically the Technical Committee 13 on Human Computer Interaction (HCI). A main objective of the WG13.6 as defined in 2012 is the analysis of this complexity and its relationships between extensive empirical work domains studies and HCI designs [1]. This section introduces the research done under the name of HWID, identifying patterns and its relations to the HWID field and related fields. The challenge that HWID attempt to overcome is that today’s technology change the way we work with pervasive technologies and smart places, shifting often our physical boundaries and our operational modes. From health care, to traffic control, interaction with new technologies, researchers have raised challenging issues for HCI researchers and experts. In line with recent suggestions that HCI should “turn to practice” [2] and do practice based research [3], the utility and merit of defining a field from its published works stems from providing a conceptual frame to organize a variety of issues emerging in recent HCI research. In this paper we take a practice oriented, bottom up approach to a group of HCI researchers’ publication practice by analyzing and synthesizing published works under the HWID heading during 10 years. While some would argue that taking a practice oriented approach entails doing field study observations, we believe that published scientific works also can and, fruitfully may, be analyzed as a kind of practice. Stephanidis [4] states that interactive technologies are entering all aspects of everyday life, in communication, work and collaboration, health and well-being, home control and automation, public services, learning and education, culture, travel, tourism and leisure, and many others. An extensive variety of technologies are already available, and new ones tend to appear frequently, and on a regular basis. Because of this we have to be attentive towards the development of studies that will help the growth of new technologies itself. The scope of WG13.6 is to provide the basis for an improved cross-disciplinary cooperation and mutual inspiration among researchers from the many disciplines that by nature are involved in a deep analysis of and design for a work domain [5]. To support this scope, the HWID framework was developed. In 2008, Ørngreen et al. [6] presented a framework that aims at establishing relationships between the characteristics of humans and work domain con-tents and the interaction during their tasks and decisions activities, individually or in collaboration. Clemmensen [7] developed a revised HWID framework (Fig. 1) in order to provide an easy understandable version of the framework that is applicable across domains. The HWID framework has four parts and a set of lines connecting the parts. The top box illustrates the theories used, the left is the analysis of users’ work and life, in the middle column the artefacts, and to the right the design of interactive information technologies. The box at the bottom indicates that environmental contexts, such as national, cultural, social and organizational factors, impact the way in which users interact with computers

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in their work and life. The lines connecting the left-right boxes illustrate the various relations between empirical work analysis and interaction design activities and products, which are the focus of HWID research.

Fig. 1. Human Work Interaction Design framework [7].

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Beyond Human Factors

Human work analysis is traditionally focused on user goals, user requirements, task and procedures, human factors, cognitive and physical processes, and contexts (organiza‐ tional, social, cultural). For instance, Hierarchical Task Analysis [1] and Work Domain Analysis [4] are used to study goal-directed tasks and to map the work environment constraints and opportunities for behavior. The study of human-computer interaction (HCI) has historically adapted work analysis methods such as hierarchical task analysis to the design of computer artifacts. Ethnographic methods with an HCI perspective have also been used for design. These approaches focus on work as end-user actions performed collaboratively with other people in a field setting: the worker activity is seen as a social and organizational experience. In this context, human work analysis, user experience, usability, and inter‐ action design are interlinked.

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Supported by the continuous advances in pervasive technology, the workplace configuration is now pushed beyond linear logic and physical boundaries. This means that the workers’ experience is becoming more pervasive. The traditional boundary of bodily and face-to-face workplaces dissolves. Instead, new forms of work and collab‐ oration emerge where synchronous and asynchronous interactions occur at different physical and digital levels. For example, for the next many years it will be increasingly common to work in new kinds of workplaces (people work sometimes at home, some‐ times in the office, other times during travel or commuting), supplied by a strong use of evolving blends and merges of smart technologies. This increasingly pervasive character of workplaces and support technologies put on a trial some of the well known and proven work analysis methods as well as the design of the work processes and their interactive tools. Advances in pervasive technology have pushed workplace configuration beyond linear logic and physical boundaries. As a result, the workers’ experience is increasingly pervasive. New enquiries should be carried out on new and not so-new forms of perva‐ sive interactions and collaborations supported by a strong use of evolving blends and mergers of smart technologies. A few examples are Skype, Google Hangout, social networks, telepresence-avatars, chats, cloud services, location-based services, and more. The agency of workers is therefore shifting towards technologies that are increasingly smarter. One example of this increasingly smarter technologies applies to creativity and productivity in the workplace. Creativity is the production of novel and potentially useful ideas for solving problems, developing new artifacts and accomplishing tasks. In organ‐ izations, employee’s creativity can be translated into innovative products, services, processes, systems, work methods, etc. [9]. The creative performance depends mostly on individual characteristics, such as personality traits, cognitive style and creativity relevant skill [10]. In general, people are most creative by intrinsic motivation, i.e. when they are motivated primarily by the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself [10]. Although creativity has some personal trait-like aspects, it’s also subject to influence by other factors such as social-organizational (e.g., job design, teamwork, reward system and leadership styles, time pressure) and elements in the physical workplace [9, 10]. The overall impact factors on individual’s creativity has its core on how they affect (besides its neurological activity), i.e. the experience of emotion or feeling effects on the creative process, in which most experimental studies have shown that positive affect leads to higher levels of creativity, whereas when negative affect has an influence, it is generally negative [10]. Typical physical environment improvements, that positively affect employee’s crea‐ tivity, as suggested by various researchers, include: a non-crowded workspace, presence of plants, the use of inspiring colors on the walls, a new carpet in the office, more pictures and posters on the walls, windows with outside view, privacy, dim lightning, etc. It has been theorized by Ulrich [11] that biophilia, our biological affinity for natural environments, is associated with creative performance, i.e. seeing natural objects decreases work-related stress and affects positively people’s overall well being. A study by McCoy and Evans [12], seemed to confirm what Ulrich theorized, in which they observed that views of natural environments or exposure to natural materials affected positively the creative process. Also, Shibata and Suzuki [13, 14] concluded that the

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presence of the leafy plants could affect creative work positively, and Stone and Irvine [15] observed that windowed rooms with a view to nature seemed to affect positively perceptions for the creative task, however they also verified that any window with a view has the same result. Aiello and his team [16] did a research on the effects of workspace crowding over employee’s creativity, and they concluded that crowding could have negative effects, regardless of crowded subjects interpersonal distance preference, which showed a lower level of creativity than their non-crowded counterparts. Also, Stokols and his team [17] observed that high levels of environmental distraction, such as noise or prolonged expo‐ sure to crowded environments, were associated with less perceived support for creativity at work, and they furthermore suggested that private or non-overcrowded workspaces could have a counter effect, i.e. it could boost employee’s creativity. Steidle and Werth [18] conducted six studies on the effect of light and darkness over creative performance, and they observed that dim lights promote creativity. These researchers claim that darkness stimulates a feeling of freedom, self-determination, and reduced inhibition, which promotes a risky, explorative, and less vigilant task processing style. There is a correlation between creativity-supporting work environments and product innovation performance, in the sense that these work environments boost product inno‐ vation and also enhances the success of new products in the market [9]. Organizations seeking to enhance innovation and new product success can engineer their workspaces into creativity-supporting environments, through the help of the ergonomics discipline, by including several physical elements that can systematically positively affect their employee’s creativity [9].

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Conclusions

There is a need to move beyond human factors in all issues related to human work analysis and human work interaction design. In this paper, we laid out a set of objectives for reconfiguration of today’s workplaces taking into account the HWID framework and arguing for a focus on improving creativity at the workplace. There is ample room for improvement regarding this specific area and part of that comes from moving beyond human factors and considering other principles from, e.g. the psychology of well-being, or creativity support tools and environments. There are increasingly more studies that shed light on human factors influencing workplace productivity. At the same time, the nature of work itself is changing: work is becoming more and more pervasive, ad-hoc and turbulent. Therefore, HWID is an adequate framework for conducting both work analysis and producing concrete interaction design for these contexts.

References 1. Campos, P., Clemmensen, T., Abdelnour-Nocera, J., Katre, D., Lopes, A., Ørngreen, R. (eds.): Human Work Interaction Design – Work Analysis in HCI. IFIP AICT 407, Springer (2012)

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2. Kuutti, K., Bannon, L.J.: The turn to practice in HCI: towards a research agenda. In: Proceedings of the 32nd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (2014) 3. Wulf, V., Müller, C., Pipek, V., Randall, D., Rohde, M., Stevens, G.: Practice-based computing: empirically grounded conceptualizations derived from design case studies. In: Wulf, V., Schmidt, K., Randall, D. (eds.) Designing Socially Embedded Technologies in the Real-World, pp. 111–150. Springer, London (2015) 4. Stephanidis, C.: Design for all. In: The Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction, 2nd edn, pp. 2453–2550. Interaction Design Foundation (2015) 5. Abdelnour-Nocera, J., Barricelli, B., Lopes, A., Campos, P., Clemmensen, T.: Human Work Interaction Design—Work Analysis and Interaction Design Methods for Pervasive and Smart Workplaces. Springer, New York (2015) 6. Orngreen, R., Pejtersen, A.M., Clemmensen, T.: Themes in human work interaction design. In: Forbrig, P., Paternò, F., Pejtersen, A.M. (eds.) Human-Computer Interaction Symposium, pp. 33–46. Springer, Boston (2008) 7. Clemmensen, T.: A Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) case study in E-government and public information systems. In: IFIP INTERACT 2011 Workshop on Human Work Interaction Design for e-Government and Public Information Systems, Lisbon, Portugal (2011) 8. Gonçalves, F., Campos, P. Clemmensen, T.: Human work interaction design: an overview. In: Human Work Interaction Design—Work Analysis and Interaction Design Methods for Pervasive and Smart Workplaces, pp. 3–19. Springer, Heidelberg (2015) 9. Dul, J., Ceylan, C.: Work environments for employee creativity. Ergonomics 54(1), 12–20 (2011) 10. Hennessey, B.A., Amabile, T.M.: Creativity. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 61, 569–598 (2009) 11. Ulrich, R.S.: Biophilia, biophobia, and nature landscapes. In: Kellert, S.R., Wilson, E.O. (eds.) The Biophilia Hypothesis, pp. 73–137. Island Press/Shearwater Books, Washington (1993) 12. McCoy, J.M., Evans, G.W.: The potential role of the physical environment in fostering creativity. Creat. Res. J. 14, 409–426 (2002) 13. Shibata, S., Suzuki, N.: Effects of the foliage plant on task performance and mood. J. Environ. Psychol. 22, 265–272 (2002) 14. Shibata, S., Suzuki, N.: Effects of an indoor plant on creative task performance and mood. Scand. J. Psychol. 45, 373–381 (2004) 15. Stone, N.J., Irvine, J.M.: Direct and indirect window access, task type, and performance. J. Environ. Psychol. 14, 57–63 (1994) 16. Aiello, J.R., DeRisi, D.T., Epstein, Y.M., Karlin, R.A.: Crowding and the role of interpersonal distance preference. Sociometry 40, 271–282 (1977) 17. Stokols, D., Clitheroe, C., Zmuidzinas, M.: Qualities of work environments that promote perceived support for creativity. Creat. Res. J. 14, 137–147 (2002) 18. Steidle, A., Werth, L.: Freedom from constraints: darkness and dim illumination promote creativity. J. Environ. Psychol. 35, 67–80 (2013)

Effect of Driving Context on Design Dialogue Luca Giuliano1 ✉ , Claudio Germak1, and Joseph Giacomin2 (

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Department of Architecture and Design, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy {Luca.Giuliano,Claudio.Germak}@polito.it 2 Human Centred Design Institute, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, London UB8 3PH, UK [email protected]

Abstract. The automotive sector is currently undergoing dramatic technological and sociological advances which challenge the traditional design process, and which appear to require a more intimate understanding of owner needs and desires. The use of a real-time communication link between designers and the people who are in the automobiles could become a key component of an inno‐ vative automobile design process. The research described here consisted of an investigation of the influence of driving context (country road, motorway or city road) on the real-time verbal exchange between a driver and a designer who asked questions about the automobile and driving experience. Twenty university students and staff were recruited for the tests. A psychologically optimized ques‐ tion set was prepared, and was deployed with each participant as the individual drove the simulator on the target road. The research confirmed the dependency on the driving context of both the quantity of exchanged words and their semiotic content. Keywords: Automobile · Scenario · Co-design · Human centred design · Innovation

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Introduction

Like most human habitats the automobile is characterized by multiple perceptions, emotions and social interactions. Drivers and passengers “live” and “socially interact” in their vehicles [1]. Given the sophistication of modern technologies and the complexity of modern social behaviors, it would be simplistic to continue to consider the automobile as an environment characterized mostly by the performance of the driving task [2]. A shift in focus away from “human performance” towards instead “human behavior” therefore appears fundamental to design success [3]. To respond to these challenges the concept of an Automotive Habitat Laboratory (AutoHabLab) has emerged [4]. It is a design environment which involves the real-time application of human centered design methods on the road during actual driving [5]. It provides a “virtual design workshop” between the people in the auto-mobile and the designer working from a control room. Ideally, the discussion can be automatically recorded and transcribed, with the resulting linguistic and numerical information providing a helpful database of design feedback and concepts.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_14

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The real-time nature permits direct customer interactions which do not suffer the biasing effects of time-from-event and difference-in-context [6]. Memory obstacles to the accurate evaluation of customer emotion such as the well-known “fading affect bias” or “event horizon bias” are thus minimized. The real-time nature permits the evaluation of experiences from short-term memory, rather than attempting to recall the events and feelings from long-term memory. The ability to speak with people during actual driving rather than afterwards may prove to be highly advantageous towards optimizing the automotive experience. The resulting database of automatically recorded and transcribed information can be used in various manners, with one of the most obvious approaches being to perform a preliminary Discourse Analysis [7] or Content Analysis [8] on the database. The two approaches provide tools for analyzing and summarizing the interactions between the automobile driver and the designer in terms of semiotic events. In either case, the most obvious first analysis step is to perform a word frequency analysis to ascertain the most frequently used words, and to perform a word correlation analysis to ascertain the most frequently pronounced combinations of words within phrases. The research hypothesis of the study described here was that the driving context (country road, motorway city road) would strongly influence the numerical quantity and the semantic quality of the dialogue between a designer and a person driving an auto‐ mobile.

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Scenarios Selection

Following traditional automotive industry practice [9] the three most frequently encoun‐ tered driving conditions of country driving, motorway driving, and city driving were selected as the basis for the study. For each driving condition a driving scenario was developed which consisted of a series of events involving navigation, route following, traffic lights and automobile control around curves and roundabouts. Each of the three scenarios was developed into a single video sequence of five minutes in length which could be projected within the Brunel University Driving Simulator. The sequence for each test participant was that of the country road video, followed by the motorway video, followed by the city road video. The video storytelling recounted a hypothetical automobile journey from the country to the city center. The idea behind the storytelling was to increase the test participant engagement and imagination. Figure 1 below presents a representative single frame from each video while Fig. 2 provides a schematic description of the “logical structure” or “event structure” of the scenario.

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Fig. 1. Example driver’s view for each of the three driving scenarios.

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Fig. 2. Driving events for each of the three driving scenarios.

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Questions Selection

A set of standardized questions was selected for use in the current study by the designer when speaking with the test participant who was driving the simulator. The questions were intended to be representative of the variety of issues which might emerge during an open and creative conversation between an expert in design, marketing or branding and an owner of an automobile who is driving. A preliminary list of questions was developed and was refined based on a set of criteria which could help towards widening and deepening the conversation. In design ethnography [10] a number of criteria can be applied when evaluating whether a question will help towards providing a balanced and unbiased view of the matter under investi‐ gation. Question frameworks that are frequently applied to question selection in design ethnography include: – Semantic Differential Framework [11]; – A.E.I.O.U. Framework [12]; – Who, What, Where, When, Why [13]; Each of the above frameworks was deployed during question generation and question selection, leading to the final set of reasonably generic questions presented below in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Questions asked to the driver while driving in each scenario.

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Participants Selection

Review of the ergonomic, psychological and sociological literature has suggested that researchers have concluded that the use of 10 participants can frequently be considered

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sufficient for purposes of qualitative analysis [14]. Given the exploratory nature of the current investigation, it was decided to involve 20 participants. A total of 20 University staff and students (10 male and 10 female) were selected. Participant age ranged from 21 to 40 years with a mean value of 27.8. Efforts were made to achieve an equal distribution in terms of the demographic descriptors of gender and age. A constraint which was paced on the recruitment process was the holding of a drivers’ license by the participant The recruitment of participants was conducted internally at Brunel University London. All phases of the recruitment process and of the tests themselves were performed in compliance with the university’s ethics policy and with the terms of the specific ethics approval granted by the university for the study.

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Test Facility

The tests were performed in the Brunel University Driving Simulator which consists of a Jaguar S-type body shell and a Toshiba TDP-T95 projection system with 1024 by 768 pixel resolution and 60 Hz refresh rate. The driving simulator uses three screens of 2.4 m × 1.8 m with a 105° horizontal and 45° vertical field of view. Acoustic speakers reproduce the environmental sound (Creative Inspire 5800 sound reproduction system with 40 Hz to 20,000 Hz bandwidth). The AutoHabLab Control Room is composed of a separate room from the driving simulator itself, and is currently connected to the Jaguar S-type interior by means of microphones. The control room has space to comfortably accommodate up to 6 designers and will eventually be equipped with an extensive set of vehicle dynamic monitoring workstations and driver and passenger emotion monitoring workstations.

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Test Procedure

Upon arriving in the Brunel University Driving Simulator each participant was issued an information and consent form and was provided an explanation of the experimental methods and of the laboratory safety features. Gender, age and driving experience data were then collected, and the participant was requested to state whether he or she had any physical or mental condition which might affect driving performance or driving opinion. Before commencing, each participant was asked to remove any articles of heavy clothing such as coats. He or she was then asked to adjust the seat so as to achieve a driving posture that was as similar as possible to the one normally adopted in their own automobile. He or she was next asked to grip the steering wheel using both hands. Room temperature was from 18 to 22 °C for all tests. Considering all activities performed from the moment the participant entered the laboratory the total time to perform a complete experiment was less than 25 min. The time spent driving and answering questions by each participant added up to a total of less than 16 min, which was considered appropriate in terms of minimizing bias from learning and fatigue effects. For each of the three driving scenarios (country road,

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motorway and city road) there was a setup time of approximately 30 s followed by a driving time of 5 min on average for each participant. A 29 year old male designer asked the four interview questions from the control room in the English language.

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Data Analysis

All voice exchanges between the driver and the designer in the control room were audio recorded, and later fully transcribed. The NVivo software [15] was used as the test database technology and as the analysis engine. NVivo supports quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research by means of a variety of statistical algorithms and logical tools. Of particular relevance to the current study, NVivo provides algorithms, for performing word counts and between-words correlations. It also provides a number of visualization tools such a Word Clouds. For the complete experiment the NVivo software was used to perform a full word count analysis and a full between-words correlation analysis across the complete data set consisting of all the conversations with all participants over all the scenarios. For each individual driving scenario the NVivo software was also used to perform a full word count analysis and a full between-words correlation analysis across all conversations recorded with all the participants in that scenario. While not presented here, a multidisciplinary team of four individuals composed of psychologists, ergonomists, and designers also coded the individual statements and performed a standard thematic analysis [16] of the information.

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Results

Figure 4 below presents the total number of words for each driving scenario recorded for all 20 participants in response to the four questions asked by the designer. The number provided in the figure is the sum obtained by adding all the words expressed in response to each question, for all the questions and for all participants. It can be noted that the city road driving scenario produced the greatest number of words in response to the designer’s questions, with the motorway providing six percent less words and the country road providing nineteen percent less words. A two-tailed normally distributed ANOVA performed across the data set suggested that the differences were statistically significant at a 93% confidence level.

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Fig. 4. Total number of words used by all the drivers for each driving scenario in response to the four questions asked by the designer.

Figure 5 below presents the Word Cloud representation of word usage frequency for each driving scenario recorded for all 20 participants in response to the specific question “What could be helpful in this situation?” which was asked by the designer. It can be noted that the semantic nature of the words changed substantially across the three driving scenarios, with the country road leading to numerous words related to entertainment, the motorway leading to numerous words related to driver assistance and the city road leading to numerous words related to navigation and travel organization.

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Discussion

The research hypothesis of the study was that the driving context (country road, motorway or city road) would strongly influence the numerical quantity and the semantic quality of the dialogue between a designer and a person driving an automobile. The results of the simulator based study would appear to indicate support for this hypothesis. With statistically significant differences of up to nineteen percent in the number of words used by the drivers from one driving scenario to another, the driving context would appear to have important effects on the conversation which can be held with drivers in relation to the automobile. This suggests the importance of scenario definition when designing studies to investigate automobile design under real world driving condi‐ tions. Based on the data obtained in the current study it would appear reasonable to spec‐ ulate that certain driver needs or desires may not be identifiable outside the specific driving scenario which leads to people thinking and talking about those concepts. Knowledge of the workings of the human memory systems [17] suggests their paralleldistributed nature, leading to their responding to simultaneous stimuli from multiple perceptual and cognitive areas. A trivial reading of the current results suggests the need to stimulate contextual cues of relevance to the on-board system which is being designed, if useful customer feedback and suggestions are to be obtained. Co-design and co-crea‐ tion of automotive products appear to be heavily contextually dependent despite the customer potentially having many years of previous driving experience.

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Fig. 5. Word Cloud representation of word usage frequency for all the drivers for each driving scenario in response to the to the specific question “What could be helpful in this situation?”.

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Future Research

The current research study has not investigated the possible effects of driver cognitive loading or driver emotional state on the linguistic and numerical information which can be obtained via ethnographic interviewing by designers during actual driving. These human conditions would be expected to have a noticeable effect on the quantity and quality of the exchanges between the driver and the designer, and are thus highly worthy of investigation. The current research study has also not investigated the linguistic and numerical information which can be obtained when operating an automobile under non-steadystate conditions. Transient maneuvers such as parking, stopping at a junction or departing from a junction might be expected to lead substantial variations in word usage frequency and word semantics. Further, non-traditional operational scenarios such as infotainment system usage while the vehicle is stationary might also be expected to lead to substantial variations in word usage frequency and word semantics.

References 1. Larsen, J., Urry, J., Axhausen, K.: Social networks and future mobilities. Report to the UK Department for Transport (2006) 2. Normark, C.J., Gkouskos, D.: Exploring user needs in automobiles. In: International Design Conference, pp. 1369–1376. Design Research Society (2012) 3. Giacomin, J., Ramm, S.: There’s more to safe driving than information and decisions. In: Proceedings of the Fleet Safety Conference and Awards (2013) 4. Gkatzidou, V., Giacomin, J., Skrypchuk. L.: Automotive habitat laboratory: a facility for automotive co-design. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, Orlando (2016) 5. Giacomin, J.: What is human centred design? Des. J. 17(4), 606–623 (2014) 6. Ramm, S., Giacomin, J., Robertson, D., Malizia, A.: A first approach to understanding and measuring naturalness in driver-car interaction. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (2014) 7. Paltridge, B.: Discourse Analysis: An Introduction. Bloomsbury Publishing, London (2012) 8. Krippendorff, K.: Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Sage, Thousand Oaks (2004) 9. Giacomin, J., Bracco, R.: An experimental approach for the vibration optimisation of automotive seats. In: ATA Third International Conference on Vehicle Comfort and Ergonomics, Bologna, Italy, March 29–31, pp. 29–31 (1995) 10. Hanington, B., Martin, B.: Universal Methods of Design: 100 Ways to Research Complex Problems, Develop Innovative Ideas, and Design Effective Solutions. Rockport Publishers (2012) 11. Khalid, H.M., Helander, M.G.: A framework for affective customer needs in product design. Theoret. Issues Ergon. Sci. 5(1), 27–42 (2004) 12. Chayutsahakij, P.: Human Centered Design Innovation. Institute of Design, IIT Technology, Chicago (2000) 13. Hart, G.: The five W’s: an old tool for the new task of task analysis. In: Technical Communication, vol. 43, pp. 139–145. Society for Technical Communication (May, 1996)

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14. VanVoorhis, C.W., Morgan, B.L.: Understanding power and rules of thumb for determining sample sizes. Tutor. Quant. Methods Psychol. 3(2), 43–50 (2007) 15. Bazeley, P., Jackson, K.: Qualitative Data Analysis with NVivo. Sage, Thousand Oaks (2013) 16. Saldaña, J.: The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. Sage, Los Angeles (2015) 17. Baddeley, A.D.: Human Memory: Theory and Practice. Psychology Press, Oxford (1997)

Should Tractors’ Ergonomic Evaluation Index System in Different Life Cycle Stage be Different? A Delphi Survey Conducted in China Bianbian Qiu, Jiping Zhou(&), Zaixiang Zheng, and Hui Shen College of Mechanical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Huayang West Road 179, Hanjiang District, Yangzhou 225009, China [email protected]

Abstract. In each life cycle stage of tractors, there are many differences in market circumstances, core technologies, user needs, operating requirements et al. Companies must develop different marketing and business strategies to be competitive in different life cycle stages, so do the strategies of ergonomic design and evaluation. In this paper, we proposed 3 hypotheses of tractors dynamic ergonomic evaluation and attempted to prove them in Delphi surveys. By analyzing the survey results made from 15 experts, full score ratio, mean and coefficient of variation were used to select the highly recommended indicators in each stage. At last, 3 different ergonomic evaluation index systems of each life cycle stage were established by Brainstorming and Delphi methods. The 3 different index systems showed that tractors dynamic ergonomic evaluation index system could be established by the method proposed in this study, and there should be some differences in tractors life cycle ergonomic evaluation strategies. The 3 index systems added with optional indicators for specific requirement can be applied to design, evaluate and optimize tractors in different life cycle stages. Keywords: Tractor survey




PLC




Ergonomic evaluation




Index system




Delphi

1 Introduction The definition of Ergonomics [1] implies that ergonomics has both social and economic goals, and is looking for solutions in both technical and organizational domains. Economic and social benefits can be reached if ergonomics is applied, which is demonstrated by Dul and Neumann [2], Resnick and Zanotti [3], Shikdar and Sawaqed [4], Hendrick [5] and Vink et al. [6]. Although many researchers [7–9] proposed that ergonomics can support company’s business strategy to stay competitive, managers in different companies usually associate ergonomics with occupational health, safety and related legislation, not with organizational effectiveness [10] and business performance [7]. The PLC theory proposed that every product seems to go through a life cycle with four distinct stages: Introduction, Growth, Maturity and Decline [11]. Philip and Kevin [12] summarized the key characteristics, objectives and strategies for each stage. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_15

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Although it is difficult to forecast the sales and length of each stage, the shape of the PLC curve, and marketing strategy, the product’s current PLC position can suggest the best marketing strategies, and the resulting marketing strategies affect product performance in later life cycle stages [13]. Companies must be good at adjusting its marketing strategies to the changing tastes, technologies, and competitions as products go through its life cycle. Being a commodity to meet the demands of agricultural producer, tractors have their own life cycle and follow the basic law of development. In each life cycle stage, tractor companies must adjust their marketing and business strategy to the changing market circumstances, core technologies, user needs, operating requirements and so on. Being a part of the business strategy, the ergonomic design and evaluation of tractors in different life cycle stages should be specific and different. The differences may be in ergonomic design and evaluation method, content, criteria, index system, and index weights [14]. Are there any differences between tractors’ ergonomic evaluation index systems in each life cycle stage? What are the index systems like? For trying to answer the two questions, we proposed 3 hypotheses below: H1: Being the key of multi-attribute comprehensive evaluation, tractors’ ergonomic evaluation index systems of each life cycle stage are different; H2: Index systems with highly recommended and optional indicators can enhance their universality and suitability; H3: The highly recommended ergonomic evaluation index system of each life cycle stage can be well established by Delphi method.

2 Conceptual Framework and Research Method 2.1

Conceptual Framework

The comprehensive evaluation index system can be established in qualitative or quantitative methods [15]. The Cluster analysis, Fuzzy clustering approach, Correlation analysis-rough set theory, Neural network algorithm, Principal component analysis, Vague sets analysis, AHP and ANP, Delphi and Brainstorming were applied in different fields to establish comprehensive evaluation index systems. Quantitative analysis methods like Cluster analysis, Fuzzy clustering approach, Correlation analysis-rough set theory, Neural network algorithm et al., are used to optimize the primary index system by analyzing data obtained from the selected indicators. A large amount of data is the foundation to use quantitative analysis method. While qualitative analysis methods mainly rely on practical experiences, background knowledge, subjective judgment and analysis ability to deduce the nature or development trend of things. The later is applicable to some who have none or incomplete historical or statistical data [15]. Based on the 3 hypotheses and analysis of methods to establish comprehensive evaluation index system, the research process with “when”, “who”, “what” and “how” was demonstrated in flow chart below (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Research process flow chart

Decline stage, for market contraction, profit and demand quantity decrease, and other concentrating strategies, companies turned for new substitute product, so the ergonomic evaluation for the decline referred to the Maturity stage to assure them remain in a stable ergonomic status.

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Brainstorming

Brainstorming process is often utilized for solving innovative problems between group interactions [16]. To make brainstorming work well, the Osborn’s original four rules of new idea generation: suspend judgment, anything goes, cross-fertilize and go for quantity [17], should be well obeyed in brainstorming process. At phase 1, after reviewed literatures on ergonomic evaluation method and tractors’ ergonomics standards, five group members from different background of the research were gathered to put forward tractors’ ergonomic evaluation indicators from their experiences and knowledge as much as possible, and then each member picked up several new ones to form a more comprehensive indicator group. At same time, the hierarchy structure of the initial ergonomic index system was discussed and analyzed.

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Based on several brainstorming discussions and negotiations, tractors’ initial ergonomic evaluation index system for Delphi surveys was generated.

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Delphi Method

Expert Panel. The objective of Delphi method is to reach a consensus among specialists on a specific theme in order to create a scenario [18]. It is important that each participant doesn’t know the identity of other specialists during the method processing, purposely to keep the opinions completely formal and impersonal. The selection of participants is a key factor to the success of Delphi process for Delphi survey result depends directly on the specialists’ knowledge and experiences on this topic. Firstly, 21 experts who were selected according to their knowledge and experiences on tractors were inquired about some questions to identify whether they were agreed with the research objective, reluctant to be inquired and better related to the research topic. After primary inquiry, 15 appropriate experts were confirmed for the expert panel and the expert number was in accordance with the recommended number [18]. Among the 15 experts, there were 5 senior engineers from new product development department, 3 senior engineers from manufacturing sector in Chinese largest tractor manufacturing company, 3 experts working as product developing senior engineers in Car Company, 2 professors and 2 associate professors engaging in agricultural machinery and ergonomics teaching and application research. Questionnaire Design and Implementation. To get experts’ attitudes towards indicators in each life cycle stage, there were 3 questionnaires in each Delphi round, questionnaire of Introduction stage index system, Growth stage index system and Maturity stage index system. Delphi survey of Decline stage index system was omitted for the market contracting, profit and demand quantity decreasing, and new product strategies. Each questionnaire contained 2 parts: explanation of research objectives and questionnaire instructions, survey questions. All survey questions designed for each indicator of initial index system were demonstrated as a hierarchical chart with 3 attitudes: Not Recommended, Need Modification and Highly Recommended. Questionnaires data were collected either by e-mail or face-to-face interviews. When receiving the questionnaires, experts should give advices on system structure and indicators according to their experiences and knowledge on ergonomic evaluation, data collection and analysis, and other market and business strategies. After the first round survey, 15 experts’ views were collected and scored in 3-point scale, and then the collected data were input and analyzed in IBM SPSS Statistics 20. By analyzing experts’ attitudes towards each indicator in Introduction, Growth and Maturity stages in first round survey, indicators in second round questionnaires were selected according to the full score ratio of highly recommended (≧50%), and ratio of need modification (≧20%). The highly recommended and modified indicators yielded the second questionnaires, and the statistic results, like full score ratio, mean and coefficient of variation of them were attached. The interval between the 2 Delphi surveys was two months, and the second questionnaires were again issued to the 15 experts. After all the second round

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questionnaires were collected and analyzed, indicators whose full score ratio was above 75%, while coefficient of variation was below 0.3 were selected for the finial index system of each life cycle stage. Until now, highly recommended indicators of 3 life cycle stage ergonomic evaluation were selected and the 3 life cycle stage index systems were established.

3 Results 3.1

Initial Index System Established by Brainstorming Discussion

The initial index system was set to show tractors’ possible ergonomic evaluation indicators as much as possible, and assistant experts to express attitudes towards indicators in each life cycle stage under the index system structure. Many brainstorming discussions about possible indicators and system structure were taken to get a more comprehensive initial index system. The 5 first level indicators were Manipulators, Display devices, Seat and surroundings, Environment and Macro subjective evaluation of the whole interface

Fig. 2. Initial Ergonomic evaluation index system for tractors (Indicators of first level indicator-Manipulators)

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system. The middle level indicators were set based on the function and location of each component. The bottom level indicators were set in 3 parts, Objective, Subjective and Subjective evaluation of components of same type, according to the characteristics of each type, not of each component. As tractors’ initial ergonomic evaluation index system was too large to show, we demonstrated all the first level indicators and the bottom level indicators of first level indicator Manipulators as a hierarchy chart in Fig. 2.

3.2

Results of the Index Systems in 3 Life Cycle Stages

After 2 rounds Delphi surveys and statistic analysis, 3 index systems with highly recommended indicators were established according to the full score ratio of highly recommended (  75%) and coefficient of variation (  0.3). Figure 3 showed the first level indicators and bottom level indicators under Manipulators which were highly recommended by experts for Introduction stage, Fig. 4 was of Growth stage and Fig. 5 was of Maturity stage.

Fig. 3. Ergonomic evaluation index system for tractors in Introduction stage (Highly recommended indicators of first level indicator-Manipulators)

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Fig. 4. Ergonomic evaluation index system for tractors in Growth stage (Highly recommended indicators of first level indicator-Manipulators)

Fig. 5. Ergonomic evaluation index system for tractors in Maturity stage (Highly recommended indicators of first level indicator-Manipulators)

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4 Discussions and Conclusions 4.1

Discussion of the Research Methods

To verify the hypotheses and establish a dynamic ergonomic evaluation index system for tractors in different life cycle stages, a research process with analysis of “When, Who, What and How” was demonstrated and Brainstorming and Delphi methods were selected to achieve the objectives. There were 8 group brainstorming discussions about impossible indicators and structure of tractors’ initial ergonomic evaluation index system. During the discussions, the below 5 aspects were well considered for the comprehensiveness, developmental, and dynamic variability of initial index system. • • • • •

Tractors’ Ergonomic standards, regulations and criteria; Researches on tractors’ ergonomic evaluation methods and index system; The two above of vehicles; Hierarchy of user needs, trends of related technology and others; Requirements alteration accompanied with developing user needs and core technologies.

The Osborn’s original four rules of new ides generation and other instructions of brainstorming discussion were well obeyed in Brainstorming process. In Delphi process, all participants were selected according to their background knowledge, experiences and positive attitude towards this topic, and the participant number was in accordance with the recommended number. All participants hadn’t connected with each other to keep their attitudes formal and impersonal. The 2 rounds Delphi surveys took about 4 months, and the interval between each was 2 months, so the experts had enough time to consider carefully and make choice comprehensively. The valid response rate of 2 round surveys were also 100%. Both the Brainstorming discussion and Delphi method were well implemented in the whole research process. 4.2

Discussion of the Initial Index System

There were 5 first level indicators, Manipulators, Display devices, Seat and surroundings, Environment, and Macro-subjective evaluation of the whole interface system. The second level indicators under Manipulators were classified by different manipulate type; they were Joysticks, Steering, Buttons, Knobs, Pedals and Macro-subjective evaluation of all manipulators. Indicators for each component type were developed in 3 aspects. • Objective indicators Some bottom level indicators could be evaluated by objective method, like length, width, installation location and others of each component. They were easy and suitable to be evaluated by objective method and the evaluation criteria also were objective. The objective indicators of each component were not same for their different operation modes and requirements.

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• Subjective indicators Some indicators like Recognition ability, Operation comfort, Aesthetic and others affected by personal subjective feelings should be evaluated by some certain subjective methods. Although the evaluation results of subjective indicators varied in gender, age, nationality or other characteristics of each participant and were difficult to be quantified, but they were necessary to ergonomic evaluation and comprehensive evaluation. • Subjective evaluation of similar components In each level excluded the bottom level, a subjective indicator which was described as “Subjective evaluation of all” was set to evaluate the interaction relationships between all same type components. When designing human-machine system for tractors, the similar components usually were arranged together in some certain place. Maybe each component was located in suitable place and in appropriate form, while each component may affect others’ recognition ability, operation comfort and accuracy, unity of form and color. So these subjective indicators were set to evaluate the interaction relationship among similar components.

4.3

Discussion of the Three Stages Index Systems

4.3.1 Similarities of the 3 Index Systems By analyzing the highly recommended indicators in each life cycle stage for tractors, 2 similarities were found. • The means of attitude towards objective indicators are significant higher than towards subjective indicators, while their coefficients of variation are opposite. Among all the highly recommended indicators in 3 life cycle stages, the means of attitude towards objective indicators are all above 2.6(3-point Likert scale), and the means of attitude towards subjective indicators are above 2.4, the former is significant higher than the latter. While as to the coefficient of variation, the latter are a little higher than the former although they are all below 0.3. The results show that the objective indicators were more highly recommended than subjective ones and most of the experts have kept a consensus opinion. This may be because that the objective indicators were set for fulfillment of ergonomic standards or legislations, while the subjective indicators were set for achievement of higher user experiences. • In each life cycle stage, the highly recommended bottom level indicators consist of 2 parts: objective indicators and subjective indicators. The bottom level indicators were set for ergonomic evaluation of components in tractor’s human-machine interface system. The highly recommended objective indicators mainly focus on tractor’s geometrical parameters, like heights, width and manipulate force; while subjective indicators mainly focus on user experiences, cognition and expression of the component. They are 2 necessary sides of ergonomic evaluation for each component.

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4.3.2

Differences Among the 3 Index Systems

• The number of highly recommended indicators increased as tractor life cycle went on, especially in subjective aspect. As shown in Table 1, as to Indicator-Joysticks, in Introduction stage, there were 6 highly recommended indicators, 4 objective ones and 2 subjective ones; in Growth stage, there were 10, 4, 4 and 2 subjective evaluation indicators of all same components, while in Maturity stage, there were 13, 4, 6 and 3 subjective evaluation indicators of all same components. The total number of each stage increased and mainly in subjective aspects. • Some indicators were highly recommended in Introduction stage while disappeared in later stage, like Height of knob, the bottom level objective indicator under indicator-Knobs, it was highly recommended and contained in the ergonomic evaluation index system in the first two life cycle stages; while in Maturity stage it disappeared for its lower full scale ratio and attitude means. This also occurred in other bottom level indicators. It showed that although the number of highly recommended indicators increased as life cycle stage went on, the selected indicators

Table 1. Numbers of highly recommended indicators in each life cycle stage (Indicators of first level indicator-Manipulators) Component Characteristic Introduction stage Growth stage Joysticks Obj2 4 4 Sub3 2 4 Sub-a4 – 2 Total number 6 8 Steering Obj 5 5 Sub 2 4 Total number 7 9 Buttons Obj 2 4 Sub 1 3 Sub-a – 3 Total number 3 6 Knobs Obj 3 4 Sub 2 4 Sub-a – 3 Total number 5 11 Pedals Obj 5 5 Sub 2 2 Sub-a – 1 Total number 7 8 Macro-sub5 – – Obj2 = Objective indicators; Sub3 = Subjective indicators; Sub-a4 = Subjective evaluation of all same component; Macro-sub5 = Macro subjective evaluation of all manipulators.

Maturity stage 4 6 3 13 5 6 11 3 4 4 8 4 6 4 14 5 3 2 10 7

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in early stage were not changeless in the following, it maybe disappeared or replaced by other indicators. • By analyzing the characteristic of indicators in 3 index systems, the highly recommended indicators in Introduction stage were mainly focused on tractors’ geometrical parameters, workability and recognition ability of each component; while in Growth stage, more focuses were put on the differences between each component, reasonability of component arrangement and rate of misoperation; in Maturity stage, more subjective indicators like operation comfort, fluency of operating actions, difficulty in first learning and in position feedback of manipulator, were selected for the index system with high full score ratios and attitude means.

5 Conclusion In this paper, we proposed 3 hypotheses of tractors’ dynamic ergonomic evaluation index system shown in Sect. 1, and we explored to validate them by Brainstorming and Delphi method. Based on tractors’ initial ergonomic evaluation index system established by group Brainstorming discussions, 15 qualified experts were investigated to get the attitudes towards indicators for each life cycle stage. By analyzing results of surveys made from the 15 experts, full score ratio of highly recommended option, mean of attitude and coefficient of variation were used to determine whether the indicator should be included in the index system. At last, 3 different ergonomic evaluation index systems of 3 life cycle stages were established by the proposed Brainstorming and Delphi methods. After the research process, we analyzed the implement of the proposed research method and the 3 index systems, then we found that the proposed research method were well implemented and there were 2 similarities and 3 differences among the 3 index systems. So we can concluded that the hypotheses proposed at the beginning were well proved to be true, and highly recommended indicators of 3 index systems added with optional indicators for specific requirements can be applied to design, evaluate and optimize tractors in different life cycle stages. Acknowledgments. This study was funded by a grant from the Research Innovation Program for college Graduates of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. CXLX13-917) and supported by Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops. The Delphi surveys were made with 15 experts from 4 different companies and university that kindly gave their precious time, experiences, knowledge and advises for this research. The authors would like to thank them all for their supports.

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References 1. IEA Council: The Discipline of Ergonomics, p. 1. International Ergonomics Society, Barcelona (2000) 2. Dul, J., Neumann, W.P.: Ergonomics contributions to company strategies. In: Proceeding of the 10th International Conference on Human Aspects of Advanced Manufacturing: Agility an Hybrid Automation (HAAMAHA 2005), San Diego, USA, July, pp. 18–21 (2005) 3. Resnick, M.L., Zanotti, A.: Using ergonomics to target productivity improvements. Comput. Ind. Eng. 33(1–2), 185–188 (1997) 4. Shikdar, A.A., Sawaqed, N.M.: Worker productivity and occupational health and safety issues in selected industries. Comput. Ind. Eng. 45(4), 563–572 (2003) 5. Hendrick, H.: Determining the cost-benefit of ergonomics projects and factors that lead to their success. Appl. Ergon. 34(5), 419–427 (2003) 6. Vink, P., Koningsveld, E.A.P., Molenbroek, J.F.: Positive outcomes of participatory ergonomics in terms of greater comfort and higher productivity. Appl. Ergon. 37, 537–546 (2006) 7. Dul, J., Neumann, P.W.: Ergonomics contributions to company strategies. Appl. Ergon. 40, 745–752 (2009) 8. Perrow, C.: The organizational context of human factor engineering. Adm. Sci. Q. 28, 521– 541 (1983) 9. Hendrick, H.: Good Ergonomics is Good Economics. Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, CA (1996) 10. Jenkins, S., Rickards, J.: The economics of ergonomcis: three workplace design case studies. In: Alexander, D.C., Rabourn, R. (eds.) Applied Ergonomics. Taylor&Francis, London (2001) 11. Kotler, P., Ruhe, M., et al.: Marketing Management, 10th edn. China Renmin University Press, Beijing (2013) 12. Kotler, P., Keller, K.L.: Marketing Management, 14th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ (2011) 13. Kotler, P., Strong, G.A., et al.: Principles of Marketing: An Asian Perspective, pp. 301–305. Pearson Education. Inc., Publishing as Prentice Hall, Beijing (2012) 14. Qiu, B., Zhou, J., Zheng, Z.: Consideration about ergonomic evaluation methodology of agricultural machineries based on the PLC. Chin. J. Ergon. 21(6), 79–82 (2015) 15. Li, Y., Yun, J.: Synthetic research on the theory of multi-attribute comprehensive evaluation index system. J. WUT (Inf. Manag. Eng.) 31(2), 305–309 (2009) 16. Isaksen, S.G.: A Review of Brainstorming Research: Six Critical Issues for Enquiry (Monograph #302). Creative Problem Solving Group-Buffalo, Buffalo, NY (1998) 17. Ramanand, K.R., Krishnanand, K.R., Panigrahi, B.K., Mallick, M.K.: Brainstorming Incorporated Teaching-Learning-Based Algorithm with Application to Electric Power Dispatch. Berlin (2012) 18. Glenn, J.C., Gordon, T.J.: Futures Research Methodology, Version 3.0. Millenium Project, Washington, DC (2009)

Ergonomics Evaluation of a Manual Braking System for Skateboards Uzairulhassan Syed, Manoj Patil, Yueqing Li ✉ , and Brian Craig (

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Department of Industrial Engineering, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX, USA {usyed,mpatil3,yueqing.li,craigbn}@lamar.edu

Abstract. In late decades’ skateboarding, has moved from garages and skate parks to city parks and lanes. It has extended from entertainment into a type of transportation. The skateboard permits the youngster to get extraordinary veloc‐ ities, frequently in abundance of 20 miles for each hour, yet takes into consider‐ ation just restricted directional control. To date, no successful braking gadget has been devised. This study is a comparison between a traditional skateboard and remodeled skateboard with a braking system. Result showed a significant effect of brakes on the users’ performance. The research should give a different percep‐ tion to safety and performance of skateboarders. Keywords: Ergonomics · Manual · Braking system · Skateboard · Stability

1

Introduction

Now-a-days skateboarding is not just a recreational sport or a type of transportation but for younger people it has become a part of their lifestyle. It is found that the skate‐ boarding market was estimated to be about $4.8 billion during 2009 in the world [1]. Last year, International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced that skateboard will be one of the five new sports for the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo, Japan [2]. As is much of the time reported in the daily papers, serious injuries regularly result when over the top paces are acquired or when the kid is unavoidably propelled into vehicle traffic. Are these skateboards safe to use? For some people the answer may be a straight no as they are unstable and thus not safe to use. Skateboard accidents are still a reason for worry among parents, some of who want the government to ban this sport [3]. A few states have as of now instituted enactment denying these skateboards on open avenues. The attainment of an excessively high speed using typically prior art skate boards is hazardous in that the user may fall off or be required to jump off at a high speed to stop the skate board. The user may attempt to reduce the speed of the skate board by dragging a foot alongside or behind the skate board. This method of reducing the speed is also hazardous, since it can cause the user to fall off the skate board at high speeds. This is the reason we wanted to design a manual braking system for the skateboards which is relatively cheaper than those available and much more reliable. We found few private websites who are making some of these

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_16

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braking systems and selling their products which are costly ranging from $150 to $700 (Brakes with Board included).

2

Literature Review

Skateboarding has become one of the transportations rather than just a recreational activity or sport. This can often lead beginners to accidents, some of which may be even fatal. In a typical skateboard, there is no mechanical braking system and acceleration by foot may result in speeds up to 40 mph or more [4]. Normally, traditional skateboarders use foot-brake to completely stop the skateboard. Foot-braking involves dragging a foot along the ground which in turn decelerates and/or stops the skateboard [5]. In 1979, 119 patients went to hospitals in East Berkshire district because of injury while using their skateboards. These patients got injured while riding at different speeds. Generally, the injuries were due to falls by the beginner riders, as the speeds attained were way faster than their ability to control the speed and the direction [6]. Skateboarding became popular among the American youth during 1960s [7]. But the introduction of Polyurethane wheels and some other changes made skateboards perilous. During 1980s Skateboarding in public places and sidewalks was banned in Sweden. Instead of banning the sport, attempts should be made to reduce their use in public places like roads and side walkways [3]. The main goal must be to encourage the riders to enjoy and develop this sport safely. As we all witness now-a-days skateboarding is becoming an increasingly popular recreational activity [8]. Even such sports are always involving with lots of risks and danger, participating in adventurous sports also has many positive outcomes towards fitness and wellbeing. Actually, skateboard is a lot safer than most of the other fatal sports like rugby and boxing. “Skateboards are like cars: they are not dangerous, but the people who use them may be.” [9]. Helmets and other protective equipment may help in reducing injuries to some extent, but will not be effective in reducing the incidents of fractures [3]. Even though the skateboard is considered as an amazing invention, this sport was deemed as an actual danger as the accidents may be even fatal. While riding skateboard, protective elbow and knee pads and helmet to reduce the severity of injuries are seldom used, certainly because of they are pricey [6].

3

Equipment Development

In our experiment, we have used two types of skateboards one is the traditional skate‐ board and the other is modeled by us. In this remodeled skateboard, we are using a reverse braking mechanism. We all know that in a regular braking mechanism the brakes are applied when we press the brake paddle. But in this, it is vice versa i.e., if the paddle is released then the brakes are applied. In this remodeled skateboard, we are using a simple bicycle brake with few modi‐ fications to suit our design. The brake shoes normally are on the inner side of the braking

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system. But we fixed them on the outer side, so that it may act as a reverse braking system (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Apparatus used in remodeling a skateboard

This brake set is fixed on the rare side of the skateboard and the brake paddle at the front side of the skateboard. When the subject presses the brake paddle then the brakes move inwards thus release the wheels free to rotate and when the brake paddle is released then the brakes move outside and hold the wheels.

4

Methodology

4.1 Focus Group In our study, we had skateboarders more precisely beginners and intermediate level skateboarders in a focus group. A total of 15 skateboarders were asked to give their feedback on design changes they want based on their past experiences. Based on their inputs and feedbacks to our survey we had modeled a modified skateboard. 4.2 Participants Twelve healthy volunteers participated in the experiment. The participants with certain health conditions that may limit their performance like pregnancy or any musculoske‐ letal disorders were excluded. All the participants were made to undergo the screening and sign an informed consent. 4.3 Apparatus Traditional Skateboard: The regular skateboard available in the market without any braking system (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Traditional skateboard – Top, side and bottom views

Remodeled Skateboard: The remodeled skateboard with a braking system (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Remodeled skateboard – Top, side and bottom views

Questionnaires: We made a survey for the focus group. We also gave all the partici‐ pants questionnaires after the experiment. 4.4 Independent Variables In this experiment, we identified skateboard as an independent variable. (a) Traditional skateboard – Regular skateboard without any braking system (Fig. 2). (b) Remodeled skateboard – Remodeled skateboard which includes a simple braking system (Fig. 3).

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4.5 Dependent Variables Completion Time (min): It is the time it took each participant to ride through the course from start to finish for each trial. Stability: It is the number of falls over the skateboard during each trial. Heart Rate (bpm): Heart rate was measured using a heart rate monitoring device before and after each trial. Confidence: All the participants were asked to fill out a subjective questionnaire at the end of each trial to evaluate his/her confidence level. 4.6 Experiment Task The task involves participants to ride both the traditional and the remodeled skateboards. We had two trials for both the skateboards. For each trial participants were asked to cover 500 meters’ straight track. The data is collected before and after each trial. 4.7 Procedure Participants were asked to wear outfits they feel comfortable. When they come, the experimenter will give them a brief instruction of the experiment. Then, they will fill in the consent form and the demographic questionnaire. During the study, the participants were given a task to ride the skateboard for 500 m track. The completion time, stability, heart rate and confidence level were recorded for each trial. The main aim of this study was to provide clear results through which we can evaluate which of the two skateboards is safer and more reliable. In this experiment, two different skateboards were used – a traditional skateboard and a remodeled skateboard. For each skateboard, we conducted two trials. The tasks were completely randomized. On an average, each session lasted for about 10–15 min depending on their individual performance. The whole experiment lasted around 1 h.

5

Result

A paired t-Test was performed to scrutinize both skateboards. Table 1 summarized the significant effects for performance measures. Table 1. Significant effect for the performance measures Dependent variable Completion time (min) Stability (No. of falls) Heart rate (bpm)

t value 7.03 7.43 6.10

p value foresight) quickly and easily (usability: learnability; understandability; operability; attractiveness …), with a smile on their faces (satisfaction) and a “wow” in their minds. These factors have been used as a tool for the development of user experience design (UXD) and interaction design (IxD) [26–29].

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We constructed a narrative directed towards potential users inviting them to be part of the community of inspædiers: inspiring experiences “to be innovation together” is the Inspædia ethos; welcome to the world of possible dreams; be inspired by a memorable experience in a new landscape of cultural reflection and influence; for the Ones who are shaping the future; your next move to take part in a meaningful and playful inspiration experience (see Figs. 3a, b, 4a, b, 5a below).

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Fig. 3. Inspædia landing page (pages 1 and 2). Source: Authors, 2017.

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Fig. 4. Inspædia landing page (pages 3 and 4). Source: Authors, 2017.

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Fig. 5. Inspædia landing page and “get inspired”. Source: Authors, 2017.

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We defined two viewing and interaction modes: MAP (Figs. 5b, 6a, b, 7a) and TIMELINE, which encourage non-linear thought, productive thought (high creativity) and inspiration through the Inspædia content, and we completed the user experience with 3 essential functionalities: TRAIL(S) (Figs. 7b, 8a), COLLECTION(S) (Fig. 8b) and SEARCH. We invited a small group of content curators (who had the skills profiles

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Fig. 6. Inspædia content view and content info. Source: Authors, 2017.

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Fig. 7. Inspædia content file and “MY TRAIL”. Source: Authors, 2017.

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Fig. 8. Inspædia “WE /TRAILS” and “MY COLLECTIONS”. Source: Authors, 2017.

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needed to identify, relay and produce content descriptions) and we defined the strategy for expanding content curators in number and diversity of interests and references.

3 Results It is still too soon to announce the results of the community of inspædiers’ user experiences, taking into account that at the time this article was written the Inspædia platform was only accessible to a small group of users – the researchers directly involved in the project, the postdoctoral supervisor team and some content curators. The feedback received from the various presentations, seminars, workshops, and scientific publications has been very positive. We will soon be able to say that Inspædia has become a viral “social belonging”. Acknowledgements. CITAD – Centro de Investigação em Território, Arquitetura e Design, Universidades de Lusíada, Portugal; CIAUD – Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura, Urbanismo e Design, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal; CAPES, Programa Ciência sem Fronteiras, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Design, UFRGS – Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA-LINCS, Portugal. This research is financed by a fellowship from CAPES/Brazil Ref. A025_2013 and by national funds from the FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, within the scope of the project UID/AUR/04026/2013.

References 1. Maldonado, P.: Inovação, Design et cetera (Innovation, Design and so on). Ph.D. Dissertation, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (2012) 2. Kubler, G.: The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things, 1st edn. Yale University Press, New Haven (1962) 3. Kao, J.: Jamming: The Art and Discipline of Business Creativity. Harper Business, New York (1997) 4. Moggridge, B.: Designing Interactions. MIT Press, Cambridge (2007) 5. Green, E.N.: Anywhere: How Global Connectivity is Revolutionizing the Way We Do Business, 1st edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2009) 6. Rodrigues, J.N.: Jamming com o professor Kao (Jamming with Professor Kao). Executive Dig. 2(23), 74–75 (1996) 7. Castells, M.: The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on Internet, Business, and Society. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2001) 8. Maldonado, P.: Design: uma visão estratégica (Design: a strategic vision). M.sc. Dissertation, Universidade do Porto (1997) 9. Prahalad, D., Sawhney, R.: Predictable Magic: Unleash the Power of Design Strategy to Transform Your Business, 1st edn. Wharton School, Philadelphia (2010) 10. Tucker, R.B.: Driving Growth Through Innovation: How Leading Firms are Transforming Their Futures, 2nd edn. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, San Francisco (2008) 11. Neumeier, M.: The Designful Company: How to Build a Culture of Nonstop Innovation: A Whiteboard Overview. New Riders, Berkeley (2009)

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12. Sundelin, A.: Forget your customers and develop innovative business models. Hard Copy (1), 14–17 (2011) 13. Tapscott, D., Williams, A.D.: Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. Portfolio, New York (2006) 14. Shaughnessy, H.: Eric Von Hippel on innovation. Hard Copy (1), 18–19 (2011) 15. Tucker, R.B.: Driving Growth Through Innovation: How Leading Firms are Transforming Their Futures, 2nd edn. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, San Francisco (2008) 16. Martin, C.: The Digital Estate: Strategies for Competing, Surviving and Thriving in an Internetworked World. McGraw-Hill, New York (1997) 17. Brown, T.: Change by Design: How Design Thinking Transforms Organizations and Inspires Innovation, 1st edn. Harper Collins, New York (2009) 18. Drucker, P.: Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Practice and Principles, 1st edn. Harper & Row, New York (1985) 19. Welling, H.: Four mental operations in creative cognition: the importance of abstraction. Creative J. 2–3, 163–177 (2007) 20. Eco, U.: The Vertigo of Lists. MacLehose, London (2009) 21. Maeda, J.: The Laws of Simplicity. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (2006) 22. Sullivan, L.H.: The tall office building artistically considered. Lippincott’s Mag. 57, 403– 409 (1896) 23. Rams, D.: Ten Principles for Good Design. https://www.vitsoe.com/eu/about/good-design (2016). Accessed 8 Mar 2017 24. Esslinger, H.: Design and Emotion (2006). http://www.design-emotion.com/2006/08/15/ getting-emotional-with-hartmut-esslinger/. Accessed 8 Mar 2017 25. Maldonado, P., et al.: Inspædia: [almost] everything about simplicity, playfulness and inspiration. In: Soares, M., et al. (eds.) Advances in Ergonomics Modeling, Usability & Special Populations, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 486, pp. 231– 243. Springer, Cham (2016). doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41685-4_21 26. Maldonado, P., Teixeira, F., Silva, F.M., Ferrão, L., Ermida, P., Passos, M.: Inspædia user experience design (UXD). In: Procedia Manufactoring, 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE 2015) and the Affiliated Conferences, vol. 3, pp. 6044–6051 (2015). doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.727 27. Maldonado, P., Silva, F.M., Gonçalves, F.: Inspædia, inspiring a collaborative intelligence network: designing the user experience. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Marek, T. (eds.) Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics AHFE 2014, Kraków, Poland 19–23 July 2014, pp. 463–472 (2014) 28. Maldonado, P., Ferrão, L.: Inspædia: uma Rede de Inteligência Colaborativa Inspiradora (Inspaedia: a Collaborative Intelligence Network). Actas de Diseño – III Congreso Latinoamericano de Enseñanza del Diseño, Año VIII, vol. 15, pp. 193–197. Universidad de Palermo, Buenos Aires (2013) 29. Maldonado, P.: Strategic design: an innovation and design process flowchart. In: CIPED VI Congresso Internacional de Pesquisa em Design Livro de Resumos. CIPED VI Congresso Internacional de Pesquisa em Design, pp. 292–293. CIAUD, Lisbon (2011)

White Space in Editorial Design Elisabete Rolo ✉ (

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CIAUD – Centro de Investigação em Arquitectura, Urbanismo e Design, Faculdade de Arquitectura, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. This reflection on white space in editorial design is due to the fact that we consider this aspect of particular importance and we think that it is often forgotten and treated as an acquired fact. We consider white space as one of the primordial elements of design, insofar as it is through contrast that perception becomes possible, and if there is printed matter, there will always have to be corresponding white. We characterize the white space, according to the formal configuration and the function, and we try to understand it through the brief anal‐ ysis of three works by Sebastião Rodrigues, an important Portuguese designer. We reinforce the need of white space, in the accelerated and hyper-populated society we live in, as a means of achieving silence and emptiness. Keywords: Editorial design · White space · Expressivity · Readability

1

Introduction

The white, or the absence of printed matter in editorial design, is taken for granted, and there’s little reflection about it. We give importance to the graphic elements, their sizes, proportions, relationships and layouts, but we seldom think about the support as an element as important as the shapes which rest on it. Therefore, we consider pertinent to focus this study on the white space. If we make an analogy between graphic and musical composition, we observe that, like in music there are moments of silence which give meaning to the sounds, in editorial design there is white, which indicates pause, marks stopping moments and makes the visual elements understandable and expressive. It is not by chance that the paragraph indication is done by a white space, or that the noblest pages of a book contain a large amount of white (or empty) space, e.g., the frontispiece, the title page and some sepa‐ rators. As Bringhurst tells us, “Sizing and spacing type, like composing and performing music or applying paint to canvas, is largely concerned with intervals and differences” [1]. These intervals are given precisely by the white of the page. Likewise, Bringhurst also states “Perhaps fifty per cent of the character and integrity of a printed page lies in its letterforms. Much of the other fifty per cent resides in its margins.” [2], which, again, considers white space as having the same degree of importance as graphics.

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Editorial Design: Typographic Elements and White Space

In the scope of editorial design and typography, we can consider that there are four types of elements. Besides the macro and microtipography referred by Hochuli [3], we can also consider the mesotipography and the paratipography – concepts introduced by Stöckl [4]. Microtipography, or detail typography, is linked to the individual components – letters, space between letters, words, space between words, lines and leading and columns of text. Macrotipography – or typographic layout – is related to the format, size and position of text columns and illustrations, and with the definition of hierarchies for headings, subheadings, texts, captions, etc. [5]. Mesotipography, in the sense of Stöckl, presents some common points with microtipography. It is related to the configuration of typographic signs in lines and blocks of text, considering elements such as spacing between words and lines, the amount of printing on a page (and its composition), typo‐ graphic alignments and also position and direction of the lines, as well as the combination of typefaces. Paratipography relates to the materials, instruments and techniques used to produce graphic objects. It concerns with the quality of materials or media, such as paper, for example [6]. Similarly, we can also consider that white space is classified into four groups, which can be called micro-white space, macro-white space, meso-white space and para-white space. Among these four types of white space, the ones that we consider most pertinent to this study are the micro white space – present between the smallest elements, such as characters, and between the lines – and the macro-white space – among the main graphic elements, such as text columns, paragraphs, or margins. If we analyse white space from the function point of view, we can consider that there are two types: the passive and the active. The passive white space is the one that occurs more naturally and is related to the micro white space – being present, for example, in the leading and kerning. The active white space is inserted in a more intentional way, with the purpose of creating emphasis, structuring and determine certain flows of reading [7].

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Micro or Passive – White Space

Although having a less affirmative function in editorial design, micro-white space or passive white space, plays a fundamental role in it. If we consider the type characters – the most elemental typographic unit – the form only exists as opposed to the counterform. In other words, white spaces allow the delimitation of forms and determine the visual characteristics inherent to each typeface. As Gerrit Nordzij states, “the relation between form and counterform, (…) which in writing is equivalent to the relation between black and white, is the basic foundation of perception” [8]. And “writing is based on the relative proportions of the word’s white. The various types of writing, with their various constructions and their various shapes, can only be compared to each other in the terms of the white of the words (…)” [9], being “the white of the word (…) the only tool to keep letters together” [10].

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In the same way, Gerard Unger also reinforces this importance of white space: “Letterforms are not the only things that enable us to read. Just as important for legibility are the spaces between and within the individual letters and words (…). If you design types, you also design their spaces” [11]. Indeed, because of this assumption, defining font spacing is one of the most important type designer’s tasks, and the calculation of these spaces is not done by computer programs or mathematical formulas, it is defined through the typographer’s look and sensibility, taking into account that there must be a relation between the interior spaces of the letters and the spaces around them. In this process (called fitting), each character must be given the space to ensure that all characters, regardless of the order in which they appear in the text, will create a uniform pattern, not a text that appears too tight or too wide [12]. All efforts, therefore, go towards Mathew Carter’s famous statement: “Type is a beautiful group of letters, not a group of beautiful letters.” The intervention of the designer as typefaces’ user also contributes to this aspect. The essence of his work lies in the proper distribution of white space between the various elements. Most of the typographic rules (which can be learned) go precisely in this sense. It is the case of spaces between letters and words, leading, and above all, the correct spacing of prominent texts (headings, for example), in order to form harmonious groups of letters and words. The idea of the micro or passive white space, as a discrete and reading facilitator element, also leads us to the “invisibility” of the text, defended by Beatrice Warde in The Crystal Gobelet [13], published in 1932. In this text, Warde defends the idea that typography should not be interposed between the reader and the text, but rather must, as a crystal glass, be a transparent container. In the same line of thought, Robert Bring‐ hurst also states that typography should be like a transparent statue [14], which abdicates the attention of the reader to enable the act of reading.

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Macro or Active – White Space

In the graphic design practise, the most visible aspect is the one related to the expres‐ sivity, given through the manipulation of macro active white space. This expressivity can be divided essentially into two types: one related to harmony, balance, comfort and reading flow (following the concept of micro white space), and another related to contrast, asymmetry and the drawing attention to certain elements. The use of active macro white space to achieve harmony grants balance and legibility to the pages. These pages will always have an inherent expressivity, but the final purpose is not the expressive affirmation. However, we should not deem that this kind of use is of less importance (though often considered less creative), because it comprises prop‐ erties that make a work pleasant or unpleasant to read, as Bringhurst describes: “The page is a piece of paper. It is also a visible and tangible proportion, silently sounding the thoroughbass of the book. On it lies the textblock, which must answer to the page. The two together – page and textblock – produce an antiphonal geometry. That geometry alone can bond the reader to the book. Or conversely, it can put the reader to sleep, or put the reader’s nerves on edge, or drive the reader away [15].

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In this context, the active macro white space lies in the margins, in the space between columns, in the space between images and texts and in the spaces between the various hierarchical components of the text. A very useful resource to define and keep constant these parameters is the grid, a tool widely studied and explored in graphic design. It is in the balance of all the elements – interdependent among each other and in relation to the format – that resides the quality of a graphic object, according to readability. Or, as Bringhurst epitomizes: “Think of the blank page as alpine meadow, or as the purity of undifferentiated being. The typographer enters this space and must change it. The reader will enter it later, to see what the typographer has done. The underlying truth of the blank page must be infringed, but it must never altogether disappear - and whatever displaces it might well aim to be as lively and peaceful as it is” [16]. The concepts of contrast and asymmetry were especially developed in the beginning of the twentieth century, with the Bauhaus and New Typography, which brought about a greater depuration of typography and editorial design. By then, designers began to attribute more expressive character to the pages, through the asymmetry in the arrange‐ ment of elements, the use of simple geometric shapes and sans serif typography. And in this context, white space has gained a more prominent role (along with the graphic elements), assuming itself as a factor of expressivity in a more conscious and affirmative way, not determined by the rules of readability, but by the designer’s creativity.

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White Space in Sebastião Rodrigues’s Work

To illustrate what we have been referring to, we will focus on some works by the designer Sebastião Rodrigues – a major name in the Portuguese graphic design history. We show, therefore, cases in which the micro-white space is assumed as the main factor to be controlled, others in which the objective of the macro white space is to achieve harmony and readability and others where the purpose is the expressivity, through the asymmet‐ rical placement of the elements. In Sebastião Rodrigues’s work there is a great concern with the micro-white space, mainly in headings (of posters or publications), in which the designer corrected the spacing meticulously. Having developed the profession in a pre-computer age, he used to cut out and glue letters into small pieces of cardboard, to photograph and produce the artwork. Figures 1 and 2 shows us posters designed by Sebastião Rodrigues for the Monastery of Batalha, where we can observe the micro-spacing aspects we referred. The letters cut and pasted into cardboard, allow the handling and positioning in the correct place, to achieve the perfect composition. In some of these cases, there was also a change in the character design and even its overlap.

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Fig. 1. Poster “Música no Mosteiro da Batalha”, 1981, 48 × 68.2 cm, Mosteiro da Batalha, Museu do Mosteiro de Santa Maria da Vitória. (Source: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Art Library, Author’s photo).

Fig. 2. Poster “Imaginária Medieval” (Exposição), 1984, 50.°— 70 cm, Mosteiro da Batalha, Museu do Mosteiro de Santa Maria da Vitória. (Source: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, ArtLibrary, Author’s photo).

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Considering harmony and readability, we can see how the macro white space can be used, observing the work “O Papel-Moeda em Portugal” (Paper-Money in Portugal) [Fig. 3].

Fig. 3. Book “O Papel-moeda em Portugal”, 1985. 28.5 × 31.5 cm, Banco de Portugal. 502 p. (Source: Author’s photo).

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In this work, in addition to the first pages, there are three main typologies of pages that convey different information: main text pages, secondary text pages and pages with images and their descriptions. The format of the book is 28.5 × 31.5 cm and has a symmetrical grid, in which the outer margins are bigger than the interior ones, existing in the outer margin a column reserved for the notes. All page typologies present a large amount of white, letting the graphic elements “breathe”. In addition to the function of establishing favourable conditions for reading, this white space gives prominence to text blocks and especially to images, which appear in colour on almost empty pages. This large amount of white also conveys to the object the idea of quality and luxury. In the work “Museus Porquê?” (Why Museums?) [Fig. 4] we can observe the use of the macro active white space in a more intentional way, with texts arranged in an expressive and communicative way, varying the elements scales and exaggerating some of them. White is here assumed as an expressive surface in contrast to the black of typography. In this work there is a large amount of white, but it doesn’t appear as luxurious as “O Papel-Moeda em Portugal” (The Paper Money in Portugal), partly due to the small format (17 × 17 cm) and to the irreverent arrangement of the elements. It is a publication that provides a rhythmic and interesting reading that stimulates curiosity and arrests the reader. This is essential considering the topic. It is intended to captivate public for museums, so the graphic object has to contradict the preconceived idea that museums are too serious and boring places.

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Final Remarks

We can therefore conclude that white space always plays a major role in the communi‐ cation, regardless the scale in which it is used and the communicative strategy of the graphic object. However, to think of white as matter, reminds us about movable type, in which, like the characters, the whites were made of metal pieces, differentiated only by a bas-relief (not to be printed). In this sense, we must mention the poster that Sebastião Rodrigues designed using typographic whites (printing them), achieving an abstract texture, designed to promote a series of conferences [Fig. 5]. Since graphic design and its effectiveness depends on the rhythm, we can consider the white or the emptiness the element that allows to mark cadences and to define speeds and stops, through the contrast. It is not by chance that several authors establish parallels between music and typographic relations. From another perspective, and considering the crowded with messages world we live in, focusing the attention on the blank or empty space in pages may be an interesting communication strategy. Our society is experiencing an accelerated time where there is little room for contemplation and silence. A page in which the white assumes a more notorious presence can be an important opposition, not only as a requirement to the ideal conditions for reading, but also as a philosophical attitude. It is no coincidence that nowadays so many talk about life-deceleration strategies, such as meditation, mindful‐ ness or slow food, for example. The world is becoming aware that it needs time, space

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Fig. 4. Brochure “Museus Porquê?”, 1972, 17 × 17 cm, MNAA, 20 p. (Source: Author’s photo).

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Fig. 5. Poster “Para uma Compreensão do nosso Tempo”, 1969, 44.1 × 44.1 cm, MNAA. (Source: Author’s photo).

and emptiness. The white in the graphic design intends to be a little of that space and emptiness, because, as Kenya Hara states, “‘There is emptiness’ in white, and there is also ‘white’ in emptiness” [17]. Acknowledgements. The Author gratefully acknowledges the support to this paper presentation by CIAUD, only possible by National Funds by FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Portugal.

References 1. Bringhurst, R.: The Elements of Typographic Style, p. 145. Hartley & Marks Publishers, Point Roberts [1992] (2004) 2. Bringhurst, R.: The Elements of Typographic Style, p. 165. Hartley & Marks Publishers, Point Roberts [1992] (2004) 3. Hochuli, J.: Detail in Typography, p. 7. Hyphen Press, London (2009) 4. Stöckl, H.: Typography: body and dress of a text—a signing mode between language and image. Vis. Commun. 4, 76–91 (2005). http://www.signographie.de/cms/upload/pdf/ stoeckl_viscom_05_typo_final.pdf 5. Hochuli, J.: Detail in Typography, p. 7. Hyphen Press, London (2009) 6. Stöckl, H.: Typography: body and dress of a text—a signing mode between language and image. Vis. Commun. 4, 76–91 (2005). p. 82. http://www.signographie.de/cms/upload/pdf/ stoeckl_viscom_05_typo_final.pdf 7. Soegaard, M.: The Power of White Space. https://www.interaction-design.org 8. Noordzij, G.: O Traço: Teoria da Escrita, p. 15. Blucher, São Paulo (2013) 9. Noordzij, G.: O Traço: Teoria da Escrita, p. 15. Blucher, São Paulo (2013) 10. Noordzij, G.: O Traço: Teoria da Escrita, p. 14. Blucher, São Paulo (2013)

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11. Unger, G.: While You Are Reading, p. 149. Mark Batty Publisher, New York (2007) 12. Unger, G.: While You Are Reading, p. 149. Mark Batty Publisher, New York (2007) 13. Warde, B.: The crystal goblet or printing should be invisible. In: Typographers on Type, pp. 73–77. W.W. Norton & Company, New York and London (1995) 14. Bringhurst, R.: The Elements of Typographic Style, p. 17. Hartley & Marks Publishers, Point Roberts [1992] (2004) 15. Bringhurst, R.: The Elements of Typographic Style, p. 145. Hartley & Marks Publishers, Point Roberts [1992] (2004) 16. Bringhurst, R.: The Elements of Typographic Style, p. 61. Hartley & Marks Publishers, Point Roberts [1992] (2004) 17. Hara, K.: White, p. 50. Lars Müller Publishers, Zurich [2010] (2017)

Strategic Design: Enhancing Experiences and Developing Local Products Pablo Bezerra ✉ , Amilton Arruda, Theska Laila, and Isabela Moroni (

)

PPG-Design, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. da Arquitetura, S/n - Campos Universitários, Recife, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. The contemporary world, marked by competitiveness, demands that companies and managers are increasingly able to understand the market and offer products and services that not only meet the needs, but also try to exceed expect‐ ations. In this context, emerges the idea that companies should design not only goods, but Product-Service Systems, which encompass, in addition to offers, communication, people and their experiences. In order to better shape the offer‐ ings, deliver value to the public and generate a sustainable development for the entire productive chain, Strategic Design and Branding emerge as theories with great potential, which present themselves as projetual and management approaches, respectively, capable of identifying and seizing opportunities. This paper intends to reflect on how Strategic Design and Branding have the potential to develop and promote solutions that enhance and value the user’s experience through a well-made product that brings recognition and revenue to its place of origin. Keywords: Strategic Design · Branding · User experience · Local product · Regional development

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Introduction

Over time, people build and consolidate cultural patrimonies that later define them and are expressed in their economic and social productions. These representations, as a result, become goods of high symbolic value and are beginning to be increasingly esteemed in the contemporary world, where the high supply of products and services demand from the manufacturers the search for differentiation. In this context, local products emerge as a unique and crucial offer for the prosperity of both producers and their communities. As stated by Krucken [1], valuing the local product means bringing prosperity to its home territory, fostering the benefit of a network of agents involved, from the producing community to the users themselves. According to the author, this process happens as the product “tells the story” of the region, becoming an expression of its identity and enabling the consumer to see and appreciate them differently, under‐ standing them as unique, special. It is also important as the consumer perceives the product as something that contributes to the quality of life of the people who worked to produce that good and/or inhabit that locality. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_45

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In a context of high competitiveness, where companies and territories must seek prosperity through offers of high perceived value, it is increasingly important that the creation of enterprises and products be done in a strategic way, that is, considering “what you want to be “and” where you want to go”, as well as what resources are available and necessary to achieve that purpose. Thus, increases the need to design better solutions to everyday problems and new opportunities to reach and captivate individuals. Design was consolidated in the 20th century as an important activity for the identification and solution of people’s daily problems, and the designer became a professional with a differentiated ability to read situations and create alternatives. However, in the last decades the profession has suffered with an erroneous interpretation of its main qualities and purposes, being understood as an activity fundamentally related to esthetic inter‐ ventions. That notion became increasingly popular with the help of the media and the “uninformed” agents of the market that began to add the term “Design” to evoke style [2]. Understanding, however, that this notion should be changed and that organizations needed to understand the real potential of Design and its professionals, began at the end of the century movements and studies that aimed to understand and systematize ways of how the area could help organizations at different levels and market segments. Thus, the disciplinary and intellectual foundations of Design Management and Strategic Design, the latter based on the studies carried out by researchers from the Politecnico di Milano in Milan, Italy, especially Mauri, Manzini and Zurlo [3]. These fields of study aim to modify the institutions’ impression of Design, breaking the paradigm that the designer should be called mainly to carry out incremental and aesthetic activities. It also intends to demonstrate that the design mindset and the continuous search for creative alternatives based on a coherent reading of the reality can bring benefits at operational, tactical and strategic levels. Fundamentally, Strategic Design aims to align the strategic direction of the organi‐ zation with the conception of its expressions (products, services and communication systems), seeking to impart value and identity to the projects, reinforcing the strategic commitment of the companies and offering the best possible experience between company and customers. In this sense, the element that links the organization and its public is the brand. Understood as the element that personifies and condenses the strategic essence of the organization, the brand and its promise serve as the guiding line that ensures the coherence between the company’s values and what is advertised to the public - through products, services, promotional campaigns, delivered experiences and everything that receives the stamp of the institution’s logo. Therefore, grows increasingly the relevance of Branding, as a management model that drives the strategic decisions based on the brand’s essence, that will be transmited to its customers, employees, investors and the community [4–7]. Branding arises to support managers in the construction and representation of the company’s corporate vision, being the guide of what the organization will produce and communicate. This process should have as its final goal designing the best possible user experience with the brand and its offers, that will be decisive for him to become - and persist - loyal to the brand, thus ensuring its financial security and its prosperity [5, 8].

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Considering, then, the whole described scenario and the growing need of the regions to produce valued offers in search for the territory’s economic prosperity, the present study intends to reflect on the importance of better designed local products, as an expression of their regional identity. Through the strategic design of products, services and communication systems, consistent with the intended strategic direction, the offer will be perceived as unique and valuable, which will benefit both the companies, their regions and/or where the raw materials come from. In order to do so, the brand’s identity should serve as a link to communicate and materialize the organizational values designed to captivate and connect consumers, the brand and its products, through an emotional interaction with the Brand Promise and reinforced by carefully designed experiences.

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Local Products and the Role of Design

Understanding the role and importance of enhancing local values is crucial to the regional development agenda. Pursuing development on a local scale means fostering more than just economic aspects, because, unlike Economic Growth - driven by the increase in the productive capacity of an economic area, increasing its workforce, saved and invested revenue, and technological improvement- Economic Development is char‐ acterized by the incorporation to the former of aspects such as the improvement of the quality of life and by fundamental changes in the economic and social structure that allow the better distribution of the riches produced [9]. According to Etges and Degrandi [10], the regional particularities are configured as opportunities for the valuation of offers. Therefore, establishing a basis for better formatting local products in a strategic and well-designed way - allied to a Branding project - will serve as a driving force for goods to be recognized and well regarded by consumers as unique, well produced, of high symbolic value, and which contributes to the development of the regions of origin and the improvement of the life of its inhabi‐ tants. “The products based on local resources, specifically those from agricultural biodiversity, are gaining evidence very fast. On one hand it occurs due to economic motives related to business potential, on the other hand there is an increasing consumer demand for more natural and safer products. The more traceable the product (through information about origin, history, and fabri‐ cation process), the safer, healthier it seems to be. Furthermore, values such as originality, authenticity are becoming more important taking account the mass of indistinct products in the market. The increasing awareness on cultural and social aspects embedded in products, contrib‐ utes to diffuse environmental and social friendly practices” [11, p. 3–4].

In this context, Design presents itself as an important resource, not only helping to communicate the traditional elements of a region in its graphic and marketing expres‐ sions, but strategically, to better develop the whole value chain that involves the produc‐ tion of the artifacts and the assembly of services, enhancing the typical characteristics as really differentiated factors. It can also act in the promotion of regional development, through offerings that bring to the user an experience of not only positive use regarding the product’s quality, but for the satisfaction of consuming something that has an unique and reliable source, and that, in some way, is helping families to survive and preserving the environment.

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“[…] it is understood that territorial development is a possibility that can be longed for and reached, and not a condition that distinguishes some territories from others. Consequently, the scientific interest related to the territorial theme, and specifically to territorial development, increases. In this arena, Design makes its rich system of knowledge and project competences available. Design comes close, knowing that other areas have more tradition in the study and treatment of territorial matter, that to treat it, interdisciplinarity is needed and that its contribution is specialized: Design provides the technology of project process for the development of the territory to be projected” [12, p. 13].

Design, therefore, can contribute in a variety of ways to the context of the territory, local products and regional development, especially for its nature to support creative initiatives and establish multidisciplinary dialogues in search of solutions to everyday problems. In this sense, Strategic Design presents itself as a promising approach, since it considers the offer and its relationship with the user in a holistic way, as well as the importance given to the search of a sustainable system focused on the best possible consumer experience with the brand and its product.

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Strategic Design

Mauri says that Strategic Design is a design activity where the projetual focus is an integrated system containing products, services and communication […] in which a company presents itself to the market, to the society and materializes its own strategy [13]. According to Manzini: “Strategic Design is a project activity where the object is the interface between companycostumer-society in which the goal is the convergence between the company’s, the clients’ and the other stakeholders’ point of view in a single process of value production. This means an innovation in the product system, which involves a reconfiguration of the interface between company, market and society” [13, p. 2–3]

Strategic Design emerges to help professionals and organizations to turn their visions into reality, with the best use of resources (financial, personal and environmental) in the creation of offers consistent with what the company believes - and is - as well as with what the public, carefully identified, considers of high value. A concept, a planning process, a business structure, all this exists to support a basic activity: to offer something that someone needs, in the best way possible. Therefore, in order for the process to be carried out correctly, it is necessary to have total alignment between the company’s strategy, previously created, and the concept that wishes to be materialized and commu‐ nicated to the public. Such coherence will be applied not only in the conception of an offer, but in the whole Product-Service System, a mix of product, service, communication and the projected user’s experience. The Strategic Design of a Product-Service System alters the focus of simple product innovation to an integrated product-service strategy, geared to producing solutions [14]. This change of mindset - from the creation of products to the Product-Service System - makes it possible to establish a new relationship between client and institution. About the focus of Strategic Design Meroni [14] says: “[…] there is a clear focus on the Product Service System (PSS) dimension, an orientation towards different kinds of social and market actors, a clear intention to produce innovation, and

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an emphasis on a systemic interpretation of sustainable development. […] strategic Design is about conferring to social and market bodies a system of rules, beliefs, values and tools to deal with the external environment, thus being able to evolve (and so to survive successfully), as well as maintaining and developing one’s own identity. And, in doing so, influencing and changing the environment too” [14, p. 32].

Strategic Design, therefore, with its strong connection to values, presents itself as an approach, a direction - which has as its guiding principle the search for solutions to existing problems in a more innovative and sustainable way - and not a defined method with delimited and predetermined steps. It is essentially characterized by the search for well-rounded, long-term, and focused Design initiatives for the fulfillment of the organ‐ izational objectives, knowing that throughtout the process, evaluations and potential revisions will be held, always according to the previously planned strategic concept [16]. “Strategic Design acts as a space of value aggregation, with a view to increasing the competi‐ tiveness of organizations (strategic dimension). The element that generates this competitiveness is the innovation seen not only from the point of view of the product, but, above all, of this product elaborated from a value chain that considers the different stages, namely, design, production, communication and distribution. The term ‘product-system’ adds to the concept’s expansion by combining services and experience with the process of its use. The system is strengthened by the strategic vision that considers internal and external variables to the organi‐ zation and its context in the Design activity” [17, p. 16].

In this way, everything the organization proposes to deliver will truly represent its identity. The product will be strategically designed and the entire communication involved (packaging, advertising, etc.) will serve as an equally aligned system. In the same way, the after-sales process, ensuring the delivery of the best consumer experience and all the necessary support, will finalize the Design process cohesively. At that moment, the brand will be the link that will connect the entire system and convey, through its various applications and marketing actions, the concept of the company that has been transformed into an offer. It is understood that, in this context, Strategic Design - and its focus on the ProductService System - offers an approach capable of understanding and interpreting the typical traits of a culture, using them as a fundamental input already in the diagnosis of needs and opportunities as well as in the solutions’ strategic planning. This will be extended, therefore, to the creation of an offer that better translates the chosen concept in the form of a solution that offers a memorable experience for the client, and finally, in the correct and cohesive establishment of a communication between the brand and its audience, from carefully chosen points of contact and a and a honest message, fully aligned to the strategic identity proposed by the company at the beginning of the process. Therefore, using a Strategic Design approach, it is possible for an organization - of any nature, size, origin and industry - to identify, enhance and transform its tangible and intangible values into products, services and/or experiences unique and appreciated by the users. At the same time, it supports its regional culture, providing pride and provoking community engagement, creating an unparalleled opportunity to implement a sustainable development plan for the productive chain and the preservation of natural, tangible and intangible local heritages.

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Branding: Bringing Value to Local Products and Its Regions

A brand has a role that goes beyond simply identifying a product and its characteristics. It serves to represent and communicate a promise, an identity that must be perceived in everything that involves the institution. The spectrum of Branding is not just about companies and products. Its contribution, as a philosophy and management model, can be expanded to other levels such as Personal Branding, where individuals like celebrities, intellectuals, lecturers, professionals, among others, work in their image and configure their offer in other to generate value to them. “The universality of Branding can be recognized by examining different product applications. […] products can be defined in a broad sense, including physical goods, services, retail stores, people, organizations, places and ideas” [18, p. 11]. As stated by the author, Branding can be applied in a larger extent such as Place Branding and its ramifications - City Branding or Nation Branding -, these terms being more recent and gaining notoriety in the discussions about the search for Regional Development. The importance and representative growth of the vision that places must be viewed as brands - that need to be taken care of in order to realize their value as region and as provider of economic, social and cultural products and services - is undeniable. This is because it is from the relationship between local identity and the tangible and intangible assets found and/or produced in the regions that Branding projects should be built on. Working the image of a place requires that the region have products of real value. It is therefore important that local values, present in environmental and geographic elements (beaches, mountains, rivers, etc.), cultural manifestations (dance, music, archi‐ tecture, for example) are initially diagnosed and developed. That should also happen with products that explore, in a sustainable way, the region’s natural and historical resources in the form of tangible goods – clothes, handicrafts, food and beverages –,or as unique elements embedded into services such as gastronomy or tourism. It is thus possible for local products to bring income and development to the region - as well as to construct a positive imagery of their values for residents – by increasing domestic consumption – and visitors, becoming an attraction for tourists and encour‐ aging an entire productive chain. External potential arises as they become assets for export, either by the public incentive to expand the performance of local producers from financial support or the dissemination of their goods, services and brands in inter‐ national events - or even by initiative of visitors captivated by such offers. These visitors, in turn, see the opportunity to bring the products to their countries aiming to provoke in their compatriots the same enchantment that caught them in the first place. “Countries can gain an advantage by becoming known as a source of certain high quality products and services. […] Countries can become ‘hot spots’, where buyers and sellers are gradually able to establish trade excellence. A small town can be rescued when a company successfully exports. A whole region can become known for a particular product. The rewards are considerable but require strong public-private partnerships, the elimination of bureaucratic obstacles and the commitment to support local businesses” [19, p. 295–296].

In this second scenario - where foreigners know and invest in typical products from other localities - the introduction of a different, sometimes exotic, article is an

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opportunity to produce a strategic advantage of great value to the investor. It can take advantage of the unique aspect of the product and carry out a Strategic Design work by taking advantage of the particularities of its “special” good, valuing its properties and using typical visual and communication elements. That is what Bonsiepe [2] calls ethnic look, which aims to create attractive identities, while shaping the offer to the character‐ istics of its audience, seeking to provide the best possible experience. Thus, it is possible to set up a business of great potential for the entrepreneur and that, consequently, generate revenue for the territory, since the success of the investment will bring more demand of the local input and will drive the entire value chain. Such prosperity, however, requires a sustainable approach, so that it does not become a merely extractive process, which does not benefit the local context and compromises the useful life and strategic value of the business.

5

Conclusions

Therefore, the contribution of strategically designing considering the factors of the environment, the best use of resources and the sustainability of the system, can be oriented to all layers of the society and social agents, from cooperatives and companies to governmental institutions and territories. At the corporate level, this approach emerges as a way to provide market advantage through the search for innovation and strategic coherence of proposals and valuable solutions throughout the Product-Service System, always taking into account the organizational identity. With the evolution of business models that has in its essence regional elements and/or a considerable local representation, it is possible to develop the whole region. That can happen through the valorization of products composed of local inputs, which in turn influence all the productive chain, and consequently have an enormous potential to be instruments of diffusion of their region and its cultural peculiarities. Strategic Design, then, with its orientation towards the sustainable development of the Product-Service System, allied to Branding - as a management model that puts brand values as the core strategic element – presents itself as a perfect approach, acting in the creation of a high valued identity, which will be transformed into a brand promise to be represented by the goods or services. These will be offered to consumers previously identified and studied – having as the main goal the enhancement of the user’s experience with the brand in all its expressions –, in a socially and environmentally responsible way and with an attractive and authentic communication system, ensuring that its competitive value is recognized and appreciated by all stakeholders and that the territory is properly rewarded. In this way, the idea of a product should be broadened considering all the experience that involves the relationship between the user and the good or service. Brunner e Emery [8] understand that the entrepreneur’s job is to establish a “customer experience delivery network” where the product is the central element, but not sufficient. “[…] Full design work should incorporate what they see, interact and get in touch with them - all the things they experience about your company and use it to form opinions and develop a desire for their products. We must not allow these points of reference to just happen. They should be designed and coordinated in a way that takes you wherever you reach with your consumers - where you are

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important to them. This approach is Design of the product as a whole concept […] Included in Design is the experience of how you buy it, what actually happens when you have it on hand and open the box, how you begin to feel and what it communicates to you. And, of course, there is a chain of events by which you become aware of the product. This is also part of Design […] Product ownership is just the beginning of the next phase of the relationship” [8, p. 21–22].

The notion presented by the authors demonstrates a vision that has been growing in recent years and begins to represent a new look at business. Once structurally goods and services become more and more alike, entrepreneurs need to deepen their viewpoint and understand that they must connect emotionally with their client. In this respect, the use of Design - not only as a tool, but especially as a mindset of user’s valorization - to provide a differentiated experience should be the main change that managers must incorporate in their companies [8].

References 1. Bonsiepe, G.: Design, Cultura e Sociedade. Blucher, São Paulo (2011) 2. Bonsiepe, G.: Identidade e contra-identidade no Design. In: Morais, D. (org.) Cadernos de Estudos Avançados: Identidade. EdUEMG, Belo Horizonte (2010) 3. Brunner, R., Emery, S.: Gestão Estratégica do Design: Como um Ótimo Design Fará as Pessoas Amarem Sua Empresa. M. Books, São Paulo (2010) 4. Consolo, C.M.: Design Estratégico. Do Símbolo à Gestão da Identidade Corporativa. Blucher, São Paulo (2015) 5. Etges, V.E., Degrandi, J.O.: Desenvolvimento regional: a diversidade regional como potencialidade. Rev. Bras. Desenvolv. Reg. 1(1), 85–94 (2013). Out., Blumenau-SC 6. Franzato, C., Krucken, L., Reyes, P.B.: Design for territorial development in emerging economies: Brazilian experiences of researching and teaching. Strateg. Des. Res. J. 6(1), 11– 19 (2013). Jan–Abr. Porto Alegre: Unisinos 7. Freire, K.: Design Estratégico para Inovação Cultural e Social. Kazuá, São Paulo (2015) 8. Freire, K.: Design estratégico: origens e desdobramentos. In: Blucher Design Proceedings of 11° P&D Design—Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Design. Nov-2014, vol. 1, no. 4, Gramado (2014) 9. Hiller, M.: Branding: A Arte de Construir Marcas. Trevisan Editora, São Paulo (2012) 10. Ikeda, M.: Strategic design. In: Erlhoff, M., Marshall, T. (eds.) Design Dictionary: Perspectives on Design Terminology, pp. 373–376. Birkhäuser, Basel (2008) 11. Keller, K.L., Machado, M.: Gestão Estratégica de Marcas. Pearson Prentice Hall, São Paulo (2006) 12. Kotler, P., et al.: Marketing de Lugares: Como Conquistar Crescimento de Longo Prazo na América Latina e no Caribe. Prentice Hall, São Paulo (2006) 13. Kotler, P., Keller, K.L.: Administração de Marketing: A Bíblia do Marketing. Pearson Prentice Hall, São Paulo (2006) 14. Krucken, L.: Design and the valorisation of agricultural biodiversity products—a case study. In:2005 Proceedings of 6th International Conference of the European Academy of Design— EAD06, BREMEN. University of the Arts, Bremen (2005) 15. Krucken, L.: Design e Território: Valorização de Identidades e Produtos Locais. Studio Nobel, São Paulo (2009) 16. Manzini, E., Vezzoli, C.: Product-Service Systems and Sustainability. UNEP, Paris (2002). Disponível em: http://www.uneptie.org/scp/Design/pdf/pss-imp-7.pdf. Accessed on 09 Sept 2016

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17. Meroni, A.: Design Estratégico: onde estamos agora? Reflexão em torno dos alicerces de uma disciplina recente. Srateg. Des. Res. J. 1(1), 31–38 (2008) 18. Pastori, D.O., et al.: Strategic management process Design e o pensamento sistêmico: a emergência de novas metodologias de Design. Strateg. Des. Res. J. 2(1), 11–23 (2009). janjun. Porto Alegre: Unisinos 19. Vieira, E.T., Santos, M.J.: Desenvolvimento econômico regional—uma revisão histórica e teórica. Rev. Bras. Gest. Desenvolv. Reg. V 8(2), 344–369 (2012). mai–ago 2012. Taubaté, São Paulo, Brasil 20. Wheeler, A.: Design de Identidade da Marca: Guia Essencial Para Toda a Equipe de Gestão de Marcas. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2012)

Inspædia: Changing the Landscape of Cultural Reflection and Influence Through User Experience Design Paulo Maldonado1,2,3,4 ✉ , Leonor Ferrão1,2, and Pablo Ermida1,3 (

)

1

Centro de Investigação em Território, Arquitetura e Design, (CITAD), Universidades Lusíada, Rua da Junqueira, 188-198, 1349-001 Lisbon, Portugal {paulomaldonado,pabloermida}@inspaedia.com, [email protected] 2 Faculdade de Arquitetura, Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura, Urbanismo e Design (CIAUD), Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal 3 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Design, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Oswaldo Aranha, nº 99, 6º andar - sala 607, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-190, Brazil 4 Departamento de Artes Visuais e Design, Escola de Artes, Antiga Fábrica Leões, Universidade de Évora, Estrada dos Leões, 7000-208 Évora, Portugal Abstract. This article presents and encourages use of Inspædia, the online plat‐ form for inspiring collaborative and interactive intelligence. Inspædia’s launch will take place in Los Angeles and will have the 8th AHFE as its backdrop. GET INSPIRED is the provocative and motivational call to action that appears when inspædiers (collaborative visual storytellers) access the online platform at www.inspaedia.com. This is the possible future that inspædiers, when using the platform, feed with new content, new relationships between content, collections of favorite things and navigation trails, helping to collaboratively generate (indi‐ vidual and collective) inspiration, as well as enriching new knowledge by proac‐ tively contributing to “BEING innovation”. Keywords: Inspiration · Design · Collaborative intelligence · Content curation · Inspædia · Inspædiers · www.inspaedia.com · Innovation · User experience design (UXD) · Interaction design (IxD)

1

Get Inspired

GET INSPIRED is the provocative and motivational motto that appears when inspædiers (collaborative visual storytellers) access the online platform at .

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_46

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Inspiration1 means “encouragement, enthusiasm, genius, incentive, influence, insight,2 motivation, revelation, vision, afflatus, animus, approach, arousal, awakening, brain‐ child, brainstorm, creativity, elevation, exaltation, fancy, flash, hunch, illumination, impulse, motive, muse, notion, rumble, spark, spur, stimulation, thought, whim, deep thing” [1]. The Visual Thesaurus relates inspiration to “idea, thought, stirring, divine guidance, intuition, brainchild, inhalation, breathing in, intake, aspiration” and inspire to “instigate, prompt, occasion, enliven, exalt, invigorate, animate, revolutionize, breathe in, inhale, cheer, exhort, pep up, root on, urge, urge on, barrack” (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. INSPIRATION and INSPIRE, https://www.visualthesaurus.com/app/view.

The concept of inspiration makes up part of the word inspædia (inspira‐ tion + encyclopaedia). “In-Spiration originally meant receiving a breath of divinity. In modern parlance psychoanalysts refer to it as a ‘moment of insight’ and behaviorists ‘an act of intuition’; most of us rely on the metaphoric ‘bolt from the blue’” [2]. Designers know that inspiration comes from a lot of work. As for the “divine breath”, the allusion comes from the action of the Muses, daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (personification 1

2

Inspiration comes from the Latin noun inspiratio and from the verb inspirare. Inspirare is a compound term resulting from the Latin prefix in (inside, into) and the verb spirare (to breathe) [3]. Herbert J. Walberg considered that the nature of insight in science or in art encouraged common cognitive skills: imagery, language and memory [4]. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and R. Keith Sawyer distinguished the creative processes in science from creative processes in art and they identified two types of creative insight – fast and slow [5] – which correspond to two different types of problems: insight problems, which encourage analogical thinking and are the most common in design [6, 7], and long time-frame processes, which mainly involve the reconcep‐ tualization resulting from combination and abstraction operations [8].

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of memory and one of the six female Titans), over poets and musicians. However, none of them inspired the visual arts: Calliope inspired heroic poetry and rhetoric, Clio was the muse of history, Erato the muse of elegy, Euterpe the muse of music, Polyhymnia the muse of lyric poetry, Talia the muse of comedy and Terpsichore the muse of dance. For the Ancient Greeks, poetry was closer to music and dance than to painting, sculpture or architecture [9], i.e. they did not identify the creative act as such (in the same way, the term theory was meant to designate contemplation and research). Let us then think about poetry, music and dance. In dialogue with the rhapsode Ion, Socrates discusses “art” and “divine force”, establishing a parallel between a magnet and the chain of inspiration.3 This chain-of-inspiration image is very suggestive for the Inspædia conceptual model, although we do not claim to raise the maximum level of inspiration – which for the Ancient Greeks was equivalent to madness (because “when it comes by a gift of the gods, it is a noble thing”.4 The analogy established by Plato (put in Socrates’ mouth) is interesting, since the processes of innovation and design need inspiration to “see” the future. However, to shape the future, contrary to what the Greeks believed, it is not necessary to enter into a trance, or read the birds’ flight or song. Let us now focus on two other fundamental concepts for inspiration: fantasy and imagination. They are part of the metadiscourse of art, but in the disciplinary field of design they were used very sparingly until the mid-1970s. Let us start with the oldest concept, which is the first one (fantasy). Eustathius of Thessalonica (c. 1110-1198 AD) attributes the narratives that inspired the Iliad and the Odyssey to a woman named Fantasia, who was an Egyptian poet. According to the Latin translation of the Greek word (φαντασία), phantasia means “thing seen”; it is a human faculty that enables us to have a mental representation of an object in its absence, according to the definition by Quintilian (c. 35-c. 100 AD), equivalent to the definition of imagination, although

3

4

[533c] (…) I do observe it, Ion, and I am going to point out to you [533d] what I take it to mean. For, as I was saying just now, this is not an art in you, (…) but a divine power, which moves you like that in the stone which Euripides named a magnet (…). For this stone not only attracts iron rings, but also imparts to them a power whereby they in turn are able to do the very same thing as the stone, [533e] and attract other rings; (…). In the same manner also the Muse inspires men herself, and then by means of these inspired persons the inspiration spreads to others, and holds them in a connected chain. For all the good epic poets utter all those fine poems not from art, but as inspired and possessed, and the good lyric poets likewise; [534a] just as the Corybantian worshippers do not dance when in their senses, so the lyric poets do not indite those fine songs in their senses, but when they have started on the melody and rhythm they begin to be frantic, and it is under possession (…) that the soul of the lyric poets does the same thing, by their own report. For the poets tell us, I believe, that the songs they bring us are the sweets they cull from honey-dropping founts [10]. [244c] otherwise they would not have connected the very word mania with the noblest of arts, that which foretells the future, by calling it the manic art. No, they gave this name thinking that mania, when it comes by gift of the gods, is a noble thing, but nowadays people call prophecy the mantic art, tastelessly inserting a T in the word. So also, when they gave a name to the investigation of the future which rational persons conduct through observation of birds and by other signs, since they furnish mind (nous) [11].

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that term is not used. The term fantasy comes from a verb that means “to bring forth”, “to shine”, “to appear before the soul”; the same verb is at the origin of the word phantom, which means “to have memories”, “dreams”, “hallucinations”. The Greek term fantasy is equivalent to the Latin word imagination, which comes from imaginem (the accusative of imago). It has the same root as imitarii (this is why it was synonymous with imitation by images). The image is not confused with the thing, even when it presents itself to the senses, but is a representation of the thing. Therefore, Plato devalued the image and, by extension, the imagination, because they mislead – the former because it is the lowest degree of the real; the latter because it is the lowest degree of knowledge. However, it makes it possible to produce representations and, as such, it is an activity of the spirit, i.e. it reproduces what is absent and produces new combinations. To combine means mixing, eliminating, adding and reducing, but also establishing associations and anal‐ ogies. Imagining can be synonymous with guessing, conjecturing, presuming, specu‐ lating. Brann says that “imagination occurs probably most often in the language of literary criticism, where I. A. Richardson […] distinguishes the following six connotations. The imagination is a capacity for the production of a vivid, usually visual, image; for the employment of figurative language; for empathy; for inventiveness; and for the ordering of disparate experiences in art and in science. Finally, it is […] [the] capacity for unifying, intensifying, and idealizing the appearances. One might add as a seventh meaning that of sensibility” [13]. The association between the terms imagination and imitation has left behind a trace of faithfulness to the real, while fantasy has become an activity of the spirit that is further from the real, so it is not surprising that it is used in this disciplinary context much more sparingly. The word fantasy designates a type of composition for key instruments in the baroque, classical and romantic periods (harpsichord, clavichord, celesta, organ, piano‐ forte and piano) and for other instruments in the contemporary era [14]. It involves improvisation (which in baroque music is synonymous with ornamentation and variation within the same main melody). In this context, it is synonymous with ability to invent, applicable both to the musical composition itself and to how it is played. Extrapolating, it can be a way of overinterpreting [15] and, in this sense, it is useful for design thinking. Let us look using a short memory and wander as nomads instead of delving into history, as Deleuze and Guattari [16] suggested, i.e. avoiding sequential and systematic ordering and favoring erratic paths, making the most of the absence of pre-defined contexts.

2

Changing the Landscape of Cultural Reflection and Influence

Inspædia constitutes a kind of revolution in perception, because it enables a new kind of viewing and use of related content, as well as providing a new kind of interface and interaction. It promotes non-linear thought, productive thought (high creativity) and inspiration – a memorable and playful user experience.

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The Inspædia landing page explains the use that one may expect to make of Inspædia, in a two-way perspective of productive collaboration. Scrolling through the landing page reveals a narrative that characterizes a new digital environment to stimulate reflection and cultural influence, which includes the content and the relationships established among the pieces of content, among all the inspædiers, their trails and their collections of favorite things. Each inspædier proactively contributes to extraordinary curatorship by using Inspædia to establish new improbable relationships with existing content (at least unlikely for other inspædiers), or by creating new ones from which new possibilities for cross-pollination of ideas, cultural reflection, contamination and enlightened influence can occur. At the origin of the Inspædia user experience design (UXD) and interaction design (IxD) concepts were, as sources of inspiration and among many other references [17–23, 25, 27], the ten laws and the three keys of simplicity [28], the aphorism form follows function [29], the ten principles for good design [30] and the aphorism form follows emotion [31], which can be summarized as simplicity, playfulness and inspira‐ tion [32]. Also for this reason, the landing page chromatically spans the (visible) solar spectrum without fixing on any specific color, inviting the community to participate, collaborate and contribute with their knowledge to build a network of collaborative and interactive intelligence. “(…) Inspiring experiences ‘to be innovation together’ is the Inspædia ethos. (…) Welcome to the world of possible dreams. For the Ones who are intellectually curious. Discover infinite possibilities to update and refine your imagination and build new insights and foresights. Inspire yourself. (…) Be inspired by a memorable experience in a new landscape of cultural reflection and influence. For the Ones who have a passion for being connected to the unexpected. Explore and share improbable relation‐ ships between things and people to reach a new level of experience(s). Inspire others. (…) For the Ones who are shaping the future. Some of the Ones are content curators. They are selected experts from different cultural areas that constantly feed Inspædia with new related, meaningful content for the delight of the Inspædier community. Inspædiers are collaborative storytellers who are always looking for the next productive spark. Be One of the Ones. Be an inspædier. (…) Your next move to take part in a meaningful and playful inspiration experience. Join Inspædia” [33]. We hope you will and look forward to your input. Acknowledgements. CITAD – Centro de Investigação em Território, Arquitetura e Design, Universidades de Lusíada, Portugal; CIAUD – Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura, Urbanismo e Design, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal; CAPES, Programa Ciência sem Fronteiras, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Design, UFRGS – Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA-LINCS, Portugal. This research is financed by a fellowship from CAPES/Brazil Ref. A025_2013 and by national funds from the FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal, within the scope of the project UID/AUR/04026/2013.

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References 1. Inspiration. Roget’s 21st Century Thesaurus, 3rd edn. http://www.thesaurus.com/browse/ inspiration?s=t (2013). Accessed 8 Mar 2017 2. Fletcher, A.: The Art of Looking Sideways, p. 74. Phaidon Press, Phaidon (2001) 3. Inspiration. On line Etymology Dictionary. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/inspiration (2019). Accessed 8 Mar 2017 4. Sternberg, R.J. (ed.): The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1988) 5. Sternberg, R.J., Davidson, J.E. (eds.): The Nature of Insight. The MIT Press, Cambridge (1995) 6. Cross, N.: Designerly Ways of Knowing. Birkhäuser Verlag, London (2007) 7. Cross, N.: Design Thinking: Understanding How Designers Think and Work. Berg Publishers, Oxford (2011) 8. Welling, H.: Four mental operations in creative cognition: the importance of abstraction. Creat. Res. J. 2–3, 163–177 (2007) 9. Tatarkiewicz, W.: History of Six Ideas: An Essay in Aesthetics. Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden (1980) 10. Plato: Ion. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0180: text=Ion. Accessed 1 Mar 2017 11. Plato: Phaedrus. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext %3A1999.01.0174% 3Atext%3DPhaedrus. Accessed 28 Feb 2017 12. Gendler, T.: Imagination. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016). https:// plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/imagination/. Accessed 9 Mar 2017 13. Brann, E.T.H.: The World of the Imagination: Sum and Substance, p. 20. Rowman & Littlefield, Savage (1991) 14. Sadie, S. (ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edn. Grove, Oxford (2001) 15. Eco, U., et al.: Interpretazione e sovrainterpretazione (Interpretation and Overinterpretation). Bompiani, Milano (1995) 16. Deleuze, G., Guattari, F.: Rhizome. Éditions de Minuit, Paris (1976) 17. Buurman, G.M.: Total Interaction: Theory and Practice of a New Paradigm for the Design Disciplines. Birkhäuser, Basel (2005) 18. Sterling, B.: Shaping Things. MIT Press, Cambridge (2005) 19. Chaoui, C.: Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction. Idea Group Reference, Hershey (2006) 20. Tapscott, D., Williams, A.D.: Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. Portfolio, New York (2006) 21. Tidwell, J.: Designing Interfaces. O’Reilly, Sebastopol (2006) 22. Buxton, B.: Sketching User Experiences: Getting the Design Right and the Right Design. Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco (2007) 23. Anderson, S.: Seductive Interaction Design: Creating Playful, Fun and Effective User Experience. New Riders, Berkeley (2011) 24. Hoekman, R.: Designing the Obvious: A Common Sense Approach to Web and Mobile Application Design. New Riders, Berkeley (2011) 25. Mathis, L.: Designed for Use: Create Usable Interfaces for Applications and the Web. The Pragmatic Bookshelf, Raleigh (2011) 26. Weinschenk, S.: 100 Things Every Designer Needs to Know About People. New Riders, Berkeley (2011)

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27. Lima, M.: Visual Complexity: Mapping Patterns of Information. Princeton Architectural Press, New York (2013) 28. Maeda, J.: The Laws of Simplicity. MIT Press, Cambridge (2006) 29. Sullivan, L.H.: The tall office building artistically considered. Lippincott’s Mag. 403–409 (1896) 30. Rams, D.: Ten principles for good design (2016). https://www.vitsoe.com/eu/about/gooddesign. Accessed 2 Mar 2017 31. Esslinger, H.: Design and emotion (2006). http://www.design-emotion.com/2006/08/15/ getting-emotional-with-hartmut-esslinger/. Accessed 3 Mar 2017 32. Maldonado, P., et al.: Inspædia: [almost] everything about simplicity, playfulness and inspiration. In: Soares, M., et al. (eds.) Advances in Ergonomics Modeling, Usability & Special Populations, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 486, pp. 231–243. Springer, Heidelberg (2016). doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41685-4_21 33. Inspaedia. https://www.inspaedia.com/#welcome (2016). Accessed 5 Mar 2017

How the Design Processes Add Innovative Capacity in Startup Companies Isabela Moroni ✉ , Amilton Arruda, Pablo Bezerra, and Theska Laila (

)

Federal University of Pernambuco, Av. da Arquitetura, s/n - Campus Universitário, Recife, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. In recent years, innovation has been an important word in the business world, but in the universe of companies known as startups, innovation is a primary condition. Young entrepreneurs want their small businesses to win scale and agility in the consumer market with its creative and disruptive ideas. However, because they are different companies than traditional business, these small company need management models that understand their singularities and allow the establishment of a reality consistent with their limited resources, to continue innovative and competitive in Brazil, whose mortality rate is still high. From these reasons, this paper analyzed the four stages of the Porto Digital incubation process to explore the methodologies used by the cluster about design management, whose processes stimulate the development of innovative capacity of these youth organizations to implement an approach the strategy management of design, as a project and collaboratively as part of the identification of innovation opportunities in the current environment where startups are work in. Therefore, through a liter‐ ature review using the latest lines of research that address design management, strategic design and innovation, as well as documentary research about the Porto Digital incubation process, the results show that design management area yet it is little explored, even in an environment conducive to fostering innovation and the efforts has a concentration on the stages of incubation processes aimed at product development, to the detriment to other business functions. Keywords: Management of design · Strategy design · Innovation · Startups

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Introduction

Innovation. Nowadays, in the current business discourse, this word represents no more a differentiating feature in organizations, but a condition of existence. However, in the universe of small businesses known as startups, innovating is a preexisting condition. They are small organizations that emerge from the perspective of extreme uncertainty and go far beyond “promoting something new”. In recent years, solutions of young entrepreneurs have charmed the market with disruptive and impactful products and services, which have justified the importance to foment these organizations in a country’s economy. This is the case of the American

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_47

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companies Facebook, Uber, AirBnb and the Brazilian companies Easytáxi and Samba‐ tech, which represent a paradigm shift in consumer society. In Brazil, the scenario is still nascent and need studies that point out the current reality of these companies in the country. It is estimated that the mortality of these organizations is high, about 50% of them do not survive the first four years of operation. There are about 10 thousand startups that in 2012 amounted to about R $ 2 billion, which represents 0.4% of the Brazilian GDP (DOM CABRAL, 2016). Although a startup has a revolutionary idea, it is no guarantee of sustainable success. As they are companies that take the risk of innovating from the conception of the busi‐ ness, they face very particular challenges. Ries [10] argues that traditional methods of administration do not apply to Startups, since these methods are based on predictions that work best in static environments, to the detriment of the dynamic environments in which these companies are inserted, with frequent changes and risks. In this context, incubation programs help startup entrepreneurs through training, mentoring and consulting activities to develop a business plan, as well as to seek condi‐ tions to achieve success in the market. This is the case of the “Porto Digital” - Incubation Programs in the city of Recife, Brazil. For 18 months, these companies participate in a program structured in four stages (Business Modeling, Product Launching, Business Maturation and Growth Strategies), based on methodologies considered appropriate for the development of innovative businesses, such as: Business Model Canvas and Minimum Viable Product (MPV). Based on these motivations, the present article analyzed the four stages of the incu‐ bation process of the Porto Digital, in order to relate the methodologies used by the cluster with the design management, whose processes result in the stimulation of the innovative capacity of these young organizations to implement an approach of strategic design management in a design and collaborative way as part of the identification of innovation opportunities in the current environment in which the startups are inserted. Therefore, through a review of the literature using the latest research lines that address design management, strategic design and innovation, in addition to field research, the article contributes to the construction and strengthening of values related to design and innovation in the organizational environment of these young companies, where the effective use of these design methods/tools always lead to increased and increased brand/product interaction with the end user.

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Theoric Referencial: Startups and the Competitive Market

Blank and Dorf [1] argue that a startup company, connected to any type of business that is not focused on the innovation of products or services and therefore exempt to the risks of uncertainties, is not a startup. This dilemma represents a critical path for business management in these organizations. There is no long and stable operating history, since they do not have statistics or experience, which makes them companies with high mortality risk in the first years of activity [10]. The great challenge of these companies is to remain essentially creative not only in innovation in products or services, but also in the company’s management mechanisms,

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so that they evolve to a more mature business logic in order to achieve adherence, rele‐ vance and impact on their proposals. It is with this thought that other business functions also become as important as the development of new products or technologies. A startup should not focus on the product only, but on its market, competitors, users, suppliers to identify real opportunities for innovation. To this end, it is important to have a long-term strategic vision, with objec‐ tives and goals set so that the young entrepreneurs have an instrument guiding their activities. 2.1 Strategic Management in Startups The strategy of a startup is an important driver of their actions. The idea is to avoid projecting complex, intangible plans without considering the uncertainties and their high risk, but include in the business model a product plan that is faithfully fulfilled and that each setback is not viewed as a failure but as an opportunity to learn to reach the estab‐ lished vision. It is an arduous path to success, but in the current market situation, failures are extremely important to greatness, so innovation encompasses not only the end product, but also how to achieve those goals through experiences and learning [10]. In this context, the area of design management encourages an inclusive approach, ie it involves the people of the company in search of creating a truly considerable value offer, since it helps the company to structure and design its environment to make it understandable. The idea about creativity is gaining new horizons through different cognitive modes that apply in different contexts. They are relevant positions when thinking about a need for a new approach, design becomes important, as it involves putting tools and processes in the hands of managers to promote innovation and growth. When it comes to an environment completely surrounded by uncertainty such as a startup, this view that design allows these small businesses to shape their environment, contributing to building a reality, and helping strategic management results in a collab‐ oration for a better understanding of their complex environment [9]. 2.2 Design Management and Innovation in Startups Remaining essentially innovative to compete is a strategic attitude and innovation should be seen by young entrepreneurs not as an eventual activity but as a continuous process in the long run. Mozota [9] states that design relates to key issues for innovation success such as understanding user needs, competitive advantage, and synergy among the company’s strengths. The strategic approach to design management involves under‐ standing design as a new paradigm for arriving at ideas and methods that can be used to increase the efficiency of management as a whole. Mozota [9] emphasizes that design creates value in a company’s innovation manage‐ ment, as it participates in improving the quality of the new product development process, product strategy definition, and the skills of a project team, whether A large company, but also a small one.

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The dynamics of the market demand constant changes, the competitive advantage of a startup will be determined by the strategy adopted to conceive its success in the future, as well as by the principles and practices that will build and strengthen a culture of design-based innovation [6]. In this context, it is important to understand the singu‐ larities of managing a startup and establish a method focused on the business model of these companies, so that they can devise strategies that allow them to generate a contin‐ uous cycle of innovation.

3

The Design Processes for Innovation

Launching a product or service requires a set of activities that involve people, skills, competencies and knowledge. And the way they interact in convergence with the goals of an organization, beyond the external context of a business environment, is a major concern of design management studies. In the universe of startups, where human and financial resources are scarce, an inte‐ grative and holistic approach becomes important, since due to the limitations of these companies it is essential to use all resources optimally and optimally. The design besides being present in its tangible form, be it in the projects of product and service, also contributes with its intangibility, with regard to the work processes and in the interdisciplinary relations that make of the integrative nature of its practice collab‐ orative processes, as well as products or services that are coherent, financially viable and consistent with the reality of an organization. According to Scherfig, “It is particularly important that companies that can not compete on production costs should realize the enormous potential of operating strate‐ gically with design.” Such a statement strengthens design in limited environments such as startups because of its well-used practices, a company can realize its functional, social and economic potential to generate value and innovation in a fierce consumer market. Managing design activity so that it has a positive impact and acts holistically in relation to an entire internal and external context, discipline and functions, relationships and connections is one of the main operational challenges of design management. In this sense, the present article lists five fundamental processes to stimulate and elevate the innovative capacity of organizations such as startups. Are they: The first, denominated as design for innovation strategies, is seen as a creative management process and aligns with innovation, since it participates in the improvement of the process of developing new products, defining the product strategy and the qualities of the teams of job. It adopts a user-centered perspective that encompasses both a marketoriented view as well as a process of internalizing information that is collected both from the customer and from the consumer market to analyze potential opportunities [9]. Another important factor in the management of innovation by design is the conscious and prospective research of the opportunities of the environment. The realization of an environment mapping, whose research encompasses countless variables, such as cultural values, trend studies, evolutionary patterns contribute to the understanding of the problem and the search for solutions. Due to their observer profile and their questioning skills, through inquiries it is possible to generate ideas that can be integrated with the

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strategy and later become concrete. This process to innovate whose goal is the manage‐ ment of ideas is called design and management of ideas [9]. The third process, design for concept creation, establishes the development of new concepts of products or services adapted to changing needs, as a consequence of trans‐ formations of ideas possible innovations or unique experiences for the user. It is the stage of formulating unique values of the product or service that will be delivered to the customer [9]. In this process, codesign and co-creation practices are fundamental, since through this practice it uses a global network of resources to create unique experiences together with the clients, since they are integrated in the process and are key pieces for the generation of value and innovation. Another challenge for design management to foster innovation is the issue of design and company representation, since every product is a portrait of a company and the development process that created it. The way that work teams act, how decisions are made must all be coherent and related to their strategy. An organization that innovates through design must work with focus on the customer experience after consumption of the product/ service. This process collects the market information to serve as input to the product life cycle improvements in an agile way [9]. Finally, the design as an integrator, contemplates the activities that relate to the identification and consideration of the requirements of the client in all the functions of the company. In other words, it is the adaptation of the product to its environment to provoke a “customer enthusiasm” by perceiving the quality of the product and the company through its innovation [9]. The success of innovation depends on the integra‐ tion of many tools, this process aims to keep everything and everyone integrated, with the aim of maintaining a cohesive corporate image.

4

Case Study: The Porto Digital

Porto Digital is defined as the productive arrangement of Information and Communi‐ cation Technology and Creative Economy of the state of Pernambuco and thanks to this pole, the state stands out in the world scenario for its human capital, entrepreneurship and innovation. Today it has a very relevant participation in GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of Pernambuco, moving annually R$ 1 billion through the 200 companies located in the pole. These companies employ about 6500 people and the main business segments are: information technology, software, games, multimedia, cinema and anima‐ tion, music, design, photography, as well as advertising and advertising (PORTO DIGITAL, 2016). The center is part of the Pernambuco state government’s innovation promotion strat‐ egies. The reason for the existence of such a cluster is to make the region attractive to innovation for institutions, companies, universities and governments, in order to foster economic and social changes for the generation of jobs and income. The Porto Digital became recognized in the country for cases of successful innova‐ tion, even was compared to the American model, the well-known Silicon Valley. Devel‐ oping an environment favorable to the creation of new innovative businesses is the main objective of Porto Digital. For this, the park has two business incubators: the C.A.I.S.

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of Porto, focused on Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and the Porto‐ mídia incubator, directed to enterprises in Creative Economy. 4.1 Incubation Program The incubation process takes an average of eighteen months and the young entrepreneurs are supported by the PDMC - Porto Digital Management Center - as mentors for their activities. During this incubation period, startups build their Business Development Plan through orientation, mentoring and coaching, with the purpose of preparing and entering the venture in the market and seek its development and sustainability after the incubation program. Through the analysis of documents and surveys in websites, it was possible to understand how the process in which startups are submitted after due process selective happens. In order to meet the objectives of this article, a comparison will be made between the steps of the incubation process and the theoretical reference, to relate how the processes of design management to increase the innovative capacity of such compa‐ nies are presented in the incubation program of the Porto Digital. 4.2 The Four Steps of the Incubation Process The first step is called Business Modeling. It is four months in which the young entre‐ preneurs define a plan for their enterprise using the Business Model Canvas methodol‐ ogies and the Minimum Viable Product (MVP). The first method was proposed by Alexander Osterwalder as a tool to describe a business model in a diagram of easy understanding that contemplates nine areas to facilitate the understanding of the environment of the desired business opportunities. Value Propositions, Customer Segments, Channels, Customer Relationship, Sources of Revenue, Key Resources, Key Activities, Key Partners and Cost Structure are the dimensions of reflection, which encourages the entrepreneur to think about some issues such as: Who are our most important customers? What value do we deliver to the customer? Which of the problems of our clients are we helping solve? The Minimum Viable Product (MPV) developed by Eric Ries, aimed mainly at startups, corresponds to a simpler version of a product that can be launched with a minimum amount of effort and development time, so that, at the end of the third month, It is already possible to make such a product available to a small group of users for testing [10]. From the above description and making a comparison with the theoretical referential, we perceive the presence, not in its totality, but in a partial way the design processes for innovation. Through the development of Canvas, it is possible to perceive the Design process for innovation strategies, since it is focused on the value proposition map, as well as to solve the clients problems, guarantee satisfaction and results, through strategic partnerships that Will drive the viability of the business. It is guiding, since it is a plan shaped, from the users oriented to the market to find opportunities for action. In relation to MVP, it is an indication of design to create concepts, since the idea of the business materialized in a minimum product, whose values established in the proposal are

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implemented in a product or service. MVP also establishes a prototyping condition for the service or product, convergent with Mozota’s [9, p. 151] view that “design generates an interaction between the subject and the object”, so that the concept shows a notion of product experience, which will be aligned as the consumption simulation generates a continuous flow of fundamental information to evaluate the innovation of the idea. The second stage of the incubation process consists of the Product Launch efforts. Over the next three months, the project team focuses on training and mentoring for the development of the solution to then enter the market. The remaining thirty days of this stage are fundamental for monitoring the performance of the product or service. The results obtained through the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the product on the market suggest the focus of this stage in the incubation process in evaluating the post consumer consumption experience, being part of the process for design innovation and company representation, fundamental to guarantee the Product integrity, which according to Mozota [9], the product becomes the company’s extract, in the way it presents itself in the market, in the focus between the combination of the product and user, as well as customer and organization, requiring an exchange of Intense information for the continuous response to problems related to consumption. The penultimate stage of incubating startups is Business Maturation. Trainings and training are conducted focusing on the maturity of the product or service, as well as on organizational processes. With the product already launched in the market, the main input for this phase are the feedbacks obtained with the users and the product. It is also perceived a focus on a continuous cycle of improvement of the product, based on the opinions after the consumption of the customers. In this phase, efforts are also focused on quantitative product evaluations, with reports being presented with results, in order to be compared with the goals established in the first stage of incubation. Finally, the strategy and growth stage, whose focus is the structuring of the compa‐ ny’s trajectory outside the incubation program, including plans for the expansion of its portfolio of products or services. At the end of the period, the entrepreneurs present the results obtained and compared to the development plan and receive the latest training and mentoring to assist the entrepreneurs in conducting their business after incubation.

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Final Considerations

The objective of this article was to analyze the stages of the incubation process of the startups of Porto Digital to relate the methodology used with the processes of innovation of the design management in the development of the innovative capacity of these companies. The results obtained also reflect that the area of design management is still little explored, even in an environment conducive to fostering innovation. Through the biblio‐ graphic research it was possible to establish five fundamental processes to increase the innovative capacity of these companies and, consequently, to reduce the mortality rates of these young organizations. Studies on innovation and design management in the business environment, specif‐ ically in startups, evolve slowly. Thus, the present article contributed to the approach of

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the processes based on design to foment innovation in these organizations. In addition, the article provides a review of the most recent literature on the phenomenon, which is essential for the investigations that are beginning to investigate the occurrence. Thus, it is necessary to go beyond the practices outlined in the article, to find new ways in which to broaden the universe of conceptualization of the phenomenon, besides the practical application of the proposed processes. A first step along this path is to guide small business owners to understand design management processes to innovate, to better meet customer needs, and to make design a real competitive advantage. The practical application of the present process is a real opportunity for the maturing of design management as a fundamental element for innovation in startups in Brazil, since there is already an understanding of the importance of these companies to the economy of a country. From this perspective, it becomes important to obtain qualitative data, as the next stage of the research, so that it can discover how the proposed processes can be gener‐ alized to the operational management of the startups so that the correct and effective use of these methods/ tools take Always to a growth and increased interaction of the compa‐ ny’s product and service with the end user in an innovative way.

References 1. Blank, S., Dorf, B.: Startup: Manual do Empreendedor. Alta Books, São Paulo (2014) 2. Brown, T.: Design Thinking: Uma metodologia poderosa para decretar o fim das velhas ideias. Elsevier, Rio de Janeiro (2010) 3. Cardoso, R.: Design para um mundo complexo. Cosac Naify, São Paulo (2012) 4. Drucker, P.F.: Inovação e Espírito Empreendedor (entrepreneurship): Prática e Princípios, 2a edn. Pioneira, São Paulo (1987) 5. Dziobcczenski, P., Lacerda, P.: Inovação Através do Design: Príncipios Sistêmicos do Pensamento Projetual, v.3. Revista Design & Tecnologia, Rio Grande do Sul (2011) 6. Fraser, H.: Design para Negócios na Prática: Como gerar inovação e crescimento nas empresas aplicando o Business Design. Elsevier, Rio de Janeiro (2012) 7. Freeman, C.: Technology Policy and Economic Performance: Lessons From Japan. Pinter, London (1987) 8. Kotler, P.: A Bíblia da Inovação: Príncipios Fundamentais para levar a cultura da inovação contínua às organizações. Leya, São Paulo (2011) 9. de Mozota, B.B.: Gestão do design: usando o design para construir valor de marca e inovação corporativa. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2011) 10. Ries, E.: A Startup Enxuta: Como Os Empreendedores atuais utilizam a Inovação Contínua para criar empresas extremamente bem sucedidas. Leya, São Paulo (2012) 11. Scherer, F.O., Carlomagno, M.S.: Gestão de Inovação na prática. Atlas, São Paulo (2009) 12. Verganti, R.: Design Driven Innovation: Changing the Rules of Competition by Radically Innovating What Things Mean. Harvard Business School, Boston (2009)

Assistive Technology I

Optimization and Ergonomics of Novel Modular Wheelchair Design Nadir Skendraoui1 ✉ , Fabien Bogard1, Sébastien Murer1, Tareq Ahram2, and Redha Taiar1 (

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GRESPI/Université de Reims Champagne Ardennes, Reims Champagne, France {nadir.skendraoui,fabien.bogard,sebastien.murer, redha.taiar}@univ-reims.fr IASE, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd, Orlando, FL 32816, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The Manual Wheelchair (MW) is an important device which provides technical assistance to people affected by mobility impairments. This mode of displacement is neither natural nor easy and the environments, whether natural or built, can present various obstacles, which will restrict mobility and the social participation of MW users. Users complete autonomy depends on their capacity to cope with the many obstacles of their daily life, such as pavements or unleveled grounds. Ever since its invention the MW as an economical mobility solution, it has gone through many improvements, yet its technological innovation slowed down during the recent years. In this study, we present a novel design of MW. Its conception includes innovative kinematics with genuine lifting and folding systems. A lever system mounted on hubless-wheels is dedicated to the propulsion mechanism. The objective of this new concept is the optimization of MW mech‐ anism to be more user friendly and to take into account the ergonomics consid‐ erations in an attempt to improve the user’s daily life. Keywords: Ergonomics · Wheelchair · Conception · Design · Biomechanics

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Introduction

The wheelchair remains the only mean of mobility for the physically impaired today. Unfortunately, society does not take adequate measures to the constraints related to the utilization of MW, which complicates daily life of its users population. These difficulties emerge not only from displacement (e.g. slopes, stairs, elevation… etc.) but also from the world we live in, which is mainly built for fully mobile users. On the other hand, most manual wheelchair features a static seat associated with handrim propulsion [1, 2]. Users of these MW cannot acquire sufficient autonomy compared to a valid person [3–5]. Furthermore, several aspects related to the use and even the conception of MW still remain not appropriate from a physical ergonomics and induced user muscles fatigue, in addition to other ergonomic functions [6–8]. Such as those related to the conventional handrim propulsion, which in term is responsible for multiple induced traumatisms [6, 9, 10]. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_48

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Besides, the majority of MW manufacturers are currently switching to lightweight, adjustable designs, using aluminum alloy associated to stainless steel type [11] for basic, rigid frame models. Some studies highlighted that rigid frames provide good perform‐ ance in terms of maneuverability, but poor stability and center of gravity leading to possible injuries at relatively higher movement turns [12]. They are often difficult to carry, contrary to MW designed with a foldable frame. The good design results are appreciated and required by users. Moreover, manufacturers recently developed and presented a new alternative to rigid-frame MW, in the form of an elevating wheelchair [13]. It is able to take the user to a given height during operation and accomplish everyday tasks easily and more rapidly. Indeed, a study by RESNA (Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America) [14] states that seat elevation is crucial, from an ergonomic point of view (productivity improvement) as well as the medical point of view (simplification of transfer operations). Besides, the upright position has psychological benefits since it brings equal eye-level during conver‐ sations between interlocutors. However, most of the wheelchairs equipped with elevating dynamic seats are motorized, therefore, they are very heavy, non-folding, bulky and often difficult to transport. Our study consists of combining three innovative technologies into a single novel concept of MW with original design and conception. The first technology involved consists of ergonomic and innovative propulsion system. The usual handrim propulsion is well accepted and convenient for users, but it frequently causes micro-traumatisms at the wrists and shoulders joints level. This new approach provides alternate lever propul‐ sion mechanisms, which presents a higher mechanical efficiency in comparison to the classical manual propulsion [2, 15, 16]. The second technology used in this study consists of the integration on the wheelchair frame of a manual lifting enabling the user to change elevation and position. As mentioned above, this approach with dynamic sitting offers many advantages, like solving discomfort issues and lowering the risk of pressure ulcers. Finally, the third technology implemented aims at making the transport and storage of the wheelchair easier and more convenient to users, by taking advantage of a folding frame.

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Method

This research project relies on several feedbacks from ergotherapists and physiothera‐ pists from CHU Reims (teaching hospital), as well as a survey on experienced users who used manual wheelchairs, targeted at daily functional requirements. Considering their wants and needs during the conception lead us to offer an ergonomic, lifting and folding MW with modern (trendy) and original esthetics and shape. In our study and for the MW conception, we used SolidWorks 2016® software. Its technical specifications and dimensions comply with standards issued by the CERAH (Centre d’Etudes et de Recherche sur l’Appareillage des Handicapés – Centre of Studies and Research on the Equipment of Disabled Persons), i.e. a frame dimensioned for full body support, with front driving wheels and equipped with inflatable pneumatic wheels.

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Wheel placement and dimensions are optimized for a simplified transfer of the user. The backrest and seat of the wheelchair are adjusted depending on user’s morphology: width of the seat ranges from 380 mm to 490 mm. Depth may be adjusted between 420 mm and 500 mm at approximately 500 mm above the ground level. In terms of global size, the space used lies between 800 mm and 1300 mm. Besides, the user must be given a proper field of view, centered around 1300 mm above ground level. Both armrests are removable yet lockable to provide support when the user wishes to stand up or down. Foot-rests ensure proper placement of the legs and feet. They may also be adjusted in height and depth, and a mechanical stop device prevents them from detaching and protects the user. The selected manual propulsion device must ensure comfortable grip and maneu‐ verability. Grip section exceeds 200 mm2 and its usage shall neither degrade nor injure the user. The lifting system has to be technically accomplished in order to prevent risks of front, back and side falling. Fixations will be integrated for lower limbs. In fact, the lifting process will be unable to start if they are not securely fastened. Finally, the global dimensions of the wheelchair do not exceed 1200 mm in length and 700 mm in width. These values are required for good mobility. The minimal diam‐ eter for comfortable maneuverability is around 1500 mm.

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Results and Discussion

The objectives of our study are listed in Table 1. For the conception, we designed a 3D numerical model of new MW design. The first prototype, displayed in Fig. 1, represents a wheelchair combining the three functional and ergonomic aspects: lifting, folding and front lever propulsion. Table 1. Design requirements. Wheelchair options Front driving wheels Lifting system Optimized propulsion technology Folding frame Weight

Objective Easier obstacle clearance Improved mobility Lower risk of traumatisms Transport and storage Energy-efficient usage

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Fig. 1. Conceptual new design of the manual wheelchair.

3.1 Propulsion Concept The new concept and the originality of this wheelchair evolves from its propulsion system, which is assembled on the front hubless-wheels. This propulsion was simulated in the 3D Adams MSC Software® environment. Its maneuverability is actuated by a Yshaped lever which follows a circular arc on the perimeter of the wheel (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Prototype of the lever propulsion system on a hubless-wheel.

The propulsion mechanism is based on an internal gear, with a cog-mounted on an axle attached to the front part of the Y-shaped lever (see Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Propulsion mechanism.

The cog drags backward to an almost vertical position, which allows retaining a correct starting angle for pulling the crown gear forward. The trajectory of the cog drags from rear to front along an arc of a circle and is similar to the arc-shaped trajectory of a hand on propulsion with handrim [17]. However, the lever system may result in faster movement execution due to his unique conception. 3.2 Lifting Concept The second feature is the lifting from seated to elevated position, which is based on a system made up of bars assembled as a deformable parallelogram between the seat and backrest. This mechanism makes it possible to lift the seat while keeping the backrest in an upright position, and is triggered by levers located on each side of the seat. The key feature in this concept is the base chassis which supports two inclined bars mounted below the seat of the chair. By pushing the lifting levers on each side, these bars rotate forward, thus lifting the seat to an elevated position (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Lifting system: parallelogram made of bars, arc-shaped trajectories (yellow) of the lifting lever (blue) and inclined lifting bar (red).

Fastening elements have been placed at the leg level to ensure user’s safety during the lifting stage. This implementation allows the user to almost stand up while keeping the propulsion levers within reach. Indeed, contrary to other concepts which implemented different propulsion methods for each position [18], or those designs which immobilize the wheelchair, the model presented in this study combines two safe postural aspects. The user only has to operate on a single propulsion system. As a result improving autonomy, stability, safety and ergonomics, being very important aspects wheelchair users looking for in WM’s [19]. 3.3 Folding Concept The third technical concept highlighted in this study evolves in storage and transport functionalities. The prototype actually contains a folding chassis enabling width reduc‐ tion of approximately 50%. The mechanism envisaged for this purpose allows a folding in three steps. First, the rear wheel is lifted in order to put the wheelchair to grip position. The second step consists in unlocking the front and rear bars, and the third in pulling the central bar (see Fig. 5). In addition to these specific features, an optimization of the weight of the device will be carried out such that the energetic cost of operation is minimized to avoid muscle fatigue and ease of use. Finally it is technically possible to make this wheelchair modular by integrating various additional options, among which electrically-assisted propulsion motor and combat high efficient light weight batteries which use kinematic energy to recharge due to current mechanism of propulsion system. The novelty of this MW stems from the benefits of modular design to support economical and cost effective solution and custom upgrades for wheelchair with added options based on need.

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Fig. 5. Wheelchair fold-up.

