A Grammar of Akwesasne Mohawk 9781772821703

Table of contents :
Cover
Table of Contents
1.0. Introductory: Ethnography
2.0. Introductory: Language
2.1. Iroquoian
2.2. Mohawk
2.3. Language
2.3.1. Principles of Language
2.3.2. Terminology
2.3.3. Symbols
2.4. Definition of the Word
2.4.1. Words
2.4.2. Syllables
2.5. Formation of the Word
2.5.1. The Verb
2.5.2. The Noun
2.5.3. The Particle
3.0. Phonemics
3.1. Inventory of Consonant Phonemes
3.2. Distribution of Consonant Phonemes
3.3. Peripheral Phonemic Consonants
3.4. Inventory of Vowel Phonemes
3.5. Distribution of Vowel Phonemes
3.6. Peripheral Phonemic Vowel
3.7. Suprasegmentals
4.0. Morphophonemics
4.1. Morphophonemic Characte ristics of Mohawk
4.2. Morphophonemic Rules
4.2.1. Rules
4.2.2. Ordering
5.0. Verb Bases
5.1. Structure of the Mohawk Verb
5.2. Verb Bases
5.2.1. Reflexive/Reciprocal
5.2.2. Incorporated Noun Root
5.2.3. Verb Root
6.0. Pronominal Prefixes
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Stem-Classes
6.3. Subjective Pronominal Prefixes
6.3.1. Semantics
6.3.2. 3rd person Singular Subjects
6.3.3. 3rd person Non-singular Subjects
6.3.4. Subjective Pronominal Prefixes
6.3.5. Rules (with verb stems)
6.3.6. Rules (with verb prefixes)
6.4. Pronominal Prefix Components
6.4.1. Singular Components
6.4.2. Non-Singular Components
6.4.3. Component Co-occurrences
6.4.4. Formation o f Non-Singular Prefixes
6.4.5. Paradigms
6.5. Objective Pronominal Prefixes
6.5.1. Semantics
6.5.2. Objective Morphemes
6.5.3. Arrangement
6.5.4. Rules
6.5.5. Paradigms
6.6. Transitive Pronominal Prefixes
6.6.1. Transitive Pronominal Prefixes
6.6.2. Summary
6.6.3. Rules
6.6.4. Paradigms
6.7. Kinship Terminology
6.7.1. Introduction
6.7.2. Transitive Prefixes
6.7.3. Terms o f Address
6.7.4. Subjective and Objective Prefixes
6.7.5. Ethnographic Correlates and Historical Change
7.0. Verbal Prefixes
7.1. Modal Prefixes
7.2. Non-Modal Prefixes
8.0. Verbal Suffixes
8.1. Verbal Suffixes
8.2. Verb Formation
8.3. Non-Aspectual Verb Root Suffixes
8.4. Aspect Suffixes
8.5. Attributive Suffixes
9.0. Nominal Constructions
9.1. Formal Nouns
9.2. Other Nouns
9.3. Nominal Suffixes
9.4. Personal Possessive Prefixes
9.5. Enumerations
Appendix A: Particles
Appendix B: List of Affix Morphemes
Bibliography

Citation preview

BOARD OF TRUSTEES NATIONAL MUSEUMS OF CANADA

MUSEES NATIONAUX DU CANADA CONSEIL D'ADMINISTRATION

M. Jean P.W. O s t i g u y Dr. David Spurgeon Mr. George W.P. H e f f e l f i n g e r Mr. M i c h a e l C.D. Hobbs Dr. J . Tuzo W i l s o n Professor Kiyoshi Izumi Dr. S a l l y Weaver M. Léon Simard Mme M a r i e - P a u l e LaBrèque M. Jean des Gagniers Mme M a r i e T e l l i e r M. André F o r t i e r Dr. W i l l i a m S c h n e i d e r Mr. George Szekeres

SECRETARY GENERAL

Chairman V i c e Chairman Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Member

SECRETAIRE GENERAL

Mr. C.J. Mackenzie

DIRECTOR NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MAN

DIRECTEUR MUSEE NATIONAL DE L'HOMME

Dr. W i l l i a m E. T a y l o r , J r . CHIEF ETHNOLOGY DIVISION Dr. B a r r i e Reynolds

CHEF DIVISION D'ETHNOLOGIE

MERCURY SERIES

COLLECTION MERCURE

ETHNOLOGY DIVISION PAPER NO. 8

DIVISION D'ETHNOLOGIE DOSSIER NO. 8

A GRAMMAR OF AKWESASNE MOHAWK

NANCY BONVILLAIN

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MAN NATIONAL MUSEUMS OF CANADA

MUSEE NATIONAL DE L'HOMME I MUSEES NATIONAUX DU CANADA

OTTAWA, JUNE 1973

OTTAWA, JUIN 1973

OBJECT OF THE MERCURY SERIES

The Mercury S e r i e s i s a p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l Museum o f Man, N a t i o n a l Museums o f Canada, designed t o permit t h e rapid dissemination o f information p e r t a i n i n g t o t h o s e d i s c i p l i n e s f o r which t h e N a t i o n a l Museum o f Man is responsible. I n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f making i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e q u i c k l y , normal p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s have been abbre­ v i a t e d . As a r e s u l t , e d i t o r i a l e r r o r s may o c c u r . Should t h a t be t h e case, y o u r i n d u l g e n c e i s r e q u e s t e d , b e a r i n g i n mind t h e o b j e c t o f t h e S e r i e s .

BUT DE LA COLLECTION MERCURE

La c o l l e c t i o n Mercure, publiée p a r l e Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme, Musées n a t i o n a u x du Canada, a pour b u t de d i f f u s e r rapidement l e résultat des t r a v a u x q u i se f o n t sous l a d i r e c t i o n du Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme. Pour a s s u r e r l a prompte d i s t r i b u t i o n des e x e m p l a i r e s imprimés, on a abrégé l e s étapes de l'édition. En con­ séquence, c e r t a i n e s e r r e u r s de rédaction peuvent s u b s i s t e r dans l e s e x e m p l a i r e s imprimés. S i c e l a se présentait dans l e s pages q u i s u i v e n t , l e s éditeurs réclament v o t r e i n d u l g e n c e étant donné l e s o b j e c t i f s de l a c o l l e c t i o n .

MERCURY SERIES - PUBLICATIONS

Each component o f t h e N a t i o n a l Museum o f Man, ( t h e E t h n o l o g y , H i s t o r y , and Communications D i v i s i o n s , and t h e A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Survey o f Canada, t h e Canadian C e n t r e f o r F o l k C u l t u r e S t u d i e s and t h e Canadian War Museum), p r o v i d e s papers f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n t h e Mercury S e r i e s . These a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g address on r e c e i p t o f a cheque made p a y a b l e t o t h e R e c e i v e r General o f Canada. Since t h e mark-up on these p u b l i c a t i o n s i s n e g l i g i b l e no d i s c o u n t i s a l l o w e d f o r b u l k o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l sales. Marketing Services D i v i s i o n , N a t i o n a l Museums o f Canada, 360 L i s g a r S t r e e t , Ottawa, O n t a r i o . K1A 0M8

the

At p r e s e n t t h e E t h n o l o g y D i v i s i o n Mercury S e r i e s c o n s i s t s o f f o l l o w i n g papers: No. 1

-

" P r e l i m i n a r y Study o f T r a d i t i o n a l K u t c h i n C l o t h i n g i n Museums", b y Judy Thompson, pp. 92; $1.00

No. 2

-

"Sarcee Verb Paradigms", b y Kung-Do Cook, pp. 5 1 , $1.00

No. 3

-

"Gambling Music o f t h e Coast S a l i s h I n d i a n s " , by Wendy Bross S t u a r t ; pp. 114; $1.25

No. 4

-

" E t h n o l o g y D i v i s i o n : Annual Review, 1972", e d i t e d by B a r r i e Reynolds, pp. 52; on r e q u e s t

No. 5

-

"A Thousand Words o f Mohawk", by Gunther M i c h e l s o n , pp. 186; $2.00

No. 6

-

"I K0 ZE: Magico-Religious B e l i e f s o f C o n t a c t - T r a d i t i o n a l Chipewan T r a d i n g at F o r t R e s o l u t i o n , NWT, Canada", by David M e r r i l l S m i t h , pp. 2 1 ; 75¢

No. 7

-

"The M i d d l e Ground: S o c i a l Change i n an A r c t i c Community, 1967-1971", by J o e l S. S a v i s h i n s k y and Susan B. Frimmer, pp. 54; $1.25

No. 8

-

"A Grammar o f Akwesasne Mohawk", by Nancy B o n v i l l a i n , pp. 249; $2.50

N

N

PUBLICATIONS DE LA COLLECTION MERCURE

Chaque d i v i s i o n du Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme ( l ' E t h n o l o g i e , l ' H i s t o i r e , l e s Communications, l a Commission archéologique du Canada, l e Centre c a n a d i e n d'Études sur l a C u l t u r e t r a d i t i o n n e l l e e t l e Musée de G u e r r e ) , f o u r n i t des a r t i c l e s à l a C o l l e c t i o n Mercure. On peut l e s commander de l a source c i - d e s s o u s , en a d r e s s a n t une demande accompagnée d'un chèque libellé au nom du Receveur général du Canada. La marge de p r o f i t étant très mince, i l e s t i m p o s s i b l e d'accorder des escomptes de quantité ou d'établissement. S e r v i c e du M a r k e t i n g , Musées n a t i o n a u x du Canada, 360, r u e L i s g a r , Ottawa, O n t a r i o . KlA 0M8 La d i v i s i o n d ' E t h n o l o g i e a déjà contribué à l a C o l l e c t i o n Mercure l e s numéros s u i v a n t s : N°

1

-

" P r e l i m i n a r y Study o f T r a d i t i o n a l K u t c h i n C l o t h i n g i n Museums", p a r Judy Thompson, 92 p.; $1.00

N°

2

N°

3

-

"Gambling Music o f t h e Coast S a l i s h I n d i a n s " , p a r Wendy Bross S t u a r t ; 114 p.; $1.25

No

4

-

" E t h n o l o g y D i v i s i o n : Annual Review, 1972", éditeur r e s p o n s a b l e : Barrie Reynolds, 52 p.; s u r demande

No

5

-

"A Thousand Words o f Mohawk", p a r Gunther M i c h e l s o n , 186 p.; $2.00

No

6

-

"iNKONZE: M a g i c o - R e l i g i o u s B e l i e f s o f C o n t a c t - T r a d i t i o n a l Chipewan T r a d i n g a t F o r t R e s o l u t i o n , NWT, Canada", p a r David M e r r i l l Smith, 21 p.; 75¢

No

7

-

"The M i d d l e Ground: S o c i a l Change i n an A r c t i c Community, 1967-1971", p a r J o e l S. S a v i s h i n s k y e t Susan B. Frimmer, 54 p.; $1.25

N°

8

-

"A Grammar o f Akwesasne Mohawk", p a r Nancy B o n v i l l a i n , 249 p.; $2.50

"Sarcee Verb Paradigms", par Kung-Do Cook, 51 p.; $1.00

ABSTRACT

The work i s a grammar o f Mohawk, as spoken a t t h e Akwesasne ( S t . Regis) Reserve. The Reserve i s l o c a t e d i n s o u t h e r n Canada i n t h e p r o v i n c e s o f O n t a r i o and Quebec and i n n o r t h e r n New York S t a t e , F r a n k l i n County. Mohawk i s one o f s i x N o r t h e r n I r o q u o i a n languages. I t i s spoken today by people a t s i x r e s e r v e s i n Canada and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The grammar i s based on f i e l d w o r k c a r r i e d o u t a t Akwesasne d u r i n g n i n e months d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from May 1969 t h r o u g h June 1971. The grammar p r e s e n t s a s y n c h r o n i c d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s o f Akwesasne Mohawk, a l t h o u g h d i a c h r o n i c i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o i n c l u d e d . I t c o n t a i n s an i n t r o d u c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Mohawk, w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e word, and w i t h w o r d - f o r m a t i o n . Chapters which f o l l o w d e a l w i t h a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f phonemics and morphophonemics. The major p a r t o f t h e grammar i s concerned w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e and use o f v e r b s . The d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f Mohawk v e r b s a r e d i s c u s s e d : v e r b bases, p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , v e r b a l p r e f i x e s , and v e r b a l s u f f i x e s . Nominal c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e a l s o e x p l a i n e d . There a r e some statements c o n c e r n i n g s y n t a x , a l t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t a f o c u s o f t h e grammar. F i n a l l y , t h e work i n c l u d e s e t h n o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y as i t r e l a t e s t o language use. I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e domain o f k i n s h i p t e r m i n o l o g y i s d i s c u s s e d , b o t h i n terms o f s t r u c t u r e and usage.

SOMMAIRE

Le présent t r a v a i l e s t une grammaire de l a langue Mohawk t e l l e que parlée s u r l a réserve d'Akwesasne ( S t . R e g i s ) . La. réserve e s t située à l a f r o n t i e r e canado-américaine, au sud des p r o v i n c e s du Québec e t de l ' O n t a r i o e t au nord de l ' E t a t de New York, dans l e comté de F r a n k l i n . La langue Mohawk e s t l'une des s i x q u i forment l e sous-groupe l i n g u i s t i q u e " I r o q u o i s du Nord." On l a p a r l e a u j o u r d ' h u i dans s i x réserves du Canada e t des E t a t s - U n i s . Les données nécessaires à. ce t r a v a i l o n t été r e c u e i l l i e s au cours de neuf mois de t r a v a i l s u r l e t e r r a i n , échelonnés s u r une période a l l a n t de mai 1969 à. j u i n 1971. C e t t e grammaire e s t s u r t o u t une a n a l y s e d e s c r i p t i v e sy nc hr on iq ue du Mohawk d'Akwesasne mais e l l e comporte a u s s i des données d ' o r d r e d i a c h r o n i q u e . L ' i n t r o d u c t i o n t r a i t e des caractéristiques générales de l a langue, de l a définition du mot e t de l a f o r m a t i o n des mots. Les c h a p i t r e s s u i v a n t s concernent l a phonétique e t l a morphophonétique. La. majeure p a r t i e de l a grammaire t r a i t e de la. s t r u c t u r e e t de l ' e m p l o i des v e r b e s , a i n s i que de l e u r s p r i n c i p a l e s composantes: l e s bases, l e s préfixes pronominaux, l e s préfixes e t l e s s u f f i x e s verbaux. On r e t r o u v e r a a u s s i l ' e x p l i c a t i o n des c o n s t r u c t i o n s nominales e t un aperçu de l a s y n t a x e , b i e n que ce ne s o i t pas là l e b u t p r e m i e r de c e t t e étude. E n f i n l e t r a v a i l comprend des i n f o r m a t i o n s d ' o r d r e ethnographique, p r i n c i p a l e m e n t en ce q u i a t r a i t à l ' e m p l o i de la. l a n g u e ; a i n s i l e s termes de parenté sont présentés a u t a n t du p o i n t de vue de l e u r s t r u c t u r e que de l e u r e m p l o i .

PREFACE

The p u b l i c a t i o n i n t h e Mercury S e r i e s o f t h i s g r a m m a r — t h e a u t h o r ' s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n f o r Columbia U n i v e r s i t y — o n t h e Akwesasne ( S t . R e g i s ) d i a l e c t o f Mohawk adds t o t h e resurgence o f i n t e r e s t i n I r o q u o i a n languages t h a t has been g a i n i n g momentum d u r i n g t h e l a s t decade. The grammar i s one o f t h r e e r e c e n t papers by Dr. B o n v i l l a i n . Her Mohawk and E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y has a l r e a d y been p u b l i s h e d by t h e New York S t a t e E d u c a t i o n Department, and she i s p r e p a r i n g a t e a c h i n g grammar f o r use i n t h e schools. A Grammar o f Akwesasne Mohawk w i l l serve a number o f purposes. I t should p r o v i d e s c h o l a r s w i t h c l o s e d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a f o r one n o r t h e r n I r o q u o i a n language, and t h i s i s welcome a t a t i m e when comparative i n t e r e s t i s r u n n i n g h i g h . J u s t as i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e p o s s i b l e uses o f t h e grammar by t h e Mohawk people themselves. F u r t h e r , as everyone knows, language e x i s t s i n a s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t , and t h e a u t h o r has gone beyond d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e a l o n e t o i n c l u d e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Akwesasne speech community, t h e changing use o f k i n s h i p terms and some o f t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l changes'that have r e s u l t e d from c o n t a c t w i t h European languages.

M i c h a e l K. F o s t e r Iroquoian Ethnologist

1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s grammar was c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e Akwesasne ( S t . R e g i s ) Reserve, St. Regis, Quebec, Canada and F r a n k l i n County, New

York.

I w i s h t o thank t h e St. Regis Band C o u n c i l (Canada) and a l l

o f t h e people o f Akwesasne f o r t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l i v e and s t u d y on t h e Reserve. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o express t h e g r a t i t u d e I f e e l f o r t h e many people who helped me w i t h t h i s work. particularly

thank Mrs.

However, I would l i k e t o

B e a t r i c e F r a n c i s , w i t h o u t whose knowledge and

p a t i e n c e t h i s work would have n o t been p o s s i b l e .

I also wish t o

e s p e c i a l l y thank Mrs. Mary Thomas, Mrs. Mary Tebo, Mr. E r n e s t B e n e d i c t , Mr.

P a u l C a l d w e l l , and Mrs. F l o r e n c e Benedict f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e . To a l l these people and many o t h e r s , I w i s h t o express my t h a n k s

for helping i n collecting

t h e m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s grammar and f o r t h e i r

p a t i e n c e a t my m i s t a k e s . I a l s o would l i k e t o g r a t e f u l l y thank Mrs. G l o r i a Thompson, t h e l a t e Mr. Ronald

Thompson, and Mrs.

B e r n i c e Seymour f o r t h e i r k i n d

hospitality. I owe an enormous i n t e l l e c t u a l and p e r s o n a l d e b t t o my a d v i s o r and sponsor. P r o f e s s o r Harvey P i t k i n .

I w i s h t o thank him f o r h i s

h e l p f u l guidance and i n s i g h t f u l a d v i c e t h r o u g h o u t my g r a d u a t e c a r e e r a t Columbia U n i v e r s i t y .

I a l s o w i s h t o thank P r o f e s s o r F l o y d G.

Lounsbury f o r h i s a i d , b o t h d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t , i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f an I r o q u o i a n language.

The l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s o f Akwesasne Mohawk which

i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s grammar i s h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d by Lounsbury's work, p a r t l y as p r e s e n t e d i n h i s Oneida Verb Morphology and p a r t l y as d i s c u s s e d

2

w i t h h i m i n c l a s s and p r i v a t e l y .

I would e s p e c i a l l y l i k e t o n o t e h i s

a d v i c e on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e v e r b a l a s p e c t s u f f i x e s .

Most o f t h e

t e r m i n o l o g y used i n t h i s grammar f o r t h e l a b e l l i n g o f a f f i x e s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h Lounsbury's work.

I n a d d i t i o n , I would l i k e t o mention

t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e work o f P r o f e s s o r Wallace Chafe (A S e m a n t i c a l l y Based Sketch o f Onondaga; Meaning and t h e S t r u c t u r e o f Language) f r o m w h i c h i d e a s about a g e n t / p a t i e n t r e l a t i o n s have been adopted. F i n a l l y , I would l i k e t o acknowledge

t h e f i n a n c i a l support which

made my f i e l d w o r k p o s s i b l e : a D i s s e r t a t i o n Improvement

Grant f r o m t h e

N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n ; t h r e e C o n t r a c t s i n E t h n o l o g y and L i n g u i s t i c s f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l Museums o f Canada; and a g r a n t f r o m t h e Freida F o u n d a t i o n , New York.

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0.

Introductory:

Ethnography

2.0.

Introductory:

Language

14

2.1.

Iroquoian

14

2.2.

Mohawk

14

2.3.

Language

15

2.4.

2.5.

3.0,

7

2.3.1.

P r i n c i p l e s o f Language

15

2.3.2.

Terminology

16

2.3.3.

Symbols

10

D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e Word

18

2.4.1.

Words

18

2.4.2.

Syllables

21

F o r m a t i o n o f t h e Word

23

2.5.1.

The Verb

23

2.5.2.

The Noun

25

2.5.3.

The P a r t i c l e

26

Phonemics

27

3.1.

I n v e n t o r y o f Consonant Phonemes

27

3.2.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Consonant Phonemes

35

3.3.

P e r i p h e r a l Phonemic Consonants

36

3.4.

I n v e n t o r y o f Vowel Phonemes

41

3.5.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Vowel Phonemes

42

3.6.

P e r i p h e r a l Phonemic Vowel

42

3.7.

Suprasegmentals

43

4

4.0.

5.0.

6.0.

Morphophonemics

51

4.1.

Morphophonemic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Mohawk

51

4.2.

Morphophonemic Rules

52

4.2.1.

Rules

53

4.2.2.

Ordering

60

Verb Bases

66

5.1.

S t r u c t u r e o f t h e Mohawk Verb

66

5.?.

Verb Bases

70

5.2.1.

Reflexive/Reciprocal

70

5.2.2.

I n c o r p o r a t e d Noun Root

76

5.2.3.

Verb Root

80

Pronominal P r e f i x e s

82

6.1.

Introduction

82

6.2.

Stem-Classes

82

6.3.

S u b j e c t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x e s

84

6.4.

6.3.1.

Semantics

84

6.3.2.

3rd person S i n g u l a r S u b j e c t s

85

6.3.3.

3rd person N o n - s i n g u l a r S u b j e c t s

88

6.3.4.

S u b j e c t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x e s

88

6.3.5.

Rules ( w i t h v e r b stems)

97

6.3.6.

Rules ( w i t h v e r b p r e f i x e s )

Pronominal P r e f i x Components

102 104

6.4.1.

S i n g u l a r Components

104

6.4.2.

Non-Singular Components

104

6.4.3.

Component Co-occurrences

IO5

6.4.4.

F o r m a t i o n o f Non-Singular P r e f i x e s

IO5

6.4.5.

Paradigms

107

5

6.5.

6.6.

6.7.

7.0.

8.0.

O b j e c t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x e s

114

6.5.1.

Semantics

114

6.5.2.

O b j e c t i v e Morphemes

116

6.5.3.

Arrangement

117

6.5.4.

Rules

118

6.5.5.

Paradigms

123

T r a n s i t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x e s

126

6.6.1.

T r a n s i t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x e s

126

6.6.2.

Summary

I36

6.6.3.

Rules

I39

6.6.4.

Paradigms

145

Kinship

Terminology

151

6.7.1.

Introduction

151

6.7.2.

Transitive Prefixes

152

6.7.3.

Terms o f Address

155

6.7.4.

S u b j e c t i v e and O b j e c t i v e P r e f i x e s

156

6.7.5.

E t h n o g r a p h i c C o r r e l a t e s and H i s t o r i c a l

Verbal

Prefixes

Change

158 163

7.1.

Modal P r e f i x e s

164

7.2.

Non-Modal P r e f i x e s

172

Verbal Suffixes

198

8.1.

Verbal Suffixes

198

8.2.

Verb F o r m a t i o n

199

8.3.

Non-Aspectual Verb Root S u f f i x e s

201

8.4.

Aspect S u f f i x e s

210

8.5.

Attributive Suffixes

218

6

9.0.

Nominal C o n s t r u c t i o n s

221

9.1.

Formal Nouns

221

9.2.

Other Nouns

222

9.3.

Nominal S u f f i x e s

223

9.4.

P e r s o n a l Possessive P r e f i x e s

228

9.5.

Enumerations

234

Appendix A:

Particles

239

Appendix B:

L i s t o f A f f i x Morphemes

241

Bibliography

248

7

A GRAMMAR OF AKWESASNE MOHAWK

1.0.

INTRODUCTORY :

1.1.

AKWESASNE

Mohawk i s a n o r t h e r n I r o q u o i a n language spoken by Mohawk

Indians a t s i x reserves (St.

i n Canada and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s :

Akwesasne

R e g i s ) Reserve, l o c a t e d p a r t l y i n upper New York S t a t e and p a r t l y

i n t h e Canadian p r o v i n c e s

o f O n t a r i o and Quebec; S i x N a t i o n s Reserve,

l o c a t e d i n O n t a r i o ; Gibson Reserve, O n t a r i o ; Tyendinaga Reserve, O n t a r i o ; Oka Reserve, Quebec; and Caughnawaga Reserve, Quebec. documents,

According t o Canadian government

represent the populations o f these reserves Akwesasne

2963

Caughnawaga

1

the following figures

f o r 1970:

2

4514

Gibson

206

Oka

777

Six Nations

8680

Tyendinaga

3

2111

The f i g u r e f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n on t h e New York S t a t e a r e a o f Akwesasne i s :

1

2

3

4

2,222.

4

L i n g u i s t i c and C u l t u r a l A f f i l i a t i o n s o f Canadian I n d i a n Bands. P u b l i c a t i o n of t h e Department o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s and N o r t h e r n Development, I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch, Ottawa, 1970. This f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t s o n l y t h e r e s i d e n t s o f t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e Akwesasne Reserve w h i c h i s l o c a t e d i n Canada. This f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e S i x N a t i o n s Reserve w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f members o f t h e Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Tuscarora N a t i o n s . S t a t e o f New York, S t a t e I n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l Committee on I n d i a n The I n d i a n Today i n New York S t a t e , page 4. Albany: 1970.

Affairs:

8

These f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t t h e number o f people r e s i d i n g a t each r e s e r v e and n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e number o f speakers o f Mohawk. 1.2.

