The Roman Military Defence of the British Provinces in its Later Phases 9780860541783, 9781407317090

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Maps and Figures
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Chapter 1: Roman Frontier Development
Chapter 2: The Third Century
Chapter 3: The Archaeological Evidence for the History of Forts in the Later Third Century
Chapter 4: Forts Without Angle-Towers, Artillery, and the Provision of Projecting Towers
Chapter Five: Britain Under Constantius Chlorus, AD 296-306
Chapter 6: From Constantius Chlorus to Count Theodosius
Chapter 7: AD 367, The Barbarica Conspirato and Count Theodosius
Chapter 8: The Last Four Decades of Roman Military Occupation
Chapter 9: The Notitia Dignitatum
Chapter 10: The Function of Towns in the Military Defence of the British Diocese
Chapter 11: The Evidence for the Presence of Laeti and Foederati in Later Roman Britain
Conclusion
Appendix I: The Chronology of the Stone Forts and Vici at Chesterholm
Appendix II: A Note on Pottery Supplies to Northern Military Sites in the Fourth Century
List of Abbreviations
Bibliography
Index of Place Names
Maps and Figures

Citation preview

The Roman Military Defence of the British Provinces in its Later Phases Derek A. Welsby

BAR British Series I o I

1982

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A ., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 101, 1982: 'The Roman Military Defence of the British Provinces in its Later Phases'

©

Derek A.Welsby, 1982

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541783 paperback ISBN 9781407317090 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541783 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CO N T E N T S

T itle L ist

P age N o.

o f M aps a nd F igures

A cknowledgements I NTRODUCTION C hapter

1

1 R oman F rontier D evelopment

3

C hapter 2

T he T hird C entury

8

C hapter 3

T he A rchaeological E vidence f or t he H istory o f F orts i n t he L ater T hird C entury

3 4

F orts w ithout A ngle-Towers, A rtillery a nd t he P rovision o f P rojecting T owers

6 0

B ritain u nder C onstantius C hlorus, A D 2 96-306

6 8

F rom C onstantius C hlorus t o C ount T heodosius

9 1

C hapter 4

C hapter 5

C hapter 6

C hapter

7

A D 3 67,

T he

' Barbarica C onspiratio'

a nd C ount T heodosius

1 04

T he L ast F our D ecades o f R oman M ilitary O ccupation

1 25

C hapter 9

T he N otitia D ignitatum

1 33

C hapter

T he F unction o f T owns i n t he M ilitary D efence o f t he B ritish D iocese

1 46

C hapter 8

C hapter

1 0

1 1

T he E vidence f or t he P resence o f L aeti a nd F oederati i n L ater R oman B ritain

C ONCLUSION A ppendix 1

A ppendix 2

1 65 T he C hronology o f t he S tone F orts a nd V ici a t C hesterholm

1 69

AN ote o n P ottery S upplies t o N orthern M ilitary S ites i n t he F ourth C entury

1 70

A bbreviations B ibliography I ndex o f P lace N ames M aps a nd F igures

1 57

M APS A ND F IGURES

Map

1

M ilitary s ites o ccupied i n t he t hird a nd/or f ourth c enturies.

Map

2

T he d istribution o f C rambeck p archment w ares o n m ilitary s ites

( Corder t ypes

5 b,

7 ,

8 ,

9a nd

Map

3

T he N otitia D ignitatum O ccidentis,

F ig

1 .1

C arpow

1 .2

B rancaster

2 .1

R eculver

2 .2

P iercebridge

F ig

F ig 3 .1 3 .2 F ig 4 .1

F ig

F ig

F ig

F ig

F ig

F ig

( St J oseph

( Philp

1 969C)

( Keeney

B urrow-in-Lonsdale E lslack

1 939-43;

( Hildyard

( Collingwood

B radwell

1 936)

S cott a nd L arge 1 954)

1 930B)

( Johnson J 1 976A)

W alton C astle

( Johnson J 1 976A)

5 .1

R ichborough

5 .2

D over

( Johnson J 1 976A)

6 .1

L ympne

6 .2

P evensey

7 .1

P ortchester

7 .2

B urgh C astle

8 .1

C ardiff

8 .2

B aginton

( Hobley

9 .1

B itterne

( Cunliffe

9 .2

C aister-by-Yarmouth

1 0.1

C aistor ( Lincs) ( Todd 1 973) H orncastle ( Todd 1 973)

( Cunliffe

1 977;

P hilp

1 981)

( Johnson J 1 976A) ( Peers

1 952)

( Cunliffe

1 975)

( Morris A 1 948)

( Nash-Williams

1 969)

1 974) 1 977) ( Ellison

1 1.1

B rough-on-Humber

1 1.2

M ancetter

F ig

1 2.1 1 2.2

C aves I nn ( Webster 1 974) W all ( Webster 1 974)

F ig

1 3.1

S tretton B ridge

F ig

c hapter X L.

( Birley A 1 967)

4 .2

1 0.2

1 0).

1 3.2

R ed H ill

1 3.3

W apping

( Wacher

( Webster

1 969)

1 974)

( Webster

( Webster

1 966)

1 974)

( Johnson T 1 975)

1 974)

1 978)

F ig

1 4.1

R ichborough f ortlet

1 4.2 1 4.3

B arrack F ell ( Collingwood W reay ( Bellhouse 1 953)

F ig

1 5.1 1 5.2

S caftworth ( Bartlett a nd R iley N ewbrough ( Hepple)

F ig

1 6.1 1 6.2 1 6.3

C ardunock m ilefortlet 5 ( Simpson a nd H odgson C aer G ybi ( RCHM A nglesey 1 968)

1 6.4 1 6.5 F ig

1 7.1

( Cunliffe

1 968)

1 931A)

1 958)

1 948)

H untcliff ( Hornsby a nd S tanton 1 912) S carborough ( Collingwood 1 931B) G oldsborough ( Hornsby a nd L averick 1 932)

1 7.2

S outh S hields n orth g ate H ardknot s outh-east g ate

( Dore a nd G illam 1 979) ( Collingwood 1 928B)

1 7.3 1 7.4

C astell C oh en s outh-east g ate ( Alcock 1 964) B ewcastle w est g ate ( Richmond, H odgson a nd S t J oseph

1 7.5 1 7.6A

R isingham s outh g ate ( Richmond 1 936) C hesterholm s outh g ate ( Birley R 1 970)

1 7.6B 1 7.7

C hesterholm w est g ate ( Birley 1 931) R eculver s outh g ate ( Philp 1 969C)

1 938)

F ig 1 8.1 1 8.2

F ig

P iercebridge w est g ate ( Keeney 1 939-43) B urrow-in-Lonsdale s outh g ate ( Hildyard 1 954)

1 8.3 1 8.4A 1 8.4B

B aginton s outh g ate ( Hobley 1 974) R ichborough f ortlet w est g ate ( Cunliffe 1 968) R ichborough f ort w est g ate ( Johnson J 1 976A)

1 8.4C

R ichborough f ort n orth p ostern

1 8.5

B urgh C astle e ast g ate

1 8.6 1 8.7

A mbleside s outh g ate ( Collingwood 1 915) L ympne e ast g ate ( Cunliffe 1 980)

1 9.1A 1 9.1B 1 9.1C

P evensey w est g ate ( Johnson J 1 976A) P evensey e ast g ate ( Peers 1 952) P evensey n orth p ostern ( Johnson J 1 976A)

1 9.2A 1 9.2B

P ortchester w est g ate ( Cunliffe 1 975) P ortchester n orth g ate ( Cunliffe 1 975)

F ig 2 0.1

C ardiff n orth g ate

( Johnson J 1 976A)

( Harrod 1 859)

( Ward 1 901)

2 0.2A 2 0.2B

B rough-on-Humber n orth g ate ( Wacher 1 969) B rough-on-Humber w est g ate ( Wacher 1 969)

2 0.3 2 0.4 2 0.5

B ainbridge e ast g ate ( Collingwood 1 928A) R isingham w est g ate ( Richmond 1 936) C orbridge n orth g ate o f u nited c ompounds ( Birley a nd R ichmond

F ig 2 1.1 2 1.2

1 938)

K nag B urn g ateway ( Birley 1 937) M ilecastle 5 2 s outh g ate ( Simpson a nd R ichmond

1 935)

2 1.3

H igh R ochester w est g ate

( Bruce 1 857; J obey I a nd W elsby)

2 1.4A 2 1.4B 2 1.5

M alton e ast g ate ( period 5 A) ( Corder 1 930) M alton e ast g ate ( period 6 ) ( Corder 1 930) D over c hassis B ritannica f ort's e ast g ate ( Philp

2 1.6 2 1.7A

E lslack s outh g ate Nay 1 910) C aernarvon n orth-west g ate ( period I II)

( Wheeler

1 921)

2 1.7B

C aernarvon s outh-west g ate

( Wheeler

1 922A)

( period I II)

1 981)

F ig 2 2.1 2 2.2 2 2.3 2 2.4 2 2.5A 2 2.5B 2 2.6 2 2.7 2 2.8 2 2.9

F ig 2 3.1A 2 3.1B 2 3.2 2 3.3 2 3.4

F ig 2 4.1A 2 4.1B

G heriat e l-Garbia n orth a ngle-tower ( Mattingly D a nd W elsby) R eculver w est a ngle ( Philp 1 958) B urgh C astle n orth-east a ngle-tower ( Morris A 1 948) C ardiff n orth-east a ngle-tower ( Wheeler 1 922B) R ichborough s outh-west a ngle-tower ( Cunliffe 1 968) R ichborough i nterval-tower o n w est w all ( Cunliffe 1 968) P ortchester i nterval-tower o n w est w all(Cunliffe 1 975) D over i nterval-tower o n w est w all ( Philp 1 981) B radwell i nterval-tower o n w est w all ( Johnson J 1 976A ) L ympne i nterval-tower 9 ( Cunliffe 1 980)

Y ork i nterval-tower S W5 ( Sumpter a nd C oll Y ork w est a ngle-tower ( Multangular t ower) ( RCHM Y ork 1 962)

H igh R ochester n orth-east a ngle-tower ( Richmond 1 936) C aer G ybi n orth-west a ngle-tower ( RCHM A nglesey 1 968) C hester n orth r ampart b uilding w est o f g ate ( Davey 1 973)

Y ork n orth-east r ampart b uilding ( M MM Y ork 1 962) Y ork n orth-west r ampart b uilding a nd i nterval-tower N W5 ( RCHM Y ork 1 962)

2 4.2

M alton n orth-east r ampart b uilding

2 4.3

G reat C hesters s outh r ampart b uilding

2 4.4

H igh R ochester w est r ampart b uilding

F ig 2 5.1 2 5.2A 2 5.2B 2 5.3A 2 5 .3B 2 5.3C 2 5.4

( Corder

1 930)

( Daniels ( Daniels

1 980A) 1 980A)

G reat C hesters w est r ampart b uildings ( Daniels 1 980A) R isingham w est r ampart b uilding ( Daniels 1 980A ) R isingham s outh r ampart b uilding ( Daniels 1 980A) C hesterholm b uilding o n t he e ast r ampart ( Birley

1 931)

C hesterholm n orth r ampart b uilding a nd n orth-west a ngle-tower ( Birley 1 932) C hesterholm b uilding I V o n t he e ast r ampart ( Bidwell 1 981) P iercebridge l atrine b uilding i n n orth-east a ngle ( Richardson

F ig 2 6A

1 977)

1 936)

H ousesteads n orth r ampart b uildings e ast o f n orth g ate

2 6D

( Daniels a nd G illam ) uildings w est o f n orth g ate H ousesteads n orth r ampart b ( Daniels 1 980A) nd l ate i nterval-tower H ousesteads e ast r ampart b uilding a ( Daniels a nd G illam) nterval-tower nd l ate i uilding a H ousesteads s outh r ampart b

2 6E

( Daniels 1 980A) H ousesteads w est r ampart b uildings

2 6B 2 6C

( Daniels

1 980A)

F ig 2 7.1 2 7.2 2 7.3

H altonchesters b ath-house i n p raetentura

( Daniels

2 7.4A

R eculver b ath-house i n p raetentura

( Philp

1 969C)

2 7.4B

R eculver b ath-house i n p raetentura ( Philp C aernarvon b ath-house ' B' i n p raetentura ( Davies a nd C asey 1 978)

1 969C)

2 7.5A 2 7.5B

F ig 2 8.1 2 8.2 2 8.3A 2 8.3B 2 8.4

1 978A)

E bchester b ath-house ( Maxfield a nd R eed 1 975) B recon G aer b ath-house i n p raetentura ( Nash-Williams 1 969)

C aernarvon b ath-house ' S' i n p raetentura ( Davies a nd C asey 1 979) L ympne b ath-house

( Smith

1 852)

R ichborough b ath-house ( Philp 1 969C) I lkley C onstantian g ranary ( Hartley 1 966) I lkley T heodosian g ranary ( Hartley 1 966) S outh S hields g ranary ( building C 12) ( Dore a nd G illam 1 979)

F ig 2 9.1 2 9.2 F ig 3 0.1 3 0.2 F ig 3 1.1 3 1.2A 3 1.2B

B ainbridge A ntonine p rincipia B rough-on-Noe p rincipia

C aernarvon p rincipia t hird c entury B ainbridge p rincipia t hird c entury

3 2.2

F ig 3 3.1 3 3.2

1 969) 1 969B)

( Wheeler ( Hartley

1 940)

C hesterholm p rincipia t hird c entury ( Birley 1 936) S outh S hields p rincipia t hird c entury ( Richmond)

B rancaster p rincipia R eculver p rincipia

( Edwards a nd G reen 1 977)

( Philp

1 969C)

F ig 3 4.1 3 4.2

L ympne p rincipia ( Smith 1 852) R ichborough p rincipia ( Johnson J 1 976A)

F ig 3 5.1

R isingham p rincipia f ourth c entury

( Richmond

H igh R ochester p rincipia

1 936)

3 5.2

1 922A) 1 969)

C arpow p rincipia e arly t hird c entury ( Birley A 1 967) C orbridge ' principia' i n w est c ompound t hird c entury ( Richmond a nd B irley 1 940) C orbridge ' principia' i n w est c ompound f ourth c entury ( Richmond a nd B irley

F ig 3 2.1

( Hartley

( Jones G a nd W ild

( Richmond

F ig 3 6.1 3 6.2

C aernarvon p rincipia f ourth c entury

F ig 3 7.1

H ousesteads p rincipia l ate f ourth c entury ( Bosenquet D robreta ' principia' t hird c entury ( Florescu 1 967)

3 7.2

F ig 3 8.1

F ig 3 9.1 3 9.2

( Wheeler

1 936)

C hesterholm p rincipia f ourth c entury

P almyra p rincipia, D iocletianic

( Birley

( Richmond

C arpow p raetorium e arly t hird c entury L ancaster p raetorium t hird c entury ( Richmond 1 959; L eather 1 973)

1 922A ) 1 936)

1 963)

( Birley A 1 967)

1 904)

F ig 4 0.1

C aersws p raetorium t hird c entury

( Nash-Williams

4 0.2

B rough-on-Noe p raetorium e arly f ourth c entury ( Jones G a nd W ild 1 969A )

4 0.3

C aernarvon p raetorium f ourth c entury

F ig 4 1.1A 4 1.1B F ig 4 2.1 4 2.2 4 2.3 F ig 4 3.1A 4 3.1B 4 3.2 4 3.3 F ig 4 4.1A 4 4.1B 4 4.1C 4 4.2 4 4.3 4 4.4

I lkley p raetorium e arly f ourth c entury I lkley p raetorium l ate f ourth c entury

C hesters c halets i n p raetentura

( Hartley ( Hartley

( Daniels

1 980A) 1 980A)

H igh R ochester ' chalets' ( Daniels 1 980A) H igh R ochester ' chalets' ( Daniels 1 980A) H igh R ochester c halets ( Daniels 1 980A ) C aernarvon s ite V II ( Daniels 1 980A) M alton c halets ( Corder) E bchester ' chalets' p eriod V II

( Maxfield a nd R eed 1 975)

W allsend b uilding

1 2

( early f orm)

W allsend b uilding

1 2

( late f orm)

4 5.B

W allsend b uilding

4 5.0 4 5.D

W allsend b uilding 1 0 W allsend b uilding 1 1

9 ( Daniels ( Daniels ( Daniels

I lkley s table i n p raetentura

( Daniels ( Daniels

1 980A) 1 980A)

1 980A ) 1 980A) 1 980A)

( Hartley

1 966)

4 6.2 4 6.3

W allsend p eriod I I s table i n p raetentura

4 6.4 4 6.5

M aryport p eriod I II b uildings ( Jarrett 1 976) R avenglass b arracks p hase 3 ( Potter 1 979A)

B owness-on-Solway b uilding b y w est g ate

( Daniels

1 976)

( Potter 1 979A)

R eculver b uilding i n l atera p raetorii ( Philp 1 969C) E bchester b uilding b y t he n orth-west a ngle

4 7.3

( Jarrett 1 960A) P apcastle b arrack-block

4 7.4

B ainbridge t hird-century b arracks

F ig 4 8.1

1 966) 1 966)

H ousesteads b uilding X III c halet p hase ( Daniels H ousesteads b uilding X iV c halet, p hase I I ( Wilkes 1 961; D aniels a nd G illam ) G reat C hesters c halet b uilding ( Daniels 1 980A) H igh R ochester ' chalets' ( Daniels 1 980A)

4 5.A2

F ig 4 7.7 4 7.2

1 922A)

B inchester p raetorium p hase 6 C ( Ferris a nd J ones R 1 980) C hesterholm m id t hird-century b arracks i n t he p raetentura ( Bidwell 1 981)

F ig 4 5.A1

F ig 4 6.1

( Wheeler

1 969)

( Charlesworth

1 965)

( Hartley

1 960)

Y ork p ossible b arracks b y t he s outh-west d efences ( RCHM Y ork 1 962)

4 8.2

B rough-on-Noe b uilding i n t he p raetentura

4 8.3 4 8.4

( Jones G a nd W ild 1 968; J ones G a nd W ild 1 969B) R avenglass b arracks p hase 4 ( Potter 1 979A) B ainbridge l ate f ourth-century b uilding ( Hartley

1 960)

F ig 4 9.1

4 9.3A

B irdoswald b uilding n orth o f v ia p rincipalis p eriod I I ( Richmond a nd B irley 1 930) H ousesteads b uilding X V p eriod I II ( Leach a nd W ilkes 1 962) R ichborough s ite V II ( Johnson J 1 976A)

4 9.3B

R ichborough s ite I V

4 9.4A 4 9.4B 4 9.4C 4 9.4D

P ortchester P ortchester P ortchester P ortchester

4 9.2

F ig 5 0.1A 5 0.1B

( Johnson J 1 976A)

b uilding b uilding b uilding b uilding

R 1 R 4 R 2 R 6

( Cunliffe 1 975) ( Cunliffe 1 975) ( Cunliffe 1 975) ( Cunliffe 1 975)

B irdoswald b uilding n orth o f v ia p rincipalis p eriod I II ( Richmond a nd B irley 1 930)

5 0.2A

B irdoswald b uilding n orth o f v ia p rincipalis p eriod I V ( Richmond a nd B irley 1 930) C aernarvon s ite X X l ate f ourth c entury ( Wheeler 1 924)

5 0.28

C aernarvon s ite X IX l ate f ourth c entury

F ig 5 1.1A 5 1.1B

W allsend b uildings ( Daniels 1 980A)

( Wheeler

1 923)

i n n orth-west p raetentura

5 1.2

W allsend b uildings i n n orth-east p raetentura ( Daniels 1 980A) R ichborough c hurch a nd b aptistry ( Brown 1 971)

5 1.3

B ainbridge f ourth c entury s tructures o n t he s ite o f e arlier p rincipia;

1 -8 p its,

t he

9 l ime-kilns,

1 0 l ime m ixing t roughs, 1 1-12 p robable l arge b ases, 1 3 r ough p aving, 1 4-15 f oundation t renches o f t imber b uildings ( Hartley F ig 5 2.1 5 2.2

1 969)

P iercebridge c ourtyard b uilding C hester e lliptical b uilding

( Scott a nd L arge

( Nash-Williams

1 969)

1 978)

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T his a t

work i s

l argely b ased o n r esearch w hich was

s ubmitted f or a P hD

t he U niversity o f N ewcastle u pon T yne i n N ovember

1 980 .

T he b ulk

o f t he material i n t his s tudy c ame f rom p ublished s ources t hough b y t he

k indness

D aniels,

p articularly o f Messrs.

J .P .

e xcavators;

G illam

s ome

a nd

R .

u npublished

Miket

t hrough

a n

e arlier

d raft

o f

a nd

m aterial

e xcavations has b een i ncluded .

P . Austen, a lso

f rom

o f

P .T.Bidwell, a n umber

r ecent

a nd n ot

C .M .

o f

o ther

s o

r ecent

D rs. B . D obson a nd K .T . G reene r ead t he

t ypescript

a nd

made

a n umber

o f

h elpful c omments .

M y e special

t hanks

g o

t o J ohn G illam f or a ll t he h elp h e h as g iven m e

o ver t he l ast f ive y ears . h ere were h is,

Many o f

t he m ore o riginal i deas e xpressed

t hough h e i s i n n o way r esponsible f or t he way I h ave

d eveloped o r a ltered

t hem .

L astly, I would l ike t o t hank m y t ypist, Mrs. J . S tartin, f or a ll h er h elp and f or t he p atience s he h as s hown i n t he c opying o f my o ften d ifficult

m anuscript .

D .A. W elsby A pril,

1 982

I NTRODUCTION

When C ollingwood wrote h is h istory o f R oman B ritain i n

1 924,

h istorical f ramework which h e s ketched was b ased mainly

t he

o n t he

l iterary a nd e pigraphic e vidence . T he a rchaeological evidence was r arely t aken i nto a ccount; i t c ertainly was n ot u sed t o m odify i nterpretations o f t he i sland's h istory d erived f rom t he l iterary s ources. A ccording t o C ollingwood,

t he l ate s econd c entury was marked b y a

d isastrous r ising o f t he p eoples s outh o f t he f rontier c oupled with i nvasion f rom b eyond ; d evastation s pread o ver m uch o f t he n orth a nd i ncluded Y ork . T his was d ated t o c irca A D 1 81 ( Dio) . R ecovery was s low; t he i nscriptions o f S everan g overnors f rom H adrian 's Wall a nd i ts hinterland marked t he r efurbishment o f t he n orthern d efences. F ollowing t he c ampaigns o f S everus , t here w as p eace f or 6 0 y ears . A r enewed d isaster i n t he n orth c irca A D 2 75 w as c losely f ollowed b y t he f irst S axon r aids i n A D 2 87 . C arausius r estored t he s ituation o n t he S axon S hore a nd i n t he n orth, where h is c ampaigns a gainst t he C aledones were c ontinued b y C onstantius . B y a bout A D 3 30, a lthough t he Wall f orts were s till h eld, t he milecastles were a bandoned ( evidence f rom t he e xcavations a t Milecastle 4 8 ) . B arbarian p ressure o n

t he

n orthern

f rontier

mounted

d uring

t he

f ourth

c entury

a nd

c ulminated i n t he ' barbarian c onspiracy' o f A D 3 67, ( Ammianus) which d id p ermanent d amage t o t he p rosperity o f t he d iocese . When t he u surper, Magnus Maximus, c rossed t he C hannel i n A D 3 83, h e s tripped B ritain o f t roops; t he W all was p robably a bandoned t hough a f ew f orts were s till h eld a s were t he t owns o f C arlisle a nd C orbridge. T he N otitia D ignitatum c ompiled i n t he A D 4 20s p ossibly r epresents t he s ituation i n B ritain f ollowing o n t he r e-organisation o f t he d efences o f t he d iocese b y S tilicho i n A D 3 95; n ot m entioned). T he

t roops

w ere

c oncentrated

i n t he

( the i tem p er l ineam v alli i s

a rea r ound Y ork a nd o n t he S axon

S hore; t he d efence o f t he west a nd t he n orth-west may h ave b een e ntrusted t o l oyal R omanised B ritons. With t he u surpation o f C onstantine I II i n A D 4 07, B ritain c eased t o b e g arrisoned b y R ome . T his

i nterpretation

was

a ltered

b y

t he

d iscovery

i n

i nscriptions a t B irdoswald, R IB 1 909 a nd 1 912. T he a ttested u nder S everus a nd C onstantius C hlorus were f elt

1 929

o f

t wo

r ebuildings t o r epresent

t he r econstruction o f t he s ite f ollowing i nvasion ; t he d escription o f b uildings f allen d own t hrough a ge b eing a e uphemism f or d estruction b y t he e nemy.

I n b oth c ases, t he i nvasion h ad t o immediately p recede

t he r ebuilding ,

h ence t he i nvasions o f A D

d isasters a ssociated w ith t o t hat 1 6 years l ater.

1 97 a nd 2 96 w ere b orn .

T he

t he i nvasion o f A D 1 81 were n ow a ttributed T he r emoval o f t roops b y A lbinus t o t he

C ontinent i n A D 1 97 a nd b y A llectus t o t he s outh o f B ritain i n A D 2 96 a ccounted f or t he b arbarians' wide-ranging d evastation i n t he n orth , t hat o f A D 2 96 p enetrating a s f ar s outh a s C hester . f ortresses, b oth a t Y ork a nd C hester , were d estroyed,

(M I

o f t he d efences b eing r efurbished i n t he e arly

c entury) .

f ourth

T he l egionary t he e vidence

B y t he t ime R ichmond wrote h is h istory i n 1 955 ,

t hese i deas h ad b ecome

t he e stablished d ogma, a nd t o many t hey s till r emain s o. F rere's B ritannia , f irst p ublished i n 1 967 , p reserves a ll o f R ichmond's ' main e vents' , t hough b y t hat d ate a rchaeological e vidence was b eginning t o c all i nto q uestion much o f t hird a nd f ourth c enturies .

t he military h istory o f Britain i n t he

N o f urther l iterary e vidence h as c ome t o l ight r elating t o t he h istory o f R oman B ritain s ince C ollingwood wrote .

T he e pigraphic e vidence i s

m ore e xtensive a nd e asily a vailable t hanks l argely t o C ollingwood h imself,

b ut

i t

d oes

h istorical n arrative . b uilding work r ecorded e xplanatory

t han m ost .

n ot

t ell

u s

much

f rom

which

t o

write

a n

R arely a re we g iven a ny e xplanation a s t o w hy e pigraphically t ook p lace ; R IB 1 912 i s m ore I t

i s e xtremely d ifficult,

i f n ot i mpossible

t o e quate a n h istorically a ttested e vent with a n a rchaeological l evel; r arely i s o ne a ble t o b e s ure t hat t wo a rchaeologically a ttested p henomena a t d ifferent s ites a re c ontemporary . We a re n ow i n ap osition t o d isprove o r a t l east c all i nto q uestion m uch o f t he a ccepted i nterpretation o f t he m ilitary h istory o f R oman B ritain i n i ts l ater p hases, b ut i t i s c onsiderably m ore d ifficult t o s ubstitute a nother i nterpretation i n i ts p lace . I n t his work n o a ttempt h as b een m ade t o r e-write t he m ilitary h istory o f B ritain i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies . I n t heory e ach m ilitary i nstallation c ould have had a history u nique t o i tself t hough i n p ractice t his i s unlikely, a t l ast while e ach s ite r emained u nder military c ontrol . E ven s o , t o m ake wide h istorical g eneralisations i s n ot wise . W hat I h ave a ttempted t o d o i s t o a ssemble a ll t he a rchaeological e vidence p ertaining t o t he a rmy i n B ritain i n t he l ast t wo c enturies o f R oman r ule . T he material i s a rranged c hronologically a lthough i n many c ases a p articular e vent i s o nly d atable t o a v ery wide t ime s pan . For most s ites I have been f orced t o a ccept t he excavator's c hronology.

T his d oes n ot mean t hat I am, i n e ach c ase, c onfident

t hat a s ite h as b een c orrectly d ated .

2

C HAPTER 1 R OMAN F RONTIER D EVELOPMENT T he t hird c entury was a p eriod o f g reat c hange i n B ritain, a s i n t he r est o f t he R oman Empire, which a ffected most f acets o f R oman l ife. Much

o f

t he

c hange

was b rought a bout b y t he c onstant a nd s erious

b arbarian t hreat t o t he s afety o f t he Empire o n a lmost a ll i ts f rontiers. I n t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies, a nd i ndeed f or a f ew c enturies b efore t hat, R ome h ad g enerally b een i n c omplete c ommand o f t he s ituation o n h er f rontiers. T here were i nstances o f s erious i nvasion t hreatening t he e xistence o f t he Empire , b ut a fter t he w ars a gainst t he C imbri a nd T eutones t hese t hreats had l argely c eased t o e xist. I n t he l ate R epublic a nd e arly Empire t he g reatest d anger t o R ome w as c ivil war. C ivil war b rought a bout t he d ownfall o f t he r epublican s ystem o f g overnment . A ugustus a nd h is s uccessors were v ery much a ware o f t his a nd r ealised t he d angers o f i ts r eoccurrence . D uring t he t hird c entury , t here w as c hronic c ivil w ar a gain o ver a n e xtended p eriod w hich n ot o nly t hreatened t o d estroy t he R oman S tate , b ut a lso a llowed t he b arbarians m uch g reater c hances o f s uccess i n t heir a ssaults a gainst t he Empire . M uch

o f R ome's s uccess

i n b uilding u p h er Empire h ad b een d ue a s

t o t he l ack o f c ooperation b etween h er e nemies a s

m uch

t o h er undoubted

m ilitary p rowess . T he f utility o f i ndividual r esistence t o R ome was n ot l earnt q uickly b y t he b arbarians, b ut d uring t he f irst t wo c enturies owing t o t he c ontinued p resence o f R oman f orces i n t he f rontier p rovinces, t he t ribes b eyond b egan t o c ooperate i n t heir a ttacks o n t he E mpire . T heir e ffectiveness was d emonstrated i n t he w ars u nder Marcus A urelius w hen t hey p enetrated w ell i nto I taly . T he t hreat was a verted t hough o nly a fter m uch p rolonged f ighting .

I n t he

t hird a nd f ourth c enturies, s uch i nvasions b y i ncreasingly l arge t ribal g roups b ecame c ommonplace . T hese l arge-scale i nvasions c oupled with t he a lmost i ncessant c ivil wars o f t he p eriod f rom c irca A D 2 40-90 a lmost d estroyed t he Empire . When Augustus c ame t o p ower, t he Empire c onsisted o f a n umber o f p rovinces b ordering p art b ut b y no means t he whole o f t he Mediterranean c oastline . p articularly i n t he e ast o f

B etween a nd b eyond t hese p rovinces, t he E mpire , were s tates b ound t o R ome b y

t reaties o f f riendship a nd m utual h elp . T hese c lient k ingdoms a cted a s buffer s tates i n t he e vent o f i nvasion t owards R oman o ccupied t erritory, u ndertook r esponsibility f or i nternal s ecurity i n t he a reas u nder t heir c ontrol a nd p rovided t roops t o a ssist R ome i n h er wars. T he Roman p rovinces t hemselves d id n ot h ave m ilitary f rontiers a s s uch, a lthough f or a dministrative r easons p hysical f eatures were h eld t o

mark

R oman

t he b oundaries

f orces

which

o f R oman h eld t erritory,

h ad

b rought

a bout

t he

e .g .

t he R hine .

c onquest

o f

T he

a p rovince

r emained i n t hat p rovince u ntil s uch t ime a s t hey were r equired t o c ontinue t he a dvance . I n G aul l arge c oncentrations o f t roops were m aintained a t K öln a nd Mainz a nd i n S yria a t A ntioch . T roops w ere n ot d ispersed a long a f rontier l ine , b ut h eld a s m obile s trike f orces .

3

A ugustus c ontinued t he r epublican p olicy o f t erritorial e xpansion f or most o f h is r eign . H e a dvanced u p t o t he D anube a long i ts whole l ength a nd i nitiated t he c onquest o f G ermany e ast o f t he Rhine . E lsewhere h e l argely r etained t he c lient s tates . T owards t he e nd o f h is r eign t he p rolonged f ighting n eeded t o t erminate t he P annonian r evolt - t he e nd o f which was c losely f ollowed b y t he l oss o f t hree l egions i n G ermany - p ersuaded t he a geing e mperor t o c all a h alt. T iberius a s e mperor , o n t he a dvice o f a d isillusioned A ugustus , ( who h ad a dded m ore t erritory t o t he R oman Empire t han a nyone e lse) r efrained f rom f urther e xpansion . T his d id n ot, h owever , h erald t he e nd

o f

a n e xpansionist p olicy.

A s

l ate a s

t he

r eign o f

S everus,

s izeable t erritorial g ains w ere b eing m ade i n t he E ast,

i n A frica a nd

i n B ritain, t hough S everus' d eath .

c urtailed b y

i n

t he

l ast

c ase,

D uring t he f irst c entury A D t here i s ,

e xpansion was

h owever ,

a c hange i n a ttitude t o

c ontinued e xpansion d iscernible i n s ome p rovinces o f t he Empire . H itherto t he R omans h ad a ccepted n o b ounds t o t heir c onquest. A . B irley, w hen d iscussing A ugustus' ' foreign p olicy' c ould write: " It w ould n ot b e u nrealistic t o s ay t hat A ugustus h ad n o f rontier p olicy : h is l ong-term a im a t l east was t o d ispense w ith t he n ecessity f or a ny f rontiers a t a ll, t o r ule a n empire without f rontiers, a n i mperium s ine f ine" ( Birley A 1 974, 1 5). T he a rmy, w hose c hief f unction was c onquest, whether j ustifiable a s a ' pre-emptive s trike' o r b rought a bout b y n aked a ggression , t ended a s t he r ate o f e xpansion s lowed t o f ind i tself u nemployed . A t t he s ame t ime , a s t he a reas u nder R oman c ontrol were b rought within t he Empire's m ore r igid a dministrative s ystem , t he n eed f or a p recise d emarcation b etween R oman a nd n on-Roman t erritory emerged . T his r esulted i n t he f ormation o f f rontiers which t o b e e ffective h ad t o b e p oliced a nd i t was o nly t o b e e xpected t hat t he a rmy was g iven t his j ob ( Mann 1 974 B , 5 12) . Military u nits were s paced a long t hese f rontiers t o m ore e ffectively p erform t heir j ob a s f rontier p olice . I n t hose p rovinces b eyond w hich n o f urther a dvance o ccurred, i nertia s et i n . T he f rontiers which t hus d eveloped g enerally f ollowed a l ine w hich w as i deal f or a dministrative p urposes, b ut b y n o means i deal s trategically. T he f irst h int o f a n emperor a ccepting a l imit t o e xpansion i s s een u nder D omitian . H e c ontinued h is f ather's p olicy o f e xpansion a cross t he R hine i n U pper G ermany. O n t he c onclusion o f h is C hattan W ar ,

h owever,

a s ystem o f t owers w as

l aid o ut a long t he T aunus r idge; l ater f orts w ere a dded t o t he l ine . T his , strongly s uggests t hat D omitian d id n ot e nvisage f urther e xpansion

i n t hat

a rea .

B y e arly i n t he s econd c entury,

most o f t he c lient s tates h ad b een

t aken u nder d irect R oman c ontrol . T his g reatly i ncreased t he d emands m ade o n t he a rmy f or p olicing a nd d efending t he n ew p rovinces . T he R omans w herever p ossible , h owever , m aintained t reaties with t he t ribes b eyond h er f rontiers; t here i s c lear e pigraphic e vidence f or t his f rom Mauritania T ingitana

( Mann

1 974 ,

5 29) .

a ble t o i mpose h er o wn n ominees o n t he t hrone . t he

c ase i n A rmenia ,

b ut

h appened e lsewhere

I n

s ome

c ases

s he

was

T his was p articularly ( e .g . M ocsy

1 974 ,

5 29) .

T he f ormation o f r igid f rontiers was c arried much f urther b y l ater emperors, n otably H adrian . H is wall i n B ritain i s b y f ar t he most e laborate b ut i s b y n o m eans t he o nly s uch p hysical b arrier t o m ark t he l imit o f R oman t erritory, t hough n ot t he l imit o f Roman c ontrol a nd i nfluence . S uch b oundaries h ad n o s trategic a nd l ittle t actical

4

v alue;

t hey w ere u seful i n p roviding a r eadily v isible d emarcation i n

t he s ame way a s d id s uch n atural f eatures a s r ivers a nd m ountains . D uring t he s econd c entury a nd i n s ome c ases e arlier, m ost f orts a nd f ortresses were b uilt o r r ebuilt i n s tone a nd t he units within t hem t ended t o r emain s tatic f or l ong p eriods. O utside t he d efences v illages a nd t owns g rew u p p roviding f or t he s oldiers' n eeds a nd h ousing t heir u nofficial f amilies . A s t ime went o n t hese s ettlements p rovided a r eady s ource o f r ecruits, s on f ollowing f ather i nto t he l ocal u nit. T his d evelopment o f l ocal t ies o ver g enerations c ontributed t o a g eneral l ack o f m obility . a n e ssential f eature o f t he A ugustan a rmy .

a n umber o f M obility w as

A fter t he c ivil wars which e nded t he R epublic, A ugustus h ad g reatly r educed t he s ize o f t he a rmy, p artly o wing t o t he g reat c ost o f maintaining a l arge a rmy a nd p artly b ecause o f t he d anger o f h aving l arge c oncentrations o f t roops i n a ny o ne a rea ; t he t hreat o f c ivil war was a lways p resent. T he a rmy was p laced i n t he f rontier p rovinces o f t he Empire w ell a way f rom i ts p olitical c entre w here i t was hoped i t c ould n ot b e u sed f or p olitical e nds b y a ny e xcept t he e mperor h imself. Small s cale l ocal t rouble c ould b e e ffectively c ountered b y t he t roops o n t hat p articular s ector o f t he f rontier . R einforcement c ould o nly b e e ffected b y d rawing o n t roops f rom a nother s ector o f t he f rontier . T his s ystem w orked a s e ffectively a s c ould h ave been h oped while t here was o nly o ne t hreatened a rea a t at ime, t hough t he a rmy was o n o ccasion v ery h eavily c ommitted i n a r elatively s mall a rea . I n t he P annonian r evolt o f A D 6 -9 , when o ver a t hird o f t he

t otal R oman a rmy was

e ngaged i n t hat

r egion ,

t he

o ther

f rontiers

o f t he Empire m ust h ave b een s eriously w eakened . I n t he t hird c entury, with t he a rmy a lmost c onstantly f ighting t he b arbarians o n a n umber o f f ronts a nd o ften f ighting i n c ivil wars a s well, t he s ystem b roke d own . N o l onger was i t s afe t o r educe t he g arrison o f a ny p rovince t o a m arked d egree without l aying t hat p rovince o pen t o a ttack .

T he n eed o f

a l arge c entral r eserve b ecame

o f p aramount i mportance . B y t he e nd o f t hat c entury a f ield a rmy w as g radually c oming i nto e xistence . I t was o fficially r ecognised a s s uch p robably b y C onstantine . v ery l ow m obility e nvironment r educed

( Luttwak

1 976,

o f

T he v alue o f a c entral r eserve i n t he t he R oman Empire was c onsiderably

1 82-3).

T he

f ormation

o f

r egional

f ield

a rmies i n t he west i n t he l ater f ourth c entury p rovided a p artial s olution t o t his p roblem ( Mann 1 979B, 1 82). R einforcement o f a t hreatened o r i nvaded s ector o f t he f rontier c ould, i n t he t hird c entury, n o l onger b e g uaranteed . H ence , t he p rovincial a rmies w ere f orced t o t ry a nd d efend l arge a reas a gainst c ontinual h igh-intensity t hreats w ith a n i nsufficient n umber o f m en . T heir a ttempts t o d o s o a re r eflected i n t he n ew d esigns o f f orts a t

t his p eriod .

I n t he e arly Empire, f orts a nd f ortresses h ad b een p rovided with s light d efences . I t was n ever e nvisaged t hat t hey would h ave t o b e h eld i n t he f ace o f a d etermined e nemy a ttack . T hey d id p rovide t heir g arrison w ith a m easure o f s ecurity a gainst s urprise a ttack , b ut i t was n ever

i ntended t hat t he t roops w ould h ave t o f ight f rom b ehind

t hese d efences . R oman m ilitary s uperiority w as m ost e ffectively u sed i n t he o pen; R oman t roops were t rained a nd e quipped t o a ttack t he e nemy i n t he f ield . I n t he t hird c entury, i t was f elt n ecessary t o p rovide f orts with d efences t hat were s trong e nough t o withstand a

5

d etermined a ttack o r e ven a s iege . H eavily f ortified s trongholds were n eeded w here t he a rmy c ould r etire i n t he f ace o f a dversity a nd await r einforcements i n s afety. T hus o n t he C ontinent w e h ave a n u pdating o f f ort d efences, t he p rovision o f e xternal t owers , t hicker walls, a nd f ewer g ateways . T here was a lso t he c onstruction o f many n ew f orts, o ften well b ehind t he f rontier, a s i t w as n ow e xpected t hat t he e nemy would b e a ble t o p enetrate d eep b ehind t he f rontier l ine . T he c onquest o f B ritain,

b egun b y C laudius i n A D 4 3,

a fter a r apid

i nitial a dvance o ver t he whole o f t he l owland r egion, r an o ut o f impetus. T hereafter, f urther c onquest d epended o n t he a ttitude o f t he e mperor i n p ower a nd o n t he m ilitary s ituation i n t he E mpire a s a whole . B y t he mid A D 8 0s, t he R omans h ad a dvanced well i nto S cotland, b ypassing t he highland massif, t hey p enetrated u p t o t he Moray F irth . F rom a m ilitary p oint o f v iew, t he m ost e fficient way o f h olding B ritain was

t o

c onquer

t he whole o f

i t,

t hus

d ispensing w ith

t he n eed f or f rontiers. T his i s c learly w hat t he R omans i ntended, b ut i t was n ever t o b e a chieved . With t he r emoval o f a l egion b y D omitian t o f ight i n G ermany , m ost o f t he r ecently c onquered a reas o f S cotland b ecame u ntenable a nd h ad t o b e a bandoned ; R ome f ell b ack o n t he d efensive . B y c irca A D 1 05 , f ollowing p ressure f rom t he n orthern t ribes, t he a rmy was b ack o n t he T yne-Solway l ine . T he r oad ( built b y A gricola b etween C orbridge a nd C arlisle) a nd t he f orts o n i t b ecame t he n orthern l imit o f t he p rovince which w as f urther s trengthened b y t he a ddition o f m ore f orts . S pecial emphasis was b eing g iven t o t his l ine; i nstead o f a s imple n etwork o f r oads a nd f orts s pread o ver t he n early c onquered t erritory,

a r igid f rontier was

B y A D 1 22 Hadrian was p roviding, have b een i ntended a s

d eveloping .

i n t he f orm o f h is wall, w hat must

t he f inal s olution t o

t he f rontier p roblem .

C learly n o f urther a dvance c ould have b een e nvisaged, a t l east b y H adria 1 . H owever, 2 0 y ears l ater Hadrian's Wall was l argely a bandoned a nd a s imilar f rontier s ystem was b uilt b etween t he F orth a nd t he C lyde . P erhaps t his a dvance was o ccasioned m ore b y p olitical c onsiderations t han t he d esire t o a chieve a ny s trategic o bjectives ( Birley A 1 974 ,

1 7) .

b ecame t he f rontier t he e arly A D 1 60s.

I n

A D

1 58 ,

H adrian's W all was

b eing

r ebuilt

a nd

a gain o n t he a bandonment o f t he A ntonine W all i n T hereafter, e xcept f or a b rief period under

S everus, i t w as t o r emain t he l imit o f R oman t erritory . F or m ost o f t his p eriod, f orts were o ccupied f urther n orth a nd R oman c ontrol, p ossibly f or s ome o f t his t ime, e xtended a s f ar n orth a s t he Tay. C irca

AD 1 80 ,

a s a c onsequence o f a n i nvasion o f

t he p rovince r ecorded

b y D io, t he o utpost f orts a long Dere S treet t o t he n orth o f t he Wall m ay h ave b een a bandoned . H altonchesters a nd R udchester, t hought t o have b een d estroyed i n t his i nvasion, may have been r ebuilt immediately. C orbridge, a lso t hought t o h ave b een d amaged a t t he s ame t ime ,

m ay h ave l ain i n r uins u ntil t he r eign o f S everus .

I n t he l ater s econd c entury, m ost o f n orthern B ritain f rom t he Wall s outh t o B rough-on-Noe was c overed b y an etwork o f r oads a nd f orts i ncluding t he t wo l egionary f ortresses l ying w ell t o t he r ear o f t he f rontier a t Y ork a nd C hester . T his was t he a rmy w hich was d eemed n ecessary t o maintain s ecurity b eyond t he n orthern f rontier ( the l egion a t C hester will a lso h ave b een c oncerned w ith i nternal s ecurity i n Wales). Owing t o t he s hort l ength o f t he f rontier l ine, i t was mostly s tationed i n i ts h interland. B y t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury, Wales was o ccupied b y f ew t roops h oused i n widely-spaced

6

f orts

( Nash-Williams

1 969,

f ig.9).

I t

r emained

u nimportant

m ilitarily u ntil t he t hreat f rom s ea r aiders n ecessitated t he b uilding o f n ew i nstallations, k nown a t C aer G ybi a nd C ardiff . T hroughout t he s econd c entury t here was v irtually n o m ilitary p resence i n t he s outh a nd e ast o f B ritain e xcept f or t he n aval b ase a t D over ( Philp 1 981) a nd p erhaps n ear L ympne , a nd t he C ripplegate f ort 1 980, 8 3) a ll o f w hich h ad a s pecial f unction.

i n L ondon

( Marsden

T he d evelopment o f t he R oman f rontier i n N orthern B ritain i s p aralleled e lsewhere i n t he E mpire; b y t he s econd c entury t here was n o f rontier i n Wales. c areful

planning.

I t was n ot t he c ulmination o f many y ears o f The

R omans

were

s imply

f ormalising

t he

a rrangements t hat c ircumstances h ad f orced u pon t hem . F rontiers d eveloped a s a d irect r esponse t o t he t hreats p osed b y t he p eople b eyond t hem, h ence t he d iversity o f f rontier s ystems t o b e f ound i n t he Empire . T he a dvance t o t he F orth-Clyde l ine u nder Antoninus P ius a nd t he b uilding t here o f a nother ' Hadrian's Wall' s hould have i ncreased t he s ecurity o f t he f rontier, b ut t he n ew p olicy was n ot v igorously a pplied . C hanging c ircumstances l ate i n t he r eign o f P ius b rought a bout t he d ecision t o r eturn t o Hadrian's Wall . T his would n ever h ave happened i f t he major f actors g uiding R oman f rontier p olicy i n B ritain s trategic

h ad

b een

m ilitary.

a dvantages

o ver

T he

H adrian's

Antonine W all ,

n ot

Wall

had

l east

i ts

a n umber much

o f

r educed

l ength a nd i ts c loser c ontact with t he main t hreat t o t he f rontier p osed b y t he C aledones a nd i n t he l ater s econd c entury t he Maeatae . S everus,

l ike

s olution t o c onquest o f af ew y ears o f t he a rea

A gricola,

s eems

t o have

a pplied

a p urely

military

t he p roblem o f B ritain's d efence b y a gain a ttempting t otal t he i sland . O n h is d eath , t he p roject l apsed a nd w ithin t he f rontier a gain r ested o n t he T yne-Solway l ine , c ontrol f ar t o t he n orth b eing mantained b y t he o utpost f orts.

I n t he s hort t erm , t his r eorganisation o f t he f rontier was a s uccess b ut t he R omans were f orced t o maintain f or most o f t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies a l arge t he a dvent o f

m ilitary p resence

i n t he n orth .

l ong-range s eaborne a ttack d id i t

c ease

O nly with

t o b e e ffective

-a t hreat a gainst w hich i t h ad n ot b een d esigned . A s imilar t hreat i n t he s outh a nd e ast o f B ritain n ecessitated t he b uilding o f a c hain o f s trongly-defended f orts . N o s uch a dditions w ere d eemed n ecessary i n t he n orth a nd t here i s l ittle e vidence f or s uch s ites i n t he west .

7

C HAPTER 2 T HE T HIRD C ENTURY T he s ituation i n B ritain i n t he t hird c entury was v ery d ifferent f rom t hat o f m ost o ther f rontier p rovinces o f t he Empire . F rom t he wars o f S everus u ntil v ery l ate i n t he c entury, t here s eems t o h ave b een n o t rouble i n t he n orth, t hough i n t he s outh a nd e ast t he p rovision o f d efences a gainst s ea r aiders - p ossibly b eginning i n t he e arlier t hird c entury - c ulminated i n t he S axon S hore d efences b uilt i n t he l ast q uarter o f t he c entury. I t may o nly h ave b een c irca A D 2 80 t hat S axon a nd F rankish p irates b ecame a s erious menace i n t he C hannel. A t t hat t ime t he g arum-making a nd f ish-salting ' factories' i n t he t erritory o f t he O sismii i n N orth-western G aul c eased p roduction . T his happened i n t he s pace o f av ery f ew y ears, p erhaps b eing c aused p artly b y t he d isruption o f s ea t ransport n ecessary f or t he e xport o f t hese p roducts ( Galliou 1 980, 3 99). T he p eaceful c ondition o f B ritain f or much o f t his p eriod i s r eflected i n i ts f ort d efences. O nly o n t he S axon S hore a re t here f orts e quipped l ike t hose o f s imilar d ate o n t he C ontinent. T he n orth a nd west o f B ritain i n t he t hird c entury s oon b ecame militarily u nimportant a reas. A t n o f ort o r f ortress i n t hese a reas was t here a ny u pdating o f t he d efences a t t his t ime. B y t he e nd o f t he c entury s ome o f t hese f orts s eem t o h ave b een p artly o r t otally a bandoned . E ven t he n ew f ort a t P iercebridge which was built i n t he l ater t hird c entury h as f ew o f t he f eatures p resent i n t he n ear-contemporary f orts o n t he S axon S hore a nd o n t he C ontinent. I n t he l ast d ecade o f t he s econd a nd e arly i n t he t hird c entuLies t here was much r ebuilding i n B ritish f orts. T he f irst S everan g overnor, V irius L upus, i s r ecorded e pigraphically i n t he P ennine f orts, a s i s V alerius P udens. A lfenus S enecio i s r ecorded o n t he Wall i tself.

S ome o f t he b uilding work g enerally a ssigned t o t he

g overnorships o f t hese m en m ay d ate t o t he t ime o f C aracalla f ollowing o n t he t ermination o f t he S cottish c ampaigns. F rom t hen u ntil t he e nd o f t he c entury t here i s n o h int o f t rouble i n t he n orth, t hough b uilding work i s a ttested f or much o f t his t ime . T rouble i n t he s outh a nd e ast i s f irst r ecorded i n t he h istorical s ources a t t he t ime o f

C arausius .

F orts i n t he T hird C entury A D A n umber o f

f orts,

-

P art

1

T he D efences

m ainly i n t he n orth o f B ritain , a re t hought t o h ave

had t heir d efences b uilt o r r epaired i n t he e arly t hird c entury . T his h as u sually b een a ssociated with t he k nown work a t s ome f orts u nder S everus, t hough t he e vidence f or t his d ate i s o ften s light o r n on-existent. A t R isingham, t he b uilding o f t he s outh g ate i s s ecurely d ated b y a n i nscription R IB 1 234 t o A D 2 05-8 . T his g ate i s o f

unusual

p lan

( fig

1 7 .5)

b eing

f lanked

b y

two

p rojecting

a nd

o riginally, n o d oubt, m atching p olygonal t owers ( Richmond 1 936 , 1 90 ) . O n p urely t ypological g rounds, t hese would n ormally h ave b een t hought o f a s b eing much l ater i n d ate. I n B ritain, s uch p olygonal t owers a re o nly f ound i n a p urely m ilitary c ontext o n t he s outh-west w all a t Y ork a nd a t C ardiff; i n b oth c ases t hese w ould s eem t o d ate t o t he l ate t hird o r f ourth c enturies . P rojecting g ate-towers a re , h owever,

8

k nown i n B ritain a t a m uch e arlier d ate . T he s emi-circular f ronted g ate-towers a t C astell C oh en ( fig 1 7 .3 ) d ate t o t he A ntonine p eriod ( Alcock 1 964 , 7 6) . T he e arly s econd c entury c lassis B ritannica f ort a t D over h ad p rojecting Irshaped g ate-towers ( fig .21 .5) . I t was a lso n ot p rovided w ith a r ampart b ank a nd i ts b arrack-like b uildings w ere b uilt a lmost u p t o t he wall ( Philp 1 981) . P rojecting r ectangular g atet owers a re k nown a t C aerleon a nd B recon G aer d ating t o t he e arly s econd c entury a nd a t S outh S hields o f H adrianic d ate ( fig 1 7 .1) . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he o ne g ate-tower e xcavated a t C aerleon m ay b e o f S everan d ate . T . B erchert ( Bonn . J ahr . C LXXI) p robably w rongly c oncluded t hat r ectangular g ate-towers o nly d ate t o t he p eriod c irca A D 1 61-235 . N ash-Williams t hought t he t ower c ontemporary w ith t he wall ( Boon 1 972 , f n .118) . A ttempts t o d ate d efences b y t ypological c onsiderations a re o ften v ery s uspect, e specially when o nly o ne o r t wo s upposed l ate f eatures a re p resent a t a f ort. B irley d ated h is r ectangular p rojecting g ate-towers a t C hesterholm ( fig 1 7 .6A ) t o t he e arly f ourth c entury ( Birley E 1 931, 1 99 ) . T he H adrianic w est g ate a t S outh S hields was d ated o n a nalogy t o t he s ame p eriod ( Richmond 1 934, 8 7). T he S everan wall a t R isingham was o f e xceptionally f ine masonry; i t was 1 .75m t hick a nd p rovided with a c ontemporary c lay b ank o f a t l east 7 .62m w ide . T he

o nly

o ther

a t C arpow a v ery

( fig

s hort

s ecurely-dated

f ort

d efences

o f

t his

p eriod

a re

t hose

1 .1) which s eems t o h ave b een a S everan f oundation w ith l ife .

within t he r ampart .

T he d efences

e nclose a n a rea o f

c irca

9 .6 ha

T hey c onsist o n t he n orth s ide o f a c lay r ampart

9 .1m t hick s et o n a t imber f rame ; t he e ast r ampart was 6 .1m t hick o f t urf, s et o n a c lay b ase with t wo V -shaped d itches b eyond . T he w est r ampart h ad b een r evetted a t t he f ront w ith c lay a nd s tone . A ll t he g ates i n t heir f inal f orm were o f s tone , n one h ad s tone g uardchambers, t hough a t t he n rth g ate t here may have b een t imber o nes. T he e ast g ate had b een p receded b y a t imber s tructure o n t he s ame s ite . I t w as d ouble-portalled , t he p ortals b eing o f d ifferent w idths, 1 .22 a nd 3 .35m wide .

T he s outh g ate was

s imilar a nd was

a lso o f

a symmetrical

p lan . T he n orth g ate h ad t he u nusual f orm o f a l etter E a nd i ts g ate p assages s eem t o have b een b locked . A ll t he g ates a re s et t owards t he c entre o f t heir w alls ( Birley A 1 967) . O ther f orts whose d efences a re t hought t o s how work o f

t he S everan

p eriod a re A mbleside , B ewcastle , C hester , D oncaster , H igh R ochester , I lkley, L ow B urrow B ridge , Malton , Manchester , S outh S hields a nd Y ork . T he n ew w all a t H igh R ochester , w hich c losely f ollowed t he l ine o f t he A ntonine s tone w all , w as 1 .35m t hick . T here was n o i ndication o f why t his n ew f ort w all was n eeded ( Richmond 1 936) . A t Y ork t here i s s ome e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he e arlier wall h ad e ither c ollapsed o r b ecome u nstable o wing t o s ubsidence a nd t his n ecessitated t he wall 's r ebuilding ( Frere 1 961). A s a t H igh R ochester, t here was a lso e vidence f or t he a ngle-tower h aving b een r eplaced ( RCHM Y ork 1 ,31). M iller b elieved t hat t his t ower , w hich h ad b een f illed w ith c lay , w as s o s trengthened i n o rder t o a ct a s a n a rtillery emplacement ( Miller 1 928,

6 8).

C hester was a pparently r eoccupied i n s trength c irca A D

1 60 and h ad i ts d efences e xtensively r emodelled a round A D 2 00 . A n umber o f e xcavations h ave s hown t hat t he r ampart b ank was h eightened which i n s everal c ases n ecessitated t he d emolition o f r ampart b uildings a nd t he a bandonment o f o vens. An e arly s econd c entury s tone i nterval-tower f ound a t A bbey G reen would s eem t o h ave b een e xtensively

r epaired o r

t otally

r ebuilt

9

( Strickland

1 981,

4 22-3) .

The

single-portal

g uardchambers

g ateway

c ontemporary

a t with

I lkley t he

h ad

1 .52m

i nternal t hick

r ectangular

d efensive

wall.

T here m ay h ave b een a t ower i n t he n orth-west a ngle , r emains o f w hich h ave b een r emoved b y l ater d isturbance ( Hartley 1 966). T he c ontemporary n orth-east g ate a t Malton a lso h ad a s ingle p ortal - i t was s imply a r econstruction o f t he p revious g ate o n t he s ite a nd , l ike i ts p redecessor, i t h ad n o g uardchambers ( Corder 1 930, 4 6). T he S everan wall a t L ow B urrow B ridge s at o n t he r emains o f t he e arlier s ubsided wall ( Hildyard a nd G illam 1 951, 4 5 ) . T he e xcavator o f t he n orth g ate a t Manchester b elieved t hat t he m uch d isturbed r emains w ere o f a d ouble-portalled g ate without g uardchambers. He d ated i t o n a nalogy with t he west g ate a t B ewcastle ( Petch J . 1 956). T he s imilar d ouble-portalled s outh-east , s outh-west a nd n orth-east without g uardchambers a t H ardknot a re o f H adrianic d ate .

g ates A t

Manchester i n t he t hird c entury a l arge o uter d itch was d ug a cross t he r oad f rom t he n orth g ate, a pparently c losing t he g ate p ermanently. N o t race o f a b ridge was f ound o ver t his d itch which r emained o pen i nto t he f ourth c entury ( Holdsworth 1 981) .

T he p resent f ort a t B ewcastle was t hought t o d ate f rom t his t ime . T he d efences c onsist o f a 1 .52m t hick wall with a r ampart b ank . I t i s p ossible, c ontrary t o what t he e xcavators o f 1 937 t hought, t hat t he d efences c ould b e o f H adrianic d ate . A ll t he f orts o n t he Wall a nd a ssociated with i t t o t he e ast o f t he R ed R ock f ault w ere d efended b y s tone walls ( the d efences o f N ewcastle h ave n ot y et b een i dentified) . A ll t hose t o t he west o f i t s eem t o h ave b een o riginally o f t urf . O ne would expect t hat B ewcastle, l ying t o t he e ast o f t he f ault, would h ave b een d efended i n s tone f rom t he H adrianic p eriod .

O n t he s ite o f

t he p orta d ecumana n o t race o f a t imber g ate was f ound n or was a ny t race o f d efences e arlier t han t he s tone wall n oted i n t he s ection t hrough t he s outh-west d efences . T he b uilding t o t he west o f t he v ia q uintana, t hought b y t he e xcavators t o b e o f S everan d ate, e xtends over t he l ine o f t he v ia d ecumana l eading t o t he s tone g ates s outhwest p ortal, s uggesting t hat b y t his d ate o ne p ortal h ad b een b locked ( Austen 1 978). T ypologically, t he d efences c ould a s e asily b e H adrianic a s S everan . I f t he e arly t urf d efences a re s till t o b e f ound ,

t he s tone d efences c ould d ate t o o ne o f

t he t wo p eriods o f T urf

Wall r eplacement b y s tone a nd t o t he r eplacement o f t urf f orts o n t he western s ector o f t he Wall i n s tone . Mr . P . A usten n ow b elieves t he s tone d efences t o b e o f s econd c entury d ate, b ut t o r epresent t he s econd p hase o f t he d efences. I n h is r ecent e xcavations h e f ound r emains o f a t urf r ampart u nderlying t he s tone r evetment w hich p resumably d ates t o t he A D 1 20s. H e s uggests t hat t he f ort l ike B irrens was g iven t urf d efences b ecause t he o utposts d ate t o b efore t he ' fort d ecision' which r esulted i n t he p rovision o f f orts o n t he Wall, s ome b eing g iven s tone d efences f rom t he s tart. T he p orta d ecumana a nd p ossibly t he o ther g ates were b uilt i n s tone f rom t he f irst . I t was n ot a g eographical f actor t hat d etermined t he c ontrast b etween B ewcastle a nd B irdoswald , b ut a c hronological o ne . A t Ambleside , t he n orth-east a ngle-tower m ust h ave b een o ut o f u se b y t he e nd o f p eriod I , d ated b y t he e xcavators t o A D 1 80 ( Collingwood 1 915, 1 5); i ts s outh wall was i n r uins b y t his t ime ( Haverfield, C ollingwood a nd F reeston 1 914, 4 44). P robably c onnected with t he c ampaigns o f S everus i n t he n orth, t he f ort a t S outh S hields was e xtended i n l ength t owards t he s outh-east . T he n ew s ection o f f ort

1 0

w all w as p rovided w ith a ngle-towers a nd t he n ew g ate w ould s eem t o b e o f t he s ame p lan a s t he o thers o n t he c ircuit ( pers. c omm . Mr . R . M iket). B uilding w ork o n a g ate a t C hesterholm i s r ecorded e pigraphically a nd d ated t o A D 2 23 .

I t r ecords

t hat a g ate a nd i ts t owers w ere r estored

f rom t he f oundations b y t he c ohors I V G allorum ( RIB 1 706). T his i nscription may d ate t he b uilding o f t he p eriod I I s tone f ort h ere ( see a ppendix 1 ). E . B irley d ated t he s econd s tone p hase i n t he d efences a nd i nternal b uildings t o t he C onstantian r estoration t o c omply with t he W all p eriods, b ut a lso o n a ccount o f t he p oor s tyle o f c onstruction o f t his p eriod . T he p oor c onstruction a nd s hoddy l aying o ut o f t he w est g ate-towers c ould e asily b e a ccounted f or b y t he f act t hat t he work was c arried o ut b y a uxiliary l abour a s t he i nscription c learly s tates, ( cf s uggested a uxiliary b uilding work o f A ntonine d ate a t Watercrook) ( Potter 1 979A , 1 57) . A s n oted a bove , t here i s n o t ypological r eason f or d ating t he n orth a nd w est g ates t o t he f ourth c entury . Mr . G illam s uggests t hat t he n orth-west a ngle-tower w hich B irley t hought t o b e a n a rtillery p latform d ue t o i ts l ack o f b onding i nto t he f ort wall, was n ot c ontemporary with t he p resent wall a nd t hat t he p eriod I I s tone wall d id n ot have a n a ngle-tower h ere . T here i s n o e vidence f or a t ower i n t he s outh-east a ngle . T he t ower v isible o n t he e ast wall c lose t o t he a ngle may b e a l ater a ddition, a s i s t he o ne t hat has r ecently b een d iscovered i n t he n orth-east a ngle . A s c onsolidated , t he n orth-west a ngle-tower f oundations a re a t a much h igher l evel t han t hose o f t he period I I s tone wall . May n ot a ll t hese a ngle-towers b e l ater a dditions t o t he t hird c entury f ort which o riginally h ad n o a ngle-towers whatever? T he l atrine b uilding i n t he n orth-east a ngle , e xcavated b y R . B irley, o ccupies t he p osition o f a nd i s o f a s ize b efitting a n a ngle-tower . I t c ould h ave f unctioned b oth a s a l atrine a nd a t ower, a lthuugh t his would b e u nusual ( see B idwell 1 981, f ig 5 ). T he c onstruction o f a t ower a l ittle t o t he n orth-west o f t he l atrine s uggests t hat i f t he l atrine b uilding a lso f unctioned a s at ower, i t went o ut o f u se i n t he l ater R oman p eriod . T he b ack wall o f t he l atrine b uilding was m uch t hinner t han t he s ide walls, p erhaps s uggesting t hat t he s tructure d id n ot s upport a t ower . B oth n orth a nd west g ates h ave p rojecting g atet owers o f r ectangular p lan, t hose o f t he west g ate b eing l onger a nd t hinner t han t hose o f t he n orth g ate . T he west g ate's t owers a re v ery a symmetrical ; t he c arriageway i s 4 5cm wider a t i ts w est e nd ( fig 1 7 .6B). T he s outh g ate ( fig 1 7 .6A) was s ingle p ortal without g ua.r dchambers ( Birley 1 970) . T he f ort wall v aries i n t hickness f rom 9 1cm t o r ather l ess t han 2 .44m ( Birley 1 931). E xcavation o f t he v isible n orthern d efences c entury ( Bidwell 1 981) .

s uggest

t hat

t hey d ate

t o

t he e arlier

t hird

R IB 1 280 f rom H igh R ochester r ecords t he b uilding o f ab allistarium i n A D 2 20 , R IB 1 281 r ecords t he r estoration f rom g round l evel o f a nother u nder S everus A lexander . I n t he e xcavations o f 1 935, s uch a s tructure was t hought t o h ave b een f ound . I t c onsisted o f a p latform o f l arge r ough s tones s et i n a v ery s ticky c lay. T he s tructure o verlay s ome S everan m aterial a nd was d ated t o a l ate S everan p hase ( Richmond 1 936, 1 81). T his p latform would p resumably h ave b een s ufficiently r esilient t o w ithstand t he f iring o f a rtillery f rom i t . Ammianus, writing o f a n o nager o r s corpion, r ecords " placed o n ah eap o f t urf o r ap ile o f s un-dried b ricks; m achine o f

t his k ind ,

i f p laced u pon a s tone w all ,

1 1

t hat i t was f or a heavy

s hatters e verything

b eneath i t b y XXIII, 4 ,5).

i ts

v iolent

c oncussion

r ather

t han b y

i ts

weight"

( A .M .

T he p eriod I I s tone w all a t L anchester was d ated b y t he e xcavator t o t he r eign o f G ordian I II ( Steer 1 939 , 1 14) u nder w hom e xtensive w ork i n t he p rincipia i s r ecorded e pigraphically C RIB 1 092). T he l ong p eriod o f a bandonment s uggested b y S teer , p resumably f rom c irca A D 1 80 o r A D 1 97 t o c irca A D 2 40, has b een d oubted b y s ome ( Dobson 1 968-70, 3 5) . Mr . G illam i s i nclined t o a ccept S teer's d ating , b ut p oints o ut t hat t here d oes a ppear t o b e ac ontradiction b etween t he e pigraphic a nd s tructural e vidence o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he p ottery a nd c oin e vidence o n t he o ther. H e i s p repared t o a ccept t hat t he e arly t o m id-third c entury p ottery g roups a t L anchester c ontain a n u nually h igh p ercentage o f s urvivals . T he ' Gordianic' f ort w all i s 2 .44m t hick a t t he b ase, b ut i s s tepped i nternally t o a width o f a round 9 1cm a t t he g reatest s urviving h eight o f 3 .66m . T he s tepping o f t he i nner f ace o f t he f ort wall t o s uch a n e xtent i s m atched a t B urgh C astle , C ardiff a nd p ossibly a t B inchester. T he t hird-century wall a t L anchester o verlies i ts A ntonine p redecessor w hich was 2 .62m t hick a t t he b ase . T his i s very t hick f or a s econd-century f ort wall; walls o f t his t hickness a re g enerally f ound t o b e o f l ater d ate . T he c ontemporary d efences a t N ewstead were a lso m assive a nd i ncluded a f ort w all 2 .31m t hick ( Curle 1 911, 3 3) . T he p resumably l ater s econd-century d efences a t D rumbrugh were 2 .59m t hick, without a n a ssociated r ampart b ank ( Haverfield 1 899, pl .II). A t t he c lassis B ritannica f ort a t D over, which a lso h ad n o r ampart b ank, t he f ort wall was s till o nly 1 .2m t hick ( Philp 1 981, 2 0). I t s eems u nlikely t hat t here i s a ny c orrelation b etween t he t hickness o f t he d efensive wall a nd i ts h eight . A t D rumbrugh t he f ort wall would h ave b een t he s ame h eight a s H adrian 's

W all

a gainst

which

i t a butts .

T his h as b een e stimated

a t c irca 4 .5m h igh ( Daniels 1 978A , 2 0) . W hen t he p eriod I I s tone w all was b uilt , t he e arlier r ampart a t L anchester h ad b een l argely r emoved . O n t he r emnants o f t his e arly r ampart was o ccupation material 1 3cm t hick ( Steer 1 938) . T his, t ogether w ith t he f act t hat t he i nner f ace o f t he p eriod I I wall was o f well-dressed a shlars ( unlike t he p eriod I w all), s uggests t hat a t l east o n t his s ector o f t he c urtain , t he w all s tood f or s ome t ime without a r ampart b ank . When t he r ampart was a dded i t s tood Y ork . p eriod

1 .86m h igh a nd s eemed t o h ave b een c obbled o n t op a s a t

A c ontemporary i nternal

t ower s tood o n t he f oundations

o f

i ts

I p redecessor .

T he d ate o f t he e arlier t hird-century d efences o n t he S axon S hore i s u nclear. O n t he s trength o f a f ragmentary g overnor's n ame o n a n i nscription f rom Reculver, Richmond a rgued t hat t he f ort's c onstruction d ates t o c irca A D 2 10-20 ( Richmond 1 961, 2 25) . A nother c onsul's n ame

i n t he f asti c ould r epresent a g overnor c irca A D 2 25-30 .

T here i s, h owever, n o r eason why e ither o f t hese men n eed h ave b een g overnors o f B ritannia S uperior , a nd i t i s p robable t hat n either w as . O nly

c onsulares

c entury n o

o rdinarii a re r ecorded i n

t he f asti ,yet

i n t he t hird

g overnor o f B ritannia S uperior i s k nown t o h ave b een a

c onsul o rdinarius . B ritain was b ecoming a b ackwater . T he i nscription c ould d ate t o a ny t ime i n t he t hird c entury a fter t he r eign o f S everus, o r l ess p robably i n t he l ate s econd c entury M ann 1 977, 1 5; c f B irley A 1 981, 1 73-6) . T he a rchaeological e vidence f rom R eculver was t hought i n 1 959 t o s uggest a d ate o f c irca A D 2 00-225 f or t he f ort's c onstruction ( Philp 1 959, 1 05). T he c oin l ist , p ublished i n 1 936 f rom B rancaster , c ould s uggest a l ater t hird-century d ate ( St .

1 2

J oseph

1 936,

4 51) .

c ontemporary; p robably a lso

I t

i s h ighly

l ikely

C aister-by-Yarmouth, o f

t he s ame d ate .

t hat b oth s ites

i f

i t

i s

I t s eems

a re s trictly

a military

s ite,

i s

c lear t hat b y t he t ime

t hese f orts were b uilt, t he s econd-century f ort o f t he c lassis B ritannica a t D over h ad b een a bandoned ( Philp 1 977, 2 0) . T he l atest r ecord o f t he c lassis B ritannica i s a d edication s et u p a t A rles b y i ts c ommander u nder P hilip . C leere s uggests t hat b y t he m id-third c entury t his f leet a nd t he c lassis G ermanica h ad b een d isbanded o r a t l east B oth

n o

l onger e xisted u nder

R eculver

( fig

2 .1)

t heir p revious n ames

a nd B rancaster

( fig

1 .2)

( Cleere h ave

1 977 ,

1 9 ).

b asically

a

s quare p lan - t hough Reculver may h ave b een s lightly t rapezoidal ( Jessup 1 936, 1 89) - with p ortae principales i n t he c entre o f t heir r espective walls ( this was a f eature o f C laudian V alkenburg, T rajanic G ellygaer , H adrianic H ardknot, e tc .) . T he p orta p rincipalis d extra a t R eculver ( fig 1 7 .7), l ike t he p orta d ecumana, i s s ingle p ortal w ith o nly o ne i nternal g uardchamber C aerhun o f A ntonine d ate) . T wo o f

( cf t he west a nd s outh g ates a t t he g ates a t l east a t B rancaster m ay

h ave h ad p artly p rojecting g uardchambers, t hough t he e vidence i s v ery s light . T he wall h ere was c irca 2 .74m wide with a r ampart 6 .1m w ide b ehind .

T he s ingle d itch, 1 7 .72m wide b y 2 .44m d eep, was s eparated

f rom t he w all b y a 1 2 .2m b erm . T he 2 .44m t hick wall a t R eculver a lso h ad a c ontemporary r ampart b ank a nd was f ronted b y t wo d itches. A n ormal i nternal t urret w as f ound i n t he n orth-west a ngle a t B rancaster ( St. J oseph 1 936, 4 48). T he o nly a ngle t o b e e xamined a t R eculver, t he s outh-west, s howed n o e vidence f or a n i nternal r ectangular t urret . I nstead, a t hickening o f t he wall was f ound . T his mass o f l arge f lints a nd r ags t one was 1 .53m wide a nd s urvived t o a height o f 9 6cm. I t f ollowed t he i nner f ace o f t he f ort wall f or 1 .16m b efore i t a nd t he wall were r obbed o ut ( fig 2 2.2). P hilp s uggests t hat i ts width m ay h ave i ncreased a s t he f ort wall c urved f urther . A lthough i t i s n ot b onded with t he f ort wall, t he e xcavator t hought i t p robably c ontemporary with i t.

H e s uggests

t hat

i t

i s

more

l ikely

t o b e

s tructural t han t he b ase o f a n a ngle-tower o r b allistarium . T he s teepness o f t he h ill b ehind t he wall a t t his p oint c ould e xplain i ts p resence ( Philp 1 960 , 1 83) . I t i s, h owever , l ikely t hat t here w as a n a ngle-tower here . I n t he t hree a ngles which a re p reserved a t t he f ort o f G heriat e l-Garbia i n L ibya , t he f ort w all which i s a bout 2 .3m t hick i s s imilarly t hickened i nternally b y a s olid mass o f masonry c irca 1 .7m t hick which e xtends t he f ull l ength o f t he c urved a ngle ( fig .22.1). A t t his f ort t he s olid b ase t hus f ormed e xtended u p t o t he ' height o f t he p arapet w alk a nd s upported a n i nternal t ower . A t t he n orth a ngle t he o uter w all o f s uch a t ower w ith t wo r ound-headed windows s till s urvives ( Goodchild 1 976, p l. 2 9). I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat

t he f ort a t G heriat d ates t o t he r eign o f S everus .

R eculver a nd B rancaster a re o f

B oth

l arger s ize t han was n ormal i n t he

s econd c entury , R eculver b eing c irca 3 .2 h a, B rancaster t heir k nown g arrisons w ere o nly o f q uingenary s trength .

2 .5 h a ,

t hough

T he p lan o f t he d efences a t C aister-by-Yarmouth has much i n c ommon with t he t wo a bove f orts. T he t rapezoidal a rea o f 3 .6-4 .0 h a ( fig 9 .2) i s e nclosed b y as trong wall 3 m t hick .

T he s outh g ate h as two

i nternal g uardchambers; o nly o ne o ther g ate i s p ostulated - t hat o n t he west . T he s outh-east a ngle c ontained a n i nternal t ower b ut t he n orth-east d id n ot. T here a re t wo a ssociated d itches, t hough o ne c ould b e o f l ater d ate . 2 50

t han A D

2 00

( Ellison

T he e xcavator d ated t he d efences n earer A D 1 966,

1 3

5 9).

Whether

t his

s ite

i s

r eally

military o r n ot i s u nclear . T here was c ertainly o ccupation o n t he s ite i n t he s econd a nd e arly t hird c enturies which was p resumably c ivilian . S uch c ivilian o ccupation i s a lso f ound a t o ther S axon S hore f orts: f or e xample, B rancaster, Walton C astle, B urgh C astle, B radwell, R eculver, R ichborough a nd D over . H owever, a t C aister-byY armouth , t here i s e vidence f or e arlier d efences . A d itch d ating t o c irca A D 1 85-210 h as b een f ound b ut i t was t hought t hat i t m ay n ot h ave b een c ompleted a nd n o s ign o f a n a ssociated r ampart w as n oted . I t t o

i s p ossible t hat a c ommunity s ufficiently i mportant a nd p rosperous c onsider d efending i tself i n t he l ate s econd c entury m ay h ave h ad

t he i nitiative t o p rovide n ew d efences i n t he m ore h azardous t imes o f t he earlier t hird c entury. T hat t he d efences bore a c lose r esemblance t o t he u ndoubted m ilitary s ites o f B rancaster a nd R eculver ,

b uilt t o m eet t he s ame t hreat ,

w as n ow m ilitary .

d oes n ot p rove

t hat

t he s ite

N o t race o f m ilitary b uildings w ithin i t h ave b een

n oted . T he l ater p rovision o f a f ort a t n earby B urgh C astle i s d ifficult t o e xplain i f C aister w as a m ilitary s ite . T he p resence o f o nly t wo g ateways i n a djacent walls i s e ven a t t his p eriod d istinctly u nusual i n a military c ontext. F ourth-century o ccupation s eems t otally

c ivilian i n

c haracter .

I t h as b een s uggested t hat i n t he e arlier t hird c entury m any o f t he t owns o n t he s outh a nd e ast c oasts may have h ad a m ilitary f unction a nd b een c onnected with t he d efence o f what l ater b ecame t he S axon S hore ( Wacher 1 975B, 5 1; J ohnson J 1 980A , 7 6). T he f ortlet a t R ichborough ( fig 1 4 .1) had a s hort l ife i n t he l ater t hird c entury t he e xcavator d ated i t t o p ossibly a fter r ather t han b efore A D 2 50 ( Bushe-Fox 1 928, 5 ) . I t w as p resumably d emolished o n t he d ecision t o b uild t he s tone f ort i n t he l ater t hird c entury , n ow g enerally d ated t o t he r eign o f P robus. T he f ortlet c onsisted o f t hree d itches e nclosing a r ectangular a rea o f c irca 0 .72 h a, ( most o f t he e astern s ide has b een e roded away) i n t he c entre o f which i s t he f lundation f or t he m onument , p erhaps a q uadrifons a rch . I t i s p resumed t hat t he monument was u sed a s a l ook-out t ower. W ithin t he d itches was a n e arth m ound a t l east 1 0 .93m wide, g iving a n i nternal a rea o f c irca 0 .42 h a e ntered b y a s ix-post t imber g ateway i n t he w estern d efences . T he f ortlet was c redited w ith a s hort l ife b ecause o f t he p resence o f l ittle s ilt i n t he d itches . I n t he i nner d itch t he e xcavators were p uzzled b y t he s light l edge o r o ffset n ear t he b ottom o f t he i nner s lope .

I t

was

i nterpreted

a s

a t rench

t o

t ake a r ow o f p ointed

s takes, a lthough i t d id n ot o ccur i n a ll s ections o f t he d itch . I n s ome -p laces where i t d id , t here w ere n o t races o f p ost-holes ( BusheF ox 1 928, 1 9). I t i s c lear, a s c an b e s een f rom t he s ections i n t he s econd r eport p l X LVI n o 1 4, 1 5 a nd 1 6 a nd i n t he t hird r eport p l X LVIII n o 1 9, 2 0 a nd 2 1, t hat t he d itch has b een r ecut a nd t hat t he l edge n oted a bove i s t he b ottom o f t he f irst p hase d itch ( Robinson 1 970, 6 0-1). T his e xplanation h ad b een o ffered b y t he e xcavator i n t he

f ourth

r eport

( Bushe-Fox

1 932,

6 1) .

T here i s n o e vidence o f r ecutting i n t he o uter t wo d itches .

I t i s

p ossible t hat t hese m ay b e o f l ater d ate a nd i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat t he i nner d itch has s quare t erminals a t t he west g ate c auseway while t he o uter t wo h ave r ounded t erminals . T he c outerscarp m ound b eyond t he o uter 1 932,

4 3);

a nd p erhaps d ate

o f

t he

d itch

c ontained a c oin o f C laudius

p resumably t he

m iddle

f ortlet's

I I

( Bushe-Fox

t his m aterial will h ave c ome f rom t he o uter

d itch .

A t erminus p ost

c onstruction was

1 4

q uem

p rovided b y

f or

t he

i nitial

t hree c oins o f

H adrian , A ntoninus P ius a nd a n i ndeterminate r adiate o f c irca A D 2 60 s ealed i n t he d enuded r emains o f t he f ortlet's c lay b ank ( Cunliffe 1 968, 2 0). T he f ort a t P iercebridge ( fig 2 .2) i s n ow d ated c loser t o A D 2 60 t han AD 3 00. I t s hares a number o f f eatures with Reculver and B rancas t er. T he g ates i n t he l ong s ides o f t his r ectangular f ort a re s et mid way a long t hem; b oth a re p rovided with i nternal g uardchambers f lanking t he c arriageway, t he e ast g ate b eing d ouble p ortalled a nd t he west s ingle ( fig 1 8.1). T he g uardchambers a t t he w est g ate c irca 2 .44m s quare were a ccommodated i n a t hickening o f t he f ort wall ( Harper 1 964, 3 35). T he f ort wall was c irca 3 .05m t hick a nd w as p rovided w ith a r ampart . A t b oth t he n orth-east a nd s outhwest angles t here was n o e vidence f or t he p resence o f a ngle-towers. O ne

c ould

n ot

h ave e xisted a t

t he n orth-east a ngle within w hich

i s

a

l atrine b uilding ( Richardson a nd K eeney 1 934-6) . W ithin t he s outhw est a ngle , n o t race o f t he r ampart b acking was n oted ( Keeney 1 939-43, 4 8-50). I t i s u nlikely t hat t his s pace was o ccupied b y a t imber a ngle-tower - t he e xcavator e nvisaged s ome means o f a ccess t o t he p arapet walk h ere. O n t his s ection o f t he d efences t here were two d itches with t he p ossibility o f a t hird, t he f irst b eing s eparated f rom t he f ort wall b y a b erm 3 .66m wide . w ide b y 1 .6m d eep .

B oth d itches were 7 .32m

D uring t he r eign o f P robus, t he d ecision s eems t o h ave b een t aken t o g reatly

s trengthen

t he

d efences

o f

t he

s outh

a nd

e ast

c oasts

t o

p rovide a gainst a ttack b y s ea r aiders . T he c hronology o f t hese w orks i s f ully d iscussed i n c hapter 3 . T he n ew f orts b uilt i n t his a rea a ll d iffer i n d etail , b ut t hey h ave m any b asic f eatures i n c ommon a nd t heir broad c ontemporeinity i s v ery l ikely o n b oth h istorical a nd s tructural g rounds . I t i s o bvious f rom a n umber o f t hese t orts t hat t he b uilders were d ealing with n ew c oncepts i n d efensive a rchitecture . B urgh Castle s till p robably r epresents a t ransitional s tage b etween t he p rincipate s tyle o f f ort a nd t he t ypical l ate R oman d efensive e nciente ( though s ome d oubt h as r ecently b een c ast o n t his ( see J ohnson

J .

1 980B).

A ll

t hese

f orts

a re

c haracterised

by

t he m assiveness o f t heir walls a nd b y t he p rovision o f e xternal t owers a t t he a ngles a nd a t i ntervals a long t he walls . A s n oted a bove, t he p rovision o f e xternal t owers a t t he g ates was n ot u nknown much e arlier. T he p rovision o f e xternal a ngle a nd i nterval t owers i n a m ilitary c ontext i n B ritain i s o nly f ound f rom t he l ate t hird c entury o nwards. T he p lan

o f

B urgh

C astle

w ith

i ts r ounded a ngles

a nd

i nternal t owers

i s n ot t oo f ar r emoved f rom t hat o f e arlier f orts. I ts i rregular q uadrilateral s hape ( fig 7 .2) t hick , t hough s tepped d efensive wall a nd r ampart b ank , c an b e p aralleled a t o ther t hird-century f orts, t hough i t d oes s eem t o l ack t he s tandard f our l arge g ates, t he n orth a nd p ossibly s outh g ates b eing r epresented o nly b y p osterns. T his r eduction i n t he g ateways will h ave helped t o make t he f orts more e asily d efensible , b ut t his n eed n ot h ave b een t he s ole c onsideration . P rincipate f orts were o ver-provided with g ates . O n H adrian 's W all s ome g ates w ere b locked d uring t heir a ctual c onstruction i n t he e arly s econd

c entury a nd t hroughout

t he h istory o f

t hese f orts

t he g ateways

were p rogressively walled u p ( cf B reeze a nd D obson 1 972, 1 95) . A t S outh S hields, a lthough t he s outh g ate was b locked, p erhaps i n t he t hird c entury, t he b locking wall was l ater d emolished, i ts l ower

1 5

c ourses b eing i ncorporated i n t he l atest r oad s urface . T his s urface i s c ontemporary with t he l atest r oad b y t he p rincipia ( pers c omm M r . R . Miket). I n t he e arly t hird c entury, many o f t he s ingle-portal m ilecastle g ateways w ere r educed t o p osterns; o thers w ere r educed o r

b locked

l ater .

T hese

i nclude MC.22

( Daniels

1 978,

8 9),

3 6-40

( ibid, 1 65, 1 67, 1 70, 1 72), 4 9 ( ibid, 1 97), 5 2 ( ibid, 2 20), 5 4 ( ibid, 2 24) a nd 7 9 ( ibid, 2 53). N umerous l arge g ateways were r egarded a s s uperfluous l ong b efore t hey were r egarded a s a s erious d efensive w eakness. T he main e ast g ate a t B urgh C astle i s n ot p rovided with a ny g atet owers, e ither i nternal o r e xternal, a s f ar a s i s k nown ( fig 1 8 .5). S uch s imple, s ingle-portal g ateways a re a lso k nown o f t his d ate a t P evensey, P ortchester ( figs 1 9.1B, 1 9 .2B) a nd p ossibly a t Lympne ( Cunliffe 1 980, 2 30). Q uite why t hey s hould b e s o i ll-defended i s u nclear; i t i s n ot t hat t hey a re i n a ll c ases n aturally p rotected b y t he t opography . P evensey a nd P ortchester h ave h ighly-developed m ain g ates. I n b oth t hese c ases, t he g ate i s s et d eep w ithin t he d efences. a chieved b y

A t t he e ast a nd west g ates o f P ortchester, t his i s i nturning t he f ort wall, t he g ate with i ts i nternal

r ectangular g ate-towers b eing s et a t t he e nd o f t he p assage s o f ormed . A t P evensey, t his p assage i s f ormed b y s etting t he g ate b etween t wo l arge

r ound-fronted p rojecting

t owers

( fig

1 9 .1A) .

T hese

g ates

m ust

h ave b een mainly f or s how a s i t would h ave b een much e asier t o a ttack t he p oorly-defended g ateways e lsewhere o n t he c urtain which have a c arriageway o f s imilar width t o t hat o f t he ' main g ates' . S ome o f t hese f orts a re p rovided with n arrow p ostern g ates which a re a v ery c ommon f eature o f l ate R oman d efences.

S ome p rincipate f orts h ad

t heir g ates r educed s o t hat t hey were l ittle more t han p osterns. T his was u sually a chieved b y b locking o ne p ortal o f t he t win portal g ates g enerally f ound a t t hese f orts, a lthough s ome h ad t heir p ortals p artly b locked , e .g . H altonchesters ( Breeze a nd D obson 1 972 , 1 95) a nd R isingham ( Richmond 1 936 , 1 89) . A t B urgh C astle a nd L ympne ( Cunliffe 1 980 ,

2 54)

t he n orth p osterns

a re p laced

c lose b y

a n

e xternal-tower .

A t R ichborough, t he n orth p ostern ( fig 1 8 .4C) i s s et i nto t he b ase o f o ne o f t he r ectangular t owers which l eads o nto t he b erm t hrough t he e ast wall o f t he t ower b y t he f ort wall . T he n orth p ostern a t Pevensey ( fig 1 9.1C) i s a s lightly S-shaped vaulted passage p enetrating t hrough t he wall, n arrowing f rom 2 .28m a t t he i nside t o 1 .37m a t t he o utside ( Mothersole 1 924,171). T he e xcavator t hought t hat t he g ate w as c losed b y d oors a t b oth e nds o f

t he p assage ( Salzman

1 907 , 1 00 . P ortchester i s t he o nly o ne o f t hese f orts w here n arrow p osterns a re d efinitely k nown n ot t o e xist . N o e vidence w as f ound i n t he r ecent e xcavations o f t he e ast g ate a t L ympne ( Cunliffe 1 980) f or i ts h aving b een r educed

t o a p ostern

( cf .

J ohnson

1 976A ,

5 5) .

T he p rovision o f t owers g reatly i ncreased t he a rea a vailable f or u se a s a f ighting p latform w ith t he a dded a dvantage o ver t he p arapet w alk o f g reater h eight . b e u sed t o e nfilade

E xternal-towers, u nlike i nternal o nes, c ould a lso t he b ase o f t he c urtain a nd n eighbouring t owers .

O n t he c urving wall o f a f ort s uch a s P evensey, more t owers were n eeded t o a chieve t his a nd t hey a re h ence p laced m uch c loser t ogether o n t he t ightly-curving s ections o f t he c urtain t han o n t he r est o f t he c ircuit . B ecause t hey a re s et o n r ounded a ngles, t he a ngle-towers a t B urgh C astle ( fig 2 2.3) d o n ot p roject s ufficiently t o a llow t hem t o e nfilade t he a djacent w all c urtains a nd a re t hus i ll-suited t o f ulfil t heir m ain p urpose . B radwell h as s imilar, r ounded a ngles ( fig 4 .1);

1 6

l ike B urgh C astle ( and D over) i t m ay h ave h ad a n i nternal r ampart . I t h ad t he s ame t riple-tile o ffset a t t he e xterior b ase o f t he wall. T he s outh-west a ngle-tower o f R ichborough ( fig 2 2.5A) i s n ot o f o ne b uild with t he wall ( Loftos-Brock 1 888, 5 2) t hough i ts s ubsequent a ddition t o t he w all m ust h ve b een e nvisaged b y t he wall b uilders . A R oman f ortification w ith a r ight-angled c orner w ould b e u nparalleled i n B ritain . ( This s trongly s uggests t hat t he e nclosure o f H en Waliau c annot b e a d efensive s tructure ( Hogg 1 953 ) - a m ilitary s tore d epot has b een s uggested). F rom m any o f t he S axon S hore f orts, we k now t hat t he d efences were b uilt i n s ections. P ossibly a t R ichborough a d ifferent g ang was t o b uild t he t ower f rom t hat which b uilt

t he wall .

B onding

T he n orth-west a ngle-tower i s b onded i nto t he wall .

c ourses

o f

t ile o r s tone a re a f eature

o f

t hese d efences.

T hey a re a ssociated with wall f aces o f e ither small, n eat a shlars f orming a p etit a ppareil s tyle o f m asonry, o r s plit f lints, n o d oubt d epending o n t he l ocal a vailability o f s tone . Most o f t he f ort walls a re s et o n a n e laborate l attice o f t imber which a lso e xtended i nto t he t ower f oundations . T imber f ramework was a lso u sed i n t he i ntervalt owers a t Richborough t o p rovide e xtra s trengthening f or t he f irst s torey f loors . A t B urgh C astle t here were v ertical-timber b eams l et i nto t he s outh wall ; s even beam h oles were n oticed, e ach 3 3cm x 3 0cm and a n average 2 .59m a part a nd 5 0cm f rom t he i nner f ace o f t he wall . T he d eepest e xtended f or 1 .22m . T he b eams h ad T -shaped e nds r esting o n t iles 2 0cm a bove t he b ase o f t he wall . N o e xplanation f or t heir p resence i s k nown ( Bushe-Fox 1 932A , 6 4-5). I n t he t op o f e ach t ower h ere t here i s ah ole 6 0cms i n d iameter a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese h oles were c onnected with t he u se o f a rtillery i n t he t owers,

p resumably f orming a p ivot .

I f

t his

i s

s o,

o ne e ngine c ould h ave b een h oused i n e ach t ower.

p resumably

o nly

S uch a f ixed a rc

would have s everely r estricted t he f ield o f f ire o f a n a rtillery p iece. P erhaps t he h oles a re i n s ome way s tructural; J ohnson s uggests t hat t hey m ay h ave s upported t he r oof . I t i s p ossible t hat t he u pper p art o f t he t owers was o f t imber . B oth i ntegral a nd a dded t owers h ave b een f ound a t D over ( Philp 1 977) . I t i s n oteworthy t hat, a lthough

B rancaster a nd Reculver

were o ccupied i n t he

l ate

c entury, t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat t heir d efences u pdated a nd n o t race o f e xternal t owers h as b een f ound . T he e xternal t owers o f s haped a t B urgh C astle

t hird were

t he S axon S hore f orts d iffer i n s hape : p ear( fig 2 2 .3 ), o ne s emi-circular a nd o ne h orseshoe

s haped a t B radwell ( fig 2 2 .8), r ectangular a nd c ircular a t R ichborough ( fig 2 2.5) a nd U-shaped a t t he o thers ( fig 2 2). Walton C astle, f rom t he e xtant p lan ( fig 4 .2), w ould s eem t o h ave c ircular t owers o nly a t t he a ngles. T he t owers o f B urgh C astle a ll s tand t o a bout t he s ame h eight, a s d oes t he c urtain wall, i .e. 4 .57m . I t i s p ossible t hat t hey never s tood a ny h igher, a t l east i n s tone Norris A . 1 948, 1 07). A gain a t R ichborough , L ympne a nd P ortchester, t he s urviving t owers d o n ot extend a bove t he p resent s urviving walls b ut a t R ichborough a nd L ympne t he t owers p robably s tood much h igher . A t t he f ormer, t he r ectangular t owers had a t hick c oncrete f irst f loor a nd a t s ome t owers, t he b ack wall c an b e s een e xtending a bove t his f oor . F rom f allen f ragments o f t he e ast g ate a t L ympne , C unliffe i nferred g atet owers

o f

a t

l east t wo s toreys

( Cunliffe

1 980 ,

2 41) .

A t P evensey,

t ower o n t he n orth w all r etains i ts u pper s torey w ith o ne t all , h eaded window o f a t ype u sually t hought b y a rtillery .

t o h ave b een d esigned f or u se

B ushe-Fox s uggested t hat t he t hick c oncrete f loors a t

1 7

a

r ound-

R ichborough were n eeded t o s upport a rtillery ( Bushe-Fox 1 932A , 6 3). T he p rovision o f a t l east o ne r oom a t f irst-floor l evel i n a n e xternal-tower i s i n a ny c ase l ikely . A ncient a rtillery, r elying a s i t d id f or i ts p ropulsive p ower o n s prings o f s inew o r h air , n eeded t o b e k ept d ry t o work a t p eak e fficiency. Wall i n i ts

T he c ontemporary A urelian

f irst p hase h ad r ectangular p rojecting

t owers

w ith

r ooms

a t wall-walk h eight p rovided with windows, p erhaps f or a rtillery ( Richmond 1 930, 7 9). A t ower a t S enlis h as t wo windowed r ooms, a t r ampart-walk l evel a nd a t t he l evel a bove ( Johnson 1 973, 2 15 ) . T he T our d e V ivier a t L e Mans h as t hree o pen s toreys . W hether t he t owers were g iven a f lat, b attlemented r oof o r p itched r oof i s u nclear . C ontinental e vidence s uggests t hat b oth s tyles o f r oofing may h ave b een u sed . R ichmond f ound t hat t he p hase I t owers a t R ome h ad f lat r oofs; s tairways l ed u p f rom t he f irst-floor c hamber. T he A rras m edallion s howing a g ate a t L ondon p ortrays i ts t owers w ith c onical r oofs. O ne w ould e xpect t here t o h ave b een a s ystem o f watch-towers o r s ignal s tations a long t he S axon S hore, a s was e arlier p rovided o n t he C umbrian c oast a nd l ater o n t he Y orkshire c oast a nd p erhaps o n A nglesey . T here i s v ery l ittle e vidence f or s uch p osts o n t he S axon S hore . A small watch-tower h as r ecently b een f ound a t Wapping ( Shadwell) a l ittle t o t he e ast o f R oman L ondon ( fig 1 3 .3) . T his i s a s tone-walled s tructure 8m s quare; t o t he s outh were two p arallel d itches which o verlapped i n f ront o f t he t ower . T he i nner d itch r eplaced a l ine o f l arge t imber p osts. A djacent t imber b uildings were p robably c ontemporary with t he t ower ( Johnson T . 1 975) . I t w as s uggested t hat o ne o f t hese b uildings was a b arrack-block . T he t ower r emained i n u se f rom t he l ate t hird c entury a t o f

t he

f ourth

l east u ntil

t he m iddle

( Johnson A 1 975) .

A n umber o f s ites i n E ast Anglia have b een s uggested a s having b een p art o f t he S axon S hore s ystem, among t hem H adleigh ( Essex), C orton ( Suffolk) and T hornham ( Norfolk). Many o f t he s ites s uggested a re known o nly f rom a erial p hotographs.

T heir d ate a nd f unction a re

o ften u nclear . C orton , where a d itch r ound a b uilding 2 2 .85m s quare c ontained l ate f ourth-century p ottery, s eems t he m ost l ikely s ite o f a military s tructure ( Johnson 1 976, 1 26). I t i s very u nlikely t hat a r egular s ystem o f small p osts c ertainly h ave b een f ound . At

Watercrook

and

e ver

e xisted

Templeborough,

t he

- s ome

m ore

d efences

would

may

a lmost

have

b een

r efurbished i n t he l ater t hird c entury . T he f ort a t Watercrook m ay h ave b een e nlarged a nd t he s outh-west wall r ebuilt c irca A D 2 70 . T he wall was r oughly b uilt o f s oft s andstone a nd , u nlike t he e arlier f ort wall, l ittle mortar was u sed ( North a nd H ildyard 1 945, 1 54; P otter 1 979 , 1 55) . T empleborough , a bandoned i n t he s econd c entury, m ay h ave b een r e-occupied i n t he l ate t hird c entury . I t was c ertainly r ef ortified d isuse .

a t

s ome

d ate

a fter

what

A n ew f ort w all w as b uilt,

was

p robably

a l ong

n ot o n t he r emains o f

p eriod

o f

t he p eriod

I I s tone wall , b ut o n t op o f i ts m uch d enuded r ampart b ank . T he w all w as b uilt o f r e-used material , i ncluding b roken b ricks, t iles, s labs o f p ink a nd white c ement, c obbles, b oulders a nd b roken t ombstones . A s lightly i rregular a rea o f c irca 1 .7 ha was e nclosed. T he g ates o f f ort

I II

l ie

s lightly b ehind t hose o f

t he p eriod I I

f ort.

T hree

p ost-holes a t t he s outh-east a ngle s et i nto t he p eriod I II f oundations c ould b e f or a n a ngle-turret o f t his p eriod . T he e xcavator s uggested

1 8

t hat t his work w as c ivilian ( May

1 922,

1 9),

t hough t he c onstruction o f

t he n ew wall s o c losely f ollowing t he p lan o f t hat o f a n e arlier f ort m ay s uggest m ilitary w ork . R ichmond t hought t hat t he c haracter o f t he l ate w ork a nd p aucity o f f inds p robably t o b e a ssociated w ith i t , p rove t hat i ts o ccupation was n ot meant t o b e a l ong o ne ( Richmond 1 923, 2 16). L ittle i s k nown o f t he p ossibly l ate t hird-century f ort a t B aginton b eyond t he s ix m assive p osts f orming i ts s ingle-portal g ateway ( fig 1 8 .3) a nd t he a ssociated w ide e arth b ank a nd v ery w ide r ound-bottomed d itch ( fig 8 .2) ( Hobley 1 974, 2 75-6). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t his r e-occupation s hould b e d ated t o t he f ourth c entury a nd i s p aralleled a t o ther s ites i n t he West Midlands

( Jones

M .

1 979,

6 6

f n.14). Many f eatures o f t he f ort a t C ardiff s uggest t hat i t i s a lso o f l ate t hird-century d ate . I t h as t hick walls, e xternal t owers a nd s quare p lan with two g ates p laced c entrally i n o pposite s ides o f t he f ort ( fig 8 .1), a ll f eatures p aralleled o n t he S axon S hore. I t d oes, h owever, h ave a r ampart b ank a nd t he p resence o f a f oundation b eneath i ts walls which i s n ot a lways f ollowed b y t he p resent f ort wall, h as l ed t o s ome d oubt a s t o t he c ontemporaneity o f t he f oundation w ith t he w all a nd i t t owers . A t t he t wo a ngles i nvestigated , t he n orth-east a nd n orth-west,

t he f oundation d escribes

f oundation o f a p rincipate s tyle f ort

a c urve a s t hough i t was t he

( fig

2 2 .4) .

T he

wall

a nd

t ower

s it awkwardly o n t his; a t t he n orth-east a ngle t he p linth c urves i nwards a nd d isappears i n t he a ngle b etween t he c urtain a nd t he t ower . T he f oundations o f t his t ower a re d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he a djacent w all

- t he

t ower's p linth

i s h igher

t han

t hat

o f

t he

c urtain

wall

o n

o ne s ide a nd l ower a t t he o ther . S uch a d iscrepancy i s s een a t o ther t owers . A t the n orth g ate t he wall f oundation a nd a f ew c ourses o f t he wall p ass u nder t he g uardchambers a nd t he c arriageway . T he wall was partly l evelled t o f orm t he f loor o f t he g uardchambers. T he e xcavator t hought t hat t he f oundation a nd p linth r epresented a n e arlier f ort o n t he s ite w hich w as l ater a lmost t otally d emolish a nd r eplaced b y t he p resent wall ( Ward 1 901, 3 48) . T he b uilt-over p linth a t t he n orth-east a ngle had a d ecidedly weathered l ook - t races o f d ark earth were f ound b etween i t a nd t he g routing o f t he t ower. W heeler s uggested t hat t he a nomalies b etween t he f oundation a nd s upers tructure r epresent a lterations d uring t he c onstruction o f t he f ort ( Wheeler 1 922B,

3 68).

T his i nterpretation would make most s ense;

t here may have b een a s hort p eriod o f c essation i n t he c onstruction work and G . S impson s uggests t hat a f ew y ears c ould b e e nough t o p roduce t he weathered p linth a nd s ome d ark e arth o verlying i t ( Simpson G . 1 963, 7 1). E arlier military o ccupation i s n ow k nown o n t he s ite o f t he e xtant f ort ( Webster , P .V . a nd J . 1 975-8 ) . T he wall , b uilt o n a f oundation 4 .57m wide, was j ust o ver 3 .05m t hick, b ut r educed a t 2 .28m h igh b y

f our o ffsets

t o

2 .59m a nd t hen f urther t o

1 .91m a t 4 .27m

a bove t he g round ( Ward 1 914 , 4 07-8) . I t i s f aced o n b oth s ides w ith a shlars; n o t ile b onding c ourses a re p resent. T he c ontemporary r ampart b ank s urvives t o a height o f 3 .35m . T he t owers a re h alf d ecagons e xcept f or t hat a t t he n orth-east a ngle which i s a n i ncomplete o ctagon . A ll a re b onded i nto t he wall b ut t he m iddle o ne o n t he e ast wall a nd t he n orth g ate-towers were n ot s olid a s t he o thers were. T he s uggested p ostern g ate i n t he h ollow t ower i s h ighly u nlikely . T he n orth g ate w as s ingle p ortal ( fig 2 0 .1); n one o f

t he

l ate

t hird-century

S axon

1 9

S hore

f orts

h as

d ouble

p ortal

g ates .

T he w est,

s outh a nd e ast s ides o f

t he f ort b ow o utwards

t owards

t heir

m iddle , a s d oes t he w est wall a t R ichborough , p art o f which s eems t o h ave b een b uilt a t a d ifferent s tage i n t he c onstruction w ork a nd w as g iven a s lightly d ifferent a lignment ( Johnson J . 1 970, 2 44). T he f ort e ncloses 3 .4 h a . T he s tone-walled e nclosure f ound a t C arisbrooke, l ying b eneath t he m edieval c astle , h as b een c laimed a s a R oman f ort c onnected w ith t he d efence o f t he S axon S hore . T he m asonry r evealed a nd t he p lan o f t he d efences c ould s uggest a R oman d ate . T he v irtual a bsence o f Roman f inds f rom t he s ite m ust, ( Johnson J . 1 976A, 1 41).

h owever ,

c all i ts R oman o rigin i nto q uestion

I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he walled e nclosure a t B rough-on-Humber was b uilt t o h ouse a n aval d etachment. T he p rincipal evidence f or t his i s t he l ack o f n ormal t own b uildings within t he walls a nd t he f act t hat t he h istory o f t he d efences b ears m ore r esemblance t o t hat o f a m ilitary s ite t han t o a R omano-British t own ( Wacher 1 969 ; 1 971 , 1 66) . A n umerus would s eem t o h ave b een s tationed h ere p rior t o i ts r emoval

t o Malton

c irca A D

3 67 o r u nder Magnus Maximus

( Casey

1 979B ,

7 6). T he p lan o f t he d efences ( fig 1 1.1) h owever i s d istinctly u nmilitary. ( The e arly s econd-century n aval b ase a t Dover b ears a r easonable r esemblance t o t hat o f ac ontemporary f ort). T he walls d escribe

a n

i rregular h exagon ;

t he middle n or a t hird o f

t he

t hree

g ates

f ound

l ie n either

t he way a long t hese s ides.

i n

T he r ight-

a ngled t urn i n t he e ast wall i s v ery u nusual . T he west g ate ( fig 2 0 .2B) b ears a r esemblance t o t he n orth p ostern g ate a t R ichborough ( fig 1 8 .4C). T he n orth g ate i n s tone, p hase I , was p rovided with i nternal r ectangular g uardchambers . A D

W acher d ated t his p hase t o c irca

2 70-290 .

Work o n t he d efences a t Binch e ster, Birdoswald, Caernarvon, L eintwardine a nd p ossibly O ld P enrith has b een d ated t o t he t hird c entury . T he s tepped f ort wall a t B inchester was c ompared b y t he e xcavator t o t he G ordianic wall a t L anchester ( Steer 1 938) . T he wall , w here t raced b y S teer , was f ound t o v ary i n w idth f rom 1 .69m t o 2 .62m . T his i s p robably e xplained b y t here b eing t wo p eriods o f s tone wall h ere . E xcavations i n t he i nterval-tower o n t he s outh-west w all f ound t hat a wall o f c rude work o verlay a n e arlier wall o f n eat masonry ( Dobson a nd J arrett 1 958). A ssociated with t his l ater wall was a n i nterval-tower a nd t he f oundations f or t his, o f r e-used a shlars, were d ug i nto t he e arlier r ampart b ank . T he w hole o f t he i nterior h ad b een f illed with r ubble . E . B irley s uggested t hat t his f illing a nd t he e specially d eep f oundations o f t his t ower c ould i ndicate t hat i t was a n a rtillery t ower o f t he t ype s een a t C hesterholm . B onding i nto t he f ort wall w as i ncomplete . T he o nly d ating e vidence f ound - a f langed b owl f rom i n t he r ubble f ill o f t he t ower - would n ow b e d ated t o within t he t hird c entury. P art o f t he e ast w all a t B irdoswald i s s aid t o h ave b een r econstructed ( Daniels

1 978A ,

i n

l arge

m asonry

i n

t he

t hird c entury

2 00 .

I t i s n ot n ow c lear when t he d efences o f C aernarvon w ere r ebuilt i n s tone . I t s eems l ikely t hat t his was s pread o ver a p eriod o f t ime . T he n orth-west g ate o n t he p ottery e vidence i s d ated t o t he m id-second c entury

( Nash-Williams

1 969 ,

6 2) .

W heeler d ated t he f ort w all t o t he

t ime o f S everus a nd t hought t he c ontemporary ( Wheeler 1 922A, 2 74).

2 0

t ower a t t he n orth-east g ate T his t ower, which had n ot been

p rovided w ith

g round-floor

a ccess,

h ad b een f illed s olid w ith l oose

y ellow c ement; h e s uggested t hat i t was a n a rtillery t ower . T he n orth-west t ower a t t he s outh-west g ate h ad a lso b een f illed s olid a nd t he s tone f illing y ielded a l ittle t hird-century p ottery. R ecent e xcavations s uggest t hat a t l east p art o f t he s tone w all was a dded t o t he t urf r ampart i n t he l ate t hird o r f ourth c enturies

( Casey a nd

D avies 1 976). L eintwardine h ad b een d efended b y a t imber-laced r ampart i n t he A ntonine p eriod a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i n t he e arly t hird t op . 2 66).

c entury o r l ater , a wall o f l imestone was b uilt o n t he r ampart T he r ampart was n ever g iven a s tone r evetment ( Stanford 1 968,

O n H adrian's W all , t he c urtain s eems t o h ave b een m aintained i n g ood o rder f or m ost o f t he c entury, b ut a s e arly a s t he b eginning o f t he c entury t here were d rastic a lterations i n t he m ilecastles a nd t urrets . A n umber o f t urrets s eem t o h ave g one o ut o f u se b y c irca A D 1 80 o r A D 1 97 , many o f t hese b eing d emolished a nd t heir r ecesses i nto t he W all f illed i n . T he t owers o ver t he n orth a nd p robably o ver t he s outh g ates o f milecastles a lso s eem t o have b een d emolished a t t he s ame t ime . T he n orth g ates o f many milecastles p osterns, a s were s ome s outh g ates ( see a bove) .