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Conclusion

Conception and simulation are crucial steps for rapid prototyping. The design is intended to manufacturers with the aim of developing novel concepts like those proposed in this study. In the field of applied research, these procedures are necessary and integrate several approaches such as user’s actual needs and the optimization of existing wheel‐ chairs. In this study, researcher introduced an innovative modular type of wheelchair equipped with a lever propulsion system, hubless wheels and displaying novel esthetics. The concept also meets the requirements of a lifting manual wheelchair. The dynamic seat enable users to adapt their position depending on everyday situations, providing them independence and greater social integration. Besides, this functionality offers significant health benefits related to vascularity and digestion support. Further research studies are being carried out to demonstrate these effects. The wheelchair also comprises a folding system which allows easier transport in vehicles or during leisure trips. Enhancing the daily mobility of the physically impaired is a top priority. However, helping them accept their mobility impairment might not be easy. This type of wheel‐ chair extent the benefits of mobility and fulfill the needs of a vast majority of disabled persons. Current research focused on propulsion and lifting biomechanics, investigating the influence of different chair configurations and hopefully prescribing adjustments on the seat-lever set. Research team plans to simulate the biomechanical position adopted by patients in order to quantify the muscular, ligamentous and joint contributions of the body in the seat of the wheelchair. These results will explain quantitatively the advantages of modular wheelchair design proposed in this study, and to what extent it proves more reliable and economical to manufacture, than the existing classical solutions available in the market. Whether for the design of the device or its biomechanical simulation, the approach maintains the same guideline that is improvement of the ergonomics of the wheelchair.

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Acknowledgements. The authors gratefully acknowledge Communauté d’Agglomération de Châlons-en-Champagne, France, for their kind financial support.

References 1. Vegter, R.J., De Groot, S., Hettinga, S.F.J., Veeger, D.H., Van Der Woude, L.H.V.: Wheelchair (Design of a Manually Propelled Wheelchair: Optimizing a Wheelchair-User Combination). Center for International Rehabilitation Research Information and Exchange, Available Httpcirrie-Buffalo Eduencyclopediaenarticle 191 (2013) 2. Van der Woude, L.H., Dallmeijer, A.J., Janssen, T.W., Veeger, D.: Alternative modes of manual wheelchair ambulation: an overview. Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 80, 765–777 (2001) 3. Wee, J., Paterson, M.: Exploring how factors impact the activities and participation of persons with disability: constructing a model through grounded theory. Qual. Rep. 14, 165 (2009) 4. Hunt, P.C.: Factors associated with wheelchair use and the impact on quality of life among individuals with spinal cord injury (2005). http://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/12206963.pdf 5. Mikołajewska, E., Mikołajewski, D.: Wheelchair development from the perspective of physical therapists and biomedical engineers. Adv. Clin. Exp. Med. 19, 771–776 (2010) 6. Van Drongelen, S., van der Woude, L.H., Janssen, T.W., Angenot, E.L., Chadwick, E.K., Veeger, D.H.: Glenohumeral contact forces and muscle forces evaluated in wheelchair-related activities of daily living in able-bodied subjects versus subjects with paraplegia and tetraplegia. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 86, 1434–1440 (2005) 7. Sawatzky, B.J., Slobogean, G.P., Reilly, C.W., Chambers, C.T., Hol, A.T.: Prevalence of shoulder pain in adult- versus childhood-onset wheelchair users: a pilot study. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 42, 1 (2004) 8. Louis, N.: Analyse biomécanique de la propulsion en fauteuil roulant à mains courantes: indices d’évaluation ergono-mique (2010). https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00597217/ 9. Xiang, H., Chany, A.-M., Smith, G.A.: Wheelchair related injuries treated in US emergency departments. Inj. Prev. 12, 8–11 (2006) 10. Moon, Y., Jayaraman, C., Hsu, I.M.K., Rice, I.M., Hsiao-Wecksler, E.T., Sosnoff, J.J.: Variability of peak shoulder force during wheelchair propulsion in manual wheelchair users with and without shoulder pain. Clin. Biomech. 28, 967–972 (2013) 11. Liu, H., Pearlman, J., Cooper, R., Hong, E., Wang, H., Salatin, B., Cooper, R.A.: Evaluation of aluminum ultralight rigid wheelchairs versus other ultralight wheelchairs using ANSI/ RESNA standards. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 47, 441 (2010) 12. Medola, F.O., Elui, V.M.C., da Silva Santana, C., Fortulan, C.A.: Aspects of manual wheelchair configuration affecting mobility: a review. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 26, 313–318 (2014) 13. Uustal, H., Minkel, J.L.: Study of the independence IBOT 3000 mobility system: an innovative power mobility device, during use in community environments. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 85, 2002–2010 (2004) 14. Arva, J., Schmeler, M.R., Lange, M.L., Lipka, D.D., Rosen, L.E.: RESNA position on the application of seat-elevating devices for wheelchair users. Assist. Technol. 21, 69–72 (2009) 15. Sarraj, A.R., Massarelli, R.: Design history and advantages of a new lever-propelled wheelchair prototype. Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst. 8, 12–21 (2011) 16. Rifai Sarraj, A., Massarelli, R., Rigal, F., Moussa, E., Jacob, C., Fazah, A., Kabbara, M.: Evaluation of a wheelchair prototype with non-conventional, manual propulsion. Ann. Phys. Rehabil. Med. 53, 105–117 (2010)

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17. Boninger, M.L., Souza, A.L., Cooper, R.A., Fitzgerald, S.G., Koontz, A.M., Fay, B.T.: Propulsion patterns and pushrim biomechanics in manual wheelchair propulsion. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 83, 718–723 (2002) 18. Nickel, E., Hansen, A., Pearlman, J., Goldish, G.: A drive system to add standing mobility to a manual standing wheelchair. Assist. Technol. Off. J. RESNA 2(4), 218–224 (2016). ISSN: 1040-0435 19. Fliess-Douer, O., Vanlandewijck, Y.C., Van Der Woude, L.H.V.: Most essential wheeled mobility skills for daily life: an international survey among paralympic wheelchair athletes with spinal cord injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 93, 629–635 (2012)

Industrial Manufacturing Workstations Suitability for People with Disabilities: The Perception of Workers Edson S.M. Teixeira ✉ and Maria Lucia L.R. Okimoto (

)

Post Graduate Program in Design, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), General Carneiro St., 460, Curitiba, Brazil [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The inclusion processes of people with disabilities in industrial production lines are being carried out. Thereby, getting to know the current workstations is important for planning, designing and developing new assistive technology products. Thus, this paper presents an analysis study of industrial manufacturing workstations based on the perception of workers without disabil‐ ities. For this, it relies on a survey with a questionnaire given to 222 workers from different processing industries. Analyzes are presented and interpreted in sets. It establishes that the inclusion processes are happening, but still in a superficial way. There is an inclusion gap directly related to the needs for modification and, in reality, favoring the inclusion of workers with milder disabilities. Keywords: Industrial manufacturing · Inclusion process · Workstations · Assistive products · Workers perceptions

1

Introduction

When talking about industrial manufacturing processes one must understand the complexity that surrounds this condition. A manufacturing line is developed to meet the manufacturing of products with quality and efficiency. Thereby, its steps are organized so that the sequence follows production patterns that must be guaranteed by the workers who work there. The entry of professionals into the work of these processes requires the ability to develop a set of skills in an appropriate way. When a person with disabilities is included in these processes, it is not always possible to organize the work in order to reconcile existing activities with personal abilities. Thus, adaptation and inclusion processes are necessary, which makes way for the development of new assistive products. Assuming that the inclusion process is a reality, it is relevant to bring up the percep‐ tion of suitability of the current industrial workstations and to verify how the companies’ experience can contribute to this complex process. However, the verification of suita‐ bility from the s point of view of the disabled worker could lead to a restricted one, since each person with disability could explain their difficulties. In order to understand in a general way the current adequacy for disabled people, it is understood that the perception of workers without disabilities would be more adequate. Moreover, product development processes usually start from the overview of the current situation to the understanding of the context and planning of a new product to be developed [1–5]. This stage is important © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_49

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for opening up possibilities for new assistive technology products aimed at improving the quality of work of people with disabilities in industrial manufacturing. Thus, the objective of this paper is to present the analysis of a survey aimed at the pursuit of the perception of the suitability in the current industrial workstations, from the point of view of workers without disabilities, taking as reference two cities in the South of Brazil. This type of analysis contributes to the understanding of the current conditions of inclusion and the methods used in practice by the manufacturing sector of processing industries.

2

Theorical Framework

2.1 Industrial Manufacturing Workstations New ways of organizing work emerged from increased deployment of flexible produc‐ tion systems around the world. This work philosophy generated a series of transforma‐ tions in the production strategies of the industries, which came against the current common model of mass production, centered on hierarchy, standardization, routiniza‐ tion and exclusion of workers from the decision process. Thus, flexible production has brought new premises, regarding a more flexible way of organizing workers, a partici‐ patory management, a greater decision-making power of the employees in relation to production process, continuous training, demanding proactive, multipurpose employees who solve problems and learn from their mistakes, in addition to equipment and factories more flexible, in order to meet the greater variability of manufactured products [6–8]. In order to increase the possibilities of taking advantage of the technical and inter‐ personal skills of employees, employers have been using mechanisms to obtain func‐ tional flexibility. Among these mechanisms, some have been focused on the production process itself, such as the technological innovations just-in-time, based on the zero inventory premise, aiming at minimizing materials and inventories and, on cellular production lines where workers have a series of functions in a set of operations or machines, which characterizes his or her workstation. These mechanisms represent advantages for organizations, as employees are involved in a participatory model in order to plan, respond to production needs and collaborate on product quality [6]. Such demands also require more flexible professionals with the ability to take on roles on workstations, as well as participate in quality control circles and continuous improve‐ ment processes, previously restricted to specialists. The type of production line adopted by the industry also affects the characteristics of the new production premises. In accordance with [9], production lines are usually subsets of production systems. Since there are several types of production systems, their characteristics generate production lines specific to each product or process. In this analysis, one must consider several characteristics, such as manual or automatic lines, product flow, dedicated or flexible workstations, high or low production rate and others. Production lines are complex systems. Understanding the production characteristics requires a qualified analysis in order to facilitate the development of a specific design. Thus, [10] suggest the classification of production lines into four different types: by process, by product, fixed position and cellular. They also cite that each type of

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production line generates a specific layout, allowing them to be analyzed separately. In this way, the production lines can be: • By process, also called job shop or by function. It is the one where the machines and stations with similar functions are grouped and the products transit through several groups, without direct relation with a specific productive flow. Operators of this type of line can become specialists in a particular machinery set. • By product or by flow. It is one in which the workstations or the equipment are arranged according to progressive stages through which the product transits, in the direction of the specific productive flow of the product. In this type of production line, the operators must have the flexibility to make different sets of operations in several workstations. • Fixed position is the type of production line that the equipment and the workstations move to the product that is being processed, which usually remains fixed until its complete transformation. Operators require flexibility and wide mobility to perform multi-shift processes. • Cellular is the line where different machines and workstations are sequenced according to the path of the product, but in formats that allow one worker to operate several at the same time. In order for this structure to be assembled, the products must have similar procedures, known as families. In this way, the manufacturing cells can be considered as a hybrid model, capable of absorbing characteristics of each types of existing production lines. It must then be considered that the definition of a work position is not restricted to a single place where the worker carries out his or her activities. The wide variety of operations is usually associated with displacement, mobility, and the ability to switch between jobs, making decisions, and interfering with the productive process in an organized fashion. Thus, in order to meet such functions, assistive devices must be developed, enabling workers with different characteristics to meet the requirements of the job in a harmonious manner and to obtain similar productive results on different production lines. 2.2 Workers with Disabilities in Manufacturing According [11], one in seven people has some kind of disability. This represents approx‐ imately 14% of the world’s population. However, this situation varies for each country due to social, cultural, ethnic and other differences. In Brazil, [12] indicates that 23.9% of Brazilians have some type of disability. When it comes to work, 57.3% of men with disabilities and 37.8% of women with disabilities are employed. This number is still low, which shows a difficulty in dealing with this public, since people with disabilities are not grouped homogeneously. Disability is only one more factor of human diversity. In agreement with [13], depending on classification, disabilities can be grouped into some types such as sensory deficiencies, associated with visual and auditory deficien‐ cies; physical disabilities, related to mobility and orthopedic deficiencies; intellectual disability related to learning, comprehension and concentration deficiencies; and

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psychosocial disabilities including mental illness, maladaptive behaviors and mood disorders, as well as multiple disabilities that fall into several categories. What makes the inclusion process complex is the broad range of specific needs of each individual. [13] also explains that the way to make a disabled person productive for a workstation depends on the inclusion approach and the addressing of specific needs. The complexity of disability analysis is significant and the development of universal inclusion models are still a major challenge. In this way, a high variability requires the attendance of a great range of specificities. A deaf person may require colleagues and supervisors to communicate through sign language. However, a person with mobility difficulties has the need of a layout adjusted to optimal accessibility. People with intel‐ lectual disabilities may need to work in stages and with an easy-to-understand sequence. Thus, issues related to the productivity of people with disabilities should consider the diversity of needs and the impact on individuals. In this context of relations of complexity, it is necessary to understand how the current process of inclusion is being treated, being it the basis for future development of specific assistive products for the inclusion of workers with disabilities in the indus‐ trial production field.

3

Methodology

This research is classified as exploratory [14] for it provides greater familiarity with a problem, in this case, the adequacy of workstations, as well as the discovery of the perceptions of a target public. The research method is a survey with data collection by means of a Likert-type scale questionnaire with 6 levels, where the respondent indicates the level of agreement for a set of statements. The analysis of the data was made on the average of the answers, defined as Average Ranking (AR), which indicates the average level of agreement for each statement. The neutrality threshold is close to 3.50 AR and average rankings above the neutrality limit are considered positive (agreement) and below, negative (disagreement). The target audience was composed of professionals from the manufacturing/produc‐ tion area employed in several large industries in the cities of Joinville and Curitiba, southern region of Brazil. There was no selection of companies or types of workstations, with the basic prerequisite being that the worker did not have any type of disability. The questionnaires were answered by 222 workers from the processing industry, whose profile identified in the initial questions showed that 78% of the respondents had finished high school and 41% had technical vocational training. The average age was 26 and they had a more stable working condition, being the average time of employment 5 years and 3 months. In addition, 31% said that they had already worked or monitored the activities of people with disabilities, even if for a short period. Only 11% said that they performed their activities predominantly in a seated position and the remaining performed tasks with workstation flexibility or moving around the factory.

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Results and Discussion

Based on the survey developed for the research, the results are presented from four sets of answers: Company Adequacy, People Management Methods and Actions, Work of People with Disabilities and Workplace Suitability. 4.1 Company Adequacy This part of the research aimed to identify how the workers’ perceptions are in relation to the companies’ efforts to adapt the general conditions of access and work in manu‐ facturing. Thus, it focused on six statement to verify their agreements. Analyzing the data from the compilation of answers, one can observe a positive average ranking (AR 4.10), which meets the greater agreement with the statements of the set. All the statements of this set had an average ranking higher than 3.5. The greater agreement of the set was based on the statement that the company needs to modify its working conditions to receive a person with disability (AR 4.55). This shows that workers are aware of the need for inclusion in enterprises in general, where the means must be adapted to the characteristics of the people. It is then perceived a demand for new assisted technologies. In addition, it is also understood that the need to adapt workstations can already be seen as an obligation of the company to adapt its conditions to disabled professionals. Although change of working conditions for disabled is understood as a necessity, when it comes to the industry that the professional is working on, the average ranking values fall. The statement about adaptations of facilities in the respondent’s company (AR 4.19) was below the need for adaptations for any company. It can be understood that the workers’ industries still do not reach the expectation of adaptation necessary for the inclusion of people with disabilities. The companies’ specific conditions also had positive average rankings, such as the perception of existence of accessible information on health and safety at work (AR 4.25) and the provision of Fire Brigade training for the evacuation of people with disabilities (AR 4.00). However, the lowest values of the statements set are in accordance and associated with the perception of modification of signaling and equipment. In relation to workplace signaling (AR 3.91), it can be understood that the average ranking value was perceived from the workplaces of the respondents, that is, from their workstation. This situation is also understood in relation to the statement of acquisitions or modifications of work equipment (AR 3.67), such as assistive technologies. Thus, it can be understood that, from the point of view of the worker, the perception of adequacy for people with disa‐ bilities decreases as they tap into the workplace. A company’s need for adequacy (AR 4.55) had a higher index than the adequacy achieved in the respondent’s industry (AR 4.19) and higher than in the workstation (AR 3.67). In general, the result of grouping these statements indicates that the worker perceives modifications and adaptations for people with disabilities performed by his or her company. This is positive, for it demonstrates that activities associated to work adequacy and inclusion of people with disabilities have emerged in the midst of the routine of the manufacturing workers and are thus perceived. However, this view of adequacy is

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reduced when approaching his or her workstation, where the professionals spend most of their effort. When talking about work equipment regarding assistive devices and means, this index is very close to a range of disagreement (AR below 3.5). 4.2 People Management Methods and Actions People management decisions are very important to the success of the inclusion process of people with disabilities. It is expected, within the industry, leaders prepared to direct the adaptation activities, qualification and development of people. Thus, it is understood that areas with Human Resources/People Management have to have inclusion strategies aligned with direct manufacturing management, such as Leaders, Supervisors or Produc‐ tion Coordinators. In this way, actions related to these two sets of professionals may have their perceptions evaluation by production workers. It should also be taken into account that several professionals occupying leading positions in the manufacturing area have their origin as production operators. It is important to know how the vision of some leadership actions towards the current production workers is. From this perspective, the aim was to understand the perception of methods and actions from a set of nine statements. At first, according to analyzed data, it is verified that the average ranking of the statements set regarding methods and actions of people management (AR 3.52), is at the limit of neutrality. It is also noticed that some statements had their index very close to this limit, which indicates that the respondents had doubts in relation to some questions of the set. Even though the use of the six-level Likert item forces respondents to somehow agree, or disagree, average ranking too close to the neutrality limit cannot be measured and interpreted. Perhaps the most striking index has been the highest average ranking. The statement that non-disabled employees need to be trained to work with people with disabilities (AR 4.48) exalts a perception of qualification not very common in the manufacturing area. In general, inclusion methods focus on the needs and characteristics of the indi‐ vidual with disabilities, organizing means, processes, tasks, etc., so this professional can work properly. However, inclusion is not always a success, since it can still be an isolated work, displaced from the context of people already working in production. Thus, inclu‐ sion itself is agreed and embraced by colleagues, but these understand that they need to learn to work with this new professional, still unfamiliar to them. Regarding the ability of immediate superiors to work with people with disabilities, two statements indicated agreement. The first one, on the preparation of managers to supervise the work of people with disabilities (AR 3.87) and the second on the aware‐ ness-raising of managers regarding inclusion (AR 3.82) had similar average rankings. Even with values close to the neutrality limit, such values can be considered positive. Regarding the training and qualification of all employees, including professionals with disabilities (AR 3.97), agreement indicates that there is no discrimination or segregation for training and general information. The strategies of guiding workplaces towards people with disabilities were evaluated through three statement. The lowest average ranking, with a high degree of disagree‐ ment, indicates that people with disabilities must work in sectors separated from people

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without disabilities (AR 1.77). This view of inclusion by manufacturing workers, which had already appeared in the set regarding company adequacy, meets the understanding of the inclusion process as real and necessary. It demonstrates that manufacturing workers view the entry of people with disabilities into industrial workstations without the need to segregate them in separate, isolated locations. Neither direct them to repet‐ itive tasks (AR 2.70), shown by disagreement with the statement on this subject. Thereby, the high acceptance for the sharing of workstations between disabled and nondisabled people by workers without disabilities can also be understood. On the other hand, the compliance with the statement that only a few sectors are suitable for people with disabilities to work (AR 3.98) may indicate that not all workstations are ready to absorb professionals with disabilities with the appropriate adaptations and assistive technologies. In a broader view of both statements and respondents’ perspective, it can be interpreted that there should be no distinction between workplaces, but not all sectors are in a position to include a worker with disability. Two statements had an average raking close to the limit of neutrality. One on changes and adaptations of working hours for people with disabilities (AR 3.34) and another on the sensitization of working groups for inclusion (AR 3.71). It is understood that there is no clear agreement or disagreement on the statements, which loses the value of inter‐ pretation. 4.3 Work of People with Disabilities The perceptions about the work of disabled people from the point of view of workers without disabilities were verified through eight statements. These express possible differences between the performance of the two groups of workers. With a total average ranking (AR 3.16) of disagreement for the statement set, the respondents indicated their agreement with few statements regarding the differences in work performance for any worker. Thus, there is little perception of difference between the labor of a person with or without a disability, considering the factors of the statement set. The highest average ranking of agreement obtained by the statement set regards the possibility of people with disabilities to take up managerial positions of groups of people without disabilities (AR 4.39). This value indicates an acceptance, albeit theoretically, of the presence of the disabled worker at many points in the hierarchy of the production area, including group leadership. As well as in the answers to the set of methods and actions of people management, there is indication of comprehension of the process of inclusion as something natural for the manufacturing worker, without distinction of characteristics and career development. Supporting the indication obtained, some statements indicate disagreement precisely by forcing a position on possible differences in performance. The statements about the quality of inferior work (AR 2.04) and low productivity (AR 2.33) of people with disa‐ bilities have obtained high disagreement, suggesting that these workers are not below the average of the rest of the workers. In fact, not even above average, for the statements regarding the greater commitment (AR 3.16) also indicated disagreement. In relation to a greater accident propensity (AR 2.80), there was also significant disagreement. Thus, one notices the perception of equality of work and results, like any manufacturing worker.

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Three statements have not been evaluated nor interpreted, for they are very close to the limit of neutrality. The statements regarding sitting position (AR 3.41), being more stable in employment (AR 3.51) and presenting greater difficulties to work in flexible workstation (AR 3.66) were considered neutral, without an agreement or disagreement perception. 4.4 Workstation Suitability One of the key points for the inclusion process of disabled people in industrial manu‐ facturing is precisely the preparation and adequacy of workstations, as well as the development of appropriate assistive technologies. The worker must have broad execu‐ tion conditions of his or her activities, which can be verified by the current workstations. Thus, through eleven statements, the perception of the workers was sought considering the categories of disability and the verification of the existing adequacies, where the total average ranking obtained for the statements set (AR 2.23) was of high disagree‐ ment. The set of answers on workstation suitability had the lowest average ranking values. However, the statement that people with disabilities can adequately perform any type of work provide modified workstation structures (AR 3.80) had a slight agreement. This question brings to light that inclusion is directly associated with the adequacy of the means, devices, machines and processes of workstations, according to the respondents. By associating the perceptions from the company adequacy statement set, which indicate there should be no distinction between workstations, however not all sectors are in a position to include a disabled worker, it is understood that, with the appropriate adap‐ tations, and assistive technologies, it is possible for a person with disabilities to work at any station. Specifically on the respondent’s workstation, the statements regarding the adequacy of his or her station for people with disabilities (AR 2.23), if anyone with disability can perform their activities (AR 2.18) and if the worker was already asked to provide suggestions for the adequacy of their station for people with disabilities (AR 1.80) had a high level of disagreement. These answers agree with the perceptions from the previous sets, which already indicated that, from the point of view of manufacturing workers, their stations are not suitable for inclusion. As a final and complementary step, was sought to understand which categories could be included to work in the current respondents’ stations. In this way, they were divided into seven statements for analysis of the average ranking. The statements with high disagreement was related to the adequacy of the station for blind people (AR 1.18), with monocular vision (AR 2.40), wheelchair users (AR 1.80), with compromised arm move‐ ments (AR 1.55), with mild mental disability (AR 2.20) and with severe mental disability (AR 1.31). It should be considered that respondents’ perceptions regarding the catego‐ ries and types of disability and the characteristics that impact the work performance may be scattered or even null, but the results indicate a rejection of the idea that current workstations are fit to receive most of people with disabilities.

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On the other hand, the statement that deaf people can work adequately in current workstation (AR 4.11) had a high agreement index, probably because they needed fewer assistive developments and modifications.

5

Conclusion

From the set of responses of the survey, one can have an overview of the conclusions drawn for the research. Initially, it appears that, in general, industries have made changes and adjustments for the inclusion of workers with disabilities. However, from the view‐ point of workers without disabilities, such necessary adaptations are not reaching the workstation through assistive devices and technologies. Just as respondents indicate that their workstations are not adequate for inclusion, they do not indicate that workers with disabilities should work in isolation or apart from the rest. Thus, there is still difficulty in allocating these workers in the current conditions. On the other hand, there is a broad acceptance of inclusion of professionals with disabilities, with the only restriction being the training to understand a better the way to do it. While respondents point out that inclusion should happen naturally, they also point that few people with disabilities are already able to work at their current workstation. This gap raised by the research shows that the process of inclusion is taking place in a more superficial way, without real opportunity for all people. It must be considered that, when it is necessary to include people with different abilities, it is necessary to make the adaptations that would enable the work of both disabled and non-disabled people. Such modifications include assistive products and structural adjustments, without which inclusion is limited to workers with minor limitations. Considering the purpose of this paper, to present and analyze a survey for the search of the perception of workers without disabilities on the current industrial manufacturing workstations, a research with data collection by means of a questionnaire was developed. The process of analysis of the research was presented, emphasizing the highlights that represent the perceptions regarding the current workstations. Thus, it was possible to interpret the answers in a qualitative way and to understand how current production workers view the moment of inclusion in industrial workstations, its difficulties and conditions to carry out this process. Finally, it is recommended for further studies to be carried out directly with current production managers, in order to compare with the resulting perception of this work. From a similar study, one can verify the reasons for this lack of inclusion and how assistive products and modifications for people with disabilities are developed in prac‐ tice. This understanding may increase the database and find appropriate ways to guide this complex inclusion process, generating references for the development of assistive technologies for industrial manufacturing.

References 1. Baxter, M.R.: Product Design. Chapman & Hall, London (1995) 2. Pahl, G., Beitz, W.: Engineering Design—A Systematic Approach. Springer, London (1996)

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3. Lobach, B.: Design Industrial. Editora Edgard Blücher, São Paulo (2001) 4. Rozenfeld, H., et al.: Gestão de desenvolvimento de produtos: uma referência para melhoria do processo. Editora Saraiva, São Paulo (2006) 5. Merino, G.S.A.D.: Metodologia para a prática projetual do design: com base no projeto centrado no usuário e com ênfase no design universal. Tese de doutorado. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis (2014) 6. Womack, J.P., Jones, D.T., Roos, D.: The Machine that Changed the World. Free Press, New York (1990) 7. Liker, J.K.: The Toyota Way: 14 Management Principles from the World’s Greatest Manufacturer. McGraw Hill, New York (2004) 8. Mann, D.: Creating a Lean Culture: Tools to Sustain Lean Conversions. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2014) 9. Papadopoulos, C.T., O’Kelly, M.E.J., Vidalis, M.J., Spinellis, D.: Analysis and design of discrete part production lines. In: Springer Optimization and Its Applications, vol. 31, p. 279. Springer, New York (2009). doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89494-2_1 10. Davis, M.M., Chase, R.B., Auilano, N.J.: Fundamentos da administração da produção, 3rd edn. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2001) 11. ILO – International Labour Organization: Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities (2014). http:// www.ilo.int/skills/areas/inclusion-of-persons-with-disabilities/lang–en/index.htm 12. Oliveira, L.M.B.: Cartilha do Censo 2010: pessoas com deficiência. Secretaria Nacional de Promoção dos Direitos da Pessoa com Deficiência, Brasília (2012) 13. Powers, T.: Recognizing Ability: The Skills and Productivity of Persons with Disabilities— Literature Review. International Labour Organization (2008) 14. Gil, A.C.: Como elaborar projetos de pesquisa. Atlas, São Paulo (2002)

External Breast Prostheses: Brazilian Performance Parameters Lucia Regina Branco ✉ and José Aguiomar Foggiatto (

)

Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. Mastectomies are known since 1861 and since then women all around the world try to replace the volume of their breast, when it’s completely removed due to breast cancer treatment. From the Brazilian perspective, as a country that doesn’t cover the expenses of external breast prostheses, some parameters emerge by the manufacture of breast prostheses such as: weight, shape, volume, materials and colors. These are the most important features in the prostheses found in the Brazilian market and this paper discusses prosthesis properties, parameters and the notice that external breast prosthesis are not compensated in Brazil. Keywords: Human factors · External breast prosthesis · Assistive technology

1

Introduction

In some countries, government or health insurance compensates for an external breast prosthesis, and even its periodical replacement, given the fact that it’s considered assis‐ tive technology. Unfortunately this is not the case in Brazil. Its public system covers the surgical procedure of reconstruction altogether with the implant of the prosthesis, but there’s a line of thousands of people waiting for this surgery. Many patients won’t even enter that line (because of comorbidities or chronic diseases, age, or fear of more ache than the rest of the treatment obliges to), or perhaps consider it later (when radiotherapy is needed first). For those who can’t or don’t want to receive an implant the solution of an external prosthesis appears to be a resource to improve self-esteem. Breast cancer is the second most common type of cancer in Brazil: in 2016 it was estimated that the country would have 57.960 new occurrences [1]. As a result of lack of enough equipment’s and late exams, sometimes it’s not possible to avoid a mastec‐ tomy. In some cases, the surgery of reconstruction is performed right after it, but this is not what happens in most cases. Although there are many users, a few perform‐ ance parameters for the external prostheses are established, not always driven by opinions of users or scientific criteria. This research was guided for the search of what is taken in account of those products offered in Brazil, and what are their performance parameters.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_50

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Methods

This research is intended to verify the bases on which external breast prostheses offered in Brazil. Non-structured interviews were done in two non-profit organizations, that offer some kinds of prostheses, and for other types (mass produced) a form was provided to check what there was for sale in twenty stores, to give support to women that go through a mastectomy without reconstruction. As a matter of terminology, it was needed to conduct a literature research about the expression of assistive technology and its use in international and local publications.

3

(Not an) Assistive Technology

Assistive technology is an internationally accepted terminology for external breast pros‐ theses, however the terminology “assistive technology” is not used in Brazil. ISO – International Organization for Standardization – classifies assistive technology in titles, and divides them in groups, according to the kind of help they give. Regulations from this association are known and used all over the world, Brazil included. In many areas of knowledge and manufacturing, when some kind of standard is needed, ISO is inter‐ nationally accepted and sometimes the only one. Since this classification was discussed among specialists from several countries it can be useful for all of them, but its application is not mandatory. Since 2007, ISO includes external breast prostheses as an assistive technology, under the code 06 30 18, in its “Assistive products for persons with disability – Classification and terminology” [2] – and even after six editions (nowadays ISO 9999:2016 is the most up to date) they’re still there as “mammary prostheses”. Recognizing this ISO standards as a guideline may impact social and economic aspects; the opinion of the authors of this paper is that Brazil’s government didn’t make any mention about it when it made its committees and publications or in function of misinformation or because this could cost money to the public health system. It’s needed to consider that the existence of a law that determines the immediate reconstruction of the breast after a mastectomy seems to solve the question, but it’s not true – and this may have caused the inaccuracy. Sometimes because there’s no room available to make the simultaneous surgery, or when the plastic surgeon who’d operate is not well paid by public healthcare system to assume the risks of this task, or if there’ll be a need for posterior radiotherapy, and also in the case patients don’t want it at all, reconstruction is not performed right after the mastectomy. Although no statistics are provided, breast surgeons know most ablations are not followed immediately by the implant of a prosthesis. Even when taken into account the cases in which there happens to be a later reconstruction, there will always be those patients who are afraid of more surgery, or more postoperative care, and those whose comorbidities don’t allow them to have an implanted prosthesis. Consequently, a huge number of women among those who are submitted to mastectomy each year, will search for some expedient to replace the taken volume. The possibility of have it paid by the public system, if it’s external, doesn’t exist in Brazil. The country made its own rules

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to define what is considered assistive technology and the external breast prostheses are not mentioned in any part. Given this gap, a few investments are made in this field of research.

4

Human Factors

Despite of the fact that external breast prostheses are not considered assistive technology in Brazil, it’s undeniable their importance in recovering patients’ self-esteem and, consequently, their health as a whole body. Tanner et al. highlight that rehabilitation is hard when the woman is constantly reminded her body was deformed by the mastectomy [3]. Countries who recognize mammary prostheses as assistive technology fund them, or at least part of their cost. Even in such places – like the USA, France and Australia – women that wish to replace the volume and shape of their breast after a mastectomy have had difficulties with the prosthesis itself, or aspects about people who are supposed to help in its fitting, or with information about the refund. Researchers from Australia tell that in their country there are different funding levels and this hampers every woman getting a quality prosthesis, and even there, where government pays for the assistive technology, there is few information about the perceptions and needs of mastectomized women [4]. Researchers from Korea inform most participants of their study had negative experiences with prosthesis or mastectomy bra use to talk about [5]. Healey points out several myths about external breast prostheses that restrict the development of better products [6]. The mentioned authors show evidences that there’s a lot to be done to make patients satisfied with external breast prostheses.

5

Brazilian Parameters

What is offered in Brazil is quite different from available choices in the countries whose public healthcare system covers external breast prostheses. There are some industrially who made products and some others, very popular, that are offered by non-profit asso‐ ciations. The organizations are, normally, institutions created and supported by women who had breast cancer. Two of them were visited, one in Curitiba (south Brazil, state of Paraná), the other in Nova Friburgo (southeast Brazil, state of Rio de Janeiro). This city is a local productive cluster dedicated to underwear, activity closely related to the pros‐ thesis. Despite being strongly developed in textiles, the solution they found is rudimen‐ tary handmade. The prostheses they make, one by one, are cut according to a pattern originally designed by some other association of mastectomized women (Fig. 1a), located in São Paulo. Sizes range from 36 to 52, only in pair numbers. Even though nobody knows how to explain the origin of these numbers, they are the most familiar to Brazilian women, because they use to correspond to the Brazilian most common bra sizes. What guides the sizes, besides the pattern cut in foam, is the weight (Fig. 1b). There’s a chart that indicates how many grams each size should contain, in order to provide the same weight the correspondent breast would have. It’s not a matter of

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volume. To get to the final volume sometimes it’s also put some more fabric between the main filling, composed by small lead spheres (Fig. 1c), glued with contact adhesive (Fig. 1d), or polyethylene pellets. At the final of the step-by-step shown in Fig. 1, is the result (Fig. 1e), in lateral view. In this association in Nova Friburgo, the justification to the determined weight is not aesthetical, but for body balance. While in Nova Friburgo the Association is happy to have the help of some industry that gives them the pellets of polyethylene, in Curitiba, the representative of the Association that is sponsored by a foundation in Erasto Gaert‐ ner’s Hospital tells these small plastic pieces hurt skin. That’s why, despite the fact it’s such an old technique, they continue using bird seeds to fill the prostheses, that in Curi‐ tiba are made in fabric, 100% cotton. Polyethylene can be submitted to water, bird seeds, no. Both make some noise. After the prostheses are ready, they’re submitted to a radiotherapy session, in order to kill any organism these seeds could have, explains the coordinator of that service. At the hospital prostheses are sold by approximately U$ 4, while at the association in Nova Friburgo they’re given to any woman who needs and searches for them. In both cases volunteers cut and sew the products, and they are the ones who fit. This kind of handmade prostheses are also found in countries like India, as shows the statement of breast cancer surgeons from that country [7]. Mass produced prostheses are also found in Brazilian market. Sometimes it’s possible to find them in associations of mastectomized women, but the most common place to buy them is at orthopedic products stores. There’s no specialized business to take care of those patients. The industrial prostheses can be transparent and colourless, and in some brands, they have an opaque color. The completeness varies between these two materials, and the more they are similar to an adult breast (considered some degree of ptosis or sagging), more expensive they become, in function of the density of the material they are made of. Colored models are more rigid than the transparent ones. Most of the colored models use a pigment that’s very close to the ones used in conven‐ tional dolls. No dark skin tone was presented in any of the surveyed stores. Sizes receive a number that doesn’t match with any other known in a woman’s life, and it’s the ability of the fitter who tells what those numbers from 1 to 12 correspond to. It’s important to mention this fitter is a seller that can be a man or a woman, not specially prepared to this function; in most stores the same employee sells socks, sticks, wheelchairs or external breast prostheses, and so are the products allocated in the same space. There’s no way to change, in case of mistake or poor adjustment, except when bought online, when the user has seven days to return and to have a total refund. No adhesive or velcro models were available. All the models are supposed to be put inside a kind of pocket in the bra (what’s not a conventional undergarment). Some models come together with their own case, made in cotton/jersey fabric. All the models can be washed by hand.

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Fig. 1. Sequencial frames of the interview made at AMMA, an association of mastectomized women located in Nova Friburgo (Rio de Janeiro), showing how they make the external breast prostheses they offer for free.

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503

Discussion

Despite the fact that there seems to be some care about weight or symmetry in breast prosthesis, the real weight of the breast or each woman’s symmetry is not obtained. As skin, muscles, fat and all that composes a breast is variable, there’s no way to customize those prostheses and help mastectomized woman to reach a balance, if this should be the goal. It’s important to mention that even among researchers there’s much discussion about how to calculate volume and even if the balance is really important when external breast prostheses are discussed. Ciesla and Polom evaluated women’s posture when the prosthesis is implanted and realized there were significant differences in the coronal, sagittal and transverse planes [8]. A deep study from Ireland concluded balance is the less important factor related to using this assistive technology [9]; Polish studies didn’t find significant differences in the gait of mastectomized women who wear prostheses and those who don’t [10]. Brazilian researchers evaluated the posture of 39 mastectom‐ ized women and realized they have had some inclination of the trunk and of the shoulder three months after their surgery [11]. Balance perhaps should not be the main reason to search the correct weight to put inside the prosthesis. Natural breast moves as the whole body, considered its own completeness, and this is what all the manufacturers – included the associations – are trying to simulate. The researches about materials didn’t go too far; from the bird seeds to the silicone not much effort has been done to find out materials able to reproduce the set of weight, movement, appearance and color. The fact that there’s a standard chart at associations means that even when hand‐ made, the project of prostheses follow the mass production logical; although they are made one by one, they don’t consider any detailed specification. No matter if they’re handmade or mass produced, external breast prostheses have, in Brazil, a peculiar kind of development. As consumer durable goods, one could think they’re supposed to be in the strategy “make to stock” (MTS), not for a specific user, as comments Rozenfeld [12]. But in this case, they should have been done according to a market analysis, a close look at population and knowledge about users in depth. The simple fact that a darker skin tone is not considered means that these products sell because users don’t find better choices, even they are up to pay fifty dollars (what’s around 20% of a minimum Brazilian wage, in 2017, about U$ 267). Bigger variety in terms of size or colors can be just considered in a product made to order (MTO), what definitely is not available in Brazil.

7

Conclusions

It’s the opinion of the authors of this paper that external breast prostheses must be mentioned as assistive technologies, even though Brazilian publications don’t name them nor compensate for them. There are some industrial mammary prostheses for sale in Brazil, and their price goes from approximately U.S $40 to U.S $ 100 (converted value US $1 to Real $ 3,5). A peculiar kind of prosthesis, neither industrial, nor made at home, is found to be

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produced in Brazil. As in a small production line, pieces of foam are filled with soft lead pellets, or fabric forms filled with bird seeds are made to be sold or given, depending on the non-profit organization. Parameters found are size, completeness and weight for these, and for the mass produced, sometimes also a reduced choice of colors. The importance of realizing what’s available in Brazil is also pointing that deep studies about women’s level of satisfaction and what can be done in the area of external breast prostheses are needed. Mainly, after collecting data, there has to be a practical solution to be presented to those women. If it’s not possible to fulfill all their needs with a better external breast prosthesis, at least to give more options than the ones that are offered. Finally, but not less important, it has to be a low cost solution. Acknowledgments. Authors want to thank to AMMA, the Association of Mastectomized Women of Nova Friburgo, Rede Paranaense de Combate ao Câncer, at Erasto Gaertner’s Hospital and CNPQ – National Council for Scientific and Technological Development.

References 1. Instituto Nacional de Câncer José Alencar Gomes da Silva – INCA. http://www.inca.gov.br/ estimativa/2016/sintese-de-resultados-comentarios.asp 2. ISO 9999:2016(E).: Assistive Products for Persons with Disability—Classification and Terminology, 6th edn. ISO 2016, Switzerland (2016) 3. Tanner, R., Abraham, S.F., Llewellyn-Jones, D.: External breast prostheses—a survey of their use by women after mastectomy. Med. J. Aus. 1, 270–272 (1983) 4. Livingston, P., White, V.M., Roberts, S.B., Pritchard, E., Hayman, E., Gibbs, A., Hill, D.J.: Women’s satisfaction with their breast prosthesis. Eval. Rev. 29(1), 65–83 (2005) 5. Jun, E., Choi, S.R., Kang, H.S.: Experiences of the use of external breast prosthesis among breast cancer survivors in Korea. Korean J. Women Health Nurs. 18(1), 49–61 (2012) 6. Healey, I.: External breast prostheses: misinformation and false beliefs. MedGenMed Medscape Gen. Med. 5(3) (2003). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14600672 7. Ramu, D., Ramesh, R.S., Manjunath, S., Shivakumar, V.G., Hemnath, G.N., Alexander, A.: Pattern of external breast prosthesis use by post mastectomy breast cancer patients in India: descriptive study from tertiary care centre. Indian J. Surg. Oncol. 6(4), 374–377 (2015). doi: 10.1007/s13193-015-0456-2 8. Ciesla, S., Polom, K.: The effect of immediate breast reconstruction with Becker-25 prosthesis on the preservation of proper body posture in patients after mastectomy. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 36(7), 625–631 (2010) 9. Gallagher, P., Buckmaster, A., O’Carrol, S., Kiernan, G., Geraghty, J.: Experiences in the provision, fitting and supply of external breast prostheses: findings from a national survey. Eur. J. Cancer Care 18(6), 556–568 (2009) 10. Hojan, K., Manikowska, F., Molinska-Glura, M., Chen, P.B., Jozwiak, M.: The impact of an external breast prosthesis on the gait parameters of women after mastectomy. Cancer Nurs. 37(2), 30–36 (2014)

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11. Barbosa, J., Amorim, M.H.C., Zandonade, E., Delaprane, M.L.: Avaliação da postura corporal em mulheres com câncer de mama. Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia 35(5), 215–220 (2013) 12. Rozenfeld, H., Forcellini, F.A., Amaral, D.C., Toledo, J.C., Silva, S.L., Alliprandini, D.H., Scalice, R.K.: Gestão de Desenvolvimento de Produtos: Uma Referência para a Melhoria do Processo. Saraiva, São Paulo (2006)

Design Management Contributions in the Diagnosis of a Psychiatric Hospital in Brazil: Identifying Opportunities in Assistive Technology Giselle Schmidt A. Merino1,3 ✉ , Renata Hinnig1, Arina Blum1, Susana Domenech3, and Eugenio A.D. Merino1,2 (

)

1

Post Graduate Department of Design, Federal University of Santa Catarina - UFSC, Post Office Box: 476, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2 Post Graduate Department of Production Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina - UFSC, Post Office Box: 476, Florianópolis, Brazil 3 Post Graduate Department of Design, State University of Santa Catarina – UDESC, Av. Madre Benvenuta, 1907, Florianópolis, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this research was to diagnose opportunities for the development of ATs in a psychiatric hospital located in southern Brazil, using as a basis design management. The first part of the research was theoretical, based on the literature review of the central themes; and the second part is characterized as applied research, through on-site surveys and a diagnosis of the psychiatric hospital, considering a systematic approach, resulting in the identification of opportunities for design in Assistive Technology. In conclu‐ sion, regarding the hospital diagnosis it was possible to understand the func‐ tioning of the system with its internal and external actors, and the sectors that presented the greatest opportunities for the use of design in Assistive Tech‐ nology, which were: (1) the Rehabilitation Sector; (2) Occupational Therapy, (3) Psychology; (4) Pharmacy; (5) Nursing, among other opportunities identi‐ fied in the field of Assistive Technology. Keywords: Diagnosis · Assistive technology · Design management · Psychiatric hospital

1

Introduction

In several countries, psychiatric hospitals are the main institution responsible for mental health care. They offer specialized inpatient and residential services for the treatment of mental disorders [1]. In the Brazilian context, some of these institutions, besides offering treatment for mental illnesses, harbor patients with chronic mental disorders, remnants of treatments that were based on hospitalization for long periods. As shown in Bezerra research [2], these asylum patients, because of their long stay in these institutions, lost their family © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_51

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ties and, often, social ties. Many of them are elderly and have, besides the mental path‐ ologies, musculoskeletal physical problems and need some type of Assistive Technology (AT) to perform daily living activities. In regard to the professionals who work in psychiatric hospitals, these may present stress and anxiety caused by the lack of material and human resources, occupational hazards, lack of training in the development of their activity and low wages [3]. In addi‐ tion, considering the nursing staff, stress and repercussions on their mental health stand out due to the necessity of shift work, compromising their leisure and rest [4, 5]. This is compounded by the fact that many of these professionals opt to take double jobs and long working hours, magnifying the damage to their physical and mental integrity [6]. It is understood that AT is an interdisciplinary area of knowledge, which encom‐ passes products, resources, methodologies, strategies, practices and services that aim to help people with disabilities or reduced mobility to perform their daily activities, aiming to enhance their autonomy, independence, quality of life and promote social inclusion [7]. The main objective of AT is to enable individuals with disabilities to meet specific needs, according to their capabilities and limitations [8], minimizing stigmatizations [9]. It is believed that the introduction of ATs in the context of a psychiatric hospital can enhance the performance of daily tasks, related to the workers and patients, increasing their quality of life. The introduction of an AT should be accompanied by a detailed and in-depth study of the individual’s capacities, limitations and needs, the locations where the AT will be used and the characteristics that must be included in the AT [10]. The lack of attention to these aspects may influence the use, disuse and consequent abandonment of the AT [11]. Another aspect that must be considered is related to the personal and psychosocial characteristics of the user [12], such as the meaning attributed to the AT, their expect‐ ations, the social benefit brought by the AT, how the disability is understood by the user, as well as the social, family and cultural context [13]. Thus, it has been noticed that there are many variables that can influence the AT’s introduction, which could be related to the user as well as to the environment where the AT will be used. A comprehensive approach to the hospital system is necessary, so AT design opportunities can be identified. Understanding that design management seeks to manage people, projects, processes and procedures that result in the development of products, environments and experiences [14]. The first step to be taken in a design management process is the diagnosis [15– 17]. This is important to understand the context in which the design will be inserted, including internal and external factors that could influence its use, as well as identifying and communicating ways in which the design can contribute to the organization [18]. It has been noticed that it is critical in the design management process to have a diagnosis to obtain an overview of the organization and the needs of the user. Regarding the development of ATs, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of considering several variables related to the user and the environment which this technology will be used. From the situation explained above, the following research question was asked: how can design management contribute to the diagnosis of opportunities in AT at the Institute of Psychiatry of Santa Catarina (IPq/SC), a psychiatric hospital located in the south of Brazil (Santa Catarina State).

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Based on this situation and considering the necessity to unite theoretical knowledge from the university with the practice in places with specific needs [19], this research was carried out to diagnose opportunities for the development of ATs in a psychiatric hospital, using as a basis design management. The research was divided into two phases: a theoretical one, with a review of the literature on the central themes (design manage‐ ment and diagnose) and another one characterized as applied research, which included a case study in IPq/SC. It is worth mentioning that this research is part of a wide range of studies [20–23], which has been conducted by the Design Management Group and Design and Usability Laboratory (NGD/LDU) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC) in the IPq/SC, through the project “Design and health: from the health of the patient to the health of the worker”.1 This project is part of the activities developed by the Research and Develop‐ ment for Assistive Technology Network (RPDTA), made up of five Brazilian universities (Federal University of Paraná - UFPR, Federal University of Santa Catarina - UFSC, Federal Technological University of Paraná - UTFPR, State University of São Paulo UNESP and State University of Santa Catarina - UDESC).

2

Design Management and Diagnose

Design management seeks to manage not only the design processes, but also the existing relationships among the various professionals involved in the design projects [14, 24, 25]. One of the main challenges faced by the designers is to have an understanding of the complexity of the projects [26], from a holistic perspective, making sense of the internal and external context of the organization, the disciplines and functions, as well as the relationships and connections that will influence the project [14]. To understand the context in which the design is or will be inserted, understanding internal and external factors related to the organization, identifying and communicating ways in which design can contribute to the company [18], the first design management activity that should be done is a diagnosis [15–17]. The design diagnosis can be considered as a pre-design stage and contemplate vari‐ ables related to the environments and the organization itself [16]. Martins and Merino [26] believe the consideration of these variables allows the designer to expand his focusfrom a problem-oriented professional to a professional who designs intelligent solutions. Dalbeto and Gonçalves [27] emphasize that the diagnosis is an important step to certify that the design management would be applied according to the context and reality of each organization, based on the diagnosed profile. Depend on the information obtained from the diagnosis, the design manager would be able to know the variables, the direct and indirect actors, as well as their capacities and limitations, their expectations and projections, among other factors that could influence the design project.

1

This project was financed by MEC-SESu, CAPES, CNPq and approved by the ethics committee of UFSC (No. 1,257,716).

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Regarding the design diagnosis in health care, Foque and Lammineur [28], reported the relevance of that in a research that investigated the first steps taken to reformulate a hospital’s layout. In this study, different needs and expectations from users of the hospital - patients, doctors, nurses, family members, and so forth - were identified before initiating the project. This approach helped the design team to work focusing on the human needs of the different users of the hospital.

3

Methodological Procediments

The characterization of the research was done according to Silva and Menezes [29] and Gil [30]. The research has an applied nature and its approach is qualitative. The objec‐ tives presented are exploratory. The research was divided in two phases. In the first phase, a bibliographical research of the central themes was carried out. The second phase involved a case study in IPq/SC, allowing a broad knowledge about the hospital. The case study was structured in five stages [31]: (1) Identify: Interviews, direct observations, bibliographic research and documentary research were carried out. The objective of this data collection was to understand the internal and external environment of the IPq/SC, providing an overview of the context in which the institution is inserted, as well as the services provided by the institution and the needs of the patients. (2) Organize: The data previously collected was organized in a visual way to facilitate the understanding and synthesis of the information obtained in the previous stage. As pointed out by Freire [32], the designer uses his expertise in information design, visual language and aesthetic sensibility, so that the collected data can be presented through visual maps, which facilitate the understanding of information among different professionals involved in the project. (3) Validate and Define: The data, that had been organized in a visual way, were presented and validated with the hospital managers and some employees. (4) Diagnose: The sectors where the ATs could be implemented was identified. Detailed analyses of each sector were carried out. (5) Propose actions: Based on the diagnosis, actions and recommendations were proposed for the development of ATs that met the demands of the IPq/SC.

4

Results

The research was applied at IPq/SC, a psychiatric hospital founded in 1941. It is a public institution, located in the city of São José - Santa Catarina – Brazil. The hospital offers specialized care to patients with severe psychic disorders and chemical dependents [33]. Initially called Colônia Santana Hospital - HCS, in 1995, to offer a more modern and adequate service, the HCS was divided into two service areas: the Centro de Convivência Santana - CCS (Santana Living Center), and the Unidades de Internação Psiquiátrica UIPs (Psychiatric Hospitals Units), and received its current name: IPq/SC [34, 35].

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4.1 Identify The objective of this phase was to obtain a macro understanding of the IPq/SC. Inter‐ views with employees and direct observations in the various sectors of the hospital were carried out to comprehend the reality of the hospital. Also, documentary research, making use of historical images, for example, helped to understand the flow of services provided. The IPq/SC occupies a large area in the city of São José. The land has buildings divided into service wings, as well as spaces such as vegetable garden and thera‐ peutic kitchen. In the current configuration, 500 employees, including pharmacists, physiotherapists, nurses, physicians, social workers, occupational therapists, psychol‐ ogists, physical educators and educators serve about 480 patients. Of these, around 220 are asylum patients, institutionalized residents who have been in the hospital for many years and whose social bond has been lost due to the assistance approach previ‐ ously provided. 4.2 Organize, Validate and Define After understanding the general context of the IPq/SC, the data collected was visually organized into maps and diagrams. An example of such maps that shows the different structures and areas of the hospital can be visualized in Fig. 1. This representation was validated with the administration of the hospital. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the IPq-SC has nine wings, divided according to the char‐ acteristics of the patient and organized by sex (female, male and mixed). The CCS houses four wings (Female Wing 1st, Female Wing 2nd, Male Wings 7th and 8th together and Unit of Participatory Management - UGP). The UIPs have five wings (Female Wing 5th, Male Wing 1st, Male Wing 2nd, Chemical Dependency Unit - UDQ and Medical Clinic Unit - UCM). Different support structures make up the IPq/SC. On Fig. 1, they are divided by color: Institutional, Exams, Attendance/Treatment, Coexistence, Services and Food and Nutrition. Other visual maps and diagrams were done with the purpose of representing the context of the services provided, the flow and the different actors involved. Figure 2 is an example of such diagram. In this diagram is possible to visualize the various services provided by the institution, as well as to understand the relations between the actors involved in the IPq/SC, considering the user as a central element. From the data collected and their representations in the form of diagrams and maps, an overview of structures and areas of the hospital could be obtained. The next step was to define the hospital areas that would have priority for the development of ATs. The Rehabilitation (Physical Therapy), together with the Occupational Therapy (OT), were initially chosen, since they fulfilled the scope of work with the RPDTA, focusing on AT, as well as the scope of the projects that have been developed by the NGD/LDU. It was also defined that the research would be focused preferentially in the CCS, since the patients attended there could be followed-up for the long-term, which helped the researchers to get a clear knowledge about their therapeutic history. Lastly, Psychology and Nursing were also selected as areas for the development of projects, as they were

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Fig. 1. Visual organization of data collected in the first phase of the research. Source: NGD/ LDU-UFSC file.

important areas for the treatment of the CCS patients. Another area, also selected was the Pharmacy, and in this case, not only the resident asylum patients could be benefici‐ ated, but also chronic patients of the UIPs. 4.3 Diagnose and Propose Actions After the identification of the five areas of the hospital (Rehabilitation, Occupational Therapy, Psychology, Pharmacy and Nursing) where ATs projects would be developed, the opportunities for each of the sectors were mapped. This phase had the direct

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Fig. 2. Diagram of actors involved in IPq/SC. Source: Merino et al. [36]

involvement of the professionals responsible for each of the areas selected. Methods such as observation, immersion and interviews were used. Based on the diagnoses, design opportunities were detected and practical actions proposed. Figure 3 summarizes the opportunities and actions proposed for each of the previously selected areas of the hospital.

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Fig. 3. Opportunities of AT according to the diagnosis made in IPq-SC.

In the Rehabilitation, the development of orthoses and devices to aid patient mobility was diagnosed as a design opportunity. Through the recommendation of the health professionals who have accompanied the rehabilitation process, two patients who needed orthoses for the lower limbs were selected. The design of the orthoses encom‐ passed the research with specific technological tools like Thermography, Motion Capture by Inertial Sensors, Dynamometry, and a 3D Printer that has been used to make prototypes. Due to the specific needs of each patient, it was defined that two different types of orthotics would be developed: KAFO (Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis) and AFO (Ankle Foot Orthosis).2 It should be noted that this project is still under development, and that it is a participatory process, involving the design team, the patient and the hospital employees.

2

The development process of these orthoses is detailed in the articles of García et al. [20] and Merino et al. [22].

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In the Occupational Therapy (OT), design opportunities were identified for both patients and professionals working in the sector.3 Four projects organized by the NGD/ LDU-UFSC were carried out by different design teams. Two tapestry kits were devel‐ oped according to the specific needs of two patients: the adaptation of a loom and a mechanism to facilitate the cutting of fabric. During the project, the design team used tools that simulate low vision and motor difficulty to simulate the difficulties that patients had to face. The adaptation of the loom contemplated the adjustment of the equipment according to ergonomic aspects, aiming to improve the posture of the patient during the use, the movements - important for his rehabilitation - and the chromatic contrasts that facilitate the visualization of the interweaving of the threads. The tissue-cutting mech‐ anism was designed to ease the repetitive strain movements that employees were subjected by frequently using scissors as a working tool. In the Psychology Sector, different kinds of “cuia” holders had been developed to benefit the patient’s participation in the “chimarrão” whell. Having diagnosed the importance of the moment of the chimarrão for the patients, according to reports of the psychologist that accompanies them [37], four different devices were created to help the realization of the dynamics for socialization. The “chimarrão” wheel is a relaxed meeting when patients can chat and share the “chimarrão” - a traditional type of hot tea. Some patients have a motor impairment to hold the “cuia” - the container in which the tea is placed - and there may be accidents, such as the spillage of hot tea on the body. The devices created work especially for fluid stability in the “cuia”, allowing patients to enjoy the moment of socialization better. The Pharmacy Hospital of IPq/SC was another sector in which opportunities for application of ATs had been diagnosed. The focus was especially on actions that could improve working conditions of the professionals. The Pharmacy is a vital area of the hospital, since it is from there that the drugs are distributed throughout the hospital – which accounts for around 125 thousand pharmaceutical units per month. Among the diagnosed opportunities, the bibliographic review of systems for the classification and separation of drugs had generated the mapping and application of the Faylure Mode Effects Analysis - FMEA, which resulted in actions for the visual reorganization of drug separation systems. Projects were also carried out to develop solutions to assist in the organization of medicines for collective dispensation, as well as the effective transpor‐ tation of the pharmacy to the hospital wings. Also, design opportunities were diagnosed in the disposal of drugs, and a new means for identification and use of chemically conta‐ minated containers were studied. In Nursing, the actions focused on the diagnosis of opportunities to assist the daily life of both patients and the nursing team. For patients, the projects focus on the devel‐ opment of feeding devices. The intention was to allow patients to safely and autono‐ mously to eat their meals, without total and continuous dependence on a health profes‐ sional to feed them. Also, projects for the transfer of bedridden patients have been studied and are in the initial phase. The goal of that project is to prevent the overload and inappropriate postures that nurses were submitted to in performing these tasks. It is emphasized that the ATs that have been developed were appropriate for improving the 3

The Design projects developed for the OT sector are detailed in Merino et al. 2016 [21].

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quality of life of patients and workers. The autonomy of the patient is reflected in an advantage for the nurses, who can attend other patients, as well as to take care of the professionals’ health, preventing the need for workers to take time off for treatment, which could directly affect the hospital’s routine of care.

5

Conclusions

A precise diagnosis, together with the comprehension of the patient’s reality is essential for the development of ATs. When opportunities related to the actual context of use of the ATs are perceived, the design team can work with secure data and concrete infor‐ mation. The design management has contributed to this diagnosis. It is a systematic process, that is, problem-solving in an orderly and logical manner [38] and, because of its strategic approach, comprises the perspective of a view of the unified whole and its interrelationships [14]. Design management, therefore, supports the identification of opportunities linked to the actual context of use of ATs. Designers can use methods and tools, often imported from other areas of knowledge, to improve their practices [39], as well as to interact with professionals from other areas [40]. There are, however, specific knowledge of the field of design, such as the ability to interpret observations collected from users during the initial phases of design and turn them into ideas, future scenarios, concepts, processes, new products and services [39]. The use of knowledge from the design field and from other areas, linked by the design management with the health care area, have worked successfully to diagnose and propose ATs, as observed in the case study presented. The contribution of design management to the diagnosis of IPq/SC was efficient, and several opportunities were identified in the AT. The formation of interdisciplinary teams, composed of health professionals and designers and organized through design manage‐ ment resulted not only in the diagnosis of opportunities, but in the actions that it gener‐ ated for the IPq/SC. Up until now, fourteen different design projects linked to AT are under different stages of development. Other projects, which are also being driving by design management, are being conducted by NGD/LDU-UFSC, and should, in the coming months, result in new products, processes and services for this hospital. Acknowledgements. We would like to thank CAPES, the Postgraduate Program in Design at UFSC, RPDTA, NGD-LDU and IPq-SC.

References 1. World Health Organization: Mental Health Atlas. World Health Organization, Geneva (2014) 2. Bezerra, C.G.: Moradores crônicos de hospital psiquiátrico: um desafio à desinstitucionalização. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (2010) 3. Dias, G.C.: Impacto do trabalho e satisfação da equipe multiprofissional atuante em um hospital psiquiátrico. Escola de Enfermagem de Ribeirão Preto (2013)

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4. Paschoa, S., Zanei, S.S.V., Whitaker, I.Y.: Qualidade de vida dos trabalhadores de enfermagem de unidades de terapia intensiva. Acta Paulista de Enfermagem 20, 305–310 (2007) 5. de Secco, I.A.O., do Robazzi, M.L.C.C., de Souza, F.E.A., Shimizu, D.S.: Cargas psíquicas de trabalho e desgaste dos trabalhadores de enfermagem de hospital de ensino do Paraná. Revista Eletrônica Saúde Mental Álcool e Drogas 6, 1–17 (2010) 6. Elias, M.A., Navarro, V.L.: A relação entre o trabalho, a saúde e as condições de vida: negatividade e positividade no trabalho das profissionais de enfermagem de um hospital escola. Revista Latino Americana de Enfermagem 14, 517–525 (2006) 7. Brasil.: Avaliação das pessoas com deficiência para acesso ao Benefício de Prestação Continuada da Assistência Social: um novo instrumento baseado na Classificação Internacional de Funcionalidade, Incapacidade e Saúde. Ministério do Desenvolvimento Social e Combate à Fome, Brasília (2007) 8. Cook, A.M., Polgar, J.M.: Essentials of Assistive Technologies. Elsevier, St Louis (2012) 9. Carneiro, L., Oliveira, T., Noriega, P., Rebelo, F.: Can the context stigmatize the assistive technology? A preliminary study using virtual environments. In: Rebelo, F., Soares, M. (eds.) Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Proceedings of the AHFE 2016 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, pp. 289–297. Springer, Florida (2016) 10. Cook, A.M., Gray, D.B.: Assistive Technology. http://academic-eb-britannica. ez46.periodicos.capes.gov.br/EBchecked/topic/1944913/assistive-technology 11. Costa, C.R., Ferreira, F.M.R.M., Bortolus, M.V., Carvalho, M.G.R.: Dispositivos de tecnologia assistiva: fatores relacionados ao abandono. Cadernos de Terapia Ocupacional da Ufscar 23, 611–624 (2015) 12. Scherer, M.J., Sax, C., Vanbiervliet, A., Cushman, L.A., Scherer, J.V.: Predictors of assistive technology use: the importance of personal and psychosocial factors. Disabil. Rehabil. 27, 1321–1331 (2005) 13. Pape, T.L.B., Kim, J., Weiner, B.: The shaping of individual meanings assigned to assistive technology: a review of personal factors. Disabil. Rehabil. 24, 5–20 (2002) 14. Best, K.: Fundamentos de Gestão de Design. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2012) 15. Gimeno, J.M.I.: La gestión del diseño en la empresa. McGraw-Hill, Madrid (2000) 16. Oda, L.S.: Diagnóstico de design: definindo indicadores para mensurar a contribuição do design no desempenho empresarial de MPES. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (2010) 17. Centro Português de Design: Fundamentos de Gestão de Design. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2012) 18. de Mozota, B.B.: Design Management: Using Design to Build Brand Value and Corporate Innovation. Allworth Press, New York (2003) 19. Rebelo, F., Noriega, P., Cotrim, T., Melo, R.B.: Cooperation university and industry, a challenge or a reality: an example in an aircraft maintenance company. In: Rebelo, F., Soares, M. (eds.) Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Proceedings of the AHFE 2016 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, pp. 245–254. Springer, Florida (2016) 20. García, D.N., Guimarães, B., Merino, G.S.A.D., Ortuño, B.H., Merino, E.A.D.: Projeto de órteses: integração de duas sistemáticas de desenvolvimento de projeto aplicadas a TA. In: Anais do I CBTA Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Tecnologia Assistiva, pp. 354–361. UFPR, Curitiba (2016) 21. Merino, G.S.A.D., Pichler, R.F., Hinnig, R., Domenech, S., Merino, E.A.D.: GODP— metodologia de projeto centrado no usuário: multicasos de projetos de Tecnologia Assistiva na Terapia Ocupacional. In: Anais do I CBTA Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Tecnologia Assistiva, pp. 423–430. UFPR, Curitiba (2016)

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22. Merino, E.A.D., Guimarães, B., Merino, G.S.A.D., Domenech, S.: Instrumentação tecnológica integrada no desenvolvimento de produtos ergonômicos para tecnologia assistiva. In: Anais do I CBTA Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Tecnologia Assistiva, pp. 431–428. UFPR, Curitiba (2016) 23. Pichler, R.F., Blum, A., Domenech, S., Merino, G.S.A.D., Merino, E.A.D.: Síntese informacional para projetos de Tecnologia Assistiva em equipes interdisciplinares. In: Anais do I CBTA Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Tecnologia Assistiva, pp. 415–422. UFPR, Curitiba (2016) 24. Norman, C., Jerrard, R.: Design managers, their organisations and work-based learning. High. Educ. Skills Work Based Learn. 5, 271–284 (2015) 25. Hollins, B., Hollins, G.: Total Design: Managing the Design Process in the Service Sector. Pitman Publishing, London (1991) 26. de Martins, R.F., Merino, E.A.D.: A Gestão de Design como estratégia organizacional. Rio Books, Rio de Janeiro (2011) 27. Dalberto, L.C., Gonçalves, M.: A contribuição do diagnóstico para traçar a estratégia da empresa—Estudo de caso de uma empresa de confecção. Projética Revista Científica de Design 2, 22–47 (2011) 28. Foque, R., Lammineus, M.: Designing for patients: a strategy for introducing human scale in hospital design. Des. Stud. 16, 29–49 (1995) 29. Silva, E.L., Menezes, E.M.: Metodologia da pesquisa e elaboração de dissertação. Laboratório de Ensino a Distância da UFSC, Florianópolis (2005) 30. Gil, A.C.: Como elaborar projetos de pesquisa. Atlas, São Paulo (2010) 31. Merino, E., Merino, G.: Núcleo de Gestão de Design & Laboratório de Design e Usabilidade (2016). http://www.ngd.ufsc.br 32. Freire, K.M.: Design para serviços: uma intervenção em uma Unidade Básica de Saúde do Sistema Único de Saúde Brasileiro. Estudos em Design 2, 1–23 (2016) 33. Vieira, R.S.: O serviço social no atendimento às famílias dos usuários internados na unidade de dependência química do Instituto de Psiquiatria do Estado de Santa Catarina. Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina (2009) 34. Heldwein, A.M.L.: A representação da loucura sob o olhar do familiar do sujeito institucionalizado portador de transtorno mental. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (2005) 35. Koerich, A.M.E.: Hospital Colônia Sant’ana: reminiscências dos trabalhadores de enfermagem (1951–1971). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (2008) 36. Merino, G.S.A.D., Hinnig R., Domenech, S., Merino, E.A.D.: Gestão de Design na saúde hospitalar: Estudo de Caso no Instituto de Psiquiatria de Santa Catarina (IPq/SC). In: 12o Congresso de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Design. Blucher Design Proceedings, Belo Horizonte (2016) 37. Klepa, M.C.: Apresentação das atividades de convivencia “roda de chimarrão”: testimony. video IPq/SC: interview given to students and professors of the UFSC design course, São José (2016) 38. Mozota, B.B., Klöpsch, C., da Costa, F.C.X.: Gestão do design: usando o design para construir valor de marca e inovação corporativa. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2011) 39. Mozota, B.B.: A theoretical model for design in management science. Des. Manag. J. 3, 30– 37 (2008) 40. Cai, J., Li, H.: Exploring knowledge structure of design for design management from the view of design 3.0. In: 20th Academic Design Management Conference, pp. 2247–2263. Design Management Institute, Boston (2016)

Design and Development of a Bionic Hand Prosthesis Marcelo H. Stoppa1 ✉ , Guilherme F. Neto1, Stéfany M. Rezende1, and José A. Foggiatto2 (

1

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Universidade Federal de Goiás, Regional Catalão – UFG/RC, Catalão, Goiás, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2 Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná - UTFPR, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. It is known that a problem to amputees who lost a hand by accident or some type of illness, is the high cost yet little functionality of common hand prostheses. Often commercial prostheses are better, but not largely accessible. Nevertheless, we have recently observed a great number of hand prostheses pitched by open source projects. Despite, these prostheses are generally inaccu‐ rate and non-ergonomic to perform natural prehensions. In this study, we present the development of a hand prosthesis where geometric configuration was obtained from a scanned human hand. This procedure resulted in real dimensions and good proportions between fingers, palm and dorsum for the prosthesis. The grasps are performed by one servomotor to flex the fingers using cables and a pulley. The electromechanical system uses low cost components and can be controlled by the user’s voice. This achieved a functionality increase and better prehension effec‐ tiveness, as a consequence of anatomical form of the prosthesis. Due to the proto‐ typing by material extrusion technology, a significant reduction in weight and construction costs was obtained. Keywords: Hand prosthesis · Material extrusion · Prototyping · Bionic hand

1

Introduction

The absence of any member of the body demands creative adaptation, so that ordinary actions are performed. The hand is a remarkable tool capable of performing innumerable actions, and although it is found on many animals, reaching perfection only in humans [1]. It is well known that certain technologies can also be used in devices and services that allow people with disabilities the ability to perform, or complement, motor and intellectual functions, generating inclusion and independence of the individual. Pros‐ theses belong to this type of technology, known as Assistive Technology. According to Borg [2], for many children with disabilities, Assistive Technology means the difference between inclusion and exclusion, between the enjoyment of rights and the lack of thereof. Borg et al. [3] say that, although a wide range of types of Assistive products or devices are available globally, they are not available everywhere, and the designs may © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_52

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be not appropriate or fitted in all settings. Therefore, product research and development need to be continued and improved. Besides this, estimates indicate that about 0.5% of the population of the World need prosthetic or orthotic devices. Certainly a big number of people are still waiting for assistance, with their lives limited due to limb lose or some other physical problem [4, 5]. One example is the United States Army, which has begun expressing an interest in revolutionizing prosthetic devices since 2007, to give wounded soldiers artificial limbs as a substitute, since it was common for a soldier to suffer mutilations on the battle‐ field [6]. In spite of this, current commercial hand prostheses are expensive, which makes it unobtainable for many future users of these technologies, especially those using the myoelectric command technology, which costs thousands of dollars [7]. Research on the development of hand prostheses reveals a greater concern with the quality of life of the user. Weir [8] points out in his research that a great challenge are designs that interfere with the size, weight and energy used in bionic devices, causing many to give up using them. Over time, prostheses have undergone changes, but the challenge remains into creating means to make them accessible and available to a larger number of people. Thus, it is necessary to rethink new forms of creation aimed at the reality of the amputee. An issue analyzed by robotic designers is how to attach a prosthesis to the person and how this arm can be controlled, taking into account that the artificial arms need to be as light as possible, or they will simply be abandoned by the user [8]. A project of great worldwide recognition, developed with 3D printers is the Enabling the future (E-NABLE). It is a global community of more than 1,500 members who collaborate to design prosthetic hands for free and available for printing. All e-NABLE projects are open sourced, which means that anyone can download and make a pros‐ thetic, and allow others to use these projects, improve upon them and share them with others [9]. However, a feature of most of the prostheses made available by e-NABLE is the anatomical simplicity and the biomechanical activation of said prosthesis. Almost all available prostheses have an index, a middle, an annular and a minimum fingers of equal size and are attached to the palm of the hand so that the metacarpophalangeal rotation joints are on the same axis of rotation perpendicular to the central axis of the forearm. Additionally, the thumb is positioned about 90° from the longitudinal axis of the pros‐ thesis (Fig. 1). The prosthesis available are: Talon Hand, Raptor Reloaded, Ody Hand, Raptor, Cyborg Beast, Flexy Hand, Phoenix Hand, and Osprey Hand. These prostheses works through the bending of the wrist, which, by fixed cables forces the fingers on the device to flex and extend, opening and closing them. For these kinds of prostheses, the users will need a functional wrist that bends easily and enough of a hand palm to be fixed in the prosthesis for leverage. Most of the designs created by the community require a functional wrist flexion of 30° in either direction as well as most, or all, of their palm in order to make the device function properly [10].

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Fig. 1. Sample prosthesis by e-ENABLE [10]: (a) Talon Hand 3.0; (b) Raptor Reloaded

For those who do not have a functional wrist or palm, the e-NABLE Community has created a few designs that are able to function through the bending of the elbow instead of the wrist. For these designs to work, users will need a functional elbow that can bend easily and have part, or most of, their forearm. In this case, only two types are available: Team Unlimbited Arm and RIT Arm. In order to collaborate with the process of creation and development of prostheses, which have a design anatomically closer to the human hand, keeping the characteristics of low weight and being economically accessible is necessary. This scientific article presents the design and development of a bionic hand prosthesis for cases of transradial amputation. Additionally, this project aims to serve both adults and children.

2

Anatomic Mechanical Prosthesis

The first prototype developed was based off the 3D scanning of a human hand, in search of a more anatomically correct design. The process of flexion and extension of the fingers is realized by non-flexible strings and the mechanical force of the wrist-palm flexion movement. This kind of prosthesis is mainly indicated for people who have lost fingers or have some other hand disability. All fingers are maintained in a resting position by flexible cords fixed to the points indicated in Fig. 2(a). The flexion of the thumb and the others fingers is realized by non-flexible cords fixed to the points indicated in Fig. 2(b). The non-flexible cords pass through guiding holes indicated in Fig. 2(c).

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Fig. 2. Anatomic mechanical prosthesis: views and details

With the flexion the user’s wrist, the interphalangean joint angles shorten, via a compensation of relative lengths of the non-flexible cords in each finger, occurring in the flexion of the fingers and consequent prehension. We can observe that this prototype, despite having the same principle of activation and movement of the prosthesis made available by e-NABLE, brings the anatomical differential of being very close to a real human hand.

3

Bionic Hand Prosthesis

Taking the mechanical version showed in the previous section as a reference, a bionic prosthesis was developed, that dispenses the need for flexion of the user’s wrist and that can be indicated for users with transradial amputation, provided there is elbow maintenance. The prosthesis, named ALX, is divided into four parts: forearm, palm and dorsum, fingers and user coupling, such will be detailed in following subsections (Fig. 3). Figure 4 shows some views of a fingerless prosthesis, the fingers are the same as shown in Fig. 2, and no modification was realized on these.

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Fig. 3. Bionic hand prosthesis – ALX

Fig. 4. Views and details of the ALX prosthesis (fingerless)

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3.1 Forearm The forearm is divided into four pieces (Fig. 4), a distal set (relative to the elbow) composed by an A and a B part; and a proximal set composed by a C and a D part (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Forearm parts A, B, C and D.

The distal set is attached to the hand; within this set is the control system, servomotor and the cable compensation system, which will be detailed in Sect. 4. The proximal set has a forearm length adjustment system, composed of a couple of sliding bars, that completes the elbow rotation system linking them to the arm connection such as will be detailed in Subsect. 3.4. The halves of the distal set are connected by 4 M4 Allen screws and these two sets are connected by another 4 M4 Allen screws. Parts C and D need another 3 M4 Allen screws and 4 further M4 Allen screws to connect the hand in the distal set. So, 15 M4 and 4 M8 sets of screws are used, nuts and washers are also used in the assembly of the prosthesis. 3.2 Palm and Dorsum Hand Initially, the bionic prosthesis was constructed with the cavity in the palm, similar to the mechanical prototype, creating a compartment to pack the battery in and a lid to close it was built, as shown in Fig. 6. However, there were problems with the non-flexible cable guides and a change was necessary. Thus the access and position of the guides was modi‐ fied. A new lid was designed, this time for the back of the hand as shown in Fig. 7. This

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allowed for a more direct connection of the non-flexible cables to the pulley coupled to the servo motor, reducing the internal friction of these and consequently the energyloss.

Fig. 6. Hand: (a) palm access, (b) cover palm.

Fig. 7. Hand: (a) dorsum access, (b) cover dorsum.

3.3 Fingers All fingers retain their anatomical proportion and, although they are on the same line of the hand as the metacarpophalangeal joints, the natural distance of the proximal inter‐ phalangeal joints is compensated by the lengths of the medial phalanges. The index, middle, ring and little finger are each composed of 3 phalanges: proximal, middle and distal, and 3 rotation joints: metacarpophalangeal (MCP, joins the fingers to the hand), proximal interphalangeal (PIP, that links the proximal and middle phalanges), and finally the distal interphalangeal (DIP, links the middle and distal phalanges) (Fig. 8).

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Fig. 8. Fingers: (a) thumb, (b) index, (c) middle, (d) ring, (e) little.

The thumb is composed by only 2 phalanges: proximal and distal, with 2 rotation joints: metacarpophalangeal (MCP, joins the fingers to the hand) and distal interpha‐ langeal (DIP, links the proximal and distal phalanges). 3.4 User Coupling The user coupling system is composed of 3 parts: a pair of slider bars, a flexible socket and an arm connection (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. User coupling: (a) flexible socket, (b) slider bar, (c) arm connection.

As mentioned in Subsect. 3.1, the forearm length can be adjusted by the slider bars and four Allen screw M8 that fix it in the arm connection (Fig. 5). The flexible socket protects the user’s arm and helps to fix the prosthesis. It is customizable and built under the user’s measurements in a 3D printer using a flexible filament to increase his comfort. The prosthesis is attached to the arm by Velcro strips that surround the arm connec‐ tion and the flexible socket.

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The movement of elbow flexion and extension is guaranteed by the rotation joint that connects the slider bars and the arm connection. A lock is used to fix them together, which can be seen in detail in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. Elbow joint rotation.

4

Mechanical Electrical System

The Mechanical Electrical System is composed of a servomotor, an audio acquisition board, a Arduino© controller, a microphone and a battery (Fig. 11). The gripping move‐ ment is performed by the servomotor, to which is connected a pulley which drives the cable compensation system which in turn is connected to the non-flexible cables in each of the fingers.

Fig. 11. Electronic parts inside the prosthesis.

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The cable compensation system permits a better adaptation of the fingers in gripping irregular objects, such a cone for example. This system is inspired by a mechanical lever, proposed by Baril et al. [11], that is mounted inside the forearm and has its geometry shown in Fig. 12.

Fig. 12. Geometry of cable compensation system.

The battery is wrapped in the dorsum of the hand (Fig. 7). The audio card, the Arduino and the servomotor, are within part B of the prosthesis, at the locations indicated in Fig. 5. Once the control system is started, the audio acquisition board captures the user’s commands (open or close, for example). These words are calibrated in the control system with the user’s own voice and in a specific position, characterized by the internal lateral position of the microphone in the prosthesis (part A), so that other people cannot command the prosthesis.

5

Conclusions and Future Works

This article presents the development of a bionic hand prosthesis, driven by a single servomotor where the grip control is performed by the user’s own voice. The prototype is composed of five fingers, with a total of 16 degrees of freedom distributed in two thumb joints and three more rotation joints for each of the other 4 fingers. Despite having a unique gripping system, it is equipped with a cable compensation system that allows better adaptation of the hand when dealing with irregular objects. The main features of the prosthesis are its anatomical shape, resting position close to a natural one, forearm length adjustment system and low weight. The structural part of the prototype, was made by Additive Manufacturing in a 3D printer. The filaments used were PLA (polylactic acid) which, besides having considerable mechanical resistance and a good finish and

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appearance, is biodegradable. All prototypes together, including audio board, Arduino, servomotor, battery, Velcro straps, microphone, wires and other connections, do not exceed 800 grams. This is an interesting weight, considering that according to special‐ ized literature, the forearm/hand set is equal to a value between 2.3 and 2.9% of the body’s mass. For example, a person of 70 kg has a forearm + hand set weight of between 1610 and 2030 grams. This puts the prosthesis at an interesting level. New improvements have been made to the prosthesis, especially regarding the determination of the mechan‐ ical resistance of the PLA, used in the 3D Printer. And in the insertion of force sensors at the fingertips, which will allow better control of the grip, allowing for the adjustment of the force and speed used in the servomotor, in order to differentiate heavy and robust objects from other light and fragile ones. Acknowledgments. The authors gratefully acknowledge all financial support by CNPq (MCTISECIS-CNPq-84-2013, proc. 458649/2013-9; DT-2 Productivity in Technological Development and Innovative Extension scholarships, proc. 308032/2016-0), FAPEG (MSc scholarship, proc. 201610267000812), and Universities UTFPR and UFG/RC.

References 1. Kapandji, A.: The Physiology of the Joints, 2nd ed. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data (2002) 2. Borg, J.: Assistive technology for children. In: UNICEF (ed.) The State of the World’s Children 2013 Children with Disabilities. UNICEF, New York (2013) 3. Borg, J., Lindström, A., Larsson, S.: Assistive technology in developing countries: a review from the perspective of the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. Prosthet. Orthot. Int. 35(1), 20–29 (2011) 4. WHO: Guidelines on the Provision of Manual Wheelchairs in Less-Resourced Settings. World Health Organization, Geneva (2008) 5. WHO: Guidelines for Training Personnel in Developing Countries for Prosthetics and Orthotics Services. World Health Organization, Geneva (2005) 6. Ventimiglia, P.: Design of a Human Hand Prosthesis. Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Advisor Code: TP1 Project Code: RPAD (2012) 7. Stoppa, M.H., Carvalho, J.C.M.: Kinematic modeling of a multi-fingered hand prosthesis for manipulation tasks. In: Anais do Congresso Nacional de Matemática Aplicada à Indústria [= Blucher Mathematical Proceedings, vol. 1, no. 1], pp. 779–788, São Paulo, Blucher (2015) 8. Weir, R.: Design of artificial arms and hands for prosthetic applications. In: Standard Handbook of Biomedical Engineering and Design, Chap. 32. Ed. McGraw Hill, New York (2004) 9. Using your 3D Printer to make a difference. https://www.3dprinteros.com/enabling-thefuture-using-3d-printer-make-difference/ 10. Which Design? http://enablingthefuture.org/which-design/ 11. Baril, M., Laliberté, T., Gosselin, C.: On the design of a mechanically programmable underactuated anthropomorphic prosthetic gripper. J. Mech. Des. 135, 1–9 (2013). ASME

Design of Assistive Devices and Occupational Therapy: Case Study in a Brazilian Psychatric Hospital Giselle S.A.D. Merino1 ✉ , Rosimeri F. Pichler1, Susana Domenech2, Zelita Rech3, and Eugenio A.D. Merino1 (

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Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil [email protected] 2 State University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil 3 Psychiatry Institute of Santa Catarina, São José, Brazil

Abstract. The aim of this article is to demonstrate the contribution of the design of assistive devices (AD) to Occupational Therapy (OT) in a Brazilian Psychiatric Hospital. Initially, some aspects about the development of AD to the OT, using user-centred design (UCD) approaches are summarized. Methodologically, the GODP was used as UCD methodology on the development of 4 cases, involving 3 patients and 1 employee of the Psychiatric Hospital, which was: two devices for carpets manufacturing, redesign of one loom and a device to facilitate the cutting rag activity. In conclusion, it’s possible to affirm that the methodological process was effective in surveying, organizing and analyzing project data that, due to the contextual complexity of the users, increased the project activity chal‐ lenge. The products developed are in use and the occupational therapists reported the improvement of the therapeutic process and consequent increase engagement of the patients in the accomplishment of the activities. Keywords: Product Design · User-Centered Design · Assistive Technology · Occupational Therapy

1

Introduction

More than 1000 millon people in the worl have some type of disability (visual, auditory, motor, mental or intellectual). In developing countries, the incidence of disability tend to be higher due to the least access to health and rehabilitation services, for example [1]. In Brazil, the last data collection showed that 23.9% of the Brazilian population has some type of disability, of which (8.3%) have a severe disability and are unable to carry out their daily life activities [2]. In this regard, Assistive Devices (AD) play a fundamental role in the social inclusion of people with disability (PD), developing their autonomy and independence, allowing these people to live in a healthier, productive and dignified way [3, 4]. AD are devices, equipment, instruments or software, purchased commercially, modified or customized, which purpose is to maintain or improve individual’s functioning, independence and well-being [4, 5]. The use of AD can recover lost abilities, reduce a gradual degeneration

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consequences, minimize the caregivers need, prevent other disease and, consequently, reduce medical costs [4]. The AD access is still a barrier to the PD inclusion in society. The main problem is the acquisition cost and the device adaptation to specific users needs [6]. In addition, a large number of users who acquire na AD, abandon their use early (estimates up to 75%) mainly because they don’t adapt to the user and needs, or because they are not comfort‐ able and safe, or because they have a stigmatizing aesthetic [7–11]. Therefore, improve the AD design practice, utilizing User-Centered processes and considering the context of use of the devices, is necessary to reduce the abandon rates and increase the AD benefits to the PD. The User-Centered Design (UCD) is based on the use of interaction techniques, empathy and stimulation of user involvement in the design process, in order to under‐ stand their capabilities, needs, desires and experiences, leading to the development of products, systems and services that are more intuitive physically, cognitively and emotionally [12, 13]. At the AD development, the user is a PD which has specific capa‐ bilities and limitations which turn the data collection step a challenge for the design process depending the level of the constraint [14–16]. The main of this article is to demonstrate the contribution of a UCD methodology in the development of 4 ADs used in the therapeutic workshops of a Brazilian Psychiatric Hospital. The 4 projects reported were developed in the class of Product Design in the Design course of the Federal University of Santa Catarina, with support from the Design Management Group and Design and Usability Laboratory (NGD/LDU), and participa‐ tion of 3 patients and 1 employee of the Psychiatric Hospital. This project consists one of the actions of the NGD/LDU in the Research and Development for Assistive Tech‐ nology Network (RPDTA), which brings together five Brazilian Universities and aims the development of products that take the capacity and specificity of PD into account, and the structuring of methodologies that enhance the development processes of AD.

2

The Development of Assistive Devices for Occupational Therapy

The Occupational Therapy (OT) is a client-centered health profession that cares about health and well-being through the occupation, in order to enable people to participate fully and satisfactorily in daily life activities [17]. The occupational therapist is the professional who can use the AD as a means to optimize the occupation. The use of an AD in the context of OT empowers and stimulates the individual’s function, reducing the interference of the disability in the performance of the activities in an autonomous and independent way, contributing to the achievement of better results over the thera‐ peutic practice [18, 19]. In this regard, it is important that these devices are designed to suit the needs of the user, making compatible product controls (product attributes) with user capabilities (sensory, cognitive and motor) [20]. Thus, UCD methodologies offer new ways of designing themselves, placing the user in the center of the process. According to ISO 9241-210 [21], the human-centered project has the intention of creating systems and products with a high degree of usability, in other words, they allow

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the use by specific users, in a specific context, to achieve specific goals, with effective‐ ness, efficiency and satisfaction. Furthermore, the human-centered approach presents improvements in the quality of systems and products, such as increasing user produc‐ tivity and operational efficiency of the organization; easier systems to use and under‐ stand, reducing training and support costs; Improvement of the user experience; decreasing discomfort and stress, and increasing usability and accessibility for people [21]. Hence, UCD is a highly empathic process that demands knowledge of the user capacity (sensory, cognitive and motor), along with temporal (birth, growth, aging) and social dimensions (cultural and contextual aspects) [13]. Therefore, it is understood that in order to increase the benefits generated by the AD to PD, user-centered research and development processes are necessary, through an adequate analysis of the individual capacity, the locations where the technology will be used, the characteristics included. In the device and the objectives of the consumer, his family and others involved [6, 22]. In the context of OT, the development of AD to promote a better compatibility between user and product can improve the insertion of PD into the desired occupation. Thus, the use of UCD methodologies are an alternative to obtain solutions more appropriate to the user (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The development of AD for OT as a means to optimize the performance of occupational activities, based on the UCD approach. Source: authors.

3

Method

3.1 Research Location and Subjects This research was developed in a Psychiatric Hospital of Santa Catarina in Brazil, which offers specialized care to patients, preferentially of low-income, with severe psychic disorders and chemical dependentes [23]. The hospital is divided internally between: Santana Convivency Center - housing approximately 220 asylum patients - and Psychi‐ atric Hospitalization Unit - that provides assistance in the most acute phase of the disease, with short-stay hospitalizations. At the Santana Convivency Center are carried out workshops with occupational and therapeutic purpose. This workshops have the intention to promote the treatment and the rehabilitation of patients through the systematization and learning of a work activity.

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For this research were selected 3 patients and 1 employee that participating in the textil’s workshop. The activities selected includes the rags cutting and carpets manu‐ facturing (by hand or by loom). It should be noted that, although these 4 subjects were selected, the results of the research cover the remaining patients and employees in terms of their benefits. It was defined as projects: • 2 tapestry kits, for carpet manufacturing with rag pieces - participation of 2 patients (Patient 1 diagnosed with dementia, limitations of hand movements due to rheuma‐ toid arthritis and low vision and Patient 2 diagnosed with schizophrenia, low vision and low hearing); • 1 loom for carpet manufacturing - participation of 1 patient diagnosed with dementia, limitations resulting of Parkinson disease and deafness; • 1 product that facilitated the cutting rags for the preparation of carpets - participation of 1 Hospital employee, diagnosed with fibromyalgia and complaints of pains and calluses in the hands. 3.2 Metodologia de projeto centrada no usuário The methodology used in the four cases described in this research was the Orientation Guide for Project Development (GODP) proposed by Merino (2014), which is structured in three design moments and eight stages of development: Inspiration (Stages −1, 0 and 1), Ideation (Stages 2 and 3) and Implementation (Stages 4, 5 and 6) [13, 24]. The GODP methodology proposes that each project moment (Inspiration - Ideation - Implementa‐ tion) be thought of in reference blocks, divided into: product, user and context [13] (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. GODP methodology with moments identification and stages description. Fonte: [13].

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In this article the actions performed from stage 1 (Research) will be described, since the opportunity and problem have already been described in the Sect. 3.1 (Location research and subjects). 3.3 Equipments The gloves and glasses of simulation developed by the University of Cambridge in England [25] were used as equipment. The gloves simulates the loss ability and func‐ tionality of the hands through plastic tapes that limit the fingers and thumb strength and movements. The glasses simulate the general loss of the ability to see details, and may similarly impair more serious vision by placing several glasses on top of each other. 3.4 Ethical Considerations This projects are part of the research entitled “Design and health: from the health of the patient to the issues of worker’s health”, which was approved by the local Ethics Committee (nº: 1,257,716) and all standards were followed, as well as the signing of the Consent Form by the participants.

4

Development

4.1 Inspiration Moment (Stage 1) In the Research stage, the reference blocks help define the product (what is the product?), the user (who are/will be the users?) and the context (where is placed the product?) [13]. To achieve this, visits were conducted to the Psychiatric Hospitals to know the patients and products used, as well as to observe users interacting with the products in the ther‐ apeutic workshops environment. As empathy technique, gloves and glasses simulation were used, with which designers could experience some of the difficulty faced by users in carrying out their activities with

Fig. 3. Project team using the simulators to perform tapestry activity and anthropometric data collection of the patient 3. Source: authors.

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the product. In this same visit, information about the user, the product and the context were collected in order to compose the reference blocks (Fig. 3). In the case of the designers who worked with the patients, some of the information was acquired with OT professionals due to limitations related to understanding and communication. 4.2 Ideation Moment (Stages 2 e 3) After the research, was proceeded to the analysis and of the data collected, when they produce the data syntheses to generate the design requirements (Fig 4). The requirements were generated into the three reference blocks: user requirements, product requirements and context requirements. From the generation of the requirements, the global concepts of the projects were defined and later solutions were generated that met the proposed requirements. In this stage, the designers modeled the alternatives, with manual proto‐ typing of the main shapes and elements, in order to facilitate the stage of idea generation. In the end, the designers mounted a decision matrix, organizing in a table form the generated solutions and the design requirements, to choose the alternatives that best meet the specificity of the project.

Fig. 4. Synthesis of users (patients) and the requirements generated for each project. Source: [26].

4.3 Implementation Moment (Stages 4, 5 e 6) In this stage, the chosen alternatives prototypes were finalized and tested with the users in the therapeutic workshop. The tests were evaluated for the improvements and modi‐ fications to be implemented in the products, being mainly dimensional and postural changes, to better suit the product to the user (Fig 5).

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Fig. 5. Tests of the functional prototypes with patient 3 and the employee in the Psychiatric Hospital. Source: authors.

Finally, the final product was made, with project identification (product name) for delivery to patients. At the end, a presentation were performed of all the projects at the Psychiatric Hospital, with delivery of the products to the patients and employee, who began to use them in their daily activities of the OT sector.

5

Results and Discussions

With the application of the GODP methodology as UCD approach, 4 products were developed for the OT workshop of the Psychiatric Hospital, which are: (1) Tapestry Ki 1 – Punctum: composed of a hook attached to a glove for the left hand, a needle and a support. In order to solve the main difficulties faced by patient 1 (low vision, limitation of finger movements and poor posture) it was decided to reduce the effort of fine handling (fingertips) and use the thick handling (palm, hand and arms). The design of a new needle to facilitate the tissue pull by the needle, and a glove with a coupled hook that assists the patient in pulling the needle through the holes in the workpiece. Thus, by performing the pulling of the needle with the tissue, the transfer of the force from the fingers to the palm, hand and arm occurs, from fine handling to heavy handling, allowing the patient to perform the Activity more easily due to the use of all upper left limbs. Finally, the support was developed to bring the work closer and to produce a contrast with the tissue canvas, thus reducing the need for the user to lie down on the job, thus improving her posture during the activity (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6. Tapestry Ki 1 – Punctum developed for the Patient 1. Source: authors.

(2) Tapestry Ki 2: Composed of an adapted needle and easel. In order to solve the problems faced by the patient 2 in the performance of her activity (low vision, callus on the fingers and hand tremor), the team developed a needle with an adapted handle to the user’s hand (anthropomorphic form) and with larger dimensions, preventing loss of the needle by the patient during the activity. In addition, a box was developed to store all the materials used in the carpet manufacturing, with a tilted support attached to the upper part of the carton, improving the user’s posture, and applying a contrast surface with the canvas, facilitating the visualization of the small holes and carpet confeccion. Finally, the team also designed a support for the forearm, which was sore due to the hours of support at the edge of the table during the performance of the activity (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Tapestry Ki 2 developed for the patient 2. Source: authors.

(3) Loom project – Silkworm: Composed of a loom adapted to the anthropometric measures of the user. In this project, the main difficulties faced by patient 3 are hand tremors arising from Parkinson’s disease, the stabilization and dimensional adap‐ tation of the loom being the main requirements in this project. The project team has developed a number of adaptations and improvements such as: 1. workbench’s with a great angle to facilitate viewing the plot during the activity; 2. Adapting two

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handles on the top of the loom so that the user can pull more easily and uni-formly; 3. Fitting a gray tarpaulin on the bottom of the loom to increase the background contrast, reducing visual confusion; 4. Adaptation of support for the feet, helping in the alternation of the user’s postures; 5. Adaptation of the feet to a slip resistant material, support irons, elastic extensors and velcro tapes used to provide more stability to the loom, allowing the user to perform the activity more accurately (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Loom project – Silkworm developed for the patient 3. Source: authors.

(4) Cutting rags – EasyCut: Composed of a cutting support, where the scissors can be fixed and used with more comfort, safety and practicality. The main challenge of the scissors project was the reduction of the force applied to perform the activity, as well as the adequacy of the equipment to reduce the risks of repetitive strain injury. To solve the problem, was developed a cutting support with a structure that allows the attachment of common scissors (the scissors are often changed to be sharpened). Fixing the scissors in the structure, the employee performs a movement similar to the lever, reducing the effort made and minimizing the impacts on the wrist (lateral deviations) and the fingers (callus) (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Cutting rags - EasyCut developed for the Hospital employee. Source: authors.

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Conclusion

The GODP uses the UCD approach and systematize the process of project development with a focus on the needs and limitations of users, aspects initially presented as essential in the development of AD for PD. The cases developed in the therapeutic workshops of the Psychiatric Hospital focused on 4 users with specific physical and cognitive needs that made the design practice challenging. Thus, as the main contributions, it was observed that the GODP, using empathic processes (glove and simulation glasses), allowed the designers to approach the users’ real needs, helping to identify what information would be useful to the users on the development of the solutions. Also, in the research stage, the use of the reference blocks by the designers, made the process more clearer, always having in mind what is being projected, for whom and in what context. In the Production stage, the testing of prototypes with users was a time of great learning and exchange as users were able to make use of and report their experiences to designers who worked to implement the identified improvements. In general, the design process was agile and sufficient, even involving users in several stages meeting the expectations of designers, users and of the Psychiatric Hospital. With regard to OT, access to products that are more appropriate for users and the intended occupation, extend the benefits of user therapy, when they reduce the interfer‐ ence of the deficiencies in the accomplishment of the tasks. The products developed are in use by the patients and the Hospital staff and the occupational therapists, who accom‐ pany the workshops, reported the improvement of the therapeutic process with the use of the devices and consequent increase the engagement of the patients in the accom‐ plishment of the activities. The cases presented comprise a part of the atuation of the NGD/LDU into the RPDTA and Psychiatric Hospital. There is other projects under development in other sectors of the Hospital, such as Physiotherapy, Psychology and Pharmacy. As future studies, it is intended to develop new tools to be incorporated to GODP methodology stages, in order to systematize and guide the designers in obtaining more accurate and reliable data in the development of TA projects. Acknowledgments. We thank the Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES), the Research and Development for Assistive Technology Network (RPDTA), the Brazilian Graduate Program in Design of UFSC (POSDESIGN/UFSC), the Design Management Group and Design and Usability Laboratory (NGD/LDU), to the Psychiatry Institute of Santa Catarina (IPq-SC) and other involved.

References 1. WHO (World Health Organization): Relatório mundial sobre a deficiência. SEDPcD, São Paulo (2012) 2. BRASIL: Cartilha do Censo 2010: Pessoa com Deficiência. SDH-PR/SNPD, Brasília (2012) 3. Federici, S., Scherer, M.J.: Assistive Technology Assessment Handbook. CRC Press, Florida (2012)

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4. WHO: Priority Assistive Products List. World Health Organization, Geneva (2016) 5. ISO-9999: Assistive Products for Persons with Disability: Classification and Terminology. BSI, CH/173, p. 98 (2011) 6. WHO: Improving Access to Assistive Technology: Report by the Secretariat. World Health Organization, Geneva (2016) 7. WHO: Opening the GATE for Assistive Health Technology: Shifting the Paradigm. http:// www.who.int/phi/implementation/assistive_technology/concept_note.pdf?ua=1 (2016). Accessed 18 Oct 2016 8. Costa, C.R.D., et al.: Dispositivos de tecnologia assistiva: fatores relacionados ao abandono. Cadernos de Terapia Ocupacional 23(3), 611–624 (2015) 9. Cook, A.M., Gray, D.: Assistive Technology. Encyclopedia Britannica (2013). http:// academic-eb-britannica.ez46.periodicos.capes.gov.br/levels/collegiate/article/604944. Accessed 20 Oct 2016 10. Federici, S., Meloni, F., Borsci, S.: The abandonment of assistive technology in Italy: a survey of national health service users. Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med. 52(4), 516–526 (2016) 11. Plos, O., et al.: A universalist strategy for the design of assistive technology. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 42, 533–541 (2012) 12. Giacomin, J.: What is human centred design? In: X Congresso Brasileio de Pesquisa em Design, EDUFMA, São Luís, pp. 148–161 (2012) 13. Merino, G.S.A.D.: GODP—Guia de Orientação para Desenvolvimento de Projetos: Uma metodologia de Design Centrado no Usuário. NGD/UFSC, Florianópolis (2016) 14. Brendler, C.F.: Método para levantamento de parâmetros antropométricos utilizando um digitalizador 3D de baixo custo. Departamento de Engenharia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre (2013) 15. Alwin, J., Persson, J., Krevers, B.: Perception and significance of an assistive technology intervention: the perspectives of relatives of persons with dementia. Disabil. Rehabil. 35(18), 1519–1526 (2013) 16. Streffing, G., et al.: Exploring the needs of people with dementia regarding assistive technology to save quality of life and independent living at home. J. Eur. Psychiatry 26, 1 (2011) 17. WFOT: World Federation of Occupational Therapists. http://www.wfot.org/aboutus/ aboutoccupationaltherapy/definitionofoccupationaltherapy.aspx. Accessed 15 Mar 2016 18. Pelosi, M.B., Nunes, L.R. de P.: Os terapeutas ocupacionais das unidades de saúde do município do Rio de Janeiro e suas ações na área de tecnologia assistiva. Revista Teias 11(23), 149–162 (2010) 19. Shuster, N.E.: Addressing assistive technology needs in special education. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 47(11), 993–997 (1993) 20. Persad, U., Langdon, P., Clarkson, J.: Characterising user capabilities to support inclusive design evaluation. Univers. Access Inf. Soc. 6, 119–135 (2007) 21. ISO9241-201: Projeto centrado no ser humano para sistemas interativos, p. 34 (2011) 22. Cook, A.M., Gray, D.: Assistive Technology. Encyclopedia Britannica (2013). http:// academic-eb-britannica.ez46.periodicos.capes.gov.br/levels/collegiate/article/604944. Accessed 20 Oct 2016 23. Vieira, R.D.S.: O serviço social no atendimento as famílias dos usuários internados na unidade de dependência química do Instituto de Psiquiatria do Estado de Santa Catarina. Curso de Serviço Social, Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina, Palhoça, p. 91 (2009) 24. Merino, G.S.A.D.: Metodologia para a prática projetual do design: com base no projeto centrado no usuário e com ênfase no design universal. Programa de PósGraduação em Engenharia de Produção, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, p. 212 (2014)

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25. Hosking, I., Waller, S.: Inclusive Design Tools. University of Cambridge (2015). http:// www.inclusivedesigntoolkit.com/betterdesign2/inclusivetools/inclusivedesigntools.html. Accessed 20 Feb 2017 26. Merino, G.S.A.D., et al.: GODP—metodologia de projeto centrado no usuário: multicasos de projetos de Tecnologia Assistiva na Terapia Ocupacional. 1º Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Tecnologia Assistiva (CBTA), Curitiba, Brazil (2016)

Requirements’ Literature Review for the Development of Furniture for People with Motor Impairments Raffaela Leane Zenni Tanure ✉ and Maria Lúcia Leite Ribeiro Okimoto (

)

Postgraduate Program of Industrial Design, Federal University of Parana (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This paper aims to identify requirements for the development of school furniture for students with motor impairments. In order to ensure access for People with physical disabilities or reduced mobility to school, it is necessary to go beyond the architectural adaptations, providing resources adapted for the effective participation of them. Therefore to achieve the goal a literature review was developed. The requirements identified to guide the development of school furniture for students with motor impairments were: (a) Student’s best comfort; (b) Easy assembly, adjustment and use; (c) Use conditions and maintenance resistance; (d) Adjustability of desk for wheelchair users; (e) Adjustability of chair for users with motor impairments; (f) Emotional aspects of users; (g) Safety; (h) Easy hygienization and disinfection; (i) Reduced maintenance (specific tech‐ nical care is not need). It should be noted that there are few research to develop‐ ment of school furniture designed specifically for people with motor impairments. Keywords: Assistive Technology · Product development · Product engineering · Special education · School furniture

1

Introduction

Society is experiencing a time of transition between integration and inclusion, as inclu‐ sion is a process of small and large transformations in the physical and mental environ‐ ments of the whole society, including People with Disabilities (PWD), which contributes to a new model of society. A society that accepts and values individual differences learns how to live with human diversity through understanding and cooperation [1]. The idea of inclusion implies equality of opportunity, participation and access among all people, regardless of their peculiarities. “Human diversity and individualities enrich the lives of all people involved, given the unique contribution of people and social groups from their respective prisms. Human diversity when fully represented is the portrait of an inclusive society, i.e. for all” [2]. Based on this principle that every individual is capable, since adequate conditions are offered to perform their tasks, the importance of research and development of Assis‐ tive Technology is demonstrated, for the elimination of barriers and adaptations of environments and materials. It is noted that, in Brazil, despite the growing demand of this particular area, research and projects in TA are still scarce [3]. The inclusion of © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_54

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People with disabilities, i.e. the target audience of Assistive Technology, is necessary, since they represent a significant part of the population, i.e. approximately 23.9% of the national population [4]. The concept of Assistive Product [5] is based on ISO 9999: 2007 [6], which refers to the understanding of Assistive Product as any product (including resources, equip‐ ment, instruments, technology and software). Especially produced or generally available to prevent, compensate, monitor, alleviate or neutralize deficiencies, limitations in activity and restrictions on participation. The Technical Assistance Committee defines, “Assistive Technology (AT) is an area of knowledge, with an interdisciplinary character, encompassing products, resources, methodologies, strategies, practices and services with purpose to promote functionality related to activity and participation of PWD, disability or reduced mobility, aiming at their autonomy, independence, quality of life and social inclusion” [5]. According to Bryant and Bryant [7], AT is “any equipment or set of products, purchased, modified, or tailor-made used to increase, maintain or improve functional performance.” It is an application of science, design, engineering and other disciplines in order to develop processes, methods or inventions for supporting people with disabilities, from motorized wheelchairs for PWD to reading software for children with dyslexia [7]. AT, according to Bersch [8], can be seen as a practice of the Specialized Educational Assistanc. The knowledge and application of AT in the educational context is necessary in order to guarantee to PWD equal opportunities and to collaborate with the learning process. Characterizing itself as one of the contributing factors for school inclusion [8–11]. Increasing students’ autonomy and independence are the main functions of AT, in addition, the possibility of improving the quality of life of PWD should also be high‐ lighted [11]. The inadequacy of furniture in most schools, i.e. that does not fit the functional needs of the student, is characterized as one of several obstacles faced by them to attend schools [12–15]. Conventional school furniture makes it difficult for students with disabilities to be adequately positioned, which does not allow the necessary conditions to interact with the environment, classmates, teachers and other professionals who carry out their activities in the environment [16, 17]. It is noteworthy that few researches on development of school furniture specifically designed for students with physical disabilities. It is noted that the current technologies for development of customized devices are quite handmade, implying in discomfort, inaccuracy and long time for their preparation. As an example, the basic adaptation to school furniture proposed by ITS Brasil [18], where materials such as blocks of wood and even a phone book are used to adjust the height of the furniture to the student. Some examples of adapted school furniture for PWD can be seen in Table 1. It can be seen from the examples set forth in Table 1 that different adaptations are made to fit the furniture to a specific need of PWD. In the first image, one can see a rudimentary adaptation that may not provide the postural adequacy and comfort neces‐ sary for the student with special needs. The second example brings a specific design of furniture for wheelchair users, however, as the table does not have some form of height adjustment, non-wheelchair students will be in an improper posture to use the computer and its peripheral equipment. On the other hand, the third example has an adaptable table

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Table 1. Examples of adapted school furniture for PWD

for wheelchair users, which makes it possible to adjust height and allows its use by other students. However, it would not allow for adaptations for students with various disa‐ bilities. In order to ensure access for People with physical disabilities or reduced mobility to school, it is necessary to go beyond the architectural adaptations, providing resources adapted for the effective participation of them. One of the fundamental aspects to make possible the presence of these students in school is the adapted furniture. Therefore, this paper aims to identify requirements for the development of school furniture for students with motor impairments.

2

Methodological Procedures

The present research is characterized as a review of the literature, because it analyzes the bibliographical production about a particular topic [20]. Relating to its purpose, it can be classified as analytical, since it aims to provide an overview of a particular area. About its scope, this research can be considered thematic for considering a clipping of a particular topic. The approach can be defined as literature, as it is based on full papers published in journals [20]. Therefore, in order to achieve the goal it was performed a review of the literature. This approach, characterized as a secondary source study, allows identifying, assessing and interpreting the available relevant research related to a particular area or topic of interest [21]. The systematic review includes some steps, such as: definition of the research question; development of a search protocol; criteria for the selection of the studies; data extraction and data synthesis [21].

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The following databases were selected: Springer link, Science Direct, and Web of Science for their access to full-text in all areas of knowledge, primarily with a focus on technology. Table 2 summarizes the search protocol performed in the selected databases. Access to these databases was done through the CAPES (Coordination for the Improve‐ ment of Higher Education Personnel) Portal. Table 2. Search protocol performed in the selected databases. Source: primary Search protocol Databases Comments Search algorithm

Initial result List of candidates

Springer link

Science Direct

Web of Science

The research was restricted to articles published in journals, in English language and available online. No restriction on the publication date. TS = (furniture AND Furniture AND (school OR TITLE-ABSTR-KEY (school OR classroom OR classroom OR education) (furniture OR “school furniture” OR “furniture in education) AND (motor AND (“motor impairments” OR “limited classroom”) AND TITLE- impairments OR limited motor abilities OR motor motor abilities” OR “motor ABSTR-KEY (“motor impairments” OR “limited challenge OR motorchallenge” OR motormotor abilities” OR “motor disabled OR motor disabled OR “motor disabled OR motor challenge” OR motordisabled” OR “motor disabilities OR motor disabled OR “motor disabilities” OR “motor delays OR handicap OR disabled” OR “motor delays”) handicapped)) disabilities” OR “motor delays” OR handicap OR handicapped) 60 papers 30 papers 1 paper 7 papers

Source: primary

The initial search resulted in 91 papers in total. The evaluation of papers took place by a two-stage refining process [22]. First was analyzed the titles, keywords and abstract, eliminating those who clearly did not correspond to the scope of this research. At the second stage, was followed by the reading in full of papers. As selection criteria, it was included only the articles that cover the topic researched, i.e. school furniture for students with motor impairments.

3

Results and Discussion

It should be noted that there are few research to development of school furniture designed specifically for PWD. Only seven papers corresponded to the scope of the research. From these papers one can identify examples of requirements relevant to the develop‐ ment of school furniture designed specifically for people with motor impairments. The requirements identified can be seen in Table 3. The AT contributes through the insertion and application in a great diversity of problems and situations of contemporary life, emphasizing some aspects. Possibly one of the most expressive aspect concerns to promotion of participation and social inclu‐ sion, which is based on autonomous and independent efficiency performance, as well as mobility for this purpose.

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Table 3. Requirements mapping. Requirements (a) Student’s best comfort (b) Easy assembly, adjustment and use (c) Use conditions and maintenance resistance (d) Adjustability of desk for wheelchair users (e) Adjustability of chair for users with motor impairments (f) Emotional aspects of users (g) Safety

Evidence source [16] [23–25] [26] [12, 24] [12, 16, 27] [16, 23] [26]

Source: primary

In this sense, the different approaches in AT must seek to intervene effectively in the disability-inability-disadvantage process, in order to guarantee conditions for the full social inclusion of people with disability or reduced mobility. The Engineering area can, through its scientific knowledge and the design practice, contribute both to the human‐ ization of the interactions between user and TA in the use process, as well as the devel‐ opment of products and systems that aim to promote autonomy, quality of life and social inclusion. According Benedetto [28], the sum of Design area contribution to knowledge of Product Development Process has the capacity to transform a product that can be seen as “stigmatized” (for example the adaptations in AT), in an object that can be used with pride and satisfaction by the user. The use of assistive technology resources in the school environment, especially the appropriate furniture to student’s posture, contributes to greater comfort and increase the school performance of students with disabilities. Resources that meet the postural needs of students with physical disabilities should be at their disposal, since alignment and postural stability are essential for these students to explore the environment, keep the attention for extended time and behave pro-actively [12, 16, 17, 25, 27]. Furthermore, the design of an inclusive product is more effective in terms of satisfaction and also most desirable if take into account the emotional assessments on the personal and social implications of the product [16, 23]. The use of an AT product often has specific characteristics that deserve special consideration in research on the topic. Among these, the user-dependency relationship is highlighted, which without the Assistive device, often becomes incapable of performing a task under conditions of adequate efficiency, safety and satisfaction. Therefore, for the development in AT area one should focus on the interactions between devices and users, in order to favor users in their autonomy, independence and social inclusion. It should be noted that determining what needs to be met by the final product is characterized as one of the first activities to be performed in product devel‐ opment, for any project effort as well as for the development team [29]. The identification of user needs is important for the development of new products and should be carried out at the beginning of the project, allowing new features to be incorporated into proto‐ types with greater ease and at a lower cost [30]. However, there is a lack of knowledge of the needs related to the use of assistive technologies [31]. In order to raise these

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particular needs, different methods must be integrated, thus enabling better results and helping to achieve a product that meets the needs of the user [32]. In addition, to identify the needs of the user more accurately, all stakeholders should be consulted, e.g. teachers, physicians, occupational therapists, physiotherapists, among others [12, 16, 33].

4

Conclusions

The idea of inclusion implies equality of opportunity, participation and access among all people, regardless of their peculiarities. Based on this principle that every individual is capable, since adequate conditions are offered to perform their tasks, the importance of research and development of Assistive Technology is demonstrated, for the elimina‐ tion of barriers and adaptations of environments and materials. The inclusion of People with disabilities, i.e. the target audience of Assistive Technology, is necessary, since they represent a significant part of the population. In order to ensure access for People with physical disabilities or reduced mobility to school, it is necessary to go beyond the architectural adaptations, providing resources adapted for the effective participation of them. One of the fundamental aspects to make possible the presence of these students in school is the adapted furniture. In order to achieve the goal a literature review was developed. The following databases were selected: Springer link, Science Direct, and Web of Science for their access to full-text in all areas of knowledge, primarily with a focus on technology. Access to this platform was done through the CAPES (Coordina‐ tion for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel) Portal. The research was restricted to articles published in journals, in English language and available online. Thus, this paper researched requirements for the development of school furniture for students with motor impairments. The requirements identified to guide the development of school furniture for students with motor impairments were: (a) Student’s best comfort; (b) Easy assembly, adjustment and use; (c) Use conditions and maintenance resistance; (d) Adjustability of desk for wheelchair users; (e) Adjustability of chair for users with motor impairments; (f) Emotional aspects of users; (g) Safety; (h) Easy hygienization and disinfection; (i) Reduced maintenance (specific technical care is not need). It should be noted that there are few research to development of school furniture designed specifically for people with motor impairments. Note that current technologies to develop customized devices are quite handcrafted, implying in discomfort, impreci‐ sion and long time for their confection. The inadequacy of furniture in most schools, i.e. that does not fit the functional needs of the student, is characterized as one of several obstacles faced by them to attend schools. The use of assistive technology resources in the school environment, especially the appropriate furniture to student’s posture, contributes to greater comfort and increase the school performance of students with disabilities. Resources that meet the postural needs of students with physical disabilities should be at their disposal, since alignment and postural stability are essential for these students to explore the environment, keep the attention for extended time and behave pro-actively. Future studies should elicit the requirements for the development of the assistive product in question along with the other stakeholders involved in the process,

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e.g. teachers, physicians, occupational therapists, physiotherapists, among others, in order to complement those identified in the literature. Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), which made possible the development of this study.

References 1. Souza, R.E.C.e.: Caderno de educação especial: iniciativas, atividades e ações da UFPR acerca das pessoas com necessidades especiais. UFPR/PROGRAD, Curitiba (2000) 2. Sassaki, R.: Inclusão no lazer e turismo. Áurea, São Paulo (2003) 3. Rodrigues, P.R., Alves, L.R.G.: Tecnologia assistiva – uma revisão do tema. HOLOS, 29(6), 170–180 (2013) 4. IBGE: Censo demográfico 2010: características gerais da população, religião e PcD. Ministério do Planejamento, Orçamento e Gestão. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (2012). 215 p. Disponível http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/ periodicos/94/cd_2010_religiao_deficiencia.pdf. Accessed 28 Nov 2013 5. BRASIL: Subsecretaria Nacional de Promoção dos Direitos da Pessoa com Deficiência. Comitê de Ajudas Técnicas. Tecnologia Assistiva. – Brasília: CORDE, 138 p (2009b) 6. International Standartization Organization. ISO 9999: Assistive products for persons with disability – Classification and terminology (2007) 7. Bryant, D.P., Bryant, B.R.: Assistive Technology for People with Disabilities. Alian and Bacon, Boston (2003) 8. Bersch, R.C.R.: Design de um serviço de tecnologia assistiva em escolas públicas. Tese (Doutorado) – Porto Alegre: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Programa de PósGraduação em Design (2009) 9. Rocha, A.N.D.C., Deliberato, D., Araújo, R.D.C.T.: Procedimentos para a prescrição dos recursos de tecnologia assistiva para alunos da educação infantil com paralisia cerebral. Revista Educação Especial 28(53), 691–708 (2015) 10. Lima, M.M.L.P.: A importância das tecnologias assistivas para a inclusão de alunos com deficiência visual. Monografia (Curso de Especialização) – Brasília: Universidade de Brasília. Instituto de Psicologia. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Processos de Desenvolvimento Humano e Saúde (2011) 11. Trindade, V.M.C., Toebe, I.C.D., Mallmann, E.M.: Tecnologias educacionais nas práticas escolares da educação especial. In: Anais do VII Salão Internacional de Ensino, Pesquisa e Extensão, 2015, ALEGRETE (2015). ISSN: 2317-3203 12. Montero-Mendoza, S., Gómez-Conesa, A., Hidalgo-Montesinos, M.D.: Análisis de las ayudas técnicas y del material de Fisioterapia solicitadas en la consejería de educación de la comunidad autónoma de Murcia. Fisioterapia 35(2), 52–57 (2013) 13. de Assis, C.P., Martinez, C.M.S.: Tecnologias assistivas para alunos com mielomeningocele no contexto escolar: a construção de um material informativo. Revista Teias 13(30), 247–267 (2012) 14. Braccialli, L.M.P., et al.: The influence of the flexibility of the chair seat on pressure peak and distribution of the contact area in individuals with cerebral palsy during the execution of a task. Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. 6, 331–337 (2011) 15. Carvalho, R.E.: Removendo barreiras para a aprendizagem: educação inclusiva. Porto Alegre (2000)

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16. Rico, M.P.G.: Aplicación de diseño inclusivo a mobiliario infantil. Patente de invención. Iconofacto 11(16), 107–124 (2015) 17. Spiller, M.G., Braccialli, L.M.P.: Opinião de Profissionais da Educação e da Saúde Sobre o Uso da Prancha Ortostática para o Aluno com Paralisia Cerebral. Rev. Bras. Ed. Esp. Marília 20(2), 265–282 (2014) 18. Instituto de Tecnologia Social (ITS BRASIL). Tecnologia assistiva nas escolas: Recursos básicos de acessibilidade sócio-digital para PcD. Microsoft Educação; Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia, São Paulo (2008) 19. Krüger, J.M., Ferreira, A.R.: Aplicação da tecnologia assistiva para o desenvolvimento de uma classe ajustável para cadeirantes. Iberoam. J. Ind. Eng. 5(9), 43–69 (2013). Florianópolis, SC, Brasil 20. Noronha, D.P., Ferreira, S.M.S.P.: Revisões de literatura. In: Campelo, B.S., Condón, B.V., Kremer, J.M. (eds.) Fontes de informação para pesquisadores e profissionais. UFMG, Belo Horizonte (2000) 21. Kitchenham, B.: Procedures for performing systematic reviews. Technical report, Keele University and NICTA (2004) 22. Brereton, P., Kitchenham, B.A., Budgen, D., Turner, M., Khalil, M.: Lessons from applying the systematic literature review process within the software engineering domain. J. Syst. Softw. 80, 571–583 (2007) 23. Doctoroff, S.: Adapting the physical environment to meet the needs of all young children for play. Early Child. Educ. J. 29(2), 105–109 (2001) 24. Schulze, L.J.H., Ramos, M.H., Tetrick, L.: Effectiveness of arm supports during typing for adults with neurological disorders. J. Occup. Rehabil. 11(4), 235–253 (2001) 25. Sheldon, K.: “Can I play too?” Adapting common classroom activities for young children with limited motor abilities. Early Child. Educ. J. 24(2), 115–120 (1996) 26. Drury, C.G., Czaja, S.J., Prabhu, G.V., Mayne, R.W., Noland, S.: Furniture tipping accidents: redesign for prevention. Accid. Anal. Prev. 30(5), 625–639 (1998) 27. Rodby-Bousquet, E., Hägglund, G.: Sitting and standing performance in a total population of children with cerebral palsy: a cross-sectional study. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 11(1), 131 (2010) 28. Benedetto, I.L.C.: Contribuições metodológicas para o desenvolvimento de produtos em tecnologia assistiva. Dissertação (Mestrado) – Porto Alegre: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Design (2011) 29. Jarke, M., Loucopoulos, P., Lyytinen, K., Mylopoulos, J., Robinson, W.: The brave new world of design requirements. Inf. Syst. 36(7), 992–1008 (2011) 30. Martin, J.L.: Capturing user requirements in medical device development: the role of ergonomics. Physiol. Meas. 27(8), R49–R62 (2006) 31. Plos, O., Buisine, S., Aoussat, A., Mantelet, F., Dumas, C.: A universalist strategy for the design of assistive technology. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 42, 533–541 (2012) 32. Iqbal, R., Shah, N., James, A., Duursma, J.: Arrest: from work practices to redesign for usability. Expert Syst. Appl. 2(38), 1182–1192 (2011) 33. Callegaro, A.M., Ten Caten, C.S., Tanure, R.L.Z., Buss, A.S., Echeveste, M.E.S., Jung, C.F.: Managing requirements for the development of a novel elbow rehabilitation device. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 113, 404–411 (2016)

Implementation of Integrated Instrumentation in Assistive Technology Eugenio Merino1, Giuliano Mannrich2, Bruno Guimarães3, Giselle Speck1 ✉ , Diego Matos1, Susana Domenech4, and Giselle Merino1,4 (

)

1

Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil [email protected], [email protected] 2 Psychiatry Institute of Santa Catarina, São José, Brazil 3 Institute Federal Catarinense, São Bento do Sul, Brazil 4 State University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil

Abstract. There are few studies that use integrated evaluation instruments for the design, preparation and adaptation of orthoses that reflect very specifically the physical conditions of the patients. Therefore, the present study aimed the application of integrated instrumentation for the development of assistive tech‐ nology products for patients of the Psychiatry Institute of Santa Catarina (IPqSC). As instruments we used infrared thermography, surface electromyography, manual dynamometry and motion capture by inertial sensors, along with a collec‐ tion protocol established by the team through observation and audiovisual record‐ ings of the activities. As a result, we obtained data suitable for the diagnosis of the physical condition of the patient, requiring some adjustments into the collec‐ tion process in order to respect the physical and cognitive limitations of the patients. In addition, the collection and the use of data should take into account the appropriate instruments of analysis and the factors that may influence the results. Keywords: Motion capture · Surface electromyography · Infrared thermography · Muscle strength dynamometer

1

Introduction

Acquiring a disability at any stage in an individual’s life is a condition that can impact their daily life in terms of body structures and functions, activities and social participa‐ tion, as recommended by the International Classification of Functioning [1]. In order to reduce this impact, technological development has influenced the field of rehabilitation and there is a growing investment in the production of resources that have become part of the therapeutic actions to meet the needs of people with disabilities who, in the census 2010, represented 45.6 million people, about 14.5% of the Brazilian population [2]. The term Assistive Technology, was officially created in 1988, based on American law, as an important legal element within the US law, known as Public Law 100-407, which, with other laws, the ADA – American with Disabilities Act. This American law establishes the criteria and legal bases that regulate the granting of public funds and © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_55

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subsidies destined to the acquisition of this material called Assistive Technology, a synonym of resources and services for the deficiency. In the text of the American With Disabilities Act, Resources constitute “any and all items, equipment or parts there of them, a product or system manufactured in series or custom-made, used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capabilities of persons with disabilities.” Services are “those that directly aid a person with a disability to select, purchase or use the resources defined above” [3]. In the world and also in Brazil, these resources have been called “Assistive Tech‐ nology” (AT). This terminology was made official by the Technical Assistance Committee of the National Undersecretariat for the Promotion of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and is considered as an interdisciplinary area of knowledge that encom‐ passes products, resources, methodologies, strategies, practices and services to promote the functionality, related to the activity and participation of persons with disabilities, disabilities or reduced mobility, to provide them with autonomy, independence, quality of life and social inclusion [4]. In the context of health services performed with people with disabilities, the implementation of AT is fundamental to support the different stages of their neuropsychomotor development, to offer conditions for their social participation and to assist the families in the care actions. As part of these responsibilities, it is the responsibility of health professionals, in addition to technical work, to develop strategies for health promotion and maintenance, through appropriate preventive measures for the population [5]. Therefore, the application of AT covers a range of human performance possibilities, from basic self-care tasks (mobility, communication, home maintenance, food prepa‐ ration, occupational tasks) to leisure and work activities. Obtaining autonomy, or maximum autonomy, is certainly one of the ways for the perfect social integration of the elderly and disabled people and must therefore be the premise for any intervention in rehabilitation and inclusion [6]. When discussing the relationship between disability and poverty, they point to a greater concentration of people with disabilities in lowincome families who access restricted goods and services that could favor their condi‐ tions of survival and well-being [7]. It is demonstrated that the presence of people with disabilities interferes negatively in family income, since their families must assume the burden related to the care they demand. Given this scenario, it is important to consider that, for many families, access to AT is restricted to the resources available in the Unified Health System (SUS), which are included in the list of orthoses and prosthetics and with only a few basic equipment models for locomotion and devices for visual and auditory deficiency [5]. These AT resources available in the SUS don’t ofter the minimum ergonomic requirements against the limiting factors of human movement found in the deficiency or transient disability in the course of the disease. Generally, they offer medium-sized solutions that are short of what is proposed and require effort, cause injuries and discomforts with frustrating results for the patient and the rehabilitating professional. In addition, they present a manufacturing process considered to be handmade, due to the need to reduce costs and the lack of access to high-cost technology for a significant percentage of the population in Brazil (low resources and dependent on SUS). Thus, in order to reduce the gap between what the orthosis and the generic prosthesis proposes and the result that it

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reaches, considering the importance of AT, the integrated instrumentation emerges, which has been the object of research and development increasingly constant in several areas of human knowledge [6]. Especially in the health sector, the great emphasis has been given to instruments that allow the acquisition and storage of physiological and biomechanical information, opening new possibilities for the development and appli‐ cation of techniques to elaborate projects for this reality [6]. The objective of the integrated instrumentation is the use of several biomechanical and physiological measuring in order to obtain objective (quantitative) measurements of the physical, biomechanical and physiological characteristics of the individuals, in order to characterize the needs of this individual and their movement dysfunctions, producing important data and information on the design issues of the AT resource that the individual will use, such as comfort, usability, biomechanics and others. In view of the above, the present study had as its objective the application of the integrated instru‐ mentation for the development of assistive technology products for patients of the Psychiatry Institute of Santa Catarina (IPq-SC).

2

Materials and Methods

2.1 Experimental Protocol A collection protocol was developed by the research group encompassing the use of integrated instrumentation. First, the cameras were positioned to record the activities developed. After this procedure, the integrated instrumentation process was started with the use of dynamometry equipment, surface electromyography, infrared thermography and motion capture by inertial sensors (X-sens). The collections were performed on different days to avoid interference between the collected data and due to the physical and psychic conditions of the patients. 2.2 Study Site This research was carried out at the Psychiatry Institute of Santa Catarina (IPq-SC) located in the municipality of São José (SC) (27°35′59″ S and 48°42′51″ W), being the only public hospital in the State of Santa Catarina that provides psychiatric care, serving mainly the low-income population, coming of several cities of the state. 2.3 Sample Participated in the study two patients, one male (Patient A) (59 years) and one female (Patient B) (54 years), who presented multiple deficiencies, based on different psychi‐ atric diseases, presented reduced mobility, requiring of hygiene, feeding and locomotion care, assisted by nurses in the activities of daily living. Patient A presents a diagnosis of mental disorders associated with Alzheimer’s degenerations, Parkinson’s syndrome symptoms, right hemiparesis, cerebral degeneration and motor problems such as diffi‐ culties in maintaining standing posture, flexion deformities in the metacarpophalangeal

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joints. On the other hand, paciente B presents cerebral palsy, mental disorders, left spastic hemiplegia, equine foot and fatty cysts in the left foot. The data obtained with the instrumentation were based on the type of deficiency that the patients presented. Due to this condition of individuality of the patients, surface electromyography, manual dynamometry, infrared thermography and motion capture by inertial sensors (X-sens) were used for analysis in patient A and for the analysis of patient B, only infrared ther‐ mography and motion capture by inertial sensors (X-sens) were used, since each motor dysfunction presents a special need for adjustment through AT resources. This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Federal University of Santa Catarina (n. 1.257.716) and the Informed Consent Term (ICF) was previously signed by the responsible tutors of the patients. 2.4 Dynamometry For muscle strength measurement, a SAEHAN ® hand-held dynamometer (SAEHAN Corporation, Korea, Model DIGI II) with a maximum capacity of 90 kg and a scale of 1 g was used. For the positioning of the subjects, the methodology suggested by the American Society of Hand Therapy (ASHT) [8] was adopted. The data collected was tabulated in Microsoft Office Excel® 2007. 2.5 Surface Electromyography (sEMG) For the quantitative evaluation of the muscular electrical activity of the patients, the electromyographic record (Miotool 400) (Miotec Equipaments, Brazil) was used. The methodology suggested by the Surface EMG for the Non-Invasive Assessment of Muscles - SENIAM [9] was adopted. To collect data, rehabilitation and locomotion activities were carried out, which are part of the prescribed exercise routine for these patients, in order to characterize the greatest movement deficit in relation to the limita‐ tions imposed by the disease. It was carried out using the parallel or fixed bars, inde‐ pendent locomotion and bicycle (cycloergometer). 2.6 Infrared Thermography (IT) Before and during the evaluation, the ambient temperature was measured and maintained constant at 22 °C and air humidity at 55%, throughout the procedure. Before the images were taken, the patients waited 15 min to stabilize the body temperature with the ambient climate [10]. The thermal images were captured by a FLIR E40 (FLIR Tools) thermal imager. The camera was positioned horizontally at a distance of 1 m and vertically adjusted to the midline of the lumbar to be evaluated. It was considered emissivity of 98% for human body. Records were made before and after the activities [11]. The ther‐ mographic diagnosis of the changes in intensity, size, shape, distribution and margin, as well as the thermal difference between the pain points and the presence of thermal asymmetry compared to the opposite side according to the criteria of Brioschi et al. [12].

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2.7 Capture of Movements by Inertial Sensors (X-Sens) For the evaluation of movements was used the MVN Biomech Link (Xsens) to evaluate movements using 17 inertial sensors that track body segments, their orientation, position and movement with a frequency of 120 Hz. For the data collection, the procedures of the manual equipment was adopted [13]. For the analysis of the data the regions of the knees were chosen for patient A and the ankles for patient B. These regions were deter‐ mined based on previous evaluations for the development of specific orthoses for each patient.

3

Results and Discussion

The integration of technologies for data collection is still a recent issue. The precise criteria and selection of the measuring instruments allow the formulation of an accurate diagnosis of the movement dysfunction found in the patient, thus allowing clear treat‐ ment guidelines, besides the possible establishment of a motor and functional recovery prognosis of the patients. Patients and the development of AT products, even through the limitations presented by them. The collection of patients on different days was requested by the physiotherapist responsible for the patients, due to fatigue resulting from the placement, calibration and data acquisition with the equipment, corroborating the study by Speck et al. [14]. The mean of the isometric hand strength of patient A before the activities was 17.8 Kgf (±1.77) in the right hand (dominant side) and 22.0 Kgf (±2.16) in the left hand and 19.3 Kgf (±2.26) right hand (dominant side) and 24.7 Kgf (±2.45) in the left hand after the activities. Regarding the manual grip strength before and after the activities, the patient A was able to print more force with the left hand than with the right in both situations. The force after the activities were performed was higher than before their accomplishment, a fact that can be explained by the increase of the blood circulation due to the accom‐ plishment of the activities. In addition, another factor that can be considered is the verbal stimulus for the realization of collections as affirmed by Johansson et al. [15]. This difference may be related to the motivation with which the individual performs the force measurement, since the procedure is considered as a measure of performance and can be improved [16]. In this study, differences of dominance were found between right and left hands in patients, with 20.47% in patient A, data considered to be high and not corroborating with Watanabe et al. [17] that when evaluating the dominance in the hands of individuals considered healthy, values approximately 10% of difference. For Newman apud Moreira et al. [18], manual grip strength has been considered as a most reliable clinical test for the detection of human force. It is an important indicator in determining the integrity of both upper motor neurons and the motor unit. The internal consistency of the measures of force exerted by different muscle groups supports the use of manual dynamometry to characterize general muscular functional status [19]. The functionality of the hand depends on the integrity of the upper limb, which allows the proper positioning to accomplish the desired task. The motor and sensory tasks

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performed by the hand are all organized in order to meet the general functioning of the body performance of daily living activities, necessary for survival. For patient A, hand grip means independence and gait of locomotion, allowing the aid of it in passages from the wheelchair to the bed and to other chairs, such as that used for bathing. The gripping ability is also used in simple tasks such as self-feeding. In addition to self-care aids, the patient uses manual gripping for training in physical therapy, where through support devices, such as walker and parallel bars, he performs his walking training. Thus, through the manual gripping measurement, an estimate of the strength gain in the lower limbs can be estimated and the level of adaptation of the orthosis in the training process, since this will decrease the use of force performed by the upper limbs. Regarding surface electromyography, analyzing the signs of the right and left para‐ vertebrae during gait in patient A, a greater activation was observed in the right para‐ vertebral, with signal peaks of 247.04 uV, against 203.16 uV of the left paravertebral, which presents with less capacity of recruitment during the phases of gait evaluated. When left and right semitendinals are observed, the predominance of muscle recruitment in the posterior right thigh (semitendinosus) with 1751.09 uV, compared to 810.47 uV in the posterior of the left thigh (semitendinosus) is also observed. We can affirm that hemiplegia is left, causing lower motor activity on the left side than the one registered to the right side, and consequently the reflex for this is the inability to produce adequate force for the left side gait, fatigue early in exercise, allied with incoordination and inability to maintain movement. From the difference of recruitment found, it is believed that exercises can cause disturbs in the balance when stimulate greater muscular activity [20]. These exercises are used to aid in rehabilitation, being related to the muscular stabilization of the lower limbs, as well as providing important data for further development of orthoses and pros‐ theses that can aid the process of gaining independence and mobility of the patient [21]. For patient A, these data obtained on surface electromyography demonstrate the level of effort and consequently the level of neuromuscular imbalance in the gait attempt. In the study of the muscle groups most directly involved in gait, we can clearly have the voluntary electric signal amplitude deficit of these muscles, comparing with the value expected by normal muscles described in the literature and also with active limb muscles not affected by hemiplegia. Thus, it increases the possibility and the vision, the need to design more stabilization or more mobility in the orthosis that will be used by the patient. In order to collect the thermographic images, the room remained with a local temper‐ ature of 22 °C, relative humidity of the air ranging from 55% to 60% and ventilation of the air zero without recording in the thermoanemometer. In patient A, the mean temper‐ ature increase observed in the thermographic changes found before and after the gait effort was 1.9 ± 1.0 in the posterior region of the back, from the cervical to the lumbar region. A mean temperature difference of 0.6 ± 0.2 °C between the hemiplegia (highest temperature) and the corresponding normal side (Fig. 1) was also observed.

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Fig. 1. Thermographic evaluation before and after the activities in patient A.