Akwesasne Reserve The Akwesasne Reserve i s l o c a t e d , as mentioned above, j o i n t l y

i n upper New York S t a t e ( F r a n k l i n County) and i n t h e Canadian p r o v i n c e s o f O n t a r i o and Quebec (see map, page 9). historically,

The p e o p l e o f Akwesasne a r e

l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , and c u l t u r a l l y

themselves as such.

one p e o p l e and see

The d i v i s i o n s among them i n t o two n a t i o n a l

t e r r i t o r i e s and two p r o v i n c i a l t e r r i t o r i e s w i t h i n Canada a r e viewed a s , and i n r e a l i t y a r e , a r b i t r a r y d e l i n e a t i o n s imposed by t h e r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n a l governments. There a r e f o u r g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d i s t i n c t map):

1.

p a r t s o f Akwesasne (see

C o r n w a l l I s l a n d , O n t a r i o , l o c a t e d i n t h e S t . Lawrence

R i v e r between New York S t a t e and t h e Canadian p r o v i n c e o f O n t a r i o ; 2,

S t . Regis V i l l a g e , Quebec, l o c a t e d on a peninsula, between t h e S t .

Lawrence R i v e r and t h e S t . Regis R i v e r ;

3.

Snye, Quebec, l o c a t e d

on t h e s o u t h e r n shore o f t h e S t . Lawrence R i v e r ; and of

4.

the portion

Akwesasne l o c a t e d i n New York S t a t e and c o n t a i n i n g areas known as

S t a t e Road, Cook Road, S t . Regis Road, Raquette, and Hogansburg. I n a d d i t i o n , numerous i s l a n d s i n t h e S t . Lawrence R i v e r e a s t o f C o r n w a l l I s l a n d i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f Quebec f o r m p a r t o f Akwesasne.

1.3.

The Mohawk Language a t Akwesasne The grammar w h i c h f o l l o w s i s based on t h e Mohawk language

as spoken a t Akwesasne.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e t h e number o f

p e o p l e a t Akwesasne who a r e speakers o f Mohawk. However, a number o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can be o f f e r r e d .

People o f m i d d l e age o r o l d e r a r e

Cornwall

CANADA UNITED

STATES

10

a l m o s t c e r t a i n t o be Mohawk speakers.

W i t h younger p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y

i n t h e i r t e e n s o r younger, t h e r e i s g r e a t v a r i a b i l i t y .

Some c h i l d r e n

grow up b i l i n g u a l i n Mohawk and E n g l i s h w h i l e o t h e r s speak o n l y E n g l i s h . A s m a l l number o f c h i l d r e n speak o n l y Mohawk u n t i l t h e y e n t e r s c h o o l . However, i t seems t h a t among c h i l d r e n under 15 y e a r s o f age, t h e m a j o r i t y speak o n l y E n g l i s h , a l t h o u g h many o f t h e s e a r e a b l e t o understand Mohawk. I n a d d i t i o n t o age, g e o g r a p h i c a l r e s i d e n c e on t h e Reserve seems t o be a f a c t o r i n t h e number o f Mohawk speakers. f o u r major geographic areas (see 1.2.

I n general, o f the

above), a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f

t h e r e s i d e n t s o f Snye and C o r n w a l l I s l a n d a r e speakers o f Mohawk t h a n t h o s e people l i v i n g i n S t . Regis V i l l a g e and New York S t a t e .

This

g e n e r a l d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r c e n t a g e o f speakers r e f e r s m a i n l y t o t h e younger people —

t h o s e i n t h e i r t w e n t i e s o r younger —

s i n c e almost

a l l o f t h e people o f Akwesasne over 30 y e a r s o f age speak Mohawk. Most p e o p l e a t Akwesasne speak E n g l i s h , a l t h o u g h some o l d people and a few p r e - s c h o o l c h i l d r e n speak o n l y Mohawk.

French i s

spoken by some Akwesasne r e s i d e n t s , a l s o g e n e r a l l y o l d e r p e o p l e . There has been much concern expressed r e c e n t l y about t h e decrease i n t h e g e n e r a l use o f t h e Mohawk language a t Akwesasne and about t h e i n a b i l i t y o f many young people t o speak t h e i r language.

T h i s concern

has been expressed a l o n g w i t h t h e resurgence o f many a s p e c t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l Mohawk c u l t u r e .

And b o t h o f t h e s e concerns have a r i s e n w i t h t h e

awakening and s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f p r i d e i n t h e people's i d e n t i t y as I n d i a n and as Mohawk. Encouragement o f t h e use o f t h e Mohawk language has been c o n c r e t e l y evidenced by t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e t e a c h i n g o f Mohawk i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m

11

o f t h e t h r e e elementary schools on t h e Canadian s i d e o f t h e Reserve. These s c h o o l s a r e l o c a t e d one each on C o r n w a l l I s l a n d , S t . Regis V i l l a g e , and Snye.

Language courses were begun i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1969

a t t h e s e s c h o o l s and have c o n t i n u e d t o t h e p r e s e n t , a l t h o u g h w i t h some interruptions.

Classes i n t h e Mohawk language were begun i n t h e s p r i n g

o f 1971 a t Salmon R i v e r C e n t r a l High School i n New York S t a t e .

Mohawk

s t u d e n t s f r o m Akwesasne account f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% o f t h e t o t a l s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t a t Salmon R i v e r C e n t r a l .

The language c l a s s e s ,

t a u g h t by an Akwesasne Mohawk speaker and t e a c h e r , a r e o p t i o n a l f o r t h e e n t i r e school.

The g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n t h e c l a s s e s a r e

Mohawk a l t h o u g h a few w h i t e s t u d e n t s a l s o a t t e n d . 5

1.4.

L i n g u i s t i c Fieldwork

1.4.1.

Length o f F i e l d

Stay

The f i e l d w o r k f o r t h e grammar was conducted

a t the

Akwesasne Reserve d u r i n g n i n e months d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d f r o m May 1969 t h r o u g h June, 1971. 1.4.2.

Informants

Three r e g u l a r i n f o r m a n t s were employed i n t h e s t u d y . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f f i e l d w o r k , an average o f f i v e hours p e r day f o r f i v e days p e r week were spent i n e l i c i t a t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n t o these

t h r e e i n f o r m a n t s , many o t h e r .Akwesasne r e s i d e n t s were c o n s u l t e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e language.

5

One " o f f i c i a l " problem i n i n s t i t u t i n g language courses a t t h e s c h o o l s has been t h e s c a r c i t y o f Mohawk speakers who have t e a c h i n g certificates. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t , e x i s t i n g i n b o t h Canada and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , has u n n e c e s s a r i l y stood i n t h e way o f comprehensive i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e s c h o o l s s e r v i n g Akwesasne i n terms o f b o t h language and c u l t u r e courses.

12

Of t h e r e g u l a r i n f o r m a n t s , work was done p r e d o m i n a n t l y a woman i n h e r l a t e 30's.

w i t h B.F.,

She i s f l u e n t i n b o t h Mohawk and E n g l i s h and

a l s o has some knowledge o f French, h a v i n g a t one t i m e s t u d i e d i n a French-run b o a r d i n g s c h o o l i n Quebec.

The two o t h e r r e g u l a r i n f o r m a n t s ,

M.T. and M.T.T., a r e b o t h women i n t h e i r 60's. Mohawk and E n g l i s h .

Both a r e f l u e n t i n

A l l o f t h e i n f o r m a n t s a r e a b l e t o read and w r i t e ,

t o some e x t e n t , t h e form o f w r i t t e n Mohawk i n t r o d u c e d by J e s u i t m i s s i o n a r i e s i n t h e 17th

1.4.3.

century.

Elicitation

Three m a j o r types o f e l i c i t a t i o n procedures were employed in the fieldwork:

s i n g l e - w o r d e l i c i t a t i o n , s e n t e n c e - e l i c i t a t i o n , and

text-elicitation.

Research began w i t h s i m p l e s i n g l e - w o r d

elicitation

b u t r a p i d l y expanded t o i n c l u d e p h r a s e - and s e n t e n c e - e l i c i t a t i o n . At s e v e r a l p o i n t s i n t h e f i e l d w o r k , r e f e r e n c e was made t o t h e two available studies o f other northern Iroquoian

languages.

6

These works

were used i n a few i n s t a n c e s as g u i d e l i n e s t o what k i n d s o f s t r u c t u r e s c o u l d be expected t o come up i n t h e e l i c i t a t i o n o f Mohawk. The b u l k o f t h e e l i c i t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e main i n f o r m a n t , B.F., was based on t h e use o f t e x t . p r o d u c t i v e since i t presented

6

This method was found t o be h i g h l y

a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f " r e a l speech" and

Chafe, Wallace. Seneca Morphology and D i c t i o n a r y . S m i t h s o n i a n Press, 1967.

Washington, DC:

Lounsbury, F l o y d . Oneida Verb Morphology. Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P u b l i c a t i o n s i n Anthropology No. 48, 1953. The work o f Paul P o s t a l (see b i b l i o g r a p h y ) was n o t c o n s u l t e d as t h e b a s i s f o r t h i s grammar. A l s o , note should be made t h a t , f o r t h e most p a r t , t h e t e r m i n o l o g y used i n t h i s grammar t o l a b e l Mohawk a f f i x e s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t e r m i n o l o g y t h a t i s g e n e r a l l y accepted f o r I r o q u o i a n languages and used i n t h e c i t e d works.

13

t h u s enabled

t h e e l i c i t a t i o n o f many s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h do n o t r e a d i l y

appear i n i s o l a t e d u t t e r a n c e s . A number o f t y p e s o f t e x t was used. n a r r a t i v e s o f a c t u a l events.

One was s t o r i e s and

Another was r e c i p e s o r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

how t o make o r do t h i n g s .

A t h i r d was t h e use o f e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l s

w r i t t e n i n Mohawk s c r i p t .

And a. f o u r t h was t h e use o f a c t u a l taped

c o n v e r s a t i o n s between s e v e r a l people w h i c h was t h e n t r a n s c r i b e d . T h i s l a s t t y p e o f t e x t was perhaps t h e s i n g l y most e f f e c t i v e f o r e l i c i t a t i o n a l t h o u g h a l l t y p e s were i n v a l u a b l e . A l l t e x t m a t e r i a l was t h e n used as t h e b a s i s o f d e t a i l e d p a r a d i g m a t i c e l i c i t a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r v e r b a l , n o m i n a l , and s y n t a c t i c constructions.

14

2.0.

INTRODUCTORY: As mentioned

language.

LANGUAGE

i n 1.1. above, Mohawk i s a n o r t h e r n I r o q u o i a n

The o t h e r n o r t h e r n I r o q u o i a n languages a r e : Oneida, Onondaga,

Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora.

A r e l a t e d I r o q u o i a n language,

s o u t h e r n I r o q u o i a n , i s Cherokee. r e l a t e d t o Oneida.

called

Of t h e s e , Mohawk i s most c l o s e l y

Although Mohawk and Oneida have many s i m i l a r words

i n common, t h e y a r e n o t m u t u a l l y i n t e l l i g i b l e .

2.1.

Iroquoian According t o Lounsbury,

t h e approximate t i m e d e p t h f o r t h e

I r o q u o i a n language f a m i l y i s 4000 y e a r s .

The approximate t i m e d e p t h

f o r t h e d i v e r g e n c e o f t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n I r o q u o i a n languages i s 2500 y e a r s .

And t h e approximate t i m e d e p t h f o r t h e d i v e r g e n c e o f

Mohawk and Oneida, i s 1000 years.

2.2.

1

Mohawk The grammar w h i c h i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t work i s based

on t h e language spoken a t Akwesasne.

Akwesasne Mohawk i s one o f s i x

m u t u a l l y - i n t e l l i g i b l e d i a l e c t s o f Mohawk w h i c h a r e spoken a t s i x r e s e r v e s i n southern Canada and northern New York S t a t e (see 1.0. above.). Since t h e s e d i a l e c t s a r e , by d e f i n i t i o n , m u t u a l l y - i n t e l l i g i b l e , most o f t h e g r a m m a t i c a l r u l e s g o v e r n i n g Akwesasne Mohawk a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e o t h e r Mohawk d i a l e c t s .

However, t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n

p h o n o l o g i c a l , morphophonemic, and l e x i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s .

1 Lounsbury, F l o y d . University.

Seminar i n I r o q u o i a n L i n g u i s t i c s . March 1971.

Therefore,

Yale

15

u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , t h e t e r m "Mohawk" used t h r o u g h o u t t h i s work r e f e r s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o Akwesasne Mohawk.

Research i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g

c a r r i e d o u t and a grammar i s b e i n g p r e p a r e d o f t h e Caughnawaga d i a l e c t o f Mohawk.

I t w i l l be v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g and u s e f u l t o pursue c o m p a r a t i v e

s t u d i e s among t h e v a r i o u s Mohawk d i a l e c t s as t h e m a t e r i a l becomes available.

2.3.

Language

2.3.1.

P r i n c i p l e s o f Language

A language i s a system o f systems w h i c h i n t e r a c t and a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d i n a l l areas o f sound, s t r u c t u r e , and meaning. The i m p o r t a n c e o f language l i e s i n i t s f u n c t i o n i n communication. Indeed, i t i s t h e o n l y s y s t e m a t i c means o f communication a v a i l a b l e o r even c o n c e i v a b l e .

As such, t h e p i v o t a l area o f language i n i t s

f u n c t i o n as communication i s t h e semantic area , o r area o f meaning. F e a t u r e s and r u l e s o f sound and s t r u c t u r e i n language d e t e r m i n e t h e forms by w h i c h meaning i s communicated.

Study i s made o f such

l i n g u i s t i c r u l e s i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e semantic organization

o f t h e language i s - c o n v e y e d .

However, a s t u d y o f

p h o n o l o g i c a l and s t r u c t u r a l r u l e s w i t h o u t t h e r e l a t i o n o f such r u l e s to

s e m a n t i c s , i s , i n a l l ways, meaningless. The p r e s e n t grammar, t h e n , w i l l proceed as f o l l o w s : 1.

an i n t r o d u c t o r y d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n and d e l i n e a t i o n o f words w i l l be g i v e n i n 2.4.

and

2.5.

below; 2.

a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e sound system o f Mohawk w i l l g i v e n i n Chapter

3;

be

16

3.

a d i s c u s s i o n o f g e n e r a l morphophonemic r u l e s w i l l be g i v e n i n Chapter 4;

4.

a discussion of l i n g u i s t i c

systems and r u l e s a p p l i c a b l e

t o verbs w i l l be g i v e n i n Chapters 3 t h r o u g h 6; 5.

a d i s c u s s i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c systems and r u l e s a p p l i c a b l e t o nouns w i l l be g i v e n i n Chapter 9.

A d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f s y n t a x i s n o t w i t h i n t h e scope o f t h i s grammar. the

However, s y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e o f g r e a t r e l e v a n c e t o

s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e semantics

semantic

of the morphological a f f i x e s .

The

l a b e l s given t o t h e a f f i x e s i n the f o l l o w i n g chapters are

t h e r e f o r e t o be understood

as temporary.

They are. g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h l a b e l s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f I r o q u o i a n languages. s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e semantics

A more exact

o f v e r b a l and nominal a f f i x e s a w a i t s a

f u l l e r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s y n t a x o f Mohawk.

2.3.2.

A Note on

Terminology

The g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f language i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n (2.3.

above) should make i t c l e a r t h a t language i s n o t

conceived o f i n terms o f s t r i c t l e v e l s . s t r u c t u r e , and semantics

That i s , t h e systems o f sound,

a r e n o t seen t o comprise d i s c r e t e ,

isolable

l e v e l s o f language, b u t r a t h e r a r e seen t o i n t e r a c t and be i n t e r r e l a t e d throughout.

However, aspects o f sound, s t r u c t u r e , and semantics

i s o l a t e d a t some p o i n t s i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s .

can be

That i s ,

l e v e l s o f language can be l a b e l l e d i n t h e process o f an a n a l y s i s and description.

These l a b e l s a r e u s e f u l i n r e f e r r i n g t o c e r t a i n systems

o f l i n g u i s t i c phenomena w h i c h do d i f f e r i n i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s . i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t o keep i n mind i s t h a t such l i n g u i s t i c

The

"levels" are

17

not

s e p a r a t e b u t a r e t h o r o u g h l y i n t e r r e l a t e d and i n t e r a c t i n g .

The f o l l o w i n g terras w i l l be used i n t h i s work : 1.

phonemics:

t h e l i n g u i s t i c system o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f souna.

2.

phoneme:

a m i n i m a l range u n i t o f sound w h i c h can be s p e c i f i e d i n terms o f a r t i c u l a t o r y and/or a c o u s t i c features; i t functions i n the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of meaning a l t h o u g h i t c o n t a i n s no i n h e r e n t meaning in

3.

itself.

morphophonemics:

t h e l i n g u i s t i c system o f r u l e s w h i c h o p e r a t e

i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f sound.

Rules o f morphophonemics

account f o r t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t s o f morphemes when t h e y co-occur i n a d j a c e n t p o s i t i o n s as t h e r e s u l t o f morpheme c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h i n a word. 4.

morphology:

t h e l i n g u i s t i c system o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f u n i t s of (see

5.

morpheme:

sound and meaning w i t h i n a u n i t c a l l e d a "word" 2.4. b e l o w . ) .

a m i n i m a l u n i t o f sound and meaning whose phonemes cannot be f u r t h e r segmented and a s s i g n e d t o meanings.

A morpheme may r e p r e s e n t a s i n g l e

semantic component ( e . g . 1 s t p e r s o n s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t ) o r i t may c o n t a i n a u n i t y o f semantic components ( e . g . 1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 2nd person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t ) . 6.

syntax:

t h e l i n g u i s t i c system o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s and j u x t a p o s i t i o n s o f words w i t h i n m u l t i - w o r d constructions.

18

7.

semantics:

t h e l i n g u i s t i c system o f meaning.

Again, these ternis a r e used as d e f i n e d b u t t h e y do n o t r e p r e s e n t separate " l e v e l s . "

R a t h e r , t h e y a r e t h e means o f l a b e l l i n g s p e c i f i c

i n t e r r e l a t e d and i n s e p a r a b l e systems o f language i n o r d e r t o s p e c i f y the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

2.3.3.

2.4.

o f each and d i s c u s s t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n .

A Note on Symbols

D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e Word 2.4.1.

The Mohawk word can be d e f i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f

p h o n o l o g i c a l , morphophonemic, m o r p h o l o g i c a l , s y n t a c t i c , and semantic characteristics.

2.4.11.

Phonological

Characteristics

I n terms o f phonology, a Mohawk word can be d e f i n e d

19

as a sequence o f phonemes w h i c h a r e i s o l a t e d f r o m o t h e r sequences o f phonemes by f e a t u r e s o f j u n c t u r e , o r pause, b o t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g at

t h e end o f t h e sequence.

The sequence o f phonemes c o m p r i s i n g

and a

word i s a l s o accompanied by suprasegmental f e a t u r e s o f vowel l e n g t h and stress.

I n Mohawk, t h e f e a t u r e s o f vowel l e n g t h i s o p t i o n a l ; t h a t i s ,

a word does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have t o c o n t a i n a l o n g vowel. of

s t r e s s i s o b l i g a t o r y , however.

and o n l y one

s t r e s s e d vowel.

A l l Mohawk w o r d s

2

vowel.

feature

must c o n t a i n

one

The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e placement o f

s t r e s s w i t h i n t h e word i s complex and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d 3.7.1. below.

The

in detail in

G e n e r a l l y , though, s t r e s s i s p l a c e d on t h e

penultimate

Most e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s g e n e r a l r u l e can be accounted f o r by

s u b s i d i a r y r u l e s which s h i f t s t r e s s from the penultimate t o a v o w e l (see 3.7.2. f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i s

2.4.12.

preceding

adjustment.).

Morphophonemic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

I n terms o f morphophonemics, a Mohawk word can d e f i n e d as a u n i t w i t h i n w h i c h morphophonemic r u l e s a r e a p p l i e d .

be That

i s , morphophonemic r u l e s a r e r e l e v a n t o n l y w i t h i n a word and n o t between words.

These r u l e s r e s u l t i n t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t s o f

separate

morphemes as t h e y co-occur and a r e combined w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a word.

They do n o t a p p l y a c r o s s s y n t a c t i c sequences. Mohawk, as a l l o t h e r I r o q u o i a n languages, i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

g r e a t c o m p l e x i t y on t h e morphophonemic l e v e l .

The r u l e s w h i c h make

up t h e morphophonemic system w i l l be d i s c u s s e d

i n Chapter 4 and

a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n s o f t h e grammar. 2

There a r e c e r t a i n p a r t i c l e s (see Appendix A) w h i c h occur unstressed.

i n other

20

2.4.13.

Morphological

Characteristics

I n terms o f morphology, a Mohawk word can d e f i n e d as a u n i t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e presence and members o f a s p e c i f i c number o f morpheme c l a s s e s .

be

arrangement o f The

ordering

and

membership o f these c l a s s e s depend upon t h e t y p e o f word concerned. That i s , nouns and

v e r b s are

g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b e i n g composed

o f members o f d i f f e r e n t morpheme c l a s s e s (see

2.5.

below.).

Morphemic b r a c k e t s are used as d e f i n e d i n 2.3.3. i s , t h e y encompass segments which are clusters.

above.

That

e i t h e r monomorphemic o r morpheme

A morpheme c l u s t e r so d e s i g n a t e d i s a f u s e d u n i t w h i c h

f u n c t i o n s e x t e r n a l l y as a. s i n g l e morphemic u n i t a l t h o u g h h i s t o r i c a l l y i t may

be composed o f a c l u s t e r o f s e p a r a t e semantic components.

example, c e r t a i n p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s

are

treated

f u n c t i o n a l l y as

morphemes w h i l e i t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e y are composed o f morphemic c l u s t e r s . singular

Most s u b j e c t i v e

pronominal p r e f i x e s

s u b j e c t s c o n t a i n a component f o r p e r s o n and

number (see

6.4.

below).

I n sum,

specific

for

non-

a component f o r

as a f u s e d u n i t s i n c e i t

such. t h e n , a u n i t w h i c h i s c a l l e d a morpheme may

be

monomorphemic segment or a c l u s t e r o f morphemic components. t y p e s o f "morphemes" are l a b e l l e d and are

single

Each c l u s t e r o f these components r e p r e s e n t i n g

a. s p e c i f i c p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x i s t r e a t e d f u n c t i o n s as

For

treated

either

a

Both

i d e n t i c a l l y because t h e y

functionally identical.

2.4.14.

Syntactic

Characteristics

I n terms o f s y n t a x , a Mohawk word can as a u n i t w h i c h f u n c t i o n s as a u n i t o f sound and

be

defined

meaning i n l i n e a l

21

r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s i m i l a r l y c o n s t r u c t e d and d e f i n e d u n i t s . A d i s c u s s i o n o f Mohawk s y n t a x w i l l n o t be i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r e s e n t grammar, a l t h o u g h c e r t a i n s y n t a c t i c p o i n t s w i l l be mentioned as t h e y r e l a t e t o o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e language.

2.4.15.

Semantic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

I n terms o f s e m a n t i c s , a Mohawk word can be d e f i n e d as a u n i t o f sound w h i c h i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r meaning o r meanings.

D i f f e r e n t types o f words, i . e . v e r b s and nouns, can be

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a l semantic components (see 2.5. below. ) .

2.4.2.

Syllables

A s y l l a b l e i s d e f i n e d as a m i n i m a l

sequence o f sound

w h i c h i s a b l e t o be accompanied by suprasegmental f e a t u r e s o f l e n g t h , s t r e s s , and p i t c h .

By d e f i n i t i o n , t h e n , a s y l l a b l e must m i n i m a l l y be

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e presence o f a v o w e l s i n c e vowels a r e a b l e t o co-occur w i t h f e a t u r e s o f l e n g t h , s t r e s s , and p i t c h whereas Mohawk consonants a r e n o t so a b l e .

2.4.21. of

S y l l a b l e s i n Mohawk can be d i s c u s s e d

the following: 1.

v o w e l - i n i t i a l ; and

2.

consonant-initial.

2.4.211.

A v o w e l - i n i t i a l syllable i s minimally

a u n i t comprised o f a s i n g l e v o w e l : of

i n terms

V.

I t may a l s o be a u n i t comprised

a bi-vocalic cluster. V o w e l - i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e s may be open o r c l o s e d .

That i s , i f open,

22

t h e y end w i t h a. vowel ( i n which

case t h e y c o n t a i n o n l y a. s i n g l e vowel

o r a b i - v o c a l i c c l u s t e r ) ; i f c l o s e d , they end w i t h a consonant o r consonant c l u s t e r . V o w e l - i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e types a t t e s t e d i n t h e data a r e : open :

V VV

closed:

VC

VVCC

VVC

VCCC

VCC

VVCCC

A combined f o r m u l a can be w r i t t e n f o r v o w e l - i n i t i a l which accounts

syllables

f o r b o t h open and c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s :

V(V)(C)(C)(C) The o b l i g a t o r y member o f a v o w e l - i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e i s V. be r e p r e s e n t e d by one o r two vowels.

"V" may

Closed s y l l a b l e s may end w i t h

from one t o t h r e e consonants. 2.4.212.

A consonant-initial syllable i s minimally

a u n i t o f a s i n g l e consonant f o l l o w e d by a s i n g l e v o w e l : CV.

I t , too,

may be open o r c l o s e d ; t h a t i s , i t may end w i t h e i t h e r a vowel (open) o r a consonant ( c l o s e d ) .

Such a s y l l a b l e may b e g i n w i t h e i t h e r a

s i n g l e consonant o r a c o n s o n a n t - c l u s t e r and may end w i t h e i t h e r a vowel, a b i - v o c a l i c c l u s t e r , a s i n g l e consonant, o r a c o n s o n a n t - c l u s t e r . A combined formula can be w r i t t e n f o r c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l which accounts

syllables

f o r b o t h open and c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s :

C(C)(C)V(V)(C)(C)(C) The o b l i g a t o r y members o f a c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e a r e CV. "C" may be r e p r e s e n t e d by f r o m one t o t h r e e consonants and "V" may be

23

r e p r e s e n t e d by one o r two vowels.