P art

I I

were

n ow

r educed

t o

I nternal B uildings

Id o not p ropose t o mention a ll t he work known t o d ate t o t he t hird c entury i n t he i nterior o f f orts - a f air amount i s known b oth s tructurally a nd e pigraphically. T hroughout t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury, t here was m uch r ebuilding o r r efurbishing within f orts; m uch o f i t will h ave b een r outine maintenance a nd a s s uch may h ave n o p lrticular

significance.

The

l atest

such

work

a ttested

e pigraphically d ates t o t he t ime o f P ostumus. I n t he l ater t hird c entury, buildings s eem t o have been g enerally neglected, n ecessitating t he m ajor r ebuilding w ork u nder C onstantius C hlorus i n t he e arly f ourth c entury . A n umber o f s tructures a nd a dditions t o e arlier b uildings h ave b een t hought t o b e o f l ate d ate - t he w ork o f C onstantius o r o f T heodosius .

Many o f t hese a re n ow k nown t o b e m uch

e arlier a nd i ndicate a m ore g radual c hange i n f ort p lans a nd n o d oubt i n t he g arrisons t hemselves t han h as p reviously b een t hought . P rincipia T he S everan p rincipia a t B ainbridge ( fig 3 0 .2), u nlike i ts Antonine p redecessor ( fig 2 9.1), c onforms t o t he s tandard p lan o f s uch b uildings which i n t he l ater f irst a nd s econd c enturies i n B ritain s eem t o have b een v ery s tandardised . T he p rincipia o f B ewcastle i s p robably o f H adrianic d ate ( Austen, f orthcoming). T he Antonine p rincipia a t B rough-on-Noe i s o f v ery unusual p lan ( fig 2 9.2) with what a ppears t o b e ar ange o f f ive r ooms f acing t he a edes a cross t he b asilica . I t l ooks v ery m uch ( though t he a rchaeological e vidence i s w anting) a s i f t he p rincipia h as b een t urned r ound a nd t he t wo p eriods o f b uildings have b een c onflated o n t he p lan ( Jones G a nd Wild 1 969B f ig 3 3) . T he A ntonine b uilding h ad p resumbly b een t hat f acing s outhw est; i t h as t he s tandard r ange o f f ive r ooms a nd c ould e asily h ave h ad a normal c ourtyard. N ot o nly d oes t he f ort s eem t o h ave b een t urned r ound, i t m ust have b een a ltered i n l ength o n a t l east t wo o ccasions . Mr . G illam n otes t hat t he p lan o f t he l ater b uilding m ay

2 1

h ave b een b rought a bout b ecause t he b uilders s ought t o u tilise t he b asilica a s a t S outh S hields a nd y et a lso u se t he b ack w all o f t he p eriod I p rincipia a s t he f ront wall o f t he n ew b uilding, a s a t C hesterholm . T he b uilding was p ossibly n ot e xtended t o t he northe ast a s t he b uildings i n t he p raetentura r emained i n u se . o f t he l ater p rincipia i s u nclear , b ut i t p resumably d ates

T he d ate t o b efore

t he e nd o f p eriod I I ( Jones G . a nd Wild 1 969A) i n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury w hen t he p rincipia was t ransformed i nto a wattle a nd d aub

s tructure .

R ichmond b elieved

t hat

t he a edes

r epresented a n

e arly t hird c entury i nsertion i nto a p re-existing principia . T he F lavian t imber p rincipia a t C hester w as o nly r eplaced i n s tone i n t he l ater s econd o r e arly t hird c entury ( Strickland 1 981B, 4 2). s tone p rincipia a t C aerleon m ay a lso o nly h ave b een c ompleted a t t ime ( Boon 1 972A , 2 8) .

T he t his

T he p rovision o f p rincipia with s unken s trongrooms h as g enerally b een d ated t o t he S everan p eriod, b ut a t s ome s ites t hese d ate much e arlier . T he s trongrooms a t B enwell ( Spain 1 930, 1 30) and a t C arrawburgh ( Breeze 1 972, 1 01) a re t hought t o b e p rimary ( the l ater A ntonine f ort a t N ewstead h ad a s trongroom) . O ther s trongrooms m ay b e o f e arlier d ate t han was

f irst

t hought .

Many p rincipia a t s ome t ime i n t heir l ives h ad t heir c ourtyard v erandas walled u p a nd t urned i nto r ooms which w ould s eem t o h ave b een a rmouries o r s torerooms . R IB 1 092 f rom L anchester m ay s uggest t hat a rmouries a nd p rincipia w ere c onnected . A t C hesterholm t hese r ooms were l ater p rovided with s leeper walls t o f orm a r aised f loor.

A s

t he e xcavator n oted, t his d oes n ot mean t hat t he f unction o f t hese r ooms h ad a ltered ( Birley E ., R ichmond a nd S tanfield, 1 936, 2 25). T hey n eed n ot h ave b een u sed f or g rain s torage . T he r eplacement o f v erandas b y r ooms h as u sually b een d ated t o t he e arly f ourth c entury ( Wilkes 1 966) o n n o g ood e vidence . T his c hange has been d ated a t C arrawburgh t o t he H adrianic/Antonine p eriod . I t i s e qually p ossible t hat a t o ther s ites t his work s hould b e d ated t o t he s econd o r t hird c enturies . T he p rincipia a t C hesterholm ( fig 3 2 .1) i s n ow t hought t o b e o f t hird-century d ate . R . B irley d ates i t t o c irca A D 2 70; I would s uggest a d ate o f c irca A D 2 20 f or i ts c onstruction . T he l atest p rincipia a t S outh S hields ( fig 3 2.2) i s p robably o f s imilar d ate . t his

A w orn c oin o f J ulia D omna c ame f rom t he c obble f oundations o f b uilding .

T he

s leeper

walls

i n

t he

b asilica

principiorum

a ttrtbuted t o t he t ime o f C ount T heodosius ( Richmond, 8 ) p robably b elong t o t he t ime o f S everus w hen m ost o f t he f ort was g iven o ver f or u se a s a s upply b ase ( Dore a nd G illam 1 979 , 6 3) . I f t his i s s o, t hen t hey w ill b e a ssociated w ith t he p eriod I I n orth-facing p rincipia . A t C aernarvon t he b asilica i n t he e arly t hird c entury was d ivided i nto t hree l arge r ooms; t he r ear r ange o f r ooms w as a lso r educed f rom f ive t o t hree ( cf. t he p rincipia a t Ambleside, H ardknot and M elandra C astle) a nd a s trongroom w as p laced i n t he a edes . T he s trongroom was s oon r ef bored,

s ealing a n ear-mint c oin o f E lagabalus .

I n t he f loor

was a n umber o f d enarii s uggesting a d ate j ust a fter AD 2 18-22 f or t his w ork . T he w ide e ntrance i nto t he a edes was r educed t o an ormal d oorway n ot o n t he c entral a xis o f t he b uilding . A lso a t t his t ime , a n a psidal h eated r oom was a dded t o t he r ear wall o f t he p rincipia which e xtended a cross t he f ull width o f t he v ia quintana ( fig 3 0.1),

( Wheeler

1 922A ,

2 78f .) .

T he

p rovision

o f

h ypocaust

h eating

t o

r ooms i n p rincipia a gain h as b een c onsidered a f ourth c entury f eature .

2 2

T he h eated r oom i n t he p eriod I I p rincipia a t C hesterholm p rotruding f rom t he r ear wall i s c ontemporary with t he r est o f t he b uilding . T he h ypocausts i n t he r ear r ange a t S outh S hields a re a lso l ikely t o b e o f t hird-century d ate . T he p rincipia a t C arpow

( fig 3 1.1) i s o f u nusual s hape,

b eing v ery

w ide a nd s hort, b ut t he o ther f eatures o f i ts p lan a re n ormal e xcept t hat t he s trongroom was p laced b eneath t he t ribunal. A t R eculver, t he p rincipia ( fig 3 3.2) a gain b asically c onforms t o t he s tandard p lan; t he s ame b uilding a t B rancaster i s k nown o nly f rom a ir p hotographs, b ut i t c ould b e s imilar . T he a edes s eems t o p roject b eyond t he r ear wall o f t he b uilding a nd t o h ave a p olygonal a pse . S uch r earward p rojecting a pses o ccur a t a ll p eriods . E xcavations i n t he 1 9th c entury a t L ympne r evealed what must b e t he r ear r ange o f r ooms o f ap rincipia ( fig 3 4 .1). I t c onsisted o f a s emi-octagonal a psed a edes with t wo l ong r ooms o n e ither s ide, p erhaps o riginally d ivided b y t imber p artitions ( Smith 1 852, 1 9) . T he p osition o f t his b uilding within t he f ort m ay h ave n o s ignificance d ue t o t he e xtensive s lip o f t he r emains o n t his s ite . I f t he b uilding i s t he p rincipia o f t he l ate t hird c entury f ort, t hen i t r epresents t he o nly e arly s tyle m ilitary b uilding y et k nown f rom a l ate S axon S hore f ort .

I ts

c ontemporaneity with t he d efences h as, h owever, b een c alled i nto q uestion . J ohnson n oted t hat t he b uilding i s r ecorded a s h aving b een f ound a t a g reat d epth ( S mith 1 887). Y et, i n t he o riginal r eport, t here i s n o mention o f t his.

I s t his s tatement,

written 3 7 y ears

a fter t he e vent, n ot t he e xcavator's j ustification f or h aving l ocated o nly t wo b uildings within t he f ort? O n t he l ithograph s howing t he e xcavations i n p rogress o n t he b ath-house , t he r emains l ie i mmediately b elow t he s urface . J ohnson s uggests t hat t he b uilding may b e a ssociatd with a n e arlier military o r n aval p resence o n t he s ite . R IB o f

6 6 t he

f ound r e-used i n t he s hore f orts' e ast c lassis

B ritannica ,

p ossibly

i n

t he

g ate r ecords,

m id-second

a p refect

c entury .

S et

o n t he f oundations o f t he monument a t R ichborough i s a r ough wall e nclosing a r ectangular a rea ( fig 3 4 .2) which J ohnson s uggests c ould b e t he p rincipia . L ittle o f t he e xterior wall i s k nown a nd n o i nternal walls. I ts p osition a t t he e nd o f t he main r oad e ntering t he f ort would s uggest t his f unction,

b ut i ts p urpose must r emain

u nclear . I t i s n ot k nown whether s uch a b uilding was d eemed n ecessary a t t his p eriod, t hough a t t he f orts i n t he n orth a nd west where t hey s urvived i nto t he f ourth c entury, t hey s eem t o h ave c ontined i n u se a s a dministrative b uildings . O n t he C ontinent m any l ate f orts s how n o e vidence o f a c entral b uilding . A t D robeta ( fig 3 7 .2)

t here was a l ate t hird-century b uilding o f d ifferent p lan f rom a

n ormal p rincipia , b ut n o d oubt f ulfilling t he s ame f unction ( Florescu 1 967). T he D iocletianic p rincipia a t P almyra ( fig 3 8) i s o f more n ormal p lan , t hough t he c ourtyard h as b een d ispensed w ith ( Richmond 1 963,

f ig 4 ).

N o t race o f a p rincipia h as b een f ound w ithin t he f ort a t P iercebridge ( Keeney 1 946-53) . E xcavations o n t he s ite o f t he p resumed p rincipia p roved t hat i t d id n ot o ccupy t he p osition e xpected i f t he f ort f aced n orth . Much o f t he c entral a rea o f t he f ort was c overed b y a g ravel l ayer s et o n t he u ndisturbed s oil a nd a ssociated w ith w all f oundations a nd d rains . N o s ign o f t he n orth-south r oad was f ound w here e xpected a nd t he e ast-west r oad s urface m erged with t he g ravel s pread . I t i s p ossible t hat t he f ort f aced e ast a nd t he principia may s till b e f ound, t hough t his s eems u nlikely. T he s tructure f ound b y K eeney

2 3

would s eem t o impinge o n t he a rea n eeded f or a p rincipia f acing t he e ast g ate . O bservation o f a s ewer t rench i n 1 976 r evealed f ragments o f

a v ery

well-built

s tructure w est

o f

t he c entre o f

t he f ort

( Scott

1 977) . A t F orden G aer , t he s econd-century n orth-south r oad s topped s hort o f t he p eriod I I p rincipia i n t he n ormal way. I n t he t hird c entury , t he whole a rea o f t he f ormer p rincipia was c overed w ith c lay f loors a nd t he r oad l evels o f t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies were f ound c utting a cross t he e arlier c entral b uilding

( Pryce a nd Pryce

1 929 , 1 10 . A nother a nomaly o f t his f ort w as t hat i ts d efences were n ever r ebuilt i n s tone, which may a lso h ave b een t he c ase a t t he n earby f ort o f L eintwardine .

P raetoria T hird-century p raetoria a re k nown a t L ancaster ( fig 3 9 .2) a nd p ossibly a t C arpow ( fig 3 9.1). O ne c ould b e p resent a t R eculver t o t he west o f t he p rincipia . W here t he p lan i s k nown , t hey s eem t o c onform t o t he e arlier t ype o f c ourtyard h ouse ; i n d etail t hese b uildings n ever had a s tandardised p lan .

D uring t he t hird c entury a t Caersws ( fig

4 0 .1) a s uite o f t hree h eated r ooms was a dded t o t he p raetorium extending o ver t he v ia q uintana; t hese r ooms may have r epresented a dditional l iving a ccommodation r ather t han a b ath-suite ( Daniels, J ones G a nd P utnam 1 967 , 6 5) . T he p raetorium a t B irdoswald i s k nown t o h ave b een t otally r uinous i n t he l ate t hird c entury ( RIB 1 912), a s may h ave b een t hat a t Lancaster . T he p raetorium a t Bewcastle i s p robably o f H adrianic d ate; i t m ay h ave g one o ut o f u se o r a t l east b een s everely r educed i n s ize i n t he t hird o r f ourth c enturies ( Richmond , H odgson a nd S t . J oseph 1 938 , 4 ) . Mr . P . A usten a rgues t hat R ichmond's p eriod I II s tructures o verlying t his b uilding n eed n ot d ate s o l ate a s t he e arly f ourth c entury a nd h e s uggests t hat t he p raetorium m ay n ot h ave b een c orrectly i dentified - t he b uilding c ould b e t he v aletudinarium . T he p hase V b uilding a t B inchester , p ossibly t o b e i dentified a s

a p raetorium,

i s n ow d ated t o t he l ater t hird

c entury a t t he e arliest . A b arbarous r adiate i n a c onstruction t rench o f t he b uilding .

o f

A D

2 70-90 w as

f ound

G ranaries G ranaries r etained t heir o riginal u sage t hroughout t he t hird c entury a nd, d ue t o t heir s trong c onstruction, t hey s urvived well . A t t wo s ites h owever, S outh S hields a nd C hester, s ome a t l east o f t he g ranaries c eased t o b e u sed f or s torage . With t he withdrawal f rom S cotland i n t he e arly t hird c entury, t he p resence o f a l arge s upply b ase a t S outh S hields was n o l onger n ecessary . T he r eturn o f t he c ohors V G allorum f rom C ramond a t t his t ime would have c reated a s hortage o f l iving a ccommodation within t he f ort; s ome o f t he g ranaries a re k nown t o h ave b een c onverted i nto l iving a ccommodation t his w as d ated t o t he e arly f ourth c entury b ut a n e arly t hird-century d ate i s more l ikely. I n g ranary C 12 ( VIII) t he f lagged f loor was r emoved, t he v entilation s hafts were f illed with e arth a nd t he v entilators w alled u p . T he b uilding was d ivided u p i nto f our s ets o f t hree r ooms, o ne o f which was f lagged ( fig 2 8 .4). S imilar c hanges o ccurred i n o ther g ranaries ( Richmond 1 934, 9 4). R ichmond c ompared t hese s uites t o t he two s uch Birdoswald f ound i n 1 929,

u nits i n t he C onstantian b arrack a t a nd t o another two suites i n t he

2 4

' Constantian'

principia

a t

C hesterholm .

g ranaries b y t he p orta p rincipalis d extra

A t

C hester

t he

t hree

w ere d emolished - o ne a fter

i t had b een u sed f or a nother p urpose ( Petch a nd T hompson 1 959, 3 7, 5 4) . N o b uttressed g ranaries a re t o b e s een a t R eculver , t hough t hey c ould p ossibly h ave b een p resent i n t he p raetentura , m uch o f which h as b een e roded b y t he s ea . N o t race o f g ranaries was f ound a t R ichborough . T he b uildings o n s ites I V a nd V II ( fig 4 9.3) c ould p ossibly have b een u sed f or s torage, t he v erandas f orming l oading p latforms, b ut t heir p osition o n t he m ain f ort r oads m akes t his a b it u nlikely . T hey h ad n o p rovision f or r aised f loors .

I nternal B ath-Houses T he p rovision o f b ath-houses within f orts ( except f or t hose i n p raetoria) was n ot u sual i n t he e arly R oman p eriod , t hough l egionary f ortresses w ere s o p rovided , a s were a n umber o f f orts o n t he A ntonine W all . I n t he t hird c entury t hey b ecame m ore c ommon , p ossibly d ue t o t he g reater amount o f s pace within t he d efended e nclosures. A t B recon G aer, a b ath-house ( fig 2 7.3) was p laced i n t he midst o f t he p raetentura when p resumably t he f ort g arrison h ad b een r educed . T his b uilding c ould d ate t o t he t hird c entury ( Simpson G . 1 963, 3 6). T he H adrianic b ath-house a t B ewcastle a lmost c ertainly l ay w ithin t he f ort d efences f rom t he s tart. T he f ort a t B irrens, which i s c ontemporary with t he p resumed s econd-century f ort a t B ewcastle, d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave h ad a n i nternal b ath-house . I t was a bandoned b efore t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury. A H adrianic e xternal b athh ouse i s k nown a t N etherby

( presumably h ere

t here was n ot a n i nternal

b ath-house) . I nternal b ath-houses o f u nknown d ate a re p resent i n t he o utpost f orts a t Risingham a nd H igh R ochester a nd a b ath-house was b uilt within t he p raetentura a t Haltonchesters ( fig 2 7 .1). Mr. G illam s uggests t hat t he s o-called S everan b ath-house i n t he e xtension i s o f s econd-century d ate, t hough i t must p ost d ate t he f ort's c onstruction a s i t o verlies a f ort d itch .

I t would h ence p re-date

t he e xtension a nd w as p robably d emolished b y t he t ime t he e xtension was built, b eing r eplaced b y t he l arge b ath-house n orth o f t he v ia p rincipalis ( cf. D aniels 1 978A , 8 7; where i t i s d ated t o t he l ate f ourth c entury) . R eculver h as t wo small b ath-houses ( fig 2 7 .4 ) i n t he p raetentura, o ne a t l east o f which d ates t o t he l ater t hird c entury ( Philp 1 969A). A t b oth R ichborough a nd L ympne, small b ath-houses have been f ound; t hat a t Richborough ( fig 2 8.2) was poorly c onstructed which n ecessitated n umerous r epairs d uring i ts l ife . T he e xcavator s uggested t hat d ue t o i ts small s ize, i t m ay have b een i ntended f or u se b y o fficers o nly . I t i s p ossible t hat a b ath-house e xisted within t he f ort a t P ortchester - v oussoir b ox t iles were f ound b ut n o t race o f t he s tructure w ith w hich t hey w ere a ssociated . A nother m ay h ave b een f ound i n t he s outh-west a ngle a t C ardiff i n t he 1 8th c entury . T he b ath-house f ound b y L ysons i n 1 778-79 under t he w est e nd o f S t . M ary's c hurch a t D over , c ould p ossibly l ie w ithin t he S axon S hore f ort a nd may b e o f t hat d ate ( Johnson J . C aernarvon

a s mall b ath-house

( fig

2 7 .5B),

o f

1 976A,

9 5).

A t

s imilar p lan t o t hat o f

R ichborough, was p robably b uilt t owards t he c lose o f t he t hird c entury . I t w as n ever c ompleted a nd b y t he e arly f ourth c entury i t h ad been d ismantled ( Casey a nd Davies 1 976). T he b ath-house a t P iercebridge ( fig 5 2 .1) m ay h ave f ormed p art o f a c ourtyard b uilding , a lthough o f

t he

t he

c ontemporaneity

b uilding has

o f

t he

b ath-suite

a nd

n ot y et b een e stablished;

2 5

t he b y

e astern

r ange

t he m id-fourth

c entury t hey a ppear t o have f ormed p art o f t he s ame b uilding.

T he

b ath-suite c ould p re-date t he e ast r ange b y c irca 9 0 years . In i ts e arlier p hase i t may h ave s tood i n i solation ( Scott and L arge 1 979).

B arracks a nd S tables O n a n umber

o f

s ites ,

b arracks

a nd/or

s tables

o f

s econd-century

d ate

c ontinued i n u se i nto t he t hird c entury. I n t he praetentura a t I lkley t he s table , p robably o f A ntonine o rigin , r emained i n u se i nto t he m id-fourth c entury without a ny a pparent r ebuilding . I ts method o f c onstruction, u tilising s ingle r ows o f l arge, r oughly-squared s tones w hich would h ave s upported h orizontal s ole p lates a nd a t imber s uperstructure , w ould n ot m ake e ven a l arge-scale r ebuilding e asy t o i dentify a rchaeologically ( Hartley 1 966 , 3 6-7 , 3 8) . Many b arracks were, h owever, r ebuilt i n t he t hird c entury a s, being t imber o r p art-timbered b uildings, t hey would n o d oubt r equire c onstant m aintenance . I n s ome i nstances, c hanges t ook p lace within t hese b uildings . T he d ating o f t he b uildings f ound a t Maryport ( fig 4 6 .4) i s u nclear a nd t he p eriods a ssigned t o e ach o f

t he t wo b uildings

may n ot b e c ontemporary i n s ome c ases . A t s ome t ime ( not b efore t he v ery e nd o f t he s econd c entury) t he western b uilding was r ebuilt a s a s ingle u nit , i ts walls e nclosing t he c enturion's s uite a nd t he v eranda ( Jarrett 1 976, 3 6). A t Ravenglass ( fig 4 6 .5) t he t hird-century b arrack-block 6 was v ery s imilar t o i ts s econd-century p redecessor o n which i t was s uperimposed . s imilar .

T he p hase

T he c ontemporary b arrack-block 7 was a lso

3 s tructures

r epresent

s everal p eriods

o f

t imber

b uildings; a t s ome t ime b etween c irca A D 2 00 a nd 3 50 b arrack-blocks 6 , 7a nd 8 were b urnt d own b ut immediately r ebuilt ( Potter 1 979A , 3 6ff). When

b uilding

X IV a t

H ousesteads

was

r ebuilt

i n

t he

e arly

t hird

c entury , t he n orth wall o f t he b uilding was m oved 3 0cm t o t he n orth . I n t he f irst t hree e astern c ontubernia t he e xcavator t hought t hat h e f ound e vidence f or t he u nit b eing widened b y 1 .52m ( Wilkes 1 961, 2 84) . R e-excavation o f p art o f b uilding X IV i n 1 981 f ailed t o f ind a ny e vidence f or s uch a w idening o f t he c ontubernia i n p eriod I I . Two o f t he walls f ound b y Wilkes were s een t o d ate f rom t he f irst c halet p hase, Wilkes' p eriod I II .

Q uite what t he p eriod I b uilding XV h ad

b een i s u nclear . T he t wo r ooms f ound a re o f s imilar s ize to t he c ontubernia i n b uilding X IV . T hey c ould b e t he r emains o f a normal b arrack-block , t hough t he e xcavators d id n ot t hink t hat t he p eriod I a nd I I b uildings h ad b een a s l ong a s t he p eriod I II s tore b uilding . F urther e xcavation i n t he e astern e nd o f t his b uilding i n 1 981 s uggested t hat a t n o t ime h ad t here b een a b arrack-block o n t his s ite . B uilding XVI, which m ay b e i ts p artner t o t he s outh, a ppears t o have b een a b arrack-block a t s ome t ime i n i ts c ontubernia w as n oted i n b uilding X III . I n

t he

e arly

n orth-east

p raetentura

t hird-century

n orthern

a t

l ife .

C hesterholm ,

d efences,

N o m ajor c hange i n t he

c ontemporary

a b uilding

with

t he

m easuring 8 m b y a t

l east 1 5m was b egun b ut b efore i t was c ompleted a smaller b uilding, 6 .5m b y 4 m i nternally, w as e rected . T his w as r eplaced b y b uildings I -III ( Bidwell 1 981), which p robably r epresent two barrack-blocks . T hese a re o f u nusual p lan ( fig 4 2.2); t he o fficers' q uarters a re s eparated f rom t he r est o f

t he b uilding b y a n arrow

2 6

a lley and

t he

c ontubernia a re a lso s eparated f rom e ach o ther b y n arrow e aves

d rips .

T heir i rregular l ayout matches t hat s een a t t he n orth a nd west g ateways o f t he f ort. I f t hese b uildings e xtended t o t he v ia p rincipalis, t heir l ength o f 4 1m c ould h ave a ccommodated s ix p airs o f s tructures s imilar i n s ize t o I IA, B a nd I IIA, B ( pers c omm Mr . P . I f t hese b uildings r eally a re b arracks, t he p rovision o f o nly s ix c ontubernia i s s uprising . D oes i t s uggest t hat t he i nfantry c entury h ad b een r educed i n n umber? T here i s n o c lear e vidence f or t his f rom o ther s ources. Alternatively, a p ortion o f t he u nit m ay h ave been p ermanently o utstationed o r h ave b een a llowed t o l ive o utside t he f ort . We a re f aced with t he p roblem h ere, a s a t H ousesteads a nd e lsewhere , o f t he k nown g arrison o f t he f ort b eing t oo l arge t o f it i nto t he b arrack a ccommodation t hat s eems t o have b een a vailable . I t would b e h azardous t o t ake t his d iscussion f urther i n t he c ase o f C hesterholm where o nly a small p art o f t he f ort h as y et b een e xcavated . I n

t he

l ate

s econd

c entury a t C hester,

a n umber o f b arracks

were

d emolished a nd n ever r ebuilt ( Droop a nd N ewstead 1 931A , 7 ; 1 936 , 5 ) . As imilar s ituation i s f ound a t C aerleon where o ccupation i n i nsula I II was t hought t o h ave g enerally c eased c irca A D 2 00 . B arrack n umber 1 2 h ad b een d emolished a nd l evelled a t t his t ime ( Boon 1 972A, 5 6). MacMullen s uggested t hat t his was t he r esult o f t he o fficial r ecognition o f s oldiers' m arriages . Men m oved o ut t o l ive w ith t heir f amilies i n t he c annabae o r v ici b ut , a s m ost s oldiers d id n ot m arry m any b arrack-blocks r emained i n u se ( eacMullen 1 963) . A t R avenglass t here was

s ome a lteration i n t he c ontubernia walls b ut

t he

b uildings

t hree

f ound was

p rovided t o b e a scertained

n ot

e xposed f or t he n umbers

( Potter

1 979A ,

f ig

e nough

o f

o f c ontubernia

5 ) .

T he e arly t o m id-third c entury b arrack-block a t B owness ( fig 4 6 .3) was c irca 7 .52m wide ; a s ingle wooden p artition was f ound ( Potter 1 975) . T he n orth-east H adrianic b arrack-block a t Wallsend was r eplaced b y a s table ( fig 4 6 .2 ) a t s ome d ate a fter c irca A D 1 80 ( Daniels 1 978A , 5 8) . T he S everan b uilding, p robably a b arrack-block, a t E bchester i n t he n orth p raetentura , was b uilt a cross t he i ntervallum r oad a nd s et b ack c irca 3 .05m i nto t he c lay r ampart b ank . T he e xcavator s uggests t hat t his may h ave f ormed a n e xtension t o a n e arlier b arrack-block ( Jarrett 1 960A, 2 15). I n t he r etentura t he p eriod V I s tone b uilding d ates w ithin

t he

t hird c entury

( Maxfield a nd R eed

1 975,

f ig

4 ) .

L ittle

o f

i t was e xposed .

A t t he n orthern e nd o f t he e xcavation was a n o pus

s igninum f loor .

Two d rains s eem t o h ave b een a ssociated with t he

b uilding. R IB

3 34

f rom C aerleon r ecords

t he r estoration o f

t he s eventh c ohorts'

b arrack-blocks f rom g round l evel u nder V alerian a nd G allienus . L ittle w ork was d one within t he f ort a t Malton b y C order a nd K irk a nd e ven l ess was p ublished . T races o f t hird c entury b uildings were f ound; s ome will p robably h ave b een b arracks . O n a n u npublished s ection a t p resent l odged i n t he Y orkshire Museum , a s tone b uilding o f p eriod I I c irca A D 2 60-80 i s r ecorded . I nfant b urial n o.29 i s s et i nto i ts f loor.

T he

s ignificance

o f

s uch

i nfant

b urials

i s

d iscussed

i n

c hapter 5 . T hird c entury o ccupation a t D oncaster i s r epresented o nly b y t races o f i nsubstantial h uts o n t he m etalled s urfaces o f t he i nternal s treets ( Dolby 1 972) . T hese c ould p ossibly b e c ivilian d wellings . T he f ort

2 7

s eems

t o h ave b een a bandoned b y

c entury

( Buckland

a nd D olby

t he m ilitary

1 972 ,

2 74) .

T he

f or a t ime

i n t he

a bsence

r ecognisable

o f

t hird

b arrack-blocks within t he l ate t hird-century S axon S hore f orts s ets t hem a part f rom t he f orts h eld a t t he s ame t ime a nd l ater i n t he r est o f B ritain . T here i s a h int, however, o f t he p resence o f r egular b uildings, p ossibly b arracks, within t he f orts o f L ympne a nd p erhaps P evensey . R oach S mith r ecords t hat i n t he s outh-east c orner o f t he f ort a t L ympne " In t he u pper p art marked ' a' o n t he plan , broken walls o f ab uilding were f ound, b ut t hey were s o d islocated t hat i t was

h opeless t o a ttempt t racing t hem a nd w e c ould o nly s urmise t hat

t hey h ad o riginally f ormed a p ortion o f a s eries o f l ong, which p robably e xtended a cross t he a rea ." ( Smith 1 852,

l ow e difices 1 8) . These

r emains c ould p re-date t he S axon S hore f ort, b ut t hey c ould j ust a s e asily b e o f l ate t hird-century d ate - t he d ate a ccepted b y C unliffe f or t he p rincipia a nd b ath-house ( Cunliffe 1 980 , 2 57 ) . S tructures , p resumably f or t he h ousing o f t roops i n t hese f orts, a re very e phemeral a nd were n o d oubt l argely m issed b y e arly e xcavators. A t P evensey, S alzman f ound 9 hearths, s ome s et a t r egular i ntervals o f 6 m , w ith i n s ome c ases a k ind o f f loor o f m ortar a nd g reensand c hips r ound t he h earth ; t here were a lso t races o f s hallow d itches d ividing t he d ifferent h ut a reas . H e n otes t hat s ome o f t hese h earths r ested o n t he n atural c lay while o thers s at o n s everal i nches o f b lack e arth; a ll were c overed b y ac onsiderable d epth o f b lack e arth, p resumably o ccupation material. T he p resence o f a l arge n umber o f n ails a nd h alf-baked p ieces o f c lay b earing t he i mpressions o f wattles h ints a t t he m ethod o f c onstruction employed . I n t he f ollowing y ear , h e f ound l ittle s ign o f o ccupation i n t he n orth-western p art o f t he s ite . A t imber-lined

well

c ontained

masses

o f

r ushes

a nd

t he

e xcavator

s uggested t hat t hese m ay h ave b een u sed f or t hatch ( Salzman 1 907, 1 08 ; 1 908A , 8 5) . A q uantity o f R oman t iles s uggests s ome m ore s ubstantial b uildings w ithin t he f ort ( Salzman 1 908B, 1 30 , 1 32) . S imilar t races o f l ate b uildings were n oted a t R ichborough - p atches o f m ortar f loors, p ebble a reas a nd b urnt f ragments o f d aub s howing wattle impressions ( Bushe-Fox 1 926). T he r emains o ccurred in a n i ndiscriminate a nd p ractically unplanned f ashion . T he f loors s eem u sually t o have b een o f wood o r t rodden e arth; o utside t hese b uildings were c obble p aths a nd y ards ( Bushe-Fox 1 928, 2 5-6). O ne p ossible h ut f loor c onsisted o f a c lay s pread a t l east 4 .88m w ide a nd c irca 1 5cm t hick i n t he c entre; t he e dges o f t he f loor were i ll d efined ; i n t he c entre was a v ertical c avity 1 5cm i n d iameter b y 3 0cm d eep,

p erhaps

a p ost-hole.

O n t he n orth s ide o f

t his h ole was a

p ossible h earth a nd a nother m ay h ave l ain o n t he e astern s ide o f t he f loor. T he c oins f ound o n o r n ear t his f loor were o f l ater t hirdc entury d ate r ather t han f ourth c entury . I n s ections 4 4 a nd 4 6 t here was s ome e vidence i n ' the u pper s trata' f or t he e xistence o f c hannels w hich m ay h ave c ontained t he s ill b eams 1 932B, 3 3-4). I n t he n orthern p art o ccasionally f ound. S ome o f t he P ortchester s eem t o d ate t o t he s econd

o f w ooden b uildings ( Bushe-Fox o f t he s ite, t ile f loors were s imilar b uildings f ound a t q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury,

t hough R 1 a nd R 2 p robably d ate t o t he f ort's c onstruction . R 1 ( fig 4 9 .4A ) i s r epresented o nly b y e avesdrip g ullies which t ogether d efine t wo r ectangular a reas , o ne 6 .7 b y 5 .5m , t he o ther 7 .6 b y 6 .1m . T here i s e vidence o f r ecutting i n o ne g ully; t he t wo n orth-south g ullies s imilarly c ould r epresent t wo p eriods o r may d efine a n a lleyway b etween t wo s eparate s tructures . T hese g ullies a re t oo i rregular t o h ave h eld s ill b eams . T he e xcavator s uggests t hat t he b uilding s et

2 8

w ithin t he g ullies was o f s ill b eam c onstruction w ith a r aised w ooden f loor, t hough h e n otes t hat t he g ullies may h ave s urrounded t ents. O verlying t he b uilding was a s pread o f b roken , c halky m ortar a nd d aub u p t o 8 cms t hick which c ould b e t he b uilding d ebris o f R l. R 2 ( fig 4 9 .4C) i s a lso o nly r epresented b y g ullies which d elimit t wo r ectangular a reas, e ach a pproximately 3 b y 5m . A f ew f ragments o f d aub were r ecovered f rom t he l ayer s ealing t he b uilding , b oth o f w hich a re t hought t o h ave g one o ut o f u se c irca A D 3 45 ( Cunliffe 1 975, 6 67 ). W ithin t he s outh-west c orner o f t he f ort a t D over , a c ircular , s qualid t imber h ut with wattle a nd d aub walls was f ound t erraced i nto t he h ill .

I t d ates t o t he S axon S hore f ort p eriod ,

b ut n o c loser d ate h as

y et been g iven t o i t ( Philp 1 973, 8 7). T he l ate C . G reen f ound t races o f R oman t imber b uildings w ith m ortar f loors i n t he n orth-east a ngle a t B urgh C astle, which a ppear t o h ave l ain n ext t o t he f ort walls ( Johnson J . 1 980B, 3 26). A t C ardiff, p ost-holes b elonging t o l ate R oman b uildings were f ound o ver a wide a rea i n t he r egion o f

t he

s outh g ate a nd m ay h ave b een a ligned w ith t he l ate f ort . I n o ne a rea t hese b uildings were o f a t l east t wo p hases . O verlying s ome o f t hem w as c obbling, o ften mixed with c lay, which i n t urn was o verlain b y b urnt d aub i n t he o ne p lace u ndisturbed b y l ater a ctivity a nd J . 1 975; 1 976). P robably c ontemporary w ith t he h uts a t t hese f orts,

( Webster ,

P .

ap air o f b arracks

was built a t R eculver t o t he e ast o f t he p rincipia o n a d ifferent a lignment a nd f rontage t o t he e arlier b uildings . T hey w ere e ach 7 .2m w ide with c lay walls o n s tone f oundations a nd a c lay f loor a nd o ne a t l east h ad p ainted wall p laster . t hird c entury ( Philp 1 969B). e arlier

d escribed a s

T hey w ere d erelict b y t he e nd o f t he T hese b uldings a re p robably t hose

" two b uildings

f urther

e ast

a ppear

t o h ave b een

l iving q uarters o ther t han barracks a nd y ielded two i nfant b urials" ( Philp 1 963). Another p ossible b arrack-block, o f which o nly o ne c orner was f ound, l ay i n t he n orth-eastern praetentura . I t was a s ubstantial s tone b uilding with walls o f s quared s tone c irca 6 7cm t hick which was p robably r oofed i n t ile a nd h ad a w ooden f loor . I t m ay d ate f rom t he l ate t hird c entury a nd c ontinued i n u se, p robably i nto t he f ourth c entury ( Philp 1 959, 1 02-3). A small h ut o f u nspecified d ate with a t ile f loor a nd c lay walls within t he f ort ( Philp 1 957, 1 75) i ndicates t hat a t s ome d ate R eculver may have c onformed m ore t o t he s tyle o f t he o ther S axon S hore f orts .

R ampart B uildings R ampart b uildings i n a uxiliary f orts h ave g enerally b een t hought o f a s l ate a dditions b rought a bout b y l ack o f a ccommodation within t hese f orts. L ittle e vidence f or t heir d ate h as u sually b een n oted . A t C aerleon a nd C hester,rampart b uildings were p resent i n t he s econd c entury; a t t he f ormer, t hose a long t he n orth-west wall were d emolished c irca A D 2 00 a nd r eplaced b y a s ingle s tructure e xtending f rom t he s ite o f t he t urret n ext t o t he west a ngle r ight u p t o t he porta d ecumana ( Boon 1 927A, 5 4). A t Chester t he numerous s tandardised s econd-century s tone r ampart b uildings, which a t l east i n o ne c ase h ad r eplaced t wo p eriods o f t imber r ampart b uildings ( pers . c omm. Mr . D . F . P etch), were d emolished a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury a nd

t heir r emains

m erged

2 9

i nto

t he

r ampart

( Thompson F .

1 965,

2 8 ;

c f .

D avey

1 973 ,

8 ) .

A n e arly s econd-century r ampart b uilding

b etween t he n orth-west g ate a nd n orth a ngle a t Y ork m ay h ave g one

o ut

o f u se i n t he f irst h alf o f t he t hird c entury; i t was c ertainly d emolished b efore t he c onstruction o f t he f ourth-century r ampart b ank ( Miller 1 928 , 8 9 ). A nother o f s imilar p lan a nd p robably t herefore o f t he s ame d ate , m ay h ave c ontinued i n u se well i nto ( RCHM Y ork I , 4 5).

t he

f ourth c entury

E xcavations i n 1 978 a nd 1 979 within t he p raetentura o f H ousesteads i mmediately s outh o f t he n orth wall r evealed r ampart b uildings b uilt n ot

l ater

t han

d emolished b y r ampart b ank .

t he

e arly

t hird

c entury

( fig

2 6A).

T hey

were

t he f ourth c entury a nd t heir s ite c overed b y a n ew T hese b uildings were u sed f or i ndustrial a ctivities

a nd t he a bsence u nroofed a reas. d ivided b y t hree t he a ngle-tower ( Daniels 1 980B,

o f s outh walls s uggests t hat t hey may h ave been T here were f our s uch a reas u p t o 8 .5 b y 4 m i n s ize, s hort n orth-south walls . T he s econd-century o ven b y was s hut o ff b y a f ourth wall b ut r emained i n u se 9 ). O n t he e ast wall, n orth o f t he g ate, a nother

r ampart b uilding was

f ound which c ontained o vens.

I t was

l ater

r eplaced b y a n i nterval-tower , t he i nterior o f t he r ampart b uilding b eing f illed with w hin b oulders t o p rovide a s olid f oundation . I t i s p ossible t hat o ther r ampart b uildings within t he f ort d ate e arlier t han t he f ourth c entury a nd h ad g one o ut o f u se b y t hat d ate . T he b uilding o n t he s outh wall b y t he s outh-east a ngle i s o f s econd o r t hird c entury d ate a nd c ontinued i n u se i nto t he l ater f ourth c entury ( fig 2 6D, S impson F . 1 976, 1 51). T he r ange o f r ampart buildings a t G reat C hesters b ehind t he w est wall m ust d ate t o t he s econd o r t hird c enturies ( fig 2 5 .1) . T he m ost n ortherly , w hich a ppears t o h ave b een a smithy,

was a ssociated w ith a h oard o f c irca 2 0 d enarii o f t he e arly

emperors ( Gibson 1 903B, 3 3).

R ecent e xcavations i n t he n orth-east

p raetentura a t C hesterholm u ncovered a b uilding ( IV) s et i n t he r ampart b ut l ying a l ittle o ver l m f rom t he f ort wall . I t was e rected d uring t he t hird c entury b ut was d emolished before c irca A D 2 70 ( Bidwell 1 981). A t H altonchester t here were two r ampart b uildings, p robably o f t hird-century d ate ( Jarrett 1 959, 1 89). E bchester a nd H igh R ochester , b uildings were a llowed t o e xtend t he v ia s agularis

a nd o nto

t he

r ampart

d uring

t he t hird c entury .

A t o ver I n

b oth c ases t hese may b e e xtensions t o t he e arlier b arrack-blocks. T he S everan o r C aracallan b uildings ( period I II) i n t he n orth-west p art o f t he f ort a t B ewcastle e xtended o ver t he i ntervallum r oad a nd n early u p t o t he f ort w all . T he r ampart b anking h ad b een r emoved t o a llow t his ( pers. c omm. Mr. P . A usten). I n t he r etentura a t B irdoswald a b uilding o f e arly t hird-century d ate , n ot r especting t he l ayout o f t he e arlier b uildings, e xtended a cross t he v ia q uintana ( Richmond 1 931, 1 25). I n 1 928 a nd 1 929, two b uildings were e xcavated t o t he n orth o f t he v ia p rincipalis b y t he e ast g ate . I n t he H adrianic p eriod t he n orthern b uilding was p robably a b arrack-block . I n p eriod I I b oth b uildings m ay have r emained s eparate ( fig 4 9 .1); o f t he n orthern o ne, l ittle s urvived . T he s outhern o ne was a ltered , t hough t o w hat p urpose i s u nclear . T he r oom a t i ts e astern e nd I IA m ay h ave b een a c ookhouse - h earths a nd a mill were f ound within i t ( Richmond a nd B irley E . 1 930, 1 72). A b akehouse i s k nown a t R eculver - a l arge m asonry b uilding w est o f t he p rincipia c ontained 1 0 small d omestic o vens a nd m any q uern f ragments . B eneath t he f oundations o f t his b uilding were t hree i nfant b urials ( Philp 1 967). A nother s uch b uilding may h ave b een r ecognised b y

3 0

R oach S mith a t L ympne ( Smith 1 852, 2 2). O verlying t he e astern b uilding a t Maryport - p robably i n t he m id-third c entury - was a p air o f s tone b uildings ( fig 4 6 .4 ); t he m ore e asterly was 5 .8m wide b y a t l east 2 8 .2m l ong . A s tone p artition s urvived 1 2m f rom t he n orth e nd a nd a f ragment o f a nother l ay 7 m f urther s outh . T his b uilding was v ery p oorly c onstructed a nd a l ine o f p osts was n eeded t o s upport t he r oof . T he western b uilding was s imilar a nd was s eparated f rom t he o ther b y a n a lleyway 1 .2m wide . I t was s uggested t hat p ossibly p art o f t he west b uilding which h ad a d rain was f or h ousing m ules a nd t he r emainder was f or s torage

( Jarrett

1 976,

3 9) .

O f t he t hree m asonry b uildings f ound within t he f ort a t R ichborough , t wo a re b asically o f t he s ame p lan - s ites V II a nd I V ( fig 4 9 .13). T hey c onsist o f a r ectangular s tructure with a v eranda o r p orch t owards t he r oad . I n b oth c ases t he r elationship o f t he ' veranda' t o t he m ain s tructure i s n ot c lear - i t n eed n ot b e c ontemporary . S ite V II i s t he l arger b uilding, b eing 1 5.96 b y 9 .1m; n o i ndication o f d ividing walls o r w ooden p artitions was f ound . T he walls were 7 6cm t hick, o f c halk b locks s et i n mortar o n a 1 5cm f oundation o f b roken c halk c apped b y 7 .5cm o f m ortar s trengthened b y 1 5cm d iameter a nd 9 1cm l ong p iles . I t would s eem t o d ate t o t he l ater t hird c entury . T he 2 .87m 1 949 ,

wide 7 5) .

v eranda o verlies t he p eriod I II r oad m etalling ( Bushe-Fox T he s pace e nclosed b y t he walls o f t he b ulding o n s ite I V

w as p acked with r ammed c halk r esting o n a l ayer o f waterworn f lints . T he purpose o f t hese b uildings i s unclear - t he e xcavator s uggested t hat t hey m ay h ave b een t emples ( Bushe-Fox 1 932B, 3 2) . A lthough t he i nternal p lan o f t he l ater t hird-century S axon S hore f orts s eems t o h ave b een haphazard, a t l east a t R ichborough a nd P ortchester r oads w ere l aid o ut .

A t t he f ormer s ite ,

a wide m etalled

r oad l ed f rom t he e ast g ate t o meet a nother r oad r unning a cross t he f ront o f t he ' principia' a nd a path l ed t o t he n orth p ostern . A t P ortchester a r oad r unning n orth f rom t he s outh g ate was f ound a nd b ranch r oads

r unning o ff

i t a t

r ight a ngles .

Within t he f orts o f C aernarvon, C aersws a nd R ibchester, l arge a reas s eem t o h ave r emained u noccupied f or p art o f t he t hird c entury . A t C aernarvon m uch o f t he p raetentura s eems t o h ave r emained u noccupied a t t his t ime ( Casey a nd D avies 1 978) . O n s ite X XI b y t he n orth-east g ate , t he s tone b uilding w as d emolished i n t he s econd c entury a nd n ot r eplaced u ntil t he

l ate f ourth

c entury

( Wheeler

1 924 ,

8 8 ) .

With

t he

d emolition o f t he t imber b arracks i n t he r etentura a t C aersws t hey were n ot r eplaced ( Daniels, J ones G . a nd P utnam 1 967, 6 5). A t R ibchester , t he n orth-east q uarter o f t he f ort w as a pparently c overed b y ar ough g ravel p avement i n t he e arly t hird c entury, l aid o ver t he e arlier,

p robably w ooden b arracks

( Atkinson

1 928 ,

2 0 ) .

T he d evelopment o f t hird-century m ilitary d efences i n B ritain f orms a r easonably c oherent p attern . W ithin t he p eriod f rom S eptimius S everus t o D iocletian, t he s tructure o f R oman f ort d efences was r adically a ltered . T his c hange c an b e t raced t hrough t he f orts o f B rancaster , P iercebridge a nd R eculver t o t he f orts o n t he S axon S hore o f l ater t hird-century d ate . A lthough s ome o f t hese l ate f orts s till s how s ome f amiliarity w ith e arlier c astrametation , b y t he t ime t he l atest f orts i n t he s eries were c onstructed, t he c hange had b een c omplete . T he l ater S axon S hore f orts a re i n t he mainstream o f military d efensive a rchitecture a nd t hey have many c lose p arallels with

3 1

c ontemporary f ortifications t o

n ote

t hat

t he

o n t he C ontinent

c ontemporary

p resumably d esigned

t o c ombat

c ontrast

i n

a ll t hose o f d iscussion

t he

d ifferent

i nternal p lans

t roop

i t

i s i nteresting

O udenburg

o f

d esign,

i n

a ccommodation

b eing

t he l ater S axon

e arlier d ate i s v ery a pparent .

o f

( though

a t

Belgium,

t he s ame t hreat a s t he S axon S hore f orts

i n Britain, were o f t otally t imber ( Mertens 1 977, 5 7). T he

d efences

I t

within

o f

e arth

a nd

S hore f orts a nd

m ay b e well t o s uspend

t hese

l ate

f orts

u ntil

t he

e arly f ourth-century a ccommodation i n t he f orts o f t he n orth a nd w est has b een d escribed. I t i s n ot v alid t o c ompare l ate t hird-century h uts with e arlier t hird-century b arrack-blocks were

i n

u se a t

t he s ame

s till b e u sed i f t he

e arly

t ime .

t hey were s erviceable .

f ourth

c entury,

s imply b ecause

B arrack-blocks

when a t

o f

t hey

e arlier t ype

w ould

T he c hanges b rought a bout i n

m any

s ites

t he b arrack-blocks

t otally r ebuilt, a re t he t rue c ounterparts o f t he b uildings within t he s outh a nd e ast c oast f orts .

l ate

w ere

t hird-century

I n t he n orth a nd west d uring t he t hird c entury, a lthough t here were s ome m odifications, a ll t he ' official' b uildings w ithin f orts s eem t o have r etained t heir o riginal u sage a nd

importance.

I n t he

n orth

t here a ppears t o b e a c ontradiction b etween t he a rchaeological evidence a nd t hat provided b y e pigraphy o n t he q uestion o f g arrison s ize . t wo I t

A t u nits

i s

t he f orts a re

p ossible

were i n f act u nits

a re

o f G reat C hesters,

r ecorded, t hat

p robably

t he

H igh R ochester a nd L anchester ,

d efinitely

i n

t he

t hird

t wo G ermanic ' irregular' u nits

t he s ame u nit

r ecorded

o r

( Gillam

1 979B,

e pigraphically

i n

1 14) .

t he

c entury .

a t H ousesteads

A t B irdoswald,

t hird

c entury,

t hree

t hough

i t

i s

p ossible t hat o nly t he c ohors I A elia D acorum was i n g arrison . T he c ohors I T hracum may s imply have b een h elping with building work. T he v enatores B annienses B ewcastle There

( e .g .

may

have

C hesterholm f ound

a t

a s

e ach o f

been

t here s ite

B urgh-by-Sands, o utposts

may h ave b elonged t o t he n eighbouring f ort a t

C owan a nd R ichmond F risian was

a t

( Gillam

H ousesteads

B ewcastle ,

i s

were p resent

o nly p rovable a t

f ort,

t he c ohors

3 37; a t

H ousesteads .

1 979B,

c f.

o r

1 15) .

T hree u nits

a nd R isingham a nd

t he

I N evana . 8 83

I n

n o

t o

c ase

f rom

t he

a t

t he

numerus

T he

c uneus

i t

a t

s ame

o f

a lso

t ime w ithin a f ort,

Maurorum

n eed

h ave h ad

t hough

A t t he

t his

l atter

i t r efers

B urgh-by-Sands

p ossible

Aurelianorum

have

t hat

a ll

b een

i n

t o a t ransfer ( Breeze

t hese

t han a n

s et

A t

up

an

p resumably o f

r ecorded

o n R IB

g arrison

t here .

o f

s omeone f rom

a nd D obson

t roops

A s n oted a bove,

m ay h ave b een a r eduction r ather

t he

1 235 in A D 2 13.

a c ohort t ribune,

n ot

a ccommodated within t hese f orts. there

a t

t hird-century

may

F risionum A ballavensium

P apcastle

t he u nit i s

a nd b een

a re a ttested

o ther

B urgh-by-Sands a nd R isingham.

B reeze a nd D obson s uggest t hat P apcastle

w are h as

I t i s l ikely t hat a t l east i n s ome c ases

i nscription whilst u nder t he c harge o f and

1 13 ) .

I V angionum a v exillatio R aetorum g aesatorum a nd

B urgh-by-Sands,

8 82

1 976,

Birdoswald

H ousesteads

e xploratores Habitacenses a re r ecorded o n R IB

c ohors

H assall

near

H igh R ochester a nd N etherby

t hree u nits i n g arrison. t hese u nits

1 935,

n umeri

c ould

1 976 .

2 46 ).

h ave

b een

a t C hesterholm

i ncrease

i n t he

amount

a ccommodation p resent .

Mr . P .

B idwell d ates

t he p rovision o f

t he b uildings with p robably o nly

s ix c ontubernia t o a round AD 2 40 . I t i s v ery l ikely t hat a t t his t ime t he c ohors I V G allorum was s till i n g arrison . T he a bandonment o f

t he v icus d uring t he t hird c entury make i t

3 2

d ifficult t o s uggest

t hat

s ome o f

s ome o f

t he t roops

l ived o utside

t he f ort .

I t i s p ossible t hat

t he v icani were l iving i n t he f ort b y t he e nd o f

t he t hird

c entury . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he S everan b uilding o verlying t he via quintana a t B irdoswald r eflects t he n eed f or more a ccommodation w ithin t he f ort ( Richmond 1 931, 1 28) . O n t he c ontrary, t he p lacing o f t his b uilding o n a d ifferent a lignment f rom t he o thers i n t he f ort w ould h ave t ended t o waste s pace r ather t han m ake t he m ost u se o f i t. N o d oubt t he importance o f t he v ia q uintana l apsed with t he b uilding o f t he S tone W all which j oined t he f ort a t i ts n orthern a ngles. T he military way would t hen have b een a ble t o u tilise t he p ortae principales. R ampart b uildings, where t heir f unction i s k nown, s eem t o h ave b een u sed f or i ndustrial a ctivities o r u sed t o h ouse b read o vens . E . B irley s uggested, t hough t here i s n o a ctual e vidence, t hat t hese a dditional u nits were b rought o nto t he Wall t o a ct a s milecastle g arrisons ( Birley E . 1 932A, 2 13), t hough i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he m embers o f a c uneus were s o u sed . T he p resence o f a c uneus a t L anchester w ould a lso p resent a d ifficulty . I n t he o utpost f orts s ome o f t he u nits would n o d oubt s pend m uch o f

t heir t ime p atrolling ,

a s

t he n ame e xploratores s uggests . F rom t he a rea o f J edburgh, t wo a ltars h ave b een f ound , o ne R IB 2 117 r ecording a d etachment o f R aeti G aesati , t he o ther R IB 2 118 r ecording t he c ohors I V ardullorum . P robably b oth u nits were f rom H igh R ochester, t hough D r. G . Webster t hinks t hese i nscriptions s uggest t he p resence o f a f ort i n t he i mmediate v icinity . T hese i nscriptions a re o f a n o fficial t ype s imilar t o t hose a ssociated w ith t he p arade g rounds a t M aryport a nd B irdoswald . T he s uggestion o f P rofessor Mann's t hat v exillations o f c ohortes a nd a lae were s ent t o r einforce t he C ontinental a rmies a nd t hat t heir p lace w as t aken b y n umeri a nd c unei i s u nlikely . S ome o f t hese u nits a re known t o b e p resent e arly i n t he t hird c entury . T here i s n o e vidence f rom v ici f or t he p resence o f military s tructures o ther t han b ath-houses a t t his d ate . T he s o-called m arried q uarters a t C hesterholm a re u nlikely t o h ave s erved a s b arracks ( Breeze a nd D obson 1 976, 1 39); t hey a re n ow d ated t o c irca A D 1 40 when t here m ay h ave b een n o f ort o n t he s ite . I f o ne s uggests t hat s ome o f t he f ort g arrisons m ust h ave l ived o utside t he f ort, t hen t heir a ccommodation i s i ndistingishable f rom t hat o f t he c ivilian v icani . I t h as l ong b een t hought t hat t he d ecision o f S everus t o a llow s erving s oldiers t o l ive w ith w omen ( Herodian I II 8 5) r esulted i n s oldiers l iving o utside t he w alls . " The m ajor c hange i n t he l ife o f t he vicus a nd c ertainly a p rime c ause o f i ts e xpansion was t he p ermission g ranted b y S eptimius S everus f or s oldiers t o l ive with t heir f amilies i n h ouses o utside t he f ort" ( Salway 1 958, 2 38). S alway s uggests t hat t he g rowth o f v ici r ound many m ilitary e stablishments " well b efore S everus s uggests m ost s trongly t hat e ven w here b arrack a ccommodation was p rovided , m any s oldiers w ere p ermitted t o l ive o utside t he f ort w alls" ( Salway 1 967, 3 1) . H e a lso s uggests t hat

t he

m ovement

o f v ici o n t he W all c lose u p

p artly f rom a d esire t he f orts . v ici t hough w ould

t o

t he f orts

r esulted

t o h ave t he t roops q uartered i n t he v ici c lose t o

T here i s n o a ctual e vidence t hat s oldiers d id l ive i n i t

w ould b e d ifficult

t ake .

3 3

t he

t o e nvisage what f orm t his e vidence

C HAPTER 3

T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL E VIDENCE F OR T HE H ISTORY O F F ORTS I N T HE L ATER T HIRD C ENTURY

A n umber o f s ites o n t he Wall a nd i n i ts h interland h avc been e xcavated r ecently a nd i n e nough d etail f or u s t o b e a ble t o i nfer a probable history o f t hese f orts i n t he l ater t hird c entury. Unfortunately, a ll t hese f orts h ave o nly b een p artly e xcavated a t p resent . T here i s a lways t he p roblem a s t o w hether t he c onclusions d rawn f rom t he e xcavation o f p art o f a s ite c an b e u sed t o d etermine t he h istory o f t he whole s ite . A lthough o ur e vidence i s l imited i n t his way a nd will r emain s o f or a g ood many y ears, i t i s a t l east worth while t o e xamine t he e vidence f rom t hese f orts a nd r each c onclusions, a lbeit v ery t entative o nes, a s t o t he history o f t he p articular f ort c oncerned , a nd p erhaps o f t he whole n orthern f rontier . A n a ttempt w ill b e m ade n ot t o u se t he e vidence f rom o ne f ort t o write t he h istory o f a nother.. S uch c hronological f rameworks a s t he Wall p eriods s hould o nly b e d eemed a pplicable t o t he h istory o f a l arge n umber o f f orts, i f i t c an b e s hown t hat t here i s a c orrelation b etween t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom a f air p roportion o f f orts c oncerned .

t he

I n t he p ast i t h as b een h eld a valid a ssumption

t hat t he e vidence f rom o ne e xcavated ( or p artly e xcavated) f ort c an b e u sed t o p rovide i nformation a bout t he p eriods a nd s tyle o f o ccupation a t an eighbouring u nexcavated f ort. S ome f orts o n e xcavation have been immediately placed i nto t he excavators' pre-conceived c hronological f ramework, i rrespective o f t he a rchaeological e vidence r ecovered .

T he

history

o f

a f ort

c an

o nly

b e

a scertained

b y

e xcavation a t t hat f ort . T here a re o f c ourse o bvious e xceptions t o t his. T he d ate o f c onstruction o f many o f t he f orts a ssociated with H adrian's W all w as a lways p resumed t o b e H adrianic a nd where t ested t his h as p roved t o b e s o. L ater i n t he R oman p eriod, however, p resumptions m ay n ot b e v alid a nd c an b e v ery m isleading .

s uch

T he r eport o f J arrett's e xcavations a t Maryport i n 1 966 makes a r efreshing c hange a s h e a ttempts t o i nterpret t he s ite without a ny p re-conceived n otions o f i ts h istory . T here i s n o a ttempt t o r elate t he s tructural l ayers t o t he Wall p eriods o f C ollingwood a nd B irley . H e t hus p roduced a h istory f or t hat f ort w hich i s a t p resent u nique t o i tself

a nd

we

a re

n ot

a ble

t o

f it

i t

i nto

t he

o verall s cheme

o f

p resumed e vents. F or m ost o f t he p eriod w ith which t his s tudy i s c oncerned , t he a rchaeological e vidence i s t he s ole i nformation we h ave r elating t o a s ite ; i t i s t herefore a dvisable n ot t o d isregard i t i n f avour o f a modern i nterpretation o f what a f ort's history was b y a nalogy

w ith

R oman p eriod ,

u ncertain

e vidence

f rom a nother

f ort

w hich

h ave h ad a t otally u nconnected h istory .

3 4

m ay ,

i n

t he

The sites here discussed are grouped under four headings. Within each they are recorded alphabetically. These groupings have no particular significance but are used merely for convenience. The Wall, the Cumbrian Coast and the Outposts Bewcastle - This fort is the only one known where there may be evidence for enemy destruction at this time. Since the excavations at Birdoswald in 1929 , it has generally been assumed that there was widespread destruction in the north in the late third century as a result of the removal of much of the W all garrison to fight for Carausius and Allectus against the Central Empire. An invasion from the north was envisaged circa AD 296 coinciding with the invasion by Asclepiodotus and Constantius Chlorus in the south in that year. Gradually the archaeological evidence for this destruction has been observed to be totally lacking at every site where it has been suggested except Bewcastle. Here the excavators of 1937 examined the latera praetorii and parts of the defences. The evidence for destruction was found in the The lower 1.2m sunken strongroom within the aedes of the principia. of both compartments of the strongroom were choked with a mass of rubbish which had fallen through the burnt floor of the aedes above. The destructive fire had followed upon looting and the contents of the Thirteen coins dating to between AD 268 strongroom had disappeared. and 273 were scattered over the sanded floor. '�he stone base for a life-sized imperial statue lacked the valuable bronze which had been roughly broken out of its socket. Half of the iron thunderbolt from the sanctified emperor's hand, part of two bronze letters, seven iron ferules from oak shaft for spea=s or flag poles , one iron arrow head and a broken piece of pole or shaft sheathed in thin bronze, attest a reckless smashing of the sacred appointments" (Richmond, Hodgson, St. Joseph, 1938, 208). There was also in the rubble two silver plaques of Coccidius torn from some rich votive furniture and a number of broken pots, many of the sherds of which were widely scattered. Mr. R. Jones has recently suggested that this need not represent enemy destruction as the garrison may simply have been discarding official paraphernalia of the old military·system which was no longer needed in the strongroom which itself was not now needed (cf. Mr. P. Austen in the forthcoming report on his excavations at Bewcastle ). The bulk of the coins found below the rubble in the strongroom are of A number of these coins show the Tetrici, some of which are copies. considerable wear. The excavators suggested that the destruction must have taken place a considerable time after AD 273 and hence dated it to the troubles of AD 296 or soon after. In the late third century in Britain, there was a great rarity of coins belonging to the legitimate emperors from Aurelian to Numerianus and Carinus. · There seems to have been resistance to the new coins which resulted from Aurelian's coin reforms and it has been suggested that this was the result of an unfavourable rate of exchange (Shiel 1977, 186 ). The masses of coins of the Gallic Empire and of the Central Empire prior to Aurelian no doubt sufficed for many years. The absence of coins of the period circa AD 273 -286 therefore need have no relevance to

35

t he o ccupation o f a s ite . T he a bsence o f c oins o f C arausius a nd A llectus s hould b e s ignificant a s c oins o f t hese u surpers a re c ommon a s s ite f inds i n t his c ountry.

T hey a re c ommon i n t he W all area a t

t he c ivil s ites o f C orbridge a nd S outh S hields a nd, p rovided t hat a s ufficient n umber o f c oins h ave b een r ecorded f rom t he s ites c oncerned, t heir a bsence f rom B ewcastle a nd o ther f orts o n t he Wall s hould imply t hat u nder t he ' British Empire' t hese f orts were a bandoned . T he c oins o f t he G allic Empire m ay h ave b een d emonetized b y C arausius; 1 974A, 4 5).

m any o f h is c oins a re o verstruck o n t hese i ssues ( Casey H owever, t here were s till c oins o f t he Gallic Empire

a round i n t he e arly f ourth c entury; o f t he 2 0 c oins f rom p eriod I II a t B irdoswald, t hree a re o f t his t ype ( Richmond a nd Birley E . 1 930, 1 74). A p eriod o f a bandonment i s a lso s uggested a t t his f ort by t he f ormation o f a marsh i n t he h ollow t o t he s outh o f t he p rincipia , a bove t he well-built t hird-century b uildings b ut s ealed b y e arly f ourth-century s tructures . I n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he f ort, n ew buildings t hought t o h ave b een e rected i n t he l ate t hird c entury ( Austen 1 978A) p robably d ate t o much e arlier i n t he t hird c entury ( pers. c omm. Mr. P . Austen).

I f t here was a p eriod o f a bandonment

f ollowing a n e nemy d estruction h ere , t he i nternal b ath-house d oes s eem t o h ave b een a ffected ( Gillam 1 954) .

n ot

B irdoswald I n 1 929 a n i nscription ( RIB 1 912) was f ound h ere r e-used i n t he f loor o f a l ate f ourth-century b uilding ( Richmond a nd B irley E . 1 930) . I t r ecorded t hat t he p raetorium , w hich h ad b een c overed with e arth a nd had f allen i nto r uin, a nd t he p rincipia a nd balneum were r estored

a t

s ome unspecified

d ate b etween A D

2 96

and

3 05 .

T he

p robable meaning o f t his i nscription has b een d iscussed e lsewhere ( Welsby 1 980). T here i s n o r eason f or n ot t aking i t l iterally a nd, i f t his i s a ccepted, t hen t here was a s ituation here w here t he a dministrative c entre o f t he f ort h ad s uffered n eglect, t he c ommanding o fficer's h ouse had c eased t o e xist, a nd t he b ath-house Which i s u sually t hought o f a s a military b uilding) was i n d isrepair . I t c annot b e p roved t hat t he whole f ort was a bandoned o n t his e vidence , but i t i s c ertainly p ossible . I n t he e xcavations o f t he l ate 1 920s a nd 1 930s, n o c lear a rchaeological e vidence w as n oted within t he f ort f or a p eriod o f a bandonment ( cf. G illam 1 974B, 1 3), t hough R ichmond, r easoning f rom t he e pigraphic e vidence b efore t he i dea o f t he n ew Wall p eriods h ad b een f ormulated , s uggested " this implies an o ccupation l asting a t l east t ill 2 73 , f ollowed p erhaps b y s uch d isuse a s b efell t he p raetorium" ( Richmond a nd B irley E . 1 930, 1 72). There i s n ow e pigraphic e vidence f or t he p resence o f t he c ohors I A elia D acorum i n t he f ort u nder P robus ( Wright 1 961, 1 94) . T he n orth g uardchamber o f t he p orta p rincipalis d extra was i n r uins a t s ome t ime i n t he t hird c entury . d erelict

I t w as t hought g uardchamber

t hat a t ile k iln h ad b een i nserted i nto

( Gillam

1 950 ,

6 6),

b ut

Mr .

J .P .

G illam

t he

i nforms

me t hat t his may not have been t he c ase and he suggests t he p ossibility o f ah ypocausted r oom o r ab read o ven within t he r uined c hamber .

T his i nserted s tructure h ad g one o ut o f u se i n t he l ate

t hird c entury a nd i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t he r uined g uardchamber was r ebuilt i n t he e arly f ourth c entury . N o r eal e vidence h as b een f ound t o i ndicate t hat t he e nd o f B irdoswald p eriod I I ( and Wall p eriod I I) must d ate c lose t o A D 2 96; i t was t hought u nacceptable t hat t here c ould h ave b een a p eriod o f a bandonment, h ence t he e nd o f p eriod I I h ad t o b e f ollowed i mmediately b y t he r ebuilding r ecorded o n R IB

3 6

1 912 .

B owness-on-Solway

T here s eems t o b e n o e vidence f rom t he e xcavations

o f 1 973 ( Potter 1 975) t o s ubstantiate t he c laim t hat t he p hase I II b uilding ( built i n t he f irst half o f t he t hird c entury) b y t he west g ate " was e ither d emolished o r f ell i nto r uin, f ootings r emain" ( Daniels 1 978A , 2 57). P otter

s o t hat r ecords

o nly i ts a t imber

b uilding a t t he e nd o f t he p hase I II b arrack-block which i s d efinitely l ater t han t hat b uilding's c onstruction . H e s uggests i t m ay h ave f ormed a l ean-to s tructure . Much o f o ne wall o f t he b arrack-block would have h ad t o b e s tanding. T he d ate o f t he l ean-to b uilding i s u nclear - i t may b e o f l ate f ourth-century d ate ( Potter 1 974, 4 0) o r p ost R oman . I n r ecent e xcavations i n t he n orth-eastern p ortion o f t he f ort ( Potter 1 979A) t here a ppears t o h ave b een a l ong p eriod o f a bandonment f rom t he l ate s econd i nto t he f ourth c entury, t hough t he p resence o f t hird a nd f ourth-century pottery a ttests o ccupation s omewhere i n t he a rea . C arrawburgh

I t i s p ossible t hat a t t his s ite we have e vidence f or

o ccupation o f t he f ort a nd v icus

i n t he l ate t hird c entury .

W hen t he

b ath-house was d ug b y C layton i n 1 873 ( Bruce 1 874) two c oins were f ound " between two s tones o f t he main wall a nd n ear i ts f oundations were t wo c oins u nworn b y c irculation a nd p erfectly f resh, o ne o f C laudius G othicus, t he o ther o f C laudius T acitus" . T his s hould b e i nterpreted a s e vidence f or r ebuilding s oon a fter A D 2 76 n ot AD 3 00 ( Daniels 1 978A . 1 27). I t i s l ikely t hat t his r ebuilding would have b een c arried o ut b y t he military. O n t he p eriod I II f loor o f t he mithraeum l ay s lightly worn c oins o f V ictorinus, C laudius I I a nd T acitus with a f resh f ollis o f Maximianus ( Richmond a nd G illam 1 951, 3 4) which m ay s uggest t he c ontinued u se o f t he b uilding a t t his t ime . I n t he d eposit

o f

c oins f rom C onventtna d' s Well

a s ignificant n umber o f

c oins

o f

( Clayton 1 866) t here i s

t he C entral Empire

o f

t he p eriod A D

2 70-236 a s well a s a f air n umber o f C arausian a nd Allectan c oins. C oventina's Well was n o d oubt a r eligious s hrine o f m ore t han p urely l ocal importance . T he p resence o f t hese c oins i n t he w ell d oes n ot n ecessarily imply t hat t here was a l arge r esident p opulation a t C arrawburgh i n t his p eriod t hough, t aken with t he e vidence a bove, t here i s t he p ossibility o f a c ontinued m ilitary a nd c ivil o ccupation o f t his s ite . E xcavations within t he f ort f ound n o c lear e vidence f or a n a bandonment ( Breeze 1 972) t hough a t s ome p eriod l ater t han t he e arly t hird c entury, a b arrack a nd a n eighbouring b uilding i n t he p raetentura h ad b een r eplaced b y a b uilding o n a d ifferent a lignment . C astlesteads T he c oin l ist f rom t he f ort c ompiled b y C ollingwood c onsists o f 9 9 e xamples. T here i s a marked l ack o f i ssues o f t he ' Gallic Empire' , o nly o ne o f V ictorinus b eing r ecorded; n or a re t here a ny o f t he u sually c ommon c oins o f C laudius I I, y et t here a re two o f C arausius . ( Coins o f C laudius I I m ay o nly h ave r eached t his c ountry a fter A D

2 73 when A urelian

r e-united

t he

Western

P rovinces

with

t he

E mpire). C ollingwood wrote: " We know t hat a bout 2 70 t he Wall was o vertaken a fter a p eriod o f p eace b y ad isaster; a nd t he c oin s eries s uggests t hat

a t

C astlesteads t his d isaster was f or s ome t wenty y ears n ot m ade

g ood" . H e b elieved t hat t he f ort may have b een b rought b ack i nto c ommission b y C arausius ( Collingwood 1 922B, 2 20-1) . C hesterholm T he d ating evidence f or t he f ort a nd vici h ere i s v ery problematical. All t he published material on t he s ite i s i nconsistent w ith r egard t o i ts c hronology .

E .

B irley d ated t he

s tructures

f ound

i n

t he

1 930s

b y

t he Wall p eriods,

o ften o n v ery

l ittle a rchaeological e vidence . R . B irley b egan d ating t he s ame s cheme b ut h as g radually f ound t his u ntenable .

t he v ici b y H is r evised

d ating o f t he v ici, h owever, has varied widely o ver t he l ast d ecade a nd i t i s h ence v ery d ifficult a t t his s tage t o d iscuss t he h istory o f t he s tone f orts a nd t he v ici h ere . C ertain ' facts' d o s eem t o b e e stablished .

T here was a p eriod o f

a bandonment b etween v icus I a nd I I. T here i s a marked l ack o f f ourth-century c oinage f rom t he v icus a rea . R . B irley m aintains t hat o n t he e vidence o f a hoard o f c oins, t he l atest o f which d ates t o A D 2 70, v icus I I was p robably a bandoned s oon a fter t hat d ate . l atest c oins i n t he h oard were d eposited s oon a fter A D 2 70 . h oard l ay i n t he l ast o ccupation l ayer o f t he v icus I I b uilding, XXIXB ( Birley R . 1 977, 2 5-6). T he o ccupation o f v icus I I may

T he T he s ite n ot

h ave e nded s uddenly c irca AD 2 70, b ut i t c ould n ot have c ontinued i n u se much i nto t he f ourth c entury . I t may i n f act have b een i n d ecline t hroughout t he t hird c entury a nd t he a pparent p eak i n t he c oin l ist u nder t he G allic Empire may b e t he r esult o f a d ispersed hoard ( pers. c omm . Mr. P . B idwell). P rior t o t he d iscovery o f t he h oard n oted a bove, i t had b een t hought t hat v icus I I b egan c irca AD 2 70, a fter t he v icus a rea h ad b een u noccupied f or p erhaps 2 5 years. V icus I i s n ow d ated t o c irca A D 1 40 , i .e . b efore t he p eriod I s tone f ort c ame i nto e xistence p robably O n

c irca A D

1 63

( see A ppendix I ) .

t he n umismatic e vidence t he v icus

t hird e xtent

c entury we

c an

a nd

f or

i nfer

much t he

o f

a rea was

a bandoned

t he f ourth c entury.

history

o f

t he

f ort

f rom

i n

t he

l ater

Q uite t o what t hat

o f

i ts

a ssociated v icus i s u nclear. E ither we would e xpect t hat o n t he a bandonment o f t he v icus t he v icani m oved i nto t he f ort, o r t hat t he f ort g arrison a nd t he v icani, who must h ave r elied heavily o n t he g arrison f or t heir e conomic e xistence , w ere m oved o ut . N o e vidence f or a n a bandonment o f t he b uldings i n t he n orth-eastern p raetentura o f t he f ort was f ound i n t he r ecent e xcavations i n t hat a rea . T he n umerous l ate t hird a nd f ourth-century c oins s uggest c ontinued o ccupation o f t he f ort f rom t he mid-third i nto t he f ourth c entury. T he t hird-century b uildings r emained i n u se i nto t he middle o f t he f ollowing c entury, t hough b uilding I A was r ebuilt t o as imilar p lan a nd b uildings I IA a nd I IIA were e xtensively a ltered a t s ome d ate a fter A D

2 70

( Bidwell

G reat C hesters

1 981,

3 23-4) .

O n t he e xcavation o f

t he e xternal b ath-house ,

h oard was f ound r esting o n t he f loor o f

a c oin

t he h ypocaust b asement i n o ne

o f t he r ooms . T he e xcavator b elieved t hat t he c oins h ad b een p laced o n t he s uspensura a nd h ad f allen i nto t he b asement when t he f loor h ad c ollapsed ( Gibson 1 930B, 5 1). T he c oins, o f which o ver 1 00 were f ound , e nded w ith i ssues o f V alerian , G allienus, P ostumus, C laudius I I a nd Q uintillus . was d eposited .

T he b uilding m ust h ave b een d isused when t he h oard T he b uilding a lso c ontained p ortions o f a h uman s kull

a nd b ones a nd t he e xcavator t hought t hat t he h uman b ones were t hose o f p ersons who h ad p erished d uring t he d estruction o f t he b uilding ! H altonchesters N o e vidence f or t he l ate R oman p eriod was f ound when t he p raetentura was e xcavated ; a ll t he l ater l evels h ad b een r emoved b y p loughing ( Simpson F . and R ichmond 1 937). T he r est o f t he f ort

3 8

s outh o f t he Military R oad had f ared much b etter .

J arrett t hought

t hat he f ound e vidence f or a ll f our Wall p eriods ( Jarrett 1 959), a s d id Gillam i n 1 960 ( Gillam 1 961). I n t he f ollowing year's e xcavations, h owever , G illam n oticed t hat t he s upposed p eriods I II a nd IV s tructures were mutually e xclusive ( Gillam 1 962) a nd t heir c ontemporaneity c ould b e e stablished . U nder o ne o f t hese b uildings J arrett h ad f ound a s herd o f C rambeck p archment w are which s hould d ate t o t he l ater f ourth c entury . G illam c oncluded t hat t here h ad b een n o C onstantian r econstruction o n t he s ite . I n t he l ate t hird c entury, t he f ort had b een a bandoned a nd e verywhere o verlying t he p eriod I I s tructures w as a l ayer o f e arth u p t o 4 00mm t hick w here b uildings " had b een c overed with e arth a nd h ad f allen i nto r uins" . T he d ate o f t his a bandonment c annot b e f ixed p recisely - s ome d ate a fter A D 2 73 s eems l ikely . T he g ranary was d estroyed b y f ire a t t he e nd o f p eriod I I . I t c ould h ave b een b urnt b y t he d eparting g arrison, t hough Mr. G illam n ow s uggests t hat t his o f his p eriod I c irca A D 1 80 . H ousesteads

A t

t his

f ire i s

m ore

l ikely t o d ate t o

s ite we k now f rom e xcavations

t hat

t he e nd

t here w as

a

m arked c hange i n t he g arrison a ccommodation i n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury, which has s uggested t o s ome a p eriod o f a bandonment p rior t o t his c hange . S uch a r ebuilding p rogramme would h ave n ecessitated t he d emolition o f m uch o f t he t hird-century b arrackb locks. T hat t hey were a lready i n s uch a b ad s tate o f r epair a s t o b e unusable b y t he l ate t hird c entury, a nd t hat t his p rompted t he b uilding o f v ery d ifferent s tructures i s a n a ttractive h ypothesis. T here i s, h owever, n o e vidence f rom t hese b uildings f or a p eriod o f d isuse a t t his t ime .

T here a re n o a ccumulations o f

e arth b etween

p eriod I I a nd I II s tructures. T he s outh wall o f t he p eriod I I b arrack-block , b uilding X III , was r e-used b y t he f ourth-century c halet b uilders , t hough t o what h eight i t w as t hen s tanding i s u nknown . A t l east t he b arrack-block h ad n either b een t otally d emolished n or h ad f allen d own c ompletely . W hen b uilding X IV was e xcavated , t he i dea o f a p eriod o f a bandonment was n ot c onsidered ( Wilkes 1 960 ; 1 961) . I n t he e xcavation o f b uilding X III, t he a rchaeological e vidence f or d isuse o f t he s tructure was s ought, b ut was n ot f ound, t hough a bandonment o f t he f ort w as s till t hought t o h ave o ccurred ( Gillam a nd D aniels 1 976). I n b uilding XV , t he " barrack-block" was t hought t o h ave b een r eplaced i n t he e arly t hird c entury b y what was p resumably a s tore b uilding . T he e xcavators n oted t hat n umerous c oins t rodden i nto

t he c racks i n t he s tone f lagged f loor o f

l ate t hird a nd e arly

f ourth-century d ate i ndicated c ontinuous u se w ell i nto t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury ( Leach a nd Wilkes 1 962, 8 9). E xcavations i n t he e astern e nd o f t his b uilding i n 1 981 s uggested t hat t he p eriod I II s tructure m ay i n f act d ate t o t he l ate t hird c entury o r l ater . I n a d rain w hich was s ealed b y t he m ake-up f or t he p eriod I II f loor , W ilkes f ound

t wo

c oins o f

t he T etrici .

N o e vidence f or a bandonment ( Charlesworth 1 975; 1 976).

w as f ound i n t he p raetorium o r h ospital C oins o f t he ' British Empire' h ave b een

f ound o n t he s ite . I n t he e xcavations o f 1 898 ( Bosenquet 1 904 ) o ne A llectus i s s pecified a s c oming f rom t he f ort . Two c oins o f C arausius a re a lso r ecorded a nd i n 1 960 o ne o r t wo c oins o f A llectus w ere f ound . B oon s uggests t hat " almost a ll t he c irculatory c oinage o f t he B ritish u surpers w as s wept a way b y t he c entral g overnment w hen t he i sland was r ecaptured - s carcely a p iece o ccurs i n l ater s ite f inds" . T hough h e b elieves t hat c oins o f A llectus ( perhaps b ecause

3 9

t hey were m ore r egular i n s hape t han t hose o f t he e arlier C arausian c oins) were a pparently a l ittle m ore c ommon a s l ate s urvivals ( Boon 1 974 , f n 1 36) . A c oin o f P robus was f ound i n t he p raetorium b ut t his was s ecurely s tratified with c oins o f t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury .

3 1

b arbarous

r adiates

w ere

r ecovered

f rom b uilding X V a nd

t he presence o f s uch a l arge n umber o f t his t ype o f c oin implies u se o f t he b uilding i n t he p eriod b etween c irca A D 2 70 a nd 3 00 . T he n umismatic e vidence d oes n ot s upport t he i dea o f t he f ort's a bandonment a t t his t ime . I f

R IB

1 613 h as

b een c orrectly

r estored ,

t hen h ere w e p robably h ave a

b uilding i nscription o f D iocletian a nd Maximianus . s uggest

t hat

i t

r ecords

t he r ebuilding o f

I t

i s t empting t o

s ome m ajor s tructure within

t he f ort, a s d oes t he p ossibly s imilar i nscription f rom B irdoswald 1 912) . Two l arge C orinthian c olumn c apitals f rom H ousesteads a nd C hesters h ave b een d ated b y B lagg t o a fter t he m id-third c entury a nd

( R a

q uite p obsibly a s l ate a s t he f ourth c entury ( Blagg 1 981, 1 70). T hese p robably had b een u sed i n t he p rincipia o f t hese f orts a nd s uggest t hat s tructures.

t here

may

h ave

b een

e xtensive

r ebuilding

i n

t hese

F .G . S impson f ound e vidence o f a s erious a nd e xtensive wall c ollapse . B oth a ngle-towers o n t he s outh wall had t o b e s trengthened a nd t he o uter s ide o f t he f ort wall was r ebuilt a lmost f rom i ts f oundations f rom a p oint s outh o f t he e ast g ate r ound t o t he s outh g ate . T he wall a t t he s outh-east a ngle was widened, c ausing t he r ebuilding o f t he s ewer o utfall . A n ew wall was i nserted i nto e ach t ower d uring t he c ourse o f t hese widespread r epairs ( Simpson F . 1 976, 1 51). T he e xcavator d ated t his work e ither d uring t he t hird c entury o r e arly i n t he f ourth b ut D aniels s uggested t hat t his c ould b e a ttributed t o r epairs a fter g eneral n eglect i n t he l ate t hird c entury ( Daniels 1 978A , 1 47) . T he e xcavators o f b uilding X III were s urprised b y t he l arge n umber o f c oping s tones r e-used i n t he c halets o r s cattered a round t he s ite - f ew o f t hese a re s een r e-used i n o ther e xcavated s tructures within t he f ort. s tones

c ame

f rom t he t owers

Mr . C .M. D aniels s uggests o f

t hat t hese

t he g ates a nd t he a ngle a nd i nterval-

t owers - h ence t heir p reponderance i n t he b uilding w hich i s c lose t o t he n orth g ate a nd t he n orth-east a ngle . H e s uggests t hat i n t he l ater t hird c entury , s ome a t l east o f t he t owers o n t he f ort d efences w ere d ilapidated. MarypOrt T here a ppears t o h ave b een n o r ebuilding h ere i n t he e arly f ourth c entury. T he e xcavator i nferred t wo e qually p lausible c hronological s chemes f or t he s ite , b oth o f w hich i ndicate a p eriod o f c ontinuous u se o f b uildings f rom p ossibly u nder G ordian I II until c irca A D 3 60 o r l ater ( Jarrett 1 976 , 4 0-1) . N ewcastle u pon T yne

R ecent e xcavations h ave p rovided

evidence

f or

t he d ereliction o f t he small p art o f t he f ort e xamined. T his area was i n t he p raetentura w here a g ranary was f ound . P ottery e vidence d ates t his a bandonment t o t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird c entury . When t he s ite was r e-occupied, t he g ranary h ad b een d emolished o r had f allen d own a nd i ts l ower c ourses were o verlain b y a r oad s urface ( Harbottle R avenglass b uildings,

a nd

E llison

1 979) .

E xcavations

i n t he p raetentura r evealed f our p hases o f

c onstructed t hroughout

4 0

i n t imber, where t he s ame basic

l ayout

h ad

b een

m aintained

f rom H adrian i nto

t he

f ourth c entury.

O ccupation n ever c eased i n p hase I I , d ated c irca A D 1 90-210 t o A D 3 503 70, b ut a t s ome d ate b etween t he m id-third a nd t he mid-fourth c enturies, a f ire p robably d estroyed a ll t hree b arrack-blocks r evealed i n t he e xcavations. T hey were immediately r ebuilt ( Potter 1 979A), 4 9) . J arrett h as , h owever , s uggested t he p ossibility o f a bandonment h ere . O f t he 3 9 c oins f ound , o nly f our a re r adiates o f t he p eriod A D 2 59-75 a nd n one d ates b etween A D 2 75 a nd 2 94 ( Jarrett 1 980 , 4 32) . I t i s h azardous t o d raw c onclusions f rom s uch a s mall s ample . R isingham

R ichmond b elieved t hat t he s outh g ate's e ast t ower h ad

b een

u nder C onstantius

r ebuilt

C holorus

which

c ould p ossibly

i mply a

p eriod o f n eglect i n t he l ate t hird c entury . Whether t he r epair a ctually d ates t o t his p eriod i s u nclear. N o d ating e vidence was p ublished ( Richmond 1 936, 1 90). A t ombstone, R IB 1 253, was s et u p h ere i n A D 2 78. R udchester T his f ort a ppears t o have had a s imilar h istory i n t he l ate t hird a nd f ourth c entury - a nd i ndeed t hroughout i ts l ife - t o i ts n eighbour t o t he west, H altonchesters . E xcavations i n t he s outhe ast part o f t he f ort o n t he s outh e dge o f t he v ia q uintana r evealed t hat " at s ome d ate which c annot b e p recisely a scertained , t he r ebuilt a shlar b arrack ( of Wall p eriod I I) f ell i nto r uin a nd was n ever r ebuilt . A l ayer o f h umus o verlay i ts r emains .. . ." ( Gillam, H arrison a nd N ewman

1 973,

8 2) .

O nly a small a rea o f

e vidence a nd whether t he whole was c lear . h elp.

F or t he l ate t hird c entury ,

t he f ort h as y ielded t his

a bandoned a t

t his

t ime i s n ot

t he n umismatic e vidence

i s

o f n o

S outh S hields T he l ater h istory o f t his s ite i s d ifficult t o a scertain d ue t o t he a lmost t otal l ack o f a ny s tructure d ated t o a fter c irca A D 2 20 . T here i s s ufficient e vidence t o s how t hat, a t l east b y t he end o f t he t hird c entury, t he f ort had c eased t o b e h eld b y t he m ilitary . I n t he H adrianic d ouble g ranary t wo k ilns w ere i nserted , o ne o f which was n ever u sed whilst t he o ther was u sed e xtensively. T he p ottery a ssociated with t he l atter k iln d ated i t s ecurely t o c irca A D 3 00 . I t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he g ranary was i n d isrepair a t t his t ime

- i t

c ertainly was

n ot b eing u sed t o s tore g rain .

I t i s h ighly

u nlikely t hat s uch a s ituation would h ave e xisted w ithin a f ort s till o ccupied b y i ts u nit ( Gillam 1 974B , 1 4; c f . T empleborough , S impson G . 1 973, 8 8). T he e ast g uardchamber o f t he n orth g ate was a t s ome p eriod ( probably a fter c irca A D 2 20) c ompletely d emolished a nd , a fter s everal i nches o f r ubble h ad a ccumulated , a r ough b uilding was e rected o ver i t ( Breeze 1 968). I n t wo t renches c ut a cross t he i nner f ort d itch, t he i nner s lope o f t he d itch was c overed with s tones, a lmost c ertainly f allen f rom t he f ort wall. U nder t his material i n B aring S treet was p ottery d ating f rom c irca A D 2 00 t o 2 80 a nd a s ilver d enarius o f S eptimius S everus, A D 1 98 t o 2 00 ( Dore a nd G illam 1 979, 7 ). T he p resence o f much l ater p ottery o n t he s ite i ndicates t hat t he f ort wall must h ave b een i n d isrepair i n t he l ate t hird c entury. I f T he

i t h ad c ollapsed l ater i t would h ave c ertainly s ealed n umismatic e vidence

f rom

t he s ite

i s

a gainst

l ater p ottery .

i ts having b een

a bandoned a t t his p eriod. T he c oin s equence i s u nbroken, t hough C asey n oted t hat i t i s n ot c lear h ow many o f t he c oins known c ame e ither f rom t he v icus o r f rom t he f ort . T here a re a l arge n umber o f c oins

o f C arausius a nd A llectus.

4 1

Wallsend T he e xcavations h ere a re s till i n p rogress a nd h ence l ittle c an d efinitely b e s aid a bout t he f ort's h istory a t t he moment. I n t he p raetentura

t he b arracks

a nd

s tables

o f

t he s econd a nd t hird

c entury were d emolished probably i n t he l ater t hird c entury - a nd t he r ubble l evelled. Over t his a t s ome l ater d ate a n umber o f small b uildings, i rregularly l aid o ut, were b uilt a nd a t l east o ne i n t he western p raetentura ( which was b uilt o ver a n e arlier r oad s urface) s ealed d ark e arth b eneath i ts walls. I n t he e astern praetentura a b uilding c onstructed o f l arge, r ough b locks s at o n a c onsiderable a ccumulation o f e arth . A t t he t ime , Mr . C . M . D aniels d ismissed t his a s ap ost-Roman s tructure, b ut h e n ow c onsiders t hat i t c ould be o f R oman d ate . e vidence

f or

I n t he

r est

o f

t he f ort

t here

i s

a t present n o

r eal

t he a bandonment o f a ny p art o f i t .

M ilecastles a nd T urrets T here i s v irtually t o t he p roblems o f

n o e vidence f rom m ilecastles a nd t urrets r elating t he l ate t hird-century h istory o f t he W all . V ery

f ew m ilecastles h ave b een a dequately d ug a nd m ost o f t he t urrets t hat h ave b een e xcavated were a bandoned l ong b efore t his p eriod . O n t he c oin e vidence a t milecastle 4 8, P oltross B urn, t he e xcavators dated t he e nd o f t heir p eriod I I t o c irca A D 2 70 ( Gibson a nd S impson 1 911, 4 60) b ut t his d ate was d ismissed b y C ollingwood a nd Birley i n 1 930 . A c oin o f C arausius was f ound b y S impson i n m ilecastle 4 0 , W inshields . R ecent e xcavations o f m ilecastle 3 5, S ewingshields, s uggest t hat t he s ite may have b een very d ilapidated f or much o f t he l ater Roman p eriod .

B y t he l ate t hird c entury,

t he s outh g ate and m uch o f t he

s outh wall were c overed b y e arth a nd r ubble a nd a n arrow c obble p ath r an o ver t he s ite o f t he wall a l ittle t o t he e ast o f t he s outh g ate . A t t his t ime t he m ilecastle s ite would s eem t o h ave b een o ccupied b y a c ommunity o f m etal workers ( pers . c omm. Mr . M . S avage) . T he H interland o f H adrian's W all B ainbridge T here h ave b een a f air n umber o f p ublished e xcavations a t t his s ite s ince 1 928 , t hough t here i s s ome d ifficulty i n r econciling t he d ating s uggested b y t he v arious e xcavators. T here a re c ertain i ndications o f p eriods o f a bandonment o f s tructures within t he f ort; i t s eems t o have s een e xtensive r ebuilding u nder S everus, a nd t hereafter l ittle work s eems t o h ave o ccurred u ntil t he e arly f ourth c entury. A t s ome p eriod i n t he t hird c entury, t he f ort's e ast wall was.in t otal d isrepair o r had b een d emolished. T he f ort m ay have b een e xtended a t t his t ime a s a n i nscription r ecords t he c onstruction o f t he b racchium c aementicium ( RIB 7 22) u nder A lfenus S enecio ( Hartley 1 960 , 1 18 ). T hese f ort e xtension o r a nnex d efences s eem t o h ave b een i n d isrepair f or a t ime i n t he e arlier t hird c entury a s p eat was a llowed t o f orm i n t he n orth d itch a nd a d ead c ow was l eft l ying i n i t . H artley s uggested t hat t here was a p ossibility a t t hat t ime t hat t he f ort was a bandoned. T he ' annex' was h owever g iven a n ew wall i n t he t hird c entury w hich d id n ot f ollow t he l ine o f t he e arlier wall . T his was d ated b y Hartley t o t he mid o r l ate t hird c entury; t wo B B1 f langed b owls p rovided f ig 7 , N o. 5 5 a nd 5 6).

t he t erminus p ost q uem f or t his ( Hartley 1 960 T hese m ay h ave b een d ated t oo l ate a s t hey

c ould have b een o n t he market much e arlier i n t he t hird c entury ( Gillam 1 976 , 6 8 ) . A s t here was l ittle f ourth-century p ottery i n t he ' annex' , H artley b elieved t hat t he p eriod I I ' annex' wall d ated t o v ery

s oon a fter

t he

m id-third c entury .

4 2

T he f ort w as p rovided with a

n ew e ast wall a nd g ate, p robably i n t he e arly f ourth c entury, which w ould a ppear t o h ave b een b uilt with t he r e-used m asonry o f I I ' annex' wall. g ate was

i n

t he p eriod

T he e xcavators o f 1 931 f ound t hat t he e ast ' annex'

r uins

b efore

t he s econd

r oad

s urface was

l aid

t hrough

i t .

T hey d ated t his r oad s urface t o t he e arly f ourth c entury ( Droop a nd J ones 1 932, 2 4), t hough p erhaps more o n analogy with t he f ort's e ast g ate t han o n a rchaeological e vidence . Within t he f ort, b uilt

s ome o f t he b uildings i n t he praetentura had b een

o n a t hick r ubble l ayer.

I n t he s outh-east p art

o f

t he f ort,

W ade f ound a wall o f e xtremely p oor c onstruction r esting o n a mass o f r ubble a nd d irt 6 9cm t hick i n which was f ound a c oin o f C laudius I I ( Wade

1 955,

1 58) .

T he

b uilding p rior

t o

t his

h ad

a lso b een b uilt

o n

a l ayer o f r ubble c ontaining s econd a nd e arly-third c entury p ottery w hich c ould h ave b een a ssociated with a n a bandonment i n t he e arly t o m id-third

c entury n oted a bove.

Buildings i mmediately s outh o f t he

v ia praetoria i nside t he e ast g ate were b uilt o n d ebris,

a nd t heir

walls which had n o f oundations were s imilar t o t hose f ound b y Wade. T he excavators d ated J ones 1 932, 1 7).

t hese

A

i nscription

S everan

b uilding

f ourth-century l ate

r oadway

t o

o utside

t he e arly

t he

had

b een

e ast

g ate

t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury,

over

much

o f

p reponderance C arausius . t o h ave

t he

o f

I f

The

i n

t he

1 961) .

a nd

e arly I n

t he

series

i ssues

a nd

shows

i ncludes

t he t wo

i t

usual

c oins

O f

e xcavations

o f

t he

l arge

P roud

( Steer

n umber

a nd

1 938).

o f

S teer,

c oins

f rom

t here

i s

B rough-on-Humber d efences bears

t his

n one

C arausius

a nd

Wacher s uggested

t o b e p ublished.

t hat t he h istory o f t his s ite's

more r elation t o t hat o f a f ort

c apital o f

s ite f ound i n t he o f

C oins f rom t he r ecent e xcavations h ere may

w ell have c hanged t his p icture - t hey h ave y et

t he P arisi ,

w hich

t han t o t hat o f

t he

may h ave b een l ocated e lsewhere .

T here was p robably a numerus h ere i s t he e arly f ourth c entury, n umerus s upervenientium P etuariensium . t hrough

l ong

r ecruited W acher 2 90. t ime,

o f

i s u nlikely

l ong .

B inchester

c ivitas

r e-used ( Hartley

( Droop

t here was a d rastic r ebuilding

c oin

t hird-century

c entury

t here was a p eriod o f a bandonment h ere,

l asted

A llectus

s ite.

l ate

f ourth

a ssociation

f rom

t hat

with

p lace.

P etuaria

B rough

t he

I t p robably r eceived i ts t itle may

r ather h ave

t han

b een

having

a n aval

b een b ase.

d ated t he r ebuilding o f t he d efences i n s tone t o c irca A D 2 70T he c onstruction work s eems t o have b een halted f or a s hort t he work b eing r esumed i n t he l ast d ecade o f

c ompleted

t o a s lightly d ifferent

d esign .

t he c entury a nd

T he i ncomplete g uardroom o f

t he north g ate was d emolished a nd r eplaced b y another c ontemporary w ith t he a dded e xternal i nterval and g ate-towers. T he e xcavator s uggests a c lose a nalogy with B urgh C astle ( Wacher 1 969, 3 -4). B rough-on-Noe t his

s ite ,

t he

T hree l ater

p eriods

o f

o ccupation h ave b een i nferred o n

t wo a ssociated with

t he

s tone

f ort .

P eriod

I I

i s d ated c irca A D 1 58 t o t he l ate t hird c entury, t hough i t has n ow b een s uggested t hat i t may c ontinue i nto t he e arly f ourth c entury ( Jones G . and Wild 1 969A). The buildings, a t l east in t he p raetentura ,

were s till o f

c entury t hey were r ebuilt b eginning

o f

p eriod

I II

t imber i n t his p eriod; i n s tone .

f ollowed

4 3

i n

t he

l ate

t hird

T he e xcavators b elieved t hat t he

immediately

o n

t he

e nd

o f

p eriod

I I

( Jones G ., T hompson a nd Wild 1 966). T he t imber b uildings had b een s ystematically d emolished a nd t he c are w ith w hich p ost-holes a nd o ther d epressions s uggests t hat r ebuilding i n

s uch a s

d rains h ad b een f illed with b uilding r ubble

d emolition a nd l evelling t ook p lace with i mmediate m ind . T he p eriod I I s tone g ranary was c arefully

d emolished a nd t he s tone r e-used b y t he p eriod I II b uilders ( Jones G . a nd W ild 1 969A , 1 04) . O ne p eriod I I p ost-hole h ad b een f illed w ith a c olumn c apital .

T here s eems t o h ave b een s ome r econstruction i n t he

p rincipia a t t his t ime a s i t was r ebuilt i n wattle a nd d aub. T he p raetorium was b uilt i n t he s ame s tyle o ver t he p eriod I I g ranaries . I s i t p ossible t hat o nly t he c entral r ange h ad b een i n d isrepair i n t he l ate t hird c entury? B urghwallis

T hird-century

p ottery

a nd

t wo

c oins

C arausius have b een p icked u p within t he f ort e xcavations h ave t aken p lace h ere . C hester

A g roup

o f

t hree

g ranaries

s outh

o f

T etricus

( Roberts

e ast

I a nd

1 974).

o f

t he

N o

p orta

p rincipalis d extra was d emolished , p robably i n t he l ate t hird c entury . T here was a t hick l ayer o f b roken r oof t iles l ying between t he g ranaries a nd b etween t heir s leeper walls which t he e xcavators a rgued c ould o nly h ave r eached t his p osition a fter t he r emoval o f t he g ranary f loors. I n t he t ile l ayer were two T etrican c opies, while i n t he d isturbed

material

a bove

i t

were

c oins

o f

C rispus,

Theodora

and

C onstantius I I. T he d emolition o f t hese b uildings would s uggest a r eduction i n t he g arrison o f t he f ortress - g ranary 3 , a t l east , s eems t o have c eased l ife a s a g ranary p rior t o i ts d emolition , one v entilator having b een blocked b y a f illing o f s oil o n which were p laced f our u nmortared c ourses o f s andstone b locks ( Petch a nd T hompson 1 959) .

A b uilding i mmediately w est o f

v eranda t o

t he e ast

a nd

o f

e arly

d emolished t owards t he e nd o f r oughly p aved ( Strickland 1 975).

t he p rincipia , o f

s econd-century

d ate ,

s tone w ith a

was

e ventually

t he t hird c entury a nd t he s ite was Excavations within t he r etentura

h ave s hown t hat b arrack-blocks h ad b een d emolished o ver a wide a rea a t t his t ime . T he e vidence f or a s imilar s tate o f a ffairs i n t he p raetentura h as n ot b een n oticed a lthough t his m ay b e m ore t he r esult o f

t he v ery

l imited e xcavations

c onducted u nder

t he worst

r escue

c onditions i n t his a rea . T he d ating e vidence f or b arrack-blocks, a lthough n ot c onflicting with t he s upposition t hat t his was a s ingle e vent, d oes n ot r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat t his o ccured o ver a p eriod o f t ime f rom c irca A D 2 50 o nwards ( Strickland 1 981B, 4 32) . A n umber o f m ajor f ortress b uildings d o, h owevever , a ppear t o h ave b een r etained i n u se ; t hese i nclude t he principia , p raetorium , b uilding a nd l arge i nternal b ath-house ( ibid 4 28-30 ) .

e lliptical

T he amphitheatre was i n d isuse f or s ome t ime i n t he t hird c entury ; i t was put b ack i nto c ommision a fter AD 2 73, b ut p erhaps before A D 2 86 . T here were n o c oins o f C arausius s ealed b eneath t he p eriod I I a rena f loor ( Thompson F . 1 975). ( Richborough was a lso p rovided w ith a n amphitheatre a t a bout t his t ime ( Cunliffe 1 968, 2 48)). A s w e would e xpect , t he n umismatic e vidence w ould s upport t he c ontinued u se o f t he f ortress a t C hester i n t he l ate t hird c entury ( Webster G . 1 951) . XX l egion was c ertainly under C arausius' c ontrol b ut

T he t he

a rchaeological e vidence d oes s uggest t hat s ome o f t he l egion was p osted o ut o f t he f ortress, o r t hat i t was well u nder s trength . T he d emolition o f b arracks a nd g ranaries m ust was e xpected t o c ontinue f or a l ong t ime .

4 4

i ndicate t hat

t he s ituation

C hester-le-Street T he l ater t hird-century c oin l ist f rom t his s ite d oes n ot a llow u s t o i nfer a n a bandonment o f t he s ite a t t his p eriod. D oncaster

T hird-century

o ccupation h ere was

s light

- t races

o nly

o f

i nsubstantial h uts o n t he m etalled s urfaces o f t he i nternal s treets were f ound ( Dolby 1 972). Ab reak i n t he military o ccupation o f t he s ite h as b een i nferred i n t he t hird c entury ( Buckland a nd D olby 1 972, 2 74). E bchester

I n t he e ast a ngle o f

t he f ort,

s even b uilding p eriods were

f ound, t he l ater t hree o f s tone . P eriod V II was d ated t o t he l ater t hird c entury, with a s econd p hase b eginning i n t he e arly f ourth c entury . T he p eriod V II s tructures l ay d irectly o ver t he p eriod V I r oad s urface a nd o n t he l evelled r emains o f t he p receding b uildings ( Maxfield a nd R eed 1 975 , 6 0) . I lkley

A lthough n o e vidence w as

f ound f or

d estruction o f

t he t hird-

c entury f ort, t he n ext p hase s aw major r ebuilding . T he b uildings i n t he p raetentura, h owever, c ame t hrough u naltered. T hese were i nterpreted a s s tables a nd b arracks . T hey s eem t o h ave r etained t he s ame plan f rom t he Antonine p eriod i nto t he mid-fourth c entury a nd t hroughout t his p eriod t he s tratification i n t he s table s howed n o b reak but t he l evel o f t he f loor s imply c ontinued t o r ise g radually ( Hartley 1 966 , c entury c oins, L ancaster u se i n t he

3 8) . T here i s a m arked p reponderance o f l ater t hirdi ncluding e ight o f C arausius ( Woodward 1 925, 2 98-300 ) .

T he b ath-house o n C astle H ill , f ound i n 1 973 , w ent o ut o f l ate t hird c entury a nd t he s ite l ay a bandoned u ntil i t was

c ut b y a d itch which p receded

t he c onstruction

i tself d ated t o a fter c irca A D 3 26 .

o f

t he

Wery

Wall,

I n t he d ebris o f t he b ath-house

was f ound a l ate t hird-century c oin hoard r anging f rom G allienus t o C arausius ( Shotter a nd W hite 1 977) . T his b ath-house i s c ontemporary w ith o r l ater t han t he b uilding t hought b y R ichmond t o b e t he t hirdc entury p raetorium. I t p resumably f ormed a p art o f i t. I n t his b uilding he f ound t hird-century p ottery a nd a c oin o f S alonina ( AD 2 53-268) ( Richmond 1 959) . L eather s uggests t hat t he whole b uilding h ad been d emolished b y c irca A D 3 00 ( Leather 1 973). I t has b een s uggested t hat t he b ath-house c ould h ave b een p art o f a mansio ( i.e. o utside t he f ort) t hough t his s eems u nlikely ( Shotter 1 974 ,18) . L anchester

T he

c oin

l ist

f rom h ere

u p

t o

1 937 i ncludes n o c oins o f

t he Tetrici o r o f t he " British Empire" ( Steer 1 938). C oins o f t he T etrici a re v ery c ommon o n s ites o ccupied i n t he l ate t hird c entury . M alton

C order

i nferred a n a bandonment o f

t he f ort

c irca A D

2 80-300 .

H e f ound a l ayer o f wheat u p t o 3 0cm t hick o n t he r ampart b ank where i t had b een s pread a nd b urnt. T his must have b een d one b y t he g arrison a nd w ould m ake m ost s ense ( if i t m akes a ny s ense a t a ll) a s a p relude t o t he a bandonment o f t he f ort . T he p ottery f rom t his l ayer was d ated t o c irca A D 2 80 ( Corder 1 930), b ut Mr . J .P . Gillam b elieves t hat

t he g roup a s a whole

c ould b e s lightly e arlier.

T his

wheat

l ayer has b een f ound t o c ontain a s ignificant n umber o f g rain p ests s uch a s weevils which i s s uggested a s a r eason f or f iring t he wheat r ather t han a n a bandonment o f t he f ort ( Wenham 1 974 , 1 8) . I t s eems t o m e, however, v ery u nlikely t hat g rain would b e d estroyed o n a l arge s cale within a n o ccupied f ort a s t he f ire hazard would s urely h ave b een u nacceptable .

T he g rain d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een d umped o n t he

4 5

r ampart a fter t he d estruction o f a g ranary b y f ire s ince t he l ayer w as t oo h omogenous. T he e xcavator was c ertain t hat t he g rain h ad been b urnt i n s itu . D id t he g arrison b urn t he g rain o n i ts a bandonment o f t he f ort b ecause i t was i nfested , r ather t han t aking i t with t hem? T he n umismatic e vidence f rom b oth t he f ort a nd t he v icus i ndicates m uch a ctivity i n t he l ater t hird c entury . I f t he v icani d id n ot m ove i nto t he f ort, t hen t he u nit m ust h ave r eturned u nder C arausius . O ld P enrith I n t he l ater t hird c entury , d eclined a nd may have b een a bandoned . t he f ort m ay a lso h ave b een a bandoned a t c irca A D 3 70 ( cf . C hesterholm) .

t he v icus s outh o f t he f ort Mr . P . Austen s uggests t hat t his

t ime ,

b eing r e-occupied

P ap c astle H ere t here were p robably two s uperimposed s tone f orts, n either o f which i s s ecurely d ated . Within were f ound t imber a nd s tone b uildings, t he l atter a ll s eeming t o d ate t o t he f ourth c entury . What e vidence t here was f rom t he t imber b uildings s uggested t hat

t hey

were o f s econd-century d ate . T he e xcavator i nferred t hat t here h ad b een a l ong p eriod o f a bandonment i n t he t hird c entury a nd t hat i n t he e arly f ourth c entury t he f ort was t otally r ebuilt and g iven new d efences . H ow l ong t he ( Charlesworth 1 965) .

s ite h ad

l ain a bandoned was

P iercebridge U ntil r ecently t he s tone f ort h ere was n ew f oundation d ating t o t he e arly f ourth c entury .

n ot

a scertained

t hought t o b e a A s tudy o f t he

n umismatic e vidence , h owever, ( over 1 ,000 c oins h ave b een f ound o n t he s ite) s uggests t hat t he f ort was f ounded s oon a fter AD 2 60 a nd was o ccupied u ntil c entury

( Scott

c irca A D 1 978 ,

3 00 o r

3 12

a nd

t hen a bandoned f or half

a

2 1) .

T empleborough T his f ort m ay h ave b een r e-occupied i n t he l ater t hird c entury f or a s hort p eriod, a fter l ying a bandoned s ince t he s econd c entury ( Simpson G . 1 973, 8 9-90). P ottery e vidence f rom t he v icus s uggests t hat t here h ad b een c ontinuous o ccupation h ere f rom t he f irst t o t he f ourth c entury ( Wade 1 950 ) . Watercrook

T he e xcavator h ere i nferred a r ebuilding o f t he f ort

c irca A D 2 70 a fter a p ossible t otal a bandonment o f t he f ort f rom c irca A D 2 20 . I n t he e ast g uardchamber o f t he n orth-east g ate , f our c oins o f A I D 2 68-273 w ere s ealed i n t he l atest o ccupation m aterial , a l ayer o f c harcoal a nd r efuse . T he p artial r ebuilding o f t he f ort w all a nd t he c utting o f a t hird d itch i s d ated b y p ottery t o t he l ate t hird c entury a nd i t i s s uggestd t hat a t t his t ime t he f ort may h ave b een e nlarged .