These changes in temperature, before and after gait, demonstrate the level of exertion performed by the paravertebrae of the spine to maintain orthostatic posture during gait. When comparing the effort of the shoulder girdle with the lumbar waist, there is a greater activity in the shoulder girdle (thoracic spine), which characterizes the use of the upper limbs as the main stabilizers in the standing posture. It is worth mentioning that in the traditional gait without support, the predominance of muscular activity is concentrated in the lumbar region, due to the responsibility of the lumbar spine in stabilizing the movement of the pelvis and trunk during gait. In patient B, the two images of Fig. 2 demonstrate the temperature difference in the soles of the feet due to the greater blood flow on the right side. In the same figure, the higher temperature of the right foot (34.9 °C) is observed due to the patient supporting most of the body weight in this region during gait due to the decrease of the muscular

Fig. 2. Thermographic evaluation before and after activities in patient B.

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strength of the left lower limb and it is verified the temperature increase in the regions of the patient’s left ankle. There is strong evidence regarding differences in thermal behavior between the genders, regardless of the measurement techniques performed [22]. These authors, in a critical review of the use of thermography in the medical field, observed that subtle changes in surface temperature may occur, and this increase or decrease in temperature may be a direct expression of exacerbation or reduction of inflammation. Neves et al. [23] reported that thermography is a good tool for confirming points of complaint of pain and is a useful approach for the diagnosis and follow-up of several physical disor‐ ders, corroborating the present study. The evaluation of the feet and ankle for patient B, is directly related to the stabili‐ zation capacity of the orthosis, with its comfort and usability. The images show not only the greater demand for support in the ground by the right limb (non-affected side), but also the irregular pressure areas, and consequently inflammatory areas, that the affected foot undergoes when supporting the ground during gait. Based on the data generated by Xsens, after analysis and interpretation of the data, it was possible to understand and obtain quantitative information on the angles of move‐ ment, body segment velocity, frequency of movement and displacement of the center of mass of patients A and B. In patient A, the results observed in the analysis of the data obtained with the Xsens were that the movements of the patient, both the upper and lower limbs tend to the right side that is used as support for the accomplishment of the gait and the movements of rotation. In addition, the right leg is “dragged” at the moment of the gait, with the left leg being the best performing gait movement and rotational supports as observed in Fig. 3. When analyzing the graph, it can be seen that the bending movements and exten‐ sion are more intense in the left knee. With the right leg the patient performs only 20° of knee flexion during gait, and with the left leg, this movement increases its amplitude

Fig. 3. Motion capture by inertial sensors in patient A in gait activity.

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reaching approximately 50°, compensating for the deficit of joint mobility of the right lower limb. The data observed in the Xsens accurately characterize the landslides that hemiplegia causes to patient A, showing categorically the compensations of movement during gait. These changes and compensations in the movement cause imbalances and force the patient to double his muscular effort to get his locomotion. Due to the sequelae that cause the decrease in strength for the lower limbs, added to the spatiality and consequent lack of neuromotor control. It is found that during gait of patient B, when the foot is raised, the movement angles of the left ankle separate from “level 0” (value 0 of the Y axis for the angles represented in the wave chart of the movement of the left ankle), while stepping on the ground, the angles approach level 0. By supporting the left foot on the ground, due to the decrease in stability and strength in this leg, the patient performs an uncoordinated movement with less neurological control motor in the right leg during the March, due to the sequelae caused by the cerebral paralysis. From these data, a new designed orthosis should provide more stability in the left foot, avoiding these errors of movement in the right lower limb and increasing the muscular efficiency to perform the gait (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Motion capture by inertial sensors in patient A in gait activity.

In the hemiplegia of patient B the muscles demonstrate a loss of activity and tone, leading to a shift to the unaffected side. Muscle weakness and lack of proprioception provide the individual with the inability to discharge body weight on the compromised side. This can be proven when observing the study of Pavan et al. [24], where 100% of the patients in the sample did not adequately discharge the body wight on the affected side, leading to a position of postural asymmetry. The central nervous system receives, analyzes, and integrates information, where decision-making and the sending of orders occur, and in it come impulses from all sensitivities that become conscious and are interpreted, and deflate impulses nerves that initiate and command voluntary movements. O’Sullivan and Schmitz [25], showed that

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44% of stroke patients presented significant proprioceptive loss, noting associated impairments in motor control, postural function and balance. The perception of body orientation in relation to gravity requires integration of information from the vestibular, visual, proprioceptive and tactile systems, data observed in the volunteers of this study, in which the patients presented a deficit of balance, lack of proprioception and asym‐ metry. The limitations of this research are the small number of patients evaluated, but it certainly presents a contribution to the integrated biomechanical instrumentation method for the development of products for people with disabilities or reduced mobility, where through the data collected and analyzed we can compare the affected side with the “unaffected” side by the motor sequela, observing possible ipsilateral influences on the error or compensations of the movement of these patients. It is suggested that more research should be carried out, with integrated instrumentation that allows comparison, analysis and a solid understanding of the course and duration of the sensorimotor recovery of the patients affected by neuromotor dysfunctions, so as to aid in the planning and implementation of rehabilitation programs more effective and effective for the patient, as well as to generate products that can assist in the daily tasks of these people.

4

Conclusion

Today, with all technological evolution, it becomes increasingly possible to quantify human performance. Any evaluation of sports technique, performance, functional capacity, among others, must be preceded by measurement, description and analysis. The protocol proposed in this work was effective for obtaining the data in the develop‐ ment of AT projects based on orthoses. The development of this study demonstrated that the practice based on the instrumentation of equipment and processes for the devel‐ opment of AT projects is a complex method, which requires the knowledge support of several professionals. Especially when it comes to meeting patients with limitations, in which the participation of health professionals has a greater importance in the process of obtaining these data. Based on the data obtained from the equipment collection, it is possible to confirm the relevance of its use in understanding the patient’s muscular status, as well as in the validation stages of the products developed, bringing more and more designers and engineers closer to the user’s real needs. In this sense, this study looked through protocols and methods, to compose a collec‐ tion protocol that meets the needs of the researchers and respects the limitations of the user, adapting the processes according to the need. It should be noted that, as future studies, this protocol will be used in data collection stages of new projects in AT, in order to continue implementing its procedures. Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), the Foundation for Research and Extension of the University (FAPEU), the Research and Development Network for Assistive Technology (RPDTA), the IPq-SC and the Nucleus of Management in Design and Laboratory of Universal Design of the Federal University of Santa Catarina NGD-LDU/UFSC that made this research viable.

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References 1. Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS): Classificação Internacional de Funcionalidade, Incapacidade e Saúde. Edusp, São Paulo (2003) 2. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE): Censo demográfico 2010 (2012) 3. Garcia, J.C.D., Galvão, F., Teófilo, A.: Pesquisa nacional de tecnologia assistiva. ITS Brasil/ MCTI-Secis, São Paulo (2012) 4. Brasil: Subsecretaria Nacional de Promoção dos Direitos da Pessoa com Deficiência. Comitê de Ajudas Técnicas. Tecnologia Assistiva. CORDE, Brasília (2009) 5. Varela, R.C.B., Oliver, F.C.: A utilização de Tecnologia Assistiva na vida cotidiana de crianças com deficiência. Ciên Saúde Col. 18(6), 1773–1784 (2013) 6. Neto, J.C.M., Rollemberg, R.S.: Tecnologias assistivas e a promoção da inclusão social. Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (2005) 7. Souza, J.M., Carneiro, R.: Universalismo e focalização na política de atenção à pessoa com deficiência. Saúde e sociedade 16, 3 (2007) 8. American Society of Hand Therapists. Clinical Assessment Recommendations (2nd ed.). Chicago (1992) 9. Hermes, H.J., Freriks, B., Disselhorst-Klug, C., Rau, G.: Development of recommendations for sEMG sensors and sensor placement procedures. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol. 10(5), 361– 374 (2000) 10. Fernández-Cuevas, I., Marins, J.C.B., Lastras, J.A., Carmona, P.M.G., Cano, S.P., GarcíaConcepción, M.A., Sillero-Quintana, M.: Classification of factors influencing the use of infrared thermography in humans: a review. Infrared Phys. Technol. 71, 28–55 (2015) 11. Brioschi, M.L., Cherem, A.J., Ruiz, R.C., Junior, J.J.S., Silva, F.M.R.M.: O uso da termografia infravermelha na avaliação do retorno ao trabalho em programa de reabilitação ampliado (PRA). Acta Fisiátr. 16(2), 87–92 (2009) 12. Brioschi, M.L., Portela, P.C., Colman, D.: Infrared thermal imaging in patients with chronic pain in upper limbs. J. Korean Med. Thermol. 2(1), 73 (2002) 13. Roetenberg, D., Luinge, H., Slycke, P.: Xsens MVN: Full 6DOF Human Motion Tracking Using Miniature Inertial Sensors. Xsens, The Netherlands (2013) 14. Speck, G.M., Pichler, R.F., Mannrich, G., Guimarães, B., Domenech, S.C., Merino, G.S.A.D., Merino, E.A.D.: Processo de instrumentação integrada no desenvolvimento de projetos de tecnologia assistiva. Congresso Brasileiro de Ergonomia, vol. 18, pp. 1–7. Abergo, Belo Horizonte (2016) 15. Johansson, C.A., Kent, B.E., Shepard, K.F.: Relationship between verbal command volume and magnitude of muscle contraction. Phys. Ther. 63(8), 1260–1265 (1983) 16. Incel, N.A., Ceceli, E., Durukan, P.B., Erdem, H.R., Yorgancioglu, Z.R.: Grip strength: effect of hand dominance. Singap. Med. J. 43(5), 234–237 (2002) 17. Watanabe, T., Owashi, K., Kanauchi, Y., Mura, N., Takahara, M., Ogino, T.: The short-term reliability of grip strength measurement and the effects of posture and grip span. J. Hand Surg. 30(3), 603–609 (2004) 18. Moreira, D., Alvarez, R.R.A., Godoy, J.R.P., Cambraia, A.N.: Abordagem sobre preensão palmar utilizando o dinamômetro Jamar: uma revisão de literatura. Rev. Bras. Ciên Mov. 11(2), 95–99 (2003) 19. Bohannon, R.W.: Hand-grip dynamometry provides a valid indication of upper extremity strength impairment in home care patients. J. Hand Ther. 11(4), 258–260 (1998) 20. Ferreira, L.A.B., Rossi, L.A.B., Pereira, W.M., Vieira, F.F., Paula Jr., A.R.: Análise da Atividade Eletromiográfica dos músculos do tornozelo em solo estável e instável. Fisioter. Mov. 22(2), 177–187 (2009)

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21. Verhagen, E., Beek, A., Twisk, J., Bouter, L., Bahr, R., Mechelen, W.: The effect of a proprioceptive balance board training program for the prevention of ankle sprains. Am. J. Sports Med. 32, 6 (2004) 22. Ring, E.F.J., Ammer, K.: Infrared thermal imaging in medicine. Physiol. Meas. 33(3), 33–46 (2012) 23. Neves, E.B., Vilaça, A.J., Rosa, C., Reis, V.M.: Thermography in neurologic practice. Open Neurol. J. 9, 24 (2015) 24. Pavan, K., Marangoni, B.E.M., Zinezzi, M.O., de Matos, S.E., Campos, P.M.L., Souza, T.V., Hafi, S., Lianza, S.: Efeito da órtese anti-rotacional de tronco em pacientes hemiplégicos: estudo preliminar. Med. Reabil. 29(1), 14–18 (2010) 25. O’Sullivan, S.B., Schmitz, T.J.: Fisioterapia avaliação e tratamento. Manole, São Paulo (2004)

Research and Development of Pedagogical Objects to Support Inclusive Education Janete Cícero ✉ , Saul Mizrahi, Gil Brito, Felipe Sampaio, and Gabriel Ferreira (

)

National Institute of Technology, Avenue Venezuela, 82, Praça Mauá, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil {janete.cicero,saul.mizrahi,gil.brito,felipe.sampaio, gabriel.mendes}@int.gov.br

Abstract. In Brazil there is a legal framework that guides the action of profes‐ sionals in the area of education regarding intervention for children with disabil‐ ities. The main one in this set refers to the demand for the “Inclusive School” environment, which refers to the enrolment of children with disabilities in regular education settings. According to this policy, professionals in the fields of educa‐ tion and health seek the mechanisms to best serve students with disabilities in public educational institutions. These professionals develop research projects in partnership with Universities and Research Institutes. This article reports the results of a sequence of projects that culminated in the development of pedagog‐ ical objects to support the learning process of students with autism or intellectual disability. These objects have been developed in collaboration with professionals of the areas of industrial and graphical design and also ergonomics and usability. Keywords: Design · Inclusive School · Pedagogical objects · Autism · Intellectual disability

1

Introduction

This paper presents the results of a research project in the field of Inclusive Education that aims at the development of pedagogical objects to support the teaching-learning process of students with special needs. The project is developed in Brazil and involves public education networks, universities and a scientific and technological research insti‐ tute. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 offers an overview of the scenario in which the research was developed, highlighting issues related to the Brazilian legislation. Section 3 describes the methodological procedures for conducting the research. Section 4 presents the theoretical background on Assistive Technology, linked to the concepts of Inclusive School and product design. Presents a set of peda‐ gogical objects which were developed according to a method proposed by Bruno Munari. Section 5 presents a discussion to evaluate the research project and its results and the final remarks.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_56

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Studied Context

A study conducted by the United Nations estimates that about 10 % of the world’s population (approximately 650 million people) live with some kind of disability. According to this study, 80% of these people live in developing countries. Among the poorest people in the world, 20% have some type of disability and 90% of children with disabilities do not attend school [7] (p. 269). In Brazil, the 2010 Census shows a popu‐ lation of 190 million Brazilians, in which 23.9% (about 45 million people) have some disability [3]. Considering this scenario, some issues related to the Brazilian Legislation, in supporting actions and solutions for the protection and development of the disabled person, should be highlighted. In the scope of this research, the issues related to the field of Education are emphasized. For instance, the UNESCO Salamanca Statement [6] is a representative milestone of the initiation of the process of education for all that has been disseminated throughout several countries, including Brazil. In compliance with the precepts of this Statement, Brazil approved the National Policy on Special Education in the Perspective of Inclusive Education and Decree No. 6,571 of 2008, which refers to specialized educational services. In the following year, Decree No. 6,949 of 2009, which ensures inclusive educational systems at all levels of schooling, was approved. Within this legislative context, educational institutions were led to adopt an Inclusive Education model, where students with special needs are accepted in the regular educa‐ tion system and have their potentialities assimilated and stimulated in favor of their social and intellectual development. In spite of the legal determinations in favor of the inclusion of the disabled person, professionals of educational institutions face numerous difficulties to provide quality education for these students. Most of the public education institutions have poor physical infrastructure and limited resources for the acquisition of solutions that enable the inclusion of students with special needs. In face of the chal‐ lenge to serve these students with quality, professionals in the field of education seek methodologies and appropriate tools to assist the teaching-learning process of students with special needs. The solution found by these professionals is to do research in collaboration with universities and research institutes. In this specific case, when refering to Inclusive Education, the following fields of knowledge are considered: education, health and technology.

3

Methodology

This project may be defined as a collaborative research project, based on the interrela‐ tionship between a research institution, educational institutions and companies. This partnership was enabled by the alignment of governmental policies. A brief history will be presented on the set of legislation that supports actions related to the development of new approaches and, consequently, the search for new solutions for the care of the disabled. As for the procedures adopted, this study is characterized as an action research, including a literature review combined with the empirical

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experience of the researchers involved. This action research resulted in the development of new products to support the teaching-learning process of students with special needs.

4

Assistive Technology for the Inclusive School Model - Theoretical Background

The difficulties found in serving people with disabilities in educational institutions encourage us to evaluate initiatives that minimize the problems faced by the professio‐ nals involved in this work. The Assistive Technology concept, formulated by the Technical Assistance Committee (CAT), is presented as an interdisciplinary field of knowledge that encom‐ passes products, resources, methodologies, strategies, practices and services that promote the functionality related to the activity and the participation of people with disabilities or reduced mobility, aiming at their autonomy, independence, quality of life and social inclusion [1]. Considering primarily the students with special needs, the Assistive Technology concept and the urgency to meet legal requirements, several social actors organized themselves to search for partnerships to develop products to support the enrolment and maintenance of these students in educational institutions. As highlighted by Pelosi [5], people with special needs due to motor, sensory, cogni‐ tive or communication limitations may benefit from Assistive Technology in the form of products, resources, methodologies, strategies, practices and services. The theoretical background on product development, more specifically referring to pedagogical objects, are consolidated in the premises presented by Bruno Munari [4]. The next section presents the main aspects of product development when referring to pedagogical objects. 4.1 Development of Pedagogical Objects for Inclusive Education This research study emerged to address a demand of a group of professionals from a public education network. This group requested a partnership with universities and a research institute to develop pedagogical objects to support the teaching-learning process of students with intellectual disability (ID) and Autistic Spectrum Disorder (TEA). This initiative resulted in a research project (which was submitted to a scientific and technological research development agency in 2009) that enabled the development of the activities of this group of researchers. The execution of this project was initialized when the professionals from the univer‐ sities and the research institute visited the special and the regular education settings involved in the project. The remarks and doubts about the purpose of this research were discussed in technical meetings with specialized professionals and professionals from the resource rooms of the educational network. Five schools were selected to participate of this research. An authorization for this participation from the municipal education department was required.

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As this project involved faculty members and students, disturbances in the school's routine occured sometimes. In this sense, to minimize these impacts, a representative group was selected to participate of the technical meetings, the research and events. The result of the first phase of the research project resulted in the identification of the demands of the school professionals involved with the teaching-learning process of the students with specific special needs. This study revealed that, along their daily tasks, these professionals were driven to produce pedagogical handicrafts to serve these students. As highlighted by [2], there are specific demands for each group of students and these demands require different forms of pedagogical interaction. The handcrafted production of objects proved to be a drawback as it demanded time from the professionals who should dedicate themselves primarily to the student’s teaching-learning process. Based on the demand for specific pedagogical objects for a particular group of students, a preliminary study was started to identify the most relevant objects that should be considered within the scope of the research project. The research and development of the selected pedagogical objects involved infor‐ mation from different fields of knowledge, namely: industrial and graphic design, ergo‐ nomics, computation and also research areas related to health and education, such as pedagogy, psychology, physiotherapy and speech therapy. The research team also considered economic and social factors, as well as safety, durability and ease of handling. In the next topic, the characteristics and functionalities of these pedagogical objects are described. 4.2 Development of Pedagogical Objects for Students with Special Needs The creativity of the professionals involved in this research was essential to initiate the development of the pedagogical objects presented in this article. There was a demand for the production and customization of these objects to support the interaction of these professionals with the students with special needs. According to Munari [4], “creativity does not mean improvisation without method”. Considering this statement, the team of designers in collaboration with education and health professionals materialized the proposed objects according to the methodology of the cited author. This methodology presents the following steps: (1) Definition of the problem, (2) Problem components, (3) Data collection, (4) Data analysis, (5) Creativity, (6) Materials and technologies, (7) Experimentation, (8) Prototyping, (9) Verifying, (10) Technical drawings, (11) Solution. Before the collaboration of the professionals of design, the education and health professionals undertook the task of a handcrafted production to create the pedagogical objects. These objects soon lost their value as there were shortcomings relative to the materials used and to the process of development. The reliability of the concept of the objects created is undeniable, but the product development method may be questioned. In this sense, the collaboration of the design professionals with the health and educa‐ tion professionals was considered essential for the development of the project. Based on this premise, Munari [4] methodology was adopted. Moreover, the school profes‐ sionals were also involved in all the phases of the project, including the technical meet‐ ings, seminars and workshops.

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The 3D computer modeling of the selected pedagogical objects was realized. And afterwards, real-size physical models were produced and functionally tested. After the tests, adjustments were made in each project and the production of prototypes of the following products was carried out: Writing/drawing board (Fig. 1): This board allows the writing and drawing of images in A3 size. It has a folding and easily storable easle that can be adjusted according to the user´s need or height. Paper sheets may be fixed to it by the lateral elastics. It may be placed on a table or other furniture, according to the student’s needs. This object is mainly made of MDF. It does not have sharp corners or other components that could physically harm the user.

Fig. 1. Writing/drawing board.

Full sized (150 cm) dolls (boy/girl) (Fig. 2): The dolls are made of MDF with a special paint for magnets. They may be attached to a wall by a fastening system. Their clothing (shirt, shorts, sneakers, etc.) are made of ferrite and may be fixed to the doll. This pedagogical object assists the students in the identification of the pieces of clothing and their purpose in the day to day life. It is also possible to expand its use with pieces of clothes related to professions (e.g., ballerina, soccer player) and activities (e.g., run, sleep) to stimulate the association of images. Joint Attention Game: Square scenario (Fig. 3). This object presents day-to-day images, applied on an MDF board, in the shape of a city landscape. The images are glued to pins attached to the board and embedded in rails that can be covered by the user stimulating his/her motor coordination. It can also be handled by the educational profes‐ sional from the back side of the board while the student pays attention as he/she follows the images moving.

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Fig. 2. Ful sized doll being used by a student

Fig. 3. Joint Attention Game - Square scenario

Wall/table clock (Fig. 4): This object is trimmed in MDF, painted and serigraph printed. Its main component has a circle format for setting the time. The starting time of a task (superior) and the end time of this task (inferior) are both represented with two digits for hour and for minute. On the right side of the circle, the object has an extension of MDF with a space where a images may be attached to illustrate the task. The clock supports the educational professional in helping the students to understand time.

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Fig. 4. Wall/table clock

5

Discussion and Final Remarks

The results achieved within this research project highlight the relevance of the theme. The development of research projects in the field of Assistive Technology were enabled due to the adjustments made on the Brazilian public policies for people with disabilities. From this initiative, research groups are mobilized in the search for solutions to enhance life quality for society, particularly for people with disabilities. However, there is a recurrent discussion regarding the priority of demands in the various segments of action in the field of education. It was verified that it is essential to review methodological, didactic and technological practices considering the resources that should be available to support the Inclusive School model. Additionally, there is a need for resources that allow the inclusion of students with disabilities and those needing individualized attention. According to this premise, activities that were developed within the training meet‐ ings attempted to fill gaps relative to training the teachers and producing the didactic materials for the students with special needs. The resources developed aim to facilitate the teaching-learning process of students enrolled in the regular system of education. The use of these resources is not restricted to the resource rooms. Based on the performance of the professionals of the educational network that produced handcrafted objects for the groups of students, it was concluded that Assistive Technology will not meet all the needs regarding the process of school inclusion. There are other actions that involve issues related to practice and teaching methodologies. It is also necessary to consider the engagement of the team of professionals who act directly in the school environment and the support from the managers and the educational system as a whole. Inclusive education for all requires integrated actions in the various spheres of power and awareness of the productive sector. A relevant issue identified throughout this research project refers to the demand of creating and developing solutions. In this sense, when referring to the pedagogical

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objects, why cannot they be produced in an industrial setting? Why not involve, at this stage, companies that operate in this production sector? The pedagogical objects developed during the research project are objects of intel‐ lectual property, thus their authorships are preserved and the initiatives of all profes‐ sionals involved are valued. Through the division of technological innovation of the research institute, a tech‐ nology transfer agreement was signed with a company, which is responsible for the production and marketing of the pedagogical objects. This action has generated economic impact by creating new jobs and promoting new market niches. The professionals of the educational institutions involved in this project were respon‐ sable for its starting point by creating the presented solutions. These professionals developed research skills when they worked collaboratively with the researchers in the field of design. In this sense, the production, application and evaluation of the peda‐ gogical objects by a selected group of students were enabled. New forms of assessment and information exchange among the professionals were also developed. As for the researchers of the universities and the research institute, an aspect that stands out is the alignment of this research project´s results with the institutional mission of their organizations in serving society. Based on these reports, it is concluded that research projects directed to a society’s real demands result in relevant solutions, thus minimizing social gaps in favor of the social and economic development of the country.

References 1. Brasil, Secretaria Especial dos Direitos Humanos: Coordenadoria Nacional Para Integração da Pessoa Portadora de Deficiência. Comitê de Ajudas Técnicas - CAT. Relatório Anual-2007 (2007). http://www.infoesp.net/CAT_Reuniao_VII.pdf. Accessed 05 May 2016 2. Glat, R., Blanco, L. de M.V.: Educação especial no contexto de uma educação inclusiva. In: GLAT, R. (org). Educação inclusiva: cultura e cotidiano escolar, pp. 15–35. 7Letras, Rio de Janeiro (2007). (Questões Atuais em Educação Especial, v.6) 3. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE): Censo Demográfico 2010: resultados gerais da amostra. Rio de Janeiro (2012). http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/ imprensa/ppts/00000008473104122012315727483985.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2016 4. Munari, B.: Das Coisas Nascem Coisas. Martins Fontes, Lisboa (2002) 5. Pelosi, M.B.: Tecnologia Assistiva. In: Nunes, L.R.O.P., Quitero P.L., Walter, C.C.F., Schirmer, C.R., Braun, P. (Org.) Comunicar é preciso: em busca das melhores práticas na educação do aluno com deficiência. 1ed. Marília: ABPEE, 2011, vol. 1, pp. 37–46 (2011) 6. UNESCO: Declaração de Salamanca e linha de ação sobre necessidades educativas especiais. CORDE, Brasília (1994) 7. World Health Organization (WHO): Relatório mundial sobre a deficiência. Tradução Lexicus Serviços Lingüísticos, SEDPcD, São Paulo, p. 269 (2012)

Modularity and Variety in the Customization of Functional Clothes for People with Disabilities Bruna Brogin1(&), Maria Lúcia Ribeiro Okimoto1, and Carlo Martino2

2

1 Post-Graduation Program in Design, Sector of Arts Communication and Design, Federal University of Paraná, XV Novembro, 1229, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil [email protected] Post-Graduation Program in Planning, Design and Architecture Technology, Sapienza Università di Roma, Flaminia, 70, Rome, Italy

Abstract. The people with disabilities have sought for functional clothes that act as a piece of assistive technology, helping them to have autonomy when dressing. Some companies that sell functional clothes are inserted within the system of Mass Customization, and can be classified in six types: Totally custom, Co-design, Design options with standardized sizes, Design Customization, Personalization, and Fit Customization. Modularity and variety of choice that the costumers have regarding the design and fit of the pieces define these types. This research presents the analysis of twenty eight companies that sell functional clothing for people with disabilities, considering the Levels of Modularity and variety offered in the design and fit of the pieces. It also inserts each company analyzed in the Matrix of Modularity of Levels of Modularity/Variety in Design and Fit Mass Customization. Results reveal that modularity is more present than variety, whether for design or for fit of the clothes. Keywords: Apparel Mass Customization design
Assistive technology




Modularity and variety




Fit and

1 Introduction The Brazilian Census indicated that 23.9% of the population has some kind of disability [1]. The average number of people with disabilities between 16–64 years in Europe is 13.11%, with the lowest rate being Italy with 4.1 million people, or 6.1% of the population. The country with the highest rate is Norway with 20.1% of the population [2]. In the United States, in 2010, 19% of the population had a disability (56.7 million people) according to [3]. In China, 6.1% of the population (83 million of people) are disabled [4]. In Africa, 80 million people are disabled according to [5]. This is a sample of the numbers collected by some countries that have signed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities [6]. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_57

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Most researches evaluates levels of disability, and usually present: low level, medium level or people who have difficulty to work, and high level or people who have difficulties while doing basic activities. Regardless of the type of disability that these people present, motor, visual, auditory, intellectual or multiple, they find barriers in daily living activities, because the environments, products and services are not accessible for all. [7] emphasize that clothing creates barriers in the full social engagement and relationships of people with disabilities, as well as in professional activities and everyday events. Dressing is an activity present in everyone’s routine, but still many people face difficulties in this task, among them: people with disabilities, elderly, pregnant, children, obese, sick people, among others [8]. A clothe designed to be functional in dressing, wearing and undressing is a product of assistive technology and, should be used with ease by people with disabilities. According to [9], functional clothing is defined as clothes or fabrications specifically designed to deliver a predefined performance or functionality to the user, in addition to their normal functions of body coverage, protection and aesthetics. The classification of functional clothing has seven segments; one of them is called Clothes for Special Needs and includes the function of the possibility of clothes for the elderly, children and people with disabilities [9]. This characteristic refers to favoring autonomy in the accomplishment of the activity, independence with regard to the caregivers, and quality of life, since its users feel empowered to live in different environments and perform various activities, such as studying, working, playing sports and attending public spaces. Fashion companies that are part of the Mass Customization (MC) System, sell their products through the internet, allowing the personalization and customization of their products. They also work with small orders lots and fast deliveries, seeking to lower prices as much as possible to win customers, and generally deal with modular prefabricated parts [10]. MC is a hybrid production method between Mass Production, which produces large stocks of equal and cheap products for a wide range of customers, and Craft Production, which produces on demand unique and highly personalized pieces for unique customers, usually at high prices. According to [11], the MC System for garments has two levels: modularization, that is, parts of other pre-defined and assembled parts; and the variety, which is the amount of choice the customers can make regarding the elements of the product that relate to their needs and desires. To allow this customization the company has a communication channel with the customer during the design and development of the product, which is often done through the internet and, in some cases, may requires a specialized professional. In clothing, modularity and variety are attributed to two main factors: design (model, fabric, colors, trims) and fit (measurements of patterns that form clothes) [12]. [11] outline six main types of MC applied to apparel: Totally Custom, Co-design, Design Options with Standardized Sizes, Design Customization, Personalization and Fit-customization. Each type of apparel-oriented MC presents a different amount of modularity and variety. The correct dosage of these choices made by the company (modularity), and the choices made by the customers (variety) can lead the company to commercial success. The adjustment between modularity and variety levels in a

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product can lead to the development of a niche of ideal products that are valuable to consumers and profitable to the company. The combination of design and fit attributes and Levels of Modularity and variety can be a viable position for a company that wants to produce fashion for people with disabilities in order to meet the demands of customers and maintain the commercial viability of this process. [13] state that clients want their individual needs met, and companies can successfully implement MC through the use of virtual systems and the aid of a design manager to co-design the product with the customer. Starting from the demand of functional clothes that attend disabled people, and from the need to understand the workflow of the companies that produce clothes for these users, this article aims to: analyze how companies that sell clothes for people with disabilities apply the concepts of modularity and variety used in the design and clothes’ fit; check which of the six MC types these companies are applying; and insert the data collected in the Matrix of Levels of Modularity and Variety in Design and Fit Mass Customization, proposed by [11].

2 Methodological Procedures This research has a theoretical nature and, according to [14], this type of research is conducted through the analysis of theories that may respond to a certain problem. This research also presents both quantitative and qualitative approaches. It is quantitative because it translates data into numbers using mathematical procedures such as average and percentage; and it is qualitative for describing in an inductive way the personalization for people with disabilities available in online fashion stores. Regarding its objectives, this research can be considered descriptive. [15] states that this type of research aims to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon and to establish a relationship between variables. This research seeks to describe the characteristics of virtual stores that sell fashion for people with disabilities, and to relate the values of modularity and variety used. The technical procedures go through the bibliographic research of books and articles which published content related to the design and development of fashion for people with disabilities. In this research 28 study cases of virtual stores that sell clothing for consumers with disabilities were conducted. The selection of the cases to be studied was done by searching in the internet for specific terms, such as “fashion for people with disabilities”. This search was conducted using the same terms in English, Portuguese and Italian. Since the whole universe of stores that commercialize these products for adult women and men were approachable, all the websites of companies that presented apparel products were analyzed. Children clothes, underwear, pajamas and accessories for assistive products, including textile articles (ex.: wheelchairs covers, bibs) were not analyzed. Websites of companies that did not allow the online purchase where not analyze as well. This refers to websites that offer models which can only purchased if the clients send an email, call to the store or go to the physical store. The list of companies analyzed is shown in Table 1 in alphabetical order.

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Table 1. Fashion companies that produce functional clothes for disabled people. Obs.: Sites reviewed between November 17th 2016 and February 9th 2017. Companies’ names Able 2 Wear Adaptations by Adrian Adaptative Clothes Showroom Adaptawear Adaptive Clothing Solutions Anitavee’s Buck and Buck CAPR Style Care Apparel Industries Clothes for Seniors

Comfort clothing Design to care EZ care clothing Independent you IZ collection Lado B Moda Inclusiva Lydda wear Personal touch Rackety’s Rival clothing

Rolli moden Rolling wear Rollitex Berlin Shoppers service Silvert’s The Able lable Wardrobe wagon Wheelchair jeans

3 Modularity and Variety of Clothing for People with Disabilities Modularity is defined as the use of pre-cut and pre-assembled parts for production, it represents modules defined by the company [16], which decrease the chances of customer choice. Variety is defined as the choices and specifications that customers make for the product, their needs and desires [17]; is what the customer determines. The sooner the customer is inserted into the product development process, the more choices he or she can make [18]. If the customers are inserted at the beginning of the process they have the possibility to define the model, the fabric, and sizes. If they are inserted in the middle of the process, it would be possible only to define some colors and trims. If they are involved at the end of the process, they would be able to choose between modules pre-established by the company. The websites described in Table 1 were accessed in order to analyze the amount of modularity and variety present in each one. Each piece of clothing was selected and the purchase process was carried out in order to verify how many times the customer could choose between modules, how many specifications (variety) it was possible to make. It was also noted when the costumer had no option. The following clothes were analyzed: pants (and shorts), skirts, coats (jackets, blazers, jumpers…), shirts, blouses, dresses, body vests, jumpsuits and sets (top and bottom pieces sold together). The products were classified according to gender as: male, female, and unisex. The aspects related to design were characterized as the options available for: model, color, fabric, fasteners, and lining. The fit aspects analyzed were: standard size, circumference of the waist, thorax, hip, and thigh, weight, and pathology (in order to promote a set of adjustments in the molds of clothing). The aspects that indicate modularity represent the pre-determined options that the company gives to customers from a wide range of existing option. The aspects that indicate variety are represented by situations where customers can enter exactly what they want in the product. The same garment can use modularity for some design requirements and variety for others; and modularity for some fit requirements and

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variety for others. Among the 28 virtual stores analyzed, it was verified that 16 were from the United States, 5 from England, 2 from Germany, 2 from Scotland, 1 from Italy, 1 from Canada and 1 from Brazil. The authors believe that there are other stores in other countries, but these were not found due to the search language. From the 28 companies analyzed, 13 have in their own website the date when they started working, which are 1930, 1951, 1974, 1980, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1997 (2 companies), 2009 and 2013. Some companies have been working for a long period of time, like 87 years, but there are also newer companies, working for only 4 years. These companies have been gone through many transformations due to changes in the market and, in the strategies of production and sale. Some have switched from selling directly to the final consumer to selling by catalog. Nowadays they sell through the internet and through representatives in order to adapt to the market demands and serve this niche of people that are seeking for specific products. The analyzed companies sell clothes by categories, and the main categories for the purchase of the clothes are: men and women clothes (18 companies), adapted clothes (8 companies), name of the clothes’ pieces (6 companies), anti-striped clothes (4 companies), open-back clothes (3 companies), for wheelchair users and for non-wheelchair users. They also have categories for winter, waterproof, for ostomized people, with elastic waist (2 companies for each category), clothes that help during transferring, thermal clothes, cooling clothes, sportive clothes, for elderly and seniors, hospital clothes, for people with Parkinson, Alzheimer and incontinence (1 company for each category). In addition to these categories, the studied companies wrote in their website that they even produced clothes in order to attend people with other varieties of health specialties, like: Spinal Cord Injury, progressive illnesses, such Multiple sclerosis, Muscular Dystrophy, Motor Neuron Disease, head injury (Dementia, Cerebral Palsy), Hemiplegia or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Post-Polio Syndrome, amputees, bedridden, people that have Arthritis (or another lack of finger dexterity) and can be helped with Velcro closures, people that suffer with bed sores, chronic fatigue and Diabetes. People with some other health specialties are focused during the production of the clothes, like people that need side zip clothes due to the limited movements, people that use Gastrostomy tube (feeding tube access) or ostomized people (that use catheters and colostomy bags), people with broken leg or that have another fractures, people that use intra venous tubes, people that need palliative or toileting care, people that need seated dressing, that have scoliosis, that use knee braces, clothes that help the caregiver work. From the 28 companies surveyed, 13 produced men’s, women’s and unisex clothing, 11 produced men’s and women’s clothing, 2 produced men’s clothes only and 2 produced women’s clothes only. The average number of pieces offered to costumers is 69, but the quantity of pieces offered by each company is varied, as shown in Fig. 1. The clothes offered more frequently were: pants (27 companies offer), coats (24 companies), and shirts and blouses (18 companies). The clothes offered less often were: body vests (3 companies offer) and jumpsuits (10 companies), as shown in Fig. 2. The data show that the variety of clothes serves people with various types of disabilities, but certain types of specific clothes, such as body vests and jumpsuits, have little offer of products.

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Fig. 1. Number of clothes offered by each company analyzed. Obs.: The company numbers are not related to the position of the companies’ names in Table 1.

Types of clothing offered 30 20 10 0

Fig. 2. Number of companies that offer each type of clothes.

Table 2 provides the data of how many pieces were offered by each company, the analyzed clothes’ totals and the amount of modularity/variety referring to the fit/design for the totals. The data presented in Table 2 show that the companies with the largest variety of products were the companies 11, 15 and 17, and the companies with the smallest variety of products were companies 16 and 25 (one type of product) and 7 and 23 (2 types of products). The most popular clothes were pants, totalizing a total of 597 products, followed by blouses (431 products). The least popular pieces were body vests (27 products) and skirts (37 products). Regarding the amount of modularity in the fits, it was verified that the majority of the pieces had modular fits, only 11 pants and 7 coats were not sold by any system of predefined fits. Some pieces combined predefined fits with customizable fits. It was also found that only 19 pants, 9 coats, 1 skirt, 5 sets, 1 blouse and 11 body vests had the option of variety for fits. The modularity of fits in the clothing for people with disabilities was verified in the clothes offered in the following modules: total size of clothing (S, M, L…), inseam

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Table 2. Number of pieces offered by each company by model; totals and modularity/variety for fit/design referring to totals presented. Companies’ numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Total Modularity in fit Variety in fit Modularity in design Variety in design

Pants Skirts Coats Shirts Dress Sets Blouses/T-shirts Jumpsuits Body vests 31 2 18 2 – – – – – 19 3 16 12 20 13 20 3 – 9 1 4 – – – – – – 7 2 2 7 2 – 1 – – 14 4 3 11 5 – 1 – – – – 1 – – – – – 10 109 – 10 – – – – – – 73 – 6 1 – – 12 – – 16 – – – – – 4 – – 53 6 27 10 22 29 147 – – 67 1 42 32 42 33 80 20 1 25 2 1 6 – – 9 – – 1 7 8 3 6 – – – – 6 – 4 – – 6 – – – 42 3 12 15 20 48 37 10 – 3 – – – – – – – – 12 1 6 5 6 19 17 4 – 5 – 1 – 2 – 3 2 – 3 2 5 – 11 3 5 2 – 22 – 34 14 19 11 11 2 – 16 – 1 10 – – – 15 – 17 – 18 3 5 8 20 – – 2 – – – – – 6 – – 21 – 19 10 7 7 30 4 – 2 – – – – – – – – 8 1 8 – 11 10 14 2 – 2 2 3 2 2 – 5 – – 12 – 9 – 2 – 9 – 16 597 37 258 143 182 187 431 64 27 586 37 251 143 182 187 431 64 27 19 434

0 26

9 210

1 106

0 130

5 1 149 305

0 51

11 27

45

4

40

28

41

30

9

0

45

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length, increase in waistband height, waist circumference, short or long sleeve, and long sleeve length. The variety in fit was analyzed in the options of measures of: waist circumference, inner and outer thorax, abdomen, hip, thigh and calf, back length, leg, crotch, weight, pathology, fits of the lateral opening of the legs in the pants, and fit and position of the opening in the clothes for ostomized people. Regarding the design of the pieces, it was verified that 74% of the clothes have design modules, which usually refers to the color option for the products. However there are other options, such as: choosing a second color option, in case that the color chosen is not available and the company chooses to ship the product in the second chosen color instead of producing the first option, in order to expedite the order faster. On large orders, made by institutions that take care of the disabled or elderly people, it is possible to delegate the option of combining the colors of top and bottom clothes for the selling company, indicating only the desired shade range (light, dark, pastel, bright and assorted). It is also possible to choose the color of parts of the clothes (for example, the sleeve). Clients could also opt between different fabrics (different compositions, wefts and forms of preservation), as well as lining fabrics, single or double fabric layers, and patterns. As for the trims, customers can choose the type of zipper (type of handle), apparent or hidden buttons (sewing mode), buckle insertion, insertion point of the label, shoulder opening model on the blouses, insertion of Velcro on collar and cuff of shirts. Regarding pants, customers can choose from regular models or from others with adaptations for wheelchair users, pocket or non-pocket insertion (size and position), drawstring insertion on the pant waist, type of fly opening (from the right or left), belt loops around waist for belt use, pull loops on each side of the waist for easier dressing when pulling up pants, and zippers on each leg on the lower part of the outside leg seam. There are companies that include the option of lowering the side zipper of the legs or the front zipper of the pants (from the waist), widening or narrowing the lower part of the legs, inserting elastic in the hem, and choosing for stitches open on the back seam (to prevent pressure sores on wheelchair users). The companies that present these options emphasize that the insertion of some modules would imply a surcharge on the product, and include the specifications at the end of the purchase order. The variety of design is present in 12% of the products, and refers to the possibility of adding the name and the room of the user in the clothe label. This option was indicated for purchases made by institutions that take care of elderly or people with disabilities. In almost 14% of the products, companies present neither modularity nor variety for the design; those are pieces without any design option.

4 Types of Mass Customization Employed by Apparel Companies that Produce for People with Disabilities [11] highlight six types of MC based on modularity and variety applied to clothes, as presented in Table 3. In order to know the kind of MC used by each company, the following procedure was performed: all the pieces of each company that had fit modularity were counted, all pieces that had fit variety were counted, all pieces that had design modularity were

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Table 3. Types of Mass Customization in previous research based on Levels of Modularity and variety. Fragment of [11], p. 204. Level of modularity and variety

Literature [19] (Apparel)

Very low modularity and very high levels of variety Low modularity and mid to high levels of variety Medium modularity and medium levels of variety High modularity and low levels of variety Very high modularity with limited or no variety

Totally Custom (TC) Co-design (CD)

[12] (Apparel) Design Customization (DC)

FitCustomization (FC)

Design options with standardized sizes (DS) Personalization (P)

counted, and all the pieces that had design variety were counted. After that, the percentage that each represented in relation to the total of pieces produced by the respective company was verified. In this way, each company could have 200% modularity (100% fit modularity and 100% design modularity), and 200% variety (100% fit variety and 100% design variety). The percentages related to modularity were added, as well as the percentages of variety. As Table 3 presents 5 Levels of Modularity and variety (very low, low, medium, high and very high), the following rule was used: 0–40% modularity or variety = very low, 41–80% modularity or variety = low, 81–120% modularity or variety = medium, 121–160% modularity or variety = high, 161 to 200% modularity or variety = very high. With this rule it was possible to establish the amount of modularity and variety employed by each company and apply the six MC types previously described. After the companies already classified in the more specific types of MC have been excluded (TC, CD, DS, P), the design and fit data of the companies that were in the DC and FC intervals were analyzed. This was done in order to distinguish whether a company had more design or fit customization and due to the amplitude of the intervals of these types of MC (Table 3). After carrying out the above procedure, it was verified that the companies’ analyzed could not be introduced into the types TC and CD. The company 14 could be categorized in the Design Options with Standardized Sizes type (very high modularity and low variety). Companies 2, 24 and 26 cold be included in the category Design Customization (due to very high modularity and medium variety). Companies 1, 7, 12, 161 and 19 cold be added to the type Fit Customization, and all other companies could be categorized in Personalization (very high modularity and very low variety). According to the matrix proposed by [11] the disposition of the companies analyzed could be represented as shown in Fig. 3. 1

Company 16 presents medium modularity and variety, but after analyzing the company's data, it was found that the products could not be framed in Co-design.

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Fig. 3. Disposition of the analyzed companies according to the modularity and variety levels of design and fit of clothes in the Matrix developed by [11].

Figure 3 reveals that no company stands out regarding the variety of design or fit, most are in the lower left quadrant, demonstrating high or medium modularity of fit and design. Only the companies 24 and 26 present in the upper left quadrant, demonstrating a slightly greater variety of design than the others do.

5 Conclusion The data collected during this research are not related to a static situation of clothing companies for people with disabilities, because at any moment they can change the collection, offer new products, or starting using a different purchase system. However, from the data collected and analyzed during the research period, the authors concluded that the majority of the companies that produce clothes for people with disabilities predominantly present modularization (74% of clothes to design and 99% of clothes to fit). The variety is used more in the design (12% of clothes) than in the fit (2% of clothes) of the clothes. Among these companies none could be classified as Totally Custom or Co-design, which indicates that customers are usually only able to participate in the final stages of the development process of their products. One company (3,5%) can be classified in Design options with standardized sizes, three in Design Customization (10,7%), five in Fit-Customization (17,8%) and 19 in Personalization (67,8). Some companies are willing to allow even further customization on their clothing than the available on the website, but they ask to their customers to send an email or call to complete the order. This fact indicates a lack of an online system that enables more specific customizations to be made in the clothing.

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The data collected reveal how the apparel companies that produce clothing for people with disabilities work. Companies that aim to stand out in this sector can propose a new approach to customers. This could be done through a new marketing position and a new development, production and sale strategy that meets the market needs for products with a high degree of specificity. Future work can investigate how people with disabilities and their caregivers would like to get involved in the process of developing their clothes, and from that point, verify if a MC strategy that allows more customization could add customers to the process of clothing development. [20] found that the willingness of customers to co-design comes from the opportunity to experience the appearance and enhance individuality, and can be achieved through a system that provides an exciting experience during the creation of a unique product. Future studies may also verify whether if same motivations are valid for people with disabilities, or whether factors such as the need for specific products, would make them engage in the co-design of their clothes.

References 1. IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística: Censo Demográfico 2010 Características gerais da população, religião e pessoas com deficiência. IBGE, São Paulo (2010) 2. EUROSTAT: Disability Statistcs - prevalence and demographics (2012). http://ec.europa.eu/ eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Disability_statistics_-_prevalence_and_ demographics 3. United States Centre Bureau: Nearly 1 in 5 people have disability in U.S. Census Bureau Reports (2012). https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/miscellaneous/cb12134.html 4. United Nations: Disability Enable. http://www.un.org/issues/m-disabl.asp 5. African Studies Centre Leiden.: Disability in Africa (2008). http://www.ascleiden.nl/content/ webdossiers/disability-africa 6. United Nations: Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (2006). http://www.un. org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml 7. Kabel, A., Dimka, J., McBee-Black, K.: Clothing-related barriers experienced by people with mobility disabilities and impairments. Appl. Ergon. 59, 165–169 (2017) 8. SDPD - Secretaria dos Direitos das Pessoas com Deficiência de São Paulo: Moda Inclusiva (2012) 9. Gupta, D.: Functional clothing – definition and classification. Ind. J. Fib. Tex. Res. 36, 321– 326 (2011) 10. Pine, B.J.: Mass Customization the New Frontier in Business Competition. Havard Business School Publishing, Boston (1993) 11. Yang, J., Kincade, D.H., Chen-Yu, J.H.: Types of apparel mass customization and levels of modularity and variety application of the theory of inventive problem solving. Cloth. Text. Res. J. 33, 199–212 (2015) 12. Burns, L.D., Bryant, N.O.: The Business of Fashion Designing, Manufacturing, and Marketing. Fairchild Publications, New York (2005)

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13. Ulrich, P.V., Anderson-Connell, L.J., Wu, W.: Consumer co-design of apparel for mass customization. J. Fash. Mark. Manag. Int. J. 7, 398–412 (2003) 14. Silva, É.L., Menezes, E.M.: Metodologia da pesquisa e elaboração da dissertação. UFSC, Florianópolis (2005) 15. Gil, A.C.: Como elaborar projetos de pesquisa. Atlas, São Paulo (1991) 16. Duray, R.: mass customization origins mass or custom manufacturing. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 22, 314–328 (2002) 17. Ahlstrom, P., Westbrook, R.: Implications of mass customization for operations management: an exploratory survey. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 19, 262–274 (1999) 18. Senanayake, M.M., Little, T.J.: mass customization points and extent of apparel mass-customization. J. Fash. Mark. Manag. 14, 282–299 (2010) 19. Anderson-Connell, L.J., Ulrich, P.V., Brannon, E.L.: A consumer-driven model for mass customization in the apparel market. J. Fash. Mark. Manag. 6, 240–258 (2002) 20. Fiore, A.M., Lee, S., Kunz, G.: Individual differences, motivations, and willingness to use a mass customization option for fashion products. Eur. J. Mark. 38, 835–849 (2004)

Use Perception Analysis in Custom Made Footwear for People with Physical Disability Rosangela Monteiro dos Santos1, Flavio Cardoso Ventura1, Francienne Hernandes1, ( ) Ademir Marques Junior1 ✉ , João Eduardo Guarnetti2, and Luís Carlos Paschoarelli3 1

Industrial Production Management, Technology College of Jahu, Rua Frei Galvão, sn, Jd Pedro Ometto, Jaú, São Paulo, Brazil {rosangela.santos4,flavio.ventura,franciene.hernandes, ademir.junior1}@fatec.sp.gov.br 2 School of Engineering, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil [email protected] 3 School of Architecture, Arts and Communication, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil [email protected] Abstract. People with hemiparesis (partial paralysis in one side of the body) present alteration in their corporal balance and foot deformity, reinforcing the need for more ergonomically adequate shoes to promote safety and comfort. The objective/purpose of this research was developed a customized shoe and evaluate the perception of functional and emotional aspects regarding the developed foot‐ wear and the ones available in the market. For such research, a sandal respecting anatomic, anthropometric, and biomechanics aspects was made. A semantic differential scale was used to evaluate the perceptions after six months of use of the customized footwear. The results showed that the participant reported have more positive sensations using the customized footwear both in functional and emotional aspects reinforcing that the footwear are powerful prosthetics tools increasing symbolic values in our bodies, and thicken individual or collective identities. Keywords: Footwear · Hemiparesis · Perception · Shoe design · Hemiplegia · Customized

1

Introduction

All people with feet deformities deserve special attention regarding footwear design. The hemiplegia is one of the most common kind of physical disability among adults, been a strokes sequela, caused by vascular diseases e.g. arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and high cholesterol. In the last four decades, the strokes incidents had an increase superior to 100% in developed countries. Epidemiologic studies realized in South America expose an incidence of 35 to 183 cases of strokes for a group of thousands of habitants, and 60% the of the strokes led to physical sequela like the hemiplegia [1]. People with hemiparesis present foot deformities and have trouble to maintain balance [2]. They present motor alterations in one side of their bodies. The foot (left or © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_58

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right) suffer from anatomic alterations harming the movement coordination of the feet and thereafter affecting the locomotion. The feet deformity that affect the hemiplegics is the equinovarus feet. The development of footwear with the adequate anatomic, anthropometrics, biome‐ chanics factors and the modelling planning with modern designs contribute to a loco‐ motion with more safety and efficiency, besides interfering in the desire of use of the footwear by the hemiplegics. Footwear in general is a product that influences the feet functioning, and must be developed according anatomic, anthropometrics, biomechanics characteristics. The footwear design needs to protect the feet, help the locomotion and convenience, though people with physical impairment have some difficulty when try to acquire adequate footwear, considering this a factor of social exclusion [3]. The ergonomics attributes of a footwear do not mean only functionality a safety, but beyond that, they even include emotional factors. As an example, the elements that are used as adornments in footwear are more related to aesthetics, having a symbolic and playful function that is more related to emotional aspects. Also, the use of known brands is associated with the pleasure of possession, bringing comfort, been inside the concept of emotional design [4]. The footwear reflects personal values and sociocultural concerns. This way, the footwear is a tool to amplify values of our body and is extremely related with the user personality with or without physical impairment [5]. Considering the exposed, this research aimed to make a customized footwear and analyze the perception concerning functional and emotional aspects regarding the foot‐ wear available in the market and the customized footwear made. This work is separated as follows: Sect. 2 presents some related works that evaluated functional or emotional aspects; Sect. 3 presents the methodology applied to develop the customized footwear and the analysis carried out; Sect. 4 presents the product developed and the analysis done; Sect. 5 is the final section that concludes this work with the proper considerations.

2

Related Work

This section presents some previous work that explored the functional and or emotional aspects applied in the footwear development. In one study, women with hemiplegia who underwent physical rehabilitation treat‐ ment on the important aspects of footwear were evaluated. It was verified that the participants considered several aspects related to fashion, but did not find any options. Most of them find difficulties when searching for the desired shoe and those who can buy, most of the time find masculine footwear or without the characteristics they crave [3]. In addition, all the fashionable features of footwear are important. It is precisely in this aesthetic-symbolic territory that provides pleasure and comfort, in this sense the fashion acts as a social language and through the design of footwear provides greater social inclusion with people with physical restrictions [8].

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To investigate the subjective aesthetic-symbolic aspects through interview and use of images of footwear products to identify the values, desires and aspirations of the potential users (women with differences in height of the lower limbs between 2 and 5 cm due to diverse pathologies). The work [9] found that women with disabilities highlighted the following characteristics in footwear: shoes should be easy to put on and easy to clean; made of soft materials that allow perspiration, and that their seams do not hurt them. They must also provide safety, that is, the shoes must be firm in their feet, well secured by the leather, their heels must provide stability when walking with a non-slip sole, not provoking the sensation that the foot can turn, and, finally, it would be nice to feel the ground, they add. They emphasized how women and sensual characteristics in footwear make the user feel confident, included in relation to the social environment, that is, that provides emotional benefits, social and psychological pleasure according to the situation. The ergonomic attributes of a shoe are not only found in the fields of functionality and safety, they go much further, even in terms of emotional factors. As an example, the elements used as adornments in footwear are more associated with aesthetics, having a symbolic and playful function that is more related to the emotional aspects. Also, the use of products of recognized brands is associated to the pleasure of possession, which generates comfort, being part of the concept of emotional design [4]. The factors that interfere with people’s decision to use personalized orthopedic foot‐ wear are usability (aesthetic appearance and ease of use - increased mobility, reduced pain and greater comfort) and the communication between those who prescribe footwear and the user is essential to obtain feedback, making communication the key so profes‐ sionals involved can influence the person to wear the footwear [10]. The investigations regarding footwear are being carried out, but the technological advance is found in greater proportion in the aspects of product functionality, and studies on the emotional aspects are rare. It should be noted that there are norms for quality standards established by the Brazilian Association of Technical Norms (ABNT) on “Comfort Determination of foot mass”, “Dynamic distribution of plantar pressure”, “Determination of internal temperature of footwear”, “Footwear damping index”, “Index of pronation of the calcaneus during gait”, “Levels of perception of fit, of the different profiles for the same number”.

3

Methodology

A technological research was carried out on the development of footwear for a person with physical disabilities and an analysis of their perception of the use of the product. A woman with hemiparesis, 35 years old, 160 cm tall, 53 kg, who uses orthoses for the ankle and foot and who performed physiotherapeutic treatment at a neurological reha‐ bilitation institution, was selected as patient in this research. The research consisted of two stages: (1) development of the mold and footwear and (2) analysis of the perception regarding the functional and emotional aspects of the custom footwear and footwear acquired in the market without personalization.

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The patient was involved in all stages of the project and the decisions were according to her preferences, that is, she participated in the process of model elaboration, material selection and color. For the plantar pressure analysis, the baropodometer FootWork was used, containing the following characteristics: 2704 calibrated collectors, 150 Hz frequency, 16-bit analog conversion, maximum pressure per captor of 100 N/cm2, PC connection via USB and platform dimensions of 575 × 450 × 25 mm. Data collection on plantar pressure was performed with the patient standing in front of a white wall without visual stimuli, stepping on the pressure plate and remaining in the static position for 20 s. Before collecting the data, the patient was instructed to remain in the same position without moving the body. The system recorded the procedure for 20 s and provided the pressure data in Kilopascals (kPa). The patient performed the procedure three times to increase the reliability of the evaluation. The analysis of the results was based on the quantitative data: maximum pressure, mean pressure, center of pressure force, surface and mass division of the right and left feet. The development of the foot mold (replica of the feet) was performed in 2 phases (negative and positive mold). The negative template was made with alginate and water and the positive template was performed by filling the negative template with polymer. The footwear was made using materials from the FATEC Jahu (Technology College of Jahu) Laboratory and the modeling and assembly of the footwear was carried out with the collaboration of researchers from FATEC Jahu and SENAI Jaú (National Service Support for Industry). For the preparation of the lower part of the footwear, baropodometry and postural analysis were analyzed to align the hip level on the right side with the left side and for the upper part of the footwear (leather). Fit in the sandal. The modelling of the footwear was manual and the footwear assembly was made in the patient herself. In addition to considering the user’s opinion, the anatomical and biomechanical aspects were evaluated to provide the selection of the most appropriate model for its characteristics. After six months of delivery of the product and weekly use by the participant, an analysis was performed on the use perception of the customized footwear regarding functional and emotional aspects compared against the use perception aspects for conventional sandals in the market. A semantic differential scale on perception regarding footwear was used as an instrument to evaluate the weekly usage time alongside open question. During the application of the instrument a researcher was available to answer any doubts about the questions. This instrument was applied in two moments: (1) perception about the use of shoes purchased available in the Market, called conventional footwear and (2) perception regarding footwear developed in a personalized way. The instrument contains 7 response scales with range from −3 to 3, where 0 corresponds to the normal sensation, −3 the greatest negative sensation and 3 the greater positive feeling.

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Results and Discussions

In the first baropodometry analysis presented in Fig. 1, it is observed that the patient distributes body weight more in the posterior region with 54% in relation to the previous one with 46%. It is noticed that the pressure peaks (represented by the letter x in the figure) occur in the same region in the right and left foot, in the heel. On the right foot, the patient overloads the rearfoot with 26.97% of body weight more than the forefoot with 14.03%. In the left foot, the most overloaded region is the forefoot with 32.19% and the backfoot with 26.82%. It is emphasized that the left foot, contralateral to the injury is the foot that suffers greater weight discharge.

Fig. 1. First result of the first analysis of the baropodometry.

For a better understanding of the pressure distribution in each region Table 1 shows the mean pressure, maximum pressure of the two limbs on each evaluation. Table 1. Maximum and mean pressure data for the left and right foot. Analyses 1 2 3

Mean pressure right 67.9 kPa 65.8 kPa 66 kPa

Mean pressure left 64.93 kPa 64.99 kPa 69.9 kPa

Maximum pressure - right 337 kPa 309 kPa 307.08 kPa

Maximum pressure - left 302 kPa 323 kPa 99.18 kPa

It can be noted that the three evaluations presented similar data for the mean pressure, with the largest on the left foot (side opposite the injury) being approximately 69.99 kPa. The divergences occurred only for maximum pressure on the left side, ranging from 99.18 to 323 kPa. The variation is significant, however, it is important to note that the baropodometer also captures the body oscillations and each analysis represents a second within the 20 s that have been recorded, that is, a minimum oscillation caused by a different breath standard is sufficient to change the result. The results of greater discharge of body weight on the uncorrected body side corroborate with several studies [6, 7].

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Table 2 shows the mass division of the lateral, anterior and posterior regions of the feet in each evaluation. In the analyses, was observed that the patient distributes body weight more to the left side (from 56 to 59% of body weight) and 41 to 44% to the right side. In the anterior and posterior division of each foot, it is seen that the right foot pressure distribution occurs more in the heel (66% to 70%) and in the left foot in the forefoot (55% to 64%). Table 2. Mass division data for the left and right foot. Analysis 1 2 3

Lateral Lateral division - right division - left 44% 42% 41%

56% 58% 59%

Anterior division - left 56% 64% 55%

Posterior division - left 44% 36% 45%

Anterior Posterior division - right division - right 30% 35% 34%

70% 65% 66%

According to the data presented by the baropodometry, the insole and soles of the left foot should promote damping in the forefoot equal to or greater than the heel, since the region of greatest impact absorption during walking is in the forefoot. The right side shows impact absorption in the heel, however, the weight discharge is smaller on the right side (side of the injury). Baropodometry provides data on weight discharge, but clinical analysis is required for insole prescription, analyzing the body segments which are described in the topic of insole fabrication. To evaluate hip alignment (right and left side balance), the participant remained in the standing posture and the positioning of the iliac crest (pointy bones of the basin) was marked with a pen. Figure 2 shows the hip alignment with the participant using the orthosis. It is seen that the orthosis decreases the height difference between the right and left side, however, the left side remains higher. The insole and sole were made in Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (E.V.A.) with thickness of 10 mm for the left foot and 15 mm on the right foot to correct the difference in height, respecting the shape of the sole of the foot. The participant tested the insole and sole, making use of the orthosis before giving continuity to the process of making the foot‐ wear. We selected the burkin sandal model. The patient uses orthosis, and this shape fits well with the orthosis shape and provides adequate impact cushioning, safety, flexibility and comfort. The material chosen was blue leaked leather (participant preference). To perform the modeling, the feet molds were completely wrapped by crepe tape and the model was designed. In traditional modeling, the process is performed only in one foot and in the cutting of the material the mirroring is performed (inverts the side) by obtaining the pair. In this case, as the measurements in the two feet were different, due to the orthosis, the modeling was done for each foot. The manufacturing of footwear went through the manufacturing stages (cutting of the leather material according to the cut pieces of the modeling, finishing of the folded pieces, gluing the lining, stitched and then the excess of material is removed from the lining). The footwear assembly was carried out at the foot of the patient. Figure 3 illustrates the patient wearing the sandal and his hip alignment, it is noted that the height of the iliac crest is balanced with the use of footwear.

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Fig. 2. The participant hip height using the orthosis.

Fig. 3. The participant using the customized footwear hip height using the orthosis.

The participant used the shoes for at least 36 h a week for six months. Figure 4 illustrates the results on the functional aspects. The conventional footwear presented the most negative factors (value −2) on “freshness” and “dry sensation”, the patient reported feeling very hot, tiredness and injuries caused by the friction. The data showed that the factors of “stability”, “harmony” and “lightness” were less negative (value −1). The most evident participant’s report was on the weight of the shoes, that was sometimes excessive, was increased by the orthosis, and this led to the other negative sensations, mainly in “stability”. The factors of “flexibility”, “freedom of movement”, “security” and “tranquility” the results were neutral (neither positive nor negative). The positives

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aspects regarding conventional footwear were “carefree”, “relaxation” and “cush‐ ioning”. The participant emphasized that she was moving with confidence, without fear of falls and relaxed/painless.

Fig. 4. Functional aspects analyzed about the footwear use.

The functional aspects of the personalized footwear were all positive, the two least positive factors were “freedom of movement” and “harmony”. The participant commented that these aspects were less favored due to the use of the orthosis, since the exaggerated use promoted friction and the disease itself does not allow her to move much the foot injured. Women with physical disabilities who use orthosis in the lower limb have difficulties because the orthosis requires that they find footwear with the different size for each foot, that is, they need to buy two pairs of identical footwear with different numbers to fit each foot, the orthosis promotes differentiated perception, in addition to being generally heavy and excessively heating the foot [3]. The results on the emotional aspects can be visualized through Fig. 5. The most negative results of conventional footwear were on “satisfaction” and “practicality”. She always reported having difficulties when buying footwear of adequate sizes, and the ones that she used were not those of her preference, besides the difficulties in putting the footwear and the time spent. The less negative results were related to “beauty”, “pleasantness”, “contemporary model” and “well-being”. She reported that it was embarrassing not have option when choosing a shoe model and therefore, it was difficult to have well-being. The neutral results were about “pleasure”, “joy”, “warmth”, “calm‐ ness”, “pride”, and “convenience”, and the most positive result was “pleasing color”, although it was not her preference, but she had not use one with unpleasant colors.

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Fig. 5. Emotional aspects analyzed about the footwear use.

The results on the emotional aspects of custom footwear were all positive with two factors less positive in relation to “warmth” and “practicality”. She reported difficulty in buttoning the sandal, which requires time and coordination. The participant made it clear that in addition to improving her gait, she was very happy because of the attention gave to her since the development to the analysis of what she felt when she wore her shoes. All this care increased her self-esteem.

5

Conclusion

The present study aimed to develop a customized footwear for a woman with hemiplegia from the ergonomic parameters, and to evaluate the perception of use in relation to functional and emotional aspects. It was made a burkin sandal model with blue leaked leather. The selection of the model was made based on the preferences of the participant and the anthropometric analysis, anatomical considering the use of the orthosis, postural favoring the leveling of the hips and biomechanics through baropodometry to benefit the gait. The results on the functional aspects showed that conventional footwear promotes slightly positive and negative sensations (1 to −3 in the scale) in relation to functional aspects and emotional aspects, whereas personalized footwear offers high positive feel‐ ings (2 and 3) in both aspects. The reports of more significance regarding to the customized footwear were related to stability, cushioning, flexibility and lightness, with an emphasis on stability, where the perception of improvement of gait and knee and hip movement was reported due to the height adjustment of the sandal sole. In the emotional aspects, the scores on all factors

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(beauty, pleasantness, satisfaction, fashion, pleasure, pleasant color, contemporary model, pride, joy, warmth, well-being, calm and comfort) were positive (2 and 3 in the scale), also the patient reported the feeling of feel important and respected, this increased her self-esteem and overall satisfaction with the product and its use. These data reinforce the importance of appropriate development of footwear modeling and user participation in development. Footwear is an object that has the function of protecting the feet and providing a good locomotion, besides having added values, which can characterize styles and other personal and collective attributes and the positive experience of the use can contribute to the well-being and emotional health, which is extremely important to maintain or improve life quality.

References 1. Conforto, A.B., Ferreira, J.R.: Neuroestimulação e reabilitação motora no Acidente Vascuar Cerebral. Revista eletrônica de jornalismo científico 1(1) (2009) 2. O’Sullivan, S.B., Schmitz, T.J.: Fisioterapia: avaliação e tratamento, 2nd edn. Manole, São Paulo (1993) 3. Lipi, L.A., Valentim, R.A., Santos, R.M.: Análise da acessibilidade de portadores de necessidades especiais para a compra de calçados. III Encontro Científico do GEPro, FatecJahu, IN (2013) 4. Berwanger, E.G.: Antopometria do pé feminino em diferentes alturas de salto como função para conforto de calçado. [Dissertação de Mestrado]. 187 p., Programa de Pós graduação em Design da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul- UFRS, Porto Alegre (2011) 5. Castilho, K., Martins, M.: Discursos da Moda: semiótica, design e corpo. Cap. 1. A comunicação de moda por meio do design. Ed. Anhembi Morumbi, São Paulo (2005) 6. Cesário, C.M.M., Penasso, P., Oliveira, A.P.R.: Impacto da disfunção motora na qualidade de vida em pacientes com Acidente Vascular Encefálico. Rev. Neurociênc. 14(1) (2006) 7. Schuster, R.C., et al.: Análise da pressão plantar em pacientes com acidente vascular encefálico. Rev. Neurociênc. 16(3), 170–183 (2008) 8. Roncoletta, M.: Calçados sensuais para mulheres excepcionais: uma reflexão sobre design de calçados para mulheres portadoras de restrições físicas. Dissertação (Mestrado em Design) – Programa de Pós-Graduação Mestrado em Design da Universidade Anhembi Morumbi – UAM, São Paulo (2008) 9. Roncoletta, M.R.: O desejo de mulheres portadoras de deficiencia física no design de calçados. I Encontro Nacional de Pesquisa em Moda, Goiânia, Universidade Federal de Goiás, IN (2011) 10. Netten, J.J., Dijkstra, P.U., Geertzen, J.H.B., Postema, K.: What influences a patient’s decision to use custom-made orthopaedic shoes? BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 13(92) (2012)

Usability Evaluation of Mining Machinery Interface Based on Eye Movement Experiment Hongxia Li1(&), Shuicheng Tian2, Fang Li1, and Yixin Huang1 1

College of Management, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi’an, China [email protected] 2 College of Safety Science and Engineering, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, China

Abstract. The paper focuses on the usability of coal machinery interface by means of eye tracking methods to build the machinery interface assessment model based on eye movement experiment. The roof bolter has been compared with two different types based on eye movement usability tests. The results are specific as follows: ① the eye movement usability index and evaluation model are designed. Heat map is used to represent complete effect and eye movement usability index and information processing efficiency are used to represent efficiency, whereas pupil size is used to represent physical satisfaction; ② to combine with the practical situation of mining machinery, the usability factors model of mining machinery interface has been built. Thereby, the design principle of mining machinery interface is summarized. Therefore, this paper preliminarily discusses the correlation between the interface usability dimensionality and eye movement index and builds the eye movement usability evaluation model which could provide the research method so as to evaluate the machinery interface base on eye movement technology. Keywords: Machinery interface Evaluation




Usability




Eye movement experiment




1 Statement of Problem In view of the occurrence of mining safety accidents in China, we should pay attention not only to human factors but also to the design of mining machinery and the defects of equipment itself so that the miners’ unsafe operation of the ‘material’ which leads to accidents or events can be reduced. In the early 1940s and late 1950s, the trace intersecting theory pointed out that the accident occurred results not only from both unsafe behavior of people and unsafe condition of the production equipments. Skiba supposed that the reason why the accident happened lay mainly in the operation of operators and dangerous condition of equipment [1, 2]. British coal mine managers took the lead in applying the principles of ergonomics to assessment of mining machinery as it is an important basis for the purchase and improvement of mining machinery [1, 2]. With industrial designers’ concept that the undergone tremendous has been changed from the ‘machinery as the center’ to ‘people-centered’. More people are © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_59

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concerned about the behavior of miners and the physiological and human factors during the operation of machinery. Therefore, in view of the successful application of this technology in interface design of mining machinery, it is feasible to introduce the eye movement analysis method into the interface design evaluation of mining equipment.

2 Research Approach Usability research is a bridge between users and products, which improves the efficiency of mining machinery interface so that the recognition of interface by the users is achieved. Usability is the embodiment of quality attribute, which is not a one-dimensional attribute [3], it is difficult to evaluate it directly. By usability evaluation, the frequency of the four indicators of effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction and accessibility which are the highest and the highest degree by recognition. Therefore, the four indicators as chosen in this paper which is used to evaluate the availability of mining interface. Specifically shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Usability dimension and eye movement indicators.

3 Research Method 3.1

Experimental Design

30 experienced miners aged from 21 to 40 are involved in this experiment and none of them have experience in eye movement test. The research concerns the roof-bolter of mining tunnel by experimental. The two types of roof-bolters with different interface design are MQT-120 pneumatic type roof-bolter and the MYT-100 hydraulic type roof-bolter. Tobii Glasses eye trackers were used in this experiment. The components include: Tobii Glasses eye instruments (which can take record of the scenes and the status of right pupil of the subjects).

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Process of Experimental

The test users according to the standard operating procedure of the drilling strictly operated. Accordance with the standard of process has been divided into six steps: Pre-job check!Idled drilling machinery!Open eye positioning!Drilling operations!Drill rock-arm down!Switch off the power. During eye movement experiment, the external disturbance shall be minimized. Before the experiment, the experimenter shall introduce the purpose of the experiment and the tasks of the subjects and answer the questions of the subjects to ensure that subjects can fully understand the experiment, the eye movement experiment begins. A single eye-movement experiment takes about 10 min in the specific procedure as follows: Prepare the laboratory!Eye calibration!Experimenter presses Rec/II on the recorder!the headband and glasses.

4 Experimental Results Analysis 4.1

Analysis of Performance Data of Anchor Drill

In the quantitative analysis, the relevant indicators of usability assessment are calculated as follows: The formula for the degree of completeness A: A¼

EOAT  100% SVTA

ð1Þ

C¼

EOAT  100% SVTA

ð2Þ

Correctness formula of C:

Validity formula of E: E¼

n X

Ai 

i¼1

n X

ci 

i¼1

n X

pi ¼ A1  C1  p1 þ A2  C2  p2 þ . . . þ An  Cn  pn

i¼1

ð3Þ In this formula: E - The validity of the task; P - The proportion of each task; N - The number of tasks tested; The efficiency of formula e:

e ¼

n X i¼1

ei 

n X i¼1

n P

pi ¼

i¼1 n P i¼1

Ei  ti

n X i¼1

pi ¼

E1  p1 E2  p2 E n  pn þ þ...þ t1 t2 tn

ð4Þ

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In this formula: e - Efficiency; P - The proportion of the various tasks; E - Validity; t - The time spent; n – The number of tasks tested; i – The first few tasks. Satisfaction formula for S: S¼

n X i¼1

Si 

n X

Pi ¼ S1  P1 þ S2  P2 þ . . . þ Sn  Pn

ð5Þ

i¼1

In this formula: S - Expressed satisfaction; p - The proportion of the indicators; n - Number of indicators; i - First few indicators (Table 1). Table 1. Summary of the operational flow availability index of the two types of different interface design. Type

Hydraulic Novicers Skilled Averag Pneumatic Novice Skilled Average

Indicators Completion rate (%)

Correct rate (%)

Effectiveness (%)

Efficiency (%/min)

Satisfaction rate (%)

100% 100% 100%

72% 100% 86%

72% 100% 86%

20.34 32.05 25.83

41%

100% 100% 100%

84% 100% 92%

84% 100% 92%

29.37 43.1 35.52

59%

The results show that the availability, efficiency, accessibility and satisfaction index are better than hydraulic roof-bolter, but the availability of pneumatic roof-bolters is higher than hydraulic one.

4.2

Analysis of Eye Movement Index

The analysis of eye movement index mainly includes the total watching time, pupil size changing and the Hot Map analysis, the detail as follows: Total Watching Time In Tobii Studio, the eye data collected by the glasses was introduced. The total time of 20 subjects during the completion of operation by two different types of roof-bolters has been sorted out and summarized. The resulting data is as shown in the following table: As can be seen from Table 2, the cognitional efforts spent on the hydraulic roof-bolter’s during the completion of the task, accompanied by more problems of usability, which is shown as lower search efficiency and processing efficiency of Hydraulic roof-bolters than pneumatic as far as the usability index is concerned.

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Table 2. Comparison of the total gaze time of different types of roof-bolters. Type N Mean SD MSE Gaze time Hydraulic roof-bolter 20 171.4781 49.02420 10.96215 Pneumatic roof-bolter 20 132.6472 52.28572 11.69144

Pupil Size Analysis The analysis of pupil size data was introduced into Tobii Studio, and 20 subjects were divided into two groups based on different types of roof-bolters. The pupil diameter during the whole task was sorted out in Table 3. Table 3. Mean analysis of pupil size change in two drilling bolters. Type N Average SD MSE Pupil size Pneumatic 20 3.2235 0.39552 0.08844 Hydraulic 20 3.5535 0.31304 0.07000

Changes in pupil size are relevant to cognitive processing load. The enlarged pupil means greater processing load or psychological effort [5]. But as can be seen from Table 3, the pupil size is refers to the physiologic satisfaction of the user as far as the availability indicator is concerned. To this effect, the operator’s satisfaction in operating the pneumatic roof-bolter is higher than that for hydraulic. Hot Map Analysis By sampling analysis of the hot spots of the two types of roof-bolters, it is possible to find the areas of the interface which attracts longer attention during the operation of the drill rig. With the eye movement analysis software, the hotspot graphs can show which parts of the interface (area) are being watched through a visualized cloud-like identity, where the darker color indicates the longer stay (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The hot map of drilling operation of idled hydraulic and pneumatic roof-bolters.

Through the hotspot analysis of the interface of roof-bolters, the eye movement index of Aerodynamic Roof-bolter is more superior in the general dimension, to

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explore the specific problems and find the relevant design deficiencies. This article will conduct the following analysis as follow.

4.3

Behavior Analysis

Operation Steps According to the time sequence and continuity of the action when the roof-bolter is used, this paper will divides the drilling process into six steps, and then compares the time used for each step for the two different roof-bolters. The specific time is shown in Table 4. Table 4. Average watch time schedule for step-by-step operation of the roof-bolter process. Steps Pneumatic (min) Hydraulic (min) Determine the standing + check 0.56 0.43 Drilling machinery idling 0.32 0.23 Open eye positioning 0.69 0.53 Drilling operations 1.03 0.82 Drill pipe down 0.24 0.13 Clean up + check 0.32 0.24 Total 3.16 2.38

As can be seen from Table 4, the entire task flow shows that the most time-consuming steps are drilling operations, Open eye position and initial inspection. The time for the two types of roof-bolters is related to the internal performance of the rig, that is, the strength of the motor, and the structure and operational mode of the rockers. Further, the pneumatic one obviously takes less time than hydraulic one. Action Classification In order to explore the reasons for the difference in the quantitative data used in the drilling time, this paper uses CAPTIV L7000 to analyze each behavior in details. Especially, in the analysis process of the display of information is easy to obtain, the relevant control components are easy to operate, and in the course of the operation of the body parts such as eyes, hands and feet will not have an abnormal burden [5]. This article will be the main operation of drilling rig and the state is divided into four categories, including Class A, because there’s no difference among Class B, Class C and Class D in behavior analysis, therefore, the pointer on Class A. As shown in the Table 5. Detailed Analysis of Steps CAPTIV L7000 is needed to ingrate each user’s action analysis data in order to get the final results of each action analysis, analysis and explanation of action and behavior of two types of different roof-bolters at each step data is carried out as follows:

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Table 5. The operation of the roof-bolter operation procedure (Class A). Process Standing + Check + Boot

Fixed eye position

Drilling

Action category Hydraulic roof-bolter Check if the connectors are loose and the operation control is off Hand push the power switch (Drill rock-arm) ① Right hand to the motor control switch down a little so that the drill rock-arm slowly rotating ② Left hand at the same time will push the cylinder control switch open a small angle ③ Right hand control switch down the pressure into 20 mm ① Left hand to open the water control switch ② Right hand press the handle ③ Left hand press the propulsion mechanism control handle(To drill rock-arm does not bend prevail)

Drill rock-arm down

① Left hand small water control switch ② Left hand press the gas drop device ③ Right hand by the small motor handle and stop(Unloading drill rock-arm)

Clean up + Check + Off

(Water rinse drill appearance) Right hand press the motor empty run Check whether the various parts of the damage

Pneumatic roof-bolter Check if the connectors are loose and the operation control is off ① The right hand to slowly press the motor controller ② Left hand to rotate the knob for gas legs ③ The right hand to press the motor slowly

① Left hand to switch on the water knob ② Left hand to rotate upward the knob for gas legs ③ Right hand to press the motor controller quickly ① Left hand to adjust the knob to reduce water supply ② Left hand to rotate downward the knob for the feed legs ③ The right hand to gradually reduce the motor speed and stop (Water to rinse drill appearance) Right hand to press and keep the motor idling Check damage for any part and whether any bolt get loose

(1) Analysis the ‘determine the standing + check’ step. The results shown in Table 6: Through the above table analysis it can be seen there is a relatively long time to search for the feed legs switch and water switch. The two knobs of the pneumatic roof-bolter are designed in the same way, but the function is not clear and the color is different, which is not conducive to the memory and distinction of the operator.

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Hydraulic 26.54% 13.85% 28.19% 31.42% – 100% – 100% – 100%

Pneumatic roof-bolter 38.12% 20.32% 29.15% 12.41% – 100% – 100% – 100%

(2) Analysis of the operation of the Idled step. In the operation of the hydraulic roof-bolter, the motion arm is too heavy for operation. A lot of arm strength is needed so that long-term use easily leads to physical fatigue. When using the leg handle and the gas lever handle, it is not easy to identify those two types of device in operating. The arm and head needs to lift during the rise of the rig and long time use may lead to exhaustion. (3) Analyze the drilling step. Through the analysis of the action and behavior during the operation of the two types of roof-bolters, Open eye positioning the handle hydraulic anchor, it needs a greater effort to press the handle of the motor. Besides, the surface material for handle of feet leg and the handle is too smooth, which makes it difficult to grasp in case of sweating. In the process of the head raise together with the drill pipe so that an upward position is kept for a long time and the design is unreasonable. (4) Step 4 drilling operation analyses. The difference between the operations of the roof-bolter is mainly on the operation of the hand. Pneumatic roof-bolter water switch design is more reasonable. But the function of each part is not clear, no direction on the anchor-arm still can improved. (5) The analysis of the drill rock-arm fallback off step. According to analysis the rate of the drill rock-arm of action time, it is found that the anchor drilling bolter has the following problems: The hydraulic leg drilling device’s gas-leg descending device is not sensitive to operation and is not easy to control its descending speed; Pneumatic anchor drill down the knob design is not conducive to the wrist force.

5 Summarize In this paper, on such basis observing method, performance measurement method, eye movement analysis method and behavior analysis method, combined with our ergonomics and cognitive psychology and other related knowledge, for the availability issues found in experiment about roof-bolter problem, the specific improvements are proposed as follows.

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For the heavy weight of the arm of hydraulic bolt drilling, by improving the relevant technology, the weight of the arm can be reduced. The height of rocker arm will increase together with the rise of the drilling operation and the raised arm make the miners feel tired more quickly, which may be improved by design of telescopic boom. For the smoothness problem of manipulating handle of hydraulic roof-bolter and the hardness for the novice to identify the lifting device and motor device, it can be tackled by increasing friction or the shape of the knob which can be designed to be narrow in the middle and slightly wider at both ends and the upper, middle and lower ends can be connected by a curve. In this way, fingers get a greater support when they use force and effort can be saved. Besides, the side design of the knob is of fine groove texture which increases friction. At the same time, different operating devices are given a particular color to correspond to relevant functions by inherent link, which help miners to understand and memorize more easily. Acknowledgments. This research is supported by two Natural science foundations of China (no. 717271169, no. 71273208) and the philosophy and social sciences Key projects of Shaanxi province department of education in China (No. 14J2026).

References 1. Wu, Q., Xu, K.: Safety Management. Coal Industry Press, Beijing (2002) 2. Tian, S., Jin, G.: Safety Management. China Machine Press, Beijing (2009) 3. Joachim, B., Eva-Marie, H., Walter, H.: Rate of occupational accidents in the mining industry since 1950—a successful approach to prevention policy. J. Saf. Res. 33(1), 129–141 (2002) 4. Nielsen, J.: Usability Engineering. Mechanical Industry Press, Beijing (2004) 5. Hansen, M.: UML Software Engineering Organization-Usability TestTenSteps. http://www. uml.org.cn/jmshj/200810225.asp. Accessed 20 Oct 2008

Clarifying the Concept of Corporate Identity: From a Collective Vision to Cultural Interface Daniel Raposo1,2 ✉ , Fernando Moreira da Silva1, João Neves1,2, and José Silva1,2 (

)

1

2

Faculdade de Arquitetura, CIAUD, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] IPCB/ESART, Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas do Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco, Avenida do Empresário - Campus da Talagueira, 6000-767 Castelo Branco, Portugal {draposo,joaoneves,jose.silva}@ipcb.pt Abstract. This study aims to explain the understanding that has been made about Corporate Identity, because it’s common to find divergent views about it. Our purpose is to provide knowledge about Corporate Identity, often mistaken with other related concepts. The paper is based on literature reviews, establishing an analysis of developments on this specific topic over time. It highlights and discusses important points previously reported in the literature. The novelty of this type of paper consists in the relation established between different views and by its conclusions concerning to definitions. The brand is positioned as cultural interface between the business and the stakeholders. The results of this paper are to make a clear distinction between Corporate Identity, Corporate Visual Identity, Brand and Corporate Image. It also establishes a connection between culture, values, mission and Corporate Identity, explaining how these concepts are in the geneses of the brand personality. Keywords: Corporate identity · Corporate culture · Corporate personality · Corporate visual identity · Corporate image · Brand

1

Introduction

The meaning of a word can be changed by context, by culture, or by convention. And the lack of clarity about its meaning can strongly hamper interpersonal communication in a professional context. Already in 1989, Abratt [1] notes that although there is an abundance of literature on Corporate Identity and Corporate Image, it addresses the issues superficially, which is a problem, since the Corporate Image is the key to business security and public trust. Even today, despite numerous publications on this topic, the confusion about the meaning of each term is quite frequent, which requires that the reader has a prior knowl‐ edge about each one and that it reveals its meaning by the context in which it was used. The confusion between Corporate Identity and Corporate Visual Identity leads to two essential errors that, together, end up generating image problems: the first is to believe that simple correct management, by itself, emits the equally correct identifiable communication codes; The second error is to think that the corporate communication is © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_60

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exhausted in the semantic contents of the organization and that, for that reason, the communication system is the identity [2]. Some misunderstandings can be found even in the texts of the Trademark Registra‐ tion laws, where confusion exists between Brand and Mark. Trademark Registration is a protection based on the description of logotypes and/or symbols.

2

From Corporate Culture to Corporate Identity

We adopt the concept of Corporate as synonymous of Organizations (a collective or group of people working with a common purpose), even if both have been used in liter‐ ature, the first in design, advertising or marketing works and the second in management context. Both concepts correspond to a global idea or perception or feeling about what the organization is, for the people who constitute it. Clarifying this idea, we can look at its connection with Identity. Nevertheless, literature review allows us to observe how the Corporate Identity has been related to the work of the designer and marketeer. Accordingly, van Riel and Balmer [3] stated that Corporate Visual Identity practitioners were and are generally designers or marketers and maybe for this reason, Corporate Identity was synonymous with other concepts such as company house-style, Brand Style and Visual Identification [1, 4, 5]. Newman [6 p. 211] was a pioneer in talking about the company character, which develops “in its own traditions, habits, and reputation which give it individuality” and creates its Personality. Still, although this definition presented by Newman [6], which is close to the current understanding about Corporate Identity, he also associates the concept with operational and strategic issues. The concept of Corporate Reputation results from the evolution of Public Relations, when the organization stopped focusing exclusively on external audiences, and instead included all stakeholders. It is about perceptions from different stakeholders about the organization, their general opinion, satisfaction level, expectations and satisfaction [7]. However, the Corporate Reputation is also a signfiicant part of Corporate Image. According to Hefting [8], Corporate Identity term arose during or after World War II, to refer to the way the company seeks to build a good image and reputation with the public, which implies a discussion of various types of human behaviour underlying the definition of identity and image. But Olins [17] rejects the idea that the concept of Corporate Identity arose around 1953, arguing that it is prior and that results from the study of human behavior in collec‐ tivities, and how this interaction results in an identity and personality. Some groups aspire to create a certain impression about the collective with the stakeholders, and for this it is necessary to select visual signs capable of projecting and filling with meanings associated with a given culture and Brand Personality [17]. As noted by the authors of [3 p. 340] the different divergences on what is Corpo‐ rate Identity, they can be grouped in three perspectives. Three approaches which tended to follow a separated development line, appearing with literature maturity in each strands:

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• Corporate Identity equated to corporate identity with graphic design; • Corporate Identity related to the integrated corporate communication; • Corporate Identity as multidisciplinary approach, which draws organizational behav‐ iour. In the same sense, Vilar [9 p. 56] mentions that in the literature the concept of Corporate Identity can have three different interpretations: • The context of Design, where it began by referring to the function of the elements of visual communication assisting the identification and differentiation, meaning the set of concepts that evidence the corporate strategy; • In the perspective of global communication, to refer to the various interdependent graphic signs witch form a single system; • And in an interdisciplinary perspective, to designate all graphic signs, management decisions, human behaviours, company actions, product quality, public relations and services. Raised awareness about the importance of coherence in visual communication has led several authors in the areas of design and marketing to defend there should be consistency in formal corporate communication [3]. Some examples were presented by authors such as Costa [10] and Bernstein [12] who argued for the need to communicate globally (integrating all forms of communication) and effectively with all stakeholders to get a better image and earn prestige. Costa [10] presented an integrated communica‐ tion method, covering the entire organization. In more recent literature, the understanding is more holistic, considering that the concept of Corporate Identity refers to a social phenomenon that results from Corporate Culture and Brand Personality. Corporate Culture determines corporate Identity and, because both are social phenomenon, they can change in time through external influence [7]. According to Tajada [13], Corporate Culture refers to the set of dominant beliefs and values in an organization, its corporate philosophy, norms and ways of acting, which are primary characteristics of work groups, traditions and behaviours. And Villafañe [14] says that Corporate Culture is the process of social construction of the Identity itself, that is, an appropriation of meanings, which can be recorded. In this sense, Corporate Identity results from the company’s history, business project and Corporate Culture. But Tajada [13] subdivides Corporate Culture into a realistic and an idealistic and ambitious one that consolidates and conditions the way of acting and communicating. Once a collective entity is formed, or an association, company or institution repre‐ sents shared interests, which may be intellectual, idealistic, economic or a variable combination. This collective entity can also be defined globally, in terms of culture and personality, with strengths and weaknesses, which designs a particular style. Kapfer [15 p. 172] clarifies that “Corporate Identity is what helps an organization, or a part of it, feels that it truly exists and that it is a coherent and unique being, with a history and a place of its own, different from others.” In the same sense, Costa [16] states that” etymologically the term Identity comes from “idem”, which means “identical to itself”, which is why, in Corporate context, Corporate Identity corresponds to whom is the organization.

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Corporate Identity results from a set of visions which are not necessarily similar, in which each social subject has knowledge of what it is. It is an ideological opinion, resulting from what is the organization (in a real plan); and their immediate and/or projective perspectives [2]. According to Olins [17], the difference between Corporate Identity and Brand Iden‐ tity is that the first concept considers different internal and external audiences, while the second one is directed to delimited and external audiences. Corporate Identity is considered to correspond to the set of attributes assumed by the organization, which constitute the “identity discourse” and that develops within companies, in the same way as it happens with people. Probably this misunderstanding between speech and message was the origin of the confusion between Corporate Identity and graphic signs in the first instance.

3

Corporate Identity and Brand Personality

As stated by Olins [17], the Brand Identity or Corporate Personality are those charac‐ teristics that distinguish an organization from another both from the same segment and that manifest themselves in a certain visual appearance and style (Visual Identity). According to Costa [16], Brand Personality is a method that results from a combi‐ nation of four ideas: The model of the programmed teaching (Definition and under‐ standing before creating); The association between image and meaning; analogies; and the spoken portrait (representation of common characteristics). As a concept Balmer [4] assumed that Brand Personality is a cornerstone of Corpo‐ rate Identity formation, which refers to an ideological mix, associated to the organiza‐ tion, and contributes to a common behave as to express the mission and philosophy of the organization. But this idea came to be contradicted by other authors, who consider that Brand Personality is derived from Corporate Identity. Aaker [18] proposed the “Dimensions of Brand Personality”, a “set of human char‐ acteristics associated with a brand”, which are publicly perceived by stakeholders during direct or indirect contacts with the brand. That is, brands have characteristics that people face as peculiar human attributes. Martins [19] explained how each person is linked to a certain group of emotions (emotional archetype, which are states of mind, or symbolic ways of perceiving the world), depending on their own history and context of life. However, anyone has the ability to recognize other archetypes. Martins [19] says that each person seeks to surround himself with objects with which he is identified and capable of projecting an image of the individual that is related to the way he wants to be seen by others. When a brand is linked to an emotional archetype and communicates effectively, it succeeds, in that the public recognizes symbolic aspects and human characteristics that are common to all of us, which allows the emergence of a strong emotional link between the public and the brand. As a result of a study based on 114 adjectives associated with 37 brands of various product categories, Aaker [18] presented five dimensions of Brand Personality.

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In his definition and brand management model Davis [20] includes the Brand Picture stage, which tries to define the image that the target audience wants for the brand, what their expectations and needs are to be met. Some authors, such as Keller and Richey [21] distinguish Corporate Brand Person‐ ality from products or services Brand Personality and suggest that the second can have a largest range of associations, because it can be more independent or more segmented. But even without direct relationship to the organization, the Brand Personality results least in part from Corporate Identity [16]. On the other hand, Kapferer [15] considers that the definition of Brand Personality presented by Aaker [18] was too broad, because it can include any intangible attribute, such as intellectual abilities, gender and social class. According to Azoulay and Kapferer [22], Brand Personality is a concept that consists of assigning a set of human characteristics to the brand, such as values, age, emotions, behaviors, attitudes and beliefs. The Brand Personality fosters lasting relationships between the organization and the public, and it’s based on identity communication on a symbolic level, recognizable by the audience, which seeks to identify objects with archetypes or lifestyles. In his proposal, Kapferer [15] presents six dimensions that configure Personality and Brand Identity: (1) physical (objective characteristics, symbols and attributes); (2) Personality (subjective characteristics, character and attitude); (3) culture (set of values that define the context in which the brand grows); (4) relationship (beliefs and secondary associations, and how they will interconnect with the public); (5) reflection of the public (creation of value through stereotypes and aspirations of the public); (6) self-image (the public expectations and inner concepts and how they are related to brand perception). The definition of Brand Personality is a strategic action, because it is about defining the Corporate Image that one intends to obtain, how it intends to be seen publicly and the notion of what one is (self-image) and how the organization intends to think. When a company aspires to build a strong Brand Personality, it must consider its own Identity characteristics, strategically articulated with the Personality traits most associated with a specific public, since consumers have a tendency to choose brands that represent ideas congruent with his own self-image [16]. In short, if Corporate Identity corresponds to the qualitative characteristics and values that distinguish the organization, those that are observable and distinctive from others. Brand Personality is a selection of that data, chosen and strategically adapted to positioning (feel, talk and behave), for its potential in terms of competitiveness [23, 24].

4

Corporate Visual Identity and Corporate Image

What is understood today as Corporate Visual Identity corresponds to what was first called House Style, which was a way of doing and communicating capable of being recognized consciously or unconsciously and independently of the interest in the ideology it represents [7]. In the words of Ricardo Musatti, Olivetti consultant, Hefting [8] emphasizes the idea that Corporate Image must result from a global expression of a complex whole, defined

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in a clear, coherent and comprehensible way that begins as a social and ethical system and only after visual and aesthetic. That is, an organization must be seen as a system with a specific identity, which characterizes everything it does, how it communicates and how it relates with stakeholders and thus, the design of Visual Identity is a conse‐ quence of that identity. The Corporate Visual Identity is a design program, whose purpose is to define, project and materialize the Brand Personality through visual signs. The logo, the symbol, the colour, the typography and the image, are some of the visual elements that constitute a system, that is to say, some design principles that relate signs in terms of style and meaning, to create a certain idea about an object. With these articulations among the elements of Visual Identity, an organization publicly expresses its Identity and its way of being [25]. According to Villafañe [14] “Corporate Visual Identity is the symbolic translation of an organization’s Corporate Identity, expressed in a program or manual with rules which establishes the procedures to apply it correctly” and considers that those design principles are essential to the correct selection and manipulation of the necessary signs to the translation and symbolic expression of the identity, as well as to the visual coherence. Visual identity is not an isolated phenomenon limited to what is seen, but rather oriented by a plane or code, and conditioned by public perception or image. According to Solas [26 p. 40] “It is a controlled mixture of all the resources of visual manifestation that has an identity. Fundamentally this presupposes a mastery of all those resources, a strategic planning of their dosage and their interrelationship, and an optimization of yields, also coming to a conscious programming.” For this author, there are mainly visual signs, organized in a system whose narrative is in agreement with the style to be created, the interests of the market and what is the Corporate Identity. The idea is rein‐ forced by Villafañe [14 p. 68], when he explains that “a program of visual identity is a repertoire of basic elements regulated by a combinatorial code that establishes the program itself” it is important to understand how these visual signs are presented to the public and how they create meaning individually or as a group. As a programmed system, the Corporate Visual Identity contributes to generate the Corporate Image. According to Zimmermann [25 p. 38] “the Corporate Image tran‐ scends the graphic image. The concept underlying the positioning of the Corporate Image consists of the consideration that anything tangible, visible or even intangible from a company can be understood as an representation of it; As a way and means by which is manifested its being, its identity.” According to Kennedy [27], the concept of Corporate Image was born in 1950s and the purpose of an “ideal” corporate image was first mooted by Charles Swanson in 1957, but restricted to the consumer’s perspective and, in the following year, Pierre Martineau defended the necessity of managing the Corporate Image, arguing that the company should communicate to various audiences. Costa [10] clarifies that Corporate Image does not correspond to Design, nor to graphic images, but to a mental image created by the public in relation to what it considers to be an organization. This is the most consensual notion about Corporate Image,

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although some authors apply the same concept only to explain internal organizational aspects [28]. The image lends itself to confusion, since it may correspond to the image as an object graphic representation (eikon) or to the object idea, a mental or imaginary image (imago) [10]. Therefore, in this context, the term image refers to the image, and corresponds to an analysis performed by the public as a result of all the data obtained by the stakeholders about Corporate Identity (which may originate from different interpretations or images). According to Finn [11 p. 93], “by definition images are impressions and mental pictures about things” also used to represent an idea about organizations. The corporate image is a social phenomenon, one that results from a collective process more or less coincident, in which a set of stimuli is recognized and filtered (selected), decoded, reinterpreted (based on associations) and organized by classes, archetypes or clichés [29]. Although it may seem an individual and differentiated process, Martins [19] states that, although each individual connects as one in particular, all people are able to identify and classify equally an emotionally correct archetype visually communicated. Tajada [13] considers that Corporate Image (or Corporate Brand) is a set of adjectives spontaneously associated, and produced, by a given stimulus that creates mental and collective beliefs or stereotypes; Which is not static, but a community phenomenon, with a dynamic structure that varies according to its social, political, competition and business environment. The Corporate Image designates a mental representation, a sum of associations and meanings apprehended by diverse experiences originated by “effective opinions and knowledge, physical and symbolic attributes, benefits and feelings, graphics, slogans, people, events and everything that comes to mind when people are confronted with an object (brand, product, organization, service) or with its representation.” This is a set of stimuli interpreted, selected and organized in a distinguishing way (depending on the convictions and personal interests of a group of people) to form a coherent picture in their mind [29 p. 30]. Hefting [8] presents the same definition, stating that Corporate Image corresponds to the image of the company, which is created by the public “as a matter of course and is determined by the general attitude of the employers and employees in A business”, in addition to the value judgment of products design and other elements of Visual Identity, Advertising and Public Relations. In the view of Kennedy [27], one of the first to include employees’ perspective, the Corporate Image must be factually based on its Corporate Identity if it is to be sustained in the long run, because it will be based on a real plan, which truly conditions the policies and actions of the company. Advertising, Visual Identity or corporate operations can generate a Corporate Image, but any of these isolated generate more fragile, superficial and deceptive results. Like organizations, their products and services can be represented by a brand. But brand functions have altered throughout human history, following different needs. It’s for the same reason the concept changed and originated so many different concepts that, although opposed, they exist simultaneously.

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Studying brand definitions, Styles and Ambler [30] concluded that from one approach, the brand is essentially viewed as a product identifier, and the others that suggest brands are added value resulting from the effects of a mix of marketing elements. The problem is easily seen if we compare the idea that a brand becomes the most valuable asset of a company (for example, Aaker, [32]) with the brand definition from the American Marketing Association [31]: “A name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of the competitors”. The brand is a concept, a connexion or experience and no longer defined by the material or tangible values [33]. It’s a sum of tangible and intangible attributes, associ‐ ated with an organization, product, service or person, which creates a concept, metaphor or mental image. The Brand is the information of Brand Image/Corporate Image [24], while Brand mark is the mark or marque that identifies the brand [34]. The Brand mark is the graphic sign used to represent the organization or brand as its signature, to identify, differentiate and relate the various media of visual communication. This graphic sign may consist in a logotype, a symbol or a mixture of both. There are many ways to shape a brand mark, since both the symbol and the logo are only two different ways to solve the same problema [24]. Feldwick [35] identified three perspectives on brand equity: the brand as total value and a separable asset; as the contact of consumer attachment to the brand; and as the assotiations and beliefs held by the public about a brand. This concludes that brand equity should be substituted for brand concept, which is a collection of perceptions in people mind, selected according to their own purposes. However, according to Costa [16] it is impossible to divide the brand from the organisation without changing it, and for these reason the brand is not a separate entity.

5

General Conclusions

Most of the explained concepts are related to how people construct meaning in society. For this reason, they are mainly intangible, difficult to limit and to define. And the complexity of each concept contrasts with the superficial way in which the terms are used, on how tools are created to measure them, on how brands are registered and why some brand management models don’t represent an holistic view. It became clear how Corporate Culture originated as the social phenomenon that is Corporate Identity, which is characterized by attributes, ideologies and values shared and assumed as own by the organization. In contrast to what is artificial, an invention or an imposition, Brand Personality results from a strategic selection of Corporate Identity meanings and its characterization of feeling and style, which contribute to a clear positioning, differentiation and accept‐ ance Stakeholders as a legitimate system. The Corporate Visual Identity is a process whose object is to represent the Brand Personality through design, namely by visual signs, which must be communicated by a program which contributes to the they appear as natural.

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Finally, as all decisions, both tangible and intangible aspects, contribute to the formation of Corporate Image, a set of perceptions and meanings that project a brand in the collective imagination, this is to say, in stakeholders perception. All of the above components are interdependent, because they influence each other, and with the external context of the organization, provide a clear reason why each of them is in constant transformation.

References 1. Abratt, R.: A new approach to the corporate image management process. J. Mark. Manag. 5(1), 63–76 (1989) 2. Chaves, N.: La Imagen Corporativa Teoria e metodología de la identificación institucional. Gustavo Gili S.A, Barcelona (1988) 3. van Riel, C.B., Balmer, J.M.: Corporate identity: the concept, its measurement and management. Eur. J. Mark. 31(5/6), 340–355 (1997) 4. Balmer, J.M.: Corporate branding and connoisseurship. J. Gen. Manag. 21(1), 24–46 (1995) 5. Olins, W.: Corporate Identity. Thames & Hudson, London (1989) 6. Newman, W.H.: Basic objectives which shape the character of a company. J. Bus. 26, 211– 223 (1953) 7. Davies, G., Chun, R., da Silva, R.V.: Corporate Reputation Competitiveness. Routledge, New York (2002) 8. Hefting, P.: In search for an identity: so obvious yet so complex. In: Publishing, V. (ed.) The Image of a Company: Manual for Corporate Identity, pp. 13–38. Architecture Design and Thecnology, London (1990) 9. Vilar, E.: Imagem da Banca: Análise empírica de determinantes e efeitos. Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa, Lisboa (2004) 10. Costa, J.: La imagen de empresa. Métodos de comunicación integral. Ibérico-Europea de Ediciones, Madrid (1977) 11. Finn, A.: The price of corporate vanity. Harvard Bus. Rev. 39(4), 135–143 (1961) 12. Bernstein, D.: Company Image and Reality A Critique of Corporate Communications. Holt, Rinehart & Winston Ltd., Eastbourne (1986) 13. Tajada, L.: La auditoria de la imagen de empresa: métodos y técnicas de estudio de la imagen. Editorial Sintesis, Madrid (2008) 14. Villafañe, J.: Imagen positiva: Gestión estratégica de la imagen de las empresas. Ed. Pirámide, Madrid (1993) 15. Kapferer, J.-N.: The New Strategic Brand Management. Creating and Sustaining Brand Equity Long Term. Kogan Page Limited, London (2008) 16. Costa, J.: La Imagen de Marca. Paidós Diseño, Barcelona (2004) 17. Olins, W.: The Corporate Personality: An Inquiry into the Nature of Corporate Identity. Mayflower Books, New York (1978) 18. Aaker, J.L.: Dimensions of brand personality. J. Mark. Res. XXXIV, 347–356 (1997) 19. Martins, J.: A Natureza Emocional da Marca: Como escolher a imagem que fortalece a sua marca. Negócio Editora, São Paulo (1999) 20. Davis, S.M., Dum, M.: Building the Brand Driven Business. Jossey Bass, San Francisco (2002) 21. Keller, K., Richey, K.: The importance of corporate brand personality traits to a successful 21st century business. J. Brand Manag. 14(1/2), 74–81 (2006)

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22. Azoulay, A., Kapferer, J.: Do brand personality scales really measure brand personality? J. Brand Manag. 11(2), 143–155 (2003) 23. Raposo, D.: Design de Identidade e Imagem Corporativa. Edições IPCB, Castelo Branco (2008) 24. Raposo, D.: La letra como signo de Identidad Visual Corporativa: Codificación y Decoficación del Sistema de Identidad (2012) 25. Zimmermann, Y.: Zimmermann Asociados. Gustavo Gilli, S.A., Barcelona (1993) 26. Solas, J.G.: Identidad Visual Corporativa: La imagen de nuestro tiempo. Editorial Sintesis, Madrid (2004) 27. Kennedy, S.H.: Nurturing Corporate Images: total communication or ego trip? Eur. J. Mark. 11(3), 119–164 (1977) 28. Dowling, G.R.: Developing your company image into a corporate asset. Long Range Plan. 26(2), 101–109 (1993) 29. Vilar, E.: Imagem da organização. Quimera Editores, Lisboa (2006) 30. Styles, C., Ambler, T.: Brand management. In: Crainer, S. (ed.) Financial Times Handbook of Management, pp. 581–593. Pitman, London (1995) 31. American Marketing Association: Marketing Definitions: A Glossary of Marketing Terms. AMA, Chicago (1960) 32. Aaker, D.: Managing Brand Equity. Free Press, New York (1991) 33. Medić, M., Medić, I., Pancić, M.: Mark vs. brand—term and controversies. J. Interdiscip. Manag. Res. 5, 147–154 (2009) 34. Davis, M.: More than a Name: An Introduction to Branding. Ava Academia, Lausanne (2005) 35. Feldwick, P.: Defining a brand. In: Cowley, D. (ed.) Understanding Brands: By 10 People Who Do, pp. 19–28. Kogan Page, London (1991)

Visual Perception and Contemporary Portuguese Type Design Teresa Olazabal Cabral ✉ (

)

Faculdade de Arquitetura, Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura, Urbanismo e Design (CIAUD), Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. A high-quality typeface – especially one for reading long texts – should take into consideration different constraints on visual perception. In this paper, I seek to analyze, understand and summarize these constraints as a set of principles, visually supported by the work of two Portuguese type designers. This is done based on the following three aspects: (a) Psychology and human beings’ need to assign order and sense to things; (b) Physics and biology and the need for balance experienced by any human being, the origins of which can be found partly in the law of gravity and partly in the upright position humans move around in; (c) Western culture and the establishment of the left-to-right writing and reading direction. Observing the way in which Mário Feliciano and Rui Abreu apply these principles is useful as it enables us to see how the principles are implemented and demonstrates that the designers do so carefully and creatively. Keywords: Portuguese type design · Visual perception · Optical adjustement · Mário Feliciano · Rui Abreu

1

Introduction

The typefaces we use every day to communicate, the design of which has evolved over the centuries (although they still have many similarities with the first typefaces designed immediately after the invention of the press), certainly owe a great deal of their current form to ergonomic factors. Founded on the relationship between hand and eye, and based on the connection between humans’ visual perception and the world that surrounds them (and despite the enormous amount of diversity possible), all good typefaces share a series of formal factors that promote readability. As Gerard Unger [1] states: “Their eyes instructed their hands to adapt the letterforms so that their eyes could better read them.” Or, as Bringhurst [2] says, typefaces’ forms and the way they are set have found their raison d’être in “the structure and scale of the human body – the eye, the hand and the forearm in particular – and on the invisible but no less real, no less demanding and no less sensuous anatomy of the human mind.” In this paper, I will summarize some of the visual perception factors that influence the forms of letters, analyzing a selection of typefaces by Portuguese designer Mário © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_61

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Feliciano that clearly show us how those factors influenced the form of his typographical creations.

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Gestalt Psychology and Visual Perception as the Search for Sense and Order

One of the most important “discoveries” of Gestalt psychology that, in fact, underpins all of its other principles, is that human beings assign sense and order to everything they see, and that order obeys some organizational features. Sensory stimuli are captured by the retina and “processed” in the brain in order to capture some inherent organization in the object that is seen. In fact, the laws of organization that are at play, according to this theory, explain why we find order in the apparent complexity of visual stimuli that give us access the world around us. The novelty of this discovery, introduced in the mid-20th century by Wertheimer, Köhler and Koffka [3] would later be furthered by Arnheim [4], who believed it to be fundamental to the field of visual communication. 2.1 Underlying Principles One of the fundamental principles supporting this understanding of the sensory world is the famous law of Prägnanz, which holds that when we perceive a given object (or figure), we tend to encounter an organization that will always be as “good” as possible, given the actual conditions. In other words, within the apparent chaos of all visual stimuli to which we are subjected, we tend to find an underlying order that somehow “simplifies” the apprehension of what surrounds us, making it easier to understand in visual terms. Further to this, there is another principle, and the two are entirely interdependent. The second principle is the finding that we do not perceive what we see in a movement that goes from the particular to the general. On the contrary, we start with a general understanding of an implicit structure and only later analyze the parts that form it. Our visual perception of the world that surrounds us is therefore not chaotic, despite the apparent chaos of the stimuli, but we are able, if the conditions so allow, to build what these psychologists called a Gestalt: a coherent, convincing product. When we see what is around us, we capture a meaningful whole, the sense of which goes far beyond the sum of its parts, since it forms something meaningful. This is perhaps the most important concept in the psychology of form: the idea that perception is not a passive capacity but, on the contrary, a dynamic capacity that is able to introduce a structural meaning to the interpretation or construction of any visual communication object. As well as these basic principles, the Gestalt school also introduced the idea that perception acts based on dynamic forces that “segregate” or “unify”, depending on the strength of each one of those factors, to help create a better organization of structure.

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2.2 Consequences for Type Design: Relevant Principles Principle of Figure–Ground Segregation. First and foremost, the most relevant aspect of the organization of perception for our field of study – without which it would not even be possible to read a text or recognize a letter – is our perception’s separation of an image into two different planes, which are customarily called “figure” and “ground”. Two fundamental characteristics of this distinction are that the figure tends to be the smaller (due to the forces of segregation) and more structured form (caused by the forces of unification). The ground tends to be larger and more diffuse, and is often even perceived as being unlimited. This is intimately linked to the fact that we believe the figure to be found at the front and the ground at the back. In effect, the two-dimensionality that we assume we see in a set of letters has, in reality, a third dimension, since we tend to see figures – the forms of the letters – as being arranged on a plane that is in front of the ground, and the ground is, naturally, located on a plane that is further away. In other words, if we see a figure on a ground, that means that the ground does not cease to exist where the figure is located, but remains behind it. That is why we usually do not look at letters as black forms alternating with white forms, but as black, “positive” forms on top of a white, “negative” and unlimited form. However, the form is not independent from the background and this awareness is essen‐ tial to type design, since form and counter have an influence over each other. Principle of Similarity. This principle states that, through a force of “unification”, we tend to group together and create a separate unit for forms that are similar to one another. This similarity may relate to size, shape, color, texture or location in space. Similarity of form is one of the principles that is at the foundation of designing a typeface. The shapes of serifs, terminals or counters, for example, unify several different letters of the same typeface and add cohesion to the words formed of those letters, making them part of the same system. Principle of Proximity. This principle states that, through a force of “unification”, we tend to group together and create a separate unit for forms that are similar to one another. This similarity may relate to size, shape, color, texture or location in space. Similarity of form is one of the principles that is at the foundation of designing a typeface. The shapes of serifs, terminals or counters, for example, unify several different letters of the same typeface and add cohesion to the words formed of those letters, making them part of the same system. Principle of Good Continuation. This principle refers to the fact that our perception tends to extend or unify straight and curved forms following the same direction and movement. This principle is important for the forms of some letters, for example in the construc‐ tion of the letter x. Principle of Closure. This principle assumes that closed areas are more stable.

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In the design of letterforms, this principle comes into play and should be taken into consideration in the aperture of letters like c and e. For example, if the aperture in c were very closed, we could easily confuse a c with an o. This happens not just because the forms are similar but also because if the aperture is very small, we tend to complete the c, closing it. Subordination of All These Principles to the Law of Prägnanz. Finally, all the prin‐ ciples mentioned above are subordinate to the law of Prägnanz, in other words, the more any one principle contributes to creating a “simple” form, the greater its force. Fluidity and simplicity are indispensable characteristics for designing a good typeface.

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Visual Perception as a Search of Visual Balance

The order sought by perception and expressed in some of the Gestalt psychology prin‐ ciples listed above is also the result of a search for balance that is innate to human beings. When there is balance, there is cohesion between the different elements that form a word and between the different words that make up a sentence. This is the central issue for the visual appearance of a text. 3.1 Vertical and Horizontal Axes as the Main Standards of Balance We can find the origins of the need for balance felt by any human being partly in the physical world in which we live, where the main active force is the law of gravity, and partly in human beings’ upright position [5]. Balance is therefore created through a constant relationship between this prevailing vertical point of reference and another, horizontal point of reference. The two axes in turn determine the relative weight and direction of the different forms in a composition so that the desired balance can be found. Since the direction of the force of gravity is naturally from top to bottom, in relation to our position, this has the visual consequence of making equal forms in different loca‐ tions in space have different weights in the composition: generally speaking, the further up a form is placed, the heavier its weight will be. Regarding the horizontal axis, we find that equal elements placed in a composition do not have the same weight if they are placed to the left or to the right – the one on the right appears to be heavier. This is due to both physiological reasons and cultural reasons: the invention of the Latin alphabet and the establishment of the left-to-right writing and reading direction are determining factors for our visual perception. In fact, as Kerkhove [6] states, the type of writing used substantially changes our relationship with the world around us because it does actually determine our relationship with space/time. It plays a decisive role a priori, i.e. the way the brain works leads to a certain type of writing having a certain direction, but it also plays a decisive role a posteriori, i.e. prolonged use of one type of writing ends up changing how our brain works.

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This conclusion is based on a finding: all alphabet writing systems that do not have vowels, such as Hebrew and Arabic, are written from right to left, and almost all writing systems that contain consonants and vowels, as is the case of the Latin alphabet, are written from left to right. According to Kerkhove, this happens because the reading processes are intrinsically different: – For alphabets in which vowels are not graphically represented, vowels must be “guessed”, that is, deciphered from the context, the set of signs of which they are part. In this case, the image must be grasped as a whole, which is better achieved by the brain in the left visual field (and in the right-hand side of the brain). – Conversely, for writing that uses the Latin alphabet, in which all sounds – vowels and consonants – are represented, reading is done sequentially – one letter after another, one syllable after another, one word after another – and that sequence cannot be changed or it may modify the meaning of the text. In the latter case, the sequence is more easily recognized from left to right (and is processed in the left-hand side of the brain) because visual sequences are more easily recognized in the left visual field. In turn, the direction may determine the way in which we visually relate with the world: by intensifying the importance of the sequence, alphabetic writing gives priority to time over space. Returning to the Gestalt theory, we find that while the idea that “the whole is some‐ what different from the sum of its parts” is a phenomenon perhaps common to all cultures, the way in which the “best possible organization” is processed can vary from one culture to another. And, specifically, the fact that we write and read from left to right has a decisive influence on the relationship between our visual perception and the visual world that surrounds us. This is even more relevant for letter design, since it does not involve simply achieving pictorial visual balance but also means guiding readers in a direction that, as we have seen, is somewhat natural to them – the left-to-right direction – but that must, above all, work against the force of the vertical direction.

4

Summary of the Fundamental Principles to Take into Account When Designing a Typeface: The Importance of Optical Corrections

Based on the explanation above, and underpinned by research by Noordzij [7], Hochuli [8] and, more recently, Henestrosa, Meseguer and Scaglione [9], I have defined some principles to take into consideration in typographical forms. 4.1 Three General Principles Visual Balance Between a Character’s Form and Its Counter. This principle should naturally be present from the very beginning when designing the form of any letter: the awareness that when designing the form of a letter we are also designing its counter –

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its negative space – and that the two influence each other is essential to creating the necessary pace for reading. Visual Balance Between the Different Characters of a Typeface and the Spaces Between Them. Closely connected to the previous point, it is essential to typeface design that, as a whole, the different characters and the spaces between them have an equivalent typographic color, i.e. an identical visual weight, to enable them to form an even texture that is essential to the legibility and pace of a text. Building Clear, Regular Forms. It is also important for type designers to have the ability to create forms that give us the impression of being clearly equal or sharply different. Visual perception always seeks balance and does not like ambiguity, as has already been established. However, due to the phenomena described above regarding differences in weight of the same form depending on the relative position that it occupies in a composition, for two forms to appear equal or symmetrical, they must be so optically, from a visual perception perspective, which does not mean that they are necessarily equal from a geometrical point of view. It is just as important for the strokes of a letter to flow and have a harmonious appearance. When there is balance, there is cohesion between the different elements that form a word and between the different words that make up a sentence. This is the central issue for the visual appearance of a text. 4.2 Some Specific Principles Based on the contributions by the authors mentioned above, but also on contributions by Pohlen [10] and Beier [11], I can now establish some specific and fundamental aspects to be taken into account when designing a typeface, always underpinned by the three principles described at the beginning. Difference in Thickness of Vertical and Horizontal Strokes. In light of the already mentioned difference between vertical force and horizontal force in visual perception, in order for a horizontal stroke to appear the same as a vertical stroke, it must be thinner. This optical phenomenon may be relevant, for example, in the design of capital H or T in sans-serif typefaces (naturally there are typefaces in which the strokes are actually intended to be different but, in any case, this phenomenon must be borne in mind, in that our perception reduces that difference). The same effect occurs in curved forms and should be taken into account in numerous characters, including O and G, the vertical curved parts of which should be thicker than the horizontal curved parts (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. The optical corrections in T and the O from the geometric type Azo Sans from Rui Abreu.

Difference in Thickness Between Straight and Curved Strokes. For there to be harmony between curved forms and straight forms that are intended to be close to one another, the curved strokes should be drawn slightly thicker than the straight lines. This is likely due to the movement and momentum produced by the curved lines, which makes them lighter (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Difference in thickness in the strokes from the type Eudald News from Mário Feliciano.

Difference Between Optical Center and Geometric Center. For the two parts of a letter to appear equal, the upper part must be smaller, which is the same as saying that the optical center must be slightly above the geometric center. This can be seen, for example, in capital H, E, X and O (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Difference between optical center and geometric center in Azo Sans from Rui Abreu e Morgan Sans from Mário Feliciano. By rotating 180° E and X, one can see the optical corrections that make top and bottom halves appear equal

Difference Between Optical Height and Geometric Height. For the different forms to appear to have the same height, we have to distinguish between square or rectangular forms, triangular forms and circular forms: circles and triangles that are the same height as a square or rectangle appear to be shorter, even when they are exactly the same height. For example, capital A and O should be slightly taller than capital H, T, E or F (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Garda from Mário Feliciano

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Correcção óptica dos pontos de união dos traços. At the points where curved strokes, or curved and straight strokes, or two sloped strokes meet, it creates a visual impression that there is an obstruction that should be corrected so that the form of the letter is fluid, dynamic and does not appear to be a “collage” of several mismatched forms. This is particularly relevant for sans-serif typefaces, since the lack of contrast between the strokes encourages this effect. To overcome it, a kind notch can be introduced, shifting the apex formed by the meeting of the two strokes downwards and thereby reducing the thickness of the stroke. Alternatively, the vertical stroke can be sloped obliquely (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Morgan Sans from Mário Feliciano

Influence of the Counter on the Form of a Letter According to Its Relative Position in the Composition. The white background that can be seen within a letter – the counter – influences its form, according to the accepted principle that figure and ground influence each other. This is particularly evident in certain letters, like lower-case n and u. Although n can simply be an upside down u, it should not be so if we take this phenom‐ enon into consideration. The light – the color of the ground that influences our perception of the form – coming from above is more active than the light coming from below (because, I believe, the light finds no resistance from the law of gravity in that direction) and so the character n should be drawn with a counter that is slightly larger than the counter of the u of the same font (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6. Comparison of counterforms of n and u in Geronimo type from Mário Feliciano. On the right, overlapping the u, in outline, the letter n inverted has a slightly larger counterform.

Apparent Continuation of Discontinuous Oblique Strokes. One of the principles of the Gestalt theory focuses on the fact that our perception tends to find continuance in strokes. This is particularly relevant in letters that, like the character X, for example, are composed of two intersecting strokes, from a simplicity of form standpoint. However, when two oblique strokes of differing thickness intersect, it gives the impression that the thinner stroke has shifted upwards and so the two strokes appear not to match. So, for the stroke to appear to be continuous, the thinner stroke should deviate, as we can see in the figure below (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Character X in Plural from Rui Abreu and Flama from Mário Feliciano

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Conclusion

From an ergonomic standpoint, our visual perception is effectively determined by phys‐ ical, biological and cultural factors, which I have analyzed and summarized into a set of principles over the course of this article. I have found, at the same time, that some letters from typefaces by the Portuguese designers Mário Feliciano and Rui Abreu are not only suitable for this analysis but are also excellent examples that demonstrate to us how the principles set out can be put into practice in high-quality typographical forms. The designers demonstrate a clear knowledge of these visual perception postulates in the creation of each one of the typefaces they design and, furthermore, they combine that knowledge with sensitivity and creativity.

References 1. Unger, G.: While You’re Reading, p. 92. Mark Batty Publisher, New York (2006) 2. Bringhurst, R.: The Elements of Typographic Style, p. 10. Hartley & Marks Publishers, Vancouver (1997) 3. Koffka, K.: Principles of Gestalt Psycologie. Routledge, London (2013) 4. Arnheim, R.: Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye. University of California Press, Berkeley (1974) 5. Dondis, A.: A Primer of Visual Literacy. The Mit Press, Cambridge (1973) 6. Kerkhove, D.: The Skin of Culture: Investigating the New Electronic Reality. Somerville House Pub., Toronto (1995) 7. Noordzij, G.: The Stroke: Theory of Writing. Hyphen Press, London (2006) 8. Hochuli, J.: El Detalle en la Tipografia. Campgràfic Editors, Barcelona (2007) 9. Henestrosa, C., Meseguer, L., Scaglione, J.: Cómo Crear Tipografias. Tipo e Editorial, Madrid (2012) 10. Pohlen, J.: La Fontaine aux Lettres: sur les Caractères d’Impresssion. Taschen, Koln (2011) 11. Beier, S.: Reading Letters: Designing for Legibility. Bis Publishers, Amsterdam (2012)

Usage of Mobile Phones Amongst Elderly People in Pakistan Zunaira Ilyas Bhutta1 ✉ , Javed Anjum Sheikh1, and Azeem Yousaf2 (

)

1

The University of Lahore, Gujrat, Pakistan [email protected], [email protected] 2 University of Gujrat, Sialkot Campus, Sialkot, Pakistan [email protected]

Abstract. The cumulative development and utilization of innovation presents encounters for older people and they often experience trouble in utilizing new innovation. This research observed the smart phone usage patterns and preference of specific functions among older people in Pakistan. Two methods are used to investigate the results. Firstly, focus group discussion (FGD) was directed to eight older smart phone users to explore their utilization patterns and issues of usage. The second method is a questionnaire survey, a questionnaire was administrated to 100 participants aged 45 and over to comprehend their inclination of smart phone functions. The research discovered that some specific smart phone func‐ tions were thought to be more imperative for older people. The eleven functions most frequently used by the respondents are calling, display date and time, emer‐ gency button, address book, camera, calculator, alarm, contact pictures, wi-fi Internet, calendar and torch. The outcomes of this research can facilitate the design of smart phones for the older populace. Keywords: Older people · Focus group · Smart phone · Questionnaire

1

Introduction

Cell phones have turned out to be fundamental inventive devices [1]. In Pakistan the mobile phone subscriber’s rate is up to 137 million in January 2017 [2]. A few zones of the world have acknowledged rapid deployment and high penetration of mobile telephony [3]. Advanced mobile phones (smartphone) offer various helpful functions to improve individual satisfaction of older people; however such new capacities are barely being utilized by older people [4]. The necessities and prerequisites of older people are typically not given satisfactory attention. Older people favor specific functions as opposed to each and every single feature available in smartphones [5]. Nevertheless, older people have revealed they experience dissatisfaction and uneasiness when coop‐ erating with smartphones. Older people may think that it’s harder to use innovation than the younger age population [6]. In [7] it is investigated that older people demonstrated very low performance than the younger ones, while using smartphone. Furthermore, older people take additional time to fulfill task and took over 40% extra silly steps than the younger ones. They might © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_62

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not want to change and have pressure sentiments towards new advancements [8]. The prerequisites and requirements of older individuals are normally not given adequate thought [9]. In addition, current mobile industry is basically focused on youth who incline toward little gadgets with multifunction. There are likewise individual and external variables that influence the adoption of smartphones by older people. Older people have issues while using mobile phones with small size screens and content, small buttons and intricate functionalities because they have weak memory, visual capabilities, and hearing affectability as compared to young populace [8]. The majority of mobile phones today incorporate simple and more propelled functions like address book, cameras, Mp3, email, global positioning system, video calling and so on. It is not clear that weather these devices address the issues of older people. Cell phones with less functionality possibly will not fulfill user demands, whereas including excessively numerous functions will make the mobile phone more intricate for older people [10]. Due to the particular physiological and psychosocial attributes are not exactly the same as the younger groups on the prerequisites and the necessities of mobile phone utilization. In this way, it is critical to comprehend and perceive the functionalities which are seen to be valuable for older people. However the sensible functions can enhance the convenience and decrease the problem of smartphone usage [11]. Also the knowledge about the usage of smartphone by older people provides the understanding on the most proficient method to enhance the functionality and design of smartphones. This research concentrated on the utilization of smartphone by older people in Pakistan with emphasis on their inclination for specific functions.

2

Literature Review

Though many researches have been undertaken worldwide but least consideration has been given on this issue in Pakistan. An overview of existing literature on older adult and smartphone use will first be covered before moving into the particular research questions. 2.1 Mobile Phone In fact, mobile phones as we probably know them today have just been around over the most recent 20 years. The very first mobile phone created for practical was by a Motorola worker [12]. A mobile phone can be characterized as a phone with access to a cellular radio framework so it can be utilized over a wide range, without a physical association with a network system [13]. About 9 in 10 families, including rural, poor and unbanked have admittance to a mobile phone and a SIM card. A huge percentage have more than 1 mobile phone client [14]. In recent years mobile phone utilization has multiplied. A couple zones of the world have enchanted fast deployment and high penetration of mobile phone communication. Portable devices utilization is a wonder that has crossed all age and gender limits world‐ wide [15]. Most of the mobile phones nowadays are tended to as “smartphone” as they offer more impelled processing power and networking than a contemporary mobile

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phone. Smartphone is a champion among the most acclaimed buyer things in the planet. As innovation advancement has ended up being more flexible and make people more connected, there is continues to be a distinction between non-native and native users of computerized media [16]. The rate of people having a smartphone is dynamically emerging, in spite of the way that greater part of them doesn’t use a huge portion of these propelled functions. Before the smartphone invented, mobile phones were essential for correspondence. Mobile phones are gadgets that could be utilized remotely in wide zones by giving association with cellular systems through radio waves [13]. Mobile phones gained so much prevalence since they permit individuals to keep in contact and have simple access to information anyplace and at whatever time [17]. With the advancement of the infor‐ mation and communication technology, mobile phones have turned into a need of current life. In 2014, the smartphone endorses has come to more than 4.55 billion domestically [18] and in the vicinity of 2013 and 2017, smart phone penetration will ascend from 61.1% to 69.4% of the worldwide populace [19]. 2.2 Smartphone Smartphones speak to an imperative piece of present day life, since they empower us to impart from about everywhere, get to the internet, check messages and social networks. The term smartphone is not something new to everybody. Since the first smartphone, the IBM Simon was first mentioned in 1992 and released to the market in 1994 [20]. A smartphone can perform large number of functions of a PC, regularly having a touch screen interface, access to internet, and an operating system (OS) fit for running installed applications [21]. As the world turned out to be progressively interconnected, both monetarily and socially, innovation adoption stays one of the challenging factors in human evolution. There has been a detectable ascent in the course of recent years in the rate of individuals in the emerging nations who say that they utilize the internet and own a smartphone [22]. Smartphones shows up in the market for likewise quite a while however didn’t get much consideration from researchers. As of now, an expanded number of smartphones are equipped with more propelled sensors such as, gyroscope, fingerprint ID, acceler‐ ometer, digital compass and barometer [23]. It is certain that smartphone applications are the principle features that empower smartphones to be valuable gadgets and expan‐ sions of mobile phones. As a final point, smartphones offer adaptability in the way that smartphones can be associated with different gadgets, for example TV’s additionally used to long activities, cars, electronic gadgets in apartments [24]. Hence, it can be presumed that smartphones offer massive advantages to users. 2.3 Older People It is evaluated that the extent of the total populace aged 60 years and older will achieve 22% by 2050 [25]. In spite of boundaries, for example cost, the user-friendliness of hardware and imperviousness to change, many older people as of now get benefits from

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new advancements. The principle functions utilized are those empowering them to stay in contact routinely and economically with friends and family [26]. Without uncertainty, user age is another essential variable influencing performance when handling interface design of mobile phone. Age is incorporated into a few adoption models and it corresponds frequently with aim and utilization of mobile technology. Age is the only main critical indicator for utilization of mobile phone services [27]. Age assumes and essential part in acknowledgment of new technology [28, 29]. Older people are a little slower yet there is no noteworthy contrast in precision and recommended that older people support accuracy over speed [30]. Aging is a progression of move from set of social parts to another structure by soci‐ ety’s social system. There has been a concurrent improvement in society between the evolutions of older populaces and the prevalence of innovation [31]. Older individuals articulated some dissatisfaction and satisfaction with their mobile phones [6]. It is significant that the mobile phone designers and manufac‐ turers must address the issues of older people. Older people are moderately inactive adopters with fears of the results of utilizing new advancements, for example reduced face to face communications. They like functionalities that bolster their declining functional abilities [32]. 2.4 Smartphone Acceptance and Adoption Age plays as a central factor in smartphone adoption as individuals under 30 over the world will probably possess own smart devices [33]. The word “technology” is gotten from the Greek word technologia which implies the systematic study of art [34]. A normally utilized contemporary meaning of technology is “the use of all logical infor‐ mation, including instruments, strategies, items, processes, and methods to perform practical tasks” [35]. Seeing how individuals acknowledge an innovation is about inno‐ vation as well as vigorously relies on sociology and psychology. Researches has noted different findings, demonstrating that some older people show up very accepting and interested in adopting innovation [35]. In spite of the fact it is critical to consider older people attitudes and sentiments with respect to innovation. In other words, evaluating older individuals abilities might be prescient of innovation adoption.

3

Research Problem

The older people in Pakistan are willing to use smartphones but these phones are not fulfilling their requirements. Different age characteristics affected their acceptance of smartphones and cause problems in smartphone utilization. The available smartphones propelled features did not fulfill the expectations of older people which affect their performance, acceptance and adoption of smartphones.

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625

Research Objective

The objectives of this research are: • Understanding of the smartphone utilization among Pakistani older people • Identification of the specific functions that older people prefer to use.

5

Methodology

This research consolidated both the quantitative and qualitative methods. Questionnaire survey and focus group approach are used for information accumulation. 5.1 Focus Group Discussion It is an approach to accumulate people from similar backgrounds to examine a specific topic of concentration. This group of participants is directed by a person (moderator) who presents topic for debate and helps the group to contribute inenergetic and natural discussion among themselves [36]. A focus group discussion is directed among a sample of 8 older smartphone users who are 45+ years old. The discussion is led to investigate the usage patterns, the advantages and problems encountered by older people when utilizing smartphones. The discussion lasted for 3 h. 5.2 Questionnaire Survey A questionnaire is an instrument that is included an arrangement of questions to be examined to the participants of the survey [37]. In this research a questionnaire survey is directed to discover which specific smartphone functions are seen to be imperative for older people. This survey consist of total 23 mobile phone functionalities which are, make a phone call, date and time display, emergency button, Phone address book, camera, calculator, alarm, messaging, calendar, mini games, contact pictures, speed dialing, bluetooth, wi-fi internet, radio, MP3 ringtones, playing videos, notepad, email, global positioning system, sound recording, torch and MP3 songs. These 23 functions were selected because they were moderately basic among different manufacturers of mobile phones. Survey participants are requested to pick the functionalities which were essential to them. Participants are permitted to pick more than one functions. A sample of 200 participants participates in this research, including 94 females and 134 males. Every one of the participants is smart phone user over age 45+ years.

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Results

6.1 Focus Group Discussion It is utilized to examine the perceptions, mentalities and points of interest of utilizing mobile phones and in addition the issues of usage. Participants respond that calling was the frequently used function and also the principal purpose behind purchase of a mobile phone. Older people received calls more than making calls. The discussion respondents demonstrated that they once in a while utilized additional functionalities of mobile phones, for example text messaging, bluetooth etc. This research analyzed the advan‐ tages or most significant functions of mobile phone perceived by the older people. Respondents distinguished the issues or challenged they encountered while utilizing smart phone. These issues can be categorized in to three aspects. The fundamental point of view was identified is the interface design. Respondents respond that some phones screens are too small to hold, battery time is substantially shorter and smartphone is easy to be broken. The content on screen is too small to peruse. Keys (icon size) are small and packed. The second perspective is related with unconventionality of function oper‐ ations. Older people may realize that there are many functions but they don’t know how to utilize them or they actually want to be less connected. They need some particular functions with which they feel comfortable while using them, rather than complicated ones. The older people indicated incidental dialing happens due to incapability of locking the keyboard. Another issue is that there are several buttons on the interface which yields diverse functions. Also, the respondents rarely use test message service because they didn’t know how to input text and discovered it difficult to learn. The third part of the issue is the cost of utilizing the mobile phone and related services. 6.2 Questionnaire Survey A survey questionnaire is directed to examine the specific functions which are most useful and significant for older people. The participants were asked to choose most important functionalities among a given rundown of 23 functions. Figure 1 show the most frequently used functions frequencies based on priorities. It is found that older people choose eleven most routinely indicated functions which are Calling, display date and time, Address book, emergency button, alarm, camera, calculator, calendar, contact pictures, torch and wi-fi internet. The rest of the functions are utilized rarely. The result showed that the specific crucial functions like calling are more important older users. It shows that older people had positive attitude towards smartphone usage because it improves their quality of life. They want to use smartphone for limited purposes. They don’t want to use additional features (Radio, Bluetooth, Mini games, Text messaging, MP3 Ringtones, speed dialing, Playing MP3 Ringtones, Playing Video, Notepad, Global positioning system, sound recording, Email etc.) with which they feel uncomfortable. According to the results calling was the most preferred and useful function for older people. Calling was at the highest ranking order because of its ease of use and usefulness. Respondents indicated that calling was easy as it involves only a few steps to perform.

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Fig. 1. Most frequently used smartphone functions by older people.

Smartphones are also useful for seeking quick information about date and time and it enhances the time management. As with age with weak working memory of older people the address book help them to record phone numbers. It is highly useful because it makes connecting people easier but also enables to identify incoming calls and messages. Smartphones are an important device in emergency situation specially for the older people. The emergency function provides the emergency assistance to the person when needed. The alarm and calendar function helps them to schedule their activities on time. Which help them in reminding any upcoming activities etc. It is a little bit complicated function. Camera is also commonly used function by respondents for taking pictures and videos. Contact pictures helps respondents to recognize the incoming calls. In general, specific smartphone functions are of high importance for older people. The physical and cognitive barriers lead the older people to only use the specific functions instead of advanced functions. Older people basically use smartphones for communication. In conclusion smartphones including only the useful functions and with the simple operation interface may improve the acceptance of device for older users.