Closed s y l l a b l e s may end w i t h f r o m

one t o t h r e e consonants.

2.4.22.

S y l l a b l e s i n Mohawk can co-occur w i t h

suprasegmental f e a t u r e s o f l e n g t h , s t r e s s , and p i t c h . are

These f e a t u r e s

c a r r i e d by t h e v o c a l i c elements i n t h e s y l l a b l e s . S y l l a b l e s , t h a t i s , v o w e l s , may be l o n g o r s h o r t and may be

stressed o r unstressed.

R e s t r i c t i o n s e x i s t i n Mohawk c o n c e r n i n g t h e

number o f s y l l a b l e s w i t h i n a s i n g l e word w h i c h can be l o n g o r stressed.

R e s t r i c t i o n s a l s o e x i s t c o n c e r n i n g t h e co-occurrences o f (see 3.7. f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f

l e n g t h and s t r e s s w i t h i n a s y l l a b l e ,

suprasegmental f e a t u r e s and c o - o c c u r r e n c e s . ) 2.5.

F o r m a t i o n o f t h e Word Mohawk words a r e formed o u t o f members o f a s p e c i f i c number

o f morpheme c l a s s e s .

The morpheme c l a s s e s w h i c h a p p l y depend upon t h e

t y p e o f word w h i c h i s c o n s t r u c t e d .

There a r e t h r e e major word t y p e s

i n Mohawk : 1.

Verbs

2.

Nouns

3.

Particles

They w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t u r n below.

2.5.1.

Verbs

By f a r t h e l a r g e s t number o f words i n Mohawk a r e o f t h e verb word-type.

Verbs comprise t h e c e n t r a l s t a t i s t i c a l , s t r u c t u r a l , and

semantic t y p e i n Mohawk.

A v e r b can be d e f i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f b o t h

s t r u c t u r a l and semantic p r o p e r t i e s .

24

2.5.11.

I n terms o f semantics, a v e r b c o n t a i n s

o f meaning w h i c h f u n d a m e n t a l l y

elements

convey t h e i d e a o f an a c t i o n o r s t a t e .

Mohawk verbs b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g semantic components: 1.

the s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the action or s t a t e ;

2.

t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t ( a g e n t ) and/or t h e o b j e c t ( b e n e f i c i a r y ) o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e ; and

3.

m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e i n terms o f components o f mode, a s p e c t , t i m e , space, number, e t c .

I n terms o f s t r u c t u r e , a v e r b c o n t a i n s members

2.5.12. of s p e c i f i c morphological

classes which a r e p a r t i c u l a r t o verbs.

The

basic o u t l i n e o f a Mohawk v e r b i s :

Verbal Prefix

Pronomina1 Prefix

Verb Base

Verbal Suffix

The v e r b a l p r e f i x c l a s s c o n t a i n s modal and non-modal p r e f i x e s (see Chapter " ) ;

t h e pronominal p r e f i x class contains p r e f i x e s

d e s i g n a t i n g t h e s u b j e c t , o b j e c t , and/or t h e co-occurrence o f a p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t and a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t (see Chapter 6 ) ; t h e v e r b base c l a s s c o n t a i n s r e f l e x i v e components, verb r o o t s , and i n c o r p o r a t e d noun r o o t s (see Chapter 5 ) ; and t h e v e r b a l s u f f i x c l a s s c o n t a i n s

verb

r o o t s u f f i x e s , aspect s u f f i x e s and a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x e s (see Chapter 8 ) . As a c l a s s , t h e v e r b a l p r e f i x c l a s s i s o p t i o n a l ; t h a t i s , a v e r b can be c o n s t r u c t e d p r e f i x class.

w i t h o u t t h e presence o f any member o f t h e v e r b a l

The c l a s s o f v e r b a l s u f f i x e s i s a l s o o p t i o n a l , some

verbs being c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h o u t a member o f t h e v e r b a l s u f f i x c l a s s . The o t h e r two c l a s s e s

are obligatory; that i s , a properly

constructed

v e r b must c o n t a i n a t l e a s t one member o f each o f t h e c l a s s e s

o f pronominal

25

p r e f i x and v e r b base.

(For d i s c u s s i o n s o f o b l i g a t o r y and o p t i o n a l

members o f each c l a s s and co-occurrences

o f members w i t h i n each c l a s s ,

see t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n s i n Chapters 5 t h r o u g h 8 below.)

2.5.2.

Nouns

3

The second major w o r d - t y p e i s t h e noun. nouns a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y

I n Mohawk,

fewer and s t r u c t u r a l l y s i m p l e r t h a n a r e v e r b s .

However, t h e y , t o o , can be d e f i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f b o t h s t r u c t u r a l and semantic

properties.

2.5.21.

I n terms o f semantics, a f o r m a l noun c o n t a i n s

elements o f meaning w h i c h f u n d a m e n t a l l y l a b e l a p e r s o n , a n i m a l , p l a c e , or thing.

Mohawk nouns a l s o may c o n t a i n semantic

components w h i c h

s p e c i f y p e r s o n , gender, number, c o n d i t i o n , l o c a t i o n , e t c .

2.5.22. of

I n terms o f s t r u c t u r e , a noun c o n t a i n s members

s p e c i f i c m o r p h o l o g i c a l c l a s s e s w h i c h a r e p a r t i c u l a r t o nouns.

The

b a s i c o u t l i n e o f a Mohawk noun i s :

Nominal Prefix

Noun Stem

Nominal Suffix

The nominal p r e f i x c l a s s c o n t a i n s p r e f i x e s w h i c h s p e c i f y t h e word as a noun and/or m o d i f y t h e noun i n terms o f p e r s o n , number, and r e l a t i o n t o v e r b s and t o o t h e r nouns; t h e noun stem c l a s s c o n t a i n s a s i n g l e noun r o o t o r compound o f noun r o o t s ; and t h e nominal

3

suffix

This d i s c u s s i o n o f Mohawk nouns r e f e r s t o f o r m a l nouns, i . e . words which c o n t a i n n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s . M o r p h o l o g i c a l verbs w h i c h f u n c t i o n as nouns a r e d i s c u s s e d under v e r b s . See Chapter 9 f o r a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f f o r m a l nouns.

26

c l a s s c o n t a i n s s u f f i x e s w h i c h s p e c i f y t h e word as a noun and/or m o d i f y the

noun i n terms o f p e r s o n , number, a t t r i b u t e , l o c a t i o n , o r r e l a t i o n

t o v e r b s and t o o t h e r nouns,

(see Chapter 9.)

As a c l a s s , t h e n o m i n a l s u f f i x c l a s s i s o p t i o n a l ; t h a t i s , a noun can be c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h o u t t h e presence o f any member o f t h e nominal s u f f i x class.

The o t h e r two c l a s s e s a r e o b l i g a t o r y ; t h a t i s ,

a p r o p e r l y c o n s t r u c t e d noun must c o n t a i n a t l e a s t one member o f each o f t h e c l a s s e s o f nominal p r e f i x and noun stem.

(For a d i s c u s s i o n o f

o b l i g a t o r y and o p t i o n a l members o f each c l a s s and co-occurrences o f members w i t h i n each c l a s s , see t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n s i n Chapter 9 below. )

2.5.3.

Particles

The l a s t word-type i s t h e p a r t i c l e . are

statistically

few and s t r u c t u r a l l y s i m p l e .

I n Mohawk, p a r t i c l e s

However, c e r t a i n o f

t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l and semantic p r o p e r t i e s can be d i s c u s s e d .

2.5.31.

I n terms o f s e m a n t i c s , a. p a r t i c l e g e n e r a l l y

expresses i d e a s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between, and m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f , o t h e r word-types

( i . e . o f verbs and nouns).

P a r t i c l e s b a s i c a l l y express

t e m p o r a l and s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

2.5.32.

I n terms o f s t r u c t u r e , a p a r t i c l e can r e a l l y

o n l y be d e f i n e d n e g a t i v e l y .

That i s , a p a r t i c l e i s u s u a l l y a c o m p a r a t i v e l y

s h o r t sequence o f phonemes and morphemes w h i c h does n o t share any o f the

s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f verbs o r o f nouns. P a r t i c l e s w i l l n o t be d i s c u s s e d i n any d e t a i l i n t h e p r e s e n t grammar,

a l t h o u g h t h e y o c c u r i n some examples o f v e r b a l and n o m i n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s . (However, see Appendix

A f o r a l i s t o f Mohawk p a r t i c l e s . )

27

3.0.

PHONEMICS

3.1.

I n v e n t o r y o f Consonant Phonemes

There a r e t e n consonant phonemes i n Mohawk:

Place o f A r t i c u l a t i o n

Blade: ApicoAlveolar Alveolar

BladePalatal

DorsoVelar

Glottal

Obstruents : Manner

Stops

k

t

Affricates

?

j

of Articulation

Spirants

|

h

s

Resonants : Nasals

n

Laterals

1

SemiVowels

y

3.1.1

w

D e s c r i p t i o n o f O b s t r u e n t Consonants

3.1.11. The

Stops two s t o p s , an a p i c o - a l v e o l a r /t/

and a d o r s o - v e l a r /k/, occur b o t h v o i c e l e s s ( [t], [ k ] ) and

28

voiced ( [ . d ] , [g]) according t o the following rules

The a l l o p h o n e s

[ t ] and [k] a r e v o i c e l e s s and strongly-

a s p i r a t e d a t t h e end o f a word o r b e f o r e a n o t h e r consonant, except when b e f o r e a consonant i d e n t i c a l t o i t s e l f where i t occurs v o i c e l e s s b u t u n a s p i r a t e d ; t h a t i s , i n t h e c l u s t e r s / - t t - / and / - k k - / , t h e f i r s t s t o p i s u n a s p i r a t e d . The a l l o p h o n e s [d] and [ g ] a r e v o i c e d and r e l e a s e d . For example :

voiced : /olirte?/

Loli:de?J

"pigeon"

/otáhsa/

[odáhsa ]

"tail"

/tékeni/

[dégeni ]

"two"

/oyà:kala/

[oyà:gala]

"shirt"

/ká:lis/

[gátiis ]

"stocking"

/sáhset/

[záhsetj

"Hide i t !

/ohyótsah/

[ohyótsah ]

"chin"

/wísk/

[wisk ]

"five"

/jíks/

[jiks]

"fly"

voiceless :

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t o p / t / i s r e s t r i c t e d extent.

(sg.)"

t o some

I t never occurs b e f o r e t h e semi-vowels /y/ and /w/.

The u n d e r l y i n g sequences */ty/

i s i n a l l cases r e p r e s e n t e d on

t h e s u r f a c e by t h e sequence / k y / .

The s u r f a c e / k y / t h e r e f o r e

29

may r e p r e s e n t u n d e r l y i n g / k y / o r u n d e r l y i n g " " / t y / sequences. The sequence * / t w / i s r e p r e s e n t e d

on t h e s u r f a c e as / t e w / (see

4.2.14. b e l o w . ) .

For example : /ohnó:kwa/

Lohnó:gwaJ

"cheek"

/kyóhtu/

[gyóhdu]

"nine"

From an u n d e r l y i n g * / t y / :

1

The t h i r d Mohawk s t o p , a g l o t t a l / ? / , i s sometimes w i t h a s p i r a t i o n when o c c u r r i n g a t t h e end o f a word.

released

G l o t t a l /?/

occurs as g l o t t a l s t r i c t u r e b e f o r e a l l words b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l . However, i t i s n o t w r i t t e n i n t h i s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s i n c e i t s occurrence t h e r e i s p r e d i c t a b l e and t h e r e f o r e non-phonemic. Examples o f words w i t h phonemic / ? / a r e : /oji?tv:?a/

"bird"

/a'hta?/

"shoe"

1 Most u n d e r l y i n g * / t y / c l u s t e r s d e r i v e from t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e r e f l e x i v e / r e c i p r o c a l morpheme { - a t - } and a noun o r v e r b stem b e g i n n i n g w i t h / - y / . I n t h e examples g i v e n , t h e u n d e r l y i n g */vkátyv/ " I ' l l s i t down" can be analyzed a s : { v - } f u t u r e mode; \ } 1st Person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x ; { - a t } r e f l e x i v e ; { - y v } v e r b r o o t meaning " p l a c e , p u t " . S i m i l a r l y , t h e underlying &* "garment" can be analyzed as: { a t - } r e f l e x i v e ; {-yà:ta- } noun stem meaning "body": and { - w i h } v e r b stem " t o g i v e " . These p r e f i x e s , stems and r o o t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h a p t e r s below.

30

3.1.12.

Affricate

Only one a f f r i c a t e consonant occurs i n Mohawk:

a blade-palatal / j / .

I t occurs i n accordance w i t h t h e

following phonological rule :

The v o i c e d a l l o p h o n e [j] sometimes o c c u r s f o l l o w i n g a g l o t t a l /?/ before / y / or / i / i n free v a r i a t i o n w i t h the voiceless a l l o ­ phone [ c ] . The a f f r i c a t e / j / i s p a l a t a l i n a l l o f i t s o c c u r r e n c e s a l t h o u g h i t s p a l a t a l q u a l i t y may be s t r o n g e r when i t precedes t h e p a l a t a l semi-vowel / y / o r t h e p a l a t a l v o w e l / i / . Examples o f words w i t h t h e a f f r i c a t e / j / a r e : Loji:ja]

/oji:ja/ /jiks/

[jiks]

/ahjíha/

[ahciha]

3.1.13.

"flower" " f l y " "garters"

Spirants

The s p i r a n t / s / i s a b l a d e - a l v e o l a r o b s t r u e n t . I t o c c u r s i n accordance w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g

phonological rule :

31

For example :

In

/só:lah/

[zotlahj

"duck"

/onísela/

[onízela]

"shelf"

/kahnúhsa?/

[gahnúhsa?]

"house"

/stúrha/

[sdu:ha ]

"a l i t t l e b i t "

/jíks/

[jiks]

"fly"

some i n s t a n c e s , t h e r e i s f r e e v a r i a t i o n between t h e

v o i c e d a l l o p h o n e [ z ] and t h e v o i c e l e s s a l l o p h o n e [ s ] when i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a vowel and when f o l l o w i n g a g l o t t a l / ? / b e f o r e a vowel. For some speakers, t h e r e i s a tendency /s/

f o r the alveolar

t o become a p a l a t a l [s] i n t h e environment /

i . F o r example

Both t h e a l v e o l a r and p a l a t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n s o f / s / a r e a c c e p t a b l e and occur i n t h i s

environment.

A morphophonemic r u l e a p p l i e s t o t h e c l u s t e r o f a l v e o l a r /s/

and p a l a t a l / y / .

I t is:

The a f f r i c a t e consonant / j / which occurs i n p l a c e o f t h e i n a d m i s s a b l e c l u s t e r */sy/ i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e blade

arti­

c u l a t i o n o f / s / and t h e p a l a t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n o f / y / .

2

The symbol / j / may t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t b o t h t h e simple phoneme / , j / and t h e morphophonemically d e r i v e d r e s u l t i n g from t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e phonemes / s / and / y / . The one symbol / . j / i s used i n b o t h cases s i n c e t h e two segments a r e p h o n e t i c a l l y identical.

32

For example : /téja?k/

"Break i t i n one b r e a k !

(sg.)"

This f o r m comes from an u n d e r l y i n g */tésya?k/ and can be analyzed as: ( t e - j d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x ; { - s - } 2nd person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x ; and

{-ya?k}

v e r b stem meaning "break".

(These

p r e f i x e s , stems, and s u f f i x e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h a p t e r s below.)

The s p i r a n t / h / i s a v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l o b s t r u e n t .

Examples

o f words i n which / h / occurs a r e : /kahnuhsa?/

"house"

/hv/

"yes"

3.1.2.

D e s c r i p t i o n o f Resonant Consonants

3.1.21.

Nasal

There i s o n l y one n a s a l consonant i n Mohawk:

an a p i c o - a l v e o l a r / n / .

the f o l l o w i n g p h o n o l o g i c a l r u l e :

phoneme

I t occurs i n accordance

with

33

3.1.22.

Lateral

There i s o n l y one l a t e r a l consonant i n Mohawk:

an a p i c o - a l v e o l a r / l / .

I t occurs v o i c e d except t h a t i t

becomes v o i c e l e s s i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a word.

I n t h i s envir­

onment, t h e l a t e r a l / l / i s f o l l o w e d b y a s p i r a t i o n o r " b r e a t h . " Examples o f words w i t h t h e l a t e r a l / 1 / a r e : /laúha?/

"he"

/káhlu?/

"cradleboard"

/éhlal/

"dog"

/oji:nekwal/

"yellow,

orange"

There i s some v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e sequences o f r e s o n a n t + h or o f h + resonant.

That i s , c e r t a i n words w i t h u n d e r l y i n g /h +

r e s o n a n t + h / sequences may appear w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g ing /-h-/ deleted.

F o r example :

/akya?tahna?/

"belt"

/akya?tánha?/

"belt"

/atkaláhna?/

"goggle,

eyeglasses"

/atkalánha?/

"goggle,

eyeglasses"

/ahjínha?/

"garters"

/ahjíha?/

"garters"

/yetstahlóhsta?/

"shingles"

/yetstalhóhsta?/

"shingles"

/yekutselahlóhsta?/

"paintbrush"

/yekutselalhóhsta?/

"paintbrush"

or follow-

34

G e n e r a l l y , i n these examples, o l d e r i n f o r m a n t s tended t o use t h e /resonant

+ h / sequences w h i l e younger i n f o r m a n t s tended

t o use t h e /h + r e s o n a n t / sequences.

3.1.23.

Semi-Vowels

The b l a d e - p a l a t a l / y / i s a v o i c e d semi-vowel. I t i s v o i c e d i n a l l o f i t s occurrences.

However, i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n

i s r e s t r i c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic r u l e :

Examples o f words w i t h t h e semi-vowel / y / a r e : /yà:yak/ /kv:yeh/

"six" "grease"

The d o r s o - v e l a r semi-vowel /w/ occurs a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w ­ ing phonological rule :

35

3.2.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Consonant Phonemes The f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s account f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f consonant phonemes : 1.

A l l consonant phonemes occur i n w o r d - i n i t i a l

2.

A l l consonant phonemes occur m e d i a l l y i n words.

3.

The f o l l o w i n g

position.

finally:

consonant phonemes occur word-

/ t / , /k/, /?/, /s/, /h/, /1/, /1/, /y/ and /w/. The

p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e /j/ does n o t o c c u r i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n words. 4.

C l u s t e r s o f two consonants may o c c u r word

i n i t i a l l y , m e d i a l l y , and f i n a l l y . 5.

C l u s t e r s o f more t h a n two consonants do n o t

occur i n i t i a l l y i n words. 6.

C l u s t e r s o f t h r e e o r f o u r consonants may o c c u r

m e d i a l l y i n words. 7.

Tri-consonantal clusters

words, b u t r a r e l y i n t h i s 8.

occur f i n a l l y i n

position.

C l u s t e r s o f more t h a n t h r e e consonants do n o t

o c c u r f i n a l l y i n words.

The f o l l o w i n g i s a c h a r t o f t h e b i - c o n s o n a n t a l i n t h e d a t a ( c l u s t e r s w r i t t e n /CC/ o c c u r i n i t i a l l y m e d i a l l y ; those w r i t t e n /-CC/

occur o n l y

medially):

clusters and/or

36

c

cl

2

t

k

t

-tt

tk

k

kt

kk

?

-?t

-?k

0

j

s

ts ks -?j

h

n

1

y

w

-?n

-?1

-?y

-?w

th

kh

-?s

j

jy

s

st

sk

h

-ht

-hk

-ss -hj

sh

-hs

n

-nh

1

-lh

sn

sl

sy

sw

-hn

hl

-hy

-hw

-nl

ny

-ly

7 w

-wh

3.3.

P e r i p h e r a l Phonemic Consonants 3.3.1.

D e s c r i p t i o n o f P e r i p h e r a l Phonemic Consonants

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t e n consonant phonemes

described

above, t h e r e a r e two consonant phonemes w h i c h a r e o f l i m i t e d occurrence i n Akwesasne Mohawk and a r e c o n s i d e r e d p e r i p h e r a l .

37

They are :

Place o f A r t i c u l a t i o n

Bi-labial Obstruent :

Stop

P

Resonant :

Nasal

m

The b i - l a b i a l s t o p sound / p / occurs i n accordance w i t h t h e following phonological rule :

For example : /aplàm/

[aplam]

"Abram, Abraham"

/pàpa?/

[baba?]

"Papa"

/lapáhpot/

[labáhbot ]

" c a t f i s h ; bullhead"

The b i - l a b i a l n a s a l sound /m/

3

always occurs

voiced,

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o n s i d e r t h e problem o f whether t h e s t o p sound / p / f o l l o w s t h e a l l o p h o n i c p a t t e r n o f t h e s t o p phoneme / t / or /k/. The q u e s t i o n r e v o l v e s around the occurrence o f /p/ b e f o r e semi-vowels. No such c l u s t e r i s a t t e s t e d i n t h e d a t a . However, t h e r e are two p o s s i b l e reasons f o r t h i s l a c k : one, t h a t t h e c l u s t e r s *py and *pw a r e r e s t r i c t e d f r o m o c c u r i n g (as t h e c l u s t e r s * / t y / and */tw/ are r e s t r i c t e d ) ; and two, t h a t s i n c e the sound / p / i s o f l i m i t e d occurrence t h e p o s s i b l e c l u s t e r s *py and *pw s i m p l y have n o t been a t t e s t e d . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o make any judgments on t h e m e r i t s o f e i t h e r o f these a l t e r n a t i v e s . They have been suggested i n o r d e r t o b r i n g up t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r i p h e r a l sounds w h i c h are o f f o r e i g n o r i g i n .

38

For example : /májis/

"matches"

/thámthaks/

"thumbtacks"

3.3.2.

O r i g i n and R e s t r i c t i o n

Both b i - l a b i a l consonants / p / and /m/ a r e o f limited

occurrence i n Mohawk, a t t e s t e d o n l y i n words o f f o r e i g n ,

i . e . French and E n g l i s h , o r i g i n .

A s i d e from t h e q u e s t i o n o f o r i g i n ,

t h e r e a r e a number o f s p e c i f i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w h i c h p o i n t t o t h e p e r i p h e r a l n a t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f these consonants i n t h e sound system o f Mohawk.

3.3.21.

One c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s based on knowledge

o f t h e phonemic systems o f o t h e r n o r t h e r n I r o q u o i a n languages. I n none of these do b i - l a b i a l consonant phonemes o c c u r . 4 p a r a t i v e and h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l a l s o e s t a b l i s h e s t h e phonemic system o f p r o t o - I r o q u o i a n as one w h i c h l a c k s b i - l a b i a l consonants. The

f a c t t h a t these sounds a r e considered

phonemic, a l t h o u g h

p e r i p h e r a l , i n Akwesasne Mohawk, i n d i c a t e s t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y

recent

origin.

4

See Lounsbury, F l o y d , 1953 ( O n e i d a ) ; Chafe. W a l l a c e , 1967 (Seneca) and 1970 (Onondaga). A l s o , u n p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l on Tuscarora and Cayuga s u p p o r t s t h i s statement.

5

Lounsbury, F l o y d . Seminar i n I r o q u o i a n L i n g u i s t i c s . U n i v e r s i t y , March 1971.

Yale

5

39

3.3.22.

A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s based on t h e

p h o n o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f these b i - l a b i a l consonants w i t h i n a word.

The s t o p / p / occurs o n l y once i n a consonant c l u s t e r : /aplam/

The

"Abram, Abraham"

6

s t o p / p / i s n o t a t t e s t e d p r e c e d i n g any o t h e r consonant n o r

f o l l o w i n g any consonant.

The n a s a l /m/ i s never a t t e s t e d i n any

consonant c l u s t e r . A l s o , t h e s t o p / p / n e v e r occurs i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e corpus. These d i s t r i b u t i o n a l f a c t s a r e c l e a r l y a b e r r a n t i n comparison w i t h those o f o t h e r Mohawk consonants,

3.3.23.

( s e e 3.2. above.)

A t h i r d c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s based on t h e

k i n d s o f words i n w h i c h t h e b i - l a b i a l sounds a r e a t t e s t e d .

They

occur o n l y i n p r o p e r p e r s o n a l names o f C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n and i n c e r t a i n nouns d e n o t i n g a r t i c l e s o f m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u g h c o n t a c t w i t h European peoples.

The b i - l a b i a l sounds

never occur i n any i n f l e c t i o n a l o r d e r i v a t i o n a l morphemes. Nor do t h e y occur i n any v e r b r o o t s .

These a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e s p e c i a l l y i n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v e r b i s t h e c e n t r a l word t y p e i n Mohawk.

6

This word i s a d d i t i o n a l l y a b e r r a n t i n t h a t i t i s s t r e s s e d on t h e f i n a l s y l l a b l e i n v i o l a t i o n o f v e r y s t r o n g s t r e s s r u l e s ( s e e 3.7.21. b e l o w . ) .

40

3.3.24.

The l a t e n e s s o f t h e appearance i n

Mohawk o f t h e b i - l a b i a l sounds / p / and /m/ even as phones i n t h e language i s c o n f i r m e d by a comparison o f words o f e a r l y and o f late foreign origin.

That i s . c e r t a i n p r o p e r names and noun

l a b e l s e n t e r i n g Mohawk t h r o u g h French a t an e a r l y t i m e do n o t c o n t a i n any b i - l a b i a l s w h i c h o c c u r r e d i n t h e French words. I n s t e a d , t h e sounds o f t h e French words were m o d i f i e d so t h a t the

loanword

conformed t o t h e Mohawk phonemic system.