S hotter,

C arausian

c oins

was

( Potter

s hort

m ay

i n t he

c oin r eport,

i ndicate

1 979A ,

t hat

t he

s uggests

l ater

t hat

t he l ack

t hird-century

o f

o ccupation

2 97) .

Y ork E xcavations i n S t . S ampson's S quare i n 1 928 r evealed p art o f a b uilding, p robably a b arrack-block . A s a ll t he walls s urvived t o a u niform height,

t he e xcavator s uggested t hat t he b uilding h ad been

d eliberately d emolished i n t he R oman p eriod .

O f

t he o ver

1 00 s herds

f rom t he d ebris, n one c ould b e d ated l ater t han A D 2 50. Ab uilding o f a m ore p retentious c haracter h ad b een b uilt o n t he s ite a t l east b y t he e arly f ourth c entury ( Miller 1 928, 9 6).

Ab arrack-block b y t he

e ast a ngle o f t he f ortress was c ompletely d emolished b y t he t ime t hat t he f ourth-century d efences were b uilt ( Miller 1 927). T he i nner

4 6

d itch o utside t he t ower SW5 had b een a llowed t o s ilt u p i n t he l ate t hird c entury ( Whitwell 1 973) . I n t he e arly f ourth c entury, much o f t he f ortress wall was r eplaced f rom t he f oundations.

Q uite why t his was n eeded i s u nclear b ut i n

t he e arly t hird c entury much o f t he f ortress wall h adrequired r ebuilding i n t his manner . T he e vidence s uggests t hat t he s econdc entury wall s uffered f rom s ubsidence a nd t here m ay p ossibly h ave b een s imilar t rouble i n t he l ate t hird c entury ( RCHM Y ork 1 , 3 5). W ales B recon G aer T here s eems t o h ave b een s ome r enewed a ctivity a t t his s ite i n t he l ate t hird c entury. T here i s a small g roup o f l ate t hird-century c oins , t he c ommonest b eing t hose o f C arausius . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he f ort was r e-occupied f or a s hort p eriod c irca A D 2 90-300 ( Jarrett 1 968A, 4 31). G . S impson b elieved t hat t he i nternal b ath-house, d ating t o t he t hird c entury, l ate i n t hat c entury ( Simpson , G . 1 963, 3 2-7) . C aerleon c entury

was s till i n u se

T he f ortress was n ot f ully o ccupied a fter t he mid-third

( Boon

1 972A ,

6 1) .

T here i s a lso l ittle e vidence f or t hriving

c anabae a t t his p eriod . T he n orth-east wall, a t l east, o f t he f ortress was i n a r uinous c ondition b y t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury . T he l atest e pigraphic e vidence f or t he p resence o f t he l egion h ere i s au nique t ile s tamped ( Leg I I A )VG V I. T he V I has b een i nterpreted a s t he t itle V ictoriana a nd would t hus d ate t o A D 2 68-270 , t hough i t m ay m ean s omething e lse . T owards t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury, s everal important f ortress b uildings, n otably t he v aletudinarium a nd t he i ntra-mural t hermae were t otally d emolished . T he p rincipia was p artly d ismantled , t hough t he b asilica r emained b asically i ntact w ell i nto t he f ourth c entury . T his s hould imply t he c essation o f military u se o f t he s ite . T he d emolition would a ppear t o have b een o rderly s ince much o f t he b uilding m aterial s eems s ite,

t o h ave b een s ystematically r emoved f rom

t he

p resumably f or r e-use e lsewhere .

T here was s qualid o ccupation w ithin t he b asilica p rincipiorum i n t he e arly f ourth c entury. F rom t he a sh o f a f ire i n t he a edes c ame a c oin o f C arausius s truck b efore c irca A D 2 90-1; t he p aving o f t he a edes h ad a lready b een r emoved b efore t he f ire was l it . I n t he r ubble c overing t he v aletudinarium c ourtyard was a w orn c oin o f c irca A D 2 703 and t wo c oins o f c irca A D 2 70; i n t he s oil a bove were f our o f C arausius' a nd t wo o f t he f ourth c entury. T he l atest c oins a ssociated with t he n ormal u se o f t he t hermae d ated t o c irca A D 2 70 . A c oin o f Q uintillus l ay i n t he a sh o f a small c ooking f ire o n t he b ottom o f o ne o f t he p lunge b aths i n t he f rigidarium a nd C arausian c oins a ppeared o n t he e xposed f loor l evelled r ubble i n t he p alaestra .

o f t he h ypocaust a nd o n t he O fficers' h ouses were a lso

d emolished . A C arausian c oin l ay o n t he l atest s treet s urface w hich w as c omposed o f b uilding r ubble a nd e xtended over t he walling i n i nsula I X . T he p raetorium was a lso p robably d emolished . N o b arrack i s k nown t o h ave b een d emolished a t t his t ime , t hough N ash-Williams t hought h e f ound e vidence o n t he V ine C ottage s ite f or t he d ecay a nd d emolition o f a b arrack i n t he t hird o r f ourth c entury r eplacement b y w ooden s tructures ( Nash-Williams 1 936 , 3 20) .

4 7

a nd

i ts

A ll

t he

c oins

o f

C arausius

a nd A llectus

a re f ound w here

t hey c learly

p ost-date t he d emolition ; t hey a re f ound o n o r a bove t he r ubble . O f t he 5 4 C arausian c oins k nown u p t o 1 972, m ost o f t hem a re e arly . O nly 1 0 A llectan c oins c ome f rom t he f ortress. B oon s uggests t hat t here was a d iminution o f t he g arrison o f C aerleon b y c irca AD 2 90 i f n ot b efore . T he g arrison may h ave l eft e arly i n C arausius' r eign, t he d emolition s quads c ontinued u se o f

t hen m oving i n . T here i s, h owever , s ome o f t he f ortress b uildings;

e vidence f or t he t he b arracks

e xcavated i n t he C roft w ere t hought b y t he e xcavator t o h ave c ontinued i n u se b y t he military a fter t he t hird c entury, t hough t hey were p erhaps n ot

f ully

o ccupied

( Murray-Threipland 1 967 ).

O ne b arrack-

b lock f ound d uring e xcavations i n 1 980 a t ' Roman G ates' , B ackhall S treet, had b een r ebuilt a nd o ccupied f or 2 0 y ears i n t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury . L atrine p its were d ug i n t wo r ooms a nd a b ody was b uried i n a s lab-lined g rave . O f t he o ther t wo b arrackb locks e xcavated , o ne h ad b een r eoccupied i n t he l ate R oman p eriod a nd t he o ther h ad h ad a l ean-to s tructure e rected a gainst T his was t hen r eplaced b y ab ow-sided b uilding . A n umber

o f

r oads

within

t he

f ortress

were

i ts w est

r emetalled .

wall .

T he

v ia

p rincipalis was p artly r esurfaced a nd t he v ia s agularis i n t he e astern c orner was e ntirely r emade , p robably a t t his t ime ( 4urray-Threipland 1 965), t hough t he d ating e vidence f or t his i s a h ammerhead m ortarium w hich a re n otoriously d ifficult t o d ate c losely . I n t he l ate t hird c entury t he v ia s agularis, f ound a t B ackhall S treet, was w idened t o t he e ast a fter i ts western s ide h ad b een b locked b y t he c ollapse o f a b arrack .

I t

i s u nclear w hether t his a ctivity i ndicates

t he p resence

o f p art o f t he l egion a t t his d ate a s t here i s n o e vidence f or t he e xistence o f a l ate f ort o r f ortlet within t he f ortress a rea ( cf . N ovaesium , V indonissa) . N o d oubt c ivilians would s oon m ove within t he f ortress when t he m ilitary l eft a nd t he f ourth c entury o ccupation m ay o nly

r epresent t he p resence o f t hese p eople .

C aernarvon Wheeler, who d ug much o f t he f ort i n t he e arly 1 920s, b elieved t hat t here h ad b een a l ong p eriod o f a bandonment i n t he f irst half o f t he f ourth c entury f rom c irca A D 2 90 t ill s hortly a fter t he mid-fourth c entury ( Wheeler 1 922A , 3 08-9). T he l ength o f t his a bandonment i s n ow d oubted b y m any s cholars a nd d iscounted b y a t l east o ne ( Casey 1 974B, 6 1) . A p eriod o f a bandonment , a t l east o f t he s ite b y t he a rmy, s hould n ot b e a ltogether d iscounted even t hough t he n umismatic e vidence s uggests t hat t here h ad b een more o r l ess c ontinuous o ccupation . T here a re v ery f ew c oins o f A llectus f rom t he s ite b ut a f air n umber o f C arausius ( Boon 1 976, 6 0) which s uggests a s hort p eriod o f a bandonment f rom c irca A D 2 90. B oon s uggested t hat t he d eparture o f t he g arrison c ould b e c onnected with t he t hreat t o t he ' British Empire' i n e ither A D 2 89 o r 2 96 ( Boon 1 972B). T he a rchaeological e vidence i mplies t hat a t l east s ome p arts o f t he f ort were n eglected f or a l ong t ime i n t he l ate t hird a nd e arly f ourth c enturies .

I n

t he s teps

i nto

t he p rincipia W heeler

f ound

t hat

t he a edes f loor

t he s trongroom were c overed with a l ayer o f

a nd

black

v egetable m ould c irca 4 5cm d eep w hich h ad d rifted i n f rom t he e ntrance a nd h ad c overed a n i ron-bound b ox c ontaining 5 6 c oins f rom G allienus t o C arausius; 1 922A, 2 91).

t he

c oin

o f

t he l atter was

i n m int

c ondition ( Wheeler

When t he b uilding was r eoccupied, t he s trongroom was

h alf f illed with d ebris a nd l evelled w ith c ement i n which w ere f ound 2 0 c oins, a ll b ut o ne p robably p re A D 3 00, t he e xception b eing a C onstantinopolis m inim f ound n ear t he b ottom o f t he f illing . Amongst

4 8

t he

f illing was

a t

l east p art o f

o ne h uman s keleton ;

t he e xcavator

s uggested t hat t he p eriod o f a bandonment had b een p receded b y a d isaster w hich would h elp t o e xplain t he p resence o f t he c oin c hest i n t he s trongroom . M uch r ebuilding w as n eeded i n t he p rincipia when i t w as p ut b ack i nto c ommission, i ncluding t he r ebuilding o f t he n orth-west wall o f t he c ourtyard f rom i ts f ootings. A p urse c ontaining 1 6 c oins f rom G allienus t o C rispus was f ound u pon t he t hird-century c ourtyard f loor i n t he p rincipia . T his was c overed b y t he m etalling l aid d own d uring t he s ubsequent o ccupation o f t he b uilding w hich t he e xcavator b elieved t o b e g ood e vidence t hat t he b uilding a nd p robably t he f ort w as s till a bandoned ( Wheeler 1 924 , 7 3) . I t i s j ust p ossible t hat t he p urse w as l ost b y a s oldier e ngaged i n t he l aying o f t he n ew f loor ( cf. t he p urse a ccidentally buried i n t he r ampart b acking a t B irdoswald) ( Richmond 1 954, 5 6). A b ath-house i n t he p raetentura, which was c onstructed i n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury, was n ever c ompleted, a nd t his m ay b e c onnected w ith t he d ecision t o a bandon t he f ort during t he b uilding work . T he b aths were d ismantled a nd t he s tone r obbed i n t he p eriod A D 3 00-325 ( Casey a nd D avies 1 976). B eneath t he c lay f loor o f t he l atest o ccupation i n b uilding X II was a small h oard o f c oins f rom V olusianus t o t he T etrici ( Wheeler 1 924, 6 8 ) . T he m ithraeum was t hought t o h ave b een f inally a bandoned c irca A D 2 90 ( Boon 1 960, 1 56). T his t ype o f b uilding u sually has m ore c onnection with t he m ilitary o n a s ite t han t he c ivilians . C aersws A t s ome t ime i n t he t hird c entury t he t imber b arracks i n t he r etentura were d ismantled a nd were n ot r eplaced , t hough t here was a l ate r oad s urface a nd t hird t o f ourth-century p ottery i n t he a rea . T he b arracks i n t he p raetentura d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een d ismantled i n t he e arly t hird c entury, b ut t his c ould have happened l ater. T he p raetorium was p erhaps d emolished i n t he l ate t hird c entury b ut t he s ite was n ot a bandoned . L ate t hird t o e arly f ourth-century p ottery was t rodden i nto t he g ravel s urface o verlying t he b uilding . T he h ypocausted r ooms a ttached t o t he p raetorium s eem t o h ave c ontinued i n u se ( Daniels, J ones G . a nd P utnam 1 967). T he c oin l ist i ncludes a n umber o f

l ate t hird-century t ypes i ncluding o ne o r

m ore o f C arausius

( Simpson G . 1 962, 1 55-6). C ardiff

T here

i s

v ery

l ittle

e vidence

f or

t he

a ctual

d ate

o f

c onstruction o f t he f ort . A c oin o f F austina I I was s ealed b elow t he c lay bank which i s c ontemporary with t he f ort wall ( Wheeler 1 922B, 3 69). A r ough u nmortared f oundation, which may h ave f ormed a r ear k erb t o t he r ampart b ank, c ontained a w orn c oin o f G allienus b etween t wo o f i ts s tones ( Webster, P . &J . 1 978). I t i s g enerally t hought o f a s b eing c ontemporary with t he main p rogramme o f S axon S hore d efences i n t he

C astell C oh en

l ater

t hird c entury .

B y t he e nd o f

t he t hird c entury,

d itch I II,

where

t ested i n s ection B 1, was s ilted u p. O n t op o f t his a nd r unning u p t o t he wall, was a mass o f s quared s tones which would s eem t o h ave c ome f rom t he f ort wall . o r p erhaps o f a bandonment

T he e xcavator i nferred a p eriod o f d ecay, ( Alcock 1 964, 7 2) . F allen wall s tones were

a lso f ound a t t he b ottom o f d itch I II i n s ection G l . f rom t he s ite, w hich

i s

o f

O f t he 2 8 c oins

t here a re o nly two o f t he l ater t hird c entury, o ne o f

C arausius .

4 9

F orden G aer

T he

t hird-century

o ccupation w as

t hought

t o h ave

e nded

b y ap eaceful a bandonment o f t he f ort ( Pryce 1 932, 4 38), t hough t he e vidence f or t his i s n ot v ery e xplicit . T he t hird a nd f ourth-century o ccupations were s eparated b y a b urnt l ayer ( between 3 A a nd 3 B P ryce a nd P ryce 1 929 ; b etween 3 a nd 4 A i n P ryce a nd P ryce 1 930).

i n I n

t he 1 930 r eport, t his m aterial i s d escribed a s c irca 1 8cm o f d isturbed s oil . A p eriod o f a bandonment has b een s uggested f ollowing t his ( Nash-Williams 1 969, 8 8), t hough a t l east i n t he s outh-east p art o f t he f ort t he e xcavators o f 1 928 c oncluded t hat 3 B was a s imple i mmediate r ebuild o f 3 A . A b uilding i n t he s outh-west a ngle s eems t o h ave b een o ccupied t hroughout t he f ort's l ife . L eintwardine

T he f ort o n t he L eintwardine v illage s ite was a bandoned

f or a l ong t ime between i ts periods 3 and 4 . The p eriod 3 r efurbishment o f t he r ampart s ealed a t hird-century s amian s herd a nd a f langed b owl ( which l ooks more l ike a B B1 f lat r immed bowl). E verywhere t he p eriod 3 l evels w ere c overed b y n early 1 5cm o f l oam . T he p eriod 4 p lan o f t he i nternal b uildings d iffers f rom t hat o f p eriod 3 . O n s ite B ( Roman R ise), p eriod 3 have b een d ismantled a nd t he s ite t idied u p.

s tructures s eem t o P eriod I II i n t he

e xternal b ath-house a lso e nded a pparently i n ap eriod o f n eglect a s o ver t he hypocaust f loors i n s ection 8 , 8 cms o f d ark-grey s ilt was f ound . T he e xcavator b elieved t hat t his m ust h ave r esulted f rom t he f looding o f t he h ypocausts a nd s uggested a bandonment . P eriod I V h ad b egun w ith a t idying u p o f t he s ite when t he h ypocausts were f illed i n with r ubble, b roken t ile a nd t he r emains o f t he c oncrete f loors . L ittle t hird-century p ottery was f ound o n t he s ite and S tanford s uggested t hat t he p eriod I II o ccupation o f t he e arly t hird c entury was o f b rief d uration , f ollowed b y a l ong p eriod o f n eglect . P eriod ' IV i s d ated b y h im t o t he f ourth c entury. ( Periods 3 a nd 4 a re t hought t o b e c ontemporary with p eriods I II a nd I V ) . O f t he 1 4 c oins r ecorded i n t he r eport, t here a re 6 l ate t hird-century t ypes, one o f t hese b eing o f

A llectus

( Stanford

1 968) .

L oughor T here was s ome o ccupation o f t his s ite i n t he t hird c entury, " perhaps c onnected with a s trengthening o f t he c oastal d efences" . A t t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury, p hase I II, t he t wo d itches, where e xcavated o n t he n orth-east s ide o f t he f ort, were f illed . T he f illing o f t he i nner d itch was r einforced with a l ight p acking o f l arge d ressed b locks, n o d oubt f rom t he n ow c ollapsed o r d emolished f ort w all . T his f illing i s d ated b y t wo B B1 c ooking-pot s herds, o ne o f t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird c entury f rom t he d itch f illing, a nd t he o ther o f t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury f rom a p it d ug i nto t he e dge o f t he o uter d itch . T his must mark t he f inal a bandonment o f t he f ort a s n o l ater r e-use o f t he d itch s ystem was f ound ( Ling a nd L ing 1 973). T races o f l ater o ccupation o n t he s ite a re u nlikely t o b e a ssociated with t he a rmy .

T he S axon S hore B radwell

T here

i s

a s harp

r ise i n t he c oin

l ist

i n t he r eign o f

C arausius.

T he l ack o f t he n ormal high p roportion o f

o ther l ater

t hird-century

r adiates

t he f ort was

i s

g ood p resumptive e vidence t hat

f ully o ccupied f or t he f irst t ime u nder C arausius . t hen o n i s u nbroken ( Hull 1 963 , 5 2-5) .

5 0

T he c oin l ist

f rom

B rancaster

T he r esults o f

t he

t he mid t o l ate-third c entury ,

1 935 e xcavations w ould s uggest t hat i n t he b uildings f ound n ear t he s outh-west

a ngle had l ain i n d isrepair. B etween t he c halk f loors o f p eriods I a nd I I was a s pread o f r ubbish c irca 4 5cm t hick c ontaining o yster s hells, a f ew a nimals b ones a nd p ottery ( St . J oseph 1 936 , 4 50) . T he c oin h as

l ist

i n

t his

r eport

s howed

a m arked p eak u nder

r ecently b een s uggested t hat S t.

e rror

( Edwards a nd G reen

1 977,

2 5).

C arausius.

I t

J oseph's d ating i s g reatly i n I t

i s

maintained

t hat

t he t wo

o ccupation l ayers f ound i n 1 935 d ate t o t he l ate f ourth c entury, t hough t he e arlier o f t he t wo had r ested o n t he u ndisturbed s andy s ubsoil . O ne s herd o f s hell-gritted w are was s tratified b eneath t he u pper f loor . G reen a nd E dwards b elieve t hat s hell-tempered ware o nly r eached N orfolk a t t he e arliest b y t he m id-fourth c entury b ut t his i s u nlikely t o b e t he c ase s ince i t was b eing p roduced i n H umberside f rom a t l east t he e arly t hird c entury. D ales ware was p roduced a t S cunthorpe a s e arly a s t he s econd c entury a nd b oth c ould e asily h ave r eached a c oastal s ite s uch a s B rancaster a t a ny t ime i n t he l ate s econd o r t hird c entury . T he p ottery between t he p eriod I a nd I I c halk f loors c ould i n e very c ase d ate t o t he mid t o l ate t hird c entury,

i f

n ot

i n c oin l oss B urgh C astle

e arlier .

A r evised c oin l ist s hows

i n t he l atter h alf o f

a r apid

i ncrease

t he t hird c entury .

T his f ort h as b een t hought o f a s b eing t he f irst o f t he

l ater t hird-century f orts b uilt t o s trengthen t he s outh a nd e ast c oastal d efences . T he e vidence f or t his i s s tructural . V ery l ittle e xcavation h as b een d one o n t he s ite a nd n one has b een a dequately p ublished . T he f ort w as p ossibly t rapezoidal i n s hape ( the west wall h as vanished). T he two a ngles p reserved a re r ounded . I n 1 960 t he t urret-like s tructure, which had b een o f o ne b uild with t he s outh w all , was r e-excavated ( Green 1 961) . G reen a lso e xcavated w ithin t he n orth-east a ngle w here h e f ound e vidence f or a n T he

c ombination

o f

i nternal

i nterval

a nd

i nternal a ngle-tower .

a ngle-towers

w ith

r ounded

a ngles and i nternal r amparts s uggests t hat t he f ort was b uilt a t a t ime when t he p rovision o f e xternal t owers w as a n ew i dea ( i .e . t hat t he f ort i n t he f irst p hase was m ore r eminiscent o f a p rincipate f ort t han o f m any o f t he o ther l ate t hird-century S axon S hore f orts) . I ts t hick d efensive wall c ould b e p arallelled a t R eculver a nd i n t he n orth a t P iercebridge . T he p resence o f a n i nternal r ampart h as b een d oubted . H arrod a t t he e ast g ate f ound w hat h e t ook t o b e r etaining w alls f or t he r ampart ( Harrod 1 859, 1 52) which J ohnson s uggests c ould b e t he walls o f g uardchambers ( Johnson J . 1 976A, 3 8), b ut t his i s u nlikely a s t hey a re s played t owards t he i nterior o f t he f ort ( fig 1 8 .5). T he s outh g ate a t Ambleside has s imilar r ampart r evetment w alls

( fig

1 8 .6) .

A n e arth r ampart i s l ikely i n a ny c ase a s t he w all

i s r educed i n t hickness f rom 3 .5m a t f oundation l evel t o c irca 1 .3m a t t he p resent s urviving h eight o f t he wall . A r ampart w ould b e n eeded t o e ither a llow a n i ncrease i n t he width o f t he p arapet walk o r t o p rovide a r ampart w alk a t a l ower l evel , a s a t t he e ast a ngle o f Y ork ( Miller 1 928, 6 8) . I f t he wall i s s tanding t o a pproximately i ts o riginal height, n o p rovision c an b e s een f or e xtending t he p arapet w alk o n a t imber f ramework . T he

walls

a t

C aistor-by-Norwich

a re

v irtually

i dentical

t o

t hose a t

B urgh; t hey a re p rovided with a n e arth b ank ( Johnson J . 1 976, 9 8). G reen f ound b y t he i nterval t urret a nd i n t he n orth-east a ngle w hat h e t ook t o b e l ean-to b uildings a gainst t he f ort wall b ut,

5 1

i f t his i s

c orrect,

t hen

t he r ampart h ere a t

l east

m ust h ave b een l ater r emoved .

A t s ome s ites o n t he C ontinent where t he d efensive wall was n arrow, b ut n o r ampart was p rovided, b uttresses w ere p laced a long t he i nner f ace o f

t he wall t o s upport

e xternal f ort's f ort

t he p arapet walk ,

e .g .

X anten ,

B onn .

T he

t owers a t B urgh C astle were a dded o n d uring t he c ourse o f

c onstruction . wall,

t he

F or

t he f irst

f acing o f

which

2 .2m

t hey a re n ot

c ontinues behind

b onded

t hem;

i nto

t he t he

s ome have

s uggested t hat t his was t o a llow t he g reater weight o f t he e xternal t owers t o s ettle more t han t he wall. c onstruction o f t he wall .

T he t op

o f

T here were two phases i n t he t he

l ower p art was

a nd smoothed o ver with m ortar which Ward s uggested was a ccess

o f

r ain

c essation

i n

t o

t he

( Ward

r ounded

a ngles

f ort

t actical u se t he

b elow

a nd

T he

t owers

a bove

t he work .

t he f ort wall

f rom

c ore

o f

l ine

1 911,

s uch

o f

6 2) .

s how

f ort

t o t hat o f

t he

r epresent

a s

b uilder's n either

a winter's

t his h eight a re b onded i nto t owers

u nfamiliarity

t ower

p rojects

t o

with

B urgh

t he p rincipate

t he h eavily d efended e nclosures o f

t he t he

s ufficiently

t o b e a ble t o e nfilade t he c urtain .

C astle c ould t hus mark t he a ctual c hangeover f rom o f

o ff

T he a ddition o f e xternal

t he

t owers

t he wall

c ould

f inished

t o p revent

t ype

t he l ate Empire .

T he a ngle-tower was t hought t o h ave b een d emolished o n t he a ddition o f t he e xternal t ower b ut J ohnson, who i s a t p resent e ngaged i n publishing t he e xcavations o f

t he l ate Mr. C . G reen,

suggests

t hat

t his i s n ot s o a s h e d oubts t he p resence o f a t urret i n t he n orth-east a ngle . G reen o nly f ound a s hort l ength o f wall f oundation o f what h e t ook

t o b e

t he b ack wall o f

t he t urret.

The numismatic e vidence

s uggests t hat t he f ort was built under C onstantine . c oins

t hat

a re e arlier

t he

c oin

l ist

b ut

t here were

p ublished

b y

t he

b y

B urgh

military

( Ellison D over

i n

1 948,

n o

t hree o f A llectus

C aistor-by-Yarmouth r eplaced

t han t he f ourth c entury

I f

c oins

o f

( Morris A .

There a re few

( Johnson J .

C arausius

1 948 ,

1 980B) .

were

1 13) .

t his was a n e arly S axon S hore f ort

C astle

i n

t he

l ater

c annot

be

d etected

t hird c entury, i n

t he

I n

r ecorded

i ts

w hich

was

a bandonment

a rchaeological

r ecord

1 966) .

N o

d ating e vidence f rom

t he S axon S hore

f ort o n t his s ite h as

been published but i ts p rovision with a r ampart bank c ould s uggest t hat i t d ates e arly i n t he s eries . I t h as s ome i ntegral b astions a nd o thers were a dded l ater. T he s tyle o f c onstruction i s matched c losely

a t

C anterbury,

t hough

here

t here

a re

i nternal

t urrets.

Within t he e arth bank a t C anterbury was a c oin o f P ostumus.

I t i s

p ossible t hat D over and Canterbury were walled a s ar esponse t o t he s ame t hreat, L ympne

a nd t hey m ay b e c ontemporary

T he c oin e vidence s uggests

( Johnson J .

1 976A ,

1 00-1).

t hat o ccupation b egan i n t he l ater

t hird c entury. C unliffe t hought t hat t he e ast g ate was p robably built i n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury ( Cunliffe 1 977; now s ee

C unliffe

P evensey

1 980 ,

T his

2 85) .

f ort

has

b een

c onsidered

S axon S hore s ystem o n t he evidence o f c irca

l m

6 7) .

I ts u nusual p lan ,

a long

a b eam

a l ate

a c oin o f

h ole b eneath a p rimary

a ddition

C onstantine

t ower

( Bushe-Fox

t he a dvanced t ype o f g ateway s een a t

t o

t he

f ound 1 932A ,

t he west

g ate a nd t he g reater h eight o f i t walls, h ave b een seen a s f urther e vidence f or i ts l ate d ate . T he c oin l ist s hows a marked i ncrease i n i ssues

a t

t he

t ime

o f

C onstantine

5 2

( cf .

B urgh C astle) .

T here i s, h owever , a b ody o f a rchaeological e vidence which s uggests a l ate t hird-century d ate f or t he f ort's c onstruction . E xcavations i n 1 936 b y t he e ast g ate f ound a n umber o f l ate t hird-century r adiates a nd c oins o f C arausius i n t he o ccupation l ayer i mmediately o verlying t he b uilders' d ebris. T he d itch o n t he s outh-west s ide o f t he f ort y ielded m uch l ate t hird a nd f ourth-century r ubbish ( Cotterill 1 937). A n umber o f C arausian c oins were a lso f ound a t t he b ottom o f t he d itch n ear t he west g ate ( Wilson 1 941, 3 9) . W ilson b elieved t hat t he f ort w as o f l ate t hird-century d ate ( Wilson 1 940, 1 97), a s d id R ichmond ( Richmond 1 960, 1 83). I t i s h ighly u nlikely t hat i f t he f ort was b uilt

i n t he s econd q uarter o f

t he f ourth c entury

( a c onstruction

u nder C onstans h as b een s uggested) t here would b e c oins o f C arausius s till i n c irculation . T here i s n o e vidence f or e arlier o ccupation o n t he s ite . ( The t iles s tamped C LBR must r epresent o ccupation s omewhere i n t he v icinity o f t he f ort, b ut p resumably n ot o n i ts s ite) ( Peacock 1 977, 2 46). T hese c oins must d ate t he f ort t o t he l ater t hird

c entury;

J ohnson

s uggests

t hat

t he C onstantian c oin c ould

c onceivably have f ound i ts way i nto t he beam h ole a s a r esult o f a nimal a ction . T he a pparently a dvanced p lan o f t he west g ate ( fig 1 9.1A) need not imply a date i n t he f ourth c entury f or i ts c onstruction. T he o ther S axon S hore f orts have g ate p lans o f d iffering c omplexity r anging f rom t he e ast g ate a t B urgh C astle ( fig 1 8 .5) - a nd P evensey i tself ( fig 1 9 .1B) - t o t he e ast a nd west g ates ( fig 1 9 .2A) a t P ortchester, y et t hese a re s till d ated t o t he l ate t hird c entury . P evensey may b e t he l atest i n t he s eries, b ut i t i s s till o f t hirdc entury d ate . A lso , t he i rregular p lan o f t he f ort ( fig 6 .2) n eed n ot i ndicate i ts l ate d ate . T he f ort s ite ( apart f rom p erhaps D over) i s t he o nly o ne o n t he S axon S hore where t he t opography f avours a n i rregular s hape . E ven i n t he e arly Empire, t he R omans were n ot a verse t o b uilding f orts o f i rregular p lan i f t he t opography d emanded i t , e .g . H odhill , B ewcastle , V indonissa . T he f ort p lan o f L ympne a s u sually r estored ( fig 6 .1) i s e qually s uggested t hat t his may b e i llusory.

i rregular , t hough C unliffe h as T he f ort may o riginally have

b een o f r egular s hape, t he p resent s tate o f t he walls b eing d ue t o e xtensive s lip f or which t he s ite i s f amed ( Cunliffe 1 980, 2 54-6). T wo f orts i n S witzerland 2 0 m iles a part a re d ated b y i nscriptions t o D iocletians' r eign . T agaestum ( Burg b ei S tein am R hein) i s s quare with

projecting

s olid

c ircular

and

hollow

polygonal

t owers;

V itudurum ( Oberwinterthus) i s p olygonal with s olid s emicircular t owers ( Butler 1 971B, 1 01).

P ortchester

was d ated b y t he e xcavator t o t he r eign o f C arausius,

t hough i t c ould d ate s lightly e arlier . A c oin o f G allienus s ealed b elow t he c lay which had c ome f rom t he wall's f oundation t rench a nd a nother s ealed b elow t he c obbles o f t he r oad i n t he s outh g ate p rovide a t erminus p ost q uem o f c irca A D 2 60-268 f or t he f ort's c onstruction . I n a t hin d eposit o f s oil a t t he b ack o f t he wall o n t o which s ome m ortar a nd o ccupation m aterial h ad f allen , were t wo c oins o f T etricus I a nd C arausius which had b een s ealed b y a t hick l ayer o f c lay d eposited a round t he s caffold p osts . T he c oins o f C arausius d ate t he e nd o f t he wall's c onstruction t o A D 2 86 o r l ater .

s hould C oins

p rior t o C arausius a re c omparatively f ew i n n umber a nd worn i n c ondition whereas C arausian c oins a re a bundant a nd o ften i n f reshlym inted c ondition a nd m ostly b elonging t o t he e arly p art o f h is r eign .

5 3

T here a re v ery f ew o f A llectus. T he f ort would s eem t o h ave b een c ompleted e arly i n C arausius' r eign a nd t hen a lmost c ompletely a bandoned , p erhaps f or a d ecade ( Cunliffe 1 975 , 4 23) . R eculver A fter a p eriod o f i nactivity o r e ven a bandonment i n t he m id-third c entury, n ew b uildings w ere e rected . A p air o f s ubstantial b arracks w ere b uilt e ast o f t he p rincipia a nd a small b ath-house n orth o f t he v ia p rincipalis . O ther b uildings s eem t o h ave b een m odified a t a bout t his t ime a nd i t was s uggested t hat t his r ebuilding i s c ontemporary with t he s trengthening o f t he S axon S hore with n ew f orts ( Philp 1 969A). O f t he two b arracks built a t t his t ime, t he l arger h ad b y A D 3 00 f allen i nto r uin whilst t he smaller was b urnt d own a fter A D 2 70 a nd was a lso d erelict b y A D 3 00 ( Philp 1 962) . A b uilding n ear t he s outh g ate f ell

i nto r uin;

s ome 9 1cm o f t he b uilding's walls

s tood a bove a c oncrete f loor u pon which t he t iled r oof h ad f allen ( Home 1 929); t his m ay b e c ontemporary with t he r uin o f t he b uildings e ast o f t he p rincipia . T he s trongroom i n t he p rincipia h ad been f illed with r ubble, i ncluding t ile, wall p laster a nd c oins, mostly l ate t hird-century r adiates ( Philp 1 961) . A n a dequate c oin l ist h as n ot b een p ublished b ut o f t he c oins f ound d uring t he c onstruction o f t he n ew s ea wall, t here i s a f air p roportion o f l ate t hird-century e xamples, i ncluding c oins o f C arausius a nd Allectus ( Kent Arch . R eview, N os. 1 9 a nd 2 3). o utside t he f ort . R ichborough

T he

S axon

Many o f t hese c oins will have c ome f rom

S hore

f ort h ere w as

t otally

e xcavated i n t he

1 920s a nd 1 930s . I t was t hen d ated t o t he t ime o f C arausius a nd t hat d ate has b een g enerally a ccepted until 1 970 . T he t hird-century f ortlet o n t he s ite s eemed t o have b een d emolished and i ts d itches f illed immediately b efore t he c onstruction o f t he s tone f ort.

I n

t his f illing , t he e xcavator s tated e xplicitly t hat t here were n o c oins o f C arausius, a lthough t here were o ver 4 00 o f h is c oins f rom t he s ite ( Bushe-Fox 1 949 , 6 6 ) . P earce r ecorded o ne C arausian c oin a s c oming f rom t he f illing - t his c ould b e a m istake o r a n i ntrusive p iece . I n1 924

B ushe-Fox

f ound

a wall

f oundation

3 .96m

wide,

c utting

t hrough

t he t hird-century h ouse , s ite I II, which was n early a t r ight a ngles t o t he n orth f ort wall a nd must have b een f or t he f ort's e ast wall, b ut n o wall e ver s eems

t o have b een b uilt o n i t.

T he f ort was

l ater

p rovided w ith a wall f urther t o t he e ast ( Bushe-Fox 1 928 , 6 ) . L ater ap it -was d ug t hrough t he f oundation, p resumably when i ts e xistence h ad b een f orgotten ( Johnson J . 1 970 , 2 45) . I t c ontained 1 40 c oins o f which n one d ated t o C arausius " The d ate o f t he f oundation c an h ardly b e l ater t han c irca 2 85" ( Bushe-Fox 1 932B, 2 3) . A s

e arly

a s

1 932 t he e xcavator d ated t he f ort's

c onstruction t o

c irca

A D 2 75-285: " The a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he s ite p oints t o a d ate s lightly b efore t he t ime o f C arausius f or t he b uilding o f t he s tone f ort" ( Bushe-Fox 1 932A, 7 0). B y 1 949, h owever, t he e xcavator d ealing

with

t he

s ame

e vidence

c ould write:

" There i s a lso n o h istorical o r o ther r eason f or t he b uilding o f t he s tone f ort d uring t he p eriod 2 73-287 , b ut s uch a work c ould b e j ustly a ttributed t o a m an w ith t he i nitiative o f C arausius w ho h ad t o d efend t he c oast a nd t he p rincipal C hannel p orts a gainst b oth t he S axons a nd t he f orces o f I mperial R ome" ( Bushe-Fox 1 949 , 6 6) .

5 4

I t i s n ot o nly o n t he n orthern f rontier t hat h istorical c onsiderations a re s ometimes p referred t o a rchaeological e vidence ! T he f ort i s n ow g enerally d ated t o P robus. 9 1cms o f e arth h ad a ccumulated o ver t he ' east wall ' f oundation b efore t he p re-Carausian p it was d ug t hrough i t, implying t hat a t l east t he b eginning o f c onstruction work o n t he s tone f ort d ates t o a c onsiderable t ime b efore C arausius . T he f ort o f B aginton n ear C oventry,

a fter a l ife o f a bout 2 0 y ears,

was a bandoned c irca A D 8 0 . T here i s e vidence, h owever, f or t he s ite's r eoccupation b y t he a rmy a t s ome t ime - p robably i n t he l ater t hird c entury . s econd c entury

T his p hase had o riginally b een d ated t o t he e arly u ntil a s ecurely-stratified c oin o f G allienus was

f ound . T he o nly f eatures k nown o f t his d ate a re a m assive s ix-post, s ingle-portal, t imber g ateway i n o ne p ost-hole o f w hich was f ound t he a bove-mentioned c oin

( fig

1 8 .3 )

a nd a v ery w ide ,

r ound-bottomed d itch

( fig 8 .2) . T here w as n o o ther i ndication o f t hird-century o ccupation e xcept f or s ome l ocally-made p ottery ( Hobley, 1 974). T he f ort may h ave had a v ery s hort l ife, t hough i t i s p ossible t hat t he u pper l evels h ave b een r emoved b y a griculture . B efore

c onsidering

what

c onclusions

c an b e

d rawn

f rom

t he a bove

a rchaeological e vidence, i t may b e well t o n ote t he d ifficulty o f p roving t he a bandonment o f a f ort b y t he a rmy u sing a rchaeological methods. An a bandonment c an o nly b e p roved a rchaeologically b y a n a bsence o f m aterial o f a c ertain d ate .

P ottery s hould b e m ost u seful

f or t his a s i t h as g enerally a s hort l ife a nd a lthough s ome p ieces c an r emain i n u se f or a l ong p eriod, t he b ulk o f t he material i s r apidly b roken a nd d iscarded . T his c an b e r epresented g raphically a s a r everse e xpediential c urve . W hen p ottery c an b e c losely d ated, v ery p recise d ating f or a f ort's a bandonment c an b e a chieved - f irst a nd s econd-century s amian i s s ufficiently c losely d atable t o a llow t his ( cf. H artley 1 972). Unstamped c oarse ware, h owever, c an o nly b e d ated w ithin w ide l imits a nd i t i s h ence o f l ittle u se a s a n i ndicator o f a p eriod o f a bandonment s panning o nly a f ew d ecades. T his i s p articularly s o i n t he l ate-third c entury. T he d ating o f p ottery b etween t he m id-third a nd m id-fourth c entury i s e xtremely d ifficult a s m any o f

t he t ypes i n p roduction a t t his t ime h ad a v ery l ong l ife w ith

l ittle a pparent ,

o r a t

l east

d atable ,

c hange i n f orm ,

e .g .

h ammerhead

m ortaria. T he c oin e vidence i s a lso f raught w ith d ifficulty . C oins c an h ave a v ery l ong l ife i n c irculation b ut t his c an o ften b e c urtailed o wing t o p olitical o r e conomic f actors . T he p roduction o f c oins v aried f rom o ne r eign t o a nother a nd a lso within r eigns.

I n many c ases,

e ven

c oins c annot b e p recisely d ated. I n t he l ate t hird c entury t he p roblem o f i nterpreting t he c oin e vidence i s e specially a cute s ince v ery f ew c oins c ame i nto B ritain i n t he p eriod A D 2 73 t o 2 86. T hroughout

t his

period

t he

i ssues

o f

t he

previous

d ecade

o r

two

c ontinued i n c irculation a long w ith n umerous u nofficial c opies o f t hem - t he s o-called barbarous r adiates. T hough t hese will h ave b een b roadly c ontemporary w ith t heir p rototypes, t hey c annot b e p recisely d ated . T he l ength o f t ime t hat a c oin has b een i n c irculation i s d ifficult t o a scertain ; a ttempts t o a ssess t he p eriod o f c irculation b y p aying a ttention t o t he wear o n a c oin a re wholly s ubjective.

5 5

D isturbed

c oin

h oards

c an

a lso

c omplicate

t he s ituation .

F rom

s ites t he number o f c oins f ound are i nsufficient s tatistically r eliable c onclusions t o b e d rawn . E pigraphic e vidence Britain.

I t

i s

c an

r arely a vailable f or be

biased

when

t he

i nterpretations o f i t when f ound . T he d oubt 1 912 f rom B irdoswald i s a c ase i n p oint . N ot

o nly

i s

t here

t he p roblem

o f

l ater

c omposed, o ver

r . n

p hases a s

t he

c

can

R om3n

be

m eaning

a scertaining whether

m any

1

t he

o f

R IB

a s ite

was

a bandoned - we have a lso t o t ry a nd d ecide whether t he o ccupation w hich

i s

which

i s k nown t o have been o ccupied i n t he l ate t hird c entury may

p roved a rchaeologically was

m ilitary

o r

c ivil .

E ven

a f ort

h ave b een a bandoned b y t he a rmy, t he o ccupation material b eing d erived f rom c ivilians who had moved i nto t he f ort. This d oes s eem t o have b een t he c ase a t S outh S hields where t he n umismatic evidence i s d efinitely a gainst a n a bandonment o f t he s ite i n t he l ate t hird c entury.

T he evidence f rom Malton s uggests t he s ame t hing, a s may

t hat f rom C aernarvon .

Many vici may have f ound i t

s urvive a fter t he r emoval o f t he unit. Malton

a s

a market

s urvive . s how

o ccupation b y

f orced

c entre

The f inds

t o

s tudy

d eciding

which

have

been

f rom a s ite c annot,

s oldiers

t he

may

r ather

s tructural

s tructures

impossible t o

S outh S hields a s a port a nd i n

a b etter

i n most

position

c ases,

t o

b e u sed t o

t han b y c ivilians a nd we a re h ence

e vidence .

within

H ere

a f ort

t here

were

i s

a p roblem

e ssential

t o

i n t he

c ontinued u se o f t he s ite b y t he a rmy.

The d efences must h ave b een

o f

a lso

p aramount

importance

a dministrative b uildings

a nd

o f

t he

I would f ort

s uggest

s hould h ave

b een

t hat

a ll

i n u se ,

t he

t hough

i t i s p ossible t hat i f t he a dministrative b uildings were i n d isuse t his n eed o nly s ignify m oved,

i .e .

t hat

t hat

t he f ort

was

t he headquarters

o f

t he unit h ad b een

( by p resent-day d efinition) a f ortlet .

I n a paper d elivered t o a c onference i n O xford i n March 1 979, Mr. R . J ones p roposed a new i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he n orthern f rontier . H e s uggests t hat t he evidence f or t he d ecay o f buildings within f orts r epresents a b reakdown i n military d iscipline a nd h e e vidence

f or

r ightly p oints

o ut

t hat

i n m ost

t he ' official' f ort b uildings

c ases

we

o nly

b eing i n d isrepair .

h ave T here

i s l ittle u nequivocal e vidence f or a s imilar s ituation i n t he b arracks a reas . ( At b oth H altonchesters a nd R udchester, p art o f t he r etentura s howed

c lear

e vidence

o f

d isuse) .

H e b elieves

t he

t roops

were s till

i n o ccupation, but t hat t hey were n ot l onger c ommanded b y o fficers d rawn

f rom

t he

c ity

a ristocracies

o f

o ther

p rovinces

and

t his,

t ogether with a b reakdown o f p ay ( mid-third c entury c oins a re r are a s s ite f inds) b rought a bout a c ollapse i n a rmy d iscipline ( Jones R . 1 981, 4 09). I f ind i t v ery d ifficult t o a ccept t hat t he R omans would have a llowed d iscipline t o f all s o much i n t he t hird c entury t hat a f ort's d efences c ould have b een i n a n a dvanced s tate o f d isrepair o r t hat

major

T roops

f ort

l iving

b uildings

would

have

p urpose a nd with t he c hronic s hortage o f t ime,

i t

i s

b een

a llowed

t o

c ollapse.

i n t hese f orts would h ave s erved n o u seful military

m uch m ore l ikely t hat

m en

o n

t he

C ontinent

a t

t his

t roops would h ave b een r emoved f rom

t he i sland. F or J ones,

t he c rucial p eriod f or t he n orth was i n t he t hird q uarter

o f t he t hird c entury a fter which t hings were n ever t he s ame a gain . H e mentions R IB 1 885 f rom B irdoswald, s et u p u nder t he Tetrici, t o

5 6

i llustrate

t he d ifference i n s tyle o f

s uch i nscriptions b y t he A D

2 70s, whereas I c onsider t his o ne o f t he l atest i nscriptions b elonging t o t he ' old o rder' while t he c ohors I Aelia Dacorum was s till i n g arrison. O f t he 1 5 f orts o f t he W all s ystem h ere d iscussed , a t n o s ite i s t here d efinite evidence f or t he a bandonment o f t he whole f ort. T he two f orts on t he C umbrian c oast d o s eem t o h ave b een h eld c ontinuously f rom t he t hird t o t he mid-fourth c entury. P erhaps t his was a r eaction,

a s has b een s uggested,

t o p ressure f rom t he I rish f irst

r ecorded i n t he p anegyric o f A D 2 97 ( Mann 1 974, 3 8). O f t he o ther f orts d iscussed, C arrawburgh ( and p ossibly H ousesteads) may s how p ositive e vidence o f b eing o ccupied b y t he m ilitary a t t his t ime . A t t he o ther 1 0 f orts ( the e vidence f rom R isingham i s t oo s canty t o a llow c onclusions t o b e d rawn f rom i t), I would s uggest t hat t here was e ither a p artial o r t otal a bandonment o f t hese f orts . T he e vidence f rom Haltonchesters, B irdoswald, R udchester a nd S outh S hields d oes i mply t hat t hese s ites were t otally a bandoned b y t he a rmy i n t he l ater t hird c entury . T he p eriod o f p artial o r t otal a bandonment e nvisaged n eed not have b een l ong a s t imber-framed wattle a nd d aub b uildings, e ven i f p rovided with s tone s ill walls, would s oon c ollapse i f t hey w ere n ot k ept i n g ood r epair . T he maximum p eriod o f a bandonment a t B irdoswald c an o nly have b een 2 8 years a nd i t c ould have b een much l ess. On S ewingshields, H adrian's Wall i tself was v ery b adly d ilapidated i n t he t hird a nd f or much o f t he f ourth c entury ( pers. c omm . Mr . M . S avage) . T hat t here s till was s ome i nterest i n t he W all a t t his p eriod i s i ndicated b y t he milestone ( RIB 2 307) f ound a t C awfields i n 1 882 which was s et u p b y t he e mperor N umerian ( September A D 2 83-November 2 84) o n t he m ilitary way, s uggesting t he c ontinued u se o f t hat r oad b y t he military. I t would b e u nlikely, i n a military a rea l ike t he c entral Wall s ector, f or a r oad t o b e r epaired f or a ny o ther r eason t han f or u se b y t he a rmy . A s imilar s ituation t o t hat o n t he W all s eems t o h ave e xisted i n t he r est o f n orthern B ritain with s ome f orts b eing a bandoned whilst o thers a lmost c ertainly were n ot.

B oth t he V I V ictrix a nd t he XX V aleria

V ictrix s eem t o h ave b een r educed i n s trength . T here i s e pigraphic e vidence f or t he p resence o f d etachments o f t he B ritish L egions o n t he C ontinent i n t he m id-third c entury . C ontemporary w ith t he r eduction i n s trength o f m any u nits, a l arge n ew f ort was b uilt a t P iercebridge a nd t he f orts o f Watercrook a nd T empleborough s eem t o h ave b een r eoCcupied a fter a l ong p eriod o f a bandonment . W hether t he l arge f ort a t N ewton K yme was ( Richmond

1 955 ,

c ontemporary w ith

t hat a t P iercebridge

i s u nclear

6 1-2) .

D uring t he t hird c entury, t here w as p robably a s teady d raining a way o f t roops t owards t he C ontinent a nd t o man t he .p roto . S axon S hore d efences o f t he e arly t o m id-third c entury. T he e vidence f rom R eculver s trongly s uggests t hat i ts g arrison c ame f rom t he a rmy o f n orthern B ritain, t hough a t what d ate i s u nclear . P hilp s uggests t hat t he f ort may have b een b uilt b y t he c lassis B ritannica, o nly l ater b eing g arrisoned b y t he c ohors I B aetasiorum ( Philp 1 981, 1 18 ) . A t B rancaster , t he t ile s tamp o f t he c ohors I A quitanorum m ust e ither i ndicate t hat i t f ormed t he f ort's g arrison o r h ad a t l east t aken p art i n t he f ort's c onstruction . T he s uggested a bandonment o f B irdoswald , w hich ' must' d ate t o A D 2 76 o r l ater, c ould well r epresent t he n eed f or t roops t o b uild a nd g arrison t he n ew f orts o n t he S axon S hore .

5 7

Wales,

l ightly h eld b y R oman t roops i n t he e arly t hird c entury,

t he e nd o f

t he c entury have b een a lmost

t otally d enuded o f

may b y t roops.

A t e very f ort where t here i s e vidence f or o ccupation i n t he e arlier t hird c entury, a bandoned b y

t he s ite,

t he

l ate

o r a t l east p art o f i t,

t hird c entury .

o f t he small g roup o f l ate u nclear ( cf. T empleborough) . Whereas

C arausius

t hird-century

a nd A llectus

m ay h ave

a t l east s ome t roops i n t he n orth,

s eems t o h ave been

Q uite what

i s

c oins

d eemed

t he

a t

s ignificance

Brecon G aer

i t n ecessary t o

i s

l eave

Wales was s tripped o f i ts l egion

a nd o f most o f i ts a uxiliaries and t he l egion never r eturned t o i ts o ld f ortress. n ot

c lear .

When s ome o f t he o ther f orts were a gain o ccupied i s T here was

a marked d ecline

i n h oarding d uring C arausius'

r eign with a s hift o f emphasis t o S outhern B ritain i n g eneral w hich i s maintained

t hroughout Allectus' r eign

( Shiel 1 977,

8 5).

T his c ould

r eflect t he l ack o f t hese c oins i n t he principality d ue t o t he very f ew t roops s till p resent i n t he a rea .

I n t he p re-Hadrianic p eriod

t he d istribution o f g old c oin i n B ritain was widespread whereas i n t he p eriod f rom H adrian t o S everus i t i s c oncentrated i n t he n orth . i s

g enerally

i nterprets

r are

i n

t hird-century

Britain

and

Shiel

t his a s e vidence f or t he c ontinued r eduction o f

t he B ritish p rovinces .

U nder

t he

' British

Empire'

t here

G old

r ightly

t he a rmy o f was

a gain a

s izeable a rmy i n t he c ountry, but i t was c learly ( as i s s een b y t he g old a nd s ilver h oard d istribution) c oncentrated i n t he s outh a nd e ast o f

t he

Was

c ountry .

t he

C umbrian

Hiberni?

c oast

s till

T he a bandonment o f

h eld

owing

t o

t he Welsh f orts

f rom

t he

may s uggest t hat

t he

t hreat

t he

t hreat f rom I reland had not materialised u ntil t he very e nd o f t he t hird

c entury,

believe. a gainst

o r

was

n ot

a s

s erious

a s

t he p anegyrist

t he n orthern

t ribes.

T he

Wall

g arrison

r educed i f t he o utposts were s till held. n orth

would h ave

u s

T he C umbrian c oast f orts may have been held a s ad efence

i n

t he

l ate

t hird c entury;

i tself

c ould

b e

T here was t rouble i n t he

B ewcastle

may h ave

b een

d estroyed

a t t his t ime. C arinus a nd Numerian a ssumed t he t itle Britannicus Maximus i n AD 2 84 ( ILS 6 08). J arrett has s uggested t hat t he t roops r ecorded

o n

C arausius' l egionary

c oinage f rom n on-British

have f ormed a n exercitus a nd b e c onnected with t his 1 968B,

8 8).

D iocletian

n either c ase i s T he

a ssumed

t he whereabouts o f

s trengthening

o f

t he

t he

s ame

t itle

l egions

t itle

i n

AD

m ay

( Jarrett 2 85.

I n

t he f ighting k nown .

s outh

and

e ast

c oasts

with

n ew

f orts

r epresented a major b uilding p rogramme. L ittle help c ould b e e xpected f rom t he C ontinent where P robus was f ully e ngaged i n e xternal wars a nd i n p roviding H e

d id,

h owever,

i ncrease

t he

t he c ities o f Western E urope with d efences.

s ettle B urgundian a nd V andal p risoners

a rmy

with

G overnor o f B ritain

l oyal

( Zosimus,

t he

i n B ritain

u surpation

t o

s oldiers

f ollowing

o f

6 6-68).

T here was p robably n o f ighting

a

i n B ritain a t t his t ime - t he d ownfall o f t he u surper was a ccomplished b y t reachery. T he l ate t hird-century S axon S hore d efences s how marked s imilarities i n c onstruction a nd d esign t o t he l ater t hirdc entury c ity d efences o f G aul which s eem t o d ate t o t he a ftermath o f t he

g reat

p robably t hat

b arbarian c ompleted

C arausius

t he u se o f were

i nvasion o f A D b y

e arly

i n

2 76 .

T he

C arausius'

m ay h ave owed h is

r apid

S axon

r eign

s uccess

a nd

S hore

s ystem

J ohnson

a gainst

t he

was

s uggests S axons

t o

t hese n ew f ortifications a nd t o t he s trategy f or which t hey

d esigned.

H e

c ertainly had a l arge

5 8

a rmy

and

t he

l egionary

c oinage

o f

C arausius

must i ndicate t hat

l egions were under his c ommand. t he whole o f l egion

l egions

t he whole o r p art o f t hese

He may o nly have h ad c ontrol over

I I A ugusta a nd X X V aleria V ictrix p lus o ne o ther

( the panegyrist o f C onstantine mentions a l egion won over).

N ine l egions a re r ecorded on t he c oinage;

S heil b elieves t hat e ach

would be r epresented b y ad etachment " almost c ertainly o f u nder v ery

a p raepositus" l oosely

d etachments m ade,

i t

J ones

l ate

Roman

T he

p eriod;

o ften only p ossible i f

1 978,

D anube

t he

1 977,190).

i ts

c ontemporary

5 52).

t o know

e xistence

P erhaps a s

i t.

( 0.

XXXIII,

t o

a l egion

e lsewhere

u sed

d escribe

i s

r eally

i s k nown

5 2-7).

I t

a

( Duncan-

i s

i nteresting

t hat

t he

y et C arausius must have

T hat h is p ower e xtended i nto N orthern B ritain i s

m ilestone s et u p b y h im n ear C arlisle

C arausius' s uccesses

a whole

u sed

s ince n o d istinction i s

t hat

V I V ictrix i s n ot r ecorded o n t he c oinage, c ontrolled

i s

T he I I Adiutrix i s r ecorded a t s ix f orts o n t he

i n t he N otitia

p roved b y t he

1 ,000 men

t erm ' legion' i s

i t

a s well a s whole l egions a nd,

i s

d etachment

i n

( Sheil

r edundant

a gainst

t he

- P ortchester

p irates

c ertainly

a bandoned d uring C arausius' r eign .

( RIB

2 291) .

r endered s eems

t he

t o

s ystem

have

b een

A s he was f acing t he t hreat o f

i nvasion f rom t he C entral Empire v ia t he R hine mouth, P ortchester well t o t he west m ay h ave b een d eemed u nnecessary . R eculver, g uarding t he T hames

e stuary,

s hould h owever

h ave

b een

o f

p rime

i mportance .

T he

a rchaeological e vidence f rom t his s ite i s n ot y et p recise e nough t o a llow u s t o d ate t he a pparent d isuse o f t he f ort c losely but i t i s p ossible t hat i t was a bandoned o n t he d eath o f Allectus. We know f rom

t he l iterary s ources

w aiting

f or

t he

i nvasion

( Pan. Lat. V III ( V), t he

1 5,

newly-completed

t hat

t he

f leet

f leet

o f A llectus

o f A sclepiodotus b y

t he

a t

P ortchester,

e arlier f ourth

c entury,

t he

with f leet ,

r enewal o f

t rade with B ritain,

Argonne

ware

t o

l ay

i n

Wight

evidence

i ts

g ood

B ritain

e .g.

f rom

n orth-west

1 980,

G aul

T here was a

t he e xport o f B BI

( Galliou

n atural

y et t he s ite s eems

s uggests t hat t he Romans were i n c ommand o f t he s eas. a nd

2 96

1 ) and i t would be r easonable t o a ssume t hat

f ort

h arbour, would h ave f ormed t he b ase f or t his t o h ave b een t otally d isused a t t his t ime . I n

i n A D

t he I sle o f

t o A rmorica

4 13).

T here

i s

n o

r eference t o a l arge f leet i n t he C hannel a fter C arausius and S hiel s uggests t hat t here may have b een p olitical r easons f or t his - t he l esson o f C arausius' u surpation was n ot e asily f orgotten ( Shiel 1 977 , 7 ). T he l arge f leet u nder o ne c ommander may have b een d ivided and b ased o n i ndividual f orts, a s i s s uggested b y t he c lassis A nderitiana. D uring p ower

t he

t hird

c entury

t here

was

c learly

w ithin t he t wo B ritain p rovinces .

l arge p roportion o f s outh a nd e ast,

p artly a s a r esult o f t he

t o

s uggests

t hat

S uperior

may

t he h ave,

t he e nd o f

t he c entury, a

t he a rmy i n t he i sland was c oncentrated i n t he

p artly

owing

a c hange i n t he b alance o f

B y

t hreat

f rom

headquarters i n

t heory,

t he t hreat

f rom s ea r aiders a nd

t he C entral Empire . o f

units

r emained

moved i n

t he

Mr . f rom

n orth

C .M . D aniels I nferior s o

t hat

t o t he

r elative s trengths o f t he two p rovincial a rmies r emained t he s ame. I t i s n oteworthy t hat b y t he e nd o f t he c entury a l arge n umber o f n ew t roops had t o b e b rought i nto t he i sland; t his

t here were p resumably b y

t ime n o t roops i n t he n orth and west t hat c ould b e u sed a s t he

a rmy o f t he B ritish p rovinces h ad b een r educed t o t he m inimum p ossible s ize.

r ) 9

C HAPTER 4

F ORTS W ITHOUT A NGLE-TOWERS, A RTILLERY, A ND T HE P ROVISION O F P ROJECTING T OWERS

T here a re o ccupation

a n umber d o n ot s eem

e xternal a ngle-towers.

o f f orts which a t s ome t ime d uring t heir t o h ave b een p rovided with e ither i nternal o r T he s tandard f ort p lan u p t o t he m id-third

c entury i n B ritain c alled f or a small r ectangular i nternal t ower i n e ach a ngle whilst i nterval-towers.

many f orts were a lso p rovided with i nternal I n t he l ater R oman p eriod , t hese i nternal a ngle-

t owers w ere u sually r eplaced b y e xternal-towers . T here a re s ome e xamples o f e arly f orts b uilt without angle-towers. I n t urf a nd t imber f orts i t i s n ot a lways e asy t o d etermine w hether t imber t owers h ad b een p resent a s, i f t heir t imbers w ere s et o nly i nto t he r ampart w hich was t hen p artially d enuded , n o t race o f t hem would r emain . W hen f orts w ere b uilt o r r ebuilt i n s tone, o ne would e xpect t hat t he f oundations o f t he t owers would b e t aken d own t o t he s ubsoil , t hough i n s ome c ases where a s tone r evetment was a dded t o a pree xisting r ampart, t he t ower f oundations may n ot h ave r eached t hrough t he r ampart . T he i nserted i nterval-tower a t B inchester was f ounded o n t he e arlier r ampart ( Dobson a nd J arrett 1 958) a s was t he n orth a ngle-tower a t C aernarvon ( Wheeler 1 921, f ig 5 ) . I n t hese c ases, a ll t race o f a t ower c ould b e r emoved a lthough t he f ort wall m ay s till r emain i n s itu . T he s tone d efensive wall a t D rumburgh, p ossibly d ating t o c irca A D 1 63 , m et H adrian's W all a t r ight-angles a nd n o t owers were p laced i n t hese a ngles ( Haverfield 1 899 , 8 5) . T he s tone f orts a t B almuildy a nd C astläcary a lso h ave n orthern a ngles o f 9 0° w ith n o t owers w hilst t he f ort a t C arrawburgh which h as a n i dentical r elationship t o t he Wall , d oes s eem t o h ave h ad a ngle-towers ( Daniels 1 978A , 1 26) . A t C astell C ollen t he a bsence o f a t ower w as i nferred i n t he s outh-west a ngle o f t he r educed f ort ( Thomas R . 1 911), t hough A lcock maintains t hat t he t rench h ad n ot b een c arried f ar e nough t o p rove t he a bsence o f at ower ( Alcock

1 954 ,

7 3) .

T he

t ower i n t he n orth-west

a ngle

o f

t he

r educed

f ort l ooks m ore l ike a n i nterval-tower o f t he e arlier f ort, t hough i t c ould h ave r emained i n u se a s a n a ngle-tower . C order t hought t hat t here h ad n ot a t a ny t ime b een a t ower i n t he n orth a ngle a t Malton ( Corder 1 930, 1 1) b ut i t i s p ossible t hat t his a pparent a bsence o f a t ower w as t he r esult o f l ater d isturbance; n o s tratification s urvived i mmediately w ithin t he n orth a ngle f or a d istance o f

3 .05m .

A s e arly a s t he s econd c entury, t owers o n f ort walls b egan t o g o o ut o f u se . O n t he s outh-west s ide o f t he P rysg F ield a t C aerleon,

6 0

t owers were d ismantled i n t he m id-second c entury whilst o n t he n orthw est s ide o f t he s ame a rea , s ome o f t he t owers c ame t o a n e arlier e nd ( Boon 1 972A , 3 8; N ash-Williams 1 931, 1 36) . T he west a ngle-tower w as a lso p artly d emolished c irca A D 1 50 . A t Ambleside t he s outh wall o f t he n orth-east a ngle-tower was r uinous b y c irca A D 1 80 a nd was n ever r ebuilt ( Haverfield , C ollingwood a nd F reeston 1 914, 4 44 ; C ollingwood 1 915, 1 5). O n H adrian's Wall i n t he mid a nd l ater-second c entury, m any t urrets went o ut o f u se, most p robably b eing d emolished i n t he e arly t hird c entury . T he t owers o ver m any m ilecastle g ateways were a lso p robably d emolished a t t he s ame t ime . A t s ome d ate u nknown , a n i nterval-tower o n t he n orth wall a t H ousesteads west o f t he g ate was d emolished. I n t he f orts t he g round-floor c hambers o f many t owers were u sed t o h ouse ovens l ookouts.

whilst t he u pper I t i s n ot c lear

s torey o r s toreys will have h oused t o what e xtent t hey were u sed f or

a rtillery. There i s ample e vidence f or t he p resence o f a rtillery within s econd-century f orts a lthough i t h as g enerally b een a ssumed t hat d efensive a rtillery would o nly b e n eeded i n f orts i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies - a v iew which s hould p erhaps b e modified . F inds o f a rtillery s hot a nd b olt h eads a re a s c ommon i n e arly a s i n l ate l evels; o ne v ery l arge ballista b all weighing o ne h undredweight was f ound a t H altonchesters i n a s econd-century l evel ( Simpson F . and Richmond 1 937,

1 67-8).

B allista b alls o f t he s ame weight o r

m ore h ave b een f ound n ear t he n orth g ate a t H ousesteads ( Collingwood 1 930A) a nd a nother was f ound i n t he t hird-century i nner d itch a t B rough-on-Noe ( Jones G . a nd W ild 1 969A ) . I t has b een s uggested t hat a rtillery was u sed o nly b y t he l egions w hich a re k nown t o h ave h ad a s tandard q uota o f a rtillery . T here i s, h owever , a l ittle l iterary e vidence k indly b rought t o m y a ttention b y Mr . J . C . C oulston, t o s uggest t hat t he a uxilia were t rained t o o perate a rtillery ( Arrian T actica 4 3, 1 -3). A rchaeologically, t he p resence o f a rtillery within a uxiliary f orts i s o ften i ndicated . Marsden s uggested t hat t hese a rtillery p ieces m ay h ave b een m anned b y l egionary d etachments

o r ,

i n t he c ase o f

t he p resumed

o naRri

a t

H igh

R ochester, t hat s uch s imple e ngines may have b een o perated b y t he a uxiliary u nit i tself ( Marsden 1 969 , 1 91) . A lthough i t i s u nlikely t hat t he a uxilia u sed a rtillery i n t he f ield, t here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t hat d efensive a rtillery c ould h ave b een c ommonly a ssigned t o f orts.

I s t here a n eed t o a ssume i n e ach c ase where a rtillery i s

a ttested a rchaeologically i n a s econd-century a uxiliary

c ontext ,

t hat

a l egionary a rtillery c rew w as p rovided? I t i s s urprising t o f ind t hat i n t he t hird c entury when we s hould p erhaps e xpect t he u se o f a rtillery t o h ave b ecome m ore c ommon , s ome f orts

w ere b uilt

w ithout a ngle-towers .

T here h as b een

m uch

w ritten

o n t he t ype o f s tructure n eeded t o s upport a nd h ouse a rtillery. I t was c ertainly p referable t o h ave a rtillery m ounted u nder c over a s t hey w ere v ery p rone t o d eterioration f rom d ampness; we would e xpect c atapultae a nd b allistae t o b e h oused i n t he wall t owers. T he r eference i n Ammianus f or t he n eed t o p rovide a r esilient p latform t o withstand t he r ecoil o f a rtillery p ieces s eems o nly t o have b een n ecessary

when

o naRri

were

b eing

u sed .

( Ammianus

o ften

m istakenly

r efers t o o nagri a s ' scorpiones'); i t i s u nlikely t hat s uch p latforms were n eeded f or t he s tone-throwing b allistae o f t he e arlier E mpire.

6 1

I n

t he Hellenistic p eriod,

a l arge n umber o f

f ortifications

were

d esigned s pecifically f or u se b y a rtillery a nd t he t owers i n which t hese

p ieces

were

t hin walls . i n

h oused

A ncient

m obile s iege t owers,

s iege o f

S alamis

were

writers

o ften

o f

m ention

g reat

t he

h eight

p lacing

with

o f

a g ood e xample o f w hich i s

r elatively

h eavy

a rtillery

t he a ccount o f

t he

i n C yprus b y Demetrius P oliocetes when h e u sed a

s iege t ower o f wood 3 9.9m high with n ine s toreys: " Into

t he

l owest

f loors

o f

t his

h e

i ntroduced

a ll

s orts

o f

t hrowers o f which t he l argest were t hree t alent e ngines; m iddle

f loors

t he

l argest

t he s mallest a rrow S iculus XX 4 8 3 ).

a rrow

f irers

s hooting

c atapults,

a nd a n umber o f

i nto

s tone

i nto

t he

t he h ighest,

s tone t hrowers ..." ( Diodorus

Marsden c onsidered t hat t he r esilient p latforms f or a rtillery l ike t hat

r ecorded b y Ammianus

were

o nly needed f or

onagri.

R ochester a n i nscription r ecording t he b uilding o f b een f ound ( RIB 1 280) d ating t o A D 2 20. R IB r estoration o f A lexander . t ook

A t

High

a b allistarium has 1 281 r ecords t he

a nother b allistarium f rom g round l evel u nder S everus

I n h is

e xcavations

t o

b e

a b allistarium

p ottery

t o

t he A D

2 20s.

o f

a nd

t his

s ite ,

d ated i t

Marsden

s aw

R ichmond

b y

t his

t he a s

f ound

w hat

i nscriptions

t he

h e and

e arliest-dated

e vidence f or o nagri, yet o ne o f t hese i nscriptions r ecords t hat t he b allistarium was b eing r estored f rom g round l evel, ( he b elieved t he t hese p latforms would b e u sed f or o nagri e ven t hough t hey a re c alled ballistaria). s ome

Although t he ballistarium f ound by Richmond s ealed

t hird-century material, o thers

i n t he f ort c ould b e much e arlier .

R ichmond h imself t hought h e h ad f ound a b allistarium a t H altonchesters which

c onsisted

o f

a h eavy p itching

o f

s tones

a nd c lay

9 .1m b ehind t he r ampart u p t o t he i ntervallum r oad R ichmond l arge

1 937,

1 67) .

H e c onnected t he u se o f

s tone b all n oted a bove which was

R ochester. b etween c ontext

E lsewhere

h e

n otes

t hat

e xtending

f or

( Simpson F .

and

t his s tructure w ith t he

a s b ig a s o ther

t hose

s tone

f rom

b alls

High

weighing

o ne h undredweight a nd 1 751bs were f ound i n a s econd-century ( Richmond 1 946 , 6 3) . A l arge b allista b all was f ound o n t he

b erm o utside t he f ourth-century west g ate a t R isingham a nd a nother was f ound o n t he west r ampart i n a t hird-century c ontext ( Richmond 1 936, 1 86,

1 94).

E arlier,

R ichmond had

f ound what he

t ook

t o b e a b allistarium

C awthorn i n t he s outh-east a ngle o f C amp A which mound

i n

s toney

t he

u pcast

f oundation

a ngle

c omposed o f

( Richmond

within

t he

m ile-fortlet

b allistarium a t H igh R ochester T here a re a n umber o f

a lternate

1 932,

3 3). a t

A

l ayers

o f

small

c lay

C ardurnock

( Simpson F .

c onsisted

was

a nd H odgson

o f

t urf

a nd v ery

and

c obble

c ompared t o 1 948,

a t

a g reat

t he

9 3) .

s ites w here e xcavators h ave i dentified t owers a s

b eing d esigned f or u se b y a rtillery a nd i n e very c ase t his h as been d ue t o t he f act t hat t he t ower d id n ot h ave a d oor a t g round l evel a nd was f illed s olid .

I n 1 922, Wheeler i dentified s uch a t ower a t t he

n orth-east g ate o f C aernarvon which r eplaced t he t imber g uardroom a nd was f illed with l oose y ellow c ement . T he e xcavator d ated i t t o t he S everan p eriod ( Wheeler 1 922, 2 70-1) . A t C hester, t he i nterval and a ngle-towers s eem t o h ave h ad s olid g round-floor c hambers ( Thompson F . 1 965,

2 8).

f loor l evel; p arapet

T he S everan t owers a t Y ork

had n o d oorways

a t g round-

t hey were e ntered f rom t he r ampart walk and f rom t he

w alk .

6 2

I n t he e ast a ngle-tower t he l ow g round-floor c hamber c ould b e e ntered b y a manhole b locked l ater i n R oman t imes . T his c hamber h ad a lways b een p artially f illed b y t he r emains o f t he r ampart b elonging t o t he e arth a nd t imber d efences a nd i t was l ater f illed with b urnt matter r einforced b y m assive b locks o f l imestone c arefully l aid i n c ourses ( RCHM Y ork,

3 1).

T he e xcavator

t hought

t hat

t he

t ower h ad b een

a

b allistarium t hroughout i ts l ife a nd t hat t he c onsolidation w ith s tone w as p robably t o a llow t he s tructure t o s upport h eavier e ngines ( Miller 1 928, 6 8). I n t he n orth-west a ngle a t C hesterholm, a s imilar t ower was f ound and t he e xcavator n oted o ther p ossible f eatures o f a n a rtillery t ower ( Birley E . 1 932B, 2 16-7). H e b elieved t he t ower t o b e c ontemporary with t he f ort wall a lthough i t had n ot b een b onded i nto i t , a nd h e s uggested t hat t his was t o a llow f or s ome r esiliency i n t he s tructure . T his t ower a lso h ad m assive f oundations, a s h ad a n i nterval-tower a t B inchester e xcavated i n 1 955 ( Dobson a nd J arrett 1 958) . B irley s uggested t hat i n b oth c ases t hese f oundations r eflect t he use o f t he t owers f or a rtillery, b ut i t i s e qually p ossible t hat t hey were g iven d eep f oundations b ecause t hey were s et i nto e arlier a nd p ossibly u nstable r ampart b anks . T he n orth-east a ngle-tower a t C hesterholm , t ower . I ts

e xcavated i n 1 979 , h as b een h ailed a s f oundations o f l arge b oulders a re v ery

a nother a rtillery l ike t hose o f t he

l ate i nterval-towers o n t he n orth a nd e ast walls a t H ousesteads w here , i n b oth c ases, t he f oundations w ould s eem t o h ave s upported a m asonry s tructure a nd were n ot p latforms l ike t he ballistaria a t H igh R ochester a nd H altonchester . T he t owers a t H ousesteads h ave d oorways i nto t heir T here

g round-floor

c hambers .

i s n o p articular r eason why t hese t ypes o f

t ower n eed h ave b een

d esigned f or u se b y a rtillery s ince t he t ype o f a rtillery t hat c ould h ave b een m ounted i n i nternal f ort-towers w ould o f n ecessity h ave b een s mall , a nd e ven m oderately-sized e ngines would h ave b een t oo l arge t o h ave b een h oused within a ngle a nd i nterval-towers. N o e specially s trong s tructure would have b een n eeded t o s upport t hese e ngines. T owers with s olid b ases may have b een o f g reater h eight t han u sual . T he U-shaped p rojecting t owers a t P ortchester, which a re g enerally t hought t o h ave b een d esigned f or a rtillery u se, h ad wooden f loors w hereas a t o ther S axon S hort f orts t he t owers h ad s olid b ases . T he i nterval-towers a t R ichborough h ad t imber-laced c oncrete f irst f loors, c irca 1 .52m t hick , a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t he l owest c hamber h ad b een f illed w ith e arth ( Cunliffe 1 968 , 2 46) . T he i nterval-tower o n t he e ast wall a t B irdoswald ,

n orth o f

t he p orta

p rincipalis d extra , h as b en s uggested a s a n a rtillery s tance . A fter a n i nserted k iln had b een d emolished i n t he l atest p hase o f t he t ower's u se, i ts e ast wall h ad b een t hickened f rom 1 .52 t o 3 .35m ( Gillam 1 950, 6 8) b y which t ime t he west a nd s outh walls were p resumably i n r uins. A t H ousesteads t he p orta d ecumana ( Birley E . 1 936,

1 ) a nd a t C hesters t he p orta p rincipalis

s inistra

( Birley E .

1 959, 1 6) were b oth b locked, u ltimately a t b oth e nds, a nd t he i nteriors were f illed u p s olid . I n b oth c ases B irley p ostulated t hat t his work d ated t o t he l ate f ourth c entury. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he m assive p latforms s o p rovided would h ave f ormed a n e xcellent b ase o n w hich t o m ount a rtillery ( Daniels 1 978A , 1 11) . S imilar l arge r ectangular t owers with t heir f irst f loors s upported o n p iers a nd v aults a re c ommon o n t he l ower D anube f rontier .

I n s ome c ases,

t hese

t owers o ccupy t he s ites o f e arlier g ates b ut a lthough t hey a re c laimed a s a rtillery p latforms, o nly a t U lmentum i n S cythia h as s tone

6 3

s hot b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith t hem ( Crow 1 981 , 1 14-6 ) . B irley a lso s uggested t hat t he t hickenings b ehind t he n orth a nd e ast walls a t H ousesteads r epresent e mplacements p rovided f or b allistae b ut a t l east o ne o f t hese h as b een i nterpreted b y D aniels a s a s taircase r amp . I s i t p ossible t hat t he c hangeover f rom b allistae t o o nagri , p erhaps b eginning i n t he s econd c entury a nd i ncreasingly i n t he t hird c entury , r esulted a t l east i n B ritain i n t he b uilding o f f orts without i nternal a ngle-towers? A s well a s r equiring a r esilient p latform, o nagri were n ot f itted t o b eing f ired f rom w ithin t owers a nd t hey must h ave b een p laced i n t he o pen . When writing o f c amp d efences i n t he d e munitionibus c astrorum ( chapter 5 8), t he a uthor s tates t hat " artillery p ieces s hould b e s et u p n ext t o t he g ates a nd a t

t he a ngles

o n p latforms a nd i n p lace o f t owers" . I n t he a ngles o f t hose f orts known t o have had n o a ngle-towers, h owever, t here i s n o known provision o f b allistaria. Within t he north-east a ngle a t P iercebridge t here i s a l atrine , t hough t his m ay n ot b e p rimary; i n t he s outh-west a ngle n o s tructure w as i dentified . I mmediately t o t he west o f t he l atrine, t he p resence o f many l arge s tones - a lmost b oulders - s uggested t o t he e xcavators t hat t here may h ave been a b allista p latform h ere ( Richardson a nd K eeney 1 934-6 , 2 53) . A t R udchester , w ithin t he s outh-west a ngle , a f lagged f loor c onsisting mostly o f r e-used s tones was f ound which p resumably overlay t he f oundations o f t he p rimary t ower ( Brewis 1 925, 9 9).

I n t he north-

e ast a ngle a t B inchester , t here i s c lear e vidence f or a t ower having b een d emolished . O n H oppell's p lan h e m arks t he p osition o f a s tone wall w hich h ad b een r emoved ( plate 3 ), a nd o n t he a ccompanying woodc ut t he s car l eft b y t he r emoval o f t hat wall a nd t he p ossible r emains o f t he s outh-east wall c an b e s een ( Hoopell 1 891). No t ower was n oted i n t he e xcavation o f t he n orth a ngle ( Steer 1 938). N o e xcavator, o n f inding n egative e vidence f or t he p resence o f a n i nternal a ngle-tower , h as s hown m uch s urprise , n or h as a nyone s ought t o e xplain t he p ossible r easons

f or s uch a n a bsence .

I n t he s outh-west a ngle a t R eculver a t hickening o f t he wall w as n oted a nd t he e xcavator t hought t his m ore l ikely t o b e a s tructural r ather t han a n a rtillery emplacement. H owever, i t may h ave s upported a n a ngle-tower . T he p ossibly m ilitary d efences a t C aister-by-Yarmouth h ad a t ower i n t he s outh-east a ngle , b ut p erhaps n ot i n t he n orth e ast w here .a r ectangular f ooting p rojecting 1 .83m f rom t he b ack o f t he wall a nd a bout 4 .57m l ong was a dded t o t he wall . T he e xcavator d ated t his t o p erhaps A D 3 10-30 a nd s uggested t hat i t f ormed a r amp o r s taircase ( Ellison 1 966, 5 1). I n many c ases t he d ate o f f orts without a ngle-towers o r t he d ate a t w hich a ngle-towers were d emolished i s u nclear . P iercebridge d ates t o c irca A D 2 70 a nd C hesterholm, i f i t was o riginally r ebuilt without a ngle-towers a nd i f t he w ork d ates t o c irca A D 2 20 , i s a nother d ated e xample. A t B ainbridge n o t ower was f ound i n t he n orth-east angle ( Droop 1 928, 8 1) b ut i t i s p ossible t hat t he a bsence o f a t ower may o nly d ate t o t he r ebuilding o f t he e ast f ort wall i n t he e arly f ourth c entury, t hough t here i s n o e vidence t o p rove t his. o f

N o o ther angle

t he f ort h as b een e xcavated .

T he t wo f orts a t B urrow-in-Lonsdale and E lslack a re particularly i nteresting. B oth h ave b een d ated t o t he e arly f ourth c entury, b ut

6 4

o n

l ittle

evidence.

The

d ating

material

f rom

Eislack

was

i nadequately p ublished ( May 1 911) a nd t hat f rom B urrow-in-Lonsdale, f ound i n t he e xcavations o f 1 952 a nd 1 953, c onsisted o f o nly t wo p ieces o f p ottery s ignificantly s tratified ( Hildyard 1 954). B oth t hese p ieces c ould a s e asily i ndicate a d ate i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird c entury f or t he f ort's c onstruction . H ildyard c ompared t he f ort a t

Bur row in-Lons d ale

t o

t hat

a t

E ls l ack

and

t hought

t hem

c ontemporary; t he f ort a t P iercebridge , which was t hen a lso d ated t o t he e arly f ourth c entury, was n ot d issimilar . B oth B urrow-in-Lonsdale ( fig 3 .1) a nd E lsack ( fig 3 .2) have g ates ( where known) t owards t he c entre o f t heir walls a nd a t t he l atter f ort, t here were d efinitely n o t owers i n t he s outh-east a nd n orth-west a ngles, whilst a t t he f ormer t here was n o t ower i n t he o nly a ngle e xamined , t hat a t t he s outh-east . A t E lslack t he f ort wall, c irca 2 .67m wide, r ests o n a f ooting o ver 2 .74m wide . T he e xcavator t hought h e had f ound a c ontemporary c lay b ank . A ll t he g ates s eem t o h ave b een s ingle p ortal , t he n orth , w est and e ast b eing a bout 3 .05m wide, b ut o nly t he s outh g ate with a r oadway a bout 3 .2m wide had g uardchambers which were i nternal a nd r ectangular ( fig 2 1.6). B oth t hese g uardchambers were b uilt s eparately f rom t he f ort wall , e ven h aving t heir o wn f acing t owards t he f ort wall. T he n orth a nd s outh g ates ( fig 1 8 .2) a t B urrow-inL onsdale a re d ouble-portalled ; t he f ort wall v aries i n w idth f rom 1 .37m t o 0 .91m . W ithin t he n orth-west a ngle a t E is l ack a nd b y t he w est g ate , a s pread o f s tones c ould p ossibly h ave b een t he f oundations o f b allistaria . T hat b y t he west g ate , s et b ack 1 .22m f rom t he i nner f ace o f t he wall , c onsisted o f a l evel b ed o f c losely-packed b oulders, 4 .57 x 2 .74m which May t hought were t he f ootings o r f oundations f or t he o riginal

g ate-tower .

I n t he e arly f ourth c entury a n umber o f f orts were g iven n ew walls o r h ad

t heir

walls

e xtensively

r epaired .

E xcept

f or

t he p ossible

c ase

a t Bainbridge, t hese f orts were g iven i nternal i nterval a nd a nglet owers. A t Y ork, where a l arge part o f t he c urtain wall may have b een r ebuilt w ere b uilt .

f rom t he f oundations, b oth i nternal a nd e xternal t owers I t i s a ssumed t hat t he p rovision o f e xternal t owers was

f or u se b y a rtillery, b ut l ittle e vidence f or t he u se o f a rtillery h as b een f ound i n t he S axon S hore f orts. B oon, r eferring t o t he t owers o n t he s outh-west wall a t Y ork, writes: " Heavy a rtillery, i ndeed a r egular i nstallation o f a rtillery a t a ll was s carcely l ikely t o b e f ound ( and e ven l ess l ikely i n t he s maller t owers o f o ther l ate f ort o r t own d efences)" ( Boon 1 979) . I n a r ampart b uilding a t Y ork b y t he n orth-east g ate, a pparently o f f ourth-century d ate, f ive b allista b alls were f ound i n 1 860 , a t l east o ne o f w hich w eighed nibs ( denham 1 959-62, 5 75-6). N o s tone s hot has b een f ound a t R ichborough o r P ortchester a lthough b oth s ites have b een e xtensively e xcavated . S ome have b een n oted f rom B urgh C astle a nd p erhaps f rom P evensey ( Mothersole 1 924 , 1 70) . F rom P ortchester , o nly o ne d efinite a nd o ne p ossible a rtillery b olt were f ound ( Cunliffe 1 975, 2 33); f rom R ichborough t here m ay b e s everal b olt h eads , t hough o nly a f ew n eed b e a ssociated with t he s tone f ort ( Bushe-Fox 1 949 , 1 53; C unliffe 1 968 , 1 08). I t i s p robable t hat t he p rovision o f e xternal t owers w as p rimarily f or t he u se o f a rchers n ot f or a rtillery. I n t he f orts o n t he S axon S hore, most c urtains a re a bout 3 7 .5m l ong o r l ess. B urgh C astle, w ith c urtains o f a bout 9 1 .5 a nd 6 7 .1m , a nd P evensey w ith t wo c urtains p ossibly o f 9 1.5m a re e xceptional, b at e ven i n t hese c ases, a rchers

6 5

would s till h ave b een a ble t o p rotect t he d ead g round immediately i n f ront o f t he n eighbouring t owers. When t he c urtain l ength d ropped much b elow 3 0m, i t must h ave p resented d ifficulties f or f iring a rtillery a t s uch c lose r ange . T he t wo c urtains o f a bout 2 1m a t R ichborough a nd t hose o f c irca 2 1 a nd 1 2m a t P evensey c ould be more a dequately c overed b y a rchers o r e ven j avelin men . The H ellenistic walls b uilt f or u se b y a rtillery a t S ide h ad c urtains o f c irca 6 1m whilst a t P erge t hey were a bout 3 0m . O n A urelian 's Wall , t he a verage c urtain w as 3 0 .5m l ong . T owers were u seful t o a rchers b ecause t hey g ave t he d efenders a n a dded h eight a dvantage a nd a llowed a g reater c oncentration o f f ire p ower t han c ould e asily b e a ccommodated o n t he c urtain wall . T hey p rovided t he s ame a dvantages f or a rtillery, b ut a rtillery would b e u sed t o e ngage t he e nemy while h e was s till well b eyond t he f ort wall . T o f unction e ffectively t herefore , a rtillery d id n ot n ecessarily r equire p rojecting t owers. T he p rovision o f a wide d itch s ystem n eed n ot r eflect t he u se o f a rtillery b ut r ather t hat t he R omans were a ware o f a g reater t hreat c f . w ide d itch s ystems a t A rdoch, Whitley C astle . T he p rovision o f more c omplex d itch s ystems a nd a g reater c oncentration o f t owers , a lthough p erhaps b eing u sed i n d efences where a rtillery were employed , n eed n ot r eflect t hat s uch d efences were d esigned f or u se with a rtillery . T he walls o f R ome , b egun u nder A urelian a nd f inished b y h is s uccessor , P robus, a re l ikely t o h ave i ncorporated a ll t he l atest d evelopments i n d efensive a rchitecture . T hey a re t hought t o h ave b een d esigned f or u se b y a rtillery : 'here i s l ittle d oubt t hat A urelianic t owers were d esigned m ind .

with

t he

d eployment

o f

a rtillery ,

T he s olid c onstruction o f

e specially

b allistae,

t he t owers a nd t he wide w indows

i n o r

c asements c an b est b e e xplained i n c onnection with s iege a rtillery" ( Todd 1 978B, 3 4). W hen t he walls were f urther embellished b y Mamentius ( or p ossibly C onstantine) i n t he e arly f ourth c entury, t he h eight o f t he wall a nd t he t owers was i ncreased b ut t he d efences s eem t o h ave r etained t he s ame t actical a rrangements. Artillery was p resumably s till c onsidered o f a vailable

i n l arge e nough n umbers

g reat

importance a nd was p resumably

t o m ake

t he

d efence

o f

a n e nceinte

1 2 miles i n l ength f easible . B y t he e arly f ifth c entury, h owever, d uring t he r estoration o f t he walls b y H onorius i n A D 4 01-3 , a rtillery was n ot e nvisaged a s p laying a major r ole i n t he c ity's d efence; l ittle was d one t o t he walls a nd t owers b eyond t he r eplacement o f windows b y

n arrow

l oopholes wherever t his c ould b e c onveniently

e ffected ( Todd 1 980,

6 1).

T his must r epresent t he r eplacement o f

a rtillery b y a rchers. I t c ould h ave b een b rought a bout b y t he i nability t o p rovide a s ufficient n umber o f a rtillery pieces t o t he c ity r ather t han b y a c hange i n d efensive t actics. This c hange n o d oubt r eflects t he c urrent

c hanges

i n t he p rovinces .

We k now f rom Ammianus t hat d efensive a rtillery was u sed i n t he m idf ourth c entury a t Amida a nd S ingara . H owever , a t b oth t hese s ites, a ll t he t owers were c learly d esigned f or u se b y a rchers, b eing p rovided o nly with a rrow

s lits.

I f

p laced

o n

t he

parapet

walk,

a rtillery would s eriously h ave i nterfered w ith c ommunications a long t he wall a nd t hey would a lso h ave b een v ery v ulnerable , a s t hey would h ave b een i f p laced o n t he t ower r oofs . A t Amida t he walkway a round t he t op o f t he t owers was o nly 2m wide . T he u se o f a rtillery a t t hose s ieges must h ave b een q uite small, t he main d efence being p rovided b y a rchers

( Hastie

1 979 ,

6 6

1 9) .

T he u se

o f

a rtillery

i n f ort

d efence i s

d ifficult

t o p rove .

O nly a t

High Rochester i s t he importance o f d efensive a rtillery i ndicated, t hough e ven h ere t he d efensive s ystem e nvisaged b y R ichmond i s b ased o n v ery a gainst l ikely

l ittle e vidence . Ongari would have b een o f l imited u se small g roups o f r apidly-moving t ribesmen, t he o nly e nemy

t o h ave b een met with i n t he C heviots .

Much o f

t he e vidence f or t he u se o f a rtillery i n f orts i s d educed f rom

t he p resence o f r ecent

s tone s hot o n t hese s ites .

I n a p aper d elivered t o a

c onference i n London, Dr. D . B aatz s uggested t hat t his s tone

s hot , which i s a lways c laimed a s a rtillery ammunition , may h ave b een u sed f or t hrowing b y h and . H e p roduced a n amount o f s culptural a nd l iterary evidence t o i ndicate t hat t his method o f d efence was u sed t hroughout period . s uch

t he Ancient

r egularity

u se a s

World

f rom A ssyrian

t imes

i nto

t he

R oman

T he t ype o f s hot c ommonly f ound within Roman f orts a s

t o

s uggest

hand projectiles.

d ifferently-sized s hot a t, i ndicates d ifferent

t hat

t hat

T he

i t

was n ot p rimarily

p resence

o f

very

l arge

n umbers

f or e xample, P ergamum a nd C arthage ,

T he v ery over

l arge

s tones

f rom H igh

o ne hundredweight,

R ochester ,

weighing

d ifficult

t o t hrow anywhere without t he a id o f a machine.

t hat

o f

c learly

t hey were d esigned t o be p rojected b y ballistae o f

c alibres .

i nstance, s uggests

i s o f

d esigned f or

t he p resence o f

l arge windows

would have

f or

b een very Baatz

i n t owers n eed n ot

a lways

i ndicate t heir u se b y a rtillery a s i f t hese windows were p rovided with s hutters,

f or

f ortifications, A rtillery

d id

which

t here

i s

evidence

a t

l east

i n

s ome

Greek

t hey m ay o nly h ave b een u sable b y a rchers .

c ontinue

t o b e s upplied t o f orts

i n

t he

f ourth

c entury .

O n t he Danube, D iocletian p laced a b ridgehead f ort o n t he l eft b ank which was c alled O nagrinum . i n b oth c ases o f a rrow-firing

R ecently, r emains o f a rtillery p ieces, b allistae h ave b een f ound i n t he f orts

o f G ornea a nd O rsova o n t he n orth b ank a t t he I ron G ates ( Baatz 1 978) . U nder J ulian a p rincipate f ort n ear Mainz was r eoccupied a nd f ortified with ballistae ( A.M. 1 7 1 1 1). There i s, however, l ittle i ndisputable R oman

e vidence

f or

t he u se o f

p eriod .

6 7

a rtillery

i n B ritain i n t he l ate

C HAPTER 5

B RITAIN U NDER C ONSTANTIUS C HLORUS,

I n t he

l ate

t he n orth A D

o n

t hird

o f

c entury,

B ritain .

A D

2 96-306

t here i s s ome e vidence f or e nemy a ction i n

A p anegyric a ddressed t o C onstantius C hlorus

2 97 mentions r aids b y t he Hiberni and P icti 1 1

4 ) .

A rchaeologically ,

e nemy

a ction

i s

i n

( Pan . Lat. V et. V III

p robably

o nly

i ndicated

a t B ewcastle b ut p resumably t he P icti were o perating n orth o f t he Wall and

were

s till

a ctivities l owlands

t hought

would

h ave

t o

b e

a t hreat

j eopardised

s uggested b y R ichmond

C ertainly

when

t he p rovinces

t he

t o

( Richmond

o f

t he

R oman

province .

These

surveillance

a nd

C rawford

Britain were

o f

t he

1 949,

1 5).

r e-united with

t he

Empire, t here was much r e-organisation i n t he north and most o f t he f orts

which

t hird

h ad

c entury

e ither were

T he e xact d ate o f

b een p artly

r efurbished

o r

o r

t otally

a bandoned

i n t he

l ater

r eoccupied.

t his r e-organisation i s n ot e asy t o a scertain a s

t he

d ating o f c oarse pottery a t t his t ime i s v ery imprecise, many f orms having a very l ong l ife with l ittle c hange f rom t he t hird well i nto t he f ourth c entury . o f

C onstantine's

f rontier; f ourth

a re

r are

a s

s ite

m any t hird-century t ypes may have

c entury,

D iocletian smaller

C oins d ating b etween A D 2 73 a nd t he l arge r eign

and

t hough l oss .

c ould

e qually

o n

c ontinued

t he l arger module o f

Maximianus

p ercentage

f inds c oins

well have

t he

i ssues

northern

i n u se i nto

t he

i n t he r eign o f resulted

T he i nscription f rom B irdoswald

i n

( RIB

a

1 912)

r ecording b uilding work within t he f ort c ould d ate t o a ny t ime b etween A D

2 96

and

3 05.

T he

i nscription - t hat

f rom

o nly

o ther

H ousesteads

p ossibly ( RIB

c ontemporary

1 613)

- i s

v ery

building

f ragmentary .

P resumably t he d anger f rom t he n orth was n ot t hought t oo s erious i n A D 2 96 when C onstantius C hlorus f irst c ame t o B ritain; G aul

i n t he s ame y ear .

i nitiated

i n A D

2 96 o r

he r eturned t o

T he b uilding work i n t he n orth may h ave b een i t

c ould h ave b een

b egun

immediately p rior

t o

Constantius Chlorus' campgaign in AD 3 06 against t he Picts. D uring t he r eign o f D iocletian and Maximianus, t he s ituation i n t he n orth must h ave d eteriorated, n ecessitating a l arge-scale i nvasion o f S cotland i n t he f irst y ear o f C onstantius' r eign . A p anegyric, p robably

o f AD

S cotland

( Pan. L at. V et. V I

d ocument

o n

3 10,

t he

s uggests

g round.

t hat

t he R omans penetrated well i nto

( VIII) 7 1 1 -2), b ut t his i s d ifficult t o When

t he

f ortress

a t

C arpow

was

f irst

e xcavated i n t he 1 960s, s ome o f t he p ottery was t hought t o b e a t t he e arliest o f l ate t hird-century d ate, e specially t he hammer-head m ortaria .

I n

t hird c entury

s outhern

E ngland ,

o n o ccasion ,

b ut

t hese

h ad b een

d ated

t o

t he

e arlier

i n t he n orth i t was a ccepted t hat

t hey

f irst a ppeared o n t he m arket c irca A D 2 70 a nd a C onstantian o ccupation

6 8

o f C arpow was t hus i nferred . A s s imilar p ottery was a lso f ound a t C ramond, a n amphibious o peration, c omparable t o t hat o f S eptimius S everus, was e nvisaged with C onstantius making u se o f S everus' o ld b ases on t he F orth a nd T ay e stuaries ( Frere 1 978, 3 86). O ccupation a t C arpow i s n ow s ecurely d ated t o t he e arly t hird c entury a nd i t i s p robable t hat i t was g iven u p under C aracalla . T he n umismatic a nd s tructural e vidence o ffer n o s upport f or t he r eoccupation o f t he s ite i n t he e arly f ourth c entury . C arpow i s n ow u sed t o d ate t he e mergence o f t he h ammer-head m ortarium a nd o ther ' late' R oman f orms t o t he e arly t hird c entury . Many Roman t emporary c amps a re k nown i n S cotland, b ut a s y et i t has n ot been p ossible t o c onvincingly a ssign a ny t o t he e arly f ourth c entury . O nly o ne t emporary c amp i n t he W estern Empire - E rmelo i n H olland - has b een c laimed t o b e o f f ourth-century d ate ( the t hirdc entury material f rom within t he c amp o n Walwick F ell b y H adrian's W all , t ogether w ith t he s tructures, p robably r epresents r e-use o f t he s ite b y c ivilians ( Newbold 1 913, 7 0-4)). J ohnson s uggests t hat i t was more u sual f or t roops o n p unitive c ampaigns t o r e-use c amps a nd f orts built e arlier ( Johnson J . 1 976B). H assall h as s uggested t hat t he o penwork g old c ross-bow b rooch f rom n ear M offat, D umfriesshire , w ith

i ts

i nscription c ommemorating t he v icennalia o f D iocletian o n 2 0

N ovember A D 3 03, may p erhaps have b een l ost b y o ne o f C onstantius' o fficers d uring t his c ampaign ( Hassa n 1 976 , 1 07) . T he c ampaign was p erhaps m ore l imited t han t he p anegyric w ould s uggest . I t h ad b een b rought t o a n a pparently s uccessful c onclusion a nd C onstantius had r eturned t o Y ork b y J uly A D 3 06 . O nly t he o utposts h eld i n t he t hird c entury w ere s till o ccupied o r r eoccupied . M ost f orts i n t he n orth o f B ritain s how, o r h ave b een t hought b y t heir e xcavators t o s how, e vidence o f r ebuilding b etween AD 2 96 a nd 3 05. I t u sed t o b e t hought t hat t his r esulted f rom e nemy a ttack i n A D 2 96 : " This t ime t he d amage was worse ( than i n A D 1 97) f or i t i ncluded C hester a s well a s Y ork , a s i f t he S coti o f N orthern I reland were n ow among t he s ea r aiders b y whom t he i sland was t hreatened" ( Richmond 1 955, 6 1) . A n umber o f f orts w ere t hought t o h ave b een b uilt f or t he f irst t ime f ollowing t his d isaster , a lthough i n s ome c ases t hese c ould b e o f e arlier d ate . T he e vidence f or t he d ate o f P iercebridge, B urrow-in-Lonsdale a nd E lslack h as a lready b een d iscussed . L ittle e xcavation h as b een u ndertaken a t N ewton K yme w here t he l ate f ort o n t he s ite h ad a 3 .05m t hick wall with t races o f ag ravel b ank within a nd two d itches o utside ( Ramm 1 957). Mr . H . G . R amm d ates t he f ort t o t he v ery e nd o f t he t hird o r b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury. T his f ort, with i ts t hick d efensive wall, i nternal b ank a nd a rea o f a bout 4 .4 ha, i s p ossibly s imilar t o t hat a t P iercebridge . B oth f orts may b e c ontemporary , a s h as b een t hought f or t he l ast 3 0 y ears, t hough t his would n ow i nvolve d ating Newton K yme t o c irca A D 2 70 . T he s tone wall a t L ittlechester i s s ecurely d ated t o t he v ery l ate t hitd c entury o r l ater . C oins o f T etricus a nd C arausius o ccurred i n t he c onstruction l ayer o f m ortar a nd c hippings 1 973) .

T he

l ate d efences

o n t he b erm

f ound o n t he e astern s ide o f

( Green C .J .

t he f ort n ear

t he s outh-east a ngle , c onsisted o f a s tone wall c irca 3 m t hick . T his h ad b een i nserted i nto t he e arlier r ampart, t he r esultant s poil b eing u sed t o f ill t he i nner d itch, a nd a n ew i nner d itch was c ut o n a l ine l ittle d ifferent f rom t hat o f i ts p redecessor . C oins f rom G allienus t o Carausius were f ound i n i ts l owest f illing . O n t he s outh d efences,

W ebster d id n ot

f ind e vidence f or a r ampart b ut i ts a bsence

6 9

was n ot p roven ( Webster G . a nd H artley 1 961, 8 9) . T he c oins f rom t he g eneral a rea o f L ittlechester u p t o 1 965 f all i nto t wo m ain g roups f rom D omitian t o C ommodus a nd f rom C arausius t o C onstans 1 967).

( Brassington

A n e arly f ourth-century d ate h as b een i nferred f or t he r eoccupation o f t he f ort a t P apcastle a fter i t h ad l ain a bandoned f or much, i f n ot a ll, o f t he t hird c entury. P rior t o r ebuilding, t he s ite had b een t horoughly

l evelled

( Charlesworth

1 965) .

C ollingwood

i nvestigated

t he

t win-portal e ast g ate o f t his l ate f ort s et i nto t he 2 .74m t hick f ort wall a nd h e a lso f ound a t ower i n t he n orth-east a ngle . T he i nternal b uildings a ssociated w ith t he l ate f ort w ere o f s tone . O ne b arrackb lock was f ound which s howed e vidence o f r epair o r r ebuilding; t he t hreshold a nd r ubble r emains o f a f oundation f or a n e ast-west wall c ontained n umerous f ragments o f b ronze , s ome o f t hem i dentifiable a s s cale a rmour ( fig 4 7.3). A n L-shaped b uilding t o t he west was p robably a nother b arrack-block . T he

o utpost

f ort

o f

H igh

R ochester

r eceived

i ts

t hird s tone wall a nd

a t l east two n ew g ates a t t his t ime . I n t he n orth-west a ngle t he wall , w ith i ts a ssociated t ower ( fig 2 3 .2) o f m assive masonry s et o n a d ifferent c urve t han i ts predecessor, h ad l acing s tones t o prevent s ubsidence . T he west g ate w as c ontemporary t hough a t e arlier s tone walls o f p eriods I II a nd I V w ere a bsent .

t he g ate , t he T he p eriod V

s tone wall, a lthough o nly c irca 1 .52m t hick, was b uilt o f massive c ourses a nd i n o ne s ection o n t he n orth wall n one was l ess t han 3 0cm h igh . T he i nterval-tower , west o f l ower p ortion f illed with e arth . s outh

t ower was

t he s outh g ate , e vidently had i ts A t t he west g ate ( fig 2 1.3) t he

f ounded o n a c ourse o f r e-used s tones,

a s was

t he

c urtain wall, whilst t he n orth t ower was f ounded o n r ough-quarried r ubble s et h erringbone-wise i n s tiff y ellow c lay. T he s inglep ortalled g ate was d eeply r ecessed b ehind t he f ort wall . T he n orth g ate , w hich w as r ecessed 2 .28m f rom t he o uter f ace o f t he f ort wall , h ad n o g uardchamber o n i ts e ast s ide - t he west s ide h ad b een d estroyed - R ichmond s uggested t hat i t m ay h ave b een s urmounted b y a t ower o ver t he p ortal . F rom 1 9th-century o bservations, t he s outh g ate w ould s eem t o h ave b een o f a s imilar t ype ( Richmond 1 936 ) . A t R isingham, t he west g ate was i nserted i nto t he S everan wall when t he p rincipia was t urned t o f ace west . T he s ingle-portal g ate h ad t wo

i nternal

g uardchambers

b uilt

o f

l arge

m asonry

( fig

2 0 .4 )

a nd

t he

i mpost m oulding h ere was o f s imilar s tyle t o t hat a t t he w est g ate o f H igh R ochester . A t t he s outh g ate ( fig 1 7 .5) t he e ast p rojecting t ower w as r econstructed p robably u sing e arlier m asonry . T he u se o f t ombstones t o r epair t he n orth-east a ngle-tower c ould p ossibly d ate t o t his t ime . T he e ast wall h ad b een r ebuilt a lmost f rom i ts f oundations; t he e xcavator d ated t his t o t he t ime o f C onstantius C hlorus

o r

( Birley E .

l ater . 1 961,

S ome

t ombstones

w ere u sed

i n t his

r econstruction

2 37).

T he e ast g ate a t O ld P enrith i s o f u nusual p lan, t he f ort w all being i nturned a t t he g ate. N o d ating e vidence f or t his g ate i s known , t hough t he m onumental s tyle o f m asonry u sed s uggests a c omparison w ith t he S everan s outh g ate a t R isingham a nd

t he C onstantian west g ates

a t

R isingham a nd H igh R ochester . N ew walls were a lso b uilt a t t he a uxiliary f orts o f B ainbridge a nd p erhaps C astell C ollen . A t t he f ormer s ite, f or s ome t ime i n t he

7 0

t hird c entury,

t he f ort's e ast w all w as r uinous.

T his w as r ebuilt

a nd a n ew e ast g ate ( fig 2 0 .3) b uilt t o t he n orth o f t he e arlier p orta praetoria . T he n ew wall h ad b een i nserted i nto t he f ront o f t he r ampart a nd l ay s lightly b ehind t he p osition o f t he e arlier wall. T he wall, l ike t he g ate , w as b uilt o f r oughly-trimmed , f ine-grained s andstone b locks . I n t he f oundations o f t he wall , t he l atest s herd was f rom a c olour-coated b eaker w ith r ough r ouletting ( Hartley 1 960 , 1 10 ) . R e-used i n t he f irst r oad o utide t he e ast g ate was a S everan b uilding i nscription ( Hartley 1 961) w hilst b eneath t his e arlier s urface i n t he e ast g ate were f ound o ne c oin o f C laudius I I a nd t hree r adiates, o ne b arbarous . F rom b eneath t his r oad o n t he c auseway a cross t he d itch c ame a D omitianic c oin a nd o ne p robably o f T etricus I ( Droop a nd J ones 1 929,

2 44 ) .

T he e ast g ate w as s ingle-portalled w ithout g uardchambers .

A t C astell C oh en, t he n orth wall may have b een r ebuilt s lightly t o t he s outh o f t he e arlier w all . T he p robable r obber t rench d oes n ot l ie a bove t he e arlier wall . N o t race o f t his p ossible l ate wall r emained b eyond a j umble o f r oughly-spilt s tones i n l oose s oil a t t he b ottom o f t he r obber t rench, b ut i f t his d oes r epresent t he l ine o f t he l ate wall, i t h ad n o p roper f oundations ( Alcock 1 964, 7 3). T he r ampart b ank m ay a lso h ave b een h eightened a t t his t ime . T he p eriod 5 A n orth-east g ate a t Malton ( fig 2 1.4A) was d ated b y C order t o n ot e arlier t han t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury. I t c onsisted o f a s ingle-portal g ate, 3 .35m wide, f lanked b y i nternal g uardchambers

1 .83m wide

a nd

6 .1m

a part .

A h eavily-rutted

c oncrete

r oad r an t hrough t he g ate which was b uilt mainly o f r e-used s tone ( Corder 1 930, 4 7-8). T he p lan o f t he K nag B urn g ateway ( fig 2 1.1), i nserted i n H adrian's Wall a l ittle t o t he e ast o f H ousesteads, h as b een c ompared with t he n orth-east g ate a t Malton . L ittle d ating e vidence i s k nown , C layton h aving c leared t he r emains i n 1 856 , b ut h z d oes r ecord f inding c oins o f C laudius I I a nd C onstantius ( Clayton 1 855-8, 1 86 ) . T he g ate p assage was a rched a t b oth e nds a nd R ichmond n oted t hat i t h ad b een p rovided w ith g ates a t f ront a nd r ear . I n t he H andbook h e c ompares t he g ateway t o t hat a t G emellae o n t he F ossatum A fricae

d iscovered

( Richmond

1 957,

i n

1 954

which

a lso

h ad

g ates

f ront

a nd

b ack

1 18) .

A t I lkely, b y o r i n t he e arly f ourth c entury, t he n orth g ate-towers s eem t o h ave b een d emolished a nd t he r ampart b ank h ad c ertainly b een r emoved b y t his d ate . A p ossible i nterval-tower , e ast o f t he n orth g ate, was a lso d emolished . A s t he f ort wall was s till o nly 1 .52m t hick, t he e xcavator s uggested t hat t he p arapet walk must have b een c arried o n b rackets a nd h ave oversailed t he i nner f ace o f t he wall ( Hartley 1 966, 3 8). I n t he l ate t hird c entury o r f irst half o f t he f ourth c entury, t he e ast g ate a t D oncaster was b locked b y a wall 2m wide

b uilt

a cross

i t

( Buckland a nd Magilton

1 976).

E arly i n t he

f ourth c entury t he A ntonine r ampart was s everely r educed i n h eight a nd p artly o verlain b y a r ough i ntervallum r oad ( Buckland 1 973). B oth p ortals o f t he s outh g ate a t C arrawburgh m ay h ave b een b locked a t t his t ime a nd a b road, p robably l ate d itch , c ontinued a cross t he p osition o f t he s outh g ate without i nterruption ( Breeze 1 972, 1 15-6) . T he s outh p ortal o f t he w est g ate a t H ousesteads i s t hought t o h ave b een b locked

u nder

C onstantius .

A t B irdoswald , i n r uins w as

t he n orth g uardchamber o f

t he e ast g ate which h ad b een

c ompletely r ebuilt a nd t he a shlar f acing o f

7 1

t he wall was

c arried r ight a cross t he p osition o f t he o riginal d oorway . A n ew d oorway was p rovided i n t he s outh w all o pening i nto t he p ortal , a nd a r ough f lagged f loor was p laced i n t he c hamber 9 1cm a bove t he o riginal g round-floor l evel ( Gillam 1 950 , 6 7) . D aniels s uggests t hat i t was a t t his t ime t hat t he n orth p ortal was b locked a nd t hat p ossibly a h ypocaust was i nserted i nto t he s outh g uardroom ( Daniels 1 978A , 2 01) . O n t he s outh a nd e ast d efences t he r ampart b ank w as c ut l evel t o f orm w hat t he e xcavators c alled a c ooking s helf o r b ench , s teeply r evetted a t t he b ack i n s tone. T his r esulted i n t he p rovision o f ar ampart walk 4 m wide , a llowing f or a 6 0cm p arapet b acked b y a c ooking s helf o f a bout

3 .4m

( Simpson F .

a nd R ichmond

1 933 ,

2 61) .