7

Conclusion

Mobile phone can offer various advantages to older people. On the other hand, the excessive functions in a mobile phone which are unnecessary for older people make the phone more complicated and effect the usability. This research examined that older

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people interested in using (few functions) the specific functions and showed little interest in other additional functionalities. In Pakistan older people are inactive mobile phone users because they mostly use it to be connected. The main reason and benefit of smart phone utilization by older people is to keep up associations with somebody sincerely near to them. They also used the mobile phone to search for the information like time, date, phone numbers, they use camera for taking photos, wi-fi internet for social networking etc. The result of this research provides a list of functions that manufacturers must be considered while designing a phone for older people. Older people reported anxiety and disappointments in their associations with mobile phones, which prescribe that present cell phone technology, are not all around intended to suit older people constraints and abilities. To restrict the issues of older individuals, it is critical to pick up a reasonable comprehension of user needs. The specific features desired by older people are Calling, display date and time, Address book, emergency button, alarm, camera, calculator, calendar, contact pictures, torch and wi-fi internet. Additionally, the design and interface ought to be reasonable and custom-made for older people. A flawless user friendly mobile phone design needs to involve older people during design process to focus on their perceptual, psychological and unique needs. Mobile phones with large size buttons (icon size), high volume, large content, easy to understandable menu etc. are ideal for older users. At the end, smart phones with just the helpful specific functions, with easy to operate interface may enhance the adoption and acceptance of mobile phones among older people.

References 1. Invention & Adoption—The History of the Mobile Phone. Mobilephones.umwblogs.org (2017). http://mobilephones.umwblogs.org/invention/. Accessed 10 Apr 2017 2. Mobile phone users in Pakistan reach 137 million. Dispatch News Desk (2017). http:// www.dnd.com.pk/mobile-phone-users-in-pakistan-reach-137-million/125106. Accessed 10 Apr 2017 3. Osman, M., Zawawi Talib, A., Sanusi, Z., Yen, T., Alwi, A.: An exploratory study on the trend of smartphone usage in a developing country. In: Communications in Computer and Information Science, pp. 387–396 (2011) 4. Joe, J., Demiris, G.: Older adults and mobile phones for health: a review. J. Biomed. Inform. 46(5), 947–954 (2013) 5. Mohadisdudis, H., Ali, N.: A study of smartphone usage and barriers among the elderly. In: 2014 3rd International Conference on User Science and Engineering (i-USEr) (2014) 6. Zhou, J., Rau, P., Salvendy, G.: Older adults’ use of smart phones: an investigation of the factors influencing the acceptance of new functions. Behav. Inf. Technol. 33(6), 552–560 (2013) 7. Ziefle, M., Bay, S.: How older adults meet complexity: aging effects on the usability of different mobile phones. Behav. Inf. Technol. 24(5), 375–389 (2005) 8. Kurniawan, S.: Older people and mobile phones: a multi-method investigation. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 66(12), 889–901 (2008)

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The Influence of Ergonomics Aspects on the Use of Hydrotherapy Equipment by Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Specialists Perspective Ricardo Schwinn Rodrigues(&), Susana Cristina Domenech, and Marcelo Gitirana Gomes Ferreira College of Arts – Ceart, Santa Catarina State University, Av. Madre Benvenuta, 2007 Itacorubi, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This paper analyzes the most and least used upper limb aquatic equipment for hydrotherapy/hydro kinesiology specialists in the treatment of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). By using questionnaires, the paper identifies the ergonomic aspects considered positive or negative by specialists, as related to the manual equipment/patient interactions, and shows that price and market availability are the main reasons for the use of any equipment. The study discusses ergonomic adaptations needed to make hydrotherapy equipment suitable for usage with RA patients. Keywords: Aquatic equipment interface
Hand held equipment Design
Hydrotherapy


Ergonomics
Interaction
Equipment
Manual equipment
Rheumatoid arthritis


1 Introduction Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, systemic, autoimmune disease with unknown etiology and no cure, clinically characterized by a peripheral inflammatory process in the patient’s body. The impairments occur mainly in the synovial membrane of the joints, responsible for its lubrication, resulting in an inflammation denominated as synovitis, causing increased volume and stiffness of the impaired joint, and possible bone destruction [1, 2]. Other commonly noted results of the inflammatory process are deviations in the hands, elbows, wrist, neck, jaw and ankle. In addition, the patient may present extra articular manifestations such as: anemia, dry eyes and complications in the lungs and heart [3]. It is estimated that RA affects 0.46% of the Brazilian population, with an incidence 3 times higher in women, manifesting it around 50–60 years [4]. For the detection of new cases the American College of Rheumatology criteria is commonly used, which are: 1. Morning stiffness Morning stiffness lasting at least 1 h until Maximum improvement; 2. Arthritis of three or more joint areas; 3. Arthritis of the joints of the hands; 4. Symmetric arthritis 5. Rheumatoid nodules; 6. Positive rheumatoid factor; © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_63

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7. Radiographic changes. To be classified as having RA, the patient must meet at least 4 of the 7 criteria, and criteria 1–4 must be present for at least 4 weeks [5]. The deterioration and deviations in the joints of the upper limbs are among the main manifestations of RA, especially the deformities of the hands and wrists, such as these can be: 1. Ulnar deviation of the fingers: result of multiple factors (e.g. displacement of the extensor tendons of the fingers, subluxations of the metacarpophalangeans); 2. Swan neck deformities: hyperextension of the proximal interphalangeal IFPs and flexion of the distal - IFDs); 3. “Boutonniere” deformities: flexion of the IFPs and hyperextension of the FDIs); 4. “Camel-back hands”: increased volume of the wrist and metacarpophalangeal joints with interosseous atrophy; 5. “Hammer fingers”: hyperextension of the metatarsophalangeans and extension of the IFDs [6]. The combination of RA’s manifestations culminates in losses in range of motion and strength, as well as the perception of pain and fatigue by the patient. This results in impairments on the patient’s functional capacity, and the loss of autonomy when perform daily life, leisure and work activities. Thus, beside the regular pharmacological treatment, exercise prescription is a common therapeutic practice in RA, and has proven to be a beneficial complement in the RA treatment as a way to prevent and control such losses. In this scope, a systematic review presents different studies suggesting that the practice of dynamic exercises improves physical fitness, joint flexibility and mobility, and the overall functional capacity of the patient with RA [7]. In addition, exercises may be associated with the reduction in the bone mineral density (BMD) degeneration in the hips, pain and fatigue reduction, and increased tendon stiffness, without noticeable increasing the disease manifestation and joint degradation [8]. Similar benefits are observed in the practice of exercises in the aquatic environment (e.g. pool), in which the patient performs exercises in heated water at controlled temperatures, with the help of aquatic equipment under specialist guidance, such as hydrotherapy and hydro kinesiotherapy. Another systematic review [9] exposes the hydrotherapy efficiency in reducing pain in RA patients compared to those who do not exercise. However, different reviews [9, 10] did not identify significant data that demonstrates the benefits of hydrotherapy in long-terms in RA. In the consideration of aquatic environment exercise routines, it is crucial to contemplate the equipment used by the RA patient. Once it can be an enabler or a hinder for the exercises proper completion. This aquatic equipment is based on three principles: buoyancy, weight or resistance, and are “designed to inhibit movement (resistance), increase the weight (weight) or increase the force needed fir the movement (buoyancy)” [11]. This characteristics are consequences of the equipment design, related to construction and ergonomics aspects, such as, the size and the shape of the equipment, material used (density, texture, impermeability, etc.) weight, and others. However, RA manifestations in the limbs, especially in the hands, may hamper the manual interaction with the aquatic equipment. And for this matter, the adaptation of the equipment may be a solution that could limit the interaction difficulty. Adaptation aims the adequacy of the equipment to the needs of individuals, focusing a better execution of activities and the patient’s autonomy, requiring a careful analysis of the patient’s health status as well as the specific activity, to propose satisfactory solutions [12]. When an equipment is designed specifically for the aid of manipulation, it can be considered as a Special-Purpose Aids, as referred by

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Cook e Polgar [13], often being adapted in relation to: “(1) lengthening a handle or reducing the reach required, (2) modifying the handle of a utensil for easier grasping or manipulation, (3) converting two-handed tasks to one-handed ones (providing an alternative method of stabilizing the tools that are being used), and (4) amplifying the force that a consumer can generate with his or her hands [13].” Critical aspects of adaptations, specifically for the upper limbs, are the ergonomics and human factors considerations involved in the user interaction process with the equipment. Mainly the aspects related to the suitability of the equipment interface to the individual anthropometry of the patient, aiming to provide sufficient space for hand accommodation, designing operational mechanisms that are within the reach of the user, avoiding postural constraints generated by equipment usage, and the definition of the proper amount of force application required to use the product [14]. To facilitate the achievement of ergonomic aspects on adaptations of hand held equipment, different authors established guidelines for the design of hand held tools. [14–16]. The guidelines relate mainly to the handle of the equipment, which must have adequate dimensions with the physiological and biomechanical aspects of the human hand, avoiding any pressure points, so its usage will not cause any constraints to both sexes. In addition, the texture and touch temperature of the material, as well as the diameter and length of the handle, will determine the grip movement and strength needed to operate the equipment. Finally, both the weight and the shape of the equipment, as well as handle angulation should favor the alignment of the wrist with the forearm, since this angulation prevent joint impairment and has direct influence on upper limb positioning [16]. With all this considered, the objective of this article is to identify, from the ergonomic perspective, what are the most and the least used hand held upper limb equipment by specialists in hydrotherapy on individuals with AR, in Brazil. How the ergonomic aspects of the upper limbs aquatic equipment, influence on the specialist’s perception on the equipment, and the reasons for its use. Also, to identify the most used devices on the specialist´s work environment. And, in the specialist’s opinion, what’s the most critical device, and thus, in most need of ergonomic adaptation for its usage for RA patients.

2 Method Experts were contacted to request their participation in the experiment, in total 18 specialists agreed to participate, to which was sent Questionnaire 1, containing 05 questions (04 multiple choice and 01 discursive) about the ergonomic aspects of the equipment used by the specialist on hydrotherapy/hydro kinesiology treatment of patients with joint disorders/RA. The Questionnaire 1 considered only upper limb aquatic equipment. Written instructions were sent with the Questionnaire 1. The instructions intended to guarantee the correct completion of the questionnaire by already indicating in the document the main doubts raised by specialist in pre-tests. The questionnaire was applied to specialists who work in hydrotherapy/Hydro kinesiotherapy in individuals with articular disorders/RA. The experiment occurred between October and November 2016, and the respondents were 9 specialists (from the 18

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approached) being 08 female and 01 male. 08 of them had degree in physiotherapy and 01 in physical education. By the moment of the experiment, 06 specialists were performing or had already performed specific care in patients with RA. The 09 respondents combined had an average 9.16 years of experience in hydrotherapy/Hydro kinesiotherapy practice, the most experienced having 18 years and the least experienced 6 months of practice. All the specialists work in the region of Grande Florianópolis-SC, Brazil. For the specialist to be able to indicate the device that he/she would like to insert as a response, Annex 1 was attached to the Questionnaire 1, which contained a table with names and figures of 48 upper limbs devices for hydrotherapy/hydro kinesiotherapy. The equipment contained in Annex 1 were those made available in national and international e-commerce, which sell products for hydrotherapy. In Annex 1, each equipment was associated with a number and the specialist should write this number in Questionnaire 1 when referring to this equipment. In Questionnaire 1, specialist were asked to identify what are the 07 most used upper limb equipment (Question 1) and least used (Question 2) in hydrotherapy/hydro kinesiotherapy in patients with articular disorders/RA in Brazil, and the reasons for the device use or disuse, according to the following criteria: The low (refers to Question 1)/ high (refers to Question 2) cost, durability, availability (Question 1) or unavailability (Question 2) in the Brazilian market format of the handle, suitability for the treatment of joint disorders, others. What are the 07 most used devices in the practice of hydrotherapy/hydro kinesiotherapy on patients with articular disorders/RA in the specialist work environment, and by observing the follow ergonomic aspects, elect which aspect is considered as positive or negative (Question 3): Handle shape, handle size, texture, temperature, material, weight, stability (when using in the water), others. Finally, specialists were asked to identify which of the equipment is considered as the most in need of ergonomic adaptations (Question 4). Followed by discursive questions (Question 5) aiming to identify: how this equipment negatively influence the performance of aquatic exercises (Question 5 a.), if the difficulty in performing aquatic exercises comes from the device characteristics or disease manifestations (Question 5 b.), and suggestions for improvements for the suitability of the device to the interaction by patients with joint disorders/RA. The data collected from multiple choice questions (Questions 1, 2, 3) were analyzed according to the absolute frequency of responses of each alternative. To be considered for the data analysis, the equipment should had an absolute frequency greater than 50%, that is, chosen by 5 or more specialists. In turn, the discursive questions were analyzed according to the content analysis method by Bardin [17]. The options “other” were not considered for the analysis in this paper due to the superficiality of the answers.

3 Results 3.1

Most and Least Used Equipment in Brazil, According to the Specialists

The most used aquatic equipment in the treatment of patients with articular disorders/RA in Brazil, according to the 09 specialists, is presented in Fig. 1, as well as

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the least used equipment. The results, as can be seen in Fig. 3, suggests that the Aquatic Noodle (equipment 20), Plastic Dumbbell (equipment 18), Triangular Dumbbell (equipment 14) and EVA Palmar (equipment 6) are more frequently used, mainly due to its low cost and its broad availability in the Brazilian market.

Fig. 1. The most used and the least equipment by the specialists. *Related to the answer frequency given by the specialists for each equipment. **Absolute Frequency. Equipment 20: Aquatic Noodle [18], Equipment 18: Plastic dumbbell [19], Equipment 14: Triangular dumbbell [20], Equipment 6: EVA Palmar [21]. And least used equipment 42: Aquafins [22].

3.2

Reasons for Use and Non-use of Equipment

Only the Equipment 20 was highlighted as suitable for its use in joint disorders, according to specialists. Aquafins (equipment 42) appears as the least used, mainly due to its high cost as shown in Fig. 3. The absolute frequency (related to the answer frequency given by the specialists for each equipment) of equipment 18 and 42 (Figs. 2 and 3) concerning to the reasons of use or disuse, have a lesser response frequency since one of the experts only marked the option “others”.

Fig. 2. Reasons for the use of equipment in the treatment of individuals with AR/AR. Absolute frequencies related to the individual frequencies of each equipment, as presented in Fig. 1. Source: Authors

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Six Most Used Equipment in the Specialists’ Work Environment

The most used equipment in the work environment of the interviewed specialists is the Aquatic Noodle, Triangular Dumbbell and Palmar Dumbbell, as can be seen in Fig. 4. Being the Aquatic Noodle most used.

Fig. 3. Reasons for non-use of the equipment 42 in treatment of joint disorders/RA. Absolute frequency related to the individual frequency of the Equipment 42, as presented in Fig. 1. Source: Authors

3.4

Ergonomics Aspects Evaluation

For the ergonomics aspects evaluation a “Questionnaire 1”, from one specialist was inconsiderate due to blank answers in more than one chosen equipment, and another specialist did not opine on the “temperature” aspect in any of the equipment. In the Aquatic Noodle (equipment 20), the shape of the handle was highlighted as positive, as only one specialist considered this aspect as negative, however the handle size had mixed opinions, as had a lesser positive answer frequency. The material and the weight were considered mainly as positive aspects, although stability had mixed opinion with more specialists answering it as a negative aspect. The Triangular Dumbbell (equipment 14) had mixed opinions concerning its handle size, and its stability was considered its best feature, (excluding “temperature”) The EVA Palmar (equipment 6) was the best evaluated equipment, with all the listed aspect being considered as positive by at least a 3/1 ratio. Its weight and its stability considered as positive by all respondents that selected this equipment as one of the most used (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7).

4 Most Critical Equipment and Suggestions for an Ergonomic Adaptation Various equipment’s considered critical in usage and requires the ergonomic changes, according to the interviewed specialists, is the Triangular Dumbbell (equipment 14), since 04 out of 09 specialists considered it as such. Suggestions for ergonomic improvements on the Equipment 14 are shown in Tables 2, 3 and 4 which present the result of the content analysis method originated from the specialists’ discursive responses, and are separated by the categories presented in Table 1.

The Influence of Ergonomics Aspects on the Use of Hydrotherapy Equipment

Fig. 4. Most used equipment in the work environment of the specialists, according to the frequency. *Amount of answers given by the specialists for each equipment.

Fig. 6. Frequency of answers, according to the absolute frequencies presented on Fig. 4, of the ergonomic aspects considered positive and negative of the equipment 14.

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Fig. 5. Frequency of answers, according to the absolute frequencies presented on Fig. 4, of the ergonomic aspects considered positive and negative of the equipment 20.

Fig. 7. Frequency of answers, according to the absolute frequencies presented on Fig. 4, of the ergonomic aspects considered positive and negative of the equipment 06.

Written information was separated into categories, and into “registration units”, which correspond to content segments, which in this paper, are grouping information written on specific topics. The “registration units” are accompanied by the “context units” that are written information that aims to give meaning to the “registrations unit” [17].

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Table 1. “Categories” and “registration units” of the discursive responses by specialists, according to content analysis by Bardin [17]. Categories Negative Influence of the equipment in the execution the exercises movements Difficulty in performing exercises Suggestions for the improvement of the equipment interface

Registration units - Equipment handle - Equipment weight - Equipment material - RA influence - Equipment influence - Equipment handle enhancements - Equipment weight enhancements - Equipment material enhancements

Table 2. “Registration units” for the category “Negative influence of the exercises”. Answers given by specialists translated from Portuguese. Registration units Equipment handle

Equipment weight

- Equipment material

Context units - Since it does not have a comfortable handle, the patient cannot stand a long time holding the equipment - Handle shape is inappropriate for RA patients due to joint alterations (deformities) in the fingers. - Since the shape of the handle is fixed (it does not adapt), if the patient has difficulty flexing his/her fingers, the hand cannot stabilize the device (fix the device in the hand) and perform the exercise, the equipment keeps moving during the exercise, impairing its correct execution, which can lead to overload and injury - Since it does not have a comfortable handle, the patient cannot stand a long time holding the equipment - Handle shape is inappropriate for RA patients due to joint alterations (deformities) in the fingers. - Since the shape of the handle is fixed (it does not adapt), if the patient has difficulty flexing his/her fingers, the hand cannot stabilize the device (fix the device in the hand) and perform the exercise, the equipment keeps moving during the exercise, impairing its correct execution, which can lead to overload and injury - Too rigid material in the handle

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Table 3. “Registration units” for the category “Difficulty in performing exercises”. Answers given by specialists, translated from Portuguese. Registration units RA Influence RA Influence Equipment influence

Context units - Deformity and pain influence the use of the equipment - Due to clinical manifestations like pain, edema and mainly the deformities, changes in joint flexibility that impairs the grip of the object - The equipment impairs the mobility, aggravating the existing clinical condition, and thus, with the interruption of the use of the material the pain can be is mitigated

Table 4. Registration units for categories: suggestions for improving the equipment interface. Answers given by specialists, translated from Portuguese. Registration units Equipment handle enhancements Equipment weight enhancements

Equipment material enhancements

Context units - Graduation and control of the weight (minimum to maximum) - Graduate the load with this object through removable objects that would increase the resistance - More malleable and less rigid Material. - (Change) The type of material, although (the equipment is) cheap and light, in the humid environment of the pool begins to create “wiggle” Adaptability on width and length of handle - Different grip diameters are required […] because it is trying to hold the equipment that the patient reports cannot hold it - (could offer the possibility to make) Corrections on the size of the handle according to the patient’s need, such as layers that could be placed or removed according to the patient’s need

5 Discussions The results suggest the preference of the 09 specialists on using hydrotherapy equipment that favors buoyance, rather than weight and resistance, in the treatment of hydrotherapy/hydro kinesiology in individuals with articular disorders/RA in Brazil, probably because buoyance equipment causes a minor increase on the force needed to execute exercises and helps in controlling the movements, with may be ideal for the older age populations, the main RA demographic [11]. Although the EVA Palmar appears (mostly a resistance equipment) on the list of the most used, this had a lower frequency response compared to the Triangular Dumbbell, Plastic Dumbbell and Aquatic Noodle. The main reason for the use of these equipment seems to be due financial factors, however, another aspect that could justify the predilection of those equipment, is the smaller surface of contact with the water, that diminishes resistance and consequently the necessary patients’ effort in the execution of movements in the water. This aspect is valid in RA, as it decreases the action of forces on the patients’ joints. It is important to note that the adequacy for joint diseases was not considered a reason to use or, not use,

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the equipment, in Brazil. Also, the small number (09) of interviewed specialists does not provide sufficient data for the inference or conclusions about the reality of hydrotherapy practice in Brazil. It is noted that the handle size of the equipment is of key importance, since this is the main interactive element with the user, but was not considered as a positive aspect in any of the products, or if it was, it had a very similar a frequency on answers considering this a negative aspect. These data may suggest that although the shape of the circular handgrip was considered adequate and ergonomically correct [14, 16], the dimensioning was considered inadequate for individuals with joint disorders, and especially RA, who suffers with hand deformities that limit range of motion and make it difficult or even impossible to perform gripping movements. However, aspects related to the construction of the object, such as material weight and stability, can be considered appropriate aspects for the use in aquatic rehabilitation equipment for individuals with articular/RA dysfunctions. The “temperature” aspects of the equipment should be viewed carefully, since the temperature changes during use as it is in the heated pool water. Regarding the most critical equipment, the equipment 14, the following aspects were pointed by the specialist, and can be considered as a helpful information for an initial briefing for the development of adaptations in the triangular halter (an other aquatic equipment), focusing on ergonomic aspects: 1. Negative Influence of the equipment in the execution of the exercise movements: The patient with RA has difficulties in the interaction with the equipment and, possibly, in the performance of exercises, due to the non-adaptation of the equipment to their specific deformities. The difficulty arises from the impossibility of dimensional change of the handle, added to a rigid material and the lack of mechanism that regulate the weight of the equipment. 2. Difficulty in performing exercises: The patient’s clinical condition, i.e. the hands deformities and the associated factors (such as lack of mobility and loss of strength), make it difficult to interact with the equipment, which in turn makes it difficult to perform the exercises. 3. Suggestions for the improvement of the equipment interface: The professionals suggested improvements aiming at the adequacy of the equipment to the patients’ clinical condition, focusing on the aspects related to weight, material and shape of the handle of the equipment, suggesting the use of soft to the touch materials that can also avoid the prolonged accumulation of humidity. The possibility of increasing or decreasing the length and diameter of its handle, according to the patient’s anthropometric measures and deformities, and the possibility of graduating the weight and resistance felt by the patient during the use of the equipment.

6 Conclusion The results indicate that price and availability in the Brazilian market are the main reason for aquatic equipment usage, by specialists in RA treatment. Other ergonomic aspects and, especially the suitability of the equipment to the patient’s clinical

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condition, do not seem to be important factors for its adoption. But when thinking specifically on the ergonomic aspects, when asked for the most critical equipment and in need of ergonomic adaptations, specialists stated that this equipment (triangular dumbbell) hinders the patient’s interaction and their exercise performance due to their clinical condition, and the lack of the equipment’s adaptation to the patient’s deformities. The difficulty, in the specialist perception, results from the impossibility of dimensional change of the handle, the use of rigid materials on the handle and the absence of mechanism weight of graduations on the equipment. Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the specialists for the provided data, and the Santa Catarina State University (UDESC) for the support during data collection.

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17. Bardin, L.: Análise de Conteúdo. Edições 70, Lisboa (2009) 18. Fiore. Espaguete. http://www.fiore.com.br/hidroginastica/fiore-tub-macarr-o-para-piscina. html 19. Fiore: Halteres de Plástico Grande. http://www.fiore.com.br/hidroginastica/halteres-plastico 20. Fiore: Halteres Triangular. http://www.fiore.com.br/halteres-triangular-2-a-3-kgs.htmlgrande-2-kgs.html 21. ISP Saúde, Palmar Morcego em EVA. https://www.ispsaude.com.br/isp/produto/palmarmorcego-em-eva-par-arktus/000789 22. Fiore: Aquafins. http://www.fiore.com.br/hidroginastica/aquafins.html

Assistive Technology II

A Descriptive Study on the Influence of Wheelchair Design and Movement Trajectory on the Upper Limbs’ Joint Angles ( ) Guilherme Bertolaccini1 ✉ , Frode Sandnes2, Idnei Filho1, Luis Paschoarelli1, and Fausto Medola1

1

School of Architecture, Arts and Communication, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], {paschoarelli,fausto.medola}@faac.unesp.br 2 Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences, Oslo, Norway [email protected]

Abstract. Several aspects of the design and configuration of manual wheelchairs have been indicated as factors that influence the biomechanics of the upper limbs during manual propulsion. From a kinematic point of view, the angles of the shoulder and elbow are particularly important, as they can reveal potentially harmful joint positions as well as providing information that can complement the analysis of the performance of the propulsion technique. This study investigated the influence of two different designs of manual wheelchairs (rigid frame and foldable frame) on the shoulder and elbow angles during manual propulsion in straightforward and turning trajectories. Eleven subjects without disabilities performed a propulsion protocol comprising a 15-m straightforward sprint and a 2-m radius turn in both clockwise and anticlockwise direction. During the propul‐ sion tests, data of shoulder and elbow angles were collected using accelerometers. The results revealed that manual propulsion with a rigid frame wheelchair may provide more protection as it was related to lower maximum angles of shoulder extension and abduction and elbow flexion-extension range of motion in compar‐ ison with the foldable frame chair. Providing a wheelchair design and configu‐ ration that reduces the biomechanical risks and increases efficiency may benefit the users’ safety, independence and satisfaction with their wheelchairs. Keywords: Wheelchairs · Biomechanics · Joint angles · Design · Assistive technologies

1

Introduction

Mobility is essential for most daily activities and is a factor influencing health status, social participation and quality of life. Recent data from WHO shows that more than 1 billion people have some form of disability, among which about 200 million have considerable functional problems [1]. In the US, at least 6.8 million people use assistive technologies and a quarter of those make use of manual wheelchairs for mobility [2]. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_64

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A variety of physical disabilities limit the body movements in such a way that wheelchairs are needed. From an ergonomic perspective, the wheelchair must be consid‐ ered not only as a mobility device, but also as a support interface, as the users occupy the chair for about 11 h per day [3]. Although widely used, the manual wheelchair has been related with various problems such as limited mobility, upper limb injuries and social participation [4–6]. Indeed, studies have shown that wheelchair users move slower and for lower distances than individuals without disabilities [3, 7–9]. Handrim wheelchair propulsion, the most common means of wheelchair mobility, has been considered a factor contributing to the high prevalence of upper limb injuries among manual wheelchair users. A study of Rice et al. [10] highlighted the high prev‐ alence of carpal tunnel syndrome (from 49% to 73%) and shoulder pain (31% to 71%) in this population. The presence of pain is related to poor quality of life, being considered as one of the main reasons for the functional decline of the individual [11, 12]. Therefore, investigating how changes in wheelchair design and configuration can minimize the risks of developing injuries may benefit the safety and independence in manual wheel‐ chair usage. Providing a wheelchair that is suitable to the user’s’ characteristics, needs and pref‐ erences can benefit both mobility and satisfaction with the device. These are important ergonomic aspects influencing the successful use of assistive devices. In order to improve the ergonomics of manual wheelchairs, adjustments in the equipment config‐ uration are important factors contributing to the wheelchair suitability. Biomechanically, small changes in users’ relative position to the rear wheels can affect important aspects of the user-wheelchair interaction, such as: handrim propulsion forces, upper limbs range of motion (ROM), system stability and rolling resistance [4]. These are very rele‐ vant aspects of the ergonomics of manual wheelchair as, ultimately, they determine how easy or difficult it is to propel the wheelchair. Adjustments in specific aspects of the wheelchair design, such as frame design, tires and the position of the rear wheels’ axle, can influence the user’s’ actions during manual propulsion. The study of Louis and Gorce [13] shows the axle position affects muscle activation during manual propulsion. In addition, moving the axle forward has been related to an increase in the push angle [14], that is, the angle along the arc of the handrim from the initial contact to the release. Increased push angles may potentially benefit propulsion efficiency by reducing the push frequency. Additionally, a more forward position of the rear wheels has been associated with less muscle effort, and smoother joint excursions but, on the other hand, it affects rearward stability [15]. In this context, the investigation on how changes in wheelchair configuration influence users’ actions during manual propulsion can provide ergonomic data for optimizing mobility efficiency and minimize the risk of upper limb injuries. This is an important knowledge for designers, manufacturers and the professionals who work with wheelchair design, prescription and provision. Although there are many studies that evidence the influence of wheelchair design on different aspects of manual propulsion, it is, to the best of our knowledge still unclear how it influences the upper limb kinematics in different movement trajectories. This a relevant aspect, as the dynamics of a wheelchair in motion is dependent on the trajectory [16]. Therefore, the current study investigated the influence of wheelchair design on the

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shoulder and elbow angles during manual wheelchair propulsion in turning and straight‐ forward trajectories.

2

Materials and Methods

Eleven subjects without disabilities were recruited at the São Paulo State University (UNESP, Bauru, Brazil) and voluntarily participated in the study. Participants met the following criteria: (1) 18 years or older; and (2) no history of upper limbs pain, injuries or disorders that could influence the manual wheelchair propulsion. Prior to data collec‐ tion, volunteers were informed about the purpose and methods of the study, read and signed an informed consent form that had been submitted and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Architecture, Arts and Communication - UNESP (Process. N. 800.500). Two manual wheelchairs - one with a rigid frame (Starlite, ORTOBRAS) and one with foldable frame (AVD Alumínio Reclinável, ORTOBRAS) - were used. The wheel‐ chair with rigid frame was used with the rear wheels’ axle in the most forward position without affecting the stability of the chair, that is, 50 mm from the standard position (Fig. 1a). In turn, the wheelchair with foldable frame was used in its standard configu‐ ration, as it does not offer adjustments for the rear axle position (Fig. 1b).

Fig. 1. Wheelchairs with frame and axle position: Rigid-frame wheelchair, total mass of 13 kg (a); Foldable-frame wheelchair, total mass of 17 kg (b).

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The subjects were asked to propel the chair as fast as possible in three situa‐ tions: 15-m straightforward sprint; 2-m radius turn in clockwise direction; 2-m radius turn in anti-clockwise direction. The tests were carried out on a flat asphalt surface and repeated twice: once with each of the two wheelchairs. The sequence of test for both the chairs and the trajectories were randomized. During the propulsion protocol, kinematic data of shoulder and elbow angles were collected with a motion analysis system (CAPTIV System, TEA Ergo, Nance, France). Four motion sensors were positioned in the arm, forearm, pelvis and back, data was sampled at 2048 Hz, and the maximum angles of shoulder abduction, extension and flexion, as well as elbow extension and flexion were obtained with the CAPTIV L-7000 software (TEA Ergo, Nance, France). The measurements of all subjects for the maximum angles of shoulder and elbow were obtained, and presented descriptively using mean and standard deviation.

3

Results

Eleven subjects, all men, with an average age of 23.82 + 3.46 years, weight 76.09 + 11.43 kg and height 1.77 + 0.06 m participated in this study. In general, the results showed that both the wheelchair design and movement trajec‐ tory are factors that influence the upper limbs’ actions in terms of shoulder and elbow angles. For all the trajectories, propelling the foldable frame wheelchair was related to greater maximum angles of shoulder extension and abduction (−26.82 + 27.53°), and lower flexion-extension (flex/ext) range of motion of the elbow compared to the rigid frame wheelchair (Tables 1 and 2). Table 1. Mean shoulder angles during manual wheelchair propulsion. Straightforward Abd Flex Ext Fold. Frame Rigid frame

Fl/Ext

Clockwise direction Abd Flex Ext

Fl/Ext

Anti-clockwise direction Abd Flex Ext Fl/Ext

27.53

27.45

26.82

54.27

28.57

24.39

24.84

49.23

25.85

16.62

20.95

37.57

26.89

39.35

17.84

57.19

24.59

36.29

11.97

48.26

22.38

30.69

10.21

40.90

Table 2. Mean elbow angles during manual wheelchair propulsion. Straightforward Flex Ext Fold. Frame Rigid frame

Flex/Ext

Clockwise direction Flex Ext

Flex/Ext

Anti-clockwise direction Flex Ext Flex/Ext

12.63

56.98

46.84

9.48

53.76

44.28

16.76

47.98

31.22

7.50

59.93

50.02

8.51

52.82

44.32

18.06

53.31

35.25

Note: Flex: flexion; Ext: extension; Flex/Ext: flexion-extension range of motion

The analysis of the joint angles in terms of movement trajectory showed that, in general, the range of motion of shoulder flex/ext and abd/add were greater in the

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straightforward trajectory, and lower in the 2-m radius turn (counter-clockwise, that is, right upper limb in the inside of the curve). Additionally, the maximum angles of shoulder abduction and extension (both are critical for a safe propulsion) were also greater in the straightforward sprint and lower in the 2 m radius turn (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Range of motion for shoulder joint angles.

4

Discussion

Wheelchair propulsion comprises the repetitive application of forces on the wheels. In the long-term, such combination exposes the users to an increased risk of upper limb injuries. In order to promote a safe and comfortable propulsion and minimize the risks, it is possible to select different designs of equipment as well as change the configuration of the wheelchair components. From a kinematic perspective, the most important factor affecting manual propulsion is the position of the wheels relative to the user. Therefore, this study addressed this equipment feature and how it influences the shoulder and elbow angles during wheelchair propulsion. Manual propulsion with the foldable wheelchair was related to greater maximum angles of shoulder extension and abduction and lower ROM of flexion-extension elbow compared to the rigid frame wheelchair. Probable due to the most rearward position of the wheels, thus requiring the user a greater shoulder extension to reach back the handrim and, consequently, pushing the wheels in a smaller propulsion arc. Indeed, the rearward position of the rear wheels’ axle has been related with a lower push angle and increased push frequency [14]. A large Contact Angle (the angle along the arc of the handrim, from contact to release) was observed in the foldable frame. That is recommended, as it has the potential to reduce the number of strokes needed to maintain a given speed. This results in a lower

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number of repetitive motions performed by the upper limbs. However, this condition increases the resultant force experienced at the shoulders during propulsion, which contributes to joint damage and injuries [17]. Although the current study provides important findings, it has limitations that need to be noted. First, only subjects without disabilities were observed, therefore the findings may not be fully representative of the wheelchairs users. Additionally, subjects perceived exertion was not assessed. This could clarify an important aspect of the userdevice interface: whether these changes in wheelchair design and configuration are perceived or not by the subjects. Finally, as we decided to compare two of the most common designs of manual wheelchairs in Brazil in the original configurations, the position of the rear wheels’ axle relative to the seat were not the same for both chairs. Future studies should focus on investigating the influence of the wheelchair character‐ istics separately.

5

Conclusion

This study showed that both wheelchair design and movement trajectory are factors that influence the shoulder and elbow angles during manual wheelchair propulsion. We found that a rigid-frame wheelchair, in the situations investigated, allowed propulsion technique that minimizes the upper limb angles that are important in the prevention of overload injuries. This is possibly due to the rear wheels’ axle position, which is more forward than the foldable-frame wheelchair. Although there are other relevant differ‐ ences (such as mass, weight distribution and equipment geometry), probably the axle position is the factor that most influence the kinematics of the upper limbs during manual wheelchair propulsion, as it determines the user’s reach to the wheels. When it comes to mobility, manual wheelchairs should provide a balance between efficiency, stability and preservation of upper limbs function. In this context, the rigid frame wheelchair with an axle positioned in the most forward position may benefit the users as it is related to upper limb angles that are less harmful. This knowledge may contribute to the ergo‐ nomic design of manual wheelchairs that best meet the user’s’ needs and expectations, in order to improve overall mobility and social participation. Acknowledgements. The authors gratefully acknowledge FAPESP (São Paulo Research Foundation, Grant Number 16/05026-6), CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Level Personnel) and CNPq (National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, under Grant 458740/2013-6) for the financial support.

References 1. OMS – Organização Mundial da Saúde: Relatório mundial sobre a deficiência. World Health Organization, The World Bank, SEDPcD, São Paulo, 334 p. (2012) 2. Laplante, M.P., Kaye, H.S.: Demographics and trends in wheeled mobility equipment use and accessibility in the community. Assist. Technol. 22(1), 3–17 (2010)

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3. Sonenblum, S.E., Sprigle, S., Lopez, R.A.: Manual wheelchair use: bouts of mobility in everyday life. Rehabil. Res. Pract. 2012, 753165 (2012). EPub 4. Medola, F.O., Elui, V.M., Santana, C.S., Fortulan, C.A.: Aspects of manual wheelchair configuration affecting mobility: a review. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 26(2), 313–318 (2014) 5. Alm, M., Saraste, H., Norrbrink, C.: Shoulder pain in persons with thoracic spinal cord injury: prevalence and characteristics. J. Rehabil. Med. 40, 277–283 (2008) 6. Chaves, E.S., Boninger, M.L., Cooper, R., et al.: Assessing the influence of wheelchair technology on perception of participation in spinal cord injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 85, 1854–1858 (2004) 7. Karmarkar, A.M., Collins, D.M., Kelleher, A., et al.: Manual wheelchair-related mobility characteristics of older adults in nursing homes. Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. 5, 428– 437 (2010) 8. Bohannon, R.W.: Number of pedometer-assessed steps taken per day by adults: a descriptive meta-analysis. Phys. Ther. 87, 1642–1650 (2007) 9. Tolerico, M.L., Ding, D., Cooper, R.A., et al.: Assessing mobility characteristics and activity levels of manual wheelchair users. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 44, 561–571 (2007) 10. Rice, L.A., Smith, I., Kelleher, A.R., Greenwald, K., Boninger, M.L.: Impact of a wheelchair education protocol based on practice guidelines for preservation of upper-limb function: a randomized trial. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 95(1), 10–19 (2014) 11. Lundqvist, C., Siosteen, A., Blomstrand, C., Lind, B., Sullivan, M.: Spinal cord injuries: clinical, functional, and emotional status. Spine 16, 78–83 (2014) 12. Gerhart, K.A., Bergstrom, E., Charlifue, S.W., Menter, R.R., Whiteneck, G.G.: Long-term spinal cord injury: functional changes over time. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 74, 1030–1034 (1993) 13. Louis, N., Gorce, P.: Surface electromyography activity of upper limb muscle during wheelchair propulsion: influence of wheelchair configuration. Clin. Biomech. 25(9), 879–885 (2010) 14. Gorce, P., Louis, N.: Wheelchair propulsion kinematics in beginners and expert users: influence of wheelchair settings. Clin. Biomech. (Bristol, Avon) 27, 7–15 (2012) 15. Paralyzed Veterans of America Consortium for Spinal Cord Medicine: Preservation of upper limb function following spinal cord injury: a clinical guideline for health-care professionals. J. Spinal Cord Med. 28, 434–470 (2005) 16. Medola, F.O., Dao, P.V., Caspall, J.J., Sprigle, S.: Partitioning kinetic energy during freewheeling wheelchair maneuvers. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 22(2), 326–333 (2014) 17. Dysterheft, J.L., Rice, I.M., Rice, L.A.: Influence of handrim wheelchair propulsion training in adolescent wheelchair users, a pilot study. Front Bioeng. Biotechnol. 3, 68, 1–7 (2015)

Contribution to the Design of Hospital Bed: Systematic for Surveying the Design Requirements and Functional Requirements for Synthesis of Mechanism Elias Renã Maletz(&), Henrique Simas, Rodrigo Luís Pereira Barreto, and Daniel Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Hospital beds are of utmost importance in recuperations and welfare of bedridden patients. Not only providing comfort and safety, these equipment are also important in prevention and treatment of pressure sores. Healthcare works also benefits from adjustable hospital bed. These beds decrease the physical strain required from those workers, helping decrease musculoskeletal injuries. Fewer injuries handling patients provides a safer working environment. Initially is necessary to determine the user requirements, from interviews and market analysis. User requirements are hierarchized to determine which design requirement is most important in the user’s view, and these requirements are used to establish the functional requirements for synthesis of mechanisms. The survey signals to the development of mechanisms to movement bedridden patients that facilitate the patient transfer. Adding positions and functions to the product. Keywords: Design requirements Synthesis of mechanism




Hospital bed




Functional requirements




1 Introduction This work is part of the project is an ongoing project in the Professor Raul Güenther Robotics Laboratory of the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC) in partnership with the Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo (IFSP) and Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC). Facilitating mobility and accessibility to people with disabilities and bedridden patients is one of the most important challenges for modern engineering. It involves not only facilitating the mobility, but also assisting in daily activities, in rehabilitations and prolonged recuperation. According to the National Health Research, in 2013 more than twelve million people were hospitalized for twenty hours or more, representing around 6% of the Brazilian population [1].

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_65

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[2] lists some factors that increase the risk of the development of pressure ulcers, such as advanced age, protein-calorie malnutrition, friction and shear, exposure to moisture and immobility. The mobility of a patient can be defined as the capacity to change and control the position of the body [3]. The restriction of mobility during long periods of time is a serious problem for bedridden patients or disabled people due to the increase of incidence of muscular and cardiovascular disords, which increases the degeneration process of bones and articulations, as well as the chance of the occurrence of bedsores [4]. Hospital beds are of utmost importance in recuperations and welfare of bedridden patients. Not only providing comfort and safety, these equipment are also important in prevention and treatment of pressure sores. Healthcare works also benefits from adjustable hospital bed. These beds decrease the physical strain required from those workers, helping decrease musculoskeletal injuries. Fewer injuries handling patients provides a safer working environment. This work arose from the need to establish functional requirements for synthesis of a mechanism used to move bedridden patients. For this task, it is necessary present the definition of the user requirements observing their needs. With this, is determined the product design requirements that are used to establish the functional requirements for the synthesis of a mechanism to move bedridden patients.

2 Methodology The work described here is part of a Product Development Project (reconfigurable platform to aid in the movement of bedridden patients), which adopts the product design methodology described by [5]. This methodology describes three macro-phases in a product development: planning, engineering design and implementation. This paper presents a review of the state of the art and establishes functional requirements for the synthesis of a move bedridden patient. Both tasks are part of the informational and initial conceptual design, which belongs to the engineering design. The review of the state of the art are divided into two parts: first is to establish the user requirements based on the user’s needs and the analysis of products available in the market. The second part is to establish the product design requirements and define the functional requirements for the synthesis of an adjustable mechanism for hospital beds. To determine the user’s needs, customers involved during the product life cycle were observed. The life cycle represents the conversion of the raw material into products with added economic value [6]. In each of these processes, requirements and needs are observed to develop a product, as shown in the Table 1. The identification of user’s needs were based on observation to the hospital environments, in specific the hospital beds, seeking a deeper understanding of the functions and requirements essential for new hospital beds. To complement the observations interviews were conducted in the hospital environment about the working and devices use. The interviews were directed to health professionals and patients. The questionnaire applied to the professional’s addressed the following topics:

654

E.R. Maletz et al. Table 1. Customers in life cycle. Life cycle stages Customers Project Engineers Technical Health Professionals Regulatory bodies Patients Production Companies Assembly (tests) Companies Transport Carriers Use Patients

• • • • • • • • • • •

Life cycle stages Customers Use Health Professionals Doctors Caregivers\relatives Relatives Physiotherapists Maintenance Maintenance technical Relatives Recycling Companies Discard Companies

Identification of gender and age; Experience time in patient transfer and/or movement; Training to transfer and/or move patients; Frequency of transfer and/or movement of patients; Main difficulties in transferring and/or handling operations; Ever had an absence from work due to health problems caused by patient transfer and/or movement; Use of equipment to aid in transfer and/or movement Opinion on the current hospital beds, what are the main problems, defects or shortcomings and suggestion about modification and/or additional features or functions; Benefits of the use of mechanical lift to nurses and patients; Preference for a certain structure of transfer elevator; Preference in operating an elevator/bed.

The questionnaire for patient’s issues involved the following: • Identification of age, weight, reason for hospitalization and length of stay in hospital; • Did hospitalization cause another health problem; • Comfort and bed movement; • Difficulties in bed movement; • Routine movement is performed; • How is the difficulty to get out of the hospital bed; • Suggestions for improvements. In order to develop the questionnaires, bibliographic materials were used, such as: [7, 8]. The questionnaires were applied after the Ethics Committee approved the project and after the participants had signed the free and clarified consent term. This term can be consulted in the [9], under CAE 62321616.4.0000.0121. The state of the art review of existing hospital beds used three different database. First, for the products available in Brazil, the databases used were the Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA) [10], and the Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia (INMETRO) [11]. The international products

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research was perform in the MedicalExpo database [12], which is a website specialized in divulging companies and medical or health products. In the Brazilian databases, the following key words were used: cama hospitalar (hospital bed), cama médica (medical bed), leito hospitalar (hospital bed). These key words were used in Portuguese, as the database is the same language. For the international database, the following key words were used: hospital bed and medical bed. In the databases, we searched for websites of manufacturers and their catalogs of products. Thus, the movements and functions performed by the products of each company were analyzed. With similar product information, questionnaire responses and observations the user’s needs were listed and then transformed into user’s requirements. The project team met with two teams of potential users to prioritize the user’s requirements. The requirements are evaluated pair-to-pair regarding the importance of one in relation to the others, as recommended by [13], using the Mudge diagram. The Mudge diagram use allows the classification of requirements in three levels of importance: a little more important (value 1 = C), more important (value 3 = B) and much more important (value 5 = A). The relative value of each requirement is obtained by summing the values observed throughout the diagram (the sum only covers the values of the cells in which the same requirement is considered dominant). To illustrate how the comparison were made we will use Table 2. Assuming that the requirement to avoid falls (1) is more important than to vary height (5), we have the term 1B, and a little more important if compared to be easy to use (6), so we have the term = 1C and to be easy to use is much more important than to vary height, so we have the term 6A. Table 2. Example for user requirements comparison. Requirement Avoid falls … To vary height To be easy to use N

Avoid falls … To vary height To be easy to use n 1 … 1B 1C … … … … … … … … 5 6A … … … … 6 … … … … … n

With the result of the pair-to-pair comparison, the degree of importance (DI) of each user requirement is calculated, according to Eq. 1.


 ðSi  Smin Þ DI ¼ 9
þ1 ðSmax  Smin Þ

ð1Þ

where Si is the sum of the values related to the requirements, Smin is the minimum value amongst the sum of the requirements and Smax is the maximum value amongst the sum of the requirements. When obtaining the degree of importance of each team is performed the average of each degree of importance to use in the next step. To establish relationships between customer’s requirements and design requirements the method of Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is applied. In the QFD

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method, some design requirements are defined from the conversion of the client needs and others through the investigation of works in the literature. The relationship between user requirements and design requirements has four importance levels: strong relationship (Fr = 5 value), medium (Fr = 3 value), weak (Fr = 1) and none relationship (Fr = 0). To illustrate how the relationship between user and design requirements were made, we will use Table 3. Assuming the requirement to avoid fall has average relationship with the height design requirement, then Fr = 3. For the customer’s requirement to vary height and design requirement height, the relationship is strong, so Fr = 5 and to be easy to use with design requirement height have medium relationship Fr assumes value 3. Table 3. Relationship between user and design requirements. User requirements DI Product design requirements … Height … Avoid falls 10 … 3 … To vary height 8 … 5 … To be easy to use 1 … 3 … N .. … … …

n … … … n

The degree of importance is used to obtain the valuation of the design requirements, according to Eq. 2. VDR ¼

N X

ðFri
DIi Þ

ð2Þ

i¼n

where, Fri is the strength of the relationship between user and project requirements. with the relationship and valuation, it is possible to list the most important product design requirements and establish the functional requirements.

3 Results Analyzing the answers of the questionnaires and the information obtained in conversations during the observations, it was possible to list the user’s needs and these were converted into user requirements, as seen in Table 4. With the user’s requirements search to list of product market, and listing the most important characteristics of the hospital bed has been created in [14] based on the position of several hospital beds available in the market and adapted here. The hospital beds positions or the movements are shown in Fig. 1 and then commented. • Backrest elevation, Fig. 1 (a); • Knee elevation, Fig. 1 (b);

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Table 4. Transformation of user’s needs into requirements. User’s needs Safety Ease of use Ergonomic Have high autonomy Be adaptable

User’s requirements Avoid falls To be easy to use To be ergonomics To have good battery capacity To vary positions To vary dimensions Facilitate transfers To facilitate transfer To vary positions Make it easy to change bedding To change decubitus To move the patient Be tough To be durable To have long life To have low maintenance Made use of accessories To made use of accessories Moving patients with over-weight Enable high capacity to move over-weight patients Be comfortable To be of suitable material To increase number of positions Meet norms To be of suitable material To meet general standards Be easy to clean To have few components To have a few sharp edges To be of suitable material Be simple to manufacture To have simple manufacturing Low cost To have a low sale price

• Cardiac: combination of at least 45° back elevation simultaneously with the knee elevation, Fig. 1 (c); • Fowler: elevation of 70° of the backrest and knee elevation, Fig. 1 (d); • Trendelenburg: position in which the patient remains recumbent with up to 40° rotation, with the head at a lower height than the feet, Fig. 1 (e); • Reverse Trendelenburg: the patient remains recumbent with 40° rotation, but with the head higher than the feet, Fig. 1 (f); • Height adjustment, Fig. 1 (g); • Sitting: backrest elevation up to 90° and leg flexion, Fig. 1 (h); • Vascular: knee and calf elevation, Fig. 1 (i); • Displacement to the foot of the bed: movement of the patient to the foot of the bed, and later the bed is positioned in the sitting position and lowered to ease the patient leaving the bed, Fig. 1 (j); • Lateral bed tilting: rotation around a longitudinal axis, Fig. 1 (l); • Rotation: when the patient has the backrest elevated and is performed a lateral rotation of 90°, then the legs are lowered to help the patient leaving the bed, Fig. 1 (m).

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Fig. 1. Different types of bed positions.

After the survey of the different bed positions, the mentioned databases were analyzed verifying how often each position is employed in the available hospital beds. This analysis is presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Position executed by the Beds analyzed. Movement/position Backrest elevation Knee elevation Cardiac Fowler Trendelenburg Reverse Trendelenburg Horizontal elevation Sitting Vascular Lateral bed tilting Rotation Displacement to the foot of the bed

MedicalExpo 94 91 90 90 81 82 89 68 65 12 3 5

Anvisa 44 44 44 44 35 37 32 37 36 0 1 0

Inmetro 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 9 9 0 0 0

By surveying the user requirements, it was observed that to vary positions is quite requested. To address this question, this requirement was subdivided in several, observing the positions of the researched products in the market search or cited by

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Table 6. Hierarchy of users requirements Hierarchy 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° 10° 11° 12° 13° 14° 15° 16° 17° 18° 19° 20°

Team A Avoid falls Vary height Move head section Move obese patient Move thigh section Facilitate personal hygiene Run Trendelenburg Facilitate lateral transfer Be easy to clean Be durable Facilitate lower transfer Provide orthostatic position Have low maintenance Move feet section Make lateral decubitus Have low cost Be environmentally correct Facilitate bed linen exchange Make use of accessories Be Easy to Use

Team B Avoid falls Vary height Move head section Move obese patient Facilitate lateral transfer Move thigh section Facilitate lower transfer Run Trendelenburg Be easy to clean Provide orthostatic position Make lateral decubitus Be Easy to Use Have low maintenance Facilitate personal hygiene Have low cost Be durable Facilitate bed linen exchange Move feet section Be environmentally correct Have few components

users, such as: facilitate lateral transfer, facilitate lower transfer, to position orthostatically the patient, vary height, move bedside section, move thigh section, move feet section and run Trendelenburg. With the survey of user requirements, the hierarchy was performed using the pair-to-pair comparison as shown in Table 2. It should be noted that we have two hierarchies, as it was performed with two different hospital teams. The results of the hierarchy is shown in Table 6. With the hierarchy of user requirements is established the product design requirements, from the conversion of the user requirements and research in the literature on the topic, which are show in the one line from the second column in Table 7. These design requirements should be hierarchize to determine which has greater importance in the user’s view and consequently direct the attention of the designer in the synthesis of mechanisms. The hierarchy is shown in the Table 7 in Appendix A. With the product design requirements determined we can determine the functional requirements for the synthesis of the mechanism. The functional requirements are: • • • • •

Support the patient; Movement the bedridden patient Transfer the patient Mechanism must be planar; To be possible independence movement between sections.

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4 Discussion of Results The results of the application of questionnaires and observations during the visits to the hospitals participating in the research presented consistent user’s requirements to estimate the main needs to develop the synthesis of mechanism that moves bedridden patients. The review of the product market showed the hospital bed positions indicates that the positions more likely to be necessary in a hospital bed design are the backrest elevation, upper leg positioning, cardiac, Fowler, Trendelenburg, reverse Trendelenburg, horizontal elevation and sitting. However, a tendency is observe for positions that facilitate patient transfer. The design requirements have demonstrated that the number of functions and positions that the mechanism to move bedridden patient should be maximized. However, it should be noted that the explicit safety in the third and fourth requirements is of great importance. In the fifth requirement, safety for health professionals is presented in the matter of making less effort when moving or transferring the patient. When looking the next rated design requirements have a cost-benefit relationship relating to the useful life, power and cost of acquisition. As this work is part of a larger project, the next steps will be the development of the structural and dimensional synthesis of the mechanism movement bedridden patients. Acknowledgments. This work was supported by ‘CAPES’ Brazil.

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Appendix A: Hierarchize of Product Design Requirements See Table 7. Table 7. Hierarchize of product design requirements. Number of live corners (nº)

Product life cycle (years)

% Ergonomic shapes

Number of Positions (nº)

Number of functions (nº)

10 3 4 2

5 3 3 5

5 3 3 5

3 3 3 3

1 5 1 3

0 5 5 5

3 1 3 3

Design requirements 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1 3 3 1

0 3 3 3

0 1 1 1

1 3 3 1

3 1 1 1

5 5 5 3

5 5 5 3

8 1 6 4 1 2

5 1 3 3 3 5

3 1 1 1 1 5

5 3 0 0 0 1

1 3 3 1 1 0

3 5 3 3 3 5

1 3 3 3 3 5

3 0 1 1 1 3

5 1 3 3 1 3

1 5 1 1 1 3

3 0 1 1 1 5

1 0 1 3 1 3

1 0 1 1 1 3

3 3 3 3 1 3

1 3 0 0 0 1

3 1 3 3 1 3

1 5 0 0 0 0

5 5 3 3 3 5

5 5 5 3 3 5

1 3 1

3 0 1

1 5 5

0 3 3

0 1 3

1 5 1

0 1 3

3 3 3

1 0 0

5 3 3

1 5 1

1 5 1

1 1 3

5 1 3

0 5 5

5 3 1

0 3 1

3 0 3

3 0 5

2

3

1

1

0

1

0

5

5

5

5

5

3

0

3

5

1

5

5

5 1 1

5 3 1

5 5 1

3 1 0

3 1 0

5 3 3

5 1 0

5 5 3

5 5 3

1 5 3

1 5 3

1 5 0

0 5 5

3 5 1

0 0 1

3 3 5

1 1 1

3 3 1

3 3 1

1 2 1

0 3 0

5 1 0

0 0 3

0 0 3

1 0 3

0 0 3

5 3 3

1 3 3

1 5 3

3 5 0

5 5 0

3 1 0

5 5 1

3 0 3

3 5 1

1 0 5

3 3 3

3 3 5

3

1

1

3

3

3

3

3

3

0

0

0

1

3

1

3

0

5

5

4

5

3

5

0

3

1

1

3

3

3

3

3

3

1

5

0

5

1

2 2 3 0 6 5 3 4

1 6 5 9

1 0 8 1 5

2 0 1 5

1 6 0 1 0

1 2 2 1 2

1 8 3 7

1 1 9 1 3

1 4 6 1 1

1 1 2 1 4

0 9 3 1 6

1 6 7 8

0 6 3 1 8

1 9 1 6

0 8 1 1 7

2 6 7 2

2 6 8 1

Nº of Manufacture Processes (nº)

Cost Acquisition (R $)

Maintenance Time (s)

Physical Effort to User (Kgf)

Total Mass (Kg)

Length (mm)

Cost of Maintenance ($)

Number of components

Power Required (W)

Height (mm)

Width (mm)

Speed on the movements (m/s)

Quant. protection means (nº)

Hierarchy of the product design requirements

degree of importance

User’s requirements Avoid falls Facilitate lower transfer Facilitate lateral transfer Provide orthostatic position Vary height Be Easy to Use Move head section Move thigh section Move feet section Make lateral decubitus Have high autonomy Be easy to clean Make use of Accessories Have low Maintenance Move obese patient Have low cost Be environmentally correct Have few components Be durable Facilitate bed linen exchange Facilitate personal Hygiene Run Trendelenburg Valuation of the product design requirements

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References 1. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde 2013: Acesso e utilização dos serviços de saúde, acidentes e violência. Rio de Janeiro (2015) 2. Langemo, D.K.. Black, J.: Npuap. Pressure ulcers in individuals receiving palliative care: a National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel White Paper. Adv. Skin Wound Care (2010) 3. Aguiar, J.M., Paiva, S.S.: Escala de Braden: avaliação dos fatores de risco para úlcera de pressão em pacientes internados em uma Unidade de Terapia Intensiva. Rev. Hosp. Univ. UFMA 1(1/2), 38–43 (2003) 4. Gomes, F.S.L., Bastos, M.A.R., Matozinhos, F.P., Temponi, H.R., Velásquez-Meléndez, G.: Fatores Associados à Úlcera por Pressão em Pacientes Internados nos Centros de Terapia Intensiva de Adultos. Rev. Esc. Enf. USP 44(4), 1070–1076 (2010) 5. Back, N., Ogliari, A., Dias, A., Da Silva, J.C.: Projeto Integrado de Produtos: Planejamento, Concepção e Modelagem. Florianópolis (2008) 6. Roozenburg, N.F., Eekels, J.: Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods [S.l.]. Wiley, Chichester (1995) 7. Gallasch, C.H., Alexandre, N.M.C.: Avaliação dos riscos ergonõmicos durante a movimentação e transporte de pacientes em diferentes unidades hospitalares. Rev. Enferm. UERJ 11(3), 253 (2003) 8. Skotte, J. et al.: A dynamic 3d biomechanical evaluation of the load on the low back during different patient-handling tasks. J. Biomech. Elsevier 35(10) (2002) 9. Plataforma Brasil. http://aplicacao.saude.gov.br/plataformabrasil 10. Anvisa. Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária. Consulta a Banco de Dados: Produtos para a Saúde (2016). http://www7.anvisa.gov.br/datavisa/Consulta_Produto_correlato/ consulta_correlato.asp 11. Inmetro. Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia. Consulta a Banco De Dados: Produtos (2016). http://www.inmetro.gov.br/prodcert/produtos/busca.asp 12. MEdicalExpo: The online medical device exhibition. Research Catalogue (2016). http:// www.medicalexpo.com 13. Ullman, D.G.: The Mechanical Design Process. [S.l.]. McGraw-Hill, New York (1992) 14. Maletz, E.R., Barreto, R.L.P., Martins, D.: Revisão do estado da arte de camas hospitalares: análise de mercado e pesquisa de patentes. I Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Tecnologia Assistiva (Curitiba, 2016)

Ergonomic Aspects in the Redesign of a Child’s Inclusive Textbook Fernanda Domingues1 ✉ and Laís Cristina Licheski2 (

)

1

2

Design Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Parana, General Carneiro St., 460, Curitiba 80060-150, Brazil [email protected] Design Department, Federal University Technological of Parana, 7 de Setembro Av, 3165, Curitiba 80230-901, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. The objective of this work is to analyze the ergonomic aspects used in redesigning a basic school textbook, aiming at the inclusion of children with visual impairments. For that purpose, the manner how new graphic artifacts of interaction and multisensory learning were absorbed by the user, through the prototype of a first grade mathematics textbook in Braille, was analyzed. In addi‐ tion, this work aims to study the insertion and development of support materials for basic education for visually impaired students, not losing focus of the viability of the project in the context of Brazilian public schools. Keywords: Textbook · Visual impairment · User

1

Introduction

According to the World Health Organization, WHO [1], there are approximately 285 million visually impaired people in the world, of whom 39 million are blind and 246 million have low vision. Data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, IBGE [2], indicate that in Brazil 6,585,308 million people have some visual impairment, which represents almost 3.5% of Brazilians. 528,624 people do not see at all (blind) and 6,056,654 people have great permanent difficulty in seeing (low vision). Within this context, Adam [3] points to the scarcity of didactic resources in the country, especially for children in the literacy development: only 5% of public libraries have Braille books, for example. The lack of investment and development in the area has culminated in an extremely needy market, which needs new strategies. According to Lopes [4], considering the inclusion of students with visual impairment in regular schools, there is a need to elaborate material different from the standard, with interaction and technology as the main allies in the teaching process. It is also pointed out that the didactic materials to be developed “should be diverse and diversifiable, so each teacher can elaborate his specific project of intervention adapted to the needs of his educational reality and personality. The more adapted the materials, the easier to develop unique proposals” [5].

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Design has a great potential in solutions that can be created from more comprehen‐ sive graphics and interaction studies. There is a huge demand for research and devel‐ opment of assistive technology products and a great opportunity to put knowledge of this area to solve problems that students with disabilities experience in their educational routine. For it happens, design needs to approach this demand and meet the needs and diversity of conditions of people with disabilities [6]. The purpose of this study was to redesign a basic inclusive textbook for children, especially at including people with visual impairment through interaction and multi‐ sensory learning. For this, it was necessary to observe the insertion of visually impaired children in schools and the graphic materials available to blind and low vision students enrolled in the public school system of Curitiba-PR, Brazil.

2

Methodology

This study was mainly based on a system of interpretive techniques, which come with the objective of deciphering a network of problems and meanings, defined by Flick [7] as a qualitative work. The research was carried out in two phases: theoretical and prac‐ tical. In the first, a literature review was carried out to obtain data on visual impairment, insertion and learning processes in schools, educational resources employed, informa‐ tion related to the Braille system and technical norms for its writing and printing. The second part consisted of field research, similar analysis, design and testing. Interviews were conducted with educators and students with visual impairment. From this, a proto‐ type of a new book was produced, exploring, besides Braille, the locally applied varnish in the representation of figures. Magnetic pieces have also been produced in geometric solid format to be used as supplementary support material for the regular textbook. With the prototypes in hand, tests were done with a small sample of the target audi‐ ence, in order to analyze how the new interaction resources were interpreted and absorbed.

3

Theorical Fundations

3.1 Infant Visual Impairment Annually, according to the World Health Organization, approximately 500,000 children get blind in the world [8]. The concentrations of individuals with some type of visual impairment vary according to the economic situation of each country, and studies indi‐ cate a low prevalence of childhood blindness, from 0.2 to 0.3 per 1,000 children in developed countries and 1.0 to 1.5 per 1000 children in developing countries [8]. In countries of the African and Asian continent, infectious agents are the main cause of ocular diseases; such agents are also the main constituents of high infant mortality rates in these countries [8]. In developed countries, hereditary factors are seen as the main cause of loss of childhood vision, differentiating from infectious agents as the cause, since these nations

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have health services and prevention of better quality. The main causes of childhood blindness in Brazil are: hypovitaminosis A, onchocerciasis, measles and trachoma [8]. 3.2 Educational Resources for the Visually Impaired Child A child with visual impairment has to stimulate the other sense organs in order to compensate for the deprivation of his channel of apprehension of the outside world. With the child having minimal conditions of communication and interaction, it can and should be integrated with preschool and the common school; the importance of the preschool and school process is mainly in the motor, intellectual and emotional favor of the student with vision problems, besides contributing to the construction of a positive self image, constantly enriched by new knowledge. There are several tactile resources that can be used in the learning of these children: geometric solids and plug-in games, for example, are didactic means that can be shared with all students and do not need to go through any adaptation process. However, some criteria and care should be followed in the creation of materials and didactic resources for people with visual impairment, such as maximum fidelity of representation in relation to the original model; use of objects or drawings in adequate size to adequately highlight their shapes and details; And the indication of the use of the relief, for facilitating the perception and the distinc‐ tion by the touch [9]. Braille stands out as the most efficient system for adapting any type of reading mate‐ rial for people with visual impairment [10]. The adapted alphabet consisting of 63 signs is a model of logic combined with simplicity, its adaptability, and the opening of new cultural, social and intellectual horizons [10]. In this context, the adaptive textbook is the first mean of the learner to explore the world and understand the Braille alphabet. Such material may contain relief, texture and other features that enhance the learning experience [11].

4

Development

From the theoretical studies, a greater familiarization with the studied factors was sought for a better applicability of the project, which included a Braille writing course. During the learning process, all the writing was made through the slate and stylus, and from its handling it is possible to understand the Braille system and capture all the difficulties faced by those who use this tool. Learning the system was also indispensable for the process of transcription and revision of Braille, later. After the course, an interview was conducted with a teacher of a public school, with the objective of mapping the areas in which the material would be found and its distri‐ bution. The interviewee emphasized that the greatest difficulty faced in his work is the lack of didactic material. He also cited the conditions of books distributed by government agencies: incomplete and poorly maintained. From this, three public collections were consulted in the city of Curitiba, Paraná Brazil, and, within the survey and analysis of similar ones, the book “Joy of Learning Mathematics - 1st grade” was chosen to be redesigned. The book, printed only in Braille

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and in five volumes, looked robust and unintuitive, with some geometric figures repre‐ sented by raised dots. The specimen to be redesigned was chosen mainly because it presents a great degree of difficulty of understanding and use. From this choice, three educators were inter‐ viewed, two of them visually impaired, who work with the target public in question. All three stated that the content of the presented material was outdated and, in order to be able to be redesigned, should at least be in accordance with the new Brazilian gram‐ matical rules. Flaws in navigability of content, representation of geometric figures and absence of sequential pagination were also discussed. Thus, another book for adaptation, with more contemporary relevance, was searched and in consultation with the main libraries of the city, the copy of “Child’s March - Mathematics - 1st grade” was chosen. Then, consid‐ ering all the theoretical basis and the analysis of similars, it was possible to generate new alternatives. The opinions of the interviewees, who defended a more tactile and interactive user experience, were mainly considered. As a support for the interaction, a board with magnets was used, made from a steel rectangle measuring 24 × 32 × 0.3 cm, weighing around 200 grams and with flexible magnets 0.3 cm thick. Then, the support material from the book “March Child”, with focus on the geometric figures, the forms to be fixed in the magnet were adapted and printed in adhesive paper. The students of the public school that came in contact with the material approved the use of the geometric forms with the exception of the Braille relief being reinforced. In a few moments of contact with the material, they had already begun creating images from the geometric figures, which emphasizes their adaptive and imaginary purpose (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Magnetic plate with geometric figures subtitled in Braille

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For the adapted book, dimensions were defined as 225 × 305 mm in closed format and 450 × 300 mm in open format, starting from the same dimensions of the original book and allowing the use of a paper blade in super A3 format (500 × 353 mm) for printing of Two pages, filling almost the entire area of the paper and avoiding wasted cut and print. Wire-o binding has also been chosen because it gives greater resistance to the material, which must withstand intense handling. The printing was done on 170 grams matte coated paper, suitable weight to support the relief, according to the Brazilian technical norms for the transcription of texts in Braille. Its contents were printed on only one side of the sheets which, when spiral bound, were always located on the right side. One column layout was used to avoid word breaks. It also tried to follow a structure of image and fluent text, keeping the resemblance to the original content, with pauses only for division of chapters, favoring the sequential reading. The numbering of each page is in the upper right corner, above the text (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Template page example

This navigation structure was designed to standardize and establish a fixed form of location of the contents. All images were adapted by the author and for each figure spot UV varnish was applied, providing areas of touch-sensitive smooth texture. In addition to the illustrations, the surrounding of the page numbering also had varnish application, for a better recognition of pagination by children (Fig. 2).

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All the adapted images were enlarged for a better understanding and application of the varnish. Exercises that required the student to draw were excluded, using only those in which the reasoning should be presented orally. Each unit was divided by a page containing the number and a brief description of what would be studied and, below the numerical indication, horizontal bands were inserted in relief that, according to their quantity, indicate the unit, a suggestion given by the professionals of the area (Fig. 3). It was also sought to use saturated colors in the division of contents, considering the remnants of sight that some children may have.

Fig. 3. Division of Chapter 2

In the contact with the relief material exemplified in Figs. 2 and 3, the three students that were consulted approved the distribution of the contents and the illustrations in varnish, mostly managing to guess the form that these printed devices represented. The

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students suggested a better application of the texture in regions that indicated pagination, through enlargement, for example. In sequential reading, the new standard of navigation was approved, with exception only for a greater extension of application of the varnish. One of the students had difficulty turning the pages, caused by the apparent low quality of the wire-o. In order for the teacher to follow the content and, at the same time, assist the student in reading and in the exercises, a teacher’s copy was also produced, respecting the same illustrations, however in a smaller format and double-sided printing. By its didactic and auxiliary function, it can be used both by the teacher in the teaching aid, and by any other person who comes into contact with the material. Thus, the range of possibilities and inclusion is opened, since the Braille book alone, without the full content limits the scope of its content and power to teach.

5

Discussion

For the printed adaptation of any didactic content for those visually impaired it is neces‐ sary to review practically everything, from the content to images or grammage of the paper. With the evolution of technology and media, it is possible to provide Braille materials that have, besides the writing relief, shapes and textures that stimulate the imagination of the reader and help in a better interpretation of what is being read. The importance of tactile devices implemented outside the textbook that, through their dimensions, helps the blind to have notions beyond what is described by a text is empha‐ sized. However, in the execution of the model, unavailability and lack of resources for its printing were noticed. Thus, the difficulty of accessing Braille contents in Brazil is evident: regardless of whether they are large or not, their production is still restricted mainly to the manual process and isolated and little-known institutions. Finally, it is emphasized a need for new works that map the quality, test and develop new projects in the area, also necessary for the development of education for people with visual impairment.

6

Conclusion

In this study it was possible to satisfactorily explore graphic artifacts such as relief in the printing of a new material, achieving an adequate and higher quality result comparing to the reference sample. It was also highlighted the importance of printing content concom‐ itant with Braille, so that the range of support for the student could be expanded, not limiting the content only to Braille. In relation to the methodologies of learning of the visually impaired child, the importance of the accompaniment of parents and educators is observed, a task that the book of the proposed teacher intends to provide. For the full completion of the project, it is considered that the test with more students in the target audience, besides a real budget of a sufficient quantity to be implemented in the schools, is needed. It is also taken into account the need for new tests of the sample prepared with more students in the target audience and teachers, so that new conclusions and notes can

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be raised, thus improving the perception of the final product. Finally, it is also necessary to review all the adapted material with a professional with visual impairment.

References 1. WHO - World Health Organization (2017). http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/ fs282/ es/index.html 2. IBGE - Brazilian Institute of Geography (2017). http://www.ibge.gov.br/estadosat/temas. php?sigla=rj&tema=censodemog2010_defic 3. Adam, D.L.: Inclusive Adaptation of a Children’s Book the Black Book of Colors. University of Paraná, Curitiba (2011) 4. Lopes, S.: Instituto Paranaense de Cegos. Interview given to the author (2013) 5. Zabala, A.: The Educational Practice: How to Teach. ARTMED, Porto Alegre (1998) 6. Bersch, R.: Design of a Assistive Technology Service in Public Schools. UFRGS, Porto Alegre (2009) 7. Flick, U.: Introduction to Qualitative Research. ARTEMED, Porto Alegre (2009) 8. Brito, P., Veitzman, S.: Causas da cegueira e baixa visão em crianças. Arquivo Brasileiro de Oftalmologia, São Paulo (2000) 9. Dias, E., de Campos, I.M.: Atendimento Educacional Especializado – Deficiência Visual. Ministério da Educação, Brasília (2007) 10. Baptista, J.A.L.S.: A Invenção do Braille e a sua Importância na Vida dos Cegos. Gráfica, Lisboa (2000) 11. Azevedo, A.: Utilizando material didático adaptado para deficientes visuais. UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro (2012)

Application of Assistive Technologies in Rehabilitation of the Visually Impaired Tainá A. Bueno de Oliveira ✉ , João Moura, Felipe Wojcikiewicz, Luiz Maia, Elton Nickel, and Marcelo Gomes Ferreira (

)

Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina – UDESC, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This article brings together studies aimed at the use of assistive tech‐ nologies during the rehabilitation and/or support processes of people with total and/or partial visual impairments (whether congenital or acquired) and how the difficulties and limitations arising from this framework can be overcome through the recognition and exploration of the individual abilities and skills to perform tasks, through the use of AT. The methodological processes adopted in the research were conducted through observations and systematic comparative analyzes to recognize the patterns of behavior of individuals with visual impair‐ ment during the execution of their activities. The data analysis was performed to identify and compare the factors that contribute to the difficulties and successes in the application of assistive technologies for the rehabilitation of visually impaired people. It’s hoped that, at the end of these studies, their results may explain how AT contribute to improve quality of life to people with disabilities. Keywords: Assistive technologies · Rehabilitation · Visual impairment

1

Introduction

In Brazil, according to the Census conducted by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) [1] in 2010 , about 35.7 million people declared themselves to be visually impaired, and may be partial or total. Still for the IBGE, in 2013, as seen in the EBC Portal [2], the visual deficiency is the one that affects more Brazilians, representing 3.6% of the population and 16% of these visually impaired people have limitations that prevent the accomplishment of habitual tasks like go to work, go to school or even play. In World Health Organization (WHO) [3] reports in 2011, about 285 million people worldwide have some type of disability and 39 million have some form of visual impair‐ ment, 90% of this population living in low-income environments. According to data provided by the Lions Club International Foundation [4], about 6 million school-aged children have some type of visual impairment and less than one in ten have access to education. According to the same source, the unemployment rate in this group is between 75–90% (approximately 5 times that of the general population).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_67

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According to Galvão Filho [5], although society is increasingly considering diver‐ sity, there are still no concrete initiatives that can, in fact, reduce the inequalities in opportunities for people with disabilities. It is necessary to create, then, a culture of valuing diversity, at school, in companies and in society in general. Only in this way will one point towards true inclusive development. In this sense, this article has an important role to gather four works in a summarized way that seek for inclusion solutions for people with visual disabilities in a leisure, education and technology field.

2

The Use of Didactic Games as a Rehabilitative Aid for Visually Impaired Children

Children with visual impairments (both partially or totally, either congenital or acquired) present a number of difficulties during their physical, cognitive and sensorial develop‐ ment, especially due to the lack of materials specifically produced for the improvement of these attributes. In such situations, the use of didactic games as a form of rehabilitative assistance to the child seems to be effective, since they present both educational and playful characteristics, which are necessary for rehabilitation processes. The various obstacles faced by visually impaired children may de-motivate and even make it impossible for them to stay in their own educational. In the midst of such prob‐ lems (which include issues such as transportation, infrastructure, professional prepara‐ tion and adaptation of diverse activities), it is observed the importance and, at the same time, lack of specific didactics that integrate general values of learning and development of the skills considered essential for the student ‘s adaptation to their condition, according to Decree 6,571 [4] (State Interventions) and also according to the require‐ ments elaborated and documented by ABNT - NBR 9050 (referring to the standards of the physical adaptations for students with disabilities). Blindness in children is something that goes way beyond the mere lack of vision, but the assistance of parents, teachers and caregivers during the stimulation of their potential can lead them to have a normal life, acquiring characteristics and skills inherent to their full development [7]. Among the several theoretical principles and different approaches aimed at teaching children, Jean Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology, which is based on intelligence to elucidate how the fundamental processes and stages that occur during the construction of knowledge, stands out [8]. The preset of age groups attributed to the various types of games is also a way to facilitate their choice to better meet the playful and didactic needs of children and other users [9]. Considering this context and presented data, it was sought, as a general objective, to identify the needs of users related to the problem, which is, how to assist visually impaired children to adapt to lack or loss of vision (total and/or partial) through Development and training of their remaining physical, cognitive and sensory abilities. This research also points out the stages through which the studies were submitted during its course, including bibliographical and field analyzes that enabled the understanding of theoretical and prac‐ tical knowledge, aiming to provide informational assistance to professionals, tutors and even family members involved in child rehabilitation processes.

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2.1 Methodology The research was performed through systematic observations to recognize the behavior patterns of the children during the execution of diversed tasks, attending to their diffi‐ culties and successes. Interviews were also conducted in the form of semi-structured qualitative questionnaires to teachers, specialists and other professionals [10]. Finally, data analyzes (from the surveys) were carried out to compare and identify the main aspects related to the use of educational games as a rehabilitation aid for visually impaired children. The data collection used to formulate both the questionnaire inquiries and the activ‐ ities perceived in the observations was done according to the theoretical principles addressed in the bibliographies and other references mentioned throughout the research itself. 2.2 Results After completing the field surveys (interviews and observations), it is concluded that it is possible to establish relationships between the elements worked on the child and the functional characteristics that the educational games present, making the rehabilitation process even more effective. It is also possible to perceive that the method, that is, the order of steps to be followed in the process, is of equal importance, since it considers the evolution of the child in the game during different sessions (and also different days of the week/month), clarifying more precisely the benefits that the use of educational games provide in short, medium and long terms. The following is a list of relationships between the physical, cognitive and sensory aspects of the child and their recommended matching games (based on the results obtained in the observations and inquiries): • Cognition - puzzles, memory games (with different formats or high/low reliefs) and tic-tac-toe games; • Hearing - games with sound stimulation (rattles or whistles, for example) and activ‐ ities in which there are sounds that vary according to the distance of their emission; • Tact - games in which there are varied surface textures (high/low reliefs, cloths with different types of weft and softness, tactile mats, fabrics and flaps); • Synesthesia - games that require orientation, mobility and positioning associated with sounds, smells, notions of space and distances traveled. 2.3 Conclusion At the end of these studies, it was found that the use of didactic games for the rehabilita‐ tion of visually impaired children is done according to theoretical foundations approached by many of the authors who deal with the subject. Despite the marketing and financial limitations to which this process is most often submitted, it is possible to affirm that the contribution of didactic games is indispensable for the increase of autonomy and conse‐ quent improvement in the quality of life of visually impaired children.

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Tactile Color Systems for People with Visual Impairment: Advantages and Limitations

Visual impairment is a type of sensory impairment that compromises the acquisition of information through vision, since the affected sensory channels are those of vision. To relate to the outside world, blind people use non-visual sensory stimuli such as touch and hearing. For Ochaita and Rosa [17], (p. 1) “[…]. Tact, […] is the meaning that allows the blind the sensory knowledge of the animate and inanimate objects that make up the environment”. The haptic system is considered the most important preserved system for a visually impaired person and is closely linked to sensory stimuli. Through active touch, many properties of the surrounding environment can be perceived in the absence of vision [18] (p. 477). For Minardi [19] (p. 3) there is a need for simple unit symbols to be applied to everything from maps to clothing. There is also a need for symbols that can be engraved on photographs to provide contour, shape and color to the illustrated elements. Still for Minardi [19] (p. 3), color “[…] is widely used within our language as a means of communicating not only the colors of objects, but also as coding in maps, graphs and other visual displays. Color is an important aspect in communication for people with visual impairment that can often be under-explored. In theory of forms, according to the author Gomes Filho [20], (p. 17), art is based on the principle of form pregnancies, that is, in the formation of images, the factors of balance, clarity and visual harmony are considered indispensable. According to Kepes [21] (p. 18) “[…] the important thing is to perceive the form by itself; to see it as struc‐ tured “all”, the result of relationships.” According to the website Acessibilidade Brasil [22], today the reproduction of graphics, drawings or images is made by textures, that can be of manual form or digital with the Brazilian program Monet. The legend in Braille uses the name of the color and/ or the information to identify that the texture may be of any given color. This program is compatible as Braille Fácil, another Brazilian program, used for texts. Both programs are available for free download. This texture system is flawed in need as the choice of an object by color, such as the purchase of a shirt, for example. 3.1 Methodology The method used to support the study development was the systematic review of three patents that presented color-coded solutions for visually impaired people, such as Braille for reading. The three systems were chosen were Feelipa [23] NOGUEIRA (Colour code for visually impaired people (WO 2013137757 A1, 2013)), Minardi (Tactile symbols for colour recognition (US 5286204A, 1994)), and Vankrinkelveldt [24] (Tactile symbols for colour recognition by blind or visually impaired persons (EP 1318494 A1, 2003)).

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3.2 Results Feelipa and Minardi are the most similar of the three systems. Although Vankrinkelveldt presents geometric solutions like the others, it differs in a creation of new colors. The Feelipa system presents the three basic shapes representing the primary colors, just like the Minardi. In the combination of two primary forms, a new shape and a new color are created, following the same pattern of the chromatic circle, being primary colors forming secondary colors and a primary color with a secondary color forming a tertiary color. The Minardi system also presents the solution for colors that can not be obtained by combining the colors of the chromatic circle. The author presents eight geometric shapes representing complex colors. In the Vankrinkelveldt system, although it is also based on geometric forms, it uses a system like Braille, with the creation of basic shapes using dots. The author also presents a solution for complex colors, but the question of the forms union for the creation of a new color is not clear. The Feelipa system does not provide a solution to these complex colors. The Vankrinkelveldt and Feelipa system offer a solution for light and dark tones of the same color. The Minardi presents only the prediction for light tones changing the relief type. 3.3 Conclusion All three systems present a good solution for color characterization on various media types. Feelipa is the youngest of them, it is believed that the prediction for more complex colors is lacking, but the forms are good prägnanz and the system of the union of the forms facilitates, do not need to recognize a new geometric form with different charac‐ teristics. Although Minardi is from 1994, it presents the solution for complex colors and the union of the shapes, lacking a forecast for dark colors. Vankrinkelveldt compared to these two previous systems becomes a little complex, because it requires the learning a geometric form for each color, but is like to Braille and it could facilitate the adaptation for a blind person. It is believed that this research has generated a good discussion to determine a color system that facilitates the perception of colors by blind people.

4

Assistive Technologies Context in Special Education Use

Education is one of the main factors to promote inclusion. According to Kleina [25], all students can learn something new, regardless of their level of difficulty. Otherwise, one must think about what can be modified in teaching practice in order to favor their learning. By the way, for Oliveira and Glat [26], special education assumes the character of a set of measures to meet the special needs of students. Hummel [27] states that AT (Assistive Technologies) resources are the work objects of teachers: the lack of specific knowledge of resources makes effective planning impos‐ sible to promote significant learning moments. Manzini and Santos [28] describes that, in the implementation of the AT resource in school, the professional must understand the student’s situation: desires, physical, psychomotor and communicative characteristics, observe the student’s dynamics in the school environment, also the needs of teachers to increase student participation in the

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teaching and learning process. For Valente [29], the learner has often limited his ability to learn because the appropriate tools for his own development are not offered. AT is not a device that allows the disabled student to perform their tasks in the same way as the other students. Its function is to allow the student to carry out the activities in his own way, providing autonomy in his learning process. Many low-cost alternatives can be handcrafted to meet the needs of the school context. Bersch and Pelosi [30] consider that to develop an AT device in school, is to creatively seek an alternative for the student to perform his tasks. It is to find a strategy that values your way of doing, increasing your abilities of action and interaction from your abilities. When AT are well employed, they play a major role throughout the teaching and learning process. According to Mercado [31], the adequate use of technologies in teaching and learning processes favors the mental representation of knowledge. 4.1 Teacher’s Training Working with AT in special education is a way to promote independent living and social inclusion. This justifies an investigation on the subject, especially regarding the process of inclusive education and the appropriate use of AT. According to Nickel [32], in the implementation of AT, it is fundamental to provide training to teachers in order to support individual inclusion projects. Is necessary a process to support the continued teacher’s formation, lectures and meetings. It is up to the managers to organize the training so that all professionals receive adequate training, including in a preparatory capacity for future educators. Today it is perceived an underutilization of the possibilities of the AT being resources for the development of learning. That is, according to Conte and Basegio [33], AT are rarely used in class planning or inserted in teacher training. It is also perceived that the research work on the training of teachers in inclusive contexts is an almost marginal issue. Some programs of teacher training have already been rethought and adapted to the new legislation of the educational system. However, according to Hummel [27], the proposed programs do not include sufficient knowledge for future teachers to be able to work with the inclusion of students with disabilities. Usually only a discipline on the subject is intended. The training must return to the understanding that the school environment is composed of heterogeneous individuals, further exacerbating the need for appropriate pedagogical actions and that it is known to determine and understand the specificities/ deficiencies of each student. According to Silva [34], the political pedagogical projects of various degrees bring the problematic where the insertion of the theme of special and inclusive education still has to be built.

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Affordable Interface Assessment for Visually Impaired Users on Remote Control Emulator for Smart TV

Mobile devices have gained global prominence, both in handset marketing and appli‐ cation development, and in greater acceptance by the blind public. In surveys conducted in Brazil by FGV-SP, in 2010, 125 million units were marketed, approximately four times more than computers. It is estimated that in 2016 will be 168 million units marketed. The popularity of mobile devices, along with the financial factor, is also understood by the greater interactivity it promotes. Touchscreen widens and simplifies interactions with the interface, reducing response time. With this potential for interac‐ tion, in conjunction with the native accessibility tools of mobile devices, the number of disabled users has increased exponentially. Smart TVs comprise a group of televisions that, via the Wi-Fi or cable connection, connect the basic function of the devices with the access to the web, access to personal content, installation of applications and several other items that improve the experience of use. On Smart TV, operation is carried out by remote control, since the only button on the body of the device is the on/off switch. Since remote control is the instrument of user-TV interaction, it is important to note that remote controls are designed for sighted people, using different color and button sizes for ease of handling. Due to the large number of functionalities, its interface becomes complicated even for those who are psychic. According to Universal Design, “products should be designed so that they can be used by all people in an easy way, reducing the chances of error”. In the case of a blind user or low vision, the use of the TV through the control Makes the activity highly frustrating due to the lack of accessible elements for its use. However, the world’s largest manufacturers of Smart TVs already offer mobile app that emulates the remote control, so the blind person can operate the TV using the accessibility features available on Smartphones. In this way, confronting the problems of accessibility observed in the use of physical remote control, and the possibility to discuss about its substitution by a emulator installed in Smartphone, the focus of the research proposed in this research was guided by the following question: the use of a remote control emulator can make the experience of a user with visual limitations more accessible? The principles of usability are directly linked to accessibility, and should be observed as important items in the design of new products. In the digital field, accessibility promotes the adaptation of electronic devices and software developed to meet the most diverse types of physical and intellectual limitations [35]. 5.1 Methodology The World Wide Web Consortium W3C is an international body that has the initiative to assist web site developers by providing information and guidelines that bring their products to the maximum potential of accessibility. Although designed for the web, its principles can be easily applied to products developed for mobile platforms. For practical purposes, as it is a mobile app, we will follow Google’s accessibility recommendations, which are meant for projects specifically designed for the Android

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operating system. In its official documentation, accessibility appears as a user interface subitem, titled Making Applications Accessible, where it guides application developers to observe four recommendations for interface design. According to Silveira [36], “information has to be perceptible, reaching the user effectively regardless of the environment or sensory capabilities. Regarding the compo‐ nents of the user interface and navigation in the system, these should be easy to use and understand, according to each person’s capacity and knowledge”. By discussing a problem from the perspective of observation and experimentation, which conditions this study to a hypothetical-deductive research, the object of analysis was defined as a TV remote emulator, installed and synchronized from a mobile device with a system Android operating system. The research was structured in the verification and validation of the accessibility requirements, by the use of the TalkBack accessibility feature, native to the Android operating system, which translates the graphic interface components into sound information. It was called Accessibility Analysis, which encom‐ passes simple tasks such as changing channels and volume and more complex tasks such as accessing settings and interactive content. In this methodological process, validation was performed with a blind user, through a checklist. For Sonza [37], a checklist consists of a document with verification items and detailed monitoring, with the purpose of assisting in the documentation of manual tests done by disabled people and program‐ mers. The reference used to construct the checklist was the Brazilian Federal Govern‐ ment’s web accessibility test document (e-MAG, [38]), duly adapted for mobile devices. 5.2 Results Once the verification process and validation carried out in the Accessibility Analysis process, the first observation is the effective importance of labelling the interface elements, in a more specific and more important factor, which would result in the effi‐ ciency of the service provided by the emulator, the Buttons. Basic operation buttons, such as VOLUME (±), CHANNELS (±), or the POWER button, are not labelled, being interpreted by TalkBack as a “button without a marker”. In screen 2, which shows the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, LIST icon, zero, point in the 3 × 4 grid, only numbers are labelled but have no description of Function, being considered more like subtitles. Screens 4, 5, and 6 present the advanced device primary settings and access to inter‐ active content functions. All buttons here are labelled, but do not point anywhere in the emulator. The effectiveness of the actions performed are only visible on the primary device. The user validator did not find it difficult to reach the configuration functions, but when accessing them, it lost the autonomy to complete the action, since the feedback is given not through the emulator, but through the screen of the primary device, which awaits the confirmation of the action. The same happens when accessing interactive content: the emulator only has to navigate the options presented on the screen of the primary device.

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5.3 Conclusion Throughout this research it was possible to observe the importance of performing acces‐ sibility evaluation tests, and especially its validation through users with visual limita‐ tions. The accessibility recommendations for building sites and applications proposed by Google promote integration, engagement and interaction between developers and end users, and are in concord with the recommendations of the W3C document for digital inclusion. Regarding the evaluated application, it was observed that: (1) the first recommen‐ dation (description of interface elements) was not completely achieved. Simple labeling of buttons can mean a more accessible service, given the structural limitation of the application. (2) the use of the smartphone as a mediator of accessibility and digital inclusion gains credibility and acceptance by people with visual limitations in the stride, since it increases the capacity of interaction by eliminating the use of peripherals such as keyboard or mouse. The native TalkBack feature of the Android Operating System has proved to be a robust and very effective tool in the instrumentalization of accessi‐ bility. (3) the structural limitation of the emulator makes it just a mediator tool for buttons, making it a simple virtualization of physical remote control. The inclusion of blind users in the evaluation process brings the real possibility of fixing possible misunderstandings and predicting others, in order to promote the construction of more inclusive products, according to usability and accessibility tests.

6

Conclusion

This research aimed to analyze ways to promote inclusion through Assistive Technol‐ ogies in the field of leisure, education and technology, in a way that would collaborate in improving the quality of life and could promote the concept of independent living for people with visual impairment. The studies, even if briefly, proved to be valuable and with great potential for implementation. This potential can be better structured in a future research. What was interesting in the studies are the possible solutions to problems that are shown in the daily life, in order to favor the inclusion of blind/low vision in society and consequent promotion of citizenship. Acknowledgments. This work was carried out during the Masters in Design by the Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina/UDESC financed with a scholarship provided by CAPES linked to the MEC of Brazil.

References 1. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE) (2010). http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/ visualizacao/periodicos/94/cd_2010_religiao_deficiencia.pdf 2. EBC Portal. http://www.ebc.com.br/noticias/2015/08/ibge-62-da-populacao-tem-algumtipo-de-deficiencia

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3. World Health Organization (WHO): The World Bank. Relatório Mundial Sobre a Deficiência. Trad Lexicus Serviços Linguísticos, pp. 4–29. SEDPcD, São Paulo (2011) 4. Lions Clubs Internartional Foundation (LCIF). http://www.lcif.org/PO/ourwork/sight/ education-and-rehabilitation.php 5. Galvão Filho, T.A.: Tecnologia assistiva para uma escola inclusiva [recurso eletrônico]: apropriação, demanda e perspectiveas (2009). http://www.uf.br/acessibilidade/files/ 2009/07/Tese-Teofilo-Galvao.pdf 6. Brazil, Decree no. 6,571, 17 September 2008 http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/ _Ato2007-2010/2008/Decreto/D6571.htm 7. Santin, S., Simmons, J.N.: Problems in the construction of reality in congenitally blind children. J. Vis. Impair. Blind. (1977) 8. de Pádua, G.L.D.: A epistemologia genética de Jean Piaget. Revista FACEVV| 1º Semestre de (2), 22–35 (2009) 9. INMETRO. http://www.inmetro.gov.br/imprensa/releases/Inmetro-indica-brinquedos-maisadequados-por-faixaetaria.pdf 10. Turato, E.R.: A questão da complementaridade e das diferenças entre métodos quantitativos e qualitativos de pesquisa: uma discussão epistemológica necessária. Em Grubits, S., Noriega, J.A.V. (Orgs.) Método qualitativo: epistemologia, complementariedades e campos de aplicação, pp. 17–51. Vetor Editora, São Paulo (2004) 11. Brito, P.R., Veitzman, S.: Causas de cegueira e baixa visão em crianças. Arq Bras Oftalmol 63(1), 49–54 (2000) 12. Campos, L.M.L.C., Felício, A.K.C., Bortolo, T.M.: A produção de jogos didáticos para o ensino de ciências e biologia: uma proposta para favorecer a aprendizagem. Caderno dos Núcleos de Ensino, p. 48 (2003) 13. Gomes, R.R., Friedrich, M.: A Contribuição dos jogos didáticos na aprendizagem de conteúdos de Ciências e Biologia. Erebio, Rio de Janeiro (2001) 14. Laplane, A.L.F.D., Batista, C.G.: Ver, não ver e aprender: a participação de crianças com baixa visão e cegueira na escola. Cadernos Cedes. (2008) 15. Masini, E.F.S.: Educação do portador de deficiência visual: as perspectivas do vidente e do não vidente, p. 62. Ministério da Ação Social, CORDE, Brasília (1993) 16. Souza, T.D.A., Souza, V.E.D., Lopes, M.C.B., Kitadai, S.P.S.: Descrição do desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor e visual de crianças com deficiência visual. Arq Bras Oftalmol 73(6), 526– 530 (2010) 17. Ochaita, E., Rosa, A.: Percepção, ação e conhecimento nas crianças cegas. http:// www.diversidadeemcena.net/artigo03.htm 18. Gibson, J.J.: Psychological Review: Observations on Active Touch, vol. 69, no. 6. Cornell University, England, November 1962. http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/gibson %20(1962)%20observations%20on%20active%20touch.pdf 19. Minardi, M.J.: Tactile Symbols for Color Recognition. US patent US 5286204 A. https:// www.google.com/patents/US5286204 20. Gomes Filho, J.: Gestalt do objeto: sistema de leitura visual, 9th edn. Escrituras Editora, São Paulo (2009) 21. Kepes, G.: Module, Proportion, Symmetry, Rhythm. George Brasiller, Nova York (1966) 22. Acessibilidade Brasil. http://www.acessibilidadebrasil.org.br/joomla/noticias/666-institutobenjamin-constant-lanca-o-programa-monet-gerador-de-graficos-tateis 23. Nogueira, F.S.A.P.: Colour Code for Visually Impaired People. WIPO patente WO 2013137757 A1. https://www.google.com/patents/WO2013137757A1?cl=en

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24. Vankrinkelveldt, M.: Tactile Symbols for Colour Recognition by Blind or Visually Impaired Persons. EP Patent EP1318494 A1. https://www.google.com/patents/EP1318494A1? cl=en&hl=pt-BR 25. Kleina, C.: Formação continuada de professores para o uso da informática e tecnologias assistivas para alunos com deficiência física. Dissertação (2008) 26. da Oliveira, E.S.G., Glat, R.: Educação Inclusiva: Ensino Fundamental para os Portadores de Necessidades Especiais. In: de Valle, B.B.R., et al. (eds.) Fundamentos teóricos e metodológicos do ensino fundamental. Iesde, Curitiba (2003) 27. Hummel, E.I.: Tecnologia Assistiva: A Inclusão na Prática, 1st edn. Appris, Curitiba (2012) 28. Manzini, E.J., Santos, M.C.F.: Portal de Ajudas Técnicas Para Educação. Equipamento e Material Pedagógico Especial para Educação, Capacitação e Recreação da Pessoa com Deficiência Física: recursos adaptados, 2ª Edição, vol. 1. MEC, Brasília (2002) 29. Valente, J.A.: Liberando a mente: computadores na educação especial. Ed. da UNICAMP, Campinas (1991) 30. Bersch, R., Pelosi, M.: Portal de ajudas técnicas para a educação: equipamento e material pedagógico para a educação, capacitação e recreação da pessoa com deficiência física. Tecnologia Assistiva: recursos de acessibilidade ao computador. MEC/SEESP, Brasília (2006) 31. Mercado, L.P.L. (Org.): Novas tecnologias na educação: reflexões sobre a prática. Edufal, Maceió (2002) 32. Nickel, E.M.: Sistematização da implementação de tecnologia assistiva para o contexto educacional. UFSC, Florianópolis (2012) 33. Conte, E., Basegio, A.C.: Tecnologias Assistivas: Recursos Pedagógicos Para a Inclusão Humana. Revista Temas em Educação, João Pessoa 24(2), 28–44 (2015) 34. Silva, L.C.: Políticas públicas de formação de professores: vozes e vieses da educação inclusiva. Tese – Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia (2009) 35. Santana, R.D., Borges, T.B.: Acessibilidade utilizando tecnologias assistivas para o uso de celulares ou computadores. In: Resumos Expandidos Apresentados no XIX Salão de Iniciação Cientifica (2015) 36. Silveira, I., Da Silva, G.G.: Princípios da usabilidade e da acessibilidade a serem aplicados na TV para facilitar o acesso aos deficientes visuais. e-Revista LOGO 3(2), 53–72 (2014) 37. Sonza, A.P., et al.: Acessibilidade e tecnologia assistiva: pensando a inclusão sociodigital de PNEs. Série Novos Autores da Educação Profissional e Tecnológica. Instituto Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Campus Bento Gonçalves/SETEC-MEC, Bento Gonçalves (2013) 38. Programa eMAG - Modelo de Acessibilidade de Governo Eletrônico. http:// emag.governoeletronico.gov.br 39. Guimarães, A.P.N., Tavares, T.A.: Avaliação de Interfaces de Usuário voltada à Acessibilidade em Dispositivos Móveis: boas práticas para experiências de usuário. In: IX Workshop de Testes e Dissertações (WTD) do XX Simpósio Brasileiro de Sistemas Multimídia e Web, João Pessoa (2014) 40. Machado, D.R., Machado, R.P., Conforto, D.: Dispositivos móveis e usuários cegos: recomendações de acessibilidade em discussão. Nuevas Ideas en Informática Educativa TISE (2014) 41. Making Application Accessible. http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/ui/accessibility/ apps.html 42. da Silva, G.G., et al.: Diretrizes de acessibilidade para deficientes visuais a programação da TV digital interativa: contribuições (2011) 43. Rogers, Y., Sharp, H., Preece, J.: Design de Interação: Além da Interação HumanoComputador. Tradução de Isabela Gasparini, 3rd edn. Bookman Editora, Porto Alegre (2013)

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44. Filho, A.G.T.S., Santos, G.M.S.: A ampliação da percepção da interface para pessoas com deficiência visual através de recursos em smartphones: Uma perspectiva do design da informação sobre a acessibilidade digital. Blucher Des. Proc. 2(2), 1239–1250 (2015) 45. Web Accessibility Initiative (2010). http://www.w3.org/WAI/ 46. WCAG: Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0 (2011). http://www.w3.org/TR/ WCAG20/

Ergonomic Evaluation of Human-Computer Interfaces Through the Ergonomic Aspects of Scarpin and Bastien Marly de Menezes ✉ , Ricardo Bontempo, Marcelo Falco, and Augusto Gottsfritz (

)

Universidade Anhembi Morumbi, Design Digital, 630, Av. Roque Petroni Jr., São Paulo 04707-000, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This research has as main objective application of an exercise in the classroom, using the Ergonomic Criterion elaborated by Dominique Scapin and Christian Bastien in the evaluation of sites of the same sector of the economy. The analysis carried out by students of the Digital Design course sought to verify the characteristics of each site studied, to understand how the interfaces are perceived by the users and to evaluate the ways to reduce the conflicts generated by the lack of knowledge of the target audience. Due to the fact the students were digital natives, physical sheets were elaborated with the theoretical content as a form of reading incentive. Keywords: Human factors · Digital design · Ergonomic evaluation · Education

1

Introduction

From the earliest times, man has built around the world from the human scale, using space and objects according to his needs. However, throughout the period of industri‐ alization, from the use of energy to coal, through metallurgy and the principles of elec‐ tromechanics, the relationship of the user with the new products was mainly related to the functionality of the object for the accomplishment of a given Activity, with usability issues restricted to after-sales, as explained by Nielsen [1]. With the advent of the Web, software programs, mobile devices and the need for Human-Computer Interaction (IHC), it has become essential to detect human reactions to new products, tasks, devices and production systems, In that, with just one click, the user has the power to leave the site or the application in the face of the least difficulty of access. The “objects” created from the digital world have brought the need to develop procedures to understand how the interfaces are perceived by the users. The concept of usability, defined by ISO 9241, defends the study of methods that facilitate the use of a product, taking into account the effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction of the user during the design process of the new product. However, for Human-Computer Interac‐ tion (IHC) to be effective, it is necessary to study, analyze and understand the “usability Aspects, principles or heuristics proposed by various authors” [2].

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_68

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At the beginning of the discipline of ergonomics of the course of Digital Design the 10 basic qualities of the Usability Heuristics are presented by Jakob Nielsen, the 8 Golden Rules presented by Ben Shneiderman, the 7 Principles of Dialogue in ISO 9241:10 And the 8 Ergonomic Aspects of Scapin and Bastien as a way to elucidate the students about the various systems available for evaluation of digital interface projects.

2

Ergonomic Aspects

For the development of the research work in the classroom, the Ergonomic Aspects developed by the French Dominique Scapin and Christian Bastien were chosen as a way to exemplify the use of a digital project evaluation system. The Ergonomic Aspects were elaborated in 1993, at INRIA, in Paris, with the main objective of facilitating the understanding of interactive software, reducing conflicts generated by the lack of knowledge of the user [2]. Scapin and Bastien subdivided into 8 categories: Guidance, Workload, Explict Control, Adaptability, Error Management, Consistency, Significance of Codes and Compatibility. For a better understanding of the work developed in the analysis of sites, we will explain in a concise way each category: 1- Guidance is related to how the interface is presented to the user, guiding the user through the location of titles, menu options, label format, readability of information and immediate feedback. 2- Workload works the elements that decrease and simplify the actions to be performed by the user so that it is not necessary to decorate a procedure when moving from one screen to another. 3- Explict Control allows the user, for example, to decide when to reboot, interrom or cancel a long-running process. 4- Adaptability is the item that guarantees the accomplishment of a procedure in several ways so that a greater number of users can be attended. 5- Error Management informs the user of missing data or typos, allowing them to be corrected. 6- Consistency presents homogeneity in the layout of the information that has the same characteristics, facilitating the user’s understanding. 7- Significance of Codes promotes system functionality based on the terms of cogni‐ tion, perception, performance and expectations according to the cultural aspects of the user. 8- Compatibility fits the information to your reference in the interface, for example, filling a form should have the items placed in a logical sequence: name and date of birth and not the other way around.

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The Native Digital Student and the Classroom

As of this year 2017, we are receiving in the classroom of the Brazilian universities students born in the 21st century and considered digital natives. People who have access

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to smartphones and navigate without difficulty on the web, naturally bringing in their repertoire an experience in the use of digital media that allows them to obtain information and knowledge in a varied and instantaneous way. In order to adopt an academic practice that meets the interests of the students, the Ergonomics discipline has adopted a constructivist pedagogical practice based on Problem-Based Learning, where the teacher brings the program’s theoretical concepts to the reality of the professional world. Theoretical themes such as the Ergonomic Aspects presented by Scapin and Bastien, which require the student to understand the foundation through the reading of concepts important to their area of knowledge, are worked in the classroom through case studies, where The student is encouraged to check how the theory is applied to existing digital products on the market. In this way, the student realizes that “the true ultimate goal of problem solving learning is to make the student acquire the habit of proposing problems and solving them as a way of learning” [3]. By promoting the discussion around a given problem, the teacher ceases to be the holder and transmitter of knowledge, as happened in the past, where information was difficult to access, and becomes a manager that promotes in the study environment, An exchange of ideas, thoughts, reflections, provoking questions, analyzes, opinions, allowing the rise of new concepts and experiences on the professional performance of the student.

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Activity Performed in the Classroom - Evaluation of Sites Under the Ergonomic Aspects

Following the precepts of Telma Weiz who defends the idea that “it is not the learning process that must adapt to the teaching, but the teaching process is that it has to adapt to the learning” [4], the evaluation activity Projects of digital interfaces aims to enable the student to contact the theoretical content applied to his professional universe, in such a way that he understands each ergonomic criterion, differentiating the importance and application of these references according to the nature of each project and its respective user. In order to captivate the group to practice reading the concepts about the Ergonomic Aspects (Fig. 1), the proposed exercise had as its main focus the evaluation of sites and/ or applications known to the general public, providing a comparative analysis between two Same sector of the economy, verifying similarities and discrepancies. The areas of activity of the sites analyzed included education, digital commerce, transportation, information and culture, such as the portals G1 and Uol, Shopping JKIguatemi and Shopping Cidade Jardim, Easy Taxi and SP TRans, Americanas and Extra.com, Livraria Culture and Livraria da Vila. Each site chosen by the teacher was aimed at provoking in the students questions about aesthetic, ergonomic and functional issues found in these digital interactive products. Theoretical content about the concepts of each of the eight items related to the Ergo‐ nomic Aspects already mentioned in this article was made available to the students by means of plastic sheets in A4 size (Fig. 2), with which the students could freely

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Fig. 1. Students in the classroom, using the sheets with the Ergonomic Aspects

manipulate, identifying The concepts and contextualizing them in a comparative way if each one of the sites of a certain sector had or not the said criterion, and in what form it was or could be attended to.

Fig. 2. Chips containing Ergonomic Aspects content Scapin e Bastien

Each group of students chose a segment to compare and analyze the Ergonomic Aspects, verifying their performance relative to the user. Because it was a group exercise during the class, there was an exchange of information among the participants, which helped to understand terms such as effectiveness and efficiency or adaptability and compatibility. In this article, we will use the analyzes performed with the digital commerce segment, using the case study of Livrarias Cultura e da Vila. Throughout the group discussions and the application of ergonomic Aspects, students were able to verify unusual situations and even mistakes in themselves/applications of products or services that are on the web. We can see this example in the analysis of the sites of Livrarias Cultura and Viola, where in Guidance, the interface of Livraria Cultura’s website (Fig. 3) presents itself to the user, guiding it through menus in categories with actions of (Fig. 4) does not have a search bar and the interaction is only performed by a hyperlink when clicking on an image.

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Fig. 3. Análise da Livraria Cultura - http://www.livrariacultura.com.br/

Fig. 4. Bookstore analysis Vila - https://www.livrariadavila.com.br

By not allowing the search for a certain item, for example, by title or author, the user has only the option to buy the items that are exposed through the access generated by a hyperlink located on the image of the book. Compared to the physical world, it would be the same as allowing the customer to only buy the pieces that are exposed in the showcase, but never let him acquire the products that are located with-in the actual space of the store. This situation creates discomfort to the user, as the site is only an exhibitor of few parts that do not represent the sales capacity of the company. Throughout the research, it was possible to detect that the few resources available on the site do not have a minimalist character, as suggested by the Workload question, but lack of procedures that allow better navigability in the site. Students have identified that with respect to purchase orders, the two online book‐ store sites satisfactorily fulfill the Explict Control item, allowing the user to control the actions of: edit, remove and retry, according to their needs and expectations. In the

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Adaptability issue, the Livraria da Vila site is not responsive, restricting its use to the computer and eliminating users who prefer to make purchases by mobile. Regarding Error Management, it was observed that there is no protection against errors, it is possible for the user to register an identity number with values in zeros (00000000000), as well as to enter incorrect information about the delivery location, for example postal code. This deficiency in Livraria da Vila will harm the company that may have anonymous clients and deliveries that have not been performed due to lack of typing. The analysis carried out in relation to the items Consistency, Significance of Code and Compatibility, on Livraria da Vila’s website, showed that the layout is visually polluted with excessive unnecessary information that confuses the user. The icons used do not correspond to other e-commerce sites, making it difficult to use them. Methodology applied in the classroom: • Data collection of the theoretical references on the ergonomic criteria studied by Dominique Scapin and Christian Bastien, through plasticized fiches with the content presented in topics; • Case study of two sites related to the same area of action; • Seminar to presentation of the results. Throughout the research, the performance of the heuristic evaluation using the Ergo‐ nomic Aspects of Scarpin and Bastien, comparing sites of the same area of action, allowed the students to diagnose errors and/or omissions in the products analyzed with respect to the user and deficiencies regarding readability and Conduction of the studied interfaces. Due to the student is a digital native, the use of physical material as plasticized fiches with the theoretical content described, facilitated the students’ contact with the content of the discipline of ergonomics and its later use in reading the chapter Ergonomic Prin‐ ciples for Human Interfaces Computer - IHC, from the book Ergonomics and Usability Knowledge, Methods and Applications of Walter Cybis. The students commented at the end of the exercise that, when using the data sheets to carry out the evaluation work of the sites, the reading of the text started to make sense, in the medium in which the theoretical content had been applied to the area of action of the future professional.

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Conclusion

The Digital Design course has as main objective the search of solutions for digital inter‐ faces, having as guiding focus the valorization of the use for the user. This article presented the result of the heuristic evaluation related to the ergonomic quality of graphic interfaces of sites, through the Ergonomic Criteria developed by Scarpin and Bastien, carried out along the discipline of Ergonomics.

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The objective of this research was to enable the student to reflect on the ergonomic qualities of the Human-Computer Interfaces in such a way that it is possible to distin‐ guish each Ergonomic Criterion by its importance and application according to the nature of each project and its respective user. In applying the Ergonomic Aspects of Scarpin and Bastien, associated with the Piaget Constructivist concept, the work carried out on the quality of sites in the same area of activity enabled the students to return the sense of analysis and interpretation of data from the Human-Machine, verifying that the digital device must be user-oriented. In this way, the study of Ergonomics within the course of Digital Design, promotes the development of future designers aware of the need to study, analyze and understand the active participation of the user. Acknowledgements. Students of the 4th semester (2/2016), of the Digital Design course, especially Aretha Alves, Flavia Batista, Gustavo Pinheiro Oliveira, Haylla Conde, Hugo Machado, Letícia Monteiro, Pedro Policarpo, Rafael Fenza and Rafael Okino who carried out the analyzes presented in this article.

References 1. Nielsen, J.: Projetando Websites, p. 10. Elsevier Editora, Rio de Janeiro (2000) 2. Cybis, W.: Ergonomia e Usabilidade: Conhecimentos, métodos e aplicações, p. 24. Novatec Editora, São Paulo (2010) 3. Echeverria, M.D.P.P., Pozo, J.I.: Aprender a resolver problemas e resolver problemas para aprender. In: A solução de problemas: aprender a resolver, resolver a aprender. Juan Ignacio Pozo. Artmed, Porto Alegre (1998) 4. Weisz, T.: O Diálogo entre o ensino e a aprendizagem. Ática, São Paulo (2002)

Product Development of Assistive Technology for the Feet of a Person with Cerebral Palsy ( ) Márcio F. Catapan ✉ , Eugenio Fossile Filho, Luane C. Araium, Luísa Dieter, Maria Lucia L.R. Okimoto, Mateus N. Villas Boas, Caio Marcio Silva, and Christian Strobel

Department of Graphic Expression, Federal University of Parana (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. The general inclusion of children with motor disabilities is usually made difficult by the prejudice of society and by the complications they face when performing daily activities. In order to minimize the effect of these barriers, they can use Assistive Technology products, such as customized orthoses. This research aimed to develop a product of this sort with the help and interaction of various professionals, such as occupational therapists, physiotherapists and graphical expressionists. In order to obtain the measurements of the limb of the person with disabilities, a 3D scanning technology was used and, for the construc‐ tion of the orthosis, the chosen technology was Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Initially, in this study, after a child with cerebral palsy was selected, an occupational therapist and a physiotherapist made the plaster mold of one of the lower limbs. After this step, the Graphic Expression professional scanned threedimensionally the geometry of the plaster mold and treated the three-dimensional mesh until obtaining the desired surface. The final steps consisted in generating a 3D CAD model based on the acquired surface, which resulted in the threedimensional model of the desired orthosis, and generating the physical model of the product through Additive Manufacturing. This method presented good results when applied in a case study described in this article. Keywords: Orthosis · Assistive technology · 3D modeling · FDM

1

Introduction

According to data published by IBGE in the 2010 Census - People with Disabilities [2], approximately 23.9% of the Brazilian population has some type of disability. Many of the people included in these studies have their activities reduced within society, and this phenomenon occurs in the areas of accessibility, labor market, education, among others. According to the 2010 Census, 7% of the Brazilian population has some kind of motor deficiency. A large portion of these people await for a long period of time to receive an equipment that will enable them to perform certain tasks, such as orthoses, prostheses, wheelchairs, walking sticks, among others. Through the usage of such equipment, it is possible for them to be included in certain social groups, to carry out various activities and, consequently, to have a better quality of life.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_69

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In this regard, orthoses have great relevance in the inclusion and improvement of the quality of life of people with disabilities. These assistive technology devices can be custom-made to modify structural and functional aspects of the neuromusculoskeletal system of a given body segment. Improving the process of developing orthoses using 3D scanning technologies and additive manufacturing was the focus of this research. According to a report published by the Working Group on Orthoses and Prosthetics [7], the delay in the process of obtaining an orthosis is a result of several factors, such as the lack of statistical analysis that indicates the number of people who need orthoses and prostheses, bureaucratic barriers, lack of organization in the queue, and problems related to the law of bidding. Considering the growth rate of a child, for example, a waiting period of months means that this child will no longer be able to use this device. The child’s body will change and its measurements will increase, which will cause discomfort and even make it impossible for this child to use the orthosis. In addition to the waiting time, there are problems related to the quality of the orthoses that can lead to disuse [12]. New methods for obtaining measurements of body parts of people with disabilities and for orthosis production began to be explored using three-dimensional scanning techniques and virtual modeling of orthoses. A study by Foggiatto, Poier and Fernandes [6] discusses the difficulties in accurately obtaining the anatomy of a disabled human limb using modeling mass and scanning using 123D Catch software (Autodesk® Inc.). Based on that, the authors suggested that new methods should be tested where there is greater geometric precision and no aggression to the skin. The method presented here aims to reduce the total time of the production process of a customized orthosis. The time taken to obtain the measurements of the disabled person’s limb can be reduced by direct 3D scanning, and the manufacturing process can be accelerated by Additive Manufacturing using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology. To obtain the three-dimensional digital model of the lower limb of a resident of “Pequeno Cotolengo Paranaense” institute, in Paraná - Brazil, a little more than treeyears-old child with multiple sclerosis, the research team used a Smart SCAN 3D scanner from the UFPR (Federal University of Paraná) computer laboratory. Among the advantages of using this equipment, one could mention the speed of scanning, as it does not need targets like other 3D scanner equipment, ease of handling, and adequate reso‐ lution for manufacturing a bracing. Its main disadvantage is the high cost and nonportability. After obtaining the 3D digital model, the process of correction of the acquired mesh and 3D modeling of the orthosis was started. The whole process was accompanied by professionals from the health field, who have the knowledge about the anatomical limi‐ tations and needs of the user. The finalization occurred with the 3D impression of the orthosis, which, in addition to reducing the cost of production when compared to the process practiced today, can reduce the waiting time from months to days.

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Literature Review

Cook and Hussey [5, p. 5] define Assistive Technology by citing the concept of the American with Disabilities Act (ADA) as “a wide range of equipment, services, strat‐ egies and practices designed and applied to alleviate the functional problems encoun‐ tered by individuals with disabilities”. Assistive Technology aims to assist people with disabilities who need to perform daily activities independently, and is considered, there‐ fore, a “user resource”. Among people with motor disabilities are those with Cerebral Palsy (CP). According to the Brazilian Association of Cerebral Palsy (ABPC) [1], this is a general term that encompasses clinical manifestations that have common motor difficulties as a conse‐ quence of a brain injury. This neurological injury can occur during the development phase of the central nervous system and is stationary, which means it does not worsen nor does it disappear. However, motor difficulties can present changes in the course of the child’s growth and development. Many children and adults who have spastic CP have difficulty carrying out the activ‐ ities of daily living, as they may present deformations in the limbs, such as arms, legs, hands and feet. In order to correct the positions of the members, assistive technology devices can be used, and those are called orthoses. They are usually tailor-made and serve to modify the functional or structural aspects of the neuromusculoskeletal system of a certain body segment, ensuring better mobility, assistance in manual functions and/ or postural correction. In order to prepare the orthoses for the subjects with PC, it is necessary to collect anthropometric data of these people. Despite being little explored in Brazil, threedimensional anthropometry is a technique that presents itself as a trend in ergonomic analysis [4]. Few studies present effective techniques for obtaining anthropometric measurements of people with disabilities, as they end up moving during the measure‐ ment or 3D capture process. This is due to the fact that these people have difficulties in remaining static combined with the eventual presence of involuntary movements [10]. The stability of the member being scanned is of great importance, since these movements during scanning compromise the 3D surface’s fidelity by causing the mesh obtained to be distorted. Measurements by means of measuring tapes, anthropometric tapes, and caliper, although presented as useful tools to obtain general measures, are less effective in the anthropometry of members of persons with disabilities who require orthoses. Despite this difficulty, studies using 3D capture techniques are still in the initial stages and suggest that new studies should be done, seeking improvement in the process from the use of alternative technologies. This could accelerate the process, making it less invasive to the disabled person and achieving the desired level of accuracy. Munhoz et al. [11] present a study to capture the geometry of a plastic doll through photogrammetry. This process consists of a sequence of photos processed by an algo‐ rithm that generate a cloud of points and, consequently, a triangulated mesh that resem‐ bles the geometry of the puppet. In this study, however, it is reported that the time to obtain the result presented range from 4 to 6 h, a critical factor that decreases the easiness of the process and the comfort of the individual being scanned.

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In a study presented by Brendler et al. [3] it was demonstrated a technique of scanning directly the geometry of a limb, using a Kinect device (Microsoft), in just one minute. Direct scanning occurs when the device is pointed directly to the member in question and it captures data that is transferred to the computer. It is important to note that although the process is extremely fast, this study was conducted using a non-disabled person and that the accuracy found in this method may not be sufficient to produce a detailed and comfortable orthosis. Due to the difficulty often encountered in scanning a member of a disabled person, it was found that an indirect scanning method should be used. In this process, the plaster mold is manufactured in the same way as the traditional orthosis manufacturing process, but after curing the mold is 3D scanned. However, as simple as the mold production process may be, it is still able to obtain details of the limb’s geometry of the disabled person that are difficult to grasp only through direct scanning, in addition to allowing corrections in limb positioning during the making of the mold. This is due to techno‐ logical limitations and other factors such as the difficulty of people with motor disabil‐ ities in keeping the member in the desired position throughout the scanning process. However, the assistance and accompaniment of physical therapists and/or occupational therapists is fundamental for this activity. After the geometric capture of the limb to be studied, the orthoses manufacture can be accelerated with Additive Manufacturing process. This process differs from others because, instead of removing material, it adds successive layers in an automated way until the object is finished. For this, it is necessary that the product to be manufactured be in a file format that can be understood by the computer program controller of the 3D printers. The standard format used today is stereolithography (STereoLithography or STL), easily found in 3D CAD programs and 3D scanning programs. The object contained in the STL file is sent to the program of the machine and, afterwards, the manufacturing process is started, layer after layer. One of the low cost additive tech‐ nologies used is FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling), where a filament of polymeric material is heated and deposited in layers, which will form the physical model of the object [13].

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Materials and Methods

The method presented in this research refers to a case study performed with a person with cerebral palsy. The research was developed in four moments: (1) planning the case study, (2) conducting the case study, (3) data analysis and manipulation for bracing development, and (4) evaluating the efficacy of the solution. 3.1 Planning the Case Study In the planning of the case study, a first stage of field observation occurred at the Pequeno Cotolengo Paranaense institution in October 2016. During a visit at the institution, it was possible to observe what difficulties the children had in relation to their mobility.

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Many of them had cerebral palsy and had the mobility of certain limbs totally or partially compromised. During the visits made, the research team sought for a person eligible to participate in the case study. It was a sample indicated by the institution, male, with only three years and six months. The individual selected for the study is a person with spastic paralysis and severe impairment of upper and lower limb movements. Once his bones are still in formation, using the orthosis would allow the foot to be straighten in the right position, so that its deformity is stopped and its formation can occur in the correct way. Currently, the individual already begins to demonstrate an abnormal posture, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Disabled member view

3.2 Carrying Out the Case Study In the second stage, the case study was developed. It began with the analysis of the subject’s movements, together with an occupational therapist and a physiotherapist. The individual was analyzed and the region where the orthosis would be placed was chosen so that the limb could remain in a more comfortable position. At the same time, it was also analyzed the need to obtain the geometry of this position through a plaster bandage. If it would possible to carry out the direct scanning of the limb, the subject would not be submitted to the mold making process in plaster. In this case, it was not possible to do the direct scanning of the limb, so the mold making technique was used. Muscle relaxation was performed by a health professional (occupational therapist) and the limb was then positioned for scanning so that the orthosis could promote a gradual correction of this limb. Figure 2 shows the process of construction of the plaster bandage, so that the scanning could be done later. On the left side of the figure, it is demonstrated the appropriate position, suggested by the occupational therapist, for the creation of the orthosis. The right side of the figure shows how the individual’s legs were with the bandages plastered already placed. In this case, it can be noticed that the plaster bandage involved the whole region of the leg and foot, which made difficult the extrac‐ tion of these, considering that it was necessary to cut the plaster mold.

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Fig. 2. Indirect method - manufacture of plaster mold

After curing the plaster model, the 3D scanning process occurred. For this, the research team used a scanner called SmartSCAN 3D, from the Computer Laboratory of UFPR. This process was initiated by placing the plaster piece in the rotating base of the scanner as shown in Fig. 3, which did not require the use of targets to create the geometry, since this scanner uses the method of creation through images and reference points.

Fig. 3. Plaster mold scanning process

3.3 Data Analysis and Manipulation The third step consisted in analyzing and manipulating the three-dimensional mesh, in order to develop the 3D model of the orthosis. At this stage, the scanned model still presented the imperfections created during the 3D scanning process (Fig. 4), as well as some unwanted surfaces that needed to be excluded, also called “noise”. The model presented in Fig. 4 had to go through a process of cleaning and closing of the mesh, so that it would not present imperfections in its surface and could be prepared for the Additive Manufacturing process. The treatment was performed using two software, called 3ds Max (Autodesk) and Blender (Blender Foundation), which are presented as a tool with great potential in the area of orthoses and prostheses modeling. These software presented versatility and practicality, as well as the necessary tools for the steps of editing the scanned surface. The steps were divided as follows:

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Fig. 4. Raw 3D scanning result

Scaling and Positioning of Geometry After the STL file generated by 3D scanning was imported into the program, initially into 3ds Max, the scanned geometry was out of scale and in a non-editing position. To correct this, we used the software’s own scaling and rotation tools. Cleaning of Unwanted Parts As the plaster model was supported by a table during the scanning process, the scanner also captured the surface of the table and some other geometries called “noise”. To clean these regions, it was necessary to enter the editing mode, while in the 3ds Max envi‐ ronment, select the faces (triangulated meshes), exclude those that were not necessary, and smooth the final geometry (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Process of cleaning and smoothing of the mesh

After erasing the undesired surfaces, a more detailed smoothing technique was applied in the faces. Some of the sculpture tools presented in the software were used in order to create a smoother appearance in the surface. The result of this process can be observed in Fig. 6. After this process, it was possible to obtain a preliminary model of the three-dimensional mold, now without the noises and with a smoothed surface.

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Fig. 6. Geometry of the plaster mold after cleaning

This step was important to reduce the size of the file and to facilitate the closing of the apertures, which happened in the sequence. Before finalizing the modeling process, the final result of the surface of the digital model was verified. This step was performed with the assistance of a health professional so that, if necessary, corrections could be made in the geometry in order to better adapt it to the needs of the person who would use it. The orthosis of this study was produced with the objective of correcting the position of the foot of a child with cerebral palsy. Considering that, the final shape of the product could not disrupt or injure the lower limb of the individual. That is one of the reasons why the assistance of professionals from the health field was of great importance. The Additive Manufacturing process requires the 3D model to have a minimum thickness, which varies according to the technical specifications of each Additive Manu‐ facturing machine. To this end, a thickness of 7 mm was added to the model, considering that the orthosis also needed a certain thickness to be able to withstand the forces of flexion and/or extension of the limb, as well as the impact against other surfaces. Opening of channels and holes for fastening and fixing the fastening tape (Velcro) Channels were opened in the 3D model so that the fastening straps (Velcro) could pass through the orthosis. The ribbons served not only to attach the orthosis to the limb, but also to enable the equipment to be removed for cleaning and sanitizing the limb. In Fig. 7 it is possible to observe the positioning of the openings for the passage of the fastening tape.

Fig. 7. 3D model of the orthosis with thickness and openings

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After the modeling of the orthosis, the model was exported as an STL file and sent to the Additive Manufacturing machine. In this research, the machine used was produced by 3D Cloner, model DH +. After being manufactured with PLA (polylactic acid) material, the orthosis had to pass through the removal of the plastic supports that helped it to be manufactured. It was also necessary to correct any roughness from the process by sanding the surface. The orthosis was then presented to the study institute, Pequeno Cotolengo Para‐ naense. The initial satisfaction rate of the health team, the occupational therapist and the physiotherapist, was measured by a questionnaire and some adjustments were suggested in the orthosis. In Fig. 8 we can see the application of the orthosis and its corrective effect on the limb of the individual.

Fig. 8. Application of the orthosis in the disabled limb

It can be seen in Fig. 8 that the Velcro strap had not been used in the orthosis yet. This was due to the fact that this first test aimed to check the positioning or the product. After this fitting test, it was verified that the openings was large enough to pass the Velcro straps. Evaluation of solution’s efficacy The evaluation of the effectiveness of the solution will measured through a survey that will be applied during the course of the year of 2017. Besides that, new case studies are being planned to be developed. The individual who received the orthosis will be moni‐ tored and interviewed in order to check the effectiveness of the orthosis produced. This will aim to measure the effectiveness of the orthosis in assisting him during his daily activities, and improving the problems related to posture, pain and sanitation.

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Results and Discussion

Considering that the construction of an orthosis aims to correct or stabilize a part of the body, this limb must be in the correct position during the scanning process. This is needed

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so that one could create a high-fidelity 3D CAD model of the desired product. It was noted, during the progress of the project, the need to study new ways of positioning the limb for 3D scanning, so that the body member does not move during the procedure. To solve this problem, it was suggested that a plaster mold should be made with the member properly positioned by professionals from the health field. Then, in order to be able to scan the whole geometry of the mold, it was necessary to cut it in half and scan the two parts separately. This was needed because this equipment could not scan the internal geometry of the mold. After scanning the mold parts, it was necessary to join them using a 3D modeling software in order to obtain the geometry of the disabled person’s limb already in the correct position to use the orthosis.

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Conclusion

The method presented here proved to be effective for the manufacture of customized orthoses of lower limbs. Using a three-dimensional scanning system to perform the necessary measurements and a machine for manufacturing the orthosis through Additive Manufacturing, it was possible to restrict the total production time of the orthosis to a period of two weeks. Comparing this method with the traditional method of orthosis production, it was observed that the technology used in this study was the main factor to change the waiting time from months to a few weeks. The software used to correct and 3D model the mesh generated by the scanning (3ds Max and Blender), allowed all the digital treatment work of the orthosis surface to be done in a practical way. Their application in the area of orthoses modeling can be presented as promising and of great importance. Suggestions for future work include the development of dynamic orthoses, using joints. This type of study is suggested because static orthosis, as developed in this research, although leaving the limb fixed, however, does not help the physiotherapist rehabilitating the paralyzed limb. Also, in order to help with the cost of manufacturing and sanitizing the orthosis, concepts of “cortex orthosis” are suggested, which can further improve the benefits of this area of assistive technology.

References 1. Associação Brasileira de Paralisia Cerebral. Paralisia Cerebral—Perguntas e Respostas (o que cuidadores e pacientes devem saber). Disponível em: http://paralisiacerebral.org.br/ saibamais05.php. Acesso em: 13 Jan 2016 2. Brasil: Secretaria de Direitos Humanos da Presidência da República (SDH/PR); Secretaria Nacional de Promoção dos Direitos da Pessoa com Deficiência (SNPD); Coordenação-Geral do Sistema de Informações Sobre a Pessoa com Deficiência. Cartilha do Censo 2010—Pessoas com Deficiência. Brasília (2012). http://www.pessoacomdeficiencia.gov.br/app/sites/default/ files/publicacoes/cartilha-censo-2010-pessoas-com-deficienciareduzido.pdf. Acesso em: 25 Fev 2016 3. Brendler, C.F.: Digitalização 3D utilizando Kinect e sistemas CAD e CAM para confecção de órtese de membro inferior. In: 11º Congresso Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Design—P&D Design (2014)

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4. Catapan, M.F.: Análise antropométrica da cabeça humana para dimensionamento de capacetes balísticos. 2014. Tese (Doutorado em Engenharia Mecânica)—Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Mecânica, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba (2014) 5. Cook, A.M., Hussey, S.M.: Assistive Technologies: Principles and Practices. Mosby—Year Book Inc., St. Louis (1995) 6. Foggiatto, J.A., Poier, P.H., Fernandes, B.O.: Uso da Impressão 3D na Fabricação de Órteses —Um Estudo de Caso. IDEMi 2015. Florianópolis (2015) 7. Grupo de Trabalho sobre Órteses e Próteses. Relatório Final—2010. Brasília (2010). http:// conselho.saude.gov.br/ultimas_noticias/2011/relatorio/GT_orteseprotese.pdf. Acesso em: 25 Fev 2016 8. Gonçalves, B.A., Francisco, N.P.F.: Órteses: orientações e cuidados. In: XIV Encontro Latino Americano de Iniciação Científica e X Encontro Latino Americano de Pós-Graduação— Universidade do Vale do Paraíba (2011) 9. Iida, Itiro: Ergonomia—Projeto e Produção, 2nd edn. Editora Edgard Blücher, São Paulo (2005) 10. Leite, J.M.R.S., Prado, G.F.: Paralisia cerebral—Aspectos Fisioterapêuticos e Clínicos. Revista Neurociênc. (2004). doi:10.4181/RNC.2004.12.41 11. Munhoz, R., Moraes, C.A.C., Kunkel, M.E, Tanaka, H.: Modelamento Tridimensional de Órtese para Displasia do Desenvolvimento do Quadril por Fotogrametria. In: XXIV Congresso Brasileiro de Engenharia Biomédica—CBEB. Uberlândia (2014) 12. Villas Boas, M.N., Okimoto, M.L.L.R., Foggiatto, J.A., Catapan, M.F., Brogin, B., Rosenmann, G.C., Weigert, M.C.: Fabricação de órtese de membro superior por meio de escaneamento tridimensional e manufatura aditiva. In: IX Congresso Brasileiro de Engenharia Mecânica (CONEM), 2016, Fortaleza. IX CONEM (2016) 13. Volpato, N., Foggiatto, J.A., Lima, M.V.A., Manczak, T.: Uma otimização da estratégia de preenchimento do processo FDM. In: 4º Congresso Brasileiro de Engenharia de Fabricação —COBEF. Águas de São Pedro (2007)

Development and Evaluation of Low-Cost Custom Splint for Spastic Hand by Additive Manufacturing Gabriel C. Rosenmann1 ✉ , Mateus C. Weigert1, Paloma H. Poier1, José A. Foggiatto1, Maria Lúcia L. Okimoto2, Neri Volpato1, and Leandra Ulbricht1 (

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Federal University of Technology – Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil [email protected] 2 Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

Abstract. Spastic hand is a health condition that may decrease the functional capabilities of an individual. In such cases it may be indicated orthosis as a ther‐ apeutic resource. Such devices can be manufactured by digital processes, helping to mitigate many problems encountered in traditional orthotic processes and could increase user participation in product development. In this context this paper presents the development of a custom orthosis produced by Additive Manufac‐ turing with a focus on low-cost solutions. The orthosis resulting from this devel‐ opment was evaluated by the user, the family and therapists using a Semantic Differential tool. This evaluation has shown that user participation in the devel‐ opment of the formal and aesthetic solutions can increase engagement in device usage, collaborating with the therapeutic process. Keywords: Assistive technology · Additive manufacturing · Splint · Orthosis · Spastic hand

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Introduction

Spasticity can be defined as an increase in muscle tone involving hypertonia and hyper‐ reflexia originated from neurological factors with muscular, sensory and functional consequences for affected individuals. These changes can occur due to injuries to the Central Nervous System, as in the case of Cerebral Palsy. In cases where there is involvement of the upper limb, among other factors, there may be tonus imbalance between the flexor and extensor muscles of the wrist, hands and fingers [1]. In general, the flexors are hypertonic in comparison to their extensor counterparts. In most cases, there is an increase in tonus of the pectoralis major muscles, the biceps brachii, the flexors of the forearm and pronator [1]. Consequently, “shoulder flexion, adduction and internal rotation with elbow flexion, forearm pronation, wrist flexion with ulnar deviation” [1] occurs. Metacarpophalangeal deformities may occur, in addition to thumb flexion and adduction, positioning the thumb in the palm of the hand [1]. This condition results in a flexor pattern of deformity, called by some specialists “spastic hand”. Wrist, hand and fingers orthosis (WHFO), shown in the Fig. 1, may be indicated as part of a noninvasive therapeutic process, in an attempt to increase func‐ tionality and decrease the progression of deformities [1, 2]. Other models of orthotic © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_70

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devices may also be indicated, but this model presents more scientific evidence of efficacy [1, 2].

Fig. 1. Wrist, hand and fingers orthosis (WHFO) [3].

Orthoses are Assistive Technology products coupled to body segments with the goal of promoting joint stabilization, motion range improvements and maintenance or gain of functionality in some activities [4]. They may be called a splint or a brace. The splints manufactured by the traditional processes present some negative points, such as, weight, lack of customization, unfavorable esthetics, problems with getting them on and other factors that could result in the abandoning of these devices [5]. In an attempt to circumvent these problems, several studies [6–8] have identified Additive Manufacturing (AM) as an alternative to the fabrication of custom assistive products, such as orthoses. The AM principle, which is based on the addition of succes‐ sive layers of extruded material to make the final product, allows for greater geometric and design freedom when compared to other conventional manufacturing processes. Other studies indicate that AM allows for greater participation of users in the develop‐ ment process [9], as well as in the manufacturing of unique products with similar prop‐ erties to those produced on a large scale [10, 11]. In this context the goal of this study is to present the application of AM in the development of a WHFO for a child with Cerebral Palsy and the users perception evaluation.

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Literature Review

Currently, two types of orthoses are found: prefabricated and customized. Prefabricated ones can be found in several stores, in various sizes (usually S, M and L), but the product could not be developed to suit an individual, requiring adjustments made by the user or their therapist [8]. In contrast, custom orthoses are made and distributed exclusively by the therapist, offering greater comfort and variety of adjustments than the prefabricated ones. For extreme cases of size or deformity, a custom orthosis is also more effective, maintaining their shape at all times, while a prefabricated orthosis needs to be adjusted for each use, not always getting the same level of adjustment of the previous one. For this reason, prefabricated products are not recommended for all users because many require a custom orthosis [8]. Custom orthoses could be fabricated by various processes and materials [6–8]. The manufacturing sequence of one of the traditional processes can be seen in Fig. 2. After obtaining the plaster model of a particular limb, a high temperature thermoplastic sheet is used to shape the orthosis [12].

Fig. 2. The manufacturing process of an orthosis with high temperature thermoplastic [12].