For example : /uwárli?/

"Marie"

/wisheh/

"Michael,

Mitchell"

L a t e r loanwords, p a r t i c u l a r l y r e c e n t l o a n s f r o m E n g l i s h , retain the occurring foreign b i - l a b i a l s : /májis/

"matches"

/thámthaks/

"thumbtacks"

The q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e t i m e - d e p t h o f t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f f o r e i g n loanwords

i n t o Mohawk and t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f such

t e m p o r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l a l t e r a t i o n o r acceptance o f f o r e i g n words i s a t o p i c o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t and i m p o r t a n c e . A more d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f t h i s process i n Mohawk should be pursued.

41

3.4.

I n v e n t o r y o f Vowel Phonemes

There a r e s i x v o w e l phonemes i n Mohawk: Front

High

i

Mid

e

(unrd.)

Central

Back ( r d . )

(unrd.)

u

o

v

Low

a

3.4.1.

D e s c r i p t i o n o f Vowel Phonemes

There a r e f o u r o r a l vowels i n Mohawk:

a high-

f r o n t unrounded / i / , a m i d - f r o n t unrounded /e/, a l o w - c e n t r a l unrounded / a / , and a mid-back rounded /o/. vowels:

There a r e two n a s a l

a m i d - c e n t r a l unrounded / v / and a h i g h - b a c k rounded / u / .

For t h e sake o f s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f n o t a t i o n , t h e n a s a l i z a t i o n mark i s o m i t t e d i n t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e n a s a l vowels s i n c e o r a l vowels do n o t o c c u r i n t h e same a r t i c u l a t o r y p o s i t i o n s . The back v o w e l s , / o / and / u / , a r e v e r y weakly rounded.

The

back n a s a l v o w e l / u / i s o f t e n a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h complete l i p c l o s u r e , producing

a sound v e r y close t o an [ m ] .

However, t h e r e

i s no muscle t e n s i o n i n t h e l i p s , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h i s v o w e l f r o m t h e consonant sound /m/. result

I n f a c t , t h e c l o s u r e o f t h e l i p s may

from j u s t such a l a c k o f muscular t e n s i o n .

O l d e r speakers

t e n d t o p r e s e r v e t h e open v o w e l o u a l i t y o f / u / t o a g r e a t e r degree t h a n do t h e younger speakers.

42

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t o f numerals i l l u s t r a t e s a l l o f t h e vowel phonemes:

3.5.

/vhskah/

"one"

/tékeni/

"two"

/áhsv/

"three"

/kayé:li/

"four"

/wisk/

"five"

/yà:yak/

"six"

/jàtah/

"seven"

/sa?té:ku/

"eight"

/kyohtu/

"nine"

/oyérli?/

"ten"

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Vowel Phonemes The f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s account f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f v o w e l phonemes: 1.

A l l v o w e l phonemes occur i n i t i a l l y i n words.

W o r d - i n i t i a l vowels a r e preceded by some weak g l o t t a l

structure.

2.

A l l v o w e l phonemes o c c u r i n m e d i a l p o s i t i o n

3.

A l l v o w e l phonemes occur w o r d - f i n a l l y .

4.

Bi-vocalic

i n words.

medially,

b u t do n o t o c c u r f i n a l l y i n words. 5.

3.6.

c l u s t e r s may occur i n i t i a l l y and

C l u s t e r s o f more t h a n two vowels do n o t o c c u r .

Peripheral

Phonemic Vowel

There i s a p e r i p h e r a l phonemic v o w e l / I / , a m i d - h i g h

43

f r o n t unrounded

o r a l vowel.

I t occurs i n o n l y two b a s i c words

i n t h e e n t i r e corpus : /kltklt/

"chicken"

/kwiskwls/

"pig"

The b a s i c words f o r " c h i c k e n " and " p i g " , i . e . / k l t k l t / and / k w i s k w l s / , r e s p e c t i v e l y , occur as p a r t o f t h e d e r i v e d words w h i c h denote t h e a n i m a l ' s h a b i t u a l man-made s h e l t e r s , i . e . /kltkltne/

" c h i c k e n coop" and / k w l s k w l s n e / " p i g pen, p i g s t y . "

The sequence / - k w l s / a l s o occurs i n t h e word / k v s k w l s / w h i c h means " d i r t y - c l o t h e s b a s k e t , hamper." The vowel sound / I / i s c o n s i d e r e d p e r i p h e r a l t o t h e Mohawk phonemic system because o f i t s e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d o c c u r r e n c e .

3.7.

Suprasegmentals 3.7.1.

Length and S t r e s s

Length and s t r e s s a r e b o t h c o n s i d e r e d t o be p r o s o d i c f e a t u r e s w h i c h occur w i t h vowels.

They a r e n o t viewed

as separate p h o n o l o g i c a l segments b u t r a t h e r as p r o s o d i e m o d i f i ­ c a t i o n s o f vowels.

Length r e f e r s g e n e r a l l y t o t h e p r o s o d i e f e a t u r e

o f increased temporal c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a vowel.

Stress r e f e r s

generally t o the prosodie feature o f increased voice p i t c h accompanying t h e v o w e l . 3.7.11. l o n g and s h o r t .

I n Mohawk, t h e r e a r e two degrees o f l e n g t h :

They a r e w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s : V = s h o r t vowel V: = l o n g vowel

44

I n Mohawk, t h e r e a r e two degrees o f s t r e s s : unstressed.

s t r e s s e d and

They a r e w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s : V

=

unstressed

V

=

s t r e s s e d vowel

3.7.12. and s t r e s s i n Mohawk.

vowel

There i s some co-occurrence o f l e n g t h A l l l o n g vowels a r e s t r e s s e d .

However,

n o t a l l s t r e s s e d vowels a r e l o n g , a l t h o u g h t h i s i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y the case.

There seems t o be some degree o f p r e d i c t a b i l i t y t o t h e

rules :

That i s , a s t r e s s e d v o w e l w i l l tend t o be l o n g i f i t precedes a s i n g l e consonant whereas i t w i l l tend t o be s h o r t i f i t precedes a consonant c l u s t e r .

However, t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e many

e x c e p t i o n s t o these r u l e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t i f v o w e l l e n g t h i s p r e d i c t a b l e from s t r e s s , t h e r u l e s g o v e r n i n g t h i s are v e r y complex. For example : /onú:ta?/

"hill"

/á:?ale?/

"crinoline

/káhlu?/

"cradleboard"

/kákhwa?/

"food"

/óhskyv/

"bone"

slip"

predictability

45

but : /okwáho/

"wolf"7

/onája?/

"wheat"

/ojisela?/

"window g l a s s , window pane"

A l o n g s t r e s s e d v o w e l sometimes

occurs b e f o r e a consonant

c l u s t e r , a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y such l o n g vowels d e r i v e from an u n d e r l y i n g sequence o f */-V?CC-/ /onunyô:kwa?/

(see 3.7.14.

below).

For example:

" d i r t , clump o f d i r t " ( u n d e r l y i n g : */onunyb?kwa/)

/o:nyale?/

"snake" (underlying : */6?nyale?/)

3.7.13.

Only one vowel i n each word i s s t r e s s e d :

t h e r e f o r e , a l l t h e o t h e r vowels i n t h e word must be

unstressed.

L i k e w i s e , o n l y one vowel i n each word may be l o n g ; a l l t h e o t h e r vowels b e i n g s h o r t . the word be l o n g .

However, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t no v o w e l i n T h e r e f o r e , t h e n , each word must c o n t a i n one

and o n l y one s t r e s s e d v o w e l and may c o n t a i n one o r no l o n g vowels. The r u l e t h a t o n l y one l o n g v o w e l may appear i n any g i v e n word i s a d e r i v a t i v e r u l e , d e r i v e d from t h e r u l e s t h a t a l l l o n g vowels must be s t r e s s e d and t h a t o n l y one s t r e s s e d v o w e l may appear i n any g i v e n word.

7

I t can be noted t h a t i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f words w h i c h have s h o r t s t r e s s e d vowels p r e c e d i n g a s i n g l e consonant, t h e s i n g l e consonant i n q u e s t i o n i s / - h - / . However, t h e r e a r e a l s o o t h e r e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s dominant p a t t e r n .

46

The

f o l l o w i n g g r i d diagram Stressed

Length

s h o w s these

co-occurrences:

Stress

V

Unstressed V

Long V:

+

–

Short V

+

+

When words are s a i d i n m u l t i - w o r d c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n normal speech, t h e l e n g t h o f a l o n g v o w e l and t h e s t r e s s o f a s t r e s s e d v o w e l may

be somewhat d i m i n i s h e d i n k e e p i n g w i t h p h r a s a l

sentence c o n t o u r s .

and

For example :

/oji:nekwal/

" y e l l o w , orange"

but: "dandelion"

/ o j i n e k w a l nikaji?,jó:tv/

3.7.I4.

(yellow flower)

There i s one morphophonemic r u l e

the occurrence o f l e n g t h and

stress.

The

governing

r u l e can be s t a t e d as

follows :

That i s , t h e u n d e r l y i n g sequences o f s t r e s s e d v o w e l + h resonant

or o f s t r e s s e d vowel

+ ?

+

+ any consonant undergo a

process which r e s u l t s i n t h e l o s s o f the / - h - / and t h e / - ? - / , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and a l e n g t h e n i n g o f the s t r e s s e d v o w e l , accompanied by f a l l i n g t o n e . symbol:

V.)

( S t r e s s and

f a l l i n g tone are w r i t t e n w i t h the

kl

For example : "milk"

/onùrta?/

( u n d e r l y i n g : */onu?ta?/) "eye"

/okà:1a?/

( u n d e r l y i n g : */okáhla?/) "mud"

/onawà:tsta?/

( u n d e r l y i n g : */onawa?tsta?/) 3.7.2.

Placement o f S t r e s s

3.7.21.

The problem o f t h e placement o f s t r e s s

w i t h i n the word i s v e r y complex. pointed

However, a few p a t t e r n s

out h e r e , w i t h o t h e r s t o be d i s c u s s e d i n l a t e r

To b e g i n w i t h , t h e p r e f e r r e d penultimate.

s y l l a b l e t o receive

can be sections.

s t r e s s i s the

A word o f more t h a n one s y l l a b l e spoken i n i s o l a t i o n

i s very r a r e l y stressed

on the f i n a l s y l l a b l e .

Monosyllabic

words are e x t r e m e l y r a r e .

3.7.22.

The r u l e p l a c i n g s t r e s s on t h e

penultimate

s y l l a b l e must a p p l y b e f o r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f two a d d i t i o n a l morphophonemic r u l e s .

The f i r s t such r u l e s u p p l i e s

epenthetic

vowels. F o r example: /kè:yahle?/ k-

" I remember ( i t ) "

1st p e r s o n s i n g u l a r

subjective

pronominal p r e f i x -ehyahl-? The

v e r b stem "remember"

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

f i n a l v o w e l i n t h i s word, /-e-/, i s e p e n t h e t i c ,

b r e a k up an i n a d m i s s a b l e c l u s t e r o f */-!?/•

functioning t o

The s t r e s s i s p l a c e d on

48

the

p e n u l t i m a t e v o w e l i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g sequence */k-ehyahl-?/:

*/k-e:yahl-?/. In

Then t h e e p e n t h e t i c / - e - / i s i n s e r t e d .

p o t e n t i a l l y m o n o s y l l a b i c words b e f o r e t h e i n s e r t i o n o f

an e p e n t h e t i c v o w e l , a ''dummy" vowel i s p l a c e d i n i t i a l l y i n t h e word i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e an a v a i l a b l e p e n u l t i m a t e p o s i t i o n t o receive stress.

F o r example: " I want, I want t o . . . "

/í:kehle?/ -k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e

pronominal

prefix -ehl-?

v e r b stem "want, want t o . . . " p e r f e c t i v e aspect

suffix

A dummy vowel, / i - / , appears i n o r d e r t o o r o v i d e f o r t h e placement of

stress.

Then, a f t e r t h e s t r e s s i s p l a c e d , t h e e p e n t h e t i c / - e - /

i s i n s e r t e d a f t e r t h e v e r b stem.

3.7.23.

The second r u l e which a p p l i e s a f t e r

s t r e s s - p l a c e m e n t i s t h e r u l e i n s e r t i n g a morpheme j o i n e r , u s u a l l y /_a-/.

The morpheme j o i n e r , o r f i l l e r v o w e l , occurs w i t h i n v e r b

stems and serves t o j o i n t h e v a r i o u s r o o t s and morphemes t h a t make up t h e v e r b stem ( s e e Chapter 5 b e l o w . ) . /wa?katelv:nayv?/ wa?-k-

" I prayed"

F o r example:

(literally:

" I had a p r a y e r " ) :

d e c l a r a t i v e mode p r e f i x 1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

-atelvnayv?

v e r b stem

"pray"

-ate-

reflexive

prefix

-lvn-

root

"nray, prayer"

-yv?

root

"have, own, possess"

prefix

49

The f i l l e r v o w e l , / - a - / f u n c t i o n s t o j o i n t h e two v e r b r o o t s , / - l v n - / and /-yv/.

A l t h o u g h t h e v o w e l , /-a-/, i s p e n u l t i m a t e , i t

cannot c a r r y s t r e s s .

Therefore, t h e preceding vowel / - v - / i s

stressed.

3.7.3.

Fitch

3.7.31.

P i t c h i s an i m p o r t a n t p r o s o d i e f e a t u r e

w h i c h i s r e l e v a n t i n sentence

i n t o n a t i o n c o n t o u r s and p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n i n t e r r o g a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . When t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e

particle

/ k v ? / i s u s e d , i t r e c e i v e s s t r o n g s t r e s s and a r i s e i n p i t c h , as i n the question

However, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o o m i t t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e /kv?/ i n a question.

particle

Then, i n o r d e r t o convey t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e

meaning, thé s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e o f t h e v e r b r e c e i v e s a s t r o n g r i s e i n p i t c h , as i n

The change i n p i t c h i n t h e above q u e s t i o n d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e " D i d y o u ( s g . ) go' t h e r e ? " from t h e d e c l a r a t i v e s t a t e m e n t "You ( s g . ) went t h e r e . " : /í:se t h o yáhse?/

3.7.32.

The morphophonemic r u l e

affecting

u n d e r l y i n g sequences o f /V h + r e s o n a n t / and o f /V ? + d i s c u s s e d above i n 3 . 7 . 1 4 . has a t o n a l component. s t a t e d above i s :

consonant/

The r u l e as

50

That i s , t h e r e i s a l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e s t r e s s e d v o w e l

accompanied

by f a l l i n g tone i n replacement o f t h e f o l l o w i n g / - h - / and /-?-/.

51

4.0.

MORPHOPHONEMICS

4.1.

Introduction The importance o f morphophonemic adjustments

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Mohawk cannot be o v e r s t r e s s e d .

as a major

Patterns o f

p h o n o l o g i c a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s and a l t e r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from t h e co-occurrence o f separate

morphemes a r e complex and p e r v a s i v e .

Mohawk i s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a h i g h degree o f f u s i o n o f morphemes.

That i s , t h e r e a r e many i n s t a n c e s where morpheme c u t s

cannot r e a l i s t i c a l l y be made because o f t h e degree t o w h i c h t h e separate

semantic components w i t h i n t h e segment have each l o s t

much o f t h e i r own d i s t i n c t i v e p h o n o l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . The r e s u l t i n g u n i t i s one w h i c h expresses s e v e r a l components o f meaning b u t each component cannot be assigned sequence.

t o a definite

phonological

This c o m p l e x i t y i s found i n s e v e r a l l i n g u i s t i c c a t e g o r i e s ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n c e r t a i n t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s (see 6 . 6 . below f o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f these

prefixes.).

A l t h o u g h o n l y a few v e r b r o o t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d

thoroughly

i n t h i s grammar, i t should be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t many r o o t s i n Mohawk a r e l i k e w i s e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a h i g h degree o f f u s i o n . That i s , many verb r o o t s and noun r o o t s a r e u n a n a l y z a b l e t h e i r morphemic components.

Verb stems can be analyzed

i n terms o f and t h e i r

v e r b c l a s s components can be segmented b u t t h e r o o t s themselves are o f t e n n o t s u s c e p t i b l e t o f u r t h e r s e g m e n t a t i o n because o f o l d processes o f morphemic f u s i o n . preserved

This process has o c c u r r e d and i s

i n many v e r b stems i n Mohawk.

Perhaps, w i t h more

m a t e r i a l from Mohawk and from t h e o t h e r I r o q u o i a n languages, t h e segmentation o f some u n a n a l y z a b l e

v e r b and noun r o o t s w i l l become

52

possible.

4.2.

Morphophonemic Rules

Morphophonemic r u l e s i n Mohawk can be d i v i d e d i n t o two general types: 1.

Rules w h i c h a p p l y i n t h e co-occurrence o f a

member o f one o f t h e f o u r major c l a s s e s w i t h i n t h e v e r b w i t h a member o f a n o t h e r o f t h e f o u r c l a s s e s ( s e e 2.5.12. above f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f these c l a s s e s ) . 2.

Rules which a p p l y i n t h e co-occurrence o f

members o f t h e same m a j o r c l a s s w i t h i n t h e v e r b . Only t h e f i r s t t y p e o f morphophonemic r u l e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s chapter.

That i s , t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l o u t l i n e and d i s c u s s

n i n e g e n e r a l morphophonemic r u l e s w h i c h have been a b s t r a c t e d f r o m the

data.

The d i s c u s s i o n here by no means i n c l u d e s t h e l a r g e

number o f morphophonemic r u l e s w h i c h o p e r a t e i n such complex f a s h i o n i n Mohawk.

However, t h e d i s c u s s i o n i s aimed a t f o r m u l a t i n g

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about morphophonemic processes w h i c h a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o l a r g e portions o f t h e language. of

Rules a p p l y i n g t o co-occurrences

p a r t i c u l a r members w i t h i n each broad c l a s s a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n

t h i s d i s c u s s i o n b u t w i l l be b r o u g h t up i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h a p t e r s which f o l l o w .

53

4.2.1.

G e n e r a l Morphophonemic Rules

4.2.11.

Rule Governing Length and S t r e s s

a discussion o f the operation of t h i s r u l e ) The u n d e r l y i n g sequences o f s t r e s s e d v o w e l + h + and

resonant

o f s t r e s s e d v o w e l + ? + any consonant undergo a process o f t h e

l o s s o f t h e / - h - / and / _ ? _ / , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and a l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e s t r e s s e d v o w e l , accompanied by f a l l i n g t o n e . /onù:ta?/

F o r example:

"milk" ( u n d e r l y i n g : */onú?ta?/)

/oji:,ia?/

"flower" (underlying: */oji?ja?/)

/o?wà:lu?/

"meat" ( u n d e r l y i n g : */o?wahlu?/)

The a p p r o p r i a t e r u l e s a r e c o n f i r m e d , n o t o n l y by t h e a c o u s t i c f e a t u r e s o f l e n g t h and f a l l i n g t o n e , b u t a l s o by t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l shapes o f t h e stems when t h e y occur i n unstressed

contexts.

For i n s t a n c e , compare t h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r s o f nouns: /onù:ta?/

"milk"

/onu?ta:ke/

" i n the m i l k "

/oji:ja?/

"flower"

/jikaji?jayvtho/

"flowerbed"

/o?wà:lu?/

"meat"

/ka?wahlakeli:ta?/

"fried

meat"

( l i t e r a l l y : where t h e flowers are planted)

54

From an e x a m i n a t i o n

o f each o f these p a i r s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

d i s c o v e r t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e l o s t segment o f t h e noun stem. That i s , s i n c e t h e word /onu?tá:ke/ p h o n o l o g i c a l sequence word /onùrta?/

" i n the m i l k " contains the

/ _ u ? t - / , i t can be determined

that i n the

" m i l k " t h e sequence /-ù:t-/ r e p r e s e n t s an u n d e r l y i n g

sequence o f /-ú?t-/.

/sákyv/ s-

" S i t down! ( s g . ) " 2nd

person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-at-

reflexive

prefix

-yv

verb r o o t "place, p u t "

The v e r b /sákyv/, t h e r e f o r e , l i t e r a l l y means "You ( s g . ) place yourself!"

I t s underlying structure i s Vs-at-yv/.

55

The a f f r i c a t e / j / w h i c h occurs i n place o f t h e inadraissable * / - s y - / c l u s t e r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e b l a d e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f / s / and t h e p a l a t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n o f / y / . This r u l e a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f v e r b s f r o m / y - / i n i t i a l v e r b stems w i t h 2nd person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t s , (see 6.3.43. b e l o w ) . /jvtho/ s-

For example:

"Plant i t !

(sg.)"

2nd person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x

-yvtho

verb r o o t

"plant"

The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e V s - y v t h o / i s m a n i f e s t e d

on t h e s u r f a c e

as / j v t h o / .

/tejetenyúkwas/

"she, one keeps changing"

te-

duplicative verbal prefix

-s-

i t e r a t i v e verbal prefix

-ye-

3rd person f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x

-tenyukwas

v e r b stem "Keep changing"

The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e -"-/te-s-ye-tenylikwas/ i s m a n i f e s t e d on t h e s u r f a c e as /tejetenyúkwas/.

56

This r u l e a p p l i e s t o a l a r g e number o f p r e f i x e s : reflexive: reciprocal:

- a t - (see 5.2.11.) (see 5.2.12.)

-atat-

subjective pronominal p r e f i x e s : 1 s t person s i n g u l a r :

-k-

(see 6.3.51.)

2nd person s i n g u l a r :

-s-

(see 6.3.52.)

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s : I:her, i t you (sg.):me you ( s g . ) : h i m he:me

(see 6.6.11.)

-k-

-(h)sek-

( s e e 6.6.12.)

- t s - (see 6.6.12.)

- l a k - (see 6.6.13.) (see 6.6.14.)

she, one, t h e y : me

-yuk-

she, i t : m e

(see 6.6.15.)

-wak-

Since t h i s i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d r u l e , i t

applies

t o a l l a p p r o p r i a t e o c c u r r e n c e s o f o b s t r u e n t consonants b e f o r e / - l , - n , - w , and -?/.

This r u l e a p p l i e s i n cases o f t h e co-occurrence o f a p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e n d i n g w i t h /-a.-/ and a v e r b stem b e g i n n i n g w i t h / - i - / .

57

For example : /ki:telu/ k-

" I l i v e , stay ( t h e r e ) " 1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x

-i?telu

v e r b stem " l i v e , s t a y "

but: /lv:telu/ la-

"he l i v e s , s t a y s ( t h e r e ) " 3rd

person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

prefix -i?telu

v e r b stem " l i v e , s t a y "

The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e * / l a - i : t e l u / i s m a n i f e s t e d on t h e s u r f a c e as / l v - : t e l u / .

subjective: la-

3rd

person masculine s i n g u l a r ( 6 . 3 - 5 3 . )

ka-

3rd

person f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r s i n g u l a r ( 6 . 3 . 5 5 . ) (6.3.58.)

tewa-

1 s t person p l u r a l i n c l u s i v e

yakwa-

1 s t person p l u r a l e x c l u s i v e ( 6 . 3 - 5 9 . )

sewa-

2nd

person p l u r a l ( 6 . 3 . 6 1 . )

transitive : kwa-

I:you(pl)

(6.6.11.)

we(du. ) : y o u ( p l . )

(6.6.16.)

v j e ( p l . ) :you(sg. ,du. , p l . ) (h)skwa-

you(sg.,du.):us(pl.)

(6.6.17.) (6.6.12., 6.6.18.)

you(pl.):me,us(du.,pl.)

(6.6.19.)

58

(h)yala-

(6.6.13.)

he:you(sg.) herher, i t

(h)sukwa-

(6.6.13.) (6.6.13.)

he:us(pl.)

(h)tsisewa-

(6.6.13.)

he:you(pl.)

(6.6.19.)

you(pl.):him

(6.6.14.)

luwa-

she,one,they :him

kuwa-

she,one.they : h e r , i t

sa-

she,it:you

(6.6.15.)

she,it:us(pl.)

(6.6.15.)

she,it:you(pl.)

(6.6.15.)

we(pl.):her,it

(6.6.17.)

we(pl.):him

(6.6.17.)

yukwasewa-

(sg.)

(6.6.14.)

yakwa(h)sakwa(h)sewa-

you(pl+.):her,

i t

(6.6.19.)

This r u l e a p p l i e s t o t h e co-occurrence o f t h e a o r i s t modal p r e f i x { w a ? - } and t h e 1st person o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l morpheme

-{wa-}

(see 6 . 5 . 4 1 . and 7.1.11. b e l o w ) .

For example:

/wakekstv:ha/ -wa-

1 s t person o b j e c t i v e morpheme

-ke-

1st person s i n g u l a r p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x

-kstv:ha but:

"I'm o l d "

/ukekstv:hahne?/

v e r b stem "be o l d " " I became o l d "

wa?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-wa-

1st person o b j e c t i v e morpheme

-ke-

1st person s i n g u l a r p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x

-kstv:hahne?

v e r b stem "become o l d "

59

The u n d e r l y i n g

s t r u c t u r e */wa?-wa-ke-kstv:hahne?/ i s m a n i f e s t e d

on t h e s u r f a c e as /ukekstv:hahne?/.

This r u l e a p p l i e s

t o t h e co-occurrences o f v e r b a l

prefixes

e n d i n g w i t h / - ? / and p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s b e g i n n i n g w i t h / - y / . (See

6.3.6. below.)

For example:

/yutó:lats/

"she, one h u n t s , i s h u n t i n g ,

yu-

3 r d person s i n g u l a r

i s a hunter"

feminine/indefinite

subjective

pronominal p r e f i x -ato:lats

v e r b stem

"hunt"

but /wa?utó:1ate?/

"she, one h u n t e d "

wa?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-yu-

3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e

subjective

pronominal p r e f i x -ato:late? The u n d e r l y i n g

v e r b stem

"hunted"

s t r u c t u r e */wa?-yu-ató : l a t e ? / i s m a n i f e s t e d on

t h e s u r f a c e as /wa?utó:late?/.

60

to

a l l / y - / i n i t i a l t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s (see c h a r t i n 6.6.?.).