O n t his

s helf were

f ound o vens, t he o ne b y t he s outh-east a ngle-tower b eing a f ine s tone-built s tructure w hich b locked t he d oorway i nto t he t ower . T he s helf was a c onstant f eature b etween t he a ngle-tower a nd t he p orta q uintana d extra . A t H ousesteads,

i t

m ay h ave b een i n t he e arly f ourth c entury when

major r ebuilding work was c arried o ut o n t he s outh and e ast walls, e specially a t t he s outh-east a ngle; l arge a shlar b locks were u sed i n t his

l ate r epair .

B ehind t he n orth wall t o t he e ast

o f

t he g ate ,

a t

o r b efore t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury, t he w estern e nd o f t he workshop a rea was a bandoned a nd a n ew r ampart e rected o ver i t, 4 m w ide a nd e xtending

um e ast f rom t he g ate-tower .

I t was r evetted b y a

s tone k erb t o t he s outh a long t he i ntervallum r oad a nd b y a wall a cross t he w orkshop a rea ( Daniels 1 9808,10 ) . H ousesteads i s p erhaps u nusual i n h aving i ts n orth r ampart b ank r econstituted a t t his t ime . A t o ther s ites s uch a s D oncaster a nd I lkely, t he r ampart a reas were b eing e ncroached o n b y b uildings o r b y t he v ia s agularis. I n t he n orth-east p raetentura a t Wallsend , t he r ampart b ank was r evetted b y a s tone k erb o f two p eriods, t he l ater o f which was o f l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury d ate ( Daniels 1 976 ) .

I n

t he

l ater s econd o r

e arly

t hird c entury ,

m any

m ilecastle

g ateways

h ad b een r educed t o p osterns a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat t his m ay h ave b een r elated t o t he p ossible a bandonment o f t he o utpost f orts u nder C ommodus

( Daniels

o nly s eems t o have b een r ough m asonry without ( Simpson F . 1 976, 9 0). f loor a nd t hreshold were r ebuilt

( fig 2 1.2).

1 978A ,

2 5) .

T he s outh g ate a t

m ilecastle

4 0

s o r educed p erhaps a c entury l ater . V ery f oundations n arrowed t he p assage t o 1 .01m A t milecastle 5 2, t he n orth postern g ate's r aised ; t he s outh g ate , h owever , w as t otally

A p air o f s tone-lined h oles was d ug a bout h alf

way t hrough t he g ate p assage ,

c lose t o t he p assage w alls a nd c onnected

b y a s hallower s lot w hich c ontained t umbled r ubbish a nd a lso m uch i ron s trapping f or t he h eavy o ak d oor o f which t races r emained . T he s lot a cross t he p assageway h ad b een r obbed o f w hatever i t h ad c ontained a nd was o verlain b y a l ater r oad s urface. T he p ost-holes had b een d ug i nto t he s tone f ootings s o t hat t he p osts would b e u p a gainst t he p assage walls.

T he e xcavator s uggested t hat t hese h oles c ould n ot

h ave b een i ntended t o h old t imbers a s t hey w ere a bout 6 1cm s quare a nd were t hus m ore l ikely t o h ave h eld l arge s tone d oorposts w ith a t hreshold o f

s tone b etween,

i ntended t o s upport

a f lat

a rch with

p robably a r elieving a rch a bove . H e c ompares t his s tyle o f c onstruction w ith t hat f irst s een o n A urelian's Wall i n R ome a nd t hus d ates t he w ork t o C onstantius C hlorus . T he s outh g ate o f m ilecastle 5 1 was o f t he s ame t ype - here t he t hreshold s lot h ad b een c ut i nto t he l iving r ock ( Simpson F . a nd R ichmond 1 935 , 2 52-5) .

7 2

A t

o nly

t hree

military

s ites

i n

B ritain

i s

t here

e vidence

o f

a n

a ttempt t o u pdate t he d efences t o t he n ew s tyles b eing employed o n t he C ontinent a nd o n t he S axon S hore. A t t he p ossible n aval b ase o f B rough-on-Humber , t he r ebuilding o f t he d efences i n s tone , which h ad b een b egun i n t he l ate t hird c entury, was c ompleted a fter a p robable c essation i n t he work f or a s hort p eriod .

T he i ncomplete i nternal

g uardrooms o f t he n orth g ate were d emolished a nd r eplaced b y a nother , m uch b etter b uilt, a nd p rojecting t owers were a dded ( fig 2 0 .2A , W acher 1 969,3-4). F or t he s econd t ime i n i ts h istory,

t he l egionary f ortress a t Y ork h ad

m uch o f i ts d efensive wall r ebuilt f rom t he f oundations a nd o nly t he wall and t owers b etween t he n orth-east a nd s outh-east g ates o f t he S everan p eriod r emained ( RCHM Y ork 1 , 1 0). T he n ew wall i s a bout 1 .52m t hick a nd s tands t o a maximum h eight o f 5 .18m . I t i s c haracterised b y i ts t ile-bonding c ourses a t 2 .13-2.44m a bove t he f oundations a nd t here a re f ragmentary r emains o f a t ile s tring c ourse m arking t he p arapet walk l evel . E xcavations i n 1 969 o n t he n orthw est wall i n t he p ublic l ibrary g ardens l ed t he e xcavator t o d ate t he w all t o t he S everan p eriod , a lthough i t h ad t ile-bonding c ourses . I n t he wall's c onstruction t rench, t he f illing c onsisted mainly o f F lavian p ottery b ut a lso a f ew s herds which m ay d ate t o t he m id-second c entury ( Radley 1 972, 4 0). T he r ampart b ank s eems t o h ave b een h eightened a nd e xtended b ut was s till m uch l ower t han t he p arapet walk ( Butler 1 971B, 9 7). E xcept f or o n t he s outh-west s ide o f t he f ortress, a ll t he n ew t owers were i nternal a nd r ectangular ( fig 2 4 .18) a nd were s lightly l arger t han t he S everan t owers which s urvive . I nterval-tower N W3 r etained i ts u pper s torey i nto t he 1 9th c entury a nd w as r ecorded b y W ellbelloved . T he t ower o versailed t he f ortress wall a nd a t t he u pper l evel i t measured a bout 3 .96m s quare i nternally. T he f ro t a nd i n i t s ills o f s uggested

wall s urvived t o a height o f 1 .52m a bove t he p arapet walk was a n o pening , p robably o riginally d ivided i nto t wo . T he t hese window o penings were worn i nto c hannels a nd i t i s t hat t his was t he r esult o f t he u se o f s wivelling b allistae

( RCHM Y ork 1 ,

2 7).

T he n orth-west g ate was c ontemporary with t he

w all a nd h ad i nternal g ate-towers o nly p rojecting 6 1cm i n f ront o f t he w all l ine, i ts m onumental c haracter b eing emphasised b y t he u se o f v ery l arge b locks o f g ritstone . T he

t owers

a nd p robably

t he

t otally d ifferent c haracter.

g ate

o n

t he

s outh-west

wall were

o f

S ix p olygonal p rojecting i nterval-

t owers a re known a nd t wo a ngle-towers. T he s outh-west g ate was p robably f lanked b y two s imilar t owers. I nterval t ower S W5 ( fig 211A ) h as b een e xtensively e xcavated r ecently ( Wenham 1 965; S umpter a nd C oll 1 976) . I t measured 2 0 .2m l ong , o f w hich a bout 5 m p rojected b eyond t he c urtain w all a nd was 9 .4m w ide; i t was d ivided i nto t hree l arge c hambers b y two c ross walls; very l ittle o f t he s uperstructure s urvived . T he t ower w as i rregularly s et o ut , m ost o f t he walls b eing o f d ifferent t hicknesses, a nd s ome b eing p laced o n t he v ery e dge o f t he f oundations o nly a pproximately 9 0° t o t heir n eighbours.

t wo o f t he walls l ay a t N o e vidence was f ound t o

s uggest f or w hat p urpose t hese g round-floor c hambers were u sed . M uch

o f

t he west

a ngle-tower

( fig

2 3 .1B) s urvives;

i t

p rojects

1 1 .16m

b eyond t he f ort w all . T he r ear c ompartment o f t he t ower e xtends b ack 1 0 .62m a nd i s 1 3 .42m wide , b isected b y a s pine wall 9 1cm t hick . T he p rojecting t ower w alls a re 1 .52m t hick, b eing r educed b y a s carcement

7 3

a t

4 .57m

a bove

t he

g round

t o

9 9cm .

I n

e ach

f ace

o f

t he

t ower

a djacent t o t he f ort wall , i s a w indow s played f rom 1 .52m i nside t o a width o f p robably 3 1cm. B oth windows b egin 1 .22m b elow t he s carcement l evel a nd a re a t l east 2 .18m h igh . T he p roportions o f t he t ower would s uggest a t l east t hree s toreys ( RCHM Y ork 1 , 1 4). T he p arapet walk was c ontinued a cross

t he t ower b y

t wo a rches.

T he

f loor i n t he f ront c hamber o f t he s outh a ngle-tower was c overed w ith e arth p robably v ery s oon a fter i t had b een made, and t hen a c lay f illing was i nserted ( Stead 1 956-8, 5 19). R aine t hought t hat t he Multangular T ower h ad b een s olidified a nd s trengthened i n a s imilar w ay,

t he f illing h aving b een r emoved i n

1 831

( Raine

1 932,

5 6 ) .

T here i s n o e vidence f rom which t o d ate t hese d efences c losely b ut t hey a re g enerally a ssigned t o t he t ime o f C onstantius C hlorus c ertainly t hey a re o f l ate t hird-century d ate a t t he e arliest . T hird c entury p ottery h as b een f ound i n t he c ontemporary r ampart b ank a nd t he d itch a t t he w est a ngle h ad l ater t hird a nd f ourth-century p ottery i n i ts p rimary f ill ( Miller 1 928 , 8 1-82) . T he t owers h ave b een d ated s tylistically t o c irca A D 3 00 ( Butler 1 971B, 1 06) w ho maintains t hat p olygonal t owers were o nly i n v ogue a round t his d ate. O ne o f t he s ites h e u ses a s e vidence f or t his - K aiseraugst - may n ow, o n n umimatic e vidence, b e d ated t o t he t ime o f C onstantine ( Johnson J . 1 976B). I n Wenham's e xcavations o n t he s outh-west wall, h e f ound s ix s tructural p hases, p eriod V b eing t he p rovision o f a wall with p rojecting t owers . P eriod V I, a n a ddition t o t he r ampart , w as d ated b y a c oin o f D elmatius t o a fter A D 3 35-7 . " It s hould b e s tressed, however,

t hat

t his

b uilding

phase

( period

V )

i s

n ot

l inked

unequivocably b y l iterary a nd/or a rchaeological e vidence t o t hese y ears:

i t c ould b e l ater" .

H e s uggests t hat h is p eriod V a rc ! V I m ay

b elong t o t he s ame c onstructional p hase A t C hester,

( Wenham

1 965 ,

6 ) .

i t h as b een g enerally a ccepted t hat t he n orth a nd west

walls were r econstructed . p arapet-walk h eight e ast o f

T he s upposed l ate-Roman wall s tands t o t he n orth g ate ; t his s ection o f t he w all

i s o f o ne b uild f rom i ts f oundations u p a nd i s t wice t he t hickness o f t he e arlier f ortress w all . T o t he w est o f t he n orth g ate , a wall o f s imilar c onstruction , b ut o nly 1 .22m t hick, had b een a dded t o t he f ront

o f

a n e xisting wall .

T he ' Roman' wall t o t he e ast o f t he g ate i s o f c urious c onstruction a nd i ts n orth f ace i s b attered . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t his w as t o a llow t he p arapet walk t o r etain i ts e arlier p osition ( Webster G . 1 953, 2 3), p resumably a llowing t he i nterval-towers t o r etain t heir p osition r elative t o t he p arapet walk . H owever , i f t he wall h ad b een i n

s uch

a s tate

f oundations,

i t

o f i s

d isrepair u nlikely

t hat

t hat

i t

h ad

t he t owers

t o

b e

r ebuilt

f rom

t he

w ould h ave b een i n a r e-

u seable c ondition . A t o ther f orts where t he walls were e xtensively r ebuilt, n ew t owers were a lso c onstructed a s, f or e xample, a t High R ochester , L anchester a nd Y ork . T he wall b uilders m ade u se o f m any t ombstones a nd s culptured b locks which were r e-used t hroughout t he wall's

h eight

a nd

t hickness

( Matthews-Jones

1 888 ,

o pposite

1 a nd

4 ) .

T he l atest d atable r e-used p iece was o f t he e arly t hird c entury ( RIB 4 88) . O n t his e vidence a nd o n h istorical g rounds, t he r ebuilt n orth wall h as b een d ated t o t he t ime o f C onstantius C hlorus .

7 4

T his d ating h as b een c alled i nto q uestion b y McPeake . H e n otes t he u nusual m ethod o f c onstruction - t he wall b uilt without m ortar w ith i ts i nterstices f illed with b lack s oil a nd t he way t hat west o f t he n orth g ate i t m erely l eans b ack a gainst a n e arlier wall . H e s uggests t hat a s t he wall i s b attered, i t c ould well h ave b een b uilt i n t he m edieval p eriod s ince b attered walls a re r are i n t he A ncient World b ut a re more c ommonly f ound d esigned a gainst a ttack b y g unpowder a rtillery . A c ornice s tone , i dentical t o t hose s till i n s itu i n t he n orth wall, was f ound i n ap it c utting i nto a r oad s urface o f f ifthc entury d ate which p robably r emained i n u se m uch l ater . A s t he s tone a ppears t o b e unweathered, h e s uggests t hat i ts b urial p resumably d ates f rom t he c onstruction o f t he wall r ather t han i t d emolition . T here

i s

m uch

e vidence

a ccumulating

f or

t he

d estruction o f b uildings

o ver l arge a reas o f t he f ortress w hich c ontinued t hereafter t o r emain u noccupied b y p ermanent s tructures. M cPeake d oubts t hat a g reatly s trengthened n orth w all would b e b uilt a t t his t ime . I n A bbey G reen , t he i nterval-tower's s outh wall a nd s outh-east c orner s eem t o have b een d eliberately d emolished a round AD 3 00 . H e c onnects t his with t he p ossible f illing i n o f t he r ecut d itch a t L inenhall S treet with r ubble ,

p robably f rom t he d emolition o f a s tretch o f

t he west wall .

T here i s n othing u nusual a bout t he r e-use o f t ombstones, a ltars a nd a rchitectural f ragments i n f ort a nd t own d efences; among e xamples i n B ritain may b e c ited t he r e-use o f a n a ltar i n t he e ast g ate a t L ympne , a rchitctural f ragments i n t he l ower west g ate a t L incoln a nd t ombstones

i n

t he

f ort w all a t R isingham .

O n t he C ontinent ,

u se o f

s uch material i s e xtremely c ommon , e specially i n t he l ater t hird c entury . T hese b locks a re o ften l aid w ithout m ortar , t hough t hey d o t end t o b e u sed o nly i n t he l ower c ourses o f t he walls .

O n t he western d efences a t C hester , t he e xcavators ( Thompson F . 1 969 ; P etch D . u npublished) f ound e vidence o f as trengthening o f t he 1 .52m t hick T rajanic wall which h ad b een t hickened b y t he a ddition o f m aterial o n i ts e astern s ide , p roducing a n ew wall a bout 3 .35m t hick . T his l ater work was s et 3 0cm h igher t han t he o riginal wall. O ne t ombstone was f ound r e-used i n t he l owest c ourse o f t his wall . I t was s uggested t hat t he r eason f or t he t hickening o f t he wall o n t he i nside was t hat, a s t he d itch l ay immediately west o f t he T rajanic w all , i t w as p resumbly t hought e asier t o r emove s ome o f t he r ampart r ather t han b uild o ver t he u nstable d itch f ill . A s hallow d itch was d ug i nto t he f ill o f t he p rimary d itch a nd a d ate o f c irca A D 3 00 was s uggested f or t his. L ittle e vidence was f ound t o d ate t hese m odifications t hough t hey c learly p re-date a k iln t hought t o b e o f m edieval d ate which h ad b een s et i nto t he west f ace o f t he wall . T his m ethod o f s trengthening t he t hin walls o f e arly R oman d efences i s f airly c ommon ; f or e xample , t he l egionary f ortresses a t S trasbourg, P otaissa i n D acia ( Cätänicia 1 981, 4 6 ) a nd N ovae i n Moesia ( Crow 1 981, 6 6 ) a nd t he walls o f t he f ort a t R emagen i n G ermany 1 97).

I n B ritain,

t he n orth a nd west

walls

( Petrikovits

1 971,

o f t he e arly s econd-

c entury f ort a t C ripplegate , L ondon , were t hickened t he f ort w as i ncorpoated i n t he d efensive c ircuit o f

e xternally w hen t he t own i n t he

l ate s econd c entury ( Marsden P . 1 980 , 1 25) . S trickland h as s uggested t hat t he s outh a nd w est walls o f t he f ortress m ay h ave b een r edundant b y A D 3 00 i f t he d efended a rea n ow i ncluded t he s ettlements b etween t he f ortress a nd t he r iver, T here i s s ome e vidence f or t his a rea h aving b een d efended i n t he t hird c entury ( Strickland 1 981B, 4 32).

7 5

A wide d ate r ange f rom t he mid-third c entury t ill well i nto t he medieval o r e ven t he p ost-medieval p eriod c an b e s uggested f or t he n orth wall. I n A bbey G reen, a t t he l evel o f t he b ase o f t he R oman r ampart, n o t race o f a ny wall was f ound , t he p resent m asonry o nly b eginning a t a m uch h igher l evel . T hat t here was m uch R oman m aterial a round i n t he medieval p eriod which c ould b e u sed i n b uilding t he d efences i s c lear f rom a p assage b y R alph H igden w ho wrote i n t he t ime o f

E dward

a ncient s treets" T he

l ine

I ,

mentioning

f amous

p ersons

( Shrubsole o f

t he

1 890 ,

R oman

" Huge

s tones

e ngraven

a nd t he r emains o f

with

t he n ames

o f

g randiose b uilding a nd

1 09) . western

d efences

medieval walls s urviving t oday.

was

n ot

f ollowed

b y

t he

T races o f what were t hought t o b e

t he A ethelflaedan d efences w ere f ound o n t he s ame l ine b ut t hese would s eem t o h ave b een o f t imber . I t i s d ifficult t o e nvisage w ho c ould have s trengthened t he R oman west wall i f i t was n ot t he Romans t hemselves. A t p resent t he d ate o f t he s o-called R oman n orth wall a nd t he modifications t o t he west wall i s u nclear b ut i f t he l atter d oes t urn o ut t o b e o f R oman d ate , t his m ay s uggest t hat t he s ections o f t he n orth wall o f s imilar t hickness a nd c ontaining o nly material a re b roadly c ontemporary .

Roman

F ort

l ittle

d itches

d ating

t o

t he e arly f ourth c entury

g enerally s how

d ifference f rom e arlier o nes . T he v ery w ide a nd d eep d itch f ound b y S teer a t t he e ast a ngle o f B inchester i s p erhaps e arlier t han t he f ourth c entury i n d ate ,

t hough h e s uggests t he p ossibility t hat

d ate t o C onstantius C hlorus .

i t m ay

T he s imilar d itch a t Malton d ates t o

t he e arly s econd c entury w hilst a t L ancaster t he o nly f eature d ating t o t he e arly f ourth c entury i s ad itch which c uts t hrough t he bathh ouse , p robably b elonging t o t he p raetorium . T his d itch i s u nlikely t o b e a ssociated w ith t he W ery W all a s i t d oes n ot r un p arallel t o i t ( see p lan i n L eather t hird t o

1 973;

c f

P otter

1 974B).

I t

c ontained

l ate

m id f ourth-century p ottery .

When Wilkes wrote h is a rticle e ntitled ' Early F ourth C entury R ebuilding i n H adrian's Wall F orts' , h e d escribed t he p rincipia a t C hesterholm a nd R isingham a s b eing c ompletely r ebuilt a t t his t ime a nd d rew a ttention t o t heir s imilarity i n p lan with p rincipia o f a much e arlier d ate . H e a lso d iscussed t he c hanges made t o t he e arlier principia a t H ousesteads, H igh R ochester a nd S outh S hields ( Wilkes 1 966). I n most c ases t here i s v ery l ittle e vidence t o d ate t hese c hanges t o t he e arly f ourth c entury . S outh S hields i s n ow k nown t o h ave b een a bandoned a t l east b y t he a rmy a t t his d ate; C hesterholm 's ' Constantian' p rincipia p robably d ates t o t he t hird c entury, p erhaps c irca A D 2 20 o r 2 70 .

O nly

i n t he

c ase o f R isingham a nd p erhaps

H igh

R ochester c an W ilkes' c onclusions b e a ccepted . A t t he f ormer s ite , t he p rincipia ( fig 3 5.1) was t urned f rom f acing s outh t o f ace west . T he p lan ,

a s r estored b y R ichmond f rom t he i nformation p rovided b y t he

e xcavations o f b uildings. A n

1 849, i s p robably s imilar t o t hat o f e arlier s uch a edes w ith a s unken s trongroom a nd t he b asilica were

f ound b ut l ittle e lse; t he c ourtyard m ay n ot h ave b een p resent . T he e ntrance i nto t he b asilica - p robably o n t he m ain a xis o f t he b uilding - was f lanked b y walls c irca 6 .4m a part, a g ap w hich was n arrowed b y t wo s quare b ases i nterpreted b y R ichmond a s p ossibly f or s tatues o f D iocletian a nd Maximianus . t he n orth o f

Two d oorways l eading f rom t he b asilica t o

t he a edes s uggest t hat t here h ad b een t he n ormal r ange o f

7 6

f ive r ooms a t b een t he W ilkes

t he r ear o f

t he b uilding a nd t races o f what may have

t ribunal were a lso f ound

n oted

t hat

( Richmond

1 940 ,

1 10-12) .

a s H igh R ochester was a bandoned well b efore A D

t he p lan o f t he p rincipia we have will r epresent c entury phase.

3 67 ,

t he e arly f ourth-

T his i s e ven more t rue t oday i f C asey i s c orrect i n

s uggesting t hat t he f ort was a bandoned b y C onstantine c irca AD 3 12. T he building,

o f n ormal p lan

( fig

3 5.2),

a t s ome d ate r eceived

t wo

r ooms added o n t o i ts west s ide with a t l east o ne d oorway p roviding a ccess f rom t he basilica and a h ypocaust had been i nserted i nto t he r oom e ast

o f

t he a edes

( Bruce

1 857) .

T here i s n o way o f

c hanges; i t i s n ot e ven c ertain t hat t he a dded r ooms w ere r etained i n u se i nto t he f ourth c entury. A t

C arrawburgh,

r oom

I V

i n

t he

r ear

r ange

was

d ating

t hese

a nd h ypocaust

p rovided

c hannelled h ypocaust h eated f rom a s toke-hole i n r oom V ,

b ut

with owing

a t o

t he l ack o f p rovision f or a t hrough d raught, t he s ystem s oon s eems t o h ave been a bandoned . I n r oom I I a hypocaust was planned but n ever c ompleted - p erhaps o n t he f ailure o f

t hat

i n r oom I V .

T he e xcavator

s uggested t hat t hese m odifications were c ontemporary with t hose i n t he c ourtyard a nd 1 972, 1 14-5).

d ate t o t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c enturies

A t H ousesteads, p rincipia d ated

t o

B osanquet

( fig t he

3 7 .1) .

e arly

f ound

Many

f ourth

o f

m uch t hese

c entury

n oted a s b eing o f e arlier d ate a t o f t he c ourtyard c olonnades t he r ear o f

d oorway i nto a lso

b ut

a n umber f orts,

t hough

f eatures h ave b een t he walling u p d ated a t

8 and 9 ,

were united a nd t he

T he d oorway i nto 9 w . ,;

i t may n ot b e c ontemporary with t he o ther

l ong s lab

which h ad b een a c ornice was t he new

t hreshold .

s eparating o ff a s trip

c lear

e xistence r oom h ave

1 1

e vidence i n

t he

was

l ate

f ourth

h ad b een r educed ,

b een e ntered

f rom

f ound

1 .22m w ide which W ilkes

f or

a n

u pper

c entury

i f

n ot

s torey

T he

1 1 a nd

T he wall b etween

I n r oom

which

b efore .

t hen b uilt u p a nd r ooms

t he a edes .

a wall

A wall was

s uggested may h ave s upported a s tair-case t o a n u pper f loor . 1 2,

r e-used

r educed f rom 2 .57m t o 1 .52m ,

b eing built o n t he s outhern e nd o f 8 /9 ,

t he

A t s ome p eriod t he s outhern r ooms

a s a t hreshold a nd t he d oorway was i nserted i nto r oom

o f

i n

c onventionally

t o f orm s torerooms a nd a rmouries,

t he p rincipia, n umbers

A 2 .13m

a lterations were

n otably

8 f rom t he L asilica was b locked .

r emodelled,

a lterations .

f or

a lterations

o ther

C arrawburgh t o t he s econd c entury . a t

e vidence

( Breeze

was

i n

d oorway

o f

1 2 must

r ooms

1 1

t hen

a nd

1 2

c onsisted o f v ery p oor r ubble w ork p ierced b y t wo d oorways which t he e xcavator p resumed w ere o f d ifferent p eriods ( Bosanquet 1 904, 2 08-28) . I n r ooms

1 1 a nd

1 2 were f ound a n umber o f b ox t iles

( ibid 2 22) .

A t Bewcastle, f ollowing t he p robably e nemy d estruction i n t he l ate t hird c entury, t he r ubbish which f illed t he c ellar i n t he a edes was l eft

i n

c ontinued

t he t o

n orth

c ompartment

s erve a s

t o

a s hallow p it,

h igh a nd a f lagged f loor a t

i ts

b ase .

a d epth

o f

a bout

r eceiving a n ew I n

t he

s outh

1 .22m.

f ront

I t

wall

c ompartment,

6 1cm t he

r ubbish was l eft u ndisturbed a nd a bove i t was p laced a f illing o f s tones and s tiff y ellow c lay s upporting a n ew a nd wide s tone s carcement . T his f illing i ncluded a n a ltar d ated b y t he e xcavators t o t he t hird c entury which

t hey

t hought had b een burnt

i n t he l ate

t hird-century d isaster a nd t hen r e-used b efore b eing p laced i n t he f illing . e nd o f

I f

t he b urning

t he t hird c entury,

i s

t o

b e

a ssociated

t hen t he f illing i s

7 7

w ith

t he

t rouble

a t

t he

p resumably l ater i n d ate

t han C onstantius C hlorus.

I n t he r econstruction o f t he p rincipia,

t he e ntrance t o t he a edes was a ltered, s tone was

l aid,

a n ew t hreshold o f r e-used

a nd t he 3 .2m wide e ntrance was

n arrow r ough walls - p erhaps f oundations H odgson a nd S t . J oseph 1 938 , 2 09-10) . R epair work o n t he p rincipia a t a t

s ome

d ate b etween A D

c entury

a t

B irdoswald

2 96 a nd 3 05

B rough-on-Noe,

t he

f or

( RIB

A ntonine

r educed t o 1 .32m b y

s tone

i s

a ttested

1 912) .

s tone

s creens

I n

( Richmond ,

e pigraphically

t he e arly

p rincipia

f ourth

s eems

t o

h ave

been d emolished and r eplaced b y a wattle-and-daub s tructure o f t he s ame plan o n s tone s ill walls ( Jones G . a nd Wild 1 969A). T he s trongroom within t he p rincipia a t Reculver had i ts c oncrete f loor d estroyed p laster,

a nd

i t

g lass

r adiates

was

a nd

( Philp

f illed

with

c oins,the

1 961).

t ile

a nd

r ubble

including

wall

l atter b eing m ostly l ate t hird-century

Mr.

C .M.

D aniels

has

suggested

t hat

s trongrooms m ay h ave b een d eemed u nnecessary a t t his t ime w hen much o f t he s oldiers' c ash wage was I n

t he

r ear

r ange

o f

c ommuted t o p ayment i n k ind .

r ooms

i n t he p rincipia a t C hester,

e vidence f or s ome b uilding a ctivity,

p erhaps

i n s ome

t here was

c ases d atable t o

t he f ourth c entury ( Petch 1 971, 1 5). At York, the b asilica p rincipiorum h ad b een s hortened i n t he e arly f ourth c entury w hilst t he n orth-west

e nd was

l ath-and-plaster o n

o ccupied b y

p artitions .

t he n orth-west

s ide

o f

small

r ooms

A p ortico

d ivided b y

which

t he b uilding,

was

p ainted p laster c overed t he walls o f o ne o f 1 971,

1 85).

I n t he e xcavations o f

h ad

b oth s tone

f lanked

t he

a nd

s treet

i ncorporated i nto i t;

t he

r esulting r ooms

( Ramm

1 967, Ramm t hought h e h ad f ound

e vidence t o s how t hat t he p rincipia h ad b een s everely burnt a t t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury; i n t he s ubsequent r econstruction , t he n orth-east a isle o f

t he b asilica was

r eplaced

t he p iers

o f

c onverted i nto s mall r ooms whose s ide walls

t he p revious a rcade a nd whose f ronts w ere c losed

b y wooden p artitions

( Ramm

r eceived a s eries

r ectangular b ases

O nly

a t

o f

B rough-on-Noe ,

1 968) .

I lkley,

T he f acade o f

a nd

a t t his

p erhaps

t he b asilica m ay h ave t ime

B inchester

a re p raetoria k nown t o h ave b een b uilt a new .

A t

e arlier

t he

p raetorium

p rincipia .

I n

e ast

s ite

o n

t he

t he

had

p resumbly

e arly

o f

f ourth

t he

S everan

s tood

c entury

t o i t

s tone

( Phillips

was

1 970) .

( Ferris

1 980),

t he f ormer s ite , n orth-west r ebuilt

g ranaries.

o f

t o t he

Little

t he t he

s outh

o f

t he

building was f ound ( fig 4 0 .2) b ut i t p robably c onsisted o f a wattlea nd-daub s uperstructure s et o n s tone s ill walls . I ts i dentification a s a praetorium i s n ot c ertain ( Jones G . a nd Wild 1 969A). H artley

f ound

t hat

t he p raetorium was

t he e arly f ourth c entury, s outh

( fig

4 1A ) .

o f

t wo

A t I lkley,

p eriods.

I n

t he b uilding was e rected a nd p rovided with a

p ortico a long t he v ia p rincipalis, t he

b asically

I ts

a s

was

c ourtyard was

t he

c ontemporary g ranary t o

f lanked b y a s ingle r ange o f

r ooms a nd t he e ntrance , o n i ts west a nd e ast s ides r espectively, a nd b y t wo r anges o f r ooms t o t he s outh a nd p robably a lso t he t he north . The n orthern r ange would have p rojected o nto t he i ntervallum r oad where i ts walls c ould h ave b een t otally r obbed ( Hartley 1 966 , 3 9-40) . I n

o ther

b asically

f orts

p raetoria a re known

s imilar p lans

t o

t hose o f

t o h ave t he

c ontinued

t hird-century

i n u se

with

b uildings.

A t

B irdoswald t he p raetorium was t otally r ebuilt, b ut has n ot y et b een e xcavated .

T he

p raetorium

i nto i ts n orth r ange,

a t

H ousesteads

h ad

a h ypocaust

i nstalled

p robably i n t he e arly f ourth c entury .

Many

p ilae were f ormed f rom p arts o f small c olumns which m ay have s upported

7 8

t he v erandas o f

t he p eriod I a nd I I b arrack-blocks .

e ast e nd o f t he r oom t o t he west was a rea ( Charlesworth 1 975).

A t P apcastle, a

b elonging t o t he p raetorium was

f ound ,

T he f loor a t t he

c ut away t o provide a f urnace b ath-suite c onceivably

b ut o nly t he

l owest

c ourses

o f

i t w alls s et i n mortar s urvived. T he a pse a nd t he r oom t o t he west were f loored with h eavy f lags whilst a water t ank had s tood i n t he middle o f t he r ectangular r oom. r e-used

f ace

d own w hich

1 965, 1 04-5).

was

O ne o f t he f lags was a t ombstone,

p robably

i ts

s econd

r e-use

( Charlesworth

As uite o f heated r ooms f ound a t E bchester ( fig 2 7 .2)

b y t he via p rincipialis may b e o f f ourth-century d ate a nd D odds p art o f

1 964,

1 78).

t he p raetorium b ath-suite b ut,

h ave b een a ligned o n t o

h ave

b een

a n

f ourth c entury, d oorway. 1 968,

A t

o f

i f

s o,

t he v ia principalis .

i nserted

t he s outhern p art

( Reed, Harper

I t was s uggested t hat t his may have f ormed

i ts

b ath-house .

T he

c ourtyard p aved ,

a nd a ssociated with

i s

p erhaps

p raetorium

p robably

t his was

t his t ime t he a ltar o f

t he p raetorium c ould n ot I t

m ore

a t

l ikely

C hester

q uite e arly

h ad

i n

t he

t he f inal b locking o f

o ne

a G reek d octor was

r e-used

( Petch

5 ).

B rough-on-Noe

m ust h ave b een p rovided with n ew g ranaries

i n t he e arly

f ourth c entury, o ne o f which may have b een d iscovered t o t he n orthv e t o f

t he p rincipia i n 1 903 ( Jones G .

a nd Wild 1 969A,

b uilding o n s ite I II i n t he l atera p raetorii a t

I lkely,

1 04).

T he

i nterpreted b y

W oodward a s t he p rincipia, i s n ow t hought t o b e a g ranary c ontemporary with t he praetorium ( fig 2 8.3A) ( Hartley 1 966, 3 9). I t had a b uttressed n orth wall a nd a ttached t o e nclosure d efined b y a s ingle r ow o f

t he r ear o f

l ong s tones

t he b uilding was a n

which was p robably a

yard . A t Whitley C astle t he e xcavator t hought he had f ound a p resumably e arly f ourth-century g ranary . F rom h is s ection , h owever , t he s leeper walls,

which h e a ssociated with

t his b uilding,

would s eem

t o b e o f e arlier d ate ( Shaw 1 959, f ig 2 ). T he i nternal b ath-house a t Bewcastle which must have s urvived t he t roubles o f w ith

s light

R epairs

t he l ate t hird c entury virtually i ntact, m odifications

were

B irdoswald .

a lso

n eeded

e arly i n

A t L eintwardine,

i n

t he

t he a s

f ourth y et

c entury

u nlocated

was r epaired ( Gillam

1 957) .

bath-house

a t

t he e xternal b ath-house i n t he a nnex t o

t he s outh o f t he f ort was d rastically a ltered - s ome o f

t he h ypocausts

were f illed with r ubble and t he r ooms g iven o pus s igninum f loors a s well a s b eing p rovided with n ew

d rains .

T he h eated r ooms

were n ow

b e f ound a t t he e ast e nd o f t he building ( Stanford 1 968).

t o

T he bath-

house beneath t he Mail C oach I nn, excavated i n 1 930 a t Y ork, was t hought t o b e o f l ate d ate d ue t o i ts p osition within t he f ortress a s " Such a p osition would b e i nconsistent with t he l ayout i n t he first a nd s econd c enturies" ( Corder 1 933, p robably

d ates

t o

t he

s econd

c entury

a t

t he

1 5).

l atest .

o f a ny f ortress This b uilding B ath-houses

e arly d ate a re known within o ther l egionary f ortresses,

o f

i ncluding

t hose a t C hester a nd C aerleon . T he s ewer f ound i n C hurch S treet m ay have been d esigned t o s erve t hese baths a t l east i n part ( Whitwell 1 976).

T he p resence o f s everal t iles s tamped I X H ISP u sed i n t he

b uilding would

s uggest

a n e arly d ate f or i t,

whereas

t he o ne s tamped

L EG V I V P i ndicates a d ate i n t he s econd c entury o r l ater f or t he c old b ath wall f rom which i t c ame . At a n umber o f f orts i n northern Britain a nd a t C aernarvon, r emains have b een f ound o f t roop a ccommodation which d iffers markedly f rom t hat o f

t he e arlier t hird c entury.

7 9

I n s ome c ases t hese b uildings,

which h ave b een c hristened c halets, c an b e d ated t o t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c enturies, p resumbly t o t he C onstantian r econstruction , t hough i f C aernarvon was n ot o ccupied a t t his t ime, t hey must b e a l ittle l ater t here . A t H igh R ochester, t hey must d ate t o b efore c irca AD 3 12, i f t he f ort was t hen a bandoned . T he E bchester w ere d ated p robably t o t he l ater t hird c entury .

c halets

o f

T hese b uildings a re d efined a s a r ange o f i ndividual u nits s eparated f rom t heir n eighbours b y a n arrow a lleyway o r e aves d rip. T he e xamples k nown d iffer i n d etail b ut t hey a ll h ave a t l east s ome i solated units. R egular r ows o f s uch i ndividual hutments a re s een within t he l ate Antonine f ort a t Newstead which must h ave b een a variation o n t he s tandard t ype o f b arrack; c halets i n b eing p erfectly r egular . T he

t hey d iffer f rom t he p resence o f b uildings

s imilar t o c halets h as b een n oted i n s econd-century V indonissa a nd i n f ourth-century C arnuntum ( pers. c omm. Mr . C .M. Daniels). T he b uildings r ecently f ound a t C hesterholm h ave s ome f eatures i n c ommon with c halets ( fig . 4 2.2). The f irst c halets were e xcavated a t H igh R ochester ( figs 4 3 .3, 4 4 .1) i n 1 852-55 . O ne b lock was f ound a t G reat C hesters i n 1 894 ( fig 4 3 .2). A t H ousesteads i n 1 898, n umerous t races o f t his t ype o f b uilding were f ound b ut d ue t o t he e xcavation t echnique u sed, n o c omplete p lan o f o ne was h ere v isible . W heeler f ound o ne s uch b uilding i n 1 922 a t C aernarvon ( fig 4 4 .2) a nd c ompared i t w ith t hat a t G reat C hesters . T wo b uildings a t H ousesteads, n umbers X III a nd X IV ( fig 4 3 .1) h ave b een e xtensively e xcavated a nd y ielded c omplete p lans o f t he c halet p hase b uildings. I n b oth c ases, t hese were d ated t o t he C onstantian r ebuilding . I n b uilding X IV , W ilkes f ound o ne l arge r oom o verlying t he e arlier c enturion 's s uite , m easuring i nternally 8 .8 x 9 .1m a nd t o t he west o f i t e ight f urther units. N umber 2 was p robably a k itchen o r w orkroom a ssociated w ith r oom 1 w hilst r oom 9 was p erhaps a l ean-to s hed a gainst i ts n eighbour t o t he e ast. T he o ther s ix u nits w ere i ndividual h utments, t he s outh w alls o f w hich a re g enerally o n t he s ame a lignment . E ach c halet v aries i n i ts s ize a nd i n o ther d etails f rom i ts n eighbours .

I n b uilding X IV n orth walls t o

t he c halet u nit were c onspicuous b y t heir a bsence . B uilding X III a gain h as t he l arge u nit a t t he e astern e nd, h ere w ith a p orch t o t he e ast, whilst t o t he w est a re f ive s eparate u nits . B eyond t hem , t hree r ooms h ave p arty walls which c ould e ither h ave b een p art o f o ne l arge u nit o r h ave r emained s eparate .

D aniels h as a ttempted t o d etermine d ifferent t ypes o f c halet b locks , t hough t his e xercise i s p erhaps n ot p articularly r ewarding a s t he blocks d iffer t o s uch a d egree t hat t he t ypes a re p ossibly m eaningless . S ome b locks h ave l arge u nits a t o ne o r b oth e nds with a v arying n umber o f i ndividual u nits b etween ; t he s outh-eastern b lock a t H igh R ochester ( fig 4 4 .1A) s eems t o h ave h ad v ery l ong u nits. B uilding V II a t C aernarvon ( fig 4 4 .2) i s u nique i n h aving c halet u nits t o t he n orth-west s eparated b y a n arrow g ap f rom t wo o r m ore l ong t hin r ooms t o t he s outh-east. T he n orth-east wall o f t he b uilding c onnects

t he t wo d ifferent

t ypes

o f

o ther buildings a t C aernarvon c haracteristics ( Daniels 1 980A , 1 81) .

r ooms .

D aniels

n oted

may n ot b e s o a s e arlier b arracks s ometime h ad t he q uarters s eparated f rom t he c ontubernia b y a n a lleyway .

8 0

t hat

m any

h ave c ertain c halet block I n s ome c ases, h owever , t his c enturions'

A ll t he c halet b locks c onform t o t he r egular p lanning o f

t he f orts

i n

which t hey l ie ( though s ome a t H igh R ochester l ay o ver t he r ampart b ank) and p robably - i n many c ases c ertainly - e ach c halet b lock o verlies a n e arlier b arrack-block . S ometimes t hey make u se o f a p ree xisting b arrack-block wall, a s i n b uilding X III a t H ousesteads. W here k nown i n d etail , m any c halet u nits a re u ndivided , b ut a t l east o ne a t Wallsend i s d ivided i nto t hree , w hilst m ore a re d ivided i nto t wo r ooms. Units 3 , 4a nd 5 i n b uilding X IV a t H ousesteads a re u nusual i n t hat t he n orthern p art o f t heir e ast walls a re s et f urther t o t he west, t hus a llowing a wider a lleyway , p resumably t o g ive a ccess t o a d oor half way d own t he e ast s ide o f e ach c halet. T his m odification

d ates

t o

l ater

i n

t he

f ourth

c entury

a nd

o riginally

t he

p lan o f t hese u nits c onformed t o t hat o f t he o thers i n b uilding X IV . A s well a s t he c ertain o ccurrence o f c halets a t C aernarvon, G reat C hesters, H igh R ochester, H ousesteads a nd Wallsend, t here were p robably o thers. A t B irdoswald i n t he s outh-eastern a rea o f t he f ort , t he b uildings o f t he C onstantian p eriod were d escribed a s " short b arracks, d ivided b y d rainage a lleys, c losely r esembling t hose o f 1 929" ( Simpson F . a nd R ichmond 1 932, 1 41) . H orsley r ecorded t hat h e f ound " the d istance a nd b readth o f t he passage b etween t he r ows o f h ouses o r b arracks t o b e n o more t han 3 2 i nches" ( Horsley 1 732, 1 52). A t C hesters t he s outhern-most o f t he f our b arracks e xcavated i n t he e astern p raetentura ( fig 4 2.3) s hows a n umber o f d ouble walls; p ossibly a t s ome p eriod i t was a c halet b lock ( Blair 1 895 p lan b etween 8 8-9). E xcavations a t E bchester i n 1 972 r evealed two u nits with a n arrow a lleyway b etween ( fig 4 4 .4); t hese h ave g enerally b een a ccepted a s e vidence f or c halets h ere ( Maxfield a nd R eed 1 975) . A n a erial p hotograph o f R isingham s hows a s pread o f small b uildings a cross t he f ort's i nterior which D aniels s uggests c ould b e c halets ( St. J oseph 1 969, p l. I II n o. I ). A t Malton, C order f ound what were a lmost

c ertainly

c halets:

" The

i nternal b uildings

were

o f

s tone;

i n

t he n orth c orner the o nly i nternal a rea e xcavated - t here were r ectangular h utments with n arrow s paces b etween ...." ( Corder 1 932, 5 7). He d ated t hese t o t he e arly f ourth c entury . T he c halets a t H ousesteads a nd W allsend were p robably r oofed w ith w ooden s hingles, t hose

a t Malton b eing r oofed with s tone s labs

n ailed

i n p osition

( Pearson 1 936, 8 7). A t C hesterholm, I lkley, Maryport, R avenglass, m ilecastle 4 8 a nd p ossibly a t R eculver , b arracks a nd/or s tables o f t hird-century d ate o r e arlier r emained i n u se i nto t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. A t E bchester, i f t he c halets d o d ate t o t he l atter p art o f t he t hird c entury a nd n ot t o t he t ime o f C onstantius ,

t hey r emained i n u se .

t he e astern u nit t here was e vidence f or i ts h aving b een m odified a s n ew f lagged f loor w as p rovided w hich o verlay t he p hase I h earths .

I n a A

s ingle o val h earth i n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he c halet b elonged t o t his phase b ut, u nlike i ts p redecessors, i t was n ot a ssociated with metal-working ( Maxfield a nd R eed 1 975, 6 4). T he e xtension t o t he b arrack-block f ound i n 1 958-9 ( probably o f S everan d ate) r eceived a c obble f loor, s ealing e arth a nd r ubble; a c ircular h earth s tood o n t his f loor. T he e xcavator d ated t he f loor t o t he C onstantian r econstruction ( Jarrett 1 960A, 2 18). E xcavations b y S teer i n t he n orth-west a ngle i n 1 936 r evealed a p ossible b arrack-block a bout 3 8 .12m l ong a nd a veraging 1 0 .93m w ide ( fig 4 7 .2) w hich was v ery p oorly c onstructed o f l arge, r oughly-dressed s tone a nd r e-used s tone i rregularly l aid, b adly c oursed a nd r arely s howing a s traight f ace.

8 1

A s tone p artition a cross t he n orthern e nd o f t he b uilding f ormed a r oom 5 .49m x 1 0.1m . A d rain c ontaining much t hird-century p ottery h ad b een f illed w ith c lay a nd b roken f lags when t he b arrack w as b uilt . S ealed u nder a r ough f loor, p robably c ontemporary with t he b arrack w alls, was a n u nusual f langed b owl o f t hird-century a ffinities ( ibid 2 07-8) . T he b uildings w ithin m ilecastle 4 8 r etained t he s ame p lan a s t hey h ad had i n p eriod I I, t hough t he r ooms were r efloored ( except p erhaps f or r oom 3 i n C hlorus

t he western b lock).

A c oin

o f C onstantius

w as p ossibly s ealed b y a p eriod I II f loor .

A t B irdoswald t he b uilding n orth o f t he v ia p rincipalis was o f u nusual p lan i n i ts e arly f ourth-century p hase ( fig 5 0 .110 . T he c onstruction o f

t he b uilding was p oor;

i t h ad e arthen a nd f lagged f loors

r oofs t iled with s andstone .

R oom I IIg was h ypocausted;

a nd

I IIb w as

i nterpreted a s a wash-house with a s ump which was a lso s erved b y a n o vershoot f rom I IIc. I IIa with a l arge h earth a nd a f lagged f loor was i nterpreted a s a c ookhouse . T he p urpose o f t he whole b uilding i s f ar f rom c lear; t he e xcavators s uggested t hat i t f ormed o fficers' q uarters ( Richmond a nd B irley e arlier f ourth-century c oins;

E . 1 930). I t was a ssociated with t he l atest c oin f rom t he p receding

l evel was o f E lagabalus . B ehind t he n orth r ampart a t H igh R ochester , R ichmond n oted a c omplete r ebuilding o f t he S everan b arrack-block o n d ifferent l ines . A s o nly t he a ngle o f a b uilding was f ound , within which was a f lagged f loor, i t i s n ot c lear w hether t his w as p art o f a c halet b lock ( Richmond 1 936 , 1 81) . I n t he e xcavations o f 1 961-2, a t P apcastle, a n ormal s tyle b arrackb lock may h ave b een f ound , t hough t he p lan r ecovered was f ragmentary ( fig 4 7 .3 , C harlesworth 1 965) . A t B ainbridge , b uildings w ere f ound b y D roop a nd J ones o n t he s outh s ide o f t he v ia p raetoria i nside t he e ast g ate;

t hey d ated t he f inal p eriod ,

p eriod 3 ,

t o t he e arly f ourth

c entury ( Droop a nd J ones 1 932). T o t he s outh was f ound a nother with walls 6 1cm w ide o f v ery p oor c onstruction w hich , t ogether w ith s ome p aving, o verlay r ubble a s t he p eriod 3 walls had t o t he n orth. I n t his r ubble was a c oin o f C laudius I I ( Wade 1 955, 1 38). H artley f ound s everal p eriods o f b uildings i n t he s ame a rea b ut o f t he p resumed C onstantian p hase , l ittle w as r evealed ( Hartley 1 960 f ig 5 D). I n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury, t he b uildings i n t he p raetentura a t B rough-on-Noe were r ebuilt i n s tone . I n t he a ngle b etween t he v ia p rincipalis a nd t he i ntervallum r oad, a p eriod I I t imber b uilding h ad b een d emolished a nd t he a rea l evelled b efore t he b uilding o f t he s tone s tructure. T his h ad b een much d isturbed a nd o nly a s ingle wall a nd a s tone b ase r emained l ying amongst r ubble m ainly o f b roken r oof s lates . T his b uilding w ould s eem t o h ave b een o n t he s ame a lignment a s t hat o f p eriod I I ( Jones G . T hompson a nd W ild 1 966 , 1 01) . I n 1 967 m ore o f t his b uilding was e xcavated a nd i t was p resumed t o b e ab arrack-block ( no .1) 8 .54m wide by a bout 3 9.04m l ong,

f lanked t o t he e ast b y a 2 .74m p aved a lley ( fig 4 8 .2) .

e ast,

t renching

i ndicated

t hat

t here

w ere

t wo

f urther

b arracks

T o t he a bout

8 .54m w ide s eparated b y a lleys a f ew f eet w ide , a nd a n e quivalent p air o f b uildings s eem t o h ave b een f ound b y R ichmond t o t he e ast o f t he v ia p raetoria ( Jones G . 1 967) . I n 1 968 , f urther w ork was c arried o ut o n t he n orth-east e nd o f b arrack-block 1 . ( if

i t

b e

t he same one) w as

i ntervallum .

1 .C6m w ider ,

A t t his e nd t he b uilding

e xtending o ver

t he p eriod I I

Ap artition o n t he l ong a xis o f t he b uilding a t t his

8 2

e nd

d ivided

i t

i nto

t wo

l ong

r ooms

a bout

3 .81m a cross .

T he western

r oom was t hought t o h ave b een a s table a s i ts f loor was o f f lat c obbles w ith g ravel a nd t here w as a m ucking-out d rain p arallel t o t he n orth-west wall a nd s ome h orse t eeth . A s ubstantial h earth i n t he e astern r oom, i t was s uggested, may i dentify t his r oom a s a smithy, b ut t he p resence o f a p artition c ould i ndicate t hat i t was u sed a s l iving a ccommodation . F ound l odged i n o ne p artition wall was s lightly-worn c oin o f C arausius A D 2 88 ( Jones G . a nd W ild 1 969A ) .

a

A t Y ork i n t he p raetentura W enham t hought h e h ad f ound t he c enturions' e nds o f f our b arracks s et p erpendicular t o t he v ia s agularis b y i nterval-tower S W3 ( fig 4 8 .1) . B uilding o f which o nly t he s outh a ngle was f ound, may h ave b een a l ater f ourth-century r ebuilding a s t he excavator n oted t hat t he c orner was o f p oorer workmanship t han C onstantian work e lsewhere i n t he f ortress . T here was a d rain within t he building; a n a blutions r oom i n t he c enturions' q uarters was s uggested; painted wall p laster was a lso f ound . o ther b uildings were f ound ( denham 1 959-62);

F ew t race , o f t he t here i s l ittle

e vidence t hat Wenham's b uildings ' S', ' P', ' Q' a nd ' R' were b arrackb locks . B ordering t he i ntervallum r oad b y S W5, a b uilding was f ound p robably l ying p arallel t o t he f ortress wall which c annot r epresent a b arrack-block s et p arallel t o t he v ia p raetoria ( Sumpter a nd C oll 1 977, 9 0). A t P ortchester, f ourth

b uildings R 1 a nd R 2 c ontinued i n u se well i nto t he

c entury .

I n t he n orth-west,

p raetentura

a t

Wallsend,

n o

c halet b locks h ave b een f ound b ut a n umber o f i rregular s eperate s tructures s urvived , s ome o f s tone a nd o thers o f t imber w ith f loors o f p acked r ubble ( fig 5 1 .1 M . T hese o verlay b oth t he d emolished r emains o f t he t hird-century b uildings a nd t he r oads e xact

d ate o f

t hese s tructures

( Daniels

1 977).

i s n ot a t p resent k nown .

T he

T he f ort a t

D oncaster i n t he e arly f ourth c entury was p rovided w ith F - ,m e t imber b uildings a nd h ad i ts r oads r emetalled ( Dolby 1 972) .

3 izeable A m ore

s ubstantial b uilding with p itched f ootings was f ound i n t he s outh-west q uarter o f t he f ort ( Dolby a nd B uckland 1 971). A t S tanwix, t wo b uildings 7 .62m a nd 6 .71m w ide , w ere f ound t o t he s outh o f t he f ort's n orth wall . T he n orthern o ne was s eparated f rom t he wall b y a bout 3 .57m and must h ave o verlain t he i ntervallum r oad a nd p ossibly o verlay a nd impinged o n t he r ampart. T hese b uildings r ested o n a l ayer o f g ravel which i tself o verlay s ome s econd-century p ottery. T hey were a ssociated w ith p ottery t raditionally d ated t o W all p eriod I II ( Simpson F . a nd H ogg 1 935). A lthough t hey were t hought, when e xcavated, t o l ie o utide t he f ort, f urther work which l ocated t he s outh-west F .

a nd

a ngle ,

R ichmond

p roved

t hat

t hey h ad

l ain within

t he

f ort

( Simpson

1 941) .

A b uilding was p laced o ver t he r ampart a t Whitley C astle i n Wall p eriod I II which l ay 3 .05m f rom t he i nner f ace o f t he f ort wall . I t w as p robably a t t his t ime t hat t he r ampart was t otally r emoved i n t his a rea - c ertainly w hen t he f ort wall c ollapsed i nwards, a t

t he

l evel

o f

t he

e arly

f ourth-century

r ampart

i ts

s tones

l ay

b uildings' f ootings

( Shaw 1 959, f ig 2 ). I n R isingham f ort ,

t he

r ampart b acking o n t he west w all was c ut b ack

t o within 3 .05m o f t he f ort wall a nd r evetted with s tone . O n t his l evelled a rea a m illstone was f ound , b ut t here was n o e vidence f or a b uilding ( Richmond 1 936, 1 95). B ehind t he n orth wall a t I lkley t o

8 3

t he e ast o f

t he g ate ,

a s tone b uilding was p laced o ver t he i ntervallum

r oad a nd d enuded r ampart which t he e xcavator s uggested was p robably o ne o f a s eries o f s imilar s tructures i n t he p raetentura ( Hartley 1 966 ,

3 8-9) .

I n t he r etentura t he S everan s tone walls

s everal c ourses h igh were i gnored a nd r eplaced b y h ole c onstruction, p robably a ligned e ast-west e arlier v ia q uintana .

T his b uilding s eems

s till s tanding

a b uilding o f p osta nd overlying t he

t o h ave b een a f abrica;

p it within i t c ontained a l ittle f ourth-century p ottery, c rucibles, s cale a rmour, e tc . ( ibid 4 0) . O ver t he v ia q uintana were

f ound

within

a t

B irdoswald ,

which

was

t races

a v ery

1 931,

1 28) .

e lliptical

f ourth

c entury

b uilding

i n

t he

( pers.

b egun a t a much e arlier d ate , t he

l ate

3 9) . t he

Mr .

p raetorii

a t

b ut o nly s eems a nd N ewstead

Daniels) .

C hester

T he

may have

b een

t o h ave b een c ompleted i n

c entury

1 967,

e vidence was f ound f or a p eriod o f

l aying o f

( Droop

f loor

( Richmond

f urther a ltered i n

C .M.

t hird

I n

( Eames

c omm .

l atera

f lagged

a n a ssociated wall

T he p ossible h ospital a t Wallsend was

e arly

a

s lag ,

a C onstantian b uilding

s ubstantial

i ncorporating a small d omestic a ltar a nd t he

o f

b ronze

1 939,

N ash-Williams

1 969 ,

d ereliction b etween

t he f oundations a nd t he b uilding's s ubsequent c ompletion

1 968).

I t

c onsisted

o f

a n

e lliptical

wall

set

within

a

r ectangular e nclosure

( fig 5 2.2), a t t he c entre o f which was a n oval

c ourtyard

heavy

p aved

with

s andstone

f lags

and

s urrounded

c olonnaded ambulatory . A r esidential f unction f or t he b een s uggested ( Thompson F . 1 965, 4 0). T races o f p ossibly o f

t his

d ate ,

l ayer a nd n umerous b urnt

c overed immediately b y a c harcoal

t iles were n oted .

p laced i n h ollows 8 cm a nd 1 5cm d eep, o f

C onstantian

a

were f ound within t he d efences a t L eintwardine;

t hree s ettings o f l arge s tone f lags,

t he p illars

b y

b uilding h as a b uilding,

a v eranda

( Stanford

r econstruction

1 968 ,

work

T he t wo e asterly s ettings,

were e xplained a s f oundations

has

f or

2 71) . been

n oted

i n

t he

m ilitary

c ompounds a t C orbridge, a t which t ime t he e xcavators d ated t he u niting o f t he e ast a nd west c ompounds . I n t he n ew wall a long t he m ain e astwest s treet, p rotected b y p rojection,

a g ate ( fig 2 0 .5) was placed, i ts west s ide b eing a s emi-circular p rojecting t ower, b acked b y a l ong p erhaps

s tairs.

O n

r ectangular p rojecting t ower . small

b locks

with a c ore

o f

a nd B irley E . 1 938, 2 49).

t he

e ast

s ide

was

a s hallow

T he n ew wall and g ate were b uilt o f

c lean ,

b roken s tone a nd c ement

( Richmond

Additions were made t o t he west c ompound

p rincipia; a r ange o f r ooms was a dded o n t he n orth s ide o f b uilding which, i t was s uggested, may have b een built f or a dministrators

t o l ive i n .

A p ortico was

c arried a cross

t he t he

t he f ront o f

t he widened b uilding a nd an a pse was added t o t he r ear o f t he a edes. T here a nd

were

a lso

a lterations

I V were widened a nd

r oom h ad a s tokehole

f or

i n

t he

workshops

s ubdivided a new . a h ypocaust

when

I n s hop

t he

b uildings

I V ,

t he n ew n orth

( Richmond a nd B irley E .

I II

1 940) .

A s c an b e s een f rom t he a bove i nformation, much work h as b een a ttributed t o t he t ime o f C onstantius C hlorus - m uch o f i t i s q uite l ikely t o h ave b een d ated c orrectly .

I t

a m ajor r ebuilding p rogramme w ould h ave

i s p lausible t o s uggest t aken p lace a t

t hat

t his t ime when

t he B ritish p rovinces were r eunited with t he Empire .

S ome o f t he

work n oted a bove, h owever, c ould d ate t o a l ittle b efore o r a fter A D 2 96-306; i t i s n ot e asy t o e nvisage what a n e xcavator means b y d ating a p hase t o t he l ate t hird c entury o r t o t he e arly f ourth. c ase

h e

may

b e

a ssociating

i t

with C onstantius

8 4

o r

I n e ach

s eeking not

t o

a ssociate

i t

with h im .

between t he l ate a rchaeologically.

I t

t hird

i s v ery d ifficult century

and

t o m ake a ny d istinction

the

early

f ourth

c entury

A lthough t here c learly was a r eoccupation i n s trength o f many f orts a t t his t ime ,

t he g arrison o f t he n orth a nd west was n ot a s

l arge a s

which had held t he s ame a rea i n t he e arlier t hird c entury.

t hat

T he I I

l egion had moved f rom C aerleon; i t i s p ossible t hat p art. o f i t g arrisoned t he n earby f ort a t Cardiff, a lthough much o f i t n o d oubt l eft

Wales.

R ichborough

P art u nder

o f

t he

l egion

C arausius

where

may

i t

have

i s

t aken

r ecorded

a rchaeologicaly i ts p resence i s n ot a ttested . i f i t

was s till t here, i mply t hat

T he

u p

g arrison

t he N otitia ,

l egion a t

a t b ut

C hester,

must have been g reatly r educed i n s trength,

t hough t he s uggested maintenance o f p erhaps

i n

l arge t roop

t he 2 4 h a d efended e nclosure would

c oncentrations m ay h ave b een

e nvisaged

i n t he a rea , p erhaps o n a t emporary b asis ( cf . S trickland 1 981B, 4 323 ) . Again a t Y ork i t i s p ossible t hat s ome a reas o f t he f ortress l ay u noccupied . Miller n oted t he a bsence o f f ourth-century barrackb locks i n t he areas e xamined u p t o his t ime a nd t he l ack o f f ourthc entury

p ottery

( Miller

1 927) .

H e

c oncluded

t hat:

" The f ortress a t t hat t ime had a n a reas o f 5 0 a cres; o f t he

implying d efence, a t

i ts

t hat

t hat

t here

was

a body

would s eem t o mean t hat

h eadquarters

i f

l arge

t he r ebuilding

f ortress o n t hat s cale i n t he u nsettled c onditions o f

a t

p art

o f

t he

I h ave

i nterior

t roops

l ike

i ts

d escribed

a reas,

o ld s trength . i s

f ound

i ts

t he p robable

I t

f ollows

i nference will n ot b e b ut

t hat t he

t roops f or which t he r estored f ortress was d esigned,

n ot l ive withln i ts walls T he

f or

t o h old g ood f or a

t hat Y ork i n t he f ourth c entury was h eld b y a d etachment, l arge b ody o f

t he t ime ,

adequate

t he Y ork l egion was s till maintained

s omething

s uch e vidence a s

o f

f ortress

o f

Y ork

i n p ermanent q uarters"

will,

f or

much o f

( Miller

i ts history,

1 928,

9 8) .

have b een o f

g reater importance t han t hose o f t he o ther B ritish l egions. t he e arly t hird c entury,

d id

S ince

i t h ad p robably b een t he c apital o f B ritannia

I nferior a nd i n t he f ourth c entury i t will h ave r etained i ts s tatus a s c apital o f B ritannia S ecunda a nd was, n o d oubt, t he headquarters o f t he

dux B ritanniarum .

e laborate s outh-west

I t

p restige r ather t han f or p resence

o f

t he

has

d efences

been o f

d efence .

s uggested

t he f ortress S ome h ave

t hat

t he

c onnected

emperor C onstantius C hlorus a t Y ork,

p erhaps b e a ssociated with t he d ux . i mperial c apital f or

l ess

u nusually

were p rimarily f or t his b ut

with

t he

i t c ould

York will o nly have b een a n

t han o ne y ear ,

t hough o riginally i t m ay h ave

b een i ntended t o s erve a s s uch f or l onger. I n auxiliary f orts t here i s a lso p reviously t here h ad b een b arracks . w here

a ll

t he b arracks

were

e vidence f or o pen a reas where C aersws i s t he m ost e xtreme c ase

d emolished,

a s

was

t he p raetorium e xcept

f or t he h eated s uite t hat had been a dded i n t he t hird c entury. T he p resence o f l ate t hird a nd f ourth-century p ottery i ndicates t hat t he s ite

was

s till

o ccupied,

t hough b y whom

i s

n ot k nown

( Daniels,

J ones

G . and P utnam 1 967). A t L ancaster, t he r etentura d id n ot c ontain b uildings i n t he f ourth c entury ( Jones G . 1 970). T he n orth-west p raetentura

a t

Wallsend

r emained

u noccupied

b y

b uildings

u ntil

c irca

A D 3 67 ( Daniels 1 976) . T he b arracks i n t he r etentura a t I lkley were o verlain i n t he f ort's p eriod 4 , b y a t imber f abrica, d ated t o C onstantius

b y

t he e xcavator

( Hartley

8 5

1 966 ,

4 0) .

A n umber o f f orts o n H adrian's Wall which h ad p ossibly b een t otally a bandoned i n t he l ater t hird c entury, d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een r eoccupied

i n

t he

e arly

f ourth

c entury,

nor

d o

t he

f orts

o f

P iercebridge a nd C aernarvon . A t H altonchesters, n o buildings were f ound t hat c ould b e d ated b etween t he l ater t hird a nd t he l ater f ourth c entury ( Gillam 1 962), a nd G illam b elieves t hat t he whole f ort was p robably u noccupied f or a p eriod o f a bout 1 00 y ears.

One p ossible

p roblem with t his i nterpretation r esults f rom J arrett's e xcavation i n 1 957 when h e f ound two r ampart b uildings which were d ated f rom t he p ottery t o a fter c irca A D 2 80 . H ence h e d ated t hem t o C onstantius C hlorus; c entury .

t his p ottery w ould n ow b e d ated m uch e arlier i n t he t hird B etween t wo c lay f loors i n o ne o f t hese b uildings d escribed

a s

t he

" above

c lay

f loor

o f

2 96

a nd b elow

a l ater

r elaying

o f

i t

a ssignable t o s ome d ate b efore 3 67" , were f ive c oins, t he l atest b eing o ne o f A llectus ( Jarrett 1 960B, 1 55). I t i s d ifficult t o s uggest a d ate f or t he s econd o f t hese f loors b ut i t m ust p ost-date A D 2 93-6 a nd i t i s v ery u nlikely t hat a c oin o f A llectus would b e a round c irca A D 3 70 o r t hat t he b uilding w ould h ave b een r e-usable a fter t he i nferred a bandonment o f c irca 1 00 y ears . A t Rudchester,

i n t he small a rea i nvestigated i n 1 972, t he e vidence

f or a bandonment was v ery s imilar t o t hat a t H altonchesters ( Gillam , H arrison a nd N ewman 1 973) . T he u nstratified c oin o f Maximianus i n g ood c ondition f rom t he f ort ( Brewis 1 924, 1 10 n o .12) need n ot imply i ts o ccupation a t t hat d ate . I f o ne a ccepts t hat, i n t he a bsence o f military s tructures a t S outh S hields t he s ite was u noccupied by t he military,

t he p ottery, c oins a nd s tructures must i ndicate c ivilian

o ccupation o n t he f ort s ite . I t i s n ot p ossible t o s uggest a d ate when t he f ort was r eoccupied b y t he military a s n o s pecifically military s tructures a re known a fter c irca A D 2 20 . A t s ome t ime i n t he f ourth c entury, t he n umerus b arcariorum T igrisiensium s tationed h ere , b ut p recisely when a nd f or h ow l ong i s u nclear .

was

A t C hesterholm t he e vidence f or t he a bandonment o f t he v icus b etween a bout A D 2 70 a nd A D 3 70 i s g radually a ccumulating . A s t he h istory o f v ici o ften r eflects t hat o f t he f orts b y w hich t hey l ie , i t w ould n ot b e u nreasonable t o s uggest t hat t he f orts a t C hesterholm a nd O ld P enrith m ay a lso h ave b een a bandoned a t t his p eriod b y t he m ilitary . T he p resence o f a h oard o f a bout 3 00 c oins, t he l atest o f M agnentius, f ound i n t he g uardchamber o f t he w est g ate a t C hesterholm ( Birley E . 1 931, 1 85) s uggests t hat t he s tructure was i n d isuse when t he hoard was d eposited . With t he r eoccupation o f t he f ort i n s tone wall p eriod I II c onventionally d ated t o C ount T heodosius' r econstruction, t he r oof o f t he p rincipia had e ither b ecome u nsafe o r had c ollapsed a nd r equired r ebuilding . I n t he west r oom o f t he p rincipia 's s outh r ange, t he h ypocaust p ilae p ut i nto t he r oom i n t he f ort's l ast p eriod were c onstructed o f r e-used r oof t iles . I n t he t hird c entury n orth g ate, b etween t he p eriod I a nd I I r oadways, was a l ayer o f r ubbish 3 0cm t hick . D uring t he ' Theodosian r econstruction ' e xtensive r epairs were r equired o n t he f ort's d efences . T hat t he f ort was o ccupied b y s omeone i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury i s c lear f rom t he c oins f ound i n e xcavations i n t he n orth-east a ngle o f t he f ort i n 1 980 ( pers . c omm . Mr. P . B idwell), b ut whether b y t roops o r c ivilians i s n ot k nown . T he n umerous m odifications i n t he b arrack-blocks e xcavated i n t his a rea which o n e ach o ccasion a ffected more t han o ne ' contubernium', s uggested t o t he e xcavator t hat t he s ite was u nder m ilitary c ontrol f rom t he m id-third c entury u ntil w ell i nto t he f ourth c entury .

8b

I n t he e arly f ourth c entury t here i s s ome e vidence t hat H adrian 's W all i tself l ay i n r uin . B y m ilecastle 3 5 t he Wall was i n d isrepair f rom t he t hird c entury i nto t he l ate f ourth a nd a t s ome t ime - p ossibly i n t he e arly f ourth c entury - t he W all , where i t m et t he n orth-west a ngle o f B irdoswald f ort, w as d emolished a nd a s mall d itch c arried r ound t he a ngle 8 .54m t o t he west o f i t . I t was e vident t o t he e xcavators t hat Hadrian's W all h ad b een r oughly r ebuilt a t t his p oint, a nd w here i t c rossed t he d itch a c onduit h ad b een i nserted t o t ake away f lood w ater f rom i t. T his r ebuild i ncorporated r e-used masonry which s ealed s everal p ieces o f e arly f ourth-century

c ooking p ots

a t

t he

b ottom o f t he d itch ( Simpson F . a nd R ichmond 1 934). Mr. J .P . Gillam n oticed t hat when t he Wall west o f B irdoswald was b eing d ismantled p rior t o c onsolidation b y t he M inistry o f W orks a round 1 950 , p ottery d ating t o c irca A D 3 00 was f ound within i ts s tructure ( Gillam 1 974, 1 4 ) . I t i s p ossible t hat f or a t ime t he f ort a t B irdoswald s tood i n i solation f rom t he W all . V ery f ew t urrets r emained i n u se i nto t he f ourth c entury t urrets 7 b, 4 4b a nd 4 8a a nd b c ertainly r emained i n military t his t ime ( Charlesworth 1 977 ) . O f t he m ilecastles, o nly a t 3 5 1 979), 4 0 ( Simpson F . 1 976), 4 8 ( Gibson a nd S impson F . 1 911),

- o nly u se a t ( Savage 5 1 a nd

5 2 ( Simpson F . a nd R ichmond 1 935) a nd p ossibly 5 0 ( Simpson F . 1 913), i s t here s tructural e vidence f or e arly f ourth-century o ccupation . T he o ccupation o f m ilecastle 3 5 may h ave b een c ivilian ( pers. c omm . Mr . M . S avage). F rom milecastles 9 ( Birley E . 1 930), 1 3 ( Simpson F . 1 931),

3 2

( Binns

1 971),

3 7

1 952) p ottery a nd/or c oins

( Blair 1 934) a nd 7 9 ( Richmond a nd G illam

o f

t his

p eriod h ave b een f ound .

S ince Wilkes' e xcavations i n 1 960 o f b uilding X IV a t H ousesteads, i t h as been s uggested t hat t he c halet b locks f ormed married q uarters. T he m ain e vidence f or t his h as b een t he n umber o f t rinkets a ssociated w ith t hese b uildings w hich were t hought m ore l ikely t o h ave b een w orn b y w omen t han b y t he s oldiers c hildren w ithin f orts

t hemselves .

T he p resence o f w omen a nd

i n t he s econd c entury h as

o ften b een

c ommented

o n a nd t he f ind o f s hoes f rom t he r efuse h oles a nd d itches a t B ar H ill i s a well-known e xample ( Macdonald a nd P ark 1 906, 1 01 f f). I t h as b een u sual t o e xplain t hese a way a s h aving b elonged t o t he f amily o f t he c ommanding o fficer ,

t hough

P rofessor E . B irley h as s uggested t hat

c enturions were a lso a llowed t o h ave t heir f amilies w ithin t he w alls ( Birley R . 1 977B, 1 76). A n i nscription f rom Westerwood o n t he A ntonine W all s hows t hat a c enturion o f t he V I V ictrix h ad b rought h is w ife a nd f amily w ith h im f rom Y ork

( Breeze a nd D obson 1 976 ,

2 04) .

I n t he p re-Hadrianic f orts a t C hesterholm , a t annery was f ound a nd o n i ts f loor was m uch r ubbish , i ncluding o ver 2 00 i tems o f f ootwear, 7 0% o f which was t oo small t o have b een worn b y a nyone b ut women a nd c hildren .

T he

e xcavators

n oted

t hat

t hey

c annot

a ll h ave

b een u sed

b y t he o ccupants o f t he p raetorium a nd s uggested t hat o n s ome f rontiers, R oman a rmy r egulations were n ot a lways s trictly a dhered t o . F inds o f o ther ' civilian' o bjects within f orts a re c ommon ( Birley R . 1 977B,

1 24-5).

I n t he e arly f ourth c entury t here i s i ncontestable e vidence t hat w omen were present i n a t l east t hree f orts, t wo o f which l ie o n t he S axon S hore . T he p resence o f i nfant b urials o n R oman o ccupation s ites i s a r elatively c ommon o ccurrence . U nder R oman l aw , b urials n ormally h ad t o b e placed o utside t he l im ts o f a s ettlement, b ut in t he c ase o f

8 7

i nfants, b urial w ithin a s ettlement w as a llowed . i nfant b urials h ave b een f ound w ithin t he a rea o f r elevant

e xcavations

h ave

y et

t o

b e p ublished ,

A t R eculver, f ive t he f ort b ut a s t he i s

n ot p ossible t o

b e s ure w hether t hese a re c ontemporary w ith t he f ort p re-date i t . T here w as e arlier c ivilian o ccupation

i t

o r w hether t hey i n t he a rea a nd

t he t hree i nfant b urials d escribed a s l ying b eneath t he f oundations o f t he t hird-century b ake-house ( Philp 1 967 ) c ould b elong t o a p re-fort p hase . T he i nfant b urials f ound i n t he t wo b uildings d escribed a s l iving

q uarters

b y

t he e xcavator

( possibly b ecause

t hey h ad c ontained

t he b urials) a re p robably c ontemporary w ith t hese b uildings a nd w ould t herefore d ate t o c irca A D 2 70-300 ( Philp 1 962) . At P ortchester , 2 7 i nfant b urials were f ound w hilst o nly o ne p ossible a dult b urial w as n oted which c ould h ave b een o f S axon d ate . Most o f t he i nfants h ad d ied s oon a fter b irth ( Hooper 1 975). T hese b urials o ccurred mainly b etween A D 3 25 a nd 3 45 b ut t hey were p resent f rom AD 3 00 onwards. T he e xcavator s uggested t hree p ossible t ypes o f o ccupation within t he f ort: 1 .

O ccupied

t hroughout

b y

t he

m ilitary w ho

g radually

a llowed

w ives

a nd c hildren t o m ove i nto t he d efended a rea. 2 .

3 .

C ivilian o ccupation r esidence.

i n

t he

i ntervals

b etween

t he

military

O ccupation b y a b asically c ivilian c ommunity among whom w ere b ased a s mall m ilitia.

C unliffe s eems t o f avour t he t hird i nterpretation a nd h e s uggests t hat t he s ite m ay h ave b een d emilitarised a bout A D 2 96 o n t he r econquest o f B ritain b y C onstantius C hlorus. S ome e vidence f or d emolition o f i nternal b uildings was f ound ( Cunliffe 1 973, 3 6) but the s uggestion t hat

c entral g overnment

a nd h ence u nlikely. d emolished

a ppreciated t he d anger o f

t he d emolition o f t he i nternal I t would b e t he d efences t hat t o r emove t he t hreat o f t he f ort's

s uch

c oastal f ort

b uildings, i s s urely would have had t o b e b eing h eld a gainst t he

C entral Empire a gain . P ortchester s eems t o h ave p layed n o p art whatever i n t he e vents o f A D 2 96 . F rom within t he f ort t here w as much e vidence f or t he p resence o f women a s t here was a n e xtensive c ollection o f s pinning a nd weaving e quipment p lus i tems o f p ersonal j ewellery a nd women 's

s hoes

( Cunliffe

1 975 ,

4 27 ) .

W ithin t he f ort a t M alton , 2 9 i nfant b urials were f ound u p t o t he t ime w hen t he r eport was w ritten a nd o thers w ere p resumably f ound l ater o n a n u npublished p lan o f t he e xcavations i n t he n orthern p art o f t he f ort,

i nfant b urial n umber 3 1 i s r ecorded.

b urials

p re-date

t he

e arly

A t l east t wo o f t hese

f ourth-century

buildings.

O n

a n

u npublished s ection, i nfant b urial n umber 2 9 i s s hown d ug f rom a p eriod 2 l evel d ated c irca A D 2 60-80 . B urial n umber 3 1 i s p artly s ealed b y ap eriod 3 wall d ated t o a bout A D 3 04-69 a nd i t i s perhaps p ossible t hat b oth t hese b urials

d ate

t o t he

l ater t hird c entury w hen

t he f ort may h ave b een u noccupied b y t he military.

I nfant burials

a re v ery c ommon i n t he c ivilian s ettlement b y t his f ort. U p u ntil 1 964, 2 2 s uch b urials h ad c ome f rom t he v icus r anging i n d ate f rom t he s econd t o t he f ourth c entury ( 4itchelson 1 964, 2 29). A t C hesters, t he m ost e asterly i nterval-tower o n t he s outh wall y ielded s keletons o f t wo n ewly-born b abies ( Birley E . 1 959 , 1 7) . N o d ating e vidence i s r ecorded

b ut

t hey

c ould w ell b e R oman a nd p ossibly

8 8

c ontemporary w ith

t hose n oted a bove . I t i s n ot c lear w hether t he i nfant b urials f ound w ithin t he f ort a t L ittlechester r epresent c ivilian o ccupation w ithin a s till o ccupied m ilitary e stablishment ( Wheeler H . 1 981) . A t M alton a nd p ossibly a t C hesters,

c halets a re k nown .

Many

o f

t he

b urials a t Malton a re a ssociated with t hese c halets. O ne b uilding w hich C order d escribed a s a h ouse c ontained 1 0 i nfant b urials, s ome o f which were l aid i n l ime a nd most were c overed b y t iles o r r oofing s labs.

C order n oted

t hat

f rom

o ccupation within t he f ort i ntensive ( Corder 1 930 , 7 0) .

t he

t ime

a t

l east

was

o f i n

C onstantius p art

c ivil

C hlorus, a nd v ery

T here i s t hen c lear e vidence f or t he p resence o f c ivilians w ithin a t l east s ome f orts i n t he l ate t hird a nd f irst half o f t he f ourth c entury. A t Malton, t he p resence o f women within t he c halets i s i ndicated a nd, i n t he c ase o f t his f ort a t l east, we s hould h ave t o a ccept

t hat

c halets were b eing u sed a s m arried q uarters i n t he p eriod

c irca A D 3 00 t o 3 67 . I s i t n ot a v alid a ssumption t hat o ther c halets may have b een s o u sed? Were t hey d esigned t o h ouse f amily g roups? Wilkes n oted t hat u nder t he r ations s ystem o perative i n t he f ourth c entury, t he o rdinary s oldier was t reated a s t he h ead o f a h ousehold , t he g overnment n ormally i ssuing f ood s ufficient f or a man a nd h is f amily ( Wilkes 1 966 , 1 31) . f or l iving a ccommodation .

N ot a ll c halet u nits, h owever , w ere u sed O f t he p robable c halets a t E bchester , t he

e astern u nit h ad o riginally b een u sed f or m etalworking a nd t hree s lag h earths were l ocated i n t he n orthern h alf, a ll o f which p roduced e vidence o f b ronze s melting . A t hick l ayer o f c arbon a ssociated w ith t his metalworking a ccumulated o n t he f loor o f t he u nit . T he a bsence o f i nfant b urials f rom o ther f orts i s p uzzling, b ut t he p ractice may have b een l ocalised i n i ts o ccurrence . N o i nfant b urials have b een f ound i n t he vici a t H ousesteads a nd C hesterholm. D aniels s uggests t hat w hen t roops m oved o ut o f m any f orts i n t he n orth i n t he l ater t hird c entury, t he v icani who were l eft m ay h ave m oved i n t o t hese f orts. He envisages t he r eturning s oldiers under C onstantius C hlorus b eing f aced with a f ait a ccompli ( cf MacMullen 1 963, " The a bandoned c amp may b e t aken o ver b y c ivilians, o r a gain c ivilians may move i n o n t op o f t he p roper o ccupants o f t he f ort", MacMullen 1 976, 1 90 : " During t he c risis, t he unarmed p opulation a round a f ort m ight s eek i n i t a m omentary p rotection , e ven p ermanent r esidence" ). D aniels n otes t he s imilarity i n g eneral p lan b etween t he s trip-houses o f t he v ici a nd t he c halets ( Daniels 1 980A , 1 89) b ut t he s imilarity b etween t he g eneral p lan o f c halets a nd c ontubernia m ay, however, b e o f more s ignificance . I f e ach c halet u nit h oused o ne f amily g roup, t hen t he g arrison s ize which c ould have b een a ccommodated

within

f orts

would

h ave b een

c onsiderably

r educed .

D aniels s uggests t he p ossibility o f 1 0 c halet b locks o f e ight u nits e ach a t H ousesteads with a p ossible f ive f urther u nits b eing p rovided b ehind t he r ampart . T his would g ive a g arrison s trength o f a bout 1 5% o f t he s econd-century f ort . A t Wallsend , w ith t he a bsence o f r ampart b uildings, t he g arrison s trength may h ave b een a s l ow a s 8 .5% o f i ts s econd-century

t otal .

T he b uildings

i n t he p raetentura m ay n ot h ave

b een f or a ccommodation a t a ll . T here i s n o more e vidence f or s oldiers l iving o utside f orts i n t he f ourth c entury t han t here h ad b een i n t he t hird . I f t he f ort a t C hesterholm was o ccupied b y t he m ilitary i n t he e arly t o mid-fourth c entury, t hen t he s oldiers' f amilies a t l east must have l ived i n t he f ort a s well a s t he whole

8 9

g arrison . T here was n o e vidence f or a n i nflux o f c ivilians i nto t he b uildings r ecently e xcavated i n t he p raetentura . B oth b uildings r etained b asically t he s ame p lan f rom t he m id-third t o t he m id-fourth c entury . T here was a n a bsence o f i tems t hat would n ormally b e a ssociated w ith

t he p resence o f w omen

( pers .

c omm . Mr .

P . B idwell) .

I t i s n ot c lear f or w hat p urpose t he l arger u nits i n t he c halet b locks were u sed . T he p resence o f t he l arge u nit i n H ousesteads' b uilding X IV o verlying t he c enturion's q uarters might s uggest t hat t hey were s till u sed a s o fficers' a ccommodation .

T he r oom h ere h ad n o a pparent

p artitions a nd t he c orresponding a rea i n b uilding X III c onsisted o f a p orch s eparated b y a v ery n arrow g ap f rom a r oom t o t he w est i n which was f ound a b read o ven . T he p resence o f m ore t han o ne l arge u nit i n s ome c halet b locks makes t heir i dentification a s o fficers' q uarters d ifficult. I f, a s i n t he c ase o f t he e astern u nit i n b ulding X III, t hey w ere n ot u sed f or l iving a reas, t hen t he p ossible g arrison h eld within a f ort would b e g reatly r educed . I f t he r easonably r egular p lan o f c halet b locks was d ictated by t he s ite o f e arlier b uildings a nd r oads, m ay n ot t hese b uildings h ave b een d esigned t o h ave t he s ame f unction a nd h ouse t he s ame t ype o f t roops a nd t heir f amilies, a s were i n t he f orts o n c oasts, h oused i n r ectangular a nd c ircular h uts?

t he s outh and e ast O n a n ew f ort s ite ,

t here would b e n o a dvantage a s f ar a s t he a ctual c oncerned f or p lacing b uildings r egularly . A t s ome o f t he f orts n oted i n t his c hapter ,

c onstruction was

t here w as

n o e vidence f or

c halets o r t imber hutments. C hesterholm, Maryport, Ravenglass a nd I lkley r etained t heir e arlier b uildings, t hough t his c ould h ave b een m ore a m atter o f c onvenience r ather t han r epresenting a d ifferent t ype o f o ccupation within t hese f orte . T he b uildings a t C hesterholm h ave , i n a ny c ase a n umber o f f eatures i n c ommon with c halets: t hey m ay h ave b een u sed t o h ouse s oldiers' f amilies d uring t he t hird c entury . S erviceable b uildings c ould h ave c ontinued i n u se r ather t han b eing r eplaced b y n ew p urpose-built s tructures. E arlier i n t he Roman, p eriod, b arracks c onstructed f or i nfantry o r c avalry were o ften l eft u nchanged when a d ifferent t ype o f u nit m oved i nto t he f ort . None o f t he

f our

f orts

a bove

s hows

e vidence o f a bandonment

i n t he l ate

t hird

c entury . T he e xcavator a t I lkley , a fter c onsidering t he p ossibility o f c ivilians b eing a llowed i nto t he f ort i n t he C onstantian period, r ejected i t a s n o s pecifically c ivilian o bjects were f ound ( Hartley 1 966, 3 9). A t B ainbridge, n ew b uildings were c onstructed i n t he e arly f ourth c entury,

b ut l ittle o f t heir p lan i s k nown ;

t hey

d o n ot

s eem t o h ave b een c halets o r h uts . H itherto,

t he c hange f rom a f ort

t o a f ortified v illage h as g enerally

b een a ssigned t o t he t ime o f C ount T heodosius, y et t he a rchaeological e vidence c learly s hows t hat where t here were major c hanges within f orts, t hey o ccurred i n t he e arly f ourth c entury, a nd l ater work w as o nly a m odification t o t he e xisting a rrangements . T he s uggestion o f Wenham t hat a t Malton a bout A D 3 70: " It i s p ossible t hat t his was t he o ccasion w hen c ivilians w ere a dmitted i nto t he f ort" ( Wenham 1 974 , 3 5), i s t otally a t v ariance with t he e vidence f or i nfant burials, a lmost a ll o f which w ere d ated b y t he e xcavators t o t he p eriod c irca A D

3 05-67

( Corder

1 930 ,

6 7) .

9 0

C HAPTER 6

F ROM C ONSTANTIUS C HLORUS T O C OUNT T HEODOSIUS

T he

i nterpretation o f

t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom m ilitary s ites

i n t he d iocese o f B ritain i n t he f ourth c entury h as b een b ased o n f ive d ated e vents r ecorded i n t he l iterary s ources: t he v isit o f C onstans i n t he winter o f A D 3 42-3 , A D 3 60,

t he c ampaign o f L upercinus

t he b arbarian c onspiracy o f AD 3 67,

i n t he n orth

i n

t he u surp t ion o f Magnus

Maximus AD 3 83-8 a nd t he r e-organisation o f t he B ritish d efences b y S tilicho

i n A D

3 96.

V ery

f ew

b uilding

f ourth-century d ate a re known; Maximianus

f rom

B irdoswald

( RIB

1 912)

i nscription f rom R oman B ritain . f irst

half

o f

t he

f ourth

c entury

t he l ater f ourth c entury, t ype a round A D c loser h eavily

means

3 60 o n ,

i s

t he

l atest

I n t he n orth, c annot b e

h owever ,

o f

p ossibly

c losely

d atable

t he p ottery o f

m ore p recisely

t he

d ated .

I n

with t he emergence o f t he H untcliff

a nd o f C rambeck p archment ware a d ecade l ater,

o f d ating a re a vailable .

r elied

i nscriptions

t he i nscription o f Diocletian a nd

a nd

t hus

N umismatic

t he d ating o f

o ften p recision c annot b e a ttained .

e vidence h as

m any s ites

Many o f

t o b e

i s d ifficult,

a s

t he e vents n oted i n t his

c hapter a re o ften d ated b y a s ingle c oin p roviding a t erminus p ost q uem , b ut h ow c losely t hese c oins c an d ate t he b uilding work i s v ery d ifficult t o a scertain . All t he work d escribed, h owever, a lmost c ertainly d ates

t o b efore A D 3 67 a nd o ften ,

n o d oubt,

w ell b efore t hat

d ate. T he

r e-organisation o f

n orthern f rontier, b efore

his

d eath

C onstantine was

t hat

d efences o f B ritain,

i n J uly A D

immediately

t hought

t he

e specially o f

t he

may have b een c ompleted b y C onstantius C hlorus 3 06.

l eft

h e n ever

f or

On h is a ccession t o t he t hrone, t he

C ontinent

r eturned,

b ut

a nd

u ntil

r ecently

C asey n ow b elieves

i t

t hat

C onstantine v isited B ritain o n two s ubsequent o ccasions. H e n otes t hat t here a re t hree i ssues o f a dventus c oins m inted a t L ondon i n t he r eign o f C onstantine . A dventus c oins a re n ot k nown a t t his t ime t o h ave b een s truck t o c ommemorate a d istant e vent a nd t he a dventus c oins o f

t he Constantinian p eriod a re a ll a ssociated with v isits

emperor

t o t he v icinity o f

o f

t he

t he m int .

T he f irst a dventus i ssue d ating t o AD 3 07 i s r epresented b y o nly o ne c oin which C asey d oubts t hat i ts a ctually

i s

g enuine b ut,

e ven i f i t

r arity implies t hat a visit, i f t ake p lace. T he s econd i ssue,

i ncludes c oins o f s everal d ifferent

t ypes

i s, h e s uggests

c ontemplated, which i s t he

d id n ot l argest,

d ating t o c irca A D 3 12 which

had p reviously b een t hought t o c ommemorate C onstantine's e ntry i nto R ome a fter t he d efeat o f Maxentius. Although a v isit t o Britain b etween J uly A D 3 10 a nd 3 11, o r b efore t he s ummer o f A D 3 12, would n ot h ave c onflicted with C onstantine's

known movements, n o mention o f

s uch a visit i s made i n t he p anegyric o f e ither J uly A D 3 10 o r a nd

C asey

s uggests

t hat

i t

i s

9 1

3 11,

m ore l ikely t hat h e was i n B ritain

e arly i n AD

3 12.

E usebius n otes t hat C onstantine visited Britain

a fter he had b een e stablished i n power ( de v ita C onstantini 1 , 2 5). Z osimus r ecords t hat s ome t roops were t aken f rom Britain t o j oin C onstantine's p resence

o f

a rmy t he

f or

t he

emperor

i nvasion

may

have

o f

I taly

b een

i n

AD

3 12;

t he

r equired

t o

o versee

t he

r edisposition o f f orces t hat t his would h ave entailed. i ssue

d ates

o n

m int

m ark

e vidence

T he t hird

t o a fter S eptember A D

3 13 o r

t o A D

3 14 . C onstantine c ould have b een i n B ritain between A pril a nd O ctober A D 3 14 . T he t itle B ritannicus Maximus a ssumed b y C onstantine i n A D 3 15 would s uggest s ome m ilitary a ction i n t he d iocese . C asey 3 12

s uggests

f rom

t hat

t he

C onstantine

f orts

o f

High

withdrew

R ochester

t roops a nd

f rom

t he n orth

P iercebridge,

i n A D

a nd

a lso

p ossibly f rom Newcastle, E bchester a nd R isingham ( Casey 1 978).

A t

H igh R ochester, R ichmond n oted t he a pparent d iscrepancy b etween t he h eavy wear o n t he t hreshold o f a n i nterval-tower o f C onstantian d ate implying

l ong u se ,

a nd

t he

l ack

o f

s upport

f or

t his

i nterpretation

" by a ny p ottery s o f ar r ecovered a nd d erives s till l ess s upport t he c oin l ist which d oes n ot o utlast C arausius" ( Richmond 1 936, 2 ).

f rom 1 21-

H e s uggested t hat t he f ort may have b een a bandoned a s a result

o f t he t roubles o f A D 3 43 o r 3 60 . C asey b elieves t hat t he a bsence o f c oins o f t he p eriod AD 3 30-41 makes o ccupation o f t he f ort u p t o A D 3 43 i mpossible . t ype A D

T he p resence o f a t l east o ne

f rom R isingham

3 60-70

p eriods

a t

o f

t he

i mplies

t hat

e arliest.

t he

f ort w as

There

were

o ccupation a t Risingham

s herd o f

t he H untcliff

o ccupied

i n t he

a lso

two

d ecade

fourth-century

( High R ochester

only h ad one);

Casey s uggested a t emporary a bandonment o f t he s ite i n t he earlier f ourth

c entury

( Casey

1 978 ,

1 90) .

An a bandonment a t B ewcastle c ould a lso h ave o ccurred a t t his t ime b ut, l ike R isingham , i t must h ave b een o f a t emporary n ature . P rofessor E . B irley t ype

I nformed Mr .

f rom

t he

a bandonment

J .P .

s ite .

o f

t he

G illam Mr.

f ort

t hat h e h ad s een a p iece o f H untcliff

G illam

u nder

would

b e

C onstantine .

p leased T he

t o

a ccept

a n

i nternal b ath-house

s eems t o have b een d emolished i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury rather t han h aving b een d estroyed b y t he e nemy o r c ollapsed .

T he r ubble l ay

d irectly o n t he b ath-house f loors a nd a c oin o f C onstantine I i n g ood c ondition d ating t o A D 3 09-10 t ogether with a g old e arring w ere f ound r esting o n t he f loor o f t he c old bath ( Gillam 1 954).

T he b uilding

must have b een o ut o f u se when t hese o bjects were l ost. bath-house

s ite was

r e-occupied,

a b uilding was

s et

When t he

o n e arth

a nd

c ompletely i gnored t he e arlier r emains . O n

n umismatic

AD

3 00 o r c irca

e vidence,

P iercebridge

A D 3 12.

b een a bandoned a t e ither o f

t hese t wo

b uilt a t a t ime when many f orts r eoccupation s uperfluous . h ave b een B ridge

c ould h ave

b een

a bandoned

c irca

Why t he r elatively n ew f ort s hould have d ates

i s

n ot

c lear;

i t h ad

b een

i n t he n orth were r un d own and t he

i n s trength o f t he n orth m ay h ave r endered P iercebridge C asey s uggests t hat t he p opulation f rom t he v icus m ay

m oved

( Casey

t o

1 978 ,

t he n ewly p lanned a nd b uilt 1 90) .

T here

i s

o nly

f ourth-century p ottery f rom E bchester,

v icus

o ne p iece

a C order t ype

a t

o f

n earby

p ublished

G reta l ate

1 0 p archment ware

b owl ( Jarrett, 1 960A, 2 12, No.10). C asey s uggests t hat i f t he r eo rganisation a t t his t ime d id i nclude t he n orth, t hen t his may have b een t he o ccasion f or t he T he withdrawal o f C onstantine

t o

i nstitution o f

t roops

r eturn

may have

l ed

t o B ritain i n A D

9 2

t he d ux B ritanniarum c ommand . t o

3 14 .

t he

events

which

forced

I n t he f ourth c entury a n ew g ateway s eems t o h ave b een c onstructed a t B rough-on-Noe 6 .1m s outh w est o f t he p resumed s ite o f t he m ain s outhe ast g ate . I n 1 958 t he e xcavator f ound a s ubstantial wall r unning s outh west t o n orth e ast a long t he i nner l ip o f t he i nner d itch a nd t hought i t p art o f av icus b uilding; i t was 7 6cm t hick a nd a t l east 1.23m l ong ( Bartlett 1 959) . A c auseway f ound o ver t he i nner d itch was o f p itched s tone a nd b eneath i t was a c oin o f C onstantine I ( Bartlett 1 960). T he o ther t wo d itches a t t his p oint h ad a lso p robably b een f illed i n a nd a g ravel s urface l aid o ver t hem .

T he wall

f ound i n 1 958 was t he f ort w all a nd t he c auseway g ave a ccess t o a g ap c ut t hrough t he f ort wall which t hen t urned t hrough 9 0° a nd c ontinued s outh west b etween t he c ut b ack r ampart o f A ntonine d ate r evetted b y a r oughly-built s tone wall a nd t he f ort wall ( Jones G . a nd W ild 1 969A ) . T he c arefully b uilt c auseway with a s hort c entral d rain c apped with l imestone f lags was n ot m ore t han 2 .13m wide . T he e xcavators o f 1 969 t hought t hat a n arrow s ide g ate , a llied t o a d ouble b end , w ould n ot b e s o i nconvenient f or h orsemen - a t l east s ome o f t he g arrison were c avalry a t t his t ime . T hey s uggested t hat t he p eriod I II s tructures m ay b e c ontemporary with t his n ew g ateway a nd b e c onnected with a r ethinking o f s trategy c onsequent o n C onstantine's a rmy r eforms . W hy a n ew g ate would b e n eeded i s u nclear , n or w hy i t s hould b e o f s uch a n u nusual a nd a wkward p lan .

P resumably

i n

t he

e arlier

f ourth

c entury

t he s trongroom i n t he p rincipia was f illed w ith s tones, a rchitectural f ragments, e arth a nd d ebris, b ones, p ottery a nd a f ew f ourth-century c oins ( Garstang 1 904 , 1 92) . A s lightly-worn c oin o f A D 3 26 f rom t he c onstruction t rench o f t he Wery Wall a t L ancaster h as b een u sed t o d ate t he wall t o t he s econd q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury ( Jones G . D ore a nd A lker 1 974). R ichmond h ad s uggested t hat t he f ort may h ave b een a n aval b ase o f V alentinianic d ate ( Petch J . 1 9 _ 59) . L eather b elieves t hat i n v iew o f t he Wery W all's

r elationship

t o

t he e arly f ourth-century d itch

t o

i ts

n orth a nd t o o ther e arly f ourth-century l evels, i t s hould b e d ated t o t he l ater f ourth c entury ( Leather 1 971). R ichmond s ectioned t his wall and f ound i t t o have b een s et i n a f lat-bottomed f oundation t rench 2 .59m wide f illed w ith t ightly-packed massive b roken s tones, m any o f t hem r e-used ( Richmond 1 953 , 5 ) . I n t he 2 0s, t he u pstanding f ragment o f t he wall was a mass o f r ubble c ore 3 .05m l ong b y n early 2 .13m high. N o f acers r emained i n s itu ( Droop a nd N ewstead 1 928). R ichmond t hought t hat h e h ad f ound a b astion p rojecting t o t he n orth o f t he wall b ut t his i s n ow k nown t o b e ar oom a ssociated w ith a b athh ouse o f t hird-century d ate i n t he p raetorium ( Potter 1 974B). N o r ampart b ank a ssociated with t his wall h as b een n oted, t hough t he d enuded s tate f or

i ts

o f

a bsence .

t he

l ate

l evels

A ntiquarian

d oes n ot p rovide c onclusive e vidence

o bservations

s uggest

t hat

o ne w all

o f

t he f ort was o ver 1 83m l ong a nd h ad a t l east o ne p rojecting a nglet ower ( Collingwood a nd R ichmond 1 969, 5 6). V irtually n othing i s k nown o f t he f ort's i nterior a t t his p eriod; a f ew p ost-holes h ave b een l ocated , b ut n ot e nough t o s uggest t he l ayout o f b uildings ( Jones G . D ore a nd Alker 1 974). A part f rom t he b astion n oted o n a n 1 8th c entury map, t here i s l ittle t o s uggest t hat t he f ort b ore a ny r esemblance t o t hose o f

t he S axon S hore a nd a t

C ardiff .

T he l ast R oman a ddition t o t he r ampart b ank b ehind t he n orth-west w all a t Y ork i s d ated b y a c oin o f D elmatius t o a fter A D 3 35-7 . T he c oin w as t oo c orroded t o a llow a ny a ttempt t o a ssess i ts p ossible l ife i n c irculation b efore l oss. A s n oted i n c hapter 3 , Wenham s uggested

9 3

t hat t his c oin may p rovide a t erminus p ost q uem f or t he b uilding o f t he ' Constantian' d efences. E xcavations b y Mr.

w ithin

t he

p raetorium

J . P roud i n 1 878,

1 891.

F urther

work

a t

B inchester

were

f irst

c onducted

t he r esults b eing p ublished by Hooppell i n was

b egun

here

i n

t he

1 970s

and

i s

s till

c ontinuing . T he e xcavators n ow d ate t he c onstruction o f t he l atest b uilding, p hase 6 o n t he s ite, t o c irca A D 3 40. B eneath a p rimary f loor was t hrough

s ealed a c oin o f

f our

A D

s ub-phases,

3 35-45 .

t he

T he

d ates

o f

b uilding

which

a re

O ccupation r eflected b y l ate pottery c ontinued

i n

t hereafter a s

yet

t he

went

u nclear .

l ate fourth

c entury, t hough t he c oin l ist c omes t o a n e nd c irca A D 3 70 ( Ferris a nd J ones, R . 1 979). A s f irst c onstructed, t he b uilding s eems t o have b een a c ourtyard h ouse ,

a s h ad b een t hat o f

r ange b y t he via p rincipalis was c ontaining

t wo h ypocausted

t he p receding p hase .

f ree s tanding,

r ooms .

b eing

T he

6m wide

and

T he o ther r ooms were s pacious

a nd

had o pus s igninum f loors a nd plastered walls.

A k itchen with two

ovens was f ound a nd a lso a r oom with f our s uccessive o pus s igninum f loors

with q uarter

r ound

m ouldings .

S evere s ubsidence

i nto a p hase

5 h ypocaust h ad n ecessitated t he r ebuilding o f a wall a nd t he l aying o f a new f loor ( Jones R . 1 978). S ub-phase 6 a extended for a c onsiderable p eriod . T he

d itch

a nd

r efuse

a t

t he

i n

n orth-west

t he

f ourth

a ngle

was

c entury.

d eliberately Over

t his

p robably a cross t he f ull width o f t he d itch, f loor

i nterrupted b y a n o ven .

f ourth-century t he o uter

d ate .

l ip o f

C ons t ans.

A s econd

d itch

T he a t

l aid

was a c lay-and-cobble

f rom

o ver

t he d itch s ealed b elow

t his

t he

f loor

c obble

o f

n ear

i ts f lagged base a c oin o f

d rains were

c ontemporary with

t he

n orth-east

c ould

d ate

t o

t he f ort

wall ,

w hilst

a ngle

o verlay

t he f ourth

t he

c entury

p artly-filled ( Steer

d itch ,

a small a rea b y t he a ngle-tower ,

were c overed b y a n ew ,

a n i nterval-tower,

f oundation, was c onstructed.

t hese

1 938) .

S ome t ime a fter t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury,

t he s ame t ime,

t he

S teer s uggested t hat a s t he t ank in t he

t he workshops

b ehind t he n orth r ampart a t H ousesteads were a bandoned a nd, A t

were

f loor

a ngle which d e l iouched i nto a c ircular t ank o n t he s imilar t ank f ound b y P roud l ay in t he

t anks were o f l ater d ate. f eatures

o ven

s oil

e xtending

A d rain was f ound a t t his angle s imilar t o t hat f ound b y

P roud a t t he n orth-east t he e dge o f t he b erm; d itch .

A f ew s herds

f illed w ith

f illing,

e xcept f or

wider r ampart .

f ounded o n a m assive whin b oulder

T he r evetting kerb o f t he r ampart b y

t he n orth g ate was n ow r emoved a nd i n t he r obber t rench l eft b y t his was a c oin o f C onstantine I I, A D 3 37-40 ( Daniels 1 980B, 1 0) . Another l ate i nterval-tower was a t s ome d ate a dded t o t he e ast wall . I n t he e xcavations a t B ewcastle i n o ccupation

were

n oted ,

y et

t here

1 937, was

t wo p eriods

n o e vidence

o f

o f

f ourth-century

o ccupation

a fter

AD 3 67. T he f irst p eriod was d ated t o C onstantius C hlorus a nd t he s econd t o A D 3 43, p erhaps r esulting f rom t he t rouble in t he north which b rought C onstans t o t he d iocese i n t he w inter o f A D 3 42-3 . T he p resumed v iolent d estruction o f t he b ath-house e xcavated i n 1 954 a nd 1 956 t o

( Gillam

t he

1 957) was

t roubles

t hought

t o b e

c ontemporary

which b rought L upercinus

t rouble m ust h ave b een t o t he n orth Ammianus r ecords t hat:

9 4

o r

c ould h ave

t o B ritain i n A D

o f H adrian's

Wall .

3 60 .

d ated T his

" Raids

o f

t he

s avage

t ribes

o f

t he S cots

a nd P icts

who h ad b roken t he

p eace t hat had b een a greed u pon, were l aying waste t he r egions n ear t he f rontiers s o t hat f ear s eized t he provincials, were b y a m ass o f p ast c alamaties" . ( A .M . X XI 1 ) .

worried a s t hey

I n t he p eriod I V r ebuilding o f t he f ort,

i t was p rovided with a n ew

d efensive

wall.

wall

f oundations

a nd a wall

The

b uilding S t .

a nd

a butted a gainst

t he

a nd

1 938) .

Mr .

d imensions,

o bliquely

P .

r educed

t o

i ts

t he p artly-

a r ough e xtension o f a f ourth-century b ack

o f

t he

wall

( Richmond,

A usten f ound a w all o f

t hough

a cross

was

T he f oundations were o f r oughly-dressed, b ut

s labs

J oseph

s tone

1 .75m t hick e rected o n t he c rest o f

d emolished r ampart. f reshly-quarried

earlier

b uilt

a s treet

without

o f h is p eriod

a ny

I II

H odgson

a nd

s imilar c onstruction

f oundations,

( early

r unning

t hird c entury);

a

c ontemporary c apped d rain a ppeared t o h ave b een a c ulvert t hrough t his wall which,

h e

R ichmond .

I f

t entatively s o,

t ime .

H e s uggests

t hat

a nd

presumably

d id

i t

c ircuit .

s uggests,

t he f ort

O verlying

t his n ot

may b e

t he n ew

f ort

wall d ates

t o

i ncorporate

t he b ath-house ,

t he e arly

t he

t he

p orta

f ourth

1 957).

Mr.

J .P .

G illam's

b efore I t

i s

t he

d ecumana

p ossible

t hat

f ound by t he Rev .

r ecollection t he H untcliff

t he n orth-west

r ebuilt

o f

t he

i ts

p ottery

a

( Gillam

f rom

t his

t ype .

a ngle-tower

i n t he f ourth

H .A .

i n

l ate a s o ne c ould g et i n t he f ourth c entury

i ntroduction o f

s ubstantially

t his

c entury,

f inal p eriod s tructure was

s imple r ectangular building, " resembling a barrack-block", b uilding i s t hat i t was a s

wall o f

must have b een r educed i n a rea a t

c entury .

Whitelaw c irca

1 900,

G reat

C hesters

was

A c oin o f

a t

C onstans

was

r eputedly i n a c revice

b etween t he t hird a nd f ourth c ourses o f t he s outh-east wall o f t he t ower,

b ut

t he e vidence i s s uspect a s

" jokingly s uggested t hat wall ,

i t

i s r ecorded t hat

t he R everend

t hey m ight f ind a c oin i n t he c revices o f

t he

whereupon h e s cratched with a k nife b etween t he s tones a nd f ound

t he c oin i n q uestion" ( Shaw

1 925-6).

Daniels a ccepts t he e vidence

a nd hence s uggests a s ubstantial r ebuilding o f 1 978A,

1 81).

t he

t ower

( Daniels

N o i ndication o f s econdary work o n t he t ower c an b e

s een. A t H ousesteads a t s ome t ime d uring t he f ourth c entury, t here were a lterations i n t he h ospital when p art, a t l east, o f t he o uter wall h ad b een r ebuilt - a l ate mortarium r im was s ealed b eneath t he l owest c ourse,

( this

r im m ay b e e arlier t han t he e xcavator t hought) .

A c oin

o f M axentius was f ound i n a n i nternal wall a nd a c oin d ated t o A D 3 305 c ame f rom b etween s ome l ate f lagging.

T he p resence o f hearths

( some showing e vidence o f i ntensive b urning) i n t he northern e nd o f t he

building

( Charlesworth

s uggested 1 976 ,

t hat

i t

had

b een

I n t he e arlier f ourth c entury a t C hester , o f t he p raetorium , a nd

a

s late

a ssociated b uilding was

u sed

metal

working

a b uilding was e rected n orth

p robably with h alf-timbered walls o n s tone f ootings

r oof

with

r ubbish,

p ossibly

t here

was

t imber-partition

evidence

d emolished a nd o ccupation o f

o f

t imber-framed b uildings

metal

walls.

o f

I n

working.

t he s ite c eased,

t he AD 3 30s, o r s oon a fter ( Strickland 1 980). a nd C rook S treet,

f or

1 9-20) .

t he T he

p robably i n

I n U pper G oss S treet

c irca A D 3 40-50 h ave b een

f ound a ssociated w ith f inds o f c hip-carved m etalwork . T he f ormer was b uilt o f t imbers s et i n b edding t renches whilst t he l atter was b uilt u sing

i ndividual

p ost-holes.

9 5

B oth

a t

A bbey

G reen

a nd

o n

t he

N orthgate B rewery s ite , f inds i ndicate r emains h ad b een r emoved b y p loughing .

o ccupation b ut t he s tructural A t t his t ime t he p rincipia ,

p raetorium a nd e lliptical b uilding s eem t o have s tood a lone i n a p aved a rea ( McPeake 1 978) . A b uilding e xcavated i n H unters Walk i n 1 980 may have b een p art o f t he p raetorium; i t was d emolished i n t he l ate f ourth c entury ( Strickland 1 98110 . B y t he m id f ourth c entury, s tructures were b eing b uilt o ver t he l evelled r ampart a butting o nto t he f ort wall a t D oncaster ( Buckland a nd

Magilton

1 976).

b uildings i n t he f ourth c entury.