Some problems of this process are: user discomfort to obtain the mold, need for several user visits to make adjustments within the orthopedic workshop, quantity of material discarded during the process, impossibility of stocking users’ anatomical models and a difficulty of remaking orthosis already delivered, needing to restart the process. Another custom orthosis process is based on a material usually known as “low temperature thermoplastic”. This polymer resin has a working temperature (softening) of around 60 °C, temperature tolerable for skin contact, which makes it possible to mold it directly on the limb [13]. The use of this material eliminates the need to make the mold in plaster bandage and, consequently, the plaster model. The following steps of orthosis manufacturing process using the low temperature thermoplastic can be seen in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. The manufacturing process of an orthosis with low temperature thermoplastic [10].

Clinical occupational therapists who manufacture splints for their clients are the users of this material in Brazil. This material and process presents some limitations for Brazilian therapists: high cost, inaccessibility to most modern imported materials, lack of quality of national materials, difficulties regarding the bureaucracy for material

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acquisition through public service, among others [11, 14, 15]. Some problems related to orthosis manufactured by this process are: coarse edge finishing, a need for constant adjustments due to daily deformations and product durability. As an alternative to manufacturing custom orthosis, several studies have shown the benefits of the AM using [6–8, 10]. Palousek et al. [7] proposed an orthosis design process for upper limbs, considering direct 3D scanning (di3D FCS-100 photo scanner) and manufacturing by Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), using the Dimension SST1200 printer, from Stratasys Inc. This proposal presents the following steps: data acquisition of the upper limb; polygonal data processing; parametric surface generating; Computer-Aided design (CAD) design process; fabrication of the splint; surface finishing, coloring; and testing. With a pilot study, the authors [7] considered this as a viable process, despite the high costs of equipment and software. Despite this, this manufacturing process opens the possibility to new solutions that are not possible with processes practiced today. Paterson et al. [10] summarizes the process of manufacturing custom orthoses by AM in three main stages, presented in Fig. 4: acquisition of an individual limb’s surface by 3D scanning, scan data manipulation in 3D CAD and manufacturing by AM.

Fig. 4. Three main stages of custom orthosis production by AM process [10].

The studies shown did not directly address the context of hand spasticity and the specifications related to this health condition. A person with spasticity in the hand has difficulty maintaining proper positioning at the time of scanning and/or acquisition of a mold for later scanning. Unfortunately, the digitized surface is the reference for the development of the splint, this stage of development by AM should be adapted to contemplate the context of spastic hands. Similarly, low-cost solutions should be sought after, aiming for the popularization of this alternative in the production of custom assis‐ tive products. The Semantic Differential (SD), created in 1957 by Charles Osgood, is a tool that allows for measurement of the reaction of people exposed to different stimuli. This tool has been widely used in order to know the factors related to meaning and perception of people regarding various interactions [16, 17]. SD appears as a set of odd scales with opposing adjectives. This set of adjectives should represent different dimensions and properties of what is being investigated. Assistive technology products are socially seen as a disease, a stigma of sorts, which discourages its acceptance and use. Thus the SD applied to assistive technology products

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becomes an important tool for recording the perception of different users of these products [17].

3

Materials and Methods

For the accomplishment of this study, cooperation was requested with a rehabilitation clinic, which attends children with Cerebral Palsy. Two occupational therapists of a clinic were invited to participate in the study. They selected a child with splint indication due to upper limb spasticity to participate in the research, with the participation of their parents. The two therapists had different roles in the process. While a therapist (OT1) assisted in the creation of the bracing requirements, the other (OT2) participated only in the evaluation phase of the final product. This study complied with all ethical require‐ ments and was approved by the Research Committee with Human Beings under the report number 1859901. All participants signed a Free and Informed Consent Term, as well as the term for image use. This topic is divided into: SD development and steps used to manufacture the custom orthosis by AM. 3.1 Semantic Differential The Construction of the SD tool was performed according to the following steps: • brainstorm - a multidisciplinary team held a brainstorming session in order to generate the greatest possible number of adjectives that could describe the orthosis and their use; • description of the terms - opposite adjectives determination and describing the under‐ standing of the terms raised in the brainstorm; • validation of adjectives - the validation was performed by three therapists related to the splint prescription, manufacture and use. These therapists did not participate in the orthosis development described in this study; • structuring and adjustments - formal structuring of the tool in conjunction with adjustments arising from the validation of terms and descriptions. 3.2 Development of the Splint The materials and methods used in the development and manufacture of the custom orthosis by AM is presented as follows: • Case selection: together with the disability care institution a case was selected: a child with spastic Cerebral Palsy with impairment in the upper limbs, with preserved cognitive and with an orthosis indication of hand and finger stabilization for nocturnal use; • Acquisition of a plaster bandage mold: with the aid of plaster bandages, OT1 made a plaster cast of the upper limb of the future splint user. The purpose of this step was

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to perform the acquisition of the limb anatomy in the position determined by the therapist, based on this geometry the custom orthosis will be developed. Gathering requirements: in this step the requirements and details suggested by OT1 and the user about the final product were written. For example, splint color, comfort material, fixation system, regions with breathing room, among others. 3D Scanning: the plaster bandage mold was scanned using the Kinect 360 device, produced by Microsoft, with the Skanect software, developed by Occipital, gener‐ ating a 3D digital model. 3D CAD orthosis modeling: the splint was modeled in 3ds Max software based on the digital model previously generated. Digital model evaluation: OT1’s views on the 3D digital model of the splint were considered for the final product’s improvements. Project settings: with the suggestions made in the previous step, some changes to the splint design were made. Printing, finishing and delivery: the orthosis digital model was sent to be made by AM using the 3DCloner machine, produced by EtechBrasil. In the finishing stage, the fixation system and the comfort material of the splint were added. Evaluation of perception at the time of delivery: lastly, the SD tool previously devel‐ oped was applied to evaluate the perception of not only the user, but the family, the occupational therapists at the time of delivery and the first use of the orthosis.

Results and Discussion

The first result of this study was the plaster mold made by the occupational therapist. The use of the plaster bandage was effective in capturing the geometry of the limb for which the orthosis was prescribed. In addition, it allowed the manipulation of the limb by the TO, making the positioning more suitable for that user. However this process generates dirt and discomfort to the user and the therapist (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Plaster mold.

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After making the plaster mold it was discussed details of the orthosis. The user chose the blue color splint and that it had the emblem of her favorite soccer team. The OT1 defined the regions of the orthosis that could contain slots, allowing better ventilation and weight reduction. The comfort material defined was the EVA and, at this point, it was decided the regions in the splint that it would be employed. Finally, it was deter‐ mined to implement a fixation system based on hooks and loop fasteners. The plaster mold was 3D scanned in 3 min with Kinect360 and the Skanect software, generating the digital model presented in Fig. 6a. This model was exported in STL (Stereolithography) format and imported to the 3ds Max software for the manipulation and development of the orthosis.

Fig. 6. (a) Original mesh. (b) Beginning of the conforming process. (c) Higher surface resolution. (d) Final splint modeling.

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The employed modeling technique consists in conforming a new surface based on the original mesh. The 3ds Max software has a tool that allows superimpose one surface on another. The advantage of this technique is to avoid possible defects presented in the original mesh, such as holes, overlapping triangles, gaps, among others. Furthermore, this technique allows to manipulate the surface boundaries more easily than others methods. The Fig. 6b shows the beginning of conformation process, where a surface with little resolution is created to be shaped more easily. As the surface conformation in the mesh is performed, the surface resolution is increased (Fig. 6c) and the process is continued until the surface captures the entire geometry of the original mesh. After the conforming process, a 2 mm offset was applied to surface to guarantee a slack to add EVA in the post-processing step. Finally, the 3.5 mm surface thickening was performed to generate the solid body of the splint (Fig. 6d). In the CAD systems, some slots were included to ensure ventilation and the football team emblem was added. Then, the digital model was presented to the OT1 that suggested modifications in some characteristics. After the modifications, the digital model was completed, as shown in Fig. 7a. Subsequently, it was manufactured by 3D printing machine, Fig. 7b. In the post-processing step was added EVA in the regions suggested by the OT1, Fig. 7c. Finally, in Fig. 7d, the orthosis was delivered to the child.

Fig. 7. (a) Final digital model of the orthosis. (b) Printed model. (c) Finished orthosis. (d) Splint delivery.

The estimated cost of the splint was 10 dollars. This cost can be considered low in the Brazilian context, comparing to the values of the customized orthoses. The material

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used (Polylactic Acid - PLA) is easily found in the Brazilian market, facilitating the manufacturing process. The terms raised for the SD approached essentially three aspects: aesthetic, design and functionality. The answers obtained can be observed in Fig. 8. These terms selected by the professionals were similar to those found in the literature as essential to be considered in the development and application of Assistive Technology.

Fig. 8. Semantic differential answers.

DS has proved to be a suitable tool for assessing user perception of the splint. The lack to consider aspects related to aesthetics, design and functionality can contribute to the stigmatization of the use of Assistive Technologies and consequently to their aban‐ donment [18]. In this way tools to evaluate these aspects are relevant. In this particular case of the orthosis generated, the aspects with better scores were those referring to the aesthetic and design dimensions. One of the aspects with better score was with respect to perceived weight, being considered a very light product. When the user received the product, he mentioned that it was lighter than the finger bracing he had. A statement made by the father during the DS filling, and which guided some of his answers is that all splints are uncomfortable. This was characterized in the DS by adjec‐ tives such as uncomfortable and boring.

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The user and the OT1 - who followed the initial assessment - responded more posi‐ tively to aesthetic and design dimensions. The OT2 - which only evaluated the final product - criticized the product in relation to finishing and other functional issues. The hypothesis is that active participation in product development create an identification of the people with the product, in addition they are able to verify that the demands were met. Regarding the splint design dimension, all the participants answered that they consider the product effective, but in different levels of approval. Father and therapists considered the device intuitive, easy to wear and to remove in contrast to the users answers. This result demonstrates the difference of perception, since the user does not present independence to wear the device, due to his health condition.

5

Conclusion

This paper presented the development and evaluation of a WHFO for a spastic hand. The AM technology was applied through a method adapted from the literature to answer some requirements of the health condition of the spastic hand and to increase the user participation. Aiming at the possible popularization of this process, the proposed methodology took a low-cost approaches, such as the use of plaster bandage, the Kinect360 device, the PLA material used for manufacturing and the 3DCloner machine. As a result, a lowcost orthosis was obtained, 10 dollars, which was evaluated positively by different people who participated in the process. For the final product evaluation was developed a Semantic Differential, with profes‐ sionals related to the prescription, preparation and use of orthoses. In this way, the adjectives managed to cover semantic dimensions of this orthosis. The SD allowed the perception understanding of the different users of the process of orthosis development by AM. This evaluation demonstrated the complexity involved in the development of this product, which has strong disease-related stigma and also functional, aesthetic, and symbolic demands. Acknowledgments. UTFPR, Vitória Centro de Reabilitação Neurológica, CAPES/CNPq e a Rede de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Tecnologia Assistiva (RPDTA).

References 1. Baxter, J.A., Nixon, M.F.: Upper limb problems in children with cerebral palsy. In: Alshryda, S., Huntley, J.S., Banaszkiewicz, P.A. (eds.) Paediatric Orthopaedics: An Evidence-Based Approach to Clinical Questions, pp. 393–399. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2017) 2. Jackman, M., Novak, I., Lannin, N.: Effectiveness of hand splints in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review with meta analysis. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 56(2), 138–147 (2014) 3. Callinan, N.J., Mathiowetz, V.: Soft versus hard resting hand splints in rheumatoid arthritis: pain relief, preference, and compliance. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 50, 347–353 (1996) 4. Fess, E.E.: A history of splinting: to understand the present, view the past. J. Hand Ther. 15(2), 97–132 (2002)

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5. Phillips, B., Zhao, H.: Predictors of assistive technology abandonment. Assist. Technol. 5(1), 36–45 (1993) 6. Pallari, J.H.P., Dalgarno, K.W., Woodburn, J.: Mass customization of foot orthoses for rheumatoid arthritis using selective laser sintering. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 57(7), 1750– 1756 (2010) 7. Palousek, D., Rosicky, J., Koutny, D., Stoklásek, P., Navrat, T.: Pilot study of the wrist orthosis design process. Rapid Prototyp. J. 20(1), 27–32 (2013) 8. Campbell, R.I., Paterson, A., Bibb, R.J.: Digitising the splinting process using computer aided design and additive manufacturing. Br. J. Occup. Ther. 77, 141–142 (2015) 9. Kane, S.K., Hurst, A., Buehler, E., Carrington, P., Williams, M.: Collaboratively designing assistive technology. Interactions 21, 78–81 (2014) 10. Paterson, A.M., Donnison, E., Bibb, R.J., Campbell, R.I.: Computer-aided design to support fabrication of wrist splints using 3D printing: a feasibility study. Hand Ther. 19(4), 102–113 (2014) 11. Silva, L.G.: Órtese em PVC para Membro Superior: Utilização por Terapeutas Ocupacionais Brasileiros, Propriedades Físico-mecânicas e de Toxicidade e Desempenhos Funcional e Mioelétrico. Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos (2014) 12. Brasil: Confecção e manutenção de órteses, próteses e meios auxiliares de locomoção: confecção e manutenção de próteses de membros inferiores, órteses suropodálicas e adequação postural em cadeira de rodas. Ministério da Saúde, Brasília (2013) 13. Rodrigues, J.L.: Confecção de Órteses e Adaptações em PVC Tubular e Materiais de Baixo Custo. Universidade do Estado do Pará. EDUEPA, Belém (2005) 14. Agnelli, L.B., Toyoda, C.Y.: Study materials for orthoses of making and using your practice for occupational therapists in Brazil. Occup. Ther. Noteb. UFSCAR 11(2), 83–94 (2003) 15. Silva, F.P.: Bracing abductor thumb: alternative study material to thermoplastics low temperature currently used. Dissertation. Universidade do Vale do Paraíba, São José dos Campos (2001) 16. Andrade, A.L., Cruz, R.M., Paul, S., Bitencourt, R.F.: Construction of semantic differential scales: a measure for the evaluation of aircraft innersound. Psychol. Assess. 8(2), 197–208 (2009) 17. Lanutti, J.N.L., Medola, F.O., Gonçalves, D.D., Silva, L.M., Nicholl, A.R.J., Paschoarelli, L.C.: The significance of manual wheelchairs: a comparative study on male and female users. In: 6th International Conference on Human Factors and Ergonomics Applied, vol. 3, pp. 6079– 6085 (2015) 18. Parette, P., Scherer, M.: Assistive technology use and stigma. Educ. Train. Dev. Disabil. 39(3), 217–226 (2004)

Applications and Interface Requirements to Engage the Citizens to Share Information in a Smart City Project Francisco Rebelo1,2 ✉ , Paulo Noriega1,2, Tiago Oliveira1, Daniela Santos1, José Carvalhais1,2, and Teresa Cotrim1,2 (

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Ergonomics Laboratory, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal [email protected] CIAUD, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, Rua Sá Nogueira, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. Today the cities are faced with new challenges provoked by the displacement of population to the urban areas. Cities have started to find for information and communication technologies solutions that enable high-quality and more efficient urban services. In this context, this study aims to propose a strategy to create the interfaces for a project related with smart cities. Considering that an interface acceptance by the users is important for its success, we develop a survey based in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM and adapted TAM2) and Motivational Model (MM), to understand their preferences to use different types of interfaces. The sample consisted of 225 Portuguese (107 male and 118 female, min = 18; max = 65 years old. The main results show the age is an important factor concerning their interface preferences and motivations to share information. These results demonstrate the need to develop different applications, one for younger adults that integrate all services and several applications for older adults, grouping one or more services, with different interfaces and rewards mechanisms. Keywords: Smart cities · Share information · Human-systems integration · Smart City Sense

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Introduction

Nowadays in Europe, 75% of the population lives in urban areas and this number is expected to reach 80% by 2020 [1]. This situation will require an anthropocentric approach, where the cities must respond to people’s needs through sustainable solutions for economics and social aspects [2]. The current situation require new challenges to the cities. In this context, cities have started to find for information and communication technologies (ICT) solutions that enable high-quality and more efficient urban services. In this context, the Internet of Things (IoT) has been presented has a solution for this problem. This term gets now a bigger importance in the context of the European Program Horizon 2020, that does promote projects to improve the efficiency of the European Cities. Defining IoT is not easy, it is not only a new technology, it is considered a new © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_71

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conceptual framework that involves the actual technologies, not only the smartphones or other user devices, but objects that are part of the environment in which the service is delivered to the user and a new approach of addressing issues with amazing social impact, relevant to new ways to create homes and cities [3]. The same problem occurs with the concept of smart cities, the term is common in everyday speaking, but it’s exact definition is still not well established [4]. A good definition of smart city has been proposed by Coe et al. [5]. “A city whose community has learned to learn, adapt and innovate. People need to be able to use the technology in order to benefit from it”. In this conceptual framework, we believe IoT and smart cities without considering the needs, expectations and desires of the Users will fail. The Users are the engines of the IoT implementation strategy, they will not accept solutions that were not part of their life styles. To study this goal and find the best solutions to optimize an acceptable inter‐ action between the citizens to the IoT in the smart cities will be in near future a big challenge for the ergonomists. Information and technology acceptance has been studied by different authors and has been explained by various theoretical frameworks and models, described briefly below. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), postulates that individual behavior is influ‐ enced by his/her behavioral intentions, where behavioral intentions are influenced by his/her attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms related to performing the behavior [6, 7]. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is connected to the perceived usefulness, related with the degree to which a user believes that using a system would enhance his performance, without free of effort. The TAM2 model is an upgrade and includes more 3 variables: experience, social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image), cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, results demon‐ strability) [8, 9]. The Motivational Model (MM) postulates that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation determine the use behavior. The extrinsic motivation is related with the perception that the users will want to perform an activity and get a promotion or money. The intrinsic motivation is related with the perception of the users to perform an activity to help the others [10, 11]. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is an extension of the TRA theory adding a new construct, the perceived behavior control. This extension will solve a limitation of TRA, in dealing with behaviors over which users have incomplete voluntary control [12, 13]. The Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) integrates 8 constructs: the relative advantage, comparing whit other innovations; easy to use; image status; visibility (see others using the system); compatibility with the existing values, needs and past experi‐ ences; results demonstrability (perceptibility of the result using the system); voluntari‐ ness of use (perceive that the use is voluntary) [14]. The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) identifies human behavior as an interaction of personal factors and environment. The behavior is explained by 5 constructs: outcome expectations performance; outcomes expectations personal; self-efficacy; affect; and anxiety [15, 16].

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The Model of Personal Computer Utilization (MPCU) define that the behavior intention is determined by three aspects: the attitude aspect; the social norms aspect; and the usual aspect [17]. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Used Technology (UTAUT) combine the previous theories. This theory use four key constructs to explain the determinants of usage intention (performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facil‐ itating conditions) [18]. In this context, our group of ergonomics, usability and user experience is involved in the Portugal 2020 project, Smart City Sense. In this project our group is responsible for: the interface proposals for the input and output information tasks, involved in the capture of information in the city; and also for the gamification strategies to engage the citizen and the other city stakeholders (i.e. police, health and tourism professionals, governance). Considering the importance of the technology acceptance to create efficient inter‐ faces and to engage the citizens, in the first phase of this project we developed a ques‐ tionnaire to get information that can guide the strategy of the main interface decisions. According to the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use has a strong influence in the individual decision to use the tech‐ nology. Considering the objective of the Smart City Sense project, to get and share information from different areas (health, tourism and people displacements), from the usability point of view the team had some doubts related with the interface types that will be implemented. To develop one application or various applications for each area. Another doubt was related to the way that the users received the information, summar‐ ized or detailed information. According to the Motivational Model (MM), the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determines the use behavior. On this subject, we want to know what kind of reward people would like to have to share information. As said before, the TAM2 model added a new construct, the subjective norm related with social influence as an additional predictor of intention to use. In this subject, the team of the project had some doubts related with the reasons that drive users to share information and the importance of the community in sharing information. Using this framework, the proposed investigation questions were: – Application preferences to share information (one integrated application or various applications for each area)? – What are the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to share information about the city? – What is the importance of the others in the decision to share information about the city? – What is the influence of the age in the previous process?

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Methodology

2.1 Data Collection and Sample Characteristics The sample consisted of 225 Portuguese (107 male and 118 female) with an average age of 36,4 years and a standard deviation of 13,1 (min = 18; max = 65). The survey was handed out inside the public transport used by people, that works in Lisbon, by inter‐ viewing the passengers. 2.2 Measures To not disturb the passengers, the questionnaire had only five questions, plus the demo‐ graphic characterization (age and living area, habits to share information). For the beginning of the Smart City Sense project, were selected only the most important ques‐ tions that justify the development strategy of the project. All the questions were measure by selecting an option from two or three statements. For the perceived usefulness and ease of use, two questions were used: • You prefer an application that integrates the services from tourism, displacement in city and health, or one application for each area? • You prefer receiving first a summary of the information and after all the details, or all the information with the details at once? Related to the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to share information, one question was used: • What is your main reason to share information in a community: receive prizes? Receive important information for you? Help the others? Concerning the questions connected with the subjective norm related with social influence, three questions were used: • If I have an illumination problem in my road: I will share immediately this informa‐ tion in an App. to have this problem solved or I will wait for the others, probably they have already reported this problem in the App. • If you lose the interest in an Internet community to share information: you will continue participating because your friends do it? You will continue, because later you can have helpful information? You prefer to leave?

3

Results and Discussion

Most of the participants (60,5%) had basic education, the others had an under graduation or graduation courses. Regarding the habits to share information in the Internet communities, 62% share information sporadically, 26% share information daily and 12% never share information. Concerning the question related to perceive usefulness and ease of use (“You prefer received a summary of the information and after all the details, or only all the information

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with the details?”), 72% of the sample prefer to receive a summary and after the access to details, 28% prefer to receive detailed information after the search. The age is an important factor concerning those preferences, with older adults (average age 43) prefer‐ ring detailed information and young adults (average age 33) preferring a summary (t = 4,7; p < 0,001), Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Characterization of age by perceived usefulness and ease of use.

Regarding the question “You prefer an application that integrates the services from tourism, displacement in city and health, or one application for each area”, 66,3% of subjects preferred only one application, and the remaining others several applications. For the one application preference, the average age was 34 years old and for the multiple applications 42, with a significant difference of 8 years (t = 4.1; p < 0,001), Fig. 2. The previous results show that we must to have different solutions for young and older adults. Considering that the young adults are more familiarized in using applica‐ tions, the eventual interaction problems with one complex application, due to the exis‐ tence of many variables, will not be a problem. For the older adults, is preferable to have one application for each area, with a less number of variables what will lead to an easier interaction with the interface. Also, in less complex application will be easier to have detailed information for each search. Concerning the question associated with the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to share “What are your main reason to share information in a community: receive prizes? Receive important information for you? Help the others?”, 47,8% of the sample prefer to receive extrinsic motivation solutions, 44,4% important information and only 3,6% prizes. The others (52,2%) prefer intrinsic motivation solutions, in this case, help the others, sharing important information. The age is also an important factor concerning those preferences, with older adults (Average age 43) preferring intrinsic motivation solutions and young adults (Average age 25) preferring extrinsic motivation solutions (Fig. 3). This could be explained by the fact that young adults do not have a paid activity (most of then are students) and

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Fig. 2. Characterization of age by the preference of the number of applications.

need money for their daily expenses. Anova one-way revelead significative differences between age groups for variable intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to share (f = −8,8; df = 2; p < 0,001). Post-hoc tests show differences between help others and the other two levels of variable (p < 0,01), but not between access to prizes and important infor‐ mation (p > 0,05).

Fig. 3. Characterization of age by the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to share.

These results reinforce the need to develop two applications, one for younger adults and another for older adults, with different rewards mechanisms. The younger adults are more motivated to share information receiving prizes (average age 22), while those with an average age of 30 years old prefer to receive important information.

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Concerning to the subjective norm related with social influence, for the question “If I have an illumination problem in my road: I will share immediately this information in the app. to have this problem solved or I will wait for the others, probably they already reported this problem in the app.”, 74,7% of the sample prefer to share the information immediately and 25,3% to wait for the others. The age is not an important factor concerning these preferences (t = −0,5; p < 0,05), Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Characterization of age by the subjective norm related with social influence (share or waiting for the others).

With respect to the question “If you lose the interest in an Internet community to share information: you will continue participating because your friends did it? You will continue, because later you can have helpful information? You prefer to leave?”, 56% of the sample prefer leave, 38,7% prefer to continue waiting for better information and 5,3% prefer to continue because their friends do it. The age is also an important factor concerning those preferences (Fig. 5). We can identify two groups of younger adults: one with an average age of 20 years old, that prefer to continue in the community influenced by their friends, and another with an average age of 30 years that continue believing that in the future will have important information. The group that prefers to leave has an average age of 40 years, but with a large dispersion. Anova one-way reveled significative differences between age groups for variable intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to share (f = −15,5; df = 2; p < 0,001). Post-hoc tests show differences between all three levels of the variable (p < 0,001). Both applications should be focused on the needs and lifestyles of users in order to give the information they need, thus preventing them from abandoning the application, because they are no longer interested. The application for younger adults, in addition to the previous aspects, needs also to have a focus on the group of friends.

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Fig. 5. Characterization of age by the subjective norm related with social influence (continue or leave de application).

4

Conclusions

This study aims to propose a strategy to create the interfaces for a project related with smart cities. Considering that an interface acceptance by the users is important for its success, we develop a survey based in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM and adapted TAM2) and Motivational Model (MM), to understand their preferences to use different types of interfaces. Regarding the variables related with TAM (perceive usefulness and ease of use), the users preferences determined the need of two types of interfaces. One for younger adults (between 18 to 40 years old), that corresponds to a solution with only one integrated application, where the search results are presented in a summary format, followed by optional detailed information. For the older adults, above 40 years old, multiple appli‐ cations, one by each city subject problem area, where the results are presented in detail. Concerning the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation preferences to share information, it was verified that age continues to be an important factor; the younger adults prefer the extrinsic motivations and the older adults the extrinsic motivations. This reinforces the need to have two types of interfaces with different types of rewards mechanisms. For the younger adults the prizes and information are important and for the older adults, after 40 years old, the possibility to help the others is valued. The same need to have two applications was found in relation to the subjective norm related with social influence. In this case, both applications and interface solutions should be focused on the needs and lifestyles of users (young and older adults), to prevent the loose of those interested in the Smart City Sense Project. The application for younger adults, in addition to the previous aspect, must integrate social sharing of information among their group of friends.

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All the aspects mentioned above were integrated in the project, in a user centered design perspective, allowing in the early phase of the project Smart City Sense the proposal of the citizen requirements for the applications and interfaces. The future development of this project (Smart City Sense), after the approval by the team, is to include the organization requirements (associated with the objectives of the project). The ergonomics, usability and user experience group will begin with the devel‐ opment of the first prototypes of the interfaces for each application, and the gamification strategies that will be developed in function of these requirements and will be evaluated in a user center design perspective.

References 1. UN, United Nations: World Urbanization Prospects. The 2007 Revision Population Database (2008). http://esa.un.org/unup/ 2. Berardi, U.: Sustainability assessments of urban communities through rating systems. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 15(6), 1573–1591 (2013) 3. Atzori, L., Iera, A., Morabito, G.: Understanding the Internet of Things: definition, potentials, and societal role of a fast evolving paradigm. Ad Hoc Netw. 56, 122–140 (2017) 4. Chourabi, H., Nam, T., Walker, S., Gil-Garcia, J., Mellouli, S., Nahon, K., Pardo, T., Scholl, H.: Understanding smart cities: an integrative framework. In: Proceedings of Hawaii International Conference on System Science (HICSS), Grand Wailea, Maui, Hawaii (2012) 5. Coe, A., Paquet, G., Roy, J.: E-governance and smart communities: a social learning challenge. J. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 19(1), 80–93 (2001) 6. Sheppard, B.H., Hartwick, J., Warshaw, P.R.: The theory of reasoned action: a meta-analysis of past research with recommendations for modifications and future research. J. Consum. Res. 15(3), 325–343 (1988) 7. Vallerand, R.J., et al.: Ajzen and Fishbein’s theory of reasoned action as applied to moral behavior: a confirmatory analysis. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 62(1), 98 (1992) 8. Legris, P., Ingham, J., Collerette, P.: Why do people use information technology? A critical review of the technology acceptance model. Inf. Manag. 40(3), 191–204 (2003) 9. Szajna, B.: Empirical evaluation of the revised technology acceptance model. Manag. Sci. 42(1), 85–92 (1996) 10. Przybylski, A.K., Rigby, C.S., Ryan, R.M.: A motivational model of video game engagement. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 14(2), 154 (2010) 11. Cox, W.M., Klinger, E.: A motivational model of alcohol use. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 97(2), 168–180 (1988) 12. Ajzen, I.: The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 50(2), 179– 211 (1991) 13. Conner, M., Armitage, C.J.: Extending the theory of planned behavior: a review and avenues for further research. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 28(15), 1429–1464 (1998) 14. Wonglimpiyarat, J., Yuberk, N.: In support of innovation management and Roger’s Innovation Diffusion theory. Gov. Inf. Q. 22(3), 411–422 (2005) 15. Luszczynska, A., Schwarzer, R.: Social cognitive theory. Predict. Health Behav. 2, 127–169 (2005)

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16. Bandura, A.: Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychol. 3(3), 265–299 (2001) 17. Thompson, R.L., Higgins, C.A., Howell, J.M.: Personal computing: toward a conceptual model of utilization. MIS Q. 125–143 (1991) 18. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, G.B., Davis, F.D.: User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view. MIS Q. 425–478 (2003)

Study and Design of a Tactile Map and a Tactile 3D Model in Brazil: Assistive Technologies for People with Visual Impairment Sabrina Oliveira ✉ , Laura Doro, and Maria Lucia Okimoto (

)

Graduate Program in Design and Mechanical Engineering Department, Federal University of Parana State, Curitiba, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents the study and the design method for the develop‐ ment of a Tactile Map and 3D Tactile Model in Brazil to be used as assistive technology for people with visual impairments. In this context, we present biblio‐ graphic review that offers requirements to design various tactile products. The method presents techniques for measuring the usability of these products. Thus, researchers have been prototyping the tactile map on the fuser printer and the tactile 3D model on three-dimensional printer for a National Conference of Assis‐ tive Technology for the Integration between Design and Engineering in Brazil. Thus, from the perspective of built environment, researchers defined the location points in the products (map and 3D model, both tactile). The map and 3D model were adapted based on a user-centered design process of an individual with complete visual impairment. People with visual impairments have been testing this Assistive Technologies (AT) during the conference. The main objective of this study was to investigate the accessible production of inexpensive tactile aid products in order to improve the user experience and practices of visually impaired people. This paper shows that Tactile Map and 3D Tactile Model presented in this study were able to help individuals with vision impairments in the conference environment. Keywords: Assistive technology · Visual impairment · Wayfinding · Blind · Low vision

1

Introduction: Context of This Study

Accessibility is an important concept, mainly in the urban context encompassing aids to daily life and public products to people with deficiency, for example: wheelchair ramp, preferential seats, tactile floor, others spaces of the built environment and even inclusive wayfinding systems. In Brazil, in the 2010 [1], it was found that 18,8% of the all population has some kind of visual impaired; only in the state of Parana (place of the conference on Assistive Technology) based on south of the country, there is a number of 1.728.671 people with visual impairment. Therefore, this research has as objective: development of tactile

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_72

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resources to use through people with visual impairment, partial blind (low vision) or blindness totally. However, researchers would like to establish aspects that influence the comprehen‐ sion and recognition to present the best way to design. For this, we used the TECAFUSER that is a thermal printer to map prototype and 3D tactile model through Cloner 3D Printer. The equipment available at the Science and Technology Library and Labo‐ ratory of Ergonomics and Usability, respectively and both based on Federal University of Parana, Brazil. These equipment’s provide a fast prototype with affordable price and quality of use for the intention. A short review about of the theme is present from a vast bibliographic that we study to produce such products. After the review, we designed the tactile map in 2D software and 3D tactile model in three-dimensional modeling software. The Printing Process occurred as follows: The map printed on fuser and the 3D tactile model on three-dimen‐ sional printer. Soon after, we conducted the pilot test, usability experiment with a blind user, in order to improves aspects related to information comprehension from reliefs, Braille texts, content in standard alphabet (also available) and visual organization of the information in both products. The usability test occurred to improves recognition infor‐ mation and behavior of consonance in relation to perception of information and appro‐ priate attitude to explore the environment and find the route to the right destination. This study is part of a network of projects in a major research project, titled Orien‐ tation and Mobility to Visual Impairment: Guidelines for Wayfinding System. It is a PhD Research, within of the “Network of Research and Development in Assistive Tech‐ nology for People with Deficiency” and Universities Associated. This group have been developing integrated actions between Mechanical Engineering and Design, guided through professors based on Brazil and developed through graduate students (master and PhD courses). However, this paper is within to the context of the Spatial Orientation and Mobility (OM) problems that the visual impairment daily finds in urban spaces. Mostly in public and open spaces such as urban parks or bus stops, there are a scarcity of assistive resources to orientation and mobility of the person with visual impairment, for example: absence of products with signs, audio displays, intelligent sensors, lumi‐ nous aid, floors with color contrast guiding paths, tactile floor or tactile maps. The pres‐ ence of these products is important because can help the people with visual impairment in tasks as such as locomotion and environmental exploration. Public spaces must be not only signs, because these places must allow autonomy to exploration of the envi‐ ronment built, mainly to visually impairment or people with reduced mobility. In this context, there are not only signs in the built environment, but there is wayfinding project with multi-product to stimulate different sensory abilities. Map and Tactile 3D Model started from the plant of the Administration Building at the Federal University of Paraná (event place) including three floors: Hall, First and Second Floor. In the start it, occurs an analytical study to collect information about tactile aids and foreign standards. After all, we plan and defining main difficulties during the prototyping process. Thus, we start the production of prototypes, followed of pilot usability test and interview with a blind user. This moment was important because served to adjust the products and to redesign. Therefore, AT allows mobility and products

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should provide autonomy and independence to meet the dimensions of accessibility and urban inclusion.

2

Review: State of Art

Currently, there are studies about OM that encourage projects in this area. This scenario offers notoriety to this subject. Google, for example, is developing a project to OM through the London Underground Station, providing self-autonomy, only guided through voice command by Bluetooth technology. The project is the “Wayfindr”. The project was test with users in real context [2]. Also, there is the AIPOLY, a British app that offers “vision through artificial intelligence”, it is innovating technology in this area, recognizes objects through the mobile camera and identify them to users, it provides safety because identify objects and recognizes obstacles on way [3]. For this reason, aid resources to daily life of people with visual impairment or some technological product that supports mobility and spatial orientation for blind or low vision people are Assistive Technologies (AT). These resources contribute to inclusion, while provide an inde‐ pendent life and city accessibility. In this perspective, studies within this scope have achieved notoriety and applica‐ bility from private and governmental investments that further promote studies related to localization and orientation in aid products in recent years. Then, tactile maps e 3D tactile model act in an integrated way to OM. However, there is not specifically tactile products standard in Brazil, differently of the conventional Brazilian cartography [4]. This factor makes the work a difficult task to obtain reliable and validated information for application in aids project in the context of Brazilian cities. Global cities use the Standards or ISO to provide information about product design and prototyping requirements to increase accessibility and integrated technologies for mobility on foot or through various transport. Everything linked to system of public services, a network of services offered in real time and through various technologies such as app for mobile devices and websites. Cities that work with this are “Smart Cities”. Thus, our research should improve design and engineering practices to favors the elaboration and implementation of solutions that minimize the impediments found through people with visual disabilities in the built environment to have equivalent access conditions when compared to other people. A principle found in the booklet of the Convention about Rights of People with Disabilities, established through United Nations Organization [5]. Data collected in Brazil [6] show us that 35,8 million of Brazilian people are blind or visually impaired; including the state of Paraná, in the south of the country, with an amount of 1.728.671. It indicates the need to a national standard to tactile aid product compared to the cartography that has such standard in Brazil. Similar standards in others countries are found. Thus, recently a standard to tactile floor is implementing require‐ ments of this in Brazil [7]. The Laboratory of Tactile Technologies [8] based on Federal University of Santa Catarina State (LABTATE of UFSC University) in Brazil has developed tactile maps

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and tactile 3D models, initiative to promotes visual accessibility to visual impairment. We reiterate that provides conditions of social inclusion to all people, including those with some impairment: sensorial, physical or intellectual disadvantages are part of prin‐ ciple of the Brazilian standard of accessibility. An important document, because its determinations implement the inclusive spaces in the urban context. Although, the approach to this official document is generalist, it must provide technical criteria for designers and engineers to concept the projects more accessible and aid products with Universal Design. The standard should provide in constitutional level: the mobility rights and equal rights to access for everybody from specific aspects of product design, as such as: typography, relieves, colors, compositional information, pictograms family, material, surface, texture to different areas, etc. If we consider to standard guides the process of developing product for common use in all areas. Available papers in National Council of Technological and Scientific Development (CNPq) [10] were the start to bibliographic research to discover needs and most impor‐ tant aspects of tactile maps made in Brazil. After this stage, we look for international institutions with same focus of research. Spain, United States and Canada were countries that have already developed standards, with specific notoriety, for example: ONCE Guidelines purposed in Barcelona [11]. Google Project, Wayfindr to visually impaired people is more challenging than usual, because it takes care of users and guides people with visual impairment through signs as such as: sirens, floor and audio information, more sensorial stimuli compared to people with normal vision. It informs only the interesting points. In this context, thinking about our products, we define that it is an essential requirement, point out only to areas of interest: bathrooms, stairs, elevators, rooms, shops, just what is relevant to user in the navigation indoor. The system guides from assistive mobility features and care. Forward, studies about technology installation, usability and accessibility criteria related to this project, show us that in this moment, it has been usability tests with users and receiving design collaboration. In this case, test phase occurs for planning the user’s internal navigation in the station when there are few people or a lot of movement. Assuming that the wayfinding process must guarantee the success in the task of locating and guiding the user, in the same way as London Underground Station, where the Wayfindr Project was accomplish. This process allows generalization of the project to other contexts. In Brazil, the Constitutional Law, number 10.098/2000 [12], establishes basic criteria to promotes accessibility to visual impairment and reduced mobility. Already, the acces‐ sibility national standard - NBR 9050 in 2004 presents the requirements to buildings, equipments and the urban environment. An adjustment proposal for this standard published in 2015 through ABNT (Brazilian Techniques Standards) establishes “criteria and technical parameters to be observed and proceeding installation and adjustment of urban buildings to improve the conditions of inclusion to special needs. Although, superficially this norm presents the tactile language to standard alphabet and symbols, it would be with typography such as Arial, Verdana, Helvetica, Univers and Filio type to improve recognition. The pictograms must be simple, too. Thus, show us that tactile language contains subtopics that were pertinent while designing and mocking up our products with specific character type, numbers and tactile symbols. Therefore, the criteria considered to aid tactile products are following:

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• Tactile letters and numbers must have elevation between 0.8 and 1.2 mm, characters height from 15 to 50 mm with minimum distance 1/5 of the height, and minimum distance between lines 8 mm; • Tactile symbols must present strong and filled design inside the shape with few elements to configuration; defined contour and it must have no details. Minimum height of 80 mm and 0.6 mm to elevation. Distance between symbols and text should be 8 mm; • The alphabet Braille must be in a short information with an arrangement of six dots and two columns. These dots must be round in spherical form as such as dimensions of the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Arrangement of Braille Dots to informational text [9].

According to research of international institutions, researchers highlight some works, for example, Spain in the University of Jaén, in a partnership with National Organization of Spanish Blind People [11] (ONCE), where was produced a technical document with requirements after user usability tests. In the same way, we can find out Braille Authority of North America (BANA) [12] and Canadian Braille Authority [13] that in 2012 published a book in their website with orientation to tactile maps. The most pertinent data compiled about these studies are below: • Media of 45 × 60 cm in the base; • Subtitle: size bigger than 7 mm (type: Arial - 28pt) to uppercase letter and bigger than 6 mm to lowercase letter (type: Arial - 32pt); • Texts in caps lock must be always followed to Braille Information, too; • Color Braille Text in the same color of background not contrast, because even people with normal vision do not misunderstand; • Symbols distinct to each other and when in the map, always guarantee that they are enough separated to be differentiated.

3

Method: Design Process and Prototyping

Initially, we established with data from internationally studies and Brazilian Accessi‐ bility Standard: dimensions according Standard Topic 5 about Information and Signage

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criteria guide our design process, using also requirements present through LABTATE [8]. In a first moment, we concept a tactile map printed on fuser printer and test with user to get in feedbacks from product interaction. After all, we project a virtual envi‐ ronment in CAD software to 3D Printer. In the Tactile Map, we use software that produces 2D drawings with few details and presenting simple traits. We made lines to places separating, as such as, architectural plan for then print out on Fuser Printer. Already, in the case of 3D tactile model, we use 3DCloner Printer, available at the Laboratory of Ergonomics and Usability – LABERG, based on Federal University of Parana State. In the 3D tactile model development, we use 3D FILA PLA filament as material, in Sky Blue, Yellow and Silver colors. This filament has diameter 1.75 mm. The building of the Administration of the Polytechnic Campus of Federal University of Parana at Curitiba City - Parana State Capital was chosen as place of the Conference and we represent its architecture in our tactile aid products. In order to assist participants with normal vision or not, we develop three tactile maps and put them in hall entrance: One map with Hall Design, One map with Floor First Design and One map to Second floor. We use the Arial type and Braille characters in the maps. The walls represented through simple linear traits and included arrows to guide the paths. From of this, consider that users are empowered to know the event places before to explore in real context. For the preparation, it was necessary to make a visual study of the place, photographs, because, there are no plans available. Thus, project in the 2D drawing tool and when finished, printed the design on swell paper sheet, suitable for thermal fuser machine. The union of the rubberized paper, the black carbon to base paint and heat produced through the machine provided the tactile relief with a pleasant texture. After this stage and with the maps preparation, we conducted an usability experiment with blind person, an Angolan blind, voluntary to improves the maps for use in the event. The test was possible to basic adjustments in the project. 3D tactile models occurred after 2D tactile maps production, because would be compared. Google SketchUp 2017, version with free license, was software used to threedimensional model. We evaluate these products prototyped and analyze which one would be the best representation. Evaluating the Hall Map, we highlighting then each part of this map print out separately, to be able to explore a greater variety of colors and paste manually. However, there is a way to make colored maps in the 3D printer just to changing the color filament material. Avoided losing of material, if one part of it was wrong, then we elaborated part by part and printed all separated to after all, put all the parts together. The handmade process was difficult, although color contrast to be satis‐ factory and improves the informational text. The base made with blue filament, the walls and physical limitations of silver color and the letters in yellow to greater contrast with the background an alternative to normal vision people. For the first floor, the base and walls are printed with the blue filament and yellow plates printed from the area of each room (auditorium, rooms, bathroom), resulting in a colored floor. Finally, to second floor we used the same technique as the first, but reversing the colors, resulting in the yellow to base and the blue plates, in order to evaluate the variability of the colors, and the influence of them to the understanding of the map for people with low vision.

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For printing in the 3D Printer, file must be .STL format, it is standard in various CAD software used to generate G-code. G-code is a code with appropriate language that 3D printer receives and reads with programming commands. SketchUp is a 3D software used in this project to virtual prototype; it cannot save files in compatible format, thus it was necessary to use the Blender Software, also free license, to export from one format .SKT to another .STL. The tactile model prototyping is indispensable to define maximum dimensions, represented as base; it varies from information amount elements, environment to be represented and fixed location. In the model, dimensions are following: Hall has 24 × 16 cm, first floor has 24 × 10 cm and second has 29 × 10.5 cm. Hall made on base with 24 × 16 cm and it has blue color filament material. Walls represent visible barrier that prevent passage of the user, represented in the model with gray PLA filaments material, 9 mm in height. Characters written for people with normal vision are uppercase. The information is highlighted to low vision in Arial type and printed with yellow PLA filament; Braille legends are blue PLA filaments, size is 0.9 mm height, recommended through Brazilian Accessibility Standard and made without contrast with background, this technique does not interfere in reading to normal vision or blind. Three parallel rectangles were on the base to represent stairs. For first floor, everything made in blue PLA filament, base and wall together and small yellow plates made in each important space (rooms, bathroom, auditorium, etc.). In the next stage, occurs the QR Code insertion, technology aided through smart phones and allows audio. We put QR codes in the 3D tactile model to provide sound aid and offer more information on each one. The information about locations would provide audio to user as speakers, parallel presentations and workshops. In the second floor, base made with blue PLA filament, dimensions 29 × 10.5 cm and 2 mm height. Walls printed with yellow PLA filaments, 1.8 mm thickness and a relative height of 1 mm. The base made so that it could fit walls inside, making its assembly more practical and enable real-time changes if needed. Braille text made in blue, just as Hall and glued on it. This method does not present color diversity. However, it is practical, relevant factor for production without great resources. All equipment used for filming, taking photos, audio recording and confection belong to Laboratory of Ergonomics and Usability of UFPR.

4

Results and Discussion

The main objective of this project was to study the accessible production, of inexpensive tactile aid products in order to improve the user experience and practices, of visually impaired people. There is a difference between tactile products made through 3D printer and thermal fuser. Thermal maps represent 2D drawings, printed in a special paper that elevates only black ink and is recommended to simple maps, without many details (Fig. 2); 3D model printed allows to explore shapes and colors, although is timeconsuming process and demand a understanding about 3D drawing skills.

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Fig. 2. Tactile maps

The two processes able to compare and separate most outstanding characteristics of each method. The analysis is important in order to determine best setting of colors, contrasts, thicknesses and heights. It is also important to comprehend practicality of each process, being able to raise positive aspects of each one and to merge them. Providing that this learning to improves in the development of new guidance and mobility products for the visually impaired from these for other researchers. Tactile maps made on the fuser printer already are tested and adjusted. These aid products were to use on Conference and provided mobility and location points to users. The users through think aloud method manifest self-reports about the ability of aids to assist people in your ways. In conclusion, contain only few information and traits to guide to ideal path. In the Fig. 3 is the prototype of Hall and only the location arrows in bottom part were adjust, adding traces to indicate possible ways to follow, along arrows.

Fig. 3. Prototyping of 3D tactile models – plan

Changes were significant in the first floor. In the upper side, we add a title, with a subtitle indicating thickest dash. The Braille cell-size increased in order to become more readable; a handicapped symbol was on left bathroom. Second floor presented more details, compared to other maps produced, which made it difficult to design process. Caption on the upper side, written in Braille was required in order to reduce information in central part of map. Words were simplified by only initials (Noble Saloon was SN, Sector of Technology, ST). Most of the arrows removed and a title was incremented next to caption. Researchers have not tested 3D tactile models before with visually impaired, there‐ fore, it is the next step in project. They were designed and executed distinct, with Hall

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being the most elaborate and aesthetically acceptable, with higher color contrast, but also laborious. First floor was simple, but easier to prepare. The Second Floor is practical to prepare, but explore fewer colors, which may be unfavorable to low vision users; has a simple mechanism to make alterations, because its walls are removable without disturbing its use. A favorable factor of this kind of 3D tactile model was high contrast colors (Figs. 3 and 4), helpful for low vision users, large yellow words makes it easier to read. Thus, it is possible to assuming that this kind of product is looks like more recommended for users who can still differentiate colors or can read words with larger characters or use your own optical aids (loupes or mobile magnifying apps). However, due to the difficulty to print out various parts, which requires longer times to prepare, compared to others approaches. Research team also paid more attention for inserting each piece in the base, because they are pasting manually. The positive factor in this model was QR Code insertion.

Fig. 4. Prototyping of 3D tactile models with informational texts and with QR Code

5

Conclusion

The design process of tactile aid products is challenging because it involves not only prototyping process, but also analytical skills. The main objective of this research was to consider information with spatial orientation. Products must be presented in the best way to visually impairment people who may have mobility issues. The purpose of this works was to help further the study of aids use to find local points with satisfaction, ease of use, mobility and safely. The study highlights that accessibility criteria for people with low vision, must consider issues with color contrast, voice over and large size texts in order to stimulate different sensory channels to improve recognition and collaborating to choose path with the correct destination successfully.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

National Institute of Geography and Statistics. http://www.ibge.gov.br Google Wayfinding Project: Wayfindr. https://www.wayfindr.net/ Aipoly - Vision Through Artificial Intelligence. https://www.aipoly.com Loch, R.E.N.: Cartografia tátil: mapas para deficientes visuais. Portal Cartogr. Geociênc. 1(1), 36–58 (2008) 5. United Nations. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications 6. Brazilian Standard of Tactile Floor. http://www.abnt.org.br

Study and Design of a Tactile Map and a Tactile 3D Model in Brazil 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Laboratory of Tactile Technologies. http://www.labtate.ufsc.br Brazilian Standard of Accessibility. http://www.abnt.org.br Brazilian Portal of Periods CAPES. http://www.periodicos.capes.gov.br ONCE - National Organization of the Blind in Spain. http://www.once.es Law Decree of Brazil. http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/L10098.htm Braille Authority of North America. http://www.brailleauthority.org Canadian Braille Authority. http://www.blindcanadians.ca

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Ergonomics Design and Evaluation

Cultural and Creative Elements of Digital Technology Art and Product Design Lung-Wen Kuo1,2 ✉ and Chih-Chun Lai3 (

1

)

Department of Multimedia Design, Takming University of Science and Technology, Taipei 114, Taiwan [email protected] 2 Graduate Institute of Design Science, Tatung University, Taipei 104, Taiwan 3 Department of Industrial Design, Tatung University, Taipei 104, Taiwan [email protected]

Abstract. The first impression given by a digital technology product indicates its art design and color awareness. Designers should think about how to attract consumers to buy the product they designed as they choose from similar products by keeping control of the design method and creative thinking. Colors, graphics, and size are the key factors to consider when it comes to the product design elements. To design creative and well-accepted products can be the research direction of the product design. This study is based on the colors, graphics, and size of the product to serve as its research direction. It explores the elements of portable Bluetooth products and the speakers used for music entertainment. Firstly, the experiment starts with the colors of the portable Bluetooth speaker, and confirms the emotional feature and colors of each color match in a variety of color hues. Secondly, the cultural and creative graphic design elements of this experiment focus on how to integrate the cultural and creative graphics with the visual color study. Experiments show that the most popular products feature creative graphics. Finally, the study examines the most appropriate portable size for the Bluetooth speaker. The most popular outdoor portable size is found at last. A discussion is held to explore the causes. The research results show that the most popular color match is the color black matched with orange, and the color grey matched with purple. As for the product, the size of 35 × 35 × 70 mm and cultural and creative graphics featuring flames and dragon-shapes are the most popular ones. Keywords: Product design · Color · Bluetooth speaker · Cultural and creative

1

Introduction

When it comes to product design, some factors such as the art design and colors of digital technology products should be considered as a designer should gain control over the design method and creative thinking. Obviously, the colors of a technology product will have an effect on human emotion and feelings, as well as their desire to purchase the products. This study should carefully examine the color phase of the product, its bright‐ ness and Chroma when designing the colors for the product. Different colors will result © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_73

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in a variety of mental awareness. The color blue represents the color awareness of comfort and technology. For example, HP, Facebook, or companies like Intel all uses the blue element for design to highlight people’s recognition of a feeling of high tech‐ nology. The color red represents the color awareness of activeness and high-spirited nature. For example, Coca-Cola and Canon both use the red logo to show a mental color of passion. The color green represents nature, peace, and happiness. Android, Acer, and Starbucks all use the color green to create a feeling of happiness. The color determines emotional factors for the product, and attracts the consumer’s attention. The proper color match for the product design is a critical factor of the emotion of colors. This study adopts the color match of portable Bluetooth speakers by incor‐ porating two colors for the color match to convey the color awareness of relaxing, happiness, and technology. The color specification used for this product adopts the professional color sample introduced by Pantone. The experiment adopts 12 colors in total, including the color black, to match with 185 (red), 1495 (orange), 108 (yellow), 355 (green), 299 (blue), 251 (light purple), 430 (grey), and 730 (gold). The color grey is applied to match with 1655 (blood orange), 360 (light green), and 238 (purple). The color white is applied to match with 507 (metallic purple) to implement the study of color match. This study mainly focuses on confirming the portable product, the Bluetooth speaker and its most popular proportion of the color match to adopt the color black or grey to match with other colors. It also focuses on the emotional features of a variety of color matches, and examines the most appropriate cultural and creative graphics. Last but not least, statistics show that the most popular size for the Bluetooth speaker offers the most appropriate colors, graphics, and size for product design. Therefore, the three objectives applied to this study can be described as follows: 1. Confirmation should be made to determine the colors adopted by the most popular portable Bluetooth speaker through analysis to explore the emotional factors and emotional features of the colors applied to the product. Confirmation should be made to decide the emotional features of the color match used in a variety of color hues as well. 2. It’s suggested to sort out the ideal cultural and creative graphic according to the emotional features of the Bluetooth speaker in the course of cultural and creative graphic design to offer some ideas for the graphic design. 3. Run a statistical analysis on the study to explore the size of the portable Bluetooth speaker and its factors.

2

Literature Review

2.1 Cultural and Creative Graphic and Colors Most of the portable products, Bluetooth speakers, found in the market would have at least 2–3 colors to choose from to decide the color match to offer a variety of choices to choose from based on the needs. The brightness, Chroma, and saturation applied can help distinguish the most common colors. The color black matches with gold, silver,

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and blue, which creates a gorgeous and quality look for the product. Black with low saturation matches with blue, red, yellow, and purple with high saturation. Such color creates a younger, high-spirited look for the product. The purpose of applying versatile color matching is to satisfy consumers with different preferences regarding a variety of colors through design. To snatch more market share, it was assumed that the consumers normally would prefer several colors for the color match, which is the research direction explored in this study. The color object designed in this study mainly focuses on the color black or grey to match with colors with higher brightness. The cultural and creative graphics used in this study are based on the graphics of traditional Chinese culture. The Chinese elements applied can be considered as an art format to exhibit the approach. The Chinese style mostly applied to the study contains Mosaics, turf, wall paintings, and paper cut graphics. The portable product, a Bluetooth speaker, applied to this study normally would be put in any easy-to-reach place. Some basic graphics such as the simple five graphics including flames, dragon-shapes, and cloud-shapes are also incorporated into the cultural and creative graphic experiment for the product (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Cultural design of product design

2.2 Semantic Differential Technique At present the commonly used color effect test method for the semantic differential technique, will describe the words of things or phenomena to be summarized into a standardized scale table, this word must have a common feeling, meaning to be concise and clear, and there are objective standards. Apply to the color scheme, the emotional language and color changes together, the production of Color Image Scale, according to set the color performance, rational, objective to find the appropriate color image. The color image scale used in the semantic difference analysis can usually be divided into three types: cross type, contrast type and multi-direction type. The color of the research product color design, the use of contrast color image scale, analysis of color psychological effects test is expected to be emotional, rational, gorgeous, simple, beautiful, ugly, happy, solemn, advanced, low, beautiful, weak, bright, Technology, local, etc., a total of 8 kinds of psychological tests and 12 kinds of color (Figs. 2 and 3).

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Fig. 2. Product design color using the semantic difference method experimental interface

Fig. 3. Product design color use of semantic differences in color image scale statistics table

2.3 Likert Scale Likert scale is a measure of psychological response, often used in questionnaires, is currently used in the questionnaire survey. When the quiz answered the questionnaires, the direct response to the questionnaire items of the same level of recognition. The color of the pattern of this study will use the Likert scale to count and analyze. The scale is the most commonly used one of the scoring scale, and the items of the same construct are scored in a lump sum. It was by the American social psychologist Li Kete in 1932 in the original total scale based on the improvement made. The scale consists of a set of statements, each statement has “very agree”, “consent”, “ordinary”, “do not agree”, “very disagree” five answers, respectively, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or another seven scales, the total score of each respondents is his sum of the scores on the answer

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to each question, the total score can explain his attitude or her in this A different state on a scale. The advantages are easy to design; the use of a wider range than other scales can be used to measure some of the multidimensional complex concepts or attitudes that some other scales can not measure. In this study, the color and pattern of the product experiment, with seven scales for the measurement unit to obtain the data more objective and credibility (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. The experimental interface was designed with the 2.3 Likert scale

3

Research Method

First of all, this study focuses on the mental response to the color of a portable Blue‐ tooth speaker. It examines the most appropriate color for the product by using the Semantic Differential Technique (SDT). The colors introduced by Pantone serve as its foundation. 12 colors applied to the color match were used to run a mental test by acquiring the most popular colors for a statistical study to analyze the best result of visual effect for colors. Next, the portable Bluetooth speaker applied to the design can constitute 60 experiments together with 5 cultural and creative graphics and 12 sets of color matches. The Likert Scale applied here is used for statistical data and anal‐ ysis. It allows the subject to choose the most appropriate totem and color match approach for colors. Ultimately, the survey shows that according to the statistics, the size of the portable Bluetooth speaker is the most popular size used for the experi‐ ment. Then statistics are run on the data and analysis.

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3.1 Design of Experiment on the Color Match for the Product First, decide the main topic for this study and its scope. Next, carefully decide the research questions through planning. After the research destination is settled, collect some literature about the design of the portable Bluetooth speaker and its color aesthetics. A discussion should be held to run an analysis so that it can serve as the foundation for future study on the questionnaire survey. Bluetooth speakers found in the market are adopted and used as the research direction for this survey. The object of this survey is colors for design, graphics, and size, which can be the targets to analyze in this study. It is estimated that a total of 30 samples would be collected, and the design elements would serve as the subject matter of this study. In the first experiment, we selected 12 kinds of PANTONE colors to experiment with the emotional factors of various colors, and evaluated the color emotion of the product to evaluate the most popular portable Bluetooth speaker color. Before the experiment, observe the commonly used colors of the commercially available Bluetooth speakers. (Red), 1495 (orange), 108 (yellow), 355 (green), 299 (blue), 251 (shallow), black and white, as the base color, Purple (blue), 730 (gold), 1655 (orange), 360 (light green) with 238 (purple) and 507 (metal violet), and color experiments from the PANTONE color system. 30 subjects were asked to choose one of the questionnaires, to sensibility, to sensi‐ bility, gorgeous, beautiful, happy, senior, beautiful, bright, science and technology, rational, simple, ugly, solemn, low, weak, gray For the color psychological test target, and to observe the most popular portable Bluetooth speaker color matching (Figs. 5 and 6).

Fig. 5. Product design color experiment color

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Fig. 6. Product design color experiment statistics table

3.2 Design of Experiment on the Cultural and Creative Graphic The cultural and creative graphics in Chinese style are applied to provide the experi‐ mental stimulus. It combines each color match with the stimulus of graphics. The graphics are contained in a particular surrounding under control. The computer screen shows a unified color grey as its background color. After a combination with the graphics, the product is placed on the screen to be modified using Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop. The design graphic of the product used here can be taken as the basic image for the study. The experiment stimulus was formed naturally by adjusting the colors and graphics of the product. In each design of the composition, from the PANTONE 12 colors plus 5 kinds of patterns, color after a total of 60 kinds of color and pattern design. The method used in this study, first, requires the subject to view the digital image projected onto the display. The subject scored the color of the color and the desired image, and finally, the color of the image appearance and the respondent’s response were compared. A total of 30 subjects were tested, 12 males and 18 females participated in the study. The age of these subjects from 18 to 30 years old, the experimental object is college students and graduate students. Experiment to do not like, do not like, do not like a little, Ordinary, slightly like, like, very much like a total of 7 scales, and to design the 12 kinds of colors to carry out psychological reactions, color emotional characteristics are calcu‐ lated by calculating their average (Figs. 7 and 8).

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Fig. 7. Record design of Wenchuang pattern design

Fig. 8. Wenchuang pattern design experiment statistics scatter plot

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3.3 Design of the Experiment on the Size of the Product To confirm there’s a slight difference between various sizes of the portable Bluetooth speaker, the experiment adopts the most popular outdoor size to find out the best accept‐ able size applied to this experiment. The experiment was implemented in the course of the study. First, select the basic size of the portable Bluetooth speakers, 146 × 56 × 36 mm, 183 × 58 × 55 mm, 189 × 48 × 69 mm, 35 × 70 × 70 mm, 106 × 192 × 102 mm, a total of 5 kinds of product size to experiment with the best sense of use, to assess the best product size. In the experiment, five portable Bluetooth speakers at the same time with the phone connection, and play music to provide the use of subjects. After repeated use of the five product sizes, the questionnaire was used in a statistical manner, using the Likert scale method, divided into extremely comfortable, somewhat comfortable, neutral, uncom‐ fortable and not very comfortable for a total of 5 scales 25 experiments, With statistical data to evaluate the best and most popular size for portable Bluetooth speakers (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Product design dimensions

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Research Result and Data Analysis

The colors of the portable product, a Bluetooth speaker, applied to this study and experi‐ ment show that a test with 12 colors found that the most popular color match was black with orange, and grey with light purple. The next most popular color match was the color black with yellow. The most unpopular color match was the color black with gold. The experiment using cultural and creative graphics for its design style shows that the Chinese-style flame graphic and dragon-shaped graphic are the most popular ones. The experiment using style with various sizes shows that the best size of a portable Bluetooth speaker is found. Statistics show that according to the research results, the portable product, a Bluetooth speaker, with a size of 35 × 35 × 70 mm is the most popular size used outdoors.

5

Discussion and Conclusion

This study focuses on the color black, grey, and white together with other colors. An implementation on the study is done by incorporating the emotional features of each color match. Three main goals can be applied to this study using three experiments to practice. First of all, using Semantic Differential Technique (SDT), this study adopts aesthetics and quality to serve as the emotional factors of the color mental test, and to evaluate the color emotion for the product. Research results show that a report on the color match found that the color black with orange is the most acceptable color match with aesthetics and quality compared to other colors. Secondly, a confirmation made to decide the cultural and creative graphic for the portable Bluetooth speaker has adopted the Likert Scale to run the statistics. Research results show that the Chinese-style flame graphic is the most popular one. Last but not least, the research result of the size for product design shows that the most popular and appropriate size for portable Bluetooth speaker is 35 × 35 × 70 mm. The research results of the colors, graphics, and size for product design would be rendered to the product design and design learning for refer‐ ence.

References 1. Deng Even: New Packaging Design Practices. Star Fox Press, New Taipei City (1990) 2. Deng Even: Modern Packaging Design. New Image Publishing Limited, New Taipei City (1987) 3. Xu, X.: Modern Commercial Packaging - Theory Concept Practices. Visual Communication Culture, New Taipei (2003) 4. Xu, X.: Taiwan’s Existing Consumer Research Paper is Packaged Configuration. Taipei: Artist 5. Long Winter Sun: Commercial Packaging Design. Lemon Culture Company, Taipei (1983) 6. Tian To: CI Visual Design Packaging Point Line Surface PART1. New Image Publishing Company, New Taipei City (1992). Xusheng Xiong Peng Swim, Water Wu Pi: Our coins in circulation legibility of the evaluation studies, technical school punishment, 7(1), 103–109 (1991)

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7. Wang Column: Bauhaus Roots of Modern Design Education. Yifeng Church, Taipei (2003) 8. Qiao, Y., Berns, R.S., Reniff, L., Montag, E.: Visual determination of hue suprathreshold color-difference tolerances. Color Res. Appl. 23(5), 302–313 (1998) 9. Ou, L.C., Luo, M.R., Woodcock, A., Wright, A.: A study of colour emotion and colour preference. Part I: colour emotions for single colours. Color Res. Appl. 29(3), 17 (2004). Park, H.J., Ra, J.Y.: The significance of the chromatic value of the color white. J. Korea Contents Assoc. 10(2), 193–201 (2010) 10. Satake, I., Xin, J.H., Tianming, T., Hansuebsai, A., Ando, K., Sato, T., Kajiwara, K., Ohsawa, S.: A comparative study of the emotional assessment of automotive exterior colors in Asia. Prog. Org. Coat. 72(3), 528–540 (2011) 11. Suk, H.J., Irtel, H.: Emotional response to color across media. Color Res. Appl. 35, 64–77 (2010) 12. Wexner, L.B.: The degree to which colors (hues) are associated with mood-tones. J. Appl. Asychol. 38(6), 432–435 (1954) 13. Winder, B.: The design of packaging closures. In: Theobald, N., Winder, B. (eds.) Packaging Closures and Sealing Systems, pp. 36–67. Wiley, Oxford (2006) 14. Winder, B., Ridgway, K., Nelson, A., Baldwin, J.: Food and drink packaging: who is complaining and who should be complaining. Appl. Ergon. 33(5), 433–438 (2002) 15. Oostendorp, J.A., Bode, J.M., Lutters, E., Van Houten, F.J.A.M.: The (development) life cycle for packaging and the relation to product design. Paper presented at the 13th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering Belgium, pp. 207–212. Katholieke Universiteit (2006)

New Concepts in Flexible Packaging Álvaro M. Sampaio1(&), Cátia Silva1, André Lima1, André Fernandes2, and António J. Pontes1 1

Institute for Polymers and Composites IPC/I3N, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal [email protected] 2 Bosch Car Multimedia Portugal S.A, Rua Max Grundig 35, Apartado 2458, 4705-820 Braga, Portugal

Abstract. A new approach based in a flexible packaging is being analysed to replace a commercial package for the internal transport of variable electrostatic discharge sensitive devices at Bosch Car Multimedia facilities. During the design and fabrication process of a packaging, special attention is given to the handling, by the final consumer, in order to avoid an unusable or inefficient product. This paper presents an exploratory and comparative usability test performed to evaluate the satisfaction concerning several prototype handles, in real context of use. A quantitative evaluation was achieved by means of a specially developed questionnaire with a seven level Likert scale answer, and a qualitative analysis based in the feedback given by the company collaborators. The results indicate that the handle of the actual packaging is inefficient and inadequate for the tasks to be performed, and that two of the developed handle designs are more comfortable and ergonomic. Keywords: Usability
Packaging
Satisfaction development
Exploratory test
Comparison test




Handles




Product

1 Introduction Bosch Car Multimedia S.A. is a company that fabricates products which are assemblies of ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) functional electronic systems. These electronic products are considered ESDS (Electrostatic Discharge Sensitive Device) and include a majority of 97% PCBs (Printed Circuit Board) while the remaining percentage corresponds to sets of parts. The ESD sensitive products are transported, between workstations, in one of the few ESD packages available in the market. At Bosch, packages contain specifically designed thermoformed trays that assure a proper and safe transportation for the ESDS products. Although this solution is successful, as the rate of production is greatly increasing, the use of a specific packaging for each ESDS product requires a large area for storage sections. Due to this issue, the company presented a challenge that concerns the development of a flexible packaging solution that comprises an identification and tracking system allowing, this way, both the safe transportation and tracking of the different ESDS products between workstations, and also a reduction of the storage area. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_74

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The process flow for the packaging includes numerous tasks that are performed by the collaborator, at the several workstations, and during transportation, between workstations. Although much of the process flow that the packaging does in Bosch facilities are automated, manually handling is still performed by collaborators. To efficiently execute these tasks, the collaborator makes use of the handles of the packaging for a series of activities that include: picking, carrying, lifting, lowering, placing and stacking operations. The fulfilment of a planned task with a specific purpose can be defined as work. The execution of the tasks typically resorts to tools. Ergonomics is a known science inherently correlated to work as it directly deals with the design, ease of use and safety of the work tools. During the design development for a tool, the commodity and ease of use of the tool, by the final user, assuring the task accomplishment, is very important. This reflects the match between the user and the tool and it can be investigated during the development stage by means of tests that simulate the tasks to perform in a real context of use [1]. The evaluation type of testing for a product being developed, that simulates the real context of use and counts with testing participants that are representative of the final user, is considered usability testing [2]. The term usability represents the ability and ease of use of a product or tool, by a specific user, to complete an exact task. The interaction between the product and the user is dependent on the use context. Usability can be quantitatively evaluated by means of tests that are performed in a specific context of use, providing metric results for effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction [2]. Briefly, the effectiveness is a measure for usability that analyses the ability to fulfil a specific task and the quality of the result, while the efficiency reports to the time (or other resources) spent to accurately and completely accomplish the defined objective. Finally, satisfaction is a measure of the comfort, acceptance and opinion of the user towards the product. The satisfaction of the user was the selected measure to evaluate the usability of the handles due to both quantitative rating by a questionnaire and a qualitative feedback of positive and negative aspects [2, 3]. This paper presents the usability tests that were developed, with the purpose of gathering quantitative and qualitative feedback on the relevant characteristics of the product that is currently used at the company and understand the possible improvements that could benefit the users to easily and successfully execute daily tasks. Simultaneously, testing and validation of five alternative handle concepts that were developed and fabricated by means of additive manufacturing took place allowing a performance comparison analysis with the actual handle of the Bosch packaging. The participants to test (N = 21) were Bosch collaborators that are acquaintance with the packaging and the tasks to be performed. The test took place at the company facilities and considered limit heights (maximum and minimum) that are in accordance to the optimal interval allowed at Bosch. The test participants performed specific tasks for each handle in analysis and answered to a rating questionnaire. The selected rating scale was a Likert scale which is commonly employed to gauge values and opinions of the participants through the level of agreement or disagreement on a symmetric

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agree-disagree scale for a series of statements. The selected format was a seven-level Likert item: entirely disagree (1); mostly disagree (2); somewhat disagree (3); neither agree nor disagree (4); somewhat agree (5); mostly agree (6); entirely agree (7) [2, 4]. An evaluation of the usability at a preliminary stage of a product development, in context of use and with the participation of final users, can provide important feedback for design improvements and cost reduction [2]. In this paper, the design development of the handles and experimental testing in context of use are presented along with obtained results and conclusions.

2 Design Development and Prototype Fabrication The packaging employed at Bosch consists in a plastic container with specific base area dimensions that assure a perfect fit in the Euro pallets (four packages per area of pallet) for storage. The main functions of the packaging consist in the transportation and protection of variable ESD sensitive products. During the stages of the process flow, the interaction between the packaging and the user is made through the handles (one handle positioned on each width side of the packaging). Considering that the collaborators interact with the packaging several times per day, and that the weight of the packaging is variable according the ESD sensitive product to be transported, the handles appear as a notorious critical area with great influence over the user performance. Figure 1 presents the Bosch packaging and a detailed section view of the packaging handle.

Fig. 1. CAD representation of the Bosch packaging (600  400  120 mm) and detail section view of the handle.

Taking into account the importance of the handle, five design concepts were developed varying certain features (opening angle and shapes) to evaluate and better understand how to improve the comfort of the user and facilitate the execution of the tasks. Certain design aspects respected the internal norms of the company, as for example, the minimal dimension of 20 mm space area for the fingers to facilitate the handling. Table 1 depicts and describes the developed handles. Since the usability test aims to enhance the ergonomic aspects of the handle, it was analysed the area of the handle that is more frequently occupied by the hand of the user when searching for a comfortable handling position. Therefore, the length of the developed handles occupies the total width dimension of the packaging. For an easy

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Table 1. CAD representation of the handles with detail of the side view and features description.

identification and measurement of this parameter during the test, the prototype presents division marks that allow an easy visual identification of three main areas. A prototype with the shape of a frame (see Fig. 2) was designed with the same dimensions of the actual packaging for reliability of the test. The prototype presents T shaped features on the width side that allows an easy coupling of the different handles for the test. The fabrication process consisted in additive manufacturing, by means of FDM (Fused Deposition Modelling) technology, using a high performance thermoplastic material, ASA (Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate).

Fig. 2. CAD representation of the fabricated prototype (600  400  120 mm) for the usability tests (front, right and isometric view).

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3 Usability Test Methodology A significant advantage of usability testing is the interactive product development, which allows an evaluation of the design, at different phases of the development process, and its redesign, if necessary, resulting in an improved product usability. Considering that the product is at an early phase of the development process, an exploratory test was prepared and performed to examine the satisfaction level regarding the handles and to identify potential problems by understanding the user needs and the use context. During the development of an alternative solution for an existing product, various design concepts are usually explored for a comparison analysis. In a preliminary phase, the comparative analysis can be performed by means of an exploratory test to establish the ease of use and better understand the advantages and disadvantages of different designs [2]. A test methodology was elaborated taking into account the real tasks performed by the collaborators at the company facilities. According to the ergonomic norms implemented at Bosch, the optimum limit heights for handling the packaging are 150 mm (height of the Euro pallet) and 1600 mm (maximum height of the storage workstations). Considering that these heights are the limit effort executed by the collaborator, four tasks were defined based on limit situations in the optimal range. The tasks involve picking up, transporting and placing (by lifting or lowering) activities between specific positions. Figure 3 depicts part of the storage area that was used for the test and the positions (0 to 4) to pick up and place the packaging.

Fig. 3. Storage illustration. The figure describes the dimensions of the minimum and maximum height and the positions for the usability test.

The test participant was first introduced to the new prototype and handles to be tested and the test proceedings were explained. Once the test participant was acquainted with the new design concepts for testing and the tasks to execute, the test would take place. During the performance of the tasks, some questions were asked to the test participant for a better understanding of the qualitative point-of-view regarding the design and performance of the handles.

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Table 2 describes the tasks to be performed and corresponding activities (in each position) during the usability test.

Table 2. Tasks proceedings and activities for the usability test. Position Task proceeding 0–1 Handling between position 0 to position 1 •• Pick up package from a height of 150 mm •• Transport between positions •• Position and placement of the package at a height of 150 mm 1–2 Handling between position 1 to position 2 •• Pick up package from a height of 150 mm •• Transport between positions •• Lift and placement of the package at a height of 1600 mm 2–3 Handling between position 2 to position 3 •• Pick up package from a height of 1600 mm •• Transport between positions •• Position and placement of the package at a height of 1600 mm 3–4 Handling between position 3 to position 4 •• Pick up package from a height of 1600 mm •• Transport between positions Lowering and placement of the package at a height of 150 mm

These tasks were performed for the all the design concepts in analysis as well as the actual packaging handle. In between test samples, the test participant would answer a seven questions form that analysed the comfort of the design during the execution of the tasks and the most likable handle. The answer is a rating based on a seven level Likert scale.

4 Testing and Results Analysis The usability test counted with a total number of 21 collaborators in which, a majority of the participants are Bosch collaborators that interact with the packaging on a daily basis. The following table presents data information of the test participants (Table 3).

Table 3. Usability test data and corresponding values. Data User sample Age group (18 to + 60 years) Gender Working years (0 to + 10 years)

Results 21 collaborators 18 to 45 years (92%) Male (62%), Female (38%) 0 to 2 years (57%)

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The tests were conducted and performed with success presenting valid results by quantitative and qualitative feedback. The obtained information allowed a better understanding of the positive and negative aspects of the actual Bosch handle and the developed design concepts for the handle. Figure 4 shows two activities of the usability test tasks for the Bosch packaging (image on the left) and the frame with the handle design concept number 5 (image on the right).

Fig. 4. Test tasks performance: pick up packaging from 150 mm shelf height (left image) and 1600 mm (right image).

The satisfaction level of the test group, in general, reflected two handlings as the most preferred for future implementation. Figure 5 shows the percentage results concerning the satisfaction level for each handle in analysis.

Percentage (%)

100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Bosch

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Handle Fig. 5. Percentage evaluation of the satisfaction regarding the handles in analysis.

According to the quantitative evaluation represented in the chart (see Fig. 5), the preferred handles correspond to the design concept number 4 and 5. The handle with least comfort and ergonomic performance was the design concept number 3.

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In qualitative terms, the test participants indicated that the design concept 4 presented an opening angle that facilitated handling the packaging and executing the expected tasks. The design concept number 5 was very complimented by the round shape that easily adjusts to the hand natural position when handling the packaging. Another positive feature is the slightly rounded edge at the end of the handle that improved the comfort of the hand by avoiding the typical sensation of cut that the average handle does. Although this is the preferred handle by the majority of the test group, some test participants indicated that an increase of the finger area dimension would improve the handling. Regarding the design concept number 3, the participants of the test indicated discomfort in the handling caused by the 90° opening angle. More specifically, it was evaluated the degree of satisfaction by the test participant according to the frequency of use on a typical work week (see Fig. 6).

Percentage (%)

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0% Bosch

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Handles Fig. 6. Percentage evaluation of the preferred handle as function of the use frequency.

According to the obtained results, the majority of the test participants that interact with the packaging on a week basis greater than 90 times indicated that the most ergonomic and comfort handle design concepts are the number 4 and 5. It is also notorious that the design concept number 2 was quite appealing to the test participants that have very little interaction with the packaging and that none of the test participants that have a large interaction with the packaging would select such a handle for a daily work tasks. One of the goals to evaluate was in reference to what area of the handle the test participant interacts the most. A heat map was designed (see Fig. 7) showing that the most used area to position the hands, in search for a comfortable handling, by the test participant, was the centre of the handle. The dimensions of the central area, of the evaluated prototype, correspond to the same length dimension of the Bosch handle. Therefore, for the development of the handle design, the length of the Bosch handle is sufficient and should be considered.

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Fig. 7. Heat map of the hand positioning over the handle design concept in analysis during the usability test.

5 Conclusion A flexible packaging is being developed to replace an existent product that is employed at Bosch Car Multimedia S.A. for the internal transport of ESD sensitive products. In a preliminary stage of the product development five handle concepts were developed to be evaluated in term of usability. The tests were exploratory and comparative in relation to the actual handle of the Bosch packaging. The results indicated two preferred design concepts (handle 4 and 5) that presented more comfortable and ergonomic features (opening angle and a rounded shape). In conclusion, the best concept design is not one of the options in analysis by rather a combination of the alternatives with the best aspects of each design used to form a hybrid. Future work consists in the development of a hybrid design concept for the handles combining the best features. New tests in a further along stage of the development process will consider the time spent per tasks to evaluate the usability in terms of satisfaction and also efficiency and effectiveness. Acknowledgments. This work has been supported by the Portugal Incentive System for Research and Technological Development. Project in co-promotion nº 002814/2015 (iFACTORY 2015-2018).

References 1. Pheasant, S.: Bodyspace Anthropometry, Ergonomics and the Design of Work. Taylor & Francis Ltd., Abingdon (2003) 2. Rubin, J., Chisnell, D.: Handbook of Usability Testing How to Plan, Design, and Conduct Effective Tests. Wiley Publishing Inc., Hoboken (2008) 3. Pousette, S., Löfgren, M., Nilsson, B., Gustafsson, A.: An extended method to measure overall consumer satisfaction with packaging. Packag. Technol. Sci. 27, 727738 (2014) 4. Tullis, T., Albert, B.: Measuring the User Experience Collecting Analysing and Presenting Usability Metrics. Elsevier Inc., Amsterdam (2013)

User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI): An Ergonomic Evaluation Tool for User-Chair Compatibility Namrata Arora Charpe(&) Banasthali University, Vanasthali, India [email protected]

Abstract. VDT work is associated with a high degree of postural constraint, thus, requires maximum flexibility to be built into the workstation setup so as to compensate for the lack of flexibility in the job design. In workstations where static postures are unavoidable, like a VDT workplace, the risk can be reduced by designing to accommodate the limitations of human anatomy. Work chair has a major role to play in the comfort/discomfort experienced at the workplace. User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI) is an ergonomic tool developed on the lines of the Likert Summated Rating Scale for checking the aptness of the work chair by assessing the fit between user and work chair. UCFI, initially, was developed with 36 items, and was evaluated by a panel of 50 experts i.e. 25 engineers and 25 furniture designers for its appropriateness in measuring the desired construct. The tool with 36 items was administered for pilot study on 200 VDT operators working in IT industry. The item correlation and item differences were computed for item analysis and after dropping items with low t-values, final set of 26 items was selected, which was given to 1000 male respondents in the age group of 25–35 years, working in the IT industry, selected randomly. The final data used for the standardization of the tool was derived from 839 respondents, after eliminating the incomplete response sets. The tool was validated to ensure its dependability in recognizing the fit between the user and work chair in the VDT workplace. The reliability estimates and validity indicate that the scale was highly reliable and valid for identifying the user-chair fit in the VDT workstation. z-Score norms were developed for interpretation of the raw scores. Keywords: Ergonomics


Furniture
Likert scale

1 Introduction Most of the work in the modern work world is performed in a well established workstation where the workers are required to sit for many hours at a stretch, working on video display terminals (VDTs) or any other related devices. VDTs support the activities of almost every occupation, but the requirements vary with the peculiar nature of work being performed. VDT work, particularly, is one of the most significant examples of static work where the workers are required to perform repetitive wrist movements sitting in a static posture for prolonged hours. The loads experienced during static work are deduced from the angular relationship between different body parts, distribution of masses, length of time for which the posture is held and bodily responses of the person maintaining the posture. These factors determine the stability of © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_75

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posture, muscle loads and joint torques, fatigue levels and recovery times and hazards related to work posture. Working on VDTs is considered to be a highly repetitive static task and leads the worker to attain static or awkward postures for prolonged periods of time, sometimes struggling to feel comfortable while working. Bridger [6] suggested that health risks increase when postures are static and when tasks are highly repetitive. The work on VDTs places a set of unique demands in terms of visual, postural and temporal requirements. In terms of postural requirements, it should be well considered that all work supplies and set up is under the optimum reach of the worker so that they are not required to attain awkward postures to remain stable. As VDT work is a highly constrained job in terms of posture, it requires maximum flexibility to be built into the workstation setup, say, in terms of adjustable furniture etc., to compensate for the lack of flexibility in the job design. According to National Occupational Health and Safety Commission, Australia [3], constrained postures which are often troublesome are forward flexion of the neck; twisting of the neck; elevation of the shoulders; twisting of the trunk; forward reaching of the upper arm; abduction of the upper arm; ulnar deviation of the hand; and extension of the wrist. The time for which such postures must be held is crucial in determining the need for correction. It is important to prevent poor posture by giving attention to furniture and equipment and its proper arrangement and adjustment. Ergonomic improvements can have a beneficial effect on productivity and alleviate the sources of injury and discomfort at work. Ergonomic furniture is the contemporary approach to workstation design. The furniture in the workspace should be designed to facilitate task performance, minimize fatigue and injury by fitting equipment to the body size, strength and range of motion of the user. The design of the chair and other furniture pieces in the workstation play a significant role in determining the level of comfort/discomfort experienced by the worker. Lefler [7] suggested that working in an office typically involves spending a great deal of time sitting in an office chair - a position that adds stress to the structures in the spine. Therefore, to avoid developing or compounding back problems, it is important to have an office chair designed ergonomically, that supports the lower back and promotes good posture. Office furnishings should have adjustable components that enable the user to modify the workstation to accommodate different physical dimensions and the requirements of the job. Ergonomically designed furniture aids in reducing pain and injury, increase productivity, improve morale, and decrease worker’s complaints of discomfort. The selection of work furniture and equipment should be task specific in order to eliminate static or awkward posture; repetitive movements; poor access or inadequate clearance and improper ZCR; difficult to read displays; and confusing controls. Office workstations must be designed carefully to meet the operator’s needs determined by the postural, visual and temporal requirements arising out of the worker-work interface. The design objectives should support operators so that operational objectives can be achieved. The major goals to consider in human-centred design include enhancing human abilities and overcoming human limitations. Miller [2] suggests that a chair should move the way the body moves. In the best of all possible worlds, the body is free to position itself spontaneously, constrained only

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by gravity. A person seated at work should be able to move freely and unselfconsciously from computer-related tasks to more relaxed or interactive postures. The work chair should follow along, providing optimal support whether the body is in motion or at rest. Work guidelines for VDT workers suggest that seat back and height should be adjustable; forearms approximately horizontal; minimal extension, flexion or deviation of wrists; screen height and angle should allow comfortable head position and sufficient space in front of keyboard to support hands/wrists during pauses in keying. The major aspects of work chair design suggested by Bridger [6] include dynamic sitting, proper swivel system, appropriately designed lumbar supports, forward tilts, footrests for short users, free space underneath the seat to allow for a knee flexing by 90° or more, proper backrest, properly positioned armrests and comfortable upholstery. Various studies have been conducted to assess the design features of the work chair and ergonomic designs have been developed. It is important to consider various aspects of chair design which determine the aptness of the chair for the work being performed and the user-chair fit. Because one size does not fit all, it is important that the chairs are designed with as much flexibility to allow different users to use it in the most comfortable manner and also allow for dynamic sitting. A well-designed chair allows the user to maintain the equilibrium of the posture. The major features of chair that need to be considered well during designing include seat height, seat slope, seat depth, backrest, armrest, footrest, lumbar support, headrest, castors and other adjustability controls. Various studies have been conducted to identify the risk factors in different work setups. Triano and Selby [8] suggested that it is important to develop a job description based on the forces present in a particular work environment; the time spent performing the task and the biomechanics (which define human motions and seated posture in an office chair) used in the task. Diverse actions need to be taken to assure the safety of the workers from injuries. It is important to assess the fit between the worker, work and various other features of the workspace. A chair becomes ergonomic when it suits a worker’s body dimensions, particular workstation, and the tasks that must be performed there.

2 Scale Construction Technique User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI) is an ergonomic tool designed to assess the level of fit between the user and the work chair in any office setup especially in VDT workstations. It was developed on the lines of the Likert Summated Rating Scale for checking the aptness of the work chair by assessing the fit between user and chair. It assesses the comfort/discomfort experienced by the operators while sitting on the work chair during the performance of work implying the fit between user and work chair. The User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI) initially, was developed with 36 items. The pattern was so developed as to be comprehendible. Items were kept short, limited to single construct and comprised simple terminology keeping in mind that the set of items is optimized and the items are easy to grasp. The items were created primarily from an in – depth study of literature and later on through brainstorming with experts (engineers and furniture designers). The tool with 36 items was evaluated by a panel of

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50 experts i.e. 25 engineers and 25 furniture designers for its appropriateness in measuring the desired construct. The specific goals were to understand the reactions to alternative ways of phrasing scale items; reword items to improve clarity; eliminate redundant items; and obtain feedback on the length, format, and clarity of the instructions and initial draft. On the basis of insights from the experts, directions were simplified and confusing items were eliminated or reworded. The tool was then provided with a five-point scale i.e. 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The tool with 36 items was administered for pilot study on 200 VDT operators working in IT industry for at least 6 months in continuation. The item correlation and item differences were computed for item analysis. A set of 26 items was finally selected on the basis of correlation and t-values obtained from item analysis. These statements had item correlation value higher than 0.8 and also high item discrimination (with t-values ranging from 4.68 to 11.85). The items with very low t-values were dropped and the final scale of 26 items was obtained. The final 26 items selected for UCFI are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Items in UCFI. Statement 1. My work chair allows me to change posture easily 2. My work chair swivels easily 3. My work chair has easily adjustable heights 4. My work chair has a good footrest 5. There is a proper clearance for legs underneath the seat 6. The backrest in my work chair is good enough to keep my trunk stable 7. The backrest of my work chair reclines independent of the seat pan 8. My work chair has a well designed lumbar pad 9. I do not slide forward when seated during work 10. I do not feel pressure under the thighs when seated during work 11. My forearms are properly supported by the armrest when I sit erect 12. The armrest does not obstruct me when I use any of the devices (mouse/keyboard) on the work desk 13. My work chair provides proper support to the neck while I maintain gaze on the monitor 14. The seat does not slope backwards while I approach the work desk 15. I can get in the chair easily 16. I can get out of the chair easily 17. I don’t find difficulty in finding the controls of my work chair 18. I don’t find difficulty in controlling the chair while adjusting 19. The lumbar support in my work chair helps me to sit up straight 20. I can keep my feet on floor while reclining 21. The elbow rests do not make me feel locked in 22. The padding on the seat pan is adequate 23. The padding on the backrest is adequate 24. My work chair feels stable 25. I can tuck the feet easily under the seat when I want to 26. The castors in my work chair are properly positioned

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The final scale with 26 items was given to 1000 respondents in the age group of 25–35 years working in IT industry for at least three years. The data collected from 1000 respondents was checked for its completeness which led to the dropping of number of respondents from 1000 to 839. The final data used for the standardization of the tool was derived from 839 respondents.

2.1

Scoring

In the final version of User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI), item responses were to be elicited on a Likert-type Scale that range from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). Table 2 describes the scoring pattern for the scale. Table 2. Scoring pattern. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

2.2

Reliability of the Scale

After item analysis the scale was subjected to test of reliability to find out its consistency in providing results after repeated use. The reliability was found by estimating the correlation coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of scores. Test-Retest method. The respondents were supposed to give their responses on the scale at an interval of 6 months, while using the same chair. The reliability of the scale was then estimated by the correlation (Cronbach’s alpha) between the two sets of scores obtained at an interval of 6 months. Split-Halves method. The Split-Halves method was used to calculate the reliability estimate of the scale. The scale items were divided into two sections (the even-numbered items and the odd-numbered items) and scores were calculated for each half. The reliability of the scale was estimated by the correlation (Cronbach’s alpha) between the two score sets (Table 3). Table 3. Reliability estimate of User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI). Sr. no. Method Reliability 1 Test - Retest 0.98 2 Split-Halves 0.96

2.3

Validity of the Scale

The tool was validated to ensure its dependability in recognizing the fit between the user and work chair in the VDT workplace. A number of measures were adopted to establish the content and construct validity viz., creation of items after thorough literature, scanning and brainstorming with experts. The Panel was requested to comment

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on appropriateness of the items to the concept that help in suitably modifying the scale without affecting the meaning of desired aspects to be enquired in the item. The User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI) may be useful in assessing the comfort provided by the work chair to the operator as a measure of user-chair fit. The reliability estimates and validity indicate that the scale was highly reliable and valid for identifying the user-chair fit in the office setup especially in the VDT workstation.

3 Scoring, Norms and Interpretation The scale was designed for assess the fit between user and the work chair. The level of fit can be assessed by cumulative scores of any single dimension or the total scale. Weighted score is assigned for each response opted and the scores obtained by individual respondent on 26 items are added. When the raw scores are converted into z-Scores, the level of fit between the user and work chair in the VDT workplace can be identified, which can further be used to conclude if there is a need to take actions to make the work chair comfortable for the operator. Higher the score greater will be the fit between user and work chair; and lower the score, lower will be the user-chair fit indicating that actions need to be taken in order to make the work chair comfortable for the operators. If the level of fit is below moderate i.e. if it is low, very low or extremely low, it will indicate that the work chair needs to be replaced with an ergonomically designed chair to make sure that the worker is comfortable using the work chair. Table 4 shows the z-score norms for UCFI, and Table 5 indicates the interpretation of z-scores for identifying the level of fit between user and work chair. Table 4. z-Score norms for User-Chair Fit Index (UCFI). Raw score z-score 80 −1.14 81 −1.09 82 −1.05 83 −1.00 84 −0.96 85 −0.91 86 −0.85 87 0.82 88 −0.77 89 −0.73 90 −0.68 91 −0.59 92 −0.59

Raw score z-Score 93 −0.55 94 −0.50 95 −0.45 96 −0.41 97 −0.36 98 −0.31 99 −0.27 100 −0.23 101 −0.18 102 −0.14 103 −0.09 104 −0.04 105 0.00

Raw score z-Score 106 +0.04 107 +0.09 108 +0.14 109 +0.18 110 +0.23 111 +0.27 112 +0.31 113 +0.36 114 +0.41 115 +0.45 116 +0.50 117 +0.55 118 +0.59

Raw score z-Score 119 +0.64 120 +0.68 121 +0.73 122 +0.77 123 +0.82 124 +0.86 125 +0.91 126 +0.96 127 +1.00 +1.05 128 129 +1.09 130 +1.14

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Table 5. Norms for interpretation of z-score and level of user-chair fit. Sr. no. Range of raw scores 1. 128 and above 2. 119–127 3. 110–118 4. 101–109 5. 92–100 6. 83–91 7. 82 and below

Range of z-Scores +1.05 and above +0.64 to +1.00 +0.23 to +0.59 −0.18 to +0.18 −0.59 to −0.23 −1.00 to −0.64 −1.05 and below

Grade A B C D E F G

Level of fit Extremely high Very high High Moderate Low Very low Extremely low

References 1. Ergonomic Workstation Guidelines: Environmental Health and Safety. N C State University (2016). https://www.ncsu.edu/ehs/www99/right/handsMan/office/ergonomic.html 2. Miller, H.: The Kinematics of Sitting: Ergonomic Criteria for the Design of the Aeron Chair (2013). http://www.hermanmiller.com/research/solution-essays/the-kinematics-of-seating. html 3. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission: Ergonomic Principles and Checklists for the Selection of Office Furniture and Equipment. Commonwealth of Australia (1991) 4. Grandjean, E.: Fitting the Task to the Man. Taylor & Francis ltd, London (1988) 5. McCauley Bush, P.: Ergonomics: Foundational Principles, Applications, and Technologies. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2012) 6. Bridger, R.S.: Introduction to Ergonomics, III edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2009) 7. Lefler Rodney, K.: Office Chair: Choosing the Right Ergonomic Office Chair. Spine-Health (2004). http://www.spine-health.com/wellness/ergonomics/office-chair-choosing-rightergonomic-office-chair.pdf 8. Triano, J.J., Selby, N.C.: Work Ergonomics: Minimize Back Injuries. Spine-Health (2006). http://www.spine-health.com/wellness/ergonomics/work-ergonomics-minimize-backinjuries.pdf 9. Openshaw, S., Taylor, E.: Ergonomics and Design—A Reference Guide. Allsteel Inc., Muscatine (2006) 10. McKeown, C.: Office Ergonomics. Taylor & Francis Group, London (2008)

Sustainable Product Design and the Wood Furniture Sector José Vicente1,3(&), Rui Frazão2, and Fernando Moreira da Silva3 1

Faculdade de Artes e Letras, DCA, Universidade da Beira Interior, R. Marquês de Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal [email protected] 2 Direção Geral de Energia e Geologia, Av. 5 de Outubro, 208, 1069-203 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] 3 Faculdade de Arquitetura, CIAUD, Universidade de Lisboa, R. Sá Nogueira, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. This research focused on relating the ability a sustainable design approach can have when working with the wood furniture sector, in order to improve its products environmental and social impact. This research used a methodology comprised of a literature review on sustainable design and on the characterization of the Portuguese wood furniture industry, followed by case-study analysis of wood furniture projects that used environmental design strategies in their development. The main empirical task was a survey to the sector with the goal of understanding the know-how and relationship this companies have with design and sustainability. Results show that companies use design as a main tool for product development, but not for environmental impact reduction, as their engagement with sustainability is far from implemented. The use of sustainable product design tools is expected to have a great effect in the change of current practices. Recommendations for future researches are also presented. Keywords: Sustainable design Eco-design
Product design




Wood furniture




Industry-design relation




1 Introduction The production and consumption system is an element of great concern due to its unsustainable patterns and impact on the environment and society. This problem exists throughout the industrial sectors, including the wood furniture industry. Nonetheless it also presents a great opportunity for design to contribute to a paradigm shift in the system and to help the material culture becomes more benign [1]. This paper is part of a research centered on developing operational tools for sustainable design with a wood furniture focused approach. With that framework objective, the goal of the research presented in this paper focused on getting to know the companies of the Portuguese Furniture Sector, understand how they use design and what is their relation with sustainability, in order to glimpse a path forward on what © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_76

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sustainable design criteria and tools could be developed that were within the range of design operational use and also accepted in companies’ internal culture.

2 Methodology The research methodology underlying this paper includes, in a first stage, the development of literature review, through the collection, selection, analysis and critical synthesis of relevant documentation in the areas of sustainable design and furniture. In order to strengthen the state of the art, case studies of eco-design furniture projects have been identified and analyzed. For the empirical phase, a survey was conducted in Portuguese furniture companies. This task had as main objective to determine the relation between companies and design, understand how design is used, with the support of what tools and know how the companies perceive and integrate sustainable issues.

3 Literature Review 3.1

Portuguese Wood Furniture Sector

The furniture sector in Portugal is an essential element in the country’s industrial landscape. It is a sector that takes advantage, both environmental and economic, of one of the greatest riches of the country: the woody material produced in the forests. It is a sector which, as at European level, represents more than 50% of the timber industry [2]. It is a sector composed mainly of SMEs, where there are only about 700 companies with more than 20 employees [3] and about 72% of companies have less than 7 employees and present a family management model, which places them at a level of industrial craftsmanship [4]. This is also reflected in the export capacity, in which the 70 largest companies have a share of around 60% of the sector’s total export volume. However, there is a growing internationalization that is associated with the ability to innovate on the part of companies that have taken advantage of European incentives for technological renewal, machines and training. Hand in hand with this transformation is the use of new materials, the way they have been applied in the development of new products and the increasing use of design as a key factor for innovation and definition of the brand and identity of the company [4]. Typically, the production system is composed of six departments/sections: technical office, where the design is integrated or with whom it relates; solid wood section/panels section; veneer and/or paint/lacquer section; assembly section; polishing section; and packaging section, logistics/dispatch. This organization is, however, very dependent on the size and culture of the company [4]. Within its organizational structure, few companies have implemented a quality management system, and even fewer apply some form of environmental management. Quality passed on to customers focuses on the product and neglects the overall quality of the system and its environmental impact.

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Wood Furniture Products

Forest products, such as furniture, store carbon, can be recyclable and require lower amounts of energy throughout their life cycle than most alternative products from another source [5]. Each one of the 5 life cycle phases presents specific problems and impacts that design must consider in order to address or mitigate them. The furniture has specific characteristics that give it some differences in its life cycle. Generally, the impacts associated with furniture can be grouped into two areas: design aspects related to the product itself; and aspects of the system and which involve the corporate strategies and services that may be associated with these products [6] (Fig. 1). PRE-PRODUCTION . PRODUCTION . DISTRIBUTION

.

USE

.

END OF LIFE

Wood for recycling Parts for remanufacture Planks

Wood

Furniture for reuse

Sawmill

Packaging

Varnishes factory

Varnishes

Wood furniture packed

Wood Furniture used

Other life cycles

Landfill Incineration

Landfill Packaging

Other parts

Packaging End of life

Packaging factory

Wood furniture packed

Furniture end of life

Panels

Use

Panel factory

Distribution

Wood

Furniture factory

Forest

Veneer

Incineration Recycling

Fig. 1. Wood furniture life cycle diagram

3.3

Sustainable Product Design and Furniture

Sustainable product design is on the center of the sustainability hurricane because products are the physical expression of the relation between planet, people and themselves, giving shape to time [7] and leaving a considerable, and ever growing, impact on the environment [8]. Acknowledging that there are no products without environmental impact, sustainable design is something that goes beyond the principles of eco-design and tries to reduce the impact of products to the point of being within the carrying capacity of the environment and within the goals of sustainable development [9], namely addressing social impacts. This means sustainable design has to have a comprehensive view of problems and interactions between material, environment, economic, demographic, cultural and ethical aspects, and give special emphasis on integrating social and environmental criteria in order to address the entire triple bottom line of sustainability [10].

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Taking into account furniture products life cycle and being aware of the main strategies used in non-focused approaches that have been extensively presented in literature [11–16] it becomes important to discuss the specific design strategies for wood furniture. The Ecodesign-Sectoral Manual for Furniture [17] presents, in detail, strategies that can be implemented in six areas: management; shopping; sales; product development; production; and packaging. These are six areas in the direct influence of the company, as it is a manual for companies in the sector. The first one is outside the designer’s operational area of influence, so it will not be covered here. The second part deals with aspects related to supplier selection and storage of raw material stocks; In the third, strategies related to communication with consumers are pointed out, particularly with regard to exposing positive characteristics of the products life cycle and advice on their maintenance to extend their life time. In the fourth area, product development, an extensive list of strategies is presented in 6 intervention topics: (1) General - where broad advice is given, such as the use of environmental labeling criteria as a guide; (2) Construction - where strategies are presented on object design and considers all phases of the life cycle; (3) Fabrics and upholstery - specific strategies are presented for these materials, which when used represent a high environmental load; (4) Plastics idem; (5) Varnishes - where alternatives are presented; And (6) Wood - the need to avoid the use of tropical wood is mentioned, favoring the use of wood from FSC certified sources, reducing the use of MDF or foreseeing its substitution by MDF Light and using HPL and other panels with low levels of formaldehyde. In the fifth area, production, a large set of strategies are presented for internal procedures related to production operations and the main raw materials to be used (wood, varnishes and glues). Finally, the sixth area addresses strategies to reduce the impact of packaging.

3.4

Case Studies

To further realize how design was used by furniture companies to integrate environmental criteria, a case study analysis matrix was made on 3 axes: • What design tools were used? • What design strategies were followed? • What were the main results? The design tools used vary depending on the purpose, but most of them focused on Life Cycle Assessment (complete or streamlined), Eco-indicators or through the use of qualitative tools such as checklists, MET Matrix or LiDS Wheel to help in the implementation of the different design strategies. The most chosen strategies are related mainly to pre-production, production and end-of-life phases, namely with a more correct selection of materials (such as the origin of the wood and the finishing of less toxic surfaces), optimization of the production process, increasing durability through maintenance, dismantling and repair strategies to avoid end-of-life. There are still some cases that have implemented strategies to allow reuse (e.g. through modularity) and recycling of products (through use of solid wood only treated with natural oils). In relation to strategies for the distribution phase there are few cases where this is mentioned (Table 1).

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PROJECT Kambium Furniture Workshop Germany 1995 Mobilier 3 Suisses France 1995 Harbin Sida Furniture Co. NL and China 1997 Chair Casas Blancas México 1998

TOOLS

STRATEGIES

Corporate Strategy; Environmental Policy; Strategy List; MIPS; Environmental Management. Life cycle thinking; Eco-efficiency throughout the life cycle.

Quality; Durability; Modularity; Energy use; Energy source; Local or European woods; Natural oils and finishes; after sales; biodegradability. Wood from managed forest; PE 100% recycled; Easy disassembly of parts; Aqueous varnish. Material reduction; Toxicity reduction; Energy consumption reduction; Modularity. Material reduction; Waste reduction; Toxic material reduction; Use of by-products; use of local resources.

LiDS Wheel.

Eco-Production; Participative Design; SPD Guidelines.

Wharington Furniture Australia 2001

Streamlined LCA; Stakeholders engagement.

Davis Furniture Australia 2004

Quantitative analysis; Flux diagrams; Pilot tests.

Celtia Furniture Range Cerne Portugal 2008

Checklists; ABC Analysis; Rules of thumb.

Atlântico Furniture Range Checklists; Strategies De La Espada list. Portugal 2009

Efficiency; Recycling; Better communication; DfR; DfD; End-of-life optimization.

Material reduction; Mechanical fixings; Recycling; Production techniques optimization. Modularity; Solid wood from Portuguese managed forests; Renewable and local materials; Material reduction; Waste management; Natural finishes; Reusable packaging; Durability; Disassembly; After sales. Low environmental impact materials; Solid wood from managed American forests; Natural finishes; Production techinques optimization; Design for durability.

RESULTS

Continuous product improvement.

Reduced environmental impact furniture. 46% reduction in material; 67% production energy reduction; 36% formaldehyde reduction. Less material used (1/4 of wood when compared with previous model). Increase of recycled material; Life-cycle impact reduction; Product with environmental certification; Take-Back and recycling. More efficiency; Waste recycling; Reduction of nearly 3t/year of wood.

Effect on entire range of home furniture Celtia

Effect on entire range of home furniture Atlântico

4 Survey As part of a focus approach on the furniture sector, such as the one underpinning this project, the main purpose of this survey was to collect information from the sector’s point of view on the relationship with design and its importance for product development. It was also intended to know the degree of understanding and importance given to aspects related to sustainability, namely environmental and social criteria, and how these aspects are taken into account in product development. In this sense, it was

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also studied how the various relevant criteria are operationalized and what is the companies’ knowledge and use of the various design tools. The questionnaire was designed based on classification and attitude questions [18]. It had an introduction to present and contextualize the respondent, as well as to motivate him/her to participate. The questionnaire was structured in 3 sections, each with 9 questions. In the first section it was intended to carry out a brief characterization of the companies and to analyze generically their relation with design. The second section had the purpose to characterize the design processes used in the company, including criteria and tools used by companies. The third section aimed to analyze the attitude and knowledge of the company towards sustainability. The questionnaire was designed in order to allow a response time of 10 min to avoid the disinterest and fatigue that occur in larger surveys. Of the 27 questions, only the first three questions were open. Of the remainder, 18 were closed single response and 6 were multiple response to decrease the required response time. After the questionnaire design, a pilot test was carried out, which allowed to correct some minor errors. The cross-referencing of 4 databases from the sector (AIMMP, APIMA, CPD and FSC) allowed the creation of a list of 214 Portuguese furniture companies with updated e-mail contact. A personalized e-mail was sent with the name of each company with the introduction text with the link to the platform where the questionnaire was housed, followed by three more reminders. This process was carried in a period of 4 months and it was possible to collect 66 valid answers which, for a universe of 2600 companies, represent a response rate of 2.5% and a sample error rate of 12%, which is too high for statistical results, but still allows reaching some conclusions. The data collected was treated directly on the online platform, with the support of Excel. Regarding size, this was analyzed only according to the parameter of number of workers, with no company with more than 250 workers and the majority being classified as small because they have between 10 and 50 workers (56.90%). In the following tables it can be observed the main results, in each of the sectors of the survey: Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Table 2. Design is developed by: Design is developedby: External design company

4,6%

External designer

10,8%

External architect

3,1%

Administration

18,5%

Internal designer

47,7%

Other internal worker

12,3%

Design services aren’t used

3,1%

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J. Vicente et al. Table 3. Companies consider Design an important resource for: Design is an important tool for R&D

39,1%

Align product with market

4,7%

Create innovative products

81,3%

Create appealing products

46,9%

Support entrance in new markets

25,0%

Increase production efficiency

28,1%

Meet consumers demands

59,4%

Meet legislation and standards

3,1%

Reduce environmental impact

14,1%

Table 4. Responsible for the product development process: Responsible for the product development process Administrator/ Manager

38,1%

Designer

38,1%

Other

23,8%

Table 5. Criteria considered during product development: Criteria considered during product development Formal

23,3%

Functional

76,7%

Aesthetic

76,7%

Cost

76,7%

Ergonomic

40,0%

Material quality and source

65,0%

Production

61,7%

Marketability

68,3%

Maintenance

21,7%

Recyclability

10,0%

Reusability

11,7%

Environmental

20,0%

Social responsibility

15,0%

Sustainability

30,0%

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Table 6. Design tools known and used by companies: Design tools known and used by companies

Don’t know

Know but don’t use

Use

Drawing/ Sketching

3,5%

12,3%

84,2%

CAD Computer Aided Design

10,9%

21,8%

67,3%

CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing

25,5%

39,2%

35,3%

Checklists

37,3%

27,5%

35,3%

Benchmarking Creativity tools (Brainstorm, Morphological Box...) SWOT Analysis

44,2%

28,8%

26,9%

46,2%

28,8%

25,0%

39,6%

35,8%

24,5%

Rules of thumb

49,0%

30,6%

20,4%

Strategy list

43,1%

37,3%

19,6%

LCA Life Cycle Assessment

33,3%

50,0%

16,7%

ABC Analysis

46,0%

40,0%

14,0%

CAE Computer Aided Engineering

40,0%

48,0%

12,0%

BCG Analysis

64,0%

28,0%

8,0%

LiDS Wheel

73,5%

22,4%

4,1%

Life Cycle Costing

62,0%

34,0%

4,0%

MIPS Analysis

78,0%

20,0%

2,0%

MET Matrix

70,8%

27,1%

2,1%

Ecodesign matrix

72,0%

28,0%

0,0%

CED (Cumulated Energy Demand)

78,0%

22,0%

0,0%

Table 7. Strategies promoted by the company to reduce environmental impact: Strategies promoted by the company to reduce environmental impact Waste reduction

77,1%

Materials/resources use optimization

75,0%

Production techniques optimization

66,7%

Use of low impact materials

52,1%

Design for durability

47,9%

Distribution system optimization

37,5%

Design for disassembly

33,3%

Design for maintenance

31,3%

Design for reuse and re-manufacture

20,8%

Design for recycling

20,8%

Design for safe disposal

14,6%

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Table 8. Does the company use some environmental standard or environmental management system? Does the company use some environmental standard or environmental management system? Yes

22,0%

I intend to use

40,0%

Don’t use and don’t intend to use

20,0%

Don’t know them

18,0%

Table 9. Does the company use some social responsibility standard? Does the company use some social responsibility standard? Yes

5,9%

I intend to use

11,8%

Don’t use and don’t intend to use

17,6%

Don’t know them

64,7%

Table 10. Is there involvement of stakeholders during product development? Is there involvement of stakeholders during product development? No

14,8%

Yes, clients

55,7%

Yes, workers

50,8%

Yes, suppliers

19,7%

Yes, local communities

1,6%

Yes, trade and industrial organizations

1,6%

Yes, non-governmental organizations

1,6%

Yes, universities and R&D centers

3,3%

Yes, governmental organizations

0,0%

Yes, all above

1,6%

5 Results and Discussion The survey results show that the designer is the main professional involved when design services are used. Companies in this sector use design mainly for product development and consider this activity important for the creation of innovative

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products that can meet the requirements of consumers, but do not give much relevance to design as an instrument for reducing the environmental impact. Although the use of design is mostly done by designers, both the designers and the administration are responsible for the product development process and there is still little systematization of these processes, since a high percentage of the companies still leave the implementation of this process to the empirical experience of the person in charge, rather than substantiate the process in an internal document. The product development process is still characterized by a weak stakeholder involvement - key elements in the operationalization of sustainability - with the exception of the client and workers. This means that there is still deficit of engagement regarding all those who are influenced by the company and its products, and that should be involved in the process in order to improve the performance of the sector. Companies still pay particular attention to traditional product development criteria. Environmental and social problems are still relegated to a background position by most companies, although there is a greater concern with these aspects in companies that make systematic use of design, which may indicate that a greater frequency of use of the design fosters a wider life cycle view and that design can contribute to the improvement of this cycle. In general, companies feel the need for tools to support product development, but it is also in companies that make systematic use of design that this need is stronger. However, in spite of this need, only the most traditional tools like drawing and the CAD have majority use rates. Most of the design for the environment tools are notoriously unknown to companies, except for Life Cycle Assessment, which is, nevertheless, used by very few companies. It is relevant to note that companies that do not feel the need for tools are those where there is greater ignorance and less use of the same tools. The results also indicate that companies say they are sensitive to sustainability, but they are very ignorant about it. The environmental actions they promote are mostly centered on the company itself. However, companies that feel the need for tools and that also make systematic use of design show a greater effort to implement sustainability activities, which indicates that their vision of environmental responsibility is not limited to production. Concerning social responsibility, the results indicate that there is very little knowledge on the subject, although almost all aspects of social responsibility are considered relevant.

6 Conclusion and Future Research This research shows that the design role in the integration of social and environmental criteria in furniture development is still far away from it potential. To shorten this gap, designers must strengthen their technical skills on these matters [19] and need to use simple and effective sustainable design strategies and tools.

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Future research should focus on the development of these strategies and tools, but with a deeper understanding of the companies’ culture, modus operandi and their stakeholders, so that these tools can be comprehensive but, at the same time, objective. The research should also be expanded to an international level. Acknowledgments. FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e para a Tecnologia, through PhD Grant SFRH/DB/38423/2007; Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Arquitetura – CIAUD.

References 1. Walker, S.: Sustainable by Design - Explorations in Theory and Practice. Earthscan, London (2006) 2. AIMMP: A Fileira de Madeira e do Mobiliário em Portugal 2009. AIMMP, Porto (2009) 3. CSIL: The Furniture Industry in Portugal. CSIL, Milano (2007) 4. EGP: Estudo Estratégico das Indústrias de Madeira e Mobiliário. AIMMP, Porto (2007) 5. BCSDPortugal: A Indústria Sustentável dos Produtos Florestais, Carbono e Alterações Climáticas - Mensagens Chave Para Decisores Políticos. BCSD Portugal, Lisboa (2006) 6. Lewis, H., Gertsakis, J.: Design + Environment - A Global Guide to Designing Greener Goods. Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield (2001) 7. Kubler, G.: A Forma do Tempo. Vega, Lisboa (1991) 8. WWF: Living Planet Report 2016: Summary. WWF, Switzerland (2016) 9. Dewberry, E.: Ecodesign - Present Attitudes and Future Directions: Studies of UK Company and Design Consultancy Practice. Open University, UK (1996) 10. Vicente, J., Frazão, R., Rocha, C., Silva, F.M.: The integration of social criteria in sustainable design for furniture. In: Proceedings 14th European Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production, The Netherlands (2010) 11. Behrendt, S., et al.: Life Cycle Design - A Manual for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises. Springer, Berlin (1997) 12. Brezet, H., Hemel, C.V.: Ecodesign - A Promising Approach to Sustainable Production & Consumption. UNEP, Paris (1997) 13. Tischner, U., et al.: How to do Ecodesign? A Guide for Environmentally and Economically Sound Design. Verlag, Frankfurt (2000) 14. Fuad-Luke, A.: The Eco-Design Handbook - A Complete Sourcebook for the Home and Office. Thames and Hudson, London (2002) 15. Frazão, R., Peneda, C., Fernandes, R.: Adoptar a Perspectiva de Ciclo de Vida. INETI – CenDES, Lisboa (2006) 16. Vezzoli, C., Manzini, E.: Design for Environmental Sustainability. Springer, London (2008) 17. SEI: Ecodesign - Sectoral Manual for Furniture. SEI, Tallinn (2006) 18. Hague, P.: Questionnaire Design. Kogan Pages, London (1994) 19. Nogueira, M.: Estudo do Contributo do Design no Desenvolvimento Sustentável de Produtos, Sistemas e Serviços na Indústria Portuguesa. CPD, Lisboa (2003)

Ergonomics in the Design Process - Study of Adaptability of Evolutive High Chairs Cristina Salvador ✉ (

)

CIAUD – Centro de Investigação em Arquitectura, Urbanismo e Design, Faculdade de Arquitectura, Universidade de Lisboa, R. Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. At the starting point of a children’s furniture design project, which is part of a Product Design research, the contribution of Human Factors and Ergo‐ nomics to this stage of the design process, could not be overlooked. In early stages of this research other studies of this nature were made and it seemed necessary to return to HFE in order to project suitable dimensions for the equipment. Based on case study and literary review, with the use of schematic drawing, this study about physical adaptability to the child, from 6 months up to 7 years of age of 6 selected evolutive high chairs, aims to understand if mismatches or gaps between the child’s physical development and the equipment’s dimensions exist, lowering the level of adaptability. The results clearly separate the group in three different adaptability levels, pointing out directions for this project and demonstrating the importance of Ergonomics and Human Factors in the Design process. Keywords: Human Factors and Ergonomics · Product Design · Children’s Furniture · Design Process

1

Introduction

Initiating a children’s furniture design project, within the context of a Product Design research, the main goal is to create a much better environment for children, adapting furniture to their needs, both physically and psychologically. The aim is also to provide solutions, which enable extended product life cycles, contributing to sustainable devel‐ opment. Human Factors and Ergonomics study human’s interaction with their surroundings in a full extent, both physically and psychologically [1] and for a correct dimensioning in the design project of a high chair following child’s growth, providing comfort for every stage of early childhood from 6 months up to 7 years of age, seems necessary to develop a study about physical adaptability of existing high chairs. Mismatches between furniture dimensions and the child’s measures are a problem for the child’s correct development [2] and designing for children is much more difficult than designing for adults, as rapid changes occur in the first few years of life and the growth rate varies during childhood [3]. When analyzing static anthropometric data, a © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_77

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challenging aspect is the amount of variation between children of the same age when development stages are described in age groups or categories. A wide variation within age groups can lead to an overlap across them, when considering 95th and 5th percentiles and variations also occur between genders and ethnic groups. HFE were previously used, as a tool for a wider view on children’s physical and emotional reactions to a specific high chair [4], where children were the target, as direct users of the object. A study with parents, as indirect users, was also made [5], to help unravel the nature of the interaction of the child with their own equipment in a longer time period. The case study, which included several models of high chairs available in the inter‐ national market, has been updated and 6 selected models of high chairs with a wooden based structure, described by producers as multifunctional, evolutive or follower of child’s growth, were subjected to a study about physical adaptability to the child’s growth.

2

Methodology

The method of research is based on high chairs’ case study and it includes literary review of static anthropometric data, in order to know more about internationally accepted percentiles [6] and children’s basic measures. This kind of knowledge enables, with the use of schematic drawing, a study about physical adaptability to the child, from 6 months to 7 years of age of the selected evol‐ utive high chairs in the case study. The study aims to understand if mismatches or gaps between the child’s development and the equipment’s dimensions exist, lowering the adaptability level or if the equipment is suitable for every stage of child’s growth in the project’s age target.

3

Case Study – High Chairs

The case study seeks for information about children’s high chairs with a wooden based structure, described by producers as multifunctional, evolutive or follower of child’s growth from 6 months up to 6–7 years of age, available on the present date, in the international market. The selection was also made with criteria of formal and functional diversity. From the norwegian company Stokke®, the Tripp Trapp® chair [7] is the first and older model in the case study. Designed by Peter Opsvik, this best seller released in 1972, with, on the present date, 10 million units sold [8], has become an absolute classic. A recent model from Opsvik, the Nomi chair (2013) from danish Evomove® [9], has quite a different approach and is also part of the study. Still from Stokke®, there’s the Stokke® Steps™ chair (2014) [10] designed by norwegian design studio Permafrost and from finnish Seimi®, the Rinki chair (2005), designed by Hannu Peltonen [11]. The remaining and non-Scandinavian models in the study wereboth released in 2011 the Ovo chair [12] from spanish Micuna®, designed by spanish design studio Culdesac™ and HiLo™ chair from canadian studio Age design [13] (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Perspective views of the 6 selected models of high chairs: a. Tripp Trapp® Chair; b. Nomi Highchair; c. Stokke® Steps™ Chair; d. Ovo chair; e. Rinki chair, f. HiLo™ chair, digital illustration, Cristina Salvador, Portugal.

4

Child’s Growth – Basic Measures

The World Health Organization (WHO) provides information about its Child growth standards, which were developed using data collected in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study [14] between 1997 and 2003 from approximately 8500 children from widely different ethnic backgrounds and cultural settings (Brazil, Ghana, India, Norway, Oman and the USA), in order to provide a single international standard for a normal child growth, from birth to 5 years of age, available in percentile and z-scores growth charts. These charts contain information of weight for age, weight for height, height for age, BMI for age, head circumference for age, etc. Based on this data, graphics relating weight, height and age were made for both genders (girls and boys), for a better and more simple understanding of the average child development’s stages, organized in

776

C. Salvador

years of age, starting from 0.5 years or 6 months (the standard age when the child can sit independently), up to 7 years of age – focusing on the high chair project’s age target (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Graphics containing information about weight and height per age group from 6 months up to 7 years of age, for girls and boys, based on WHO’s data, Cristina Salvador, Portugal.

Also available is the WHO Reference 2007 [15], which is a reconstruction of the 1977 National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO reference, using the original NCHS data set supplemented with data from the WHO Child growth standards sample for under-fives. The same statistical methodology was used to develop this reference as in the construction of the WHO Child growth standards. It provides the growth charts with weight for age, height for age and BMI for age, from 5 to 19 years of age, allowing a complete representation of the project’s age target.

5

The Study

Based on the static anthropometric data from WHO Child growth standards and other anthropometric studies which included data for a sitting position [16–19], and not over‐ looking the issues of a 5th to 95th percentile range choice, an average child’s growth graphics on a sitting position was made, providing the basic schematic representation necessary to study the selected high chairs (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Child’s growth graphics (sitting position) from 6 months up to 7 years of age, Cristina Salvador, Portugal.

The study unraveled unexpected results, which are listed and evaluated in percentage of physical adaptability to seat and foot height and total adaptability to the average child’s dimensions sitting at a dinning table with a total height of 70 cm (Table 1). Table 1. Results of the study of physical adaptability of the 6 selected high chair models. High chairs Tripp Trapp® Chair Nomi Highchair ®

Stokke Steps™ Chair Ovo chair Rinki chair HiLo™ chair

6

Seat height 87,5%

Foot height 87,5%

Total adaptability 87,5%

100% 50%

100% 50%

100% 50%

37,5% 12,5% 12,5%

12,5% 12,5% 12,5%

25% 12,5% 12,5%

Conclusions

Due to high variation in these early stages of childhood, reaching to a standard, which includes every age group, is not a simple task and in a design project, there’s a compro‐ mise with inclusivity. The results clearly separate the 6 selected models of high chairs in three different levels of adaptability: at the highest level, with 100% adaptability, suitable for all age groups, stands out the Nomi Highchair, designed by Peter Opsvik and produced by danish Evomove® and the Tripp Trapp® Chair, designed also by Peter Opsvik and produced by norwegian Stokke® with 87,5% adaptability; at a medium level is Stokke® Steps™ Chair designed by Permafrost also for Stokke®, reaching the 50% adaptability. The Ovo chair designed by Culdesac™ for spanish Micuna® with 25% adaptability, the Rinki chair designed by HannuPeltonen for finnish Seimi® and the HiLo™ chair, designed by canadian studio Age design, both with 12,5% adaptability, are at the lowest level, due to huge gaps in several age groups.

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Some of the results seem surprisingly low, given the fact that the high chairs are adver‐ tised as multifunctional, evolutive or followers of the child’s growth with multi-positioned and removable elements, rotations, etc. This information gives clear directions for the adaptability elements that this high chair project needs, for a correct dimensioning, as well as it shows how some solutions for adaptability simply do not work well enough as the child’s physical growth doesn’t seem to be correctly followed in most cases. We can also conclude that Human Factors and Ergonomics was, once again, an essential tool in this Product Design research and most definitely in this early stage of the design project when searching for correct dimensions is the key for an optimized physical adaptability to the child.

References 1. Karwowski, W.: The discipline of Human Factors and Ergonomics. In: Salvendy, G. (ed.) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics. Wiley, Hoboken (2012) 2. Gonçalves, M.A., Arezes, P.: Analysis of the mismatch between school furniture and children. In: Soares, M., Rebelo, F. (eds.) Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Usability and Special Populations: Part I, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference AHFE 2014, Krakow, pp. 268–274. CRC/Taylor and Francis (2014) 3. Lueder, R., Rice, V.: Ergonomics for Children—Designing Products and Spaces for Toddlers to Teens, pp. 39–64. Taylor and Francis, New York (2008) 4. Salvador, C., Vicente, J., Martins, J.P.: Ergonomics in children’s furniture—emotional attachment. In: Abraham, T., Karwowski, W., Marek, T. (eds.) Proceedings of the 5th International Conference AHFE 2014, Krakow, pp. 5478–5485. CRC/Taylor and Francis (2014) 5. Salvador, C.: Contributions of ergonomics to an affective sustainability in children’s furniture. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics AHFE2015 and the Affiliated Conferences, pp. 6483–6489. Procedia Manufacturing, Elsevier Science Direct (2015) 6. World Health Organization Child Growth. http://www.who.int/childgrowth/en/ 7. Tripp Trapp® Chair from Stokke®. https://www.stokke.com/EUR/en-pt/highchairs/tripptrapp/1001.html 8. Opsvik, P.: Expert Interview for the Ph.D. Research 'Mobiliário doméstico infantil - estudo da sua adequação à criança e à sustentabilidade' with Peter Opsvik, by Cristina Salvador, 17th January 2017, Oslo-Lisbon (2017) 9. Nomi Highchair. http://evomove.com/en.aspx 10. Stokke® Steps™ Chair from Stokke®. https://www.stokke.com/EUR/en-pt/highchairs/ stokke-steps/467200.html 11. Rinki chair from Seimi®. http://www.seimi.fi/index.php?id_product=7&controller= product&id_lang=2 12. Ovo chair by Micuna®. http://www.ovobymicuna.com/ 13. HiLo™ chair by Age design. http://www.agedesign.ca/ 14. WHO Growth Standards Birth—5 Years. http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/en/ 15. WHO Growth Reference 5—19 Years. http://www.who.int/growthref/en/ 16. Pheasant, S., Haslegrave, C.M.: Anthropometry, Ergonomics and the Design of Work. CRC/ Press Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton (2015) 17. Panero, J., Zelnik, M.: Dimensionamentohumanoparaespaçosinteriores – Um livro de consulta e referênciaparaprojectos. GG, Barcelona (2002)

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18. Antunes, A.: CrescimentoSomático e Desempenho Motor – Um EstudocomCrianças da RegiãoAutónoma da Madeira. Dissertação de Mestrado. Universidade da Madeira. http:// digituma.uma.pt/bitstream/10400.13/394/1/MestradoAnt%C3%B3nioAntunes.pdf 19. Eveleth, P.B., Tanner, J.M.: Worldwide Variation in Human Growth, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1990)

Design of an Innovative Mattress to Improve Sleep Quality by Increasing Deep Sleep Time Chih-Yang Huang(&) and Fong-Gong Wu Department of Industrial Design, National Cheng Kung University, No.1, University Road, Tainan 70101, Taiwan [email protected]

Abstract. Sleep is separated into several stages, and in the stage of deep sleep, body and mind could recover because of the secreting of neurotransmitters. However, stimulation when sleeping would stop the mechanism and cause arousal. Pressure paralysis is a kind of stimulation, and that would be caused by long-time pressure on nerve. To avoid pressure paralysis, with morphological analysis, there would be a three-layer mattress design in this study based on pressure and temperature distribution. Keywords: Sleep quality


Deep sleep
Mattress design
Pressure paralysis

1 Introduction Sleeping is important to everybody in the world, and people spend 1/3 of their life sleeping. With enough sleep, body and brain could recover from daytime fatigue, and that would increase the efficiency of work. On the other hand, without enough sleep, people would get poor health condition, physiologic symptoms, mental problems and less mobility. According to a research, there was about 26% of adult without sufficient sleep [1]. Because of the modern life style, light pollution and living habits would change the day-night cycle. At night, people watched TV, used smart phones, and turned on lights in their house, and these would produce additional light, stopping the sleeping mechanism in our body [2]. A hormone called melatonin controlling sleep onset is affected by light, more light in night time would reduce the hormone and also make people hard to fall asleep [3], and the situation of sleep disorders will be more common in aged population. With people become older, the problems of sleep disorder become more and more due to the aged body. In sleep science, sleep is separated into several stages according to the pattern of brain wave, and based on the eye movement, the stages are distinguished into rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (NREM). From NREM stage to REM stage, it is about 90 to 120 min for a cycle, and a night sleep takes 4 to 5 cycles [4]. In NREM stage, sleep starts from light sleep (N1, N2) to deep sleep (N3, N4), and in deep sleep, our brain would secrete neurotransmitters called GABA. GABA would reduce the nerve impulses in brain and increase inhibition of sympathetic nerve, making our brain and body easy to calm down, so people could have higher sleep quality and recover from daytime fatigue [5]. However, in light sleep, our brain is not © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_78

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ready to sleep, and people are likely to awake in this stage [6]; thus it would be hard to go into deep sleep. There are several kinds of stimulation that would wake people in light sleep, such as paralysis, muscle movement, joint pain and snoring [7, 8]. To increase sleep quality, a mattress without the stimulation when user sleeping could increase the duration of deep sleep. Also, reducing the time of sleep onset would make people easy to go into deep sleep. Paralysis is a human reaction resulting from the damage of nervous system, and with paralysis, muscular and sensory function would be deprived [7, 9]. Long-term pressure on limb is a cause of pressure paralysis when sleeping, and that would increase compression on nerve [10, 11]. During night sleep, postures changing are involved several times; however, there is less posture changing in deep sleep. That is, in deep sleep, body stays in the same position, and the contact pressure would also keep in the same area; and then, the feeling of paralysis would decrease the sleep quality or even cause arousal. As a result, compression on nerve should be avoided so as not to cause paralysis and break off deep sleep. A mattress design to increase sleep quality would be developed with the criteria: (1) increase the time of deep sleep (2) reduce the time of sleep onset. To increase deep sleep and reduce the stimulation in light sleep, from anatomy, the pressure should not center on the position of nerves and vessels, or it would result in paralysis. For paralysis on arms, pressure on radial nerve and spiral groove under arms should be avoided; and for paralysis on legs, pressure on gastrocnemius should be avoided because of sural nerve and veins of lower extremity. In this study, the mattress would be developed by morphological analysis, and focus group workshop.

2 Methods 2.1

Literature Research

Before the mattress design, impact factors to deep sleep should be clarified. From literature review, some principles were found based on human anatomy, neurology, physical therapy and sleep science. For deep sleep, the mechanism to keep in deep sleep or to reduce the time of sleep onset should be found; and for pressure paralysis, the position of nerves and blood vessels on limbs should be found. To know the position of body, the pressure distribution and sleep postures would be taken into consideration. Finally, the factors would be analyzed into several categories and be used in the morphological analysis for further design. The mechanisms and stimulation in sleep time found in literature were shown in Table 1.

2.2

Morphological Analysis

To generate the idea of mattress design, morphological analysis was adopted in this study. The use of morphological analysis could help designer to visualize idea quickly and clearly, and each idea could be combined into more idea [16]. For the mattress idea generation, there would be two axis in the morphological chart, and the X axis was the factors that impact deep sleep, and the Y axis was design features. In the center part of

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C.-Y. Huang and F.-G. Wu Table 1. Finding from literature research.

Mechanism Melatonin [2]

Description Avoid blue light

Body temperature [12] Muscle [14]

Higher distal temperature Progress muscle relaxation

Stimulation Paralysis [10] Snoring [13]

Description Avoid pressure on nerve and vessels Sleep in lateral position

Leg cramps [15]

Muscle stretching

morphological chart, several solutions would be generated based on the two axis. For each design feature, one or more idea would be chosen, and the mattress would be the combination of the design features.

2.3

Focus Group Workshop

After the idea generation from morphological analysis, there would be several design features, and a focus group workshop would be held to decide the materials and to combine each features into a mattress. Participants who were doing study about medical device, ergonomics and product design were recruit in the focus group workshop, and the knowledge of their study could help to develop the mattress design. There would be three layers in the mattress based on the design features, and the participants would try to choose suitable material according to the characteristic of each layer.

3 Result 3.1

Design Principle

From literature review, to improve sleep quality based on deep sleep, there were two criteria: (1) increase the time of deep sleep (2) reduce the time of sleep onset. For the first criteria, to reduce the stimulation when sleeping was a main point, and the stimulation include pressure paralysis, snoring and leg cramps. There would be pressure paralysis on arms because of the pressure on nerve, and “spiral groove” on arms was the position that cause the pressure paralysis [17]. Radial nerve went from shoulder to arm on spiral groove, so that usually result in paralysis when sleep in lateral position. Moreover, on legs, pressure on Sural nerve would cause paralysis, and nearby Sural nerve were veins of lower extremity. The compression also slow down the blood circulation, reducing the nutrition for the distal nerve on legs. As result, to avoid pressure paralysis on arms and legs, pressure on spiral groove and sural nerve should be reduced. For the second criteria, there were several mechanism to reduce the time of sleep onset. Reducing blue light could help to increase melatonin, which was a trigger of sleep onset; and the body temperature could control sleep onset as well, if the distal temperature was higher than core temperature. As a result, for thermal distribution, the

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temperature on limb should be higher before sleeping. Furthermore, muscle relaxation also help to reduce the time of sleep onset, there could be some assistive feature for muscle relaxation or limb stretching. The morphological chart was shown in Table 2. Table 2. Morphological chart for mattress design Paralysis Pressure Lower distribution pressure on spiral groove Surface texture Assistive design

3.2

Paralysis Cramp Lower pressure on veins of lower extremity

Temperature Muscle

Sweat

Higher temperature on limbs

Ventilation on back

Leg stretching

Progress muscle relaxation

Mattress Design

After literature review, design features and solutions were found, and those would be used in the morphological analysis. In the morphological chart, there were three design features: (1) pressure distribution (2) surface texture (3) assistive device. The idea would be developed according to the factors that influenced deep sleep, and the factors were pressure paralysis, leg cramps, body temperature and muscle relaxation. For pressure distribution, the pressure on spiral groove in lateral position should be transferred to trunk and the pressure on sural nerve in supine position should be also reduced. For surface texture, based on thermal comfort, body temperature and sweat area would be taken into consideration. To reduce the time of sleep onset, temperature on limbs should be higher than core temperature, so the texture on legs and arms should help to stay warm. On the position of back, there were more sweat gland, as a result, it was better to keep in good ventilation in this area. For assistive features, it was for the stretch before sleeping, and it could help to reduce leg cramps. After morphological analysis, the mattress would be a three-layer design (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Three-layer mattress design.

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The first layer was basic support for the weight of body, and the second layer was set for pressure distribution. The third layer, which contacted to body and limb, would be separated into several part to keep in suitable thermal comfort.

4 Discussion and Conclusion 4.1

Mattress Design

A mattress to improve sleep quality based on deep sleep was developed in this study, and the three-layer mattress would provide suitable thermal comfort and pressure distribution. The aim was to increase deep sleep time and reduce the time of sleep onset, and sleep quality would be improved by reducing the stimulation when sleeping. The temperature mechanism would help to fall asleep quickly, and thermal comfort would also influence subjective sleep quality [18]. The pressure on spiral groove would be reduced to prevent pressure paralysis on arms, and in a study, there were a pillow design for lateral position preventing arms from pressed by head [13]. For compression on legs, blood circulation and pressure on nerve were consideration. The long-time pressure on a small area would result in paralysis and pressure ulcer [19], and that would usually happen in patients in hospital. As a result, a mattress design to reduce local pressure could help to avoid pressure paralysis and pressure ulcer.

4.2

Evaluation

Since the pressure paralysis was caused by local pressure, the blood circulation would be influenced as well. Poor blood circulation would result in less blood and lower temperature on limbs, so the effect of pressure release of the mattress could be evaluated by measuring distal temperature. Paralysis was a stimulation when sleeping, and the stimulation would influence galvanic skin response (GSR) [20]. With high sleep quality and more deep sleep, body would stay in the same position in the bed and the temperature of body would be higher, so sweat on the skin would increase galvanic skin response. As a result, measurement of GSR could evaluate the paralysis and other stimulation; however, other impact factors should be controlled. For further study, the mattress should be evaluated with both subjective and objective methods, because sleep quality was not equal to sleep comfort. The design of pressure distribution and thermal comfort might be uncomfortable to users, and that could be modified after user evaluation. Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Science and Technology in Republic of China for financially supporting this research under Contract no. MOST 103-2221E-006-197-MY3.