4.2.2.

O r d e r i n g o f Rules

The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r o p e r o r d e r i n g o f morphophonemic r u l e s has, t o some e x t e n t , been touched upon i n 4.2.1. above.

However, these p o i n t s need t o be e x e m p l i f i e d

and

discussed i n greater d e t a i l . The f o l l o w i n g examples w i l l be examined: /atha?kéhsu ne yahà:ke?/

" I walked t h e r e , went t h e r e by

foot"

( v e r b r o o t : -e-) and /atha?kéhsu ne yahésene?/ "you ( d u a l ) walked went t h e r e by (See 7.1.16. and 7.2.62. f o r a d i s c u s s i o n

there.

foot"

o f the v e r b a l p r e f i x e s

w h i c h occur i n these v e r b s . )

4.2.21.

The v e r b form /yahà:ke?/ "I went t h e r e ,

walked t h e r e " w i l l be examined f i r s t below.

The ordered

morphophonemic r u l e s are s t a t e d t o t h e l e f t and t h e d e r i v e d r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s e r u l e s are g i v e n t o t h e r i g h t .

forms

The n o t a t i o n

under each r u l e r e f e r s t o the s e c t i o n i n t h e grammar i n w h i c h the r u l e has been, o r w i l l be p r e s e n t e d .

61

4.2.22.

The necessity f o r ordering the rules

as given above can be i l l u s t r a t e d by comparing t h i s d e r i v a t i o n w i t h the one o f f e r r e d below: /yahésene?/

1

"you (dual) went there, walked there"

The epenthetic vowel /-e-/ i n the subjective pronominal p r e f i x /-sen-/ does not f u n c t i o n i n s y l l a b l e counting. Therefore, the preceding vowel /-a-/ i s a c t u a l l y counted as penultimate and receives the stress.

62

4.2.23.

The two d e r i v a t i o n s given above are

i d e n t i c a l i n rules 1 through 4, d i f f e r i n g only i n rule 5. The order for rules 1 and ? i s a c t u a l l y interchangeable, but these two must precede the others.

The a p p l i c a t i o n of rules 3 and 4

cannot be made u n t i l the i n i t i a l / w - / o f the d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x I wa?- } i s l o s t and u n t i l the vowel / - a - / receives stress. Rules 3 and 4 must apply before r u l e 5. This i s demonstrated by the d e r i v a t i o n for the 2nd person dual subject where i t can be seen t h a t the epenthetic vowel i n /yVh-/ must be specified as / - a - / before the change of / - a ? - / t o /_e-/.

I f t h i s were not the

case, the form would be i n c o r r e c t l y derived as */yehésene?/ i n s t e a d of the c o r r e c t /yahpsene?/.

I f the rules f o r each of the two d e r i v a t i o n s were viewed as closed sets of rules applying only t o these p a r t i c u l a r forms, then the 5 t h r u l e i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n for the 1 s t nerson singular subject could occur a f t e r the 2nd r u l e i n t h a t d e r i v a t i o n . However, i t i s placed at the end because i t i s assumed t h a t the same set of rules applies t o the e n t i r e paradigm.

I n fact, rule 5

i n the 1 s t person s i n g u l a r subject d e r i v a t i o n should more s p e c i f i c a l l y be l i s t e d as r u l e 6 since i n an ordered sequence of

63 a l l r u l e s a p p l y i n g t o t h e whole paradigm i t must occur a f t e r r u l e 5 o f the 2nd p e r s o n d u a l s u b j e c t d e r i v a t i o n has been a p p l i e d . t h i s were n o t t h e case, t h e n the 2nd person d u a l s u b j e c t

I f

form

would be i n c o r r e c t l y d e r i v e d as */yahè:sene?/ r a t h e r t h a n the

correct

/yahésene?/.

4.2.24.

T h e r e f o r e , i n summary, t h e r u l e s f o r the

d e r i v a t i o n o f a l l t h e person forms i n t h e paradigm f o r d e c l a r a t i v e mode t r a n s l o c a t i v e verbs are o r d e r e d as f o l l o w s :

i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d i n 4.2.21. and the a p p l i c a t i o n of r u l e 5 i s motivated

by the presence o f t h e

p e r s o n d u a l s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x /sen-/. has

a p p l i e d , r u l e 6 i s no l o n g e r a p p l i c a b l e and

activated.

4.2.22. above, 2nd

Once t h i s r u l e therefore i s not

I n the 1st person s i n g u l a r subject d e r i v a t i o n , r u l e 5

i s bypassed s i n c e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o t i v a t i n g environment i s lacking.

Then r u l e 6 can be

4.2.25. supporting

applied.

There are a number o f

the method o f f o r m u l a t i n g d e r i v a t i o n a l r u l e s i n o r d e r e d

sequences a p p l y i n g t o whole paradigms. economy and

considerations

One

consideration i s the

c l a r i t y of the r e s u l t i n g statement o f r u l e s .

than p o s t u l a t i n g overlapping

Rather

r u l e s f o r a number o f sub-sets i n a

64

g i v e n paradigm, o n l y one s e t o f r u l e s need be f o r m u l a t e d .

I f the

r u l e s i n such a system a r e p r o p e r l y o r d e r e d , e x c e p t i o n s t o any p a r t i c u l a r r u l e w i l l n o t have t o be marked. a l a t e r r u l e when i n a p p r o p r i a t e underlying

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f

t o t h e f i n a l outcome o f t h e

s t r u c t u r e w i l l be i n h i b i t e d by a p r e v i o u s r u l e w h i c h

changes t h e d e r i v e d (see 4 . 2 . 2 4 .

form on which f u r t h e r r u l e s a r e a p p l i e d ,

above.)

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e economy and c l a r i t y o f r u l e - w r i t i n g , t h i s view o f r u l e o r d e r i n g has t h e advantage o f an e n s u i n g r e l a t i v e s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e model o f language processes.

By o r d e r i n g and

t h e r e b y expanding t h e domain o f a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f r u l e s , t h e e n t i r e system o f r u l e s w i t h i n a language i s s i m p l i f i e d . o f p o s t u l a t i n g a l a r g e r number o f s e t s o f r u l e s w i t h

Instead

applicability

t o a more r e s t r i c t e d number o f d e r i v a t i o n s , fewer systems o f r u l e s can be p o s t u l a t e d .

A more encompassing system o f r u l e s can be

a p p l i e d i n a g r e a t e r number o f d e r i v a t i o n s , t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t i n g overlapping

r u l e s and r e s u l t i n g i n a t i g h t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n

On t h e one hand, I t seems more d e s i r a b l e considering

and r e a l i s t i c ,

t h e way a language f u n c t i o n s , t o d e p i c t

processes i n as g e n e r a l terms as p o s s i b l e .

of rules.

language

On t h e o t h e r

hand,

t o o much g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n r u l e - w r i t i n g i s n o t d e s i r a b l e and, i n f a c t , i s m i s l e a d i n g because a l t h o u g h t h e economy o f t h e r u l e s i s g r e a t , so a l s o i s t h e c o n f u s i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e l i s t i n g o r m a r k i n g o f many e x c e p t i o n s .

A t o o g e n e r a l view o f language r u l e s

implies

t o o g r e a t a burden on t h e speaker i n s o r t i n g and a r r a n g i n g t h e components o f h i s language.

I t also ignores h i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t i c

processes w h i c h may a f f e c t o n l y c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s o f a p a r t i c u l a r

65 language f o r h i s t o r i c a l and

l i n g u i s t i c reasons.

T h e r e f o r e , the view o f language advocated here i s t h a t i t i s b e s t t o p r e s e n t l i n g u i s t i c r u l e s i n systems as broad as so t h a t t h e r u l e systems are economical and

possible

have as g e n e r a l an

a p p l i c a b i l i t y as p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t p u t t i n g an undue burden on speaker's a b i l i t y t o c o n s t r u c t u t t e r a n c e s .

the

Greater a p p l i c a b i l i t y

o f r u l e systems i s o f t e n achieved by the o r d e r i n g o f t h e r u l e s . One

f u r t h e r note s h o u l d be added t o t h i s d i s c u s s i o n .

I t

concerns the danger o f c o n f u s i n g any p a r t i c u l a r model o f d e s c r i p t i o n o f a language w i t h the a c t u a l w o r k i n g s o f the language process. I n t h e r e a l b e h a v i o r o f speech, p h o n o l o g i c a l processes and o f systems.

r u l e s operate together Rules are a b s t r a c t e d

forms and

linguistic

as a system, o r a system

from phonological

segments i n

t h e w r i t i n g o f a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a language because t h i s i s schematically analysis.

the o n l y c l e a r way

t o p r e s e n t any

However, i t i s o n l y obvious t o say t h a t t h i s

does n o t o c c u r i n a c t u a l speech b e h a v i o r . s p e c i f y the e x a c t o p e r a t i o n s speaker.

linguistic

Nor

can one

separation really

t a k i n g p l a c e - w i t h i n the b r a i n o f

the

A p a r t i c u l a r model o f . d e s c r i p t i o n i s chosen because

i t i s thought t o present the r e s u l t s of a l i n g u i s t i c analysis

in

as c l e a r and

r e a l i s t i c terms as p o s s i b l e .

a n a l y s i s and

d e s c r i p t i o n are a c t u a l l y s e p a r a t e , a d e s c r i p t i o n b e i n g

a way The

of organizing

and

two are o b v i o u s l y

presenting

the r e s u l t s o f an

analysis.

r e l a t e d b u t they are n o t i d e n t i c a l , .lust as

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a language and r e l a t e d but not

Of c o u r s e , l i n g u i s t i c

identical.

the b e h a v i o r a l

reality

are

66

5.0.

VERB BASES

5.1.

An i n t r o d u c t o r y n o t e s h o u l d be g i v e n d e s c r i b i n g , i n broadest

terms, t h e s t r u c t u r e o f Mohawk verbs i n o r d e r t o i n d i c a t e t h e placement o f each o f t h e v e r b a l p o s i t i o n c l a s s e s w i t h i n t h e v e r b a l system.

5.1.1.

Verbal Prefixes

The Mohawk Verb

Pronominal Prefixes

Verb Base

modals

subjective

reflexive

non-modals

objective

reciprocal

transitive

verb roots

Verbal Suffixes verb r o o t suffixes aspects attributives

incorporated noun r o o t s

Mohawk verbs c o n s i s t o f elements w h i c h can be d i v i d e d i n t o general classes: suffixes. The

v e r b a l p r e f i x e s , p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , v e r b bases, and

The f i r s t o f t h e s e , v e r b a l p r e f i x e s , i s a n o p t i o n a l c l a s s .

l a s t , v e r b a l s u f f i x e s , i s a l s o an o p t i o n a l c l a s s .

do n o t c o n t a i n members o f e i t h e r o f these two c l a s s e s . classes,

That i s , some verbs The o t h e r two

i . e . pronominal p r e f i x e s and v e r b bases, a r e o b l i g a t o r y

That i s , a l l p r o p e r l y c o n s t r u c t e d o f each o f these 1.

four

verbs must c o n t a i n a t l e a s t one member

classes.

V e r b a l p r e f i x e s occur i n i t i a l l y i n v e r b s .

g e n e r a l semantic t y p e s : a.

classes.

They a r e o f two

modal and non-modal.

Modal p r e f i x e s :

The modal p r e f i x e s express t h e a t t i t u d e o f

t h e speaker toward what i s b e i n g s a i d , r e f l e c t i n g t h e v a l i d i t y , p r o b a b i l i t y , o r d e s i r a b i l i t y o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b .

67

I n s t r u c t u r a l t e r m s , modal p r e f i x e s a r e sometimes w o r d - i n i t i a l a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e sometimes preceded

b.

Non-modal p r e f i x e s :

by some o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x .

Non-modal p r e f i x e s express a v a r i e t y

o f d i f f e r e n t i d e a s such as n e g a t i o n , d i r e c t i o n o f a c t i o n ,

repetitiveness

of action or state, p a r t i t i o n o f action, r e l a t i o n o f action specified to some o t h e r a s p e c t o f t i m e o r space, e t c . I n s t r u c t u r a l t e r m s , non-modal p r e f i x e s a r e sometimes w o r d - i n i t i a l a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e sometimes preceded

2. the verb.

by some o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x .

Pronominal p r e f i x e s occupy t h e second major p o s i t i o n c l a s s w i t h i n They denote t h e s u b j e c t and/or o b j e c t o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e

d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b and a r e o f t h r e e major t y p e s : and

subjective, objective,

transitive. a.

Subjective:

Subjective

p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s express t h e

s u b j e c t o r a g e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b . b.

Objective:

Objective

p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s express t h e o b j e c t

o r b e n e f i c i a r y o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b . c.

Transitive:

T r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s express t h e c o ­

o c c u r r e n c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t and a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t .

3.

Verb bases occupy t h e t h i r d major p o s i t i o n c l a s s w i t h i n t h e v e r b .

They a r e composed o f one o r more v e r b r o o t s , o r o f a n i n c o r p o r a t e d r o o t and a v e r b r o o t , and v a r i o u s

expansions o f t h e v e r b r o o t s .

noun

The v e r b

base may a l s o c o n t a i n a n i n i t i a l u n i t e x p r e s s i n g t h e i d e a o f r e f l e x i v i t y or r e c i p r o c a l i t y which r e f e r s t o t h e subject o f t h e verb.

68

4. the verb.

V e r b a l s u f f i x e s occupy t h e f i n a l major p o s i t i o n c l a s s w i t h i n They a r e o f t h r e e g e n e r a l t y p e s :

s u f f i x e s , and a t t r i b u t i v e a.

root suffixes,

aspect

suffixes.

Root s u f f i x e s :

Root s u f f i x e s express a number o f i d e a s

concerned w i t h m o d i f y i n g t h e v e r b o r e x p r e s s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e s u b j e c t s and o b j e c t s o f t h e s t a t e o r a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d b y t h e v e r b . b.

Aspect s u f f i x e s :

Aspect s u f f i x e s express t h e t e m p o r a l

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b .

Aspect

s u f f i x e s d e s i g n a t e a n a c t i o n o r s t a t e i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s p o s i t i o n on a continuum

o f time, w i t h o u t r e f e r r i n g t o any p a r t i c u l a r time o r tense.

That i s , t h e y d e s c r i b e whether a n a c t i o n o r s t a t e i s c o n t i n u o u s , interrupted, repetitive, etc. c.

Attributive suffixes:

A t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x e s express

ideas

w h i c h i n v o l v e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s i z e , number, o r c o n d i t i o n r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s u b j e c t o r agent o f t h e v e r b .

Attributive

suffixes

occur w i t h non-modal verbs and a l s o w i t h nouns.

The v e r b base and t h e v e r b a l s u f f i x e s t o g e t h e r form t h e v e r b stem. The shape o f t h e v e r b stem i s c r u c i a l i n t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , a l t h o u g h i n some cases, t h e shape o f t h e modal p r e f i x i s a l s o a d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r i n c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e shape o f t h e pronominal prefixes.

5.1.2.

The f o u r g e n e r a l v e r b a l c l a s s e s ( s e e 5.1.1. above) a r e

e s t a b l i s h e d on b o t h s t r u c t u r a l and semantic

grounds.

I n structural

terms,

t h e members o f each c l a s s occur i n t h e same broad p o s i t i o n a l s l o t w i t h i n the verb.

Moreover, t h e y share c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f morphophonemic

69

patterning.

That i s , t h e y a r e s e n s i t i v e t o common morphophonemic r u l e s

and a d j u s t m e n t s .

O f t e n , t h e members o f each c l a s s f u n c t i o n i n s i m i l a r

ways t o c o n d i t i o n morphophonemic a d j u s t m e n t s i n members o f a d j a c e n t verbal classes. I n semantic t e r m s , t h e members o f each v e r b a l c l a s s share some element o f common meaning.

F o r example, t h e c l a s s o f p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s

i s made up o f s e p a r a t e elements a l l o f w h i c h share t h e g e n e r a l meaning o f d e n o t i n g t h e s u b j e c t and/or o b j e c t o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by the verb.

The c l a s s o f v e r b bases c o n s i s t s o f elements a l l o f which share

t h e g e n e r a l meaning o f d e n o t i n g a s p e c i f i c a c t i o n o r s t a t e w h i c h t h e v e r b f u n c t i o n s t o convey.

The c l a s s e s o f v e r b a l p r e f i x e s and v e r b a l s u f f i x e s

a r e more heterogenous i n meaning b u t t h e i r members a l s o share c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f g e n e r a l semantic and g r a m m a t i c a l meaning.

5.1.3.

Each o f t h e s e f o u r g e n e r a l v e r b a l c l a s s e s can themselves

be a n a l y z e d i n t o s e v e r a l s u b - c l a s s e s .

These w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t u r n i n

each o f t h e r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s t h a t f o l l o w .

However, i t can be p o i n t e d

o u t here t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e sub-classes i s a l s o based upon b o t h s t r u c t u r a l and semantic grounds. two major c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Each s u b - c l a s s , t h e r e f o r e , has

One d e s c r i b e s t h e s u b - c l a s s i n terms o f t h e

morphophonemic s t r u c t u r e o f i t s members and t h e l i n e a l arrangement

positional

i n w h i c h each member belongs i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r members o f

t h e same s u b - c l a s s .

The o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e s c r i b e s t h e s u b - c l a s s i n

terms o f a common shared meaning. I n most i n s t a n c e s , t h e s t r u c t u r a l and semantic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f v e r b a l s u b - c l a s s e s converge; t h a t i s , t h e s u b - c l a s s e s t a b l i s h e d on semantic grounds i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e one e s t a b l i s h e d on s t r u c t u r a l

grounds.

70

However, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e broad g e n e r a l v e r b a l c l a s s e s o f v e r b a l and v e r b a l s u f f i x e s , t h i s i s n o t always t h e case.

prefixes

For example, t h e c l a s s

o f v e r b a l p r e f i x e s c o n s i s t s o f t h e semantic s u b - c l a s s e s o f modal and non-modal p r e f i x e s .

S t r u c t u r a l l y , however, t h e member o f each o f these

semantic s u b - c l a s s e s do n o t always occur i n t h e same l i n e a l p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r o r t o o t h e r v e r b a l c l a s s e s .

This complexity o f

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l and semantic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l be e x p l a i n e d and e x e m p l i f i e d i n p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e which f o l l o w .

chapters

The problem has been mentioned i n t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n i n

o r d e r t o g i v e some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c o m p l e x i t i e s o f Mohawk v e r b s .

5.2.

Verb Bases

Verb bases i n Mohawk a r e composed o f t h e f o l l o w i n g

obligatory

and o p t i o n a l elements : (reflexive/

(incoporated

verb r o o t ( s )

noun r o o t )

reciprocal)

As has been o u t l i n e d above (see 5.1.1. ) , t h e v e r b bases occupy t h e t h i r d major p o s i t i o n c l a s s w i t h i n t h e Mohawk v e r b . themselves composed o f t h r e e k i n d s o f elements.

Verb bases a r e

The f i r s t o f these i s a n

o p t i o n a l r e f l e x i v e / r e c i p r o c a l element: t h e second i s a n o p t i o n a l i n c o r p o r a t e d noun r o o t : and t h e t h i r d i s an o b l i g a t o r y v e r b r o o t . 5.2.1. The

first

Reflexive/Reciprocal :

j-at-/-atat- }

element i n t h e v e r b base i s a n o p t i o n a l r e f l e x i v e

{-at-.j

I t has a v a r i e t y o f f u n c t i o n s : 1.

To express a r e f l e x i v e meaning, i e .

t h s s u b j e c t o r agent

71

p e r f o r m i n g some a c t i o n upon 2.

himself;

t o make t h e s u b j e c t

o r agent t h e b e n e f i c i a r y o f t h e a c t i o n

or s t a t e described by t h e verb; 3.

t o convert t r a n s i t i v e verbs i n t o i n t r a n s i t i v e verbs;

4-. t o make a f o r m o f "medio-passive," where t h e v e r b expresses a k i n d o f passive w i t h o u t a s p e c i f i c agent o v e r t l y expressed; 5.

The

t o r e v e r s e t h e meaning o f c e r t a i n v e r b r o o t s .

reciprocal

{-atat-}

i s formally a reduplication of the reflexive.

I t i s used t o express a c t i o n b y two o r more people t o w a r d each o t h e r . This formal r e d u p l i c a t i o n i s i n t e r e s t i n g semantically.

That i s ,

{-at-}

expresses a r e f l e x i v e i d e a ( a c t i o n happening b y one person t o h i m s e l f ) and

{-atat-}

expresses a r e c i p r o c a l i d e a ( a c t i o n happening by two o r more

people t o each o t h e r ) . The

r e c i p r o c a l i s a l s o used i n some v e r b bases t o express t h e i d e a

o f r e f l e x i v i t y when t h e v e r b base a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s t h e r e f l e x i v e element f o r some o t h e r f u n c t i o n . 5.2.11. morphophonemic r u l e s :

The r e f l e x i v e

{-at-}

i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g

72

The f o l l o w i n g examples o f t h e occurence o f t h e r e f l e x i v e

{-at-)

a r e grouped a c c o r d i n g t o semantic f u n c t i o n s (see 5.2.1. a b o v e ) : 1

1. performing

t o express a r e f l e x i v e meaning, i . e .

some a c t i o n upon h i m s e l f :

/wahate?nikuhlisa'?/

"he made up h i s mind"

wa-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-h-

3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r

-ate-

"make a mind" "you (sg.) would p u t a n o t h e r c o v e r i n g on yourself again"

/tausahsatahwa?néta?/ tau-

i n d e f i n i t e modal and d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x

-sa-

iterative prefix

-hs-

2nd person s i n g u l a r

-at-

reflexive

-ahswa?néta?

"she, i t found a p l a c e , bed f o r h e r s e l f , itself"

partitive prefix

-yo— -(a)te-

3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r

object

reflexive

-naktatsvlyu

1

subject

"put a covering on"

niyotenaktatsvlyu/

ni-

subject

reflexive

-?nikuhlisa?

/nu:

t h e s u b j e c t o r agent

" f i n a l a bed, p l a c e "

Note t h a t i n t h e s e examples and elsewhere, u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , t h e segments which a r e i s o l a t e d a f t e r t h e examples a r e g i v e n i n t h e i r p r o p e r a l l o m o r p h i c shapes. F o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r morphophonemic a d j u s t m e n t s , see t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h a p t e r s f o l l o w i n g .

73

2.

t o make t h e s u b j e c t o r agent t h e b e n e f i c i a r y o f t h e a c t i o n

o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b : /ú:kweh lotú:?u/

"he became human"

3rd person s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e o b j e c t

lo-

-(a)t-

reflexive

-Ú:?u

"become, make"

/satenehkwa?éhstu/ s-

"you ( s g . ) a r e b a p t i z e d "

2nd person s i n g u l a r

-ate-

reflexive

-nehkwa?éhstu

"baptize" "would y o u ( s g . ) pray f o r me"

/askwatelvnayv:hahse?/ a-

object

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 2nd person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 1st person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t

-skw-

-ate- reflexive -lvnayv:hahse?

3.

"pray"

( l i t e r a l l y : have a p r a y e r f o r )

t o c o n v e r t t r a n s i t i v e verbs i n t o i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :

/tewakatehnuhukyu:ne?/ te-

duplicative prefix

-wak- 1st -ate-

" I had my door open"

person s i n g u l a r

object

reflexive

-hnuhukyú:ne? /watkatelyv?tawvlye?/

"open d o o r " " I made a m i s t a k e "

wa-

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

-t-

duplicative prefix

-k-

1st

person s i n g u l a r

subject

74

-ate-

reflexive

-yv?tawvlye?

4.

"make a m i s t a k e " ( l i t e r a l l y : s t i r up an e r r o r )

t o make a form o f "medio-passive," where t h e v e r b expresses

a k i n d o f p a s s i v e w i t h o u t a s p e c i f i c a g e n t o v e r t l y expressed:

/wa?tewakatenuhyanihtv/

" I was shocked"

wa?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-te-

duplicative prefix

-wak-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

-ate-

reflexive

-nuhyanihtv /wakatela?swáksv/

v e r b stem

"shock, s u r p r i s e , be a n u n u s u a l e v e n t "

" I have bad l u c k "

wak-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

-ate-

reflexive

-la?swáksv

"she, one t i r e s e a s i l y , g e t s bored easily"

3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e o b j e c t

-(a)te-

reflexive

-lihukhohtanl:tsku

5.

object

"bad l u c k "

/yakotelihukhohtani:tsku/

yako-

object

"tire

easily"

t o r e v e r s e t h e meaning o f some v e r b bases:

/wakhni:nu? akyà:tawih/

" I bought a c o a t "

wa-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

- h n i :nu?

"buy"

/wa?katvhni:nu? akyà:tawih/ wa?

" I sold a coat"

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

75 -k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

-at-

subject

reflexive

-vhni:nu?

"sell" " I borrowed i t "

/wa?úkenih/ wa?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-uke-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

-nih

"borrow"

/wa?katv:nih/

" I lent i t out"

wa?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

-v:nih

object

subject

"lend"

5.2.12.

The r e c i p r o c a l

f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic r u l e s :

{-atat-)

i s a f f e c t e d by t h e

(Note t h a t t h e s e r u l e s a r e s i m i l a r t o

t h e r u l e s which a f f e c t t h e r e f l e x i v e —

The r e c i p r o c a l

{-atat-}

see 5.2.11. a b o v e ) :

i s used t o express t h e i d e a o f t h e a c t i o n

performed by two o r more i n d i v i d u a l s upon each o t h e r .

With c e r t a i n verb

bases, t h e r e c i p r o c a l a l s o f u n c t i o n s t o express o r emphasize a r e f l e x i v e idea.

T h i s usage o c c u r s w i t h v e r b bases which a l r e a d y

{-at-}

contain the r e f l e x i v e

where t h e l a t t e r r e f e r s t o some o t h e r semantic f u n c t i o n .