A t

C hesterholm

t he

t hird-century

b arrack-

n orth-east p raetentura were f urther m odified i n t he T hey were d emolished i n t he l ater f ourth c entury

a fter c irca A D 3 60 , b eing r eplaced b y o ne o r l ittle r emained ( Bidwell 1 981) . I n t he m id f ourth c entury,

m ore s tructures

o f

which

a n umber o f s ites m ay h ave b een r eoccupied

a nd s ome were b uilt f or t he f irst t ime . A t C aernarvon, a s n oted i n c hapter 3 , t he f ort may have l ain u noccupied f rom c irca A D 2 90 t o a t l east A D 3 25 a nd p robably

l ater .

T he p rincipia c ertainly w ould s eem

t o have b een a bandoned a t t his t ime. T he l atest c oin f ound i n t he i ron-bound b ox i n t he s trongroom was a m int c oin o f C arausius . B eneath t he n ew c ourtyard m etalling was a p urse c ontaining 1 6 c oins r anging f rom G allienus t o C rispus . T he f ourth-century c oins were i n v ery g ood o r m int c ondition ( Wheeler 1 922, 2 93) . T he d eposition o f a hoard

( if

t hat i s what i t i s) i n s uch a p ublic p lace must i ndicate

t hat t he b uilding was n ot i n u se . O n r eoccupation o f t he b uilding, t he c ourtyard was r emetalled ; t he n orth-west wall o f t he c ourtyard was r ebuilt s lightly a skew, p robably a t t his t ime , a nd t he s outh-west wall was p atched a nd p artly r ebuilt f rom i ts f ootings. T he c olonnades,

i f

t hey were s till s tanding ,

were d emolished,

s ome o f

l arge b ase b locks b eing r emoved whilst o thers w ere i ncorporated i n , c overed b y t he n ew c ourtyard m etalling .

t he o r

A n ew c olonnade b uilt o f r e-

u sed material was t hen l aid o ut ( fig 3 6 .1) . T he s trongroom was n ow h alf f illed w ith d ebris , p robably f rom t he d emolished a psidal r oom 1 0,

a nd l evelled with l oose yellow c ement u p t o t he height o f

t he

s outh-eastern w all o f t he s trongroom which h ad b een d enuded o f i ts t wo u ppermost c ourses . I n t he c ement a nd d ebris w ere 2 0 c oins, t he l atest b eing a C onstantinopolis m inim f ound n ear t he b ottom o f t he f illing. T he c ement f loor s oon s ubsided a nd was r enewed - t he e xcavator s uggested p robably v ery q uickly. I t c ontained c oins o f U rbs R oma a nd C onstantinopolis t ype a nd a lso t wo m inims, o ne b eing a G loria E xercitus

t ype.

Wheeler had s uggested t hat

t he f ort

was

a bandoned u ntil c irca A D 3 50 b ut t he c oin e vidence f rom t he p rincipia d oes n ot s uggest s uch a l ate d ate . S ealed i n t he mortar o f t he o uter wall o f r oom 1 i n t he p raetorium, h owever, was a m int c oin o f C ons t ans, A D 3 48-50 ( Wheeler 1 921, 1 93). A t t his t ime t he b uilding was e xtensively r ebuilt, o ver h alf o f i ts walls were r ebuilt f rom t heir f ootings

( fig 4 0 .3 ) .

P robably a t t he t ime o f t he f ort's r eoccupation , e xtensive a lterations were m ade • t o t he n orth-west g ate . T he s outh-west, a nd p robably t he n orth-east g uardrooms went o ut o f u se a nd w ere i ncorporated i nto t he r ampart b acking . T he s pina was d emolished a nd i ts f oundation t rench was f illed w ith b oulders a nd d amaged c olumn c apitals . T he n orth-east c arriage-way was w idened a nd s eparated f rom t he n ew g uardroom i n t he s outh-west c arriage-way b y a wall .

T he g uardroom was c losed o ff f rom

t he o utside b y d ouble d oors which,

d ue t o t he r ise i n g round l evel

9 6

within t he g ate, o pened o utwards ( fig 2 2.1A). I n t he s outh-west g ateway t he s pina w as a gain d emolished a nd a b uttressed w all was b uilt a cross t he s outh-east p ortal . B ecause t he l evel within t he n orthe ast p ortal w as h igher t han o utside t he f ort, t he g ate was e ntered u p t wo s tone s teps. Within t he s outh-east g uardroom a r oughly-built s tone p latform was i nserted . T he m ake-up o f t his p latform i ncluded c olumn d rums a nd a b arbarous c oin o f f ourth-century d ate which l ed W heeler t o b elieve t he s tructure

t o b e p ost-Roman

( fig

2 2 .1B) .

T he d ate s uggested b y W heeler o f a round A D 3 50 f or t he r eoccupation o f t he f ort would s eem r easonable o n t he e vidence f rom t he p rincipa a nd p raetorium b ut i s n ow d oubted . S ome s cholars f eel t hat t he l arge n umber o f e arlier f ourth-century c oins e xcludes t he p ossibility o f t he s ite h aving b een a bandoned b ut i t i s p ossible t hat t he s ituation h ere w as a nalogous t o t hat a t S outh S hields i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury when t he f ort s ite was p resumably o ccupied b y c ivilians. H ere t he e xcavator s uggested t hat a m ilitary g arrison m ay h ave b een i nstalled i n t he f irst q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury ( Dore a nd G illam 1 979 , 7 0 ) . A s n o military s tructures o f t he f ourth c entury h ave b een i dentified , t he d ate o f t he r eoccupation i s v ery d ifficult t o a scertain . A s ection a cross t he d efences o f C aernarvon i n

1 975 s uggested t hat t he

s tone wall d ates t o t he e arly f ourth c entury. I n 1 978, a f urther s ection c onfirmed i ts f ourth-century d ate ( Casey a nd D avies 1 976; 1 979 ) .

W heeler h ad f ound t he w all o n t he n orth-west s ide o f

t he f ort

t o b e o nly 1 .16m t hick a t t he b ase a nd i ts b attered i nner f ace r educed t he wall t o 7 6cm t hick a t t he p resent s urviving h eight o f 2 .13m ( Wheeler 1 921,

1 72).

T he b ath-house ' S' i n t h s outh-east c orner o f

t he p raetentura p roduced c oins f rom i ts s toking d ebris o f c irca A D 3 50-400 ( Casey a nd Davies 1 978). T he c ourtyard i n b uilding ' A' was u sed

f or

r ubbish

d isposal

i n

t he

p eriod

c irca

A D

3 30-348 .

I t

c ontained a t l east n ine pits. A t imber c ookhouse o f t he C onstantinian p eriod l ay t o t he e ast o f b ath-house a nd w as s et o n a n e xtensive s pread o f c lay w hich s ealed t he v ia s agularis . A s econd t imber b uilding, a lso s et o n t he c lay, l ay e ast o f b uilding ' A ' ( Casey a nd D avies 1 977) . O n t he b asis o f t he p ublished e vidence I would b e i nclined t o a ccept Wheeler's d ating o f t he f ort's a bandonment f rom c irca A D 2 93-350 . B oon , o n t he n umismatic e vidence , s uggested t hat t he f ort w s r e-occupied c irca A D A D 3 53 ( Boon 1 974, 1 35) .

3 69 a fter v irtual a bandonment

F orden G aer was r eoccupied i n t he f ourth c entury, p eriod o f a bandonment ,

s ince

p ossibly a fter a

a nd t he n orth-south r oad w as f ound t o h ave b een

r efurbished ( period 3 B/4A ), t he f ourth-century r oad b eing o f r ougher w orkmanship t han t hose b efore i t . I n o ne a rea i t w s l argely c omposed o f b roken r oof t iles . L arge , r ough-hewn s tones w ere s et a t i ntervals a long t he edge i n period 3 A/3B and i n period 3 B/4A t his was s trengthened ( Pryce a nd P ryce 1 929). A t t he s outh-west a ngle, t he r ampart

was

widened,

n ecessitating

t he

r epositioning

o f

t he

i ntervallum r oad which was o f c obbles c irca 2 .44m wide . I n t his a ngle , t he b uilding o f t hird-century d ate was r ebuilt a nd a bout 1 8cm o f d isturbed s oil u nderlay t he n ew f loor o f c lay. L arge p iers o f c obble a nd r ough-hewn s tones s et i n c lay r ested o n t he e arlier f loor which presumably c arried t imber u prights. B etween t he p iers were t races o f c obble walls; t he b uildings had b een r oofed with s lates ( Pryce a nd P ryce

1 930 ) .

4 A b y o nly a b urnt l ayer ;

P eriod 4 B

i n t his

b uilding was

t he p iers w ere r aised

9 7

d ivided f rom

b y t he a ddition

o f

f lat s tones. T he c lay f loor o f t his p eriod was m uch t hicker a nd r ested o n g ravel , t he w hole b eing 2 0-28cm t hick . T he r oof w as a gain c overed b y s lates . A f urther p eriod o f a ctivity s eems t o b e i ndicated b y t he a ddition o f 1 5cm o f c lay t o t he f loor i n o ne a rea w hile t he smaller r oom a ppears t o h ave b een g iven u p a s t he s ite was c overed b y a t hick , b adly-constructed r oad . N o d ating e vidence f or 4 B o r t his l ater p hase was n oted; t he l atest c oin f rom t he s ite i s o f V alentinian I . T he f ort a t P iercebridge w as r e-occupied c irca A D 3 50 , t hough n ot a s i ntensively a s i t h ad b een i n t he l ater t hird c entury ( Scott 1 978) . A t t his t ime t here was s ome b uilding work within t he f ort w hen t he s outh p ortal o f t he e ast g ate w as b locked a nd t he e arlier r oad t o t he g ateway w as

c ut

t hrough b y t he m ain l atrine d rain f rom t he n orth-east

a ngle . T he r oad was t hen r esurfaced f or t he l ast t ime . N either t he l atrine d rain n or t he " barrack-block" s outh o f t he e ast g ate was p ositioned p arallel t o t he f ort wall , b ut r an p arallel t o e ach o ther which s uggests t hat t hey may b oth p ost d ate t he d efences. T he s oc alled " barrack-block" w hich i s n ow k nown t o b e i n f act t he e ast r ange o f a c ourtyard b uilding ( Fig 5 2 .1) h ad t wo r ooms h eated b y ah ypocaust a nd a lso h ad p ainted wall p laster . T here w as a lso m uch p ainted wall p laster o n t he e xterior w all , p resumably w here i t w as p rotected b y a v eranda . T his r ange o f r ooms i s p robably o f m uch l ater d ate t han t he b ath-house, f orming t he s outhern r ange, t hough t his r emained i n u se a nd was modified i n t he mid-fourth c entury . T hese modifications i ncluded t he i nsertion o f n ew h eating f acilities a s w ell a s d rains a nd a l atrine . T he s outh-east r oom was h ypocausted; t he p ilae s howed s igns o f h eavy b urning b ut t he walls d id n ot . T he e xcavator s uggested t hat t he s ystem was l ittle u sed, t he p ilae being r e-used ( Scott 1 978 ) . T he 7 m w ide b erm s outh o f t he e ast g ate h ad a c obbled s urface which h ad l ater b een r esurfaced w ith l arge s tones . C ut i nto t his m etalled s urface were t wo r ows o f p its r unning p arallel t o t he f ort wall , t he p its o f o ne r ow b eing s et i n t he g aps b etween t he p its o f t he o ther r ow . T he e xcavators b elieve t hese t o b e l ilia a nd t o b e c onnected with t he s ub-ditch c ut i nto t he western s ide o f t he main d efensive d itch . T hey p robably d ate t o c irca A D 3 50 r ather t han A D 2 70

( Scott a nd L arge

1 980,

1 2).

I f

t he

l atrine d rain b y t he

e ast

g ate i s c ontemporary with t hat i n t he n orth-east a ngle, t hen t he l atrine b uilding ( Fig 2 5 .4 ) m ay a lso d ate t o t he m id-fourth c entury , a s would p resumably t he b uilding t o t he s outh west o f t he l atrine . Mr . J .P. G illam i nforms m e t hat t he p ottery f rom t he l atrine i n t he n orth-east a ngle w as o f m id f ourth-century d ate .

c ulvert

Small-scale e xcavations were c arried o ut a t N ewbrough i n F ebruary, 1 930 . A s hort a ccount w as p ublished s oon a fter ( Simpson F . 1 929-30 ), b ut m ore i nformation i ncluding p lans, s ections a nd p ottery d rawings i s t o

b e

f ound

i n t he u npublished n otes

a ctual d igging . J .P . G illam).

o f Mr .

T .

H epple who d id

t he

( A c opy o f t hese n otes was k indly s hown t o m e b y M r . T he f ortlet ( Fig 1 5 .2), which m easured c irca 5 9 .48m

n orth s outh b y 5 7.95m e ast west e nclosing a bout 0 .3 h a, was d efended b y a d itch p erhaps o riginally c irca 4 .57m wide b y 1 .52m d eep a nd a s tone wall 1 .22m t hick s et b ack 4 .88m f rom t he d itch . N o r ampart b ank was n oted . A g ap i n t he m iddle o f t he s outh d itch i mplies a g ateway h ere ( Birley E . 1 961, 1 48) . T he p ottery , o f which 1 s herds were

d rawn,

C rambeck J .P .

t ype

s pans l b

t he

m id t o l ate-fourth c entury.

f langed b owl

G illam s uggests

s uggests

p ost A D

3 67

One s herd o f

o ccupation .

M r .

t hat t he p ottery i ndicates a d ate a round t he m id-

9 8

f ourth c entury r ather t han c irca A D 3 70 f or t he b eginning o f t he o ccupation . Ac oin o f C onstantine I was f ound b y t he s exton i n t he c hurchyard i n 1 930 . C ardurnock m ilefortlet 5 ( Fig 1 6 .1), j ust t o t he e ast o f Moricambe, m ay h ave b een r eoccupied i n t he m id-fourth c entury . T he e xcavators n oted t hat p eriod I II s eemed t o d ate t o e ither s ide o f A D 3 67; t he weight o f material, h owever, f alls a fter A D 3 69 . " Thus t he m eagre e vidence w ould i n f act s uit a n o ccupation c ommencing i n A D 3 43 j ust a s well a s o ne b eginning i n A D 2 97" ( Simpson, F . a nd H odgson 1 948, 1 25). T he s ite h ad b een a bandoned f rom t he l ate s econd c entury u ntil t hat d ate . T he p eriod I II s tructures h ad b een m uch d amaged b y t he p lough . O n t he r eoccupation o f t he s ite, t he s outh, west a nd n orth r amparts w ere r econditioned , t he o uter f ace o f t he r ampart b eing c ut b ack 1 .67m a nd a n ew f ace a dded . V ery f ew s tructures o f t his p eriod s urvived ; ap latform o f c lay a nd c obbles 2 .13 b y 3 .96m f aced i n s tone w as f ound - t he e xcavators s uggested t hat i t w as a b allistarium . Ab razier m ay h ave s tood i n t he w est a ngle . D aniels s uggests t hat t he r eduction i n s ize o f t he f ortlet b etween p eriods I a nd I I , d ated w ithin t he s econd c entury, c ould p erhaps e qually well f it t he f ourth-century r eoccupation o f t he s ite ( Daniels 1 978A , 2 65 ) . T here i s v ery l ittle e vidence t o s uggest t he r e-use o f o ther m ilefortlets a nd t owers o n t he C umberland c oast . M ost o f t hese w ent o ut o f u se i n t he s econd c entury . P otter s uggested t hat m ilefortlets 5 , 1 2 a nd 2 0 m ay s how e vidence o f h aving b een r ecommissioned s ome t ime i n t he f ourth c entury ( Potter 1 977 , 1 83) . A t m ilefortlet 1 2 , o nly o ne p iece o f l ate p ottery h as b een r ecovered ( Bellhouse 1 966 , 3 8 ; 1 969 ) . F ourth-century s herds w ere r ecovered f rom m ilefortlet 2 0 c lose b y a h earth w hich w as u nrelated t o a ny s tructure , l ying o n b lown s and w hich s ealed t he e arlier l evels . T he 1 0 s herds f ound c ould h ave c ome f rom t he s ame p ot ( Bellhouse 1 970 , 2 4 ,31) . O ne p iece o f t hird o r f ourthc entury c ooking p ot h as b een f ound a t t ower 1 6a ( Richmond 1 956). T hese a re t he o nly p ublished p ieces o f p ottery ( excepting t hose f rom m ilefortlet 5 ) l ater t han t he s econd c entury f rom t he m ilefortlets . I t s eems s lim e vidence o n w hich t o s uggest a s ystem o f p atrolling t he c oast o r a n a ttempt t o i mitate t he a rrangements k nown o n t he Y orkshire c oast i n t he l ate f ourth c entury ( Daniels 1 978A , 3 6; P otter 1 979B, 2 5). T wo s ites h ave b een d iscovered f rom t he a ir l ying e ither s ide o f t he R om a n r oad f rom O ld P enrith t o C arlisle , a l ittle t o t he n orth o f L ow H esket. B arrack F ell was d iscovered a nd p artly e xcavated i n 1 930 . I t l ay 9 1 .5m a bove s ea l evel o n a n arrow s helf o f f airly l evel g round o n t he s ide o f B arrack F ell a bove t he R oman r oad . T here a re g ood v iews t o t he n orth, s outh a nd west a cross a nd a long t he P etteril v alley . T he s ite c onsisted o f a s quare , s tone e nclosure w ith r ounded a ngles, t he e ntrance b eing o n t he w est s ide t owards t he r oad . I t w as s urrounded b y t wo d itches 6 .71 - 7 .32m a part ( Fig 1 4 .2). Ab erm o f 0 .91 - 2 .13m s eparated t he i nner d itch f rom t he s tone wall 2 .13m t hick, f aced i n l arge , s quare s tones w ith a r ubble c ore s et i n m ortar o n a c lay-and-cobble f oundation . T here was n o a ssociated e arth b ank . F arrar s uggests t hat t here m ay b e t wo p hases i n t he d efences; t he s quare p lan o f t he d itches c ontrasts w ith t he o blong w alled e nclosure ( Farrar 1 980 , 2 13 ) . N o s tructures o r f loor l evels w ere f ound w ithin t he e nclosure a nd t he n earer t o t he c entre o f t he e nclosure , t he l ess s tones w ere f ound . T he e xcavator n oted a n a bsence o f r oofing s lates

9 9

a nd n ails

( Collingwood

1 931A ) .

I n t he e xcavations

t he s ite p roduced

m ainly H untcliff ware . F urther s herds e xposed b y p loughing i n M ay 1 978 were a gain m ainly o f H untcliff ware . T here i s n o i ndication i n t he r eport a s t o whether a ny H untcliff t ype was f ound . T he s herds f ound i n 1 978 were t hought b y Mr . J . P . G illam t o b e o f s lightly e arlier d ate t han t he A D 3 67 s uggested b y t he e xcavator f or t he s ite's c onstruction .

T hese

s herds

w ere

q uite

f ine

f or H untcliff w are ,

o ne r im h ad n o i nternal g roove . O ne f ragment o f c astor w are a re s urvivals i n t his c ontext . T he o ther s ite a t Wreay, t renched i n 1 951. with r ounded a ngles

1

o f

s amian a nd

t he

a s herd

mile t o t he n orth o f B arrack F ell,

was

A s quare e nclosure was d elimited b y t wo d itches 6 .1m a part, b etween which were t he r emains o f a n

u pcast m ound ( Fig 1 4 .3). N o e ntrance n or a ny t race o f ad efensive wall were f ound , t hough o n t he l ip o f t he o uter d itch o n t he west s ide were b roken s andstone a nd c obbles ( Bellhouse 1 953 ) . B oth s ites h ave b een i dentified a s R oman s ignal s tations with p resumed s imilar e nclosures t o t hese h ave r ecently b een e xcavated .

a nd c ompared

t he e ast o f t he P ennines . Two o f A t H artburn , c lose t o t he R oman

r oad k nown a s D evil's C auseway , J obey f ound a d ouble-ditched e nclosure o f s ub-rectangular p lan , n ot d issimilar t o t hose a t B arrack F ell a nd Wreay, t hough i t i s m ore i rregular . Within were f ound a n umber o f r ound t imber houses o f n ormal n ative t ype . whatsoever

f or

T here was n o e vidence

a R oman m ilitary p resence o n

t he s ite

( Jobey G .

1 973 ) .

A t A pperley D ene t he s ite o f a n ative f armstead was r eoccupied a fter an a bandonment o f c irca 1 00 y ears i n t he m id-fourth c entury . T he e xcavator t hought t hat i n t his s econd p hase t he s ite h ad a gain b een a n ative s ettlement, b ut h e d oes n ot r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat i t may h ave h ad a m ilitary f unction .

T he s ite was n ot o ccupied a fter A D

3 67 . T he e xcavator c ompared t he s ite i n i ts f ourth-century p hase with Wreay a nd B arrack F ell a nd h e p ointed o ut t hat t he a rea within t he d itches a t a ll t hree s ites i s v ery s imilar a nd s uggests t hat t hey a ll m ay b e n ative s ites ( Greene 1 978) . P rofessor G . J obey i s i nclined t o a ccept b oth W reay a nd B arrack F ell a s R oman military s tructures. T he u se o f mortar i n t he wall a t B arrack F ell w ould b e m ost u nusual i n a n ative c ontext, a s w ould t he p resence

o f window

g lass which was

f ound t here .

H e p oints

o ut

t hat

r ectilinear n ative s ettlements a re n ot a f eature o f t he a rea t o t he west o f t he P ennines, a lthough t hey a re c ommon t o t he e ast a nd n orth e ast . N o o ther p osts o f t his d ate a nd t ype h ave b een f ound a long t he r oad b etween O ld P enrith a nd C arlisle . C ollingwood h ad s uggested a s eries H ill .

o f t hree p osts - o n T heifside H ill , B arrack F ell a nd C arleton T he a bsence o f a ny c entral t ower o r p latform t o a id s ignalling

a t b oth Wreay .

s ites i s n oteworty, a s i s t he a bsence o f a s tone wall a t L ittle e xcavation h as b een u ndertaken a t e ither s ite .

A s omewhat s imilar s ite h as b een n oted a t S toke H ill i n D evon . T his d ouble-ditched s ub-rectangular e nclosure was d ated b y t he e xcavators t o t he l ate t hird c entury. c olour-coated ware c ame f rom small.

Again,

no

t race

o f

A c oin o f C arausius a nd a s herd o f t he s ite . T he o ther s herds were v ery a c entral

t ower

was

found.

T he

e xcavator's s uggestion t hat t he s ignal s tation was d esigned t o g ive warning o f s ea r aids c annot b e t aken s eriously s ince i t l ies s everal m iles f rom t he s ea ( Fox , A . a nd R avenhill 1 959) . E xcavations i n 1 971 f ound n o t race o f o ccupation b etween t he i nner a nd o uter d itches . A

1 00

t rench a cross t he o uter b ank s howed t hat t he o uter f ace w as r evetted i n s tone ( Milnes 1 972). Immediately within t he i nner d itch was a c lay r ampart c irca 4 .57m wide . T he c auseway a cross t he i nner d itch w as l ightly m etalled . T he p resence o f a r ampart immediately w ithin t he o uter d itch w ould b e u nusual i n a R oman m ilitary s tructure a nd i t m ay w ell b e o f p rehistoric d ate ( Bidwell 1 980, 4 4). O n

t he

c oin

e vidence,

P hilp

h as

s uggested

t hat

t he

g arrison

o f

R eculver was w ithdrawn c irca A D 3 60 ( Philp 1 969A ) . T he c oin e vidence f rom L ympne p rovides n o e vidence f or t he f ort's h aving b een o ccupied b y r egular t roops a fter A D 3 48 . R eece r emarks t hat t here was e ither a g arrison w hich was n ot ( unusual) b eing p aid ( irregular t roops?) o r t here was n o g arrison i n r esidence . L ikewise , t he p ottery e vidence s uggests t hat t he f ort was a bandoned b y c irca A D 3 50 ( Cunliffe 1 980 , 2 63, 2 81). A t P ortcheste/ t hroughout m uch o f t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury t here were p eriods d uring which r ubbish was d umped a t t he b ack o f t he f ort wall . S uch a r ubbish l ayer a ccumulated i n t he p eriod c irca A D 3 00-25 when i t was s ealed b y a d eposit o f f reshly-quarried b rick e arth.

T his

r epresents

a t idying

u p

o f

t he

s ite .

P robably

c ontemporary with t his was t he d emolition o f a t l east o ne t imber b uilding; p it 1 03 was l argely f illed with d emolition d ebris . I n t he p eriod AD 3 25-45 t here was f urther i ntense a ctivity . Only o ne s tructure c an b e d ated t o t his p hase - t he s o-called g uard h ouse , R 6, w hich f ronted o n t he n orth-south s treet b y t he s outh g ate . I t was a r ectangular p ost-built s tructure 4 x 3 .4m ( Fig 4 9 .4D). S ix p osts w ere r ecorded , e ach a veraging 2 0-31cm i n d iameter a nd 3 1-46cm d eep . I t m ay h ave s erved t o c ontrol p assage t hrough t he g ate . T he b ulk o f t he c esspits f ound o n t he s ite d ate t o t his t ime a nd f ive c ontemporary wells a lso d ate t o t his p eriod . E arly i n t he A D 3 40s, t he r ubbish w hich h ad a ccumulated i n t he p revious t wo d ecades was a gain s ealed a nd t he major r oads were r e-metalled a nd p rovided with t imber g utters. Most o f t he wells a nd c esspits were f illed b y t his t ime a nd

l arge

e xpanses o f c obbles were s pread o ver t he western h alf o f t he e xcavated a rea . B uildings R 4 a nd R 5 w ere c onstructed a t t his p eriod . R 4 was o f s ill b eam c onstruction a nd e nclosed 6 x 5 .5m ( Fig . 4 9 .4B) . A cross t he f ront r an a c orridor o r v eranda 1 .5m wide . T he r oom b ehind may h ave b een d ivided i nto t wo . A V -shaped g ulley, p robably c ontemporary with t he b uilding,

r an r ound o ne c orner o f i t.

T he a rea p ossibly

o ccupied b y b uilding R 5, o f s imilar s ize t o R 4, was v ery d isturbed b y p ost-Roman f eatures; o nly a s ingle s ill b eam w as f ound . T he s carcity o f c oins i n t he p eriod A D 3 45-64 p robably r epresents a p eriod o f o rdered o ccupation r ather t han a l ack o f

a ctivity .

F or t he

f ourteen

y ears f ollowing A D 3 64 t here was a gain i ntensive o ccupation which c ontinued , t hough p erhaps o n a r educed s cale , a fter A D 3 78 ( Cunliffe 1 975, A t

4 25).

s ome

t ime

d uring

t he e arlier f ourth c entury t he s outh g ate o f

R isingham was n arrowed l eaving a p assageway o nly a l ittle o ver 6 1cm w ide . R ichmond t hought t hat t his p robably p ost-dated t he C onstantian r econstruction o f t he e astern g ate-tower . B ehind t he west wall a b uilding c ontemporary with t he work i n t he s outh g ate was s et c lose u p b ehind t he wall o ver t he l evelled r ampart b ank .

T he f loors were

p artly o f e arth a nd p artly f lagged . A l ittle p ottery a nd a m uch w orn c oin o f G allienus c ame f rom t he b uilding ( Richmond 1 936) . H adrian 's Wall

b y

B irdoswald

was

p resumably

1 01

r ebuilt

i n

t he

e arlier

f ourth

c entury .

T he p resence o f

e arly f ourth-century p ottery s ealed within

t he wall s tructure d oes n ot n ecessarily d ate t he W all's t he T heodosian r econstruction ( cf D aniels 1 978A , 1 99) . B etween A D

3 05

a nd

3 67

t he

r ebuilt

n orth-east

g ate

r ebuilding t o

( period

5 )

o f

Malton r equired m odification o wing t o p artial d estruction ; t he i nner a rch o f t he g ate c annot h ave b een s tanding . Two s tone p acked p osth oles were c ut t hrough t he p eriod 5 r oad, p resumably t o s upport t he r oof o ver t he p ortal ( cf. t he n orth g ate o f S outh S hields c irca A D 2 30) t hough t he e xcavator t hought t hat t he t wo p osts h ad f ormed a t urf- a nd-timber b arrier b uilt a cross

t he s outhern p art o f t he g ate i n

i ts l ast p hase . H e s uggested t hat t he f ront a rch a nd f ort w all were p robably i n r uins a t t his t ime . C ontemporary w ith t his w ork , a t t he g ateway, a r ectangular b uilding was c onstructed , p artly o verlying t he path o nto t he r ampart t o t he west o f t he s outh g uardroom . Much o f t he r ampart was r emoved b y t he c onstruction o f a nother b uilding a butting o n t he s outh w all o f t he g uardchamber . A n a ttempt w as m ade t o p oorly f ace t he u nfaced wall o f t his c hamber which h ad h itherto b een masked b y t he r ampart. A l arge c ornice b lock i n t he f loor o f t his b uilding p resumably c ame f rom t he s uperstructure o f t he g ate . I n t he west p ortal o f t he s outh g ate o f B urrow-in-Lonsdale, a small s quare s tructure was

i nserted

( Fig

1 8 .2) .

I t w as b uilt o n t op o f

t he

road metalling which f ormed i ts f loor a nd was o f v ery poor c onstruction . T he e ast a nd s outh walls w ere b uilt o f r oughly-squared s tones whilst t he n orth a nd west walls were o f c obble s tones built neatly i n herringbone f ashion . I n t he m iddle o f t he g ateway, n ow n arrowed t o 3 .2m , was a r oughly-constructed d oorstep o f f our s quared s tones a nd a l arge l ump o f r e-used c oncrete ( Hildyard 1 954 , 7 1) . A s n o p ottery o f

l ater t han c irca A D

t he g ate p robably

3 60 was

f ound ,

t hese a lterations

t o

d ate t o t he e arlier f ourth c entury .

A s will b e n oted f rom t he a bove i nformation ,

t here i s v ery l ittle t hat

c an b e c losely d ated i n t he f irst s ixty y ears o f t he f ourth c entury . Wheeler's c omment t o r ecommend i t:

o n t he d ating o f C aernarvon's

r eoccupation h as

m uch

" It would b e r ash t o a ssociate t hese w orks w ith a ny o ne o f t he k nown n ames o r c ampaigns o f t he p eriod . T he n ame o f T heodosius, f or example, s uggests i tself, b ut i t will b e wiser merely t o r efer t he l ast p hase a t S egontium g enerally t o t he s pasmodic m ilitary r evival o f t he l atter h alf o f t he c entury w hen t he e arlier c oastal d efences were e xtended n orthwards a gainst t he i nvaders w ho w ere p ressing m ore a nd m ore

o n t he f lanks

o f

t he n orthern f rontier"

( Wheeler

1 922 ,

3 10 ) .

T he r ebuilding o f m ilefortlet 5 p resumably r epresents a r eaction t o t he s ame p ressure , a s d oes t he r ebuilding a t L ancaster , t hough w hether we s hould s ee t he n ew f ort a t L ancaster a s r esembling t hose o n t he S axon S hore b oth s tructurally a nd f unctionally i s l ess c lear . C ollingwood t hought t hat t he s ite " which m ight a t a p inch s erve a s a s eaport, would hardly b e d esigned b y a ny s ane m an a s an aval base" ( Petch J . 1 959). T he s uggested a bandonment o f L ympne i n t he p eriod AD 3 40-50 a nd o f R eculver c irca A D 3 60 i s s urprising .

I n A D 3 64 o r

3 65, Ammianus r ecords t hat " the P icts, S axons, S cots a nd A ttacotti were h arassing t he B ritons with c onstant d isasters" ( A .M . M I, 4 ,5) . I n t he n orth t he f orts a t B rough-on-Noe, L anchester a nd Whitley C astle, which s how e vidence f or o ccupation i n t he e arlier f ourth

1 02

c entury, would s eem t o h ave b een a bandoned b y t he m iddle o f t he c entury . T he s table i n t he p raetentura a t B rough was t hought t o h ave b een s ystematically d emolished b y t he w ithdrawing g arrison ( Jones G a nd Wild 1 968). T he l atest c oin f rom t he s ite, f ound a bove t he c ollapsed s tonework o f t he p eriod III prAetorium, i s o f M agnentius ( Jones G a nd Wild 1 969A); t he l atest c oin f rom L anchester i s o f J ulian ( Steer 1 938 ) . A t W atercrook , a lthough t here i s n o s tructural e vidence f or f ourth-century o ccupation , c oins a nd p ottery which i nclude o ne p iece o f C rambeck t ype l b a nd a c oin o f G ratian, may i ndicate c ontinued o ccupation o f t he s ite. O n

t he n orthern f rontier,

t he p resence o f a reani i s

m entioned b y

Ammianus i n t he t ime o f C onstans w ho d escribes t heir f unction t hus : " It was t heir d uty t o h asten a bout h ither a nd t hither o ver t he l ong s paces t o g ive i nformation t o o ur g enerals o f t he c lashes o f r ebellion a mong n eighbouring p eoples" ( A .M . X XVIII , 3 ,1) I t i s n ot c lear e xactly w ho t hese p eople were . R ichmond n oted t hat a reani i s u sually a mended t o a rcani , s ecret a gents, y et h e s uggested t hat Ammianus' d escription o f t heir w ork a s o pen f rontier p atrolling would f it i n with t he f unction we e nvisage a s h aving b een e arlier c arried o ut b y t he e xploratores . H e s uggested t hat t he n ame a reani m ight b e d erived f rom a reae , s heep f olds, a nd t hat t hey m ay h ave l ived i n n ative-style f armsteads ( Richmond 1 958B, 1 15) . B arn i J ones h as r ecently a rgued t hat t he a rcani, a s h e c alls t hem, f ormed t he g arrisons o f t he f orts o n t he W all i tself a nd h e c ites H ousesteads a s a n e xample , c alling i t a n o utpost f ort . H e s uggests t hat t o t he " part T eutonic, b arely l iterate g arrison ( to j udge f rom a s urviving i nscription) E presumably o f t hird-century d ate ] t he i mperial f acade m eant l ittle , p erhaps n ever e xisted ; t he p ropinquity o f l ike-minded n atives c laiming a utonomy a nd p romising b ooty m eant f ar m ore" ( Jones G . 1 979, 6 7). I f ind t his i nterpretation d ifficult t o a ccept. A mmianus s pecifically s tates t hat T heodosius r emoved t he a reani f rom t heir p osts b ut t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he s tyle o f g arrison w ithin t he W all f orts c hanged i n t he l ater f ourth c entury . T he a bandonment o f t he o utpost f orts a t B ewcastle a nd R isingham ( and p ossibly a lso N etherby) c irca A D 3 67 i s m ore l ikely t o r eflect t he r emoval o f t he a reani f rom t hese f orts. I f C onstans d id o rganise t he a reani, p erhaps w hen h e v isited B ritain i n A D 3 42-3 , h e m ay h ave p laced t hem i n t he r eoccupied f orts o f B ewcastle a nd R isingham . T he e astern s ector o f t he Wall would h ave b een s eriously weakened b y t he a bandonment o f R isingham a nd H igh R ochester i n A D 3 12 i f t his i n f act d id t ake p lace . H altonchesters, c lose b y D ere S treet a nd R udchester , w ere a lso p robably u noccupied a t t his t ime . Q uite what G .D.B. Jones m eant b y c alling H ousesteads a n o utpost i s u nclear . A lthough a n umber o f f orts o n t he W all w ere u noccupied i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury , t here i s l ittle e vidence t o s uggest t hat i t d id n ot t hen a ct a s a l inear b arrier . T he W all b y t he n orth-west a ngle o f B irdoswald c ould h ave b een r ebuilt a s e arly a s t he t ime o f C onstantius C hlorus . A lthough t he W all b y S ewingshields w as i n t otal d isrepair i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury, t he t opography o f t he a rea w ould s till h ave p rovided a n e ffective b arrier w ithout t he p resence o f t he W all u pon t he c rags .

1 03

C HAPTER 7

B y

t he

A D 3 67,

T HE B ARBARICA C ONSPIRATIO A ND C OUNT T HEODOSIUS

middle

o f

t he

f ourth

c entury,

B ritain was

u nder

f requent

b arbarian a ttack . T he v isit o f C onstans t o t he d iocese i n t he w inter o f A D 3 42-3 would s uggest a s erious s ituation , t hough whether t his was t he r esult o f b arbarian i nvasion i s n ot k nown . I t i s p ossible t hat h is v isit w as l inked i n s ome way w ith t he a reani who o perated n orth o f H adrian's Wall ( A .M . X XVIII , 3 .8) . A t t his t ime t he C hannel c rossing was d escribed a s " hazardous d ue t o t he p resence o f b arbarians" ( Julius F imicus Maternus, D e E rrore P rofanarum R eligionum X XXVIII ,

6 ) .

I n A D

3 60 , t he P icts a nd S cots w ere c ausing d amage , p resumably n orth o f t he Wall . Mann s uggests t hat t hese ' loca l imitibus v icina' o f Ammianus a re t he l oca m entioned i n t he R avenna C osmography . T hese a re t hought t o h ave b een r ecognised m eeting p laces f or t he c lient s tates n orth o f t he

W all

( Mann

1 979B,

1 81) .

I f

t his s uggestion i s

c orrect,

a fter A D

3 60 t he R omans may h ave l ost s ome c ontrol o ver t he a rea n orth o f W all which p reviously p erhaps e xtended a s f ar n orth a s t he T ay .

t he

I t i s u nlikely t hat t he c essation o f s upply o f b lack b urnished ware p ottery, c ategory I , t o t he n orth was a r esult o f t he d isruption o f t he western s ea l anes c irca A D 3 60 o r A D 3 67 ( Webster P . 1 979, 1 8). C ompetition f rom t he E ast Y orkshire i ndustries, e specially H untcliff ware, may have b een t he main factor although t echnically r etrograde , H untcliff w are was p robably c heaper t o p roduce a nd w ould c ertainly b e c heaper t o market i n t he n orth ( Gillam 1 976B, 5 9). B y c irca A D 3 65 t he e nemies o f B ritain a re r ecorded a s t he P icts, S cots, A ttacotti a nd S axons. A t s ome t ime i n t he mid-fourth c entury, Gratian, f ather o f Va l ent ini an I , had been a ppointed c omes B ritanniarum , t hough F rere t hinks t hat t his was a s pecial a ppointment n ecessitated b y t rouble within t he d iocese o n t he d eath o f C onstantine I I a ny

a nd

t hat

G ratian

was

i mpending r ebellion

s ent

with

( Martin

c omitatensian

f orces

t o

f orestall

1 969 ) .

T hese t roubles c ulminated i n t he b arbarica c onspiratio o f A D

3 67,

p robably t he b iggest n on-event , a rchaeologically, i n t he 3 60 y ears o f R oman r ule i n B ritain . T his i nvasion i s d escribed i n s ome d etail b y A mmianus: Britain

was

brought

i nto

a s tate

o f

extreme

need

b y

a

c onspiracy o f t he s avages t hat N ectaridus, t he c omes m aritimi t ractus h ad b een k illed a nd t he d ux F ullofaudes h ad b een ambushed b y t he e nemy a nd t aken p risoner A t t hat t ime t he P icts, d ivided i nto t wo t ribes c alled D icalydones a nd V erturiones, a s well a s t he A ttacotti , a

1 04

warlike r ace o f m en, a nd t he S cotti were r anging widely a nd c ausing g reat d evastation, while t he G allic r egions, wherever a nyone c ould b reak i n b y l and o r s ea, were h arassed b y t he F ranks a nd t heir n eighbours

t he S axons.-." ( A .M. XXVII,

T he s eriousness s cholars:

o f

t he

s ituation h as

8 ,1).

b een well a ppreciated b y

m odern

" And i n 3 67 a g igantic i nvasion o f P icts a nd S cots swamped a ll t he d efences o f t he n orth a nd west a nd p assed l ike a f lood o ver t he c ivilised a nd p rosperous d istrict o f E ngland . T he i nvaders were d estructive b arbarians a nd n othing s urvived t heir a ttack e xcept t he s trongest f ortified t owns...." ( Collingwood 1 924, 3 8). " The wall a nd t he f orts o f t he n orth a gain f ell 6 2).

" ( Richmond 1 955,

" The m ain f ury s eems t o h ave f allen u pon t he n orthern f rontier a nd t he western c oastlands H adrian's Wall h ad a lways b een impregnable w hen i ts g arrison was t here: n ow i t was o verrun o r t aken i n t he r ear . T he g ravity o f t he s ituation was g reatly e nhanced b y t he l ength o f t ime i t t ook t o r estore o rder, a lmost t wo y ears p assed b efore t he g overnment r egained c ontrol" ( Frere 1 967 , 3 50-1) . T he g reat p roblem with t hese a ccounts o f t he r aids i n A D 3 67 i s t hat a rchaeologically t here i s n o e vidence f or s uch r aids h aving o ccurred . Morris n oted t he d iscrepancy b etween t he l iterary a nd a rchaeological e vidence i n p art " The i nvasion o f 3 67 s eems a p roblem: t he c onsiderable s pace t hat Ammianus a llots i t would s eem t o a rgue a n e xceptionally h eavy b low t hat s hould h ave s hown c lear a rchaeological t races

—there i s v ery

l ittle e vidence o f a ny widespread d estruction i n l owland B ritain i n t he 3 60s. O ne o r t wo c ountry h ouses s eem t o h ave b een a bandoned a t a bout t his t ime b ut h undreds r emained i ntact . was m uch m ore s erious" ( Morris J . 1 973 , 1 5-16) . I t h as

g enerally b een a ssumed t hat

t he p rovinces

T he

o f

n orthern

a ssault

B ritain were n ot

t otally r ecovered u ntil AD 3 69 . O n h earing o f t he r aids i n B ritain i n A D 3 67 V alentinian , t hen i n n orthern G aul , h ad d espatched S everus t he c omes d omesticorum t o B ritain . H e was s oon r ecalled a nd J ovinus, t he' magister e quitum was s ent i nstead . A fter b oth h ad r eported t he n eed f or r einforcements, w ith t he r ank o f c omes . m ovements i n t he s ummer

T heodosius was s ent w ith a small f ield a rmy T omlin , i n a r eassessment o f V alentinian 's o f A D 3 67 , h as s uggested t hat T heodosius m ay

have b een s ent t o B ritain i n A D 3 67, n ot i n A D 3 68 a s t hought, a nd h ave r eached L ondon ; h ence Ammianus' p hrase , h ad b een s aved s ooner t han c ould h ave b een h oped".

has b een " The t own

B y t he e nd o f A D 3 68 , T heodosius h ad c leared t he p rovince o f

t he e nemy

a nd p ut d own a u surper .

H is

t otal f orce o f f our a uxilia EAlatina

p erhaps d id n ot n umber m ore t han 2 ,000 m en ( Tomlin 1 974A ) . Ammianus, t he m ain s ource f or t he e vents i n B ritain o f A D 3 67, was writing u nder T heodosius

I ,

t he s on o f

C ount T heodosius .

H e

i s

n ot

l ikely

t o h ave

m inimised t he emperor's f ather's a chievements . T he c risis o f A D 3 60 , which r equired t he s ending o f a f orce o f i dentical s ize u nder L upercinus, was d ismissed i n a c ouple o f l ines " for i ts c ommander h ad

1 05

l ess i llustrious c hildren" ( Morris J . 1 973, 1 6). Mr . P .J . C asey s uggests t hat t he m ain r eason f or d espatching L upercinus t o B ritain i n A D 3 60 was t o r emove h im f rom G aul a t a c ritical s tage i n J ulian's r ise t o p ower . T here h as

b een m uch d iscussion a s

t o w hat a rea N ectaridus ,

t he c omes

m aritimi t ractus h eld c ommand o ver . M ost s cholars w ould e quate t his c ommand with t hat o f t he c omes l itoris S axonici r ecorded i n t he N otitia, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o a ccept t he d eath o f a c omes o n t he s outh a nd e ast c oast w hen Ammianus m entions n o.invasion b y S axons o r F ranks . J ohnson i gnores t he s tatement o f Ammianus t hat t he S axons a nd F ranks w ere a ttacking t he G allicanos t ractus a nd m aintains t hat s outh-east B ritain was e vidently u nder a ttack ( Johnson J . 1 976C , 8 9) . C asey h as s uggested t hat t he P icts l aunched a s eaborne a ttack o n t he S axon S hore ( Casey 1 979B, 7 4). T omlin h as warned a gainst a ssuming t hat N ectaridus' c ommand was a nother n ame f or w hat l ater b ecame k nown a s t he L itus S axonicum ( Tomlin 1 973 , 3 3 ; c f . Mann 1 977 , 1 3 ) . I t h as b een s uggestd t hat t he c omes m aritimi t ractus was i n c ommand o f t he w estern l ittoral o f B ritain . A t o nly o ne m ilitary s ite i n t he whole o f B ritain i s t here p ossibly a ny s ign o f d estruction w hich h as r ecently b een t entatively a ssociated with t he r aids o f A D 3 67 . T he a bsence o f d estruction within t he f orts o n H adrian's W all h as b een e xplained b y B reeze a nd D obson t hus: " In A D 3 67 t hey ( the P icts) m ay h ave i gnored H adrian 's W all a nd s imply s ailed r ound i t t his may h ave b een h ow F ullofaudes was c aught i n a t rap. I t would a lso a ccount f or t he l ack o f e vidence f or d estruction o f H adrian's Wall a t t his t ime - i n f act t he Wall was p robably t he s afest p lace i n t he p rovince" ( Breeze a nd D obson 1 976 , 2 21). I f t he s ignal s tations o n t he Yorkshire c oast were b uilt b y T heodosius, t his s uggests t hat t here h ad b een t rouble f rom s ea r aiders , p resumably P icts s o f ar n orth . A r eference , k indly b rought t o m y a ttention b y M iss L . M acInnes, i n t he A nnals o f T igernach ( XVI , 2 35) r ecords t hat i n t he p ost-Roman p eriod t he P icts p ossessed a f leet o f c onsiderable s ize . P otter writes i n t he e xcavation r eport o n R avenglass: " Thus i t i s q uite p ossible t hat R avenglass w as i nvolved i n t he w ars o f t he 3 60s, a nd t hat i t was a ttacked f rom t he s ea . I f s o, we c an p robably d ate t he r ebuilding o f t he f ort i n p hase 4 t o t he T heodosian r estoration o f t he f rontier r egion , a lthough we a dvance t his h ypothesis w ith c onsiderable c aution" ( Potter 1 979A , 4 1) . T he e vidence f or v iolent d estruction c ame f rom t wo a reas w here p atches o f b urnt d aub were f ound t o o verlie t he l atest b uildings o f p hase 3 . T he excavator s uggested t hat a small g roup o f c oins r epresenting a small h oard " is a lso a c lear i ndication o f t he t roubles o f t he p eriod" . T he h oard p rovided a t erminus p ost q uer n o f c irca A D 3 50 f or t he e nd o f p hase 3 . T he p ottery e vidence would a llow a d ate i n t he A D 3 60s f or t he e nd o f t hat p hase . P erhaps, i n a ny e vent, we would e xpect t o f ind l ittle e vidence f or e nemy d estruction i n f orts, e specially i f t he e nemy was a ble t o b yp ass t he h igh c oncentration o f t roops o n H adrian 's W all . N or n eed w e l ook i n t he w alled t owns f or e vidence o f t he e nemy's p assing - i t i s

1 06

well known t hat b arbarians d id n ot n ormally a ttack well-fortified p laces. F ritigernus, l eader o f t he Goths i n A D 3 76, r eminded h is p eople

" that h e k ept

p eace with walls" ( A .M .

XXXI,

6 ,

4 ) .

I f we l ook

f or evidence o f t he r aids i n A D 3 67 i n t he villas we a re f aced with t he p roblem o f

i nterpretation .

r aiding p arty n eed

t o

b e

T o what

r eflected

e xtent

i n

t he

d oes

t he p assage o f

a rchaeological

a

r ecord?

Webster s uggested t hat r aiders o perating i n small b ands would o nly s teal t he v aluable o bjects a nd would l eave l ittle a rchaeological t race o f t heir p resence; t hey would n ot n ecessarily have s et b uildings a light.

Only when l arger b odies r oamed t he c ountry a t will would

t here have b een a n e lement o f wanton d estruction f or i ts own s ake ( Webster ,

G .

a v illa,

t he

1 969 ,

2 22) .

a ttackers

p robably t ook what

owner

I f

would

a s izeable n o

d oubt

t hey

g roup

f lee;

c ould

o f

a ttackers

i n

many

c arry

a nd

a pproached

i nstances

went

o n

t heir

t he way;

t here i s n o g ood r eason why t he o ccupants s hould n ot h ave r eturned a nd t aken u p r esidence a gain A t

s ome v illas,

n otably

a t

P ark

c ollapsed. o f

( Branigan

h owever, S treet

1 977 ,

d estruction

where

t he

9 4) i n AD

c ellar

3 67 has

had

b een

T here was a lso burning i n Room V .

t he c ellar,

b een c laimed, burnt

o ut

a nd

I n t he b urnt d ebris

t he l atest c oins were probably o f c irca AD 3 60 o r a

l ittle l ater;

i n t he b uilding d ebris a bove were t wo m ore c oins o f t he

s ame p eriod .

T he e xcavators

s uggested

t hat

t he

d estruction

o ccurred

e ither b efore A D 3 64 o r v ery s oon a fter : " When i t

i s

r ecollected t hat t he barbarian r aids

overwhelming d isaster t o t he p rovince i n AD i rresistibly t o t he c onclusion t hat t imes

o f

t hese

t roubles"

( O 'Neil

t he v illa was 1 971,

c ulminated

3 67 o r 3 68,

i n an

o ne i s l ed

d estroyed d uring t he

3 0) .

T he e xcavator t hought t hat t he a bsence r ather t han t he p 7esence o f c oins o f V alens a nd V alentinian i n t he d estruction d eposits s hould i ndicate d estruction i n A D 3 67-8 . s ite n eeds

None o f

t he c oins f ound o n t he

t o d ate l ater t han Magnentius.

I t i s n ow known t hat a

n umber o f villas i n t he S t. A lban's a rea went o ut o f u se i n t he midf ourth

c entury;

t his

i s

o ften a ssociated w ith

t he

t roubles

r esulting

f rom t he d efeat o f Magnentius i n AD 3 53 by t he l egitimate emperor, C onstantius I I.

N eal s uggests t hat t he a bandonment o f t hese s ites

m ay s imply r epresent a c hange i n l and m anagement which a ppears t o h ave o ccurred a t B oxmoor a nd G orhambury ( Neal 1 978, 5 2). T he v illa e states d o s eem t o h ave r emained , t hough Mr . D .S . N eal s uggests t hat t he a rea r ound V erulamium may have been c onverted i nto a n imperial e state a fter

t he d efeat

o f

Magnentius .

B ranigan h as made a c ase f or e nemy d estruction i n t he s outh west i n A D 3 67 .

H e s uggests t hat

p enetrated u p

r aiders

- p resumably

t he

t he B ristol C hannel a nd t hen u p

S cots

f rom

I reland -

t he B ristol Avon and

P arrett r ight i nto t he two t hickest c oncentrations o f villas i n t he r egion . A von a t

H e s uggests t hat t here i s e vidence f or d estruction a long t he K ings Weston , B rislington a nd K eynsham , a nd p ossibly f urther

i nland .

A t n o v illa t hat h e m entions

c losely d ated . d irectly

H e i s p repared

e xperienced

i n t he

f urther i nland a nd t hat

t o

c an t he s igns o f

a ccept

t hat

l ower valley o f

t he

r aid

d estruction b e o f A D

3 67 was

t he Avon and p ossibly

t he evidence f rom e lsewhere i s patchy a nd

i nconclusive ( Branigan 1 977 , 9 6) . T he p resence o f h uman r emains d own t he wells a t t he v illas o f N orth Wraxall a nd B rislington would s uggest t he p ossibility o f e nemy a ttack o n t hese s ites,

1 07

b ut

t he d ate o f

t hese

r emains c oins

i s

o f

d ifficult

G ratian

s uggests

t hat

t o a scertain .

A t N orth Wraxall t here were a lso

i n

t he

well

here

t he

d estruction o f

a fter AD 3 67 ( Webster G .

a nd

a rchitectural

1 969, 2 26).

f ragments .

W ebster

t he v illa p robably d ates

t o

I t i s n oteworthy t hat a t many

v illas which one would e xpect t o have b een p articularly e xposed t o e nemy a ttack, t here i s n o evidence f or d estruction . 1 956 C order r emarked: " But i t m ust b e c oncluded t hat r ural e conomy o f B ritain i n g reatly

e xaggerated"

( Corder

A s l ong a go a s

t he l urid t ales o f t he b reakdown o f t he t he s o-called ' Pictish War' has been 1 956 ,

4 2) .

T hat t here was s ome t rouble i n B ritain i n A D 3 67 c annot b e d oubted, b ut l ittle c an be d one t o a certain i t e xtent. c ases

s uggests

t hat

t he

t rouble was

n ot

A rchaeology i n many

s erious

b ut

t he a chaeological

e vidence may h ave s erious l imitations i n d etermining t he p resence o f r aiders i n a n a rea . Whatever d id happen, t here was c ertainly a v igorous r eaction b y t he R oman g overnment. s aid t o h ave c leared

t he

d iocese o f

N ot o nly i s T heodosius

i nvaders,

b ut

h e

i s

a lso

c redited

with " Making

many

d efences ( A.M.

necessary

improvements,

r estoring

t he

c ities

a nd

a nd protecting t he f rontiers b y s entinels a nd o utposts"

XXVIII,

3 ,1).

H e i s a lso s aid t o h ave r ecovered a p rovince which h ad p assed i nto t he e nemy's

h ands,

which

was

h enceforth

c alled V alentia .

A ttempts

h ave

b een made t o l ocate t his p rovince a nd t he main c andidates have b een n orth

o f

t he

Wall

and

i n N orth

k nowing where i t was; f our p rovinces a ppear

i t

Wales.

T here

i s

j ust

n o

way

o f

a s

t he

i s n ot a n e arlier p rovince r e-named ,

o f B ritain i n t he V erona l ist o f

i n t he N otitia t ogether w ith V alentia .

t hat t he p rovince l ay t o t he north o f

c ixca AD 3 13 a gain

I t

i s h ighly u nlikely

t he Wall - t hat a rea h ad n ot

b een u nder d irect R oman c ontrol s ince t he e arly t hird c entury . i s a l ittle Wall:

e vidence

s uggest

t hat T heodosius

T here

c ampaigned b eyond

t he

C laudian r ecords t hat " he p itched h is c amp amid t he s nows o f

C aledonia" m aintained Mann

t o

( Pan .

s uggests

S ecunda .

V II,

2 6);

a p resence

A s

t hat

t here

n orth

t he

o f

n ew

V alentia was

i s

n o

p rovince

o ne

e vidence

t hat

t he R omans

t he Wall .

o f

was

c arved

o ut

o f

B ritannia

t he o nly t wo p rovinces o f B ritain t o

b e g overned b y a c onsular p raeses, h e f urther s uggests t hat t he n ew p rovince

i ncluded York.

T he

t itle

d ux B ritanniarum i ndicates t hat

t he d ux e xercised a uthority over more t han o ne p rovince;

h e

c ould

s till h ave h eld c ommand o ver t he whole o f

t he n orth ( Breeze a nd D obson

1 976,

a long

2 29).

p rovinces

The

o f

t he

p resence

B ritish

a ccept

H ind's

s uggstion

o n

w hole

d iocese

t he

Much

r ebuilding

T heodosius, c redited

a l ot

w ith

t he

t hat

( Hind

work o f

o f

i t

f inal

V alentia

d iocese

i n

t he N otitia

V alentia was

with

t he

maks

i t

a n h onorific

o ther

f our

d ifficult

t itle

t o

b estowed

1 975).

has

b een

a ssigned

p ossibly a bandonment

t o

c orrectly. o f

t he I n

t he o utposts,

t ime t he

o f

C ount

n orth h e

t hough

i s

r ecently

i t h as b een s uggested t hat N etherby m ay h ave r emained o ccupied ( Dobson 1 979, 3 1), d ue n o d oubt t o i ts p ossible p resence i n t he ' item per l ineam valli s ubsection o f t he d ux B ritanniarum c ommand i n t he N otitia . T his s ubsection p robably d ates t o t he t hird c entury a nd h as

1 08

no

r elevance t o t he Wall's o ccupation i n t he l ater f ourth c entury.

N one o f h as

t he C rambeck t ypes

b een

s eems

f ound

i n

t o h ave

o f

p ottery

g enerally

a m ilitary

c ontext

n orth

t erminated

t he

R oman

o f

d ated

t o a fter A D

t he Wall .

s urveillance

o f

3 67

T heodosius

l owland

S cotland .

Ammianus r ecords t hat t he a reani, who had b een b ribed b y t he e nemy, were r emoved f rom t heir p osts . " It i s e vident 3 68 t he s ame

Morris b elieved t hat:

t hat T heodosius a pplied t o t he B ritish f rontier i n 3 67p olicy t hat he c arried t hrough i n A frica i n 3 71,

a ppointing R oman p raefecti g entium a s r ulers ( Morris J . 1 973, 1 8). T here

i s

n o

e vidence

t hat

C ount T heodosius

c ontrol o ver t he t ribes n orth o f With t he a bandonment o f

t he

o f

t he b order b arbarians"

i mposed a ny k ind o f

R oman

Wall .

t he o utposts,

H adrian 's Wall was s trengthened .

I t was possibly a t t his t ime t hat t he c urtain wall b y milecastle 3 5 was

r ebuilt

f rom i ts

f oundations;

a c oin o f

was f ound i n t he c lay b onding o f s herds

o f f ourth-century p ottery were f ound i n a c ontext b elow t he

l evel o f S ix

t he H ouse o f V alentinian

t he Wall's f oundation a nd s everal

t he Wall's

b uilding

f oundation t o

i nscriptions

t he s outh

have

b een

o f

i t .

f ound

o n

b uilding work c arried o ut b y B ritish

c ivitates,

L indiniensium,

o ne o f

a n u nknown

t wo

o f

c ivitas

t he D umnonii,

B ricic

( Breeze

t he

t wo

Wall

o f

r ecording

t he D urotriges

t he C atuvelauni a nd o ne o f

a nd D obson

1 976,

2 25) .

T hese h ave

o ften been a ssociated with Theodosius' r ebuilding p rogramme i n t he n orth o ut

( Stevens

1 940,

1 49;

R ichmond 1 958B,

t hat when t his work was

1 23).

Mann h as p ointed

c arried o ut b y t he s outhern c ivitates t hey

a re l ikely t o have b een u nder t he s ame c ivil a uthority a s t he Wall. B y t he t ime o f C aracalla t hese c ivitates were i n a d ifferent p rovince, t hough B reeze a nd D obson s uggest c ivitates n eed

were

may have

F rere

t hinks

f orts

b een

t hat

( Frere 1 978, T he

i n t he s ame

o rdered

t hese

t hat

d iocese a s b y

t he

i n

t he f ourth

t he Wall a nd

vicarius

i nscriptions

m ay

d ate

c entury

i n t imes

t o

h elp

t o

t he

i n

t hose

o f

t he

t ime o f

g reat n orth.

S everus

1 98).

o f

H altonchesters,

which may have reoccupied.

Rudchester a nd p ossibly O ld P enrith,

b een a bandoned f or t he p receding 1 00 y ears, were One o f t he l ate f ourth-century buildings a t

H altonchesters s ealed a s herd o f

C rambeck p ottery

d atable

t o

a fter A D

3 67 ( Jarrett 1 959 , 1 83) . T he l ate f ourth-century b uildings o n t his s ite which everywhere o verlay a t hick l ayer o f e arth, were o f two t ypes

which

were

m utually

e xclusive

a nd

a lthough

d ated t o Wall p eriods I II a nd I V r espectively, t hey were c ontemporary . o f

n ormal

t ype .

u nüsually

t hese

T he were

a t

i t was

f irst

t hey

were

l ater s hown t hat

T he b uildings u sing a shlar c onstruction were o thers o f

made

s tone

u se

a nd n ot

o f

s leeper

t imber.

b eams,

T he

t hough

l arge s tones

n icknamed ' park r ailing s tones' were l aid e nd t o e nd . I n t heir u pper f ace, s quare d epressions were c ut t o t ake t he u pright t imbers. A number o f t hese s tones d isplayed a nomalous f eatures: o ne wall o f a b uilding i n t he e xtension h ad t he p ost s ockets s paced q uite r egularly, a nd

o thers

unfinished.

n ot

o n

t he

s ame

l ine

p ecked

post s ockets s et v ery c lose t ogether, s ets, ( pers

o ut

l ightly

a nd

c learly

A s imilar wall f ound i n t he l atera praetorii has t he

t hough why a n ew s et o f c omm . Mr . J .P .

a nd evidently t here were two

s ockets e ver n eeded t o b e c ut i s u nclear L ittle o f t he p lan o f t hese b uildings

1 09

was

f ound;

( Birley, A . was

t hey

d o n ot

a ppear

1 969, f ig 4 ).

o verlain b y

t o f all i nto any r ecognisable t ype

T he s ite o f t he t hird-century praetorium

t hem.

A t

Rudchester

o nly o ne p ark

r ailing s tone

s urvived which was s et a bove a l ayer o f e arth a s a t H altonchesters . A t

C hesterholm

i n

t he

1 930s

t he

i s

T heodosian

p ossibly

r econstruction p ostulated

d ated

c orrectly .

e vidence o f p atching a t t his t ime. e xtensively

u sed

i n

a

p atch .

T he

b y

f ort

E .

B irley

wall

s howed

On t he e ast wall f lags h ad b een

O n

t he west

wall,

t he

e rection o f

a

massively r econstructed wall i n ' Theodosian' s tyle o n t he p eriod I I s tone wall h ad h ad b een

c aused

m ade

a nd-cobble 1 936) .

t o

p acking

T he

t he wall

c orrect

o uter

t his

a gainst

c orners

t o b ulge

o utwards .

i t

o f

( Birley

E .,

l east

2 7 .4m i nto

R ichmond

t he

a ttempt

a nd

S tanfield

I t was r epaired a nd a r ough

t he c ore o f which was f ull o f

r oadway o f l arge s labs was

a n

t he n orth g ate-towers h ad a ll s ubsided ,

t hat o n t he n orth west had c ollapsed. b uttress was a dded ,

L ater

b y b uilding a l arge b uttress with c lay-

r e-used a shlars .

A

l aid t hrough t he n orth g ate a nd e xtended a t

f ort .

T he v ia p rincipalis

o f B irdoswald a t

s ame t ime was paved with l arge f lags ( Birley E .

1 931).

t he

I n t he e ast

g ate a b locking wall was b uilt r educing t he c arriageway t o c irca 1 .83m wide; e ast

a t ombstone had b een u sed i n t his b locking . r ampart

o pposite

t he west g ate ,

a b uilding

with H untcliff a nd C rambeck wares was f ound . was f ound b eneath a p artition wall; f rom

t he

c ore o f

t he

e ast

Overlying t he

( fig 2 5 .3A ) a ssociated

A c oin o f Maximus D aia

a c oin o f C onstans,

wall .

T he walls

h ad

A D 3 42-8 c ame

f requent

c ourses

o f

f lags i n t hem;

t he s outh-east c orner was f ormed o f l arge b locks o f

s tone .

r ampart b uilding

A nother

( fig

2 5 .3B)

immediately

t o

t he

o f

t he n orth-west a ngle w as a lso a ttributed t o C ount T heodosius .

I n

t he

p rincipia

r etained

i ts

t here

e arlier

were

p lan

s ome

( fig

modifications

3 6 .2).

b ut

i t

basically

T he veranda a long

principalis was blocked o ff a t b oth e nds

e ast

t he v ia

a nd g iven a r aised f loor

s upported o n dwarf walls. P art o f t he r oom t o t he e ast o f t he c ourtyard e ntrance was d emolished a nd a well was d ug i n t he s outh-east c orner o f t he c ourtyard which was paved p artly i n f lags a nd p artly with a shlars. All but o ne o f t he r ooms r ound t he c ourtyard were provided with r aised f loors. were p laced o n i ts

Within t he b asilica two s tone b ases

l ong a xis, p resumably t o h elp s upport t he r oof;

i t

was g iven a f loor o f r ammed e arth . T he t ribunal was e xtended 6 1cm t o t he n orth a nd was f aced with o rthostats s et i n moulded s lots. T he r ooms f lanking t he a edes were c onverted i nto l iving a ccommodation, b eing

p rovided

with

h ypocaust

heating

a nd

l avatories

t hough

t he

p resumed p resence o f two l atrines i n t he e astern r ange s eems a b it e xcessive.

T he

d emolished .

T he s trongroom i n t he a edes r emained i n u se;

r oom

p rojecting

s outh

f rom

t he

r ear

r ange

was

a C rambeck

wall-sided m ortarium c ame f rom within i t . A f ire h ad f requently b een l it i n t he a edes. T he s torage a ccommodation with r aised f loors within t he b uilding was d ated t o

t he r eign o f

C onstantine

I I

o r

l ater

b y a c oin. A t

B owness-on-Solway

within

t he

c enturies,

f ort

t here

i n

t hough

t he

c onstructed i n

post-holes

were

l ate

p ottery

s omewhere i n t he a rea . was

was

n o

s tructural

t hird

o f

a nd

t his

r ectangular b uilding.

f irst

p eriod

half

f or o ccupation o f

i ndicates

t he

f ourth

o ccupation

I n t he l ate f ourth c entury, a t imber b uilding

t he n orth-east part

s et

e vidence

i n

a s hallow

T he b uilding

1 10

o f t he s ite.

t rench

f orming

two

A n umber o f s ides

o f

a

may h ave b een c irca 5m wide.

T here i s t he p ossibility o f a nother b uilding i n t he a rea w hich m ay o r m ay n ot b e c ontemporary with p hase 4 . I n t he a rea o f t his b uilding w as a n e xtensive s catter o f c lay a nd c harcoal . L ittle l ate f ourthc entury p ottery was f ound . T he e xcavator s uggests t hat e ither t he f ort was h eld b y a v ery small g arrison o r t hat t he n ucleus o f t he f ourth-century o ccupation h as y et

t o b e f ound

( Porter

1 979,

3 30-2) .

A ll o f t he f orts o n H adrian's Wall were p robably o ccupied b y T heodosius, b ut t here i s l ittle e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f m ilecastles a nd t urrets . Milecastle 3 7 y ielded a f ew p ieces o f l ate f ourth-century p ottery ( Blair 1 934 , 1 17) . Milecastle 3 2 i s s aid t o h ave p roduced a t l east o ne s herd o f W all p eriod 4 s tyle p ottery ( Binns 1 971). O ne p iece o f C rambeck p archment-ware, t ype 5 b, c ame f rom milecastle 4 8 . T his t ype p ost d ates A D 3 67, a s c ould s ome o f t he H untcliff t ype c ooking p ots f ound h ere ( Gibson a nd S impson F . 1 911, p l.IV n o .33; p l.V n o.6, 1 3-15). Two p ieces o f C rambeck p ost ' Pict War' t ypes h ave b een p ublished f rom m ilecastle 4 0 , t ype ( Simpson F . 1 976 , p l .VI) . t ype l b ' s o f p ost A D 3 67 d ate . 1 930,

1 63-4

no .

6 0).

p lus s ome H untcliff

M ilecastle 9 h as y ielded t wo C rambeck One p ot had b een r ivetted ( Birley E .

A t milecastle 2 9 aC rambeck t ype 5 b b owl has

b een f ound . T he o ccurrence o f t hese t ypes t hought t o b e f ound o nly i n c ontexts p ost

o f p ottery which a re d ating c irca A D 3 67,

s uggests t he p ossibility o f o ccupation o n t hese s ites, b ut b y n o m eans p roves s uch a n o ccupation . T he b locking o f t he n orth g ate o f milecastle 5 2 was p resumed t o b e o f T heodosian d ate, t hough n o l ate f ourth-century p ottery was f ound o n t he s ite . T he l ate r oad i n t he s outh g ate was a lso p resumed t o b e T heodosian ( Simpson F . a nd R ichmond , 1 935B 2 52, 2 54) . A t m ilecastle 5 4 t he l atest b uilding h ad b een s et a gainst t he west wall . c entury d ate .

O n i ts

T his was t hought t o b e o f t hird-

f lagged f loor were f ound o nly l ate f ourth-

c entury p ottery; t he e xcavators t hought t hat t he t hird a nd e arly f ourth-century f loors h ad b een r emoved when t he l ate f ourth-century f loor was T he

l aid

l atest

1 903A).

( Simpson a nd R ichmond ,

c oin

f rom

a t urret

i s

1 935A , o ne

o f

2 38) . V alens

f rom

4 4b

( Gibson

Two H untcliff t ype r ims were f ound a t P ike H ill, p ossibly

i ndicating o ccupation a fter A D 3 67.

I n t urrets 7 b a nd 5 1b, r ough,

h ut-like b uildings w ere i nserted i nto t he a lready r uined t urrets . N o e vidence t o d ate t hese h uts was f ound . B irley t hought t hat t he o ne a t t urret 7 b was p ost-Roman ( Birley E . 1 930 , 1 48-9) b ut W oodfield , t he e xcavator o f 5 1b, s uggested t hat t hey were b oth o f f ourth-century d ate . A t L ea H ill, t he t urret d oorway h ad b een blocked a nd a n i lld efined a rea s craped o ut o f t he c entre o f t he t urret.

I n t his a rea

was a h earth a nd p ossibly a r ough s tone f lagged f loor . T he h ut h ad r ough s tone walls, p erhaps m ortared , a nd m easured i nternally 1 .98 b y 5 .07m . I t s eems t o have g radually b ecome r uinous ( Woodfield 1 965, 1 75). • Major b uilding w ork h as b een a ssociated with T heodosius a t B irdoswald a nd H ousesteads. T he b uilding n orth o f t he via principalis a t B irdoswald was m odified y et a gain ( fig 5 0 .1B) . I t t hen c onsisted o f a l ong n arrow b uilding o f v ery s imilar p roportions t o t hat o f t he e arly s econd c entury o n which s ite

i t s tood .

T o t he n orth o f

i t was

a small d etached r oom with a r aised f loor a nd a v entilator t hrough t he wall which was l ater b locked b y t he a ddition o f a b uttress t o t he s tructure , b eing r eplaced b y a s played o pening f urther n orth . R eu sed i n t he f loor o f I Vb a s f lagging were t wo i nscriptions, o ne o f

1 11

S everus R IB 1 909, a nd t he o ther o f D iocletian a nd Maximianus R IB 1 912 . T he l atter i nscription had b een s et f ace d own; t he f ace was b adly weathered b ut

t he b ack

was s uggested ,

was

u nworn ,

was a c ookhouse;

a s

was

t he whole f loor .

t he l ower p art

I Va ,

i t

o f a r otary q uern was

s et i nto t he f loor a nd i n t he r oom was much b urnt wattle a nd d aub ( Richmond a nd B irley E . 1 930) . A b uilding a ssociated w ith H untcliff ware o verlay t he C onstantian b uilding o n t he v ia q uintana . I t h ad a h eavy f lagged f loor a nd walls b uilt u pon f lag f ootings . T he b uilding was

o ut

o f

t hought 1 931,

a lignment with

i t had b een

t he r est

l aid o ut

I n t he n orth g uardchamber o f

o f

t he f ort

t he

a nd

a vailable

t he

e xcavator

s pace

( Richmond

t he p orta p rincipalis d extra i n i ts f inal

a f loor o f yellow l ime was

a nd small pieces

e xcavated i n t he

f it

1 28).

p hase, d ust

t o

l ate

1 833,

f ourth

a t

B irdoswald

i s

u ncertain;

( Gillam

l aid o n which l ay a heap o f

c oal.

I n

t he e ast

T he

c onverted

i t

was

6 8).

i nterval-tower

c oal

g ate a t H ousesteads,

t he s outh g uardchamber was u sed a s

c entury .

was

1 950,

o f

n orth

i nto a b allistarium ,

a c oal o f

t hough

s tore

i n

t he

e ast

g ate

a t

what

d ate

d ated b y c onvention a s n o p ottery was f ound

A t

t he

s outh

g ate

t he

e ast

wall

o f

t he

west

g uardchamber was r econstructed, f ollowing c omplete d emolition, i n l arge a nd

i rregular

f ourth-century

masonry,

( Daniels

s aid

t o

b e

1 978A 2 01).

i n

t he

s tyle

o f

t he

l ate

O n t he d efences between t he

p ortae d ecumana and q uintana d extra, t he c ooking s helf a nd r evetted r ampart

were

i ncorporated

i n a n ew b ank whose f ront

was

f ound n ot

t o

b e t he f ort wall but a n ew wall o f which f oundations a nd one c ourse r emained, wall.

p erched h igh o n t he m ound f ormed b y t he c ollapse o f t he f ort

A s t he bank o f mixed e arth was placed s o d irectly u pon t he

c ooking s helf,

t he e xcavators d id n ot c onsider i t t o b e p ost-Roman;

t hey t hought i t g ood evidence f or t he d estruction wrought i n A D 3 67 ( Simpson ,

F .

a nd R ichmond

1 933,

d emolition o f milecastle g ates, was i t

e vidence i s

h ighly

o f

e nemy

milecastle

I t u sed t o b e t hought

d estruction wrought

u nlikely

t he a ctual walls T he

2 61) .

a s s een p articularly a t

t hat

r aiders

o f R oman s ites g ates

a nd

d emolished by t he Romans.

would

i n A D s pend

1 97 . much

t hat t he

m ilecastle 3 7, I n b oth

t ime

c ases

d estroying

when t here was p lunder t o b e had .

t owers

a re

n ow

t hought

t o

have

b een

A t B irdoswald, p resumably t he wall had

c ollapsed t hrough a ge o r was a bout

t o c ollapse .

Immediately n orth o f

t he porta q uintana d extra a s ection o f t he e ast wall, b uilt o f l arge a shlar b locks q uite unlike t he masonry o f t he H adrianic period,

c an

c learly b e s een l eaning well o ut f rom t he wall l ine . A v ery s imilar s ituation i s

s een a t

B recon G aer .

H ere Wheeler

f ound

e vidence f or a g eneral r efortification o f t he n orth, e ast a nd s outh d efences. U pon t he e arlier r ampart f rom 2 .89 t o 4 .27m within t he wall's i nner f ace, was b uilt a massive r evetment l argely o f r e-used s tones;

t he s pace b etween t he r evetment a nd t he wall was p acked with

e arth, r ubble a nd b uilding m aterials . N o m ortar was u sed; t he r ough a nd h asty work, h owever, f ormed w ith t he f ort wall a s ubstantial m ass o f masonry f rom 3 .66 t o 5 .18m wide.

T he s outh g ate was c ompletely

blocked b y t hese n ew d efences. Overlying t he r oad s urface was l ayer o f d ebris, p resumably f rom t he g ate i tself. A bove t his was t ightly-packed s econd 1 .52m

c entury t hick,

f illing o f p ottery .

c arried

I t

r ight

r eddish was

marl

c ontaining

s urmounted b y

a cross

t he

s ite

o f

a d ry t he

s ome f irst s tone

a a

a nd

wall o ver

f ormer

g ateway

f orming a p arapet. T he e ast g ate was s ealed b y a wall o f l oose r ubble c irca 3 .05m wide r evetted b y l arge d ry b uilt b locks o f m asonry

1 12

a nd b oulders

( Wheeler 1 926,

1 1-13).

T he s outh-east a nd n orth-east

a ngle-towers were a lso o verlain b y t hese d efences . A t t he n orth-east a ngle t his w as 4 m w ide . T he e xcavator s uggested t hat t he g reat width was d ue t o t he b uilders' d esire t o u se t he f ront wall o f t he t ower a s a f oundation f or t he m assive b locks o f t he r evetment . T o t his e nd , p art o f t he t ower's s ide walls were d emolished a nd t he f ort wall l owered . A mass o f s tone was u sed t o f ill t he t ower's i nterior ( Casey 1 971). N o d ating e vidence h as b een f ound f or t hese l ate d efences. Wheeler s uggested t hat t hey were o f p ost-Roman d ate . L ittle l ate R oman m aterial h as b een f ound within t he f ort . I f i t i s n ot Roman, t hen who c ould h ave c onstructed i t i s u nclear . C asey t hought t hat i t was c learly m ore t han a t emporary e xpedient . I t p resumably was n ot u sed b y t he N ormans; t heir m otte a nd b ailey c astle l ay a l ittle t o t he s outh-west o f

t he f ort .

A t H ousesteads, Mr . J .Crow h as s uggested t hat t he n orthern d efences e ast o f t he n orth g ate m ay h ave c onsisted o nly o f a r ampart m ound b y t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod, t he f ort wall h aving c ollapsed . T his w ould h elp t o e xplain t he m assive s ize o f t he l ate r ampart which was o n a n umber o f o ccasions e xtended t o t he s outh d uring t he f ourth c entury . A t o ne p oint, t he r ampart e xtended 8 .4m b ehind t he f ort w all , h ere r educing t he i ntervallum r oad t o 1 .5m wide . B y t he n orth g ate , t he r ampart w as o nly 4 .5m wide . E ach e xtension t o t he r ampart r eceived a n ew r evetment, two o f which b locked t he e ntrance t o t he i nterval-tower ( Daniels 1 980B, 1 0) . T he n orth wall , a s n ow v isible , has been e xtensively r ebuilt b y t he Ministry o f Works. Where t he m odern f ield g ate, h owever, s its o n t he l ine o f t he wall, i t h as n ot b een r ebuilt; t he d iscrepancy b etween t he Ministry's work a nd t he o riginal R oman work c an b e s een . T he o riginal s ection o f w all l eans well o ut

t o t he n orth .

A t b oth B ewcastle a nd T empleborough a t a n e arlier d ate , n ew f ort walls h ad b een c onstructed o n t op o f t he e arlier r ampart b anks. I n b oth c ases t he n ew w alls w ere o f m ore n ormal s tyle o f

c onstruction.

T he n orth-east d efences o f M alton i n t he l ate f ourth v ery u nusual t ype, y et t heir R oman d ate was n ot

c entury w ere o f d oubted b y t he

e xcavator . C order d ated t he ' wall d itch' a nd p eriod 6 i n t he n orthe ast g ate t o t he t ime o f C ount T heodosius. A long t he whole o f t he n orth-east s ide o f t he f ort a d itch was d ug t hrough t he r emains o f t he f ort wall a nd i ts f oundations, t hough t he wall was n ot t otally d emolished ; i n p laces i t s till s tood i n 1 929 , 6 c ourses h igh a nd 6 1cm wide . T he d itch b egan a t t he n orth a ngle , w idened a nd d eepened a s i t a pproached t he g ate a nd b ecame s hallower t owards i ts e nd a t t he e ast a ngle . A t t he g ate , t he d itch w as i nterrupted , l eaving a c auseway; h ere i t was 4 .27m d eep b elow t he g round l evel w ithin t he f ort w hich b y t hat t ime was l evel with t he t op o f t he r ampart. O nly o ne s tonel ined p ost-hole 1 3cm wide c ould have r epresented a s tockade o f t his p eriod o n t he t op o f t he e arly r ampart. A t t he n orth-east g ate t he ' wall i t

d itch' h ad c ut

i nto

t he f ootings

was h ere c irca 2 .89m wide .

o f

I n p eriod

t he 6 ,

p eriod

5 g uardchambers;

a s tructure o f u ncertain

p lan was b uilt o ver t he n orth g uardroom , p robably f orming a r oom 3 .35m wide ( fig 2 1.4B). I t was p oorly b uilt; o ne wall r ested without f oundations o n 3 0cm o f e arth a bove t he p eriod 5 r oadway . T here m ay h ave b een a l ean-to s hed t o t he s outh west . T he s outh g uardroom was r etained a nd r epaired i n p eriod 6 . I n t he b urnt l ayer a ssociated with t his p eriod i n t he s outh g uardroom were s ealed f our c oins: a n

1 13

u ndecipherable t hird-century t ype, C laudius I I, C arausius a nd C onstantine I I, plus two i nfant b urials . T he c orresponding b urnt l ayer o n t he n orth s ide o f t he g ate y ielded c oins o f V ictorinus, C arausius, A llectus a nd a n u ndecipherable f ourth-century t ype . T he r oad t hrough t he p eriod 6 g ate m ay h ave b een f lagged. I t was p ossibly u nder T heodosius t hat t he w est g ate a t H ousesteads w as f inally t otally b locked a nd f illed s olid with a mass o f r ubbish ( Birley E . 1 936 , 1 1), a s was p erhaps t he s ame g ate a t C hesters ( Birley E . 1 959, 1 6). T he s outh g ate o f L anchester was t otally b locked b y r ough walls, p erhaps a t t his t ime , a nd t he e xcavator t hought t hat t he g ate had b een c onverted i nto l iving q uarters ( Steer 1 938). I n t he e ast g ateway a t S outh S hields, H ooppell n oted t hat o ne wall h ad c oloured wall p laster a nd t here was a h ypocaust i n c lose p roximity ( Hooppell 1 878) . A t s ome t ime - p robably i n t he f ourth c entury , b ut p resumably b efore t he g ate was f illed s olid - t he g uardchambers o f t he west g ate a t H ousesteads were c onverted i nto h eated r ooms ( Daniels 1 978A , 1 49 ) . E xcavations i n 1 978 a t C hester-le-Street i ndicated t hat t he s tone d efensive wall , s et o n a p uddled c lay-and-cobble f oundation c irca 3 m wide, was i nserted i nto t he r ampart b ank i n t he f ourth c entury , t hough t he p ottery which p rovided t he d ating e vidence h as n ot y et b een m ore c losely d ated . A s tone g uardchamber o f t he w est g ate was a lso l ocated , t he f loor o f which c onsisted o f m assive s tone b locks a nd a cted a s a f oundation f or t he wall's s uperstructure . B eneath t he f loor was a f ace u rn i n h ard g rey f abric ( Turnbull a nd J ones R . 1 979) . T his wall c ould p ossibly b e a r ebuild o f a n e arlier wall . T he f ort wall o n t he west s ide was o nly

1 .83m t hick

( Gillam a nd T ait

1 968 ,

7 8) .

A t B owes a v ery c rude r epair t o t he b ase o f t he f ort wall was b uilt . T he wall h ad s ubsided i nto a l ayer c ontaining m uch H untcliff w are a nd t he e xcavators s uggested t hat t he r epair was l ate R oman r ather t han N orman a s i t was o nly a ssociated w ith R oman p ottery ( Frere a nd H artley 1 968).

A t

B rougham,

t he

s outh

moat o f

t he N orman c astle may b e

R oman ; when c leared o ut b y t he Ministry o f W orks, i t c ontained m ainly l ate R oman p ottery. B irley s uggested t hat t he wide d itch d ated t o T heodosius ( Birley E . 1 932C, 1 39) . A t t his t ime a small p ost was b uilt a t S caftworth n ear B awtry where t he R oman r oad f rom L incoln t o D oncaster c rossed t he R iver I dle . A n a rea m easuring 6 3 .74m b y 5 6 .42m was e nclosed b y t hree d itches b etween 3 .05m a nd 4 .57m wide ( fig 1 5.1) . A t t he s outhern c orner o f t he d efences, t wo d itches s eem t o d elimit a n a nnex b ounded o n t he o ther s ide p robably b y a marsh . Within t he d efences o nly o ne p ossible p ost-hole

a nd

a n umber

o f

h earths

were f ound .

T races

o f

a t urf

r ampart were f ound i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s ite . T he p ottery c ould a ll i ndicate a d ate i n t he l ater f ourth c entury f or t he s ite's o ccupation . A b ronze c opy o f a s ilver s iliqua o f J ulian was f ound ( Bartlett I n

t he

a nd R iley 1 958 ) .

l ater

f ourth

c entury,

a n umber o f

s ites

s eem t o h ave b een

p rovided o n t he c oast o f B ritain t o s trengthen t he a lready e xisting c oastal d efences .

B urrow Walls

a nd p ossibly L ancaster a nd C aer G ybi

were b uilt o n t he west c oast, B itterne o n t he s outh c oast a nd a t l east f ive s ignal s tations were b uilt o n t he Y orkshire c oast. O n t he n orth-west c oast o f C umbria, t he s ite o f t he s econd-century f ort a t B urrow Walls was r eoccupied . Immediately within t he s tone wall f oundations o f t he e arlier f ort o n t he n orth a nd s outh s ides was a d itch c irca 4 .57m wide . T his d itch was n ot f ound n ear t he e ast

1 14

r ampart . T he e xcavator s uggested t hat t he s econd-century s tone w all m ay h ave b een d emolished w hen t he l ate f ort w as b uilt , t hough i t was b y t hen n o d oubt i n r uins. A f air amount o f l ate f ourth-century p ottery was f ound . T he l ate d itch was v ery r oughly d ug; o n t he n orth s ide i t c ontained g reat q uantities o f s quared b uilding s tones . T he i nner d itch o f t he e arly f ort w as s till a t l east 1 .83m d eep i n t he l ate f ourth c entury ( Bellhouse 1 955) . O f t he m ilefortlets a nd t owers o n t he w estern f lank o f H adrian 's W all , o nly C ardurnock , m ilefortlet 5 , i s k nown t o h ave r emained i n o ccupation i nto t he l ate f ourth c entury. A f ortified e nclosure within t he t own o f H olyhead , A nglesey, h as b een c laimed a s a l ater R oman f ortified l anding p lace o f a t ype s een o n t he R hine a nd D anube f rontiers . T he d ate o f t hese d efences a t C aer G ybi i s u nknown ; n o R oman m aterial h as b een f ound t here ( Livens 1 974 , 3 36) . I t has g enerally b een a ssumed t hat t he d efences d ate t o t he t ime o f V alentinian , i .e . w ere b uilt b y C ount T heodosius o n a nalogy w ith t he p ossibly s imilar s ites o n t he C ontinent, t hough s ome o f t hese f ortified l anding p laces c ould b e much e arlier ( Johnson J . 1 976B). A t C aer G ybi, t he p lan o f t he d efences i s i ncomplete; t hree walls s urvive c ompletely o r i n p art, e nclosing a n a rea o f 0 .32 h a ( fig 1 6 .2) . P rotruding f rom t he n orth-east t ower t owards t he s ea a re t he r emains o f a wall; i t i s t hought t hat f rom t he t wo e astern t owers w alls r an o ut i nto t he s ea , t hough t here i s l ittle e vidence f or t his . T he s traightening o f t he c liff b etween t hese t wo t owers h as r emoved a ny e vidence f or t he p resence o f a wall l inking t hem . W heeler h ad t hought t hat t he s pur wall f rom t he n orth-east t ower a nd t he e astern t owers t hemselves were m edieval r ebuilds ( Wheeler 1 924, 9 9). T he walls s tand t o ah eight o f c irca 3 .66m , w here t here i s a p arapet w alk 1 .06m w ide f ronted b y a p arapet 7 6cm w ide . T hey a re c onstructed , a s a re t he c ontemporary r ound t owers, o f h erringbone m asonry with b onding c ourses o f f lat s tones . O riginally , t he e nclosure w as e ntered o nly f rom t he s outh t hrough t he p resent g ate 4 m w ide . T he n orthern h alf o f t he n orth-west t ower was h ollow ( fig 2 3 .3). A wall a butted a gainst t he n orth wall o f t he t ower a nd r an n orthwards f or 1 .67m , t hen t urned t hrough 9 0° t o r un e ast f or 4 .42m b eyond which i t was b roken o ff b y l ater d isturbance . T his wall, 6 1cm t hick , a lthough n ot s howing a ny h erringbone s tyle o f m asonry, w as s aid b y t he e xcavator t o b e o f s imilar c onstruction t o t he f ort wall - i t u sed t he c harcteristic m ortar w ith p ounded t ile i n i t -a nd h e s uggested t hat t he w all a nd t ower were o f s imilar d ate . T he wall 's f oundation l ay o n -u ndisturbed c lay a t t he s ame l evel a s t hat o f t he t ower. E xcavations b eyond t he n orthern d efences f ound n o e vidence o f t here e ver h aving b een a d itch ( Griffiths 1 954 ) . O n t he S axon S hore i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he f ort o f P ortchester w as r eplaced b y t he f ortified e nclosure a t B itterne ( Frere 1 978 , 3 96 ) . " The u se o f t he d efended s ite o n t he p romontory o f B itterne a t a bout t his t ime m ay b e a d irect r esult o f t he t ransference o f t he g arrison o f P ortchester t o t he n ew s ite" ( Johnson J . 1 976A , 6 2) . C unliffe , i n t he r eport o n e xcavations o f P ortchester , d id n ot b elieve t hat t he s ite h ad b een a bandoned b y t he m ilitary; h e p referred t o s ee B itterne a s a n a ddition t o t he d efences o f t he a rea r ather t han a r eplacement o f P ortchester ( Cunliffe 1 975, 4 30) . T he d efences o f B itterne e nclose a t riangular a rea o n ap romontory f ormed b y ab end o f

1 15

t he R iver I tchen two m iles a bove i ts c onfluence with S outhampton Water . T here a re t wo p hases o f d efences o n t he s ite : a n o uter e arth mound a cross t he p romontory c utting o ff a n a rea o f 1 1 h a , a nd 2 44m t o t he west o f i t a wall e nclosing 2 .6ha ( fig 9 .1; F ox G . 1 902). I n 1 923, when p art o f t he o uter m ound was r emoved , f ive c oins w ere f ound beneath

i t;

two

e xcavated h ere t hese

c oins

s ealed b y o f

t he

s uggested

a rchaeologically

3 68 .

t hat

s terile,

Waterman,

who

t he d ate i ndicated b y t hey t hat,

may h ave a s

a n e arly

s een o ccupation t hroughout

c onstructed

c ertainly h ave

b een

t he m aterial d ate

1 958,

3 4) .

i n

t he

l ate f ourth

f or

i ts

t he R oman p eriod ;

c entury

o r

c ontained s ome R oman m aterial

T he

s quared l imestone b locks, mortar c irca 3 .05m wide . had b een s et

h e

A D

a ccept

t he mound a nd p ointed o ut

B itterne h ad

G athersole ,

c irca

d id n ot

l ikely .

m ound was

would a lmost

G ratian 1 938,

mound;

o f

mound was

T he s ite a t t he

t he

s lip i s

o f

1 937 a nd

f or

t he

c onstruction

i f

were

i n

s tone

d efensive wall

l ater ,

i t

( Cotton a nd

f aced with

r oughly-

was s et o n f ootings o f f lint, r ubble a nd A t l east i n o ne s ection, t he f oundations

o n wooden piles

1 5-18cm i n d iameter

( Richmond

1 962).

E nglefield i n 1 804-5 r ecorded t hat t he wall had b onding c ourses o f l arge f lat b ricks a nd a r ampart b ank . T he e astern wall t erminated a t t he n orth i n as olid r ound t ower 5 .49m i n d iameter; a s imilar t ower had been f ound a t b etween . o f

t he

s outh e nd and another t ower o r b uttress l ay

A n umber o f

t he wall

( RIB

m ilestones had b een r e-used

2 222,

2 223,

2 226 a nd 2 228 ) .

i n

t he f oundations

T he s tone wall h ad b een

d ug i nto a n o ccupation l ayer c ontaining N ew F orest wares a nd a c oin o f V alens. Immediately p ost-dating t he wall's c onstruction , t he a rea was l evelled b y a g ravelly c lay make-up c ontaining much p ottery. This was overlain b y a s terile g ravel l ayer which seemed t o b e t he f loor o f

a t imber-framed b uilding a ssociated with

d eposit o f within

d ebris .

t he

a c onsiderable

T he b uilding s eems t o h ave b een d estroyed b y f ire

R oman

p eriod

a nd

t he

s ite

t hen

u sed

a s

a r ubbish

t ip

( Waterman 1 947) . P robably c ontemporary w ith t he wall, a b ath-house was b egun c lose b ehind i t but was n ot c ompleted . Later, p erhaps c irca A D 3 90 , a nother a ttempt was m ade t o f inish t he b uilding , b ut i t was a gain l eft unfinished . T here i s n o p articular r eason why t his s ite

n eed

h ave

h ad

a ny

c onnection with

c ould h ave b een a c ivil d efence s ome

m ilitary f unction ,

i t

m ilitary

( Cunliffe

1 968,

o r n aval

2 70) .

f orces;

E ven i f

n eed n ot h ave b een p art o f

i t

i t h ad

t he S axon S hore

d efences. At

P e 'vensey,

p resumably

t he

s outh-west

i n d isrepair o r was

g uardchamber

o f

d emolished when

t he

i ts

west

g ate

l arge b locks

was w ere

u sed t o f ill t he d itch and b uild a r oad o ver i t i n t he l ater f ourth c entury I t

h as

( Cottrill u ntil

1 937 ,

r ecently

2 45) . b een

a ccepted b y

m ost

s cholars

t hat

t he s ignal

s tations o n t he Yorkshire c oast were b uilt b y C ount Theodosius a nd t hey have b een s een a s e vidence t o s uggest where t he r aids o f t he P icti f ell i n A D

3 67 .

I t was

a t

o ne

t ime t hought

r ecorded o n t he i nscription f rom R avenscar R IB C onstantine I II r ecorded b y O lympiodorus ( frag . s tations

1 51).

T here was n ever any r eason why t hese two men n eed t o b e t he p erson .

C asey

h as

d o n ot d ate t o c irca A D 1 979B,

7 5).

T he

t o

t he

e arly

r ecently

3 68,

p ottery

f ifth

t he J ustianus

s ignal s ame

d ated

t hat

7 21 was t he g eneral o f 1 2) a nd h ence t hat t he

s uggested

c entury t hat

b ut t o t he t ime o f e vidence

1 16

p erhaps

( e.g.

t he

s ignal

Magnus

h elps

B ury

t o

1 920,

s tations

Maximus s upport

( Casey t his

h ypothesis. A c omparison o f t he l ater f ourth-century p ottery f rom H altonchesters with t hat f rom t he s ignal s tations would s eem t o i ndicate t hat t here i s a s ignificantly g reater p ercentage o f e arlier wares a t t he f ormer s ite . I f H altonchesters h ad b een a bandoned f rom c irca A D 2 70 t o A D 3 70 a nd r eoccupied b y T heodosius, t his would s uggest t hat t he s ignal s tations were n ot o ccupied s o s oon ( Turnbull 1 963, 1 60-2). T he p lans o f

t hree o f t hese s ignal s tations a re r easonably w ell k nown .

T hey a re v ery s imilar, c onsisting o f a s ubrectangular e nclosure d efended b y a s tone w all w ith p rojecting t owers a t t he a ngles e ntered b y a s ingle g ate . Within l ay a t ower a nd t he w hole was s urrounded b y a s ingle d itch . A t G oldsborough ( fig 1 6 .5) t he d itch w as 3 .66m w ide b y 1 .22m d eep a nd was s eparated f rom t he wall b y a 9 .71m b erm . T he wall ( 1.52m t hick) was f aced with r oughly-dressed s andstone , b onded with mortar a nd e nclosed a n a rea o f 3 1.72 b y 3 1.41m . T he c ircular a ngle-towers p roject l ittle b eyond t he wall b ut m uch m ore w ithin i t . A t t he g ateway , t he wall was r eturned 1 .94m f orming a p assageway 3 .03m w ide . W ithin t he d efences w ere f ound a n umber o f r ubbish p its c apped w ith s tones,

e ight h earths a nd a well .

I n t he c entre o f t he d efended

a rea was t he l ower p art o f a t ower 9 .85m s quare with walls 1 .52 t o 1 .65m t hick a bove t he o ffsets. T he excavators s uggested t hat i t s upported a s tructure 2 4 .4 t o 3 0 .5m h igh . T he t ower w as e ntered b y a d oorway 1 .52m w ide . W ithin w ere s ix l arge , r oughly-dressed s tones a rranged i n t wo p arallel r ows, s upporting t he f irst f loor .

p resumably i ntended

t o h old p osts

T hese a re a c ommon f eature i n l ate R oman

w atch t owers . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he f irst f loor w ould h ave b een u sed t o h old s tores, weapons a nd m unitions; h ence t he n eed f or a dditional f loor s upports ( Petrikovits 1 971, 1 97) . I n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he t ower, t wo walls, 4 5cm t hick, r un f rom t he s ocketed s tone t o t he walls o f t he t ower , p erhaps t he s upport f or a s taircase ( Hornsby a nd L averick 1 932) . T he a ngle-towers a t S carborough w ere D s haped ( fig 1 6 .4) a s were t hose a t H untcliff ( fig 1 6 .3) t hough a t t he l atter s ite r ectangular s tructures h ad b een a dded t owers ( Hornsby a nd S tanton 1 912, 2 21) .

t o

t he

b ack

o f

t he

A t S carborough , t he f oundations o f t he wall h ad b een l aid o ut f orming r ight a ngles, whereas t he wall h ad r ounded a ngles. T he f oundation w as a lso m uch wider t han t he w all w hich was b uilt u pon i t . T here w as c learly a r adical c hange o f p lan d uring t he s ite's c onstruction, t hough n o e vidence was n oted t o s uggest a h iatus i n t he b uilding w ork . W hen t he s uperstructure was b uilt , ap iece o f m asonry w as a dded t o t he o uter f ace o f t he wall a t e ach s ide o f t he t ower t o h elp t o s trengthen t he wall . A t t he n orth-east a ngle , t he whole c orner h ad b een m oved f orward s o a s t o b ring i t o nto

t he f oundation .

N arrow s trips

o f

m asonry a butted a gainst t he s light i nternal p rojection o f t he t owers . N o e xplanation f or t hese was a dvanced b y t he e xcavator ( Collingwood 1 931B, 4 8) . T he R avenscar i nscription d escribes o ne o f t hese p osts a s a t ower a nd a f ort T he

s ystem

o f

s ignal

( RIB 7 21) . s tations

i s p resumably i ncomplete . b y a nother s uch p ost.

o n t he n orth-east

c oast

a s k nown t oday

F lamborough H ead m ust h ave b een o ccupied I n 1 939 a l ate f ourth-century s herd o f

C rambeck ware was f ound h ere o n t he t op o f B eacon H ill i n a g ravel p it b ut n o s tructural r emains were n oted . B y 1 940, t he whole h ill h ad b een r emoved b y g ravel working ( Kitson-Clarke 1 940). L ate R oman c oins

a nd p ottery f ound d uring e xcavations

1 17

i n t he a bbey a t W hitby m ay

i ndicate t hat a s ignal s tation s tood i n t he v icinity

( Inman 1 979 ,

2 2) .

I t i s e qually l ikely t hat t here was a s ystem o f watch-posts o r s ignal t owers a long t he c oast b etween T yne a nd T ees . M ilitary i nstallations i n t hat a rea c ould well b e c ontemporary w ith t he e arly s econd-century d efences o n t he C umberland C oast a ssociated with H adrian's Wall . S eaham has b een c laimed a s t he s ite o f as ignal s tation ( Steer 1 938; R ichmond

1 958B,

1 26).

T he

c hurch

embodies

masonry which

S teer

t hought c haracteristic o f t hat u sed i n s imilar p osts o n t he Y orkshire c oast. Many s ites o n t he c oast o f C ounty Durham have y ielded l ate f ourth-century m aterial .

D obson s uggested t hat t here m ay h ave b een a

R oman f ort a t Monkwearmouth,

S axon e cclesiastical b uildings b eing

l ater e rected w ithin i t, a s h appened e lsewhere ( Dobson 1 968-70 , 3 5-6) . S imilarly, h e p ostulated R oman military s ites a t J arrow a nd o n t he H artlepool h eadland u nder t he S axon m onastery . A d efended e nclosure o f s imilar p lan t o t hose o n t he Y orkshire c oast s urvives o n t he C hannel I sland o f A lderney t hough n o e vidence o f a c entral t ower has b een n oted. T he walls, 1 .8m t hick, s tand t o a height o f 5 .5m i n p laces. N o e vidence f or i ts d ate has b een f ound, t hough i t i s g enerally a ssumed t o b e R oman a nd c ontemporary with t he Y orkshire s ignal s tations ( Johnson J . 1 976A , 1 49 ; J ohnston 1 977B) . A t C aernarvon , l ater t han A D 3 64 , t he n orth-east g ate a nd t he d itches b eyond i t were m odified . T he o riginal F lavian c auseway a cross t he i nner d itch was r emoved when t he F lavian d itch was r ecut t o g ive a f eature o f b road 1 / '-shaped p rofile

6 .5m w ide a nd

1 .5m d eep .

A nother

d itch was c onstructed 1 0m o ut f rom t he g ate ( Casey 1 974B, 5 9). T he g ateway which Wheeler b elieved h ad u p t ill n ow o nly a t imber g uardroom o n t he n orth-west s ide , was p rovided with a s tone g uardchamber . T he d rain o r a queduct b elow t he r oad w as r emoved a nd t he s pace f illed w ith e arth

a nd

s tones;

V alentinian I .

6 1cm d own i n t he f ill were c oins

o f H elena a nd

T he r oad was t hen r esurfaced with yellow s and a nd

l ime. B eneath C onstantine I , A D

t he f loor i n t he n ew g uardroom was a c oin o f 3 33-5 . T he s pina was a lso r ebuilt i n s tone . T he

' tower' o n t he s outh e ast o f t he g ate was t hought b y Wheeler t o b e o f e arly t hird-century d ate , m ainly b ecause t he s tyle o f i ts m asonry i s v ery s imilar t o t he g uardroom o f t he s outh-west g ate c ontemporary w ith t he f ort wall ( fig 2 2 .13; W heeler 1 922A , t he f ort w all , h owever , i s o f f ourth-century d ate , t hen t his also be s o, t hough i t s eems not t o b e c ontemporary g uardchamber a t

which i s 2 74) . I f t ower m ay with t he

t his g ate .

A t B ainbridge i n t he l ate f ourth c entury, t he p rincipia was b urnt d own a nd was n ot r ebuilt. S ealed i n t he r ubble - p resumably f rom t he b uilding's d estruction - w ere t wo c oins o f T etricus a nd V alens ( Wade 1 952). P art o f t he s ite was o verlaid b y a c omplicated s equence o f w ooden s heds, w orking f loors a nd p its a ssociated with a l ime k iln a nd m ixing

t roughs

f or

l ime

( fig 5 1 .3) .

I ron a nd b ronze working

i s

a lso

a ttested ( Hartley 1 969). Where e vidence i s a vailable, a ll o ther p rincipia s eem t o have r emained i n u se a t t his t ime t hough t here i s e vidence o f m etal Ambleside . I n t he a d eposit o f c oal, r ear r ange i n t his t o h ave

b een

working within t he p rincipia o f Housesteads a nd b asilica p rincipiorum a t H ousesteads, H odgson f ound a sh a nd s coriae . W ithin t he n orthern r oom o f t he b uilding w ere f ound o ver 8 00 a rrowheads w hich s eem

i n b undles,

s ome o f

w hich l ay

d irectly u nder t he f allen

s late r oof. T he e xcavator s uggested t hat t he smith who made t he a rrows s tored i n r oom 1 2, may h ave h ad h is t emporary f orge i n t he

1 18

Also in the basilica was a fire round which were cinders, basilica. One of these pots is bones and broken pottery (Bosanquet 1904, 216). Other fires were lit, a Gillam type 229-32 dated circa AD 330-400. possibly at this time, in the rear range of rooms. No evidence was found to indicate at what date a furnace had been placed in the southern range of rooms around the courtyard at Ambleside. The ashes from it had been scattered over the floor of the room and in the Likewise, the presence of a deposit of burnt wheat courtyard gutter. overlying charcoal, the remains of an oak bin 1.83 by 1.22m, in one room of the rear range cannot be dated (Collingwood 1915, 20, 24). The robbing out of the fine masonry of the strongroom at Newcastle was associated with late fourth-century pottery (pers. comm. Miss M. Ellison). In the aedes at Caernarvon a small, roughly square structure with slightly curving sides was built; the floor of this was paved with re­ used building stones under one of which lay a bronze coin of Valentinian I. It was not clear what function this performed (fig 36.1; Wheeler 1922A, 295). Within the basilica principiorum at York the small room at the north-west end continued in use; a quantity of late fourth-century wares occurred in the occupation debris (Ramm 1971, 185). At least for some time in the late fourth century, five praetoria are known to have remained in use as dwellings, possibly of the commanding officer. At Ilkley the southern range of the building was demolished and overlain by a granary, but the praetorium was extended to the west by the addition of a range of heated rooms, perhaps a bath-suite, many of them were roughly built (fig 41B; Hartley 1966, 41; Woodward 1925, 178-83 ). Later, there seems to have been a considerable rise in level over much of the building; the only structure of this period Beneath the was an irregular extent of paving (Woodward's period 4). This paving paving were the burnt remains of wattle-and-daub walls. is perhaps post-Roman; Roman and medieval pottery came from the occupation layer above the flags. Various alterations took place within the praetorium at Cheaters in the fourth century. In the late r fourth century there w ere alterations to the h eatin g installations in the south-west part of the building (Harper 1961). The praetorium at Chester-le-Street has been partly excavated by Mann, Todd and Turnbull and Jones. The building had possibly begun as a re�idential suite in the fourth century. No occupation was found beneath it except for plough marks. Part of the building at least was later converted into a bath-suite and a metal-working area. Some of the hypocausted rooms were filled with debris and sealed by 10cm of concrete floor dated by the excavator to circa AD 369 (Mann 1960). One room had been subdivided into three cubicles - one of which contained a furnace, probably for bronze working. This may have happened before the late fourth century (Turnbull and Jones R. 1979). At Binchester, a bath-suite of five rooms built as a freestanding structure, was added to the praetorium in the later fourth-century, phase 6B (fig 42.1). In phase 6C, the whole complex was substantially modified and many of the larger rooms were partitioned, doorways were blocked and new ones opened. This resulted in the formation of a series of self-contained units. The building also received new opus signinum floors and was replastered. The courtyard by the via principalis, partly formed over a filled hypocausted room,

119

was entered t hrough t hree a rches. Two n ew r ooms were a dded t o t he b ath-suite i n t his p hase . T he e xcavators s uggested t hat t hese m ajor c hanges i ndicate t hat t he b aths h ad b ecome c ommunal r ather t han b eing u sed b y t he c ommandant o nly, a s i n p hase 6 b. I n p hase 6 d p arts o f t he b uilding were d ivided i nto s till s maller b ox-like u nits . I n o ne r oom were t hree f urnaces a nd a p ossible l ime k iln a nd i n a nother ( room 2 ) t he p resence o f l aid s tone s uggested t o t he e xcavators t hat i t m ay h ave b een u sed f or s laughtering a nimals . P ossibly a t t his t ime t wo a rches o f t he t riple-arched e ntrance i nto t he c ourtyard w ere b locked . N o p recise d ating f or a ny o f t hese p hases i s y et known ( Ferris a nd J ones R . 1 979 ; J ones R . 1 978) . A s imilar s ubdivision o f ap raetorium i nto s elf-contained u nits i s p erhaps t o b e s een a t H ousesteads, e specially i n t he n orth-west c orner o f t hat b uilding ( Charlesworth 1 975, 2 0). T he e xcavator implies t hat t his modification may h ave t aken p lace i n t he t hird c entury . V alens within i ts s tructure . A b ath-house

was

H ousesteads

s ome d ate a fter t he c onstruction o f

b uilding .

a t

i nserted

A wall i n r oom 1 8 s ealed a c oin o f

E xcavation o f

i nto

t he

e ast

e nd

t he e astern e nd o f

o f

b uilding

XV

a t

W ilkes' p eriod I II

t he building i n 1 981

s uggested t hat Wilkes' p eriod I II m ay d ate t o t he l ater t hird c entury a t t he e arliest, a nd h ence t he b ath-house may d ate t o much l ater i n t he f ourth c entury . T he p eriod I II b uilding , a t l east a t i ts e astern e nd, would a ppear t o have g one o ut o f u se b efore t he b ath-house was b uilt; a n umber o f l arge b locks u sed i n t he l ower c ourses o f t he b ath-house walls m ay well h ave c ome f rom t he walls o f t he p eriod I II b uilding .