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References 1. Strine, T.W., Chapman, D.P.: Associations of frequent sleep insufficiency with health-related quality of life and health behaviors. Sleep Med. 6(1), 23–27 (2005) 2. Czeisler, C.A.: Perspective: casting light on sleep deficiency. Nature 497(7450), S13–S13 (2013) 3. Eisenstein, M.: Chronobiology: stepping out of time. Nature 497(7450), S10–S12 (2013) 4. Urden, L.D., Stacy, K.M., Lough, M.E.: Priorities in Critical Care Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences, Amsterdam (2015) 5. Gottesmann, C.: GABA mechanisms and sleep. Neuroscience 111(2), 231–239 (2002) 6. Brown, R.E., et al.: Control of sleep and wakefulness. Physiol. Rev. 92(3), 1087–1187 (2012) 7. Di Lazzaro, V., et al.: Brachial palsy after deep sleep. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 85, 1409–1410 (2014). doi:10.1136/jnnp-2013-306637 8. Bader, G.G., Engdal, S.: The influence of bed firmness on sleep quality. Appl. Ergon. 31(5), 487–497 (2000) 9. Kerasnoudis, A., Ntasiou, P., Ntasiou, E.: Prognostic value of nerve ultrasound and electrophysiological findings in saturday night palsy. J. Neuroimaging 1–5 (2016). doi:10. 1111/jon.12414 10. Weinberg, L., et al.: Postoperative wristwatch-induced compressive neuropathy of the hand: a case report. J. Med. Case Rep. 9(1), 141 (2015) 11. Topçuoğlu, Ö.B., et al.: Ulnar nerve entrapment at elbow in obstructive sleep apnea patients: a randomized controlled trial. Sleep Breath. 21, 45–51 (2017). doi:10.1007/s11325-0161360-x 12. Kräuchi, K., Wirz-Justice, A.: Circadian clues to sleep onset mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology 25, S92–S96 (2001) 13. Cai, D., Chen, H.-L.: Ergonomic approach for pillow concept design. Appl. Ergon. 52, 142– 150 (2016) 14. McCloughan, L.J., et al.: Psychological recovery: progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), anxiety, and sleep in dancers. Perform. Enhanc. Health 4(1), 12–17 (2016) 15. Hallegraeff, J.M., et al.: Stretching before sleep reduces the frequency and severity of nocturnal leg cramps in older adults: a randomised trial. J. Physiother. 58(1), 17–22 (2012) 16. Mansor, M.R., et al.: Conceptual design of kenaf fiber polymer composite automotive parking brake lever using integrated TRIZ–morphological chart–analytic hierarchy process method. Mater. Des. 54, 473–482 (2014) 17. Kimbrough, D.A., Mehta, K., Wissman, R.D.: Case of the season: saturday night palsy. In: Seminars in Roentgenology. Elsevier (2013) 18. Tan, S.-H., Shen, T.-Y., Wu, F.-G.: Design of an innovative mattress to improve sleep thermal comfort based on sleep positions. Procedia Manuf. 3, 5838–5844 (2015) 19. Reddy, M., Gill, S.S., Rochon, P.A.: Preventing pressure ulcers: a systematic review. JAMA 296(8), 974–984 (2006) 20. Sano, A., Picard, R.W., Stickgold, R.: Quantitative analysis of wrist electrodermal activity during sleep. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 94(3), 382–389 (2014)

Pillow Design and Evaluation of Shoulder and Neck Surface Pressure to Sleep Quality Tsung-yao Li and Fong-gong Wu ✉ (

)

National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan, R.O.C. [email protected]

Abstract. Factors that affect sleep, compression of the body as one of the factors that affect sleep. Therefore, this study is to explore the head and neck parts of the surface pressure, sleep posture change and the interaction between the pillow and shoulder pressure changes in the degree of impact on sleep quality. Proposed pillow reduction pressure innovative design, whether to enhance sleep quality. This study from the understanding of sleep during the shoulder and neck postural changes and the degree of surface pressure. Focus on observation of the results of collective law and set out the design criteria. During the experimental evalu‐ ation, the degree of compression of the shoulder and neck can be measured using the Arduino pressure sensor to understand the subjects during sleep in various parts of the muscle pressure and postural changes in pressure. Sleep quality assessment. Can be measured through the main signal of the brain waves meas‐ ured by the brain waves measured in the degree of sleep in the decompression process of whether the impact of sleep quality. Watch the frequency of the brain waves Theta and Delta waves to enter the deep sleep period. To assess the mental state of subjects to do the assessment of sleep quality and the correlation between sleep quality and degree of compression. Experimental evaluation of the expected results. Sleep quality and compression degree of relevance. Through different materials to ease the shoulder with the degree of pressure. Reduce the overall shoulder and neck compression can help improve sleep quality. In this study, innovative pillow design helps to relieve head and neck surface stress and improve sleep quality. Keywords: Pressure · Sleep posture · Pillow design · Sleep quality

1

Introduction

1.1 Background Factors that affect sleep, compression of the body as one of the factors that affect sleep. Research shows that one in the shoulder and neck during sleep oppressed by pressure or poor sleeping position. Cause shoulder and neck pain and other effects of disease and sleep quality. Poor neck posture during sleep, Turn oversleeping on your side the oppression of the shoulder may produce pain for patients, and oppression for a long time will not only affect sleep quality in elderly people, even severe shoulder pain. Have up to 80% of people have tight shoulders and neck pain symptoms. Neck and shoulder pain © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_79

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and sleep position are relevant. In a State of compression set. Head and neck by the surface under the influence of pressure will cause problems with sultry for a long time. Should choose the right pillow designs. The shoulder reduces compression in the neck and cervical spine is properly supported. To understand the position of the shoulder and neck position changes in the distribution from sleep process. 1.2 Purpose Therefore, this study is to explore the head and neck parts of the surface pressure, sleep posture change and the interaction between the pillow and shoulder pressure changes in the degree of impact on sleep quality. Proposed pillow reduction pressure innovative design, whether to enhance sleep quality.

Fig. 1. Research flow chart

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Follow-up groups using the Focus Group Law to conduct interviews for data anal‐ ysis. To solve the above-mentioned literature to explore the shoulder and neck compres‐ sion can improve the sleep when the solution, to design in the sleep position can be appropriate to support the shoulder and neck muscles and spine, Appropriate dispersion of pressure area, and thus improve the body surface pressure and pressure caused by the process of ventilation problems, and slow down muscle tension, restore muscle elas‐ ticity, promote blood circulation. Can be used to assess the frequency of brain waves to improve sleep quality results. The research structure is shown in Fig. 1. The purpose of the study can be divided into the following four points: (1) To explore the impact of sleep and neck during the shoulder and the impact of the activities of the location, sleep posture transformation. (2) Analysis of the body’s shoulder and neck muscle parts in the sleep process of mechanical activity changes. (3) To sleep on the market to reduce sleep pillow sleep assessment of whether the improvement of sleep quality. (4) Focus groups to design a new type of pillow designed to improve the quality of sleep validation.

2

Literature Discussion

2.1 Sleep Affect Factors Body Pressure Distribution. In the sleep process, the pressure is mainly the body parts of the surface contact with bedding, resulting in stress concentration, a long time will cause muscle tension and blood circulation deterioration of the situation occurred. Will also cause the main sweat glands position hot and affect the quality of sleep. The body is heavily compressed in the back of the head when the back of the head, the back, buttocks, thighs, heels, these parts are mainly under pressure [21]. The main pressure on the side of the body when the body concentrated in the shoulder and thigh [15]. The body torso sleep angle also affects the surface pressure. The angle of the side sleep affects the pressure on the surface of the body and the bed. The surface pressure on the 30° side of the slope is lower than the 90% side of the surface pressure [5]. Sweat Glands Hot Position. Sleep process, a long time to focus on the site will cause the heat to affect the quality of sleep. The back is mainly the most parts of the body of the sweat glands [22]. So there is a positive correlation between the amount of sweat in each region of the body and the proportion of total sweat. The body’s sweat glands can be divided into four separate body parts area: (1) head and neck (2) arms and legs (3) trunk (4) hands and feet [10]. Posture transformation and Distribution position. There will be countless sleep posture changes during sleep. The replacement of the posture makes the body pressed for a long time in the same position. But a long time to sleep posture to increase the neck and other related parts of the pain problem. During the sleep process, you can see the placement of the body parts throughout the posture, left, and right posture [24]. To the

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side of the sleeping position, the best vertebral shape is supported by a straight line, while the shoulder area must be soft to prevent lateral scoliosis [6]. In the process of sleep, you can use the experimental test to measure the size of the pressure distribution area and the body posture of the main movement of the size of the relationship between the size of the muscle to do research. 2.2 Sleep Quality The definition of sleep quality can be divided into two aspects [3]: Qualitative aspects: Subjective statement on the evaluation of sleep, sleep depth and adequate feeling. A number of aspects: The length of sleep time, sleep occurred, the length of sleep latency and sleep efficiency. Most of the current studies use this definition for sleep quality assessment, which should cover their own sleep assessment and sleep duration. Parrott with Hindmarch in a sequential manner that sleep quality should be assessed for three major aspects: Easy to sleep, sleep cycle integrity, and get up after the behavior and rest. In addition to including conscious sleep-related feelings, as well as sleep time and integrity. Can increase the behavior and performance after getting up. Sleep process and Brain waves. The sleep process is divided into (1) Rapid Eye Movement, (2) Non-Rapid Eye Movement, accounting for 25% and 75% of all night’s sleep [20]. The sleep process is four stages. (1) The first stage: shallow sleep (5–10 min). The brain waves present the Theta wave. The body is half awake. (2) The second stage: shallow sleep (10–20 min). Compared to the first stage, it is easier to wake up. (3) The third stage: deep sleep (about 40 min). The brain waves present a delta wave and a slow wave. Heartbeat and breathing become slow, body temperature drop, muscle relaxation. The body begins to undergo tissue repair with cell regeneration. (4) The fourth stage: rapid eye movement (about 50 min): This stage is dreaming, the brain is active. The brain waves present theta, Delta waves. In the sober when the insomnia patients will have a higher Theta wave. Normal subjects are more than those with insomnia in the Delta wave [1, 13]. Insomnia patients have more Beta waves and fewer alpha waves than normal sleepers before going to sleep [8, 9]. This experiment can be through the brain wave signal instrument to measure the subjects of brain waves in the sleep process of sleep quality is good or bad. To observe the frequency of brain waves to assess the mental state of subjects [20] to do the assess‐ ment of sleep quality. Mainly view Delta and Theta wave. For the frequency of sleep in the sleep process for the sleeping, shallow sleep state of consciousness.

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2.3 Anatomy and Mechanics of Neck Shoulder Joint and Cervical Spine, Mechanical Operation. During the sleep process, the shoulder and neck parts of the activity, the scapula, and the humeral humerus is the main two major components of the shoulder joint. In the sleep posture process activity, the body posture transformation movement mainly of the spine to move. Mainly support the body weight, head, trunk, limbs and other structures and weight. Also affect the body posture, movement. The above is the main shoulder and neck parts within the scope of the study of sleep. Shoulder Joint. The shoulder joint is the largest part of the human body. Which the scapula is the shoulder movement of the bracket. There are four main modes of operation: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Provide shrinking and prolonging functions in different stages of throwing action. Arm shoulders will be relative to the shoulder when the abduction. Glenohumeral activities like a bearing-like action. For the deltoid, biceps and triceps activity when the platform.

During the sleep, the movement of the scapula can be divided into six basic actions: the elevation, the depression, the abduction, the adduction, medial rotation, lateral rota‐ tion. Cervical Part of the Mechanical Operation. The main cervical spine is composed of seven bones (C1–C7). The main movement for the Flexion and Extension, Lateral Bending, Axial Rotation and other three kinds of movement, a total of six directions of freedom. Because the shape of the cervical spine is special, a single type of movement is often accompanied by other directions of movement (Coupled Motion). Such as Rotation and Axial translation, Lateral bending and Rotation [16]. So the analysis of cervical movement is often more difficult. When the neck part of the fixed collar, the cervical spine will become a smaller range of activities.

3

Method

3.1 Research Methods The purpose of this study is to study the compression and postural changes of the shoulder and neck in the sleep process. And then designed to meet the shoulder and neck parts of the ergonomic pressure to improve the quality of the new sleep pillow design guidelines and planning. This experiment sets the pillow to detect the size of the shoulder and neck compression pressure to improve the quality of sleep. The first stage: design criteria and assessment methods To collect literature on the effects of sleep factors on muscle movement related to shoulder and neck. The follow-up to the existing soothing pressure sleep with no

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improvement in sleep quality. Summed up the design criteria, and then design proposals. Selection of a suitable sleep experiment proposal. The second stage: the sleep pressure test The purpose of this stage is to discuss the compression between the body’s shoulder and neck and sleep bedding. Finishing the shoulder and neck parts of the surface pres‐ sure, the position of the degree of compression and posture transformation and finishing data. The results of the experiment to the body part of the image and compression of the relationship between the corresponding, The establishment of surface compression image. Analyze whether the original compression surface is consistent or different. Apply this compressed image to the new pillow bedding design. The Perform a valida‐ tion from sleep brain waves to see if there is no improvement in sleep bedding.

Fig. 2. Experimental process

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The third stage: pillow design and evaluation Extract design guidelines and experiments as well as focus ethnic group design proposals for pillow design. Through the design, proposal bedding to carry out experi‐ ments to assess the analysis of shoulder and neck pressure, and put forward the conclu‐ sions of the proposal. Given follow-up pillow design reference use,The experimental process is shown in Fig. 2. 3.2 Experimental Evaluation Ardunio pressure sensor. In this study, an Arduino pressure sensor was used to produce an instrument that evaluates the size of the body’s surface as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Ardunio pressure sensor

Its main structure is to USB interface connected to the computer, to receive the signal, and transferred to the relevant software. The main pressure sensor is mainly woven into the sleep bedding sponge fabric material inside. Through the body pressure to sense the size of the surface compression data shown in Fig. 4. Brain Wave Signal Instrument. The experimental brain wave signal instrument mainly measured subjects brain waves that sleep quality is good or bad. Measure the amount of surface pressure. Verify that the body is in contact with the surface of the bed with little or no improvement in sleep quality. Through the instrument to watch the frequency of Alpha, Beta, Theta and Delta waves to assess the mental state of subjects in Fig. 3 to do the assessment of sleep quality.

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Fig. 4. Pressure data

4

Design and Experiment

4.1 Design Criteria To collect literature on the effects of sleep factors on muscle movement related to the shoulder and neck. The follow-up to the existing soothing pressure sleep with no improvement in sleep quality. Summed up the design criteria, and then design proposals. Subsequent selection of the appropriate sleep experiment proposal. Pillow design proposal The design proposal will carry out the focus group method through the design criteria. The focus group method design process is: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Experimental purposes. Sleep in the head and neck changes in the analysis of the results. Discuss each other’s ideas. Reduce the head and neck parts of the pressure, breathable to think. Reduced pressure pillow design. Discuss the design.

794

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Expected Results

Experimental evaluation of the expected results. Sleep quality and compression degree of relevance. Through different materials to ease the shoulder with the degree of pres‐ sure. Reduce the overall shoulder and neck compression can help improve sleep quality. In this study, innovative pillow design helps to relieve head and neck surface stress and improve sleep quality.

References 1. Bastien, C.H., LeBlanc, M., Carrier, J., Morin, C.M.: Sleep EEG power spectra, insomnia, and chronic use of benzodiazepines. Sleep 26(3), 313–317 (2003) 2. Bovim, G., Schrader, H., Sand, T.: Neck pain in the general-population. Spine 19(12), 1307– 1309 (1994) 3. Buysse, D.J., Reynolds, C.F., Monk, T.H., Berman, S.R., Kupfer, D.J.: The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index—a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 28(2), 193–213 (1989). doi:10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4 4. Davidson, G.S., Montanera, W.J., Fleming, J.F.R., Gentili, F., Horwitz, N.H., Barth, W., Pierce, L.H.: Amyloid destructive spondyloarthropathy causing cord compression—related to chronic-renal-failure and dialysis. Neurosurgery 33(3), 519–522 (1993) 5. Defloor, T.: The effect of position and mattress on interface pressure. Appl. Nurs. Res. 13(1), 2–11 (2000) 6. Duyck, J., De Cooman, M., Puers, R., Van Oosterwyck, H., Vander Sloten, J., Naert, I.: A repeated sampling bone chamber methodology for the evaluation of tissue differentiation and bone adaptation around titanium implants under controlled mechanical conditions. J. Biomech. 37(12), 1819–1822 (2004). doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.02.044 7. Ferracini, G.N., Chaves, T.C., Dach, F., Bevilaqua-Grossi, D., Fernandez-de-las-Penas, C., Speciali, J.G.: Relationship between active trigger points and head/neck posture in patients with migraine. Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 95(11), 831–839 (2016). doi:10.1097/phm. 0000000000000510 8. Freedman, R.R.: EEG power spectra in sleep-onset insomnia. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 63(5), 408–413 (1986). doi:10.1016/0013-4694(86)90122-7 9. Freedman, R.R., Sattler, H.L.: Physiological and psychological-factors in sleep-onset insomnia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 91(5), 380–389 (1982). doi:10.1037/0021-843x.91.5.380 10. Godoli, G.: Astrophysical quantities—Allen, CW. Scientia 100(11–1), 293–294 (1965) 11. Holzbaur, K.R.S., Murray, W.M., Gold, G.E., Delp, S.L.: Upper limb muscle volumes in adult subjects. J. Biomech. 40(4), 742–749 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2006.11.011 12. Iliescu, E.A., Coo, H., McMurray, M.H., Meers, C.L., Quinn, M.M., Singer, M.A., Hopman, W.M.: Quality of sleep and health-related quality of life in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 18(1), 126–132 (2003). doi:10.1093/ndt/18.1.126 13. Krystal, A.D., Edinger, J.D., Wohlgemuth, W.K., Marsh, G.R.: NREM sleep EEG frequency spectral correlates of sleep complaints in primary insomnia subtypes. Sleep 25(6), 630–640 (2002) 14. Lee, A.J.Y., Lin, W.H.: Association between sleep quality and physical fitness in female young adults. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 47(4), 462–467 (2007) 15. McCall, W.V., Boggs, N., Letton, A.: Changes in sleep and wake in response to different sleeping surfaces: a pilot study. Appl. Ergon. 43(2), 386–391 (2012)

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16. Morton, R.W.: Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System, 2nd edn—Nordin, M, Frankel, VH. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 44(8), 764–765 (1990) 17. Nebes, R.D., Buysse, D.J., Halligan, E.M., Houck, P.R., Monk, T.H.: Self-reported sleep quality predicts poor cognitive performance in healthy older adults. J. Gerontol. Ser. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 64(2), 180–187 (2009). doi:10.1093/geronb/gbn037 18. Nojiri, A., Okumura, C., Ito, Y.: Sleep posture affects sleep parameters differently in young and senior Japanese as assessed by actigraphy. Health 6(21), 2934 (2014) 19. Rodgers, C.D., Paterson, D.H., Cunningham, D.A., Noble, E.G., Pettigrew, F.P., Myles, W.S., Taylor, A.W.: Sleep-deprivation—effects on work capacity, self-paced walking, contractile properties and perceived exertion. Sleep 18(1), 30–38 (1995) 20. Scheffler, S.: European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience in the Internet. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 251(3), 147 (2001) 21. Shelton, F., Barnett, R., Meyer, E.: Full-body interface pressure testing as a method for performance evaluation of clinical support surfaces. Appl. Ergon. 29(6), 491–497 (1998). doi: 10.1016/s0003-6870(97)00069-0 22. Smith, C.J., Havenith, G.: Body mapping of sweating patterns in male athletes in mild exercise-induced hyperthermia. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 111(7), 1391–1404 (2011). doi: 10.1007/s00421-010-1744-8 23. Spiegel, K., Leproult, R., Van Cauter, E.: Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function. Lancet 354(9188), 1435–1439 (1999). doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(99)01376-8 24. Tan, S.-H., Shen, T.-Y., Wu, F.-G.: Design of an innovative mattress to improve sleep thermal comfort based on sleep positions. Procedia Manuf. 3, 5838–5844 (2015) 25. Zenian, J.: Sleep position and shoulder pain. Med. Hypotheses 74(4), 639–643 (2010) 26. Zhou, J., Xu, B., Tang, Q.Y., Chen, W.Y.: Application of the sheepskin mattress in clinical care for pressure relieving: a quantitative experimental evaluation. Appl. Nurs. Res. 27(1), 47–52 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2013.10.008

Design Requirements to Enhance the Postural Control in Patients with Severe Spastic Quadriplegia Paulina Manzano-Hernandez1(&), David Vidana-Zavala1, Irma C. Landa-Avila1, and Carlos Aceves-Gonzalez2 1

Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Prolongación Calzada Circunvalación Poniente 49, 45010 Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico {paulina.manzano,david.vidana,ilanda}@up.edu.mx 2 Centro de Investigaciones en Ergonomia, Universidad de Guadalajara, 44250 Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico [email protected]

Abstract. The aim of this project was to identify a set of design requirements that could be used as a guide to generate effective products to tackle the negative effects of severe spastic quadriplegia (SSQ) with a focus on head and trunk control. This project was undertaken with the participation of a seven year old boy with SSQ who showed an extensor pattern, according to the WeeFIM had a functional performance of 26% and was unable to control his head or trunk when subjected to anti-gravitational positions. A series of tests were conducted regarding the analysis of segmental supports. External inputs such as video, sound, vibration, and different ways to collocate clothes were evaluated as part of this study. Among the most relevant design requirements identified from this study were the recommendation about the placement of external supports on the pelvic area and avoiding physical contact with the dorsal spine. Keywords: Design requirements
Inclusive design
Cerebral palsy spastic quadriplegia
Postural control
Head and trunk control


Severe

1 Introduction Cerebral palsy (CP) comprises several lasting conditions that affect movement and coordination due to problems of the yet immature brain and unable the correct muscle control [11, 13]. CP acquisition can be classified as ‘postneonatal’, which represents 5% to 60% of all CP cases, or ‘not postneonatal’ depending on whether it was acquired before or immediately after birth [3]. Because of the lack of age standards and difficulty in the differentiation between ‘postneonatal’ and ‘not postneonatal’ CP, both classifications are often considered together [2]. The causes of CP range from a variety of circumstances or events including congenital birth malformations, problems during labour and delivery, infections like meningitis or septicaemia, and even injuries like vehicle accidents [15]. Classification regarding the severity of CP can vary depending on the basis criteria (pathology, etiology or clinical) and the characteristics of each person [3]. The five-category Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_80

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which measures and classifies the severity of functional impairment has been widely accepted as a reliable motor impairment classification [3, 8]. The prevalence of CP goes from approximately 2 to 2.5 cases for every 1000 live births. Generally male are more frequently affected and the childhood prevalence for those born in developed and developing countries tends to be in a similar range [2, 3, 10, 17]. One of the main clinical features shown in children with CP corresponds to spasticity with approximately 70% to 80% of children showing spastic clinical features [10], which would represent about 1.4 to 2 cases for every 1000 live births. In Mexico solely the prevalence of spastic CP between 1998 to 2002 corresponds to a rate of 3 new spastic CP cases for every 1000 live births [17]. Spastic quadriplegia (SQ), alongside spastic hemiplegia and spastic diplegia, represents a subtype of CP with the spastic clinical feature. Children with SQ present impaired functional performance and spasticity in all four limbs but the upper ones can be the most affected [18]. People affected with CP, regardless of their type and depending on the severity, have trouble or in some cases are incapable of performing basic daily activities where motor skill development is key to successfully accomplish them. Such activities include upright sitting, reaching, balancing, developing the upper extremity, performing visual exploration and executing pulmonary functions [1, 9, 16]. Postural control, which refers to the correct positioning of the body along the center of gravity to remain stable within the support base [14], plays an important role in the correct achievement of the previously mentioned activities [1, 9]. Several approaches to improve posture in children with CP have been implemented around the globe and range from therapy to product development or adaptations. Examples of these include neurodevelopmental therapy (NDT), hippotherapy, neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), Kinesio taping [9], whole body vibration (WBV) [6], pressure distribution and padding on wheelchairs [11], botulinum toxin (BTX), and plaster orthoses [14]. All the approaches mentioned above have shown certain positive aspects, but in most cases they don’t focus on a specific type of CP, like Severe Spastic Quadriplegia (SSQ). Since the requirements for people with CP differ from each other depending on the type and severity [2, 4], it is critical to address them properly to avoid future complications. Failing to do so could result in a faster deterioration of the user’s condition leading to the appearance of fixed muscle contractions or even deformities such as scoliosis and hip displacement [2, 5]. There is still very few research that focus in proposing specific design requirements that can be later translated into a design project to fulfil the needs of children with severe spastic quadriplegia (SSQ) [7]. Given that the deficits in postural control are one of the main setbacks for a proper motor development in children with SSQ [4, 8], the main objective of this study was to identify a set of design requirements that could be used as a guide to generate effective products to tackle the negative effects of SSQ with an emphasis on the head and trunk control in sedentary position.

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2 Method Three concept validation test were performed. The first test, Segmental Approach, evaluated different trunk support allocations in order to find the ones that provided the best overall posture control and alignment in sedentary position. The second test, Segmental Approach with Visual, Auditive and Vibrational Stimuli, evaluated the best trunk support allocations with additional stimuli to evaluate if the provided input would enhance the overall posture control and alignment when sit. The third test, Placement and Securing Styles for Clothing, evaluated the usability and safety of different shirt styles when the caregiver had to put-on, secure (if needed) and take-off the shirt.

2.1

Participants

One 8-year-old male child that was part of a physical rehabilitation center in Guadalajara, Mexico. He was diagnosed with SSQ and a functional performance of 26% according to the WeeFIM. Our subject was fully dependent and couldn’t control either his head or trunk when subjected to anti-gravitational positions. He also presented and extensor pattern that caused his body to rise and bend, creating an arch with the belly as the maximum point of the curve. His mother, his physical therapist and his occupational therapist also participated in the development of the tests.

2.2

Sessions

The participant, his mother and his therapists were visited in the rehabilitation center nine times in which testing and key information gathering were performed. Among those visits two were held with the physical therapists alone and one with the occupational therapist alone.

2.3

Concept Validation Tests

Segmental Approach. A segmental approach test was performed based on the same principles as the one performed by Saavedra and Woollacott [16] with the objective of evaluating how our participant would react towards different trunk support allocations in terms of alignment and posture control when sit. Materials and Tools. An OSB wooden board, felt and polyester fabric, glue, thread, a nail and a staple gun, a driller, and a sewing machine were used to make the bench and cushioned supports used in the evaluation. A semi-professional camera with video and audio recording and a tripod was used to record the whole process. Low-Cost Prototype. The bench consisted of a 30 cm high seat covered with felt held by two side supports, a base and a stick in the back with 4 holes of ¾” diameter distributed 8 cm within the center of each other starting at 40 cm to the center of the first one with respect to the ground. The cushioned supports consisted of two belts of

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48  17 cm and 45  6 cm made with a 3 times folded felt strip covered with a semi elastic polyester fabric and 260 cm straps respectively attached to the sides. All the elements of the supports where sewed with a zig zag pattern. Both the straps and bench are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Bench (left) and support bands (right).

Procedure. Supports in pelvic, thoracic-lumbar, mid-thoracic and cervical-upper thoracic areas were assessed with the two different cushioned supports, the wide support would cover 3 areas and the slim support would cover just one of the areas stated above. Figure 2 illustrates how the different cushioned supports would be placed and to which pair of holes (H) the straps would be wrapped to. S1 placement covers the mid-thoracic, thoracic-lumbar and pelvic areas and its straps are wrapped in the H1 and H3 level. S2 placement covers the cervical-upper thoracic, mid-thoracic and thoracic-lumbar areas and its straps are wrapped in the H1 and H3. S3 placement covers the pelvic area and its straps are wrapped in the H4. S4 placement covers the thoracic-lumbar area and its straps are wrapped in the H3. S5 placement covers the mid-thoracic area and its straps are wrapped in the H2. S6 placement covers the cervical-upper thoracic area and its straps are wrapped in the H1. Six evaluations were performed as followed with duration of 1 min with a 1 min interval between each session that would allow us to make the proper positioning changes. Support evaluation was first done with the S1 placement followed S2, S3, S4, S5 and finally S6. The procedure was recorded and later analyzed. During each evaluation scores were given depending on the trunk and head control and alignment. Variables considered for evaluation were assessed based on the maintenance of sitting as a specific postural alignment, which was the only functional goal of the balance system [12] that could be evaluated because of our participant’s lack of voluntary muscle control. The following variables during the 1 min interval were evaluated. Var 1 refers to the moment when the participant abruptly fell or rose and needed external support (+1 point each time). Var 2 is when the participant changed his general position with respect to a vertical trunk alignment after being returned to a vertical position (+1 point each time). Var 3 denotes when the participant

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Fig. 2. Placement of the supports.

did not have his head aligned with the trunk (+1 point each time). The lower the score the better stability our participant had. Segmental Approach with Visual, Auditive and Vibrational Stimuli. The main purpose of this test was to evaluate if additional stimuli would enhance the overall stability and vertical alignment posture when used alongside strategically placed supports while our participant was sit. Materials and Tools. The bench and cushioned supports used in the Segmental Approach test and a smartphone with an internet connection. A semi professional camera with video and audio recording and a tripod was used to record the whole process. Low-Cost Prototype. A smartphone with an internet connection would play videos and music that were reported as stimulating and engaging for our subject and that could help to improve his posture due to the effort of following the device where the stimuli comes from. The vibrational stimulus would be provided by a smartphone as well. Procedure. The two support placements (S3 and S6) that showed the best posture control in general during the test 4.2.1 were evaluated with visual, auditive and vibration stimuli to analyze if they would improve head and trunk control and alignment as shown in Fig. 3. Several sessions of 1 min with a 1 min interval between each session that would allow us to make the proper positioning changes were made. The stimuli evaluation was made as follows: first the S3 placement with video and sound, second the S3 placement only with sound, third the S6 placement with video and sound, forth the S6 placement only with sound, fifth the S3 placement with vibration on the back and sixth the S6 placement with vibration on the back. The procedure was recorded and later analyzed.

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Fig. 3. Sound and video stimuli (left) and vibration stimulus (right).

Similar to the segmental approach alone, during each evaluated section (visual, auditive and vibrational stimuli with either S3 or S6 placement) scores were given depending on the trunk and head control and alignment. The variables considered in this evaluation are the same as the ones defined in the procedure of test 2.3.1 (Var1, Var2 and Var3). The lower the score the better stability our participant had. Placement and Securing Styles for Clothing. This test aimed to evaluate the most usable and safe way to place a piece of clothing in the trunk. Since this is a daily activity, the test seeks to provide useful insights on how to avoid possible future injury to the users when the caregiver changes their clothes. Materials and Tools. Pellon fabric, scissors, a 45 cm zipper, thread, safety pins, velcro strips and a sewing machine were used to fabricate the prototype. A smartphone camera with video and audio recording were used to record the whole process. A satisfaction questionnaire evaluating usability and safety of the new and unknown prototypes on a scale from 1 to 5 was applied where 5 represents the optimum situation (easy to use, safe and comfortable) and 1 represents the worst situation (difficult to use, unsafe and uncomfortable). Low-Cost Prototype. For this test, two different clothing styles and securing methods were designed and made (Fig. 4). The first one was a sleeveless shirt with a wide round neck, it had openings for the head and arms. The second design was a sleeved shirt with a round neck and an open side so it would be placed starting from one of either arm. The second style could be secured with either a zipper on the side, 7 slim strips of velcro or two wide strips of velcro. Procedure. The two shirt designs (Fig. 4.) were tested to determine which showed better results related to usability and safety in a non-typical and less intrusive manner. In each stage, the participant’s mother was asked to place and secure (if needed) the shirt and to take it off afterwards. Since it was noticed that the participant’s mother was having trouble taking off the participant’s jacket before the test while he was sitting, she was asked to lay him down facing up which resulted less intrusive and less effort was

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Fig. 4. Shirt designs and models.

made. In the first stage the sleeveless shirt was placed (Fig. 4, Model 1); in the second the sleeved shirt secured with the zipper was placed and secured (Fig. 4, Model 2); in the third the sleeved shirt secured with several velcro straps from the back to the chest was placed and secured (Fig. 4, Model 3); in the forth the same shirt and securing elements from the third were used but the straps were secured from the front to the back (Fig. 4, Model 4); in the fifth the sleeved shirt secured with two velcro straps from the back to the chest was placed and secured (Fig. 4, Model 5); in the sixth the same shirt and securing elements from the fifth were used but the straps were secured from the front to the back (Fig. 4, Model 6). The procedure is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. From left to right and from top to bottom: placement of models 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

At the end, each stage of the procedure was analyzed in terms of time of completion. mistakes made, attempts and percentage of completed task; at the end of the whole procedure the satisfaction questionnaire regarding the sleeved shirt (which was the new way to place a shirt) was handed and answered by the participant’s mother.

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3 Results 3.1

Segmental Approach Test

Table 1 shows the general results of the test following the sequence of how it was made. Var1, Var2 and Var3 are defined as in the procedure of test 2.3.1. Table 1. General results of trunk alignment and control from segmental approach test. Support placement Var1 S1 2 S2 4 S3 1 S4 3 S5 3 S6 3

Var2 1 2 2 3 3 1

Var3 3 3 2 2 2 1

Total score 6 9 5 8 8 5

Pelvic (S3) and cervical-upper thoracic (S6) supports scored the best with 5 points in general control and alignment evaluation. Nevertheless, S6 had better scores with overall head and trunk alignment with 1 point each whereas S3 had a better head and trunk control (1 point). The 3-upper support (S2) evaluation had the worst score (9 points) and our participant showed clear difficulties with the head and trunk control which caused him to constantly fall and rise. In contrast with S2, the 3-lower support (S1) provided the second best posture control and had one of the best overall head and trunk alignment scores. Mid-thoracic (S5) and thoracic-lumbar (S4) both scored the same in each of the variables being the head and trunk control and general alignment the worst scored (3 points each).

3.2

Segmental Approach with Visual, Auditive and Vibrational Stimuli Test

Table 2 shows the general results of the test following the sequence of how it was made. Var1, Var2 and Var3 are defined as in the procedure of test 2.3.1.

Table 2. Results of segmental approach with visual, auditive and vibrational stimuli test. Support placement Type of stimulus S3 Video and sound S3 Sound S6 Video and sound S6 Sound S3 Vibration S6 Vibration

Var1 2 3 1 2 3 2

Var2 1 2 1 3 4 4

Var3 Total score 2 5 1 6 2 4 3 8 4 11 3 9

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Cervical-upper support (S6) with video and sound as a stimulus scored the best with a 4 point general control and alignment evaluation. Pelvic support (S3) with sound had the best head alignment score (1 point) whereas S6 and S3, the two with video and sound, had a better general alignment, both with scores of 1 point. S6 with video and sound as stimuli was the most effective for head and trunk control with a score of 1 point. S3 with vibration on the back scored the worst with a general score of 11 points followed by S6 with vibration on the back with a general score of 9 points.

3.3

Placement and Securing Styles for Clothing Test

Table 3 shows the scores for each assessed variable. V1 refers to the placement of the shirt on the subject while V2 corresponds to the take-off of the shirt from the subject. Table 3. Performance evaluation per task. Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2 Completion time (seconds) 38 35 43 17 69 35 57 55 29 27 33 18 Attempts 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Percentage of accomplished 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 task Mistakes made 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Model 5 obtained the best score on placing the shirt in terms of time and performance (29 s and no mistakes), while model 3 took the most time for the same activity (69 s) with a mistake made. Model 2 got the best time and performance score while taking off the shirt (17 s and no mistakes), Model 4 took the most time while taking off the shirt (55 s) but no mistakes were made. Table 4 shows the scores for each assessed variable (ease of use, perceived safety and comfort) in the models that posed a new and different way to place a shirt (sleeved shirt) in the questionnaires handed to the mother. Table 4. Usability and safety of the sleeved shirt models. Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Ease of use 5 4 4 4 4 Perceived safety 5 4 4 4 4 Comfort 5 4 4 4 4

Model 2 was perceived as the best way to place the shirt with an overall score of five. Models 3, 4, 5 and 6 scored the same with 4 points. All the shirts were rated positive according to the user’s mother but Model 2 was the most liked. Regarding the Model 1 shirt (which was not included in this section because she previously rated it as a 5), the mother’s biggest concern was how wide the neck hole was, the wider the better, besides that she didn’t express any concern. When asked which way to place the shirt she liked

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the best she answered the side collocation shirt which showed less arm and head twisting and bending when placing and securing the shirt regardless of the model.

4 Discussion and Conclusion Similar to the findings of Saavedra and Woollacott [16] in the segmental approach test, our participant had clear issues with the vertical alignment and stabilization of the head and trunk in relation to the ground. Nevertheless, pelvic and cervical-upper thoracic supports showed better results allowing him to maintain a more stable posture. Another important consideration was found in the segmental approach with visual, auditive and vibrational stimuli test. It showed that the posture can be not only improved with the placement of supports in certain areas of the trunk but also it can be enhanced with video and sound placed at a specific position so the user can follow the stimuli and focus on maintaining a certain posture. The clothing placement and securement tests showed that the side collocation in the novel clothing could help the caregiver to avoid further damaging of the user’s extremities. Changing the clothes of a person with spasticity can become a challenge due to the limited flexibility; the results showed in the sleeved model demonstrated that unlike typical shirts like Model 1, a side placement could be more efficient and less intrusive since fewer movements and flexions are needed. It could be suggested that the positive results were due to the placement repetition of the sleeved models and not to the securing element. However, it took less time to place the sleeved shirt for the first time than what it took to place the sleeveless shirt, which was daily placed in the user’s body. According to these findings, the following design requirements should be considered when developing a new product for people with severe spastic quadriplegia: 1. The use of supports in the pelvic and cervical-upper thoracic areas combined with head support that aligns the head and trunk vertically with respect to the ground. 2. The use of synchronized sound and video as external stimuli to keep the user’s focus and effort in maintaining a specific posture. 3. Avoid any type of vibration, specifically on and in the area around the dorsal spine. 4. If the clothes need to be worn, the placement of the product must start from one side of the trunk. 5. If the caregiver needs to put clothes on, the securing mechanism of the product should be easily managed with one hand. 6. Any wearable clothes intended for the trunk can be placed easier if the user is laying down and facing up since there is more control of the limbs and trunk and less force used to grab the person. It must be said that these findings may be somewhat limited by the use of qualitative measures used on the procedure and results which can be subjected to bias [12] due to the evaluator’s or in some cases the mother’s perception. Further studies, which take into account objective measurements and an increased number of participants with the same condition, will need to be undertaken to determine a better assurance and validation of the results presented here.

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There is still plenty of research and product development that needs to be done to improve the wellbeing of people affected with SSQ. Products designed for this type of users should have an integral approach that considers not only the primary user’s needs but the ones of the secondary user as well. As a conclusion, it is pointed out that the findings in this study can help designers to develop meaningful products that can improve the users’ overall wellbeing and slow down the development of degenerative conditions in the users’ spine.

References 1. Bigongiari, A., de Andrade e Souza, P., Franciulli, P.M., El Razi Neto, S., Correa Araujo, C., Mochizuki, L.: Anticipatory and compensatory postural adjustments in sitting in children with cerebral palsy. Hum. Mov. Sci. 30(3), 648–657 (2011) 2. Blair, E.: Epidemiology of the cerebral palsies. Orthop. Clin. N. Am. 41(4), 441–455 (2010) 3. Blair, E., Watson, L.: Epidemiology of cerebral palsy. Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med. 11(2), 117–125 (2006) 4. Bobath, B.: Actividad postural refleja anormal causada por lesiones cerebrales. Editorial Médica Panamericana, Buenos Aires (1987) 5. Bobath, B., Bobath, K.: Desarrollo motor en distintos tipos de parálisis cerebral. Editorial Médica Panamericana, Buenos Aires (1987) 6. Cheng, H.Y.K., Yu, Y.C., Wong, A.M.K., Tsai, Y.S., Ju, Y.Y.: Effects of an eight-week whole body vibration on lower extremity muscle tone and function in children with cerebral palsy. Res. Dev. Disabil. 38, 256–261 (2015) 7. Finnie, N.R.: Atención en el hogar del niño con parálisis cerebral. Ediciones Científicas La Prensa Médica Mexicana, Distrito Federal (2004) 8. Gómez-Regueira, N., Viñas-Diz, S.: Mejora del control postural y equilibrio en la parálisis cerebral infantil: revisión sistemática. Fisioterapia 38(4), 196–214 (2016) 9. Karabay, I., Dogan, A., Ekiz, T., Koseoglu, B.F., Ersoz, M.: Training postural control and sitting in children with cerebral palsy: Kinesio taping vs. neuromuscular electrical stimulation. Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract. 24, 67–72 (2016) 10. Krigger, K.W.: Cerebral palsy: an overview. Am. Fam. Phys. 73(1), 91–100 (2006) 11. Lampe, R., Mitternacht, J.: Correction versus bedding: wheelchair pressure distribution measurements in children with cerebral palsy. J. Child. Orthop. 4(4), 291–300 (2010) 12. Mancini, M., Horak, F.B.: The relevance of clinical balance assessment tools to differentiate balance deficits. Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med. 46(2), 239–248 (2010) 13. National Health System. http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Cerebral-palsy/Pages/Introduction. aspx 14. Peréz-de la Cruz, S.: Parálisis cerebral infantil y el uso de sistemas de posicionamiento para el control postural: estado actual del arte. Neurología 1, 1–5 (2015) 15. Reddihough, D.S., Collins, K.J.: The epidemiology and causes of cerebral palsy. Aust. J. Physiother. 49(1), 7–12 (2003) 16. Saavedra, S.L., Woollacott, M.H.: Segmental contributions to trunk control in children with moderate-to-severe cerebral palsy. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 96(6), 1088–1097 (2015) 17. Secretaría de Salud: Evaluación diagnóstica del niño con parálisis cerebral en el tercer nivel de atención. CENETEC, Distrito Federal (2009) 18. Venkateswaran, S., Shevell, M.I.: Etiologic profile of spastic quadriplegia in children. Pediatr. Neurol. 37(3), 203–208 (2007)

Drawing as Reasoning Tool in UX Design - Doodling and Drawing as Foundation for Project Planning José Silva1,2 ✉ , Fernando Silva1, Daniel Raposo1,2, and João Neves1,2 (

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Faculdade de Arquitetura, CIAUD, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal {jose.silva,Draposo,joaoneves}@ipcb.pt, [email protected] IPCB/ESART, Escola Superior de Artes Aplicadas do Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco, Avenida do Empresário - Campus da Talagueira, 6000-767 Castelo Branco, Portugal

Abstract. Thinking through drawing in classroom settings on a Design bachelor degree, is a learning strategy capable of developing perception on new project values. Several studies explain how drawing serves as a reasoning tool to build knowledge upon a subject of study. The act of doodling and drawing, plays a role in a narrative structure, constructing a map of symbols and allowing different associations. Students interact with the subject of study through the graphic representation of an idea. Although drawing is useful as a tool, in learning settings is still missed a stronger link with writing and talking. There is the need to empower drawing as a reasoning tool, find new connections and project other future associations. The learning strategy developed in this article was carried out in the Curricular Unit of Interaction Systems, during the first semester of 2016/2017, in the Bachelor Visual Communication Design and Audiovisual degree, Applied Arts School, Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal. Keywords: Human factors · Learning module design · User experience design · Drawing as a reasoning tool

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Introduction

Drawing when designing user experience solutions offers support for defining areas with different constructions. Some of the constructions go beyond the field of drawing, tracing, elements in a two-axis territory (surface and structure) over a yet not explored space, simulating areas and expanding first reasoning’s. There is already a connection, physically between students and drawing, that connec‐ tion, in the project surface background, has some degree of two axis flexibility, due to the easy access to the surface of the drawing. It connects the possibilities of exposition with the student project support and the direction of the project path. Although this connection exists, students must do an effort, moving forward to extend their reach with their hand, in connecting consciously with the drawing interfaces. The drawing inter‐ faces represent areas of simulation, making a direct connection with the more transparent and accessible array of interfaces.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_81

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The hand stands out not only as a natural tool for drawing but because of its devalued value in the contemporaneous interaction framework, due to the less productive inter‐ actions provides by the modern lifestyle, unanswering the motor importance that the brain attaches to the hand visible in the Wilder Penfield homunculus diagrams. The most outstanding characteristic of the motor homunculus the hand, with its opposable thumb, is the defining feature of the human being. It can manipulate and explore characteristics of objects large and small – restricted as a general capacity to the highest primates – defines the stage for elicitation of an increased range of their prop‐ erties, for their utilization as tools, for a more comprehensive transformation of their infinite potential into definable actuality [7]. Creativity can imply the discovery of knowing, the use of our hands to transform our physical environment (the unknown) into the constructed record of ideas (the known) and according to Jordan Peterson directly connected to our cognitive capacity for crea‐ tivity; the rise of new and useful concepts out of confused or uncertain situations. To maintain this reach with the drawing interface, students must maintain a balance between their direction strength, and two connections, one connected with the project surface and the other connected directly to the project body. The first associated with the axis of drawing and the second, linked to a heavier and hierarchical nature, the project structure. In certain situations, that construction is something that the learner must make an effort in reaching to be able to reach the larger possibilities of drawing. Through practice, learners, build two different two different visual literacies, one related to the culture which they conceive communication, and the other, related to their interpretations. Accordingly, with Schönborn and Anderson [5], Visual literacy is the capability of students both to interpret visual representations that are presented by teachers and to create visual representations on their own. Drawings represent external models that involve the creation of Internal Models; drawings are external representations (visible outside the mind of the creator); however, authors such as Jonassen et al. [6] suggests that a significant interaction occurs between external models and internal models. In summary, when approaching drawing, there are two connections to the project composition, one project surface connection and another, project structural connection. The project background surface connection relates with drawing, student master its two axis flexibility to get closer to the horizontal structure offered by drawing. Drawing presents a more reachable and faster simulation for interface systems, something that learners naturally can approach and that although some effort, is physically reachable.

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Methodological Implementation

The study was carried in quasi-experimental settings, in this context, students were given templates of sketch paper. Then they were asked to draw their wireframe solutions on the template. The survey method focused on the differences obtain between the group that tested the solutions on paper and the group that didn’t experiment the approach of the pencil before pixels.

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The experiment tested a structure composed of implicit, explicit and cryptic elements. Cryptic elements following the “Dramaturgical E-learning Strategy (DES)” Burmester et al. [4]. Within DES, tasks are transformed into conscious and unconscious spheres of experience using a dramaturgical basic structure (i.e., exposition, confronta‐ tion, and solution), cryptic knowledge, and community (i.e., a social-communicative context). The “Dramaturgic E-Learning Strategy” (D.E.S.) has been developed based on the assumption that learning is an information acquisition process with emotions and personal experiences. Emotions and immersive experiences seem to be important to learn and process new learning material in a better way. D.E.S. consists of emotional and dramaturgic elements to improve computer-supported learning. D.E.S. is based on scientific results of brain and emotion research, instructional design approaches like ‘anchored instruction’ or goal-‘based scenarios’ as well as modern concepts of drama‐ turgy [4]. The implicit idea on the experimental approach was to place a placebo constituted by a cryptic element formed by the variation curve or dramatic variation represented by the numeration and the three emoji images. The explicit elements contained the drawing of different panels (Fig. 1).

Explicit element

Cryptic element

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 :) :| :/

Fig. 1. Module structure displaying each element meaning.

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Experimental Development

The experiment focused the wireframe design, the fourth activity, in the UX Project task sequence composed of eight steps. An UX Project focused on finding a solution for an app that could provide leisure solutions accordingly with work pattern and available time of each user. The fourth activity consists of four sessions each with sixty minutes is characterized by its interventionist nature, where students design and test different solutions (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. UX, project task sequence applied on the curricular unit of Interaction System, Bachelor Visual Communication Design and Audiovisual degree. The experience was carried out in the fourth step.

The action flow map containing portraying the functions to apply in the mobile app supported the drawing of the first wireframes (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Actions flow map, resulted from group discussion.

The test applied two approaches to drawing and they were explained to students at the beginning of the exercise. The two approaches included sketches and schemas, according to with Baskinger and Bardel [3], sketches are informal yet representational forms that produce suggestive, evocative drawing, through their rough, selective reveal. They include wireframes, doodles, and ideation sketches in which there is less expect‐ ation about completeness and precision. Accordingly, with the same author’s schemes are informal, abstracted forms that eschew detail for a simplified summary view that draws attention to conceptual relationships. They include conceptual frameworks. mind maps. and storyboards in which a loose overview assists memory. The drawing with the template had the support of the “App actions flow map”, using that template student draw their solutions through different trial and error attempts (Figs. 4 and 5).

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Exercise structure Guide support map App actions flow map interpretation Drawing support template Sketch drawing, through several repetitions

Fig. 4. Structure of materials applied in the experiment.

Fig. 5. Student working with the sketch template. Copying the actions flow map into the sketch template.

One of the efforts in the exercise was to motivate solutions that would engage lazy users (users that would not spend much time in defining the mobile app settings). For this reason, the cryptic element represented by the numeration and the three emoji influenced students to reduce the number of screens and understand if the unpleasant experience was reduced to the minimum. An effort following the premise that users avoid long settings adjustments. Along the exercise, the idea of planning through drawing come out and the use of the flow map drawings, conducted students in the structural perspective of the exercise. The main idea of the exercise was to fight the stigma of a non-digital surface, that displays more rough and sensible qualities.

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Results

The group that worked with the drawing perspective, although not applying their sketches results in the final project, produced better insights in their argumentation and project control, supported by the relation between drawing/sketching and planning on the rough prototype. From the first sketches, in the variety of traces and lines, for this group, occurred the uncovering of different solutions. The main idea of the exercise was to fight the stigma of a non-digital surface, of rough nature. In contrast, the group that didn’t work with the drawing support manifested more difficulties in changing their reasoning on their first proposals and lacked a better argu‐ mentation on their solutions. Several students forgot many of the settings displayed on

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the “App actions flow map” that should be their document guide during their following development.

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Conclusion

The experimental approach meant to be an escape from the digital non-texturized frame‐ work into the terrain creation characterized by the fluidity of sketching and doodling, from these elements students uncover a map. This hypothesis concerning the use of drawing to unveil broad perspectives on UX design, in the future will be supported by other experiences that aim in triggering other insights on the problematics facing the mobile app design. The topic of research will in the future include other scenarios, in finding strategies that could create a meaningful bridge, performed by drawing, between the mental idea and the digital interaction. This experience allowed learners, from the experimental model, to understand in a systematic approach, how to develop and empower an idea, built of associations with different levels and perspectives. The implicit idea of “placebo” means that when students sketch their solutions on paper don’t necessarily apply those same solutions ahead in the project. But the fact that they already experimented and tested through drawing gives them an entirely new dynamic into their project. This metaphorical relation, between doodling, rendering and the construction of argumentation, within this model, relates to everyday life experiences in how learners can cope with problem-solving. The future use in other experiences, of storytelling solutions, could provide a possible link between thinking through drawing, and project management.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

Duff, L., Sawdon, P.: Drawing—The Purpose. Intellect Books, Bristol (2008) Carter, R., Frith, C.: Mapping the Mind. University of California Press, Berkeley (2010) Baskinger, M., Bardel, W.: Drawing Ideas. Watson-Guptill Publications Inc., New York (2014) Burmester, M., Thissen, F., Gerhard, D.: Dramaturgic e-learning strategy (DES)—evaluation of a story-based approach. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium for Information Design, 2nd of June 2005 at Stuttgart Media University, vol. 1, pp. 215–239 (2006) 5. Schönborn, K., Anderson, T.: Bridging the educational research-teaching practice gap. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ. 38, 347–354 (2010) 6. Jonassen, D., Strobel, J., Gottdenker, J.: Model building for conceptual change. Interact. Learn. Environ. 13, 15–37 (2005) 7. Peterson, J.: Maps of Meaning. Routledge, New York (1999)

Ergonomics in the Design Conceptual Process: The Case Study Daciano da Costa Ana Moreira da Silva ✉ (

)

Faculty of Architecture, CIAUD, University of Lisbon, Rua Sá Nogueira, 1490-055 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. This paper, which stems from a larger research project, focus on the important role played by Ergonomics within the conceptual Design process, through the case study Daciano da Costa. We intend to disseminate among the international scientific community the thought and the practice of Daciano da Costa (1930–2005) given the importance he conferred to Ergonomics in the Design Process. He was far beyond his time and gave importance to Ergonomics from the early 60’s onwards, when the subject was still almost unknown and little used in those times. Daciano conceived numerous interior and installation design projects of outstanding quality from the early 60’s onwards. His work made him one of the most important figures of the twentieth century Design in Portugal. What Daciano brought to the practice and teaching was a process modernization, a new perspective on the emerging themes of design, like Ergonomics. Keywords: Ergonomics · Design process · Daciano da Costa

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Introduction

Portuguese Design is closely related with Daciano da Costa. He was one of the pioneers of industrial design in Portugal, and, from the beginning, his interior design and equip‐ ment projects were ruled by ergonomic values. He has played a pioneer role on design’s theory fundaments in Portugal and an important pedagogic role as teacher. Daciano conceived numerous equipment, interior and installation design projects of outstanding quality from the early 60’s onwards. His work made him one of the most important figures of Design in Portugal. For more than four decades he conceived furni‐ ture and interior design, still used satisfactory nowadays. Developing and supervising students’ exercises at the University of Lisbon, where Daciano created its first Design degree, he always insisted on the use of ergonomics principles, when conceiving and developing design projects. The design graduation degree already comprised two courses related to ergonomics disciplinary area: anthrop‐ ometry and ergonomics. He considered these courses fundamental for the designers formation and competencies acquisition (Fig. 1).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_82

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Fig. 1. Daciano da Costa (1930–2005)

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Ergonomics in the Design Process of Daciano da Costa

Daciano conceived numerous interior and installation design projects of outstanding quality from the early 60’s onwards. His work made him one of the most important figures of Design in Portugal. Daciano created and implemented the first Design Course Plan, established in 1991 at the University of Lisbon, being its coordinator since then until 2003. Daciano da Costa considered essential to provide to the students the understanding of the importance of ergonomics in the conceptual design process. Design production applied to daily life constituting a new territory of social, cultural and environmental interest, representing the several thematic and conceptual approaches carried out by Daciano’s teaching principles, providing for the future designers the enrichment of their training and knowledge. He also implemented this same process and methodology at his studio, where he also developed a large design practice, with relevant impact in some of the most emblematic projects developed in Portugal since the end of the 50’s of the XX century until his death. Daciano’s teaching method was remarkably operational, within a wider under‐ standing of ergonomics and how to apply it and the recognition of what the subject can do. This knowledge wasn’t common among the Portuguese designers in that time. As a professor he insisted not so much on the end product, but rather on the recog‐ nition of the research process, the methodology and how this was conducted [1]. Ergo‐ nomic factors were one of his main concerns when creating, designing, developing and supervising the exercises he set for his students. As a designer and as a teacher, Daciano contributed for a holistic approach to anthropometry and ergonomics implementing a broad understanding of their full scope in order to design safe, effective and productive work systems (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Student’s sketches showing ergonomic concerns in project development, responding to Daciano’s exercises.

Ergonomics contributes directly to the design and modification of work environ‐ ments, increasing production, while considering the best health and well-being condi‐ tions for these environments users. Nowadays, this approach is considered to be holistic and interdisciplinary, requiring among other variables knowledge of the task, the user, the environment and the organization, but also with a special focus on the end user during project development, most of the times using participatory or user-centered design methodologies. In those times, Daciano already believed that this holistic and interdis‐ ciplinary approach was of great importance. This professor and designer believed that designing was above all providing a service. This task, we can affirm this way of life, was understood as the construction of an ergonomic relationship between the object - product, equipment, interiors or archi‐ tecture - and the users. When designing and developing his projects, ergonomic factors were one of his main concerns, promoting a holistic approach, a broad understanding of the full scope of the discipline. At that time there wasn’t much information about this issue, but he always brought relevant literature from his trips abroad. One of his distinguished features was the particular attention he paid to the unique aspects of the scale of proximity: the scale of the hand, of the immediate gesture, of the body (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Daciano’s matrix of ergonomic studies for working furniture (1971)

In the design for everyday life situations, the focus of ergonomics is the human being. Daciano da Costa stated that “man is the real protagonist of space” [2]. He was concerned with the design of spaces in which people could carry out working under the best possible conditions. The influence of the perception “of the beauty” in the perception of comfort or discomfort using objects is presently considered more and more important. This research demand in ergonomics should always be included, in addition to assessing the capacity of the musculoskeletal system, cognitive searches at the level of physical interactions or other levels of interaction, which occur at sensory processes level. These interactions are responsible for promoting feelings of comfort, well-being and user identification with the product and include the aesthetics of the overall shape or appearance of the object as a variable. Recently Bedny and Karwowsky [3] considered that cognitive components of human activity combined with manual components make analytical procedures of ergonomic design even more complex, but also more efficient in terms of the final product features. For Daciano, objects and spaces have not only useful functions but also symbolic functions by means of fruition by the users. These functions are subjective, like aesthetics, affectiveness, enjoyment or pleasure, but they represent a design added value that will interact and appeal the user, mainly due to an emotional connection between the user and the object [2]. He managed to deduce in his projects a clear modus operandi from a sensory analysis. The ‘physical’ dimensions and the ‘hidden’ dimensions became fundamental concepts. It would never be simply a case of distributing areas and uses; in the design of the interior

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spaces, the physical dimensions of the spaces and their metric relations would have to be closely aligned with the sensory dimensions of the space, which are measured by the quality of the environments (lighting quality, colour effect, furnishing comfort, etc.) humanizing this spaces under the emotional values point of view. Daciano da Costa believed that the act of designing should be understood as the building of a strict relationship with future users. This is why he liked to paraphrase Orson Welles, saying “in this age of supermarkets, you can always count on your friendly neighborhood grocer.” Daciano aspired to be a “friendly grocer” in the design world [3]. Since the early sixties, Daciano was already developing a close relationship between human systems integration and production systems engineering when dealing with the Portuguese industry. Thirty years later, Donald Norman [5], in his acknowledged book The Design of Everyday Things, urge designers to study people, to take their needs and interests into account. According to Fraser [6], ergonomics is a multidisciplinary approach to problem solving, a science and practice that is concerned with human behavior at work, using the concept behavior in the sense of how persons perform in and respond to their envi‐ ronment, and work in the sense of pursuing some objective. In application the science and practices of ergonomics are concerned with so defining and designing the work and working conditions as to optimize the productivity of the worker, while maintaining or enhancing his/her health, safety and comfort. Those concepts were already in Daciano’s mind as a designer and as a professor, some years in advance. For Cushman and Rosenberg [7], product design is the process of creating newest and better products for people to use. Ergonomics is responsible for the product usability focusing in the comfort, efficiency and safety. As Oborne [8] outlines, a major role of ergonomics is to identify design issues, which involve the human component of the work system. For Daciano da Costa [2], ergonomics contributes for the design and evaluation of work systems and products, in a way to ensure that the working environment must be designed to fit people’s thoughts, wishes and abilities: a design layout that favour simul‐ taneously function and human use. To exemplify those issues in Daciano da Costa’s work we present some of his design sketches, which represent a clear and direct demonstration of the importance he conferred to ergonomics in the design conceptual process, since the first ideas until the evaluation and implementation of the several solutions. In these sketches we can observe a connection with the final user, a direct relationship between the human figure and the design for different kinds of furniture and other types of equipment, always present along the several stages of his design conceptual process (Figs. 4, 5 and 6).

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Fig. 4. Ergonomic studies for a library reception desk, pencil sketches (1967).

Fig. 5. Furniture line Metropolis, ink sketches (1988).

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Fig. 6. Urban design. Garden benches, ink sketches (1994).

3

Conclusions

This paper is part of a large research on the subject, aiming to enhance the role Daciano performed in the Design disciplinary area when underlining the importance of ergo‐ nomics in the design project development, as teacher and as practitioner. The user-centered view of ergonomics is so important today as it was already years ago to Daciano, although, with the passage of time, more material is now available to support the argument that whatever happens within the system it is the individual human being who is the “prime actor”. Ergonomics is focused on human behavior pursuing some task; Daciano in his design projects cared about people, took their needs, wishes and interests into account. The work of Daciano da Costa, both in his teaching career and in his professional practice, can be considered an innovative one, bringing a new perspective in those times, given the importance he conferred to Ergonomics in the Design Process in order to optimize human well-being and an overall system performance. Acknowledgments. The author would like to acknowledge the support given by CIAUD – Research Center in Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Faculty of Architecture, University of Lisbon, Portugal, and by FCT – Foundation for the Science and Technology, Portugal.

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References 1. Guia das Licenciaturas 1993–1994, p. 124, FA/UTL, Lisboa (1993) 2. Costa, D.: Design e Mal-Estar, p. 26. Lisboa, Centro Português de Design (1998) 3. Bedny, G., Karwowsky, W., Bedny, I.: Time structure analysis in ergonomic design with cognitive and manual components of work. In: Soares, M., Rebelo, F. (eds.): Ergonomics in Design – Methods & Techniques, Chap. 2. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, New York (2017) 4. Martins, J.P., Spencer, J.: In: Neves, J.M. (ed.) Atelier Daciano da Costa. True Team Publishing and Design, Cascais (2009) 5. Norman, D.: The Design of Everyday Things. The MIT Press, London (1990) 6. Fraser, T.M.: Introduction to Industrial Ergonomics: A Textbook for Students and Managers. Wall & Emerson, Toronto (1996) 7. Cushman, W.H., Rosenberg, D.: Human Factors in Product Design. Elsevier, New York (1991) 8. Oborne, D.J.: Ergonomics at Work—Human Factors in Design and Development. Wiley, New York (1998)

A Study Exploring the Facets of Visual Elements in Ethnic Products: Case Study of Sarees from West Bengal Chirapriya Mondal(&) and Sougata Karmakar Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781019, India [email protected]

Abstract. Indian handicraft and handloom industry is vast and has tremendous potential in terms of product conceptualization and employment generation to artisans. The products are traditionally done by artisans through ages and has a unique identity associated to every style of products. Such ethnic products or traditional products can be identified by the consumers through its visual elements. To establish this concept of visual identification of ethnic products, the present research was carried out comprising ethnic dresses, different sarees of West Bengal, India. The visual features consisting of color, texture, motifs etc. were considered and identified through detailed observations. For implementation and checking validity of the concept, the parameters were tested by consumers in identification of the ethnic products i.e. sarees. Analysis based on this research will be useful for the consumers to identify ethnic products and also provide assistance in developing such ethnic or traditional products. Keywords: Traditional products
Visual elements identification
Ethnic product development


User perception
Visual

1 Introduction Ethnic identity has been defined as the shared identity of a group of people based on a common historical background, ancestry and knowledge of identifying symbolic elements such as nationality, religious affiliations and language [1]. The concept of ethnicity extended to products refers to its stereotypical association with the particular place of origin. The ethnicity aspect of a product is related to a country (or several countries) that is (are) a legitimate place(s) for the design, manufacturing or consumption of this product [2]. Product ethnicity may be defined as a form of typicality and the outcome of categorization processes occurring in two directions, namely ‘countries being typical origins of products’, and ‘products being typical for countries’ [3]. India being a diverse country with rich heritage and culture has numerous ethnic products. The handicrafts industry in India is traditionally known to be an industry localized in specific regions of certain states. This sector is predominately producing decorative and gifts items with the traditional designs and the colours. Though down the years handicrafts havebeen altered according to the market demands, theseproducts have still retained their ethnic identity. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_83

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Ethnic products in India can be broadly classified as handloom and handicraft. Handloom based product includes dress materials, soft furnishings etc. Considering both the categories, India contributes 1.2% to the world market for handicrafts. Thesesectors contribute nearly 1.5% of the country’s overall exports. India’s handicraft exports have shown an increase of 20.8% in rupee terms in financial year 2011 over 2010, primarily due to the increased demand for them in traditional western markets as well as new markets. These Industries have made tremendous progress during the last decade or so [4]. Each of the aforesaid category consists of characteristics of a particular origin. Dress is one such externally visible characteristic. These characteristics, can serve two functions in the case of members of ethnic subcultures. Firstly, it helps to visually indicate subcultural ethnic affiliation or membership; and secondly, it visually integrates the individual to the mainstream culture, thus reflecting acculturation or homogenization of values and of external characteristics [5]. In the current context of understanding of visual elements in ethnic products, the sarees of West Bengal have been considered. Sarees are the ethnic dress for the stated region, West Bengal in India. It is approximately between 5.5 to 8 m in length and 0.5 to 1.2 m in width. Since time immemorial, sarees are being worn by the natives of West Bengal. There have been many varieties but few are major or notable ones. These sarees are extremely popular across the world and are easily identified by people. The visual appeal initiates the identification process. The identification is done through visual cues which the user or consumer perceives from the sarees. Hence, researchers of the current paper have tried to address the visual cues which allow the consumers to identify the ethnic sarees.

2 Methodology To achieve the targeted goal, the most distinct varieties were identified amongst the sarees of West Bengal. The major varieties under study included (a) Tant, (b) DhakaiJamdani, (c) Baluchuri, (d) Murshidabad Silk and (e) Garad Sarees [6]. Following initial observations and applying the principles and elements of design the parameters for visual cues were identified [7]. Thesevisual cuesof the sarees encompassed Line, Shape, Size, Space, Colour, Texture, Emphasis, Balance, Contrast, Repetition and Movement. The sarees were then mapped as per these visual cues. For this purpose, 25 sarees of each varieties were collected. Each of these sarees were analyzed for their visual elements of the sarees by a small group (07 persons) of Post Graduate students of Fashion Design under the guidance of a teacher from a premier design school in Kolkata, West Bengal. The analysis werethen summarized and tabulated. Followed by tabulation, the analyzed data were subjected to verification by 3 sets of people: (a) manufacturers of such ethnic products (n = 30), (b) consumers (n = 100) and (c) sellers (n = 30). Manufacturers of ethnic products included designers, artists and artisans/weavers. These people are experts and has been associated with the craft for quite some time (more than 2 years) and has an in-depth knowledge about the variety of sarees. Consumers group consisted of people who regularly procure dress materials for himself/herself and has the purchasing capacity. Such people might or might not have an in-depth knowledge about sarees. The third group of users were the

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sellers and their knowledge was rated from medium to expert in understanding sarees. All the volunteers (persons selected through purposive sampling) were then given random samples of the 5 varieties of ethnic sarees and assigned them with the task of identifying the exact variety based on the visual elements. In this research process, the observation method has been followed in identification of the visual attributes. The user feedback were recorded on five-point Likert-type scale [8] [Strongly Agree = 5 and Strongly Disagree = 1].

3 Observations of the Study On observing all the variety of sarees based on the visual cues, marked visual differences were noticed by the designers. These identified differences were shared with the volunteers (manufacturers, buyers and sellers) to identify/categorize the sarees from the random samples. The observations of the sarees with respect to its visual elements have been mentioned in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 1. Visuals of ‘TantSarees’

The expert user group comprising the manufacturers and sellers were able to identify the ethnic sarees successfully based on the visual cues. Most of the consumers (79%) from the set comprising people who did not have much knowledge about the sarees could also identify them. Based on the observation and analysis of the responses (on Likert scale) provided by volunteers it was found that visual cues played a determining role in identifying ethnic products. It is also applicable for people having low to expert level of understanding of the products. As the ethnic dresses (sarees) under study were specifically associated with the state of West Bengal, it can be inferred that ethnic dress formed a medium of differentiation

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Fig. 2. Visuals of ‘TantSarees’ Table 1. Observations for ‘TantSarees’ Visual elements Observations Line Aligned in vertical and horizontal Thick stitch line (continuous broken lines) on borders Border as line, atleast 2″ thickness Shape - motif Geometric, Floral or both Size - motif 1 cm to 4″ Space - motif Background distinctly empty. Translucent look Colour Mostly contrasting colours at the border Texture Soft and smooth. Relief of motif creates texture Emphasis Motifs or patterns are emphasized Balance Both linear and symmetrical Contrast Highly contrasting Repetition Sequential Movement Majorly horizontal and vertical. Occasionally diagonal

among categories of sarees by providing different visual cues [5]. Alternatively, if a consumer is self-appraised and motivated to purchase ethnic sarees they can follow the visual elements and procure the same.

A Study Exploring the Facets of Visual Elements

Fig. 3. Visuals of ‘DhakaiJamdaniSarees’

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C. Mondal and S. Karmakar Table 2. Observations for ‘DhakaiJamdani’Sarees Visual elements Observations Line Aligned in vertical and horizontal Continuous border lines Border as line, usually 1″ to 2″ Shape - motif Mostly floral and occasionally geometric Size - motif Min 0.5″ to 6″ (approx.) Space - motif Background with extreme sheer look. Motifs are patterned. Colour Multi coloured. Usually soft pastels Texture Extremely smooth. Relief of motifs creates mild texture. Emphasis Motifs or patterns are emphasized Balance Majorly linear. Occasionally symmetrical Contrast Usually subtle contrast Repetition Sequential Movement Majorly horizontal and vertical. Occasionally diagonal

Fig. 4. Visuals of ‘Baluchuri Sarees’

A Study Exploring the Facets of Visual Elements

Fig. 5. Visuals of ‘BaluchuriSarees’

Table 3. Observations for ‘Baluchari Sarees’ Visual elements Observations Line Aligned in vertical and horizontal Continuous border lines Border as line, usually more than 2″ Shape - motif Mythological characters. Human, animal or flora figurines Size - motif 1″ or more Space - motif Detailed motifs across border and body Colour Highly colourful Texture Smooth. Relief on the motifs Emphasis Motifs or patterns are emphasized Balance Both linear and symmetrical Contrast Highly contrasting Repetition Sequential Movement Horizontal or vertical

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Fig. 6. Visuals of ‘Murshidabad Silk Sarees’

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Table 4. Observations for ‘Murshidabad Silk Saree’ Visual elements Observations Line Aligned in vertical and horizontal Continuous border lines Border as line, usually 1″ or more Shape - motif Predominantly floral or paisley. Occasionally geometric or abstract Size - motif 1 cm to 4″ Space - motif Motif patterned Colour Highly colourful with gloss Texture Soft and smooth. Relief of motif creates texture Emphasis Motifs or patterns are emphasized Balance Both linear and symmetrical Contrast Highly contrasting Repetition Sequential Movement Majorly horizontal and vertical

Table 5. Observations for ‘Garad Saree’ Visual elements Observations Line Aligned in vertical and horizontal Continuous border lines Border as line, usually 1″ or more Shape - motif Mainly paisley or floral Size - motif 0.5″ or more Space - motif Background mostly empty. Motif mostly on borders Colour White, red or maroon and golden Texture Extremely smooth. Relief of motif creates mild texture Emphasis Motifs or patterns are emphasized Balance Linear Contrast Medium Repetition Sequential Movement Horizontal or vertical

4 Discussion and Conclusion People, especially with less knowledge on ethnic sarees, who intend to buy or manufacture ethnic sarees can now refer to visual cues (as depicted in present paper) for assistance. The findings of current research can now also be extended to products in other categories for identifying its ethnicity. It can also act as guideline for designers or manufacturers to develop ethnic sarees. Adding such visual elements will influence the consumer behaviour which might motivate to purchase ethnic sarees. Ethnic consumer’s internal motivations and attributions are related to the consumption of cultural products [9]. It can now be concluded that visual elements plays an indispensible role in identifying ethnic products. The concept can be extended in

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developing products with such visual elements to influence consumer behaviour positively who are inclined towards ethnic products. The growth of global trade and the evolution of global consumer segments have increased awareness of and interest in the effects of ethnic product labels on consumer evaluations [10]. In line with common attitude models [11], a consumer can be favourable towards a product from a foreign country (i.e., have a positive attitude toward it) but still decide not to buy it due to normative reasons such as a feeling that purchasing foreign products is immoral or otherwise inappropriate. Due to globalisation, people have access to different kind of products wherein one can choose between ethnic origin and products from other regions. Researchers have shown that globalisation provides a cultural identity [12] and may be one of the major factors that influence the consumption behaviours [13]. Ethnic products are usually developed through traditional techniques. It becomes a challenge when the products are intended to cater masses following traditional techniques. Huge quantities are difficult to produce as such products are extremely labour intensive. This limitation which is only achieved by manual work of artisans creates ethnic extrinsic visual attributes that influences purchase intention of consumers. Consumers’ strength of ethnic identification significantly influences their consumption of ethnic and ethnic-inspired apparel [14]. There is a significant positive relationship between strength of ethnic identification and consumption of ethnic inspired contemporary apparel [15]. It has also been found that there are globally concerned consumers who value the integrity and authenticity of cultural products [16]. While this consumer segment prefers culture-specific apparel, researchers have also identified another segment with preferences for pan-cultural apparel, integrating aesthetic elements from multiple cultures [17]. Future research needs to be conducted in detail considering other extrinsic factors that influences ethnicity and its impact on consumer purchase intentions. It also needs to be inferred the impact of pan cultural dresses on consumers considering the impact of globalization.

References 1. Forney, J.C.: An investigation of the relationship between dress and appearance and retention of ethnic identity. Dissertation, Abstracts International, 160 (1981) 2. Usunier, J.C., Cestre, G.: Product ethnicity: revisiting the match between products and countries. J. Intern. Market. 32–72 (2007) 3. Tseng, T.H., Balabanis, G.: Explaining the product-specificity of country-of-origin effects. Int. Market. Rev. 581–600 (2011) 4. Young, E.: Report on Competitive Study on Handicrafts Sector in China. EPCH, New Delhi (2012) 5. Veena Chattaraman, S.J.: Ethnic identity, consumption of cultural apparel, and self-perceptions of ethnic consumers. J. Fash. Market. Manag. 518–531 (2007) 6. Kolkata, N.I.: Looms and Bylooms of Bengal. NIFT, Kolkata (2008) 7. Rose Gonella, C.J.: Design Fundamentals: Notes on Visual Elements and Principles of Composition. Peachpit Press, Berkeley

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8. Vagias, W.M.: Likert-type scale response anchors. Clemson International Institute for Tourism & Research Development (2006) 9. Neal, G.S.: African American women’s professional dress as expression of ethnicity. J. Fam. Consum. Sci. (1998) 10. Fischer, P.M., Zeugner-Roth, K.P.: Disentangling Country-of-Origin Effects: The Interplay of Product Ethnicity, National Identity, and Consumer Ethnocentrism. Springer Science + Business Media, Berlin (2016) 11. Fishbein, M.A., Ajzen, I.: Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behaviour: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Addison-Wesley, Reading (1975) 12. Wang, Y.: Globalization enhances cultural identity. Intercult. Commun. Stud. XVI, 83–86 (2007) 13. Kwon Jung, A.K.: Culture’s influence on consumer behaviors: differences among ethnic groups in a multiracial Asian country. Adv. Consum. Res. 31, 366–372 (2004) 14. Forney, J.C., Rabolt, N.J.: Ethnic identity: its relationship to ethnic and contemporary dress. Cloth. Text. Res. J. 4(2):1–8 (1985–1986) 15. Kim, S., Arthur, L.B.: Asian-American consumers in Hawaii: the effects of ethnic identification on attitudes toward and ownership of ethnic apparel, importance of product and store-display attributes, and purchase intention. Cloth. Text. Res. J. 21(1), 8–18 (2003) 16. Ray, P.H., Anderson, S.R.: The Cultural Creatives: How 50 Million People are Changing the world. Harmony Books, New York (2000) 17. Littrell, M.A., Dickson, M.A.: Social Responsibility in the Global Market. Sage, Thousand Oaks (1999)

Research and Innovative Design of the Motorcycle Gloves Shu-Jen Hu ✉ and Wei-lung Kao (

)

Department of Industrial Management, Lunghwa University of Science and Technology, 300, Sec. 1, Wanshou Rd., Guishan Dist., Taoyuan City 33306, Taiwan [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. No matter it is during cold winter or sunny summer season, wearing gloves is crucial as a hand protection for motorcycle riders. Therefore, a proper design of motorcycle gloves is fairly necessary for the market. Through a wide range of thinking and design improvements, the study proposes a design of motorcycle gloves which are suitable and comfortable for any motorcycle rider as the anthropometry data of adult hand size and ergonomics principles are utilized during the initial stage of product development and design. TRIZ was applied to improve and enhance the product design with an emphasis on the first seven features from the questionnaire. Many features of the designed motorcycle gloves are described. At last, this research completes the drawings of the proposed motorcycle gloves with Adobe Photoshop. Keywords: Motorcycle gloves · Ergonomics · TRIZ

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Introduction

Taiwan is small but highly populated, especially in the metropolitan area, where the population density is more concentrated. Hence, many consumers are attracted by motorcycles with the advantages of mobility. According to the statistics [7, 8], at the end of 2014, the number of motorcycles registered in Taiwan amounted to 13.74 million, which is more than half of the total population. For that being said, the motorcycle riders consist of a huge proportion of the market, which leads to this study to look into the needs of this group. During winter time, it is uncomfortable to ride on a cold road for the majority of the motorcycle rider group. In addition to the rider’s own clothing, the hands are also very important to keep the body warm. On the other hand, during sunny days, especially when the ultraviolet is strong, many riders will wear gloves to protect skin from suntan or sunburn. This leads to the fact that gloves are now the necessary supplies for many motorcycle riders. Although the gloves can improve the rider’s resistance to cold, they may also limit certain subtle actions of the hands or create other type of inconvenience. Therefore, this study wants to address the needs of motorcycle riders as a starting point of the research. In view of the inconvenience and demand that may be caused by putting on gloves during the ride, some improvement methods are proposed and some convenient features are added to the gloves. The style of gloves is improved as well, hoping to fit the taste of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_84

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younger groups, who tend to pursue product innovation and innovative trends, and create a new business opportunity. The main purposes of this study are as follows: a. To understand the inconvenience and needs of the riders for their motorcycle gloves b. To satisfy the needs of riders, propose improving solutions and add new features c. To adopt technical parameters and principles of TRIZ theory to complete product improvement and innovation d. To complete the design of innovative product of motorcycle gloves.

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Literature Review

When motorcycle riders put on gloves to protect their hands from freezing, it will decrease the degree of control on the brake compared to with bare hands, which may lead to significant impacts on safety for the riders. Chen [2] found that racing gloves (leather material, with anti-drop and anti-skid design) and sunscreen gloves (fine cotton material, not with anti-drop and anti-skid function) were significantly different. The subjects considered racing gloves as the gloves that had the greatest impact on brake handling, while sunscreen gloves have the least impact on brake handling; the cottontype gloves and ladies-type gloves were no significant difference. Shih [11] showed that the thicker the gloves, the more the grip strength decreased. Kuo, Sharon’s research [6] also indicated that wearing gloves did lead to reduced grip strength. The thicker the gloves, the less force they can exert, and the impact on female is greater than that on male. Tseng [10] discussed the effects of gloves and different force levels on grip strength estimation and replication performance. Men’s grip strength is greater than women’s, either with bare hands or wearing any type of gloves. And regardless of men or women, bare hand grip strength is the largest, followed by leather gloves, and the smallest is in wearing cotton gloves. Ke [5] considered the natural posture of hands as a reference to design gloves. In general, the glove designs are only referring to the plane shape of the hand and do plane tailor. However, when the hand presents a natural posture, the palm and the finger may exhibit a curved curvature. When this curving hand wears a flat glove, the bending curvature will force the glove to bend. In this case, flat gloves will resist deformation, which is the so-called flexibility resistance, and create the source of discomfort. Natural posture refers to all the muscles, bones and ligaments of the hands being in a relaxed and balanced position, and it is the most frequently maintained posture in our daily lives. In other words, it is an ideal posture as a glove design. Ke [5] designed gloves considering the hands with natural postures, hoping to reduce the flexibility resistance that is induced by the plane-type gloves and to reduce the discomfort from wearing gloves. The study used 3D hand scanner to measure the natural postures of the hand as a reference of glove design. Shi [9] designed the data glove with the sensing principles of non-contact magnetic element, and it was expected to increase the life of the data glove and the accuracy of posture sensing. Chiang [1] considered that the effectiveness of product innovation and development will be affected by their inertia thinking model and depth of knowledge of the person for product design and development. The TRIZ theory [3] was to help

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developers, during the conceptual design stage, to remove engineer psychological inertia and expand the limited knowledge area. It applied a systematic approach to help engi‐ neers define product issues correctly and provide innovative methods [12, 14].

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Research Methodology

3.1 The Questionnaire A questionnaire was created and distributed to target customers to investigate their requirement preference in functions, and the product was designed based on the results. 100 questionnaires were handed out, 99 were valid, which took up 99% of question‐ naires. The results generated from the questionnaires were analyzed with both Microsoft Excel and SPSS. The first part of the questionnaire is basic information of the population, and the results are as follows: more male than female; mostly around 20 years old; and mostly students. The second part is to investigate the shortcomings of the gloves that are perceived by consumers. The last part is to investigate the strength of the consumer’s demand for various functions of the gloves. And the results from consumers’ perceived shortcomings include causing insensitive actions as the first, no breathability of the material as the second, and incapability to touch screens as the third. 3.2 Survey of Consumers’ Demand for Gloves After the consumer survey for the functional requirements of gloves, according to the weight of selected item, the top seven results are protectiveness, durability, lightweight, warmness, appearance, heat dissipation and touch screen capability. This study will provide further analysis of these seven items. On the other hand, this study conducted a chi-square test for gender and each func‐ tional requirement to explore the relevance between gender and the functions of the gloves. And the statistical test was taken with significance level of 0.05. The result shows that there is a significant difference between two genders in the demand for cooling function as well as for the touch screen function. Through the analysis of data, it can be learned that the demand from women for these two functions are significantly higher than that from men. 3.3 Using TRIZ with Innovation to Develop the Principles of Solving Problems In this study, TRIZ was applied to improve and enhance the product design [14], with an emphasis on the first seven features from the questionnaire. The problematic situa‐ tions are described as follows: Problem 1 – To make gloves be warm in winter and easy to cool down in summer will raise the degree of system complexity.

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Improving Feature: 17 Temperature Worsening Feature: 36 Device complexity Innovation principle: 2 Extraction, 16 Partial or Excessive Action, 17 Transition into a New Dimension The #2 Extraction principle was applied in this study. This study designed two linings so that the function of warmness and heat dissipation can be on separate lining, and the user can replace each lining based on different climate. Problem 2 – In order to make the design meet ergonomics principle and to improve its safety, protection strength will be improved, whereas the appearance may become bulky due to excessive protection. Improving Feature: 14 Strength Worsening Feature: 12 Shape Innovation principle: 10 Prior Action, 30 Flexible Films or Thin Membranes, 35 Transformation Properties, 40 Composite Materials The #35 Transformation Properties principle was applied in this study. This study intends to use carbon fiber material as protective part of the gloves. Main characteristics of carbon fiber are high hardness, high strength and light weight, so it is very suitable for glove protection. And the reinforced hard shell of carbon fiber is designed inside the gloves to make the product protective and attractive.

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Results and Graphics

4.1 Results The results of this study are divided into the following three properties: 1. Materials properties (1) Gloves overall material – sheepskin. This material is breathable, warm, and with moisture absorption. (2) Material for protection of the metacarpophalangeal joints (MCP)-carbon fiber. This material is a fiber that is lighter than aluminum, stronger than steel, but thinner than the human hair. (3) The material used in the summer lining –Fastdry. This material has the function of moisture absorption and perspiration. (4) The material used in the winter lining – silk. The warmth of this material is good. 2. Design properties (1) Easy card function - install an easy card chip on a design mark on the back of the glove. (2) Button - adjust the width of the glove on the wrist. (3) Construction - two linings for seasonal replacement. (4) In the pulp part of fingers of the gloves, indium tin oxide (ITO) [4] is coated so that the riders can use the smartphone while wearing gloves.

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3. Function properties (1) Adding easy card function, so that the rider can easily pay the parking fee in the parking lot or finish the payment in a convenience store without taking off his/her gloves. (2) Removable design of lining, for cleaning purpose. (3) The side of the glove is attached with reflective stripe to enhance riders’ safety while riding at night. (4) The palm part of the glove is filled with magnetic substance so that the two gloves can attach to each other. 4.2 Product Design Description In this study, Adobe Photoshop was applied to illustrate 2D design graphics of the motorcycle gloves, as shown in Fig. 1. An easycard/credit card chip is embedded in the back of one glove, so that the rider can easily pay the parking fee in the parking lot or finish the payment in a convenience store while wearing his/her gloves. There is a button in the wrist part of the glove and it can be used to adjust the tightness of the glove cuffs. The designs are shown in Fig. 2. Also, Fig. 3 shows the palm part of the glove filled with magnetic substance so that the two gloves can attach to each other, for preventing the loss of one of the gloves. In addition, all palm part of the glove is covered with antislip particle to prevent slippery while grasping the handle of motorcycle. Figure 4 shows a side view of the glove. The side of the glove is also attached with reflective stripe to enhance riders’ safety when riding at night.

Fig. 1. Design graphics of the motorcycle gloves

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Easycard embedded

Button

Fig. 2. The back of the glove

Magnetic substance Anti-slip particle

Button and band

Fig. 3. The palm part of the glove

Reflective stripe

Fig. 4. A side view of the glove

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Figure 5 is a perspective view of the glove’s fingertip, and the white line is the lining. Magnetic powders are installed in the fingertip, so that the glove part is the negative pole, and the lining part is the positive pole. In this mutual adsorption, even when the gloves are taken off, the lining will not be removed from the glove. In addition, in the pulp part of thumb, index finger and middle finger of the glove, indium tin oxide (ITO) is coated to enable riders to use the smartphone while wearing gloves. Magnetic ITO powders White line is the lining

Fig. 5. A perspective view of the glove’s fingertip

Figure 6 is a perspective view of the whole glove with the white dashed line as the range being lined. The upper surface of the glove is a hard shell protective device. In order not to ruin the appearance, the protective device is wrapped inside the fabric of gloves. Hard shell protective device

White line is the lining

Fig. 6. A perspective view of the whole glove

Magnetic powder

Fig. 7. The magnetic powder location of the palm

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Figure 7 shows the magnetic powder location of the palm, as one side the positive and the other side the negative, so that the two gloves can attach to each other for preventing the loss of one of the gloves. Figure 8 shows the size of the glove design, the relevant dimensions of this design can refer back to the results of Taiwan’s adult hand measurement data [13].

Fig. 8. The size of the glove design

5

Conclusion

In this study, after exploring the relevant literatures of gloves and wear devices, as well as deeply interviewing with motorcycle riders, a questionnaire was created and distrib‐ uted to the target users, from which the required functions and the degree of importance of gloves for riders were revealed. The product designed in this study is different from the general gloves in the following features: 1. Easy to be stored Riders usually put their gloves into the motorcycle trunk and end up losing specific pair or retrieving two of the same hand. As a result, the magnetic powder is placed in the palm part of the gloves so that the two gloves can be attached to each other, making the storage and search of gloves be more convenient. 2. Working with touch screens Now that people use the smart phone with high frequency, riders often need to use the phone when they pause on the road. In order to let the riders use their smart phone without removing the gloves, the ITO is installed on the fingertips of the glove. 3. Convenient Paying with the Easycard has been very popular lately. In order to save the time in convenience store or while entering the parking lot, a Easycard chip is embedded in the

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back of glove to enable the riders to finish the payment immediately without removing their gloves. Acknowledgments. This research is supported by the Ministry of Science and technology, ROC under Grant no. MOST 105-2221-E-262-008.

References 1. Chiang, W.C.: The research of the innovative design by integrating TRIZ and QFD theories: on-road bicycle as an example. Master thesis, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences (2011) 2. Chen, F.C.: The effects of gloves to the breaking controlin motorcycle riding. Master thesis, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Ming Chi University of Technology (2005) 3. Altshuller, G.: Creativity as an exact science. Translated by Anthony Williams. Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, New York (1988) 4. ITO.: https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E9%93%9F %E9%94%A1 5. Ke, J.N.: A reference for glove design based on the concept of natural hand posture. Master thesis, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Tsing Hua University (2009) 6. Kuo, S.: Evaluating the effects of grip span, maximum wrist extension/flexion, and gloves on grip strength and time needed to reach different levels of exertion. Master thesis, Management College, National Defense University (2003) 7. Ministry of Transportation and Communications ROC. http://stat.motc.gov.tw/mocdb/ stmain.jsp?sys=100&funid=a3301 8. Statistical briefing of National Police Agency. http://www.npa.gov.tw/ 9. Shi, H.R.: Study of data glove based on magnetic components. Master thesis, Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University (2012) 10. Tseng, H.L.: The effects of glove and effort level on the accuracy of grip strength reproduction and estimation. Master thesis, Management College, National Defense University (2008) 11. Shih, Y.C.: The study of the influence of handle interface factors on different hand forces and weight difference threshold. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Tsing Hua University (1995) 12. Hu, S.H., Su, L.H., Chen, J.C., Wei, C.Y.: Innovative vacuum cleaner design using triz method. Adv. Mater. Res. 690–693, 3372–3376 (2013) 13. Wang, M.J., Wang M.Y., Lin Y.C.: Handbook of anthropometry database of Taiwan, Ergonomics Society of Taiwan (2002) 14. Xiao, Y.J.: TRIZ technology for innovation (Original Author:Isak Bukhman), Cubic Creativity co. published (2011)

Could the Design Features of a Wheelchair Influence the User Experience and Stigmatization Perceptions of the Users? Luciana Carneiro1 ✉ , Francisco Rebelo1,2, Paulo Noriega1,2, and J. Faria Pais1 (

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Ergonomics Laboratory, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal [email protected] 2 CIAUD, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract. In the last years, the ergonomic studies of wheelchairs emphasized only the mechanical functionalities, like materials, durability, and biomechanical aspects of wheelchair propulsion. However, despite the importance of these char‐ acteristics for the independence of people, few studies have highlighted the aspects related to their user experience (UX). An Assistive Technology is not objects of desire, like a mobile phone. A wheelchair can stigmatize the user and therefore influence their UX. This paper aims to evaluate the UX and perception of stigmatization, related to two wheelchairs, with different design solutions, by crossing this data with their self-esteem. AttralkDiff2, Perceived Stigmatization Questionnaire and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were applied to 26 wheelchair users during the visualization of two videos with the wheelchairs in a virtual 3D environment. Results indicate that a wheelchair with an innovative design, presents a better UX and less association with stigma when compared to a tradi‐ tional wheelchair. Keywords: Wheelchair · Design · User experience · Stigmatization · Self-esteem

1

Introduction

In the last years, the ergonomic studies of wheelchairs emphasized only the functional characteristics, like materials, durability, and biomechanical aspects of wheelchair propulsion [1]. However, despite the importance of these characteristics for the inde‐ pendence of people, few studies have highlighted the aspects related to their user expe‐ rience (UX). The concept of UX is influenced by the characteristics and functionality of a product, the predisposition, expectations and mood of user, as well as the context in which the interaction occurs [2]. UX surpasses subjective evaluations and actions during the interaction with a product and also includes emotional reactions before and in the first visual contact with the product. These emotional reactions are influenced by the user anterior experiences, expectations, beliefs and preferences. Further, in relation to Assistive Technologies (AT), there is also the influence of product-related stigma due to the perception of decreased function or disability [4]. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_85

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The wheelchair, a device that is a symbol of AT, invokes perceptions about the user, such as dependence, helplessness and passivity, devaluing the individual and empha‐ sizing their dysfunctions [5]. Stigma is a process that begins when these characteristics are observed as marks and symbols associated with feelings of shame and exclusion of society [6] and represents a social process resulting from perceptions and experiences related to gender, race, culture, physical deformities or products, where the subject or a group is rejected or excluded [5]. In the scope of product development, emotions have shown a significant and crucial role during evaluation and acceptance processes, especially in technology. According to Desmet and Hekkert [7], products can elicit emotional stimuli in three ways: by the product itself and its design, as an agent that causes or contributes to an event and as associated with future situations, anticipating the use of this product. A study conducted by Hassenzahl et al. [8] identified that the positive evaluation of a product is directly related to the positive affectivity that the product induces. It is suggested that the evaluation of a product encompasses both, pragmatic (the product itself) and hedonic (pleasure of use) characteristics. The satisfaction of psychological needs is more related to the hedonic factors, especially when they cause stimulus effects, such as providing new experiences and activities. In this context, this paper aims to evaluate the influence of two wheelchairs with different design features, in the UX and stigmatizing perceptions of the users, after a first visual contact of a video animation that show this product. Particularly, we are interested to know the influence of the wheelchair design characteristics, in the user perceptions of: • • • • • • • •

the pragmatic quality of this AT; the hedonic quality-identification of this AT; the hedonic quality-stimulation of this AT; a global score of the previous qualities of this AT; the social acceptability of the observer (absence of friendly behavior); the social discomfort (confused/staring behavior); the social rejection (hostile behavior); a global score of the previous three behaviors.

Considering that good self-esteem is related with more satisfying experiences [3] and can influence the user perceptions, we control this variable to verify their influence in the user perceptions results.

2

Methods

2.1 Sample A sample of 26 wheelchair users: 17 males and 9 females participate in this study. The inclusion criteria were: absence of cognitive alterations, the use of a manual wheelchair and a time of use superior than 2 months. The age group varied from 21 to 68 years, with an average of 45 years and a standard deviation of 14. The education distribution

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are: 57% completed high school, 8% had completed or incomplete undergraduate degree and 12% were post-graduates. The average wheelchair usage time is 10 years. 2.2 Survey Instruments To accomplish the objectives of this study, we selected the following tools: AtrakDiff2 [9], Perceived Stigmatization Questionnaire [10, 11] and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [15]. Among the several instruments to evaluate the UX of a product, AttrakDiff2 [9] was chosen for its wide and solid application in research of this scope, since it covers the evaluation of characteristics related to the product itself (pragmatic qualities) and to its hedonic attributes (hedonic quality of identification and hedonic quality of stimulation). The AttrakDIff2 aims to evaluate the user experience of products, by a semantic differ‐ ential 7-point Likert Scale, with 21 items, divided into three categories: pragmatic quality (PQ), which evaluates functional characteristics; hedonic quality-identification (HQI), to: assess how the user identifies himself with the product; and hedonic qualitystimulation (HQI) tp evaluate how the product can stimulate the user in performing activities and is seen as something new [12]. We calculated pragmatic and hedonic quality scale values by averaging the items of respective categories [8], in addiction, an average with the value of the Global Score. This instrument is available in German (original) [9], English [8] and French [13] versions. Beholding this, the instrument AttrakDiff2 has been adapted from English to Portuguese. For this adaptation, the following steps were performed: • Translation from English to Portuguese, by three Portuguese natives with fluency in English; • Selection of the best Portuguese version by the multidisciplinary team of the ErgoVr Laboratory; • Reverse translation of the Portuguese version to English, by three peoples with English as their mother language and fluent in Portuguese; • The terms that presented disparity were adapted by the laboratory team according to the objectives of this study. At the end of these steps, a final Portuguese version of AttrakDiff2 was obtained. The Perceived Stigmatization Questionnaire (PSQ) was used to assess the stigma associated with the user of wheelchairs. This questionnaire was validated for Brazilian Portuguese and has been adapted into Portugal Portuguese through meetings with the ErgoVR laboratory team. The PSQ presents three categories: absence of friendly behavior (social acceptability of the observer), confused/staring behavior (social discomfort) and hostile behavior (social rejection) It is a 5 point scale (never, almost never, sometimes, often and always) and the scores of the items in the category Absence of friendly behavior should be reversal to statistical analyses [11]. The total PSQ score must be calculated by summing the items and dividing by the number of items in the scale. For each category, the same procedure must be realized,

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by dividing the respective number of items. The PSQ results are obtained by means of the scores, on the same scale score of frequency response (1–5 points) [14]. Related with the self-esteem, has a variable to control the user perceptions results, we used the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) [15, 16]. This scale consists of 10 items: 5 positive and 5 negative. For each item, the participants must choose one of the following options: (1) I totally disagree, (2) I disagree, (3) Indifferent, (4) I agree and (5) I totally agree, according to their perceptions. The higher the score, the greater the self-esteem of the individual. For analysis, after the inversion of the negative items, the score is obtained by summing, and the result can vary from 10 to 40. The higher the score, the greater the self-esteem of the individual is considered [15]. Related to the wheelchair selection for this study we used the following criteria: availability in the market for purchase and diversity of design features. After the iden‐ tification of the possible wheelchairs, that fall in this criterion, a multidisciplinary team of the Ergonomics Laboratory selected two models (Fig. 1). A traditional wheelchair (TW) similar to the wheelchair Invacare Action1 NG [17] and a modern wheelchair (MW) similar to the Carbon Black wheelchair [18]. Those wheelchair models were created in 3D software Rhinoceros and rendered with V-Ray, to produce two videos. Each video was incorporated in a PowerPoint file.

Fig. 1. Models of wheelchairs selected for this study: A - traditional wheelchair (TW); B – modern wheelchair (MW).

To create a context, where the participant can assign a meaning and feel involved during the evaluation, we developed the following narrative: “Imagine that you have a familiar member with reduced mobility in lower limbs and independence in the upper limbs, who has been using a wheelchair for 10 years. Imagine now that you will offer a wheelchair to this family member and you are in doubt between two models, with similar prices. To facilitate this choice, we selected three questionnaires, which in total it takes about 30 min to be answered. Do you have any doubt?” This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Center of Medicine and Rehabilitation of Alcoitão (CRMA) – Portugal.

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2.3 Procedure This study was carried out mostly in the CMRA (15 participants) as well as in private and neutral environments (11 participants) where the conditions of tranquility and concentration of the participant were controlled. After agreeing to participate in this study, through the Informed Consent Term, a PowerPoint file with one wheelchair animation was shown to the participants. Simul‐ taneous, the narrative was presented and the eventual doubts clarified. Next, the partic‐ ipants answered the questionnaires: first the AttrakDiff2; then the Perceived Stigmati‐ zation Questionnaire and finally the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. The order of the videos’ observation was alternated between participants. 2.4 Data Analysis The data was analyzed using IBM SPSS 24 program. After the characterization of the sample, the test Kolmogorov-Smirnov was performed to verify the normal distribution. In this test was identified that the global averages of the AttrakDiff2 and PSQ scales, presented normal distribution, but in some of the categories, the distribution was not normal. Thus, the T-student test was applied in the global scores of both scales and the non-parametric test Wilcoxon was applied in the respective categories of the before mentioned scales.

3

Results

Concerning AttrakDiff2 (Fig. 2), in average global results (blue bloxplot), higher values are observed for MW. The TW was evaluated by our sample with an overall mean score of 3.5 and a standard deviation of 1, while MW had a higher mean score of 5.8 and a standard deviation of 0.8. Since the scores of the global scales in the two chairs followed a normal distribution (Kolmogorov Smirnov p > 0.05), a T-Student test was chosen to perform a test for dependent samples. As previously observed, there is a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the two chairs (t = −9.5; df = 25; p < 0.001). For AttrakDiff2 categories, it can be seen in Fig. 2 that in the pragmatic category (PQ) (green bloxplot) there are no significant differences between the two wheelchairs. In the TW, an average score of 5.3 with a standard deviation of 1.4, was obtained, and in MW and average value of 5.2, with a standard deviation of 1. There were no normal distributions in the two wheelchairs for this category. Thus, it was performed a nonparametric test for Wilcoxon-dependent samples. This analysis confirmed the absence of statistically significant differences (z = −0.43; p > 0.05). In the hedonic-quality identification category (HQI), represented by beige bloxpot, in Fig. 2, higher values are observed for MW. The TW obtained an average score of 3.2 with a standard deviation of 1.4, while MW presented a mean score of 6.2 and a standard deviation of 1. There were no normal distributions in the two wheelchairs models also for this category. In the non-parametric test for Wilcoxon-dependent samples, we

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Fig. 2. AttrakDiff2 results

observed a statistical difference for this category between the two wheelchairs, with z = −4.43 and p < 0.01. In relation to the hedonic-quality stimulation (HQS) category (purple bloxpot, Fig. 2), the MW also had higher average scores. The TW obtained an average score of 2.0 and a standard deviation of 0.8 while MW presented an average score of 6.0 and a standard deviation of 1.4. As in the previous categories for the AttrakDiff2 scale, the non parametric Wilcoxon test was chosen for dependent samples, where we also observed a statistical difference for this category between the two chairs, with z = −4.43 and p < 0.01. In the PSQ analysis, the global score (blue bloxpot), according to what is shown in Fig. 3, the TW and the MW present similar values in the mean score: the TW presents a mean score of 2.4 and a standard deviation of 0.5 and the MW presents a mean of 2.1 and a standard deviation of 0.3. The global scales scores on the two wheelchairs followed a normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov p > 0.05), the T-student test for dependent samples was used as a statistical test. Despite the observation of similar average scores, there is a statistically significant difference between the average scores of the two wheelchairs (t = 3.9, df = 25, p < 0.001).

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Fig. 3. PSQ results

The Absence and Confusing categories of the PSQ scale shown a normal distribution verified by the test Kolmogorov-Smirnov (p > 0.05), but to maintain the same criteria of comparison with the categories of the AttrakDiff2 scale, Wilcoxon’s non-parametric statistical tests were also performed. In the Absence category, represented by the green bloxpot (Fig. 3), the two wheel‐ chair also present similar values of mean scores: the TW presents a mean of 2.5 and a standard deviation of 0.6, while the MW presents a mean of 2.1 and standard deviation of 0.5. Despite this similarity of values, there is statistically significant difference between the two wheelchair obtained by non-parametric Wilcoxon tests (z = −2.83 e p < 0.01). The beige bloxpot in Fig. 3 represents the Confusing category, in which the TW presents a mean of 2.9 and a standard deviation of 0.6 and the MW presents a mean of 2.5 and a standard deviation of 0.5. Non-parametric Wilcoxon tests shown a statistically significant difference between the two wheelchairs (z = −2.39 e p < 0.05). In the hostile category from PSQ, represented by the purple bloxpot in Fig. 3, the values of the mean scores show similar values: for the average TW 1.6 and standard deviation 0.5, while for the MW, mean 1.3 and deviation Standard 0.3. Due to this category not presenting a normal distribution, the non-parametric Wilcoxon test was used, which indicated that there was a statistically significant difference for this category between the two chairs, with z = −2.7 and p < 0.05.

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Moreover, the results of RSES demonstrated that the sample have a high self-esteem score, with a mean score of 31 and a standard deviation of 6. It indicate, that this factor does not interfere with participants’ responses, due the result can vary from 10 to 40 [15].

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Discussion and Conclusion

This paper aims to evaluate the influence of two wheelchairs with different design features, in the UX and stigmatizing perceptions of the users, after a first visual contact of a video animation that show this product. The results indicate that the MW, with some innovate design features, presents better evaluation related to hedonic quality of this product. The absence of statistical significance for the pragmatic category of AttrakDiff2, related to aspects of usability, may be associated with the difficulty to evaluate this parameter only by observation. This difficulty was reported by the participants when trying to answer the questions related with usability. But even though, the statistical significance in the Global Score of AttrakDiff2, indicates that MW presents better use assessment in UX than TW. According to Jacobson [19] aesthetics visibility is one of the characteristics of the product which can enhance stigma. In Assistive Technologies the appearance of a product could indicate more or less dependency of the user. For example, removing the handles from the wheelchair that allow a helper to push it, gives to the user the appear‐ ance of less dependence. This change can be a factor that influences the acceptability of the TA. This fact occurs in this study: MW that do not have handles to puch it, showed a less stigmatizing perception related to TW. It is important to note, however, that there are other design features in the MW, that can justify the lower results in the stigmati‐ zation of the user. The three categories of the PSQ scales presented statistical significance, indicating that MW cause less association with stigma aspects like social acceptability of the observer, social discomfort and social rejection. The global score of PSQ also presented statistical significance, reinforcing the smaller association for the use of the MW, with stigma. Based on the results reached in this study, we can conclude that wheelchairs with more innovative design features, provide a better evaluation of the user experience and less association with stigma, when compared to a traditional wheelchair. A study developed by Shinohara and Wobbrock [20] showed that in general, society perceives Assistive Technologies like products which functionally to eliminate a disa‐ bility. In this study, we found the perspective of the wheelchair users, that do not want only good functionality, they need also to have a good UX. In the future, it is important to evaluate if this perception is the same with the society in general, through the devel‐ opment of a study, using the same methodology, with people who do not use wheelchairs. Acknowledgments. We are grateful for the availability of the Center of Medicine and Rehabilitation of Alcoitão, represented by the occupational therapist Rui Pisco, and, especially, to all those who kindly accepted to participate in this study. This work was supported by grants BEX 10078-13/4 to Luciana Teles Carneiro from CAPES Foundation Ministry of Education of Brazil.

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References 1. Van Der Woude, L.H., Veeger, H.E.J., Dallmeijer, A.J., Janssen, T.W.J., Rozendaal, L.A.: Biomechanics and physiology in active manual wheelchair propulsion. Med. Eng. Phys. 23(10), 713–733 (2001) 2. Hassenzahl, M.: The thing and I: understanding the relationship between user and product. Funology 3, 31–42 (2003) 3. Partala, T., Kallinen, A.: Understanding the most satisfying and unsatisfying user experiences: emotions, psychological needs, and context. Interact. Comput. 24(1), 25–34 (2012) 4. Parette, P., Scherer, M.: Assistive technology use and stigma. Educ. Train. 39(3), 217–226 (2004) 5. Gaffney, C.: An exploration of the stigma associated with the use of assisted devices. Socheolas Limerick Stud. J. Sociol. 3(1), 68–78 (2010) 6. Vaes, K.R.V.: Product stigmaticity: understanding, measuring and managing product-related stigma (Dissertation). Delft University of Technology - Antwerp University (2014) 7. Desmet, P.M.A., Hekkert, P.: The basis of product emotions. In: Pleasure with Products: Beyond Usability, vol. 1988, pp. 60–68 (2002) 8. Hassenzahl, M., Wiklund-Engblom, A., Bengs, A., Hägglund, S., Diefenbach, S.: Experienceoriented and product-oriented evaluation: psychological need fulfillment, positive affect, and product perception. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. 31(8), 530–544 (2015) 9. Hassenzahl, M., Burmester, M., Koller, F.: AttrakDiff: Ein Fragebogen zur Messung wahrgenommener hedonischer und pragmatischer Qualität 1. Mensch Comput. Interaktion Bewegung. 187–196 (2003) 10. Masnari, O., Landolt, M.A., Roessler, J., Weingaertner, S.K., Neuhaus, K., Meuli, M., Schiestl, C.: Self- and parent-perceived stigmatisation in children and adolescents with congenital or acquired facial differences. J. Plast. Reconstr. Aesthet. Surg. 65(12), 1664–1670 (2012) 11. Lawrence, J.W., Rosenberg, L., Rimmer, R.B., Thombs, B.D., Fauerbach, J.: Perceived stigmatization and social comfort: validating the constructs and their measurement among pediatric burn survivors. Rehabil. Psychol. 55(4), 360–371 (2010) 12. Hassenzahl, M.: The interplay of beauty, goodness and usability in interactive products. Hum. Comput. Interact. 19, 319–349 (2004) 13. Lallemand, C., Koenig, V., Gronier, G., Martin, R.: Création et validation d’une version française du questionnaire AttrakDiff pour l’évaluation de l’expérience utilisateur des systèmes interactifs. Rev. Eur. Psychol. Appliquée/Eur. Rev. Appl. Psychol. 65(5), 239–252 (2015) 14. Freitas, N.O., Caltran, M.P., Dantas, R.A.S., Rossi, L.A.: Translation and cultural adaptation of the Perceived Stigmatization Questionnaire for burns victims in Brazil. Rev. Esc. Enferm. USP 48(1), 25–33 (2014) 15. Santos, J., Maia, P.J.: Análise Factorial Confirmatória e Validação Preliminar de uma Versão Portuguesa da Escala de Auto-Estima de Rosenberg. Psicol. Teor. Investig. e Prática. 2, 253– 268 (2003) 16. Conceição, L.S.L.: Estilos educativos parentais (EMBU-A), sintomatologia depressiva/ ansiosa, stress e autoestima, numa amostra de adolescentes (Dissertation). Instituto Superior Miguel Torga - Coimbra (2012) 17. Invacare. http://www.invacare.pt/pt

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18. Carbon Black System - Bespoke mobility. http://www.carbonblacksystem.com 19. Jacobson, S.: Personalized assistive products: managing stigma and expressing the self (Dissertation). Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture – Helsinki (2014) 20. Shinohara, K., Wobbrock, J.O.: In the shadow of misperception. In: Proceedings of the 2011 Annual Conferences on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI 2011, p. 705 (2011)

Risk Assessment for Small Scale Gold Surface Mining at Licuan Baay, Abra in the Philippines Isachar Bernaldez ✉ and Virginia Soriano (

)

Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research, College of Engineering, University of the Philippines, 1101 Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines [email protected]

Abstract. Small scale gold surface mining at Licuan Baay in Abra has been existing for more than five years. In this study, the surface mining activities at this site was observed to identify relevant issues and concerns as experienced by the small scale gold miners. Ore extraction sites are located approximately 500 m away from the processing site. The site is alongside public road, but considerably far from houses or other establishments. A risk assessment is conducted to identify the primary hazards and evaluate high risk area. The results of the risk assessment showed that the top hazards identified are landslide and miners falling from more than 2 m height. Ergonomic hazards were also observed as risky. According to interviews, miners lack knowledge in safety standards and lack motivation to implement safety measures due to attitude and financial constraints. Keywords: Risk assessment · Small scale gold mining · Surface mining

1

Introduction

Mining activities in Abra are mostly unregulated. Communities successfully pushed for the halting of its operations. When large scale activities ceased, small scale miners started their activities in the area. Those who favor small scale activities have been practicing artisanal gold mining while regulating themselves [1]. The Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) in the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) identifies fourteen (14) groups/associations of small-scale miners (SSM) in Abra having a combined total of 146 members [2]. These groups are located in the different municipalities, with eleven groups located in Licuan-Baay with a total of approximately 121 small scale miners [2]. Licuan Baay, Abra is a site approximately 55 kms away from the center, Bangued. Mining practice in this area is a combination of surface mining and semi-underground mining and has been the practice for more than 5 years. The existing processing sites are approximately 500.0 m away from the ore extraction site. This area is beside a public road, but considerably far from houses or other establishments. Since it is alongside a national road, it was visible and a hot spot for controversy. Figure 1 shows the site’s view.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_86

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Fig. 1. Surface mining site at Licuan Baay, Abra, Philippines

Figure 2 illustrates the flowchart of the mining processes undergone in Licuan Baay. The process started with extracting the ores then transporting these ores to the processing site. The ores were then milled, sluiced and panned. Next, the unrefined gold dust was transported to the town proper for smelting and refining.

Fig. 2. Flowchart of the Licuan Baay mining process

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853

Methodology

The six hazards were observed if present in the site, namely, safety hazards, biological hazards, physical hazards, chemical hazards, ergonomic hazards, and work organiza‐ tional hazards [3]. Then the risk level was computed by multiplying the severity and the likelihood of a hazard as shown in the equation below.

The risk level that ranges between 1 to 25 were averaged and then ranked. The variance was then computed in case there is a big difference between the risk level of the assessors. High risks are defined with risk level of 25–15. Moderate risks are defined with risk level 14–6. Low Risks are defined with risk level 5–1. With the potential risk identified, the next step is to check for compliance with the standards written in Depart‐ ment of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order for Small Scale Mining No. 97-30 (DAO 97-30) [4] and Philippine Occupational Health and Safety 1989 (OSH87) [5]. Figure 3 shows the summary of the risk assessment methodology.

Observed hazards

Identify severity and likelihood

Compute risk level

Check compliance to the standards Fig. 3. Risk assessment methodology

3

Results and Discussion

3.1 Assessors Individual View In Licuan-baay, both miners and government officials like Provincial Environmental Natural Resources Officer (PENRO) had no previous experience in using any risk assessment tools. Comparing mining safety knowledge, the PENROs noted that they are

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familiar with the DAO 97-30, the Small Scale Mining Safety Regulation of the Philip‐ pines and have formal training in safety compared to miners. Comparing exposure, the PENROs visit mining sites once or up to 5 times a year, which is approximately 1% compared to mining exposure of miners. So there is a noted difference in safety knowl‐ edge and mine exposure between assessors as summarized in Fig. 4.

Miners

PENRO

Fig. 4. Licuan Baay, Abra comparison of knowledge and experience of small scale miners and Provincial Environmental Natural Resources Officers (PENRO)

3.2 Top Hazards The miners and PENROs identified the high, medium and low risk for each of the six hazards. The risk level was averaged and ranked. There are two main risky hazards, the safety and ergonomic hazards as listed below. 1. Safety Hazards • Collapse or landslide due to no standard berms sizes, benches, and no available scaffolds. • Falling due to unsafe and no proper ladders size in sinking tunnels • Landslide due to instability of grounds rains, adjacent excavation, or cutting trees • Unsafe way of using Rod/Ball Mill 2. Ergonomic Hazards • No proper handling and hauling Collapse or landslide due to the absence of standard berm sizes, benches, and no available scaffolds was considered high risk. Miners notify each other when working in different levels, miners also wear PPE if working under the sun, and regularly checks overhangs but it is still considered high risk due to the height of the benches that are not

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limited to 1.5 m, berms exceed 2.0 m, and platforms or scaffolds are not provided as DAO97-30 requires. The PENROs must check if the standards of berms, scaffold, and benches are followed. Falling due to unsafe and no proper ladder size in sinking tunnels were also high risk. The site sinking holes are not deep, it ranges from 4.0 to 6.0 feet only, still standard ladders should be installed because falling is a common occurrence according to the miners. According to DAO97-30, ladders shall be made of steel, wrought iron, malleable cast iron or other materials of equivalent strength and not necessarily fixed since the tunnels did not exceed 9.0 m and this is more likely in surface mining. Platforms are also better. Landslide due to instability of grounds rains, adjacent excavation, or cutting trees was considered the third top risk. Miners comply with preserving trees around the area. According to DAO97-30 to ensure safety of the community, there should be no mining site within 50.0 m radius to any establishment and roads, but the observed site is along‐ side the public road. Unsafe way of using rod or ball mills is considered as a medium risk by the assessors. There are no warnings for possible hazards that could occur when operating rolling mills. There are also recorded mechanical failures while using the rod mills. There should be a more detailed assessment for the use rod mills and technical training from the PENROs. Ergonomic hazards were considered high risk by miners and PENROS. Miners carry approximately 50 kg of ores to the processing site. Miners walk through slopes and uneven pathways that pose a very high risk of stumbling and falling. Proper handling and hauling of heavy ores was not introduced to the miners. The PENROs must conduct training on carrying heavy weights and trainings in making better pathways. Other identified medium risk hazards include misfires, biological hazards, exposure to dust, vibration, and rebels or gangs that bring harm. Low risk hazards include noise, abandoned excavation and the use of gasoline. 3.3 Compliance to Law Licuan-Baay failed in terms of compliance to safety regulations of small-scale mining in the Philippines. They failed in terms of following other standards and regulations from Occupational Health and Safety and International Labor Organization’s Safety in small scale mining and from DAO 97-30. One of the reasons why they commit violations is that they do not know the standards. During the interview, they noted that they never heard of DAO97-30 and they have not used any risk assessment tool. The PENROs noted that 43% do not comply to the given standards in the tool, 31% complied to the given standards and the rest are not applicable to the site. One of the very important public safety regulations states that there should be no mining site at 50.0 m radius from roads. However, the mining site is located along the road.

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Conclusion

Findings showed that the top hazards in Licuan Baay, Abra are safety and ergonomic hazards. The site has low compliance to the standards because of the lack knowledge in safety standards. Therefore, there is a need for a government initiative for Information and Education Campaign (IEC) about safety, training, monitoring and inspection at Licuan-Baay, Abra mining community. Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge the support provided by the Engineering Research and Development for Technology (ERDT) program of the Department of Science and Technology and spearheaded by the College of Engineering of the University of the Philippines. The data requirements gathered for this study was made possible through the ERDT Scholarship research grant and the Mineral Extraction with Responsibility and Sustainability (MINERS) Program Project G entitled “The Gold and Copper Chase (Life Cycle Analysis of Sustainable Small Scale Production Systems)”.

References 1. Reckordt, M., Seib, R., Wetzlmaier, M.: No golden times: a study tour on mining and its impacts on the environment and human rights. Suedoestasien Mag., June 2012. Print 2. List of Identified Associations of Small-Scale Miners in Abra, Year 2014: Mines and Geosciences Bureau of the Republic of the Philippines-CAR (2014). http:// www.car.mgb.gov.ph. Accessed 3. Occupational Health and Safety Act of United States Department of Labor (2010). https:// www.osha.gov 4. Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order for Small Scale Mining No. 97-30 (1997). http://www.mgb.gov.ph. Accessed 5. Philippine Occupational Health and Safety 1989 (1989). https://www.oshc.dole.gov.ph. Accessed

Ergonomic Evaluations and Design Interventions for Shop-Floors Dealing with Chemical Conversion Coatings: Case Study from India Sougata Karmakar ✉ and R. Solomon (

)

Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati, Guwahati 781019, Assam, India [email protected]

Abstract. India being one of the world’s largest automobile manufacturers provides a massive platform for establishing large numbers of chemical conver‐ sion coating industries. Industrial shop-floors dealing with the surface conversion coating processes are not well-planned and ergonomically sound. In many instances, the predominance of the sub-standardized workplace, work-accesso‐ ries and process planning in these factories are not only affecting the performance, efficiency and wellbeing of the workers but also the productivity. To address these issues, the present research was carried out for ergonomic evaluation of the existing scenario of working conditions in factory shop-floors and to come up with the user friendly design of workstations/work-accessories, better process layout and operation sequences with the intention of improved occupational health, safety and productivity. For implementation of the proposed design and checking its effectiveness, virtual ergonomics technique using digital human model was adopted. Ergonomic intervention strategies reported in the present research would be very useful for redesigning of existing plating factories and setting up similar new factories. Keywords: Shop-floor workstations · Industrially Developing Countries · MSMEs · Industrial design · Occupational health

1

Introduction

Globalization, along with rapid industrial growth, has caused the emergence of occupa‐ tional health related issues in developing countries [1]. Investigations pertaining to phys‐ ical ergonomics aspects like workstation designs, working postures and work methods are less reported from industrial shop floors of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Industrially Developing Countries (IDCs) like India. Here, the prevalence of manual labor, insignificant automation, poor housekeeping, locally designed implements and workplace fixtures are commonly visible in the machine shop-floor [2, 3]. Among various MSMEs in India, tremendous growth potential has been forecasted for plating and surface conversion coating industries. India being one of the world’s largest automobile manufacturers provides a massive platform for establishing more such industries [4]. Apart from the automobile sector, various other durable goods © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_87

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manufacturers (heavy machineries, utensils etc.) are also providing momentum for their growth. While electroplating and conversion coating operations are essential and inte‐ gral part of many heavy industries, there is also a steady growth of independent and micro and small scale enterprises which are supporting light and medium engineering industries for their out sourcing work of electroplating and conversion coating of metallic substances of varying dimensions. These independent micro and small scale enterprises are scattered all around India but their concentration is more in metro cities and specifically around the composite industrial complex. Apart from the high level of pollution, various other factors which directly affect the occupational health of the workers are small-scale operation with poor shop-floor planning, sub-standardized workplace and work-accessories design. As the factories are not well-planned and ergo‐ nomically designed, in many instances there are compromised performance and effi‐ ciency of the workers leading to sub-optimal productivity. Though the pollution related issues of such industries have been thoroughly highlighted by the researchers [5], the prevalence of symptoms of musculoskeletal ailments (SMA) due to poor workstation design and work method which are noticeable in this sector, have rarely been reported in Indian scenario. Among various types of surface conversion coating techniques for controling corrosion, the use of chemical conversion coatings and more specifically phosphating is the most cost effective method and used in a wider range of applications [6]. Considering the growing importance of micro to small scale industrial shop-floors dealing with phosphate conversion coatings, present research aimed to investigate few such shop-floors from physical ergonomics perspective. The sequential operations of the phosphating process include various steps namely cleaning (degreasing, derusting and pickling), rinsing, surface activation, phosphating, rinsing, neutralizing rinse/passivation (optional) and drying. Depending upon the surface conditions of the base metal, some of these operations may be omitted or additional oper‐ ations may be included [7]. These steps of phosphate conversion coating process are carried out by sequential dipping and transferring of loaded (with metal components to be phosphate coated) barrel from one bathing tank to another which are generally arranged in a row. Apart from the main activity (phosphating in chemical baths), there are many other activities which are carried out by the workers in the factory. These activities are loading/unloading of metallic components (to be surface treated) from trucks/goods carriers, carrying of the components in the storage area, inspection of the components to decide the basic requirements for various steps of phosphating process, loading the components in barrels, shifting the barrels to the bathing tanks, sequential dipping and transferring of the loaded barrel from one bathing tank to another, unloading of the phos‐ phate coated metal components from barrel, drying, application of oils/varnishes/paints etc. as per requirement and packaging of the phosphate coated metal components into boxes/gunny bags/crates etc., storing them in storage area, and finally shifting of stored packed components from storage area and loading in trucks for delivery (Fig. 1). In majority of the micro and small scale chemical conversion coating industries in India, all the aforesaid activities are carried out by the workers manually and at the most semi-automatic process for transferring the barrels from one bathing tank to another. As the number of workers is very less (generally 5 to 10) and they need to perform heavy and repetitive manual work in these shop-floors, workers physical exertions is high. This

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Fig. 1. Activities carried out by the workers in the industrial shop-floor dealing with chemical conversion coating

drudgery is intensified by the poor workstation/work accessories design and improper work practices. All these issues in the long run lead to musculoskeletal ailments of the workers. Hence, researchers of the current paper have tried to address the various ergo‐ nomic stressors prevailed in these factories dealing with chemical conversion coating activities and to provide superlative design of work-accessories, properly planned factory layout and standardized work-method based on ergonomic investigations.

2

Methodology

To achieve the targeted goal, five (05) industrial shop-floors engaged in phosphate conversion coating work were purposively selected from the Chennai area, India. Chennai is a city in state of Tamil Nadu, located in southern part of India and this city is now emerging as one of the top 10 global automobile component manufacturing centers [4]. Following initial observations in the selected industrial shop-floors, it was found that there was sufficient scope for ergonomic design interventions in all the facto‐ ries surveyed. Out of various activities, the tasks associated with surface treatment/ chemical conversion coating process was selected for detailed ergonomic evaluation and thereafter proposing design based solution. It was observed that the surface treat‐ ment processes adopted by the shop-floors under survey were very similar. As only male workers were found to be involved in these shop-floors, fifteen (15) healthy adult male workers were selected as participants (experimental group) as per the following pre-set inclusion criteria – similar age, weight, standing height and work experience (minimum two to maximum five years of uninterrupted work in the present job); and no medical record of any accident or chronic disease which may affect mobility and work performance. Seven (07) individuals with similar demographic characteristics

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but involved in different activities (administrative and supervisory occupations and having more than two years of continuous work experience) were selected as the control group for comparing the incidence of symptoms of musculoskeletal ailments (ache, pain and discomfort) with the experimental group. Information regarding age, work experi‐ ence was gathered from an interactive session followed by direct measurement for standing height and weight. To investigate prevalence of musculoskeletal troubles and identify suffered body parts Standardized Nordic Questionnaire (SNQ) [8] was used. Due to small sample sizes, the basic demographic data and body parts discomfort data did not follow normal distribution. Mann Whitney U test and Chi square test were employed to analyze and interpret collected data using SPSS V.20.0 (IBM, USA) soft‐ ware. Continuous videography was not permitted by factory managements expect one shop-floor. Work practices performed in the shop-floors were observed at the factory site and photographed for further investigations related to postural load evaluation. Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) [9] to identify awkward posture and determi‐ nation of action to be taken were utilized for evaluation. For the purpose of method study ‘operation chart’ (based on observations of worker performing the job) for hand activ‐ ities (left and right) [10] was used to understand, scrutinize and record existing work activities. In the present investigation, time study [11] was not carried out as the video recording of the work-cycles of the entire work duration of a day was not permitted. Moreover, it was noticed that there was no consistency in the sequence of work elements in a typical work cycle performed by the workers. Flow of materials, arrangement of equipment/tools, various sequential tasks for phosphate coating process were observed. Flow diagram (with the help of process chart symbols) [12] was drawn to represent layouts and material flows in the shop-floor. Following identification of key postures adopted by the workers for various tasks performed in the shop-floors, CAD simulation of their activities were performed for virtual ergonomics evaluation. Following the measurement of the physical dimensions of an existing ‘phosphating process’ workstation from one of the industries under study, the CAD model of the same was developed using ‘mechanical design feature’ of DELMIA (V5R19) digital human modeling software. Due to non-availability of Indian anthropometric data base of factory workers employed in such industrial set-ups, civilian anthropometric data‐ base of adult Indian male population [13] was utilized to build digital human models (manikin) representative of 5th p, 50th p and 95th p body dimensions for ergonomic assessments. Comfort angles were imparted to the digital human models. Comfort angles for different body segments were adopted and suitably adjusted from published literature [14–16]. Body segment within comfortable range of joint motion was indicated with ‘Green’ color while ‘red’ color was used to represent the range of motion is outside the comfort zone. With the simulated working posture, the spinal load (compressive and shearing force at L4-L5 intervertebral disc) [17] of the manikins was measured for different tasks by using the ‘biomechanics single action analysis’ tool of DELMIA software. Following direct observations and thereafter virtual ergonomics evaluations for identifying various ergonomic stressors, CAD model of redesigned workstation for chemical conver‐ sion coating process was developed considering appropriate recomended guidelines, stand‐ ards [18, 19] and anthropometric data [13]. The CAD model of the proposed workstation was evaluated using digital human models (5th, 50th and 95th percentile male manikins)

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and modified (as per requirement). These redesign or modification was done to diminish awkward work postures, to facilitate acceptable work methods accompanied by body segments positioned within the comfortable range of motion, to reduce spinal load and to eliminate unnecessary work elements from work-cycle. Finally, left and right hand opera‐ tion chart was used for comparison of the anticipated work activities in the redesigned workstation (after work station and work method design modifications) with the work practices in the existing workstations. Moreover, layout and material flow diagram was also proposed for redesigned shop-floor.

3

Observations from Chemical Conversion Coating Shop-Floors

After surveying (direct observations and interaction with the workers) the industrial shopfloors under study, various issues related to ill-designed workstations and work-methods were noticed. Following Mann Whitney U test, it was found that there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) between the experimental group (shop-floor workers) and the control group (office workers and supervisors) in terms of basic demographic characteris‐ tics and working experience. Response to Standardized Nordic Questionnaire (SNQ) revealed that the number of participants suffering from body parts discomfort was 13 (out of 15) in the control group; whereas numbers of sufferers was 2 (out of 7) in the experi‐ mental group. Chi-square test revealed that occurrences of body parts discomfort were significantly higher (χ2 − 4.99, p ≤ 0.05) in experimental group compared to control group in terms of percentage of participants suffering from discomfort. REBA analysis of the identified key postures from the collected photographs of the surface treatment worksta‐ tions showed that workers were under medium to high risk categories. Sample of REBA score (values 2–11) for one of the shop-floor has been depicted in Fig. 2. Operation chart was prepared (both left and right hand) based on each work element in a work cycle in the existing surface treatment workstation as shown in Table 1. In the industries under study, the process type of layout (material flowing through machines as a product layout) was observed. Flow diagrams of the shop-floor layout in different industries have been shown in Fig. 3. Working postures adopted by the workers in the existing surface treatment workstations were simulated with the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile manikins in the virtual environment of the DELMIA software and their spinal load (at L4-L5 intervertebral disc) were calculated. Range of spinal compressive force values were found 316–2972 N whereas shearing force values were 23–81 N in case of analysis with 50th percentile manikin. As the data for comfort range of motion were imparted in the manikins, different body parts which were beyond the comfort zone, were highlighted with ‘red’ color during performance of simulated tasks by the manikins in the existing set-ups.

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Fig. 2. REBA score for the postures adopted during carrying out surface treatment process (R – Right body side; L – Left body side)

Fig. 3. Shop-floor layout and material flow in different industries (marked by A to E)

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Table 1. Operation chart for work elements in a work cycle observed in existing shop-floors

o – transportation (moving hand to grasp the article) ; O – actions (grasping, positioning, using or releasing the article) (adopted from Barnes, 1980) [10])

4

Virtual Ergonomic Evaluation of Redesigned Workstation and Work-Accessories for Chemical Conversion Coating Process

Shop-floor workstations under study were comprised of equipment, workstation fixtures/ accessories and hand tools developed by the native people merely considering their need without incorporation of ergonomic aspects. Thus, direct observations and thereafter virtual ergonomics evaluations of these shop-floors clearly demonstrated physical mismatch between the worker‘s anthropometry and overall workstation design. Work practices and shop-floor layouts appeared as sub-optimal. Hence, virtual representation of

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the workstation and its accessories involved in main activity (phosphating) was rendered (Fig. 4) by incorporating recommended guidelines and standards. Anthropometric data of the intended user population [13] was also considered for developing each component of the workstation.

Fig. 4. Redesigned workstation and work-accessories for phosphating process

Finally, virtual ergonomics evaluation was carried out with manikins of different percentile dimensions (5th, 50th and 95th p) and subsequent modifications were made in the CAD model of the workstation to ensure human compatibility (Fig. 5). Virtual eval‐ uation of final concept model demonstrated that due to redesign of stillage, awkward bending postures were possible to avoid during loading/unloading process. Hoist move‐ ment can be monitored by guide frame attached to the bridge in the redesigned work‐ station. This would reduce the swing of the barrel during its shifting. REBA score (eval‐ uated for manikins) for the various anticipated postures in the redesigned workstation

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Fig. 5. REBA score and postural comfort indicated with green colour for the anticipated working postures in modified workstation (R – Right and L – Left, body side)

Fig. 6. Concept plan for layout and material flow in redesigned shop-floor

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varied from 1 to 3 which indicated negligible to low risk for musculoskeletal ailments. Range of spinal compressive force values were reduced to 310–728 N and for shearing force it was 19–34 N in case 50th percentile manikin (Fig. 5). The combination of the process and product layout was followed for deciding the layout and material flow diagram for redesigned shop-floor as shown in Fig. 6. Table 2. Operation chart for work elements in a work cycle anticipated in the proposed workstation

o – transportation (moving hand to grasp the article) ; O – actions (grasping, positioning, using or releasing the article) (adopted from Barnes, 1980) [19])

Operation chart of the work elements anticipated after workstation design modifi‐ cations showed reduction of work elements in a work cycle as shown in Table 2.

5

Discussion and Conclusion

Workers engaged in shop-floors of chemical conversion coating industries were found suffering more from musculoskeletal ailments in various body parts in comparison to control group in spite of the demographic and work-experience related similarities. This prevalence of musculoskeletal ailments might be due to the differences in their work practice and workstation design. Subsequent investigations in these shop-floors revealed presence of various ergonomic stressors like improper design of process layout, work

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accessories, awkward working posture, heavy load handling, repetitive movements and lack of safety concerns. Postural load expressed by REBA score indicated that workers in the existing shopfloors were under medium to high risk of developing musculoskeletal disorders. Anal‐ ysis of anticipated working postures in virtual environment of redesigned workstation demonstrated the REBA score under negligible to low risk zone. This improvement in working postures in the modified workstation was also visualized from the comfort range of movement of body-segments indicated by ‘green’ colour on manikins. It was noticed from the virtual ergonomic analysis of the redesigned workstation that the compressive and shearing force at L4-L5 intervertebral discs of the manikins were reduced to a great extent due to improvement of their postures and minimizing the requirement of manual load handling. Operation chart for hand activities (left and right) is a simple and effective measure for scrutinizing a particular operation, if the work can be visualized in terms of elemental motions of hands [10]. In the present study, design modification of workstation and shopfloor layout was found very effective in terms of reduction of work elements in specified tasks. As there was no requirement of holding the barrel handle with left hand for avoid swing and to maneuver the direction of barrel’s movement, there was significant reduc‐ tion in number of work-elements for the tasks like shifting the loaded barrels towards the tank and shifting the barrel from one tank to another. For determining best arrangement of equipment and material/resources, flow analysis is one of most widely used techniques in process layouts [20]. Improvement of shop-floor layout is needed for humanizing the working conditions in shop-floor. Studying the layout and material flow in the existing shop-floors, and thereafter considering the recommended design guidelines, improved shop-floor layout was proposed for implementing in new similar industries. Kogi [21] opined that practical low-cost improvements, validated with application of basic ergonomics principles in workstation design should be attempted in the context of small workplaces in Industrially Developing Countries [21]. Minute changes in workstation dimensions are found to have a tremendous effect on productivity, occu‐ pational health and safety of the workers [22]. Context specific solutions presented in current research will benefit the workforce involved in micro-small scale chemical conversion coating industries in developing countries like India where full automation is not feasible due to various constraints. Long term benefits will ensue for company managements in terms of improved occupational work environment resulting in higher morale of workers, increased work satisfaction and increased productivity. Without negating the physical ergonomics based design modification proposed in the present research, various engineering aspects are needed to be considered for further improve‐ ment of conceptual design and layout of the shop-floor.

References 1. Saiyed, H.N., Tiwari, R.R.: Occupational health research in India. Ind. Health 42(2), 141–148 (2004) 2. Sain, M.K., Meena, M.L.: Occupational health and ergonomic intervention in Indian small scale industries: a review. Int. J. Recent Adv. Mech. Eng. 5(1), 13–24 (2016)

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3. Sanjog, J., Baruah, R.L., Patel, T., Karmakar, S.: Redesign of work-accessories towards minimizing awkward posture and reduction of work cycle elements in an Indian shop-floor workstation. In: Rebelo, F., Soares, M. (eds.) Advances in Ergonomics in Design, pp. 219– 232. Springer, Cham (2016) 4. The New Indian Express, 25th February 2016. http://www.newindianexpress.com/ budget-2016/Chennai-to-Emerge-as-Rail-Auto-Hub-ofIndia/2016/02/25/ article3296348.ece. Accessed 13 Sep 2016 5. Panda, H.: The Complete Guide on Industrial Pollution Control. Asia Pacific Business Press Inc., New Delhi (2011) 6. Amini, R., Sarabi, A.A.: The corrosion properties of phosphate coating on AZ31 magnesium alloy: the effect of sodiumdodecyl sulfate (SDS) as an eco-friendly accelerating agent. Appl. Surf. Sci. 257, 7134–7139 (2011) 7. Narayanan, T.S.: Surface pretreatment by phosphate conversion coatings—a review. Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 9(2), 130–177 (2005) 8. Kuorinka, I., Jonsson, B., Kilbom, Å., Vinterberg, H., Andersson, G., Jørgensen, K.: Standardized nordic questionnaires for the analysis of musculoskeletal symptoms. Appl. Ergon. 18(3), 233–237 (1987) 9. Hignett, S., McAtamney, L.: Rapid entire body assessment (REBA). Appl. Ergon. 31(2), 201– 205 (2000) 10. Barnes, R.M.: Motion and Time Study, 7th edn. Wiley, New York (1980) 11. Mundel, M.E., Danner, D.L.: Motion and Time Study Improving Productivity, 7th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River (1994) 12. Kroemer, K.H.E.: Ergonomic Design of Material Handling Systems. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton (1997) 13. Chakrabarti, D.: Indian Anthropometric Dimensions for Ergonomic Design Practice. National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad (1977) 14. Rebiffé, R.: An Ergonomic Study of the Arrangement of the Driving Position in Motor Cars, pp. 43–50. Institution of the Mechanical Engineers, 181, part 3D 1966–1967 (1966) 15. Macleod, D.: The Office Ergonomics Kit. Taylor & Francis: CRC Press Publishers, Boca Raton (1999) 16. Tilley, A.R.: The Measure of Man and Woman: Human Factors in Design. Henry Dreyfuss Associates. Wiley, New York (2002) 17. Leyland, T.: Biomechanical Analysis of the Dead lift (2008). http://www.sfu.ca/~leyland/ Kin201%20Files/Deadlift%20Mechanics.pdf? 18. Bureau of Indian Standards: Preventive Measures against Hazards at Work Places – Recommendations. Part 2 - fall prevention. IS 13416 (part 2): 1992, New Delhi (1992) 19. Bureau of Indian Standards: Preventive Measures against Hazards at Workplaces – Recommendations. Part 2 - falling material hazards prevention. IS 13416 (part 1): 1992, Reaffirmed 2002, New Delhi (1992) 20. Meyers, F.E., Stephens, M.P.: Manufacturing Facilities Design and Material Handling, 2nd edn. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River (2000) 21. Kogi, K.: Practical ways to facilitate ergonomics improvements in occupational health practice. Hum. Factors J. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 54(6), 890–900 (2012) 22. Das, B.: Manufacturing workstation design. In: Karwowski, W., Salvendy, G. (eds.) Ergonomics in Manufacturing, Raising Productivity Through Workplace Improvement, pp. 42–63. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn (1998)

An Ergonomic Design of Senior High School Science Laboratories in the Philippines Jerielle Trini S. Santiago, Pauline Hannah P. Dizon(&), Mary Agnes C. Espina, and Melen M. Tamayao University of Philippines Diliman, C. P. Garcia Avenue, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines [email protected]

Abstract. The Philippines lags behind advanced countries in scientific literacy and professional development, possibly due to, among other reasons, the state of science laboratories in high schools, where science interest typically develops. In the Philippine Science High School - Main Campus, the premier science high school in the country, 86% of Grade 11 students have at least 1 furnitureinduced postural or environmental complaint on their chemistry laboratory. Moreover, it has been assessed through RULA/REBA techniques that 100% of common laboratory postures are unacceptable. Through further analyses on the anthropometrics of the furniture and the environmental conditions in the laboratory, it has been found out that overall ergonomic considerations for the Filipino senior high school students have been lacking. Thus, the study recommends a two-part ergonomic laboratory design and layout for senior high school students, which feature ergonomic laboratory tables, stools, cabinets, white board and light and temperature control system. Keywords: Ergonomics design




Science laboratories




High school




Ergonomics

1 Background of the Study and Rationale In a study, it was found out that a distinctly poor environment leads to absences due to ill health or alienation and truanting, and consequently, a reduction in learning time. The following physical elements in the environment are shown to have negative effects on teachers’ and learners’ concentration, mood, well-being, attendance, and attainment [11]: • Inadequate temperature control • Lighting • Appropriate lighting improves test scores, reduces off-task behavior, and plays a significant role in students’ achievement [8]. • Air quality • In an experiment in Sweden, it was found out that improving air quality through electrostatic air cleaning technology reduces absenteeism [8]. • Acoustics © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_88

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• Noise levels influence verbal interaction, reading comprehension, blood pressure, and cognitive task success, and induce feelings of helplessness, inability to concentrate, • and lack of extended application to learning tasks [8]. In addition to the aforementioned risks, adult Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) are also found to be prevalent among students and have been reported as being of significant health and economic concern in industrialized countries. Five factors present in classroom/laboratory settings that when improved are shown to reduce MSD risks are as follows: • • • • •

Student posture Anthropometrics and furniture Computer use Pain reporting Vision

These highlighted factors indicate that a multi-dimensional approach is needed to make sustainable improvements [13]. In line with this, this study can be an avenue to show that the application of ergonomics is an adequate way of improving the quality of the Filipino education system. Ergonomics applications can create an education process where students and educators are working together in safe and comfortable ways to achieve fruitful and productive results. These applications can be divided into three segments that are as follows: • Preservation of health of students • Non-standard furniture and equipment in classrooms can affect a student’s health and have effects such as backbone and lumbar pain, early fatigue, and postural disorders among others. • Creation of comfortable working environment • The different factors in working environments that can affect students are noise and temperature. • Noise • Background noise has adverse effects on the memory, reading, motivation, and attention of primary school students • Transport noise moderately affects impaired reading comprehension, memory skills, and in some cases, can exhibit psychological manifestations • Cause of environmental annoyance • Temperature • Highest level of productivity is at 22 °C • Participants like warmer temperatures than colder temperatures however, it does not have a significant effect in task performance • Adjusting the process of education according to students’ abilities [12]. This study deals with the first two applications of ergonomics in local SHS science laboratories - the preservation of health of students through standard furniture and equipment, and the creation of a comfortable working environment for them.