For example : /yakwatate?kv:?a/

" o u r ( p l . , e x c l . ) s i s t e r " ( l i t e r a l l y : "we ( p l . , e x c l . ) a r e s i b l i n g s t o each o t h e r " )

76

yakw-

1 s t person p l u r a l e x c l u s i v e s u b j e c t

-atate-

reciprocal

-?kv:?a

"sibling" "he made h i m s e l f human"

/ú:kweh lotatúrni/ lo-

3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r object

-(a)tat-ú:ni

reciprocal v e r b stem

The f o l l o w i n g /-uni/

"make, b u i l d "

t h r e e v e r b stems can be compared: "make, b u i l d "

/-atuni/

"grow"

/-atatuni/

"make o n e s e l f "

The f i r s t o f t h e s e , / - u n i / , i s t h e b a s i c v e r b stem

"make, b u i l d . "

The second, / - a t u n i / , i s formed by t h e p r e f i x a t i o n o f t h e r e f l e x i v e / - a t - / t o t h e base / - u n i / and g i v e s t h e meaning "grow."

The l a s t stem

/ - a t a t u n i / , i s formed by t h e p r e f i x a t i o n o f t h e r e c i p r o c a l t h e base / - u n i / and g i v e s t h e meaning

/-atat-/ t o

"make o n e s e l f " as i n "make o n e s e l f

human."

5.2.2.

The second element i n t h e v e r b base i s an o p t i o n a l

i n c o r p o r a t e d noun r o o t .

Most t r a n s i t i v e verbs which haye d i r e c t o b j e c t s

a r e a b l e t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e noun r o o t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t . However, n o t a l l noun r o o t s a r e a b l e t o become i n c o r p o r a t e d i n v e r b bases. There i s a c e r t a i n amount o f h i e r a r c h i c a l nominal c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n Mohawk.

That i s , c e r t a i n nouns a r e grouped t o g e t h e r s e m a n t i c a l l y and f o r m

a p a r t i c u l a r s u b - c l a s s o f nouns.

Each s u b - c l a s s c o n t a i n s a g e n e r a l noun

77

which can s u b s t i t u t e i n n o m i n a l i n c o r p o r a t i o n f o r a l l o f t h e s p e c i f i c nouns i n i t s s u b - c l a s s .

When t h i s o c c u r s , t h e s p e c i f i c noun i s r e t a i n e d

i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n as a s e p a r a t e word. exact reference

which i s only broadly

I t s function i s t o specify the

categorized

by t h e i n c o r p o r a t e d

g e n e r a l noun r o o t .

5.2.21. optional.

One t y p e o f noun i n c o r p o r a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e l y

That i s , t h e v e r b base may o r may n o t c o n t a i n i t s d i r e c t

o b j e c t as an i n c o r p o r a t e d given 1.

/wa?kyvtho?

oji:ja?/

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

subject

"plant" " I planted a flower"

/wakhní:nu? k a n á k t a ? / " I bought a bed" wa-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

-hni:nu ?

subject

"buy"

/wa?kenaktahní:nu?/ /lawé:ku no?wà:lu/

" I bought a bed" "he a t e , has e a t e n t h e meat"

law-

3rd person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r

-é :ku

"eat"

/lo?wahli:ku 4.

" I planted a flower"

wa?-

/vakji?jayvtho?/

3.

Both p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r such v e r b s a r e

below:

-yvtho?

2.

noun.

subject

"he a t e , has eaten t h e meat"

/wahohkalé:wahte? l a h y o ? s a h k e /

"he h u r t h i s elbow"

wa-

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

-ho-

3rd

person masculine s i n g u l a r o b j e c t

78

-hkalé:wahte?

"hurt,

/wahohyo?sakal¿:wahte?/

5.2.22.

injure"

"he h u r t h i s elbow"

A n o t h e r use o f noun i n c o r p o r a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d

w i t h c e r t a i n v e r b bases.

These nouns a r e n o t , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , t h e

d i r e c t objects o f t h e verbs.

However, t h e y a r e o b l i g a t o r y i n t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e g i v e n v e r b bases and must always be i n c o r p o r a t e d : /li?niku:lale?/ li-

"I'm w a t c h i n g , g u a r d i n g h i m "

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 1st s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 3rd

person

person s i n g u l a r

masculine o b j e c t -?nikù:lale?

"watch, g u a r d "

/o?niku:la?/

"mind"

/niha?nikuhl&:?a/ ni-ha-

"he i s m e n t a l l y

partitive 3rd

prefix

person masculine s i n g u l a r

-?nikuhla:?a

"be c h i l d i s h "

/o?nikù:la?/

"mind"

/wa?teskwatkahlú : t i /

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-te-

duplicative prefix t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 2nd s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 1st

-at-

subject

"you ( s g . ) gave me a d i r t y

wa?-

-skw-

childish"

look"

person

person s i n g u l a r

object

reflexive

-kahlú:ti

" d i r t y , bad l o o k "

/oka :1a?/

"eye"

/latelihwatô:lats/

"he's a g o s s i p ,

he g o s s i p s , he's g o s s i p i n g "

79

1-

3rd

-ate-

person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r

subject

reflexive

-lihwató:lats /oli:wa?/

" g o s s i p " ( l i t e r a l l y : hunt news)

"news, i d e a s "

5.2.23.

Noun i n c o r p o r a t i o n i s a l s o used t o express t h e

noun c l a s s i f i e r w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e s u b - c l a s s o f nouns t o w h i c h t h e s p e c i f i c d i r e c t object belongs.

I n t h e s e cases, t h e s p e c i f i c noun i s

expressed as a s e p a r a t e word i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n : /wakenahskwayv:tahkwe? ne takóhs/ wake-

1st

-nahskwa-yv:tahkwe? /-takóhs/

person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t animal "have, own,

1st

-selehta-

possess"

"cat"

/wakeselahtahni:nus?se? ne wake-

" I used t o have an a n i m a l - c a t "

"bike"/

" I bought a v e h i c l e - b i k e "

person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t vehicle

-hni:nu?se?

"buy

(for)"

/ká:seleh/

"vehicle"

/wake?wahlanù:waks ne k i t k l t o?wa:lu/

"I'm hungry f o r meat c h i c k e n meat"

wake-

1st

person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t

-?wahla-

meat

-nù:waks

"be hungry f o r , hunger f o r "

/o?wa:lu/

"meat"

/ k l t k l t o?wà:lu/

" c h i c k e n meat"

PO

5.2.3. vert root.

The f i n a l element i n t h e v e r b base i s t h e o b l i g a t o r y -

Some v e r b bases c o n t a i n one v e r b r o o t w h i l e o t h e r s may c o n t a i n

two v e r b r o ^ t s . Verb r o o t s may c o n s i s t o f as l i t t l e a s one phoneme, e i t h e r a consonant o r a vowel.

Verb r o o t s may, o f c o u r s e , be more complex, b u t t h e y r a r e l y

c o n t a i n more t h a n two s y l l a b l e s . Because o f t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s

o f b o t h t h e d e r i v a t i o n a l and i n f l e c t i o n a l

processes i n Mohawk, a complete v e r b g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n s a v e r b base which i s more t h a n a m i n i m a l v e r b r o o t .

However, verbs a r e a t t e s t e d which

c o n t a i n a s i m p l e v e r b r o o t as t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e v e r b base. S e v e r a l o f t h e s e a r e l i s t e d below:

(Note t h a t t h e s e verbs do, o f c o u r s e ,

c o n t a i n p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s as w e l l a s c e r t a i n o t h e r i n f l e c t i o n a l elements o c c u r r i n g as v e r b a l p r e f i x e s o r s u f f i x e s . ) : /í:kehle?/

I want t o . . . "

x :-

dummy vowel

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

-ehl-? /wà:kv/ wà:-k-v /ó:nv

" I want ( i t ) ,

r o o t : "want i t , p e r f e c t i v e aspect

" I said i t ,

-k-oh

suffix

I'm t h e one who s a i d

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

subject

r o o t : "say" "now I ' v e a r r i v e d "

1 s t person o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x 1 s t person s i n g u l a r root:

/shé :ku nikúhne?/ ni-

to..."

1 s t person o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

wà:koh/ wà:-

subject

subject

" a r r i v e , come" "I'm s t i l l

partitive prefix

alive"

it"

81

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-uhn-?

root:

" l i v e , be a l i v e "

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

/ k v : ka:yv?/

" i t ' s here, i t ' s l y i n g here"

ka-

3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r s u b j e c t

-yv?

root:

5.2.4.

" p l a c e , p u t , be, l i e "

The f o r m a t i o n o f v e r b bases by t h e a d d i t i o n o f v e r b a l

s u f f i x e s t o v e r b bases w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c h a p t e r on V e r b a l S u f f i x e s (see 8.0. b e l o w . ) .

82

6.0.

PRONOMINAL PREFIXES

6.1.

As d i s c u s s e d i n 5.1.1. above, t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s

occur i n t h e second broad p o s i t i o n c l a s s w i t h i n t h e v e r b . p r e f i x e s , i n general,

Pronominal

designate t h e subject or actor o f t h e a c t i o n o r

s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b .

I n Mohawk, t h e r e a r e t h r e e t y p e s o f

s u b j e c t i v e , o b j e c t i v e , and t r a n s i t i v e .

pronominal p r e f i x e s :

The

s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s d e s i g n a t e t h e agent o f t h e v e r b ; t h e o b j e c t i v e prefixes designate t h e object or p a t i e n t o f t h e a c t i o n or s t a t e o f t h e v e r b ; and t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s express an a r r a y o f co-occurrences o f persons o r t h i n g s as agent and p a t i e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b . The

s p e c i f i c allomorphic

shape o f t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x i s

determined by t h e i n i t i a l phoneme o r phonemes o f t h e v e r b stem and i n c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c cases o f t h e modal v e r b a l

i s secondarily

d e t e r m i n e d by t h e f i n a l phoneme

prefix.

T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l proceed as f o l l o w s : w i l l be g i v e n , The

an o u t l i n e o f stem-classes

f o l l o w e d by a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s .

f i r s t t o be d i s c u s s e d a r e t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s .

The o b j e c t i v e

p r e f i x e s w i l l f o l l o w and f i n a l l y t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . 6.2.

Stem-Classes There a r e e i g h t stem-classes w h i c h d e t e r m i n e o r s e l e c t t h e

allomorphic

shape o f t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x w h i c h precedes.

stem-classes a r e e s t a b l i s h e d

These

on b o t h f o r m a l and f u n c t i o n a l grounds.

I n f o r m a l t e r m s , t h e members o f each c l a s s share a common i n i t i a l

83

p h o n o l o g i c a l element o r sequence.

I n f u n c t i o n a l t e r m s , t h e members

o f each c l a s s s e l e c t i d e n t i c a l a l l o m o r p h s o f t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s . Class I . T h i s s t e m - c l a s s c o n s i s t s

o f f o u r s u b - c l a s s e s o f consonant-

i n i t i a l v e r b stems: a.

stems w i t h t h e i n i t i a l s i n g l e consonants:

b.

stems w i t h i n i t i a l

consonant c l u s t e r :

t , k, j , s, and h;

h/C (where C r e p r e s e n t s

any c o n s o n a n t ) ; c.

stems w i t h i n i t i a l :

s/stop;

d.

stems w i t h i n i t i a l :

k/resonant

Class I I . T h i s s t e m - c l a s s a l s o c o n s i s t s

o f f o u r sub-classes o f

c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l v e r b stems: a.

stems w i t h t h e i n i t i a l

b.

stems w i t h i n i t i a l

s i n g l e consonants:

1 , n, and w;

/?/, whether as a s i n g l e consonant o r i n

a cluster; c.

stems w i t h i n i t i a l b i - c o n s o n a n t a l c l u s t e r s n o t covered above

i n Class I b, I c, and I d; d.

stems w i t h i n i t i a l t r i - c o n s o n a n t a l

clusters.

Class I I I . Stems w i t h i n i t i a l /y/. Class I V . Stems w i t h i n i t i a l / i / . Class V. Class V I .

Stems w i t h i n i t i a l /a/. Certain

as / e l / stems).

stems w i t h i n i t i a l

/ e / ( t h e s e w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o

84

Class V I I I .

6.3.

Stems w i t h i n i t i a l

/ o / and stems w i t h i n i t i a l

/u/.

S u b j e c t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x e s

6.3.1.

The f o l l o w i n g i s a c h a r t o f t h e semantic c a t e g o r i e s

w h i c h can be expressed by t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s :

Person 1st

2nd

Inclusive/ Exclusive

Number

Gender

singular dual

incl/excl

plural

incl/excl

singular dual plural

3rd

singular

masculine f e m i n i n e and indefinite f e m i n i n e and neuter masculine

dual

f e m i n i n e and i n d e f i n i t e and neuter plural

masculine f e m i n i n e and i n d e f i n i t e and neuter

As can be seen, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o express t h r e e k i n d s o f person: first,

second, and t h i r d .

First-person subjects are specified f o r

one o f t h r e e k i n d s o f number:

s i n g u l a r , d u a l , and

plural

85

( t h r e e o f more).

Non-singular

1 s t person s u b j e c t s a r e f u r t h e r

s p e c i f i e d as i n c l u s i v e o r e x c l u s i v e .

The i n c l u s i v e / e x c l u s i v e

d e s i g n a t i o n i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o 1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t . Second-person s u b j e c t s ate o r p l u r a l number.

also specified f o r singular, dual,

The i n c l u s i v e / e x c l u s i v e d e s i g n a t i o n i s n o t

applicable. Third-person p l u r a l number.

subjects are specified f o r singular, dual, or

A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e y a r e s p e c i f i e d f o r gender.

Mohawk, t h e r e a r e f o u r semantic genders b u t o n l y t h r e e o r g r a m m a t i c a l genders. (also:

In

morphological

As used i n t h i s grammar, a semantic gender

a semantic c a t e g o r y ) i s one t h a t i s d e f i n e d and a b s t r a c t e d on

t h e b a s i s o f a shared meaning. morphological

A morphological

gender ( a l s o : a

c a t e g o r y ) i s one t h a t i s d e f i n e d and a b s t r a c t e d on t h e

b a s i s o f shared m o r p h o l o g i c a l

features.

I n Mohawk, t h e n , t h e r e i s

some o v e r l a p and convergence o f semantic c a t e g o r i e s m o r p h o l o g i c a l ones.

The f o u r semantic genders a r e : m a s c u l i n e ,

f e m i n i n e , i n d e f i n i t e , and n e u t e r .

6.3.2.

into

They a r e d i s c u s s e d

T h i r d person S i n g u l a r

6.3.21.

below.

Subjects

Masculine

Masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s a r e used t o d e s i g n a t e male human b e i n g s o r male a n i m a l s . 6.3.22. The

1

Non-masculine" non-masculine semantic genders a r e :

feminine,

The t e r m "non-masculine" i s n o t used h e r e t o i m p l y a b a s i c o p p o s i t i o n o f masculine/non-masculine. I t i s used s i m p l y as a convenient c o v e r i n g l a b e l f o r t h r e e semantic genders w h i c h have no m a s c u l i n e semantic components.

86

i n d e f i n i t e , and n e u t e r .

These t h r e e semantic

t o g e t h e r i n t o two m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s . a r r a n g e s t h e non-masculine semantic

genders o v e r l a p and The

following discussion

genders i n t o t h e i r two

c a t e g o r i e s and p o i n t s o u t t h e semantic

fall

morphological

components o f each o f them.

The m a j o r semantic problem i s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f female

beings

and t h e i r assignment i n t o one o f t h e two m o r p h o l o g i c a l c l a s s e s . 6.3.221. The

Feminine/Indefinite f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e m o r p h o l o g i c a l gender

c o n s i s t s o f " f e m i n i n e " and " i n d e f i n i t e " semantic a.

genders.

The " i n d e f i n i t e " compoment c o n s i s t s o f : 1.

a l l u n i d e n t i f i e d humans whose sex i s e i t h e r unknown

o r n o t t h o u g h t t o be r e l e v a n t ; and 2.

i n d e f i n i t e o r g e n e r a l i z e d persons,

as "one," "a person," " t h e y " as i n "One

spoken o f i n E n g l i s h

s h o u l d behave." o r "What a r e

t h e y w e a r i n g t h i s year?'' b.

The " f e m i n i n e " component c o n s i s t s o f : 1.

female human b e i n g s who

a r e r e g a r d e d i n some

p r e s t i g e f u l o r r e s p e c t f u l way by t h e speaker.

Generally included

i n t h i s c a t e g o r y a r e o l d women, e s p e c i a l l y when o l d e r t h a n t h e speaker.

Women o f h i g h s o c i a l s t a t u s i n t h e f a m i l y o r community

are g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n t h i s category, regardless o f the personal a t t i t u d e o f t h e speaker t o w a r d such a woman.

T h i s may

be

changing

somewhat w i t h younger speakers b u t i t i s s t i l l t h e norm. and 2.

female human b e i n g s , r e g a r d l e s s o f s o c i a l o r

r e l a t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r whom t h e speaker has f e e l i n g s o f a f f e c t i o n or

closeness.

87

6.3.222. The

Feminine/neuter feminine/neuter morphological class

c o n s i s t s o f " f e m i n i n e " and " n e u t e r " semantic a.

The " n e u t e r " component c o n s i s t s o f : 1.

b.

genders.

a l l inanimate o b j e c t s .

The " f e m i n i n e " component c o n s i s t s o f : 1.

and 2.

a l l female a n i m a l s and any a n i m a l o f u n s p e c i f i e d sex. female human b e i n g s who do n o t come under t h e d e s c r i p t i o n

g i v e n i n 6 . 3 . 2 2 1 . above.

The d e s i g n a t i o n o f a female as f a l l i n g

into

t h i s c a t e g o r y may be d e r o g a t o r y , a l t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y so.

I t may o r may n o t r e f l e c t a momentary o r g e n e r a l n e g a t i v e

f e e l i n g on t h e p a r t o f t h e speaker t o w a r d t h e female who i s spoken about.

Some speakers f e e l t h a t t h e r e i s a p h y s i c a l c r i t e r i o n

here.

That i s , a g i r l o r woman who i s awkward o r aggressive may more r e a d i l y f a l l i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y , whereas one who i s g r a c e f u l and q u i e t may t e n d t o b e c l a s s e d above.

There seems, t o be g e n e r a l f e e l i n g t h a t

t h i s c a t e g o r y , w h i l e perhaps n o t i n v o l v i n g d i s r e s p e c t , does n o t signal respect. 6.3.223. about t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

I t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o be p r e c i s e

o f female humans i n t o t h e t w o c a t e g o r i e s o f

" f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e " o r "feminine/neuter'

1

because t h e r e a r e v e r y

few g e n e r a l r u l e s w h i c h can be a b s t r a c t e d f r o m a c t u a l b e h a v i o r . i s t h e o n l y c r i t e r i o n w h i c h approaches h a v i n g g e n e r a l

Age

applicability

and even t h i s i s m o d i f i e d b y t h e r e l a t i v e age o f t h e speaker and r e f e r e n t a n d perhaps r e c e n t l y b y a t t i t u d e s o f younger speakers t o w a r d the

elderly.

88

6.3.3.

Third-Person Non-singular

6.3.31.

Subjects

Masculine

I n 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r , i . e . d u a l and p l u r a l , numbers t h e m a s c u l i n e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y comprises male human b e i n g s and any g r o u p i n g o f male and female s u b j e c t s . "masculine female.

That i s ,

d u a l " may d e s i g n a t e e i t h e r two males o r one male and one

L i k e w i s e , "masculine

p l u r a l " may d e s i g n a t e a p l u r a l i t y o f

males o r a p l u r a l group o f any c o m b i n a t i o n o f males and females, i n c l u d i n g a t l e a s t one male.

6.3.32. Non-Masculine I n 3 r d person n o n - s i n g u l a r , i . e . d u a l and p l u r a l , numbers a l l " f e m i n i n e , " " i n d e f i n i t e , " and " n e u t e r " genders f a l l t o g e t h e r i n t o one m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y . t h e semantic

semantic

That i s ,

d i s t i n c t i o n s among t h e s e t h r e e non-masculine genders

a r e n e u t r a l i z e d on t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l l e v e l .

The 3 r d person non-

m a s c u l i n e n o n - s i n g u l a r numbers i n c l u d e a l l females, a l l i n d e f i n i t e persons, and a l l i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s . 6.3.4.

P h o n o l o g i c a l Shapes o f t h e S u b j e c t i v e

Pronominal

Prefixes The d a t a f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r p h o n o l o g i c a l shape o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d below. Rules a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e a t t e s t e d shapes o f t h e p r e f i x e s a r e g i v e n . The d a t a a r e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r m s o f t h e stem-classes determining o r selecting

factors.

which a r e t h e

89

The charts on the following pages summarize the morphophonemic adjustments which w i l l be discussed i n turn i n 6.3.41. through 6.3.48. below.

90

91

92

6.3.41. initial:

Prefixes

s e l e c t e d by Stem-Class I (stems w i t h

t , k, j , s, h, h/C, s / s t o p , and k / r e s o n a n t ) :

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

k-

2nd person s i n g u l a r

2

3 r d p. sg. m a s c u l i n e

(h)se-

la-

feminine/ indefinite

ye-

feminine/ neuter 1st p. d u a l i n c l u s i v e exclusive 1st p. p l u r a l i n c l u s i v e exclusive 2nd p. d u a l

kateniyakenitewayakwaseni-

plural 3 r d p. d u a l m a s c u l i n e

sewa(h)ni-

feminine/ indefinite/ neuter p l u r a l masculine

kenilati-

feminine/ indefinite/ neuter

2

koti-

The n o t a t i o n ( h) i n d i c a t e s t h a t when t h e 2nd person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x i s word i n i t i a l i t appears w i t h o u t t h e / h - / b u t when i t i s n o n - i n i t i a l , the /h-/ i s realized.

93

6.3.42. with i n i t i a l :

P r e f i x e s s e l e c t e d by Stem-Class I I (stems

1 , n, w, ?, b i - c o n s o n a n t a l

Class I , t r i - c o n s o n a n t a l c l u s t e r s ) :

c l u s t e r s n o t covered i n

These p r e f i x e s a r e i d e n t i c a l

t o t h o s e s e l e c t e d b y Stem-Class I above w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g difference: 1st person s i n g u l a r 6.3.43.

ke-

P r e f i x e s s e l e c t e d by Stem-Class I I I

(y-stems)

a r e a l s o t h e same as t h o s e s e l e c t e d b y Stem-Class I above w i t h t h e following difference: 2nd person s i n g u l a r 6.3.44.

(h)s-

P r e f i x e s s e l e c t e d by Stem-Class I V ( i - s t e m s ) :

94

fern, / i n d e f / neuter p l u r a l masculine

kenlun-

fem/indef/ neuter

kun-

F o l l o w l n g a l l p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s ending i n v o w e l s , t h e i n i t i a l / i - / o f t h e v e r b stem i s l o s t .

6.3.45 1st

P r e f i x e s s e l e c t e d by Stem-Class V(a-stems):

p. s i n g u l a r

k-

2nd p. s i n g u l a r

(h)s-

3 r d p. sg. m a s c u l i n e

1-

lst

fem/indef

yu-

f em-neuter

w-

p. d u a l i n c l u s i v e exclusive plural inclusive exclusive

2nd p. d u a l

kyyakytewyakwj -

plural

sew-

3 r d p. d u a l m a s c u l i n e

(h)y-

fem/indef/ neuter

ky-

p l u r a l masculine

lu-

fem/indef neuter

ku-

Here, t o o , p r e f i x e s ending i n vowels a r e f o l l o w e d by v e r b stems which l o s e t h e i r i n i t i a l

/a-/.

95

6.3.46.

P r e f i x e s s e l e c t e d b y Stem-Class V I (e^-stems):

1 s t p. s i n g u l a r

k-

2nd p. s i n g u l a r

(h)s-

3rd p. sg. m a s c u l i n e

law-

fem/indef

yakaw-

f e n /îeuter

yaw-

96

1 s t p. d u a l i n c l u s i v e / exclusive plural

inclusive/

exclusive 2nd

p. d u a l

yakwsen-

plural 3rd

yaken-

sew-

p. d u a l / p l u r a l masculine fem/indef/neuter

6.3.48.

lunkun-

P r e f i x e s s e l e c t e d by Stem-Class V I I I

(/o-/ stems and / u - / s t e m s ) :

97

plural

masculine

lun-

fem/indef/ neuter

6.3.5.

kun-

(and i n some cases f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h kon-)

Rules

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , more g e n e r a l r u l e s can be f o r m u l a t e d t o account f o r t h e a t t e s t e d shapes o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s . r u l e s a r e s t a t e d below i n terms o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s selection.

These

o f phonological

98

(h)se-/

C (non-y)

6.3.53 3rd

{ nla-}

p. s i n g u l a r

masculine

nla-/ lv-/

C i ( l o s s of i )

(h)l-/ law-/

o, u, a, e

1

e , v 2

One g e n e r a l morphophonemic r u l e a p p l i e s t o a l l m a s c u l i n e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s ( s i n g u l a r , d u a l , and p l u r a l ) :

T h i s r u l e a p p l i e s throughout except i n verbs where t h e s y l l a b l e preceding t h e masculine pronominal p r e f i x i s s t r e s s e d .

Stress i s

placed i n accordance w i t h counting and s h i f t i n g r u l e s s t a t e d i n 3.7.2. above.

The s y l l a b l e preceding t h e pronominal p r e f i x may

e i t h e r contain a v e r b a l p r e f i x o r i t may be an empty s y l l a b l e containing a "dummy" vowel.

The purpose o f empty s y l l a b l e s i s t o

provide f o r t h e placement o f s t r e s s

and i s necessary

i n the

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c e r t a i n verbs. When a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e precedes a masculine pronominal p r e f i x , the i n i t i a l / - l - / o f t h e pronominal p r e f i x i s r e t a i n e d . /Lató:lats?