A d rain ,

b uilt

t o t ake water

f rom

t he

s toke-hole a rea o f

t he b aths, smashed t hrough t he l owest c ourse o f t he eastern wall o f t hat b uilding . A t I lkley,

a n ew g ranary

praetorii

i n

t he

l ate

( fig 2 8 .3B), f ourth

was i nserted i nto t he l atera

c entury;

i t

partly

overlay

t he

C onstantian p raetorium ( Hartley 1 966, 4 1). A t s ome p eriod, t wo g ranaries had b een c onstructed i n t he r etentura a t C hesters; t hey were r emoved b y C layton w ho t hought t hey were o f l ate d ate ( Birley E . 1 959, 2 0). I t h as o ften b een a ssumed t hat i t was a s ar esult o f t he t roubles o f AD 3 67 t hat t he vicani f inally a bandoned t heir h omes and m oved i nto t he f orts b y which t hey h ad l ived ( e.g . R ichmond 1 955, 6 3) . T his movement o f a l arge n umber o f p eople within t he f orts was h eld t o a ccount f or t he p resumed s igns o f o vercrowding a t t his t ime . A t H ousesteads a nd C hesterholm , e xcavations within t he g ranaries r evealed o ccupation m aterial s aid t o b e s imilar

t o

t hat

f ound i n t he b arracks ,

i .e . t hat t hese b uildings were b eing u sed f or l iving a ccommodation ( Birley E . 1 936, 1 6; B irley R . 1 977B, 9 1). Within t he g ranaries a t H ousesteads ( cleared i n 1 931 a nd 3 2) i t was f ound t hat t he s pace b elow t he r aised f loor h ad b een f illed u p s olid a nd f lagged o ver . S impson s uggested t he p ossible r e-use o f g ranaries f or a ccommodation a t B recon G aer a nd C aersws ( Simpson G . 1 962, 1 52; 1 963, 3 7). T he u se o f t he r ear r ange o f r ooms i n s ome p rincipia , p ossibly f or a ccommodation , m ay o nly h ave b een f or t he f ew m en who w orked t here; t hese m odifications o ften d ate t o e arlier t han c irca A D L ikewise,

3 67 .

t he p resence o f r ampart b uildings i s n ot c onfined t o t he

l ate f ourth c entury, t hough s uch b uildings c onstructed c irca AD 3 67 a re k nown a t C hesterholm a nd Malton . A t l east s ome o f t hose a t

1 20

H ousesteads a nd I lkley m ay h ave c ontinued i n u se, a s m ay s ome o f t hose a t o ther s ites. T he b uilding a t M alton, 8 .23m l ong b y 5 .8m w ide, h ad a n a pse a t t he n orth e nd ( fig 2 4.2). I ts 6 1cm t hick w alls w ere b uilt a lmost e ntirely o f r e-used s tone . I t was a ssociated with a wall 1 0 .32m l ong which c ontinued t he l ine o f t he n orth-east wall , p arallel t o t he f ort wall a nd r evetted w hat was l eft o f t he r ampart b ank . A t i ts e nd , a wall a t 9 0° t o t he r evetting wall r an s outh-west f or 5 .18m . U p a gainst t his wall was a h earth o r f urnace . E xtending f or 3 .11m t owards t he a psidal b uilding was a f lagged a rea which s ealed t en c oins, t he l atest o f c irca A D 3 50 . T he f unction o f t he a psidal b uilding i s u nknown ; i ts f loor l evel w as n ot f ound ( Corder 1 930 , 2 78 ). T he m ajor c hange i n a ccommodation w ithin f orts d ates t o t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury n ot t o c irca A D 3 70 . C ivilians h ad b een l iving w ithin a t l east s ome f orts s ince t he e arly f ourth c entury, i f n ot a l ittle b efore. A t H ousesteads, t he e xcavated c halet b locks, b uildings X III a nd X IV , w ere l ittle c hanged t hough t here d oes s eem t o b e e vidence f or much r ebuilding i n b uilding X IV which i n m any c ases m ust h ave i ncluded t he r e-roofing o f i ndividual c halets . I n t his b uilding, many o f t he c halets w ere d ivided i nto i nner a nd o uter c ompartments b y s tone c ross w alls, s ome u nits b eing p rovided w ith n ew f lagged f loors . C halet 2 w as r educed i n l ength b y as tone w all b uilt o ver i ts p eriod I II f loor . N one o f t hese m odifications i s c losely d ated ( Wilkes 1 961, 2 88). D uring t he f ourth c entury, t he s tructure o n t he s ite o f t he e arlier c enturion's q uarters was r educed t o g round l evel; m any o f t he wall s tones s how e vidence o f w ear . A r oad s urface c ontemporary w ith t his l evel s ealed a c oin o f C onstantius I I ( pers. c omm . Mr . J . C row). I n b uilding X III , p eriod 4 m odifications ( not n ecessarily W all p eriod I V ) i ncluded t he r eduction i n l ength o f t he c halets when t he n orth w alls w ere r ebuilt , e xcluding p ortions o f t he p eriod 3 f lagged f loors . T he western e nd o f b uilding X III i n p eriod 3 must have l ain a pproximately o n t he l ine o f t he n orth g ate's s pina . L ater, a wall w as b uilt f urther t o t he west a nd t his, t ogether with t he s tone p latform c onstructed a gainst t he e ast wall o f b uilding V II , r educed t he via p rincipalis a t t his p oint t o o nly l m wide ( Daniels 1 978B) . A t Wallsend , t he c halets r emained i n u se i nto t he l ate f ourth c entury, b ut t here were a gain modifications. T hey s eem t o h ave h ad a c omplicated s tructural h istory, t he e lucidation o f w hich h as n ot y et b een c ompleted . I n t he n orth-west p raetentura, p robably a fter A D 3 67 , a s tructure m easuring c irca 1 9 .82 x 7 .32m w as b uilt , o f w hich o ne c ourse o f c rude s tonework s urvived i n p laces ( Daniels 1 976). T he w estern-most c halet a t G reat C hesters h ad t wo p eriods o f f lagged f loors; t he d ate o f t he f loors' r eplacement i s n ot k nown . I f t he b uilding o f p eriod 3 a t Malton o n a n u npublished p lan o f C order's i s p art o f a c halet b lock ( fig 4 4 .3 ) -w hich i s b y n o m eans c ertain - i t w ould s eem t o h ave b een r eplaced c irca A D 3 70 . O verlying i t were f ound a s tone wall o n ad ifferent a lignment a nd a s pread o f c obbles a nd a b ranched s tone-lined d rain d ated b y C order t o t he T heodosian p eriod. A t Maryport a nd R avenglass, i nternal b uildings were r ebuilt i n t he l ater f ourth c entury, p erhaps c irca A D 3 70 . T he p resence o f a l ate f ourth-century s tructural p hase a t Maryport was i ndicated b y a r econstruction o f t he i ntervallum r oad w hich a t t he n orth-east a ngle

1 21

o verlay t he c ollapsed c orner o f ap eriod I II b uilding.

T here was

o ccupation m aterial o f t he l ate f ourth c entury i n t he a rea . T he o nly p ossible s tructural e vidence f or a b uilding o f t his d ate w as a f ew p ost-holes ( Jarrett 1 976, 3 9). A t R avenglass t he f inal phase s tructures ( phase 4 ) were b uilt o f p osts s et i n i ndividual p ost-pits , u nlike a ll t he e arlier b uilding o n t he s ite w hich h ad h ad

t heir p osts

s et i n p ost t renches ( fig 4 8 .3). T he p hase 4 b uildings s eem t o have b een b asically o f t he s ame p lan a s t he e arlier b uildings o n t he s ite ( Potter 1 979A, 4 2). T he e arly f ourth-century b arrack-block a t P apcastle s eems t o h ave b een r etained i n u se . A s econd c obble f loor l ying d irectly o n t he f irst y ielded l ate f ourth-century p ottery f rom i ts s urface . O ther t races o f r epair o r r ebuilding i n t he s tructure w ere n ot c losely d ated ( Charlesworth 1 965, 1 03-4) . A t I lkley, h owever, t he b uilding p lan t hat h ad b een a dhered t o f rom t he A ntonine p eriod i n t he p raetentura was i gnored i n t he l ate f ourth c entury a nd n ew b uildings w ere c onstructed o n a d ifferent a lignment . O nly t wo f ragments o f t hese b uildings were f ound. An o pen a rea o f p itching r emained t o t he west o f t he b uilding i nto which t wo , t rains w ere i nserted , p robably i n t his p eriod . O verlying t he f abrica i n t he r etentura w ere s tone s labs a nd metalling ( Hartley 1 966) . I n t he n orth-west r etentura o f Bainbridge, a s tone b uilding o f l ate f ourth-century d ate o verlay t he p receding t imber b uildings ( Hartley 1 970).

I n t he s outh-east p raetentura,

t hree b uildings w ere f ound

a ligned n orth-south . T he f irst t wo were 9 .1m w ide , s eparated b y a n a lley 1 .83 t o 2 .13m wide . Another o f t he s ame s ize c ould j ust b e a ccommodated b efore t he v ia p rincipalis was r eached .

T hese b uildings

were r easonably well c onstructed - a ll h ad massive f oundations a nd u sed mortar i n t he wall c ores. N o i nternal p artitions were n oted . I n t he e ast wall o f b uilding TA was a d oorway 2 .74m wide which had a f lagged f loor r esting o n a c lay p acking a nd a c ontemporary o ven . A t a l ater p eriod, m ortar-bonded walls w ere i nserted w ithin b uilding T A o n t he f lagged f loor, o ne b locked t he oven ( fig 4 8 .4; Hartley 1 960, 1 15-6). A C aernarvon, t he b uilding ( XX), which had o bstructed passage t o h e n orth-west p ortal o f t he n orth-east g ate , w as r eplaced b y a nother ( fig 5 0 .2A ) which a llowed a ccess t o b oth p ortals . T his b uilding i s d ated t o t he l ate f ourth c entury b y a c oin o f V alens f ound within i ts c lay f loor ( Casey 1 974B, 5 9-61). B uilding XX was c ontemporary w ith t he r oad metalling, t he r econstructed n orth-east g ate a nd building X IX ( fig 5 0 .2B) . I t c onsisted o f a n arrow r ange c irca 6 .1m wide , d ivided i nto t hree r ooms a nd a n arrow p assage w ith a l arge u nit e ast

e nd a nd p erhaps

a t

t he n orth-west

e nd a s well ,

t he

a t

t he s outh-

f ormer b eing

s eparated f rom t he main p art o f t he b uilding b y a n arrow p assage . T he s uggestion b y B oon t hat t his b uilding r epresents a ccommodation f or t wo t urmae w ith t o

t he

t heir d ecurions

o rganisation o f

( Boon

c avalry u nits

1 975 ,

6 7)

m ay h ave n o r elevance

i n t he l ate

f ourth

c entury a bout

which we h ave v irtually n o i nformation . B uilding XXI c ould b e o f l ate f ourth-century d ate , t hough i t m ay b e a l ittle e arlier . I t was o f s imple h all-like p lan; B oon s uggested t hat i t might b e as table ( ibid .

6 7).

Within t he r epresented

f ort o f D oncaster, f ourth-century o ccupation was b y a b lack l ayer n early l m t hick a nd f limsy t imber

s tructures o n r ough s tone f ootings p laced a pparently without o rder

1 22

( Dolby a nd B uckland 1 971) . s treets were a gain b eing

B y t he l ate f ourth c entury, t he i nternal n eglected . T he e arly f ourth-century

i ntervallum r oad , b uilt o ver t he r ampart, w as o verlain b y a b uilding w hich u sed t he r oad s urface a s i ts f loor ( Buckland 1 973) . T he l atest R oman l evels were d evoid o f a ny p ottery o ther t han r esidual p ieces a nd c ontained many a nimal b ones . T he e xcavators s uggest t hat t here was a l ong period o f o ccupation a fter t he b reakdown o f o rganised p ottery s upplies ( Buckland a nd D olby 1 972, 2 76). T he b uilding f ound b y t he i nterval t ower S W5 a t Y ork - t he f unction o f which i s n ot r eally k nown - c ollapsed a fter A D 3 60 . F ollowing t his, t here was a g radual a ccumulation o f m aterial o ver t he a rea a nd i ndications o f c onsiderable l ate f ourth-century a ctivity . A n a rea i n t he p raetentura b ehind B lake S treet was e xcavated i n 1 975. t ribune's h ouse) was o ccupied i nto t he i n p art .

T he b uilding f ound ( perhaps a l ate f ourth c entury , a t l east

T he m ain b lock h ad a t s ome t ime b een s ubdivided t o p roduce

r ooms c irca 3 .5m s quare ( Addyman 1 976). I n t he s outh c orner o f t he p raetentura t he b arrack-blocks ( if t hat b e what t hey were) s eem t o h ave b een d emolished b y t he N ormans ( Addyman 1 975) . T he a rchaeological e vidence w ould s eem t o i ndicate t hat f ort g arrisons b efore a nd a fter c irca A D 3 70 were o f t he s ame t ype . T here was l ittle c hange i n t he t ype o f a ccommodation o r i n t he amount o f i t a vailable within t he f orts. T he f ate o f t he o fficial b uildings i n t he f ort a t t his t ime i s u nclear . W hen t he p rincipia a t B ainbridge was n ot u sable, i t was s imply d ispensed with a nd n ot r eplaced, i ts s ite b eing u sed f or metal working. A t o ther p rincipia t here i s e vidence f or metal working, t hough t he c ache o f a rrowheads a t H ousesteads s uggests t hat t here w as s till a m ilitary u nit i n g arrison a nd t hat s ome c entralised c ontrol b ased i n t he p rincipia e xisted . I t i s unfortunate t hat t he c hanges i n t he p raetoria a t H ousesteads a nd B inchester c annot a s y et b e c losely d ated . A t a n umber o f s ites, o ccupation o f t he v ici d oes n ot s eem t o h ave c ontinued b eyond t he ' Picts' War' e ven when t here h ad a pparently b een a p rosperous v illage i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury . T his w ould s eem t o have b een t he c ase a t H ousesteads ( Birley E . C harlton a nd H edley, 1 932; 1 933), t hough Mr . J .P . G illam, c onsidering t he c eramic e vidence i n t he l ight o f c urrent r esearch, i nfers much l ess f ourth-century a ctivity t han w as p reviously t hought . A t Malton t he v icus i s t hought t o have b een d estroyed i n t he ' Picts' War' t ogether with t he f ort ( Wenham 1 974, 3 1). T he r oof o f t he s o-called ' town h ouse' i n t he v icUs

i s

t hought t o h ave

c ollapsed i n t he p eriod c irca A D

3 50-67 w hen

t he whole h ouse w as d estroyed . T he e xcavator s uggested t hat a h ole d ug i nto t he middle o f a mosaic f loor was e vidence o f a d eliberate w recking o f t he h ouse; t he f loor w as s mashed a nd m ost o f t he r oof was t aken a way : " This

c an

o nly

h ave

b een

t he

work

o f

marauders.—.such

was

t he

s trength o f t he s tonework o f t he h ypocaust t hat i t i s q uite i mpossible t o i magine t hat i t c ould h ave c ollapsed" ( Mitchelson 1 964, 2 21). T he excavator d oes n ot e xplain why t he marauders would wish t o h ack t hrough a t hick c oncrete f loor o r c arry a way t he r oof m aterial . i s

not

evidence

f or

d estruction

b y

r aiders,

b ut

o f

T his

o rganised

d emolition . C utting t hrough t he h ouse was a d itch which Wenham a ssociated with t he ' wall d itch' . T his d itch r an f rom t he s outh-east g ate o f t he f ort t owards t he r iver . I t c annot have c aused t he

1 23

d emolition o f h ouse b efore

t he h ouse a s

t he

d itch

w as

a hut had b een built within t he r uined

d ug .

T he

s poil f rom

u p t o f orm a mound t o t he s outh-west o f i t.

t he

d itch

was

p iled

The s tandard o f l iving

o f t he ' town house' o ccupants s eems t o h ave d eteriorated and t he b uilding was p erhaps d emolished b efore A D 3 67 . W ith t he d igging o f t he d itch, t he a rea t o i ts n orth e ast s eems t o have been a bandoned, t hough t here was a l ittle s qualid o ccupation t o t he s outh w est o f i t . T here

i s

n o

i ndication

t hat

t he

v icani

were

moved

i nto

t he

f ort.

O nly t wo i nfant b urials were n oted b y C order a s d ating t o t he p eriod a fter A D 3 67 a s a gainst n early t hirty d ating t o t he 7 0 y ears b efore . A t C hesterholm,

t he v icus may a gain have b een o ccupied,

t hough t he

e vidence f or t his i s n ow i n d oubt. On s ite XV, a c oin o f U rbs Roma t ype A D 3 30-5, was s ealed b eneath t he h ighest f loor l evel. T he b uildings

o f v icus

I II were

o f v ery

c rude

c onstruction .

T he

r emains

o f f ragmentary b uildings were f ound a ssociatd with Huntcliff a nd C rambeck wares over a wide a rea . T he b uilding o n s ite LXXXVI was p robably

o f

extremely

l ate

f ourth-century

s qualid

o ccupation;

i ndustrial T he

r ubbish

a ccumulated

m ilitary b ath-house h ad

i t was

a dapted

i n t he v icus

d ate . a

o n

c eased

I t

g reat i ts

t o

f or a n a lternative u se

immediately t o t he west

had

f loor

f unction

o f

or

a n

d omestic

( Birley R .

1 977,

a s

t his

( Birley R . o f

a l engthy

d epth

s uch

b y

1 971) .

a nd 2 1). d ate ;

O ne b uilding

t he f ort wall a nd t o

t he

e ast

o f s ite XXIXb i s c onstructed i n i dentical s tyle t o t he ' park railing s tone' buildings

a t

Haltonchesters.

building

i s

n owhere

m entioned.

hitherto

b een n oticed

a t

I n

T his

t he

i nterim

s tyle

Haltonchesters

a nd

o f

r eport

t his

c onstruction

Rudchester,

h ad

t hough

a

s imilar building may h ave b een f ound a t L ittlechester o utside t he d efences .

T he e xcavator d escribes

" The r emains t imber

t his

b uilding

t hus:

c onsisted p rincipally o f s tone c olumn b ases, p robably f or

u prights

and

s tone

f oundation

b locks

f or

a balustrade

o r

r ailing - implying a n o pen-sided b uilding 7 .5m wide by a t l east 1 6m l ong". T his was d ated t o t he t hird a nd f ourth c entury ( Green, C .J . 1 973). ' park

r ailing

s tone' h as

Miss V . Swan).

a lso b een s een a t H igh R ochester

( pers .

A

c omm .

T he v icus I I b uilding a t C hesterholm on s ite LXXXII

which R . B irley c ompares with t he ' park r ailing s tone' b uildings a t H altonchesters,

b ears

I t i s p ossible t hat 3 67

( McIntyre

immediately

t he v icus a t G reta B ridge r emained i n u se a fter A D

1 929). s outh

l ittle s imilarity t o t hem .

A t o f

t he

P iercebridge

t he

r iver b y Dere

s ettlement S treet

a t

would,

H olme o n

t he

H ouse c oin

e vidence, s eem t o h ave r emained o ccupied u ntil t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury ( Scott 1 972) . C ivilian l ife c ertainly c ontinued a t C orbridge a nd a lmost

c ertainly a t C arlisle .

1 24

C HAPTER 8

T HE L AST F OUR D ECADES O F R OMAN M ILITARY O CCUPATION

A fter t he e xtensive r ebuilding i n t he l ater f ourth c entury, u sually a ttributed f urther

t o

t he

work

a ctivities

has

b een

o f

C ount

f ound.

T heodosius,

S ome

p hases

i n

e vidence

o f

t he p raetorium

l ittle

a t

B inchester c ould d ate t o v ery l ate i n t he c entury, b ut t hey a re n ot a s y et c losely d ated . A t B ainbridge , b elow t he l atest r oad s urface a t t he

east

g ate,

was

a Theodosian

minim

a nd

a V alens

p lus

s everal

e arlier c oins . O n t he l atest r oad was a c oin o f G ratian ( Collingwood 1 928, 2 69; Droop a nd J ones 1 929, 2 43). T he n ew r oad s urface must d ate

t o A D

3 79 a t t he e arliest .

P ost C ount T heodosian work was n oted

i n t he i nternal b uildings . I n t he i nterior o f t he f ort a t L ancaster b y t he west r ampart, a s hallow p it was f ound f illed with b lack a sh a nd c ontaining a ll t he p ottery t ypes c haracteristic o f t he p eriod a fter c irca AD 3 70 i n n orth B ritain . s agularis, s trategraphically l ater

O n t he l atest s urface o f t he via t han t he p it, were t races o f r ough

s tone

d efences

s leeper walls

a t

9 0° t o

t he

( Jones G .

P eriod 7 a t t he n orth-east g ate o f Malton was t o b e R oman r ather t han p ost-Roman ; with i t.

1 972) .

t hought b y t he e xcavator

o nly R oman p ottery was a ssociated

A t t his t ime n o p art o f t he p revious g ate c ould have b een

v isible;

t he

g ateway

was

r epresented b y

a d epression i n t he

b ank t hrough which r an a l ightly-metalled r oad with wheel s eparated f rom r ectangular

t he p eriod

t rench

1 .83m

wide

t he c auseway i n f ront o f t erminals a nother T he

o f

t he

t rench o f

excavator

' wall

6 r oad b y

o f

v ertical

d itch' .

1 2 .81m .

t ype ,

i t

p art

1 .83m .

t ime

o f

S tilicho

s urface

L ater s till a

s ides

d riven

was

o f

f urther

( Corder

1 930,

o ut

wide b ut n ot

t he

s ame

a ttempt t o a ssign a d ate t o i t - h e t hought P enrith, t ypes o f

i n i t,

r ubbish .

a cross

t he g ate d own t o t he b edrock which l inked t he

s imilar

t hought

with

5 3cm .

r ampart

r uts

5 1-4).

o n s o

t he

c auseway,

d eep,

was

d ug .

b ut

d id

n ot

d efences,

t hat p eriod 7 d ated t o t he I n

t he

s outh

g ate

a t

O ld

a d rain ( in t he f ill o f which l ay C rambeck p ost-Pict war p ottery) was i gnored when a r ough s andstone-and-cobble

was

l aid

A t Richborough,

( Austen

1 978B) .

p robably v ery l ate i n t he f ourth o r e arly i n t he f ifth

c entury, a c hurch s eems o f t he f ort ( fig 5 1.2).

t o h ave b een b uilt i n t he n orth-west c orner N o mention o f t his b uilding was made i n t he

r eports o n t he e xcavations i n t his a rea, but i ts presence i s c lear. T he e xcavator d id n ote a small o ctagonal b asin w hich, o n a nalogy with v ery

s imilar

s tructures

o n

t he

1 25

C ontinent,

would

a ppear

t o

b e

a

b aptismal h alf o f

f ont

( Bushe-Fox

1 926 ,

t he f ort h ad 9 1cm .

p l .

X XXIII) .

I n

1 924,

o f ' mixed s oil' s tripped o ff

t he n orthern

i t .

I n

t his

w ork a n umber o f s tone b locks were f ound w hich a re o nly r ecorded o n a f ew u npublished 2 hotographs a nd o n a n u npublished p lan . T hese f ormed t wo l ines a t 9 0u a nd s eemed t o l ie a t t he s ame l evel a s t he f ont . B rown s uggests t hat a s a ll t he b locks l ie with t heir l ong a xis e ast w est,

a nd a s

t he t wo

l ines

a re n ot

e qui-distant

f rom

t he f ort

walls ,

t hen t hey a re u nlikely t o b elong t o t wo r anges o f l ean-to b uildings . T hey n o d oubt f ormed t wo s ides o f a f ree-standing t imber-framed s tructure .

H e r estored t he p lan o f

t he b uilding o n a nalogy w ith

t hat

o f a c hurch within t he f ort a t K aiseraugst which c ould h ave been o f s imilar d imensions ( Brown 1 971). I t i s p ossible t hat t he signal s tations a long t he Y orkshire c oast d ate t o t he t ime o f Magnus Maximus ( Casey 1 979B, 7 5).

T here i s n o mention o f a ny f ort h eld i n W ales o r i n n orthern England s outh west o f R ibchester i n t he N otitia . I t h as b een a ssumed t hat Wales was g iven u p b y Magnus Maximus a nd t hat i t c ould h ave been h e who r emoved t he XX V aleria V ictrix f rom C hester. Maximus i s r emembered

i n Welsh

f olklore

a s

Maxen Wledig i n c onnection with

C aernarvon . I n t he N otitia , among t he a uxilia i n I llyricum , a u nit o f S eguntienses i s r ecorded ( Oc. V II N o.49). This u nit had p resumably b een a f ormer g arrison o f C aernarvon ( Segontium ) w hich h ad b een u pgraded a nd h ad n ever r eturned t o i ts o ld p ost i n W ales. I t h as b een s uggested t hat Maximus' f orce was b uilt a round t he X X l egion a nd i ncluded t he g arrison o f Wales a nd t hose o f t he western British p rovinces,

i .e .

t he g arrisons o f a ll t he f orts i n t hat a rea h eld i n

t he f ourth c entury b ut n ot r ecorded i n t he N otitia . J arrett s uggested t hat t he C alcarienses, i f t hey d erived t heir n ame f rom C alcaria ( Tadcaster) may a lso h ave f ormed p art o f Maximus' army, t hough t hey c ould h ave b een t ransferred t o t he C ontinent o n a nother o ccasion . I n t he N otitia , t hey a ppear a s l imitanei a t S irmium u nder t he d ux f n.72).

P annoniae

T here i s n ow,

S ecundae

h owever ,

( Oc .

XXXII

4 9),

( Jarrett

n umismatic e vidence t o s uggest

1 968B,

9 0,

t hat C aernarvon

was h eld a fter t he t ime o f Maximus ( Casey a nd D avies 1 977) . Wheeler had t hough t hat o ccupation c ontinued b ut f ound n o e vidence f or t his a nd h e s uggested t hat t he a bsence o f c oins which n eed be l ater t han Maximus

was

a ccidental a nd

t hat

o n a nalogy w ith C aerhun ,

C aernarvon ,

m ay h ave b een r etained u ntil c irca A D 3 95 . O ne c oin o f M aximus a nd s ix p ost-Maximan c oins have n ow b een f ound a t C aernarvon , t ogether with a c lipped s iliqua which C asey s uggests may a dvance t he d ate o f t he l atest o ccupation i nto t he p eriod a fter A D 3 95 a nd f rom t his h e a rgues t hat M aximus c annot h ave r emoved t he S eguntienses; t his u nit m ust h ave b een r emoved b y S tilicho ( Casey 1 979B, 7 7) . T his n eed n ot h ave b een t he c ase a s Maximus c ould h ave r emoved t he u nit a nd r eplaced i t b y a nother , p erhaps i n A D 3 84 when h e r eturned t o B ritain . I t i s s urprising t hat we h ear n othing o f t he XX l egion i f i t was t aken t o t he C ontinent b y Maximus - n o u nits f ormed f rom i t ( or f rom t he V I V ictrix) a re k nown . Mr. J .P . G illam s uggests t hat we h ave s imply l ost t he N otitia s ection w hich d ealt w ith W ales a nd t he W est . T he l oss o f a whole c hapter d oes s eem t o h ave h appened e lsewhere . O n t he c oin e vidence i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he f ortress a t C hester m ay have b een a bandoned c irca A D 3 68-73 a nd t hat many o f t he t roops may h ave b een e arlier r emoved b y M agnentius

1 26

( McPeake

1 978 ,

4 3) .

Maximus m ust h ave r emoved s ome t roops f rom B ritain b ut i t i s n ot c lear h ow many a nd f rom where .

Many o f

t hese t roops m ay n ot h ave r eturned

( cf C asey 1 979B, 7 7) . C asey s uggests t hat t he a bsence o f c oinage o f t he House o f T heodosius d ated b etween A D 3 78 a nd 3 88 i s d ue t o t he r emoval b y Maximus o f t roops f rom t he i sland t hrough w hom n ew c oins p assed i nto g eneral c irculation ( Casey 1 974D) . T he p resence o f t he u surper would h ave t erminated t he d ispatch o f o fficial c oinage t o t he d iocese .

I t u sed t o b e maintained t hat i n o rder t o f ill t he g ap i n

t he B ritish d efences l eft b y t he e vacuation o f W ales, f oederati were b rought i n . A s trong f orce o f V otadini u nder C unedda w as t ransferred f rom s outh-east S cotland t o n orth Wales, r eplacing t he R oman g arrisons. T his p resupposes t hat R ome's r elations with t he t ribes n orth o f t he W all w ere f riendly; t his i s h ighly u nlikely . T here i s n o evidence o f a ny c ommercial c ontact b etween R ome a nd t he North i n t he p eriod a fter c irca AD 3 70 which i s i n marked c ontrast t o t he s ituation e arlier i n t he R oman p eriod when t here s eems t o h ave b een much t rade b etween R omans a nd n atives, p articularly i n l owland S cotland ( Robertson 1 970) . T his m ay r eflect a c essation o f f riendly r elations a t s ome t ime i n t he f ourth c entury . T he a bandonment o f t he o utpost f orts b y t he m id-fourth c entury a nd t he p robable t ermination o f t he s ystem o f p atrols b ased o n t hese f orts would i n a ny c ase have g reatly r educed t he amount o f R oman m aterial m oving n orth o f t he W all a nd hence h ave r educed t he c hances o f t his m aterial p assing i nto n ative o wnership t hrough t rade o r p lunder . Mann h as s uggested s outhern S cotland .

t hat i n t he m id-fourth c entury t he P icts t ook o ver T rouble o n t he n orthern f rontier i s r ecorded i n

A D 3 60 a nd A D 3 67 which would e xplain t he h oard o f Law, s upposedly t he c apital o f a f riendly t ribe . t hat

t he

r epresent

l ate R oman t reasure f rom t his d iplomatic g ifts

p eace o n t he f rontier .

- b ribes

f or

l oot f rom T raprain A lcock s uggests

o ppidum i s

e xample

- i n

m ore o rder

l ikely t o

t o

s ecure

T he p ayment o f s uch s ubsidies was a c ommon

f eature o f R oman f rontier p olicy, o r i t may have been t o p ay f or t he s ervices o f m ercenaries . T he p resence o f o fficially p roduced s ilver i ngots i n t he h oards f ound a t B alline a nd C oleraine m ust i ndicate t hat t hese h oards w ere o fficially s anctioned p ayments ( Alcock 1 971, 2 54 ) . S uch i ngots would s eem t o h ave b een g iven t o s oldiers o n t he a ccession o f a n emperor. O n J ulian's a ccession i n A D 3 61, h e p romised f ive g old s olidi a nd 1 -lb o f s ilver t o e ach weigh a bout o ne R oman l b. P ainter a uthorities c ontinued t o m ake t heir o wn a fter B ritain c eased t o b e a p art o f t he

man . T hese i ngots u sually s uggested t hat t he B ritish i ngots t o p ay f oederati e ven Empire ( Painter 1 965 1 972) .

Mann b elieves t hat t he m ove o f C unedda a nd h is V otadini f rom n orth o f t he Wall t o Wales i s n othing more t han a myth, p robably f ostered b y t he k ings

o f Gwynedd t o b olster u p

t heir p restige

( Mann

1 974 ,

4 2,

f n .

7 3). F rere s uggests t hat n ative t ribes o f Welsh o rigin were e stablished t o l ook t o t he d efence o f Wales . H is s ole e vidence f or t his i s t he a pparent importance o f Maximus i n Welsh t radition; h e f eels t hat Maximus must h ave d one s omething important i n t he a rea . I n a r ecent a rticle, D umville h as p rovided j ust s uch a r eason why Maximus was s o important i n Welsh t radition . H e a rgues v ery c onvincingly t hat i t was t he s ignificance which Maximus a ssumed i n G ildas e work t hat l ed h im t o b e r egarded a s: " The o nly ' British' emperor i dentifiable i n e arly Wales a nd a s t he f ounding f igure o f i ndependent p ost-Roman B ritain" ( Dumville 1 977, 1 80).

1 27

I t

i s

h azardous

t o b elieve t hat Wales was u ndefended

f ourth c entury b y R oman t roops .

i n t he

l ate

I n t he e arly f ourth c entury , we k now

o f o nly a h andful o f R oman f orts o ccupied i n t he p rincipality . T he l ate R oman d efences o f Wales a re mainly u nknown t o u s and we s hould n ot t ry t o d ate t he p eriod o f a bandonment o f a d efensive s ystem where m any o f t he i nstallations h ave y et t o b e f ound . T he c omes m aritimi t ractus c ould c onceivably h ave h eld c ommand o ver t his s ystem . T he c ontinued o ccupation o f C aernarvon a nd p ossibly C aerhun r emoves t he n eed f or Magnus Maximus t o h ave b rought C unedda i nto north Wales t o d efend i t ( cf D umville 1 977). E xcavations o n Holyhead mountain i n 1 980-81 have r evealed a Roman watchtower w hich t he e xcavator b elieves m ay h ave b een o ccupied f or a s hort p eriod o f t ime i n t he l ate f ourth c entury. 2 4 c oins, r anging i n d ate f rom C onstantius I I t o A rcadius, were f ound i n t he v icinity , 1 5 o f which p robably c ame f rom a h oard. T he s tructure was a t ower 5 .45m s quare w ith walls 1 .2m t hick a bove t he f ootings . T he e xcavator c ompared i t w ith t he H adrianic t owers o n t he C umbrian C oast w hich i t c losely r esembles . A s imilar s tructure a lmost c ertainly e xists o n C armel H ead t o 1 981).

t he n orth;

b oth m ay h ave o perated with C aer G ybi

( Crew

I t u sed t o b e t hought t hat Magnus Maximus w as a lso r esponsible f or t he a bandonment o f H adrian's Wall. T his was b ased o n t he e rroneous a ssumption t hat t here were n o c oins l ater t han t he A D 3 80s f rom t he W all ,

b ut K ent s howed t hat t his was s imply n ot t he c ase ,

t hough c oins

o f t he AD 3 80s a nd l ater a re s carce i n t he n orth, a s t hey a re a t many c ivil s ites f urther t o t he s outh w here o ccupation c ontinuing i nto t he f ifth c entury i s k nown ( Kent 1 951; c f H edley 1 937 ) . Magnus Maximus i s r ecorded a s having c ampaigned a gainst t he P icts and S cots i n A D 3 82; t he s ame s ource m isdates h is u surpation t o A D 3 81 ( Prosper T iro , C hronicon G ratiani

I V).

O n

t he

e vidence

o f

mint

marks

a nd

c oin

t ypes, C asey h as s hown t hat Maximus m ust h ave v isited B ritain a fter t he e stablishment o f h is c ourt a t T rier a nd h e s uggests t hat t his m ay h ave b een i n A D 3 84. T his c ould t ie i n with t he r elative d ating o f Maximus' u surpation a nd h is P ictish c ampaign a s r ecorded b y P rosper T iro ( Casey 1 979B, 7 1-2) . C asey s uggests t hat t he g old c oin h oard a t C orbridge c ontaining

1 3 c oins o f Maximus

d eposited c irca A D 3 84 c ould

b e c onnected with Maximus' c ampaign, a s m ay b e t he g old c oin f rom S outh S hields with t he mint mark AVG . O B, i .e . minted w hile t he c omitatus was i n L ondon . T hese c oins c ould h ave b een m inted t o p ay t he c ampaign e xpenses o r f or i ssue a s a d onative t o t he t roops o n t he s uccessful c ompletion o f t he c ampaign ( ibid 7 5) . U nits r ecorded i n t he N otitia l ed R ichmond t o s uggest t hat t his t heir

d efeat

i n B ritain l ate i n t he R oman p eriod

o f A ttacotti m ay i ndicate

( Richmond 1 958B,

1 28). A ttacotti a re r ecorded a s r aiding G aul b y S t . J erome, p robably a s e arly a s t he m id-fourth c entury; t hey p resumably a lso r aided Western B ritain . Maximus

a nd

t he

T here i s n o e vidence f or a t reaty b etween

A ttacotti,

n or

i s

t here

a ny

e vidence

t o

s uggest

whether t he A ttacotti b rought i nto t he a rmy h ad b een d efeated i n G aul o r B ritain . J ones

h as

s uggested

t hat

c ash p ayments

t o

t roops

c eased

i n t he r eign

o f T heodosius I ( Jones A . 1 973, 6 24). B y t hen, however, t he a ccession a nd q uinquennial d onatives w ere t he m ost i mportant p art o f t he s oldiers' c ash r eceipts. T roops i n N oricum i n t he m id-fifth c entury s till e xpected t o r eceive p ayment i n c ash .

1 28

A r escript o f

V alentinian, d ated t o A D 3 65, p resumably b ringing r iparienses i nto l ine with o ther l imitanei r ecords t hat : " They s hall s ecure s ubsistence a llowances i n k ind f or n ine m onths i n t he year and f or t he o ther t hree months t hey s hall r eceive t he c orresponding p rices" ( Theo & C ode 7 , 4 , 1 4) . L ack o f c oinage within a f ort p rove t he a bsence o f t roops .

i n t he l ate f ourth

c entury d oes n ot

F rere s uggests t hat n orth o f t he W all t he k ingdoms o f t he V otadini a nd S trathclyde r emained f riendly t o R ome a nd t hat Maximus p robably c reated a t hird f riendly d ynasty i n s outh-west S cotland i n t he a rea o f t he N ovantae . T he d ark-age d ynasty o f G alloway c ounted Maximus a s t he founder o f i ts l ine ( Frere 1 978, 4 05-6). Whatever t he a rrangements m ade f or t he d efence o f t he B ritish d iocese b y Maximus, t rouble f rom r aiders s eems t o h ave c ontinued . I n t he l ater A D 3 90s, S tilicho - who was e ffectively t he c ommander o f t he a rmies o f t he W estern Empire - r eorganised t he d efences o f B ritain , t hough whether h e personally v isited t he d iocese i s u nclear. I n t he p anegyric d elivered o n t he o ccasion o f S tilicho's c onsulship i n A D 3 99 , C laudian r ecords t hat S tilicho d efended t he d iocese when i t was u nder a ttack f rom t he P icts, S cots a nd S axons . T he S cots a nd S axons were n oted a s b eing s ea r aiders ( de c onsulatu S tilichonis i i, 2 50-5). E lsewhere C laudian r ecords t hat u nder H onorius, t he S axon h ad b een t amed a nd t he P ict c rushed . T his p ossibly implies t hat S tilicho c onducted a p unitive c ampaign ( cf B irley A . 1 981, 3 74-5). H owever, n othing i s r eally known o f t he measures S tilicho t ook f or t he s afety o f t he d iocese . T he t ile f rom P evensey s tamped H ON AVG A NDRIA h as n ow b een s hown t o b e a m odern f orgery ( Peacock 1 973) . Mann h as s uggested t hat S tilicho p rovided B ritain w ith i ts f irst p ermanent f ield a rmy u nder t he c omes B ritanniarum . H e a lso s uggests t hat b y t his t ime t he p ressure f rom t he P icts a nd S cots may have waned - i t was n ot u ntil t he mid-fifth c entury t hat t hey a gain p roved a n a cute t hreat t o t he a rea

t hat h ad b een t he d iocese o f B ritain .

S tilicho's r eorganisation o f t he B ritish d efences was p robably n egated b y his withdrawal o f t roops i n A D 4 01 f or t he war a gainst Aleric . C laudian d escribes t hese t roops

a s:

" The l egion t hat h ad b een l eft t o g uard B ritain - t he l egion t hat k ept t he f ierce S cots i n c heck , whose m en h ad s canned t he s trange d evices t attooed o n t he f aces o f t he d ying P icts" ( 1 1 1 b ello G othico 4 16-18 ) . I f C laudian h ere m eans a l egion i n t he t echnical s ense ,

p resumably t he

V I V ictrix a t Y ork i s m eant , b ut C laudian o ften u ses t he t erm l egio t o m ean a l evy o f t roops ( Haverfield 1 912, 2 14) . T he r emoval o f t roops a t t his t ime m ay h ave r esulted i n t he c ollapse o f t he c ommands o f t he d ux B ritanniarum a nd t he c omes t he

most

l ikely

t ime

f or

l itoris S axonici .

t he

i nstitution o f

F rere s ees a f ield a rmy

t his a s i n

t he

d iocese . A D 4 01 m ay h ave m arked t he e nd o f a c oherent d efence s ystem o n t he n orthern f rontier, a lthough a rchaeologically t he d ate o f a f ort's a bandonment a t t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod i s v ery d ifficult t o a scertain. T he d istinctive l ate f ourth-century t ypes o f p ottery t ypological d evelopments i n t he p eriod A D 3 70-400 .

1 29

d o n ot s how a ny T hey a re o ften

p resent

o n

s ites

o ccupation a fter t he r esult o f t ime.

i n

l arge

c irca A D

quantities

3 70 ,

implying

a lthough

i t

i s

a fair

p ossible

p eriod

t hat

t his

t he s qualid l ife s tyle o f t he f ort o ccupants at

o f w as

t his

B y t he f irst d ecade o f t he f ifth c entury o r soon a fter,

m ajor

p ottery

i ndustries

i n B ritain

s eem

t o h ave

c ollapsed,

t he

p ossibly

a s a r esult o f t he d isruption o f c ommunications c aused b y t he r emoval o f t he a rmy ( Young 1 977 , 2 41) . N o l ater R omano-British p roducts t ake t heir p lace . L ate f ourth-century p ottery t hus t ends t o b e t he l atest m aterial

o n a s ite ,

s everal c enturies T he

n umismatic

C oinage

o f

o r a t

l ater

l east

t han

e vidence

t he

H ouse

i s o nly s ealed b y o ccupation material

t he f ifth . i s

o f

o pen

t o

d iffering

T heodosius

d ating

i nterpretations.

f rom

AD

3 88-402

i s

r elatively c ommon i n B ritain , t he m ain s upplies o f b ronze u ntil c irca A D 3 95 c oming f rom G allic m ints, e specially T rier, a nd a fter t hat f rom t he m int o f R ome .

I n A D 4 02,

R OMA F ELIX r eplaced n ot r each B ritain .

t he S ALUS R EIPUBLICAE t ype . T his n ew i ssue d id C asey s uggests t hat t he a bsence o f t his n ew i ssue

a n ew b ronze i ssue w ith t he l egend V RBS

must r epresent t he c essation o f payment t o t roops and o fficials i n B ritain .

T he

m ain p urpose

o f

t he b ronze c oinage s eems

t o p rovide a m eans b y which t he g overnment c ould r ecover with which wages t o b e p aid s upply

t o

( Casey

b een c oin

t o s tate employees were p aid a nd i n which t axes h ad 1 974D,

3 85) .

t he d iocese with

R adagaesus

t o h ave t he g old

i n A D 4 05 .

C asey

c onnects

t he

c essation

i n

t he i nvasions o f Aleric in A D 4 01

I f t his

i s s o,

t hen t he l ack o f

c oin or o f

t hese c oins i n

t he d iocese n eed n ot mean t hat a ll t he c ivil and m ilitary p ersonnel h ad b een r emoved b y c irca A D C oin h oards o f

4 02 .

d ating f rom A D 3 95 o nwards a re r arely f ound n orth a nd west

t he F osse

Way e xcept

f or

a g roup

i n

e ast

Yorkshire

a nd

County

D urham ( pers c omm , D r .R . R eece) . A s t he p resence o f c oins i n a n a rea t ends t o i ndicate t he p resence o f t roops ( Reece 1 977), t heir a bsence i n t he n orth a nd west m ay s imilarly s uggest t hat t here were f ew t roops i n t hese a reas a t t his

t ime .

I n t he n orth ,

o nly a t C arlisle i s

t here

e vidence f or c ontinuity o f o ccupation b eyond t he l ate Roman period . T he t own was s till o ccupied i n A D 6 85 when S t. O nly o ne c oin, t o a fter AD e xpect

h owever,

3 88

( pers

o ut o f a t otal o f c omm,

t hat a ll t he f orts

a p lanned withdrawal o f o f

t he f ourth c entury,

m ay h ave b een s o

l ow

T he

c ame

e nd p robably

c ash

a nd g oods,

Mr.I. C aruana).

N oricum A t

i s

o f

1 979)

d ates

n o r eason t o

t he

t roops

f rom t he

i sland .

B y

t he

e nd

t heir

r emoval

would

h ave

b een

u ndesirable .

g radually a nd with t he c essation o f p ayments

t he s oldiers

will h ave

r eturned

t o

t he

l and .

By

i n t he

a lthough t he f ield a rmy t roops were p robably t he f rontier t roops

s eem

t o

have

d epend o n l ocal h ereditary r ecruitment ( Dobson a nd Mann T he g radual d issolution o f t he f rontier p rovince o f

r ecorded

o nly a f ew

n ature

t o

These i s

t he s tandard a nd n umber o f t roops i n m any f orts

l argely r ecruited f rom f ree G ermany, c ontinued t o 1 973, 1 96).

C uthbert v isited i t .

( found u p

i n t he d iocese were a bandoned a s ar esult o f a ll

t hat

l ate f ourth c entury,

3 41

s ites

t heir

i n t he ' vita S ancti i s

t here

any

a bandonment .

S everini%

a rchaeological

p rincipalis a t B irdoswald t he e xcavators a nd t hen b urnt s oon a fter A D

3 75,

t he a rea ( Richmond a nd B irley E .

e vidence

f or

t he

I n t he b uilding n orth o f t he v ia t hought

i t

had b een

looted

t here b eing n o f urther o ccupation i n 1 930,

1 71).

I t was suggested t hat

a t C hesterholm t he l ast p eriod i n t he r ampart b uilding b y t he east wall e nded i n d estruction b y f ire o n t he e vidence o f

1 30

t he b urnt p ottery

w ithin i t c ould

( Birley E .

1 931,

2 11).

h ave b een a ccidental ;

" both

B irdoswald

d estroyed"

( Frere

a nd

A t b oth t hese s ites

t here

i s

n ot

C hesterholm

1 978 ,

4 17) .

T he

e nough

s eem

f inal

t o

t he d estruction

e vidence

h ave

p eriod ,

t o

b een

p hase

s ay

t hat

v iolently

I V ,

b uildings

a t Ravenglass w ere t hought b y t he e xcavator t o h ave b een d ismantled a t t he end o f t he o ccupation, implying a n o rderly withdrawal f rom t he f ort ( Potter 1 979A , 4 5) . T he praetorium o f B inchester had most o f i ts d ebris r emoved b y t he 1 9th c entury e xcavators . T he u ndisturbed s ubstantial r ubbish d eposit i n t he y ard a rea, h owever, would s eem t o imply t hat t he b uilding d ecayed n aturally a ctivity

here.

s ubstantially s eventh

( Jones R . T he

i ntact

c entury

a nd

o r

1 977).

p rincipia i n

l ater

T here may have b een s ub-Roman

a t

u se

Y ork

u ntil

( Ramm

would

1 971,

3 16).

O n t he

S axon S hore,

t o,

t o have

f ire

i n

c enturies,

a nd e xit f rom t he d iocese.

t he

b een e arly

A t Leintwardine, i n f ire

( Stanford

R ichborough h eld a n a nomalous

l ate f ourth a nd e arly f ifth

e ntry

b y

1 86).

f inal p eriod d ated t o t he f ourth c entury e nded t he

a ppear

d estroyed

b eing

t he

t he 1 968,

p osition i n

main p ort

o f

O n t he n umismatic e vidence,

o ccupation i s a ttested until AD 4 07 a nd may have c ontinued a l ittle l ater.

T he

l ater

f ourth

a nd

e arly

f ifth

c entury

c oinage

R ichborough a ccounts f or 4 5% o f a ll t he c oinage f rom t he s ite . t his

r espect

i t

i s v ery u nusual .

4 02 ,

o nly f ive s ilver c oins

t he Yorkshire

c oast.

s keletal r emains

o f

i s

o f C onstantine I II b eing

o f

l ater

p rovided a t

t wo

I n

t he

o f

t he

s ignal

military

s tations

1 4 h umans - m en ,

women a nd c hildren .

having

s outh-east b een

o n

c orner

o f

t he

T he s kulls

( Hornsby a nd S tanton 1 912,

t ower

a t

G oldsborough

s keleton o f a m an who h ad f allen a cross t he s mouldering f ire, a fter

d ate .

Within t he well a t Huntcliff were f ound t he

were s eparated f rom t he r est o f t he b ody 2 3 0.

I n

C oin l oss v irtually c eased a fter A D

T he most g raphic e vidence f or t he v iolent d estruction o f i nstallations b y r aiders

a t

s tabbed

i n

t he

b ack.

T he

s kull

was

t he

p robably

s howed

much

e vidence o f a v iolent d eath w ith s evere wounds t o t he h ead c aused b y a sword a nd/or a s pear, whilst c lose b y was a nother man l ying f ace d ownwards;

b eneath h im was a l arge d og, i ts head a gainst t he man's

t hroat a nd i ts paws a cross h is s houlders.

S ir A . K eith, who wrote

t he r eport o n t he human r emains, t hought t hat t hese two men were o f R omano-British o rigin a nd r epresented t he l ast d efenders o f t he s ignal s tation. A f ragment o f a s kull a lso c ame f rom within t he t ower. T he e xcellent p reservation o f t hat

t hey

were

s oon

c overed

t he b y

s keletons

t he

e ntire

F rom t he well c ame f urther h uman b ones, n umismatic e vidence, s oon

a fter A D

I n A D

4 06 ,

3 95

t he e xcavators

t roops

t hought o f

O n t he

1 932) .

t he B ritish a rmy e levated a man c alled Marcus t o t he p urple C asey s uggests t hat t he hiatus i n p ayment o f

f rom c irca A D 4 02 a nd a s ense o f

Marcus

r eplaced b y a lso

i ndicate s tructure .

o ne o f a y oung woman .

i solation b rought a bout b y

b arbarian i nvasions o n t he C ontinent were t he c auses 3 85).

t o

t he

d ated t he e nd o f t he o ccupation t o

( Hornsby a nd L averick

f or reasons unknown . t he

was

c ollapse

was

s oon

d eposed b y

G ratian a municeps

murdered

b y

t he

i n A D

s oldiers

C onstantine t o t he t hrone .

who

( Casey

t he s oldiers a nd k illed, 4 07 . t hen

F our

m onths

r aised

l ater

a s oldier

1 974D, b eing h e

was

c alled

These events a re r ecorded b y t he v ery

i nept G reek h istorian Z osimus who would s eem t o h ave u sed t he m ainly l ost work o f O lympiodorus who was a d irect c ontemporary o f t hese e vents

- he

wrote a h istory

o f

1 31

t he p eriod AD

4 07

t o 4 23 a nd d ealt

mainly was

with

t he west .

c rossed

p enetrated B ritain T he

b y

A t

a l arge

t he v ery e nd o f A D

number

o f

i nto n orth-west G aul .

f eared

e levation

t hat o f

t he

i sland

Z osimus would

b e

t he R hine f rontier

Alans

r ecords

and

t hat

b y

i n

c ontext

t his

S ueves

who

t he t roops

i nvaded

t he s oldier C onstantine

A s s oon a s h e t ook over power,

4 06 ,

V andals,

t hese

i n

b arbarians . m akes

s ense .

h e c rossed t o G aul with much o f

t he

B ritish g arrison, p resumably with t he a pproval o f t hose who had s o r ecently r aised him t o t he purple. have

marked

t roops .

t he

e nd

o f

T his withdrawal o f t roops may

o rganised d efence

o f

t he d iocese b y

Roman

I t i s n ot c lear h ow m any t roops C onstantine I II r emoved f rom

B ritain o r f rom where t hey were d rawn, b ut presumably t he r ecently i nstituted

f ield

a rmy

a ccompanied

him .

I t

would

p erhaps

b e

s urprising i f t he u nits t hat had been g arrisoning f orts f or d ecades wished

t o

l eave

C onstantine

I

t heir h omes a

c entury

f or

t he C ontinent,

b efore

may

h ave

t hough

t he

e xample

p roved

an

i ncentive .

C onstantine I II must h ave b een s eeking t o d raw a ttention h e r enamed h is t wo s ons J ulian a nd C onstans . I n A D 4 08,

t o t his

o f

when

i t i s l ikely t hat t here was a S axon i nvasion o f Britain;

i t was r ecorded b y t he Gallic C hronicler o f 4 52 ( Thompson E . 1 977). T hompson s uggests t hat t he S axons t ook t he o pportunity t o a ttack B ritain o n s eeing i t s tripped o f

m any o f

i ts

t roops .

With t he r evolt

o f G erontius, who was a t t he t ime c ommanding most o f Constantine's t roops

i n S pain,

C onstantine was

i n n o p osition t o d efend B ritain;

t herefore t he B ritons r ebelled a gainst R ome a nd a gainst t he i nvaders.

d efended

a fter A D 4 07 o f a ny R oman t roops i n t he d iocese .

I n A D 4 10 t here was

t he f amous r escript o f H onorius t o t he B ritish c ities own

d efence

t hemselves

T here i s n o mention i n t he l iterary s ources

( Zosimus

V I,

1 0,

2 ).

T his

h as

b een

t o

l ook t o t heir

s een b y

marking t he o fficial e nd o f R oman r ule i n t he i sland,

many

a s

but r ecently

d oubt has b een c ast o n t he r elevance o f t his passage t o t he British d iocese

a nd K ent

B ritain a t t his

p assage

a t A rles

has

a ll b ut i s

t o

t o

b e

i n A D 4 11,

s uggested

t hat

t he

o f

c ities

i nterpreted,

t he p assage

R aetia w ith

( Kent

d oes n ot r efer t o

1 979 ,

t he d eath o f

1 8) .

H owever

C onstantine

I II

P rocopius c ould write :

" The R omans were n o l onger a ble t o r ecover B ritain, but i t r emained f rom

t hat

t ime

u nder

t yrants"

( BV I II,

2 ,

3 8) .

Whether t here were a ny R oman t roops s till i n B ritain in t he s econd d ecade o f s ome

t he f ifth

t roops

were

c entury l eft

i s

i n

i mpossible

t he

t o

s ay .

i sland b ecause

I t

i s

t o h ave

l ikely

t hat

s tripped

t he

d iocese t otally o f i ts d efenders would not have b een in C onstantine I II's i nterest. p aid

I f t roops r emained, t hey were c ertainly n ot being

i n n ewly-minted

c oin .

O f

t he

e nd o f H adrian's

Wall,

B reeze

a nd

D obson wrote : " There

i s

l ittle

e vidence

f or S axons

- a nd n one f or P icts

o n H adrian's Wall a nd we may a ccept

t hat

r eturned

h ad

1 976, B y

t o

t he

s oil

f rom

which

t hey

t he s oldiers s prung"

a nd S cots o f

t he

-

Wall

( Breeze a nd Dobson

2 32).

t he s econd

d ecade

o f

t he

f ifth

b y t he R oman a rmy h ad c eased.

1 32

c entury,

t he o ccupation o f

B ritain

C HAPTER 9

T HE N OTITIA D IGNITATUM

T he Notitia D ignitatum i s a l ate Roman d ocument p reserved t oday i n f our main m anuscripts o f 1 5th a nd 1 6th c entury d ate . T hese a ll s eem t o h ave b een c opied f rom t he C odex S pirensis w hich i s p robably a 1 0th c entury c opy o f t he o riginal l ate R oman d ocument, t hough i t d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een c opied d irectly . D ue t o o ur m anuscripts b eing s o f ar r emoved f rom t he o riginal,there a re a n umber o f c opyist e rrors, A lso, s ome s ections o f t he d ocument d o n ot s eem t o h ave s urvived , e .g . t he s ections o f t he v icarius o f I taly a nd t he d ux L ibyarum . T he

d ocument

whose

f ull

t itle

i s

" Notitia

Dignitatum

e t

a dministrationum t am c ivilium q uam m ilitarium i n p artibus o rientis e t o ccidentis",

i s

a n i llustrated l ist

o f

a ll t he c ivil a nd m ilitary

o fficials i n t he Empire a t s ome d ate a fter t he d ivision o f t he Empire i nto e astern a nd western p ortions . I n t he m ilitary s ections, u nder e ach o fficial , t here i s a l ist o f a ll t he t roops u nder h is c ommand a nd where t hey were s tationed . I t i s h ence a n i nvaluable d ocument f or t he military h istorian o f t he L ate R oman Empire . T here

a re ,

h owever ,

g reat

d ifficulties when o ne a ttempts

t o u se t his

d ocument . I t d oes n ot s eem p ossible t o a ccept t hat i t r epresents t he d isposition o f f orces i n t he Empire a t a ny o ne t ime . S ome s cholars n otably B ury - r easoned t hat t o b e o f a ny u se t he d ocument must r epresent t he s ituation a t o ne p articular p oint i n t ime. H e was h ence f orced t o d ate t he whole d ocument b y i ts l atest e ntry ( Bury 1 920) . 4 24 .

I n

t he N otitia o ccidentis

t he l atest

e ntry

d ates

t o a fter A D

One unit h as t he t itle ' Placidi V alentinianici f e nces' .

I t

a lso r ecords t he d ux P annoniae S ecunda a nd t he d ux V aleria . T hese p rovinces were n ot r ecovered f rom t he H unns u ntil A D 4 27 . S alisbury , h owever , p ointed o ut t hat t he s ection o n t he P annonian p rovinces c ould d ate t o t he p eriod o f T heodosius a nd G ratian, i .e . b efore t hese p rovinces were t emporarily l ost t o t he Empire ( Salisbury 1 927 , 1 06 ) . W ith r egard t o B ritain , h owever , i s

v ery

p roblematical.

t his h omogenous d ating o f t he N otitia

I t h as

g enerally

b een a ccepted t hat

t he

r escript o f H onorius t o t he c ities o f B ritain t o l ook t o t heir own d efence e ffectively m arks t he e nd o f R oman r ule i n t he i sland . B ury c ould n ot a ccept t hat s ome s ections o f t he N otitia would b e o lder t han o thers a nd h e c ould s ee n o r eason w hy t he p rimicarius n otariorum , t he m an r esponsible f or d rawing u p t he d ocument,

would s eek t o i ncorporate

o ut-of-date m aterial i n what i s t hought t o b e, b y many s cholars, a n o fficial working d ocument . H owever , i n t he f ace o f t he n umismatic e vidence f rom H adrian 's W all , B ury d id c oncede t hat t he W all m ay h ave b een a bandoned b y C onstantine I II. T his g oes a gainst his whole

1 33

t hesis s ince , i f o ne s ection c an b e o ut o f d ate , t hen n o d oubt o thers c an e asily b e s o . T his p oint was s eized u pon b y C ollingwood w ho a rgued f rom t he n umismatic e vidence t hat B ritain a fter A D 4 10 was i mpossible . d ecade o f a bruptly .

a ny R oman o ccupation o f

C oins c ome d own i nto t he

f irst

t he f ifth c entury i n f air q uantities a nd t hen c ease C oins o f A rcadius o n most s ites g reatly exceed t hose o f

H onorius,

i mplying t hat s oon a fter H onorius b ecame A ugustus i n A D

t he

s upplies

c oin

t o

t his

c ountry

- a nd

t he

military

o fficials f or which t his m oney was p rovided - c eased, 1 922A, 8 2).

a nd

3 93 ,

c ivil

( Collingwood

Q uite whether we a re j ustified i n a rguing f or t he a bandonment o f a p rovince d ue t o a c essation i n t he c oin s upplies i s u nclear. I n N oricum t he g arrison o f t he l imes c eased t o r eceive r egular p ay c irca A D 4 00 . T he c oin s eries h ere, a s i n B ritain, c ontains m any m ore c oins o f A rcadius t han H onorius - c oin s upplies m ust h ave v irtually c eased e arly i n H onorius' r eign ( Alföldy 1 974 , 2 13) . N ormal m onetary c irculation a like i n t he D anubian f orts a nd a t m any s ettlements i n t he i nterior c ame t o a n e nd . Y et we k now f rom t he L ife o f S t . S everinus t hat a t l east u p t o A D 4 60 t here were s till s ome f orts g arrisoned b y r egular t roops, t hough t his would s eem t o h ave c eased v ery s oon a fter . S tein a rgued t hat t he p resence o f c oins i mplies t rade ( Schultz 1 933 , 4 2),

b ut t his

d oes n ot

s eem t o b e

t he

c ase a s

t he

main p urpose o f

c oins was t o p ay s tate e mployees, b e t hey s oldiers o r c ivil s ervants . H ence , t he c essation o f c oin s upplies s hould m ean t hat t here were n o l onger a ny s tate employees i n a p rovince, i .e . t hat i t h ad b een a bandoned . I n N oricum t he s oldiers d o s eem t o h ave b een p aid , t hough o nly v ery i nfrequently. T here i s n ot a t otal a bsence o f l ate c oins i n t he p rovince - a n umber a re f ound a t L auriacum . Mommsen b elieved t hat t he N otitia a s a whole b elonged t o t he y ear A D 4 24-5 b ut t hat t he p art r elating t o B ritain was a t t his t ime o bsolete . I t

m ust

c ertainly b e a ccepted t hat

t he N otitia c ontains n umerous

s trata o f i nformation which d iffer i n d ate, o ften t o q uite a marked d egree .

S eeck p ointed o ut t hat s ome f ormations l ower d own i n t he

d istributio n umerorum o f O c . c h . V II a ppear i n h igher g rades i n c hapters V a nd V I . Y et e ach c hapter s till c ontains l ater a dditions ( Stevens T hese

1 940,

1 43).

i nconsistences

h ave

l ed

t o

d oubts

b eing

c ast

o n

t he u sefulness

o f t he d ocument t o t he l ate R oman g overnment a nd h igh c ommand, a nd h ence d iscussion a s t o whom t he p articular d ocument o f which w e h ave a c opy b elonged . T he N otitia was d rawn u p b y t he primicerius n otariorum: t here were two p rimicerii a t t he t ime o f t he N otitia's c ompilation - o ne f or t he E astern a nd o ne f or t he Western E mpire . p repared a nd i ssued t he c odicilli g iven t o e very h igh o fficial

H e

o n h is

a ppointment t o h is p ost . I n t he primicerius' b ureau t he c odicil o f i nstallation was p repared which c ontained t he t itle o f t he f unctionaries u nder h is c ontrol, t he c onstitution o f his s taff a nd a lso,

p ainted i n c olour,

t he i nsignia o f h is o ffice .

T here i s e vidence i n t he d ocument f or c orrections - s ome p arts d o s eem t o h ave b een u pdated whilst o thers were n ot . A lso, w hen s ome e ntries h ave b een u pdated, t he o bsolete i nformation has n ot b een d eleted . H ence we f ind i n s ome c ases t he s ame u nit b eing r ecorded a t t wo d ifferent p laces. I n t he a rmy o f t he c omes A fricae ( 21 .ch. XXV) which c ontains H onoriani t here a re t wo u nits d estroyed i n AD 3 73 .

1 34

U nder t he d ux Mesopotamiae ( Or . c h . XXXVI) t here i s a ' Theodosian' i tem , y et h e i s c redited with t he l egions I a nd I I P arthica d estroyed i n A D 3 59, b ut n ot with V P arthica which was a lso d estroyed i n t hat s ame y ear ; i t h as b een d eleted ( Tomlin 1 972, 2 55, f n .8) . A s imilar i nconsistency c an b e s een w ith r eference t o B ritain . T he e ntry f or t he i nfantry u nits o f t he c omes B ritanniae omits t he p hrase ' intra B ritannias'

( p _s_ . ch.

V II).

T he g eographical d esignation i s

n owhere e lse omitted i n t he d istributio , n ot e ven a t t he h ead o f t he e ntry f or t he c avalry u nits o f t he c omes B ritanniae . M ann s uggests t hat o n t he l oss o f B ritain c irca A D 4 10 t he w ords ' intra B ritannias' w ere t o b e d eleted b ut t hat t he c lerk f orgot t hat t he e ntry a ppeared t wice Mann 1 976 , 4 ) . I t

i s

e vident t hat t he e astern s ection o f t he N otitia i s much m ore

c onsistent; i t s eems t o h ave b een r evised f airly t horoughly c irca A D 3 95, t hen l eft v irtually u ntouched ( Jones A . 1 973, 1 417). T he d ocument t hat we have was p resumably u sed i n t he west, t he e astern s ection b eing r etained o nly f or r eference p urposes. S ome h ave s uggested ( e .g . F rere 1 978, 2 61) t hat t he d ocument b elonged t o a p rivate i ndividual who was a ble t o u pdate o nly t hose p arts o f t he western d ocument with w hich h e w as f amiliar .

O thers s uggest

t hat i t

w as a n o fficial d ocument, t he o bsolete s ections b eing r etained i n t he h ope t hat t he a reas a t t he m oment o f writing l ost t o t he Empire m ight s oon b e r ecovered, i n which c ase i t would b e u seful t o k now what g arrison s trength a nd d isposition h ad b een d eemed n ecessary t o h old a g iven a rea . Mann

s uggests

t hat

t he

v ersion

o f

t he

N otitia

which

we

p ossess

b elonged t o t he o fficium o f t he magister peditum p raesentalis, a nd t hat t he c lerks t here h ad r ather c rudely a ttempted t o c onvert t he d ocument i nto o ne a imed s olely a t r ecording m ilitary i nformation o f i nterest t o t he m agister p editum . I t w ould s eem t hat m ost i nterest h ad b een f ocussed o n k eeping t he f ield a rmy s ection, i .e . t he d istributio o f c hapter V II u p t o d ate . L ess i nterest h as b een t aken i n t he r est o f t he m ilitary e stablishment . W ith a d ocument o f t his c omplexity a nd with t he many major c hanges i n t roop d ispositions o ccurring i n t he l ate f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies,

i t must h ave b een

v ery d ifficult t o k eep t he d ocument u p t o d ate; a ccuracy was n ot d eemed n ecessary ( Mann 1 976 , 5 ) .

p erhaps

t otal

T he -Notitia r ecords t hree c ommands i n B ritain - t hat o f t he c omes B ritanniae, t he c omes l itoris S axonici p er B ritanniam a nd t he d ux B ritanniarum. T he f irst c ommend i s o nly mentioned i n t he N otitia . T he c omes l itoris S axonici may b e t he s ame a s t he c omes maritimi t ractus r ecorded b y Ammianus a s b eing i n B ritain i n A D 3 67 ( A .M . XXVII,

8 .1).

Ammianus,

w riting o f

t he e vents o f A D 3 67 a nd 3 68 ,

m akes n o m ention o f

a c omes B ritanniae a lthough i t would h ave b een a pposite t o h ave d one s o i f t hat c ommand h ad b een i n e xistence . S ome s cholars maintain t hat t he c ommand was o nly i nstituted a fter B ritain h ad b een a bandoned c irca A D 4 10 . S eeck s uggested t hat t he c omes was a ppointed t o c arry o ut t he r econquest - a c ommand which h e n ever a ctually a ssumed ( Collingwood 1 922,

8 5).

B ury m aintained t hat t hree o f t he c avalry

u nits u nder t he c omes' c ommand d ate t o a fter A D i n with t he p ost A D 4 10 c ommand, t hough B ury

1 35

4 28 . T his c ould f it g ives n o r eason why

t hese u nits n eed t o b e s o l ate . C ollingwood t ried t o l ink t he c omes B ritanniae with t he ' secunda u ltio' o f G ildas . T his g oes a gainst t he a rchaeological e vidence which C ollingwood h imself h ad u sed t o r efute B ury's

t hesis

i n

h is

a rticle

o n

t he

R oman

E vacuation

o f

B ritain

( Collingwood 1 922A). T here i s n o e vidence f or R oman a ctivity i n B ritain a fter t he f irst d ecade o f t he 5 th c entury . T he c omes B ritanniae c ommand m ust d ate t o s ome t ime b etween A D 3 67 a nd 4 10 . T here had b een a c omes i n B ritain a t a much e arlier d ate . Ammianus r ecords ( A .M. XXX, 7 .2) t hat V alentinian's f ather, G ratian, h ad c ommanded t he a rmy i n B ritain with t he r ank o f c omes t hough t his c ommand d oes n ot s eem t o have b een p ermanently e stablished a t t hat d ate . I f G ratian s erved i n B ritain a nd A frica a s a r egular f rontier c ommander, h e p robably would h ave b een r eferred t o a s c omes e t d ux . C omes was a n h onorific t itle a nd n eed n ot imply a particular p ost ( Mann 1 977, 1 3). T here

were

s ix

c avalry

i nfantry units ( Oc. r epresents i s u nclear .

u nits

u nder

c h. V II). B ury h as

t he

c omes' c ommand

a nd

t hree

Q uite how l arge a f orce t his s uggested a f orce o f 5 ,500 ; F rere

s uggests 6 ,000 a t t he maximum ( Frere

1 978,

2 69),

b ut t hese must a t

most b e i nspired g uesses. We have v ery l ittle i nformation o n t he s ize o f l ate R oman u nits. A s o ne o f t he c avalry units i s named ' Honoriani' , t he c ommand was p robably i n e xistence u nder H onorius t hough t he unit n eed not h ave r eceived i ts t itle while H onorius was Emperor . I t n eed d ate n o l ater t han A D 3 87 ( or e ven A D 3 84). L ibanius

( Or .

X IX

6 2)

makes

a c lear

a llusion

H onorias i n as peech c omposed i n A D 3 87 .

t o

t he

p rovince

o f

H onorius was b orn o n 9 th

S eptember A D 3 84 b ut was o nly made Augustus o n 2 3rd J anuary A D 3 93 ( Jones A . 1 973, 4 18). Mann b elieves t hat i t was S tilicho w ho began t he p ractice o f c reating small , p ermanent f ield a rmies, t oo s mall t o q ualify f or t he a ppointment o f a m agister , a nd which were t herefore p laced u nder t he c ommand o f men o f t he n ext l ower r ank, t he c omes. Mann t hus d ates t he Notitia i n i ts b asic f orm t o c irca A D 3 95 M ann 1 976 ,

8 ) .

F rere s uggests

t hat t he c ommand c ould h ave b een i nstituted

b y S tilicho c irca A D 4 02 t o c ompensate f or his r emoval o f l arge n umbers o f t roops f rom t he c ommands o f t he d ux B ritanniarum a nd c omes l itoris S axonici which h e b elieves would h ave virtually c aused t he c ollapse o f t hese f rontier c ommands ( Frere 1 978 , 2 69) . T he i nsignia o f t he c omes B ritanniae

( 252

c h .

XXIX) s hows a s ingle

f ortification i n B ritain . T here i s n o i ndication a s t o w here t he f ield a rmy was b ased; n o f ield a rmy b ase i s k nown a nywhere i n t he Western Empire . I n B ritain, t he f ield a rmy i s n ot d efinitely r ecorded i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a t a ll . H ence a rchaeology c an g ive n o c lue t o t he d ate o f h is e xistence b efore c irca A D 4 10 ) .

c ommand

( except

t o

i ndicate

i ts

T he c omes l itoris S axonici h ad u nder h is c ommand n ine f orts w hich were s ituated o n t he s outh a nd e ast c oasts o f B ritain . T he d ating o f h is c ommand i s a gain p roblematical . I t i s g enerally a ssumed t hat t he c ommand a s p reserved i n t he N otitia d ates t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury, t hough a t a n umber o f f orts o n t he l itus S axonicum ( Reculver , L ympne, ? Portchester), t he a rchaeological e vidence would s eem t o i ndicate t hat t hey had b een g iven u p b y t his t ime . I t i s n ot c lear whether t he c omes maritimi t ractus r ecorded b y Ammianus s hould b e e quated

with

t he

c omes

l itoris

S axonici .

1 36

I f

t hey

a re

t he

s ame

o fficial, t hen o bviously t he c ommand m ust N ectaridus may j ust b e a ' comes e t d ux' . I f

d ate b efore A D 3 67. h e r eally was c omes

l itoris S axonici, i t i s u nclear why t he c ommand h ad a chieved a r ank h igher t han t hat o f t he c ommander o f t he n orthern f rontier . T he f orts t hemselves were p robably a ll i n e xistence i n t he l ate t hird c entury, t hough t hey were n ot a ll h eld a t t he t ime o f t he N otitia's c ompilation . T en f orts a re k nown o n t he s outh a nd e ast c oasts w hich w ould s eem t o h ave b een c onstructed a s a d efence a gainst s ea r aiders a nd t o b e b roadly c ontemporary. O ne o f t hese h ad p resumably b een a bandoned a t t he t ime when c hapter X XVIII was c ompiled .

S tevens

t hought

t hat

t he m ilites T ungrecani a t D ubris a nd t he n umerus

T urnacensium a t L emanis h ad o riginally b een s tationed o n t he T ongresB avai l imes which s eems t o h ave b een a bandoned u nder G ratian . H e would t hus h ave l iked t o d ate O c . c h . XXVIII t o a fter A D 3 75 ( Stevens 1 940, 1 37-8). T hese u nits d o n ot n eed t o h ave r eceived t heir n ames f rom l ong a ssociation with T ongres o r T ournai; t hey c ould h ave been r aised f rom t hese a reas. O ther units o f T ungrecani a re k nown i n t he m id-fourth c entury . O nly t he T ungrecani i n t he B ritish s ections o f t he N otitia a re c alled m ilites . V an B erchem t ook t his t o i mply t hat t hey m ust h ave b een t he l ast r einforcements t o t he c oastal d efences

S ome

o f

( Van B erchem

t he u nits

1 955) .

i n t he S axon S hore f orts d o s eem t o h ave b een t here

f or a l ong p eriod o f t ime .

T he c ohors I B aetasiorum i s a ttested o n

t ile

o f

s tamps

f rom

R eculver

t hird-century

d ate .

T he

u nits

o f

B rancaster a nd B urgh C astle must h ave b een l ong s tationed a t t hese f orts t o h ave p icked u p t he f ort's n ame . T he o ther u nits m ay T v-I t b e t he o riginal o nes t o have g arrisoned t hese f orts. S ome c ould h ave b een brought i nto B ritain b y T heodosius i n A D 3 67, t hough n one I s s o r ecorded b y Ammianus . T wo u nits t hat h ad p reviously b een s tationed a t Pevens e y, t he milites Andere tiano rum and t he c lassis A nderetianorum ,

a re r ecorded i n t he N otitia u nder t he d ux Mogontiacum

a nd a t P aris r espectively. ( Here a milites unit was r eplaced b y a n umerus - s ee V an B erchem a bove) . T ile s tamps f rom B rancaster r ecord t he c ohors I A quitanorum; i t may h ave b een t he f ort's f irst g arrison. J ohnson s uggests t hat o riginally t he l itus S axonicum c ommand i ncluded b oth s ides o f t he C hannel ( Johnson J . 1 976A , 1 43). Two s ites i n G aul, G rannona u nder t he d ux t ractus A rmoricani a nd Marcae u nder t he d ux Belgicae S ecunda a re r eferred t o a s b eing ' in l itore S axonico% T his would e xplain t he a pparent a nomaly o f t he c omes l itoris S axonici h aving m any f ewer t roops u nder h is c ommand t han t he l ower r anking d ux B ritanniarum . A ppointment t o s ome o f t he m ore i mportant o ffices c ame t cYcarry with i t t he e levation t o t he r ank o f c omes . T his s oon b egan t o happen with t he more important f rontier d ucates ( Mann 1 977, 1 3). J ohnson s uggests t hat t he ' dux l itoris S axonici' was e levated t o a c omes p erhaps when C onstans c ame t o B ritain i n A D 3 42-3 . T he c ommand o f t he c omes embracing b oth c oasts o f t he C hannel must have b een b roken u p b efore t he N otitia's c hapter X XVIII was w ritten . C arausius n o d oubt h eld t he a rea l ater c ontrolled b y t he c omes ( dux) l itoris S axonici

t hough h e m ay n ot h ave h eld e ither o f

c ommand i n t he

N otitia

c ould

r epresent

f ollowing a p resumed r eorganisation o f

1 37

t hese

t he s ituation

t itles .

T he

a fter A D 3 67 ,

t he s ystem b y T heodosius .

T he c ommand o f t he d ux B ritanniarum i s m ore p roblematical t han t he o ther B ritish c ommands . Whereas t he o ther t wo c ommands a re g enerally a ccepted a s r epresenting t he s ituation a t o ne p eriod i n t ime, t he d ux c ommand h as b een t hought b y s ome t o c ontain t wo s trata o f i nformation o f widely d iffering d ates. I n O c. X L, t wo p arts t o t he c ommand a re n oted . I n t he f irst p art t here a re f ourteen f orts which w ould s eem t o l ie i n n orth-east B ritain b etween S outh S hields a nd D oncaster . T he s econd p art i s l isted u nder t he t itle ' item p er , l ineam v alli' a nd c ontains a l ist o f 2 3 f orts r unning f rom W allsend o n t he T yne, a long t he Wall , a nd i ncludes s ome s ites i n t he n orth-west o f s outh a s R ibchester .

B ritain a s

A ll t he u nits r ecorded i n t he f irst p art o f t he c hapter e quites; t hese a re s tandard f ourth-century u nits . I n l ineam v alli' s ubsection , m ost o f t he u nits a re a lae which w ere o riginally r ecruited i n t he e arly Empire . t o f ind s uch N otitia, b ut A rmeniae ( Q r , many o f t hese emperors .

f ar

a re n umeri o r t he ' item p er a nd c ohortes I t i s u nusual

a c oncentration o f ' old-style' u nits p reserved i n t he i t i s n ot u nknown . Most o f t he u nits u nder t he d ux c h . X XXVIII) f or i nstance a re a lae a nd c ohortes, t hough b ear t itles b estowed b y l ate t hird a nd f ourth c entury

J ones b elieves t hat t he a rmies o f t he e astern f rontier,

f rom T hebaid t o A rmenia, a nd t hose o f B ritain, S pain and T ingitana, r emain i n t he N otitia much a s D iocletian l eft t hem ( Jones A . 1 973, 1 427) . T he Wall s ubsection i s v ery u nusual i n n ot h aving u nits n amed a fter l ate e mperors . I t

has

o ften

H erculaea , o f

t he

b een

c laimed

t hat

t he

u nit

m ust b e n amed a fter Maximianus

u nits

with

a t

O lenacum,

t he

a la

( emperor A D 2 86-305) .

t he t itle H erculaea were n o d oubt

I

M any

r aised u nder t he

T etrachy b ut t hey n eed n ot a ll h ave b een . G illam b elieves t hat t he a la m ay h ave b een n amed a fter C ommodus who , l ike M aximianus , e quated h imself with H ercules ( Gillam 1 974A ) . Many o f t hese n ames, c ould b e b attle h onours o f a ny d ate ( Roxan 1 976, 5 9). T hracum H erculiana i s r ecorded o n a c onsole ( ILS 8 869) f rom

h owever , T he a la t he w est

p ortico o f t he T emple o f B el a t P almyra . T his m entions t he y ear A D 1 67 . A s t his a la i s k nown t o h ave m oved t o C optos b y A D 1 85 , we h ave here c lear e vidence o f a u nit with a H erculian t itle b efore t he t etrachy ( Richmond 1 963, 5 0). I LS 1 327 r ecords a n a la H erculana i n t he l ate s econd c entury . T he u nit a t A ballaba , t he n umerus Maurorum A urelianorum i s n ow k nown t o h ave r eceived i ts t itle b efore A urelian . I t m ust h ave r eceived i t f rom Marcus A urelius o r o ne o f h is i mmediate s uccessors

( RIB

2 042).

I t h as g enerally b een a ccepted t hat t he ' item p er l ineam valli' s ubsection d oes n ot d ate t o c irca A D 3 95, t he d ate t o which t he o ther B ritish c ommands c ould b elong .

T he d egree o f o bsolescence o f t he

s ubsection has b een a rrived a t b y a c onsideration o f t he p resumed history o f t he n orthern f rontier i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies. T he a ll

Wall p eriods a s r eplacing

f ormulated b y C ollingwood i n 1 930 were a ccepted b y t hose w orked o ut f rom t he e xcavations a t M ilecastle

4 8 b y G ibson a nd S impson i n 1 911. T heir p eriods h ad b een b ased o n t he n umismatic e vidence f rom t hat s ite . T he B irdoswald p eriods w ere t aken b y a ll t o r eflect t he history o f t he whole Wall . o nwards,

F rom

1 930

C ollingwood b elieved t hat t here h ad b een t hree o ccasions w hen

t he Wall had b een o verrun; i n A D 1 97, 2 96 a nd 3 67 . E ach o ne o f t hese i nvasions was t hought t o h ave i nvolved t he whole o f n orthern B ritain i n widespread d estruction .

1 38

T he

m ost

c atastrophic i nvasion

was held t o h ave b een t hat o f A D 3 67 when Ammianus r ecords t hat t he p rovinces o f B ritain were a ttacked b y a ' barbarica c onspiratio' a nd a lmost t otally o verrun ( A .M. XXVII, 8 ). I t was t hus b elieved t hat t he g arrisons o n H adrian's Wall , which a re r ecorded e pigraphically i n t he t hird c entury , c ould n ot h ave s urvived i ntact t o r eturn t o t heir p osts . I t was h ence n ecessary t o d ate t he Wall s ubsection t o b efore A D 3 67. T here i s, h owever, v irtually n o e vidence t o s uggest a d estruction o f t he Wall i n A D 3 67 . I f t he a ttacks were a s widespread a s Ammianus would h ave u s b elieve, t hen t he Wall must h ave b een b yp assed , t he P icts p erhaps s ailing r ound t he e astern f lank . T here i s n o r eason why t he u nits i n g arrison i n t he e arlier f ourth c entury c ould n ot h ave r emained o n t he Wall u ntil t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod . T hat

t he W all s ubsection r ecords b asically

t hird

c entury

s ection o f

was

n oted b y Mommsen .

t he o rder o f b attle i n t he

W here

s ites

t he N otitia a re k nown o n t he g round,

m entioned

i n

t his

t here i s a d irect

c orrelation between t he t hird c entury g arrisons a ttested e pigraphically a nd t hose r ecorded i n t he N otitia, i f we a llow t he e mendation o f t he N otitia's c ohors I Austurum f or t he a ttested g arrison o f G reat C heaters, t he c ohors I I A usturum, a nd a ccept t hat A xelodunum ( thought b y s ome s cholars t o b e t he s ame a s t he U xelodunum o f t he R udge c up a nd Amiens p atera) r efers t o Netherby. B irley s uggested t hat t he emendation o f c ohors I A sturum i s u nnecessary a s t here i s e vidence f or a c ohort o f t hat n ame i n B ritain d uring t he t hird c entury ( ILS 2 767) a nd t he N otitia s hows a c ohors I I A sturum a t B usiris i n E gypt ( Birley E . 1 953, 1 3). T here c ould, h owever, have b een two c ohortes I I A sturum i n e xistence ( Roxan 1 976, 6 4). T he p roblem o f a ssigning n ames

t o t he f orts t owards t he western e nd o f t he

Wall u sing t he e vidence f rom t he N otitia a nd t hat p rovided b y t he R udge c up a nd Amiens p atera h as r ecently b een d iscussed b y H assall w ho h as p rovided a p artial s olution ( Hassall 1 976 , 1 13) . T he whereabouts o f Axelodunum i s, h owever, s till unclear . T he N otitia a ssigns t he c ohors I Hispanorum t o Axelodunum; t his unit i s a ttested e pigraphically a t N etherby, o nce i n A D 2 13 a nd twice i n A D 2 22. I t i s n ot a ttested e lsewhere i n t he t hird c entury; t here i s n o e vidence f or t he c ohort h aving moved f rom N etherby t o B owness o n S olway ( cf. R ivet a nd Smith 1 979, 2 21). N etherby i s k nown t o h ave b een c alled C astra E xploratorum - a n ame d erived f rom a t hird-century o r l ater s tyle o f u nit .

T here i s n o r eason why i t c ould n ot e arlier h ave b een

c alled A xelodunum

( cf .

B reeze a nd D obson

1 976 ,

2 75) .

I t has b een t hought t hat t he O lenacum o f t he N otitia i s t he f ort a t O ld C arlisle which i s k nown t o h ave b een g arrisoned , a t l east i n t he l ate s econd a nd e arly t hird c enturies, b y t he a la Augusta . A t O lenacum i n t he N otitia i s w as O ld C arlisle , h owever , t hat

R IB

8 99

f rom

O ld

p laced t he a la H erculaea . T hat O lenacum i s v ery u nlikely . H assall h as s uggested

C arlisle

r ecords

t he

n ame

o f

t he

f ort

a s

Säg .—.% T his h as p reviously b een i nterpreted a s kildIstrl , b ut o n a nalogy with t he v icani i nscription f rom C hesterholm, R IB 1 700, M ag . . . .

s hould

i ndicate

t he

f ort's

n ame

( Hassall

1 976 ,

1 11) .

G illam b elieves t hat t his o rder o f b attle d ates b ack t o t he t ime o f C ommodus a nd r epresents t he r eorganisation o f t he Wall a nd i ts h interland b y U lpius M arcellus f ollowing o n h is d efeat o f t he n orthern t ribes w ho h ad i nvaded t he p rovince e arly i n C ommodus' r eign ( Dio 7 2 , 8 ). T his i s n ot e asy t o p rove; u nits which a re known t o b e i n a p articular f ort u nder C ommodus a nd i n t he t hird c entury a re r are d ue

1 39

t o t he d earth o f

i nscriptions o f C ommodus,

p robably r esulting f rom h is

d amnatio m emoriae . A t C hesters a nd O ld C arlisle , t he s ame u nit d id r emain i n o ccupation . T here was n ever a ny n eed t o i nvent a nother g overnor n amed U lpius Marcellus ( Birley E . 1 939) . 1 464 m ust d ate t o C ommodus' r eign ( Jarrett 1 978 ) .

H ence R IB 1 463 a nd A t S outh S hields

t here was a c hange o f g arrison b ut t his c ould h ave b een a s pecial c ase c onnected with t he c onversion o f t he f ort i nto a s upply b ase f or S everus' S cottish c ampaigns . An i nscription f ound a t Newcastle i n 1 979 c asts d oubts o n G illam's i nterpretation . u p i n A D 2 13 b y Imperial H ouse . C ugernorum . C ornoviorum

T he i nscription would s eem t o b e o ne o f a n umber s et t he a rmy i n B ritain r ecording i ts l oyalty t o t he I t was e rected b y t he c ohors I U lpia T raiana

T he u nit r ecorded h ere i n t he N otitia was ( Daniels a nd H arbottle 1 980).

t he c ohors I

T he Wall s ubsection c annot b e e arlier t han C ommodus a s t here i s a c hange o f u nit k nown a t B enwell b etween Marcus A urelius a nd C ommodus . T he S armatians a t R ibchester p robably o nly a rrived a fter A D 1 75. G illam d ates u nlikely

t hat

t he W all s ubsection t o t he r eign o f C ommodus a s i t s eems t he

t itle

d amnatio m emoriae .

H erculaea

c ould h ave

s urvived

I f i t was a b attle h onour ,

t hat

h owever ,

e mperor's

i t n eed h ave

n o c onnection with C ommodus. T he d ating o f t he s ubsection t o t he p eriod c irca A D 1 84 t o 1 97 c ould e xplain why t he o utposts, e xcept p erhaps Netherby, were n ot i ncluded i n t he l ist . C ommodus may h ave g iven u p m ost o f t he o utposts - a n umber w ere c ertainly h eld f or o f t he t hird a nd p art o f t he f ourth c enturies.

m uch

T he d ating o f t he ' item p er l ineam v alli' s ubsection s o e arly h as m et with much o pposition . I t would s eem l udicrous t o s uggest t hat a d ocument o f s uch a ge c ould s till b e u sed i n t he l ate f ourth c entury; b ut w hatever d ate i s p ut o n t he s ubsection , i t i s g enerally a greed t o h ave b een o ut O nce

o f

d ate .

o ne a ccepts

t hat

i t

was

o bsolete,

i t

i s n ot v ery s ignificant

whether i t b e b y 4 0 o r 2 00 y ears. I t i s p ossible t hat t he o utposts were held when t he l ist was d rawn u p, b ut t hat f or s ome r eason t hey were omitted . S ome o ther f orts t owards t he w estern e nd o f t he W all a nd i n t he n orth west o f B ritain were a lso omitted, t hough t hey a re n ot k nown t o h ave b een a bandoned a t t his t ime .

F rere m aintains area

i n

t he

t hat

t he s ubsection r eflects

period

AD

2 96-367,

but

t he s ituation i n t he W all

his

explanation

o f

t he

a rchaeological e vidence f rom R udchester a nd H altonchesters i s n ot v ery s atisfactory . H e b elieves t hat a s a ll t he c ohorts i n t he s ubsection a re c ommanded b y t ribuni, t his m ust d ate t o t he f ourth c entury . I n t he e arlier Empire, t ribuni h ad o nly c ommanded milliary c ohorts, q uingenary c ohorts b eing c ommanded b y p raefecti . I t i s b y n o m eans c lear, h owever, when t hese c ommands were a ltered . T he c hange m ay d ate t o a ny t ime a fter t he m id-third c entury . A lso, i t i s p erhaps p ossible t hat t he s cribe who c opied o ut t he Wall s ubsection f or t he N otitia c hanged t he c ohort c ommander's t itle t o f it i n with t he c urrent u sage - i t would h elp t o make t he l ist l ook more u p t o d ate a nd c ould e asily b e d one . C harlesworth b elieves t hat t he c ohors I T ungrorum had l eft H ousesteads b y t he e arly t hird c entury, b eing r eplaced f irst b y v exillations o f t he I I a nd V I l egions, a nd l ater b y

1 40

t he n umerus 2 8). I am o f

H naudifridi

a nd

t he

c uneus

F risiorum

( Charlesworth

1 975 ,

t he o pinion t hat t he W all s ubsection m ust d ate t o s ome p eriod

b etween c irca A D 2 13 a nd 2 80 . I t i s n ot p ossible t o d ate i t l ater a s i t would t hen d isagree with t he a rchaeological e vidence n ow a ccumulating f or a p artial a bandonment o f t he W all i n t he l ate t hird c entury . W hen i t was t hought t hat t he Wall was c rossed i n A D 2 96 a s a r esult o f Allectus' d enuding o f t he g arrisons t o f ight a gainst C onstantius i n t he s outh , i t was p ostulated t hat t he f ighting h ad n ot b een heavy, a nd t hat t he units had b een r apidly r eturned t o t heir p osts which t hey h ad o ccupied s ince t he t ime o f S everus. T his i n i tself was n ot a v ery s atisfactory s olution . G illam i n 1 949 had f ound t his u nacceptable a nd had d ated t he s ubsection t o t he t hird c entury b efore t he r eorganisation u nder t he

t etrachy .

T he a rchaeological e vidence b rought t o l ight o ver t he l ast 2 0 y ears i s, h owever , a ltering t his p icture . T here s eems t o b e n o e vidence o f v iolent e nemy d estruction a t a ny f ort i n t he n orth o f E ngland t hat c an b e a ssociated with t his i nvasion . B ewcastle c ould b e a n e xception i t may have b een v iolently d estroyed i n t he l ate t hird c entury ( Richmond, H odgson a nd S t. J oseph 1 938, 2 08-9). T here i s e vidence f rom a n umber o f f orts o n Hadrian's Wall t hat t hey were g iven u p a t s ome d ate a fter A D 2 73 . T he a rchaeological e vidence f or t his i s d iscussed i n d etail i n c hapter 3 ; h ere i t will s uffice t o b riefly m ention t he f orts t hought t o h ave b een u noccupied a t t his t ime . T he i nscription R IB 1 912 f rom B irdoswald , i f t aken l iterally , i mplies a n a bandonment o f a t l east t he m ain a dministrative b uilding o f

t he f ort;

i t c ould i mply t he t otal a bandonment o f t he s ite b y t he m ilitary . A t H altonchesters a nd R udchester, t he t hird-century b uildings where e xcavated were f ound t o have b een i n a c ompletely r uined s tate a nd were o verlain b y a t hick l ayer o f d ark e arth . H altonchesters would s eem t o have l ain d eserted f or a bout 1 00 years. T he d ark s oil was o verlain b y b uildings

o f

c irca A D

3 70 .

A t R udchester ,

t he s ituation

c ould be s imilar . A t N ewcastle, t he p eriod o f a pparent a bandonment was a gain n oted , t hough i t s eems h ere t o b e c onfined t o t he l ate t hird c entury . S outh S hields was g iven o ver t o c ivilian u se a t t his t ime . I t i s n ot c lear w hen i t was r eoccupied b y t he m ilitary , b ut a s a u nit i s r ecorded h ere i n t he f irst p art o f t he d ux c ommand, i t c ould h ave b een r eoccupied b efore A D

3 67 .

I f ind i t impossible t o b elieve t hat, a t l east a t R udchester a nd H altonchesters, t he s ame units c ould have r eturned t o t hese f orts a fter a n a bandonment o f c irca t wo d ecades would b e u nlikely

1 00 y ears . t o r eceive

E ven a f ort a bandoned f or t he o riginal g arrison b ack .

Unfortunately, i t i s v ery d ifficult t o prove t hat a p articular f ort was t otally a bandoned . I t c an b e a rgued t hat t he f ort m ay s till h ave b een held b y a small f orce a round which t he u nit was r eformed b y C onstantius. O nly t he c omplete e xcavation o f a f ort, i f t he a rchaeological r ecord i s well e nough p reserved , w ill a llow o f p roof . T he r arity o f t he u sually c ommon c oins o f C arausius a nd A llectus f rom t he Wall i s s trong , p resumptive e vidence f or a l ack o f t roops o n t he f rontier. B ritain

i n

t he

t hird

While t he r est o f b arbarian i nvasion ,

c entury

s eems

t he Empire t here s eems

1 41

t o h ave

b een

r emarkably

p eaceful .

was t orn a sunder b y c ivil war t o h ave b een n o t rouble whatever ,

o r a t

l east i n n orthern B ritain . c ircumstances o f

t roops

I t i s o nly t o b e e xpected t hat i n t hese

t he a rmy o f B ritannia I nferior would b e h eavily

t o

f ight

o n

t he

Continent.

Many

o f

t hese

d enuded

c ould

have

p erished; witness t he a bsence o f c ohortes a nd a lae o n t he R hine a nd D anube

f rontiers

i n

t he N otitia

i n t he t hird c entury .

where

S ome u nits

t he h eaviest

f ighting

o ccurred

may h ave b een i ncorporatd i nto

t he

a rmies o f o ther provinces. T here i s n o e vidence i n t he N otitia f or B ritish c ohortes a nd a lae o n t he C ontinent. Only a f ew units o f p robably

f ourth

Britain, b eing

c entury

a re f ound .

u sed

d ate,

w hich h ad a t o ne t ime b een s tationed i n

We d o know,

o utside

t he

i sland

however,

i n

t he

o f

t hird

t roops f rom B ritain

c entury.

I n AD

l egionary v exillations a nd t heir a uxiliaries were d rawn t o g ive a id i n t he G erman c ampaigns o f G allienus. r ecorded a t Mainz i n A D 2 55 a ccompanied

t he

n ever

r eturned

have

e mperor

P ostumus' G allic

units

H ousesteads, many o f

t o

( CIL X III, P annonia

B ritain

Empire .

t he Wall g arrisons, i rregular

t o

6 7,80).

( ILS

5 46 )

b y

t hen

a s

Mann b elieves

T hese t roops i n A D d rafts

t heir p lace b eing f illed b y r ecorded

on

l ater

T hey was

will

part

o f

were t aken f rom

t he n umeri,

t hird-century

G reat C hesters a nd R isingham .

2 60 .

B ritain

t hat

2 55,

f rom B ritain L egio XX i s

c unei

inscriptions

a nd

f rom

G illam h as s uggested t hat

t he t roops f rom t he Wall would h ave b een n eeded t o man t he

n ewly-built

S axon

S hore

f orts

i n

t he p ostulated a bandonment o f

t he

A D

s ome o f

2 80s;

i .e .

c ontemporary

t he Wall f orts .

with

E arlier i n t he

c entury R eculver a nd B rancaster h ad b een g arrisoned b y u nits which h ad p reviously

b een

Baetasiorum Aurelius;

p art

was

c ohors

B rough-on-Noe,

o f

l ast

t he

i n

t hat

C ohors

Maryport

r ecorded

i n

t he

t ime

l egatus

o f

l egionis

t he t hird c entury

f or

H adrian .

o f

omissions

T he

t he V I

( Birley A . 1 971,

t aken s eparately , h owever ,

M .

t he n orth

a t

c aused p erhaps

a rea

c overed

t he c ontrol o f V ictrix )

9 0).

o f

i s

p resumably

t he g overnor

B ritannia

o ther

d uces

( who

I nferior

i n

T he two parts o f c hapter X L

T he

1 4 u nits r ecorded i n t he f irst p art

o f t he d ux l ist ( these a re t he o nly o nes s hown o n his i nsignia; o f

b y

make n o s ense a s o ne c an n ever h ave e xisted

i n i solation f rom t he o ther . i nsignia

I

under

i s b asically t he s ystem o f d efence t hat h ad b een i n

which h ad b een p reviously u nder

was a lso

l ast

a t

t he d ux B ritanniarum a s a whole makes a r easonably I t

o peration f rom

n orthern B ritain . n orth

1 58 .

c oherent d efensive s ystem ( allowing c arelessness) .

o f

t he

I A quitanorum was

c irca A D

T he c ommand o f

g arrison

r ecorded

d o

n ot

i nclude

a ll

t he f orts

u nder

t he t heir

c ommand) c ould n ot r epresent a s tage i n t he R oman's withdrawal f rom t he n orth a fter t he Wall h ad b een a bandoned . I t d oes g uard t he r oad f rom t he n orth-west over S tainmore, a nd t he r oad f rom t he n orth a nd C orbridge, b ut none o f t he s ites s o f ar i dentified l ies o n t he west s ide

o f

t he

e xclusive;

c ountry.

s ignificant g aps. h ave

b een

B oth

p arts

o f

n owhere d o t hey o verlap, O ld C arlisle

t he Magis o r Maglona o f

i f

t he

c hapter

a re

mutually

nor d o t here a ppear t o b e a ny i t

was

c alled Mag....

t he d ux c ommand .

n eed n ot

T he a rea c overed

b y t he Wall s ubsection must have b een c ontained i n a f ourth-century l ist, b ut

t he c omplementary s heet t o t he f irst p art o f t he d ux c ommand,

t his was

s heet.

d isplaced o n t he i nsertion o f

F rere s uggests

r ecorded

i n

g entiles

u nder

t he

C hapter X LII o f

Wall

t hat

s ubsection b ecause

p raefecti

i ndependent

t he N otitia which

western p rovinces

t he ' item p er

l ineam v alli'

t he l ate f ourth-century units a re n ot t hey

f rom

l ists

t he

m ay b reak o ff b efore i t

1 42

may

t he

h ave

d ux

b een

( Frere

l aeti a nd

l aeti 1 978 ,

g entiles

r eaches B ritain .

o f

a nd 2 67). t he

Mann will n ot a ccept t hat t he t wo p arts o f t he d ux c ommand a re o f d ifferent d ates . H e n otes t hat i t i s n ot p ossible t o a rgue t hat t he u nits i n t he h interland f orts were d estroyed b y e nemy a ction i n t he l ate t hird c entury i f t he g arrison o f H adrian's Wall r emained u nscathed .

T herefore ,

h e

s uggests

t hat

t he

f orts

i n

t he

f irst

p art

o f c hapter X L were e vacuated d uring t he t hird c entury; t his would h ave t o b e l ater t han t he G ordianic i nscription f rom L anchester R IB 1 091 and t he s tone o f P hillipan d ate f rom O ld P enrith R IB s uggests

t hat

t he Wall a nd

9 15 .

H e

t he u nits r emoved f rom t hese f orts w ere d isbanded while t he w est

c oast

d efences were r etained w hich ,

i n

i tself,

would s eem u nlikely . During t he t hird c entury t he R oman a rmy was f ully s tretched . I t would m ake m uch m ore s ense t o s uggest t hat t hese u nits were m oved o ut t o r einforce t he C ontinental a rmies o r t o g arrison t he n ew S axon S hore d efences .

U nder C onstantius

C hlorus

o r

C onstantine , w hen t here h ad b een t rouble i n t he n orth , t he h interland was s trengthened a nd n ew u nits were b rought i nto t he n orth-east t o p rovide a m obile r eserve f or t he Wall

( Mann

1 974 ,

2 32; D obson

1 968-70 ,

3 5). Mann's

a ttempt

t o r ationalise t he d ux c ommand a s p reserved i n t he

N otitia t akes n o a ccount o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f or a t l east a p artial a bandonment o f t he W all , o r f rom t he h interland . T he f ort a t P iercebridge a ppears t o have b een b uilt i n t he mid-third c entury ( Casey 1 978, 1 90) r ather t han a s had b een p reviously t hought, u nder C onstantius ( Piercebridge i s g enerally t hought t o b e e ither t he Magis o r Maglona o f

c hapter X L).

F rom s ome o f

t he n orth-eastern f orts

t here i s n o e vidence a t p resent t o imply a bandonment . I f

Mann 's

t hesis

i s

a ccepted,

t here

i s a lso t he p roblem a s

t o w hy t he

n orth-west was n ot t reated i n t he s ame way . H e s ees t he r etention o f t he C umbrian c oast f orts a nd t he f orts f urther s outh a s b eing p erhaps a r esponse t o I rish s ea r aiders w ho c ould h ave b egun t heir a ctivities d uring t he t hird c entury, t hough whether s ites l ike B ainbridge a nd R ibchester u nlikely. o ccur ,

would b e h eld t o c ombat t his t hreat i s, t o m y mind, S ome r eduction o f t he h interland g arrisons n o d oubt d id

b ut n ot o n t he s cale

t hat

would h ave n ecessitated t he b ringing

i n o f 1 3 n ew u nits i nto t he n orth e ast, while t he Wall was h eld i n s trength . T he s etting u p o f t he C ivitas C arvetiorum a t s ome d ate i n t he t hird c entury, r ecorded o n a m ilestone f rom B rougham ( JRS L V , 2 24 ) may imply t hat t he a rea was c onsidered s ecure a nd c ould b e h anded o ver t o c ivilian a dministration .

T he f orts a t O ld P enrith a nd B rougham

would s eem t o h ave l ain i n C arvetian t erritory; t hey may have b een a bandoned a t t his t ime ( neither s ite i s mentioned i n t he d ux l ist). Mann h as n ot s uggested a ny r eason why t he n orth-west h interland o f t he Wall s hould n ot h ave b een h eavily r einforced i n t he e arly f ourth c entury a s h e b elieves

t he n orth

e ast was .

T he f irst p art o f t he d ux c ommand r ecords o ne u nit n amed a fter C rispus who w as C aesar A D 3 17-26 . A ccording t o Mann , t his s uggests t hat t he units were e stablished i n t he n orth-east h interland b efore, r ather t han a fter A D 3 26 , t hough why t his s hould b e s o i s u nclear . C rispus d oes n ot s eem t o h ave s uffered d amnatio m emoriae . H ence, t he e quites C rispiani a nd t he f irst p art o f t he d ux c ommand c ould d ate l ater t han AD 3 26, t hough i t may d ate t o t his p eriod . D uces a re o ccasionally s een u nder D iocletian ; b y t he d eath o f C onstantine t hey s eem t o h ave become v irtually u niversal. T he d ux B ritanniarum i s mentioned b y Ammianus i n h is a ccount o f t he y ear A D 3 67 .

1 43

p robably T he d ux

c ommand was n ot i n e xistence when t he r ebuilding a t B irdoswald was i n p rogress u nder Diocletian . The praeses, Aurelius Arpagius, i s r ecorded a s I t

would

b eing

b e

i n c harge

r easonable

o f

t o

t he work

a ssume

( RIB

t hat

1 912) .

t he

i nitiation

o f

t he

d ux

c ommand a nd t he b ringing o f n ew u nits i nto t he a rea were c ontemporary . T here i s a p roblem , h owever , with t he u nit p laced a t D erventio : t his s ite c ould e ither b e Malton o r P apcastle ( both s ites b eing o n a r iver D erwent)

but

P etuaria

a s

t he

unit

i n

( Brough-on-Humber),

Notitia .

g arrison

Malton

i s

b ears

a n ame

p robably

f rom

o f

t he

Wacher s uggests t hat t he unit s tationed a t Derventio i n

c hapter X L,

t he n umerus s upervenientium P etuariensium,

b een s tationed a t

B rough

Malton when Brough

f or a l ong p eriod a nd

s eems

was

had o riginally

p robably

m oved

t o

t o have b een a bandoned a s a naval b ase -

perhaps b y T heodosius i n AD 3 67-8 ( Wacher 1 969, o f

d erived

t he D erventio

4 ).

The f irst part

t he d ux l ist i n i ts f inal f orm may d ate t o a fter A D

3 67 .

I n t he excavations a t Malton by C order a nd K irk f rom 1 927 t o 1 930, s eries o f

a

i nternal b uildings were r ecorded i n t he n orthern p art o f t he

s ite which ,

f rom t he d escription

o f t he a rea c ertainly

t he

buildings

( Corder

1 932) a nd t he o ne e xtant p lan

( at p resent l odged i n t he Yorkshire Museum) t ype

have

C aernarvon .

o f

b uildings

been

noted

Where

d ated,

k nown

on

and

t hey

a s

c halets

( fig .

near Hadrian's

prove

t o

b e

o f

a re a lmost

4 4 .3) .

T hese

Wall

t he

and

early

at

f ourth

c entury and s eem t o have r emained i n u se until t he end o f t he o ccupation o f t hose f orts . T hey r epresent t he t roop a ccommodation within t hese l ate f orts. l iving

i n

t he

o rganisation U nfortunately, t he

e arly

s ame

a nd

I t i s l egitimate t o s uggest t hat t roops

t ype

o f

s tatus,

a ccommodation

i .e.

b elong

t o

would

u nits

have t he

t he

s ame

same

t ype .

we d o n ot k now which u nit was i n g arrison a t Malton i n

f ourth

c entury.

According

t o

Mann's

s hould h ave r emained u noccupied f rom s ome p eriod until t he i nstitution o f t he d ux c ommand. h owever ,

o f

t hesis,

i n t he

t he

f ort

t hird c entury

T he c halets a t Malton,

were d ated t o t he t ime o f C onstantius b y t he e xcavators w hich

w ould m ake t hem c ontemporary with m any o f

t he o ther c halets .

E ither

a c ohort o r a la was p resent a t Malton i n t he e arly f ourth c entury , t o be l ater r eplaced b y a numerus, o r t here were n umeri f orming t he g arrison o f s ome f orts o n o r n ear t he Wall . Did Malton h ave a numerus i n g arrison i n t he e arly f ourth c entury which was l ater r eplaced b y t he u nit f rom B rough-on-Humber? There'is n o mention o f a ny f ort held i n t he west o r Wales s outh west o f

Ribchester

c eased

t o

i n

t he Notitia .

b e g arrisoned b y

I t was

a lways

r egular R oman t roops

a ssumed u nder

t hat

Magnus

Wales

Maximus

a nd t hat h e may a lso h ave r emoved t he X X L egion f rom C hester .

I t h as

b een

W ales;

s uggested

t hat

Maximus

m ust

h ave

h ad

s ome

d ealings

with

he i s r emembered i n Welsh f olk l ore a s Maxen Wledig and c onnected s pecifically p alatina

i n

with

C aernarvon .

I llyricum

i s

a u nit

I n t he N otitia among o f

S eguntienses

which

t he

was

a uxilia

p robably

a

f ormer g arrison o f C aernarvon ( Segontium) t hat h ad b een u pgraded i nto t he f ield a rmy a nd n ever r eturned t o Wales . S ome h ave s uggested t hat Maximus' f orce was b uilt a round t he XX L egion a nd i ncluded t he t roops o f Wales and t he western B ritish p rovinces, i .e . a ll t he f ort g arrisons f rom t hose a reas n ot n oted i n t he N otitia . T here i s n ow, however, n umismatic evidence t o i ndicate t hat C aernarvon was h eld a fter Maximus. I t i s s urprising t hat we h ear n othing o f t he XX L egion i f i t was t aken t o t he C ontinent -

1 44

n o u nits f ormed f rom i t

( or

f rom t he V I V ictrix) a re k nown . G illam s uggests t hat we h ave s imply l ost t he N otitia c hapter o n t he western c ommand ( see c hapter 8 ). I believe t hat t he Notitia O c.

c hapters XXVIII,

c hapter V II r eferring t o B ritain d o n ot B ritish e xisted

p rovinces

a t

a ny

o ne

d ate .

c ontemporaneously,

b ut

t he

All

p erhaps

o ccupying

i n

o f

t he

s ome

a ll

t hose n ot

c ohortes

a nd

t he

f orts

n oted

a lae

o f

t he

' item

t he

a rmy

c ommands

l ineam

i n

may

t he h ave

v alli' s ubsection

t hough t here were s till t roops

n oted

i n i t .

t hree

' item p er

was by t he AD 3 90s l ong o ut o f d ate,

X L a nd t he p arts o f

r epresent

I t p er

i n

t he

s ubsection

a nd

p robably

i s q uite p ossible t hat s ome o f l ineam

v ai n .'

s ubsection

w ere

s till i n t he s ame f orts, b ut I d o n ot b elieve t hat a ll o f t hem c ould s till h ave b een

t here .

1 45

C HAPTER 1 0

T HE F UNCTION O F T OWNS I N T HE M ILITARY D EFENCE O F T HE B RITISH D IOCESE

T he h istory

o f

B ritish

t own d efences

i s

m arkedly

d ifferent f rom

t hat

o f s imilar t owns i n t he o ther n orth-western p rovinces. I n t hese C ontinental p rovinceb f ew t owns h ad b een d efended i n t he t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies. A n umber o f t he Augustan c olonies i n C isalpine G aul, P rovence a nd S pain had b een g iven s tone d efences i n t he e arly f irst c entury , a s h ad A utun , p ossibly R heims a nd t he C laudian c olony o f K öln o n i ts f oundation i n A D 5 0 . T he g reat s pate o f t own wall b uilding - e specially i n G aul - d ates t o t he l ater t hird c entury a nd r esulted f rom t he d evastations wrought b y t he b arbarians i n t he m idt hird c entury a nd p articularly i n t he i nvasions o f AD 2 75-6 which p enetrated d eep w ithin t he i mperial f rontiers . T hese l ate d efences a re t ypified b y t he small a rea t hey e nclose , o ften o nly t he m ost d efensible p art o f t he f ormer t own b eing i ncluded within t he walls . Major p ublic b uildings w ere o ften e ither l eft o utside t he d efences o r i ncorporated i nto t he c ircuit . M uch u se was m ade i n t he l ower p arts o f t hese walls o f r e-used masonry, t hough i t i s e vident t hat

i n many

c ases

t he walls were n ot h astily e rected

1 973 , 2 17; p rojecting

1 976A , f ig . t owers .

I n B ritain

a f ew

t owns

6 5) .

( Johnson J .