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2 Problem Statement It was determined that 86% of the sampled Grade 11 students in Philippine Science High School - Main Campus have at least 1 furniture-induced postural or environmental complaint on the current state of their chemistry laboratory; consequently, 27% of these students are not encouraged to pursue a science career given these laboratory conditions. Moreover, it has been assessed that 100% of laboratory postures that students with extreme measurements (belonging to the 5th and 95th percentile) typically perform are unacceptable, needing further investigation, at the least, or immediate corrective action, at the most.

3 Review of Related Literature Poor working postures contribute musculoskeletal problems such as work-related MSD’s. Existing research techniques aim to quantify the amount of discomfort and postural stress that individuals experience in performing certain tasks. One observational technique would be the Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA). This includes analyses for postures involving upper arms, lower arms, wrist, trunk, neck and legs. REBA takes into account the extent of exertion due to load, muscle activity, and coupling effect. It recommends one of five action levels: Another observational technique that can be used is Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) technique. Similar but not as extensive as RUBA, this technique provides a quick assessment of the postures of the neck, trunk and upper limbs along with the external loads carried and the corresponding muscular activities [20].

4 Methodology 1. A sample of 100 students from Philippine Science High School - Main Campus were used as research subjects. The sample size was determined through Slovin’s Formula (“Slovin’s Formula,” n.d.); 2. The body segments of the research subjects were gathered using the model; 3. To verify the relationship of laboratory settings [13] and environment [11] with the educational attainment [11] and health [13] of students, the following questions were also asked to them; 4. To assess the students’ postural risk factors for MSD’s [13], REBA was used as an evaluation tool [17]. The students’ most frequently performed working postures were documented through side-view videos. The videos were then scored according to RUBA and the postures’ respective action levels are concluded (James, n.d.); 5. For comparison, the dimensions of existing furniture in the laboratory were also obtained and recorded (James, n.d.). A metallic measure tape was used to record the measurements (Fig. 1);

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Fig. 1. Segment link model [15]

6. To investigate the lighting and temperature [11] as a function of position, Vernier Temperature [22] and Lighting probes were utilized to gather data on eight (8) areas in the laboratory. 7. Analyses were made using several software: Minitab 17 for performing normality and ANOVA tests, Microsoft Office Excel 2011 for computing the sample statistics and for using the REBA worksheet, LoggerPro 3.1.1 for collecting and analyzing the lighting and temperature measurements made by the Vernier LabPro and SketchUp 2016 and Adobe Illustrator CC 19.0.0 for illustrating and creating a visual 3-dimensional model of the existing and recommended laboratory design. 8. Recommendations were made based on previously completed studies and on all the data gathered throughout the study. An implementation plan and benefit-cost analysis were also created.

5 Results and Discussion Feedback Analysis Of the 100 test subjects, 86% of them had at least 1 complaint regarding the following conditions inside the laboratory: • • • • •

Temperature Lighting Noise Height of tables, chairs, and cabinets Travel distance

Based on the tallied comments shown on Fig. 2, which may exceed one per student, height of the furniture and temperature inside the laboratory had the most number of complaints. Temperature complaints were categorized into two - humidity, and warm/high temperature. High/warm temperature constituted for 88% of the temperature complaints, while the remaining 12% was about humidity. The 8.50  16.55 m laboratory

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Fig. 2. Pie chart of cumulative complaints of test subjects per category

is serviced by eight ceiling fans, which are requisite to be turned off during certain experiments. Complaints on furniture are grouped, and the frequencies are tallied and summarized on Table 1 below. As seen on the table, students had the most concerns on the worktable height, and their stool configurations, which are supposed to support the back and easily adjustable to fit their heights. Table 1. Frequency of furniture complaints. Comments Stools lack backrest and cause back pains when sat on for long periods Height of the tables is incompatible with the students’ heights Cabinets positioned under the table cause discomfort when reaching Stools aren’t easily adjustable and cause discomfort Sinks are too low Knees tend to bump into the cabinets below the worktable

Frequency 19 19 10 21 3 5

Index Measurements vs. Existing Furniture Dimensions The anthropometric data of the students are presented in Appendix B in 5, 50 and 95 percentiles. These values are used to determine the appropriate dimensions of the furniture used by students inside the laboratory. These are substituted to the criteria/determinant formulae crucial for design considerations (seen in Table 2) (Figs. 3, 4, 5; Table 3). Using an allowance of 15% [23], the values in Table 4 shows the calculated dimensions as compared to the existing dimensions of the furniture in the laboratory. It can be seen that the dimensions of almost every feature focused on in the study needs major adjustment. Below is a table summarizing the indices that have significant complaints in the usage of furniture. Measurement ranges were divided into four as seen in Appendix B.

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Fig. 3. Numbered feature of the worktable and stool

Fig. 4. Numbered feature of the worktable

Fig. 5. Numbered feature of the worktable.

The percentile with the most number of complaints per index was also considered during the calculation of the design dimensions. Taking into consideration 15% allowance, the calculated design dimensions encompass the measurements of the individuals in these ranges. Rapid Entire Body Assessment As seen in the table below, the assessment does not agree with the anthropometrics motto, “Let the small person reach, let the large person fit [21].” It can be concluded that it is necessary to adjust the table measurements soon so that individuals of the 5th percentile will be able to reach the middle of the surface. Meanwhile, individuals in the 95th percentile have difficulties in opening the cabinet below the table since it strains the usage of their calves. It can be concluded that it is necessary to adjust the height of the sink so that it could be easier for the tall individuals (Table 5).

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Table 2. Recommended dimensions of furniture inside the laboratory. Feature 1 2

Worktable height Worktable surface reach

3

Worktable depth (under the table) Sink height Cabinet handle height (under the table) Cabinet height Stool seat height

4 5 6 7 8 9

Stool footrest height Stool backrest height (measured from the seat pan) Stool adjustment handle Fume hood height Cabinet height (side) Cabinet shelf height (side)

10 11 12 13

Anthropometric feature used Index 5 Indexes 1, 2, 3

Indexes 7, 8 Index 7 Index 6 Index 7 Index 7 Index 8 Indexes 4, 7

Criteria/Determinant 50th percentile of Index 5 + allowance 5th percentile of Index 1 + 5th percentile of Index 2 + 5th percentile of Index 3 + allowance 95th percentile of Index 7 − 95th percentile of Index 8 − allowance 50th percentile of Index 7 + allowance 95th percentile of Index 6 − allowance 5th percentile of Index 7 − allowance [5th percentile of Index 7, 5th percentile of Index 7 + allowance] 5th percentile of Index 8 + allowance 95th percentile of Index 4-95th percentile of Index 7 + allowance

Index 6

5th percentile of Index 6 − allowance

Index 7 H Index 7

5th percentile of Index 7 + allowance 5th percentile of H + allowance 5th percentile of Index 7 + allowance

Table 3. Relationship of feature to significant indices with most number of complaints. Index 1 2 3 5 6 7

Percentile with most number of complaints on furniture 30 to 35 cm 20 to 23 cm 15 to 17 cm, 19.5 to 24 cm 97.875 to 103 cm 76 to 80 cm 99.125 to 114 cm

8

49 to 52 cm

Related feature of the furnitures Worktable surface reach Worktable surface reach Worktable surface reach Worktable height Cabinet handle height Worktable depth, Sink height, Cabinet height, Fume hood height Stool footrest height

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Feature Worktable height Worktable surface reach Worktable depth (under the table) Sink height Cabinet handle height (under the table) Cabinet height (under the table) feasible model Cabinet height (side) Stool seat height Stool footrest height Stool backrest height (measured from the seat pan) Stool adjustment handle Fume hood height

Existing dimensions (cm) 92.5 62 13 72 33

Anthropometric-based dimensions (cm) 118.45 66.13 58.65 109.25 74.8

68

72.25

143 [44.5, 64.0] 33 -

170.2 [85.50, 97.75] 49.45 46

143

61.2 97.75

Table 5. Risk levels and actions per activity using REBA Method. Activity Percentile Risk level Action Writing on the table surface 5th 7 (medium) Necessary Reaching the middle of the table surface 10 (high) Necessary soon Opening the cabinet below the table 7 (medium) Necessary Using the sink 6 (medium) Necessary Writing on the table surface 95th 6 (medium) Necessary Reaching the middle of the table surface 6 (medium) Necessary Opening the cabinet below the table 9 (high) Necessary soon Using the sink 8 (high) Necessary soon

Rapid Upper Limb Assessment. The RULA results have shown the same conclusions as the REBA results (Table 6). Environmental Conditions Environmental conditions in a laboratory generally include temperature, illuminance, and noise levels. However, gathering the least number of complaints (at only 4% of the cumulative complaints), noise levels was omitted in the inspection of the environmental conditions. (In addition to the few number of complaints, the complaints on “noise” were more about the poor sound reverberation rather than expletive noise). Appendix C shows the average of the measurements collected. It can be noted that areas at the front of the room (1, 2, 7, 8 - near the whiteboard) have better lighting than those at the back. However, all areas, which include the students’ workstations and lecture spaces, receive low lighting as compared to the general standard illumination level of

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Table 6. Risk levels and actions per activity using RULA Method. Activity

Percentile

Writing on the table surface Reaching the middle of the table surface Opening the cabinet below the table Using the sink Writing on the table surface Reaching the middle of the table surface Opening the cabinet below the table Using the sink

5th

95th

Final score 4 6

Action

4

Investigate soon Investigate further and change soon Investigate soon

3 3 3

Investigate soon Investigate soon Investigate soon

5

Investigate further and change soon Investigate further and change soon

5

Fig. 6. Existing laboratory layout with the areas considered for environmental conditions

laboratories at 500 lx [9]. On the other hand, temperatures throughout all areas are almost equal. It ranges from 28 °C to 29 °C, which are 6 °C to 7 °C higher than the temperature with which the highest level of productivity was determined (22 °C) [12] (Fig. 6).

6 Conclusion In the construction and maintenance of the chemistry laboratories of the Philippine Science High School - Main Campus, anthropometric, environmental and overall ergonomic considerations for the Filipino senior high school students were not given attention to, perhaps due to cost and/or time constraints. Thus, it is recommended that data-driven correcting measures should be taken in order to improve the ergonomic conditions inside the laboratory. These improvements are aimed at reducing the students’ complaints and making them students (as well as teachers) feel comfortable during their classes, ultimately leading to improved performances and scientific interest.

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7 Recommendation Ergonomic Stool Design. With the existing stool configurations receiving the bulk of complaints on furniture (seen on Table 1), and using the calculated design dimensions in Table 4, the figure below shows the recommended stool design (Fig. 7).

(a) (b) Fig. 7. (a) Newly-designed workstation stool, (b) newly-designed worktable

Ergonomic Table Design. As seen in Table 1, receiving a total of 27 complaints, the existing worktable-sink setup of workstations are adjusted to fit the values obtained in Table 4. The figure below shows the newly designed table. The feasible worktable design still makes use of the cabinets under the sink. This feature, however, will be removed in the ideal laboratory design that will be described next. Feasible Laboratory Layout. Incorporating all the features discussed in Table 4, the figure below shows the feasible lab model. This is the same as the current layout. This was sustained in the feasible recommendation plan because no complaints were made regarding the layout of the laboratory. Furthermore, no risks were associated to the current layout (Figs. 8, and 9).

Fig. 8. Feasible laboratory model.

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Fig. 9. Top view of the ideal lab layout design.

The recommended ideal lab design is based off ideal STEM lab designs from the National Science Teachers Association [7]. Here are the following factors considered in creating the ideal laboratory: 1. Integrate the lab worktables with the lecture desks to make better use of the space. 2. There should be a minimum of 4 m2 per student for a stand-alone laboratory [7]. that means for a class of 30 students (like in), the minimum size is 120 m2. 3. Use curved tables rather than rectangular because curved tables allow more space for the students. Curved tables also allow more students to contribute equally to a central project (Kaplan, n.d.). 4. Arrange tables in a concave path to allow all sitting students to face the board [2]. The ideal layout is recommended in order for new laboratories to better utilize space. It is also hypothesized that a smaller classroom can decrease the vocal straining experienced by the teachers who tend to shout in larger classrooms. Addition of Wall Cabinets Since the usage of cabinets under the sink are uncomfortable to the students (especially the taller ones, belonging to the 95 percentile), as evidenced in both feedback gathering and postural assessments, it is reasonable to eliminate this feature and propose the usage of a wall cabinet instead for materials storage. Environmental Recommendations Light: Suspended indirect luminaires are recommended since it provides superior quality of light by illuminating the ceiling, which redirects light downward uniformly and without glare. Temperature: It is recommended that split-type air conditioners with the option to control the temperature be installed so that the lab can maintain a standard temperature of 22 °C. Ventilation: Fans should be installed such that a ventilation rate of 5 air changes per hour is achieved to make sure that the average concentration of carbon dioxide does not exceed the limit of 1500 parts per million [4].

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8 Areas for Further Studies It is recommended that sound reverberation within classroom-laboratories be further investigated so as to assess if teachers’ voices are at risk of strain or not, and whether it would be appropriate to install transducers. This is based on a few complaints made by the sample students. Other areas for further studies that were identified by the researchers include: • • • • • •

Optimal placement of windows and doors Optimal height of ceilings Ideal material of all furniture and of the floor Ideal span of time to adjust anthropometric data Fire prevention and disaster control measures Operations research-based evidence for ideal layout.

References 1. Banal-Formoso, C.: SHS tracks offer career paths to students. Inquirer. http://newsinfo. inquirer.net/782629/shs-tracks-offer-career-paths-to-students, 2 May 2016 2. Biehle, J.: Designing high school science facilities. http://insideoutarch.com/designing-highschool-science-facilities (2014) 3. Choosing the Best Table Style - kaplanco.com. https://www.bing.com/cr?IG=F0EDA9F50 DDB4DE184E111BB5D4260D1&CID=27B3D0615D0567A32542D9BE5C346626&rd= 1&h=C67GQdjC6h_EnWb8U7x79efacVWzqT72P9bXon4ZCQQ&v=1&r=https://www. kaplanco.com/ii/choosing-table-style?CategoryID=6&p=DevEx,5089.1 4. Designing and Planning Laboratories. http://labnetwest.asn.au/uploads/articles/Designingand-planning-laboratories.pdf, May 2009 5. Expert Planning Services For School Labs and STEM Classrooms. http://www.sheldonlabs. com/planning/ 6. House bill mandates science labs in public schools. http://newsbytes.ph/2014/04/26/housebill-mandates-science-labs-in-public-schools/, 26 April 2014 7. Motz, L., Biehle, J., West, S.: NSTA Guide to Planning School Science Facilities, Second Edition. National Science Teachers Association. doi:10.2505/9781933531083 (n.d.) 8. Schneider, M.: Do school facilities affect academic outcome? National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED470979.pdf, November 2002 9. Illuminance - Recommended Light Levels. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/light-levelrooms-d_708.html (n.d.) 10. What You Need To Know About The DepEd/CHED K-12 Transition Program (School years 2016–2021). http://www.aup.edu.ph/5/latest_news/what_you_need_know_about_ depedched_vk_12_transition_program_school_years_2016_2021, 12 January 2016 11. Higgins, S., Hall, E., Wall, K., Woolner, P., McCaughey, C.: The Impact of School Environments: A Literature Review, 28 September 2005 12. Zunjic, A., Papic, G., Bojovic, B., Matija, L., Slavkovic, G., Lukic, P.: The role of ergonomics in the improvement of quality of education. FME Trans. 43(1), 82–87 (2015). doi:10.5937/fmet1501082z

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13. Grimes, P., Legg, S.: Musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) in school students as a risk factor for adult MSD: a review of the multiple factors affecting posture, comfort and health in classroom environments. J. Hum. Environ. Syst. 7(1), 1–9 (2004). doi:10.1618/jhes.7.1 14. Slovin’s Formula: What is it and When do I use it?. http://www.statisticshowto.com/how-touse-slovins-formula/ 15. Custodio, B.: IE 160 HW 1 (Anthro Data Gathering) WF [PDF] (2016) 16. Anthropometrics and Ergonomics. http://www.technologystudent.com/despro_flsh/revise11. html 17. Karwowski, W., Kee, D.: A comparison of three observational techniques for assessing postural loads in industry observational technique OWAS RULA REBA musculoskeletal disorders. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. (JOSE) 13(1), 3–14 (2007). http://archiwum.ciop.pl/ 21103 18. Jalmasco, N.: Science Education Realities. The Manila Times, http://www.manilatimes.net/ science-education-realities/100096/ (2014, May 28) 19. James, T.: Ergonomic Evaluation Tools: RULA and REBA (Rep.). https://www.ncsu.edu/ ehs/www99/right/handsMan/office/RULA_REBA_Presentation.pdf 20. Mcatamney, L., Corlett, E.N.: RULA: A survey method for the investigation of work-related upper limb disorders. Appl. Ergon. 24(2), 91–99 (1993). doi:10.1016/0003-6870(93)90080-s 21. Helander, M., Helander, M.: A Guide to Human Factors and Ergonomics. CRC Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton (2006) 22. Kuempel, J.: Optimizing the Coffee Experience by Developing a User-Centered, Internet Connected, High Precision Coffee Machine and Integrated System Experience. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston (2011) 23. Ismalia, S.O.: Anthropometric design of furniture for use in tertiary institutions in Abeokuta, South-Western Nigeria. Eng. Rev. 33(3), 179–192 (2013). (Retrieved November 28, 2016)

Design for High Performance and Comfort

A Study on Examining User Comfort in Hospital Beds Güzide Güzelbey Esengün(&) and Ekrem Cem Alppay Department of Industrial Product Design, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, 34437 Istanbul, Turkey {guzelbeyg,calppay}@itu.edu.tr

Abstract. Hospital beds are one of the most interacted medical devices by patients and medical personnel. Whether the interactions between the hospital beds and its users become efficient or inefficient highly depends on comfort of the hospital beds. This study focuses on two aspects: determining the comfort criteria for hospital beds and proposing a checklist based on the determined comfort criteria to evaluate the comfort of hospital beds. To determine the comfort criteria, comfort studies from various areas and products are investigated followed by a product design decomposition and a semi-structured interview study. As a result, a comfort evaluation checklist is proposed to be used not only for evaluating the comfort of hospital beds but also be used as a guideline in the design process of hospital beds. Keywords: Comfort


Hospital beds
Checklist

1 Introduction Hospital beds are specially designed beds for medical purposes and one of the most important medical equipment in hospitals, dispensaries, and rehabilitation centers. Patients, who may have inpatient or ambulatory treatment, are the main users of the hospital beds from the first day of treatment until the day of discharge. Not only the patients but also the medical personnel such as nurses, cleaning staffs and accompanying relatives of patients often interacts with the hospital beds. The quality of these interactions is defined and influenced by the perceived amount of comfort among users since notion of comfort includes not only physical comfort but also security, usability and other factors [1]. In order to design a product that could provide perfect user experience for all types of its users, comfort parameters should be the main design criteria. However, defining strict design criteria for a product is a challenging task, which is also the case for the hospital beds. On the other hand, if the design criteria could be defined, then a comfort checklist could be created in order to measure the amount of comfort a user feel. The comfort of hospital beds influences the users both physically and psychologically. It also influences the work efficiency of the medical personnel as they often operate with the hospital beds [2]. Therefore, in the design process of hospital beds, both patient and medical personnel as well as accompanying relatives should be taken into consideration in order to determine comfort parameters [3]. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_89

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This study presents two main contributions; comfort evaluation tool for hospital beds and a comfort evaluation checklist for hospital beds s. For the first contribution, the notion of comfort for different products were analyzed and subcomponents of the notion of comfort were investigated and supported with the outcomes of a set of semi-structured interviews conducted with the nurses. At the end, comfort evaluation tool for hospital beds were determined. In the second part of the study, based on determined criteria, a checklist was developed in order to evaluate comfort of hospital beds in more detail. In the next section, literature review containing a brief introduction of design elements of hospital beds and notion of comfort are presented with other related works about comfort evaluation of various products. In the third section, methods are presented in detail. In the fourth section, results of the study were presented. In the fifth section, the results were discussed. Finally, in the last section, possible future works are presented.

2 Literature Review Hospital beds are medical devices that are specially designed for patients having various types of treatments and for medical staffs using different controls for medical operations [4]. In the past, hospital beds had been considered as a medical furniture. However, due to the needs of various controls for operations such as, inpatient treatment, care of patient, patient follow-up, and heavy usage, hospital beds were announced as a medical device instead of a medical furniture by US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [5]. Because of different purposes of use, working principles, type of patients or illnesses, hospital beds are diversified in itself in terms of design. When designing elements of hospital beds, it is crucial to keep in mind that the main aim is to increase the comfort experience of the user, which involves physiologic and psychological comfort [6]. Measuring or even defining notion of comfort is so much subjective that there are lots of definitions of comfort all of which defines different aspects of it as in [7, 8]. Apart from these definitions, Vink defined comfort [9] as environmental comfort or physical convenience. He also stated that a product could not be comfortable by itself but it would be comfortable or uncomfortable only when it is used by a person. However, people may have different evaluations for a product, which makes the design process more difficult. From this perceptive comfort can be defined as the experienced convenience of the user while or after using the product. Measuring comfort of a product is a complex task and there is not a certain model for a product that helps to find causes of the comfort or discomfort. Generally, in researches involving comfort evaluation of a product, only some aspects of comfort, e.g. usability, emotional or physical experience, are measured. In order to perform a valid evaluation of comfort, product specific methods ought to be introduced. In literature, there are three different approaches for measuring comfort; subjective measurements, objective measurements and hybrid measurements. Questionnaires and interviews are examples of subjective measurements. Moreover, Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), Verbal Rating Scale (VRS) and Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) metrics are

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widely used in subjective measurements [10]. The difference between objective and subjective measurements is that instead of human comments, more numerical data is used in objective measurements. Data from different sensors, e.g., pressure, temperature and humidity, measurements of motion etc. are types of numerical data used in objective approaches [11]. The combination of subjective and objective methods is called hybrid measurements [12]. In addition, the design elements affecting user comfort could also be revealed by using various usability research and evaluation methods, such as, contextual interviews, focus groups, surveys, heuristic evaluation and expert reviews, cognitive walkthrough etc. There are several usability tools available for measuring the usability, such as, System Usability Scale (SUS) [13]. Defining comfort criteria has been a challenge in many areas, e.g., hand tools, automobile seats, medical devices and medical spaces. In [14], the descriptors of comfort and discomfort in scope of hand tools are presented. The researchers evaluated the perception of comfort among four different screwdrivers at first glance and after a short period of usage, then the users are asked to fill the questionnaire and local disturbance test, which reveals the data about which places on the user’s hand are disturbed. After analysis of results, comfort is defined with functionality and physical interaction, negative body effects and aesthetic descriptors, whereas discomfort is defined with only the negative body effects. Examining the design criteria related to the comfort in automobile seats are presented in [15]. In this study, comfort is studied in two aspects; physical and functionality. The authors used measurements and surveys to define the design criteria related to the comfort of automobile seats, which are summarized as convenience criteria, feeling criteria and support criteria. In [3], authors conducted a questionnaire study in order to evaluate functionalities of hospital beds and other integrated equipments in terms of user experience. The results of the study revealed the level of user satisfaction among the design elements of hospital beds, such as problematic side rails, deformed mattress etc. The study summarizes the comfort criteria of hospital beds as physical properties, functionalities and materials of the hospital beds. In another study [16], researchers focused on evaluating hospital bed design from the perspective of patients. The authors conducted interviews and questionnaires with patients from different clinics. The results show that physical properties, functionalities and quality of equipments of hospital beds affect the comfort of patients. In an extensive study [6], importance of functionality and ergonomics in the design of health equipment is emphasized. From the fact that products are designed by considering functions of the products and anthropometric properties of humans, the author designed a general purpose hospital bed. One of the output of the study is the design criteria affecting the comfort of hospital beds. These criteria contributed this study importantly in the process of structuring comfort evaluation tool for hospital beds. The author categorized the criteria in four group: functional criteria, psychological criteria, technological criteria, and economical criteria. Notion of comfort also have psychological aspects. As medical personnel both nurses and doctors have the chance of observing psychological discomfort among patients during certain medical operations. Analyzing these situations is believed to be beneficial in the case of extracting psychological comfort criteria, which then can be used to evaluate psychological comfort of users of hospital beds. In [17], a study aimed

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to reveal the feelings of medical staffs working at intensive care units about discomfort among patients is presented. According to the results of the questionnaire, it is concluded that experiencing discomfort because of anxiety, disturbing noise in the environment etc. affects patient’s life quality both physically and psychologically once the patient leaves the intensive care unit. In [18], the lighting systems of patient rooms in hospitals are analyzed in order to observe the effects of lighting systems on the patients and medical staffs by making measurements in two different patient rooms at different hours of a day. The result of the study showed that different types of lighting affects different properties of the room, which are also affecting the physical and psychological comfort of the patient and medical staff. In another study [19], comfort conditions among medical buildings are investigated by conducting surveys with patients and medical staffs and observing them in their own settings. The comfort conditions that need to be exist in a medical building are summarized under four title, such as, physical comfort, psychological and social comfort, functionality, materials and their effects on users. By examining these studies, significant amount of data about comfort criteria are gathered and used in this study in the scope of determining and evaluating comfort criteria for hospital beds.

3 Method This study is constructed in two main parts. In the first part, hospital beds comfort evaluation tool is determined with the help of data from various sources such as a literature review, a product design decomposition and a semi-structured interview study. In the second part, based on these criteria, a hospital bed comfort checklist is developed. For the first part, the outcomes of some extensive studies that are evaluating comfort of hand tools, automobile seats, medical devices and medical spaces, which are summarized in Sect. 2, are used in this study in order to have a broader view about comfort evaluation from different products and different expert areas. While analyzing the studies, subcomponents of the notion of comfort are determined as literature comfort evaluation criteria. These criteria for different products and different expert areas are reached in abstract level. In product design decomposition step, information about hospital beds are gathered from literature and the 11 hospital beds of local and foreign brands used in Istanbul University Istanbul Faculty of Medicine Hospital (IU IFMH) and Gaziantep University Sahinbey Research and Application Hospital (GAUN SRAH). In total, there are 6 brands of hospital beds servicing in both hospitals. The brochures of all the brands of hospital beds are investigated. Among these 6 brands, 11 beds are studied and the design elements of a hospital bed are determined accordingly. The hospitals are chosen according to their high bed capacities, dominance on their geographic area, being university hospitals and accessibility of the researchers. The outcome of these step helped to develop sub-components of the hospital bed comfort evaluation tool. In semi-structured interview study, it is aimed to test the comfort evaluation criteria determined in the literature and to investigate whether there are more main or sub-criteria. Semi-structured interview method is selected in order to get the most detailed information

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and make the interviewees feel relaxed. Interviews are conducted with 15 nurses (14 females, 1 male), who are one of the most frequent users of hospital beds. Nurses are chosen from IU IFMH in Istanbul. Permissions are taken from faculty administrations to conduct the interviews. Appointments are arranged with nurses according to their working hours and busyness. Interview sessions are between 8 to 34 min. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews are conducted with 15 nurses from 12 different services. 17 open-ended questions are asked and the interviews are recorded when permitted, also detailed notes are taken. While preparing the questions, it is aimed to get highest amount of information about the comfort of nurses and the opinions of nurses about the comfort that patients experienced with hospital beds. With the questions, it is aimed to investigate demographic information about nurses, working principles of hospital beds, service routines of nurses about inpatients, typical hospital bed elements, nurses’ opinions about hospital bed comfort, usability of hospital beds, patient hospital bed comfort in terms of nurses’ opinions, how to improve the hospital bed comfort and awareness about the interview. Voice records are translated into transcriptions and analyzed together with the detailed notes. As a result of the analysis, keywords are extracted and used in constitution of the expert user comfort evaluation criteria. First part ended with comparing and matching sessions of the literature comfort evaluation criteria and expert user comfort evaluation criteria. For the keywords that gathered from the interviews and do not match with any of the criteria from literature, new sub-criteria are defined. In the second part, the checklist is developed according to evaluation checklist method in [20]. The data for checklist is prepared based on the hospital bed comfort evaluation tool that is extracted in the first part of study structure. The checklist is consisted of 60 yes/no questions grouped under the five main comfort evaluation criteria.

4 Results As stated in the Sect. 3, the literature study showed that among different products or expert areas, comfort criteria are intersecting when evaluating comfort. After analyzing studies about hand-tool, automobile seats, medical devices and medical spaces literature comfort evaluation criteria for hospital beds are determined under five group as shown in Table 1. As a result of product design decomposition step, common design elements and functionalities of a hospital bed are determined. The common design elements are determined as adjustable side rails, lock systems, bed control, head and foot boards, mattress platform, width and length of hospital beds, integrated drainage bag hooks and type and amount of various sleep positions of mattress platform. After comparing and combining the literature study and product design decomposition step, following sub-criteria are derived: bed control, bed lock system, adjustable side rails, material of components, type and amount of various sleep positions, integrated drainage bag hooks, shape of side rails, adjustable height of the bed, product life, price of the bed, perceptual criteria, socio-cultural criteria, emotional criteria and aesthetic

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G. Güzelbey Esengün and E.C. Alppay Table 1. Comfort evaluation criteria resulting from literature study. Main criteria Functionality Physical properties Psychological criteria

Sub-criteria – – Perceptual criteria Socio-cultural criteria Emotional criteria Aesthetic criteria Technological criteria Material criteria Economic factors Product lifecycle Price of product Table 2. Hospital Bed comfort evaluation criteria resulting from literature and product design decomposition studies. Main criteria Functionality

Sub-criteria Integrated drainage bag hooks Bed lock systems Amount of various sleep positions of mattress platform Adjustable side rails Adjustable bed dimensions Bed control system Physical properties Bed width Bed length Form of side rails Psychological criteria Perceptual criteria Socio-cultural criteria Emotional criteria Aesthetic criteria Technological criteria Material of bed elements Economic factors Bed lifecycle Price of bed

criteria. As a result, the comfort evaluation criteria for hospital beds are updated with the new data and sub-criteria are extended and named again as shown in Table 2. According to interview results, 40% of the nurses found the hospital beds in their services comfortable. 33.33% of the nurses answered as moderate comfortable and 26.66% found the hospital beds uncomfortable. As a result of the analysis of transcriptions of the interviews, keywords are gathered. In combining process, most of the keywords matched with the criteria coming from literature and product design decomposition study. The final hospital bed comfort evaluation tool is composed with 5 main criteria and 26 sub-criteria. In detail, since caster wheels and brake pedal keywords from the interview are the basic elements of hospital beds’ lock systems, they are considered under the bed lock

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Table 3. Hospital bed comfort evaluation tool resulting from literature, product design decomposition and semi-structured interview studies. Main criteria Functionality

Sub-criteria from literature and product design decomposition Integrated drainage bag hooks Bed lock systems Amount of various sleep positions of mattress platform Adjustable side rails

Physical properties Psychological criteria

Technological criteria

Economic factors

Adjustable bed dimensions Bed control system Form of side rails

Perceptual criteria Socio-cultural criteria Emotional criteria Aesthetic criteria Material of bed elements

Bed lifecycle Price of bed

Sub-criteria from interview study Portable head and foot boards Bed transfer Integrated functional areas on the bed Portable and adjustable iv pole – – Dimensions of hospital bed Weight of bed Features of mattress – – – – Maintenance, repair, and spare parts of bed Operation principle of the bed Improvement of bed features Bed having new/old technology Consumer based factors

systems sub criteria. Adjustment of height of the bed frame and adjustment of the bed dimensions are evaluated under adjustable bed dimensions criteria. CPR mode, portable and integrated control device and its location are evaluated under bed control system. Adjustable side rails keyword is matched exactly with adjustable side rails criterion. Lastly, positioning the patient, positioning the patient from one side and various position setting keywords are located under amount of various sleep positions of mattress platform criterion (Table 3). Since the dimensions of hospital bed keyword from the interviews includes bed width and bed length criteria located under physical properties criteria, the bed width and bed length sub-criteria are extracted and dimensions of hospital bed is located instead. Dimension and weight of the side rails keywords are evaluated under form of side rails criteria. Positive visual perception of beds keyword stressing the newness of beds is evaluated under perceptual sub-criteria of the psychological main criteria. Uneducated

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patient keyword, expressing the educational levels of patients are located under socio-cultural sub-criteria. Psychological discomfort, provoking safe feeling with side rails, being dependent to someone in manual beds are evaluated under emotional sub-criteria. Psychological adverse effect of metal-like view of bed and old-view of bed are evaluated under aesthetic criteria. Antiperspirant and non-slip mattress cover, material quality and iv pole quality are considered under material of bed elements sub-criteria of technological criteria. Price of bed keyword is considered under economic factors criteria. Old beds and renewing the beds periodically keywords are related to bed lifecycle criteria since most of the nurses stated that old hospital beds are needed to be renewed for the benefit of patients periodically. There are also 12 new significant sub-criteria extracted from the keywords from the interviews, which do not match with the other sub-criteria. The ones that are related with the functionality criteria are portable head and foot boards of hospital beds, hospital bed transfer, integrated functional areas on the bed, portable and adjustable iv pole. Dimensions of hospital bed, weight of bed and features of mattress are evaluated under physical properties criteria. Maintenance, repair and spare parts of bed, operation principle of the bed, improvement of the bed features and bed having new/old technology sub-criteria are evaluated under technological criteria. Consumer based factors are located under economic factors criteria. Moreover, the keywords matching with more than one criteria couldn’t be categorized and not shown as a new criterion such as, informing inpatients about hospital beds before hospitalization. The Hospital Bed Comfort Evaluation Checklist is developed according to hospital bed comfort evaluation tool has totally 60 questions. The questions that are prepared in yes/no question form are grouped under five groups. As stated in the Sect. 4, the questions are prepared according to the hospital bed comfort evaluation tool’s comfort criteria. 18 questions are prepared based on functionality criteria. Eight questions are prepared physical properties criteria based. Nine questions are prepared psychological criteria based. 11 questions are prepared technological criteria based. Four questions are prepared economic factors criteria based. In addition, the questions are created coherent to the sub-criteria of the developed tool as seen in the Appendix Section.

5 Conclusion This study aimed two aspects: determining a comfort evaluation tool for hospital beds and offering a checklist based on the hospital bed comfort evaluation tool to be used in measuring the comfort of hospital beds. For these contributions, the study is structured in two parts. In the first part a literature study, a product design decomposition study and a semi-structured interview are conducted. In literature study the concept of comfort for various products were analyzed and subcomponents of comfort concept investigated. As a result, 5 main comfort evaluation criteria and 7 sub-criteria are generated.

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To extend criteria and adapt them to hospital beds, product design decomposition step is conducted. In order to determine the common design elements of a hospital bed, two hospitals are chosen according to their bed capacity, domination in their region and accessibility of the researchers. Hospital bed brands used in these hospitals are determined and 11 beds are chosen from the brochures of these brands. While choosing beds, it is aimed to choose beds from all categories in order to get detailed information. With the help of data of this step, sub-criteria of comfort are extended and updated. As a result, 5 main comfort evaluation criteria and 16 sub-criteria are generated. To extend and support the collected criteria, semi-structured interviews are conducted with the nurses who are expert users of hospital beds. 15 nurses are chosen from 12 services from the faculty hospital in Istanbul. It has been hard to reach more nurses, because of the clinic services’ busyness and emergency situations. Interviews are recorded and records are translated into transcripts, transcripts are transformed into keywords. The keywords are compared and matched with the criteria generated before. Keywords didn’t match, but significant are located as new sub-criteria under main criteria. Eventually, hospital bed comfort evaluation tool for hospital beds is determined with five main criteria and 26 sub-criteria. In the second part of the study, according to the main and sub-criteria gathered in the first part, a checklist is developed being the main outcome of this study which is believed to be not only a useful tool for evaluating comfort of the hospital beds but also a guideline to support design processes of the hospital beds by helping the evaluation of the prototypes. Moreover, the checklist is thought to be useful for the authorities who are responsible for the purchases of the hospital beds. The checklist has 60 yes-no questions, which are grouped under five main criteria, and the questions were prepared by considering nurses as the base users. As a future work, opinions of patients are needed to be gathered since they are another main user of the hospital beds. Moreover, the checklist will be applied to the nurses in order to validate the effectiveness of the questions and do modifications where necessary.

Appendix: Hospital Bed Comfort Evaluation Checklist See Table 4. Table 4. Checklist developed according to hospital bed comfort evaluation tool. No. 1 2 3 4 5

Questions based on functionality criteria (If bed is manual) Is the location of crank arm easy to access? Is it easy to mount and demount the head and foot boards? Do the brake pedals make easier to transfer the bed by increasing the maneuver ability? Does having the ability of giving bed various lying positions make easier to examine, cure and care? Is it easy to adjust the side rails? (continued)

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No. 6 7 8

Questions based on functionality criteria Does it help you to adjust the side rails while lifting the patient with? Does the location of drain bag hooks force your posture when attaching the drain bag? Does the adjustable height of bed make easier to access the different areas of the bed during the examination? 9 (If bed is electric) Is it time saving to have the ability of adjusting the height of bed with the control device? 10 Do the iv holes which are stable and positioned to only one corner cause some possible accidents? 11 (If bed is electric) Is the interface on the control device understandable? 12 (If bed is electric) Is it easier to control the bed with a portable control device? 13 (If bed is electric) Is the position of the integrated control device on bed accessible? 14 (If bed is electric) While transferring the bed does the cable of portable control device create a tripping hazard? 15 (If there) Does to move the multipartite side rails separately decrease your work load? 16 Does the weight of bed forces you while transferring the bed? 17 Do the old mattresses cause discomfort or bedsore for long-stay patients? 18 Is the amount of lying positions is enough for you and patient? Questions based on physical properties criteria 1 Is the standard of the bed dimensions uncomfortable in narrow corners and corridors during bed transfer? 2 Do you think standard sizes of the hospital beds cause difficulty for you when you position the patient with different weight and height? 3 Do you feel any discomfort during bed transfer due to the weight of the bed? 4 (If any) Is the ability to move independently of each other in multi-part side rails reduces your workload? 5 Do the weights of the side rails cause pain in your arms or back during lowering and lifting the side rails? 6 Does the one-part side rails cause difficulties during the sudden intervention of the patient? 7 Does the thinness of the mattress affect the comfort in a negative way by causing effects such as sunk for the patient lying in bed? 8 Do worn-out mattresses cause discomfort or bed wounds especially for long-term patients? Questions based on psychological criteria 1 Will the new bed for you cause a positive perception of the bed? 2 Will the old bed for you cause a positive perception of the bed 3 (If the bed is manual) If you were ill in a manual bed, would you feel psychologically dependent on others if you needed nurses to position the bed? 4 Do you feel a sense of security if you have side handrails in the bed? 5 Does metal-like view of the bed affect your psychology negatively? 6 Does frequent failure of the bed cause psychological discomfort? 7 Would you feel helpless if you did not have enough knowledge for using the bed? (continued)

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Table 4. (continued) No. 8

Questions based on functionality criteria (If the bed is electric) Does it make you feel more free if you control the bed only with the keys? 9 Do you feel psychological discomfort in case of any impairment of the patient caused by the malfunctions in the bed? Questions based on technologic criteria 1 Does the material of mattress cover cause the patient to fall out of bed by gliding? 2 Is the usage of metallic iv pole cause corrosion? 3 Does the low-quality material of side rails affect your work comfort negatively? 4 Is it comfortable for you to grip the head and foot boards of bed with a textured material? 5 (If bed is electric) does it make you feel yourself more comfortable to use a electric hospital bed? 6 Do the perishable hospital beds affect your work comfort negatively? 7 (If bed is electric) Do the material of bed casters affect the bed quality?? 8 Does the bed give you the feedback that it is malfunctioned? 9 Is there an indicator on bed that shows you that the battery of the portable control device is giving out? 10 Does using beds having outdated technology affect your working comfort? 11 Are the instructions for use of bed is enough to use the hospital bed? Questions based on economic factors criteria 1 Do you think that expensive hospital beds are preferred more in terms of comfort? 2 If the periodic renovation of hospital beds is envisaged by the authorities, would your and patients’ comfort be affected positively? 3 Would you feel anxious about the comfort of hospital beds in case of acquiring low quality hospital beds because of the institutional financial limitations? 4 Do you think that the knowledge of the person who will buy the bed will enable the comfort of the beds to be taken to be higher?

References 1. Kolcaba, K.Y.: Comfort Theory and Practice: A Vision for Holistic Health Care and Research. Springer, New York (2003) 2. Horton, L.M., Mehta, R.K., Kim, S., Agnew, M.J., Nussbaum, M.A.: Effects of alternative hospital bed design features on physical demands. In: Proceedings of the Industrial Engineering Research Conference, pp. 937—942 (2009) 3. Petzäll, K., Berglund, B., Lundberg, C.: The staff’s satisfaction with the hospital bed. J. Nurs. Manag. 9, 51–57 (2001) 4. Islam, M.A., Asadujjaman, M., Nuruzzaman, M., Mosharraf, M.: Ergonomics consideration for hospital bed design: a case study in Bangladesh. J. Mod. Sci. Technol. 1, 30–44 (2013) 5. Weinger, M.B., Wiklund, M.E., Gardner-Bonneau, D.J.: Handbook of Human Factors in Medical Device Design. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2010)

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6. Özkaban, M.U.: Research on Ergonomics and Functional Aspects of Health Equipment with a Case Study Including Material and Production. Master thesis, IZTECH (1999), received from: http://library.iyte.edu.tr/tezler/master/endustriurunleritasarimi/T000087.PDF 7. Crowley, J.E.: The Invention of Comfort. The John Hopkins University of Press, London (2000) 8. Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries. http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com 9. Vink, P.: Comfort and Design: Principles and Good Practice. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2005) 10. Pearson, E.J.M.: Comfort and its measurement: a literature review. J. Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. 4, 301–310 (2009) 11. Kolich, M.: A conceptual framework proposed to formalize the scientific investigation of automobile seat comfort. J. Appl. Ergon. 39, 15–27 (2008) 12. de Looze, M.P., Kuijt-Evers, L.F., Van Dieën, J.A.A.P.: Sitting comfort and discomfort and the relationships with objective measures. J. Ergon. 46, 985–997 (2003) 13. System Usability Scale. https://www.usability.gov/how-to-and-tools/methods/user-research/ index.html 14. Kuijt-Evers, L.F.M., Twisk, J., Groenesteijn, L., de Looze, M.P., Vink, P.: Identifying predictors of comfort and discomfort in using hand Tools. J. Ergon. 48, 692–702 (2005) 15. Reed, M.P., Schneider, L.W., Ricci, L.L.: Survey of Auto Seat Design Recommendations for Improved Comfort. Technical report, University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, UMTRI-94-6, Michigan (1994) 16. Petzäll, K., Berglund, B., Lundberg, C.: Patients’ opinions and experiences regarding the hospital bed and the bedside equipment: an interview study. J. Scand. Caring Sci. 15, 106–112 (2001) 17. Lombardo, V., Vinatier, I., Baillot, M.L., Franja, V., Bourgeon-Ghittori, I., Dray, S., Jeune, S., Mossadegh, C., Reignier, J., Souweine, B., Roch, A.: How caregivers view patient comfort and what they do to improve it: a french survey. J. Ann. Intensive Care 3, 19 (2013) 18. Özil, E.: Evaluation of Patient Rooms in Terms of Visual Comfort Conditions with Examples. Master thesis, ITU (2008), received from: https://polen.itu.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/ 11527/8190 19. Karaman, S.: A Study About to Provide Comfort Conditions in Healthcare Buildings. Master thesis, GTU (2009), received from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr 20. Susannah, R., Graham, J.: Evaluating Usability of Human-Computer Interfaces: A Practical Method. Halsted Press, New York (1989)

Reachable Domain of Adults’ Right Leg in Sitting Posture Ai-ping Yang1, Wen-yu Fu1(&), Xin Zhang2, Ming-ju Wang1,2,3, and Chau-Kuang Chen3 1

2

Beijing Engineering Research Center of Smart Mechanical Innovation Design Service, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing 100020, China [email protected] Ergonomics Laboratory, China National Institute of Standardization, Beijing, China 3 School of Graduate Studies and Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, USA

Abstract. The reachable domain of the bending and stretching of male and female adults’ right leg in standard sitting posture was investigated. Twenty-seven healthy subjects with no movement impairing disorders were recruited. Using the VICON motion capture system, movement of the marker points pasted on the subject’s right knee, heel, and toe were recorded in four postures: (1) standard sitting position, (2) sitting with the right leg raised, (3) tiptoe position with the right leg extended backwards, and (4) heel position with the right leg extended forwards. The recorded data of all the subjects’ leg positions were statistically analyzed according to gender. The overall mean distance between the toe and heel was approximately 740 mm (male *750 mm and female *730 mm) when the right leg was stretched forwards and back-wards. When the right leg was raised up, the overall mean knee height was roughly 750 mm with the male average of about 800 mm and female average of about 750 mm. The overall mean knee height difference was approximately 356 mm (height difference for male was about 385 mm and height difference for female was around 306 mm) between the raised and standard sitting position. The results of this study can be used to improve the comfort of lower limb operations and operation space. Keywords: Reachable domain


Right leg
Motion capture system

1 Introduction Various dimensions of the human body should be considered for the design and placement of products to make their operation more user-friendly. So far, some Chinese scholars have studied the spatial domain of the bending and stretching of legs in adults, however, the data was measured 10 years ago [1–5]. With the improvement of Chinese living standards and, especially, changes in labor for people 18 to 60 years of age, human size and physique may also change. Therefore, it is necessary to repeat the study conducted a decade ago and provide new, reliable values for product design. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_90

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The movement of adults’ legs can be restricted by age, disease, and trauma [7]. Measurement and data analysis regarding the special domain of the bending and stretching of adults’ legs were introduced in this paper.

2 Method Subjects Twenty-seven healthy individuals (15 males and 15 females) without movement impairing disorders agreed to participate in this study. For each of the individuals, some basic measurements were taken, which included: gender, age, height, weight, and total

Table 1. Information about subjects Order number Gender 1 Male 2 Male 3 Male 4 Male 5 Male 6 Male 7 Male 8 Male 9 Male 10 Male 11 Male 12 Male 13 Male 14 Male 15 Female 16 Female 17 Female 18 Female 19 Female 20 Female 21 Female 22 Female 23 Female 24 Female 25 Female 26 Female 27 Female Mean Standard Deviation

Age 23 26 23 23 23 21 21 23 23 23 24 24 23 26 23 24 22 22 22 25 24 22 23 23 23 24 24 23 1

Stature (mm) Weight (kg) Leg length (mm) 1756 72.9 918 1683 56.4 895 1778 63.4 896 1800 69.6 895 1730 70 867 1700 95 870 1647 64.9 800 1816 76.5 890 1661 67.4 780 1713 55 850 1716 56.3 869 1704 58.5 873 1798 68.2 900 1796 61.9 896 1703 59.6 874 1706 60.2 871 1600 50 840 1640 55.5 875 1608 42.7 860 1590 61.3 830 1574 69 824 1518 54.6 739 1693 75 900 1621 55.2 859 1605 51.6 849 1595 45.2 860 1593 52 766 1679 62 857 80 11 44

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Fig. 1. The distribution of subjects’ height

leg length. These measurements were shown in Table 1. The average height and standard deviation of the subjects were 1679 ± 80 mm. Figure 1 showed the height distributions.

2.1

Measurement Items

Reachable domain of the bending and stretching of the right leg in a sitting posture was measured. Method of Measurement Using the VICON motion capture system from the British Oxford Metrics Limited Company [8–10], movement of the marker points pasted on the subject’s right knee, heel, and toe were recorded. The actions which the subjects made were shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5. The initial position of the right knee of the subjects in standard sitting position was shown in Fig. 2. The final position of the knee position when raising the right leg was shown in Fig. 3. The initial position of the tiptoe position with extending the right leg forward was shown in Fig. 4, and the final position of the heel position with extending the right leg backward was shown in Fig. 5.

3 Measurement Results Tables 2, 3, and 4 showed the test results. The measured data points were shown in Figs. 6, 7, and 8. The overall mean distance between the toe and heel was about 740 mm (male *750 mm and female *730 mm) when the right leg was stretched

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Fig. 2. Test scenario of right knee position in standard sitting posture

Fig. 3. Test scenario of knee position when raising the right leg

forwards and backwards. The overall mean knee height was roughly 750 mm (male *800 mm and female *750 mm) when the right leg was raised up. The overall mean knee height difference between the raised and standard sitting position was about 356 mm (male *385 mm and female *306 mm).

4 Discussion This study investigated the reachable domains of the human right leg in four postures. Unfortunately, the low number of test subjects and young age of the participants were a major deficiency in this experimental study. Therefore, the results obtained did not

Reachable Domain of Adults’ Right Leg in Sitting Posture

Fig. 4. Test scenario of the heel position with extending the right leg forward

Fig. 5. Test scenario of the tiptoe position with extending the right leg backward

Table 2. The bending and stretching region of 14 males’ right leg in sitting position Category A X Mean 84 Median 94 St.D 37

Y 0 0 0

B X 84 94 37

Y 209 214 18

C X 541 556 19

Y 415 432 33

D X 340 363 48

Y 801 783 40

E X 836 840 51

Y 550 523 82

F X 836 840 60

Y 0 0 0

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Y 0 0 0

B X 123 128 29

Y 174 177 34

C X 497 505 35

Y 368 376 46

D X 399 416 55

Y 692 694 78

E X 856 865 31

Y 408 363 78

F X 856 865 31

Y 0 0 0

Table 4. The bending and stretching region of 27 participants’ right leg in sitting position Category A X Mean 103 Median 103 St.D 35

Y 0 0 0

B X 103 103 35

Y 192 200 27

C X 520 523 40

Y 393 402 43

D X 368 375 69

Y 749 755 60

E X 845 849 45

Y 481 482 97

F X 845 849 45

Y 0 0 0

Fig. 6. The stretching and bending movement of the fourteen male participants’ right leg in standard sitting position. Point A represents the projection point of the heel on the measuring surface; Point B stands for the heel; Point C signifies the knee joint in standard sitting position; Point E represents the toe when the leg is raised; and Point F shows the projection point on the measuring surface when the leg is raised.

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Fig. 7. The stretching and bending movement of the thirteen female participants’ right leg in standard sitting position. Point A represents the projection point of the heel on the measuring surface; Point B stands for the heel; Point C signifies the knee joint in standard sitting position; Point E represents the toe when the leg is raised; and Point F shows the projection point on the measuring surface when the leg is raised.

Fig. 8. The stretching and bending movement of the twenty-nine participants’ right leg in standard sitting position. Point A represents the projection point of the heel on the measuring surface; Point B stands for the heel; Point C signifies the knee joint in standard sitting position; Point E represents the toe when the leg is raised; and Point F shows the projection point on the measuring surface when the leg is raised.

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represent the entire Chinese population. Further study is needed to obtain accurate results by increasing the number of samples reasonably. Acknowledgments. This research was supported by the National Key Technology R&D Program (2014BAK01B04, 2014BAK01B02 and 2014BAK01B05), 2015 Beijing Municipal Education Commission Research Project (122139916080101-018).

References 1. Song, F., Wang, T., Li, J.A.: Influence of examiners and goniometers on measurement of range of motion. Chin. J. Clin. Rehabil. 6(20), 3008–3009 (2002). (in Chinese) 2. Luo, W.-D., Li, P., Qiu, W.-B.: The design of vehicle seat based on ergonermics. J. Mod. Mach. 08(3), 59–63 (2001). (in Chinese) 3. Wang, J.: Research and Design on Human-Machine Interface of Light Sport Aircraft’s Cockpit. Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Master Thesis (2010). (in Chinese) 4. Liu, Y.-J.: Research on the technology of human computer interface design for automobile cab. Northwestern Polytechnical University, Master Thesis (2007). (in Chinese) 5. Li, J.J.: Research on Inner Packaging of Auto-body based on Ergonomics. Jilin University, Master Thesis (2007). (in Chinese) 6. Department of Medical Administration, Ministry of Health of the People’s Republic of China. Standard for Diagnosis and Treatment of Rehabilitation Medicine in China, pp. 27– 32. Hua Xia Publishing House, Beijing (1998) 7. Joel, A.: Rehabilitation Medicine Principles and Practice, pp. 354–355. JB Lippiincott, Philadelphia (1997) 8. Alexandra, K.M., Liam, E.A., Jace, R.D., Justin, G.K., Ross, A.C., Douglas, G.W.: Lower limb kinematics and physiological responses to prolonged load carriage in untrained individuals. Ergonomics 58(5), 770–780 (2015) 9. Mark Jr., C.S., Nathan, B.F., Howard, C., Sakiko, O., David, I.D.: Accuracy and repeatability of an inertial measurement unit system for field-based occupational studies. Ergonomics (2015). doi:10.1080/00140139.2015.1079335 10. Chow, A.Y., Dickerson, C.R.: Determinants and magnitudes of manual force strengths and joint moments during two-handed standing maximal horizontal pushing and pulling. Ergonomics (2015). doi:10.1080/00140139.2015.1075605

Screen Design of Portable Terminal to Promote Users’ Motivation to Use the System Suguru Ito1(&), Masahiko Sakata2, and Miwa Nakanishi1 1

2

Graduate School of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan [email protected] Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Tokyo, Japan

Abstract. Multifunctioning systems are being used extensively in households nowadays. System information is summarized on a portable terminal. Users benefit from the value produced by multifunctional systems. It is conceivable that the motivation to use such systems can increase or decrease depending upon the balance between the amounts of information on the terminal screen and system information. The ability to create a model capable of showing the ranges of various amounts of information that increase users’ willingness to use a system is extremely useful. Thus, to motivate the elderly, we explore the relationship between these amounts (information on a terminal screen and system information). We create a smartphone application that can control the amount of information, and the participants perform a task in which varying amounts of information are combined. Thus, we could discern the participants’ willingness to use the system and create a model to derive optimal amounts of information. Keywords: Mobile device


Amount of information
Motivation

1 Introduction Various systems used in homes are becoming multifunctional, while interfaces are being digitized and downsized. Tablet terminals are used as controllers in home energy management systems that perform energy management of houses, and portable touch devices will be used as integrated interfaces for multiple systems in the near future. Multifunctional systems are expected to create multidirectional value. However, it is conceivable that users may not be able to keep up with such high-functionality systems and the users’ enthusiasm to use such systems would decrease. Even with a high-functionality system, if smooth operation can be performed without attenuating the user’s willingness to use, the user can fully enjoy the value generated by the system. For this purpose, it is very useful to establish design guidelines because interface design is a key element when building advanced functional systems. Therefore, in this research, we aimed at maintaining a high level of motivation among users to use a high-functionality system installed in a portable touch terminal and constructed a model considering the amount of information contained in the system and its form. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_91

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Specifically, we first simulated the interface of the virtual system on a portable touch terminal and measured and evaluated the behavior, cognition, and psychology of the user facing the operation using an ergonomic method. Then, we created a model that considers human characteristics for designing the user’s system.

2 Method 2.1

Diversity of Purpose of Information Search

Presently, information retrieval is performed with a clear purpose, such as route search, or without any purpose. Different types of information search are receiving significant attention in terms of promotion of interest in products and services. In a previous study, Takahashi [1] identified target information search and non-target information search. Takahashi explored the role of information design in purposeless information searches [1]. It is necessary to create interface design guidelines for both conventional target and non-target information searches. In an experiment, we presented a task in which either of the two types of information searches were assigned to the participants.

2.2

Technology Acceptance Model

The technology acceptance model used in the IT field explains the acceptance behaviors of users toward new technologies. It has been used to study user perspectives, for example, relative to the adoption of IT products [2, 3]. Many expansion models have been proposed. In this study, we use the unified theory of acceptance and use technology expansion model (UTAUT), shown in Fig. 1, to measure user motivation [4].

Fig. 1. UTAUT model

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In UTAUT, the configuration concept of use motivation comprises four sub-concepts. Performance expectancy: The degree to which an individual believes that using a system will help him or her to enhance job performance. Effort expectancy: The degree of ease associated with system use. Social influence: The degree to which an individual perceives that important others believe he or she should use the new system. Facilitating conditions: The degree to which an individual believes that organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support system use. 2.3

Experimental Task

The experimental task was divided into two types of information search. We instructed the participants as follows. (A) Locate a certain keyword in the application. (B) During task preparation, manipulate information freely within the application. To ensure that the participants are relaxed during the non-target information search task, instruction (B) does not contain a nuance such as experiment task. According to (B), in the non-target information search task, participants browse the system for 2 min using a smartphone (Android Galaxy Note Edge SC-01G, Samsung Ltd.). Thereafter, the participants perform a search task to locate the indicated keyword. The task was performed for each condition based on a combination of different hierarchies, numbers of pages, and characters. The experimental conditions were shallow and deep hierarchical structures, total number of pages = 50, 100, 150, and 200; number of letters = 200, 300, and 400; and target information search and non-target information search (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 2. Screen layout (400, 300, and 200 letters from the left)

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Fig. 3. Deep hierarchical structure

Fig. 4. Shallow hierarchical structure

Fig. 5. Number of pages (many)

2.4

Fig. 6. Number of pages (few)

Measurement Items

The measurement items were “time,” “button touched,” and “page transition,” which were recorded in an operation log. In addition, after completing each task, the participants answered a questionnaire based on the work of Venkatesh et al. [4]. The UTAUT model (Sect. 2.2) scores of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and behavioral intention were recorded as subjective scores. The questionnaire content is given in Table 1. Table 1. Questionnaire Concept Performance expectancy Effort expectancy Social influence

Behavioral intention

Question I find the system useful I find the system joyful My interaction with the system is clear and understandable It is easy for me to become skillful at using the system People who influence my behavior may think that obtaining knowledge by using this system is very cool I would like to introduce this system to people who influence my behavior I want to use this system again If there is such an app, I want to use it

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Participants and Ethical Considerations

The participants were 30 undergraduate and graduate university students between the ages of 18 and 25 years (male and female). Before the experiment, we described the experimental procedure and obtained informed consent.

3 Results 3.1

Subjective Evaluation of Motivation to Use

Motivation to Use in Target Information Search. Based on the experimental results, we compared variance analysis of the number of characters and the hierarchical structure, and each condition using Bonferroni’s multiple comparison method to subjective evaluation questionnaire of Behavioral intention. As a result, in the cases of 200, 150, and 50 pages, the subjective evaluation scores increased when the hierarchy was deep and the number of characters was 300 (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Subjective evaluation score average of behavioral intention

Structural Equation Modeling. To determine the impacts of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence on behavioral intention, we performed structural equation modeling by using AMOS17.0 (IBM Ltd).

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After generating the path diagram using UTAUT, the magnitudes of the degree of influences “Performance expectancy,” “Effort expectancy,” and “Social influence” on “Behavioral intention” are 0.76, 0.26, and 0.30, respectively. “Performance expectancy” has the greatest influence on the results (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Path diagram of UTAUT items

Motivation to Use in Non-target Information Search. Based on the experimental results, we compared variance analysis of the number of characters and the hierarchical structure of the hierarchical structure, and each condition using Bonferroni’s multiple comparison method to subjective evaluation questionnaire of Behavioral intention. As a result, in the 150 pages case, the subjective evaluation score increased when the number of characters was 400 (Fig. 9). Structural Equation Modeling. To determine the impacts of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence on Behavioral Intention, we performed structural equation modeling by using AMOS17.0 (IBM Ltd). After generating the UTAUT path diagram, the magnitudes of the degree of influences of “Performance expectancy,” “Effort expectancy,” and “Social influence” on “Behavioral intention” were found to be 0.75, 0.21, and 0.40. “Performance expectancy” has the greatest influence on the results (Fig. 10).

Screen Design of Portable Terminal to Promote Users’ Motivation

Fig. 9. Average subjective evaluation score of behavioral intention

Fig. 10. Path diagram of UTAUT items

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Motivation Discrimination Model

Target Information Search. From the experimental results, the average value of the 24 conditions was classified into three stages. The range in which the subjective value of motivation to use was greater than 0.1 was classified as large, the range smaller than −0.3 was classified as small, and the range between them was classified as medium. The objective variable was defined as V, explanatory variable as the screen variable a, hierarchical score as b, and balance score of the screen and the hierarchy as c. This model distinguishes experimental results by about 80%. V ¼ aþbþc V  30; Large 30 [ V [ 20; Medium 20  V; Small

ð1Þ

a1 : If fx = 300 wordg Screen score a ¼ 30 a2 : If fy = shallowg Hierarchical score b ¼ 10 a3 : If fx = 200, 400 word and y = deepg Balance score c of the hierarchy ¼ 20: Based on the above constraint conditions, the utilization motivation points obtained under each condition from the experiment were plotted in three dimensions. In this figure, green, blue, and red colors represent in descending order the desire to use the system. Figure 11 shows that the motivation to use increases as the value of the z-axis increases, and in the optimum condition, the number of characters is 300 and the number of links on the screen is 6 or fewer. Moreover, the area with a large green motivation intention has a character number of about 300 ± 30, and if the interface is created to keep the amounts of screen and system information within this range, users’ willingness to use can be increased. Non-target Information Search. From the experimental results, the average values of the 24 conditions were classified into three stages. Subjective values of motivation to use greater than 0 were classified as large, those smaller than −0.28 were classified as small, and those in between were classified as medium. The objective variable was defined as V, explanatory variable as the screen variable a, hierarchical score as b, and balance score of the screen and the hierarchy as c. This model distinguished experimental results by about 70%.

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V ¼ aþbþc 110  V  60; Large 150 [ V [ 110; 60 [ V [ 40; Medium 40  V; V  150 Small

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a1 : If fx = 200 wordg Screen score a ¼ 30 If fx = 400 wordg Screen score a ¼ 30 a2 : Hierarchical score b ¼ 0 a3 : Balance score of screen and hierarchy c ¼ x=y: Based on the above constraints, the points of motivation to use under each condition obtained from the experiment were plotted in three dimensions. In this figure, green, blue, and red represent the desire to use in descending order.

Fig. 11. Usage discrimination result for target information search (Color figure online)

As can be seen in Fig. 12, to some extent, users’ willingness to use increases as the value of the z-axis increases, but if it becomes too large, the motivation to use decreases. Specifically, the number of characters is 300–400, and the number of links is 4–12. However, when both the number of characters and the number of links increase, the motivation to use decreases. Perhaps the optimum condition is expected to be

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Fig. 12. Usage discrimination result in non-target information search (Color figure online)

maximized when the number of characters is about 350 and the number of links is about 8, that is, at the centers of the two ranges.

4 Conclusion In this research, we examined experimentally the amount of information on an interface screen to maximize the willingness of young users by balancing the amount of system information and the amount of manipulatable information displayed on a terminal screen. In target information search, it was found that the number of letters on the screen should be 300 ± 30, the number of links on the screen should be 6 or fewer. In other words, if the level is deep, users’ willingness to use will be high. In non-target information search, users’ motivation to use will be higher if the number of characters on the screen is 350 and the number of links in the screen is around 8. Also, in both types of information searches, “Performance Expectancy,” which indicates convenience and usefulness, greatly influences the motivation to use.

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The results of this study can be applied for designing interfaces of applications used on portable touch devices and websites with multiple types of information search forms. In the future, it will be necessary to add new parameters such as images and experimental conditions, and study the improvement in versatility, accuracy, and ease of use of the model.

References 1. Takahashi, M.: A psychophysiological approach to purposeless information searching information design based on optimal stimulation level theory. Jpn. Ergon. Soc. 49, S98–S99 (2013) 2. Davis, F.D., Bagozzi, R.P., Warshaw, P.R.: User acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models. Manag. Sci. 35(8), 982–1003 (1989) 3. Davis, F.D.: Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Q. 13(3), 319–339 (1989) 4. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, G.B., Davis, F.D.: User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view. MIS Q. 27(3), 425–478 (2003)

Travel Kit Organiser for Carry on Luggage Design: Contribution to Traveller’s Comfort Paula Mercedes Neves(&) and Fernando Moreira da Silva CIAUD, Faculty of Architecture, University of Lisbon, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Today the world has more than 7 billion people. In this post-industrial era, its inhabitants, moving between big cities and within them, are called urban nomads. The importance of luggage design has grown over time, but new challenges arose, such as carrying electronics devices used every day. The main objective of this research is to develop a new product focused in today travellers’ comfort and convenience. The methodology of this project is mainly empirical (active research), supported by a literature review and online survey. It is intended to create a travel kit that simplifies usability, organization and carry-on luggage transport. The process has involved the development and launch of an online inquiry to air travellers, both in Portuguese and in English, with an universe of 450 respondents. The target groups included: Tourists, Businessmen and Aviation Crews. The survey’s feedback led the project into a turning point, a new concept based on Inclusive Design. Keywords: Design


Comfort
Travel
Suitcase organizers

1 Introduction The act of “travel” and everything related to it has a significant weight in the world economy. With globalization, the borders have been reduced, almost eliminated in some cases, as in the example of the European Union, where one can change country simply using citizen or ID cards. Travel time decreased, while the use of internet increased communications between people, and access to information. The importance of luggage design grew over time driven by an increasingly demanding air traveller (Fig. 1). Traveling involves carrying luggage, i.e. transportation of belongings needed for air traveller’s everyday life. Main Research Question: “Considering that the selection, organization and portability of objects necessary to satisfy air traveller’s needs interferes with the actual travel experience, how can luggage be designed to maximize the comfort of the air traveller?” TOD project (Travel Organiser Design for Hand Baggage on Plane Trips - Contribution to the Travellers’ Comfort) main goal is to increase the comfort of today’s traveller, as well as the convenience and usefulness of hand luggage during flight time.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_92

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Fig. 1. Suitcase designed to travel by plane Louis Vuitton, 1920 [6]

2 Methodology This paper presents part of the results gathered while developing TOD, focused on users traveling by plane, carrying only hand luggage. We started by identifying traveller’s current needs (objects and procedures). Then, through an inquiry based on a questionnaire, the current traveller’s problems were identified, emphasizing the importance of designing a travel kit, containing objects and guidelines to help organizing the act of travel. During data collection by questionnaire, the analysis was mainly focused on the tendency of answers related to the qualitative questions. The sample included 450 respondents. Afterwards data processing will be implemented, followed by the analysis and results interpretation. The research project has being developed based on a user-centred design process, with an empirical phase of research by design. For the development of the new product, resulting from the inquiry findings, we used a design thinking methodology (Fig. 2). This methodology optimized our research process, especially during the practical phase.

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Fig. 2. Management Information Institut (2014). http://docmanagement.com.br/12/01/2014/ design-thinking-e-o-contact-center/

3 Urban Nomads Today capital cities are poles of activity, development and prosperity reaching a scale never seen before. Some of its inhabitants have a real daily migration, taking hours to complete their daily tasks. Many of them leave home with “trolleys”. They have a long journey ahead that involves carrying items such as computers and their accessories, books and materials related to their profession. Sometimes they have to take extra clothing to adjust for weather variations during the day. This lifestyle created the nomenclature “Urban Nomads”. Some of these people regularly travel by plane. The amount of luggage tends to decrease with the type of travel. For example, the “professional” travellers tend to take only carry-on bags in order to avoid losing time at luggage claim.

3.1

What Is the Importance of Designing a Travel Organizer (Tod)?

The shape of the suitcase has changed and evolved. Along with that, numerous accessories have emerged to meet the diversity of the traveller’s needs. However, new problems have arisen, without achieving a proper solution. The organization of cabin handbags, despite the solutions that are being developed, is still an area with vast unsolved problems. Currently, the responses of this type of products are focused on particular aspects and it is difficult to find a sufficiently comprehensive answer to the wide range of traveller’s needs. During collection of main evidence to support the theoretical contextualization, we have found the best carry-on luggage [1], and different methods of organizing a

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suitcase, e.g., 2013 Site Video Louis Vuitton (Fig. 3); as well as laundry folding methods. Multiple sites list various travel items such as suitcases with wheels, flexible bags, organizers and travel accessories. Brands like Eagle Creek and Muji are specialized in travel product design.

Fig. 3. The art of packing Vuitton, L. (2013). http://www.louisvuitton.com/front/#/eng_US/ Collections/Women/Travel/stories/The-Art-of-packing

A good example of the concern about the user’s well-being is the product developed by Medical Kits brand (2012), known as Adventure Medical Kits Smart Travel First-Aid Kit. Some of the most important factors of the suitcase, improving the well-being of the trip, are the quality, the relationship between price/quality, look, weight, load capacity and size. Other needs related to luggage are also being felt today. It’s inevitable to talk about electronic equipment which is constantly used: sometimes there are no electricity plugs near by for recharging the mobile phone or laptop, not to mention other gadgets that are great battery consumers, such as game consoles, cameras or digital music players [9, p. 3]. To respond to these challenges: bags with portable chargers for mobile phones and tablets were developed. However, one of the basic concepts of this investigation is the interest in the personalization of TOD, meaning that we can group these functional objects in a travel kit, according to each user’s needs. John Urry [8] speaks of the intricacies and interdependence of increasingly sophisticated mobility systems developed in the late twentieth century (computers, mobile phones, payment cards, etc.).

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The TOD project aims to develop a customized Travel Kit, which ensures individual usability of these systems on the road. But the amount of weight we carry on is one of the main problems that generates more discomfort and tiredness during luggage transportation. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 in New York, the world has undergone irreversible changes. In the case of air travel, there is an increased vigilance at airports regarding the passenger’s baggage restrictions and transportation, especially at the hand luggage level. However, weight management remains important, with implications on the organization and usability of cabin objects. As such, the design of a travel kit is justified, consisting on a travel bag organizer, in order to maintain the contents together by groups, optimize the luggage storage, the time spent in the process and the total weight carried.

3.2

Inclusive Design

According to the concepts of Inclusive Design, as Julia Cassim explains (2012), one can conceive a design project starting from the extreme situations and going to the average situations; it is not possible the other way around. This carry-on organizer can be customized, based on principles of inclusive design. Filipa Nogueira Pires’ project, “feelipa color code”, is the result of her MSc in Product Design. This product became the only color code that includes everybody, inclusively blind people. So, in articulation with Filipa, we decided to include this color code in TOD will help identify and locate contents by color and touch, bringing benefits to all users (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Filipa Nogueira Pires (2012). http://minutoacessivel.blogspot.pt/2013/10/cor-para-todoscom-o-feelipa.html

4 Tod Project - Preliminary Results The construction of this project is based on user centred design thinking. TOD Project has been conceived and designed based on the literature review and on the results of an inquiry supported by a semi-structured questionnaire.

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Construction of the final questionnaire was based on Survey Pre-tests. This was done in phases. A 1st phase questionnaire was written in Portuguese and we were able to obtain 350 responses. In a 2nd phase questionnaire was translated in English to reach a wider audience of our target group. The universe of respondents was increased to 450 respondents, both in Portuguese and in English. TOD’s prototype is being developed at the same time data is being analysed.

4.1

Questionnaire Data Collection and Analysis of Response Tendencies

The main objective of the questionnaire was to identify travellers problems related to packing hand baggage and during transportation, and also to know their point of view about the subject, especially their wishes. We intended to survey the following target groups: Tourists travellers, Business travellers and Crew/Staff travellers.

4.2

Response Tendencies to Question 32

Question 32: “Identify which of these objects and procedures you would include in your ideal travel kit”. The following items correspond to the most voted needs identified by 400 respondents (Fig. 5). Bags for dirty clothes 73.9% Shoe bags 66.5% Universal electrical current adapter 65.0% Travel set of daily use articles of personal hygiene care 61.4% Padlock 57.1% Pharmacy organizer (SOS) and transportation of daily use medicinal products 56.9% Extra foldable lightweight bag for a return trip 53.0% Set of empty bottles for toiletries, size for cabin luggage 51.0% Portable rechargeable battery (to ensure the usability of gadgets) 42.4% Vacuum bags with the function to save space in the suitcases 41.6% Check list 39.1% Purse for documents 33.8% Suitcase organizers 30.7% Instructions and techniques to avoid forgetfulness 29.4%. Traveling involves carrying luggage and modern life every-day objects. The main goal of this project is to increase the comfort of today’s traveller and increase the convenience and usefulness of hand luggage during flight time. Our investigation on the main products available on the market related to the organization facilitators of cabin suitcases leads us to conclude there is still a gap on the organization, manageability, accessibility and transport of objects commonly used in air travel.

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Fig. 5. Question 32 Identifies which of these objects and procedures will be included in this “travel kit” (400 respondents).

So, it always made sense to develop an organizer, in the form of a customizable travel kit, which simultaneously can simplify organization and expand user’s interface and functionality of hand luggage. That is the main purpose of the present project. The goal is to organize and group all necessary objects on the move, arranging them through a new concept, making it an innovative product that will contribute to the comfort of today’s traveller. Conceptualized in the area of fashion design, this project can only be brought to life by bringing together knowledge from other areas of study such as anthropology, psychology, sociology, economics, management, law, marketing and advertising. In the study area of fashion design, this project can only be validated by the interdisciplinary knowledge brought by these several areas. Acknowledgments. First we would like to acknowledge CIAUD - Research Centre where the project is based and FCT – Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, who has granted this research. Special thanks to my Supervisors Professor Dr. Fernando Moreira da Silva and Professor Dr. João Paulo Martins whose motivation and guidance is fundamental to pursuit the research project objectives.

References 1. Alistair: The best carry on luggage reviews (2014). http://www.carryonluggagesize.info/. Accessed 12 Feb 2014 2. Cassim, J.: The 3rd 24 h inclusive design challenge: Oslo on Vimeo (Video file). http://vimeo. com/44306386. Accessed 10 Jan 2012 3. Coleman, R., Clarkson, J., Dong, H., Cassim, J.: Design for Inclusivity: A Practical Guide to Accessible, Innovative and User-Centred Design for Social Responsibility (2007) 4. Delta Air Lines, Bagagem de Mão. http://pt.delta.com/traveling_checkin/baggage/carryon/ index.jsp. Accessed 15 June 2012 5. Dias Imperfeitos. Nada se equipara aos bons amigos. http://dias-imperfeitos.blogspot.pt/2011/ 01/nada-se-equipara-aos-bons-amigos.html. Accessed 16 June 2012

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6. Léonforte, P., Pujalet-Plaà, E.: 100 Legendary Trunks: Louis Vuitton, 1st edn. Abrams, New York (2010) 7. Livni, A., Scuder, F.: Manifiesto Moda Lenta, Slow Fashion (2011). http://analivni.com/ AnaLivni-MODAlentaSLOWfashion/filosofia.html 8. Urry, J.: What is the mobility turn? (Video file). https://www.google.pt/?gfe_rd=cr&ei= uTrfVKyELo6s8we4qoDoAw&gws_rd=ssl#safe=active&q=john+urry+youtube. Accessed 12 Apr 2014 9. Voltaic. Montra Tek movidos a energia solar. http://tek.sapo.pt/extras/montra/montra_tek_ movidos_a_energia_solar_996922.html. Accessed 14 Feb 2012

Online Posture Feedback System Aiming at Human Comfort Thiago Beckert Otto ✉ , Alexandre Campos, Marcos Aurélio de Souza, Daniel Martins, and Eduardo Bock (

)

Electrical Engineering Department, Research Group in Automation and Robotic System – GARS, Santa Catarina State University – UDESC, Prof. Avelino Marcante s/n, Bom Retiro, Joinville, SC 89223-100, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The objective of this paper is to develop a posture analysis system in such a way that good ergonomics conditions and human comfort are preserved and health risks minimized. This system evaluates human positions during tasks execution and classifies them in good, medium or bad condition in order to avoid health issues. Therefore some ergonomics methods and cases at literature are explored aiming at provide a database with mainly human body angles. Then, a vestment is developed with mechanical and electronic devices using a sort of different sensors to acquire information of these angles. It warns bad positions in real time to the user once the script created considers dangerous postures. To validate this study, preliminary tests are conduct collecting the results and making improvements on the devices with the purpose of avoid alteration in normal tasks execution. Keywords: Human comfort · Ergonomic methods · Labor risk

1

Introduction

Slump times and continuous market competition make companies to redesign and opti‐ mize the production system in order to achieve better results through costs reduction. Recent works are explored regarding an expertise vision named by lean manufacturing [1–3]. It is examined the daily work practices with lean production implementation at an organization and a pattern of practices used by managers in their daily work [1]. An essential part of lean production is that participants are all involved in improvement activities. A study is performed to verify the influence of Environmental Management on operational performance using the lean theory into 75 Brazilian automotive companies [2]. The main result is the model tested revealed an adequate goodness of fit. Another study investigates whether or not Lean Production tools can help in order to reduce the environmental impacts of production companies [3]. Five companies were observed and measured before and after the implementation of some Lean tools: Value © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_93

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Stream Mapping (VSM), 5S, cellular manufacturing, Single Minute Exchange of Die (SMED) and Total Productive Maintenance (TPM). However to evaluate a workstation is needed to understand each involved operational task with the intention of having improvement directions [4]. It is required to quantify the risks with focus on the individual. In accordance to that, this study analysis the ergonomic condition during manual tasks execution. Due that, bibliography search is explored at chapter two to collect ergonomics information and to distinguish, latter on, a comfort and a danger working position. In beginning of chapter three is shown the angles range used for each body section and the times allowed per human position to avoid troubles health. After that, this study presents a prototype human vestment to online signalize risks to the worker. It means that the worker can take a decision with the feedback warming, i.e. back to the safety condition as soon as possible. The prototype is focused on the arms, forearms, wrists, trunk and legs. Owning this, the devices are linked and parame‐ trized with the script created into Arduino and LabVIEW program. Additionally, at the end of this study is simulated a manual operation in order to test the prototype created. This study focused to develop this prototype with low investment due that has a lack of ergonomic aims special online system to avoid human health issues. Those ones available are usually expensive [5].

2

Ergonomics

There are some studies regarding ergonomics to ensure better conditions and to avoid health issues at work. In this context, ergonomics is the science of worker pose adapta‐ tion according mutual definition [6–8]. There are some studies regarding ergonomics to ensure better conditions and to avoid health issues during tasks execution at work. The intention is to improve the human tasks and the operational conditions through man-machine-environment combination analysis [6, 7]. It occurs at the beginning of work stations design, known as project phase, but may necessary to adapt some existing operations based on human condition limitations. Generally, this evaluation goes on deepening gradually until gets each work station level [8]. A work station consists in one part of the company structure that acts one or more workers. The evaluation regards activities, postures and worker movements. According to the authors it is important to involve the operators in the evaluation process, noticing their opinion about the stations, their recommendations and possible solutions. In anyhow, to improve the human operations, it should be investigated and reduced as much as possible the fatigue and the monotony, mainly by repetitive activities elim‐ ination. In fact, the work upgrading includes better environment conditions for good conditions of temperatures, noises, vibrations, toxics gas and illuminations [7, 9]. Another approach to achieve better ergonomic results is followed by five steps [7]. The intention is to solve troubles due completely understanding in the real problem and the tasks needed. Generally, it involves the evaluation phase, diagnostic phase and, finally, the correction step.

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2.1 Ergonomic Methods The ergonomic analysis consists in an online worker observation or by video recording with a description about the body postures codes [10]. This code is defined in different conducts by degree ranges in accordance of the used method. The ergonomic methods are described on several cases of study based on the body segments positions to indicate external codes for a particular category of workload [11– 13]. The authors advice to develop a methodology for ergonomic evaluation involving an online observation, videos recording of tasks execution and body postures measure‐ ments data acquisitions. Therefore, this section explores these methods. The method OWAS examines the whole body posture recording and analyzing the activities based on two parts [11]. First step evaluates the work posture and the second classifies in a set of criteria to redesign the work procedures and places. An ergonomic risks evaluation is developed by one-page checklist to features the assessment of legs, trunk and neck for repetitive tasks [14]. It is explored by persons with limited ergonomic training and by factors to assess postural risks on 335 jobs in four plants. Another method is called by RULA which categorizes the body postures and expended forces. This tool requires no special equipment providing a quick assessment of the neck, trunk and upper limbs postures [12]. A national institute named by NIOSH first developed an equation to assist safety and health professionals to analysis lifting demands in the sagittal plane [15]. This technique gradually evolves covering lifting index that can be used to identify hazardous lifting tasks [16]. Another method is an originally recommended by NIOSH in the concise exposure index called by OCRA [17]. It analysis the repetitive movements of the upper limb on the relationship between the daily number of actions performed by the upper limbs in repetitive tasks. To identify the ergonomics hazards or risk factors can be use the PLIBEL method. It contains a checklist with questions for different body regions to highlight musculos‐ keletal risks in connection of workplace investigations [18]. Also, is proposed a technique to assessment the jobs risk of upper extremity disorders based on knowledge and theory of the physiology, biomechanics and epidemiology [19]. The methodology measures six task variables, involving the duration of exertion per cycle, efforts per minute, wrist posture, exertion speed, duration of tasks per day and exertion intensity. QEC is another method created based on investigation of the user’s needs [20]. It consists in a practical tool for the assessment of physical exposure to risks for workrelated musculoskeletal disorders. Also, is created a manual handling operations guidance in order to help manage, control and reduce the injury risks from manual tasks execution [21]. The main aim is to prevent injury on any part of the body, mainly the back area. An ergonomic assessment tool named as REBA uses a systematic process to evaluate the whole body postural and risks associated with job tasks [22]. For this, a single page worksheet is used to revaluate each body section.

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Another observation method came by 127 work cycles observation at a foodprocessing plant and a paper mill [23]. At this time, six risk factors were included: repetitive hand use, hand force use, pinch grip, non-neutral wrist posture, elevation of upper arm and local mechanical pressure. As assessment technique for postural loading named by LUBA includes the hand, arm, neck and back evaluation and the corresponding maximum holding times in static posture [24]. Twenty male subjects participated in the experiment designed to measure perceived joint discomforts. A study performed the upper limb disorder guidance area in order to create a checklist hazards in the workplace [25]. The label “upper limb disorder” is used to refer a range of medical conditions which can be caused or made worse by work. A tool is created with manual assessment health and safety for inspectors in order to guide prioritization and intervention on main risk factors [26]. It is named by Manual Handling Assessment Charts (MAC) with the intention to identify manual handling high risks due assessment most common risk factors in lifting and lowering, carrying and team handling operations. In anyhow, [27] grouped examples of ergonomic methods and classified them according what is evaluated as posture, load, movement, vibration and others (mechan‐ ical compression, glove use, environmental condition, visual demands, etc.). These techniques can be reach by several studies also. It is developed an automated approach for posture estimation using a range camera and defining if is ergonomic or non-ergonomic tasks [28]. This study consists on the analysis of overhead work, squat or sit to lift load, bend to lift load and crawl, and each one is verified the angles working, height, with a logic script behind. As the same reason for ergonomic analysis, a systematic approach to the workplace is designed in ophthalmology department for strain and stress using OWAS analysis to accuse bad ergonomics position [29]. One case study explores a new input modality suited on the wrist as a joystick to perform on-handed movements on smartwatches [30]. The prototype performance and the results are demonstrate on the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Left: wrist whirling using a prototype. Right: example gestures drawn [30].

Another method is called by ABATech which is based in some analysis criteria [31]. According the author, the activities have to avoid any stress factors that could be harmful to health, both during the planning phase as well as for existing workplaces, due 11 characteristics. The result will indicated by traffic light from bad to good workstation condition.

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Ergonomic Vestment Prototype

This section approaches the human vestment prototype developed to online warn the user about the alert and dangers positions during the tasks execution. Several ergonomic methods are considered according chapter three exploration. Below is described the angles and times considered, the used devices for angles control and a simulation. Due that, the following studies have been explored in order to map the work condi‐ tions divided per body section, which contains angles for each body link and the time that can be used according the working positions. As explained before, most musculos‐ keletal disorders are assessed on upper regions of the body such as the back, neck, shoulder, arms and wrists [27]. 3.1 Angles and Times Quantification The following body sections are considered into controlled system: calf, thigh, trunk, arm, forearm and wrist. These segments follow angles sequence or xyz orientation according the human body and sensors used. Calf, thigh and trunk angles are linked according Fig. 2 and Eqs. 1 and 2. The legs are determinate by calf “θ1” and thigh “θ2” movements described as “α1”. Whereas the trunk is related to the leg angle and the turning trunk itself “α2”. The figure is designed with Autocad program [32]. (1) (2)

Fig. 2. Body angles definition.

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For the arm, forearm and wrist, the measurement are independent. Therefore, the xyz orientation determines direct the movement for these body segments. The devices used for each one is described under next subsection. Then, times are established in order to attend the ergonomics concept. Figure 3 presents the correlation between arm and time used to execute the user tasks. As shown, there is a range of 0° up to 40° considered as safety zone. The user can use 10% of operation time working with 40° up to 90° and continuous in security, but it turns a yellow or attention health condition if it is used more than 10% and became a red station or dangers position if pass 50% in this position. In anyhow, if the user rotate the arm more than 90° is already an attention situation at beginning and a red one if it is used more than 5%. On behalf of the forearm is similar to the Fig. 3, but it has a difference at the safety range which is considered from 0° up to 60°.

Fig. 3. Arm angle and time correlation

The ranges for wrist and legs are very similar to each other. It starts with the angle range 0° up to 15° in green until 40% of operation time and yellow until 70%. Above this range is already considered as alert condition until 10% of time and dangers in time is spent more than that. An important observation is that the angle legs are the sum of thigh and calf. Therefore, the greater means these links are being approach each other. The trunk and time correlation have a safety zone 0° up to 20°. After that, the user can rotate the trunk until 60° using 20% of the time to continuous under security condi‐ tion, 60% modify to yellow and above turns dangers ergonomics condition. Above of 60° rotation is already considered as alert and dangers conditions. 3.2 Prototype Parametrization It is developed a vestment prototype system to map these tasks ranges and to online accuse the unsafety positions. This system is described below which is designed to not disturb normal tasks execution.

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Owning this situation, the prototype is divided by two subsystems connected to one central controller connected in a computer for data acquisition. This computer has the script created to command the leds green, yellow and red turning on and off. One subsystem takes care about arm, forearm and wrist. The second regards the legs and the trunk. By the end, the intention is to alert the user any time is achieved safety, alert and unsafety positions according Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. User interface

Therefore, to control the first subsystem is used and connected the devices. As mentioned, it is linked the arm, forearm and wrist, and instrumented with the following numerated items: • • • • • •

Microcontroller Arduino Nano; Transmissor 433 MHz; 9 V battery; Accelerometer MPU-6050 linked to the arm; Accelerometer MPU-6050 linked to the forearm; Flex sensor 2.2 in. linked to the wrist.

These sensors are designed to measure the wrist angular variations and overhead positions due angles measurements of arm and forearm. The sign is sent wirelessly to a central microcontroller connected in a computer to collect the results. It is developed another sub-system in order to accuse the knee joints mobility and trunk angle. It is composed by the following devices: • • • • •

Microcontroller Arduino Nano; Transmissor 433 MHz; 9 V battery; accelerometer MPU-6050 linked at thigh; Accelerometer MPU-6050 linked at calf;

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• Potentiometer 10 kΩ to measures the trunk angles made by two acrylic bars posi‐ tioned in accordance of inclination trunk human movements. There are several potentiometers models with this rotation angle [32]. Owing the study characteristic, it is a linear variance of 10 kΩ, connected in a voltage of 5 VCC, linked in maximum rotation of 260°. This device is connected at a microcontroller analog input. Due the 10 bits resolution from analog input, the device has about a range of 1024 values [33]. Therefore, the calibration is linked for minimum parameter of 0 V to the value 0000 bits and for the maximum of 5 V to the value 1023 bits. The accelerometers work in the same way for the arm and the leg subsystems. They are initially calibrated to a known position as zero mark. After that, the member posi‐ tioning can change the angles in each axis for every accelerometers, being need to receive this generated data and process it, according to each criteria observed. For the first anal‐ ysis, each sensor is being monitored due the movement direction of major impact about the criteria observed. In addition, in this study the subsystems microcontrollers and the central receiver are Arduino boards. To program the Arduino boards is used a USB cable connected to a computer using an IDE available on the device [34]. With the central board connected to the computer the data received on it wirelessly through the 433 MHz modules are now transferred to the computer and other actions can be taken with this data available. Led are used, illuminated by green, red and yellow colors in order to warn the user about alerts and dangers ergonomic conditions due the work angles. Figure 4 presents a section of the script created and the interface for user warming. The sign is displayed on the monitor. 3.3 Program Code The data processing is divided into two software and two platforms. There are the embedded electronics that is responsible for acquire the measurements from the body and the computer. The mobile modules, fixed on the body, send it wirelessly to the main module connected through USB or network to the computer. The second platform, the computer itself, receives the data in a text way. This data received is parsed into groups with the help of an identification sent with the measurements and then, based on the ranges of each angle being measured, there is a processing which is done by a block programming, according the Fig. 5. The ranges and the times of each condition are measured in this part where a transition between each state is done when the conditions of angles also time are satisfied. As the measurement is made using the embedded electronics over the body members, the code to receive data from one accelerometer sensor can be seen bellow. By the top there are the module configuration over I2C bus and after the variables declaration, recording the data and sending it through serial. There are being used the platform and the IDE for Arduino©, to make configuration and problems solving easier.

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Fig. 5. Block programming

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3.4 Prototype Simulation Finally, it is simulated a manual routine task using this vestment prototype presented. The complete monitored hardware system was fixed on the user. The tasks were executed by an internal office. The activity consists, basically, to transport each papers set from the copy machine to the workbench in order to deliver the papers to the costumer, normally student or teacher. The scenario is composed by one intern without any special equipment to handle the papers. By the end, the intern executed all the routine tasks using the prototype and the led yellow and the red had turned on, which was accused high risks to execute such tasks. It is related, specific, in the moment of papers grip once the trunk screw more than 60° for a long period during his operation time. In anyhow, the improvement actions from ergonomic evaluation should start in those tasks which contain critical ergonomics problems, analyzing the height numbers of mistakes, accidents, ills, absenteeism and turnover [7]. It is analyzed the posture and effort required in tasks execution, detailing the mainly sinews and muscles pains caused by tensions.

4

Final Remarks and Next Steps

With the explanation of existing ergonomic methods, presented on the second section of this paper, is noted an easier work evaluation due the determinate values. This explanation is extended by the Fig. 3 showed under third section, which presents safety and unsafety work positions related to the times operation. This paper presented an own modeling posture feedback system developed as proto‐ type. It is divided by subsystems in order to fix in the user body sections. It is mapped the legs, arms, forearms, trunk and wrists. An office work is simulated using this developed prototype, accusing the alert and dangers positions though led yellow and red turning on. This project demonstrates to attend the expectative, as the results were send in a real time and it accuses the bad ergonomic condition to the user makes an important decision, e.g. coming back to a safety position. Nevertheless, an improvement point is to eliminate as much as possible the transmission cables once it was noted interferences during the simulation. In anyhow, the hard work that affects the muscles must be transferred to the sensitive and attention organs, adapting the worker [6]. For this, the validation of workstation must has to take care about improvements on the conditions of manual operation. Then, another recommendation from this study is to improve the station evaluated, defining a plan to change the work height, or even to invest in new equipment to help this manual task simulated.

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References 1. Alpengerg, J., Scarbrough, D.P.: Exploring communication practices in lean production. J. Bus. Res. 59(11), 4959–4963 (2016) 2. Jabbour, C.J.C., et al.: Environmental management and operational performance in automotive companies in Brazil: the role of human resource management and lean manufacturing. J. Clean. Prod. 47, 129–140 (2013) 3. Chiarini, A.: Sustainable manufacturing-greening processes using specific lean production tools: an empirical observation from European motorcycle component manufacturers. J. Clean. Prod. 85, 226–233 (2014) 4. Duell, N., et al.: Ageing and employment identification of good practice to increase jog opportunities and maintain older workers in employment, Munich (2006) 5. Duarte, F.: Ergonomia e projeto na indústria de processo contínuo, Rio de Janeiro (2002) 6. Grandjean, E.: Manual de Ergonomia: Adaptando o trabalho ao homem, Porto Alegre, 4 edn. (1998) 7. Iida, I.: Ergonomia: Projeto e Produção, São Paulo, 2 edn. (2005) 8. Abrahao, J.: Introdução à ergonomia: da prática à teoria. Blucher, São Paulo (2009) 9. Mondelo, P.R., et al.: Ergonomía 4: El trabajo em oficinas. Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (2001) 10. Bartnicka, J., et al.: Ergonomic analysis of surgeries with the use of wireless body postures measurement system. J. Support. Statutory Work (2015) 11. Karhu, O., et al.: Correcting working postures in industry: a practical method for analysis. Appl. Ergon. 8, 199–201 (1977) 12. Mcatamney, L., Corlett, E.N.: RULA: a survey method for the investigation of work-related upper limp disorders. Appl. Ergon. 24, 1993 (1993) 13. Hignett, S., Mcatamney, L.: Rapid entire body assessment (REBA). Appl. Ergon. 31, 201– 205 (2000) 14. Keyserling, M., et al.: A checklist for evaluating ergonomic risk factors resulting from awkward postures of the legs, trunk and neck. Int. Ind. Ergon. 283–301 (1992) 15. NIOSH: Work practices guide for manual lifting. NIOSH Technical report No. 81-122. US Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH (1981) 16. Waters, T.R., et al.: Revised NIOSH equation for the design and evaluation of manual lifting tasks. Ergonomics 36, 749–766 (1993) 17. Occhinpinti, E.: OCRA: a concise index for the assessment of exposure to repetitive movements of the upper limb. Ergnomics 41, 1290–1311 (1998) 18. Demmlert, K.: A method assigned for identification of ergonomic hazards. In: Fundamentals and Assessment Tools for Occupational Ergonomics, vol. 40, pp. 1–14. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2006) 19. Moore, J., Garg, A.: The strain index: a proposed method to analyze jobs for risk of distal upper extremity disorders. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. 56, 443–458 (1995) 20. Li, G., Buckle, P.: Evaluating Change in Exposure to Risk for Musculoskeletal Disorders – A Practical Tool. HSE Books, Suffolk (1999) 21. Health and Safety Executive: Manual Handling Operations Regulations. Guidance on Regulations, 4th edn. HSE Books, Suffolk (2016) 22. Hignett, S., Mcatamney, L.: Rapid entire body assessment (REBA). Appl. Ergon. 31, 201– 205 (2000) 23. Ketola, R., et al.: Inter-observer repeatability and validity of an observation method to assess physical loads imposed on the upper extremities. Ergonomics 44, 119–131 (2001)

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24. Kee, D., Karwowski, W.: LUBA: an assessment technique for postural loading on the upper body based on joint motion discomfort and maximum holding time. Appl. Ergn. 32, 357–366 (2001) 25. Health and Safety Executive: Upper Limb Disorders in the Workplace HSG60. HSE Books, Suffolk (2002) 26. Monnington, S., et al.: Development of manual handling assessment charts (MAC) for health and safety inspectors. In: McCave, T. (ed.) Contemporary Ergonomics. Taylor & Francis, Longo (2003) 27. David, G.C.: Ergonomic methods for assessing exposure to risk factors for work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Occup. Med. 55, 190–199 (2005) 28. Ray, S.J., Teizer, J.: Real-time construction worker posture analysis for ergonomics training. Adv. Eng. Inform. 26, 439–455 (2012) 29. Herzog, N., et al.: Ergonomic analysis and simulation in department of ophthalmology. In: 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, AHFE (2015) 30. Gong, J., et al.: WristWhril: one-handed continuous Smartwatch input using wrist gestures Dartmouth (2016). http://xingdongyang.net/papers/Wristwhirl.pdf. Accessed 17 Oct 2016 31. Sanchez, A.B.: Adaptation of the ergonomics evaluation software ABATech to the needs of MAN Nutzfahrzenge AG. Technische Universität München, Intitut für Produktionstechnik (2005) 32. Autodesk AutoCAD Inc. All Rights Reserved (2016). http://www.autodesk.com/products/ autocad/overview 33. Da Costa, E.M.G.: Goniômetro. Centro Universitário Positivo, Núcleo de Ciências Exatas e Tecnológicas, Engenharia da Computação. Curitiba (2007) 34. ARDUINO official site. http://www.arduino.cc/. Accessed 05 Mar 2016

Ergonomics in Clothing, Fashion and Footwear Design

Garment Design and Engineering for Hospital Use Miguel Carvalho1,4(&), Liliana Fontes1,4, Elazer Edelman2,4, and Jorge Santos3,4 1

Department of Textile Engineering, University of Minho, Guimaraes, Portugal [email protected], [email protected] 2 Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA [email protected] 3 School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal [email protected] 4 Center for Graphics Computing, Guimaraes, Portugal

Abstract. Garments used in hospitals play an important role in user’s comfort and health. This paper presents the developments of a patented design technology for medical garments aimed at users, caregivers, and health care providers. Traditional gowns lacking comfort and protection affect the patient’s dignity. Similarly, patients often use their own garments, which are not designed to provide the best comfort and protection if sensing capacity is affected. Additionally, they can interfere with caregivers’ daily tasks. The proposed pajamas consider these needs and allow an effective interaction between patient and caregiver without compromising the person’s self-esteem. The selection of functional textile fibers and the use of seamless production processes allow the design of products advantageous in the prevention of wounds and pressure ulcers, as pressure points are reduced and the micro-climate of the skin is managed in a more effective way, enhancing the levels of sensorial, physiological and ergonomic comfort. Keywords: Comfort


Protection
Medical garments design

1 Introduction Textiles have a significant impact on the comfort and recovery of patients in hospital settings. With the right choice of materials, it is possible to manage temperature and humidity, which constitute some of the biggest challenges in maintaining skin integrity, to manage mechanical forces, namely pressure, friction, and shear, and to aid in comfort, with properties such as draping behavior and bending stiffness [1]. This alone is crucial to ensure that patients are not only comfortable, but also benefit from the best possible textile properties that can speed their recovery and prevent additional complications, such as pressure ulcers [2]. Moreover, the effect of appropriate clothing on self-esteem should not be underestimated, as well as the positive effects of high self-esteem on the healing process [3]. Therefore, it is important to determine which © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_94

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properties are desirable in a textile to bed used in hospital settings, and how to integrate these properties in a single fabric while keeping in mind costs, comfort, and usability for the user and caregiver. There are several textile properties important when designing such a garment. Some of them relate to the actual prevention of comorbidities, namely mechanical and thermal properties, while others are more associated with the comfort of the user, such as handle qualities. Yet others pertain to both categories – thermal properties, for example, are crucial in that they influence the management of temperature and humidity, thus helping in maintaining skin integrity, but at the same time are highly correlated with the comfort of the user, which is naturally vital for any garment [4].

2 Materials and Methods Nine different materials were first tested for several textile properties, namely mass per unit area, thickness, drape, stiffness, friction, compression, tensile, and shear (using KES), air permeability, water vapor, permeability, vertical wicking resistance to impact water penetration, all Alambeta’s thermal parameters, and, finally, a thermal manikin was used to determine thermal insulation. Careful analysis of these data allowed us to select the material that displayed the best overall properties (80% polyamide and 20% elastane), which was in turn used to manufacture a garment. It was decided that a pajama would be most useful across settings – people wear them at home, and hospitals and nursing homes either provide patients with their own pajamas/gowns or allow them to bring in their own. Moreover, a pajama could be used by both bed-ridden and wheelchair bound people, as well as those who are recuperating from surgery or illness. Finally, the same materials and structure can be used in the future to manufacture other products like bed sheets. Two types of pajama were produced in seamless looms, in order to reduce the number of seams and their impact in the amount of pressure between the patient’s body and the support surface – a single-piece and a two-piece. The reasoning was that bed-ridden people could use the single-piece garment, which would theoretically facilitate caregivers’ work, by allowing easy access to several parts of the body by means of several zippers, while at the same time maintaining the user’s comfort and dignity, since it would eliminate the need to completely expose the entire body just to examine, for example, skin integrity at the buttocks. The amount of zippers was also intended to aid caregivers in dressing and undressing the patient, thus reducing time spent (and associated costs) and freeing staff for other tasks. Extreme care was taken so that all zippers were completely protected to ensure that no harm was done to the person’s skin. All zippers and seams were placed on the front, thus guaranteeing that they did not cause undue pressure on the back and side areas of the body typically in contact with the support surface (see Fig. 1 for an overview of a manikin wearing the single-piece). The two-piece pajama was intended to be used by patients with a relatively good degree of mobility capable of dressing and undressing themselves. The upper part featured one single zipper on the front, whereas the back remained seam and zipper-free, as with the single-piece. The length of the upper part was deliberately kept

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Fig. 1. Thermal manikin wearing the single-piece pajama.

short, so as to ensure that there were no unnecessary creases and folds when the user sat or laid down, which would create needless pressure points. The lower part of the pajama had two zippers at the front that allow the user to easily dress and undress, since the pants completely open up. A person could, for example, set the pants on top of the bed, open both zippers, place themselves on top of the trousers and simply zip up until they are fully dressed. This was designed to be used even by paraplegics that retain upper body strength and mobility. All zippers on both pajamas opened from both sides. This helped in exposing only the body area that needed to be exposed, which contributed to the comfort of the user, since it protected against cold, and also helped with psychological comfort, since it made total exposure unnecessary. Figure 2 shows such an example, with a patient undergoing EMG (electromyography) physical therapy on a leg – using our pajama allows the therapist to create only a small opening needed for the procedure, while keeping the rest of the body clothed and, consequently, keeping the user comfortable. Finally, all zippers ended with two small buttons to further ensure a closed thermal environment.

Fig. 2. Patient undergoing EMG physical therapy while taking advantage of our pajama’s zippers.

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Finally, there was one last feature, which, although not directly linked to the user’s thermophysiological comfort or other functional properties, was crucial for the patients’ overall confidence, and self-esteem. Our pajama’s material allows for the easy attachment of Velcro. As such, we manufactured a few pieces of clothing without the back and with Velcro at specific sites. This allowed us to attach clothing to the front of the pajama without compromising the user’s back. While maintaining our pajama’s functional features, this simple attachment allowed patients to appear dressed in different clothing, just as any healthy person appears. Clothing is incredibly easy to attach and remove, and has a huge impact on the patient’s self-esteem. Figure 3 shows such an example, with a patient appearing to wear a denim vest that in reality has no back and is only attached with Velcro to the pajama.

Fig. 3. Patient wearing a denim vest attached to the pajama with Velcro

3 Clinical Setup All studies took place at the Vizela UCCI (Unidade de Cuidados Continuados e Intensivos – Continued and Intensive Care Unit), which housed 60 patients with varying degrees of mobility and independence. The objective of this experiment was twofold: firstly, we wanted to compare our pajama with the participants’ usual pajama, and secondly we wanted feedback on the pajama’s comfort for the user, and ease of use for the caregiver. It was decided that the single- piece would be used for participants with a low level of independence, whereas more independent patients used the two-piece. The reasoning was that the two-piece would be easier, especially for when participants needed to use the bathroom, whereas feedback from caregivers was badly needed for the one-piece, especially to find out whether the pajama was suitable for hygiene procedures. Several pieces of equipment were used to collect data: Tekscan’s pressure mat, experimental force and temperature sensors (SensingCushion), and several questionnaires. Three types of trials were conducted: one with the participants sitting down on a wheelchair (see Fig. 4), a second one where participants sat on a type of recliner (see Fig. 4), and finally a third one where participants were lying down on a bed

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Fig. 4. Trial on the wheelchair on the left. Trial on the recliner on the right.

(see Fig. 5). The protocol used was slightly different for each trial, to accommodate for the differences in setting. Still, all participants wore our pajama for a full night. This helped participants judge its comfort and allowed caregivers to work with the pajama for a significant number of hours, thus allowing for a more informed decision on its merits. All trials were conducted in the participants’ rooms.

Fig. 5. Trial lying down supine.

Our sample was comprised of six participants, whose characteristics can be found in Table 1. All signed a consent form, except for those with a compromised cognitive status, who were authorized by their next of kin to take part in our experiment. After wearing our pajama for one night, participants began each trial either with our pajamas or their own. For trials on the wheelchair, the pressure mat and SensingCushion were placed on top of the wheelchair. Participants then sat down for 5 min. During this first session a semi-structured interview was conducted to find out the participants’ opinions on the pajama. Secondly, the exact same procedure was repeated with the participant sitting on a recliner. Naturally, no interview took place, since it had already been done.

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P

Size

1 2 3 4 5 6

M L M M L S

Body mass (kg) 67 79 82 65 71 62

Pathology CVA CVA CVA CVA CVA CVA

Level of independence Semi-independent Independent Semi-independent Dependent Independent Dependent

Incontinence

Pajama

No No No Diaper No Urinary catheterization

Two-piece Two-piece Two-piece One-piece Two-piece One-piece

Finally, the pressure mat was placed on the participants’ beds, without the SensingCushion. They then laid down for 5 min in each position – supine, lying on their left side, and lying on their right side. It should be noted that only independent or semi-dependent participants underwent all trials. Those who were completely dependent only participated in the lying down trial, due to the natural constraints of their health status. Moreover, no interview was undertaken with these participants due to their decreased mental status. Finally, caregivers who worked with our participants were asked to answer a brief questionnaire on the usability of our pajama.

4 Results For the wheelchair trials our pajama performed best in 3 out of 4 participants, and in the recliner trials it performed best twice, worse once, and roughly the same the remaining trial. Figure 6 shows temperature over time for one participant where our pajama

Fig. 6. Temperature (in °C) over time for participant 3 sitting on the wheelchair.

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performed best: the participant’s usual pajama’s average temperature was 29.05 °C against only 25.81 °C with our pajama, which corresponded to an average difference of 3.24 °C. As for pressure data, an unexpected error in the calibration file left us only with data for two participants sitting on the recliner, with our pajama showing better performance on one occasion, with lower pressure values than the participants’ pajama. Figures 7 and 8 show peak pressure at the ischia (in g/cm2) for both pajamas.

Fig. 7. Peak ischium pressure (in g/cm2) for participant 3 wearing both pajamas.

As these charts show, participant 3 shows an advantage to our pajama, with an average difference of 9.67 g/cm2 and a maximum difference of 22.5 g/cm2. On the other hand, the opposite is true for participant 5, with an average difference of 7.52 g/cm2 and a maximum of 14.5 g/cm2. Still, having only two participants prevents us from drawing any definitive conclusions for this variable. Finally, we turned to the questionnaires given to the caregivers and semi-structured interviews from the participants. The questionnaire was based on the System Usability Scale, a widely used tool that quickly and reliably measures the usability of a product, and adapted to our specific needs. Only two caregivers answered the questionnaires, which made it impossible to perform any statistical analysis on the data. Thus, Table 2 simply presents answers from both caregivers. Where both answered the same, only one cross is displayed, whereas two crosses on the same answer signify different answers. Both respondents gave similar answers on most items, with the exception of item 2 – one caregiver completely agreed that the pajama was efficient in managing temperature, while the other neither agreed nor disagreed – and item 5 – one caregiver disagreed that the pajama was complicated to use, but the other agreed. With only two

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Fig. 8. Peak ischium pressure (in g/cm2) for participant 3 wearing both pajamas. Table 2. Usability questionnaire for caregivers Question 1 2 3 4 5 1. I would not like to work with this pajama in the future X 2. The pajama is efficient in managing temperature X X 3. The pajama is not efficient in managing humidity X X 4. The pajama helps prevent Pressure Ulcers X 5. The pajama is complicated to use X X 6. The pajama is easy to undress X 7. It’s difficult to dress the patient in the pajama X 8. The pajama allows easy access for user hygiene X X 9. The pajama does not make my work easier X 10. The pajama improves the user’s quality of life X X 11. The pajama needs more openings X If yes, where: Perineum

participants it was impossible to draw any conclusions when their answers differed so much. Nevertheless, overall both gave a positive review on the pajama. They would both like to work with our pajama in the future, both believed it was effective in managing humidity, and more importantly, both strongly agreed that the pajama helped prevent PUs. Moreover, both strongly agreed the pajama was easy to dress and undress, both agreed the pajama made their work easier, and both agreed it improved the user’s quality of life. These were the positive aspects we were able to draw from the questionnaires. On the other hand, neither caregiver agreed that the pajama allowed for easy access to perform hygiene tasks, and both strongly felt the need for more openings, namely in the perineum. After seeing these results we informally talked with the

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caregivers, and all were adamant that an opening in the area of the perineum would significantly improve the pajama, since they felt it was hard to change diapers with the current configuration of the one-piece pajama. Finally, when meeting some of the staff informally, one other advantage of our pajama became clear: physiotherapists complained that observing their patients’ gait during physiotherapy sessions was a challenge due to their usual baggy garments, which could hinder their recovery. The therapists we talked to mentioned how easier it was for them to observe and correct their patients’ gait when they were wearing our tight-fitting pajama. Such an example is shown in Fig. 9 where one of our participants, wearing our pajama, can be seen during a physiotherapy session walking. As is clear from the photo, the participant’s legs and gait can be easily evaluated from a distance, much more accurately than if she were wearing her usual trousers or gowns.

Fig. 9. Patient wearing our pajama while undergoing physical therapy.

The patients answered a semi-structured interview while undergoing seated trials. Only four participants answered the interview, since the others’ cognitive status did not allow them to do so. The interview was based on a questionnaire focused mainly on comfort. We began by asking the patients whether the pajama, as compared with their usual pajamas, had in any way influenced their sleep. Two participants stated that they had slept better than usual and attributed this to the pajama, while the other two felt that the pajama had no influence whatsoever in the quality of their sleep. These were encouraging results, since they proved that our pajama did not hinder sleep, and may even have improved sleep for some people. We then turned to the comfort felt while using the pajama, first asking about overall comfort and then specifying different aspects of comfort, namely thermal comfort. All participants strongly felt they were more comfortable than usual because of the pajama they were wearing. This was extremely important, since the textile tests related to

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handle, such as drape, had yielded somewhat poor results for this material, which could have translated into an uncomfortable garment. These responses increased our confidence in the pajama’s comfort properties, since all participants rated our pajama as comfortable. None reported any pain or discomfort due to the pajama, although one patient mentioned that he would feel more comfortable if the upper part was longer. This patient had a considerable abdominal perimeter, and the upper part of the pajama was in fact unable to cover the whole belly area. The length of the pajama was intentionally shortened, since we did not want excess material to fold and crease, and thus create pressure points that could lead to discomfort and possibly PUs. However, we do acknowledge this patient’s concerns, and believe we can easily fix this by keeping the pajama shorter on the back, but lengthening the front, so that patients can be completely covered while they go about their daily lives. Finally, the same patient mentioned the need for zippers on the arms for the two-part pajama. Again, this is easily fixed. Although increasing the amount of zippers also increases the pajama’s cost, we acknowledge that for patients who retain a good degree of mobility having zippers on the arms allows them to more easily dress and undress themselves. We had planned for the two- part pajama to be used for patients who are at home, and therefore are not subjected to daily skin inspections or blood drawing. This would mean they would not need the zippers on the arms as much as those patients who are in care. Still, it is reasonable to assume that users at home still have mobility difficulties, and might find it easier to dress and undress themselves with more zippers. We then asked participants more specific questions about their thermophysiological comfort. Only one participant felt the pajama had any influence in their thermal comfort – this participant stated that he usually feels cold, and this did not happen with our pajama. The participant attributed this to fact that our pajama is tighter. When asked if they would prefer to feel colder or hotter with our pajama, all participants stated they felt “just right” and would not like to feel neither hotter nor colder. These data clearly reflect the pajama’s capacity to manage temperature, since all participants felt there was no need to make any changes on this particular issue. As for humidity management, all participants agreed that they felt their skin was neither dry nor humid, and all were satisfied with the pajama’s ability to manage moisture. All stated that they would not like to see any changes in this regard. However, they all agreed that they felt no change in their skin’s humidity, which means that they usually feel comfortable regarding skin moisture, and as such felt no difference with our pajama. These answers did not allow us to validate our claim of humidity management. It would be interesting to have patients who typically perspire wear our pajama for at least one night in order to see if it in any way enhanced their moisture related comfort. We then presented a list of adjectives that could possibly describe our pajama and asked participants to state whether they felt those adjectives accurately described it. Most participants felt the pajama was neither cold nor warm, but, as they put it, “just right”. The one exception was the participant who usually felt cold, but felt warmer with our pajama. This participant described our pajama as warm. All of them rated the pajama as smooth and soft, as opposed to rough and prickly. This point in particular was important, due to the pajama’s material’s results on friction and drape tests, which indicated that it might be rough and uncomfortable for the user. Our participants’

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answers clearly show that this was not the case, but quite the opposite, thus validating our choice of material. All felt it was made of strong materials, as opposed to delicate, but at the same time all stated it was light, as opposed to heavy. When asked if the pajama was thin or thick, all participants again rated it as “just right”. All these answers pointed to the fact that the participants’ subjective evaluation of the pajama was very positive, especially on its handle properties. As such, when asked about overall agreeability and comfort, all participants rated the pajama as very agreeable and very comfortable. We were also interested in the participants’ opinion on the pajama’s impact on their self-esteem. All participants stated that they felt prettier than usual with our pajama, and further specified that it was in fact the pajama that influenced their self-image. Furthermore, one of the participants mentioned that he preferred the two-piece pajama, not because he felt it was prettier, but because he felt it was more practical. This particular assessment confirms our hypothesis that the two-piece pajama is more useful for patients who retain a relatively good degree of mobility. Finally, we asked participants whether they liked wearing our pajama, if they preferred it over their usual pajamas, and if they would wear it on a daily basis. All of them strongly agreed that they liked wearing it, preferred it over their usual ones, and would definitely wear them on a daily basis. Overall, we were very pleased with the results from the users’ questionnaires. All participants reached a very positive evaluation of our pajama on several dimensions, with the exception of humidity management. However, even in this respect the evaluation was not negative, but simply neutral. These were very encouraging results for a widespread use of our pajama in populations who are recovering from illness, but still maintain mobility. Unfortunately, we had no data for patients who were bedridden, since none were cognitively able to answer our questions.

5 Discussion and Conclusion In sum, this experiment, although not as successful as had been hoped, allowed us to draw some conclusions on our data. Firstly, temperature data showed a clear advantage of our pajama as opposed to the participants’ usual pajamas. Secondly, pressure data did not allow for any conclusions, since only two trials were available. In these, one showed a better performance from our pajama, with lower peak pressure results, but the other trial showed the opposite. Naturally, this was not sufficient to form any conclusions. Given the fact that the calibration file was inadequate, future experiments must take this into consideration and use a calibration file with a higher saturation point. Finally, data from the questionnaires and interviews revealed a couple of problems with the pajama – the lack of an opening at the perineum in the single-piece pajama for the caregivers to perform hygiene tasks, and no change in humidity management from the users’ point of view. Moreover, one of the participants mentioned the lack of zippers on the arms as a problem, as well as the top of the two-piece pajama being too short. The first problem will be hard to resolve if we want to keep the back and sides of the pajama free of seams and zippers. The shortcomings of the two-piece pajama, on

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the other hand, are easily solvable. Overall, caregivers and users gave a very positive evaluation of the pajama, which makes us confident of a good buyer acceptance should it come to market. In sum, we successfully manufactured two pajamas (single and two-piece) to be used across settings using seamless knitting materials that reduce pressure points in contact with the user’s skin and improve breathability. Moreover, the two-way zippers aid caregivers and users alike (for physiotherapy sessions, for example), and allow for easy dressing and undressing due to their amount and positioning. The enclosing of zippers helps prevent damage to the user’s skin, and the absence of zippers and seams on the back and sides minimizes pressure with the support surface. Additionally, its tight-fitting form and shortened upper part on the two-piece ensures that loose fabric does not fold and potentially cause damage. Finally, it is possible to attach a Velcro front garment to enhance psychological comfort. All in all, we managed to manufacture a pajama with good thermophysiological properties that received very positive evaluations from both caregivers and users, thus achieving our goal of designing a garment that ensures psychophysiological comfort, aids recovery, and helps prevent health complications, such as pressure ulcers. Acknowledgements. This work is financed by FEDER funds through the Competitive Factors Operational Program (COMPETE) POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007136 and by national funds through FCT-Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, under the project UID/CTM/000264 and SFRH/BD/79762/2011.

References 1. Angelova, R.A.: Textiles and Human Thermophysiological Comfort in the Indoor Environment, 1st edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2016) 2. Pan, N., Sun, G.: Functional Textiles for Improved Performance, Protection and Health, 1st edn. Woodhead Publishing, Oxford (2011) 3. Kamalha, E., Zeng, Y., Mwasiagi, J.I., Kyatuheire, S.: The comfort dimension; a review of perception in clothing. J. Sens. Stud. 28(6), 423–444 (2013) 4. Bartels, V.T.: Handbook of Medical Textiles, 1st edn. Woodhead Pub., Oxford (2011)

Human Factors Applied to the Understanding of the Importance of Therapeutic Clothing Textiles for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Su-Jeong Hwang Shin(&) and Kristi Gaines Department of Design, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The aim of this study was to identify significant design features and textiles that would alleviate sensitivities for children with ASD. Small groups of randomized children with ASD and their parents participated in the study, pertaining to design features and textile related to characteristics of ASD. In the experiments, we tested weighted vests with three types of textiles (neoprene, wool, and denim) and newly developed prototypes with various textiles, including bamboo jersey, nylon with durable repellent, cotton, organic cotton, and polyester fleece. In this study, individuals with ASD exhibited certain tactile design preferences. Results from this study led to the development of sensory clothing products and provide evidence based therapeutic clothing design for individuals who have the everyday challenges posed by the characteristics of ASD. Keywords: Human factors clothing




Autism Spectrum Disorders




Therapeutic

1 Introduction Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is a developmental disorder with a wide range of symptoms including difficulty with social interaction, repetitive behaviors, and deficits in sensory processing. Characteristics of ASD are often exhibited in childhood [1–3]. Sensitivities inhibit the comfort and quality of life for individuals with ASD. Children with autism spectrum disorders are diagnosed with sensory processing disorder when sensory signals do not integrate to provide appropriate responses. The sensory systems of individuals with ASD may become overloaded since they have difficulty filtering stimuli from the environment. Several studies [2, 4–6] found that the sensory processing dysfunction is related to the emotional and behavioral problems in children with ASD. If they are hypersensitive, they are over-reactive to stimuli pertaining to the senses: whereas, individuals who are hyposensitive are under-reactive [4]. When these sensitivities become more problematic, a weighted vest may be provided to the child as a therapeutic clothing. This is believed to alleviate the characteristics of sensory difficulties associated with ASD. However, many issues arise with weighted vests. Beneficial effects are not consistent across all children with ASD [7]. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_95

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It is argued that a weighted vest provides deep pressure stimulation that has a calming effect [8] and a helpful organization of the central nervous system [9]. There is no conclusive evidence to either support nor reject the use of a weighted vest being beneficial in reducing problem behaviors [7]. Any positive results of wearing the weighted vests have not yet been demonstrated. Hypersensitive touch is the most prevalent sensory characteristic for individuals with ASD. Children with ASD may experience hypersensitivity to certain textures from the textile.

2 Aim and Objectives This experiment study was designed to provide evidence based therapeutic clothing design for individuals who have the everyday challenges posed by the characteristics of ASD. The aim of this study was to identify effective design features and textiles that would alleviate sensitivities. For the objectives, we investigated (1) if a weighted vest or other tactile design factors (such as textiles) related to sensory issues are effective, (2) if any design features would alleviate sensory hypersensitivity.

3 Methodology Sensory Integration (SI) theory was used in this study as a framework. The cross reference stimuli were compiled in a database in order to identify design factors associated with ASD characteristics. Participants. For experiments, small groups of randomized children with ASD and their families were invited to participate in the study after obtaining IRB approval. A total of 7 children (boys, ages 7–14) and their families had two sets of experiments, interviews and surveys, pertaining to design features and textiles related to characteristics of ASD. Participants were excluded if they had uncorrected visual or hearing impairments. Data Collection. In the first experiment, three types of therapeutic clothing were provided to the participants: The same weighted vests were used but they differed in textiles including neoprene, wool, and denim. The selections of testing materials were based on characteristics of textiles, popularity, and findings from our previous study of sensory clothing for children with ASD. In the second experiment, three different prototypes with different design features were designed and constructed by our research design team according to feedback from the participants. These included (1) deep pressure on the chest by inserting air into vest made of bamboo jersey and nylon with a durable repellent, (2) a long sleeve t-shirt with hood made of lightweight organic cotton, and (3) a vest with fidgets made of polyester fleece. Experimental clothing sets were provided to the children for them to see and touch. Children were asked to try on the newly developed clothing. A follow-up qualitative interviews assessed effects of certain design features and textiles, including bamboo, cotton, organic cotton, wool, and neoprene.

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Behavioral Observation Coding. During the interviews, we observed children’s behaviors and interests in certain clothing design features. The children’s behaviors were coded, assessing a wide array of raw motor movements (e.g. throwing the body into furniture or onto the floor, headstands, swinging arms or head, rough-holding, and repeated movement). Additionally, unusual interests in the sensory aspects of clothing were coded (e.g. prolonged visual or tactile inspection of clothing, rubbing cloth on face and body, placing cloth in the mouth and holding cloth firmly into body). In addition, parents and children provided feedback about their preferences of the design elements (e.g. color, textures, fit, and sensory features).

4 Results 4.1

Inconsistent and Inadequate Information for Therapeutic Clothing

We found approximately 23 types of commercial therapeutic clothing, including weighted vests, tops, and pants. The following limitations were identified: size indicators, fit problems, limited colors, unknown synthetic materials, unknown effect of weighted vest, and inadequate information of the effectiveness, and too high of cost for the families with children with ASD. Therapeutic clothing with a good fit might be a critical factor. However, children’s clothing size indicators and fit problems are problematic with 70.6% of parents reporting their frustration with the current availability of sizes in children’s clothing [10]. Families were unable to determine the right sizes for their child due to inadequate size information of the therapeutic clothing such as weighted vests. Weights varied from a quarter pound to four pounds, which is considered too heavy for a small child to carry. Of the therapeutic clothing products, 69.57% were made of synthetic fibers, 30.43% were cotton, and the remainder were wool. In the synthetic category, 12.50% were nylon/spandex and 6.25% Neoprene. Only 4.35% of the companies provided latex-free material. More than a half of weighted vests (56.62%) do not have any specific information about the synthetic materials (Fig. 1 illustrates the breakdown). Overall, we found that the information for therapeutic clothing is inadequate for families and individuals with ASD.

4.2

Textiles, Tactile Related to Sensory Integration (SI) Theory

To understand the needs of therapeutic clothing for the group, we have conducted a pilot project, “Sensory Clothing Design Development for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders” [11] collaborating with South Plains Autism Network (SPAN). In the project, we developed a map of Sensory Integration (SI) between sensory perception of children with ASD and clothing design elements in order to identify relations of clothing design elements, concerning sensory issues and characteristics of ASD (Fig. 2 shows an example).

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Fig. 1. Textiles for the therapeutic clothing products and children with ASD.

Fig. 2. A Map of sensory perceptions and clothing design elements for children with ASD.

4.3

Textiles Inclined and Disinclined from the First Set of Weighted Vests

In the first set of experiments, we found inconsistent reports from the families of children with ASD, regarding the effect about the weights from individuals. Table 1 shows the summary of the weighted vests with three different textiles and observed children’s reactions. When the three weighted vests were presented to the children, all children selected the Type I (neoprene) first, and then considered Type II (wool). Type I was the most favorable vest and neutrally accepted by the children and parents. Some tended to touch Type II (wool), but they did not wear the wool vest. However, Type III (denim) was the least favorable texture to the all children. They did not want to look at it and walked away from the vest with denim. Some children expressed “do not want”, “Scared”. Parents reported an irritation to denim by their children.

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Table 1. Textiles of the weighted vests and children’s responses Sample ID

Weights Textiles

Texture

Type I

1–4 lbs. Neoprene 100%

Smooth/Even surface

Type II

1–4 lbs. Wool 100%

Soft/Uneven surface

Some

Overall various reactions: Look and touch only but not to wear/Sweat/Irritation

Type III

1–4 lbs. Denim/Cotton 100%

Hard/Scratch

No

Overall strong negative: Walked away/Hesitation/Avoid/Scared

4.4

Incline Children’s responses to wear Yes Overall neutral reactions: Look and touch. Acceptable/favorable/No significant reactions

Effective Tactile Design Features from the Second Set Experiment

In the second set of experiment [11], we developed three prototypes of therapeutic clothing for ages between 7 and 10 for children with ASD. Each design emphasized the relationship between design features and each sensory concern (Table 2). Table 2. Textiles of the newly developed design features and children’s responses Sample ID

Weight

Design features

Textiles

Design A [12]

Medium weight with air pressure

Lining-Bamboo Soft/Even jersey Coversurface Durable Water Repellent Nylon

Yes

Touch/Covered/Rubbing/Calm/Favorable

Design B

Light

A long sleeve jacket with hood, air insertion A vest with fidgets inside the pocket

Soft/Uneven surface

Some

Look/Touch/No significant reaction/Acceptable

Design C [13]

Light

Anti-pill Polyester fleece with various synthetic fabric options in the pockets Cotton 100%

Soft/Even surface

Some

Look/Acceptable

A long sleeve hood t-shirts with ear pads to screen noise

Texture

Incline Children’s responses to wear

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Interestingly, we observed certain textiles and tactile design preferences exhibited by children with ASD. Specially, for textiles, children displayed their interest in bamboo jersey in the second set of experiments. Design (A) [12] was the most favorable clothing item to the children. Design A is a jacket with an air-controlled pressure design feature that emphasizes an inner lining of a very soft material using bamboo jersey. Air pressure provided a medium weight or winter jacket weight. The outer shell fabric is made of a durable water repellent nylon to provide a protective environment. The hood creates a defensive feature of a cocoon effect. Design (B) provided various textures from soft to rough uneven surfaces, including fidgets inside the pockets. The children responded negatively to the outer shell of the fabric, an anti-pill 100% polyester fleece, but not to the inside pocket fidgets. Some of them began to hanging on to parents. Some expressed irritation from the neckline. Design (C) [13] was similar to the jacket design that provided a hood and noise control pad on ears. According the previous SI theory, a bright red color was used as an experiment in the design to stimulate individuals’ attention. When we presented the red hooded t-shirts without any other options, all children responded positively to the color of the t-shirts. However, when we presented all three garments at the same time, the children responded to the textiles first, especially to the jacket lining, bamboo jersey, by touching and rubbing. Some of them stopped repetitive behavior. Certain preferred tactile properties of textiles were noticeably observed from the second experiment.

5 Conclusion In conclusion, inconsistent reports were found from the participants regarding the effect about the weighted vests. Instead of the weighted vest, certain tactile design preferences were exhibited by the children with ASD. One of the design features with deep pressure was identified as the most favorable design by the group. Bamboo jersey was identified as the most preferred textile because of the smooth hand and the ability to absorb perspiration. When they had bamboo jersey clothing, repetitive behavior was noticeably reduced. They consistently liked to touch and wear bamboo jersey. Like bamboo, neoprene and lightweight cotton were the next favorable textiles to the group. Organic cotton was preferred by the parents due to the soft hand and safer texture for the children. However, denim and wool were identified as unfavorable textiles due to the rough texture. Some individuals expressed irritation by the denim. The results from this study led to the development of sensory clothing products and provide evidence based therapeutic clothing design for individuals who have the everyday challenges posed by the characteristics of ASD. Findings from this study bring insights of evidence based therapeutic clothing to professionals and apparel textiles manufactures. Effective design features should be considered for developing therapeutic clothing for individuals with ASD. Acknowledgements. This research is associated with the project “Sensory Clothing Design Development for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders” funded by College of Human Sciences at Texas Tech University and collaborate with South Plains Autism Network (SPAN).

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For the experimental design, garments were constructed by research assistants in the project: Rachel Ruhman, Taylor Dawson, and Emily Charlton.

References 1. De La Marche, W., Steyaert, J., Noens, I.: Atypical sensory processing in adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder and their non-affected siblings. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 6, 639–645 (2012) 2. Gaines, K.: Brain compatible learning environments for students with autism spectrum disorders. Dissertation, Texas Tech University (2008) 3. Grandin, T.: An inside view of autism. Indiana Resource Center for Autism (2014). http:// www.iidc.indiana.edu/index.php?pageid:595 4. Gaines, K., Bourne, A., Pearson, M., Kleibrink, M.: Designing for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Routledge, New York (2016) 5. Gaines, K., Bergen, Curry, Z., Shin, S.: Full spectrum classroom design: inclusive environments for students with Autism. Int. J. Learn. Divers. Identities 20(4), 15–28 (2014) 6. Tseng, M., Fu, C., Cermak, S.A., Lu, L., Shieh, J.: Emotional and behavioral problems in preschool children with autism: relationship with sensory processing dysfunction. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 5, 1441–1450 (2011) 7. Stephenson, J., Carter, M.: The Use of Weighted Vests with Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and Other Disabilities. Springer, Hiedelberg (2008) 8. VandenBerg, N.: The use of a weighted vest to increase on task behavior in children with attention difficulties. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 5(6), 621–628 (2001) 9. Paron-Wildes, A.J.: Sensory stimulation and autistic children. Implications 6, 4 (2005) 10. Shin, S., Smith, B., Gaines, K.: Investigation of therapy clothing products for children with autism spectrum disorders. In: Proceedings of International Textile & Apparel Association, vol. 71 (2015) 11. Shin, S., Gaines: sensory clothing design development for children with autism. The COHS Paired Faculty Program, College of Human Sciences, Texas Tech University (2015) 12. Dawson, T., Shin, S., Gaines, K.: The use of organic textiles for children with sensory processing disorders. In: Texas Tech University URC Conference (2015) 13. Charlton, E., Shin, S.: Don’t touch me: sensory clothing for children with ASD. In: Texas Tech University URC Conference (2015)

A Study on Maternity Dress Based on the Development Situation of Ergonomics and Design of Hygiene and Safety Yuting Shang ✉ (

)

School of Design, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Centre, South China University of Technology, Panyu District, Guangzhou 10006, People’s Republic of China [email protected]

Abstract. We analyzed the development situation of maternity dress in terms of ergonomics by investigation and study of the relevant market in China. Given new requirements on hygiene or safety of the clothes, the development trend of maternity clothes was discussed through many aspects such as clothes materials, pregnant body shape, pregnant psychology based on the demand of comfort level and functionality. Keywords: Maternity dress · Ergonomics · Comfort level · Functionality · Design of hygiene and safety

1

Introduction

The culture and ideas has underwent an ongoing advancement with a highly rapid development of economic and increasingly improved life level in China. Engaged in all walks of life, women in modern society enjoyed a much more upgraded status with a much more enhanced ability to earn and consume. The blanket implementation of China’s two-child policy has prompted the boost of maternity dress market. Meanwhile, in light of the special body shape and household environment of themselves, the pregnant women would pay more attention to the health of their own and their babies, and espe‐ cially the safety of various product they contacted. the pregnant women in new era concern more on their maternity clothes not only about the image they bring them but also the guard function to their babies. They set higher requirements on the humanity, hygiene and safety of maternity dress [1]. The present study discusses on how to design a set of maternity dress not only meeting ergonomic demand but also providing expectant mothers a good hygiene environment to guard and breed their babies well.