For example:

"he hunts, i s hunting, i s a hunter"

1 - 3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t -ato:lats

"hunt"

/tehalisto:lalaks/ te-

"he types,

i s typing, i s a t y p i s t "

duplicative prefix

-ha- 3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

99

-listó:lalaks -list-

"type" " i r o n , metal"

-olalak-s

" p r e s s , squeeze"

s e r i a l aspect

suffix

but: /i:lehle?/

"he wants i t , wants t o . . . "

i : - dummy vowel 3rd person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r

-1-ehl-?

"want"

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

/yahatlawe?/

suffix

"he a r r i v e d t h e r e , went t h e r e , reached t h e t o p "

yah-

translocative prefix

s -a:-

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

-la-

3rd person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r

-w-?

-t-hi-e-?

subject

"arrive," p u n c t u a l aspect

/ataTkehsu ne v t h l e ? / v-

subject

suffix

"he w i l l w a l k h e r e , come h e r e on f o o t "

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x cislocative prefix 3rd person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r "come" p e r f e c t i v e aspect

suffix

subject

100

3

T h i s f o r m i s n o t as a b e r r a n t as i t l o o k s on t h e s u r f a c e . The c l u s t e r * / - t y - / i s n o t p e r m i s s a b l e i n Akwesasne Mohawk. I t i s r e a l i z e d i n s t e a d as / - k y - / ( s e e 4.2.12. above.).

101

4 This form is not as aberrant as it looks on the surface. The c l u s t e r * / - s y V i s n o t p ι r i s s a b l e i n A k w c s a s n e b u t i s represented on the surface by /-j-/ (see 4.2 133 above).

102

6.3.6.

C e r t a i n p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e

shape o f t h e modal p r e f i x -which precedes them,

A general

morphophonemic r u l e can be s t a t e d v/hicn a p p l i e s i n a l l such cases. T h i s r u l e i s secondary; t h a t i s , i t a p p l i e s t o the. g i v e n p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x a f t e r t h e shape o f such a p r e f i x i s f i r s t

selected

on t h e b a s i s o f t h e morphophonemic r u l e s g i v e n i n 6,3.5 above. The r u l e f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s by v e r b a l prefixes i s : v e r b a l p r e f i x ending / - ? / + pronominal p r e f i x beginning

This r u l e applies

s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e f o l l o w i n g pronominal

prefixes :

"feminine/ijidefinite" singular: {ye-}

103

For

1 s t p. e x c l u s i v e

dual:

{ yakeni}

1 s t p. e x c l u s i v e

plural:

{ yakwa- }

example: /vyekwé:ni ne t h o y v : y v / v-ye-

3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e - i n d e f i n i t e subject "can,

be a b l e t o "

/w/a?ekwe': n i ne t h o y a : y v /

-e-

"she,

one was a b l e t o go"

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x 3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e s u b j e c t

-kwe:ni To

one w i l l be a b l e t o go'

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-kwe:ni

wa?-

"she,

examplify

"can,

be a b l e t o "

t h e h i e r a r c h i a l process o f r u l e a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e

r u l e s f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e v e r b /wa?ekwe:ni/ "she,

one was a b l e t o

. . . " a r e g i v e n below: 1.

modal p r e f i x + p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x + v e r b stem

2.

d e c l a r a t i v e mode + 3 r d p. s i n g , f e m / i n d e f + "be a b l e t o "

3.

d e c l a r a t i v e mode + 3 r d p. s i n g , f e m / i n d e f +

4.

d e c l a r a t i v e mode + { y e - } +

5.

{

6. 7.

wa?-}

+ {ye-} +

{wa?} +

{-kwe:ni}

{-kwé:ni}

{-kwé:ni}

/yekwe:ni?/

/wa?ekwe:ni?/

This schematization

o f the proper construction o f the verb

/Wa?ekwe:ni/ i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r o p e r f o r m o f t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x i s s e l e c t e d f i r s t by t h e v e r b stem w h i c h f o l l o w s i t .

Then t h e

p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x i s s e c o n d a r i l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e shape o f t h e modal p r e f i x w h i c h precedes i t .

104

6.4.

Pronominal P r e f i x Components On t h e b a s i s o f t h e d a t a and t h e r u l e s g i v e n i n 6 . 3 . 5 . and

6 . 3 . 6 . above, c e r t a i n r e c u r r i n g components can be i s o l a t e d f r o m t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s and p a r t i c u l a r meanings can be a s s i g n e d t o them. 6.4.1.

S i n g u l a r Components

1st person

-k-

2nd

person

-s-

3rd

person masculine

- l a -

feminine/ indefinite

-ye-

feminine/ neuter 6.4.2.

-kaN o n - s i n g u l a r Components

inclusive

-te-

exclusive

-ya-

dual

- n i -

plural

1st,

2nd p.

-wa-

105

-ti-

3rd p. 6.4.3.

The f o l l o w i n g t r e e diagrams schematize t h e c o ­

o c c u r r e n c e s o f p e r s o n , number, and gender components. and number components a r e p r i m a r y .

The person

The d i s t i n c t i o n o f i n c l u s i v e

and e x c l u s i v e person and t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s o f gender a r e secondary since t h e i r application

i srestricted t o a particular

person

component and even w i t h i n t h e s e persons, t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e sometimes merged. equally

p r i m a r y , t h e t r e e s can be a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o two e q u a l The t r e e s t r u c t u r e

alternatives. i s given

S i n c e t h e person and number components a r e

b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e person components

below: 1st

person dual

singular inclusive

plural

exclusive

inclusive

exclusive

2nd Person dual

singular 3rd singular

masc.

fern/ fern/ indef neuter

6.4.4.

plural

person dual mase

plural

fern/ indef/ neuter

mase

fern/ indef/ neuter

Formation o f Non-singular P r e f i x e s

I n some cases, t h e shape o f t h e n o n - s i n g u l a r p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x i s a r r i v e d a t b y t h e s i m p l e j o i n i n g o f t h e person and number components.

I n o t h e r s , c e r t a i n p h o n o l o g i c a l changes t a k e

place i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e non-singular pronominal p r e f i x e s . one i n s t a n c e , i . e . i n t h e non-masculine

In

d u a l and p l u r a l 3rd person,

106

t h e r e i s a n e u t r a l . i z a t i o n o f two c a t e g o r i e s d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e singular.

That i s , t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f " f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e " and

" f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r a r e merged i n t h e d u a l and p l u r a l .

The r e s u l t a n t

shape o f t h e p r e f i x i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s i n g u l a r p r e f i x f o r " f e m i n i n e /neut e r .

11

6.4.41.

The f o l l o w i n g c h a r t c o n t a i n s an

analysis of the

n o n - s i n g u l a r p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s i n t e r m s o f t h e i r components: Person

Inclusive/

Number

Exclusive Incl.

ta

1st dual incl. 1st dual excl.

Excl.

Plura:

-ni ya-

-k-

Dual

-nx

1st p l u r a l -wa

te-

ind. 1st p l u r a l excl.

-k-

2nd

dual

c

2nd

olural

s-

-wa

ya-ni

-wa

3rd d u a l masculine

(1)-

-ni

3rd d u a l . fem/indef/ neuter

ke-

-ni

3rd p l u r a l masculine

la-

3rd

-ti

plural

fem/indef/ neuter

kuko-

-ti

07

6.4-42.

The i n c l u s i v e p r e f i x e s a r e n o t marked f o r p e r s o n .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t s i n c e " i n c l u s i v e " o n l y o c c u r s i n t h e 1st p e r s o n , i t s o v e r t marking f o r person i s redundant and t h e r e f o r e

unnecessary.

The

f a c t remains, however, t h a t t h e e x c l u s i v e p r e f i x e s a r e marked f o r person a l t h o u g h t h e y , t o o , o n l y occur i n t h e 1st person.

6.4.44.

I n t h e 3 r d person m a s c u l i n e d u a l p r e f i x , t h e

person marker o n l y appears when t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x i s n o n - i n i t i a l . And i n n o n - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , /1-/

i s r e a l i z e d as / h - / , i n k e e p i n g w i t h

t h e r u l e s t a t e d i n 6.3.53- above. 6.4-45-

The person markers f o r t h e 3rd person non-

m a s c u l i n e n o n - s i n g u l a r p r e f i x e s a r e somewhat a b e r r a n t and do n o t f o l l o w d i r e c t l y from the r u l e s f o r singular p r e f i x e s .

As mentioned above, t h e

s i n g u l a r c a t e g o r i e s o f " f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e " and " f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r " a r e merged i n t h e n o n - s i n g u l a r forms, b u t t h e vowel i n t h e r e s u l t i n g person marker seems p e c u l i a r the previously

6.4-5

t o t h e s e p r e f i x e s and does n o t f o l l o w

stated general rules.

The f o l l o w i n g complete paradigms i l l u s t r a t e t h e

selection rules f o r the formation of the subjective

pronominal p r e f i x e s .

108

The e i g h t paradigms i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e l e c t i o n r u l e s a p p r o p r i a t e t o each o f t h e e i g h t v e r b stem-classes (see 6.2. a b o v e . ) .

The f o l l o w i n g v e r b

stems a r e e x e m p l i f i e d : Class I : - h n i n u - "buy" Class I I :

-nutek- "close"

Class I I I :

-yvtho- "plant"

Class I V : - i ? t e l u - " l i v e , Class V:

stay"

- a t o l a t - "hunt"

Class V I : - e h l - "want" Class V I I :

-enu- "walk, go by f o o t "

Class V I I I :

Class I :

-hninu-

- u n i - "make, b u i l d "

"buy"

(see 6.3.41 above.)

khní:nus

k hní:nus

" I buy, am b u y i n g , am a buyer"

sehní:nus

se h n í :nus

"you ( s g . ) buy"

lahní:nus

l a hní:nus

"he

yehnx:nus

ye hní:nus

"she, one buys"

kahní :nus

ka hní:nus

"she, i t buys"

tenihní:nus

t e n í hní:nus

"we ( d u a l i n c l . ) buy"

yakenihní:nus

y a k e n i hní:nus

"we ( d u a l e x c l . ) buy"

tewahní:nus

teva hní:nus

"we ( p i . i n c l . ) buy"

yakwahní:nus

yakwa hní:nus

"we ( p i . e x c l . ) buy"

senihní:nus

s e n i hní:nus

"you ( d u a l ) buy"

sewahní:nus

sewa hní:nus

"you ( p i . ) buy"

nihní:nus

n i hní:nus

" t h e y (masc. d u a l ) buy"

buys"

109

kenihní:nus

keni hni:nus

" t h e y ( f / i / n / d u a l ) buy"

latíhni:nus

lati

hni:nus

" t h e y (masc, p i . ) buy"

kotihní:nus

k o t i hni:nus

" t h e y ( i / i / n p i . ) buy"

Class I I :

- n u t e k - " c l o s e " (see 6.3.42. above)

kenú:teks

ke nù:teks

"I'm c l o s i n g i t "

senù:teks

se n u : t e k s

"you ( s g . ) a r e c l o s i n g i t "

lanú:teks

l a nú:teks

"he's c l o s i n g i t "

yenú:teks

ye nù:teks

"she, one i s c l o s i n g i t "

kanu:teks

ka nú:teks

"she, i t i s c l o s i n g i t "

teninu:teks

t e n i nú:teks

"we ( d u . i n c l . ) a r e closing i t "

yakeninu:teks

y a k e n i nú:teks

"we ( p i . i n c l . ) a r e closing i t "

tèwanu:teks

tewa nú:teks

"we ( d u . e x c l . ) a r e closing i t "

yakwanú:teks

yakwa n u : t e k s

"we ( p i . e x c l . ) a r e closing i t "

seninü:teks

seni nu:teks

"you ( d u a l ) a r e c l o s i n g it"

sewanú:teks

sewa nú:teks

"you ( p i . ) a r e c l o s i n g it"

ninú:teks

n i nú:teks

" t h e y (masc. d u a l ) a r e closing i t "

keninú:teks

keni nu:teks

" t h e y ( f / i / n dual) a r e closing i t "

latinú:teks

l a t i nú:teks

" t h e y (masc. p i . ) a r e closing i t "

kotinúrteks

k o t i nú:teks

"they ( f / i / n p i . ) are closing i t "

no

Class I I I :

-yvtho-

(see 6.3.43- above.)

"plant"

kyvthos

k yvthos

"I

jvthos

j vthos

"you ( s g . ) p l a n t "

layvthos

l a yvthos

"he p l a n t s "

yeyvthos

ye y v t h o s

"she, one p l a n t s "

kayvthos

ka y v t h o s

"she, i t p l a n t s "

temyvthos

teni

"we ( d u . i n c l . )

yakeniyvthos

yakeni yvthos

"we ( d u . e x c l . ) p l a n t "

tewayvthos

tewa y v t h o s

"we ( p i . i n c l . ) p l a n t "

yakwayvthos

yakwa y v t h o s

"we ( p i . e x c l . ) p l a n t "

seniyvthos

seni yvthos

"you

(dual) plant"

sewayvthos

sewa y v t h o s

"you

(plural) plant"

niyvthos

ni

" t h e y (masc. d u . ) p l a n t "

keniyvthos

keni yvthos

" t h e y ( f / i / n du.) p l a n t "

latiyvthos

lati

yvthos

" t h e y (masc. p i . ) p l a n t "

kotiyvthos

k o t i yvthos

"they ( f / i / n p l . ) p l a n t "

Class I V :

-i?tel"-

yvthos

yvthos

"live,stay"

p l a n t , am p l a n t i n g , am a p l a n t e r "

plant"

(see 6.3.44. above.)

k i :telu

k i :telu

"I

jì:telu

j ì:telu

"you ( s g . ) l i v e "

lv:telu

lv:

"he l i v e s "

yè : t e l u

yè : t e l u

"she, one l i v e s "

kv:telu

kv:

"she, i t l i v e s "

yakenì:telu

yaken i : t e l u

"we ( d u . i n c l , e x c l ) live"

yakwv:telu

yakwv: t e l u

"we ( p i . i n c l , e x c l ) live"

telu

telu

l i v e , stay (there)"

111

sera : t e l u

sen ïrtelu

"you ( d u a l ) l i v e "

sewvrtelu

sewv: t e l u

"you ( p l u r a l )

n i :telu

n i:telu

" t h e y (masc. d u a l ) l i v e "

keni:telu

ken i r t e l u

" t h e y ( f / i / n du.) l i v e "

luni:telu

lun

irtelu

" t h e y (masc. p l . ) l i v e "

kunì. : t e l u

kun ì : t e l u

"they ( f / i / n p l . ) l i v e "

Class V:

-atolat-

"hunt"

live"

( s e e 6.3.45- above.)

kató:lats

k atórlats

" I h u n t , am h u n t i n g , am a h u n t e r "

sató:lats

s atórlats

"you ( s g . ) h u n t "

lato :lats

1 ató:lats

"he h u n t s "

yuto:lats

y u to : l a t s

"she, one h u n t s "

wató:lats

w ató:lats

"she, i t h u n t s "

kyatô:lats

k y ató lats :

"we ( d u a l i n c l ) h u n t "

yaykato:lats

yaky atórlats

"we ( d u a l e x c l ) h u n t "

tewató r l a t s

tew ató:lats

"we ( p l . i n c l ) h u n t "

yakwató:lats

yakw ató:lats

"we ( p l . e x c l ) h u n t "

jato :lats

j ató:rlats

"you ( d u a l ) h u n t "

sewató:lats

sew atórlats

"you ( p l u r a l ) h u n t "

yató:lats

y ató r l a t s

" t h e y (masc. du.) h u n t "

kyató:lats

k y ató : l a t s

" t h e y ( f / i / n du.) h u n t "

lutó:lats

l u tó:lats

" t h e y (masc. p l . ) h u n t "

kutórlats

ku tó:lats

"they ( f / i / n p l . ) hunt"

112

Class V I : - e h l -

"want

(see 6.3.46. above. )

í :kehle?

1: k ehle?

"I

ihsehle?

í hs ehle?

"you ( s g . ) want"

i:lehle?

1: 1 ehle?

"he

í : yehle ?

1: y ehle?

"she, one wants"

i:wehle?

i : w ehle?

"she, i t wants"

itenehle ?

í t e n ehle?

"we ( d u , i n c l )

yakenehle ?

yáken ehle?

"we ( d u . e x c l ) want"

itewehle?

1 t e w ehle?

"we ( p l . i n c l . ) want"

yákwehle?

yákw ehle?

"we ( p l . e x c l . )

ísenehle?

i sen ehle?

"you ( d u a l ) want"

ísewehle?

í sew ehle';

"you ( p l u r a l ) want"

5íhnehle ?

í hn ehle?

" t h e y (masc.du.) want"

ikenehle?

í ken ehle?

" t h e y ( f / i / n du.) want"

lû rnehle?

l u :n ehle?

" t h e y (masc. p l . ) want"

ku :nehle?

ku:n

" t h e y ( f / i / n p l . ) want"

ehle?

Class V I I : -enu- " v i a l k , go by f o c t "

vant i t , I want t o . . . "

wants"

want"

want"

(see 6 . 3 . 4 7 . above.)

nitewaké:nu

n i : t e wa k e:nu

" I walked h e r , came by foot"

nitehse:nu

n i t e hs é:nu

"you ( s g . ) came"

nithawé:nu

n i t haw e:nu

"he came"

113

nikyakawé:nu

n i k yakaw é:nu

"she, one came"

nikyawé:nu

n i k yaw e:nu

"she, i t came"

nikyakené:nu

n i k yaken é:nu

"we ( d u a l i n c l , came"

nikyakwè:nu

n i kyakw é:nu

"we ( p l . i n c l , e x c l ) came"

n i t é sene :nu

n i t e sen e:nu

"you

( d u a l ) came"

nitesewe:nu

n i t e sew é:nu

"you

( p l u r a l ) came"

nithune:nu

ni

" t h e y (masc d u a l , p l . ) came"

nitekuné:nu

n i t e k u n é:nu

Class V I I I :

t hun é:nu

- u n i - "make, b u i l d "

excl)

"they ( f / i / n du., p l . ) came"

(see 6.3.48. above)

ku:nis

k u:nis

" I make, b u i l d ; am making, b u i l d i n g ; am a maker, builder"

su:nis

s ú:nis

"you

hlu:nis

hl ú:nis

"he makes"

yakú:nis

yak -ú:nis

"she, one makes"

yúnis

y ú:nis

"she, i t makes"

tenú:nis

t e n ú:nis

"we ( d u i n c l ) make"

yakenú:nis

yaken ú:nis

"we (du e x c l ) make"

tewú :nis

tew ú:nis

"we ( p l . i n c l . ) make"

yakyu:nis

yaky ú:nis

"we ( p l . e x c l . ) make"

senú:nis

sen

"you

( d u a l ) make"

ju:nis

j

"you

( p l . ) make"

nú:nis

n u :nis

kenu:nis

ken

u:nis

lunu:nis

lun

u:nis

" t h e y (masc p l ) make"

kunu : n i s

kun

u:nis

" t h e y ( f / i / n p l ) make"

u:nis

u:nis

( s g . ) make"

" t h e y (masc d u a l ) make" " t h e y ( f / i / n d u a l ) make"

114

6.5.

O b j e c t i v e Pronominal

Prefixes

O b j e c t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x : subjective pronominal prefix

+

objective prefix marker

The o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x c o n s i s t s o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x and a n o b j e c t i v e marker.

The p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n a l

arrangements o f t h e s e two components f o r each person w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n 6.5-2. below and f o l l o w i n g .

6.5.1.

O b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s express a number o f

r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e agent and p a t i e n t o r b e n e f i c i a r y o f a v e r b . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e outlined and e x e m p l i f i e d 1.

Animate a g e n t and n e u t e r p a t i e n t .

below.

(These v e r b s a r e o f t e n

t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h as t r a n s i t i v e s . ) : /wakakye-s/

" I lose i t ,

I keep l o s i n g

wa-

objective

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-ákye?--s

marker

"lose"

s e r i a l aspect s u f f i x

/tewakatuhujurnú/

" I want i t ,

I want t o do i t "

te-

duplicative prefix

-w-

objective

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-atuhuju:ni /loká:latus/ 1-

it"

marker

"want"

"he t e l l s s t o r i e s "

3 r d p e r s o n masculine s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

115

-o-

objective

-ká:latu-s 2.

marker

" t e l l a story"

s e r i a l aspect s u f f i x

Neuter a g e n t and animate p a t i e n t .

t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h as

(These v e r b s a r e o f t e n

passives.):

/ukenehla :ko?/ " i t s u r p r i s e d me; I was s u r p r i s e d " u-

o b j e c t i v e marker and d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

-ke-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-nehla : ko ? /ukwatv'anahlov/ u-

"surprise" " I ' v e been w i t c h e d "

o b j e c t i v e marker and d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

-kw-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-atv?anahlo? " w i t c h " /wahoteselú:ti?/ wa-

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

-h-

3rd

-o-

objective marker

person masculine s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-teselú:ti? 3.

" l i g h t n i n g h i t h i m ; he was h i t by l i g h t n i n g "

"(lightning) h i t "

There a r e c e r t a i n v e r b bases w h i c h occur o n l y w i t h o b j e c t i v e

pronominal p r e f i x e s .

The p r o n o n i m a l p r e f i x i s o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d as

the subject o r actor, the verb generally describing a state o r c o n d i t i o n o f t h e grammatical s u b j e c t .

The whole c o n s t r u c t i o n i s

o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h as a n i n t r a n s i t i v e /wakewa:nis/ wa-ke-

" I s t u t t e r , I'm a s t u t t e r e r "

objective

marker

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

verb.

116

-wa:ni -s

"stutter"

s e r i a l aspect s u f f i x

/lokstvrha/ 1-

"he's o l d "

3rd person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r

-o-

objective

-kstvrha /yó':ta. s/

marker

"be o l d "

"she, i t i s s l e e p i n g "

5

3rd person f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r s i n g u l a r

y-

-o:- o b j e c t i v e -ta' -s

prefix

marker

"sleep"

;

4.

prefix

s e r i a l aspect s u f f i x

W i t h v e r b bases c o n t a i n i n g a noun r o o t , t h e o b j e c t i v e

r e f e r s t o t h e possessor o f t h e i n c o r p o r a t e d /tewakenuhsahju/ te-

"my house i s d i r t y "

duplicative prefix

-wa-

objective

-ke-

1st

-nuhs-ahju

"be d i r t y "

6.5.2

" I have a n a n i m a l "

objective 1st

"nahskwa-yv'.

prefix

"house"

?

-ke-

marker

person s i n g u l a r

/wakenáhskwayv'- / wa-

noun:

marker

person s i n g u l a r

prefix

"animal"

"have, own, possess"

Objective

Morphemes

The o b j e c t i v e morphemes which co-occur w i t h t h e

prefix

117

s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s a r e : 1 s t person ( s i n g u l a r , d u a l , p l u r a l ) :

wa-

2nd person

-a

(singular):

3 r d person ( s i n g u l a r , d u a l , p l u r a l ) :

6.5.3.

-o

Arrangement

The arrangement o f t h e o b j e c t i v e morphemes i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f e x e s i s as f o l l o w s :

Objective

Pronominal

Prefixes

Person 1st person singular

objective marker :

wa-

subjective prefix:

-k-

dual

wa-

-ya-keni-

plural

wa-

-ya-kwa-

2nd p e r s o n singular

subjective prefix: (Ms-

objective marker:

-a-

subjective prefix: 1-

objective marker :

-o-

3 r d person singular masculine feminine/ indefinite feminine/ neuter

yak-

-o-

y-

-o-

dual, p l u r a l masculine

subjective prefix: 1 - t i

feminine/ indefinite/ neuter

y-ti

objective marker :

-o-

-o-

As can be seen, i n t h e 1 s t person ( s i n g u l a r and n o n - s i n g u l a r ) ,

318

the o b j e c t i v e morpheme precedes t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x . I n t h e 2nd and 3rd persons, t h e o b j e c t i v e morphemes f o l l o w t h e appropriate s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s .

A l s o , as can be seen,

t h e o b j e c t i v e marker does n o t co-occur w i t h 2nd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p r e f i x e s , as w i l l be f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n 6.5.42. below.

6.5-4.

There a r e a number o f g e n e r a l morphophonemic

r u l e s which a p p l y i n t h e construction o f o b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s . These a r e d i s c u s s e d below. 6.5.41.

Two r u l e s a p p l y t o t h e 1 s t person o b j e c t i v e

pronominal p r e f i x e s :

The f i r s t r u l e a p p l i e s i n 1 s t person s i n g u l a r forms w i t h t h e modal p r e f i x {-wa-j

{wa?-.}

I t means t h a t when t h e o b j e c t i v e morpheme

o c c u r s f o l l o w i n g t h e d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

a r e merged and a r e r e a l i z e d as / u - / . /wakekstv":ha/ wa-ke-

marker

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x "be o l d "

/ukekstv:hahne?/

-ke-

For example :

"I'm o l d "

objective

-kstvrha

u-

(wa?-,j

" I became o l d "

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x and o b j e c t i v e marker 1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-kstv'ihahne? The u n d e r l y i n g

"become o l d "

s t r u c t u r e f o r " I became o l d " i s

"Vwa ?wa? -ke - k s t v :hahne ? /.

both

119

However, b e f o r e a v e r b base w i t h a n i n i t i a l vowel /-a-/, t h e rule i s s l i g h t l y modified:

For example : /wakatela-swi:yo/

" I have good l u c k "

wa-

objective

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

- a t e l a ? swí:yo

marker

"have good l u c k "

/ u k w a t e l a swí:yoste?/ u-kw-

" I had good l u c k ( e . g . l a s t n i g h t ) "

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x and o b j e c t i v e

marker

1 s t person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-atela'-swi:yoste:

"have good l u c k "

The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e o f " I had good l u c k " i s *?wa?-wa-k-atel? swí :yoste?/.