T he walls were i nvariably p rovided with

r eceived

d efences

i n t he f irst

c entury .

T he

c oloniae o f L incoln a nd G loucester u tilized t he l egionary f ortress d efences w ithin which t hey were e stablished . A s c oloniae i n r ecently p acified a reas, t hey s till p erformed a q uasi-military f unction ; t he f ate o f t he c olonia a t C olchester, where t he f ortress d efences were l evelled when t he c olonia was f ounded, c annot h ave b een e asily f orgotten .

i n t he B oudiccan r ebellion, E xeter a lso r etained i ts

l egionary d efences ( as Wroxeter may h ave d one) a nd B idwell s uggests t hat t his was b ecause t he t own was l iable t o a ttack a nd was a lso s trongly p hilo-Roman ( Bidwell 1 980 , 5 7) . C olchester was g iven a n ew s tone d efensive c ircuit a t s ome d ate b etween A D 9 0 a nd 1 50 . E arthen d efences o f f irst-century d ate a re k nown a t t he S ilchester a nd V erulamium ( Wacher 1 975A , 7 2) . Many t owns, d efences i n

t owns

o f

Winchester ,

b oth c ivitas c apitals a nd ' small t owns' were f irst g iven t he l ater s econd c entury a nd i t h as o ften b een s uggested

t hat t his p rogramme o f d efence was i nitiated b y C lodius A lbinus d uring h is r ule i n B ritain b etween A D 1 93 a nd 1 97 . T he t owns o f B ritain a re s o unusual i n b eing d efended a t t his t ime t hat t here must h ave b een s ome p urely

i nsular r eason f or t heir p rovision with d efences .

T here

i s n o e vidence t hat t he p rovince with i ts l arge a rmy o f o ccupation i n g arrison w as p articularly i n d anger f rom b arbarian i nvasion . A lbinus may have f eared t hat h is r emoval o f l arge n umbers o f t roops t o t he

1 46

C ontinent t o f ight f or t he p urple - which h e must h ave r ealised was i nevitable a fter S everus' p roclamation o f h is s on C aracalla a s C aesar i n A D 1 96 - would h ave l eft t he p rovince o pen t o b arbarian a ttack. T he small t own o f W ickford i n E ssex was e nclosed b y a n e arthwork w hich was

begun

l ate

i n

t he

s econd

c entury

a nd

n ever

c ompleted .

A t

C helmsford t he e arthen d efences o f l ate s econd-century d ate w ere o ut o f u se b y t he e arly t hird c entury ( Rodwell 1 975, 8 8). T hese s ites s uggest t hat t he d anger , whatever i ts c ause , was s hort-lived . L ondon s eems t o h ave b een d efended f or t he f irst t ime a t s ome d ate a fter A D 1 83 b y a s tone wall,

t he

c ircuit

i ncorporating

t he

e arly

s econd-

c entury f ort a t C ripplegate . M r . J . Maloney d ates t he L ondon W all t o b etween A D 1 90 a nd 2 10 . A s imilar d ate h as b een s uggested f or t he s tone d efences a t G reat C asterton, Alchester a nd C aistor-by-Norwich ( Bidwell 1 980, 6 6 f n . 5 0). D uring t he t hird c entury, many o f t he t owns which h ad b een d efended e arlier b y e arthen b anks w ere g iven s tone d efences c ut i nto t he f ront f ace o f t he p re-existing r ampart . D ating e vidence f or t his s trengthening o f t he d efences i s h ard t o f ind, b ut i t s eems t hat s tone walls were a dded t hroughout t he t hird c entury. l ater

t hird

c entury ,

C anterbury was

d efended

c oin o f P ostumus was s ealed b eneath 1 976A , 1 00) . P rofessor S . F rere d ates t o c irca A D 2 70 .

f or

t he

f irst

l ikely I n t he

t ime .

A

t he r ampart b ank ( Johnson J . t he s tone wall a t V erulamium

O f t he t owns f ortified d uring t he t hird c entury,

o nly t hose a t V erulamium a nd C aistor-by-Norwich m ay p ossibly h ave h ad e xternal t owers c ontemporary with t heir s tone walls ( cf F rere 1 978 , 2 99, fn . 1 8). T he f ortifications a t B rough-on-Humber were b egun i n s tone i n t he l ate t hird c entury a nd a fter a s hort h iatus i n t he w ork t hey were c ompleted i n t he e arly f ourth c entury with e xternal t owers ( Wacher 1 969, 3 ). T he small d efended e nclosures a t C aistor ( Lincs) a nd H orncastle h ave b een

c laimed

a s

f orts

a nd

a re

s een

a s

p art

o f

t he

S axon

S hore

d efensive s ystem , t hough t heir d istance f rom t he s ea s urely r enders t his e xplanation u nlikely . B oth s ites h ave e xternal t owers w hich a t H orncastle a re c ontemporary with t he wall a nd a re p robably s o a t C aistor . T his h as b een t hought t o s uggest t hat t hese s ites s hould b e t hought o f a s f orts r ather t han a s t owns - t owns were n ot u sually p rovided with p rojecting t owers u ntil well i nto t he f ourth c entury ( Todd 1 973,42-3). T he d ating o f t he d efences a t b oth s ites u nclear ( Hurst 1 969) . H orncastle h ad a c ontemporay r ampart b ank .

i s

I t i s k nown t hat a l icence t o c renelate f rom t he e mperor was n ecessary b efore d efences c ould b e b uilt. P resumably u nder A lbinus t his p ermission would have b een f orthcoming,

b ut whether a l icence was

n eeded t o p rovide a lready e xisting d efences w ith a s tone r evetment, i s n ot c lear . T he p rovison o f s uch s tone walls t o B ritish t owns t hroughout t he t hird c entury s uggests t hat p ossibly p ermission was n ot r equired . l east

T here s eems t o h ave b een n o r eal n eed t o f ortify t owns,

i n t he f irst h alf

o f

t he

c entury.

T he p resence o f

f orts

a t a t

B rancaster a nd R eculver a t s ome d ate - p erhaps i n t he e arlier t hird c entury - s hould i ndicate t hat t rouble f rom s ea r aiders was t o b e e xpected , t hird

y et C anterbury r emained w ithout a ny d efences u ntil t he l ater

c entury .

C aistor-by-Norwich

m ay h ave

r eceived

i ts

s tone

wall

l ate i n t he c entury ( Johnson J . 1 976A, 1 5). T he c ities o f G aul, which were u nder much g reater t hreat o f a ttack, were n ot d efended u ntil t he l ast q uarter o f t he c entury . F or a ll t he t hird c entury -

1 47

e xcept i n t he d ecade A D 2 86-296 - t hey were u nder t he s ame imperial c ontrol ,

b e i t t he I mperium G alliarum o r t he c entral g overnment .

Although

a ll

t he

c ivitas

c apitals were d efended b y A D 3 00,

' small

t owns' c ontinued t o b e p rovided with s tone d efences i nto t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury; M ildenhall , s o d efended a bout A D 3 60 , may b e t he l atest ( Wacher 1 975B, 5 1). N ot a ll ' small t owns' were d efended ; a s w ith c ivitas c apitals, t he d efences o f ' small t owns' d o not o n many s ites e nclose t he whole o f t he occupied a rea. S ettlements l eft o utide t he d efences o ften a ppear t o h ave f lourished w ell i nto t he f ourth c entury . A t C ambridge , c ontemporary with t he b uilding o f t he e arly f ourth-century walls, a 1 0-roomed v illa was built 1 miles o utside t he d efences ( Alexander 1 975, 1 08). S imilarly, a t G reat C asterton t here w as i ntensive b uilding a ctivity i n t he

e xtra-mural

e xternal

t owers

v illa

b roadly

t o t he t own's

c ontemporary

d efences

( Corder

with

t he

a ddition

1 961,

2 7,

5 9 ) .

o f

I n G aul, t he c ities which were f irst d efended b y t he emperor P robus ( he was c redited with t he r estoration o f 7 0 c ities) i n m ost c ases m ake n o a ttempt t o e nclose t he f ormerly o ccupied a rea . T hey p ossibly a cted a s c itadels ( i.e . r efuges within which t he t own's p eople c ould s helter

i n

t imes

o f

d anger)

o r

t hey

were

b uilt

j ust

t o

p rotect

o fficial b uildings e rected within t hem ( Johnson J . 1 976B). I t i s u nlikely t hat b y t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury a ll t he t owns i n G aul c omprised o nly t hat a rea within t heir n ew d efences . C ivil d efences i n B ritain , a lthough n ot i ncluding t he whole s ettled a rea w ithin t heir walls,

n ever

s howed

a marked

d esire

t o

s urround

o nly

t he

most

d efensible a rea . Even t owns d efended f or t he f irst t ime i n t he f ourth c entury a re o ften o f l arge s ize , f or e xample , C ambridge 1 0 h a , M ildenhall o ver 6 h a a nd G reat C hesterford 1 4 .5 h a . N or i s t here a ny t race o f s mall, d efended a reas b eing c reated w ithin l arge , e arly w all c ircuits, T ongres

a s h appned f or e xample a t A rles,

a nd V ienne

( Johnson J .

1 977 ,

A utun, Avenches,

N imes,

6 8 ) .

What was t he p urpose o f d efences a round a c ivil s ite? O bviously d efence w ould s eem t o b e o f p aramount i mportance , y et a t C olchester i n t he m id-first c entury t he d efences o f t he l egionary f ortress w ere s oon d ispensed with - o bviously t hey were c onsidered u nnecessary - b ut mistakenly a s i t t urned o ut. T he d efences o f Winchester a nd S ilchester i n t he f irst c entury h ave b een p urported t o r eflect t he p ossibly a nomalous s tatus o f t hese t owns which were u nder t he c ontrol o f t he c lient k ing C ogidubnus . V erulamium may h ave r eceived i ts C laudian d efences

a s

a m ark o f

i ts

s tatus

a s

a m unicipium .

T he

r e-

u se o f t he l egionary d efences a t L incoln a nd G loucester m ay a gain r eflect m ore t heir p rivileged s tatus a s c oloniae , a s m ay t he p rovision o f n ew s tone d efences a t t he c olonia a nd p rovincial c apital o f C olchester . D efensive n eeds w ill a ccount f or t he b uilding o f e arthen r amparts i n t he l ater s econd c entury; c ivic p ride c ould e xplain t he b uilding o f g ateways i n s tone a t S ilchester a nd V erulamium a nd t he p resence o f t he s tone w all a t L ondon w hich w as b y t hat d ate t he m ost important c ity i n B ritain . T he r ebuilding o f d efences i n s tone d uring t he t hird c entury may h ave b een a s m uch f or e conomic a s f or d efensive r easons . A lthough t he i nitial c ost o f a s tone w all would b e m uch g reater t han t hat o f a n e arth r ampart ,

i t w ould r equire l ittle

maintenance . B y t he f ourth c entury e arthen d efences were r arely u sed a nd t hen o nly f or u nimportant o r s mall p osts .

1 48

I n t he f ourth c entury, c ivil d efences were t aken v ery s eriously b y t he emperors. V alentinian I r eturned a p ortion o f c ity r evenues t o b e s pent o n b uilding d efences . V ery h eavy p enalties were m eted o ut t o s tate o fficials who f ailed t o s pend t heir q uota o n d efences. I f a l icence

t o

c renelate

w as

a lways n ecessary u nder t he Empire ,

t hen a ll

c ivil d efences m ust h ave h ad o fficial a pproval . I n t he e arly Empire , d efences may h ave b een a llowed f or r easons o f p restige, b ut t his i s hardly l ikely t o have b een t he c ase i n t he l ater Empire . T he p resence o f l ate d efences i s l ikely t o r epresent t he p urposeful p lacing o f t hem b y t he i mperial g overnment a nd . I n m any c ases t he n eeds o f t he t ownspeople m ay h ave h ad l ittle o r n o r elevance t o t he d ecision t o d efend o r n ot t o d efend a c ertain s ettlement . T his would e xplain why i n B ritain t he p resence o r a bsence o f d efences d oes n ot s eem t o r eflect t he a pparent r elative importance o f t he ' small t owns' c oncerned. T here i s l ittle e vidence t hat a ny o f t hese s ites i n w hat i s g enerally t ermed t he ' civil a reas' o f B ritain have a p urely military f unction . No n ew f orts a re k nown t o h ave b een b uilt i n t he l owland a rea o f B ritain i n t he l ate t hird o r f ourth c entury e xcept f or t hose d irectly a ssociated w ith c oastal d efence . B rough-on-Humber h as b een c laimed b y o ne o f i ts e xcavators a s p rimarily a n aval b ase, t hough i t may a t t he s ame t ime h ave f unctioned a s t he c ivitas c apital o f t he P arisi ( Wacher 1 969; 1 971) . o f t he h istory o f i ts

T his was i nferred f rom t he a pparent s imilarity d efences t o t hose o f m ilitary s ites i n B ritain

r ather t han t o t hose o f c ivil d efences . A lso , n one o f t he b uildings s o f ar f ound within t he d efences i s paralleled within o ther t owns. C ivitas c apitals which a lso f unctioned a s p art o f t he d efences o f a n a rea a re k nown a long t he G allic c oast. s uggests t hat i n t he e arly t hird c entury,

military J ohnson

t he t owns o f C aister-by-

Y armouth , C olchester , L ondon , R ochester , a nd p robably R ichborough a nd L ympne, a cted a s d efences o f what l ater b ecame known a s t he S axon S hore ( Johnson J . 1 980A , I n t he i n

7 6).

l ater R oman p eriod i n t he west a nd t hroughout

t he e ast,

i t

w as

c ommon p ractice t o b illet

t he R oman p eriod

s oldiers

w ithin

t owns .

S ome o f t he l arger u nits i n t he a rmy ( the l egions a nd v exillationes) were s tationed i n c ities, J ones s uggests i n p ermanent b arracks . T he m obile u nits o f t he p alatini a nd c omitatenses were n ormally b illeted i n c ities ( Jones A . 1 973, 6 31). S ome military u nits i n t he Notitia s ections

d ealing with

t he Western Empire a re r ecorded a s b eing b ased

i n t owns, f or e xample O c. XXXVII n umber 1 7 a nd 2 1 ( Seeck 1 876,

2 05).

I n t he B ritish d iocese, t he p resence o f t roops within a c ivil s ettlement i s h inted a t i n t he N otitia o nly i n t he c ase o f B rough-onH umber . S tationed a t D erventio ( probably M alton ) u nder t he c ommand o f t he dux Britanniarum, was t he numerus supervenientium P etuariensium , i n o r b y

p resumably a u nit w hich h ad f or a t ime b een s tationed

P etuaria, t he c ivitas c apital o f t he P arisi ( Oc . c h . X L n o .

3 1). A n umber

o f

t owns

i n B ritain h ave b een t hought

t o h ave b een o ccupied

b y r egular a rmy d etachments i n t he f ourth c entury . T his has b een most o ften c laimed f or C atterick , b ut a lso f or A ldborough, C orbridge a nd Wroxeter . At C atterick, e xcavations i n t he 1 940s a nd 5 0s r evealed t he p resence o f a n e arly f ort w hich h ad b een a bandoned c irca A D 1 20, but a bandonment

was was

r eoccupied i n t he A D 1 60s. I ts f inal d ate o f u nclear, b ut b y t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth

1 49

c enturies

i ts

t hat

walled .

t ime

s ite w as

c lay-and-cobble wide d itch .

o ccupied b y a

T he

d efences

f oundation

c ivil s ettlement

c onsisted

3 .35m wide

o f

which

wall

w as

w hich w as a t

2 .20m

f ronted

t hick

b y

o n

a

a s ingle ,

Although n o r ampart b ank was p rovided, a ll t he a ngles

were r ounded a nd n o p rojecting t owers s eem t o h ave b een p rovided ( cf H ildyard a nd Wade 1 948-51; H ildyard a nd G illam 1 957; Wacher 1 971, 1 70-2) . t he

T here was e vidence o f

f ourth

a rgued o f

c entury,

t hat

t his

t he b uildings

d ated b y

r ebuilding f ound ,

m uch b uilding a ctivity a t s ome t ime i n

t he

e xcavators

p rogramme,

t o

c irca A D

r adically

3 70 .

a ltering

Wacher

t he

n ature

must p oint t o a n e qually r adical c hange i n t he

nature o f t he s ettlement. T here was, i n t he c entral p art o f t he s ettlement, a r eplacement o f ' strip h ouses' with o pen f ronts b y l arger c ourtyarded c omplexes,

o ne a t

l east e ntered t hrough a m onumental g ate .

T he p resence o f s upposed m ilitary e quipment a nd weapons o f l ate d ate p rompted Wacher t o s uggest t hat t he s ettlement r eceived a g arrison , p robably a s part o f t he r eorganisation o f C ount T heodosius, c ivilians

may

d efences.

He

r epresent h ouses

s till

h ave

s uggests

o ccupied t he

p art

l arge

o f

t he

c omplexes

6 .2 i n

h a

t hough

within

i nsula

V II

t he may

t he p rincipia a nd p raetorium, while t he c onverted s trip

m ight

h ave

b een

b arracks

o r

s tore

b uildings .

T he

a bsence

o f

a dded e xternal t owers here d oes n ot imply t hat t he s ite was more a f ort t han a t own ; f ew ( Wacher 1 975B, 5 1) . A t Aldborough,

small

t owns

r eceived

a dded p rojecting

t he r emarkably h igh p roportion o f c oins d ated t o t he

H ouse o f V alentinian when c oinage was g enerally s carce , s uggest t hat a u nit o f t emporarily, t hat

4 04) .

c irca A D

u nit

l ed Wacher

t o

t he f ield a rmy may have b een s tationed here

p ossibly b eing r emoved b y Maximus.

a s imilar

1 975A ,

t owers

H e a lso s uggests

m ay h ave b een s tationed within C atterick

Mann s uggested t hat t he h oard o f

4 8 g old c oins

( Wacher d ated t o

3 87 f rom C orbridge m ay r epresent t he q uinquennial d onative o f

Magnus Maximus . been v ery d onative

I f

t his were t rue,

high-grade

( Gillam

t roops

1 974A ,

i n

6 ) .

C asey n oted t hat

C orbridge

L ittle

t o

t here must h ave

have r eceived s uch a

i s k nown o f

t he

l ater h istory

o f

t he military c ompounds within t he t own, t hough t hey d o s eem t o have c ontinued i n u se i nto t he f ourth c entury. p lumbatae f rom b y Mr .

P .

t he s ite o f

B arker t o i ndicate

t he l ater R oman p eriod .

T he p resence o f hastae

t he b aths b asilica a t Wroxeter was t hought t he p resence

o f

t he

r egular a rmy h ere

i n

W ebster s ees Wroxeter a s t he major s trategic

c entre i n t he n orth-west m idlands which was a ppreciated b y C onstantius C hloru is

a nd

p robably

a lso

b y

C ount

T heodosius .

T his

h e b elieves

i s

c onfirmed b y t he f inding o f s ix martiobarbuli i n t he b asilica . Two o f t he l egions b rought b y C ount T heodosius t o B ritain , t he J ovii a nd H erculi ,

a re e arlier r ecorded a s b eing c alled

martiobarbulus .

" The d iscovery o f s o many o f t hese weapons i n t he Wroxeter b asilica may

i ndicate

q uarters t he

f or

t hat t he

t his

b uilding was

l egionaries

s traw b edding"

a nd

( Webster G .

t hat

1 975B,

r equisitioned b y t he d arts

a rmy

a s

m ay h ave b een l ost

t he

i n

1 06) .

S tevens t hought t hat a ll t he t owns r eceiving a dded e xternal t owers a cted

a s

t here was

a ctual

o r

p otential

o ne p resent

Webster s uggests

t hat

c antonments

( Stevens s ome o f

1 971,

o f

t he

f ield

a rmy

w henever

3 5) .

t he f ortified c ivil

s ites

m ay h ave b een

c onnected with t he h ousing o f o fficials, p olice, t ax c ollectors and

1 50

c ustoms

o fficials,

t he

l atter

p roliferating

i n

t he

e arly

c entury d ue t o t he d ivision o f B ritain i nto f our p rovinces 1 975A ,

5 9) .

O ne would e xpect

i n B ritain were b uilt

t hat

f or u se

s ome

a s

o f

f ourth

( Webster

t he f ortified s ettlements

c ollecting

p oints

o f

t he

a nnona

militaris, a s happened e lsewhere i n t he Empire, y et a t n o s ite have s uitable b arns, t hat

t hese

g ranaries,

o r s tockyards

i nstallations

may have

b een f ound .

i nternal e nemies, bacaudae o r b rigands, ( Rivet 1 975, 1 12; J ohnson J . 1 980A, 1 2). r aiders

t o make n o p rovision f or

R ivet

n eeded p rotection a s

f ood

s uggests

much

f rom

a s f rom barbarian r aiders I t was u sual f or b arbarian

s upplies

d uring

t heir

c ampaign ,

h ence t hey were t otally d ependent o n f ood a cquired b y p lundering .

I f

a ll t he l ivestock a nd g rain c ould be r apidly b rought i nto f ortified t owns

b efore

i t

f ace a f amine, 1 965,

f ell

i nto

t he h ands

o f

r aiders,

b eing f orced t o s urrender

t he

e nemy would s oon

o r withdraw

( Thompson E .

1 41).

Webster

h as

n oted

t hat

i f

t he f ortified s ettlements

a re p lotted o n a

map o f B ritain, t hey a re f ound t o l ie a long t hree major R oman r oads. T he in

p lacing many

o f

a s tring

provinces

T hroughout

t he

o f

o f

d efended s ites

t he

p rincipate

Empire

t he

i n

Empire's

a long t he

m ost

r uns

f rom K öln t hrough T ongres

small f ortlets o n t his r oad were t hought before t he i nvasions o f AD 2 75-6; h owever,

i s

s een

period.

r oads

h ad b een

1 88).

One s uch l ate

t o B avai .

S ome o f

t o have b een f irst

t he

b uilt

t hey were r ebuilt a fter t his a nd

r emained i n u se t hroughout t he f ourth N ow,

r outes Roman

i mportant

s upervised b y b eneficiarii ( Petrikovits 1 971, f ortified r oad

m ajor

l ater

c entury

( SchOnberger

1 969,

1 79) .

e xcavation i s b eginning t o s how t hat v arious s ites a long

t his r oad were o ccupied a t d ifferent t imes i n t he t hird and f ourth c enturies - t here , a s e lsewhere,

a pparent s imilarity o f s hape d oes n ot

prove t hat t he s ites were held c ontemporaneouoly ( Johnson J . 9 1).

a nd v illages s hould b e s he

1 980A,

I n t he a rea o f t he Treveri, Wightman n otes t hat f orts, i n t he

t hought

s uggests,

o f

l ater Empire a s

l inks

i ndicates

a re

o ften

i n a s ingle

t hat

s ome

t owns

i ndistinguishable

c hain .

a ccount

a nd

V ariation i n s ize, was

t aken

o f

l ocal

r equirements which may have d epended p artly o n t he availability o f f inance ; l ocal

r eponsibility

c ommunities.

f or

materials

a nd

T he employment

s hortage o f r esouces a s much a s haste i nteresting t o n ote t hat ' castra%

a s

l abour

may

h ave

f allen

o n

r e-used m aterials s uggests

( Wightman 1 971, 4 78).

I t

i s

i n Gaul small walled t owns were known a s

t hey p robably were

I n a p aper d elivered t o

o f

i n B ritain

( Johnson

J .

1 975,

7 9).

t he S eventh C ongress o f R oman F rontier S tudies

i n 1 967 , Webster d rew a ttention t o a s eries o f f ortified p osts a long t he W atling S treet b etween C aves I nn a nd Wroxeter . F ive s ites were s o

d escribed

Mancetter

( figs.

( Pennocrucium ) may

h ave

1 1,

1 2

( Manduesedum), a nd R ed H ill

b een

f ortified

a nd

o r

Webster

r efurbished n ow

c onnects

a t

b y

t hem

H e

C ount t hat

i n t he l ate with

C aves

( Letocetum),

( Uxacona) .

A rchaeological e vidence s uggests built

1 3)

Wall

I nn

s uggested

Theodosius

t he

e arly

t hat

Bridge

t hese

( Webster

t he d efences o f

t hird o r

( Tripontium),

S tretton G .

s ites 1 971).

t hese s ites were

f ourth

r eorganisation

o f

c enturies. B ritain

b y

C onstantius C hlorus . " Control d iocese

o f i nto

t his

important

two p arts,

r oute would h ave e ffectively d ivided t he

t hus

e nabling

his

f orces

t o

s eal

o ff

t he

r aiding parties t o t he s outh west o f t he l ine and p revent t hem f rom m oving b ack t o t he n orth" ( Webster G . 1 975B, 4 6) .

1 51

T here i s

n o e vidence f or t he p resence o f

t he B ritish P rovinces T he f ive

f ortified p osts n oted b y W ebster a long t he Watling S treet a re

a ll b asically smaller

r aiders f rom t he n orth w ithin

i n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c enturies.

t han

r ectangular , t he o thers,

between 2 and 3 h a

t hough

t he p ost

a t

R ed H ill

e nclosing o nly 0 .32 h a .

i s

c onsiderbly

T he o ther p osts a re

( the a ctual s ize o f C aves I nn i s n ot known d ue t o

d estruction b y g ravel working o f

much o f t he s ite).

A s tone wall

with a c ontemporary r ampart b ank h as b een f ound a t Wall a nd Mancetter a t f oundation l evel a bout has yet been f ound, J oseph t race

1 956) . o f

within

A t

which

t ravellers

o nly

o ne

n o r ampart

t renched

d itch h as b een n oted .

with

t hese

d efences

h as

a nd

s ettlers

c ould

s eek

s helter

o n

b een

t he

( St.

L ittle f ound

b een s uggested t hat t hey a cted a s r efuges

d anger ( Gould 1 964). military u nits 1 975A, 6 5).

I nn ,

c ontemporary

i t h as

S tretton B ridge ,

At

t he t riple d itches have b een

C aves

o ccupation

t hem a nd

2 .72m wide .

b ut

i nto

o nset

o f

T hey may have p rovided s trongholds f or small

o n t he

m ove

Whatever t he p urpose o f

o r b een p ermanent p olice p osts

t hese d efended p osts,

n ot a ppear t o h ave b een d esigned

f or

( Webster G .

which b y t heir n ature d o

t emporary u se ,

t heir

d efences

d o

n ot s eem t o h ave r emained i n c ommission l ong . A t C aves I nn , a t l east o ne l ength o f t he d itch was f illed i n v ery c arefully - p ottery a t a ll l evels

o f

t he f ill d ated t o t he e arly f ourth c entury.

c ontinued

o n

t he

s ite

( Cameron a nd L ucas

1 971-3) .

O ccupation

A c oin h oard f rom

t he u pper d itch f ill a t R ed H ill i ndicated a t erminal d ate o f c irca A D 3 50 f or

t he

d itch's

f rom

t he

f ill o f

with

i ndustrial

u se

t he

( Browne

o uter

waste

( Thomas

N owhere

e lse

i n B ritain i s

p osts;

a long

° the,- r oads

a re o ften o f much o f C aves I nn, ha),

1 974) .

d itch a t N .

t here a s imilar s eries t here

l arger s ize .

a re

f ortified

A long

o f

small,

s ettlements,

f ortified b ut

t hese

Thorpe

R ochester,

and

O n t he F osse Way t here i s a

i ncluding C hesterton, H igh C ross,

Brough.

D orchester

J ohnson

( Oxon),

a re a lso o f t he s ame s tyle ( Johnson J . were f ortified a t t he s ame t ime .

1 976B).

t o b e a m arked l ack o f b uildings; m asonry

with

i nside t he n orth g ate ( Wacher 1 964). e xamined i n t he c entre o f d itches,

t he s ite ,

o ccasional

a nd

t hat

Mildenhall

N ot a ll t hese s ites

Within t he d efences a t m any o f t hem

t here s eems

c ontemporary

s uggests

A lchester

b uilding

g ullies,

c ame

t here a re t hree f ortified s ites - a t Whilton L odge ( 5

Bridgeford,

o f

d ate

l evelled o ff

t he Watling S treet t o t he s outh

T owcester a nd S toney S tratford.

L ittlechester ,

t erminal

1 964) .

s eries between D orn a nd L incoln, East

A s imilar

Mancetter which was

t he

a t T horpe a s ubstantial

s tone

wall

t he main f eatures

p ost-holes

was

f ound

j ust

A t Whilton L odge, i n t he 4 60 0 ' a nd

a g reat

f ound were p its, n umber

o f

s take-

h oles . Mortar f loors a nd f oundation t renches o f a t l east t wo t imber buildings s urvived i n o ne a rea, b ut n o e vidence was f ound f or s tone s tructures

( Taylor

1 972).

D uring t he f ourth c entury, m any t owns h ad t heir s tone d efences b rought i nto l ine with t hose o n t he C ontinent a nd t he S axon S hore f orts b y t he a ddition o f e xternal t owers, t hough i t i s n oteworthy t hat n one o f t he f orts i n t he n orth o f B ritain, Wales o r even t he f orts a t B rancaster and Reculver o n t he S axon S hore was a t t he s ame t ime p rovided with e xternal t owers . t he smaller t owns

N ot a ll t owns were g iven e xternal t owers - m any o f t hat h ad b een walled i n s tone were n ot s o p rovided ,

n or were t he c ivitas A t

c apitals o f

s ome small t owns,

S ilchester a nd E xeter

( Bidwell

1 980) .

t he i nner d itches were f illed i n a s t hough t o

1 52

a llow t he a ddition o f t owers, b ut t hese d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een c onstructed . A t L incoln t he e arly s econd-century walls which were o nly

a bout

1 .22m t hick were

t hickened i n t he

l ate t hird o r f ourth

c enturies. A t G loucester t he walls were r ebuilt i n many p laces 4m wide i n t he f ourth c entury ( pers. c omm . Mr . M . J ones). T he a ddition o f e xternal t owers t o t own d efences h as i n t he p ast b een t hought o f a s t he r esult o f a n i mperial d irective a nd a ssociated w ith t he p resence o f C ount T heodosius i n B ritain o r t he v isit o f C onstans t o t he d iocese i n A D 3 42-3 . A s with t he b uilding o f s tone d efences, t he t owers m ay h ave b een a dded o ver a p eriod o f t ime . O n t he e vidence f rom B ritain, p layed a n i mportant p art

c an o ne maintain t hat c ivil d efences

i n t he

m ilitary

d efence o f

t he

d iocese?

would b e i nclined t o d oubt t his. T he e vidence f or t he p ossible p resence o f t roops w ithin t owns w ill b e d ealt w ith i n t he n ext c hapter a nd i t will s uffice t o n ote here t hat t here i s n o c lear i ndication t hat t he t owns o f B ritain were n ormally g arrisoned b y t he a rmy . T hey were n ot, a nd d id n ot p erform t he f unction o f f orts. F ortified t owns would h ave b een u seful t o t he g overnment, m ainly t o p rotect t he c omplicated a dministrative m achinery h oused w ithin t hem a nd n ecessary f or t he e xploitation o f t he p rovincials. T he p rotection o f a nnona militaris would have b een o f p aramount importance t o

t he t he

g overnment a nd would have b een g reatly f acilitated b y t he n umerous d efended t owns i n t he d iocese . T he t owns will h ave a cted a s u nassailable s trongholds i n t he e vent o f a n e nemy i ncursion t hrough t he f rontier d efences .

T hey w ould n o d oubt i n t hat s ituation b e u sed

b y t he a rmy , b ut i n B ritain a t l east t hey were p robably n ot d esigned p rimarily f or m ilitary u se . I t was n ecessary t o d efend t owns a nd t he p eople o f t he r ural a reas a round t hem, i f o nly t o p reserve t he l ogistic b ase e xistence.

o n

which

t he

a rmy

o f

o ccupation

d epended

f or

i ts

A major c hange t ook p lace i n f rontier d efence i n t he t hird c entury when t he o ld r igid f rontiers o f t he p rincipate b ecame u ntenable a nd i t c ould n o l onger b e g uaranteed t hat t he b arbarians would b e h eld o n t he l imites which i n m any c ases c onsisted o f o nly a s ingle l ine o f f orts . B y t he f ourth c entury, d efence was b eing p rovided i n d epth . T he e arly imperial s ystem o f d efence c alled f or t he R oman a rmy t o a dvance a nd d efeat t he i nvading b arbarians o n b arbarian s oil . I n t he f ourth c entury t he R oman a rmy i ncreasingly had t o d efeat t he b arbarians o n R oman s oil. H ence, f rontier p rovinces b ecame t he f ighting g round . T his c hange i n s trategical t hinking i s c learly s een i n n orthern B ritain where t he ' offensive d efence' o f t he s econd, t hird a nd e arly f ourth c enturies ( as i ndicated b y t he p resence o f o utposts n orth o f t he Wall) was r eplaced i n t he l ater f ourth c entury with t he a bandonment o f t he o utpost f orts b y a p urely d efensive s trategy . T he p osition o f H adrian 's W all c hanged f rom b eing i n e ffect t he l ast l ine o f d efence t o t he f irst . T he n orthern f rontier , h owever , was s till a ble t o r emain a p reclusive f rontier, a t l east i n t he f ace o f l and a ttacks. I n t he h interland o f

t he W all i n t he f ourth c entury,

t here was l ittle

c hange i n t he p attern o f military o ccupation . O n t he C ontinent, a long t he r iver f rontiers o f t he R hine a nd D anube , t he g arrison t roops h ad b een s pread i n a t hin l ine . W hen t he d efensive n eeds r equired a d efence i n d epth, n ew military i nstallations had t o b e b uilt i n t he h interland .

I n

n orthern B ritain ,

1 53

t he

l and

f rontier

was

v ery

s hort,

yet

t he g arrison was

t roops small

a long

t he

f orts

o ver

T his n etwork o f i n d epth, b ut e nvisaged. " They

were

l arge .

a ctual t he

w hole

f orts when

s imply

I t was n ot p ossible t o p lace a ll t he

f rontier

l ine

a nd

s o

t hey

were

d ispersed

r egion f rom t he Wall s outh

c ontrolling t he r egion i t was c onstructed,

s tationed a t

s ites

i n

t o D erbyshire .

was i n e ffect a d efence t his f unction was n ot

which would a llow t hem e asy

a ccess t hrough t he f rontier i f n ecessary" ( Mann 1 979B, 1 80 ) .

a nd when h ostile

Mann b elieves

i n t he e astern h interland o f t he Wall

( for which await

a n

t hat

we h ave

i nvasion

t he n ew u nits e vidence b y

a ny

i n

t he

h ostile

N otitia)

f orce .

were

T heir

a ction

n ot

made

p laced

d eployment

t his

t here a long

t o t he

main r oads t o t he f rontier s uggested t o h im t hat t hey were t o move r apidly

t hrough

t he

f rontier

i n

t he e vent

o f

a ttack.

T his c ould

possibly have b een d one while t he a rea t o t he north o f t he Wall was u nder

s urveillance,

b ut

with t he a bandonment o f

t he o utposts i t w ould

s eem unlikely t hat a dequate knowledge o f a n impending a ttack would have b een available t o t he Romans which would have a llowed t hem t o a dvance north o f t he Wall b efore i t was d elivered. 1 80s,

I n t he e arly AD

when p robably f our o utposts were h eld b eyond t he Wall a long D ere

S treet,

a n

i nvasion

s eems

t o

have

p enetrated

a s

f ar

s outh

a s

C orbridge. L uttwak

r easonably

s uggests

t hat

t he

main a im

o f

c ommand was t o maintain a p reclusive f rontier .

t he

R oman

m ilitary

O n t he C ontinent t his

proved impossible i n t he t hird c entury, h ence t he d evelopment o f a d efence s igns

i n

o f

d epth .

Whenever

e nduring s uccess,

t he

s trategy

o f

d efence

i n

d epth

s howed

i t was p romptly a bandoned i n f avour o f

p reclusive s ecurity ( Luttwak 1 976,

1 32).

I n B ritain,

t he n orthern

f rontier was n ever penetrated d eeply - t he two i nvasions f or which t here a s

i s

a ny

e vidence

C orbridge

( dated

a re a rchaeologically a ttested t o c irca AD

1 05 and

1 80).

o nly a s

f ar s outh

T here was h ence n o

r eason t o p rovide a d efence i n d epth i n n orthern B ritain . J ones, h owever, d rawing h is i nspiration f rom L uttwak, s uggests d efence i n d epth i n n orthern B ritain with C atterick a s o f

t he s trategic n erve c entre

t he n orthern c ommand a nd a s a n e ssential c omponent

d efended i n d epth ( Jones G . 1 978; 1 979, What

o f

t he

e vidence f or a d efence

t he d iocese?

o f

t he f rontier

6 7).

i n d epth o n t he o ther f rontiers

o f

T he S axon S hore a nd t he s outh west were particularly

o pen t o a ttack - i n n either a rea were t here a ny f orts by t he e arly t hird c entury. r eliance

On t he e ast and s outh c oasts,

o n f ortified

t owns

t he R ichborough f ortlet,

a nd

t he

f orts

a fter t he s uggested

a t B rancaster,

a n e xtensive s ystem o f

f orts

R eculver a nd

was

b uilt

l ater

i n t he c entury . T hese p rotected t he main r iver e stauries a nd p orts, b ut i n t hemselves were much t oo f ew t o p rovide a dequate p rotection f or t he

l ong a nd v ulnerable c oastline .

t he S axon S hore d efences a nd

n orth Kent

c oasts

a re

l argely

i llusory

s ince

were p rotected b y marshes,

L ympne and P evensey c onsisting o f p opulated Weald ( Copley 1 958 , 1 44) . a p reclusive f rontier,

C opely s uggested t hat t he g aps much t he

i n

t he E ssex

g ap b etween

t he s eaward e nd o f t he t hinlyW as t his l imes t o b e d efended a s

o r t o b e d efended i n d epth a s was

Romans o n many o ther f rontiers?

o f

f orced o n t he

T o h ave d efeated t he s ea r aiders

b efore t hey were a ble t o l and would h ave

r equired

a n e fficient

s ystem

o f p atrolling s uch a s would have b een d ifficult t o a chieve with t he

1 54

v essels

available

however,

t o

implied

T hese v essels

t he

R omans.

S ome

r eference

i n

t ype

o f

V egetius

a t

u sed

i n

f ourth-century

D erventio

i n

t he

B ritain .

N otitia,

s tationed a t B rough-on-Humber,

b ut

p atrolling

( IV

- g iven t he t echnical n ame s uperventus

s couting v essels s tationed

t he

b y

3 7)

i s,

t o pictae.

( surprise) - were

T he

S upervenientes

p robably

o riginally

may have b een c onnected with t hese

s couting v essels which i n B ritain were p ainted blue t o a void t heir b eing s potted . T he c rews a lso wore c amouflaged c lothing . H assall s uggests

t hat

d own

t o

t he

mid-fourth

c entury

t here may have b een

f leets based i n t he Humber, Tees a nd Tyne ( Hagsall c lassis

Anderetianorum,

p resumably b een b ased I f

Johnson's

s tationed

e arlier

s trategical

a t

a t

P aris

( p . 17 , .

P evensey

f ramework

f or

i n

1 976, t he

c h .

X LII

t he u se o f

1 12).

T he

Notitia, n o .

had

2 3) .

t he S axon S hore

d efences i s c orrect, t hen a t l east i n t he C hannel r aiders were t o b e i ntercepted

a t

s ea,

t hough

even

i n

t he

S traits

o f

Dover,

bad

v isability would r ender t he s ystem a ll b ut u seless ( Johnson J . 1 976A , 1 26-7). I f r aiders were t o b e i ntercepted when t hey had made a l andfall, c avalry would b e most e ffective a gainst t hem a s mobility would

c ertainly b e n eeded .

within m any

o f

N otitia were

t he

T he e vidence f or

S axon S hore

g arrisoned b y

f orts

i s

c avalry.

t he p resence

s lim - o nly

I f t here was

t wo

o f

c avalry

f orts

i n

t he

m uch l ikelihood o f

r aiders a ctually p enetrating t he S axon S hore d efences, t hen a s ystem o f d efence i n d epth would b e n ecessary and t he p resence o f a mobile r eserve i n t he h interland would h ave b een o f

g reat v alue .

B ehind t he

l itus S axonicum t here i s n o evidence o f any s uch mobile f orce. f orts

o f

l ate R oman d ate have b een f ound

l itus.

I t

r etained

i s

i ts

c ity

d efences

Many

o f

t he

were

e ast

i nland

c lear

b ut

i t h as

f rom

whether

f unction a t

f illed

f ortified

a mobile f orce , n orth

n ot

m ilitary

i n

t owns

i t

b y

i n

t he

t his t he

C ripplegate

d ate

t hird

- i ts c entury

t he h interland

f ort

d itches

b een

s uggested

t hat

Malton

( Merrifield

t he

1 966 ) .

c ould h ave h oused a nd

t he

i n L ondon within

i s d ifficult t o s how a rchaeologically .

t he s ignal

N o

i n t he hinterland o f

s uch

I n t he

P iercebridge ,

l ying

s tations o n t he Yorkshire a nd p ossibly t he

C ounty Durham c oasts, may have p rovided t roops t o i ntercept t he r aiders o nce t heir p resence had b een n oted b y t he s ignal s tations ( Hassall

1 976,

1 12).

I n t he s outh west t here i s l ittle evidence f or t he p rovision o f n ew d efences. s uggested C armarthen

I n S outh Wales a f ort was p laced a t C ardiff. t hat t o

a s ystem o f t he s ea

a nd

a t P embroke where c oins

watch-towers t hat

o f

t hat

t here

c onnected

J ones has

t he walled

t own o f

m ay h ave b een a l ate R oman p ost

d ate h ave b een f ound .

T o t he s outh e ast o f t he B ristol C hannel a nd i n D evon a nd C ornwall, n o s uch d efences a re k nown . There i s v irtually n o e vidence f or a military p resence i n t hat a rea l ater i n d ate t han t he f irst c entury, t hough t he wall a nd t owers s urviving a t O ldaport b y t he m outh o f t he River E rme n ear Modbury may b e o f Roman d ate a nd c ould belong t o a l ater R oman f ort .

R oman c oarse p ottery a nd s amian h ave b een f ound o n

t he site ( pers. c omm . Mr. P . B idwell). P R R EL o n a m osaic d ated

t o

A t L ydney a man d escribed a s

t he f ourth c entury

( but n ot n ecessarily a s

l ate a s Wheeler's e xcavations would s uggest) has b een t hought t o be p ossibly a praefectus r eliquationis c lassis.

I f s o, t his may mean

t hat t here was a n aval f lotilla i n t he B ristol C hannel. S ea Mills h as o n o ccasion b een s uggested a s a n aval b ase . T he s uggestion t hat t he R omano-Celtic t emple a t

B rean D own p erhaps

1 55

f unctioned a s

a watch

t ower a s w ell a s a t emple s eems u nlikely ( Livens 1 974 , 3 35) . I n t his a rea t here a re f ew walled t owns t hat c ould h ave o ffered b ases f or a rmy u nits . T he s outh-west i s t he m ain a rea w here t races o f d estruction i n A D 3 67 h ave b een c laimed i n r ecent y ears .

1 56

C HAPTER 1 1

THE E VIDENCE F OR T HE P RESENCE O F LAETI A ND F OEDERATI I N L ATER R OMAN B RITAIN

I n t he e arly R oman p eriod t here was a n umber o f G erman a uxiliary u nits s tationed i n B ritain whose p resence i n many c ases i s a ttested well i nto

t he t hird c entury ,

m ade

t he m embers o f

t aste i f n ot

i n r acial o rigin .

barbarian g roups B ritain . d ispatched

t hough b y

r ecorded

P ossibly t o

t hat

d ate

l ocal

t hese u nits m ore B ritish ,

t he

i n

a t

r ecruiting

D uring t he R oman p eriod , t he

l argest

m ay h ave

l east i n o utlook a nd a n umber o f

l iterary s ources were b rought i nto g roup

was

t he

t he p rovince b y Marcus A urelius i n A D

5 ,500

S armatians

1 75 .

I n B ritain ,

t he presence o f o nly a small p roportion o f t hese men i s a ttested a t Ribchester.

I n

t he

e arly

t hird

c entury

two

u nits,

p robably

r ecruited i n ' free' Germany, a re a ttested a t Housesteads a s well a s t he

c ohors

I T ungrorum .

T hese u nits

- t he n umerus H naudifridi a nd a

c uneus F risiorum ( possibly t wo n ames f or t he s ame u nit) - r etained t he worship o f t heir n ative G ermanic g ods a nd a ppear t o h ave c ontinued t o u se p ottery made i n t heir o wn n ative t radition I n

c irca A D

2 77,

Z osimus

r ecords

t hat

( Jobey

I ,

1 979) .

t he emperor P robus

l arge n umber o f V andals a nd B urgundians whom h e h ad

s ent

c aptured

o ver a

t o s erv-

a s s oldiers. T here i s n o i ndication a s t o where t hese men were based. A t t hat t ime t he a rchaeological evidence would s uggest a l arge r eduction i n f ort g arrisons i n t he n orth a nd west o f B ritain . T he p resence o f a n A lamannic c hief, imply

C rocus,

a t Y ork i n A D 3 06 n eed n ot

t hat A lamanni h ad b een s ettled i n t he a rea

( cf .

Myres

1 969 ,

6 6) .

H e a nd h is men were n o d oubt p art o f t he f orce C onstantius C hlorus h ad b rought with him t o B ritain i n AD 3 05 f or his P ictish War a nd would h ave a ccompanied C onstantine t o t he C ontinent i n t he f ollowing y ear ( Aurelius V ictor d e C aesoribus X XXIX , 4 1) . I n A D 3 72, V alentinian i s r ecorded a s s ending F raomarius, k ing o f t he B ucinobantes ( a t ribe o f t he Alamanni) t o B ritain with t he r ank o f t ribune a nd g iving him c ommand o f a numerus o f t he Alamanni ( AM. XXIX, 4 , 7 ). P resumably t hese

t roops

1 977,

1 5,

f n .

a lready

f ormed p art

o f

t he r egular a rmy i n B ritain

( Mann

1 7).

There i s n o i ndication i n t he l iterary s ources f or t he p resence o f f ree G ermans with a s tatus d istinct f rom t hat d iocese o f Britain . b een t hought

I n t he Notitia

t o b reak o ff

b efore a ny

o f r egular t roops

i n t he

X LII) t he l ist o f l aeti has m ention o f

s uch u nits

i n B ritain

i s made. Mann has s uggested, h owever, t hat t he s upposed l acuna i n t his c hapter m ay b e n o m ore t han a n u nnecessary i nvention o f S eeck's ( Mann 1 974, 1 4). T he t erm l itus S axonicum u sed i n t he Notitia t o d escribe t he s outh a nd e ast c oasts o f B ritain a nd t he c oast o f G allia B elgica , h as s uggested t o s ome s cholars t hat t his i s e vidence f or t he c oast h aving b een s ettled b y S axons d uring t he R oman p eriod , e ither a s

1 57

l aeti

o r

f oederati.

b arbarians

i n a reas

I t

t hat

was

n ormal

f rontier

p olicy

were u nder b arbarian a ttack ,

e ven

t o

s ettle

b y

men

o f

t he s ame t ribe a s t hose being c harged with t he d efence o f t hat area ( Johnson

J .

1 977,

6 3) .

T he

a rchaeological

e vidence

f or

t he p resence

o f

S axons b efore t he f ifth c entury will b e d ealt with b elow;

n o

means p roven t hat

a p art

S axons were s ettled i n B ritain while

o f

t he

R oman

b arbarians

p ar

e xcellence

have

d ared

Only

o ne

s ettle

unit

o f

Empire.

t hem

a nd

T he

within

S axons

S axons

J ohnson

i s

t he

were

s uggests Empire

r ecorded

i n

s tationed i n S yria ( Or. XXXII, n . 3 7).

l ooked u pon a s

t hat

n o

emperor

( Johnson t he

i t i s b y

i t r emained

J .

t he

would

1 976C,

8 2).

t his

was

N otitia;

T he f ear t hat S axons s truck

i n R oman h earts i s i llustrated b y a l etter f rom S idonius A pollinaris t o a f riend i n G aul who was o n s ervice a gainst S axon m arauders: " Please d o b e very c areful - t here's n o t ime l ike t he p resent f or a warning . i f

S axons

a re

t he

m ost b rutal o f

e nemies:

t hey'll o nly a ttack

t hey h ave t he a dvantage o f s urprise - i f y ou s ee t hem

s link

away.

T hey

unprepared . I f t hey'll e scape" . A lthough

i t

was

was

p laced

written

i n

d efended

s ites,

b ut

t hey hunt, t hey'll c atch, ( Letters, V III, 6 ,14).

n ot

i s n ot u nique.

avoid

c ommon

h it

f irst

hardest

but i f y ou p ursue

t o n ame a f rontier

a fter

i ts

c ommand

c irca

t hat

D anube

AD

o f

3 90,

t he t he

a ttacker,

B alkans . c ommand

I n i s

t he

A nonymous

c alled

R ipa

t hree

R ome,

i t

V alesianus,

Gothica .

T he

was k illed .

t ime t here was n o G othic p resence o n t he r ight b ank o f ( Hind

1 980 ,

t he

3 20-1) .

L arge b arbarian g roups o f

t he

t hem,

I n AD 3 36, Delmatius C aesar, C onstantine's n ephew,

c ommand c ould o nly h ave l asted t ill A D 3 37 when D elmatius At

t hey'll a t

d ifferent

c ould h ave

ways .

I f

t hey would h ave h eld

n o l egal r ights e xcept

e ntered t he Empire p eaceabl7 i n o ne

t hey h ad u nconditionally

t he s tatus o f d editicii .

t hose

g iven t o

t hem b y

s urrendered

t he R omans .

F oederati

were t ribes o r g roups who h ad e ntered i nto a t reaty with R ome . f oederati n ormally

l ay b eyond t he

f rontiers

o f

t o

S uch p eople h ad

t he Empire

a nd

T hese i t

was

only i n t he l ate f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies t hat s uch i ndependent g roups l iving under t heir own l aws were a llowed within t he Empire. The

f irst

f oederati

o f

t his

s ort

r ecognised a s s uch b y T heodosius a ccept t roops

were

t he

i n A D 3 82 .

V isigoths

who

were

T heodosius was f orced t o

t he V isigothic p resence within t he Empire a s he had t oo f ew t o e xpel t hem .

I n t he west,

t he f irst f oederati s et u p within

t he Empire were t he V isigoths who were g iven l and i n Gaul i n A D 4 18. T he f oederate k ingdom i n n orth Wales o f p robably Laeti

t he V otadini u nder C unnedda i s

mythical.

c ould

b e

p eople

f rom

within

o r

f rom

o utside

t he

Empire

-

g entiles were e xclusively r ecruited f rom b eyond t he I mperial f rontiers ( Mann 1 977 , 1 5 , a s f oreigners; a nd t o

t hey l aeti

s ame

f n .17) . t hey h ad

c ould n ot

A ccording t o S impson , g entiles were t reated v ery l ittle c ontact with R oman p rovincials

m arry a p rovincial .

( Simpson C .

1 97 0.

f unction a nd have h eld

N otitia s tationed

( Oc. i n

X LII) t he

1 2

G allic

H owever,

N o s uch

r estrictions a pplied

t hey may have performed

t he s ame s tatus

i n t he army.

praefecti

l aetorum

a re

p rovinces

- a n umber

o f

r ecorded

t he

I n t he a s

being

p raefecti A entilium

were s tationed i n I talia a nd G aul . T hese l aeti a re l isted a s r egular s oldiers; t heir s ons l ike t hose o f o ther s tate employees w ere b ound t o s erve i n t he a rmy i f f it.

T hat t hey were i rregular s oldiers i s

1 58

o pen t o d oubt - l aeti s erved i n t he c rack palatine r egiments o f t he S cutori a nd G entiles . O ther l aeti s eem t o h ave b een m erely c olonists u nder a rms. L aeti h ad a higher s tatus i n R oman l aw t han o ther b arbarian g roups, b ut u nlike f oederati t hey were s ubject a uthority o f t he R oman g overnment ( Simpson C . 1 971) .

t o t he f inal

T he p resence o f l aeti i n B ritain h as b een i nferred f rom t he e vidence o f p ottery a nd m etalwork . T he s oldiers o f G ermanic o rigin m entioned i n t he l iterary s ources c ould h ave b een a nd p robably were m embers o f t he a uxilia . T here a re t wo t ypes o f p ottery - which h ave b een u sed t o i ndicate t he p resence o f S axons: A nglo-Saxon p ottery i tself which i s d ifficult t o d ate c losely, a nd R oman p ottery, s upposedly d ecorated i n G ermanic s tyle a nd p roduced f or u se b y G ermans, s o-called ' RomanoS axon' ware . M yres, o n t he e vidence o f A nglo-Saxon p ottery i n t his c ountry , h as a rgued t hat s ettlement b y t hese p eoples must h ave b egun a t l east b y t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c enturies a nd was well e stablished b y t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod . I n t he r eport o n t he c emetery a t C aistor-by-Norwich , t he e xcavators b elieved t hat t he s ite o f t he c emetery may h ave been c leared f or u se b y t he barbarians a s e arly a s t he l ater p art o f t he t hird c entury a nd t hat t he c emetery was u sed o n a n i ncreasing s cale f rom a t l east t he mid-fourth c entury ( Myres and G reen 1 973). T he d ating o f t he Anglo-Saxon p ottery c oncerned i s o f c rucial importance t o t he p roblem . Many h ave d oubted t hat t he S axons c ould have g ot s uch a s trong f oothold i n t he i sland while i t was s till u nder R oman c ontrol . Morris, i n a r eview a rticle o n t he a bove w ork , a ttacks t he d ating o f t he u rns a t C aistor t o b efore c irca A D 4 20 . H e maintains t hat t he C ontinental p arallels a re e ither n ot

c losely

d ated

o r

n ot

p articularly

s imilar

t o

t he

p ieces

i n

q uestion: " Myres' d iscussion d oes n ot s upport t he v iew t hat b urials b egan a t C aistor b efore t he 4 20s"

( Morris J .

1 974,

2 30-1).

" The l ack o f R omano-British o bjects, t he p ersistence o f c remation a nd t he a bsence o f b elt f ittings, makes i t d ifficult t o a gree with h im. ( Myres) . F urthermore , t he a pparent l ack o f f ourth-century A nglo-Saxon b rooches i s h ardly c onsistent with A nglo-Saxons b eing h ere , c remating t heir d ead a nd u sing t heir i ndigenous h and-made p ottery" 1 979, 4 03). A t Mucking,

( Clarke

S axon o ccupation i n t he R oman p eriod has b een c laimed .

H ere t here i s e vidence f or a n e xtensive e arly s ettlement d ated b y t he A nglo-Saxon p ottery f rom t he s ite ( Jones M .U . 1 968) . A s a t C aistorb y-Norwich , t his h as p erhaps b een d ated t oo e arly . T he p resence o f R oman ' military' belt e quipment i n two o f t he S axon Arubenhäus d oes n ot p rove t hat t hese p eople were employed a s mercenaries b y t he R omans. The presence o f t his e quip ment need have no more s ignificance t han t he p resence o f R oman c oins i n S axon g raves .

A s a t

C aistor-by-Norwich , t here i s l ittle a pparent o verlap b etween t he R oman a nd S axon s ettlement ( Johnson J . 1 980A, 1 25). O nly t hree s herds o f R omano-Saxon p ottery w ere f ound i n a p resumed A nglo-Saxon c ontext . R ecently , w are

d oubts h ave b een

p ertaining

t o

t he

c ast

o n

q uestion o f

1 979B).

t he

r elevance

o f

S axon p resence

t he R omano-Saxon

i n B ritain

( Gillam

V ery f ew S axon p ots s how any R oman i nfluence ( Myres 1 969, T he m ain c lass o f R omano-Saxon p ottery i s m ade u p o f p ots i n n ormal R oman f abric a nd t echnique d ecorated with d imples, h ollow

1 59

b osses,

s tamps,

c hevrons,

g roups o f

p ointed o ut t hat a lthough m uch o f which

i s

f ourth

t hree d epressions,

a n umber

o f

G illam

t he s tratified R omano-Saxon p ottery,

o nly a small p roportion

c entury,

e tc.

o f

t he t otal f ound,

pieces

d ate

d ates

s ignificantly

t o t he

e arlier .

Again, while most o f i t has b een f ound i n t he e ast o f Britain o n t he S axon S hore,

i t has a lso been

C umbria a nd a t

Wroxeter .

f ound

i n Y orkshire,

H e s uggested

t hat

t he

Northumberland,

a pparent

c orrelation

between t he a reas where t he bulk o f R omano-Saxon pottery has b een f ound a nd

t he a reas

m ost

l ikely

t o h ave b een t he f irst

S axons need n ot b e s ignificant. which

i s known

t o have b een

' normal' R oman p roducts a n ormal p attern l oss o f S cotland . S hore

may

o f

i n

and

a s

made

i n t he s ame k ilns

t he E ssex

s imply b e t he r esult o f

p ottery l ate

f rom

f ifth

c haracteristics

a nd

a s

H ertfordshire

o ther

a rea ,

l arge n umbers o f

' free' G ermany

and

p resent

r egular t roops

I f Romano-Saxon ware was s ixth

( as

Myres

c entury

i nfluenced b y

would have u s

Anglo-Saxon

o n R omano-Saxon ware ,

I t

i s

c hronologically

m ore

a cceptable

b elieve)

pottery

s hows

o ne would e xpect

t o s ee

s imilar i nfluences a t work o n l ater ' free' G ermanic p ottery , n ot .

m ore

e xhibits

d istribution f or p roducts o f t hat a rea a fter t he T he p resence o f m uch o f t his material o n t he S axon

being i n g arrison t here. G ermanic

s ettled b y t he

H e a rgued t hat R omano-Saxon ware,

t o

s uggest

b ut w e d o

t hat

R omano-

S axon ware i s a p articular d evelopment o f R omano-British p ottery with which i t p otters .

had much i n c ommon, which l ater i nfluenced Anglo-Saxon A ll t he m otifs s een o n p ots which a re a ccepted a s R omano-

S axon a re

s een o n

o ther R omano-British p roducts .

s tamps a nd c hevrons a re p art o f B ritish p otters.

B osses,

d imples,

t he o rdinary s tock i n t rade o f R omano-

Two p ots o f Romano-Saxon t ype have b een f ound i n

t he north s ecurely s tratified and d ated b efore t he f ourth c entury o ne f rom Bewcastle a ssociated with c oins o f t he T etrici a nd o ne a t T urret 3 3b whi,h went o ut o f u se i n t he s econd c entury. s ums u p h is a rgument t hus:

Mr. Gillaw

" Romano-Saxon wares were made i n t his c ountry a t s everal d ifferent c entres, t hough i n a l imited r egion .

T hey were R oman i n t echnique

and were n ot necessarily i nfluenced b y f ree G ermanic vessels o f t he R oman p eriod . where s ome a re

f ound

T hey b elong l argely t o t he e astern p art

o f

o n

t he v arieties were

m ore

d istant

m ade ,

s ites .

b ut

t hey

Most b elong

o f t he c ountry

a nd t heir p rototypes

t o

t he

f ourth

c entury,

b ut m uch e arlier e xamples o r p rototypes a re k nown". I t

i s- noteworthy

a t

C aistor-by-Norwich .

" There

i s

t hat

v irtually

t he Anglo S axons" P rototypes

n o R omano-Saxon ware was

n o

s ocial

c ontact

i n p ottery

t he

c emetery

a nd

f or R omano-Saxon ware a re n ot e asy t o f ind;

i f

1 973,

t he

i n

R omano-British

( Myres a nd G reen

b etween

f ound

1 3).

a ny o f t he c haracteristic R omano-Saxon f eatures a re p resent, t he p ot i s h ailed a s R omano-Saxon ware . A n umber o f R omano-Saxon f eatures a re p resent was

t he

o n R oman s ilver ware

p rototype

f or

a nd

R omano-Saxon

i t

i s

ware ,

p ossible t he

t hat

i nfluence

s uch

s ilver

b eing

d irect

a nd within t he Empire . I n

1 961,

c oncluded u sage 1 961,

H awkes p ublished a paper o n l ate R oman b elt-fittings a nd t hat

t he H awkes

a nd d ated f rom 4 0-1).

a nd D unning

c irca AD

t ypes

I t o V were

f or

3 70 i nto t he f ifth c entury

military ( Hawkes

T here i s n o evidence t hat t he p eople who were buried

1 60

c lose b y t he h ill f ort o f F urfooz i n B elgium b elonged t o o ne o f t he u nits o f l aeti r ecorded i n t he N otitia ( Oc. c h . X LII) a s H awkes m aintains, n or t hat t he c hip-carved m etalwork a ssociated with t hem was u sed s olely b y s oldiers i n t he l ate R oman Army who were o f G erman o rigin . I n B ritain a n u nfortunate c onsequence o f t his h as b een t hat c hip-carved o r p lain b elt material has b een h eld t o r epresent p resence o f G ermans, e ither i n t he r egular a rmy o r , m ore l ikely, l aeti

o r

t he a s

f oederati .

T here a re t wo p roblems p osed b y t he m etalwork ' : f irstly, was i t w orn e xclusively b y G ermans a nd i s h ence a n i ndicator o f t he p resence o f l aeti o r f oederati within t he Empire, o r was i t worn e xclusively b y t he military? i .e., d oes i t i ndicate t he p resence o f t he r egular a rmy? T he f ormer p roblem i s t he e asier t o s olve. T he t ype o f d ecoration o f t hese b elt-fittings i s d irectly i nfluenced b y l ate R oman a nd c lassical a rt. K och has s hown t hat b uckles o f g roups I d, I IIa a nd V a re f ound widely i n t he l ate f ourth a nd e arly f ifth c enturies, b oth within a nd o utside t he Empire , b ut t hat t hose p roduced w ithin t he Empire a re t he e arlier i n d ate . Most s cholars b elieve t hat m uch o f t he m aterial was m ade i n s tate m ilitary f actories , t hough t he e vidence f or t his i s s lim . S ome t ypes d o , h owever , s eem t o h ave b een m ade i n c ertain a reas a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he buckles o f i nferior d esign were made i n i mitation o f f iner p ieces, t hemselves p ossibly m ade i n s tate f actories ( Simpson C . 1 971). I t has b een s uggested t hat a b uckle f rom G estinthorpe o f c hip-carved t ype may h ave b een m ade o n t he s ite Punnet 1 975 , 1 38 ) . B uckles o f g roups I d a nd h a a re o nly f ound i n B ritain ;

t hey were p resumably made t here .

T he l ate Roman A rmy was made u p o f b arbarians,

t hose o f b arbarian

e xtraction a nd p rovincials - t hough t he l atter s eem t o have b en i n t he majority . P rosophographical r ecords f rom t he l ate E mpire s uggest a G erman o rigin f or a bout 1 5% o f western f ourth-century o fficers a nd s uggest t hat G ermans o f o ther r anks were p roportionately f ewer ( Morris J . 1 974 , 2 29) . I t would s eem u nlikely t hat s tate m ilitary f actories would

p roduce b elt-fittings

s pecifically f or

t he s oldiers

o f

t he

r egular a rmy who were G ermans . T hat t hese f ittings were n ot p roduced o nly f or t he l aeti and f oederati o f c ommon p arlance i s i ndicated b y t heir a ssociation with Zwiebelkopflibeln ( onion-headed) b rooches. T hese b rooches a re t hought t o h ave b een r estricted t o u se b y m embers o f t he imperial a dministration a nd were p robably p roduced i n t he s tate f actories

o f P annonia a nd I llyricum .

Myres a rgued f or t he p resence o f A lamanni i n Y orkshire i n t he l ate R oman p eriod a nd s uggested t hat t he h illfort o f A lmondbury c ould well h ave b een o ccupied a s t he h eadquarters o f l aeti . H is e vidence f or a n A lamannic p resence i s v ery t enuous: a n Alamannic s pearhead f rom D riffield , a r are f ourth-century A lamannic b rooch f rom a s ixth-century i nhumation a t L ondesborough n ear S ancton, p ottery o f F rankish c haracter a nd p lace n ames which i nclude ' Almond' ( Myres 1 969, 7 5). There

i s

no

e vidence

t hat

a nnular

brooches

L ondesborough a re s pecifically c onnected with

l ike

t hat

f rom

t he A lamanni - t hey a re

f ound o ver a wide a rea f rom Y ugoslavia t o t he N orth S ea . T he r ange a ssigned t o t his e xample i s a lso t oo s pecific; i t c ould f rom before c irca AD 2 60 i nto t he migration p eriod ( Todd 1 975, T hat A lmondbury i s d erived f rom A lamanni i s u nlikely; t he n ame

d ate d ate 3 88). m ust

h ave o riginated l ater t han R oman t imes a nd t here i s n o e vidence f or t he Alamanni h aving b een a n i dentifiable t ribe i n E ngland i n t he

1 61

Anglo-Saxon

p eriod

( Swanton

1 967,

4 8-9).

I n

t he

a ppendix

t o

Swanton's a rticle, Myres d ates t he p ottery o f F rankish c haracter t o c irca A D 5 30 a t t he e arliest . O nce t he a bove t o

s uggest

i nformation i s t aken i nto a ccount,

t he presence

T he p resence o f

o f

l arge g roups

o f

t here i s n o e vidence

barbarians

i n Britain .

i ndividual o r small n umbers o f b arbarians o f a ny t ribe

i n u nits o f t he a rmy i s t o b e e xpected b ut t hese m en would p resumably b e i ndistinguishable f rom a ny o ther s oldier i n t he u nit o f w hich t hey h appened t o b e a member. Myres has s uggested t hat l aeti p layed a n i mportant p art i n t he d efence o f e astern B ritain : T he A nglo-Saxon c emeteries b urial p laces

i n e astern E ngland

o f barbarian l aeti,

b rought

" must

h ave b egun a s

t he

i n with t heir wives a nd

f amilies d uring t he l ast d ays o f R oman r ule a nd d eliberately p lanted i n e astern B ritain t o a ct a s r einforcements t o, o r a s s ubstitutes f or , more r egular g arrisons i n i nvasion" ( Myres 1 969 , 7 4) .

t he

p rotection

I n t he a bsence o f t hese l aeti, h interland o f I f

t he

t he l itus

c hip-carved

t he military, d iocese,

t hough

t he

p rovince

were r egular t roops s tationed in t he

p lain

b elt-fittings

t he presence

more

c ommonly

o f

were

e xclusively

s uch metalwork

f ound

i n

t he

worn b y

t hroughout

l owland

i ndicate t hat t roops were s tationed i n t hese a reas. s oldiers

against

S axonicum?

a nd

t hen

o f

z one,

t he

would

T hat regular

d id wear t his e quipment i s v ery l ikely - s oldiers o n t he A rch

o f C onstantine i n R ome a re d epicted wearing wide b elts with p ropellers haped s trengtheners.

S uch e quipment h as been f ound o n numerous

o ccasions i n o r b y military i nstallations,

e specially o n t he S axon

S hore, but a lso i n t he north a t Doncaster ( Buckland and D olby 1 972), G reta B ridge ( Hawkes 1 974), Maryport ( Jarrett 1 976),

York ( Sumpter

a nd C oll 1 975), C arrawburgh ( Clarke 1 979, 2 85) and a t o ther s ites o n H adrian's Wall ( pers. c omm. Mr.R . Miket). Two p ossible amphoras haped s trap-ends

o f S impson's

t ype b ( Simpson C .

1 976,

f ig.4) have

b een f ound a t C hester ( Droop a nd N ewstead 1 931B, p l .XLVII A n o nion-headed g ilt b ronze b rooch c ame f rom C aernarvon .

5 0

a nd

5 2) .

I t h as b een s uggested t hat b elt-fittings a nd c ross-bow b rooches f ormed p art o f t he c ingulum militiae. A s c ivil o fficials were a lso g iven military r ank ,

t he f inding o f s uch c ingula c ould e qually well i ndicate

t he p resence

o f

a c ivil

o fficial r ather t han a s oldier.

I n s ome

c ases, b elt-fittings o f p resumed military t ype a re f ound i n f emale b urials . S impson s uggests a n umber o f p ossibilities t o e xplain t his : t he women may h ave b een a ccorded t he s ame s tatus a s t heir h usbands a nd t hus have b een e ntitled t o t he s ame f ittings a nd b een a llowed t o r etain t he i nsignia o f g ained

t heir h usbands when w idowed;

o r t hey may h ave

t heir a rticles b y t rade a nd h ave h eld n o o fficial s tatus .

F or

t heir o ccurrence i n c hildren's g raves, he s uggests t hat p erhaps t he h ereditary o bligations m eant t hat m ale o ffspring were e ntitled t o wear t he i nsignia o f

t heir

f ather's

o ffice

o r s tatus

( Simpson C .

1 971).

I t would make most s ense t o s uggest t hat i n o bviously n on-official c ontexts,

military-style b elt-fittings

b eing u sed b y s tyles

o f

c ivilians.

o rnament,

t he

Among ' free' G ermans, were

worn b y

women a s

and

c ross-bow brooches

were

O nce t he military t ook t o wearing s uch

f ashion

c ould h ave i nfluenced

c ivilian

u sage .

b elts with b uckles o f Hawkes and D unning t ype well a s

m en

1 62

( Clarke

1 979,

2 89) .

T he p resence

o f l arge n umbers o f b elt-fittings o f t his t ype i n v illas t hroughout B ritain s hould i n i tself i ndicate t hat wearers n eed h ave n o m ilitary o r o fficial s tatus. I n t he t owns where t here would h ave b een c ivilians, c ivil o fficials a nd p ossibly s oldiers, i t would b e d ifficult t o t ell c ivilian o rnaments f rom c ingulum m ilitiae . C larke s uggests t hat o nly t he wide b elts

w ith d ouble s traps

a nd t hose

w ith t he l avish-type I VA b uckles a nd d ecorative p lates s hould b e t hought o f a s m ilitary, t hough b uckles o f t ype H A ( whilst n ot a lways p art o f a two-strap b elt) may a lso have b een u sed b y t he military. A s s ingle-strap b elts o f t ype I IA i n f orm a nd c onstruction c losely I mitate C ontinental t wo-strap b elts , h e b elieves t hat t hese b elts a lso h ad s ome military s ignificance . b eing 6 03) .

T his

i s a lso s uggested b y

( N o

f ound i n b urials a ssociated w ith k nives a t L ankhills T he i nsular d istribution o f t ype I IA b uckles s uggests

t heir

9 2 a nd t hat t he

wearers were n ot r egular s oldiers who would t end t o b e moved o ut o f t he d iocese ( Clarke 1 979 , 2 90) . O n t he i nsignia o f

t he v icarius o f B ritain i n t he Notitia ( 0c .

c h .

X XIII) t he p rovinces o f h is d iocese a re s hown n ot a s maidens, a s i n o ther i nsignia, b ut a s f ortified e nclosures. F rere s uggested t his i mplies t hat t he v icarius had t roops under h is c ommand, p resumably c ity g arrisons. H e c onnects t his with t he p resence o f ' military' b elt-fittings i n t he t owns o f B ritain

( Frere

s uggested t hat

p art o f t he g arrison's d uty

t owns were g arrisoned,

1 978,

3 99).

H awkes

b eing t o d efend t he villas i n t he c ountryside . S he s ees t he r igid d istribution o f t he m etalwork a cross t he Midlands a s r epresenting a n i nner ' frontier' - a r eserve l ine o f d efence s hould t he n orth f all . T his f orce would b e s emi-mobile - a s ort o f y eomanry ( Hawkes 1 961, 4 1). C larke's

wearers

o f

t ype

I IA b uckles,

h e

s uggests,

w ere

t roops

u nder

t he v icarius c ommand - a f orce u nique i n t he Empire - d rawn f rom t he p rovinicals u nder h is j urisdiction i n t he c ivil z ones o f B ritain . H e d ates t he c reation o f s uch a f orce o n t he e vidence o f t he L ankhills b urials N o .92 a nd 6 03 t o t he m id-fourth c entury a nd l asting t ill a fter A D 4 00 o n t he e vidence o f t he N otitia ( Clarke 1 979 , 2 91) . T hese t wo b urials f orm p art o f a g roup o f 1 6 s uch b urials o f which C larke w rites: c onsistent l ayout was u nlike t hat i n e arlier o r c ontemporary g raves a t L ankhills" .

I t

was

s eemingly

f aithfully

a dhered t o i n t he e arliest o f

t he

1 6

g raves, s ome o f w hich were c oin d ated t o c irca A D 3 50-70 . B ut t hose a mong t hem d efinitely d atable a fter c irca A D 3 70 r evealed e vidence f or b reakdown a nd v ariation , a nd f or t he a bsorption o f p ractices t ypical o f o ther o bviously n ative g raves. I n t hese c ircumstances, i t was a rgued t hat t he 1 6 g raves c ould o nly b e e xplained a s t he b urials o f p eople f oreign t o W inchester who were g radually b eing a ssimilated i nto t he Roman p opulation ( ibid, 3 77). T he e xcavator t hinks t hat t hese p eople were S armatians f rom o utside t he Empire : " Although

t here a re

c ertainly s ome d ifferences

L ankhills' g raves a re perhaps a s c emeteries a s e lsewhere" ( ibid 3 85) .

1 63

c losely

i n f unerary r ites, p aralleled

i n

t he

t hese

A m ilitary

f orce u nder a c ivil o fficial

i s a t

I n r are i nstances i n t he f ourth c entury,

t his d ate v ery u nlikely .

c ivil and military duties

were i nvested i n o ne man, e .g. t he d ux e t p raeces i n I sauria a nd a lso o n o ccasion i n A rabia a nd T ripolitania. T here i s no e vidence t o s uggest a n a nomalous p osition f or t he v icarius o f B ritain . H e had a f ull c omplement o f military c ommanders i n h is d iocese . t o b e g arrisoned, t hese men . On

t he

s uch f orces would b e u nder t he c ommand o f one o f

C ontinent,

a ssociation

barbarian

with

I ron

g rave

g oods,

c emeteries

Age

r efurbished a t t hat t ime. t heir

I f t owns were

t hese

hillforts

a re

o ften

which

f ound

had

i n

t heir

c lose

d efences

J ohnson s uggests t hat o n t he e vidence o f

p eople

r egarded

t hemselves

a s

s oldiers,

y et

t hey a re o ften p laced o n t he l and t o f arm i t and, i n t ime o f d anger, t o d efend i t t his

k ind

C issbury

( Johnson J .

i s

a t

a nd

r efortified

Highdown

i n

1 980A,

F urfooz.

t he

1 34-5).

I n

have,

o n

R oman

p eriod

l ate

A well-known c emetery

B ritain

t he

o ccasion, a nd

hillforts

b een

o f

c laimed

g arrisoned .

A t

r efortified .

d ated

t o

t he

H ighdown

O f

H ill,

w ith

s ome p ermanence o f J .

1 976A,

house

1 51).

d ated

e xcavator b uildings s ome

i ts

l ay

p eriod i ts

( Wilson

R oman

o ccupation , T his t hat

s outh

b ath-house p erhaps

J ohnson

n earby,

t o

a nd west

o f

g arrison

( Johnson

E xcavation o f t he bath-

e arly

s econd

c entury.

t he b ath-house which i n

t hat

i ndicated

t he

l ater

T he

t races o f

went o ut

( Burstow a nd Wilson 1 939).

t he hillfort

a t

s ite

i t was a ll

p ossibly

b y a r egular

t he

t he

s uggested

i t was a ssociated with a villa;

t he t hird c entury

r eoccupation o f

1 939) .

i s hardly l ikely.

c onstruction

t hought

a t t he e nd o f

t he v ery l ittle R oman p ottery f ound,

c onquest

being

C oburn ,

s ome d ate b etween t he R oman c onquest a nd t he t welth c entury , was

Coburn, a s

t hird

o f

u se

T here was c entury

- a

s hallow d itch had been d ug a nd a hut c onstructed, i n a p ost-hole o f which were t wo worn c oins o f V ictorinus a nd T etricus .

Myres makes n o

mention o f f ourth-century S axon p resence o n t he s ite ( Myres J ohnson c entury

c onnects

t he

r efortification o f

r e-use o f h illforts

I n t he West a nd i n Wales, m aterial, f or

i n t he s outh w est

r easons

with

( Johnson J .

t he

1 969). fifth-

1 980A ,

1 60 ) .

many h illforts y ield l ate Romano-British

b ut t he o ccupation o f

d efensive

C issbury

( cf .

t hese s ites d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een

B urrow

1 979 ,

2 15) .

T here d oes n ot a ppear t o have b een any p olicy o f s ettling b arbarian g roups within B ritain t o a id i n t he d efence o f r ural s ites o r i n t he t owns, c ontrol,

i .e.

i nto t he f irst d ecade o f

b arbarian g roups

d o

mercenaries,

t his

b ut

s eem

t he d iocese ,

t he

f ifth

c entury.

t o have b een b rought i nto

n eed n ot

c urrent u nder t he Romans.

w hether o n

a t l east while t he i sland was u nder Roman

r eflect

Later,

t he c ountry a s

a s ituation

t hat had

T he military d efence o f Britain in t he

f ourth c entury would s eem t o h ave r ested w ith t he r egular R oman a f air

p roportion

t hroughout

o f

i ts

been

s oldiers

t he R oman o ccupation o f

1 64

b eing n on-Romans, B ritain .

a s

t hey h ad

a rmy, b een

C ONCLUSION

L ittle c an b e c oncluded i n g eneral f rom t he a bove work . A t n o f ort i s t here s ufficient a rchaeological e vidence t o s uggest w ith c onfidence a history f or t he whole f ort, l et a lone a whole r egion . G eneral t rends c an b e n oted . D uring t he t hird c entury t here was a s hift o f e mphasis f rom d efence o f t he north t o t hat o f t he s outh a nd e ast c oasts, c aused p resumably a s much b y t he p eaceful c ondition o f t he n orthern f rontier a s b y t he d anger f rom s ea r aiders. What happened i n t he n orth i n t he l ater t hird c entury i s f ar f rom c lear. T he d efences o f s ome f orts a nd a n umber o f o fficial b uildings were n eglected, b ut e vidence f rom t he b arrack a reas i s o ften m ore ambiguous . W hether t his m eans t hat f orts w ere a ctually a bandoned b y t he m ilitary o r t hat d iscipline was a llowed t o l apse i s u ncertain . Administrative b uildings may have b een p rovided i n s ome o f t he f orts b uilt o n t he S axon S hore a t t his t ime . I n t he e arly f ourth c entury t hey were c ertainly d eemed n ecessary i n t he n orth a nd t he e vidence a dministrative f unction .

s uggests

t hat

t hey

r etained

t heir

W ithin s ome f orts t here i s c lear e vidence f or t he p resence o f a l arge n umber o f women . P resumably t hese were t he wives o f o rdinary s oldiers, n ot j ust t he wife o f t he f ort c ommandant a nd p ossibly t he wives o f t he c enturions, a s may e arlier h ave b een t he c ase . T heir p resence m ay w ell h ave b een c onnected with t he b uilding o f c halets i n s ome f orts, p ossibly f or t he h ousing o f f amily g roups. We h ave n o e vidence f or t he s ize o f m ilitary u nits i n B ritain i n t he f ourth c entury; g arrisons must h ave b een g reatly r educed, a t l east i n t he f orts w here c halets were p rovided, i f a ll t he t roops l ived within t he walls. T he f ort a t H ousesteads, o riginally d esigned t o h old a m illiary c ohort, may o nly h ave h oused a g arrison o f 1 50 men b y t he e arly f ourth c entury . T his c orresponds well with D uncan-Jones' i nterpretation

o f

t he

B eatty

p apyrus;

t he

m oney p ayments

t o

t roops

r ecorded i n t his d ocument ( dated t o t he t ime o f D iocletian) would s uggest t hat a u nit o f e quites s aggitarii c onsisted o f c irca 1 20 m en , a n a uxiliary c ohort b eing i n t he o rder o f 1 60 m en ( Duncan-Jones 1 978 , 5 47). Within t he f orts o n t he S axon S hore, h uts which may h ave held f amily units have b een f ound . c ontaining

t hese b uildings

i s

Although n o c omplete p lan o f a f ort a vailable ,

i t

i s

l ikely

t hat

l ittle

o f

t hese f orts was c overed b y b uildings. T hough l arger t han most e arlier f orts i n t he n orth, t heir g arrisons may h ave b een l ittle d ifferent, e specially i f t hey a lso had t o h ouse t he i nstallations c onnected with t he f leets b ased o n t hem. Many o f t he S axon S hore f orts p robably h ad i nternal b ath-houses; t he p rincipia a t B rancaster, L ympne a nd R eculver a re m uch l arger t han s imilar b uildings i n e arlier f orts.

1 65

T he

l egionary

d ifficult

t o

g arrison

o f

a scertain .

B y

B ritain t his

i n

t ime

t he

f ourth

l egions

c entury

were

i s

f requently

very s plit

u p i nto vexillations a nd s tationed i n s eparate f orts on a p ermanent b asis.

Most o f t he l egions known t o have b een i n e xistence in t he

f ourth c entury were s o s plit u p - ap rocedure which may h ave become s tandard p ractice a s e arly a s t he t ime o f D iocletian .

T he s ize o f

t hese

t he ancient

u nits

s ources

- which

- h as

b een

a re

o ften

g enerally

l oosely r eferred

a ccepted

a s

b eing

i n

t o

i n

t he

o rder

o f

1 ,000

m en . S uch a u nit c ould e asily h ave b een a ccommodated within t he f ort a t R ichborough i f i t was housed i n s econd-century s tyle b arrackb locks; t he l egio

t here i s n o e vidence f or t hese a t t his f ort .

T he p refect

I I A ugusta was s tationed h ere i n t he N otitia .

d rawn p robably f rom t he I I A ugusta ,

O ther

o f

units,

a re k nown e lsewhere i n t he Empire .

O f t he XX V aleria V ictrix a nd t he V I V ictrix we hear nothing:

t he

f ormer i s l ast a ttested o n t he l egionary c oinage o f C arausius whilst t he l atter, t hough n ot r ec3rded o n t hese, i s i n t he N otitia O c c h X L s tationed a t

S extae.

A t C hester, where t he XX i s a ttested in t he

mid-third c entury, much o f t he f ortress was d evoid o f b uildings t hroughout t he f ourth c entury, a lthough t he d efences were p ossibly r efurbished a round AD 3 00 .

T he evidence f rom York i s

l ess c lear;

t he d efences were e xtensively r ebuilt i n t he f ourth century and t he p rincipia was

maintained i n g ood r epair u p

t o

t he

e nd o f

t hat

c entury

a nd p robably w ell b eyond . I t has l ong b een t hought t hat f rontier

g arrisons,

t he

i n B ritain,

l imitanei,

were

a s e lsewhere,

l ittle

m ore

t he s tatic

t han

a m ilitia :

v ery l ow-calibre t roops who s pent m ore t ime f arming t han a ttending t heir military d uties.

T hcre a re a n umber o f problems with

i nterpretation .

T hat t he l imitanei were l ower g rade

t hose i n t he

a rmy

c lear. were

f ield

c omitatenses

A ccording t o a l aw o f A D

e nrolled

enrolled

i n

i n

m ain

t he

t he

received more p rivileges. T he

( the

c omitatenses

l imitanei pay

e vidence

and

c ited

A .

t he

t hat

t he

c entury were a k ind o f h ereditary p easant

6 17). and

s oldiers h eirs t hey

o f

t he

s erved , w ould

l imes

a nd

s erve

o n

l imitanei

m ilitia

c aptured f rom

c ondition

t hat

s hould n ever b elong with

g reater

z eal i f

i s

i t

t he

were

C omitatenses

also

i s

H istoria A ugusta V ita S even i A lexandri which r ecords " Severus A lexander g ave l and

t han

i nferior s pecimens

1 973,

donatives

i ndicate

t roops

c omitatenses)

r ecruits o f b etter p hysique

whilst

( Jones

larger

t o

3 79,

a nd p seudo

t o

t his

had

o f

g reater

t he

a p assage

f ourth i n

t he

t he d uces

a nd

t hat:

e nemy

s hould b e

t o

t heirs

t o p rivate p ersons, t hey were a lso

i f

s aying

d efending

t heir t hat t heir

own f ields" ( ch.58). T his

l ife

i s g enerally r egarded a s b eing p ure f antasy a nd

c an o ffer n o

evidence f or t he s ituation e ither u nder S everus A lexander o r a t t he t ime o f writing, t he D igest,

p robably u nder C onstantine

A emilius Macer ,

( Jones A .

1 973,

6 50).

I n

a j urist w riting u nder S everus A lexander ,

s tated t hat: " Troops were f orbidden t o h old l and e ither t hemselves o r u nder a nother name i n t he p rovince i n which t hey were o n a ctive f arming t hey s hould l ose

t heir m ilitary p reparedness"

s ervice

l est

i n

( XLIX,XVI.13).

I n t he e ast l imitanei d o s eem t o have b een g iven l and i n t he fifth c entury.

T his

i s f irst r ecorded i n a l aw o f A D

1 66

4 23.

L imitanei would p resumably h ave b een l ower g rade t roops, s till a r egular t hese

f ighting

f orce .

C asey p ointed o ut

t roops were s tationed i n o ne p lace

b ut t hey were

t hat

j ust

b ecause

d oes n ot m ean t hat t hey were

l ess e fficient t han a nyone e lse ( Gillam 1 974A, 6 ). O ccasionally, when l imitanei were u nable t o a dequately d efend a n a rea, t hey were r einforced o ccasions

by

c ontingents

t hey

d rawn

f rom

t he

f ield

a rmy

c ould a ssume a n o ffensive r ole.

a nd

o n

a ccompanied J ulian i nto P ersia whilst t he l imitanei u nder h is p resumably went w ith h im

( Crump

1 973) .

r are

T he d ux O srhoenae c ommand

U nits o f l imitanei c ould a lso

b e u pgraded i nto t he f ield a rmy, a s were t he S eguntienses f rom C aernarvon a nd C alcarienses, p ossibly f rom Tadcaster . T hey were n ormally u pgraded a s p seudo c omitatenses but u pgraded a s c omitatenses. c entury; 1 965, 3 4,

o f

u nits, f or

t hat

t he

c unei a nd a uxilia h ad b y A D

t he a lae a nd c ohortes

a nd

t ogether with t he l egions,

t he a lae a nd c ohortes

M acMullen

c onvincingly

( Mann

a rgued

were k nown

a s

e ven

3 25 a s tatus a bove

r iparienses .

T hese

were t o a ct a s m obile s upport t roops 1 977,

t hat

1 1) .

s oldiers

d id e ngage i n f arming a nd

h e c ites evidence a s e arly a s Tacitus f or t his. h owever,

s ometimes

Aetius i ncorporatd l imitanei i nto h is f ield a rmy ( Salway f n.1).

Mann b elieves t hat

were

T his p ractice c ontinued i nto t he f ifth

I t

i s

a b ig s tep,

f rom t his t o s uggest t hat t hese men were s oldier-farmers.

M acMullen g oes o n t o n ote: " Mention i n t he Notitia D ignitatum o r i n t he C odes o f l imitanei on t his a t

o r t hat b order c annot b e t aken a t

i ts

f ace v alue .

t ime r egular s oldiers r elying o n t he L imitanei r eceived

s tate

f or

t heir a nnona a nd p ay, a s

t heir

e xpected

t o

B ritain ,

p rovable m ore

a t

i n

d espite

d rastic r eduction i n g arrison s trength ,

w idespread)

AD

3 67,

t he

f orts t he

with

c halet-type

n orthern

f rontier

t he

Wall

d oes

n ot

e nter

t he

a ccommodation

s till

c ontinued

b ut t o

W hatever t he t ruth o f

s eem

t his would s uggest t hat

a ttempting t o

t o

have

m ilitary

p rovide

a n

s uffered.

I f

i t

was

i t s till f ormed a b arrier t o r aiders

d iocese b y

e stablishments,

( only

p ossibly

t he i nvasion

l and.

A lthough i n t he f ourth

c entury s oldiers' f amilies p robably l ived i nside t he f orts, s till

a nd w ere

I n Noricum t hey s till

i n A D 4 60 .

t hose

t hem f ull-

s upplies" .

r eceive p ay

i mpenetrable b arrier t o i nvasion . b ypassed,

b ut

d id o ther t roops,

g ranted l and o r a c ash bounty o n d ischarge.

I n

S ome o f

l east - a nd a pparently most - were n ot merely p art-time,

n ot

f ortified v illages .

t hese w ere

T he m en w ere

s oldiers a nd a s s uch were maintained b y t he s tate . T hroughout p ressure

t he with

f ourth which

c entury Britain

we

hear

was

o f

t he

g rowing

faced.

The

b arbarian

a bsence

o f

a rchaeologically a ttested d estruction within t he d iocese s uggests t hat t he a ncient o r

t hat

a ccounts

o f

b arbarian a ttacks

o n B ritain were e xaggerated

t he a rmy o f o ccupation was n otably s uccessful .

c entury, t he military c onsiderably l ess t han

B y t he f ourth

e stablishment o f B ritain must have b een i t h ad b een i n t he f irst, s econd a nd e arly

t hird c enturies. I n t he f irst half o f t he f ourth c entury, a n umber o f f orts which had b een h eld e arlier were p ossibly a bandoned, i ncluding t he o utpost f orts n orth o f H adrian's o nly p rovided w ith a r egional f ield a rmy a t

1 67

Wall .

T he d iocese was

t he v ery e nd o f t he f ourth

c entury o r e arly i n t he f ifth . O n t he o ccasions i n t he f ourth c entury when f ield a rmy u nits were n eeded i n B ritain , o nly a f orce o f p erhaps 2 ,000 m en was d ispatched . I n B ritain , R oman c ontrol c eased , n ot b ecause t he a rmy w as u nable t o a dequately d efend t he d iocese b ut b ecause i t was progressively withdrawn t o f urther t he ambition o f u surpers o r t o h elp i n t he d efence o f I taly .

1 68

A PPENDIX

1

T HE C HRONOLOGY O F T HE S TONE F ORTS A ND V ICI A T C HESTERHOLM

T he

f irst

s tone

f ort

o n

t he

s ite

a nd

t he

vicus

( vicus

I )

were

o riginally d ated t o t he t ime o f S everus, f ollowing t he Wall p eriod s cheme. R . B irley has n ow d ated t he f irst s tone f ort t o c irca A D 1 63,

i ts b uilding r eflecting t he f inal withdrawal o f R oman f orces f rom

t he

Antonine

W all a nd m uch o f

S cotland .

T his

would

t ie

i n with

t he

work r ecorded o n R IB 1 703 . V icus I was f or a t ime t hought t o b e c ontemporary with t his f ort, b ut t his i s h ighly u nlikely s ince t he main r oad t hrough t he vicus d oes n ot head f or t he f ort's west g ate. T his

would b e v ery

u nusual

i f i t i s a ssociated with a nd t herefore

c ontemporary o r s lightly l ater t han t he f ort. v icus

n ormally

g ateways.

I b uildings

- t hat

c ertain

u p

a long

t he

r oads

l eading

f rom

t he

f ort's

R . B irley h as now s uggested - d ue t o t he unusual p lan o f

t he vicus v icus

g row

T he buildings o f a

a nd

t he p rovision o f

i t a nte-dates s tone f ort

e xtent

t o c irca A D f unction.

t he

s amian e vidence,

1 40 .

I f

t his

i s

I .

s uggest

t he c ase ,

a c lay r ampart f or t he

T he c oin e vidence, t hat

a nd t o a

t he ' vicus' m ay

d ate

i t must h ave h ad s ome o fficial

N o d ate h as b een s uggested f or t he e nd o f ' vicus' I .

T he c ircular

s tructures

n ot

b eneath

t he

e xtant

f ort's

n orth

wall

d o

h ave

a ny

c onnection with t he v icus - t hey l ay within t he p eriod I s tone f ort ( pers. c omm. Mr. P . Bidwell). V icus I a ppears t o have been s ystematically d emolished a nd t he a rea t idied

u p.

T hen

When v icus buildings n ormal

f ollowed

I I was b uilt, were

t ype .

markedly

d ifferent.

t he period I I s tone f ort.

a s

I t must

H adrianic

o f

d isuse

V icus

T he main r oad t hrough i t

f rom c irca A D 2 70 .

a p eriod

s tone

must

f ort

p ottery

b egun

m uch

with which

g roups

v icus

s ite.

I I was

a vicus

o f

t he

V icus I I has, u ntil r ecently, b een d ated

h ave

I I

t he

i s a ligned o n t he w est g ate o f

2 70 o nwards, b ut R . B irley n ow d ates

c learly

o f

t he s tyle o f c onstruction and t he t ype o f

e arlier

i t

i s

i n

i ts e nd t o c irca A D t he

t hird

a ssociated.

r ecently p ublished

( Hird

c entury,

I n t he p re-

1 977),

t here

i s

a

small n umber o f i ntrusive p ieces which Mr . G illam s uggests w ere i n t he p rimary s ilt o f w hat i n R .

1 973) .

o f

t he

T his d itch ,

s tone

f orts,

1 973 was

c alled t he D iocletianic d itch

which was e xcavated a t

h ad b een d ug

i nto

( Birley

t he s outh-western a ngle

t he p re-Hadrianic

l evels .

Mr .

G illam b elieves t hat t his d itch i s a ssociated with t he p eriod I I s tone f ort. H e d ates t he i ntrusive material ( which s eems t o f orm a n h omogeneous g roup) t o t he e arly t o m id-third c entury a nd s uggests t hat t he d igging o f t he d itch a nd t he b uilding o f t he p eriod a nd vicus, d ate t o t he r eign o f S everus Alexander. i nscription R IB T his

1 706 may r ecord

t his

I I s tone f ort T he b uilding

r ebuilding .

c hronological f ramework would s eem i n t he l ight o f t he r ecent

e xcavations b y Mr. P . B idwell within t he f ort t o be l argely c orrect. T he p ublication o f h is r eport i n t he n ear f uture s hould g o a l ong way t owards e stablishing a b asic

c hronology

a ttendant v ici .

1 69

f or

t he

s tone

f orts

a nd

t heir

A PPENDIX 2

A N OTE O N P OTTERY S UPPLIES T O N ORTHERN M ILITARY S ITES I N T HE F OURTH C ENTURY

D uring t he f ourth c entury t here was a s ignificant c hange i n t he s upply o f p ottery t o R oman military e stablishments i n n orthern B ritain . F rom t he t ime o f H adrian o nwards, with t he c losing o f p ottery workshops which h ad b een s et u p a nd worked b y t he m ilitary, much o f t he p ottery u sed i n t he n orth c ame f rom l arge c ivilian workshops i n t he

Midlands

a nd

t he

s outh .

T hese workshops

a lso

s upplied

t he

c ivilian a reas o f B ritain b ut t hey d id n ot p roduce a ny p ottery t ypes s pecifically f or t he m ilitary m arket . T he b lack-burnished i ndustry o f D orset ( and l ater i ts o utpost a t R ossington B ridge ) met m uch o f t he a rmy's n eeds f or c ooking-pots, b owls a nd d ishes. T he c ompetition f rom t he B B2 i ndustry o f t he s outh e ast, w hich was f irst s een o n t he n orthern f rontier i n t he A D 1 40s, h ad l apsed b y t he m id-third c entury; s upplies o f B B1 c ontinued u nabated, a s d id s upplies o f mortaria a nd f iner wares f rom t he Midlands . During

t he

f irst

t wo

c enturies

o f R oman r ule,

p ottery i ndustries

d erived f rom a l ate I ron A ge t radition c ontinued t o s uppy l ocal n eeds i n e ast Y orkshire, b ut t heir wares d id n ot t ravel f ar f rom t he p roduction e xpanded; f abrics,

t he

c entres. I n much o f t heir m ost

t he f ourth wares were

c ommon b eing

t he

c entury, t hese i ndustries o f c oarse, c alcite-gritted

c ooking-pot .

B y

t he

m id-fourth

c entury, t hese c ooking p ots were t o b e f ound over t he whole o f t he n orthern m ilitary a rea b ut r arely f urther s outh . A t a pproximately t he s ame t ime, t he s upply o f B B1 t o Y orkshire p roducts f illed t he market . T he

t ransition

p roducts t hought

o n

t hat

f rom

a l arge

t he

u se

s cale

o f

h as

t he d isruption o f

B B1 b een

t his a rea c eased a s

t o

t he u se

c losely

o f

d ated .

t he

e ast

e ast Y orkshire I t

h as

b een

t he w estern s ea l anes b y b arbarians

i n

t he A D 3 60s, c ulminating i n t he ' barbarica c onspiratio' o f AD 3 67, s evered t he l ines o f c ommunication b etween t he k iln s ites i n D orset a nd t he m ilitary c onsumers i n t he n orth . I t was, h owever , p robably m ore important t hat t he e ast Y orkshire p roducts, b eing t echnically r etrograde , c ould b e p roduced m ore c heaply a nd c ould b e marketed m uch m ore e conomically o wing

t o t heir p roximity t o

were t hus a ble t o b reak t he v irtual B B1

t he m litary m arket a nd

m onopoly o n t he s upply o f

c ertain f orms o f p ottery . I f o ne a ccepts t his, t hen t he a ppearance o f t he e ast Y orkshire p roducts i n l arge q uantities o ver t he whole o f n orthern B ritain h ad l ittle c onnection with t he b arbarian c onspiracy o f A D 3 67 r ecorded b y Ammianus . T he i nvasion o f A D 3 67 m ay t hus h ave n o

r elevance f or

t he s upply o f p ottery t o t he n orth .

T here i s l ittle i ndependent a rchaeological e vidence f or t he d ating o f t he e mergence o f t he w idely d istributed e ast Y orkshire t ypes . A D 3 67 was f irst g iven i mportance a rchaeologically i n 1 930 w hen C ollingwood a nd B irley f ormulated t he Wall p eriods; i t marked t he e nd o f Wall p eriod I II, s oon b eing f ollowed b y t he T heodosian

1 70

r estoration o f A D

3 68 and t he b eginning o f Wall p eriod IV . b ased

o n

l atest

t he

p eriods

c oin

s ealed

o f

i n

T hese Wall p eriods were

o ccupation f ound a t

a p eriod

I II

B irdoswald

d eposit h ere was

i n

o f

1 929 .

T he

V alentinian I

d ated t o AD 3 64-75. P eriod IV p roduced a c oin o f G ratian AD 3 67-75 a nd a nother d ated t o a fter A D 3 75 . I t has

l ong b een t hought

p ottery

( which

e xclusively

a re

t o

a fter

s panning much o f w ith

t he

t hat

known AD

a n umber o f

t o

have

3 67.

Many

t he f ourth c entury .

i nternal

g roove

o n t he

f orms

b een

made

o ther

o f a t

f orms

e ast Y orkshire C rambeck)

had

d ate

a t ype

l ife

T he c alcite-gritted c ooking-pot

r im,

which

i s k nown a s

t he H untcliff

t ype, has r arely b een f ound i n c ontexts t hought t o p re-date A D 3 67, b ut i s v ery c ommon a fterwards; i ts f lourit h as b een d ated t o A D 3 604 00+ . A n umber

o f

f ragments

o f

t he H untcliff

t ype a nd o ther H untcliff

ware

c ooking-pots c ame f rom t he p eriod I II a nd I V l evels a t B irdoswald. A t

no

o ther military s ite

i n t he n orth c an t he t ransition b etween

p eriods I II and I V ( if t hese Wall p eriods a re a pplicable, o pen t o d oubt) b e c losely d ated . e ast

Y orkshire p roducts

f ix.

T he

g roups;

Huntcliff

b egan t ype

T herefore,

t o

i s

d ominate very

i ts p resence a t t he o utpost

s uggests

t hat

t he Huntcliff

Ammianus' passage

o n

t he

f orts

t ype was

a reani

t he

c ommon

i s

market i n

o f

t he

t ype

i s

r ecorded i t h as

f rom

t hought a nd

d ifficult

t o

f ourth-century

R isingham a nd B ewcastle

o n t he

R isingham

i s

l ate

market before AD t o

o utposts were a bandoned b y C ount T heodosius. B ewcastle,

which i s

t he d ate a t which t he

i ndicate

3 67.

t hat

t he

A s o nly o ne s herd o f

two

a re

b een a ccepted t hat a lthough t he

r ecorded

f rom

t ype was o n t he

market b efore A D 3 67, i ts r arity would s uggest t hat i t had n ot l ong b een i n p roduction a nd s o i ts f irst emergence h as b een d ated t o c irca A D

3 60 .

F or b oth t hese f orts

a rtifact; e arly

t he

f ourth

3 60-70 r ests

c oin s eries

c entury .

i t p rovides b y f ar t he l atest

f rom b oth

T heir

s ites

c ontinued o ccupation

l argely o n t he e vidence o f

d ated

d oes n ot e xtend b eyond t he i nto

t hese s herds.

t he

d ecade

A D

T hat B ewcastle

was h eld well b eyond t he d ate o f t he l atest c oin f ound t here i s c lear o n s tructural g rounds. A c oin o f C onstantine i n g ood c ondition d ated c irca A D i tself O f

3 09-10 w as

s ealed b y

t he d ebris

o f

t he b ath-house

t he p ottery t ypes

f ound b y C order a t

was

t he k iln s ite o f C rambeck,

s ome b y t heir a bsence f rom t he Y orkshire s ignal s tations, t o

which

o verlain b y e arth a nd t hen a nother R oman b uilding .

.h ave

g one

o ut

o f

p roduction b efore

r edating o f

t he s ignal

c orrect,

d ate

t he

A D

o f

s tations 3 67

m ay

c irca AD

t o

t he

t ime

l ose

i ts

s ignificance .

p archment wares - o f which t ypes 5 b,

7 ,

o f

3 67.

w ere t hought I f

Magnus

C asey's

Maximus T he

g roup

i s o f

8 9a nd 1 0 a re a p art - have

n ot b een c laimed t o d ate e xclusively t o a fter A D 3 67 . T he C rambeck mortaria t ype 6 have b een f ound i n e arlier c ontexts, a s have t he h emispherical f langed b owls o f t ypes 5 a nd t hough n ot i n p archment ware, a re very

5 a . T hese l atter t ypes, s imilar i n f orm t o t he

p archment ware t ype 5 b . T ypes

l b,

5 b,

7 ,

8 ,

9 a nd

1 0 a re t hought t o o nly have c ome o nto t he

market a fter t he ' Picts War' . was f ound i n p eriod IV . a lso d ated t o t his p eriod . t ypes

o nly

c ame o n

l ong a fter i t

t he

A t B irdoswald o ne e xample o f t ype l b

E xamples o f most o f t he o ther t ypes were T his evidence would s uggest t hat t hese

m arket

a fter A D

i s impossible t o t ell) .

1 71

3 64 a t B irdoswald I t

i s

i mportant

( though h ow

t o n ote t hat a

t ype

7 a nd a t ype

1 0 were f ound e ither i n p eriod I II o r I V l evels.

I f t he importance o f t he e ast Yorkshire k ilns was d ue t o marketing s uccess o ver t heir B B1 a nd Midland r ivals, t hen we would e xpect a m ore g radual

extension

s uggested . i n

e ast

T his

1 ,

i s

d istribution t he

t han

h as

c ase w ith m any

C alcite-gritted

ware

b ecame

o f

hitherto

b een

t he f orms

m ade

important

f rom

t he

c entury o nwards a nd g radually a ssumed a p osition o f T he C rambeck f langed b owl without t he i nternal w avy l ine , a lso

p archment

ware

and

I t

5 a.

t heir

c ertainly

Y orkshire .

l ate t hird d ominance . t ype

o f

w as

f ound b efore AD

m ortaria

t ype

3 67 o n m ilitary s ites,

6 a nd

t he

i s e xtremely hazardous

h emispherical

t o s uggest

a s are t he

b owls,

t hat

t ypes

t he ' post

5

P ict

War' t ypes d ate e xclusively t o a fter AD 3 67 o n t he e vidence f rom t he o ne s ite o f B irdoswald. H untcliff i n

two

L ikewise,

i t i s n ot d esirable t o d ate t he

t ype t o s oon b efore A D 3 67 o n t he e vidence o f

o f

t he

o utposts

o therwise u ndated . d estruction

i n

where

mid

f ourth-century

i ts o ccurrence occupation

i s

I t i s n ow p roving i mpossible t o f ind e vidence f or

f orts

d atable

t o

A D

3 67

a nd

s o

t here

i s n o way

o f

a scertaining, o n t he i ncomplete a rchaeological e vidence a vailable, whether

t he

a ny f ort i s

l ate f ourth-century p eriod o f

o ccupation i n a b uilding a t

c ontemporary with p eriod I V i n o ne b uilding a t B irdoswald .

All t he ' post P ict War' t ypes were o n t he market i n t he l ater f ourth c entury. T he s upposed importance o f A D 3 67 and C ount T heodosius, however,

i s

p robably

f ourth c entury,

i llusory.

T hroughout

t he f irst h alf o f

t he e ast Yorkshire c ooking-pots,

t he

b owls a nd d ishes

s pread over t he n orth a t t he e xpense o f t he B B1 p roducts, a s d id t he C rambeck

m ortaria

a nd

h emispherical

t he Midland i ndustries . t he

n orth

d ominate

had

t he

L eased

n orthern

B y

f langed b owls

a nd

t he

m arket

e ast

u ntil

Y orkshire

t he

e nd o f

may b e a dvisable t o d ate t he emergence o f t o

t he

f ourth

m id-fourth c entury, c entury .

More

t he

e xpense

d ates

l b, 5 b,

t han

7 , 8 ,

k ilns

t hese

c ontfnued

t he R oman p eriod .

t he H untcliff

a nd t he ' post P ict

e xact

s tate t hat a ll t he t ypes

a t

o f

t he m id-fourth c entury s upplies o f B B1 t o I t

t ype g enerally

War' t ypes s hould

t o

b e

t o t he

l ater

a voided;

t o

9a nd 1 0 c ame o nto t he market

a t t he s ame t ime m ay b e e rroneous . Map

2 ,

which

s hows

o n m ilitary s ites, p resence a t

s ome

o ccupation . o ccasions small

t he d istribution o f was

s ites

t he

l ate p archment-ware

c ompiled m ainly f rom p ublished s ources; n eed n ot

t ypes t heir

i ndicate l ate f ourth-century m ilitary

O ften o nly o ne o r t wo p ieces h ave b een f ound a nd o n many

t he

c oins

numbers

o f

s ignificance).

d o n ot

e xtend

coins

f rom

s o

l ate

s ome

( although

sites

may

i n s ome c ases make

t his

of

t he no

O n s ites p roducing a f air amount o f l ate p ottery,

t hese p archment wares a re c ommon ,

c f .

B irdoswald

1 930;

Malton

1 930 ;

R udchester 1 925, e tc. Map 2 d oes s how t hat t he p roducts o f t he C rambeck k ilns were a ble t o r each t he whole o f t he north. Their a bsence f rom a ny l arge a ssemblage o f f ourth-century p ottery c ould well i ndicate t hat f ew

s herds

t hat s ite was

o f

e ast

n ot

Y orkshire

h eld

i n

p ottery

t he

l ater

have

f ourth

b een

c entury .

n oted

f rom

A

f orts

o utside t he n orthern m ilitary a rea; a H untcliff t ype f ound i ts way t o C aernarvon, a t ype l b t o B rancaster a nd p erhaps a t ype 7 t o C astell C oh en .

T he c omplete a bsence o f

t he

l atest C rambeck t ypes

f rom n orth

o f t he Wall h as b een t aken t o i ndicate a c essation o f Roman c ontrol over t hat a rea, p ower

i n

t he

p erhaps b rought a bout b y t he p resence o f a h ostile

a rea where e arlier

were p hilo-Roman .

1 72

i t h as b een t hought

t hat

t he n atives

L IST O F A BBREVIATIONS

A .J.P.

American J ournal o f P hilology

A .M.

Ammianus M arcellinus

A .A.A. A nt.J.

A nnals o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology A ntiquaries J ournal

A .A .

A rchaeologia A eliana

1 -5

A .C.

A rchaelolgia C ambrensis

A rch.

C ant.

A rchaeologia C antiana

A rch. J . A rch. N ews

A rchaeological J ournal A rchaeological N ewsbulletin

B .A.R.

B ritish A rchaeological R eports

( Durham 1 963-72, B onn.

J ahr.

C .B.A.

g roup

3 1 972 - )

B onner J ahrbücher

C .A.S.

T ransactions o f

t he C heshire A rchaeological

S ociety C .A.

C urrent A rchaeology

C .B.A.

C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology,

C I L

C orpus

C .W.

1 -2

r esearch r eport

I nscriptionum L atinarum

T ransactions o f

t he C umberland a nd W estmorland

A ntiquarian a nd A rchaeological S ociety D .A.J. D .U.J.

D erbyshire A rchaeological J ournal D urham U niversity J ournal

G .A.J.

G lasgow A rchaeological J ournal

H .S.L.C.

T ransaction o f

t he H istoric S ociety o f

L ancashire a nd C heshire I LS.

s ee D essau

1 892-1914

J .B.A.A.

J ournal o f

t he B ritish A rchaeological A ssociation

J .R.S. L ancs.

J ournal o f R oman S tudies A rch.

J .

L .C.A.S.

L ancashire A rchaeological J ournal T ransactions

o f

t he A ntiquarian S ociety o f

L ancashire a nd C heshire L .M.A.S.

T ransactions

o f

t he L ondon a nd M iddlesex

A rchaeological S ociety M ed. A rch. M ont. C oll.