2

Analysis of Maternity Dress Based on the Ergonomics Development Situation

It is predicted that China will brace for a peak of child-bearing between the year of 2015 and 2025. The huge population base and relatively stable birthrate foresees a great pros‐ pects for development of maternity clothes. Affected by the family planning policy of © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_96

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the last century, now the city’s most family structure are in the form of the 4-2-1, which means the ratio of every family consist of grandparents, parents and child is 4-2-1. This family structure affords the pregnant women more care and love than ever from the very beginning of pregnancy. Women in pregnancy emphasize more on birthing experience and physical and mental health during this phase. Despite of higher expectancy and demand, the present market condition is barely satisfactory [2]. Looking at the domestic market, we hardly see strong brand of maternity dress. Rare clothes brand in Chinese market specializes on designing maternity dress, suggesting a great gap to improve in design and quality of maternity dress. Catering to the continuous importance attached to the pregnant women, a number of mega clothing brand like GAP, H&M and Chanel begin to pay attention on the designs and sales of maternity dress, launch their own maternity dress. However, the competition in domestic maternity dress market mainly focuses on the color, lining, style and price, rarely on the specially ergo‐ nomics design for the special body size data of pregnant women [3, 10]. 2.1 Current Maternity Dress Market Situation After investigating and analyzing the current market, we conclude several characteristics of the domestic maternity dress market as follows: 1. Poor design with a high proportion of sleeveless collarless maternity dress and suspenders. 2. Rare auxiliary product to maternity dress with accessories to be developed. Func‐ tional accessory products such as underwear, shoes, support belt become scarce without a series of market plan. 3. Single image of the whole maternity dress which lack of a high product position and an innovated style. The leisure style is most common, while the professional or formal style are not well developed. 2.2 Body Shape of the Pregnant Women and Their Costume Requirements Specialty of Pregnant Body Shape Due to the sharp change of hormone during pregnancy, the pregnant women experienced a notably changeable body size in different pregnant phases as illustrated in Table 1. 1. The migration of abdominal salient point (ASP). The ASP is a most salient position on the belly, migrated on and on with the pregnancy phase, which affects not only the style lines under chest of maternity dress and design of pantsuit but also the entire modelling and comfort level. 2. The change of body dimension. The most significant alteration lies on chest, lumbar and hip circumference of a pregnant women’s body. Therefore, the maternity dress must suit for a changeable body dimension during different pregnant phase in order to secure the comfortable use during every phase [4].

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Gestational weeks 20–27 28–36 37–40

Chest circumference increase ratea (%) 15.5 21.6 25.3

Lumbar circumfer‐ ence increase rate (%) 30.3 44 48.6

Hip circumference increase rate (%) 11 15.5 17.8

a

The chest size was measured around the most plump circumference.

The Requirements on Costume During Pregnancy The pregnant women’s body size become more plump with the advance of the gestation, which requires more on various costume indexes during the special phase as follows: 1. An enlargement of the costume size to keep comfortable. 2. A stricter requirement on hygiene, such as hygroscopicity, warmth retention, less oppression. 3. A good support to the abdomen to decrease the abdominal pressure and create a safe environment for baby. 4. Suitable styles to make the entirety beautiful and magnificent. The requirements above are closely related to costume lining, modelling technique, humanity and structure. 2.3 The Design of Maternity Dress Should Cater to the Mentality of the Pregnant Women to Favor a Physical and Mental Health The structure design, color and lining choice of a maternity dress all impose an important influence on the physical and mental health of both mother and baby, which should meet the requirements as listed below: 1. A reasonable and convenient structure of maternity dress. 2. A soft and bright color. 3. A comfortable, useful and safe lining.

3

Study on the Hygiene and Safety of Maternity Dress

Two major indexes including healthy safety and motility convenience indicate the prac‐ tical function of the dress. Regarding to the special group of pregnant women, various hygiene indexes of dress would directly affect the health of mother and baby. However, due to little attention paid by producers and designers on the maternity dress industry, the entire level of design and healthy safety lag behind other types of clothes industry [5].

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3.1 The Current Situation of Hygiene and Safety The Effect of Main-Supplement Material on Hygiene and Safety Regarded as the second layer of body skin, material serves as the substitute base. The main-supplement material imposes a direct influence on the hygiene and safety of clothes, which is related to fiber content, constituent, skin contact and comfort. Due to the impaired immune power, the pregnant women’s skin is kind of sensitive to stimuli and vulnerable to skin dysfunction [6]. Thus maternity dress has some requirements as follows: 1. Comfortability. The inner layer lining is preferentially to use nature fiber with a good hygroscopicity, breathability and few irritation, which favors to normalize the heat moisture balance and metabolism of the pregnant women body. 2. Warmth retention. The warmth retention of one material demonstrated as its warmth conductivity, gas content and structure of textile. The mid and outer layer of the lining is better to use cotton, fur and cashmere, which has a tight and firm texture. 3. Coolness. Heat-proof and sun-protective are the main function of summer clothes. In order to reach an effect of moderating the skin surface temperature, the material should help to decrease radiation and evaporate the sweat to scatter heat. The Impact of Manufacture Process on Hygiene and Safety The containment from raw materials to clothes during the industrial produce impose a big threat to hygiene and safety of maternity dress. As a result, a green and safe ecomode of manufacture is of great importance, which means the coloring, processing and packaging of fiber materials and textile is all-through non-polluted [7]. Radiation hurts the fetus badly especially during the early stage of pregnancy which is an extremely important period for developments of the fetus’s heart, lung and liver. Therefore, researchers has dedicated themselves all the time to the development and innovation of a radiation-protective lining [8]. The early radiation-protective material is mainly a blend of fiber and metal which takes up 30%. Subsequently emerges a kind of sliver fiber, it has an effect of suppressing bacteria and safeguarding the skin. The nature mulberry silk consist of 18 amino acids does well in nourishing skin, releasing sleep, maintaining a fine state. To blend mulberry silk with silver fiber in an appropriate proportion can produce a new type of blended fiber which has a soft feel and lightsome texture to be made into a safe underclothes. The relative department hold the account‐ abilities to set a unified standard for manufacturing and examining, which strictly controls the whole procedure including selection of materials, production and processing of the clothes to secure an environmental and safe supply of goods. 3.2 Proposals on Achieving a Healthy and Safe Design of Maternity Dress In the light of the current situation of design regarding to hygiene and safety and having the various contributing factors recognized, it is essential to choose an appropriately healthy material, enhance structure design, intensify manufacture supervision and reach a non-polluted producing mode to serve the pregnant women during a special phase.

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1. Intensify the structural and functional design to optimize the condition to secure hygiene and safety of the maternity dress. A maternity dress can benefit both the mother for her changeable body size and the baby for a healthy breeding environment to keep away external injury. Study and optimize the structural and functional design according to the physiological characteristics and changed body size to make the maternity dress better meet all kinds of requirements of pregnant women. 2. Improve the match of main-supplement material to create a material basis for hygiene and safety. Make the material meet both the comfortability aim such as hygroscopicity, breathability, warmth conductivity, softy and flexibility and the safety aim such as non-pollution, deodorization, antibiosis, antiphlogosis and uviore‐ sistance and radiation-resistance and antipruritic [9]. 3. Strengthen the supervision of product-processing and raise the test criterion on hygiene and safety. Take measures during the procedure of choosing and examining of materials, monitoring and administrating of manufacturing, controlling and testing of the quality of clothes.

4

Conclusion: A Prospective View on the Humanized Design of Maternity Dress

We set a more humanized design standard for the development trend of maternity dress based on the ergonomic requirements and the study on design of hygiene and safety. 1. To increase the national awareness of the maternity dress and the market demand of its ergonomic design to improve people’s living quality. 2. To advocate a scientific, civilized and healthy life style. In accordance with the ergonomic theory, we can make the maternity dress both practical and beautiful by improving the practical function of guarding body and the beautifying function of decorating body. 3. To study and resolve the matter of designing a healthy and safe maternity dress to make it better meet the demand of comfortability, safety and beauty by the pregnant women in this new era. It favors to strengthen the market competition and the status of our country’s maternity dress in the global market. In a word, “people oriented” and “humanized design” has been becoming the focus of the maternity dress industry. As a special costume, the maternity dress with its various and strict requirements has been prompting the costume industry to march to a better orientation. We can foresee that the fashion field of maternity dress has realized a harmonious unification. The future maternity dress will lead a develop‐ ment trend of science, hygiene, safety and convenience.

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References 1. Xu, C.H.: The difference of design between women’s maternity and general clothes. J. Text. Ind. Technol. 41, 89–91 (2012) 2. Tu, Y.J.: An explorer of the basic theory about design of maternity dress. J. Qun Wen Tian Di 23, 227 (2011) 3. Wang, W.Q.: The present situation of maternity dress in overseas and domestic market. J. Technol. Inf. 17, 234 (2011) 4. Shao, X.W.: A healthy and safe design of maternity dress based on the physiological characteristics of the pregnant women. J. Southwest Norm. Univ. (Nat. Sci. Ed.) 34, 180–185 (2009) 5. Lv, X.: A study on functional design of maternity dress. J. Zhejiang Univ. (2007) 6. Gou, A.L.: The design and select of pregnant women’s clothes. J. Henan Inst. Eng. (Nat. Sci. Edit.) 16, 10–12 (2004) 7. Lao, Y.M.: The analysis of the causes of the protective characteristics and market hotspot of radiation-protective maternity dress. J. Shaoxing Univ. 27, 76–78 (2007) 8. Zhang, L.L., Chen, Y.: The test and simulation of electromagnetic shielding performance of the radiation-protective maternity dress. J. Text. 32, 108–112 (2011) 9. Wang, B., Fu, G.W., Yu, Y.L.: The test and analysis of the effectiveness of a electromagnetic radiation shielding body. J. Her. Text. 8, 84–86 (2006) 10. Wang, X.Z.: A structural analysis of maternity dress based on ergonomics. J. Intern. Her. Text. 36, 76 (2008)

Ergonomic Assessment on the Tasks Performed by Hairstylists in Quezon City, Philippines Maricella D. Valdivia(&), Patrizia Gayle P. Godinez, M. Marjorie R. Sintor, and Benette P. Custodio University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines [email protected]

Abstract. There is currently no existing ergonomic assessment on hairdressers in the Philippines. This study aims to investigate the WMSD symptoms of hairdressers in Quezon City and the risk factors which are significantly associated to it. Twelve hairdressers were chosen for this study. They were interviewed using a modified Nordic Questionnaire to characterize their perceived body discomfort. Task they often do during work were selected and evaluated using a Rapid Entire Body Assessment. Results showed that 83% and 41.67% of the subjects perceived the body discomfort for 12-month and 7-day, respectively. Moreover, a correlation of 0.224 was found between the postural WMSD risk and their perceived pain. From calculating the spearman correlation, the risk factors that are significantly associated with the body discomfort are the duration of task, years of experience, and number of customers. Keywords: Ergonomics


Hairstylists
WMSDs

1 Background of the Study and Rationale Discomforts in several body parts can be felt by workers in different sectors. These body discomforts can result to long-term diseases that may affect the performance of workers. According to the Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are conditions that result to muscles, tendons, and supporting structures functioning harder than the usual. Several risk factors are linked with the development of MSDs. These include heavy lifting, bending or twisting, frequent repetition of an action, uncomfortable/awkward working position, exertion of too much force, adverse environments, and long hours of work with no break. Work related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD) have been prevalent in other countries. 39% of the total sickness absence in Europe was caused by WMSD symptoms while 61% of permanent incapacity was due to WMSDs [3]. However, there are only a few studies on WMSD of Filipino workers. One type of work in the Philippines that involves bending or twisting, frequent repetition of an action, and uncomfortable/awkward working position is the hairstyling.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_97

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Visiting a beauty salon is one of the routines many of the Filipinos practice, with over a thousand of it in the country. People avail different services such as haircut, blow dry, hair color, etc. to relax and pamper themselves. However, salons need not only perform their services effectively but they should also prevent causing discomfort both to their clients and to the hairdressers. Hairdressers often work in uncomfortable positions for long hours. The nature of their work requires them to be in a standing position and in awkward postures; thus, hairdressers are exposed to several health risks [3]. Ailments caused by discomforts on the workforce of a business can be short but may still leave a long-term impact (e.g. high cost and bad image) for the company. Therefore, it is important to assess their working conditions in order to provide them with a safe and healthy workplace and to avoid the negative impact of MSDs on the workers as well as on the company. This study aims to identify the level of discomfort felt by hairdressers from the tasks they often do, as well as the risk factors associated to it.

2 Problem Statement WMSDs have been an issue to different countries around the world. Several ergonomic risk assessments were conducted on different job sectors including hairdressers. However, in the Philippines, there is currently no ergonomic assessment on the tasks performed by hairdressers. Moreover, the perceived pain of the hairdressers and its correlation with different risk factors has not yet been analyzed.

3 Review of Related Literature 3.1

Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Hairdressers

A study done in Taiwan among 12 professional hairdressers showed that 91.7% of the subjects suffer shoulder discomfort, 83.3% in the lower back, and 75% in the neck region. The researchers considered the age, working hours, and break as risk factors in the discomforts the hairdressers felt. Poor posture and lack of good equipment and facility were established as the contributing factor to the discomfort experienced [5]. Another study of 30 subjects, found that all subjects reported discomfort in the spine, 83% experienced discomfort in their shoulders, 43% in their hands and wrists, and 30% in their lower limbs. Maintaining a high position of the upper limbs, repetition of movements, and working in a standing posture for long hours were the main causes of the reported discomfort. Additionally, no relationship between the discomfort and age or working hours was found Cruz and Teixeira [3].

3.2

Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire

Kuorinka et al. [9] developed a standardized Nordic questionnaire to analyze MSD symptoms. Questionnaires have been proven to be an effective method of collecting data required to determine musculoskeletal symptoms in certain jobs. To easily

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compare results from other studies, standardization of such questionnaire was necessary. The standardized Nordic questionnaire consists of Yes or No questions about the discomfort the person feels in certain body parts. It is divided into the discomfort felt for the past 12 months and for the past 7 days. This questionnaire provides a way to analyzed MSD from an ergonomic point of view.

3.3

Evaluation of Tasks to Be Analyzed

In conducting ergonomic evaluation of workplaces, it is important to identify the tasks that will be analyzed. Characteristics of those tasks including force, repetition, and awkward postures are the three main factors that contribute to WMSDs. In order to prioritize the task for ergonomic analysis, there are four sources of data injury record, Nordic Standardized Musculoskeletal Questionnaire, supervisor interviews, and management concerns [1].

3.4

Ergonomics for Hairdressers and Hair Salons

Poor posture and workplace design are two of the risk factors of WMSD in the Salon. These include working in the same position for too long, lifting arms above the shoulders, repeatedly lifting the upper arms, leaning sideways or forward. Included in workplace design are the equipment used. Blow dry heavier than 500 g contribute to the shoulder pain the hairdressers feel. It was also discovered that scissors without rubber padding increase the risk of injury for the hairdresser when performing haircuts [14]. An ergonomic evaluation of a single salon in Orlando, Florida examined the levels of risk of the task, as well as organizational and personal levels (Keebler et al. 2009). The researchers used a demographics questionnaire, a workstation checklist, a hand tool evaluation checklist, and a count of trunk inclination adjustments. Seven participants ranging from 22 to 34 years old, with 11 months to 11 years of experience, were selected for the study. The study revealed that there was a moderate level of risk for injury over the long-term for the salon. In addition, work experience and frequency of hand cutting have a correlation to the discomfort felt by the workers.

3.5

Postural Assessment Techniques

There are different methods for assessing exposure to work-related musculoskeletal disorders. The observational methods were divided into pen-paper based methods and videotaping and computer-aided methods. Methods under the pen-paper based were Posturegram, OWAS, Posture Targetting, Giated musculoskeletal disorders were compared, l and Tunes, RULA, HAMA, PLIBEL, REBA and QEC. Those under the videotaping and computer-aided methods were Armstrong, ARBAM, VIRA, ROTA, TRAC, HARBO, PEO, Wells et al., Yen and Radwin [10]. REBA or the Rapid Entire Body Assessment can be used on tasks where postures are dynamic, static or changes in position happens. A specific posture is selected, assessed using the REBA diagrams and scored appropriately using the tables given.

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Numerical Rating Scale for Pain

Three types of pain rating scale as response were compared with respect to their simplicity and adequacy. 60 randomly chosen patients answered a questionnaire regarding their pain using the three pain rating scales – Simple Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), Numerical Rating Scale (NRS), and Likert Scale (LS). Results showed that the LS contained limited options while the VAS was somewhat difficult for the old and poorly educated patients. Additionally, the NRS was the one favored by most of the population [16].

3.7

Spearman Correlation Coefficient

Hauke and Kossowski [6] conducted a study comparing three different correlation coefficients – Pearson’s coefficient, Spearman’s coefficient and Kendall’s coefficient. Kendall’s coefficient shares some similarity with Spearman’s coefficient in terms of their assumptions, however these two are different in terms of their logic and formula. Moreover, Kendall’s coefficient is not widely used due to its complex computations. Pearson’s coefficient assumes that the data is linear and requires it to be measured at intervals. Unlike Pearson’s, Spearman’s coefficient can be used for data measured at the ordinal level and can be used when the assumption on the data of Pearson’s is violated. Spearman’s coefficient is a nonparametric form of Pearson. It measures the strength of the relationship between two ordinal variables. History and succeeding practices proved that Spearman was right and Spearman’s coefficient is the one widely used today in making statistical analyses.

4 Methodology Twelve hairdressers from salons with the same layout were chosen for the study. The subjects were asked to answer a modified Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ) including their personal information such as age, number of working hours, services done, estimated number of customers served per day, the intensity, frequency, and duration of pain. To know the risk of acquiring WMSD from the tasks, Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) was utilized to analyze the posture of the hairdressers while working. The most common tasks: hair coloring, hair cut, blowdry, and hair drying, were recorded through a video-recording device and was scored afterwards. The association of the final REBA score to the data acquired from the previous questionnaire was analyzed using Spearman’s correlation coefficient. The hairdressers’ anthropometric measurements were taken and compared with Del Prado-Lu’s study of Anthropometric measurement among 1805 workers in 2007. This is to check if the data from 2007 is still applicable for the study. The data gathered was also compared with the measurements of the different equipment used by the hairdressers in order to assess whether the equipment fits the measurement of the hairdressers.

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5 Results and Discussion The study consists of 12 hairdressers working in three different salons located in Quezon City. Out of 12 hairdressers, eight of them perform hair cutting, five does hair coloring, six does blow drying, three are hair washing at the back of the wash basin (noted as Hair Wash A), and four are hair washing at the side of the basin (noted as Hair Wash B). The total number of respondents that had trouble in the following body parts during the last 12 months was computed (see Table 1). The pain or discomfort was more prevalent in the lower back with 7 hairdressers (58.33%) and in both shoulders with 6 hairdressers (50%). This is similar from the previous research by Fang et al. in 2007. Table 1. Respondents that had trouble in the following body parts during the last 12 months Neck Shoulder

Right Left Both Elbows Right Left Both Wrists/Hands Right Left Both Upper back Lower back Hips/thighs Knees Ankles/Feet

5 2 1 6 2 2 2 3 – 3 5 7 5 4 5

There were 25–41.67% hairdressers who felt pain or discomfort with some of their body parts during the last seven days (see Table 2). Table 2. Respondents that had trouble in the following body parts during the last 7 days Neck Shoulder Elbows Wrist/hand Upper back 3 4 4 5 3

Lower back 5

Hips/thighs Knees Ankles/feet 3

2

3

The survey scores were computed by multiplying the intensity and frequency of pain per body part for all the tasks of each hairdresser. The entire body score was obtained by getting the sum of the survey scores. In addition, the average of the total scores for each of the tasks was also computed (Tables 3 and 4).

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Table 3. Summary of the survey answers Stylist 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Average intensity 33.67 49 47.33 51 28 13 48 16 6 51.75 14.5 28

Average frequency 2.91 2.73 2.91 3.09 2.36 2.64 2.64 2.73 1.27 2.82 2.18 2

Age 29 25 23 48 26 50 36 35 25 25 26 30

Number of years working 5 7 3.083 30 4 11 8 6.75 0.4167 9.833 7 3

Average number of customers 10 15 10 7 5 7 7 10 10 7 5 4

Table 4. Tasks with their corresponding REBA, survey score for the entire body, and duration Task Hair Coloring Haircutting Hair washing (A) Hair washing (B) Blowdrying

REBA 4 5 5 (L)8, R(6) (L)4, (R)5

Survey score Duration (in min) 92.2 17.5 94.56 25 88.67 8 93 10 115.71 40

The REBA scores range from 4 to 8. These values denote medium to high risks and require “necessary” to “necessary soon” actions. These scores imply the need for examination and further improvements of the task to lessen the hairdressers’ exposure to health risks. Based on the REBA scores, the task that exposes the hairdressers to high risk is hairwashing with the hairdressers at the side, with a maximum score of 8 for the left and a score of 6 for the right hand, given that the hairdresser is right handed. It should be noted that the value might change if the subject would be left-handed (Table 5). Table 5. Spearman correlation results Spearman correlation REBA and Survey score 0.224 Survey score and duration of task 0.9 Average intensity and number of years working 0.439 Average intensity and age of worker −0.136 Average intensity and number of customers 0.122 Average frequency and age of worker 0.032 Average frequency and number of years working 0.463 Average frequency and number of customers 0.429

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Significant association between 2 variables is indicated by a spearman correlation of 0.3 and above. From the calculated spearman correlation, the risk factors that are significantly associated with the body discomfort are the duration of task, years of experience, and number of customers. Average pain intensity is positively correlated with the number of years working. This suggests that the longer the hairdressers are in the industry, the higher their perceived pain is. Average frequency of pain is positively correlated with the number of years working and number of customers served. Pain is frequently felt by hairdressers who have been in the industry for a long time and serves a large number of customers. The survey score and the duration of the task have a correlation of 0.9 which is the closest to the maximum correlation value of 1, an implication of a strong relationship between these two factors. This indicates that the longer the task needs to be done, the more that the worker is prone to experiencing pain and discomfort. REBA scores and the survey scores have a correlation of 0.224. Although the association is low, this value indicates that the tasks with a high risk based on postures also have the highest perceived pain by the hairdressers. The more awkward or uncomfortable the working posture is, the more the pain is felt. Thus, it is critical to evaluate the work design with respect to the anthropometric measurements of the hairstylists. The anthropometric measurements of the subjects were measured and evaluated for significant changes in measurements from the data gathered in 2007. The collected measurements include the following: (1) Standing height; (2) Eye height; (3) Shoulder height; (4) Shoulder width; (5) Shoulder elbow length; (6) Length of upper arm; (7) Length of lower arm; (8) Forearm hand length; (9) Length of arm and hand; (10) Elbow height; (11) Knuckle height; (12) Chest height; (13) Chest breadth; (14) Waist height; (15) Hip width; (16) Hip height; (17) Knee height; (18) Popliteal height; (19) Overhead fingertip reach; and (20) Arm span. Based on the data from Del Prado-Lu’s study for anthropometric measurements among 1805 Filipino workers, the measurements gathered from the 12 respondents are still within the 5th and 95th percentile even after 9 years. Therefore, the 2007 anthropometric measurements can then be used for further study in designing the workplace and equipment in a beauty salon.

6 Conclusion The study found out that 83% of the hairdressers for the past 12 months and 41.67% hairdressers for the past 7 days experience WMSD symptoms. Furthermore, the postural analysis of the four different tasks hairdressers often do, from the Rapid Entire Body Assessment showed scores ranging from 4 to 8. These scores indicate exposure to medium to high risks, implying that further examination and improvements of the specified tasks or equipments are necessary. Duration of the task and the pain perceived by the hairdressers while doing them has the highest correlation value among other factors. This implies that the hairdressers experience more pain with longer task duration. The second highest is obtained in the

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factors average frequency and number of years working with a value of 0.463, followed by the factors number of years working and average intensity with a correlation of 0.439. Number of working years showed average impact on the pain felt by the hairdressers and can be regarded as an important factor. However, the age of the workers shows low correlation values with both the intensity and frequency, thus, it can be considered a factor of low significance. The pain for the entire body in each task as perceived by the hairdressers were measured using the survey and the scores that were obtained range from 92.2 to 115.71. These scores are low relative to the maximum possible score of 550. This denotes that the hairdressers deem the pain they feel as tolerable.

7 Recommendation The height of the chair used for the customers in the salon is ranging from 55 to 59.5 cm. The REBA score for the neck with the tasks involving this equipment is 2 while the upper arm is 3 suggesting that further adjustments should be done with the chair’s design. According to Verhamme [14], hairdressing chairs should be adjustable so that the hairdresser can work at the right height that is comfortable for him or her. Based from the data of Del Prado Lu, a recommended lowest height for the chair of the client is 89 cm which is based from the elbow height. In addition, the hairdressers should adjust the height of the chair from time to time for the hairdressers to work at the right height when working on the top of the head or at the neck area [14]. The wash basin should also be adapted to the physique of the hairdresser. An optimal wash basin height is around the elbow height. [14]. Based on Del Prado-Lu’s study, the elbow height ranges from 89 to 112.80. A recommended height for the wash basin should be around 100 cm. With this, raising of upper arms of the hairdresser, and bending of the body could be lessened.

8 Areas for Further Study Since this study focused on the assessment of the risk of hair stylists to Work-related Musculoskeletal Diseases on the tasks that they perform. Further research such as a health risk assessment of the chemicals of the beauty products that hair stylists use, and different hazards that may be present can also be subjects for another study. With the risk to WMSDs assessed, and the anthropometric measurements from Del Prado-Lu’s study — since the measurements gathered from the respondents are within the 5th to 95th percentile, this can be used for the designing of the furniture and the workplace, prioritizing those tasks which the hair stylists perceive more pain. Assessing the discomfort of the customer while the hairdressers perform their services on them can also be tackled. In designing the workplace and equipment of the salon, both the customers and the hairdressers can then be considered. Using the data gathered, a workplace design could be improved for a better fit for Filipino hairdressers and their customers.

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Improved work techniques could also be implemented in the salons and be re-assessed. This could be done to know if the improved work techniques will lessen the risk of acquiring WMSD in the hairdressers. A similar study with a larger sample size and respondents from other parts of the country could also be done in the future to compare and benchmark with the results of this study. These recommendations for further research would be beneficial for hair salons and this can also be applied to different work sectors.

References 1. Cornelius, K.M., Turin, F.C., Wiehagen, W.J., Gallagher, S.: An approach to identify jobs for ergonomic analysis (2001) 2. Cornell Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaires: (n.d.). Cornell University Ergonomics Web. http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/ahmsquest.html 3. Cruz, J., Teixeira, M.-D.: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders among hairdressers: a pilot study (2016) 4. Del Prado-Lu, J.L.: Anthropometric measurements of filipino manufacturing workers. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 37, 497–503 (2007) 5. Fang, H.-L., Chen, R.C., Fang, H.-P., Xu, Q.: An ergonomic approach to an investigation into the risk factors leading to work-related musculoskeletal disorders for Taiwanese hairdressers (2007) 6. Hauke, J., Kossowski, T.: Comparison of values of Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients on the same sets of data (2011) 7. Keebler, J.R., Ososky, S.: Ergonomic analysis of a hair salon (2009) 8. Konz, S.: Standing work. In: International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors (2006) 9. Kuorinka, I., Jonsson, B., Kilbom, A., Vinterberg, H., Biering-Sorensen, F., Andersson, G., Jorgensen, K.: Standardised Nordic questionnaires for the analysis of musculoskeletal symptoms. Appl. Ergon. 18, 233–237 (1987) 10. Li, G., Buckle, P.: Current techniques for assessing physical exposure to work-related musculoskeletal risks, with emphasis on posture-based methods. Ergonomics 42, 674–695 (1999) 11. Nordander, C., Ohlsson, K., Åkesson, I., Arvidsson, I., Balogh, I., Hansson, G.Å., Strömberg, U., Rittner, R., Skerfving, S.: Risk of musculoskeletal disorders among females and males in repetitive/constrained work. Ergonomics 52, 1226–1239 (2009) 12. Nowak, E.: Anthropometry in workstation design. In: International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors (2006) 13. Tatkare, S., Tatkare, N., Kavar, K.: A Comparative study between various pain rating scales as response options in patients with diabetic neuropathy. Indian J. Basic Appl. Med. Res. (2016) 14. Verhamme, V.: Ergonomics for start-up hairdressers (2015)

Discussion of the Design of Sanitation Workers’ Clothes Based on Ergonomics Jiahui Xu(&) and Xiaoping Hu South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. At present, the majority of the labor workers still depends on physical strength and handwork in china. The dressing system of sanitation workers are incomplete. Some functional protective design is still efficiency in costume designing. Most of the sanitation works always suffered from disease such as psoatic strain, arthropathy, Skin problems, lungs and respiratory tract. So, in this paper, from the perspective of Human Factors Engineering, taking sanitation workers as principal part of the investigation and research, taking Guangzhou area as an example, with the methods of fact finding and questionnaire survey, the author Pointed out the key points of the problem and got the survey data. With a large amount of literature and information as the research background reference, the author summarized and analysed the Clothing research methods based on Human Factors Engineering, to improve the protective dress devices and reduce the epidemic and casualty rate. Keywords: Human Factors


Sanitation clothes
Design

1 Introduction With the rapid development of economy and the acceleration of Urbanization, China as a developing country, the total urban garbage emissions increased day by day, emerged as a constantly rising trend. The amount of urban garbage produced in the city is 400 g/person, the total amount of urban garbage in the city increased 8–10% per day. Most of the cities in China had been in the situation which surrounded by garbage, The severe environmental problems had become the major problems that restrict the living environment of human beings, and simultaneously Restricted the development of society also affected people’s daily lives. But, sanitation workers are city beautician, played a very important role in the process of the city development. their life security, current existence and develop situation as well as future development interacted with a country’s urbanization. This paper takes Guangzhou city of Guangdong province as an example, the severe environmental problems had become the major problems that restrict the living environment of human beings, simultaneously restricted the development of society, but also affected people’s daily lives. According to the survey of the current employment situation of sanitation workers in China, different with the developed country, most of the sanitation workers are doing their works in a manual manner. Compared with the developed country’s Machine operation mode, China got a lower efficiency and productivity in work, and personal security of the Chinese © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_98

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sanitation workers did not get enough protection. in recent years, the news media frequently reported that the sanitation workers hit by cars when they doing their work on the road, the nature of the sanitation workers’ job is special, most of the place they worked is busy streets with people come and go and with a high risk; sanitation workers showed discordance in their work cloths, nonstandard in their Clothing standards, Imperfect in their cloth Safety performance, and incomplete in their Supporting accessories. Affect the enthusiasm and safety of sanitation workers to some extent, thus affecting the development process of Urbanization. Sanitation workers are the main force in the development of urban environment, but it has not received much attention. In recent years, the number of urban sanitation workers in China has decreased year by year, Recruitment difficulties of sanitation workers emerged frequently in recent years. Although China has been observed the problem and has attached importance to the design of fashion style, the choice of the fabric material, and the design of the functionality, but the fundamental problem has not been completely resolved. Sanitation workers are still one of the most vulnerable groups. Compared with other developed countries, there are still some deficiencies in the design of China’s sanitation workers. For example, in Japan, the design of clothing of sanitation workers is more advanced and perfect, it has a wide variety of category, occupation division is also relatively thin, and with a Strong protection function. For example, reflective Strap dress, antiskid and insulated safety shoes etc. Therefore, this paper started from the personal safety of sanitation workers, researched on the connection and effect between human body, clothing and environment, did a certain though on the problems occurred in the process of the work of sanitation workers and the requirements of human body for clothing, had conceived the design of clothing with a certain protective system, try to reduce the damage to the sanitation workers in the process of work, try to improve the level of protection for them. In the aspect of the sanitation workers’ operating equipment, the author thinks that it is necessary to establish a complete set of equipment system, try to apply the functional clothing to the clothing design of sanitation workers, by drawing lessons from the original sanitation worker’s clothing design and the design idea and the esthetic tendency of the business suits of other industries. Innovation and design of the concept of “safety”, “protection” and “comfort” as the concept of sanitation workers clothing. Fill in the professional clothing on the design of sanitation workers blank.

2 Method 2.1

Research Object

This study is based on a random survey of environmental workers in Guangdong, Guangzhou, China, data collection dates from December 2016 to mid-February 2017, Investigated 60 people.

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Research Contents

At present, the development of Chinese clothing design industry most focus on high-end clothing or folk-style costume design. For Business attire, especially on the design of the sanitation workers’ clothing still has a certain lag. The purpose of this paper is to establish about the Sanitation workers’ demand for clothing and other issues in the process of labor work. Through the way of questionnaire survey, concluded the best solution, and designed a set of clothing with protective functions. From the survey objects randomly selected 10 people as a preliminary observation. First of all, from their personal data, daily behavior analysis and collation of information, then they were asked to answer a preliminary questionnaire. Finally, modify and extract the main information, get the final questionnaire.

2.3

Data Evaluation, Analysis and Design

On the choice of clothing style and fabric, should follow the job requirements of sanitation workers. Should fully consider the problem they will face in the working process and emergency situation. The design information is according to the psychological needs and physiological needs. The clothing design of Garbage cleaner emphasis on clothing comfort, security and the functional, but can’t designed too exaggerated, just need to meet the demands of the specific functional requirements. Distinguish the style, fabric, ingredients, colour of clothes when in design

3 Consequence We can see from the Table 1, the sanitation workers of Guangzhou mostly are women, accounted for 60.0%, and men accounted for 40.0%. Most of them are migrants from other provinces, Nonresident accounted for 91.7%, And local residents only accounted for 8.3%; Sanitation workers’ age most concentrated between 30 to 44, younger workers (under age 18) or older workers (aged above 60) accounted just for 0.8% and 1.2%; most of their working age during the period of 6 to 10 years, the average daily work time of the sanitation workers is relatively long, 99.8% of them worked more than 8 h. Most of their working place is outside. In recent years, the sanitation workers suffering from gallstones, gallbladder polyps and chronic-cholecystitis, accounting for more than 10% of the check number, and has been on the rise. The city sanitation workers in a state of completely healthy only accounted for 20%. Especially the female sanitation workers, because of a long time in the noise, dust, automobile exhaust and other harsh environment mechanically repetitively work, always squeezed the breast, it’s easily lead to hyperplasia of the breast, waist or neck injury, respiratory tract infection. Sanitation workers worked long hours a day, labor intensity, mental tension, it’s easy to suffer from blood pressure disease, increased blood lipids, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases; In Guangzhou, the climate is often hot and humid all year round, sanitation workers often need to work under high temperature in summer, long

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J. Xu and X. Hu Table 1. Demographic characteristics of sanitation workers Percent age Gender Male Female Total Domicile place Residence in Guangzhou Domicile isn’t in Guangzhou Total Age 18 to 30 years old 31 to 44 years old 45 to 50 years old 51 to 59 years old More than 60 years old Total Working hours Less than one year 1 to 5 years 6 to 10 years 11 to 15 years More than 16 years Total

40.0 60.0 60 100.0 8.3 91.7 60 100.0 0.8 51.8 38.2 8.0 1.2 60 100.0 3.5 32.3 38.2 18.7 7.3 60 100.0

Table 2. Sanitation workers health statistics Classification Percent age Result Female disease 83.36 Abnormal liver function 17.58 Blood pressure, elevated blood lipids 100.0 a Because of the above symptoms, the total percentage is not 100%

term in the high temperature and high humidity, it is easy to suffer from a variety of rheumatism. Please refer to Table 2 (Table 3).

4 Discuss Long term exposure to dust, noise and exhaust emissions will cause great harm to sanitation workers’ health. Sanitation workers may have a cough, expectoration, dry throat, breath shortness, chest tightness and other chronic respiratory symptoms of asthma, or dry eye, tears, tingling, foreign body sensation and other eye irritation

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Table 3. The standard should be taken into consideration when designing clothing for sanitation workers Fuction value Easy movement Extended mobility Reduce body pressure Reduce body friction Lithe Physical convenience Anti high temperature Provide air circulation Enhanced persistence

Social psychological value He or she status Provide self-esteem Provide confidence

symptoms, the incidence of these symptoms increased year by year. In addition, the sanitation workers in this environment for a long time, psychological and emotional aspects are easy to show as: depression, tension, anxiety, fatigue, etc. Sanitation workers did not wear uniforms, some people even throughout the year only wear a work vest with safety reflective strips. If in accordance with the requirements of regulations put on work clothes- the clothing fabric is not cotton texture, especially in the area of Guangzhou city in hot summer, hot air fabric, the sanitation workers in the process of operation was not comfortable, can easily lead to heat stroke; At the same time, Guangzhou have specified the sanitation workers’ clothing color and style (such as orange, yellow, fluorescent green, etc.), most of them are the same, But specific to each region and each department, work clothes are not the same, these uniforms lack of uniformity to a certain extent. Some even only wear a piece of work vest, this will undoubtedly lead to sanitation workers vulnerable to injury in the work. In addition, in the course of labor operations, The amplitude and frequency of each joint of the body are inconsistent, that’s easily lead to different parts of the clothes to varying degrees of damage, Therefore, we should observe the static and dynamic state of sanitation workers in their work, so that we can obtain functional clothing which accord with human body. Different movements, how is the body curve, We should also be fully aware that under different circumstances, different actions, how is the Angular motion and the external type changes of joint, This also allows us to design clothing more accord with the Man-machine theory. In the following, we will put forward the problems and solutions emerged in the working process of sanitation workers.

4.1

Clothing Version

According to relevant regulations, the Sanitation clothes provided for a year two sets of long sleeved clothing and a vest. In summer, the temperature in Guangzhou can reached 38–40 °C, worked in this high temperature, people are prone to suffer heatstroke, especially most of the sanitation workers are elderly people. According to the survey to sanitation workers, Whether long sleeve or short sleeve, each have advantages and disadvantages, it difficult to cater for all tastes. Therefore, the author thinks that in the

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aspect of Style structure of Sanitation clothes: 1. the sleeve is designed as a removable sleeve with a zipper link, which can be flexibly adjusted according to their own needs; 2. the underarm parts of the clothes conducted with Segmentation, increase the scope of the arm movement, reduce the restraint on the body; 3. Use double fabric In the easily worn parts such as The elbows, knees and cuffs, extend the life of the clothing; 4. Increase the width of the shoulder strap and reduce the pressure on the shoulder.

4.2

Clothing Fabrics

Because of the special nature of the work, the fabric used by the workers should be adapted to the environment, Especially in Guangzhou, the perennial high temperature and rainy climate, Anti UV and breathable fabric has become the primary selection criteria, The cotton and flax in the natural fibers have good moisture absorption and air permeability. Cotton feels soft and comfortable, while the hemp feel worse than cotton, but stronger, more durable wear-resistant in work. In addition, in spring, autumn and winter, the choice of fabric can be thick, for the purpose of more durable, can also choose the twill weave cotton fabric and polyester cotton fabric. Because the twill weave fabric is relatively more thicker and stronger; and in the summer can choose cotton fabric of plain weave, it is breathable and thin, meet the needs.

4.3

Clothing Color

According to the survey, most of the sanitation workers’ accident occurred in the morning, the low visibility coupled with the car driver did not get enough rest, it’s easily lead to fatigue driving, as a result did not see the sanitation workers are working. In all colors, orange have a high brightness. According to relevant regulations, the Sanitation clothes have been set the standard for three colors: green fluorescence, fluorescent yellow, orange fluorescence. According to the design principle, the color selection of the sanitation clothes should be high visibility, strong penetration of the atmosphere and can be identified remotely, especially in the dusk, dawn, fog weather. Generally speaking, green fluorescence, fluorescent yellow, orange fluorescence are very eye-catching color. But at the same time, there are some drawbacks. For example, in the hot summer day of Guangzhou, there are so many mosquitoes, and the mosquitoes Has phototaxis, especially for the orange yellow color. For example, the sanitation workers who worked in the green belt to wear this color is slightly inappropriate, so the author believes that the specific use of these colors, should be detailed provisions and division.

4.4

The Accessories Decorate of Clothing

Environmental coverall use reflective strip as a warning, but even so, Due to the particularity of environment where sanitation workers work, coverall need to be cleaned regularly, so it is easy to cause the strip to wear and weaken effect of reflection. In addition, long time exposure of the sunlight could greatly reduce the service life of the

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reflecting bar. Therefore, it fails playing the role of warning at night because of the short reflection distance and weak brightness. The use of reflective strips before and after few months is shown in the Fig. 1.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 1. (a) Before Use, (b) Use two months (c) Use four months.

Through the contrast of using before and after can be seen that reflection bar barely working after 4 months of serious wearing and tearing, which caused a great deal of harm to the safety of sanitation workers. Therefore, the author believes that it can be improved by changing sewing mode, which is not directly sewn on the clothes, but by way of Velcro fixation. Reflective strip can be torn down avoiding abrasion during washing process. In addition, it is also appropriate to add the LED light which is widely used for its low power consumption and cost saving. For example, we can settle a small power storage box and two batteries which is connected with the regulator in the clothing front pocket, so LED lights flashing rhythm can be controlled through the regulator which make the vehicles passing by notice sanitation workers from the long distance, and that ensures the safety of the sanitation workers.

Appendix: Survey on the Status Quo of Urban Sanitation Workers The questionnaire was designed to understand the requirements, needs and problems of the workers in Guangzhou. Please select an answer, thank you for your participation. Basic situation of work Sex: Ages: Education degree: 1. How long do you work everyday? ( ) less than 4 h 4 to 8 h 8–10 h More than 10 h 2. What parts of your body or joints are most likely to be affected or injured during your work? ( ) You can select more than one. Head Neck Shoulder Joints of hands and feet

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3. Do you think your working environment is safe? ( ) Commonly Unsafe Security 4. Do you have any accidents at work? ( ) Never Sometimes Often Always 5. How are you now? ( ) A. Very good B. Commonly C. So bad 6. What disease do you often suffer from? ( ) You can select more than one. Gynecological diseases Liver abnormality Blood lipids, abnormal blood pressure increased respiratory tract infection 7. Are they have any comments about your current work clothes? ( ) Yes, they are. No, they aren’t. 8. Is there a protective function for the work clothes? ( ) Yes, it is. No, it isn’t. 9. What are the factors that you pay more attention to?( )You can select more than one. A. Quality B. Clothing ingredients C. Style D. Comfort 10. What are your requirements for your work clothes? ( ) You can select more than one. A. Waterproof and anti bacteria B. Remove sweat C. Durable and easy to wash D. Beautiful 11. What do you think must be equipped in the course of the work?( )You can select more than one. A. Mask B. Hat C. Shoes D. Glasses

Thank you again for your cooperation!

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References 1. El-Fadel, M., Findikakis, A.N., Leekie, J.O.: Environmental impacts of solid waste land filling. J. Environ. Manag. 50(1), 1–25 (1997) 2. Straub, T.M., Pepper, I.L., Gerbacp, C.P.: Hazards from pathogenic microorganism a inland disposed sewage sludge. Rev. Envir. Contam. Toxicol. 132 (1993) 3. Fisherj, W.: Estimating the risks of liver and lung cancer in humans exposed to trichloroethylene using a physiological model. Toxicol. Lett. 68(122), 127–129 (1993) 4. Goldberg, M.S., Alehomsi, N., Goulet, L., et al.: Incidence of cancer among persons living near a municipal solid waste landfill site in Montreal. Quebec. Arch. Environ. Health 50(6), 416–424 (1995)

Dynamic Understanding of Human-Skin Movement and Garment Design of Golf Apparel Ziting Hu, Li Liu(&), Zhengdong Liu, and Mengdi Xing Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology, Beijing, China [email protected]

Abstract. Most golf apparels are designed based on static body measurement, which couldn’t meet wearer’s demands for skin length increase during natural swing movement. The paper aimed to observe the effects of swing characters on the human body skin extension. 6 male golfers were employed as subject. This paper proposes a motion tracking method to collect skin marker coordinates throughout a full swing movement. A map of maximum longitudinal and horizontal strain of upper body was found. Key measurements that commonly used in clothing making were analyzed. Finally, application of the research results is suggested for the high-performance golf apparel design. Keywords: Skin movement
Body length measurement Golf movement
Golf apparel




Motion capture




1 Introduction Golf swing action requires large amount of muscles and skeletons of the body, due to a wide range of motion of the torso and upper limb. Therefore, human skin experiences a various degree of stretch. Most papers were published in skin properties definition [1– 4] and body measurements in static sport gestures areas [5–7], there is little current knowledge of the strains experienced by skin during natural movements [8, 9]. Golf clothing design should consider body dimensional change to avoid prohibition of swing movement. The study tries to provide a dynamic method to analyze the law of upper body skin length extension and key measurements that commonly used in clothing making. The results can provide suggestions to clothing structure design, wearing eases for clothing pattern design, yarn direction and fabric elasticity selection.

2 Experiment 2.1

Subject

6 right-handed, injury-free, amateur male golfers were recruited from local golf group (Average body height :175 cm) (Fig. 1).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_99

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Fig. 1.

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Spherical markers on the body. Left: Front view. Right: Back view

Experimental Equipment

Sixteen-camera Qualysis (Swedish motion capture company) motion capture system (Oqus 100 cameras, 0.3Mpixel) were utilized to record subject’s coordinates of the reflective spherical markers during the entire swing (Stand, Address, Backswing horizontal, Peak backswing, Downswing horizontal, Impact, Follow through horizontal, Follow through the end).

2.3

Markers Definition

According to ISO 8559-1989 [10] “Garment Construction and Anthropometric Surveys-body Dimensions”, and combined with dimension change in key parts of the body during golf swing, we marked reference grids on golfer`s skin. 167 4-and 6-mm spherical reflective markers positioned approximately 5–6 cm apart at selected grids on 6 healthy adult male golfers. 2 additional markers were placed on the individual`s driving club and a piece of reflective tape was placed on the golf ball. Measuring line of upper body see Fig. 2.

2.4

Experimental Procedure

After performing usual pregame warm-up (stretching and hitting practice shots with a 7 iron), subject hit a minimum of 10 balls with the driver into a net. The testing session was considered complete when at least 6 acceptable swings had been recorded. Acceptance of a swing was based on data quality (lowest marker residuals, complete data on follow-through) and verbal feedback from the participant. Subject hit from an artificial grass surface and the ball traveled approximately 5 m before hitting the net. Five seconds of position data were captured with the body stay in static position (initial

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position). With the same marker grid, motion capture position data were collected from a full swing motion lasting approximately 10 s. Data were fed into an enhanced analysis program QTM data collection software to compare each frame to the reference position (first frame).

(a) Front view Fig. 2.

(b) Back view

Measuring line of upper body: (a) Front view; (b) Back view.

1. Neck girth; 2. Shoulder width; 3. Across sp1 width; 4. 1/2 Line between Across sp1 width and Width armpits (front), Upper 1/3 line between Across sp1 width and Across back width (back); 5. Width armpits (front), Lower 1/3 line between Across sp1 width and Across back width (back); 6. 1/2 Line between Width armpits and Bust girth (front), Across back width (back); 7. Bust girth; 8. Under bust girth; 9. Upper 1/3 line between Under bust girth and Waist girth; 10. Lower 1/3 line between Under bust girth and Waist girth; 11. Waist girth; 12. Neck to Waist girth central front (front), Neck to Waist girth central back (back); 13. 1/2 Line between Neck to Waist girth central front and Neck to Waist girth over bust (front), 1/2 Line between Neck to Waist girth central back and Neck to Waist girth over scapula (back); 14. Neck to Waist girth over bust (front), Neck to Waist girth over scapula (back); 15. 1/2 Line between Neck to Waist girth over bust and Front armpits to Waist girth, 1/2 Line between Neck to Waist girth over scapula and Back armpits to Waist girth; 16. Front armpits to Waist girth, Back armpits to Waist girth; 17. Armpit to Waist girth.

2.5

Data Analyses

A dedicated analysis program was created for calculating distance between each marker. The inputs to the program are the initial and deformed positions(the x, y, and z coordinates)of the grid of markers aligned in rows and columns on the body. In the program, the changes in distances between each marker and its closest neighbors (the two markers adjacent to the marker of interest in the same row and the one markers one

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row above and below the marker) from initial position to deformation are used to calculate stretch distance using the following equation: e¼

l  l0 Dl ¼ l0 l0

where l is the new distance between two points, lo is the original length between two points, and Dl is the difference between the two. With this new data, we are also able to calculate the skin stretch map of maximum length longitudinal extension, maximum circumferential extension of skin movement between each adjacent marker throughout the recorded frames. Partial data were excluded from the calculation because of a loss of tracking on the arm. Finally, 306 body lengths were analyzed (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Maximum longitudinal and horizontal strain value distribution

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3 Results 3.1

Stretching Distribution Among Calculated Body Lengths

Figure 4 presented a map of maximum longitudinal and horizontal strain rate distribution between each marker over the entire motion. After eliminating the outliers, maximum strains among 6 subjects for each line of adjacent markers were averaged when calculated the stretch distribution. Red indicates extreme extension changing rate (over 90%), green represents non-extension changing rate (0%). The rate of change is divided into 10 levels at intervals of 10%. The closer to the red the greater of extension change rate. Back view of the body shows stretch along column 1–6 and 16–20, neck to the waist (center back) column indicates the 1 column of the body. Font view of the body reflects the strain along column 6–16, neck to the waist (center front) represents the 11 column of the body. Neck and shoulder constitute for row 1, waist line names for row 10. Map of maximum longitudinal and horizontal strain rate distribution shows that each section on human skin stretch differently. Front armpit and underarm area experience the most significant extension; Neck, chest, abdomen body side, and waist stretch a little. Figure 3 shows the maximum longitudinal and horizontal change values between each point were averaged over the full swing which gives a representation of general properties and movement of the skin. The data in Fig. 3 is presented in the same fashion as Table 1. Front armpit: Area around front armpit significantly extended along longitudinal direction, while horizontal changes are relatively lower. Front armpit and the area above have a longitudinal extend by 3.46–7.56 cm (75–150%). Horizontal stretch is similar to that of the other parts of the front body, extending by 1.28–2.06 cm (20– 90%). Back armpit: For the back armpit area, the horizontal stretch has change significantly and longitudinal changes reach a relatively higher degree as well. Horizontal stretches extend by 3–5.05 cm (65–100%) around the back armpit and the region above. longitudinal stretch extend by 3.04–3.32 cm (45–55%) around the back armpit and the area blow. Underarm: The longitudinal stretch has a higher extend, while the horizontal stretch has lower. Longitudinal stretches extend by 2.39–3 cm (75–85%). Horizontal stretches extend by 0.78–2.17 cm (15–45%). Middle back: Among all middle back, horizontal stretches around across back line has a higher extend. Longitudinal changes are relatively lower. Horizontal stretches extend by 2–3 cm (30–55%). Longitudinal stretches extend by 0.05–1.3 cm (1–37%). V shaped area on lower part of the back: Longitudinal and horizontal stretch of both sides of the waist shows a similar extension at a lower rate. Longitudinal stretches extend by 1–2 cm (20–45%). Horizontal stretch stretches extend by 0.36–2.05 cm (10– 40%). V shaped area on upper part of the back: The longitudinal stretch has little change, while the horizontal stretch has a lower extend as well. Longitudinal stretches extend by 0.1–0.6 cm (2–15%). Horizontal stretches extend by 1.04–2.26 cm (15–55%).

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Fig. 4. Maximum longitudinal and horizontal strain rate distribution over the entire motion

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Chest and abdomen: Longitudinal and horizontal stretch both show a trend of lower extend. Horizontal stretch stretches extend by 0.5–2 cm (3–30%). Longitudinal stretches extend by 1–2.5 cm (7–50%). Law of the horizontal extension: The range of change over the front body is consistent with what we have observed on the back of body. Most horizontal stretches extend less than 2 cm. Strip shape distribution is found on the back of the body. Regions around neck and waist extend at a lower level, while area around across back line experience a higher change, extending by 2–3 cm. Back armpit and Across back extend the most, extension peaking at 5.05 cm. Law of the longitudinal extension: The range of change over the front body is slightly longer than the back of the body. A majority of longitudinal stretch extend less than 2 cm. V shaped distribution is found on the back of the body. Both sides of the lower back show that most of the skins extend less than 2 cm, while upper back extend less than 0.5 cm. The most extension region appeared at front armpit, back armpit and underarm area, the largest extension reaching at 7.56 cm.

3.2

Body Measurements Commonly Used in Clothing Making

The variation of 11 major body measurements during dynamic golf movement are calculated and shown in Table 2. The figures are presented as the differences between the mean values of the static state measurement and that of the maximum extension among swing movement. The percentage of change compared to the static state measurements are also presented in the table. Among all body measurements

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commonly used in clothing making listed in Table 2, longitudinal strain change more obvious than horizontal strain. Longitudinal strains such as neck to waist (center front), neck to waist (center back), neck to waist over bust, neck to waist over scapula and underarm to waist extend by 4.17–7.99 cm (10.67–42.53%). Horizontal strains such as neck base, chest girth, and waist girth extend by 1.78–6.46 cm (3.91–8.10%). Table 2. Variation of major body measurements change rate and change value Body measurements Horizontal

Neck base

Shoulder Across shoulder

Across chest

Across back

Chest

Waist

Neck base (front) Neck base (back) Neck base Shoulder (left) Shoulder (right) Across shoulder (front/left) Across shoulder (front/right) Across shoulder(front) Across shoulder (back/left) Across shoulder (back/right) Across shoulder (back) Across chest (left) Across chests (right) Across chests Across back (left) Across back (right) Across back Chest (front/left) Chest (front/right) Chest(front) Chest (back/left) Chest (back/right) Chest (back) Chest Waist (front/left) Waist (front/right) Waist (front) Waist (back left) Waist (back/right) Waist (back) Waist

Mean (cm) −0.27 1.89 1.78 1.45 1.05 1.54

Change rate (%) −0.99 10.28 3.91 12.47 9.13 7.38

2.40

12.02

3.59 3.77

8.79 18.10

3.39

15.88

7.11 5.45 3.25 3.32 10.15 10.81 14.63 −1.49 −0.54 −3.96 7.02 6.36 8.76 2.06 1.42 1.76 1.02 2.09 2.81 3.63 6.46

16.86 27.47 18.49 8.87 51.57 55.07 37.21 −6.55 −2.48 −8.89 28.71 24.08 17.22 2.16 7.05 9.32 2.61 10.62 13.33 8.91 8.10 (continued)

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Mean (cm) Longitudinal Neck to waist Neck to waist(center front) 4.30 Neck to waist(center back) 4.17 Neck to waist over bust Neck to waist over bust 4.65 (left) Neck to waist over bust 7.99 (right) Neck to waist over Neck to waist over scapula 6.25 scapula Neck to waist over scapula 4.89 Underarm to waist Underarm to waist(left) 6.51 Underarm to waist(right) 6.21

Body measurements

Change rate (%) 13.16 10.67 11.06 18.90 14.27 11.03 42.53 38.74

In order to further observe the golf asymmetric effects on body measurements, 11 major body measurements commonly used in clothing making are divided into 39 items following the order: body front, body back, body left, and body right. On the one hand, horizontal strains of body back extend more than that of the front due to golf movement characteristics. Body back measurements show the same trend of extend. Neck base (back), across shoulder (back), across back, chest (back) and waist(back) extend by 1.89–14.63 cm (3.91–37.21%). The most extension position located around across middle back area. Across back line measurement shows that the skin extends the most, by 14.63 cm (37.21%). The chest (back) extension ranks second, extending by 8.76 cm (17.22%). The across shoulder (back) extension ranks the third, extending by 7.11 cm (16.86%). As to body front measurement, the chest girth (front) showed a trend of small contraction, other measuring line tend to expand. Neck base (front), across shoulder (front), across chests, chest (front) and waist (front) extend by −3.96– 3.32 cm (−8.89–8.87%). On the other hand, horizontal strains between body left and body right do not show obvious differences during dynamic movements.

4 Discussion 4.1

Connection Between Body Length and Area Distribution

In the first part of the series of reports on studying skin deformation difference during full swing, the map of skin area distribution and body measurements commonly used in clothing making is reported [11]. Instead of study the major golf postures, this paper focus on natural swing movement. Law of the length and area distribution of the body show the same results, but with different scope of change. Front armpit: area stretches extend by 15–18%. Back armpit area stretches extend by 20–40%. Underarm area stretches extend by 15–18%. Middle back area stretches extend by 15–18%. V shaped area on lower part of the back area stretches extend by 8–15%. V shaped area on upper part of the back area stretches extend by 6–24%. Chest and abdomen area stretches extend below 11%.

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Length map shows a wide range of change than the area map. Such difference may cause by area-calculated characters. Even the area changes little the shape could experience huge deformation, which lead to great length change in different directions. Law of the skin distribution can be useful for structure design, pattern design and yarn direction selection of golf apparel.

4.2

Effects of Major Muscles on Body Length Change Distribution

Figure 5 shows the major muscles of the upper body during golf. Longitudinal and horizontal body strain distribution is very similar to the distribution of major muscles position during swing. The upper body muscles have several stretching directions, and the muscles are different in size, depth and function. Therefore, the body lengths also have some differences in stretching position and quantity. For instance, the v-shaped trapezius muscle position is very similar to that of the v-shaped length distribution region.

Fig. 5. Major muscles of the upper body during golfing [12]

Front armpit region covers the muscle of serratus anterior and pectoralis major close to the arms; Back armpit region covers the muscle of infraspinatus, teres minor and teres major; Underarm region covers the muscle of serratus anterior and upper area of latissimus dorsi; Middle back region covers the muscle of middle area of trapezius and upper area of latissimus dorsi; V shaped area on lower part of the back region covers the muscle of latissimus dorsi; V shaped area on upper part of the back region covers the muscle of trapezius; Chest and abdomen region covers the muscle of pectoralis major, rectus abdominis and obliquus abdominis.

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Effects of Body Length Distribution on Clothing Structure Design

Although the motion tracking data is calculated in distances between any two points, not the real lengths on the body surface, the map of length distribution remains useful to the structural design, yarn-direction selection and pattern making of clothing. Figure 4 shows that Back armpit and underarm region expend significantly, thus the structural design in this region can be regarded as a separate part. Structure adjusting like making underarm and sleeve as an one-piece or using raglan sleeve designs should be considered; Middle back regions show obvious stretching changes. It is not advised to set yoke line in this region for that the back shows more horizontal stretching during front movements of the arms. The yoke line should be designed at a position above this region. The V-shaped region in the middle-upper part of the back has a small demand for longitudinal stretching, so the structural design can be regarded as a separate part. The conclusions of skin area changes in series studies suggest that the body-side region show a significant oblique stretching upon turning, so structural segmentation design can be conducted separately; Finally, the other parts on the back and the chest and abdomen on the front show the similar stretching changes, so overall structural design can be conducted for these regions.

4.4

Effects of Body Measurements on Wearing Ease Design

Clothing freedom is controlled by many factors, and among which body length extension is a crucial one. As the body dimension increased during golf movement, garment size must be properly designed horizontally and longitudinally to provide the wearer with sufficient room. The maximum body length extension value should be the minimum waring ease value especially for tight-fitting garment. Using non elastic fabrics design tight-fitting cloth, the law of major body measurements commonly used in cloth making plays a vital role in wearing ease application. Improper wearing ease design wouldn’t meet the need of skin extension, thus hinders the movement during the swing. When it comes to elastic fabrics, body dimension change is important in the product development of clothing as well. Elastic properties in horizontal and longitudinal direction should be consistent with the calculated body measurements extension rate. The analysis of body measurements commonly used in clothing making shows that longitudinal extension change significantly. Longitudinal extension must be taken into consideration in the design process. For instance, appropriately increasing clothing length at both side of the body, or selecting fabric with excellent elasticity and tensile properties in body regions experienced large extension. As to circumferential ease design, back of the body need more wearing ease and stronger fabric elasticity. Shoulder blade is the key design region to ensure better physiological comfort and mobility. The horizontal body measurement shows that areas around across back line extend the most. Front of the body changes relatively lower, thus the ease design should consider more of basic physiological needs other than movement needs. Compare to the first part of the series of reports on studying skin deformation differences during full swing, body measurement commonly used in clothing making

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has a large changing range in this study. This probably caused by the observing method that been used in this study. Motion capture system record a whole procedure of natural swing, therefore some of the body length may show a bigger extension than that of 3 specific postures. It should be noticed that the real skin surface length would be slightly longer than what we observed in distance.

5 Conclusion Performing motion analysis with marking grid is an effective method for human skin extension measurement during golf swing. The result shows that different body regions have various lengths changing degree. Make a comparison between dynamic movement and static standing posture, a upper body skin changing distribution map consist of 306 lengths was obtained. The changes of 11 major body measurements commonly used in clothing making and a further asymmetric effect on 39 body measurements are analyzed. The methods can be used to further improve the design of tight fitting garments and allow natural motions of golf swing. The skin deformation results have been suggested to define clothing structure design, wearing eases for clothing pattern design, yarn direction and fabric elasticity selection. Acknowledgments. The authors gratefully acknowledge the BIFT-BIEM.L.FDLKK Golf Clothing Ergonomics Centre.

References 1. Langer, K.: On the anatomy and physiology of the skin. I. The cleavability of the cutis. J. Brit. J. Plast. Surg. 31(1), 3–8 (1978) 2. Kirk Jr., W., Ibrahim, S.M.: Fundamental relationship of extensibility to anthropometric requirements and garment performance. J Text Res J. 57, 37–47 (1966) 3. Jacquet, E., Josse, G., Khatyr, F., Garcin, C.: A new experimental method for measuring skin’s natural tension. J. Skin Res. Technol. 14(1), 1–7 (2007) 4. Wolfrum, N., Newman, D.J., Bethke, K.: An automatic procedure to map the skin strain field with application to advanced locomotion space suit design. In: The 5th World Congress of Biomechanics, Munich (2006) 5. Liu, C., Kennon, R.: Body scanning of dynamic posture. J. Int. J. Cloth. Sci. Technol. 18(3), 166–178 (2006) 6. Wang, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, Y., Wu, T.: Study of skin stretching based on running sports status. J. Text. Res. 34(3), 115–119 (2013) 7. Yao, Z., Wang, Z.: Influence of segmentation lines and darts on garment silhouette. J. Zhejiang Text. Fash. Vocat. Coll. 4(39), 33–38 (2014) 8. Wessendorf, A.M., Newman, D.J.: Dynamic understanding of human-skin movement and strain-field analysis. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 59(12), 3432–3438 (2012) 9. Domingues, A.R., Marreiros, S.P., Martins, J.M., Silva, M.T., Newman, D.J.: Skin strain field analysis of the human ankle joint. In: The 4th Congresso Nacional De Biomecanica, Coimbra (2010)

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10. ISO 8559:1989: Garment construction and anthropometric surveys—body dimensions. 1989-07-01 11. Yan, Y.: The Study of Skin Deformation on the Body Trunk During the Golf Swing. Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology (2015) 12. Davies, C., DiSaia, V.: Golf Anatomy, pp. 6–8. Human Kinetics (2010)

Design Solution of Shoe Sole (Base of the Footwear) Preparation in Traditional Hand Sewn Footwear Manufacturing: A Case Study on Kolhapuri Chappal Urmi R. Salve1(&), Ganesh S. Jadhav2, and Hemant K. Shete2 1

Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India [email protected] 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. Daulatrao Aher College of Engineering, Karad 415124, Maharashtra, India

Abstract. The footwear industry is an important segment of the leather industry. India ranks second among the footwear manufacturing countries next to China. The footwear manufacturing occupies a place of significance in the Indian economy in view of its huge potential for employment, development and exports. Many of the operations in these industries are manual. Inconsistency between operator’s physical competencies and demands of physical task to operate tools/equipment often leads to poor performance, low productivity and safety problems. Among all other footwear, “Kolhapuri Chappal” is one of the elegant and traditional handmade craft in India. During filed observation, it was found that few steps of the manufacturing process require intervention, as these processes were not-effective and time consuming without making significant effect on the craft. Among those steps shoe sole preparation was major. Intervention developed based on that. The result of the study revealed that the newly developed tool was effective in preparation of shoe sole in Kolhapuri Chappal manufacturing. The posture adopted during the use of new tool also analyzed and found that it was beneficial for the workers. Keywords: Kolhapuri Chappal


Hand sewn
Footwear
Hand craft

1 Introduction In several countries, and mainly in developing countries, small-scale industries hire a high proportion of the personnel and are the main providers of new employment [2]. India has made great strides in development and automation since the post-independence era [4]. The footwear manufacturing is an important section of the leather industry in India. India ranks second among the footwear manufacturing countries next to China [12]. Footwear manufacturing is an important sector in the Indian economy. The footwear industry is labour intensive and is concentrated in the small and cottage industry sectors [12]. Similar to other cottage industries footwear © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_100

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industry also suffer from various health hazards in India [3, 9, 11]. Among all types of footwear, handmade or handcrafted Kolhapuri Chappals are famous among elite societies of India. Approximately 5,633 units engaged in the manufacture of Kolhapuri Chappal, employing 22,500 artisans, of which 20% are women artisans. Nearly 80% of the units manufacture items for dealers who supply raw materials to these artisans [14]. Kolhapuri Chappal is produced nearby towns of Maharashtra and Karnataka state areas. Kolhapuri Chappal manufacturing activity comes under informal sector. The informal sector is usually taken to include workers in small (generally with less than 10 employees), unregistered or unregulated enterprises not covered by formal contracts of employment (such as family enterprises) [7]. In these areas, every family member contributes in the production/manufacturing process. The production rate is approximately 35 to 45 chappals per week. The manufacturing techniques are very traditional and conventional. Family artisans are involved in the manufacturing process. This production process involves various labor-intensive activities such as bottom making, skiving, punching, polishing, pattern cutting, and attachment of heels, ears and upper bottom, stitching, finishing and final assembling. Though footwear is produced by both large and small scale sector, the small scale sector has almost 90% share in the total production of footwear in India [15]. Among all, Kolhapuri Chappal manufacturing also play a role. There are almost 7–8 types of workstation according to steps of the processes (Fig. 1). The current workstations are just local arrangement and don’t have any standard measurement.

Fig. 1. Various workstations

On filed observation, it was found that few parts of the manufacturing process are non-effective in craftsmanship of the product. Among these steps sole preparation (profile cutting pattern) found to be most strenuous and time consuming without keeping any marked effect on craft of the final product. Therefore, a need was generated to design and evaluate process. Keeping the above in mind a study was formulated with an objective to provide a design solution of shoe sole preparation for

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Kolhapuri Chappal manufacturing. Nowadays, technical development is getting attention for health of workers [1].

2 Methodology 1. Field survey: Kolhapur city was visited for the field study. Kolhapur Charmadyog Audyogik Samuh Entrepreneur’s manufacturing setup was visited. 2. Detailed study of current workstation: Physical measurements of the current workstation were collected using measuring tape. 3. Detailed study of current sole preparation: Various steps of the manufacturing processes were observed. Time study of sole preparation method was done using stopwatch and process chart. 4. Generating various design concepts: Different concepts of press machine (for sole preparation) were generated. 5. Screening of the concepts: All these concepts were compared using concept selection matrix and best concept for given application was selected. Entrepreneurs and workers are accountable for buying the newly developed machine. Therefore they were enquired to rank the priorities of their important requirements. The weightage for each criterion was decided based on workers’ priorities as determined through the questionnaire as well as consultation with the entrepreneur’s. All nine concepts were compared based on below mentioned three criteriona. Compact and ease of construction was evaluated in a 10 point scale b. Effort reduction was evaluated in a 10 point scale c. Affordability was evaluated in a 10 point scale 6. Prototyping and evaluating: For developing a working prototype following steps had been followed. • Calculate cutting force of leather samples: • To calculate the cutting forces three different types of leathers were used cow, bull and buffalo. Compressive testing machine was used to calculate the cutting forces on different leather. To calculate cutting forces (required for actual cutting of leather) square metal strip was used which was sharpened using grinder. The cutting forces were found in trials and presented in result section. • Generating the 3D models of cutting die and hill using Pro-e software. Generated models are presented in result section. • Design and development of Machine for Chappal base cutting operation: Mechanism for the press machine was selected from concept selection technique. Using hydraulic system for movement of Ram [piston] was one of the solutions. Hydraulic system is less costly as compared to pneumatic system and able to apply more force gradually. CAD model was generated before physical manufacturing. • Physical prototype: Physical prototype was developed using mild steel (EN8) with the help of third party manufacturing set up.

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7. Comparing the modified workstation with previous: working posture was evaluated for both the workstation using RULA [8] and compared using paired t-test. Further body discomfort and personal interview was conducted to identify the user responses.

3 Result Field survey: During field observation it was found that Kolhapuri Chappal manufacturing is an unorganized sector and carried out in domestic environment. Manufacturing task normally done in a seated condition on floor. Approximately 7 to 8 types of workstations are present. It was observed that workers work for 8–9 h per while working for 3–4 h at a stretch. Typical working posture is squatting on the floor with forward bended trunk to achieve visual acuity. Both male and female, even children at home also take part in the manufacturing activities. The buffalo, goat and bullock leathers are normally being used and these are available locally. Animal tails, tanned and shredded (what shredded?) are used for stitching. The whole process takes about 35 days. The sides are cut when the leather is semi wet. The top sole patterns are prepared and they are stitched along with heel after attaching them temporarily using a unique ‘mud’ taken from nearby river. A piece of canvas is also positioned in between to increase the stiffness of the sole. A ‘patta’ pattern is pre made-up in various designs and attached to the top sole. The sizes of ‘angatha’ (toe) and sole have crude group-grading techniques. Moreover, once these chappals are dry out, they shrink resulting in smaller sizes and fit. Detailed study of current workstation: The nature of workstation is small wooden block is mounted on marble stone. Approximate length, height and width of marble stone are 1, 1.5 and 0.25 ft. respectively. This thick marble stone is their working table on which cutting activity is carried out. This marble stone is kept on the floor. Detailed study of current sole preparation: At sole preparation workstation initially shape of master piece is traced on the plain leather. After then leather is kept on to the wooden block and traced profile is cut with the help of RAPPI (local name of sharp edged tool). Working at sole preparation workstation was observed. Video recordings were done by using camera. There were 20 videos taken to determine basic time and average basic time. Also stop watch were used to get the basic time of each cycle. Allowance was added according to ILO guideline (Table 1).

Table 1. Time study sheet before intervention Time study sheet Name: Ganesh Jadhav Date: Product Family: Kolhapuri Chappal Crew: Product: Chappal Posture: Machine/tool: Chisel (rappi) Operation: Cutting profile of Chappal Sr. no Element description Basic time (min) Allow. (%) 1 Frequently occurring job 2.1 9%

04/11/2016 1 Sitting

Std. time (min) 2.29 (137 s)

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Generating various design concepts: Total nine concepts were generated and presented in Fig. 2. Salient features of these concepts were as follows. a. Concept 1- This Mechanism will be operated by motor. Rope and pulley arrangement will be used to transmit power from motor to gear, to gear shaft ram is attached which will move up and down and press force will be obtained. This is automatic mechanism. b. Concept 2- This mechanism will be operated by hand power. Lever will be pressed against spring power to press die on working table. This is manual mechanism. c. Concept 3- This mechanism will be operated by motor. Motor will drive the hydraulic cylinder, which is at the top, at one end of cylinder ram, is attach which will press the die on working table. Hydraulic power pack will also used to control operation of hydraulic cylinder. This is automatic mechanism. d. Concept 4- This mechanism will be operated by hand power. Plate is attached to lever which will be pressed against die to cut leather. e. Concept 5- This mechanism will be operated by power screw. Motor is used to drive power screw; moving Ram which moves up and down is attached to power screw. This Ram will press die against work table. f. Concept 7- This mechanism will be pedal operated. Work table is moving in this case, when pedal will be pressed mechanism presses the work table against top stationary plate and cutting force will be obtained. g. Concept 8- This mechanism will be operated by hand power. Top moving plate will be pressed against spring power on bottom plate to obtain cutting force. h. Concept 9- Work table is moving, which is pressed against top stationary plate. This mechanism is manually operated using lever.

Fig. 2. Different concepts of mechanism for press machine

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Screening of the concepts: All these mechanisms were compared using concept selection matrix and presented in Table 2. Best mechanism for given application was selected. Table 2. Concept selection matrix Criteria Concept Concept Concept Concept Concept Concept Concept Concept Concept

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Compact and easy construction (out of 10) 6 7 8 8 7 6 8 7 7

Effort reduction (out of 10) 8 6 8 6 8 8 6 6 6

Affordable (out of 10) 6 8 7 8 6 6 8 8 7

Final score (Out of 30) 20 21 23 22 21 20 22 21 20

Prototyping and evaluating: For developing a working prototype following steps had been followed. 1. Calculate cutting force of leather samples: The cutting forces were found in trials are as follows: Table 3. Cutting force measurement Type of leather Trials (load) kN 1 2 3 Cow 30.5 31 31.5 Bullock 32 31.5 33 Buffalo 34 33.5 34.8

Average load (kN) 4 30.5 31 31.5 32 33.7 34

Form above Table 3, Maximum cutting force is 34 kN for buffalo leather. As maximum cutting force is 34 kN, therefore 34 kN is an optimum cutting force for die. 2. 3D models were as mentioned below (Figs. 3 and 4).

Fig. 3. 3D model of Cutting Die

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Fig. 4. 3D model of Cutting Die Hill Part

3. Design and development of Machine for Chappal base cutting operation: The developed CAD model is presented in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. CAD model of press machine

With reference to the cutting force calculation of leather, optimum cutting force was 34 kN (presented in Table 3). Therefore during designing actual machine prototype 50 kN force was considered as capacity of machine. Structure have been designed as per the result get from concept selection matrix i.e. concept no. 3. Steady cutting force is required for cutting the leather. This cutting is done with the help of hydraulic mechanism having 50 kN capacity of hydraulic cylinder. Different parts such as top plate, bottom plate, and two supported beams have been designed to withstand the whole load. 4. Physical prototype:

Fig. 6. Actual model of hydraulic press machine

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Figure 6 shows actual model of hydraulic press machine along with Chappal cutting die. Comparison of modified method with previous: Time study was conducted to in a simulated condition with newly developed machine. It was found that basic time for a single piece reduced 70% which is significantly high. Further postural load approximately compared using RULA, [2, 12] which revealed that posture would be near normal once workers will get acclimatized with the newly developed machine (Table 4). Table 4. Time study sheet after intervention Time study sheet Name: Ganesh Jadhav Date: Product family: Kolhapuri Chappal Crew: Product: Chappal Posture: Machine/tool: Press m/c along with die Operation: Cutting profile of Chappal Sr. no Element description Basic time (min) Allow. (%) 1 Frequently occurring job 0.66 0%

24/02/2017 1 Sitting

Std. time (min) 0.66 40 (s)

4 Discussion and Conclusions Automation in craft based process may affect nature and value of the craft [6, 13]. There are several government schemes were developed to revive and redesign various dying craft in India [5]. Although various researches tried to find out “how technological input can revitalize the handcraft in various sector especially in Indian context?” [6], it is not still in practice. Several issues had been found and reported in those literatures, such as reduction in production process time, reduction in manual labour, reduction in postural load etc. [10]. But in every case the whole concept need to evaluate and compared with the existing system which is still missing. In the present study also few variables such as production time, postural load after intervention were compared with existing system and it was found the due to intervention production time and postural load reduced. This finding is very much comparable with literature. The novelty of the current development is, it only reduce the effort but keep the craft (especially handcraft) of manufacturing intact, so that the market value of the product remain same. It is expected, once the manual labour for some job which doesn’t have much impact on the craft will reduce, then creativity in the design and craft will improve indirectly. Although testing of quality and innovation need to identify in separate study. In this part of research only the technological intervention developed and tested its’ functionality. Although user evaluation yet to complete. Also market value of the product produced using new intervention in actual, need to evaluate for better justification of handcraft which remains in the further scope of the study.

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References 1. Aghali, M., Asilian, H., Parinaz, P.: Evaluation of musculoskeletal disorders in sewing machine operators of a shoe manufacturing factory in Iran. J. Pak. Med. 62, 20–25 (2012) 2. Dianat, I., Salimi, A.: Working conditions of Iranian hand-sewn shoe workers and associations with musculoskeletal symptoms. Ergonomics 4, 602–611 (2014) 3. Gangopadhyay, S., Ara, T., Dev, S., Ghoshal, G., Das, T.: An occupational health study of the footwear manufacturing workers of Kolkata, India. Ethno Med. 5(1), 11–15 (2011) 4. Giri, P.A., Meshram, P.V., Kasbe, A.M.: Socio-demographic determinants and morbidity profile of people engaged in bag making occupation in an urban slum of Mumbai, India. Natl. J. Community Med. 3, 601–606 (2012) 5. Kumar, J.P.: Indian handicrafts in globalization times: an analysis of global-local dynamics. Interdiscip. Descr. Complex Syst. 8(2), 119–137 (2010) 6. Prabhjot, Kaur.: Revival of Punjab’s traditional handicraft: Phulkari. Asian J. Manag. 2(1), 28–38 (2011) 7. Loewenson, R.: Occupational hazards in the informal sector: a global perspective. Health Eff. New Labour Mark. 329–342 (2000) 8. McAtamney, L., Corlett, E.: RULA: a survey method for the investigation of work related upper limb disorders. Appl. Ergon. 24(2), 91–99 (1993) 9. McCann, M.: Hazards in cottage industries in developing countries. Am. J. Ind. Med. 30, 125–129 (1996) 10. Bonnardel, N., Zenasni, F.: The impact of technology on creativity in design: an enhancement? Creat. Innov. Manag. 19(2), 180–191 (2010) 11. Ramakrishnappa, V., Priya Kumari, M., Vishwanatha, J.: Unorganized workers in Beedi Industry: a study on women Beedi Rollers of Karnataka, India. Int. J. Soc. Sci. 3, 325–334 (2014) 12. Tiwari, R.: Child labour in footwear industry: possible occupational health hazards. Indian J. Occup. Environ. Med. 9, 7–9 (2005) 13. A New Approach for Revival of Craft. www.craftrevival.org/voiceDetails.asp? 14. Kolhapur City Information. www.kolhapur.nic.in 15. www.smallb.sidbi.in

Anthropometry in Design

Analysis of Characteristic Features of Juvenile Female Aged Between 15 and 17 in Guangdong Province P. R. China Huajuan Lin(&) and Xiaoping Hu Faculty of Fashion and Accessory Design, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Centre, South China University of Technology, Panyu District, Guangzhou 510006, People’s Republic of China [email protected]

Abstract. This thesis picks 160 girls aged from 15 to 17 years old in Guangdong as the survey object, and it contains: human body measurement, data analysis, body type study and improvement suggestion. The range of measurements includes: height, cervical height, sitting cervical height, arm length, waist height, bust girth, neck girth, shoulder width, waist girth and hip. The thesis calculates the difference between bust and waist and other data based on the figures obtained from the actual human body measurements, then it analyzes the mean, the standard deviation and the frequency of the data, observes the changing law among these data to get the relevance and variations among them, and analyzes the body characteristics of the girls from 15 to 17 in Guangdong from various perspectives and takes them as a basis for further application study. Keywords: Juvenile female
Anthropometric characteristics
Size designation

1 Introduction Apparel industry is one of the traditional and key industries in China. The people-oriented concept has been introduced to all fields of the apparel industry through the economic development in China. One of the basic requirements at fashion design is to set up the competition advantage of company brands by fulfilling customers’ desire with comfortable, healthy and safe garments. In order to be people oriented a company has to detain and analyze the end customers’ physical status as well as physiological and psychological features. Body dimension is the fundamental of human physiological feature and all other figure and body morphological analysis are the standard to set the comfort levels and sizes. Body dimension feature can also be used on other related fields such as architecture and mechanical industries. Marketing research reveals the gap between children and adult in China apparel industry. There is no guide set for standard sizing systems of female minor garments, and this leads to the difficulty of finding suitable clothes. In the apparel market the proportion of minor clothes is far less comparing those for children and adults. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_101

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Apparently there are 44.06 million of teen age girls between 15 and 17 and 4 million are from Guangdong Province. female teens aged 15 to 17 are on the process to grow from children to adult with significant changes on chest and hips, but the chest and waist circumferences are still different from those of adults’. Moreover, garment factories just follow the sizes and measurements of adults’ on production of teenage clothes. This makes it hard for teenagers to choose the proper sizes as children sizes seem to be too young while adult ones are too mature for them. Meanwhile female school uniforms in China are commented as dissatisfactory as juvenile girls are not satisfied with the size, color and design. Stylish designed and proper sized school uniforms are much more popular than the one size fits all ones. China has a large scale of territory and population, growth features for teens vary from south to north, so it is very necessary to measure their characteristic features based on different areas and genders. This analysis contains anthropological measuring; data analysis; feature research and improvement suggestion. In this research data of 160 female teen age girls between 15 and 17 from Guangdong Province are gathered to form the figures. Current standard sizing system in China was revised, released and enforced in 2008. There were some small ranges of research conducted afterward. The current standard size and type GB-1335-2 is for a mature female with medium sizes of 160/84 A and 160/68 A. Here size stands for the height with unit measurement of centimetre as the basis of choosing options. Type is for the net bust or net waistline as the basis of moderate or bigger figure. Figure classification: Due to the large scale of region and population in China with different figures at different areas we have set the adult figure types as Y, A, B and C as the manufacture and consumption guide. These types come out of the results from the differences between net bust and net waistline. Table 1. Girth of female adults (CM) Classification Y A B C Difference between NCC** and NW** 24–19 18–14 13–9 8–4 ** NCC: net bust ** NW: net waist. Size and Girth application: Size: numbers shown on the clothes for height ranges. Girth: numbers shown on the clothes for ranges of difference between net bust and net waistline.

2 Measurement Specific devices and environment are necessary to conduct the measurement and all the same size and type of groups must be measured together with random samples pulled out of the same group, but not from the individual. Random samples from the same type and group out of the same area to gather more efficient and accurate data. In the research the measurers used are soft ruler and Martin type rulers. The soft ruler is the basic one for measure body figures with centimetre as measuring unit while martin type ruler is a hard metal ruler with centimetre but the precision unit up to

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0.1 mm to get more accurate measurements of width, thickness and heights etc. centimetre (CM) is the unit measurement for all the data of this research. Safe and relaxing environment with moderate brightness to read the measurement figures are set for this research. The average temperatures are between 24 °C and 26 °C with humidity of 50% to 60%. All the female adults from the same group stand still with bare feet and relaxing breath and arms on sides and eyes facing front side. All of them are with soft, thin and fit bra and hair tied up to top to avoid measuring error. According to GB/T16160 standard, all the female group required to be measured three times on the same position to get the valid measurement results within the acceptance ranges. An average and effective data of each female comes out of the three valid reading from of three staff. 160 females attend the measuring survey to ensure enough samples and figures gathered due to the possibility of wrong data entry and other unforeseen facts. Table 2. Error and standard deviation allowed (cm) Position Height Bust Waist Hip

Error allowance/D 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.5

Standard deviation/s 6.2 5.5 6.7 5.2

S/D 6.20 3.67 6.70 3.47

3 Selection of Other Controlled Measuring Positions The apparel size and type are set as the guide for garment manufacturer as well as the consumer. Only a few positions such as bust, waistline and hip are not enough, so some other positions called controlled positions are introduced. They can be calculated based on the figures out of above basic positions or direct measurements on them. Some positions are not easy or convenient to measure so it is much easier to get them from the formula. Apparently the controlled positions of GB/T-1335.2-2008 standard for China apparel manufacture and design are the following ten including Height, Cervical Height, Sitting Cervical Height, Arm Length, Waistline Height, Bust, Neck Girth, Shoulder With, Waist and Hip. Amount above ten figures cervical height decides the length of the garment, sitting cervical height controls the subsection measurement of the garment length. Arm length makes up the length of the sleeve and waistline for the length of the trousers.

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Moderate figure. A medium range data from the individual controlled positions are set for the basic one to suit the current apparel industry and factory standard guide. Moderate figure is for those who occupy the majority proportion of measurement figures. This figure comes out of the figures not only from the basic positions but other facts such as the coverage of the regions to ensure it is within the moderate range to cover the consumer’s buying option to get a moderate size than a tight one. At the meantime, the major body growth is from smaller to bigger. The moderate figure for Chinese female adults is 160/84 A, which stands for a female adult with height of 160 cm and bust of 84 and Type A figure. As China is a big country with large population at different areas, six regions are set for easier recognition. They are North East and North China, Middle and West Region, lower yangtze plain, middle yangtze plain, Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian area and Yunnan and Guizhou area. Guangdong Province belongs to the Guangdong Guangxi and Fujian region. Below is the analysis of this research from the random measurement for females between 15 and 17 from Guangdong province.

Height Meek girth Shoulder width Arm length Bust Waist Hip Cervical height Sitting cervical height

N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160

MIN 145.00 30.00 35.00 43.00 72.50 51.50 66.50 119.50 55.00

MAX 173.00 39.00 45.00 58.00 107.00 95.00 103.00 151.00 67.00

MEAN 156.0406 32.9469 38.6313 51. 7937 81. 0625 67.0125 89.6344 132.9406 60.9394

STDDEV 4.93702 1.68754 1.61799 2.27606 4.69636 4.93127 4.84402 4.92630 2.40492

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4 Distribution of Main Body Positions From the distribution of body measurement we can see the dynamic parameter spreads as cube normality.

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Table 3. Comparison of this measurement results and state standard of adult female guideline: Controlled positions

Height Neck girth Shoulder length Arm length Bust Waist Hip Sitting cervical height Cervical height Waist height

State standard mid range 160 33.6 39.4 50 84 68 90 62.5

Average

Count range

Count

Percentage

158.0406 32.9469 38.6313 51.7938 81.0625 67.0125 89.6344 60.9394

155–161 31–33 37–40 50–53 77–87 62–71 86–94 59–63

88 95 140 97 110 121 109 112

55% 59.375% 87.5% 60.625% 68.75% 75.625% 68.125% 70%

136 98

132.9406 100.2594

129–139 97–105

125 123

78.125% 76.875%

Comparing with the previous chart it shows the date out of the measurement result of the average size and girth of the main positions are within the frequent count range. It also shows the average height of teen female between 15 and 17 is 2 cm lower than the state standard height. This data reveal the fact that average female height at Southern area is significantly lower than other regions. And the minor female heights can have potential increase. The waistline and arm length figures are greater than the state stands which means the female teens with longer arms and legs. However the shoulder width, neck girth, bust, waist, hip and cervical height figures are lower than state standard. It is easily understood that the young females are with slim waist as they have not been procreated. A bust allowance of 3 cm shows the potential increase due to the incomplete development. Viewing the situation as a whole, the female teens aged 15 to 17 from Guangdong Province are slightly shorter and slimmer. Figure Range: State standard girth are set with types Y, A, B and C in accordance with the difference of the bust and waist.

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Type A stands for the majority size, type Y stands for the ones with slimmer waist and type B goes for those slightly over-weight and type C is over-weight people. Table 4. China mature female figure chart (cm) Type and girth Difference between bust and waist

Y 24–19

A 18–14

B 13–9

C 8–4

From above chart we can see the difference between bust and waist mainly ranged between 12 cm and 17 cm. the average rate is 14.05 cm and mid-range rate is 14 cm. frequent count is 13 cm, lowest rate is 7 cm while maximum rate reaches 23.5 cm. Below is the percentage of measurement figures between state standard size and female from Guangdong Guangxi and Fujian area. Girth Actual count Percentage% State standard percentage rate% Percentage rate for GDGXFJ area%

Y 6 3.75 14.82 9.27

A 83 51.875 44.13 38.24

B 66 41.25 33.72 40.67

C 5 3.125 6.45 10.86

From above chart we can see the major girth for young female aged between 15 and 17 is type A, then type B, least percentage for those slightly lower-weighted or over-weighted. Some females belong to type B and C as they’re with lower chest girth as they’re not completed developed, however they are not necessarily over-weighted. Size and girth coverage rate: Size and girth coverage rate stands for the percentage of each size and girth. The feature of coverage rate reflects the proportion of each type and girth out within a certain range. At the actual manufacture of garments type A and B are the major two. For example, the factory production will have 44 out of 100 as the count for type A, the research of size and girth average rate is very necessary as it guides the production to avoid over produced and waste.

5 Suggestions to the Apparel Industry At present, many of Chinese clothing designs for teenagers are unsatisfactory. A large number of teenagers aged from 15 to 17 wear sagged clothes that can’t demonstrate the vibrant, positive and progressive spirit of them. The teenage consumer group forms a huge consumer market. Setting up the clothing size-and-girth divided according to ages. When considering its own conditions, China can learn from the United States, Japan and other countries of with their clothing size-and-girth specifications, and then set out the ones in line with Chinese groups. On the basis of Chinese national standard, clothing enterprises should set the clothing sizes that fit their local customer groups according to the enterprises’ regional conditions and product positioning. The data-analysis results of this thesis can be directly applied as specification and size references in prototype pattern making and

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clothing manufacturing, thereby becoming practical for the clothing enterprises in Guangdong. Creating teenage clothing brands. China’s youth clothing consumer market is huge, but the enterprises that manufacture clothes for teenagers aged from 15 to 17 are very rare. Clothing enterprises should seize this opportunity to produce clothes suitable for the teenagers as soon as possible. Healthy clothing fabrics. Teenager students need comfort, wear-proof, moistureretentive, breathable fabrics when learning or doing other activities, and the collective learning environment and campus atmosphere require the students at this age range to wear closes whose materials and textures both can meet the functional needs and have a sense of modernity. The results of this study can mirror the local situations in some way, but because that the age span and the number of measurements are small and that my personal energy and time is limited, the results only turn out to be the tip of the iceberg in the field of academic studies, and hopefully this thesis can benefit the further studies. Acknowledgements. I would like to thank my tutor, Professor Hu Xiaoping, for making valuable suggestions for my survey, as well as the teacher in charge from Guangdong Overseas Chinese Vocational School for enthusiastically help me arrange the measurements, besides over the 160 students who have been measured, I thank them for their active collaboration.

References 1. Standard sizing systems for garments_Women (GB/T1335.2-2008) 2. Fang, F., Zhang, W.: Apparel Somatology. Donghua University Press, Shanghai (2008) 3. Chen, J., Cai, Y., Yang Q.: Survey and Design Case Analysis of Guangdong Province’s Middle School Uniforms (2016) 4. Gao, P.: The Study of Female Body Circumference Standard Curves Based on Clothing Size and Type (2016)

Development of a Design Protocol for Customized Swimming Goggles Using 3D Facial Scan Data Jose Coleman, Christopher Hernandez, Joshua Hernandez, Shane Hubenak, ( ) Aric McBride, Mehrube Mehrubeoglu, and Jangwoon Park ✉ Department of Engineering, Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX, USA [email protected]

Abstract. Most swimmers’ goggles leak water during swimming. Leakage occurs because the swimming goggles do not fit the facial structures of the user properly, and, therefore, do not create an effective seal on the face. Furthermore, to create a tighter seal, swimmers overtighten the fastening strap causing discom‐ fort on the eyes due to increased pressure. The present study is intended to develop customized swimming goggles using a 3D facial scan of the swimmer. A 3D handheld scanner was utilized to scan the face of an individual participating in this study. The scanned data were then used to design customized swimming goggles in a CAD tool. The designed swimming goggles can be fabricated from the CAD design with a 3D printer. The customized swimming goggles involve developing a new strapping method in addition to individualized facial scan to improve wearing comfort. The validation process entails testing the water proofing success and wearing comfort of the swimming goggles, and comparing the developed design to available swimming goggles on the market. Keywords: Swimming goggles · 3D scanner · Anthropometry · Wearable product

1

Introduction

Swimming goggles are designed to be worn on a swimmer’s face to provide the swimmer with visibility underwater. Swimming goggles also protect a swimmer’s eyes from harmful chemicals found in swimming pools. In competitions, swimming goggles are necessary for the success of a swimmer, which have pushed innovations to include fog resistance, UV light protection, and sleeker profiles to minimize drag during swimming; however, swimming goggles are still produced as “one-size-fits-all,” which does not work for some people. Goggles that are not properly fitted can allow water to leak at the contact points between the goggles and the surface of the wearer’s skin. Water leaking into the goggles would result in chemical irritants reaching the wearer’s eyes, possibly causing irritation and other damage in long term. Similarly, water leakage causes the swimmer to lose visibility in the water and requires the swimmer to adjust the swimming goggles, wasting valuable time especially during competitive swimming. A sleeker design that minimizes drag is easy to adjust and has a higher resistance to water leakage. In addition, the improved fit © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_102

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offers the competitive swimmer and athlete an advantage during the swimming compe‐ tition. A recent US patent by Lee [1] showcases a nose bridge that can be adjusted by the wearer for better fit. The goggles comprise a nose bridge for connecting the front eye cups. The nose bridge consists of multiple hooking parts that are longitudinally arranged. The technical problem that the invention resolves is the pressure of the lower end of the nose bridge that causes discomfort to the user either by a force that is applied on the front of the goggles, or when the goggles are removed from the face suddenly. This invention adjusts the nose bridge to avoid the nose bridge from protruding onto the user causing pain and discomfort. By adjusting the nose bridge, the distance between the eye cups is also accommodated. The adjustment of the nose bridge also helps the user in relieving discomfort from the eye cups. The nose bridge includes multiple notches to accommodate the user’s preference. Another US patent by Chou [2] showcases a periph‐ eral surface formed lenses to provide an increased visual angle. The present study is intended to develop swimming goggles for an individual using 3D scanning software. The expectation is that the customized design process will allow the goggles to custom-fit each individual, and that the swimming goggles will be comfortable to wear, easy to adjust, and will reduce drag on the swimmer to enhance performance in the water.

2

Methods

Swimming goggles are important equipment for professional swimmers and profes‐ sional divers. The existing swimming goggles have ergonomic issues that make them susceptible to water leakage. The present study aims to develop a design protocol for making customized swimming goggles for the individual. The present study is conducted in five steps as the preliminary design protocol: First, the problems and limitations of the existing swimming goggles are defined. In this step, a survey is conducted with professional swimmers in the local area, to collect feedback on the existing swimming goggles worn and issues encountered. In addition, a literature review is conducted to understand the current research status, relevant US patent claims, and the materials and design features of swimming goggles. Second, Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval is sought to conduct research with human subjects with a developed facial measurement protocol. A benchmark is developed, and prototypes of the design is created. New design ideas for swimming goggles are continually generated based on literature review and benchmarking. Three human subjects with a wide range of facial dimensions are selected as users to demon‐ strate the validity of the customized goggle design process on multiple facial features. Then the faces of the participants are scanned using the Sense 3D scanner (SYSTEMS INC., USA). The designs are then improved based on acquired knowledge through literature surveys, through conceptual 3D designs as well as software simulations for flow around the designed goggles.

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Third, novel methods are developed for fabricating and testing the custom-designed goggles. Optimum solutions are selected based on ranking of functionality, cost effectiveness, and safety, while avoiding any patent infringement possibilities. Fourth, the selected solutions are constructed in a CAD environment based on the collected 3D facial scan data and the 3D goggle model (STL file type) which will then be fabricated and tested as the physical product. In this step, the 3D model is constructed using Autodesk Inventor Professional 2016 (Autodesk Inc., USA). The final product designs can be sent off to external entities for outsourced prototyping with the expected outcome of similar user experience to commercialized swimming goggles in the market. Finally, fifth, the fabricated swimming goggles are tested with the three participants for fit, comfort, visibility, and seal. The comparison between the existing swimming goggles and the developed one is conducted by the selected participants. The subjective evaluation will be completed using the 7-point Likert scale. The objective evaluations such as pressure on eyes and leakiness are conducted in a swimming pool. The success of the new swimming goggles is evaluated by the amount of water leakage and subjective rating of inside water compared to the existing goggles.

3

Preliminary Results

In measuring facial geometry, a participant’s face was scanned using the Sense 3D hand scanner as shown in Fig. 1. The number of vertices of the scan data was 69,152.

Fig. 1. Scanning using a 3D hand held scanner (left) and facial scan data (right)

In developing ideas and strategy for customized design, several patents and journal articles were reviewed to outline design features that would be unique and innovative compared to existing designs as shown in Fig. 2.

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First Design

Second Design

Third Design (Current)

Fig. 2. Generated ideas of the swimming goggles in a sagittal plane view

The program Flow Design was used to determine the drag coefficient and drag force acting on the goggles while swimming at 2.2 m/s. As shown in Fig. 3, the ideal angle the goggles should be at is 20°, because at 20°, the goggles provide the least amount of drag force and drag coefficient.

Fig. 3. Flow simulation to investigate an angle effect on drag force

Figure 4 shows facial scan of the selected participant and 3D model of the swimming goggle that was designed based on the facial scan data.

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Fig. 4. 3D model of the swimming goggles with 3D facial scan data

4

Discussion

The customized design protocol presented in this paper is expected to improve the user’s comfort during swimming and reduce drag. The simulation results show that the 20° with respect to horizontal can provide less drag force and coefficient compared to other angles (0° and 10°). This simulation provides insight on how much drag force will be applied while swimming; the angle with the least amount of drag force will make the goggles less likely to fall off. The developed design protocol can be applied to improve the fit of other types of wearable products, such as hats, snorkeling gear, suits, and industrial safety goggles.

References 1. Lee, B.K.: U.S. Patent No. 9,409,056. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC (2016) 2. Chou, T.: U.S. Patent No. 5,802,621. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC (1998)

Comparison of Anthropometric Data for the Design of Chairs Between Seven Countries Linghua Ran(&), Xin Zhang, Hong Luo, Taijie Liu, Huimin Hu, and Chaoyi Zhao Ergonomics Laboratory, China National Institute of Standardization, Beijing, China {ranlh,zhangx,luohong,liutj,huhm,zhaochy}@cnis.gov.cn

Abstract. We select anthropometric data related with sitting chair design from ISO/TR 7250-2:2010 to conduct the comparison between seven countries. The data include body height data, breadth data, depth data, and the ratio of the body height and the sitting height. About the body height and sitting height, the United States and the Netherlands men’s and women’s are higher than the other countries’ persons. The Kenyans’ bodies heights are in the third place, but their sitting height are at the lowest value among these countries. Sitting depth data are closely related to person’s lower limbs’ length. Kenya’s men have more sitting depth data, followed by European and the USA people, and finally the Asian people. The female have wider sitting hip breadth data in the seven countries than the males. The sitting hip breadths of the female in the Netherlands, Kenya and the United States have about 50–60 mm wider than the female in China, Japan and Korea. Keywords: Anthropometric data


Sitting chairs
Different countries

1 Introduction People cannot do without chair in their life and work, especially those engaged in works with sitting position who are dealing with the chair for more than one-third of the time every day. Therefore, in addition to the proper use of materials and the nice and elegant shape, what’s more important, the chair is required to meet the ergonomic design principles, namely to take full account of the body’s sitting position physiological characteristics in its design. The structural size of chair will have a certain impact on the adaptation of human body, the work efficiency and the operator’s health and comfort, and directly or indirectly affect the safe operation [1]. As mentioned in GB/T 14774 “General Ergonomic Requirements for Working Chair” [2], the dimensions of working chair should be adapted to the user’s body dimensions, and the user group’s human measurement data should be used as an important basis of chair design parameters in its design. In addition, the correction required for special service clothes and equipment shall be considered.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_103

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Body dimensions should be taken into consideration during the chairs product design process to make the chairs safer, comfortable and more efficiency. Body dimension data vary in different countries, so the data differences among various targeted populations should be studied [3]. The primary purpose of this research is to compare and discuss the presently available data for chairs’ design among seven countries, which covering Asia, South America, Africa and European.

2 Data Resources 2.1

Selection of Human Body Dimension Parameters

In GB/T 14774 “General Ergonomic Requirements for Working Chair”, the main dimension parameters of working chair design have been defined, including chair’s seat height, seat width, seat depth, waist cushion length, waist cushion width and waist cushion thickness, etc. These parameters are closely related to the comfort of chair. If the seat is too high, for example, people sitting on the chair will have their feet hanging and thigh muscles under pressure. For a long time, it will result in soreness or numbness of the leg muscles; if the seat height is too low, the back muscles will be under tension. For a long time, lumbago and backache will be caused. The depth of chair surface should allow the body to be fully supported, and the front edge of seat surface should have a certain distance from the calf so as to ensure that the calf can be free to move. In the chair design, the dimensions of chair should be comprehensively considered based on the measurement dimensions of human body. In this research, the human body dimensions, including sitting height, sitting depth, Hip breadth, lower leg length, elbow height in sitting position, which are closely related to the chair design, were selected. In addition, in order to compare the proportion relationship between upper limbs and lower limbs of human bodies among different countries, the ratio of height and sitting height was also used as a parameter.

2.2

Data Sources of 7 Countries

The data ISO/TR 7250-2:2010 “Basic human body measurements for technological design Part 2: Statistical summaries of body measurements from national populations” provides statistical data for the body dimensions of the adults, together with database background information. We select data from six countries to conduct the comparison. Measuring conditions and definitions of measurements in this Technical Report are the same as those described in ISO 7250-1. All the data were measured by manual. In this Technical Report, the following statistics are described for each measurement: sample size, mean, standard deviation (SD), and 1st, 5th, 50th, 95th and 99th percentile values. Population can be stratified by gender, age, location, occupation or education. The data for Chinese people come from GB/T 10000-1988 “human dimensions of Chinese adults” [4] and also the data were measured by manual. Table 1 show the body Data from Seven Countries.

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Countries

Data resource

Sample size Age

Japan

Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JISC) Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) Korean Agency for Technology and Standards (KATS) Nederlands Normalisatieinstituut (NEN) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) China National Institute of Standardization (CNIS)

2880 males 2450 females 133 males 74 females 2613 males 2614 females 560 males 680 females 1120 males 1260 females 11164 males 11150 females 2300 males 1850 females

Kenya Korean The Netherlands United States China

Italy

Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione (UNI)

Time period of examination 20–65 2004 to 2006 18–60 2006 to 2007 18–60 18–65 1999 to 2000 18–65 1998 to 2000 18–60 1986 to 1987

18–65 1990 to 1991

3 Data Analysis 3.1

Basic Data Statistical Analysis

Seven important items including height, sitting height, sitting depth, Hip breadth, Lower leg length, shoulder width between two elbows, elbow height in sitting position were selected as data to be compared. Some of the several countries’ data are not available in ISO 7250-2. We focus on analyzing countries that already have data. As can be seen from Table 2. Table 2. Average and standard deviation for seven items Italy

Japan

Kenya Korea

The Netherlands United States China

Mean value of male Stature (body height) 1716 1695.6 1717.4 1707.6 1808.1 Sitting height 883 909.9 842.2 921.5 941.8 Elbow height, sitting 238 249.6 198.8 258.3 254.6 Elbow-to-elbow breadth 498 426.4 459.6 475 496.6 Hip breadth. sitting 350 358.8 361.4 347.7 383.1 Lower leg length (popliteal height 405.3 438.5 399.6 485.8 Buttock-popliteal length (seat depth) 481 447.6 497 467.1 508.4 Mean value of female Stature (body height) 1592 1570.3 1628.9 1579 1672.3 Sitting height 835 849.2 797.3 857.8 884.6 Elbow height sitting 238 235.3 198.9 246.7 248 Elbow-to-elbow breadth 443 370.6 455.2 420.9 463.3 Hip breadth. sitting 359 360.5 401.9 348.4 418.9 Lower leg length (popliteal height 370.5 412 368.8 436.1 Buttock-popliteal length (seat depth) 475 457.7 509.2 445.4 497.6

1766.6 920.6 239.1 376.3

1637.9 864.1 236.9 410.4

1678 908 263 422 321 413 457 1570 855 251 404 344 382 433

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In respect of the data of elbow height in sitting position, the countries with relatively large elbow height, whether male or female, are China and South Korea among Asian countries, and the Japanese people’s sitting height is relatively large. While the elbow height of people in the United States, Italy and other European and American countries have not as large elbow height in sitting position as the people in Asian countries. Dutch people’ average height is significantly larger than those of other countries, so the Dutchmen’s elbow height in sitting position ranks the third in the seven countries. In respect of the data of elbow width in sitting position, the Dutchmen and the Italians have a relatively large elbow width in sitting position, and the data of elbow width in sitting position of Japanese and Chinese people is smaller. The difference between maximum and minimum is about 76 mm. In respect of the hip breadth data, the Netherlands and the United States, two western countries, have relatively large hip breadth data, which are 383.1 mm and 376.3 mm, respectively, and Kenyans also have relatively large hip breadth, i.e. 361.4 mm. While the hip breadths of Chinese and South Korean people are relatively small, which are 347.7 mm and 321 mm respectively. The female have wider sitting hip breadth data in the seven countries than the males. The sitting hip breadth of the female in the Netherlands, Kenya and the United States are over 400 mm, and the data have about 50–60 mm wider than the female in China, Japan and Korea. In respect of the Lower leg length data, Italian and American people’s Lower leg length data is not available. The Dutchmen, as the people with largest average height, have longest Lower leg length, which is 485.8 mm. They are followed by Kenyan, whose data is 438.5 mm. The Lower leg length of people in Asia’s three countries is similar. That of men is about 400–410 mm and that of women is between 370 and 380 mm. In respect of the sitting depth data, the American people’s sitting depth data is not available. Dutch men and Kenyan women have the largest data of sitting depth. People from Japan and South Korea, two Asian countries, have the smallest sitting depth. Sitting depth data are closely related to person’s lower limbs’ length. Kenya’s men have more sitting depth data, followed by European and the USA people, and finally the Asian people. The difference between the maximum and minimum sitting depth data among the several countries are 61 mm and 76 mm.

3.2

Analysis for the Ratio of the Body Height and the Sitting Height

The ratio of the body height and the sitting height could roughly describe the proportion of upper and lower limbs. So these ratios are calculated. The data of body height and the sitting height and the ratio of the body height and the sitting height in seven countries are showed in Table 3. Table 3. Data of body height and the sitting height in seven countries Italia Japan Kenya Korea The Netherlands United States China Male 1.94 1.86 2.04 1.85 1.92 1.92 1.85 Female 1.91 1.85 2.04 1.84 1.89 1.90 1.84

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Form Table 3 we can see for body height and sitting height, the United States and the Netherlands men’s and women’s are higher than the other countries’ persons. The Kenyans’ bodies heights are in the third place, but their sitting height are at the lowest value among these countries. The ratios of body height/sitting height for the male and female in Kenya of ratio are around 2.04. The ratios in the Netherlands, United States and Italy for the male and female are about 1.92–1.94 and 1.9–1.91 separately. For the persons in Asian countries including Japan, Korea and China, this ratio is 1.85–1.86 for male and 1.84–1.85 for female. The data shows that Kenyans’ lower limbs are relatively long, while the Asian’s lower limbs are relatively short.

4 Chair Design Dimensions The sitting height of human body and the height of chair back cushion or the height of neck support part are highly related. In general, the higher the human body is, the larger the sitting height will be, and the higher the chair back cushion should be designed, so that the neck and head can be supported well. But the Kenyan people’s leg length accounts for a large proportion of the height, so their height data is smaller on the contrary. In the chair design, it is necessary to fully take into account the height of people in sitting position so as to design the chair back cushion and neck support part. The elbow height of human body is related to and the design of chair armrest height. In Asian countries, people have relatively large elbow height in sitting position, and that of European and American people is low. In the design of chair armrest height, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of these people. The main function of armrest is to allow the arms to rely on, and it also can be used as the starting point to stand up or change the sitting position. In addition, it allows the formation of physical and psychological isolation from the people in adjacent seat, so the too high or too low armrest is not appropriate. The too high armrest will make the shoulders shrug, and the too low armrest cannot play the role of support and will make the shoulder muscles easy to fatigue. The appropriate chair armrest height should be the average of P50 male and P50 female, with the design value slightly smaller than the data. The elbow width in sitting position of human body is related to the design of chair armrest width, and the Hip breadth is related to the chair width design. People in Europe and the United States need a wider chair surface and a larger armrest width, while the Asians need a relatively small chair surface and armrest width. The seat width must be able to accommodate sturdy people, but should not be too large, because if the seat is too large, arms are not supported and the shoulder will have fatigue discomfort. Because this body dimension of female is larger than that of male, the general chair width should be designed based on the Hip breadth of the 95th percentile female, plus the appropriate dressing correction value. Armrest width shall have the lower limit of male P95 percentile body dimension of elbow width, while taking appropriate consideration of dressing correction value. Seat depth refers to the distance from the front edge to the rear edge of chair surface, which is related to the chair depth design. Kenyans and Dutchmen have larger lower limb data, and therefore require the chair with larger seat depth. Asian countries

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need a relatively small chair seat deep. Chair depth dimension cannot be too large, otherwise it will make the lumbar not supported by backrest, and also make it difficult for the elderly to stand up. There should be appropriate distance between the front edge of chair surface and the shanks so as to ensure that the thigh muscles are not squeezed. The appropriate seat depth of working chair should have the first five percentile women’s body dimensions as the lower limit. Lower leg length is related to chair height design. Appropriate seat height should keep the thighs horizontal, calf vertical and feet lying flatwise on the ground [5]. Dutch and Kenyan people’s lower leg length is the largest, so they require a larger chair height. People in China, Japan and South Korea have lower leg length about 70–80 mm smaller than that of the Dutch, so they need relatively smaller chair height, in order to meet the comfort needs. In general, the chair seat height should be slightly lower than the lower leg length. As the height of working chair is clearly related to the height of working surface, the working chair is generally designed to be adjustable in height so as to adapt to different operators. In line with this, adjustable foot pad can be used. The seat height adjustment scope should be the “lower leg length” of the fifth percentile of female (18 to 55 years old) to the 95th percentile of male (18 to 60 years old), plus the shoe height of about 30 mm. If the non-adjustable chair structure is used, the appropriate chair surface height should be subject to the fifth percentile man’s body dimensions. The ISO/TR 7250-2:2010“Basic human body measurements for technological design Part 2: Statistical summaries of body measurements from national populations” provides the statistics for seven countries, including the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile values. These data could be used to design the chairs’ height, depth and breadth.

5 The References Section In this paper, the human body dimensions data associated with the chair dimensions design was analyzed. The people of seven countries were selected, covering Europe, the United States, Asian and African countries. It is found in the research that in the design of chair for Asian people, the chair armrest height is slightly larger when compared to that for European and American people; but the chair cushion height and chair surface height should be relatively small. The chair surface width, armrest width and seat depth have smaller correlation. Acknowledgments. This work is supported by Quality Inspection Industry Research Special Funds for Public Welfare (201510042) and National Science and Technology Basic Research (2013FY110200).

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References 1. Shizhong, T., Zhiguang, L., Wenchen, F.: Study on the Operating Post Dimensions of Control Room, Water Conservancy and Electricity Labor Protection, Issue 1, March 1995 2. GB/T 14774: General Ergonomic Requirements for Working Chair. National standard (1993) 3. ISO 7250-22010: Basic human body measurements for technological design Part 2: Statistical summaries of body measurements from national populations 4. GB/T 10000-1988: Human dimensions of Chinese adults. National standard (1988) 5. Jianxiong, L., Fuchang, Z., Limin, S.: Ergonomic discussion of sitting position and chair design. Ergonomics 11(4) (2005)

Segmentation of Anthropometric Data of the Brazilian’ Female Population Carla Capelassi1,2(&), Miguel Carvalho2, Raquel Campos2, Cristina Kattel3, and Bugao Xu4 1

Fashion Design Department, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Campus Apucarana, Apucarana, Brazil [email protected] 2 Textile Engineering Department, School of Engineering, University of Minho, Campus Azurem, Guimaraes 4800-058, Portugal [email protected], [email protected] 3 Department of Design and Fashion, State University of Maringa, Campus Maringa, Maringa, Brazil [email protected] 4 University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The researches concerning the measurements of the human body in Brazil are still very few and the anthropometric data related with the Brazilian women is widely diversified due to some aspects such as the vastness of the country and a huge miscegenation of races. The results obtained through the utilization of a 3D body scanner were segmented into four categories, namely: age, region of origin, race and shape. The aim of this study is to provide more accurate and reliable measurements and information concerning the different types of body shapes for the clothing sizing systems directed to the industry specialized in the mass production of clothing, and, therefore, allow clothing to fit appropriately on the wearer’s body in such a way as to make her more confident and satisfied with the clothing available in the market but also access higher levels of comfort. Keywords: Anthropometry
Body measurement
Body shape
Clothing fit
3D body scanning

1 Introduction Until the present time, it is not available in Brazil a database reflecting the different types of body shapes and measurements of the main types of Brazilian female bodies, to establish a correct sizing system for the clothing production industry. The data currently available to the Brazilian fashion design industry is not enough, presenting divergences between the sizes currently in use in the industrial production and the real measurements of the average female body. © Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1_104

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Some aspects make difficult the standardization of sizes in Brazil. One of them is the fact that Brazil has a vast territory, which is divided into five regions, each one composed of states. Those regions were already inhabited by local people, the indigenous, when the Europeans arrived and colonized it and, later, the diversity increased with the arrival of the Africans and Asians. That great diversity of people gave rise to the mestizos, people of mixed ancestry whose physical characteristics have received several influences. Besides that, the clothing manufacturers have their own sizing systems based on their target markets [1]. Since they consider their sizing systems as an important commercial marketing tool, they are not willing to disclose them [2] and are reluctant to accept a standard sizing system, which could have the potential to provide consumers with a standard size on all brands. Therefore, as a consequence of the lack of that standard size, arises an insecurity in the consumer, which ends up in having doubts about their size, feeling insecurity when buying clothes online. In opposition to the difficulties mentioned, technology is facilitating the anthropometric studies through the use of equipment for body scanning in three dimensions, through which it is possible to obtain instantaneously and very accurately the measurements of different parts of the body and, consequently, optimizing the research time with increased reliability.

2 Methodology The body scanner used in this study was the KBI - Kinect Body Imaging, composed of hardware and software, capture a 3D image of the body and, automatically, generates the most important body measurements and volumes. The system was developed by the School of Human Ecology, University of Texas – Austin (USA). In her study, Wenping [3], describes in the detail how the scanning process performed by the KBI works. When the 3D model of the body is captured by the system, the landmarks and the measurements of the body are extracted automatically. The method of extracting the landmarks and measurements of the body was the same used by Xu et al. [4], once the key landmarks were located, the body was segmented into the torso, head, arms, and legs. Then various measures such as circumferences and lengths were extracted. The sample was composed of Brazilian women who study at University of Minho and live in Portugal. The data regarding these 101 women was collected between June and September of 2016 in the cities of Braga and Guimaraes. The study involved, in a first moment, filling out a sociodemographic questionnaire and, afterwards, the collection of the body measurements. The body scanner collected instantaneously and accurately 105 body measurements, including girths, heights, widths and lengths of the main body parts, as well as the volumes of the main body segments. It was also recorded for each participant the body mass and height for later analyses. The volunteers were instructed to stand in the proper position according to the standard [5], wearing only their own underwear during the procedure, thereby ensuring that the measurements were reliable and could be used in the study. The data collected by the KBI system was treated afterwards in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and in the SPSS software for statistical calculations.

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3 Results The results collected from the sample composed of 101 women that participated in the study was segmented in four categories, consisting of homogenous groups with similar characteristics, taking in consideration aspects such as age group, region of origin in Brazil, race and body shape. Five variables were selected for the segmentation, namely, body mass in kilograms, height in centimeters and the girths of bust, waist and hip in centimeters. It is important to emphasize that the five variables selected are important for the development of clothing products. The analyses of the results was performed using simple statistical techniques.

3.1

Segmentation by Age Group

Regarding the total sample of 101 women, the ages ranged from 19 to 62 years. Since there was a great variation of ages, it was necessary to group them in age groups within intervals of ten years on average, to better understand the results. Table 1 presents the average of the five variables selected. Table 1. Average of the five variables regarding the segmentation by age group. Age ranges (years) 19–29 30–39 40–49 50–62 Total sample

% sample 34% 32% 24% 10% 100%

Body mass (kg) 60.2 64.0 67.6 62.3 63.5

Height (cm) 163 165 163 162 163

Bust girth 93.6 98.1 100.9 98.4 97.7

Waist girth 73.4 77.5 83.2 81.5 78.9

Hip girth 101.6 103.5 107.8 102.1 103.7

Analyzing the results, it can be seen an expressive increase in the average of the body mass as well as in the averages of the girths of the bust, waist and hip in the group comprising ages between 40 and 49 years. In this group, the values of those variables are above the average of the total sample results. In the other age groups, the variations were not significant.

3.2

Segmentation by Region of Origin in Brazil

Due to the vastness of its territory, Brazil is divided in five regions, each one of them composed of states. In order to group states in a region, are used the criteria defined by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) [6], such as similarities in physical, human, cultural, social and economic aspects. In the total sample of the study participated woman born in all the regions, as shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Average of the five variables regarding the segmentation by region of origin in Brazil. Regions of Brazil Northeast Southeast South North West Central Total sample

% sample 34% 27% 26% 7% 6% 100%

Body mass (kg) 63.6 63.5 63.9 63.3 59.7 62.8

Height (cm) 164 164 164 163 163 163

Bust girth 97.3 97.2 97.9 97.2 94.4 96.8

Waist girth 77.9 77.9 78.3 77.9 74.7 77.3

Hip girth 103.8 103.8 104.0 103.7 101.3 103.3

The Northeast is the region with the largest number of representatives, being that 34% of the participants are from that region, whereas the West Central region has the lowest representation, with only 6%. Through the analysis of these results, it was concluded that the Northeastern, Southeastern, Southern and Northern regions present homogeneous averages concerning the variables studied. Only the West Central region has lower scores than the averages regarding the variables body mass and girths of bust, waist and hip.

3.3

Segmentation by Race

The distribution of the population in the Brazilian territory according to the race reflects the migratory processes of the country during the last 500 years. The migratory movement that had Brazil as destination was enormous [7], beginning, initially, with the arrival of the Europeans and, subsequently, the sub-Saharan Africans. The Brazilian population is characterized as being largely composed of mestizos due to the combination of the three predominant races in the country, specifically, the white, black and indigenous races. The blending of these races gave origin to the term mixed race, which is the miscegenation of different races. Since there is in Brazil the combination of European and Asian immigrants, people from Africa and indigenous people, the amount of anthropometric variations has increased as a consequence of so many different possibilities of miscegenation between different peoples with different body constitutions and different physical characteristics. The results are shown in Table 3. Table 3. Average of the five variables regarding the segmentation by race. Race % sample White 62% Mixed race 28% Black 9% Indigenous 1% Total sample 100%

Body mass (kg) Height (cm) Bust girth 63.4 163 97.3 63.5 164 97.2 65.0 164 98.9 72.0 162 101.3 66.0 163 98.7

Waist girth Hip girth 77.9 103.7 77.9 103.8 79.6 104.6 82.7 113.4 79.5 106.4

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Regarding the analysis of the results segmented by race, it can be observed that the white and mixed races present similar results. Concerning the group of black people, the results are higher than the average, however, it is in the group of the indigenous that the results differ more from the others. Nevertheless, since this group represents only 1% of the total sample, it cannot be considered as being representative of that race.

3.4

Segmentation by Shape

The shapes of the female body are classified using some classifications related to figures that have similarities with them, such as geometric shapes (oval, triangle, inverted triangle, rectangle), types of fruits or vegetables (apple, pear), letters of the alphabet (H, O, A, X, R, I, S, V) and some other objects with well-defined shapes (hourglass, bean, heart, spoon and diamond) [8–10]. In the study of Karla Simmons [8], it was developed a software called Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) for apparel, based on the studies for the development of a methodology to characterize the diverse types of bodies of the American population. The research for the development of FFIT made use of mathematical criteria and the tacit knowledge of experts on product design, development and clothing adjustment. In the methodology developed for the FFIT, the hourglass shape was the basis from which many of the other categories were created. The body measurements used to define the hourglass category were the bust, waist and hip. The person with an hourglass shape has the appearance of being proportional in the bust and hip and with a defined waist. The measurements of bust, waist, high hip and hip girths are the main measurements defined for the evaluation parameters. The most common shapes found in this study, using the KBY system and following the same methodology used by Karla Simmons, are listed in Table 4. Table 4. Most common shapes found in the research with Brazilian women living in Portugal. Shape Total Rectangle 40.0% Hourglass 28.0% Bottom hourglass 18.0% Spoon 11.0% Top hourglass 3.0% Triangle 0.0% Inverted triangle 0.0% Total 100.0%

The most common shapes found were the Rectangle, Hourglass, Bottom hourglass, Spoon and Top hourglass. The Triangle and Inverted triangle shapes had no representatives in the sample. Each shape presents specific body characteristics to determine in which classification each woman is represented.

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Although the Rectangular shape is characterized as being a straight body shape with little waist definition, is the one with the largest number of representatives, with 40% of the participants. The sum of the number of women who are included in the categories Hourglass, Bottom hourglass and Top hourglass got a total value of 49%. The shape Hourglass and its derivations characterize a body with a more defined waist.

Body shape illustration

Description Rectangle: A rectangular subject would have the bust and hip measurement fairly equal and the bust-to-waist and hip-towaist ratios low. The subject would not possess a clearly discernible waistline.

Hourglass: A subject would fall into this shape category when there is a very small difference in the comparison of the circumferences of the bust and hips and if the ratios of the bust-to-waist and hipsto-waist are about equal and significant. Bottom Hourglass: A subject would fall into this shape category if has a larger hip circumference than bust circumference and if the ratios of the bust-to-waist and hips-to-waist are significant enough to produce a definite waistline. Spoon: This shape is based on the criteria that if a subject has a larger circumferential difference in the hips and bust and if the bust-to-waist ratio is lower than the Hourglass shape and the high hip-to-waist ratio is great, then the shape would be Spoon. Top Hourglass: When a subject has a larger bust circumference than hip circumference and if the ratios of the bust-to-waist and hips-to-waist measurements are significant enough to produce a definite waistline, then would be classified into the Top hourglass shape. This subject would appear to be heavy in the bust as compared to the hips but still would have a defined waistline. Fig. 1. Description of the five most commonly found shapes and their illustrations based on the publications of Bastos et al. and Lee et al. [11, 12].

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Therefore, there is a part of the population with a straight body and, almost in the same proportion, women with more defined waist formats. Figure 1 illustrates and describes the five most commonly found shapes based on the publications of Bastos et al. and Lee et al. [11, 12].

4 Discussion This anthropometric study was shown that the measured sample of Brazilian women living in Portugal was segmented into four main categories. Analyzing the obtained results, it is possible to visualize the difficulty of defining a unique standard sizing system directed to the manufacture of women’s clothing in a country like Brazil, with such a large extent of territory and with an enormous variation of physical types as a result of the miscegenation of races. Nevertheless, it is important that the Brazilian industry is aware of this reality and that can define the type of their target clients, in order to redefine their size tables according to accurate anthropometric studies. Only with the knowledge of the body of their users and use of the sizing system that represents the average body of their clients, they will be able to mass produce their collections. It is also important that they understand the standardization of sizes as a factor of competitiveness, as it already happens in other countries that benefit from this way of selling clothing online. Each consumer wishes to have clothes that fit to their body type, which goes through changes over the years due to external influences, and this encourages a constant update of the anthropometric researches, with the help of technology, aiming to define a clothing sizing system for the current market. As a result of the knowledge of the woman’s body in Brazil, greater satisfaction will be generated due to the possibility of having clothes with the appropriate adjustment to the different body shapes. Regardless of the age, race or region in which they live, all women want to have the product design appropriate for their body profile. Although this study was limited by the size of its sample, it is a major contribution to the clothing industry in Brazil because the country has few researches using accurate measuring systems, like using 3D body scanner technology for body measurements, being also a source of research and comparison for future studies in the fields of anthropometry aiming the design and production of clothing. Acknowledgments. We would like to acknowledge 2C2T-Science Center for Textile Technology from University of Minho and Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR). This work is financed by FEDER funds through the Competitive Factors Operational Program (COMPETE) POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007136 and by national funds through FCT-Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, under the project UID/CTM/000264.

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References 1. Simmons, K.P.: Body measurement techniques: a comparison of three-dimensional body scanning and physical anthropometric methods. Unpublished A1 paper, North Carolina State University, Raleigh (2001) 2. LePechoux, B.: Standard sizing and fit testing applied to women’s hosiery. Unpublished Doctoral A1 requirement paper, North Carolina State University, Raleigh (1998) 3. Wenping, L.: Determination of distance ease at crotch curve for customized jeans. Thesis presented to The University of Texas at Austin 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/26578 4. Xu, B., Yu, W., Yao, M., Pepper, M.R., Freeland-graves, J.H.: Three-dimensional surface imaging system for assessing human obesity. Opt. Eng. 48(10), 107204 (2009) 5. ISO 20685: 3-D Scanning Methodologies for Internationally Compatible Anthropometric Databases. In: International Organization for Standardization. Reference no. 20685-2010. ISO, Switzerland (2010) 6. IBGE - Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics.: Division into Regions. http://www. ibge.gov.br/english/geociencias/geografia/default_div_int.shtm 7. IBGE - Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics.: Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento. Rio de Janeiro (2007) 8. Simmons, K.P.: Shape analysis using three-dimensional body scanning technology, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh (2002) 9. Devarajan, P., Istook, C.: Validation of ‘female figure identification technique (FFIT) for apparel software. J. Text. Appar. Technol. Manag. 4(1), 1–23 (2004) 10. Vuruskan, A., Bulgun, E.: Identification of female body shapes based on numerical evaluations. Int. J. Cloth. Sci. Technol. 23(1), 46–60 (2011) 11. Bastos, S.F., Sabrá, F.G.: A forma do corpo da mulher brasileira. Disponível em: http:// arquivos.portaldaindustria.com.br/app/conteudo_18/2014/07/10/6822/A_forma_do_corpo_ da_mulher_brasileira.pdf?r=0.87160718317. Acesso em: 20 Oct 2016 12. Lee, J.Y., Istook, C.L., Nam, Y.J., Park, S.M.: Comparison of body shape between USA and Korean women. Int. J. Cloth. Sci. Technol. 19(5), 374–391 (2007)

Author Index

A Aceves-Gonzalez, Carlos, 303, 796 Ahram, Tareq, 479 Akurke, Saishyam, 241 Alam, Tanweer, 165 Almeida, Ana, 26 Alppay, Ekrem Cem, 885 Aoki, Hirotaka, 92 Araium, Luane C., 690 Arce-Lopera, Carlos, 250 Arruda, Amilton, 349, 357, 453, 469 B Barbosa, Justino, 349, 357 Barreto, Rodrigo Luís Pereira, 652 Barricelli, Barbara Rita, 127 Bernaldez, Isachar, 851 Bertolaccini, Guilherme, 645 Bezerra, Pablo, 453, 469 Bhattacharjee, Amrita, 177 Bhutta, Zunaira Ilyas, 621 Blum, Arina, 506 Bock, Eduardo, 924 Bogard, Fabien, 479 Bontempo, Ricardo, 683 Bornet, Corinne, 400 Branco, Lucia Regina, 498 Brandão, Guilherme Valle Loures, 390 Brangier, Eric, 400 Brito, Gil, 561 Brogin, Bruna, 569 Bueno de Oliveira, Tainá A., 671 C Cabral, Teresa Olazabal, 610 Câmara, António, 432 Campos, Alexandre, 924 Campos, Pedro, 127 Campos, Raquel, 1029

Capelassi, Carla, 1029 Caputo, Francesco, 3 Carneiro, Luciana, 841 Carvalhais, José, 712 Carvalho, Miguel, 939, 1029 Castañon, Jose Alberto Barroso, 390 Catapan, Márcio F., 690 Charpe, Namrata Arora, 755 Chen, Chau-Kuang, 897 Chen, Wenzhi, 382 Cícero, Janete, 561 Coimbra, Inês, 421 Coleman, Jose, 1017 Correia, Nuno, 432 Cotrim, Teresa, 712 Craig, Brian, 157, 241 Custodio, Benette P., 964 D D‘Amato, Egidio, 3 da Silva, Ana Moreira, 813 da Silva, Fernando Moreira, 233, 340, 600, 762, 916 Dang, Thao-Hien, 382 Daniel, 652 de Aboim Borges, Miguel, 340 de Amaral, Lara Reis, 100 de França, Ana Carol Pontes, 45, 52 de Menezes, Marly, 683 de Souza, Marcos Aurélio, 924 Dieter, Luísa, 690 Ding, Li, 199 Dizon, Pauline Hannah P., 869 do Amaral, Wilian Daniel Henriques, 390 Domenech, Susana Cristina, 631 Domenech, Susana, 506, 529, 549 Domingues, Fernanda, 663 Doro, Laura, 722 dos Santos, Flávio Anthero Nunes Vianna, 329

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 F. Rebelo and M. Soares (eds.), Advances in Ergonomics in Design, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 588, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1

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Author Index

dos Santos, Rosangela Monteiro, 581 Duarte, Emília, 100 Duarte, José Pinto, 432

Huang, Chih-Yang, 780 Huang, Yixin, 591 Hubenak, Shane, 1017

E Edelman, Elazer, 939 Ermida, Pablo, 432, 462 Espina, Mary Agnes C., 869

I Ito, Suguru, 905

F Falco, Marcelo, 683 Faria Pais, J., 841 Fernandes, André, 746 Ferrão, Leonor, 411, 432, 462 Ferreira, Gabriel, 561 Ferreira, Marcelo Gitirana Gomes, 631 Ferreira, Marcelo Gomes, 671 Figueiredo, Carlos, 421 Filho, Eugenio Fossile, 690 Filho, Idnei, 645 Foggiatto, José Aguiomar, 498, 518, 701 Fontes, Liliana, 939 Frazão, Rui, 762 Fu, Wen-yu, 897 G Gaines, Kristi, 951 Galindo-Estupiñan, Zuli T, 303 Gerbaulet, Damian, 115 Germak, Claudio, 134 Giacomin, Joseph, 134 Giuliano, Luca, 134 Godinez, Patrizia Gayle P., 964 Gomez, Daniel, 250 Gottsfritz, Augusto, 683 Greco, Alessandro, 3 Guarnetti, João Eduardo, 581 Guimarães, Bruno, 549 Güzelbey Esengün, Güzide, 885 H Heidrich, Regina, 71 Hein, Andrea, 261 Hernandes, Francienne, 581 Hernandez, Christopher, 1017 Hernandez, Joshua, 1017 Hinnig, Renata, 506 Holkar, Shivani, 177 Hoyos Ruíz, J., 286 Hoyos, Johana Ruíz, 83 Hu, Huimin, 1022 Hu, Shu-Jen, 832 Hu, Xiaoping, 973, 1007 Hu, Ziting, 982

J Jadhav, Ganesh S., 995 Joines, Sharon, 314 Junior, Ademir Marques, 581 K Kane, Stephanie, 187 Kao, Wei-lung, 832 Karmakar, Sougata, 821, 857 Kattel, Cristina, 1029 Korn, Oliver, 115 Kuo, Lung-Wen, 735 L Lai, Chih-Chun, 735 Laila, Theska, 349, 357, 453, 469 Landa-Avila, Irma C., 796 Li, Fang, 591 Li, Hongxia, 591 Li, Tsung-yao, 786 Li, Yan, 199 Li, Yueqing, 157, 241 Licheski, Laís Cristina, 663 Lima, André, 746 Lin, Huajuan, 1007 Liu, Haixiao, 62 Liu, Li, 982 Liu, Taijie, 1022 Liu, Zhengdong, 982 Lopes, Arminda, 127 Luo, Hong, 1022 M Ma, Liang, 321 Maia, Luiz, 671 Maier, Thomas, 261 Maldonado, Paulo, 432, 462 Maletz, Elias Renã, 652 Mannrich, Giuliano, 549 Manzano-Hernandez, Paulina, 796 Mariani, Catalina, 16 Martino, Carlo, 569 Martins, Daniel, 924 Matos, Diego, 549 McBride, Aric, 1017 Medola, Fausto, 645 Mehrubeoglu, Mehrube, 1017

Author Index Merino, Eugenio A.D., 506, 529 Merino, Eugenio, 549 Merino, Giselle S.A.D., 529 Merino, Giselle Schmidt A., 506 Merino, Giselle, 549 Mireles-Ramirez, Mario, 303 Mizrahi, Saul, 561 Mondal, Chirapriya, 821 Montagna, Gianni, 293 Moroni, Isabela, 453, 469 Moura, Edna, 349, 357 Moura, João, 671 Muller, Chris, 187 Murer, Sébastien, 479

1039 R Ran, Linghua, 199, 1022 Raposo, Daniel, 233, 600, 807 Rebelo, Francisco, 26, 34, 71, 100, 371, 712, 841 Rech, Zelita, 529 Rey-Galindo, John, 303 Rezende, Stéfany M., 518 Rodrigues, Ricardo Schwinn, 631 Rolo, Elisabete, 443 Rosenmann, Gabriel C., 701

P Pal, Swati, 177 Park, Jangwoon, 1017 Paschoarelli, Luís Carlos, 581 Paschoarelli, Luis, 645 Patil, Manoj, 157 Patzer, Elena, 261 Pereira Neto, J., 45 Pichler, Rosimeri F., 529 Poier, Paloma H., 701 Ponsa, Pere, 16 Pontes, António J., 746

S Sáenz, Luz M., 286 Saha, N.C., 165 Sakata, Masahiko, 905 Salamanca, Juan, 250 Salvador, Cristina, 773 Salve, Urmi R., 995 Sampaio, Álvaro M., 746 Sampaio, Felipe, 561 Sandnes, Frode, 645 Santiago, Jerielle Trini S., 869 Santos, Daniela, 712 Santos, Jorge, 939 Santos, Luís, 293 Schumacher, Peter, 274 Sevilla, Gustavo, 83, 286 Shang, Yuting, 958 Sheikh, Javed Anjum, 621 Shen, Hui, 145 Shete, Hemant K., 995 Shin, Su-Jeong Hwang, 951 Silva, Caio Marcio, 690 Silva, Cátia, 746 Silva, Fernando, 807 Silva, José, 233, 600, 807 Silva, Luiza Debastiani, 329 Simas, Henrique, 652 Sintor, M. Marjorie R., 964 Skendraoui, Nadir, 479 Soares, Marcelo Márcio, 45, 52 Solomon, R., 857 Soriano, Virginia, 851 Spada, Stefania, 3 Speck, Giselle, 549 Stoppa, Marcelo H., 518 Strobel, Christian, 690 Suzuki, Satoshi, 92 Syed, Uzairulhassan, 157

Q Qian, Wei, 62 Qiu, Bianbian, 145

T Taiar, Redha, 479 Tamayao, Melen M., 869

N Nakanishi, Miwa, 905 Neto, Guilherme F., 518 Neto, Maria João Pereira, 293 Neves, João, 233, 600, 807 Neves, Marco, 211 Neves, Paula Mercedes, 916 Nickel, Elton Moura, 329 Nickel, Elton, 671 Noriega, Paulo, 26, 34, 71, 371, 712, 841 Notaro, Immacolata, 3 O Okimoto, Maria Lúcia L., 701 Okimoto, Maria Lúcia Leite Ribeiro, 488, 541, 690 Okimoto, Maria Lúcia Ribeiro, 569 Okimoto, Maria Lucia, 722 Oliveira, Sabrina, 722 Oliveira, Tiago, 71, 712 Ortiz, Genaro, 303 Otto, Thiago Beckert, 924

1040 Tanure, Raffaela Leane Zenni, 541 Teixeira, Edson S.M., 488 Tian, Shuicheng, 591 Tirpude, Rahul, 165 Trindade, Yanick, 371 Tsao, Liuxing, 321 U Ulbricht, Leandra, 701 V Valdivia, Maricella D., 964 Ventura, Flavio Cardoso, 581 Vicente, José, 762 Vidana-Zavala, David, 796 Vilar, Elisângela, 26, 34 Villas Boas, Mateus N., 690 Vivian, Robin, 400 Volpato, Neri, 701 von Kelsch, Erika, 187 W Walker, Alexander, 274 Wang, Jin, 62 Wang, Ming-ju, 897

Author Index Weigert, Mateus C., 701 Wojcikiewicz, Felipe, 671 Wu, Fong-Gong, 780, 786 Wu, Xiaoli, 222 X Xi, Tianyang, 222 Xing, Mengdi, 982 Xu, Bugao, 1029 Xu, Jiahui, 973 Y Yang, Ai-ping, 897 Yevalkar, Abhishek, 177 Yousaf, Azeem, 621 Yu, Chen, 321 Z Zhang, Fanglan, 314 Zhang, Xin, 897, 1022 Zhao, Chaoyi, 1022 Zhao, Yunqian, 199 Zheng, Zaixiang, 145 Zhou, Jiping, 145 Zhou, Wei, 321