M edieval A rchaeology C ollections .. p ertaining t o M ontgomeryshire

P .L.P.L.S.

P roceedings

o f

t he L eeds P hilosophical S ociety

( Literary a nd H istorical S ection) P .S.A.L. P .S.A.N.

P roceedings 1 -4

o f

P roceedings o f

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries

o f

N ewcastle u pon T yne R IB

s ee C ollingwood a nd W right

S .A.C.

S ussex A rchaeological C ollections

T .A.A.S.D.N.

1 -2

T ransactions o f

1 965

t he A rchitectural a nd A rchaeological

S ociety o f D urham a nd N orthumberland W .N.F.C. Y .A.J.

T ransactions o f t he W oolhope N aturalists F ield C lub Y orkshire A rchaeological J ournal

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A DDYMAN P V ( 1975)

' Keyhole A rchaeology: 3 ,2 N ov

A DDYMAN P V ( 1976) A LCOCK L ( 1954)

R omans

i n S tone' I nterim

1 975 p p 3 0-3

' York' B ritannia

7 1 976 p p

3 14-5

' Caste n C oh en e xcavations 1 954, a s ummary a ccount' T ransactions o f t he R adnorshire S ociety 2 4 1 954 p p 6 2-75

A LCOCK L ( 1964)

' The D efences a nd G ates

A LCOCK L ( 1971)

A uxiliary F ort' A C 1 13 1 964 p p A rthur's B ritain L ondon 1 971

A LEXANDER J ( 1975)

' The D evelopment

o f C astell C oh en 6 4-96

o f U rban C ommunities:

t he

E vidence f rom C ambridge a nd G reat C hesterford' i n e d R odwick a nd R owley 1 975 p p 1 03-9 A LFÖLDY G ( 1974)

N oricum L ondon a nd B oston

A PPLEBAUM S ( 1971)

T he S eventh C ongress o f R oman F rontier S tudies

A PTED M R ,

A ncient M onuments

1 974

1 967 e d S A pplebaum T el Aviv G ILYARD-BEER R a nd

1 971

a nd t heir I nterpretation P hillimore

1 977

S AUNDERS A D ( 1977) A TKINSON D ( 1928)

T he R oman F ort a t R ibchester 3 rd e dition M anchester

1 928

AUSTEN P S ( 1978)A

' Bewcastle' B ritannia 9 1 978 p 4 21 a nd f ig 8

A USTEN P S ( 1978)B

' Old P enrith' B ritania 9 1 978 p p 4 24-5

B ARTLETT J E ( 1959)

' Brough-on-Noe' J RS 4 9

1 959 p 1 08

B ARTLETT J E ( 1960)

' Brough-on-Noe' J RS 5 0

1 960 p 2 16

B ARTLETT J E a nd

' The R oman F ort a t S caftworth n ear

R ILEY D N ( 1958)

B awtry' T rans T horoton S oc o f N ott's p p

B ELLHOUSE R L ( 1953)

5 3

B ELLHOUSE R L ( 1970)

1 955 p p

3 0-45

' Roman S ites o n t he C umberland C oast C W2 5 5

B ELLHOUSE R L ( 1969)

1 953 p p 4 9-51

' The R oman F ort a t B urrow Walls n ear W orkington' C W2 5 5

B ELLHOUSE R L ( 1966)

1 966 p p

1 966-67'

' Roman S ites o n t he C umberland C oast

1 968-69'

7 0

1 970 p p 9 -47

B IDWELL P T ( 1980)

R oman E xeter:

B IDWELL P T ( 1981)

' Chesterholm' B ritannia ' Milecastle D ept

B IRLEY A R ( 1967)

1 962-3'

3 7-41

' Roman S ites o n t he C umberland C oast C W2 6 9 1 969 p p 5 4-101 C W2

B INNS M ( 1971)

1 958

' The R oman P ost a t W reay H all n ear C arlisle' C W2

B ELLHOUSE R L ( 1955)

6 2

2 4-35

F ortress a nd T own E xeter

3 2 - J une

1 2

1 971'

1 980

1 981 p 3 23,324 I nformation S heet

o f A rch D urham

' Excavations a t C arpow'

i n S tudien z u d en

m ilitärgrenzen R oms; ( Beihefte d er B onner J ahrbücher, B ond 1 9) K öln 1 967 p p 1 -5 B IRLEY A R ( 1969)

B IRLEY A R ( 1971)

T he N inth P ilgrimage o f H adrian's W all 7 -12 S eptember 1 969 K endal 1 969 c ompiled b y A R B irley ' VI V ictrix i n Britain' i n B utler 1 971A p p 8 1-96

B IRLEY A R ( 1974)

' Roman F rontiers a nd R oman F rontier P olicy: r eflections o n R oman I mperialism' T AASDN 3 1 974 p p 1 3-25

B IRLEY A R ( 1981) B IRLEY E ( 1930)

T he F asti o f R oman B ritain O xford

BIRLEY

E( 193 1 )

BIRLEY

E (1932)A

' An introduction t o t he E xcavation o f C hesterholm-Vindolanda' AA4 8 1 931 p p 1 82-212 ' A new Inscription and a Note o n t he G arrisoning o f t he W all" AA4 9 1 932 p p 2 05-15

B IRLEY

E ( 1932)B

' Excavations a t C hesterholm - V indolanda AA4 9 1 932 p p 2 16-21

B IRLEY

E ( 1932)C

' Material f or t he H istory o f R oman B rougham' C W2 3 2 1 932 p p 1 24-40

B IRLEY

E ( 1936)

B IRLEY

E ( 1937)

H ousesteads N orthumberland H aydon B ridge 1 936 ' Fifth R eport o n E xcavations a t H ousesteads'

B IRLEY

E ( 1939)

B IRLEY

E ( 1957)

B IRLEY

E ( 1959)

B IRLEY B IRLEY

E ( 1961) E(1967)

S ome

' Excavations o n H adrian's W all W est o f N ewcastle u pon T yne i n 1 929' AA4 7 1 930 p p 1 43-74

A A4 1 4 1 937 p p

1 931'

1 72-84

' Roman I nscriptions f rom C hesters ( Cilurnum), a n ote o n A la I I A sturum a nd T wo M ilestones' A A4 1 6 1 939 p p 2 37-59 ' Roman G arrisons i n W ales' A C 1 02 1 953 p p 9 -19 C hesters R oman F ort N orthumberland H MSO L ondon 1 959 R esearch o n H adrians W all K endal 1 961 ' Hadrian's Wall a nd i ts N eighbourhood' i n S tudien z u d en m ilitärgrenzen R oms; ( Beihefte d er B onner J ahrbücher , 1 4

B IRLEY R ( 1962) B IRLEY R ( 1970) B IRLEY

' Housesteads V icus,

B IRLEY R ( 1973) B IRLEY R ( 1977)A B IRLEY R ( 1977)B B IRLEY E , J

a nd

H EDLEY W P ( 1932) B IRLEY E , C HARLTON J a nd HEDLEY W P ( 1933) B IRLEY

1 9) K öln 1 967 p p 6 -

1 961' A A4 4 0 1 962 p p

1 17-34

' Excavations a t C hesterbolm - V indolanda' A A4 4 8 1 970 p p 9 7-155

R(1971)

C HARLTON

B ond

E ,

S TANFIELD J A a nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1936) B LÄGG T F C ( 1981)

' Chesterholm R oman F ort ( Vindolanda), N orthumberland' A rch N ews 1 1 1 971 p p 3 -4 F riends o f V indolanda R eport f or 1 973 V indolanda I 1 976 e xcavations I nterim R eport H altwistle 1 977 V indolanda: A R oman F rontier P ost o n H adrian's W all L ondon 1 977 ' Excavations a t H ousesteads i n 1 931' AA4 9 1 932 p p 2 22-37 ' Excavations a t H ousesteads A A4 1 0

i n 1 932'

1 933 p p 8 2-96

' Excavations

a t

C hesterholm-Vindolanda :

t hird r eport' AA4

1 3

1 936 p p

2 21-57

' Architectural p atronage i n t he w estern p rovinces o f t he R oman Empire i n t he t hird c entury' i n K ing a nd H enig 1 981 p p 1 67-88

B LAIR R ( 1895)

H andbook t o t he R oman W all 4 th E dition N ewcastle 1 895, e d R B lair

B OON G C ( 1958) B OON G C ( 1960)

' Caernarvon' J RS 4 8 1 958 p 1 30 ' A T emple o f M ithras a t C aernarvon S egontium' A C 1 09 1 960 p p 1 36-72

B OON G C ( 1972)A

I sca, t he R oman L egionary F ortress a t C aerleon M onmouthshire N at M useum o f W ales 1 972

B OON

G C ( 1972)B

' An I mperial B ronze S tatue a t S egontium' A nt J 5 2 1 972 p p 3 32-3

B OON G C ( 1974)

' Counterfeit C oins i n R oman B ritain' i n Casey a nd R eece 1 974 p p 9 5-172

B OON

G C ( 1975)

' Segontium F ifty Y ears O n; p p 5 2-67

I ' A C

B OON

G C ( 1976)

' Segontium F ifty Y ears O n; 1 25 1 976 p p 4 0-79

I I,

B OON

G C ( 1979)

r eview o f

B OSENQUET R C ( 1904)

1 24 1 975

t he C oins' A C

' Interval T ower S W5 a nd t he S outh-

W est D efences' e tc B ritannia 1 0 1 979 p p 3 83-4 ' The R oman C amp a t H ousesteads' AA2 2 5 1 904 p p 1 93-300

B RANIGAN K ( 1977)

T he R oman V illa i n S outh-West E ngland B radfordo n-Avon 1 977

B RASSINGTON M ( 1967)

' Roman M aterial R ecovered f rom L ittlechester,

BRASSINGTON

M

D erby 1 965' DAJ 8 7 1 967 ( 1975) ' A R eappraisal o f t he

B REEZE D J ( 1968)

Western

B ritannia 6 1 975 p p 6 2-76 ' Excavations a t S outh S hields

E nclave'

1 966 a nd 1 967'

D urham A rch N ewsbulletin n o 5 0 A pril

1 968

B REEZE D J ( 1972)

' Excavations a t t he R oman F ort o f C arrawburgh 1 967-69' AA4 5 0 1 972 p p 8 1-144

B REEZE D J a nd

' Hadrian's W all: S ome p roblems' B ritannia 3 1 972 p p 1 82-208 H adrian's W all L ondon 1 976

D OBSON B ( 1972) B REEZE D J a nd D OBSON B ( 1976) B REWIS P ( 1925)

' Roman R udchester' A A4

B ROWN P D C ( 1971)

' The C hurch a t R ichborough' B ritannia 2 1 971 p p 2 25-31 ' Redhill' B ritannia 5 1 974 p p 4 27-8

B ROWNE D M ( 1974) B RUCE J C ( 1857)

1 1 925 p p

9 3-120

' An A ccount o f t he E xcavations m ade a t t he R oman S tation o f B remenium d uring t he s ummer, 1 855' AA2 1 p p 6 9-85

B RUCE J C ( 1874) B UCKLAND P C ( 1973) B UCKLAND P C a nd D OLBY M ( 1972) B UCKLAND P C a nd

T he W all o f H adrian, t wo l ectures ' Doncaster' B ritannia 4 1 973 p 2 82 ' Doncaster' C A 3 3 J uly 1 972 p p 2 73-8

' Doncaster' B ritannia 7 1 976 p 3 17

MAGILTON J R ( 1976) B URKETT M E ( 1965)

' Recent D iscoveries a t Ambleside' C W2 6 5

B URNHAM B C a nd

1 965 p p 8 6-101 I nvasion a nd R esponse,

J OHNSON H B ( 1979)

R oman B ritain B AR 7 3

t he c ase o f

1 979 e d b y B C B urham

a nd H B J ohnson B URROW I C G ( 1979) B URSTOW G P a nd W ILSON A S

( 1939)

' Roman M aterial f rom H illforts' i n C asey 1 979A p p 2 12-29 ' A R oman B ath, H ighdown H ill,

S ussex'

S AC 8 0 1 939

B URY J B ( 1920)

' The N otitia D ignitatum' J RS

B USHE-FOX J P ( 1926)

' First R eport o n t he E xcavations a t R ichborough, K ent' S oc o f A ntiq o f L ondon R esearch R eport V I

1 926

1 0

1 920 p p 1 31-54

B USHE-FOX J

P

' Second Report o f E xcavations a t R ichborough, K ent' S oc o f A ntiq o f L ondon R esearch R eport V II 1 928

P

' Some N otes o n R oman C oast D efences' J RS 2 2 1 932 p p 6 0-72

( 1928) B USHE-FOX ( 1932)A

J

B USHE-FOX J P ( 1932)B

' Third R eport o n E xcavations a t R ichborough, K ent' S oc o f A ntiq o f L ondon R esearch R eport X 1 932

B USHE-FOX J P

' Fourth R eport o n t he E xcavations o f t he R oman F ort a t R ichborough, K ent' S oc o f A ntiq o f L ondon R esearch R eport X VI 1 949

( 1949)

B UTLER R M ( 1971)A

S oldier a nd C ivilian i n R oman Y orkshire L eicester 1 971 e d R M B utler

B UTLER R M ( 1971)B

' The D efences o f t he F ourth C entury F ortress a t Y ork' i n B utler 1 971A p p 9 7-106

C AMERON H a nd L UCAS J ( 1971-3)

' Tripontium . S econd I nterim R eport o n E xcavations b y t he R ugby A rchaeological S ociety a t C aves I nn n ear R ugby' B irmingham a nd Warwickshire Arch

S oc

8 5

1 971-3

p p 93-144

C ASEY P J ( 1971)

' Excavations a t B recon G aer, 1 971 p p 9 1-101

C ASEY P J ( 1972)

' Caernavon' B ritannia 3 1 972 p p 2 99

C ASEY P J ( 1974)A

' The I nterpretation o f R oman-British S ite F inds i n C asey a nd R eece 1 974 p p 3 7-51

1 970' A C

1 20

1974)B C ASEY P J (

' Excavations O utside t he N orth-East G ate o f

1974)C C ASEY P J (

S egontium' A C 1 23 1 974 p p 5 4-77 ' Caernarvon' B ritannia 5 1 974 p 4 15

1974)D C ASEY P J ( C ASEY P J ( 1978)

C ASEY P J ( 1979)A C ASEY P J ( 1979)B

' A C oin o f V alentinian I II f rom W roxeter: A N ote' B ritannia 5 p p 3 83-86 ' Constantine t he G reat i n B ritain, t he e vidence o f t he C oinage o f t he L ondon M int A D 3 12-314' L MAS S pecial P aper N o 2 1 978 p p T he E nd o f R oman B ritain B AR 7 1

1 81-93 1 979 e d

P J C asey ' Magnus M aximus i n B ritain: A R eappraisal' i n C asey 1 979A p p 6 6-79

C ASEY P J a nd D AVIES J L ( 1976)

' Caernarvon' B ritannia

C ASEY P J a nd D AVIES J L ( 1977)

977 p p 3 56-8 ritannia 8 1 ' Caernarvon' B

C ASEY P J a nd DAVIES J L ( 1978)

978 p p 4 04-6 ritannia 9 1 ' Caernarvon' B

C ASEY P J a nd DAVIES J L ( 1979)

0 ritannia 1 ' Caernarvon' B

C ASEY P J a nd R EECE R ( 1974)

C oins a nd t he A rchaeologist B AR 4 1 974

C ATÄNICIU I B ( 1981)

e d P J C asey a nd R R eece E volution o f t he _ S ystem o f D efence W orks i n

C HARLESWORTH D ( 1965)

R oman D acia B AR S 116 ' Excavations a t P apcastle

C HARLESWORTH D ( 1967)

1 965 p p 1 02-14 ' Preliminary W ork o n t he P ortgate' AA4 4 5

C HARLESWORTH D ( 1975)

1 967 p 2 08 ' The C ommandant's H ouse, H ousesteads' A A5 3 1 975 p p

1 7-42

7 1 976 p 2 92

1 979 p p 2 69-72

1 961-62' C W2 6 5

C HARLESWORTH D ( 1976) C HARLESWORTH D ( 1977) C LARKE G ( 1979) C LAYTON J ( 1855-57) C LAYTON J ( 1866)

' The H ospital, p p 1 7-30

H ousesteads' A AS 4 1 976

' The T urrets o n H adrian's W all' i n A pted, G ilyard-Beer a nd S aunders 1 977 p p 1 3-26 P re-Roman a nd R oman W inchester p art I I: T he R oman C emetery a t L ankhills O xford 1 979 ' Borcovicius p 186

( Housesteads)

.

P SAN I 1 855-57

' Description o f R oman R emains D iscovered n ear P rocolitia, a S tation o n t he W all o f H adrian' A A2 8 1 866 p p 1 -49

C LEERE H ( 1977 )

' The C lassis p p 1 6-19

C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1913) C OLLINGWOOD R G

' Report o n t he E xcavations a t P apcastle, C W2 1 3 1 913 p p 1 31-42

B ritannica' i n J ohnston

1 977A 1 911'

C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1922)A

' The e xploration o f t he R oman F ort a t Ambleside - R eport o n t he S econd y ears w ork 1 914' C W2 1 5 1 915 p p 1 -62 ' The R oman e vacuation o f B ritain' J RS 1 2 1 922 p p 7 4-98

C OLLINGWOOD R G

' Castlesteads' C W2 2 2

( 1922)B C OLLINGWOOD R G

R oman B ritain L ondon 1 924

( 1915)

( 1924) C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1928)A C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1928)B C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1930)A C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1930)B C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1931)A C OLLINGWOOD R G ( 1931)B C OLLINGWOOD R G ä nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1930)B C OLLINGWOOD R G a nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1969) C OLLINGWOOD R G a nd W RIGHT R P ( 1965) C OPLEY G J ( 1958)

1 922 p p

1 98-233

' Excavations a t B rough-by-Bainbridge i n P LPLS 1 ,4 1 928 p p 2 61-84 ' Hardknot C astle' C W2 2 8 1 928 p p 3 14-66

1 926'

T he B ook o f t he P ilgrimage o f H adrian's Wall J uly l st-4th 1 930 K endal 1 930 T he A rchaeology o f R oman B ritain L ondon

1 930

' A R oman F ortlet o n B arrack F ell n ear L ow H esket' C W2 3 1 1 931 p p 1 11-18 ' The R oman S ignal S tation' i n R owntree 1 931 p p 4 0-50 ' Discoveries a t B irdoswald,

o n

H adrian's W all' A ntiquity 4 1 930 p p

1 02-4

T he A rchaeology o f R oman B ritain 2 nd E d L ondon 1 969 T he R oman I nscriptions o f B ritain I I nscriptions o n S tone O xford 1 965 T he A rchaeology o f S outh-East E ngland L ondon

C ORDER P ( 1930)

1 958 ' The D efences o f t he R oman F ort a t M alton'

C ORDER P ( 1932)

R oman M alton a nd D istrict R eport n o 2 1 930 ' Roman M alton a nd D istrict' i n S cientific S urvey o f Y ork a nd D istrict B rit A ss f or t he A dvancement o f S cience 1 932 p p 5 6-61

C ORDER P ( 1933)

C ORDER P ( 1956)

' Roman B ath D iscovered i n 1 930-1 d uring t he R econstruction o f t he Mail C oach I nn , S t S ampson's S quare' P Y orkshire A rch S oc v ol 1 n o 1 1 933 ' The R eorganisation o f t he D efences o f R omanoB ritish T own i n t he F ourth C entury' A rch J 1 12

1 956 p p

2 0-42

C ORDER P ( 1961) C ORDER P a nd B IRLEY M ( 1937)

T he R oman T own a nd V illa a t G reat C asterton R utland ' A p air P ottery 1 937 p p

3 rd R eport N ottingham 1 961 e d P C order o f F ourth C entury R omano-British K ilns n ear C rambeck' A ntiq J 1 7 3 92-413

C OTTON M A a nd G ATHERCOLE P W ( 1958)

E xcavations a t C lausentum, S outhampton 1 951-54 L ondon 1 958

C OTTRILL F ( 1937) C OWAN J D a nd

' Pevensey' J RS 2 7 1 937 p p 2 45 ' The R udge C up' A A4 1 2

R ICHMOND I A ( 1935)

1 935 p p 3 10-42

C REW P ( 1981)

H olyhead M ountain R oman W atch T ower: R eport o n t he 1 980 E xcavations

C ROW J G ( 1981)

L ate R oman F ortifications i n t he L ower D anube P rovinces u npublished M L itt t hesis N ewcastle u pon T yne

C RUMP G A ( 1973)

' Ammianus a nd t he L ate R oman A rmy' H istoria 2 3 1 973 p p 9 1-103 ' Fifth R eport o n t he E xcavations a t R ichborough K ent' S oc o f A ntiq o f L ondon R esearch R eport n o X XIII 1 968 n o X XIII 1 968 T he R egni L ondon 1 973

C UNLIFFE B W ( 1968)

C UNLIFFE B W ( 1973) C UNLIFFE B W ( 1975)

C UNLIFFE B W ( 1977) C UNLIFFE B W ( 1980)

I nterim

' Excavations a t P ortchester C astle, v ol 1 : R oman S oc o f A ntiq o f L ondon R esearch R eport X XXII 1 975 ' Lympne' B ritannia 8 1 977 p 4 25 ' Excavations a t t he R oman F ort a t L ympne 1 976-78' B ritannia 1 1 1 980 p p 2 27-88

C URLE J ( 1911)

A R oman F rontier P ost a nd i ts p eople

D ANIELS C M ( 1959)

G lasgow 1 911 ' The R oman B ath-House a t R ed H ouse C orbridge'

D ANIELS C M ( 1976)

AA4 3 7 1 959 p p 8 5-176 ' Wallsend R oman F ort, 1 975 E xcavations' A rch N ews 1 3 1 976 C BA g roup 3 p p 1 0-11

D ANIELS C M ( 1977)

' Wallsend' B ritannia 8 1 977 p 4 19

D ANIELS C M ( 1978)A

H andbook t o t he R oman W all 1 3th e dition N ewcastle 1 978 e d C M D aniels ' Housesteads' B ritannia 9 1 978 p 4 20 ' Excavations a t W allsend a nd F ourth C entury B arracks o n H adrian's W all' i n H anson a nd

D ANIELS C M ( 1978)B D ANIELS C M ( 1980)A

D ANIELS C M ( 1980)B

K eppie 1 980 p p 1 73-94 ' Housesteads N orth R ampart

D ANIELS C M a nd H ARBOTTLE B ( 1980)

R eports f or 1 979 U niv o f D urham 1 980 ' A N ew I nscription o f J ulia D omna f rom N ewcastle' A AS 8 1 980 p p 6 8-75

D ANIELS C M , J ONES G D B a nd P UTNAM W G ( 1967) D AVEY P J ( 1973)

1 978-9'

A rch

' Excavations a t C aersws, 1 967 I nterim S urvey' M ont C oll 6 0 1a nd 2 1 967-8 p p 6 4-6 C hester N orthgate B rewery: P hase 1, I nterim R eport G rosvenor M useum 1 973

D ESSAU H ( 1892-1914)

I nscriptiones L atinae S electae v ol 1 1 892 v ol I I 1 902 v ol I II 1 914, B erolini

D OBSON B ( 1968-70)

' Roman D urham' T AASDN 2 1 -2

D OBSON B a nd J ARRETT M G ( 1958)

' Excavations a t B inchester i n 1 955' T AASDN 1 1 p art 1 a nd 2 1 958 p p 1 15-23

1 968-70 p p 3 1-43

D OBSON B a nd MANN J C ( 1973)

' The R oman A rmy i n B ritain a nd B ritons t he R oman A rmy' B ritannia 4 1 973 p p

i n

1 91-97

D OBSON B ( 1979)

T he T enth P ilgrimage o f H adrian's W all 2 5-31 A ugust 1 979 K endal 1 979 c ompiled b y B . D obson

D ODDS M H ( 1940)

A H istory o f N orthumberland v ol X V N ewcastle 1 940

D OLBY M J ( 1972)

' Doncaster' B ritannia 3 1 972 p 3 11

D OLBY M J a nd

' Doncaster' B ritannia 2 1 971 p 2 53

B UCKLAND P C ( 1971) D ORE J N a nd G ILLAM J P ( 1979)

T he R oman F ort a t S outh S hields Monograph s er

1S oc o f A ntiq o f N ewcastle

D ROOP J P ( 1928)

' Excavations a t B rough-by-Bainbridge

DROOP J P a nd

I nterim R eport)' P LPLS 2 2 1 928 p p ' Trial E xcavations a t L ancaster'

N EWSTEAD R ( 1928) D ROOP J P a nd J ONES C W ( 1929) DROOP J P a nd J ONES C W ( 1932)

AAA 1 5

N EWSTEAD R ( 1931)A D ROOP J P a nd N EWSTEAD R ( 1931)B DROOP J P a nd N EWSTEAD R ( 1936) D ROOP J P a nd N EWSTEAD R ( 1939)

3 3-40

1 6-38

' Excavations i n t he D eanery F ield, C hester 1 928, p art l ' AAA 1 8 1 1 931 p p ' Excavations C hester 1 931 p p

1 928, p art 2 t he F inds' AAA 1 8 3 1 13-32

' Excavations

i n t he D eanery F ield a nd

A bbey G reen,

1 935' A AA 2 3

' Excavations a t C hester,

1 936 p p 1 939;

S treet C learance A rea' C AS p p 5 -45

3 4

D UNCAN-JONES R P

' Pay a nd N umbers

3 -50

t he P rincess 1 1 939

6 2

1 977 p p

i n D iocletian's A rmy' C hiron 8

T he T rinovantes O ld W oking

1 975

' Chester' J RS 5 8

E ARWAKER J P ( 1888)

R oman R emains R ecently F ound a t C hester Manchester

G REEN C J S ( 1977) E LLISON J A ( 1962) E LLISON J A ( 1966)

1 73-92

1 978 p p 5 41-60

E AMES J V H ( 1968)

E DWARDS D A a nd

6 -18

i n t he D eanery F ield,

' Sub-Roman B ritain' H istory

D UNNETT R ( 1975)

2 p art 4

' Excavations a t B rough-by-Bainbridge ( Third I nterim R eport)' 1 931 P LPLS 3 1 932

DUMVILLE D M ( 1977) ( 1978)

7 7-85

a t B rough-by-Bainbridge

( Second I nterim R eport)' P LPLS 1 929 p p 2 34-45

p p DROOP J P a nd

1 928 p p

' Excavations

1 979

( First

1 968 p 1 83

1 888

' The S axon S hore F ort a nd S ettlement a t B rancaster,

N orfolk'

i n D E J ohnston 1 977

p p 2 1-29 ' Excavations a t C aister-on-Sea N orfolk A rch

3 3

1 1 962 p p

' Excavations

a t C aister-on-Sea,

N orfolk A rch

3 4

1 966 p p

1 961-62'

9 4-108 1 962-63'

4 5-73

F ARRAR R A H ( 1980)

' Roman S ignal S tations O ver t he S tainmore a nd B eyond' i n H anson a nd K eppie 1 980 p p 2 11-31

F ENTRESS E W B ( 1979)

N umidia a nd t he R oman A rmy B AR S 53

F ERRIS I M a nd J ONES R F J ( 1979)

' Binchester

IM ( 1980)

1 979 ' Binchester

F LORESCU R ( 1967)

' Les p hases

F ERRIS

1 978' C BA group s

B ritannia

1 1

1 979

3A rch N ews

7

1 980 p 3 61

d e c onstruction d u c astrum D robeta

( rurnu S everin)

.

i n S tudien z u d en

m ilitär g renzen i t s 2 ja s• ( Beihefte d er B onner J arbücher, B ond 1 9) K öln 1 967 p p 1 44-51

F OX G ( 1902) F OX A a nd R AVENHILL W ( 1959)

F RERE S S ( 1961)

' Report o n t he P resent S tate o f C lausentum' P SAL X IX 1 902 p p 5 6-7 ' The S toke H ill R oman S ignal S tation; E xcavations 1 956-7' T rans D evon A ss f or t he a dvancement o f S cience L iterature a nd A rt 9 1 1 959 R eview o f ' The C ity o f Y ork: V ol 1 E buracum R oman Y ork' A rch J 1 18 1 961 2 56-7

F RERE S S ( 1967)

B ritannia: a H istory o f R oman B ritain L ondon 1 967

F RERE S S ( 1978)

B ritannia: a H istory o f R oman B ritain 3 rd e dition L ondon 1 978

F RERE S S a nd H ARTLEY B R ( 1968)

' Bowes,

G ALLIOU P ( 1980)

' The d efence o f A rmorica i n t he l ater R oman E mpire: a t entative s ynthesis' i n H anson a nd K eppie 1 980 p p 3 97-422 ' Roman B rough ( Anavio)' D AJ 2 6 1 904 p p 1 77-96

G ARSTANG J ( 1904) G IBSON J P ( 1903)A

Y orkshire 1 967' i nfo s heet J an 1 968

' Excavations o n t he L ine o f t he R oman W all:p art 2 M ucklebank W all T urret' AA2 2 4 1 903 p p 1 3-18

G IBSON J P ( 1903)B

' Excavations o n t he L ine o f t he R oman W all:p art 3 G reat C hesters ( Aesica)' A A2 2 4 1 903 p p 1 9-64

G IBSON J P a nd

' The M ilecastle o n t he W all o f H adrian a t P oltross B urn' C W2 1 1 1 911 p p 3 90-461

S IMPSON F G ( 1911) G ILLAM J P ( 1949)

' Also a long t he L ine o f t he W all' C W2 4 9

G ILLAM J P ( 1950)

1 949 p p 3 8-58 ' Recent e xcavations a t B irdoswald' C W2 5 0 1 950 p p 1 63-69

G ILLAM J P ( 1954) G ILLAM G ILLAM G ILLAM G ILLAM

J J J J

P P P P

( 1957) ( 1961) ( 1962) ( 1974)A

' The R oman B ath-house a t B ewcastle' C W2 5 4 p p 2 65-67 ' Bewcastle' J RD 4 7 1 957 p p 2 04-5 ' Haltonchesters' J RS 5 1 1 961 p p 1 64 ' Haltonchesters' J RS 5 2 1 962 p 1 64 ' Uxellodunum a nd t he O rder o f B attle' R oman N orthern F rontier S eminar 1 0 1 974 p p

1 -6

G ILLAM J P ( 1974)B

' The F rontier a fter H adrian - A H istory o f t he P roblem' A AS 2 1 974 p p 1 -15

G ILLAM J P ( 1976)

' Coarse F umed W are i n N orth B ritain a nd B eyond' G AJ 4 1 976 p p 5 7-80

G ILLAM J P ( 1979)A G ILLAM J P ( 1979)B

' Corbridge' i n B . D obson 1 979 p 1 7 ' Romano-Saxon P ottery: a n A lternative

G ILLAM J P a nd D ANIELS C M G ILLAM J P , HARRISON R M a nd N EWMAN T G

I nterpretation' i n C asey 1 979A p p 1 03-18 ' Housesteads B arrack B lock X III' A rch N ews 1 976 p 9 ' Interim R eport o n E xcavations a t t he R oman F ort o f R udchester, A AS 1 1 973 p p 8 1-6

1 972'

G ILLAM J P a nd

' The R oman F ort a t C hester-le-Street' A A4

T AIT J ( 1968) G OODBURN R a nd B ARTHOLOMEW P ( 1976)

4 6 1 968 p p 7 5-96 A spects o f t he N otitia D ignitatum B AR S 15 1 976 e d R G oodburn a nd P B artholomew

1 4

G OULD J ( 1964)

' Excavations a t W all o n t he S ite o f

( Staffordshire),

1 961-3

t he E arly R oman F orts a nd o f

G REEN C ( 1961)

L ate R oman D efences' T rans L ichfield a nd S S taffs A rch a nd H ist S oc 5 1 964 p p 1 -50 ' Burgh C astle' J RS 5 1 1 9E7 p 1 83

G REEN C J ( 1973)

' Littlechester' B ritannia 4 1 973 p 2 85

G REENE K T ( 1978)

' Apperley D ene " Roman F ortlet": a R ee xamination, 1 974-5' A AS 6 1 978 p 2 9-60

G RIFFITHS W E

' Excavations a t C aer G ybi,

( 1954)

A C

H ANSON W S a nd K EPPIE

L J

1 03

1 954 p p

1 952'

1 13-16

R oman F rontier S tudies F

H olyhead,

t he

1 979 B AR-S71

1 980

e d W S H anson a nd L J F K eppie

( 1980) H ARBOTTLE B a nd E LLISON M ( 1979) H ARDEN D B ( 1956)

E xcavations a t t he C astle, N ewcastle u pon T yne 1 978' A rch N ews 2 7 1 979 p p 1 0-12 D ark A ge B ritain - S tudies P resented t o E T L eeds L ondon e d D B H arden

HARPER R P ( 1961)

' An E xcavation a t C hesters,

1 960' A A4 3 9

1 961 p p 3 21-6 H ARPER R P ( 1964) H ARROD H ( 1859)

' Excavations a t P iercebridge, 1 964 p p 2 7-44

1 964' T AASDN2

1

' Notice o f E xcavations Made a t B urgh C astle S uffolk i n t he y ears A rch 5 1 859 p p

1 850 a nd

1 855' N orfolk

1 46-60

HARTLEY B R ( 1960)

' The R oman F ort a t B ainbridge' P LPLS 9 .3 1 960 p p 1 07-31

HARTLEY B R ( 1961)

' Bainbridge' J RS

H ARTLEY B R ( 1966)

' The R oman F ort a t I lkley, 1 962' P LPLS

1 2

5 1

1 961 p 1 67 E xcavations o f

1 966

H ARTLEY B R ( 1969)

' Bainbridge' J RS 5 9

HARTLEY B R ( 1970)

' Bainbridge' B ritannia

1 969 p p 2 06-9

HARTLEY B R ( 1972)

' The R oman O ccupation o f

1 1 970

2 79

S cotland:

T he E vidence

o f S amian W are' B ritannia 3 1 972 p p

1 -55

HASSALL M W C ( 1976)

' Britain i n t he N otitia'

HASTIE D C ( 1979)

A spects o f S iege-Warfare o n t he Mesopotamian

B artholomew 1 976 p p

i n G oodburn a nd

1 03-18

F rontier a s r elated b y Ammianus Marcellinus u npublished B A D issertation N ewcastle 1 979 HAVERFIELD F ( 1899)

' Report o f t he C umberland E xcavation C ommittee f or

HAVERrIELD F ( 1912)

J RS H AVERFIELD F C OLLINGWOOD R G

1 899' C W1

1 6

1 899 p p

8 0-92

' Notes o n R oman C oast D efences

o f B ritain'

2 1 912 p p 2 01-14

' Report o n t he E xploration o f a t A mbleside

1 913' C W2

1 4

t he R oman F ort

1 914 p p

4 33-65

a nd F REESTON L B ( 1914) H AWKES

S C ( 1961)

' Soliders a nd S ettlers

i n B ritain F ourth

F ifth C entury' M ed A rch 5 1 961 p p HAWKES S C ( 1974)

' Some R ecent F inds

t o

1 -41

o f L ate R oman B uckles'

B ritannia 5 1 974 p p 3 86-93 HAWKES S C a nd D UNNING G C ( 1961)

' Catalogue o f A nimal-Ornamented B uckles and R elated B elt-Fittings' Med A rch

5 1 961

p p 4 1-71 H EDLEY W P ( 1937)

' The L ast D ays o f C orstopitum a nd W all - t he C oin E vidence' AA4 p p 9 5-102

1 4

t he R oman 1 937

H IGHAM N ( 1979) H ILDYARD E J W ( 1954)

T he C hanging P ast U niv o f Manchester e d N . H igham ' Excavations a t B urrow-in-Lonsdale C W2 5 4

H ILDYARD E J W a nd G ILLAM J P ( 1951) H ILDYARD E J W a nd G ILLAM J P ( 1957) H ILDYARD E J W a nd W ADE W V ( 1948-51) H IND J G F ( 1975)

1 954 p p

1 979

1 952-53'

6 6-101

' Renewed e xcavation a t L ow B urrow B ridge' C W2 5 1 1 951 p p 1 -19 ' Cataractonium F ort a nd T own' Y AJ 3 9 p p 2 24-65

1 957

' Catterick B ridge - a R oman T own' Y AJ 3 7 1 948-51 p p 4 02-19 ' The B ritish P rovinces H istoria 2 4

1 975 p p

o f O rcades a nd V alentia

1 01-11

H IND J G F ( 1980)

' Litus S axonicum - t he M eanwing o f t he S axon S hore' i n H anson a nd K eppie 1 980 p p 3 17-24

H IRD L ( 1973)

T he P re-Hadrianic P ottery, H altwistle 1 973

H OBLEY B ( 1974)

' The L unt' C A44

H OGG A H A ( 1953)

' Hen W aliau' J RS

1 974 p p 4 3

V indolanda V

2 71-80

1 953 p 1 04

H OLDSWORTH P ( 1981)

' Manchester' B ritannia

H OME G ( 1929)

' Proceedings a t Meetings,

V isit o f P arty t o

R eculver' A rch J 8 6

2 60

H OOPER B ( 1975) H OOPPELL R E ( 1878)

1 2

1 929

1 981 p 3 31

' The H uman B ones' i n C unliffe 1 975 p p 3 75-77 ' Discovery a nd E xploration o f R oman R emains a t S outh S hields'

1 875-6 T rans o f t he

N atural H istory S oc o f N orthumberland, D urham a nd N ewcastle 8 1 878 H OOPPELL R E ( 1891)

H istory o f V inovia: L ondon

H ORNSBY W a nd

A B uried R oman C ity

1 891

' A R oman S ignal S tation a t G oldsborough'

L AVERICK J D ( 1932) H ORNSBY W a nd

A rch J 8 9

1 932 p p

2 03-19

' The R oman F ort a t H untcliff n ear S altburn'

S TANTON R ( 1912)

J RS 2 1 912 p p 2 15-32

H ORSLEY J ( 1732)

B ritannia R omana L ondon

H ULL M R ( 1932)

' The P ottery F rom t he R oman S ignal S tations o n

1 732

t he Y orkshire C oast' A rch J 8 9 H ULL M R ( 1963)

' Roman G azetteer'

1 932 p p 2 20-53

i n A H istory o f t he C ounty

o f E ssex: V ol I II R oman E ssex O xford p p 3 5-204 H UNTER-BLAIR

( 1934)

H URST M R ( 1969)

' Housesteads M ilecastle' AA4 ' Horncastle' J RS

5 9

I NMAN R ( 1979)

' Roman C leveland'

J ARRETT M G ( 1959)

' The D efences o f

1 960 p p

i n S pratt

1 979,

1 959 p p

1 7-30

1 77-90 C ounty D urham'

1 93-229

' Roman C oins a nd P otters' H altonchesters' AA4 3 8

S tamps f rom

1 960 p p

1 53-60

1968)A J ARRETT M G (

' The R oman F ort a t B recon G aer: B BCS 2 2 4 1 968 p p 4 26-32

1968)B J ARRETT M G (

' Legio X X V aleria V ictrix i n B ritain' A C

J ARRETT M G ( 1976)

1 17 1 968 p p 7 7-91 M aryport, C umbria; G arrison K endal

S ome P roblems'

a R oman F ort a nd i ts

1 976

1978) J ARRETT M G (

' The C ase o f

1980) J ARRETT M G (

B ritannia 9 1 978 p p 2 89-92 R eview o f P otter 1 979A B ritannia p p 4 31

1 03-21

t he R oman F ort a t

' The R oman F ort a t E bchester, A A4 3 8

J ARRETT M G ( 1960)B

1 934 p p

1 969 p 2 14

H altonchesters' AA4 3 7 1960)A J ARRETT M G (

1 1

1 963

t he R edundant O fficial' 1 0

1 980

J ARRETT M G a nd

' Crop-mark S ites a t M ucking, A ntiq J 4 8

J ESSUP R ( 1936) J OBEY G ( 1973)

J OBEY I ( 1979) J OHNSON A E ( 1975)

E ssex

1 968 p p 2 10-30

' Reculver' A nt

1 0

1 936 p p

1 79-94

' A N ative S ettlement a t H artburn a nd t he D evil's C auseway N orthumberland, 1 971' A AS 1 1 973 p p 1 1-54 ' Housesteads W are - a F risian T radition o n H adrian's W all' AAS 7 1 979 p p 1 27-44 ' Wapping' B ritannia 6 1 975 p 2 69

J OHNSON J S ( 1970)

' The D ate o f t he C onstruction o f t he S axon S hore F ort a t R ichborough' B ritannia 1 1 970 p p 2 40-8

J OHNSON J S ( 1973)

' Late R oman C ity W alls i n G allia B elgica' B ritannia 4 1 973 p p 2 10-23

J OHNSON J S ( 1975)

' Vici i n L owland B ritain' i n R odwell a nd R owley 1 975 p p 7 5-83

J OHNSON J S ( 1976)A

T he R oman F orts o f t he S axon S hore L ondon 1 976

J OHNSON J S ( 1976)B

L ate R oman F ortifications i n t he W estern E mpire u npublished P hD t hesis O xford 1 976 ' Channel C ommands i n t he N otitia' i n G oodburn

1976)C J OHNSON J S (

a nd B artholomew 1 976 p p 8 1-102 J OHNSON J S ( 1977) J OHNSON J S ( 1980)A J OHNSON J S (1980)B

' Late R oman D efences a nd t he L imes' i n J ohnston 1 977A p p 6 3-69 L ater R oman B ritain L ondon

1 980

' Excavations b y C harles G reen a t B urgh C astle, 1 958-61' i n H anson a nd K eppie 1 980 p p 3 25-32

J OHNSON T ( 1975)

' A R oman S ignal T ower a t S hadwell, E 1 - a n I nterim N ote' L MAS 2 6 1 975 p p 2 78-80

J OHNSTON D E ( 1977)A

T he S axon S hore C BA R esearch R eport

J OHNSTON D E ( 1977)B

e d D E J ohnson ' The G allic E vidence: t he C hannel I slands' i n J ohnson 1 977A p p 3 1-4

J ONES A H M ( 1973)

T he L ater R oman E mpire 2 84-602 v ol 1 a nd 2 ,

1 8

1 977

r eprinted O xford 1 973 J ONES G D B ( 1967) 1970) J ONES G D B ( 1972) J ONES G D B ( J ONES G D B ( 1973)

' Manchester U niversity E xcavations o f 1 967' D AJ 8 7 1 967 ' Roman L ancashire' A rch J 1 27 1 970 p p 2 37-45 ' Lancaster' B ritannia 3 1 . 7 2 p 3 12 R oman M anchester A ltrincham 1 973

1978) J ONES G D B (

' Concept a nd D evelopment i n R oman F rontiers' B ulletin o f t he J ohn R ylands U niv L ibrary o f M anchester 6 1 1 1 978 p p 1 15-44

J ONES G D B ( 1979) J ONES G B D , D ORE J M a nd A LKER L M ( 1974) J ONES G D B , T HOMPSON F H a nd

' Invasion a nd R esponse i n R oman B ritain' i n B urnham a nd J ohnson 1 979 p p 5 7-80 ' Excavations a t M itre Y ard, L ancaster, 1 973' C ontrebis 2 .1

1 974 p p

7 -8

' Manchester U niversity E xcavations a t B rougho n-Noe ( Navio) 1 966' D AJ 8 6 1 966

W ILD J P ( 1966) J ONES G D B a nd W ILD J P ( 1968) J ONES G D B a nd W ILD J P ( 1969)A J ONES G D B a nd W ILD J P ( 1969)B

' Excavations a t B rough-on-Noe ( Navio) 1 968' D AJ 8 8 1 968 p p 8 9-95 ' Manchester U niversity E xcavations a t B rougho n-Noe ( Navio) 1 969' DAJ 8 9 1 969 p p 9 9-106 ' Brough-on-Noe' J RS 5 9 1 969 p 2 11, f ig 3 3

J ONES M J ( 1975) J ONES M U ( 1968) J ONES R F J ( 1977)

R oman F ort D efences t o A D

1 17 B AR 2 1

1 975

' Crop-mark S ites a t M ucking, E ssex' A ntiq 4 8 1 968 p p 2 10-30 ' Excavations a t B inchester R oman F ort, 1 976' A rch N ews

1 5 p p 6 -9

J ONES R F J ( 1978) J ONES R F J ( 1981)

' Binchester' B ritannia 9 1 978 p p 4 25-6 ' Change o n t he F rontier: N orthern B ritain i n t he T hird C entury' i n K ing a nd H enig 1 981 p p 3 93-414

K EENEY G S ( 1939-43)

' Excavations a t t he R oman F ort a t P iercebridge i n 1 938' T AASND 9 1 939-43 p p 4 3-68

K EENEY G S ( 1946-53)

' Excavations a t t he R oman F ort a t P iercebridge i n 1 949' T AASND 1 0 1 946-53 p p 2 58-309

1951) K ENT J P C (

' Coin E vidence a nd t he E vacuation o f H adrian's W all' C W2 5 1 1 951 p p 4 -15

K ENT J P C ( 1979)

' The E nd o f R oman B ritain: t he L iterary a nd N umismatic E vidence R eviewed' i n C asey 1 979A p p 1 5-27

K ENT A R ( 1970)

' Roman C oins f rom R eculver' K ent A rch R eview 1 9

K ENT A R ( 1971)

1 970 ' Roman C oins f rom R eculver' K ent A rch R eview 2 3 1 971

K ING A a nd H ENIG M ( 1981)

T he R oman W est i n t he T hird C entury:

f rom

C ontributions A rchaeology a nd H istory S 109 1 981 e d A K ing a nd H enig K ITSON-CLARKE M ( 1940) ' Flamborough H ead' YAJ 1 940 p 8 2 K NOWLES W H a nd ' The R omano-British S ite o f C orstopitum' A A3 F ORSTER R H ( 1909) L EACH J a nd W ILKES J ( 1962) L EATHER G M ( 1971) L EATHER G M ( 1973)

5 1 909 p p 3 05-424 ' Excavations a t t he R oman F ort a t H ousesteads, 1 961' A A4 4 0 1 962 p p 8 3-96 ' Lancaster' B ritannia 2 1 971 p 2 54 R oman L ancaster; S ome E xcavation R eports a nd S ome O bservations P reston 1 973

L ING R a nd L ING L A ( 1973) L IVENS R G ( 1974) L OFTUS-BROCK E P ( 1888) L UTTWAK E N ( 1976)

' Excavations a t L oughor, G lamorgan: T he N orthE ast a nd S outh-East A ngles o f t he R oman F ort' A C 1 22 1 973 p p 9 9-146 ' Litus H ibernicum' i n P ippidi 1 974 p p 3 33-40 ' The A ge o f t he W alls o f C hester, w ith r eference t o R ecent D iscussions' i n E arwaker

1 888 p p 4 0-66

T he G rand S trategy o f t he R oman E mpire B altimore 1 976

M ACDONALD G a nd PARK A ( 1906)

T he R oman F orts o n t he B ar H ill G lasgow 1 906

M CINTYRE J ( 1929)

' Greta B ridge' J RS

MACLAUCHLAN H ( 1858)

M emoir W ritten D uring a S urvey o f t he R oman

MACMULLEN R ( 1963)

L ondon 1 858 S oldier a nd C ivilian i n t he L ater R oman E mpire

MACMULLEN R ( 1976)

H arvard 1 963 R oman G overnments R esponse t o C risis Y ale U P

M cPEAKE J ( 1978)

1 976 ' The e nd o f

MANN J C ( 1960) M ANN J C ( 1974)A

1 9

1 929 p 1 90

t he A ffair' i n S trickland a nd D avey

1 978 p p 4 1-44 ' Chester-le-Street' J RS 5 0 1 960 p 2 15 ' The N orthern F rontier a fter A D 3 69' G AJ 3 1 974 p p 3 4-42

MANN j C ( 1974)B

' The F rontiers o f

t he P rincipate'

i n A ufstieg

a nd N iedergang d er R omischen W elt B erlin, N ew Y ork 1 974 p p 5 08-33 M ANN J C ( 1976)

' What was

MANN J C ( 1977)

G oodburn R a nd B artholomew P 1 976 p p 1 -10 ' Duces a nd C omites i n t he 4 th C entury' i n

t he N otitia D ignitatum f or?' i n

J ohnston 1 977A p p M ANN J C ( 1979)A

' Hadrian's W all: i n C asey

1 1-14 T he L ast P hases'

1 979A p p

1 44-51

M ANN J C ( 1979)B

' Power,

MARSDEN E W

R eview o f L uttwak 1 976' J RS 6 9 1 979 p p G reek a nd R oman A rtillery: H istorical

( 1969) MARSDEN P ( 1980)

D evelopment O xford 1 969 R oman L ondon L ondon 1 980

MARTIN K M ( 1969)

F orce a nd t he F rontiers

' A R eassessment o f

o f

t he Emnpire; 1 75-83

t he E vidence f or t he C omes

B ritanniarum i n t he F ourth C entury' L atomus 1 969 p p 4 09-28 MATTHEWS-JONES I ( 1888)

' Official R eport o n t he D iscoveries o f Roman R emains a t C hester d uring t he F irst R epairs t he N orth W all i n p p 1 -10

MAXFIELD V A a nd R EED A ( 1975)

1 887' i n E arwaker

' Excavations a t E bchester R oman F ort

t o

1 888 1 972-3'

AA5 3 1 975 p p 4 3-104

MAY T ( 1911)

' The R oman F orts a t E lslack' YAJ 2 1

MAY T ( 1922)

T he R oman F orts a t T empleborough R otherham 1 922

M ERRIFIELD R ( 1966)

' Cripplegate' J RS 5 6

M ERTENS J ( 1977)

' Oudenburg a nd t he N orthern S ection o f

1 911

1 966 p 2 10 t he

C ontinental L itus S axonicum' i n J ohnston 1 977A p p 5 1-62 M ILLER S N ( 1927)

' York' J RS

M ILLER S N ( 1928)

' Roman Y ork,

M ILNES H ( 1972)

1 928 p p 6 1-99 ' Stoke H ill' B ritannia 3 1 972 p 2 45

M ITCHELSON N ( 1964)

1 927 p p

1 89-90

E xcavations o f

' Roman M alton, Y AJ 4 1

M ORRIS A J ( 1948)

1 7

t he C ivilian S ettlement,

1 8

1 949-52'

1 964 p p 2 09-61

' The S axon S hore F ort a t B urgh C astle' P roc S uffolk I nst o f A rch 2 4

M ORRIS J R ( 1973)

1 926-27' J RS

1 948 p p

1 00-20

T he A ge o f A urthur; a H istory o f

t he B ritish

I sles f rom 3 50-650 L ondon 1 973 M ORRIS J R ( 1974)

' Review o f M yres a nd G reen

1 973' Med A rch

1 8

1 974 p p 2 25-31 M OTHERSOLE J ( 1924) MURRAY-THREIPLAND L ( 1965) MURRAY-THREIPLAND L

T he S axon S hore L ondon 1 924 ' Caerleon: M useum S treet S ite, 1 965 p p 1 30-45 ' Excavations a t C aerleon,

1 966;

B arracks

N orth C orner' A C

MYRES J N L ( 1969)

A nglo-Saxon P ottery a nd t he S ettlement o f

MYRES J N L a nd

T he A nglo-Saxon C emeteries o f C aistor-by-

' Romano-Saxon P ottery' E ngland O xford

G REEN B ( 1973) ( 1931) NASH-WILLIAMS V E ( 1936)

1 967 p p

1 14

( 1967) MYRES J N L ( 1956)

NASH-WILLIAMS V E

1 16

1 965' A C

i n t he

2 3-56

i n H arden

1 956 p p

1 6-39

1 969

N orwich a nd M arkshall L ondon

1 973

' The R oman L egionary F ortress a t C aerleon, E xcavations

i n t he P rysg F ield

1 927-9'

A C 8 6 1 931 p p 9 9-157 ' Miscellanea, C aerleon E xcavations, A C

9 1

1 936 p p 3 18-21

1 936'

N ASH-WILLIAMS V E ( 1954) N ASH-WILLIAMS V E ( 1969) N EAL D S ( 1978)

T he R oman F rontier i n W ales C ardiff

1 954

T he R oman F rontier i n W ales C ardiff 1 969 s econd r evised e dition e d M G J arrett ' The G rowth a nd D ecline o f V illas i n t he V erulamium A rea' i n T odd

1 978A p p 3 3-58

N EWBOLD P ( 1931)

' Excavations o n t he R oman W all a t L imestone B ank' A A3 2. 1 913 p p 5 4-74

N ORTH 0 H a nd H ILDYARD E J W

' Excavations a t t he R oman F ort o f W atercrook, 1 944' C W2 .L1 . 1 945 p p i 48-62

( 1945) O 'NEIL H ( 1971)

' The R oman V illa a t P ark S treet n ear S t A lbans, H erts' H erts A rch S oc 1 971

P AINTER K S ( 1965)

' , A i R oman S ilver T reasure f rom C anterbury' J BAA 2 08 1 965 p p 1 -15

P AINTER K S ( 1972)

L ate R oman S ilver I ngot f rom K ent' A nt J 5 2 1 972 p p 8 4-92

P EACOCK D P S ( 1973)

' Forged B rick-Stamps f rom P evensey' A ntiquity 4 7 1 973 p p 1 38-40 ' Bricks a nd T iles o f t he C lassis B ritannica: P etrology a nd O rgin' B ritannia 8 1 977 p p 2 35-48 R oman Y orkshire L ondon 1 936 P evensey C astle, S ussex H MSO L ondon

P EACOCK D P S ( 1977) P EARSON F R ( 1936) P EERS C ( 1952) P ETCH J A ( 1956)

' The F oundations o f t he N orth G ateway o f R oman M anchester' L CAS _ § _ § . 1 956 p p 2 9-37

P ETCH J A ( 1959)

' The R oman O ccupation o f L ancashire a nd C heshire' C AS 6 9 1 959 p p 1 -14

P ETCH D F ( 1968)

' The P raetorium a t D eva' C AS 5 5

P ETCH D F ( 1971)

' Excavations o n t he S ite o f t he O ld M arket H all, 1 968-71 C AS 1. 7 . _1 971 p p 3 -26

P ETCH D F a nd T HOMPSON F ( 1959) P ETRIKOVITS H V ON ( 1971)

1 968 p p

' Excavations i n C ommonhall S treet,

1 -6

C hester

1 954-6: T he G ranaries o f t he L egionary F ortress o f C hester' C AS _ 4 _ 6 _ 1 959 p p 3 3-60 ' Fortifications i n t he N orth-Western R oman E mpire f rom t he T hird t o t he F ifth C entury' J RS 6 1 1 971 p p 1 78-218

P HILLIPS D ( 1970)

' York' B ritannia 1 1 970 p 2 81

P HILP B J ( 1957)

' Recent D iscoveries a t R eculver' A rch C ant 1 957 p p 1 67-84

P HILP B J ( 1959)

' Reculver: E xcavations o n t he R oman F ort i n 1 957' A rch C ant 7 3 1 959 p p 9 6-115 ' Excavations a t R eculver, 1 958' A rch C ant 7 4 1 960 p p 1 82-6 ' Reculver' J RS 5 1 1 961 p 1 91 ' Reculver' J RS 5 2 1 962 p 1 90 ' Reculver' J RS 5 3 1 963 p 1 58 ' Reculver' J RS 5 7 1 967 p 2 02

P HILP B J ( 1960) P HILP B J ( 1961) P HILP B J ( 1962) P HILP B J ( 1963) P HILP B J ( 1967) P HILP B J ( 1969)A 1969)B P HILP B J (

' The R oman F ort a t R eculver' A rch J 1 26 p p 2 23-4 ' Reculver' J RS

1 .. 9 _1 969

7 1

1 969

p 2 33

P HILP B J ( 1969)C 1973) P HILP B J ( 1977) P HILP B J (

T he R oman F ort a t R eculver W est W ickham 1 969 ' Dover' C A .1 8 _ M ay 1 973 p p 8 1-88

P HILP B J ( 1981)

T he E xcavation o f t he R oman F orts o f t he C lassis B ritannica a t D over 1 970-77 K ent M onograph S eries N o 3 1 981

' The B ritish E vidence: D over' i n J ohnston 1 977A p p 2 0-21

P IPPIDI D M ( 1974)

A ctes d u I X C ongres I nternational D 'Etudes S ur L es F rontiers R oimaines B ucureeti, 1 974 e d D M P ippidi

l ean, W ein,

P OTTER T W ( 1974)A

' Excavations a t B owness-on-Solway, C umberland' C ontrebis 2 1 1 974 p p 3 8-40

P OTTER T W ( 1974)B P OTTER T W ( 1975)

' Bowness-on-Solway' B ritannia 5 1 974 p 4 18 ' Excavations a t B owness-on-Solway, 1 973' C W2 7 5 1 975 p p 2 9-57 -

P OTTER T W ( 1977)

' The B iglands M ilefortlet a nd t he C umberland C oast D efences' B ritannia 8 1 977 p p 1 49-83 T he R omans i n N orth-West E ngland C W R esearch S eries V ol 1 1 979

P OTTER T W ( 1979)A P OTTER T W ( 1979)B P RYCE F N a nd P RYCE T D ( 1929) P RYCE F N a nd P RYCE T D ( 1930) P RYCE F N ( 1932) R ADLEY

J ( 1972)

' The C umbrian C oast D efences a nd R avenglass' i n D obson 1 979 p p 2 4-7 ' The F orden G aer, S econd I nterim R eport ( Excavations o f 1 928)' A C 8 4 1 929 p p 1 00-39 ' The F orden G aer, T hird I nterim R eport ( Excavations o f 1 929)' A C 8 5 1 930 p p 1 15-30 ' Newtown - R eport' A C 8 7 1 932 p p 4 38-9 ' Excavations i n t he D efences o f t he C ity o f Y ork: a n E arly Medieval S tone T ower a nd t he S uccessive E arth R amparts' YAJ 44 1 972 p p 3 8-64

RAINE A ( 1932)

S ' R 1 . 1oma 3 n 7

E xcavations

gi t sY to rr it

A dvancement o f S cience R AMM H G ( 1957) R AMM H G ( 1968) R AMM H G ( 1971) R EECE R ( 1977)

R EED A H ARPER R a nd D ODDS W ( 1964) R ICHARDSON K EENEY G R ICHMOND I R ICHMOND I

G H a nd S ( 1934-6) A A ( 1923)

R ICHMOND I A ( 1930) R ICHMOND

I A ( 1931)

R ICHMOND I A ( 1932)

A2 S e rf l to

ncl e

1 932 p p 5 2-56

' Newton K yme' J RS 4 7 1 957 p 2 09 ' York' J RS 5 8 1 968 p 1 82 ' The E nd o f R oman Y ork' i n B utler 1 971A p p 1 79-99 ' Coins a nd F rontier - S upply a nd D emand' i n L imes X I I nternational C ongress A kademia K iado, B udapest 1 977 p p 6 43-6 ' Excavations a t E bchester i n 1 962-3' AA4 4 2 1 964 p p 1 73-83 ' Excavations a t t he R oman F ort o f P iercebridge 1 933-34' T AASND 7 1 934-6 p p 2 35-66 T he R oman F ort a t S outh S hield: A G uide Y ' AJ Fo 2u 7r t 1h 92 C 3e n p p tur 2 1 y1D 1 is 8turbance i n t he

: :o

i nes'

T h R om e e C it O y xfo W r ad ll o f I mperial ' Excavations o n H adrian's W all i n t he B irdoswald - P ike H ill S ector' C W2 3 1 1 931 p p 1 22-34 ' The F our R oman C amps a t C awthorn i n t he N orth R iding o f Y orkshire' A rch J 8 9 1 932 p p 1 7-78

R ICHMOND I A ( 1934)

' The R oman F ort a t S outh S hields' A A4

R ICHMOND I A ( 1936)

1 934 p p 8 3-102 ' Excavations a t H igh R ochester a nd R isingham 1 935' A A4 1 3 1 936 p p 1 84-98

R ICHMOND I A ( 1940)

' The R omans i n R edesdale' i n D odds p p 6 3-154

1 1

1 940

R ICHMOND I A ( 1946)

' Roman A rtillery' D UJ 7 .2

R ICHMOND I A ( 1947)

H andbook t o t he R oman W all

1 946 p p 6 0-63

R ICHMOND I A ( 1953)

N ewcastle 1 947 e d IA R ichmond ' Excavations o n t he S ite o f t he R oman F ort a t L ancaster 1 950' H SLC 1 05 1 953 p p 1 -24

1 0th e dition

R ICHMOND I A ( 1954)

' The B irdoswald H oard a nd i ts C omposition' C W2 5 4 1 954

R ICHMOND I A ( 1955)

T he P elican H istory o f E ngland, P enguin 1 955

R ICHMOND I A ( 1956)

' Cote H ow T ower ( 16a) C W2 5 6 1 956 p p 6 2-66

R ICHMOND I A ( 1957) R ICHMOND I A ( 1958)A R ICHMOND I A ( 1958)B

o n t he C umberland C oast'

H andbook t o t he R oman Wall N ewcastle

R oman B ritain

1 1th e dition

1 957 e d IA R ichmond

R oman a nd N ative i n N orth B ritain N elson e d IA R ichmond

1 958

' Roman a nd N ative i n t he F ourth C entury A D a nd a fter'

i n R ichmond

1 958A p p

1 12-30

R ICHMOND

A ( 1959)

' Lancaster' J RS

R ICHMOND

A ( 1960) A ( 1961)

' Roman B ritain 1 910-60' J RS 5 0 1 960 p p 1 73-91 ' A N ew B uilding I nscription f rom t he S axon S hore

R ICHMOND

4 9

F ort a t R eculver, R ICHMOND I A ( 1962)

R eview o f

1 959 p p

1 06-8 f ig

K ent' A nt

J 4 1

7

1 961 p p

' Cotton a nd G ather7ole

2 24-28

1 958' J RS

5 2

1 962 R ICHMOND I A ( 1963)

' Palmyra u nder t he A egis o f R ome' J RS

5 3

1 963

p p 4 3-54 R ICHMOND I A a nd B IRLEY E B ( 1930) R ICHMOND I A a nd B IRLEY E B ( 1938) nd R ICHMOND I A a B IRLEY E B ( 1940) nd R ICHMOND I A a CRAWFORD O G S ( 1949) R ICHMOND I A a nd 1951) G ILLAM J P ( nd R ICHMOND I A a G ILLAM J

' Excavations o n H adrian's W all, B irdoswald-Pike h ill S ector, p p 1 69-205 ' Excavations a t C orbridge, 1 938 p p

i n t he

1 929' C W2 3 0

1 936-38' AA4

1 5

1 938-39' AA4

1 7

1 930

2 43-94

' Excavations a t C orbridge, 1 940 p p 8 5-115 ' The B ritish S ection o f C osmography'

t he R avenna

A rchaeololgia 9 3

1 949 p p

1 -50

' The T emple o f M ithras a t C arrawburgh' AA4 2 9 1 951 p p 1 -92 ' Report o f f or

t he C umberland E xcavations C ommittee

1 947-9 3 M ilecastle

7 9

( Solway)

C W2 5 2

1 952 R ICHMOND I A

' The R oman F ort a t B ewcastle' C W2 p p 1 95-239

3 8

R IVET A L F ( 1969)

T he R oman V illa i n B ritain L ondon

1 969

R IVET A L F ( 1975)

e d A L F R ivet ' The C lassification o f M inor T owns a nd R elated

HOGSON K S a nd S T J OSEPH K ( 1938)

S ettlements' i n R odwell a nd R owley p p 1 11-114 R IVET A L F a nd

1 938

1 975

T he P lace N ames o f R oman B ritain L ondon

S MITH C ( 1979) R OBERTS P ( 1974) R OBERTSON A ( 1970)

' Burghwallis' B ritannia 5 1 974 4 16 ' Roman F inds f rom n on-Roman S ites i n S cotland: M ore R oman

R OBINSON D J ( 1970)

' Drift' i n C aledonia' B ritannia

1

1 970 p p 1 98-226 T he A rchaeology o f t he S axon S hore i n B ritain a nd i ts R elation t o L ate C ontinental F ortifications u npublished M P hil d issertation N ewcastle u pon T yne

R ODWELL W ( 1975)

a nd R owley R ODWELL W a nd R OWLEY T ( 1975)

1 970

' Trinovantian T owns a nd T heir S etting'

i n R odwell

1 975 p p 8 5-102

S mall T owns o f R oman B ritain e d W R odwell a nd T R owley

B AR

1 5

1 975

R OWNTREE A ( 1931)

H istory o f S carborough L ondon e d A R owntree

R OXAN M M ( 1976)

' Pre-Severan A uxilia N amed i n t he N otitia D ignitatum' i n G oodburn a nd B artholomew 1 976 p p 5 9-80

R CHM Y ork I

R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments ( England), Y ork I ( Eburacum , H MSO L ondon 1 962

S T J OSEPH J K S ( 1936) S T J OSEPH J K S ( 1956)

1 931

R oman Y ork)

' The R oman F ort a t B rancaster' A ntiq J 1 6 1 936 p p 4 44-60 ' The R oman S ite n ear S tretton B ridge,

t he

A ncient P ennocrucium' T rans B irmingham A rch S oc 7 4 1 956

S T J OSEPH J K S ( 1969)

' Air R econnaissance i n B ritain, 1 969 p p 1 04-28

S ALISBURY F S ( 1927)

' On t he D ate o f t he N otitia D ignitatum' J RS 1 927 p p 1 02-6

S ALWAY P ( 1958)

' Civilians i n t he R oman F rontier R egion' A A4 3 6 1 958 p p 2 27-44

S ALWAY P ( 1967)

T he F rontier P eople o f R oman B ritain C ambridge 1 967 ' Excavations o n t he S ite o f t he R oman F ortress a t P evensey' S AC 5 1 1 907 p p 9 9-114

S ALZMAN L F ( 1907)

1 965-68' J RS 5 9 1 7

S ALZMAN L F ( 1908)A

' Excavations a t P evensey' S AC

S ALZMAN L F ( 1908)B

' Excavations o n t he S ite o f t he R oman F ortress a t P evensey 1 907-8' A rch J 6 5 1 908 p p 1 25-35

S AVAGE M ( 1979)

E xcavations o n H adrian's W all a t S ewingshields: I nterim R eport 1 979 H exham 1 979

S CHÖNBERGER H ( 1969)

' The R oman F rontier i n G ermany: A n A rchaeological S urvey' J RS 5 9 1 969 p p 1 44-197

S CHULTZ M S ( 1933)

' The R oman E vacuation o f B ritain' J RS p p 3 6-45

S COTT P R ( 1972)

' Excavations a t H olme H ouse ( West), P iercebridge 1 971 - S ummary R eport' D urham A rch N ewsbulletin 6 1 1 972

5 2 1 908 p p 8 3-95

S COTT P R ( 1977)

' Piercebridge' B ritannia 8 1 977 p 3 81

S COTT P R ( 1978)

' Excavations a t P iercebridge,

2 3

C o D urham ,

1 933

1 976-7

S ummary R eport' A rchaeological R eports S COTT P R a nd .L ARGE

S ( 1979)

S COTT P R a nd L ARGE S ( 1980)

f or 1 977, D urham 1 978 p p 1 6-21 ' Excavations a t P iercebridge' U niv o f D urham A rch R eports f or 1 978, D urham 1 979 p p 9 -10 ' Excavations a t P iercebridge 1 978-79' A rch R eports f or 1 979 U niv o f D urham 1 980 p p 1 1-12

S HAW R C ( 1925-6)

N otitia D ignitatum e d 0 S eeck ' An I nteresting D iscovery b earing o n t he F ourth C entury R econstruction o n t he W all' P SAN4

S HAW N ( 1959)

1 925-6 p p 2 2-3 ' Excavations a t W hitley C astle N orthumberland, 1 957 a nd 1 958' A A4 3 7 1 959 p p 1 91-202

S HIEL N ( 1977)

T he E pisode o f C arausius a nd A llectus B AR 4 0

S EECK 0 ( 1876)

S HOTTER D C A ( 1974) S HOTTER D C A ( 1978) S HOTTER D C A a nd W HITE A J ( 1977)

1 977 ' RIB 6 05 a nd t he L ancaster B ath-House' C ontrebis 2 1 1 974 p p 1 4-19 ' A h oard o f A ntoniniani f rom H ackensall H all F arm' L ancs A rch J 1 1 978 p p 4 7-52 ' Two h oards o f R oman C oins f rom t he L ancaster A rea' C W2 7 7 1 977 p p 1 73-78

S HRUBSOLE

G W

( 1890)

' The

Walls

o f

E dwardian' C AS

S IMPSON C ( 1971)

C hester:

Are

t hey R oman o r

3p 7 1-113

F oederati a nd L aeti i n L ate R oman F rontier D efence u npublished M P hil d issertation N ottingham U niv 1 971

S IMPSON C ( 1976)

' Belt-buckles a nd S trap-ends

o f

t he L ater R oman

E mpire a P reliminary S urvey o f S everal N ew G roups' B ritannia 7 1 976 p p 1 92-223 S IMPSON F G ( 1913)

' Excavations

o n t he L ine o f

t he R oman W all i n

C umberland d uring t he Y ears 1 913 p p 2 97-397 S IMPSON F G

1 909-12' C W2

' The R oman F ort a t N ewbrough p p 1 63-5

1 929-30) S IMPSON F G ( 1931)

' Excavations

P SAN 4 1 929-30

.

o n H adrian's W all b etween H eddon-

o n-the-Wall a nd N orth T yne i n p p 3 05-27 S IMPSON F G ( 1976)

1 3

1 930' AA4 8 1 931

W atermills a nd M ilitary W orks o n H adrian's W all E xcavations

i n N orthumberland

1 907-13 K endal

1 976 e d G S impson S IMPSON F G a nd H ODGSON K S ( 1948) S IMPSON F G a nd H OGG R ( 1935) S IMPSON F G a nd R ICHMOND

IA ( 1932)

S IMPSON F G a nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1933) S IMPSON F G a nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1934) S IMPSON F G a nd R ICHMOND

I A

( 1935)A S IMPSON F G a nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1935)B S IMPSON F G a nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1937) S IMPSON F G a nd R ICHMOND I A ( 1941) S IMPSON G ( 1962

' The C oastal M ile-Fortlet a t C ardurnock' C W2 4 8

1 948 p p

' Report o f f or

7 8-127

t he C umberland E xcavation C ommittee

1 935 p art

8 S tanwix' C W2

C W2 3 2

1 932 p p

C W2

3 3

1 933

' Report f or

1B irdoswald' C W2 o f

G ( 1973)

1 934 p p

1 20-30

1 934 p art 5 R andylands M ilecastle' C W2 3 5

1 935 p p

2 36-43

' Report o f f or C W2

3 4

t he C umberland E xcavation C ommittee

t he C umberland E xcavation C ommittee

1 934 p art 7 B ankshead M ilecastle 5 2' 3 5 1 935 p p 2 47-55

' The F ort o n H adrian's W all a t H alton' AA4 1 937 p p

1 4

1 51-70

.P etriana

a nd t he T actical A rrangement o f

H adrian's W all i n C umberland' D UJ 3 3 2 1 941 p p 1 02-10 ' Caerleon a nd t he R oman F orts 1 11

1 962 p p

‚C aerleon

i n W ales

1 03-66 2 S outhern W ales'

A C 1 12 1 963 p p 1 3-76 B ritons a nd t he R oman A rmy L ondon ' Roman

Manchester

a nd

a nd D ates r eviewed' R omans

i n t he

1N orthern W ales'

a nd t he R oman F orts i n W ales i n t he

S econd C entury A D P art

S IMPSON

1B irdoswald ‚

1 933 p p 2 46-62

' Report o f t he C umberland E xcavation C ommittee f or

A C

S IMPSON G ( 1964)

1 935 p p 2 56-58 1B irdoswald'

1 41-5

' Excavations o n H adrian's W all

S econd C entury A D P art S IMPSON G ( 1963)

3 5

' Excavations o n H adrian's W all

1 964

T empleborough :

i n G reeks,

e d C F C H awkes L ondon

T he F orts

C elts a nd 1 973

S MITH C R ( 1852)

T he R oman C astrum a t Lympne i n K ent L ondon

S MITH C R ( 1887)

' Roman C astrum a t L ympne

.

A rch C ant

1 8

1 852

1 887

p p 4 1-5 S PAIN G R B ( 1930)

' The T reasury V ault o f AA4 7 1 930 p p

S PRATT D A ( 1979)

t he R oman F ort a t B enwell ‚

1 26-31

T he A rchaeology o f C leveland M iddlesborough C ouncil e d D A S pratt

S TANFORD S TEAD

S C ( 1968)

IM ( 1956-8)

^T he R oman F orts a t L eintwardine a nd B uckton' W NFC 3 9.2 1 968 p p 2 22-326

' Excavations a t t he S outh C orner T ower o f R oman F ortress a t Y ork p p 5 15-38

1 956' Y AJ 3 9

t he

1 956-8

S TEER K A ( 1938)

T he A rchaeology o f R oman D urham Univ o f D urham P hD t hesis 1 938 u npublished

S TEER K A ( 1939)

' The E xcavations a t L anchester: T he C oarse P ottery' T AASDN 9 1 939-43 p p 1 12-22

S TEVENS C E ( 1940)

' The B ritish S ections o f t he N otitia D ignitatum' A rch J 4 7 1 940 p p 1 25-54

S TEVENS C E ( 1971)

' Progress R eport o n B ritain' i n A pplebaum p p 3 4-7

S TRICKLAND T J

' Chester' B ritannia 6 1 975 p p 2 41-2

1 971

( 1975) S TRICKLAND T J ( 1980) S TRICKLAND T J

' Grosvenor M useum E xcavations,

Hunter S treet

a nd H unter's W alk E xcavations' Newsletter J an 1 980 ' Chester' B ritannia

1 2

1 981 p p

3 31-3

( 1981)A S TRICKLAND T J

' Third C entury C hester' i n K ing a nd H enig p 4

( 1981)B S TRICKLAND T J a nd DAVEY P J ( 1978) S UMPTER A B a nd C OLL S ( 1977) S WANTON M J ( 1967)

N ew E vidence f or R oman C hester L iverpool 1 978 I nterval T ower S W5 a nd t he S outh-West D efences E xcavations

1 972-75 Y ork

1 977

' An E arly A lamannic B rooch f rom Y orkshire' Ant J 4 7

1 967 p p

4 3-50

TAYLOR S J ( 1972)

' Whilton L odge' B ritannia 3 1 972 p 3 25

T HOMAS R W ( 1911)

' Excavations R oman S tation L landrindod W ells A C

6 5

1 911 p p

4 11-20

T HOMAS N ( 1964)

' Mancetter' J RS

T HOMPSON E ( 1965)

T he E arly G ermans O xford

5 4

1 964 p p

1 64-5

1 965

T HOMPSON E ( 1977)

' Britain A D

T HOMPSON F H ( 1965)

R oman C heshire C hester

T HOMPSON F H ( 1969)

' Excavations a t L inenhall S treet, 1 961-2' C AS 5 6 1 969 p p 1 -22

T HOMPSON F H ( 1975)

4 06-10' B ritannia 8 1 977 p p

' The E xcavation o f

3 03-18

1 965 C hester,

t he R oman Amphitheatre a t

C hester' A rchaeologia

1 05

1 975 p p

1 27-241

T ODD M ( 1967)

' The R oman S ite a t L ittle C hester, D erby: E xcavations i n 1 966' D AJ 8 7 1 967 p p 7 0-85

T ODD M ( 1973) T ODD M ( 1975)

T he C oritani L ondon Y orks' A nt J 5 5

T ODD M ( 1978)A

1 973

' The " Alamannic" B rooch f rom L ondesborough, 1 975 p p

3 84-8

S tudies i n t he R omano-British V illa L eicester

1 978 e d M T odd

T ODD M ( 1978)B

T he W alls o f R ome L ondon

T OMLIN R S 0 ( 1972)

' Seniores ; J uniores i n t he L ate R oman F ield A rmy' A JP 9 3 2 1 972 p p 2 53-78

T OMLIN R S 0 ( 1973)

' The D ate o f t he " Barbarian C onspiracy " R oman N orthern F rontier S eminar V ol 9 1 973 p p 3 2-6

T OMLIN R S 0 ( 1974)

' The D ate o f

t he

1 978

" Barbarian C onspiracy "

B ritannia 5 1 974 p p 3 03-9 T URNBULL L ( 1963)

L ate F ourth C entury R oman P ottery i n N orthern B ritain u npublished B A d issertation N ewcastle u pon T yne J une

1 963

T URNBULL P a nd J ONES R F J ( 1979) V AN B ERCHEM D ( 1955)

' Chester-le-Street' B ritannia p 2 85 ' On s ome c hapters

o f

1 0

1 979

t he N otitia D ignitatum

r elating t o t he D efence o f G aul a nd B ritain' A JP LXXV1, 1 38-47 W ACHER J S ( 1964)

' Thorpe' J RS

W ACHER J S ( 1969)

E xcavations a t B rough-on-Humber

5 4

1 964 p 1 59 1 958-61

S oc o f A ntiq R esearch R eport X XV W ACHER J S ( 1971)

' Yorkshire T owns B utler

1 971A p p

1 969

i n t he F ourth C entury'

i n

1 65-78

W ACHER J S ( 1975)A

T he T owns o f R oman B ritain L ondon

W ACHER J S ( 1975)B

' Village F ortifications' 1 975 p p 5 1-2

W ADE W V ( 1950)

' Templeborough'

W ADE W V ( 1952)

' The R oman F ort a t B ainbridge, P LPLS 7 1 1 952 p p 1 -19

W ensleydale'

' The R oman F ort a t B ainbridge,

E xcavations

WADE W V ( 1955)

1 952 a nd W ARD

J ( 1901) J ( 1911)

1 901 p p

J ( 1914)

1 950 p 9 9

7 .3

1 955 p p

o f

1 53-66

i ts R oman O rigin' A rchaeologia

3 35-52

R omano-British B uildings a nd E arthworks L ondon

W ARD

4 0

1 953' P LPLS

' Cardiff C astle: 5 7

W ARD

J RS

1 975

i n R odwell a nd R owley

1 911

' Roman C ardiff

I II' A C

6 9

1 914 p p 4 07-10

W ATERMAN D M ( 1947)

' Excavations a t C lausentum 1 937-8' A nt J 2 7

W EBSTER G ( 1951)

R oman C hester,

1 947 p p

1 51-71 t he D efences a nd t he I ntramural

B uildings o f t he L egionary F ortress u npublished MA T hesis Manchester W EBSTER G ( 1953)

1 951

' Excavations o n t he L egionary D efences a t C hester 1 949 5 2 ( part 1 a nd 2 )' p t 2 1 -23 C AS 3 9-40 1 953

W EBSTER G ( 1969)

' The F uture o f V illa S tudies' P p

W EBSTER G ( 1971)

1 2 1-28,

i n R ivet

1 969

2 17-50

' A R oman S ystem o f F ortified P osts a long W atling S treet, p p

W EBSTER G ( 1974)

-p t

B ritain' i n A pplebaum 1 971

3 8-45

T he W est Midlands

i n t he R oman P eriod:

a

b rief s urvey T rans B irmingham a nd W arwickshire A rchaeological S oc W EBSTER G ( 1975)A

8 6

' Small T owns w ithout D efences' i n R odwell a nd R owley

1 975 p p 5 3-66

1975)B W EBSTER G (

T he C ornovii O ld W oking

W EBSTER G a nd

' An E xcavation o n t he R oman S ite a t L ittle

HARTLEY B R ( 1961)

C hester,

D erby' DAJ 8 1

1 975 1 961 p p

8 5-110

1979) W EBSTER P (

' Romano-British C oarse P ottery i n t he

W EBSTER P V a nd

N orth-West i n H igham 1 979 p p 1 5-20 ' Cardiff' B ritannia 6 1 975 p 2 22

W EBSTER J ( 1975) W EBSTER P V a nd

' Cardiff' B ritannia

7 1 976 p 2 98

WEBSTER J ( 1976) W EBSTER P V a nd

' Cardiff' B ritannia 9 1 978 p p 4 08-9

WEBSTER J ( 1978) WELSBY

D A ( 1980)

' Roman B uilding I nscriptions, b uildings

r ecording

c ollapsed t hrough a ge o r d estroyed

b y t he e nemy?' AAS

8 1 980 p p

8 9-94

WENHAM

L P ( 1959-62)

' Excavations

a nd Discoveries

within

L egionary F ortress i n D aveygate, Y AJ 4 0 1 956-62 p p 5 07-87 WENHAM L P ( 1965) W ENHAM L P ( 1974)

Y ork,

t he

1 955-8'

' The S outh-West Defences o f t he F ortress o f E buracum' i n J arrett a nd D obson 1 965 p p 1 -26 D erventio

( Halton):

R oman F ort a nd C ivil

S ettlement C ameo B ooks

1 974

W HEELER H M ( 1981)

' Littlechester' B ritannia

W HEELER R E M

' Excavations a t S egontium , A C 7 6 1 921 p p 1 70-204

1 921:

S econd R eport'

' Excavations a t S egontium, A C 7 8 1 923 p p 2 58-326

1 922:

F ourth Report'

( 1921) W HEELER R E M ( 1922)A W HEELER R E M ( 1922)B W HEELER R E M ( 1924) W HEELER R E M ( 1926)

' Roman C ardiff: 1 922 p p 3 61-70

1 2

1 981 p 3 35

S upplimentary N otes' A nt J 2

S egontium a nd t he R oman O ccupation o f W ales C ardiff 1 924 ' The R oman F ort n ear B recon' Y C ymmrodor

3 7

1 926

W HITWELL J B ( 1973)

' York' B ritannia 4 1 973 p 2 80

W HITWELL J B ( 1976)

' The C hurch S treet S ewer a nd a n Adjacent B uilding' C BA 1 976

W IGHTMAN E ( 1971)

' Some A spects o f

t he L ate R oman Defensive

S ystem i n G aul' i n A pplebaum 1 971 p p 4 6-51 W ILKES J ( 1960)

' Excavations a t H ousesteads 1 960 p p

WILKES

J ( 1961)

' Excavations a t H ousesteads 1 961 p p

W ILKES J ( 1966)

1 940 p p

S AC 8 2

1 941 p p

3 5-58 1 965

8 7-200

' The R oman F ort a t I lkley' Y AJ 2 8

1 925

1 37-321

' Roman B ritain i n 1 961 p p

Y OUNG C J ( 1977)

1 939'

1 73-204

' Six T urrets o n H adrian's W all' AA4 4 3

p p WRIGHT R P ( 1961)

S AC 8 0

' The End o f R oman S ussex a nd t he E arly Saxon

p p W OODWARD A M ( 1925)

1 966

1 93-213

S ettlements' W OODFIELD C ( 1965)

1 938'

i n H adrian's

' The E xcavations o n H ighdown H ill, A ugust 8 1

3 8

1 960 ' AA4 3 9

i n J arrett a nd D obson

' Excavations a t t he C aburn

S AC WILSON A E ( 1941)

i n

' Early F ourth C entury R ebuilding

1 939 p p W ILSON A E ( 1940)

1 959' A A4

2 79-300

W all F orts' p p 1 14-38 W ILSON A E ( 1939)

i n

6 1-72

1 960 I I

I nscriptions' J RS

1 91-98

O xfordshire R oman P ottery B AR 4 3

1 977

5 1

I NDEX O F P LACE N AMES A lchester A ldborough A lderney A lmondbury A mbleside A mid& A ntioch A pperley D ene A rdoch A rles A utun A venches

1 47, 1 52 1 49, 1 50 1 18 1 61 9 , 1 0, 2 2, 5 1, 6 6 1 1 00 6 6 1 3, 1 32, 1 48 1 46, 1 48 1 48

B aginton

1 9.

B ainbridge

2 1, 4 2-3, 6 4, 6 5, 7 0-1, 8 2, 9 0, 1 18, 1 22, 1 25 1 43 1 27 6 0 8 7 9 9-100 1 37,151 2 2, 1 40 9 , 1 0, 2 1, 2 4, 2 5, 3 0, 3 2, 3 5, 5 3, 5 8, 7 7, 7 9, 9 2, 9 4-5, 1 03, 1 13, 1 41, 1 60, 1 71 1 2, 2 0, 2 4, 4 3, 6 0, 6 3, 6 4, 7 6, 7 8, 9 4, 1 19, 1 25, 1 31 1 , 1 0, 2 0 , 2 4, 3 0, 3 2,33, 3 5, 3 6, 4 0, 4 9, 5 6, 5 7, 6 3, 6 8, 7 1-2, 7 8, 7 9, 8 1, 8 2, 8 4, 8 7, 9 1, 1 01, 1 03, 1 10, 1 11-2, 1 30, 1 31, 1 38, 1 41, 1 71, 1 72 1 0, 2 5 14, 1 15-6 5 2 1 14

B alline B almuildy B ar H ill B arrack F ell B avai B enwell B ewcastle B inchester B irdoswald

B irrens B itterne B onn B owes B owness o n S olway B oxmoor B raäwell B rancaster B rean D own B recon G aer B rislington B röugh B rough-on-Humber B rough-on-Noe B rougham B rugh-by-Sands B urgh C astle B urghwallis B urrow-in-Lonsdale B urrow W alls B usiris

6 1,

1 18,

1 19

5 5

2 7, 3 7, 1 10, 1 39 1 07 1 4, 1 6, 1 7, 5 0 1 2, 1 3, 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 2 3, 3 1, 5 1, 5 7, 1 37, 1 42, 1 47, 1 52, 1 54, 1 65, 1 72 1 55 9 , 2 5, 4 7, 5 8, 1 12-3, 1 20 1 07 1 52 2 0, 4 3, 7 3, 1 44, 1 47, 1 49, 1 55 6 , 2 1, 4 3-4, 6 1, 7 8, 7 9, 8 2-3, 9 3, 1 02 14, 1 43 3 2, 1 38 1 2, 1 4, 1 5, 1 6, 1 7, 2 9, 4 3, 5 1-2, 5 3, 6 5, 1 37 4 4 6 4-5, 6 9, 1 02 1 14 1 39

7 , 1 14, 1 15, 1 28 1 3, 1 26, 1 28 9 , 2 2, 2 7, 2 9, 4 7-8,

C aer G ybi C aerhun C aerleon C aernarvon

C aersws C aister-by-Norwich C aister-by-Yarmouth C aistor C ambridge C anterbury C ardiff C arisbrooke C arlisle C armarthen C armel H ead C arnunt iu t C arpow C arrawburgh C arthage C astell C oh en C astlecary C astlesteads C atterick C aves I nn C awfields C awthorn C helmsford C hester C hester-le-Street C hesterholm

C hesters C hesterton C issbury C oburn C olchester C oleraine C optOs C orbridge C orton C rambeck C ramond C ripplegate D oncaster D orchester D orn D over D riffield D robeta

( Oxon)

6 0,

7 9,

8 5

2 0, 2 2, 2 5, 3 1, 4 8-9, 5 6, 6 0, 6 2, 7 9, 8 0, 8 1, 8 6, 9 6-7, 1 02, 1 18, 19, 1 22, 1 26, 1 28, 1 44, 1 62, 1 67, 1 72 2 4, 3 1, 4 9, 8 5, 1 20 5 1, 1 47, 1 59, 1 60 1 3, 1 4, 5 2, 6 4, 1 49 1 47 1 48 5 2, 1 47 7 , 8 , 1 2, 1 9, 2 5, 2 9, 4 9, 8 5, 9 3, 1 55 2 0 1 , 6 , 5 9, 9 9, 1 00, 1 24, 1 30 1 55 1 28 8 0 9 , 2 3, 2 4, 6 8, 6 9 2 2, 3 7, 5 7, 6 0, 7 1, 7 7, 1 62 6 7 9 , 4 9, 6 0, 7 0, 7 1, 1 72 6 0 3 7 1 49-50, 1 54 1 51, 1 52 5 7 6 2 1 47 1 , 6 , 9 , 2 2, 2 4, 2 5, 2 7, 2 9, 4 4, 6 2, 6 9, 7 4-6, 7 8, 7 9, 8 4, 8 5, 9 5, 1 26, 1 44, 1 62, 1 66 4 5, 1 14, 1 19 9 , 1 1, 2 0, 2 2, 2 3, 2 5, 2 6, 2 7, 3 0, 3 2, 3 3, 3 7-8, 6 3, 6 4, 7 6, 8 0, 8 1, 8 6, 8 7, 8 9, 9 0, 9 6 , 1 10, 1 20, 1 24, 1 30, 1 39, 1 69 6 3, 8 1, 8 8, 8 9, 14, 1 19, 1 20, 1 40 1 52 1 64 1 64 1 46, 1 48, 1 49 1 27 1 38 1 , 6 , 3 6, 8 4, 1 24, 1 28, 1 42, 1 49, 1 50, 1 54 1 8 1 71 2 4, 6 9 ( see L ondon) 9 , 2 7, 4 5, 7 1, 7 2, 8 3, 9 6, 1 22, 1 38, 1 62 1 52 1 52 6 , 9 , 1 2, 1 3, 1 4, 1 7, 2 0, 2 5, 2 9, 5 2, 5 3, 1 61 2 3

1 37

E ast B ridgeford

1 52

E bchester E lslack E rmelo E xeter

2 7, 3 0, 4 5, 6 4-5, 6 9 6 9 1 46, 1 52

F lamborough H ead F orden G aer F urfooz

1 17 2 4, 5 0, 9 7 1 61, 1 64

G ellygaer G emellae G estinthorpe G heriat e l-Garbia G loucester G oldsborough G orhambury G ornea G ran :Kona G reat C asterton G reat C hesterford G reat C hesters G reta B ridge

1 3 7 1 1 61 1 3 1 46, 1 48, 1 53 1 17, 1 31 1 07 6 7 1 37 1 47, 1 48 1 48 3 0 , 3 2, 3 8, 8 0, 9 2, 1 24, 1 62

H adleigh H altonchesters

1 8 6 , 1 6, 2 5, 3 0, 1 03, 1 09, 1 17, 1 0, 1 3, 2 2 1 00 1 18

H ardknot H artburn H artlepool H en W aliau ( Caernarvon) H igh C ross H igh R ochester H ighdown H ill H odhill H olyhead M ountain H orncastle H ousesteads

H untcliff

7 9,

8 0,

8 1,

8 9,

8 1,

9 5,

1 21,

3 8-9, 4 1, 1 24, 1 40,

9 2

1 39,

5 6, 5 7, 1 41

1 42

6 1,

6 2,

6 3,

8 6,

1 7 1 52 9 , 1 1, 2 5, 3 0, 3 2, 3 3, 6 1, 6 2, 6 3, 6 7, 7 0, 7 6, 7 7, 8 0, 8 1, 8 2, 9 2, 1 03, 1 24 1 64 5 3 1 28 1 47 2 6 , 2 7, 3 0, 3 2, 3 9-40 , 5 7, 6 1, 6 3, 6 8 , 7 1, 7 2, 7 6, 7 7, 7 8, 8 0, 8 1, 8 7, 8 9, 9 0, 9 4, 9 5, 1 03, 11, 1 12, 1 13, 1 14, 1 18, 1 20, 1 21, 1 23, 1 40, 1 42, 1 57, 1 65 1 17, 1 31

I lkley

9 , 1 0, 2 6, 4 5, 1 19, 1 20, 1 21,

J arrow J edburgh

1 18 3 3

K aiseraugst K eynsham K ings W eston K nag B urn g ateway K öln

7 4, 1 26 1 07 1 07 7 1 3 , 1 46, 1 51

7 1, 7 2, 1 22

7 8,

7 9,

8 1,

8 3-4,

8 5,

9 0,

L ancaster L anchester L ankhills L auriacum L e M ans L eintwardine L incoln L ittlechester

2 4, 4 5, 7 6, 8 5, 9 3, 1 02, 1 14, 1 25 1 2, 2 0, 2 2, 3 2, 3 3, 4 5, 1 02, 1 03, ( see W inchester) 1 34 1 8 2 0, 2 1, 2 4, 5 0, 7 9, 8 4, 1 31 7 5, 1 46, 1 48, 1 52, 1 53 6 9-70, 1 24, 1 52

L ondesborough L ondon L oughor L ow B urrow B ridge L ydney L ympne

1 61 7 , 1 8, 7 5, 1 05, 1 47, 1 48, 1 49, 5 0 9 , 1 0 1 55 6 , 1 6, 1 7, 2 3, 2 5, 2 8, 3 1, 5 2, 1 36, 1 37, 1 49, 1 54, 1 65

M ägis

1 42, 1 43 1 42, 1 43 3 , 6 7, 1 42 9 , 1 0, 2 0, 2 7, 4 5-6, 5 6, 6 0, 7 1, 7 6, 8 1, 8 8, 8 9, 9 0, 1 02, 1 13, 1 20, 1 21, 1 23, 1 25, 1 44, 1 49, 1 55, 1 72 1 51, 1 52 9 , 1 0 1 37 2 6, 3 1, 3 3, 3 4, 4 0, 8 1, 9 0, 1 21, 1 62 2 2 1 48, 1 52 8 7, 1 11 8 7

M ainz M alton

M ancetter M anchester Marcae M aryport M elandra C astle M ildenhall M ilecastle 9 t 1 3

i t

2 2 2 9 3 2 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 8 4 9 5 0

1 6 1 11 8 7, 1 11 4 2, 8 7, 1 09 1 6 1 6, 8 7, 1 11, 1 12 1 6 1 6 1 6, 4 2, 7 2, 8 7, 1 11 1 , 4 2, 8 1, 8 2, 8 7, 1 11, 1 6 8 7

t

5 1 5 2 5 4

7 2, 1 6, 1 6,

8 7 7 2, 8 7, 1 11

7 9 M ilefortlet 5 1 2 2 0 M offat M onkwearmouth

1 6, 8 7 6 2, 9 9, 9 9 9 9 6 9 1 18

M ucking

1 59

N etherby N ewbrough N ewcastle u pon T yne

2 3, 9 8 1 0 ,

N ewstead

1 2, 8 0

1 38

1 11

1 02,

1 15

3 2,

1 03,

1 08,

4 0,

9 2,

1 19,

1 39, 1 40,

1 40 1 41

1 14,

1 43

1 55

5 3,

7 5,

1 01,

1 02,

N ewton K yme N imes N orth W raxall N ovae N ovaesiam

5 7, 6 9 1 48 1 07, 1 08 7 5 4 8

O ld C arlisle O ld P enrith O ldaport O lenacum O nagrinum O rsova O udenburg

1 39, 1 40, 1 42 2 0, 4 6, 7 0 , 8 6, 1 55 1 38, 1 39 6 7 6 7 3 2

P almyra P apcastle P aris P ark S treet P embroke P ergamum P erge P evensey P iercebridge

2 3, 1 38 3 2, 4 6, 7 0, 7 9, 8 2, 1 22, 1 44 1 37, 1 55 1 07 1 55 6 7 6 6 1 6, 1 7, 2 8, 5 2-3, 6 5, 6 6, 1 16, 1 29, 1 37, 1 54 8 , 1 5, 2 3, 2 5, 3 1, 4 6, 5 1, 5 7, 6 4, 6 5, 6 9, 8 6, 9 2, 9 8, 1 24, 1 43, 1 55 1 11 1 6, 1 7, 2 5, 2 8, 3 1, 5 3-4, 5 9, 6 3, 6 5, 8 3, 8 8, 1 01, 1 15, 1 36 7 5

P ike H ill P ortchester P otaissa R avenglass R avenscar R eculver

R ed H ill R emagen R heims R ibchester R ichborough R isingham R ochester R ome R ossington B ridge R udchester

S alamis S caftworth S carborough S cunthorpe S ea M ills S eaham S enlis S ide S ilchester

9 9,

1 00,

1 09,

1 25,

1 43

2 6, 2 7, 4 0-1, 8 1, 9 0, 1 06, 1 21, 1 22, 1 31 1 16, 1 17 1 2, 1 3, 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 2 9, 3 0, 3 1, 5 1, 5 4, 5 7, 5 9, 6 4, 7 8, 8 1, 8 8, 1 01, 1 02, 1 36, 1 37, 1 42, 1 47, 1 52, 1 54, 1 65 1 51, 1 52 7 5 1 46 3 1, 1 26, 1 38, 1 40, 1 43, 1 44 1 4, 1 6, 1 7, 1 8, 2 0, 2 3, 2 5, 2 8, 3 1, 4 4, 5 4-5, 6 3, 6 5, 6 6, 8 5, 1 25, 1 31, 1 49, 1 54, 1 66 8 , 1 6, 2 5, 3 2, 4 1, 5 7, 6 2, 7 0, 7 5, 7 6, 8 3, 9 2, 1 01, 1 03, 1 42, 1 71 1 49, 1 52 1 8, 6 6, 7 2, 1 30, 1 62 1 70 6 , 4 1, 5 6, 5 7, 6 4, 8 6, 1 03, 1 09, 1 10, 1 24, 1 40, 1 41, 1 72 6 2 1 14 1 17 5 1 1 55 1 18 1 8 6 6 1 46,

1 48,

1 52

S ingara S irniun S outh S hields S tanwix S toke H ill S toney S tratford S trasbourg S tretton B ridge

6 6 1 26 9 , 1 0, 1 5, 2 2, 2 3, 9 7, 1 02, 1 14, 1 28, 8 3 1 00 1 52 7 5 1 51, 1 52 1 26,

2 4 , 3 6, 4 1, 5 6, 1 38, 1 40, 1 41

5 7,

7 6,

8 6,

1 67

T adcaster T agaestun ( Burg b ei S tein a m R hein) T empleborough T hornham T horpe T ongres T ournai T owcester T ower 1 6a T raprain L aw T rier T urret 7 b 3 3b 4 4b 4 8a 5 1b

5 3 1 8, 4 1, 4 6, 5 7, 1 8 1 52 1 37, 1 48, 1 51 1 37 1 52 9 9 1 27 1 28, 1 30 8 7, 1 11 1 60 8 7 , 11 8 7 1 11

1 1 .nentun

6 3

V alkenburg V ernlaniun V ienne V indonissa V itudurun ( Oberwinterthus)

1 3 1 07, 1 46, 1 47, 1 48 4 8, 5 3, 8 0

5 8,

1 13

1 48

5 3 1 51, 1 52 2 7, 4 2, 7 2,

W all W alls e nd W alton C astle W alwick F ell W apping W atercrook W esterwood W hilton L odge W hitby W hitley C astle W ickford W inchester W reay W roxeter

1 4, 6 9 1 8 1 1, 8 7 1 52 1 17 6 6 , 1 47 1 46, 9 9, 1 46,

X anten

5 2

Y ork

1 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 1 2, 2 9, 4 6-7, 7 3-4, 7 8, 7 9, 8 3, 8 5, 8 7, 1 29, 1 31, 1 57, 1 62, 1 66

8 1,

8 3,

1 03

8 4 ,

8 5,

8 9,

1 21

1 7

1 8,

4 6,

5 7,

7 9,

8 3,

1 02

1 48, 1 00 1 49,

1 63 1 50 ,

1 51

5 1, 9 3,

6 2-3, 6 5, 1 08, 1 19,

6 9, 1 23,

MAP

1

M ilitary S ites O ccupied i n t he T hird a nd/or F ourth C enturies

1

P ortchester

2 3

P evensey L ympne

4 5 6

D over R ichborough R eculver

7 8

W apping B radwell

9 W alton C astle 1 0 B urgh C astle 1 1 B rancaster 1 2 F iley 1 3 S carborough 1 4 R avenscar 1 5 G oldsborough 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

H untcliff B rougham C rammond C arpow

4 1 B rough-on-Noe 4 2 T empleborough

8 1

N ewbrough

8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5

C arrawburgh H ousesteads C hesterholm G reat C hesters

8 6 8 7

C arvoran C astlesteads

8 8

S tanwix

5 0 R ibchester 5 1 B urrow-in-Lonsdale

8 9 9 0 9 1

B urgh-by-Sands D rumburgh B owness-on-Solway

5 2 B ainbridge 5 3 W atercrook

9 2 9 3

M ilefortlet 5 S outh S hields

4 3 D oncaster 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7

S caftworth M alton Y ork N ewton K yme

4 8 I lkley 4 9 E lslack

5 4 Ambleside 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9

L ow B urrow B ridge B rough-under-Stainmore B owes G reta B ridge 9 4 P iercebridge 9 5

S ites p ossibly c onnected w ith t he M ilitary B itterne S tretton B ridge

2 0 B eckfoot 2 1 M aryport 2 2 B urrow W alls

6 0 B inchester

9 6

W all

6 1 C hester-le-Street 6 2 L anchester

9 7 9 8

M ancetter H igh C ross

2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6

6 3 E bchester 6 4 W hitley C astle 6 5 K irkby T hore

9 9 R ed H ill 1 00 C aves I nn 1 01 W hilton L odge

2 7 C aerhun 2 8 C aer G ybi 2 9 C aernarvon

6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9

1 02 H orncastle 1 03 C aister-byY armouth 1 04 C aistor ( Lincs)

3 0 L oughor

7 0 P apcastle

1 05 B rough-on-Humber

3 1 C ardiff 3 2 C aerleon

7 1 N etherby

1 06 C atterick

M oresby R avenglass L ancaster C hester

3 3 B gecon G aer 3 4 C astel C ollen

O ld P enrith B arrack F ell W reay O ld C arlisle

7 2 B ewcastle 7 3 R isingham 7 4 H igh R ochester

3 5 C aersws H adrian's W all

3 6 F orden G aer 3 7 L eintwardine 3 8 B aginton

7 5 W allsend

3 9 L ittlechester

7 6 N ewcastle

4 0 M anchester

7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0

B enwell R udchester H altonchesters C hesters

t e 3

8 2

8 0

,— •

7 9

8 1 8 4

7 7"

M i l itary s i tes o ccup ied i n t he t h ird a nd/or f ourth c en tu r ies

5 4 24

5 1 '

4 5.

2 5

•4 8

4.9

4 8

4 7

5 0 4 3 •

4 0 ' . 4 1

4 2

.4 4

3 ?

7

65. 4 3

9 4

NA P 1

2

MAP 2

T he D istribution o f C rambeck P archment W ares o n M ilitary S ites ( Corder t ypes 5 b, j , . , 9 a nd 1 0)

1 2 3

C hester M anchester R ibchester

4 5

E lslack I lkley

6 7 8

Y ork M alton F iley

9 S carborough 1 0 G oldsborough 1 1 H untcliff 1 2 C hester-le-Street 1 3 E bchester 1 4 B inchester 1 5 P iercebridge 1 6 B ainbridge 1 7 L ancaster 1 8 L ow B urrow B ridge 1 9 A mbleside 2 0 B rough 2 1 K irkby T hore 2 2 B rougham

2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6

O ld P enrith P apcastle R avenglass B urrow W alls

2 7 M aryport 2 8 B owness-on-Solway 2 9 B irdoswald 3 0 M ilecastle 4 8, P oltross B urn 3 1 M ilecastle 4 0, W inshields 3 2 C hesterholm 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7

H ousesteads C arrawburgh M ilecastle 2 9, C hesters H altonhesters

T ower T ye

3 8 R udchester 3 9 B enwell 4 0 N ewcastle u pon T yne 4 1 W allsend 4 2 S outh S hields 4 3 C rambeck ( kiln s ite) 4 4 C astell C ollen ( ?)

3 5

2 3 •

7 2 6

OZ . 4 2 4

. 2 1 6

.9

2 0

•8

2 5

0 4 3

4 W

6 . •4

•

4 ,3

. 2

T he d i s t r ibut ion o f C rambeck p archment wares o n m i l itary s i tes ( Corder t ypes

5 b , 7 ,8 ,9 a nd 1 0 )

M AP 2

MAP 3

T he N otitia D ignitatum O ccidentis C hapter X L

F orts l isted ' sub d ispositione v iri s pectabilis d ucis B ritanniarum'

s ub-heading v alli'

1

D anum - D oncaster

1 3 S egedunum - W allsend

2 3 4

S extae - Y ork D erventio - M alton L avatris - B owes

1 4 P ons A elius - N ewcastle

5

V erteris - B rough u nder S tainmore

6 7 8

B ravoniacum - K irkby T hore L ongovicium - L anchester C oncangis - C hester-le-Street

9

A rbeia South S hields

F orts l isted u nder t he ' item p er l ineam

u pon T yne 1 5 C ondercum - B enwell 1 6 V indovala - R udchester 1 7 O nnum - H altonchesters 1 8 C ilurnum - C hesters 1 9 B rocolitia - C arrawburgh 2 0 V ercovicium Housesteads 2 1 V indolanda - C hesterholm 2 2 A esica - G reat C hesters

F orts l isted u nder t his h eading

2 3 M agis - C arvoran

probably i dentifiable t hus

2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9

1 0 M orbium - ? Piercebridge 1 1 M orbium - ? Greta B ridge 1 2 Magis o r Maglona - ? Old C arlisle F orts n ot i dentified o n t he g round

D ictim

C amboglanna - C astlesteads P etriana - S tanwix A ballava - B urgh-by-Sands C ongavata - D rumburgh G abrosentum - Moresby G lanoventa - R avenglass

3 0 B remetennacum - R ibchester 3 1 V irosidum - B ainbridge

( Dictum )

P raesidium

F orts l istd u nder t his s ub-heading p robably i dentifiable t hus:-

3 2 A xelodunum - N etherby

F orts n ot i dentified o n t he A round A lione ( ?Alauna) T unnocelum ( Itunocelum) O lenacum

3 2

2 3

2 4

_

2 2 _

-4 • 11 -

4 1 2 ,21

1

;

18 _

1 1

2 1

•

8

*1 2

I7

6 2 8

29 3 1

•

30

T he No t i t ia D ign ita tum

O cc iden t is c hap ter X L

M AP

3

,-

=

I

1 .C arpow 2 . B rancas ter

I7 _ -I :

_

, \ I II

I

I

I II

I

I

I Ii

I

II

II

II

II

I

II

I

II

I

I

1

•

II ;I ;

I

I I,

I

I

, ;

\•_ _

F IG.

1

L 1 .R ecu lver 2 . P i ercebr idge

F IG. 2

.

I _

_ 'Z -

, " ',

L 2 -

7

_ :i.

1:

2_ 7 :. •

II I

11

I II

I I

I '

I t II

I i

I

II

I I

II

I

I

I I I

I

II I,

II I II

I

I

I

1 . B u r row i n L onsda le 2 . E l s lack

amu l ma i sa m m o mm o m mimininam

\ -

—

MO M

a lb .

#

• • ••

1 .B radwe l l

0

2 . Wa lton C as t le

5 0.

( no t t o s ca le )

F IG.

4

1 .R i chbo rough 2 .D over

h i

pA M IN =

‚ J IB ,

1-

F IG.

5

\

e

1 .L y mpne 5 0

2 . P evensey

Z

= F IG. 6

1 .P o r tches ter 0

50. 4

2 .B u rgh C as t le

17

1

F IG. 7

1 . C ard i f f 0 In e l;

2 . B ag inton -

gee

F IG.

8

5 0m 1 2 e1 . 5

2

=9

; 0 1 1 1 111 1/ 1 - _ -

1 .B i t terne 5 0.

2 . C a is ter-on-Sea

F IG.

9

1 .C a istor 0

2 . H orncast le

F IG. 1 0

... .. ..

/ /

/ / / / / /

7

I

I l / I 4 1

/ 1

1 .B rough-on -Humbe r

C , I '

o

2 . Mance t ter

F IG.

1 1

3 ' . .

5 0.

4 1 .C ave 's I nn 2 . Wa l l

F IG.

1 2

r

1 .S t re t ton B r idge

( -

J 2 . R ed H i l l

3 . Wapp ing

--

F IG.

1 3

c 'a 0 00

1 .R i chborough 3 . Wreay H a l l

2 . B arrock F e l l

U

-

F IG.

1 4

• ••

= 74

1

1

i 1 I 1

I 1te s ie =

i

1

1

I

I

I

-

II

I I I I lI

q- -

I

I

,_

- -

-

-

i t- -

I

/

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I -

-

-

_ \

S .

z -

- - - -

1 .S caf twor th 2 . N e wbrough

1 7

1

= = = = i ! ! I ! I

!

F IG.

1 5

_

/

7

I I

\ 1

f

i

I

I I

i \

I

ä

1 .C a rdu rnock

2 . C ae r G yb i

•

4 . S carborough

3 . H un tc l i f f

/I

F IG.

1 6

•

20.

f e

S 2

5 . Go ldsborough

9

41

--

1 .S outh S h ie lds

2 . H ardkno t

3 . C aste I I C o l ien

4 . B e wcas t le

5 . R i s ingham

C hes te rho lm

7. R ecu lver

I I F IG.

1 7

_

1 .P i e rcebr idge

f s )

L i

2 . B u rro w i n L onsda le

r e )

3 , B ag in ton

A

5 . B urgh C as t le

6 . Amb les ide

4 . R i chborough

7 . L ympne 0

F IG.

1 8

5 . ,

1 .P evensey

A

U .

2 . P ortches ter

F IG.

1 9

LI

0

1 .C ard if f

2 . B rough-on -Humbe r

-

-

-

L . 1

3 . B a inbr idge

4 . R i s ingham

5 .C orbr idge

F IG. 2 0

A

5 , 4

f l ,

2 M i lecast le 1 . K nag

5 2

B urn -

r

4 . Mahon

3 . H igh R ochester

5 . D over

L

-

6 .E ls lack

7 .C aernarvon

F IG.

2 1

-

1 . Gher ia t e l -Garb ia

-

2 . R ecu lver

3 . B urgh

A

C ast le

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