When t h e s e 1 s t person n o n - s i n g u l a r o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s co-occur w i t h t h e d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x

{wa -} ?

( o r w i t h any o t h e r

v e r b a l p r e f i x ending w i t h / - ? / ) , t h e i n i t i a l / y - / o f t h e pronominal p r e f i x i s l o s t f o l l o w i n g t h e f i n a l f-if o f t h e v e r b a l p r e f i x , i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e r u l e s t a t e d i n 6.3.6. above.

For example:

120

/yukeni? n i k u h l a k s v s /

"we ( d u a l ) a r e sad"

yakeni-

1st person d u a l p r e f i x

yukeni-

1st person d u a l o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

—'nikuhláksv-s

"be s a d "

s e r i a l aspect s u f f i x

/wa?ukeni?nikuhláksv/

"we ( d u a l ) were sad"

wa?- d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x 1st person d u a l o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-yukeni-

-?nikuhláksv

"be sad"

Note t h a t i n t h e o b j e c t i v e 1st person n o n - s i n g u l a r p r e f i x e s , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between i n c l u s i v e and e x c l u s i v e

person i s n e u t r a l i z e d .

The a t t e s t e d n o n - s i n g u l a r o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e d e r i v e d subjective exclusive

prefixes.

from t h e

I t i s interesting t o r e c a l l that the

s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s f o r i n c l u s i v e 1st person agents do n o t c o n t a i n a 1st person component (see 6 . 4 . 4 2 . ) .

That i s , t h e s u b j e c t i v e

p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s f o r 1st person i n c l u s i v e d u a l person i n c l u s i v e

{tewa-}

{teni-?

and 1st

l a c k t h e 1st person component marker { - k - }

T h i s f a c t and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s f o r 1st person nons i n g u l a r a r e based on t h e e x c l u s i v e

1st person p r e f i x e s suggest

t h a t t h e c a t e g o r y o f " e x c l u s i v e " i s more b a s i c i n Mohawk t h a n i s t h e category o f " i n c l u s i v e . " The

shape o f t h e 1st person s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , b o t h

s i n g u l a r and n o n - s i n g u l a r , which f o l l o w t h e o b j e c t i v e morpheme

{wa-}

i s i n a l l cases c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s e l e c t i o n r u l e s g i v e n i n 6 . 3 . 5 . above.

That i s , t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x i s s e l e c t e d by t h e shape o f

t h e v e r b stem w h i c h f o l l o w s

it.

121

6.5-42 singular {(h)s-}

The o b j e c t i v e morpheme f o r 2nd person

{ - a - } f o l l o w s t h e s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e 2nd person p r e f i x The shape o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x i s i n k e e p i n g w i t h

t h e s e l e c t i o n r u l e s t a t e d i n 6 . 3 . 5 2 . above; t h a t i s , t h e 2nd person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x i s r e a l i z e d a s / ( h ) s - / when p r e c e d i n g t h e vowel /-a/. The f o l l o w i n g r u l e a p p l i e s t o t h e shape o f t h e 2nd person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t i v e morpheme:

I n t h e 2nd person n o n - s i n g u l a r , i . e . d u a l and p l u r a l , t h e r e i s no o v e r t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

f o r the objective.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e shape o f

t h e 2nd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p r e f i x e s i n t h e o b j e c t i v e paradigm a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e paradigm. I n Akwesasne Mohawk, t h e o b j e c t i v e morpheme i s o v e r t l y r e a l i z e d i n t h e 2nd person s i n g u l a r o n l y w i t h v e r b stems b e g i n n i n g w i t h consonants.

I t does n o t o c c u r w i t h v o w e l - i n i t i a l v e r b stems i n

Akesasne Mohawk except t h o s e b e g i n n i n g w i t h / - i / , and i n t h i s case, t h e o b j e c t i v e morpheme undergoes t h e same morphophonemic changes that characterize

underlying

(see 6.3-44. a b o v e ) .

/ - a - / o c c u r r i n g w i t h / - i - / stems

That i s , t h e /-a-/ o f t h e o b j e c t i v e morpheme

i s r e a l i z e d a s / - v - / p r e c e d i n g / i - / i n i t i a l v e r b stems ( w i t h a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c loss o f the s t e m - i n i t i a l 6.5.43

/i-/).

The o b j e c t i v e morpheme f o r 3 r d person

( s i n g u l a r and n o n - s i n g u l a r ) , { - o - } , f o l l o w s

t h e 3 r d person

322

s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s . i s consistent 6.3.55- above.

The shape o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e

with the selection rules given i n

6.3•53.

6.3-54. a n d

That i s , t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s , which occur a r e

t h o s e which a r e a p p r o p r i a t e b e f o r e t h e vowel /-o-/. 3rd

prefix

person s i n g , m a s c u l i n e :

These a r e :

( h ) l -

feminine/ i n d e f i n i t e : yakfeminine/ neuter :

y-

When t h e 3 r d person o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s precede v e r b stems b e g i n n i n g w i t h vowels, t h e i n i t i a l

vowel o f t h e stem i s l o s t :

I n t h e 3 r d person n o n - s i n g u l a r p r e f i x e s , t h e o b j e c t i v e morpheme -o-

f o l l o w s t h e person marker b u t precedes t h e number marker.

The d i s t i n c t i o n between d u a l and p l u r a l 3 r d person i s n e u t r a l i z e d i n the objective prefixes. 3rd

The o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s f o r n o n - s i n g u l a r

person a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e p l u r a l s u b j e c t i v e

prefixes.

The 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e : w i t h c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l v e r b stems : masculine:

loti-

feminine/ indefinite/ neuter

yoti-

w i t h v o w e l - i n i t i a l v e r b stems : masculine: feminine/ indefinite/ neuter:

lon-

yon-

323

These 3rd

person n o n - s i n g u l a r o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e

c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g components : Person masculine :

Objective

1

-

o

Plural -

t i /C n/

feminine/ indefinite/ neuter

-

y

o

-

t i / C n/

As can be seen, t h e 3rd

V

V

person n o n - s i n g u l a r , non-masculine

o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x i s based on t h e 3rd p r e f i x f o r "feminine/neuter."

person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e

The a l l o m o r p h w h i c h o c c u r s h e r e ,

/y-/, i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e one p r e c e d i n g t h e vowel /-o-/.

6.5.5s e c t i o n 6.5

To summarize and i l l u s t r a t e t h e r u l e s g i v e n i n t h e

above f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s ,

three complete paradigms are given below. The f o l l o w i n g stems w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d : -hs'-

" f i n i s h "Stem-Class I )

-ahtvky-

" l e a v e , go away" (Stem-Class V)

-. n i k u h l a k s v Stem-Class

I : -hs'- " f i n i s h

"be sad, c r y " (Stem-Class I I )

(see 6 . 3 . 4 1 .

above)

wakhsu?

wá k hsu?

" I (have) f i n i s h e d i t "

sahsu?

s á hsu?

"you ( s g . ) f i n i s h e d i t "

lohsu?

1

"he f i n i s h e d i t "

yakóhsu?

yak

ybhsu?

y ó

óhsu? ó hsu? hsu?

"she, one f i n i s h e d i t " "she, i t f i n i s h e d i t "

124

yukenihsu?

y-kení u hsu?

"we ( d u . ) f i n i s h e d i t "

yukwàhsu ?

y-kwá u hsu?

"we ( p l . ) f i n i s h e d i t "

seníhsu?

seni hsu?

"you ( d u a l ) f i n i s h e d i t "

sewáhsu?

sewá hsu?

"you ( p i . ) f i n i s h e d i t "

lotíhsu?

l-tóío hsu?

" t h e y (masc.) f i n i s h e d i t "

yotíhsu?

y-tí o hsu?

"they ( f / i / n ) f i n i s h e d i t "

Stem-Class V:

-ahtvky-

" l e a v e , go away"

(see 6.3-45. above)

wakahtvkyu

wa k a h t v k y u

" I l e f t , went away"

sahtvkyu

s ahtvkyu

"you ( s g . ) l e f t "

lohtvkyu

1 o htvkyu

"he

yakohtvkyu

yak o h t v k y u

"she, one l e f t "

yohtvkyu

y o htvkyu

"she, i t l e f t "

yukyahtvkyu

y-ky u a h t v k y u

"we ( d u a l ) l e f t "

yukwahtvkyu

y-kw u a h t v k y u

"we ( p l . ) l e f t "

jahtvkyu

j ahtvkyu

"you ( d u a l ) l e f t "

sewahtvkyu

sew a h t v k y u

"you ( p l . ) l e f t "

lonahtvkyu

1-n o a h t v k y u

" t h e y (.masc.) l e f t "

yonahtvkyu

y-n o a h t v k y u

"they ( f / i / n ) l e f t "

Stem -Class I I : - ? n i k u h l a k s v -

left"

"be sad, c r y ( o v e r sadness" (see 6.3.42. above)

wake ?nikuhláksvs

wa ke ?nikuhláksvs

"I'm sad, c r y i n g "

sa?nikuhláksvs

s a ?nikuhláksvs

"you ( s g . ) a r e sad"

lo?nikuhláksvs

1 o ?nikuhlaksvs

"he i s sad"

yako?nikuhláksvs

yak o -nikuhláksvs

"she, one i s sad"

125

yoVnikuhlΰksvs y o ?nikuhlaksvs "she, i t i s sad" yukeni?nikuhláksvs

y - k e n i u ?nikuhláksvs "we ( d u a l ) a r e sad"

yukwg?nikuhláksvs

y-kwa u

?nikuhlásvs

"we ( p l . ) a r e sad"

seni'-'nikuhlaksvs seni ?nikuhlαksvs "you (dual) are sad" sewa?nikuhlαksvs sewa ?nikuhlαksvs "you ( p i . ) are sad" loti'-'nikuhlaksvs

1 - t i o -nikuhláksvs

" t h e y (masc.) a r e s a d "

yoti?nikuhláksvs

y-tio

" t h e y ( f / i n / n ) a r e sad"

?nikuhlaksvs

126

6.6 6

T r a n s i t i v e Pronominal P r e f i x e s The t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s express t h e co-occurrence

of

t h e agent and t h e p a t i e n t o f t h e v e r b .

That i s , t h e y express t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f one person o r t h i n g as agent o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v e r b t o a n o t h e r person o r t h i n g as p a t i e n t .

For t h e most p a r t , t h e

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s cannot be e a s i l y a n a l y z e d i n t o component p a r t s and a r e b e s t t r e a t e d as f u s e d u n i t s which express the

i d e a o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a d d i t i o n t o d e n o t i n g s p e c i f i c persons o r

things. The t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s a r e l i s t e d and d i s c u s s e d below. verb.

They a r e a r r a n g e d i n paradigms a c c o r d i n g t o t h e agent o f t h e Rules f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l shapes o f t h e

t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e g i v e n and t h e n g e n e r a l r u l e s a p p l y i n g t o these p r e f i x e s a r e a b s t r a c t e d and d i s c u s s e d . 6.6.1.

T r a n s i t i v e Pronominal

6.6.11.

6

1st t

Prefixes

perso n s i n g u l a r a g e n t :

{ko-} v a r i e s f r e e l y w i t h /ku-/. Both can occur i n i t i a l l y and b o t h can occur s t r e s s e d o r u n s t r e s s e d . I n comparison w i t h o t h e r I r o q u o i a n Languages, i t seems t h a t t h e b a s i c p r o t o - I r o q u o i a n shape o f t h i s p r e f i x has t h e n a s a l , r a t h e r t h a n o r a l , vowel; t h a t i s * / k u - / o r p o s s i b l y */khu-/. The Akwesasne Mohawk /ko-/ i s the r e s u l t o f t h e d e n a s a l i z a t i o n o f / - u - / t o non-nasal / - u - / and a l o w e r i n g o f the vowel h e i g h t o f / - u - / t o /-o-/. The f i r s t change, i . e . d e n a s a l i z a t i o n , i s subphonemic w h i l e t h e second change i s a phonemic one. However, i n c u r r e n t Akwesasne speech, t h e f r e e v a r i a t i o n o f /ku-/ and /ko/ i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e changes a r e n o t y e t complete. A l t h o u g h r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e p r e f i x as { { k o - j } r a t h e r t h a n as /ku-/ s u p e r f i c i a l l y obscures t h e h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n o f t h e f o r m , t h e c h o i c e was made on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f a c t t h a t { k o - j } i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y more p r e v a l e n t a t Akwesasne t h a n i s /ku-/.

127

7

There i s f r e e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e 2nd person s u b j e c t t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s between t h e p r e f i x p a r t i a l s / ( h ) s - / and / t a - / when p r e c e d i n g a consonant. That i s , / ( h ) s k e - / can a l s o be r e a l i z e d as / t a k e - / b u t / ( h ) s e k - / can o n l y be r e a l i z e d as / ( h ) s e k - / . For convenience, a l l forms a r e w r i t t e n / ( h ) s - / , w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h i s can be r e p l a c e d by / t a - / b e f o r e consonants.

128

8

There i s f r e e v a r i a t i o n between t h e c l u s t e r / - t s - / and t h e a f f r i c a t e / - c - / b e f o r e a vowel i n any o f t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s which express any s u b j e c t / o b j e c t co-occurrence o f t h e 3 r d person s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e and 2nd person s i n g u l a r , d u a l , o r p l u r a l . The o n l y p r e f i x i n which t h i s f r e e v a r i a t i o n has no r e l e v a n c e i s t h e one e x p r e s s i n g 3 r d person s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e s u b j e c t w i t h 2nd person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t ("he: you ( s g . ) " ) . The s t a t e d f r e e v a r i a t i o n i s i r r e l e v a n t i n t h a t p r e f i x because i t has a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l shape. For convenience, t h e c l u s t e r i s always w r i t t e n / - t s - / , w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i t v a r i e s f r e e l y w i t h / - c - / when p r e c e d i n g a vowel.

129

(h)skwv/ (h)skway/ 6.6.13.

i

(vowel o,u

3rd person s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e

loss)

130

131

132

133

6.6.18. you ( d u ) : me

9

2nd person d u a l a g e n t :

(h)skeni-

(h)skeni/

C V ( l o s s ) (non-a)

(h)sky/ you ( d u ) : h i m

tsiseni-

a

tsiseni/

C V (loss)

(non-a)

t s i j / ____a you ( d u ) : h e r , one, them /

yetsi-

yetsi/

C V ( l o s s ) (non-a)

y e t s i y / ___a you ( d u ) : h e r , i t

(h)seni-

(

h

)

s

e

n

i

/

C V ( l o s s ) (non-a)

you

(du) : us

you(duálf

(h)skeni-

(h)skeni/

C V ( l o s s ) (non-a)

9 See f o o t n o t e § 7 i n 6.6.12. above f o r t h e a l t e r n a t i o n

/(Ms-/

and / t a - / when p r e c e d i n g a consonant.

between

134

(h)sky/ you ( d u ) : us (plural)

(h)skwa-

a

(h)skwa/

C V (loss)

(h)skwv/ 6.6.19. you ( p i ) : me

i

(loss)

2nd person p l u r a l a g e n t :

10 (h)skwa-

(h)skwa/

C V (loss)

you ( p i ) : him

tsisewa-

(h)skwv/

j (loss)

tsisewa/

C V (loss)

tsisewv/ you ( p i ) : h e r , one, them

yetsi-

yetsi/

yetsiy/ ( h )sewa-

( p i ) : us (dual, plural)

(h)skwa-

(non-a)

a

(h)sewa/

C

(h)sewv/

i (loss)

(h)skwa/

C V (loss)

(h)skwv/

10

(non-i)

C

V (loss)

you

(non-i)

j (loss)

V (loss)

you ( p i ) : h e r , i t

(non-i)

(non-i)

(non-i)

j (loss)

See f o o t n o t e # 7 i n 6.6.12. above f o r t h e a l t e r n a t i o n between Mn;s-/ and / t a - / when p r e c e d i n g a consonant.

135

6.6.20.

3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r ( d u a l , p l u r a l ) m a s c u l i n e ,

f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e / n e u t e r agents : The t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s w h i c h express t h e co-occurrences o f 3 r d person n o n - s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e , f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e / n e u t e r a g e n t s a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e f o r 3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e a g e n t s discussed

above i n 6.6.14.

The forms f o r 3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e a g e n t s and t h o s e f o r 3 r d person n o n - s i n g u l a r agents can be d i s a m b i g u a t e d by t h e a d d i t i o n o f s e p a r a t e p r o n o m i n a l words w h i c h r e f e r t o t h e agent o f the verb.

For example:

^/wa'-'ukhlo:li?/

"she, one t o l d me" " t h e y t o l d me" ( " t o l d i t t o m e / t o l d me t o . . . " )

but: /akáuha wa'hikhlo : l i ? /

"she, one t o l d me"

/lonuha wa'-ukhló : l i ? /

" t h e y ( m a s c , d u a l , p l u r a l ) t o l d me"

/omiha wa'-ukhló : l i ? /

"they (fem/indef/neuter, dual, p l u r a l ) t o l d me"

The pronouns f o r " t h e y " can be f u r t h e r d i s a m b i g u a t e d as f o l l o w s : /tehnú:kweh wa'-ukhló : l i ? / /lonu:kweh wa u k h l o : l i V /

/two men, t h e y t o l d me" "many men, t h e y t o l d me"

and / t e k e n u :kweh wa-ukhlo : l i ? /

"two women, t h e y t o l d me"

11 The i n i t i a l / y - / o f t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x { y u k - } "she, one, t h e y : me" i s l o s t a f t e r t h e f i n a l / - ? / o f t h e a o r i s t modal p r e f i x wa?-, as d i s c u s s e d i n 6.3-6. above.

136

/konú:kweh wa'ukhló : l i ? /

6.6.2.

"many women, t h e y t o l d me"

The c h a r t s below summarize t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

p r e f i x e s which express a g e n t / p a t i e n t

co-occurrences.

patient agent

1

sing.

1 dual

1

plural

1 sg. 1 dual

1 pl. 2 sg.

(h)sek-

(h)skeni-

(h)skwa-

2 dual

(h)skeni-

(h)skeni

(h)skwa-

2 pl.

(h)skwa-

(h)skwa-

(h)skwa-

3 sing, masc.

lak-

(h)sukeni-

(h)sukwa-

3 sing, fem/ind. nonsing. masc/fern/ ind/neuter

yuk-

yukhi-

yukhi-

3 sing, fem/n.

wak-

yukeni-

yukwa-

137

patient agent

2 sing.

2 dual

2 plural

1 sg.

ko-

keni-

kwa-

1 dual

keni-

keni-

kwa-

1

kwa-

kwa-

kwa-

(h)ya-

(h)tsiseni-

(h)tsisewa

sing. fem/ind. nonsing. masc/fem/ ind/neuter

yesa-

yetsi-

yetsi-

sing, fern/ neuter

sa-

seni-

sewa-

plural

2 sg. 2 dual 2 plural

3 sing, masc.

3

3

138

\

patient 3rd nonsing. masc/fem/ ind/neuter

3 sing, masc.

3 sing, fem/ indef.

3 sing, fem/ neuter

li-

khe-

k-

1 dual

(h)sakeni-

yakhi-

yakeni-

yakhi-

1 pi.

(h)sakwa-

yakhi-

yakwa-

yakhi-

2 sg.

ts-

(h)se-

(h)s-

(h)se-

2 dual

tsiseni-

yetsi-

(h)seni-

yetsi-

2pl.

tsisewa-

yetsi-

(h)sewa-

yetsi-

3 sing, masc.

lo-

(h)sako

la-

3 sing, fem/ind. nonsing. masc/ f/i/n

luwa-

yutat-

agent

1

sing.

kuwa-

khe-

(h)sako

luwati-(masc. ) kuwati-(fem/ indef/ neuter)

3 sing, fem/ neuter

lo-

yako-

yo-

yako-

139

6.6.3-

A number o f g e n e r a l r u l e s can be a b s t r a c t e d

from the

data g i v e n i n t h e s e c t i o n above. 6.6.31.

The agent and p a t i e n t components i n t r a n s i t i v e

pronominal p r e f i x e s are g e n e r a l l y subjective

pronominal p r e f i x e s

those

t h a t were a b s t r a c t e d

f o r the

(see 6.4- a b o v e ) .

The r u l e s f o r t h e o r d e r i n g o f a g e n t / p a t i e n t

components w i t h i n

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s a r e as f o l l o w s :

Person

1st

2nd

3rd

person : sinp. : dual : plural

Transitive

Prefix

agent

+

patient

person : sing.

agent

+

patient

dual : plural

agent

+

p a t i e n t ( i f p a t i e n t i s 1st

person) person)

person: s i n p . mase

s i n g , fern/ ind/neuter nonsing. masc/fem/ ind/neuter

patient

+

agent ( i f p a t i e n t i s 3rd

patient

+

agent

agent

+

patient

That i s , t h e agent component precedes t h e p a t i e n t component u n l e s s t h e p a t i e n t i s 3rd

person s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e , i n which case t h e p a t i e n t

component e x p r e s s i n g 3rd

person s i n g u l a r masculine p a t i e n t always

140

precedes i t s a g e n t .

However, i f t h e agent i s 2nd person n o n - s i n g u l a r

( i . e . d u a l and p l u r a l ) and t h e p a t i e n t i s masculine ( s i n g u l a r , d u a l , o r p l u r a l ) , t h e n t h e p a t i e n t component always precedes t h e agent component. I t i s t o be n o t e d t h a t these r u l e s a p p l y o n l y t o t h o s e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s which o v e r t l y express b o t h t h e agent and p a t i e n t components. They l o g i c a l l y cannot a p p l y where t h e agent and p a t i e n t a r e so h i g h l y fused t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x cannot be f u r t h e r a n a l y z e d i n t o s e p a r a t e agent and p a t i e n t components b u t must be t r e a t e d as a f u s e d unit.

A l s o , t h e s e r u l e s l o g i c a l l y cannot a p p l y where one o r t h e o t h e r

o f t h e agent and p a t i e n t components i s n o t a t a l l o v e r t l y expressed.

6.6.311.

The o n l y i s o l a b l e component i n t h e t r a n s i t i v e

p r e f i x paradigm which has n o t a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i s t h e r e f l e x i v e / reciprocal

{-atat-}

.

The r e c i p r o c a l component

{-atat-}

the t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e x p r e s s i n g t h e co-occurrence o f 3rd s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e agent w i t h 3rd i n d e f i n i t e p a t i e n t (and t h e r e f o r e a l s o 3rd w i t h 3rd

(see above c h a r t ) .

j-atat-}

person

person s i n g u l a r

feminine/

person n o n - s i n g u l a r agent

person f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e p a t i e n t ) .

i s { yutat-}

occurs i n

This t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x

The i n i t i a l /a-/ o f t h e r e c i p r o c a l

i s l o s t when i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e 3rd

person

singular

f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x / y u - / , as d i s c u s s e d i n 6 . 3 - 5 4 . above. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e o n l y paradigm i s which p r e f i x e s e x p r e s s i n g 3rd

person n o n - s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t s a r e

d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e e x p r e s s i n g 3rd p a t i e n t s i s t h e paradigm f o r 3rd agents.

The co-occurrence o f 3rd

a g e n t s w i t h 3rd

person s i n g u l a r

person s i n g u l a r person s i n g u l a r

feminine/indefinite

feminine/indefinite feminine/indefinite

person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e p a t i e n t s i s expressed

141

by t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x

{yutat-}

whereas t h e co-occurrence o f 3rd

person s i n g u l a r femjùne/indefinite a g e n t s w i t h 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t s i s expressed by t h e t r a n s i t i v e \ kuwati-y

prefixes

{luwati-J

, f o r 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e p a t i e n t s and

3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e / n e u t e r respectively.

and

patients,

This i s a l s o t h e o n l y o c c u r r e n c e o f s e p a r a t e t r a n s i t i v e

p r e f i x e s f o r 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r masculine and 3rd person nons i n g u l a r non-masculine p a t i e n t s .

They a r e formed i n t h i s case by t h e

a d d i t i o n o f t h e 3rd person p l u r a l marker / - t i / t o t h e t r a n s i t i v e jluwa-J

p r e f i x e s f o r 3rd person s i n g u l a r masculine p a t i e n t person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p a t i e n t

6.6.32.

-fkuwa-l-

and 3rd

.

The p h o n o l o g i c a l a l t e r n a t i o n s o f t r a n s i t i v e

prefixes

e x p r e s s i n g 1st person s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t s f o l l o w s t h e r u l e s g i v e n f o r 1st person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s g i v e n i n 6.3-51. above.

That i s , an e p e n t h e t i c vowel /-e-/ i s i n s e r t e d a f t e r t h e 1st

person s i n g u l a r component /k-/

when p r e c e d i n g t h e consonants / - l , - n , -w,

and -?/. C l u s t e r s o f t h e consonant / k - / f o l l o w e d by / l , n , o r '•/ a r e always i n a d m i s s a b l e i n Akwesasne Mohawk.

The c l u s t e r /-kw-/ i s

p e r m i s s a b l e w i t h i n a morpheme b u t i s n o t p e r m i s s a b l e a c r o s s morpheme boundaries.

6.6.33-

The t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s w h i c h express 3rd person

s i n g u l a r feminine/neuter agents a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e pronominal p r e f i x e s i n t h e o b j e c t i v e paradigm, as d i s c u s s e d i n 6.5. above.

However, t h e

t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e co-occurrence o f 3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r a g e n t and 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e p r e f i x e s i n t h e o b j e c t i v e paradigm.

Instead, the

H2

p r e f i x e s f o r t h e co-occurrence o f 3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r agent and 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e co-occurrences o f 3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r a g e n t and 3 r d person s i n g u l a r

feminine/

indefinite patient. I n o t h e r words, t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e 3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r a g e n t w i t h animate p a t i e n t s i s n o t o v e r t l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n the t r a n s i t i v e prefixes.

They a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , i n s t e a d , by t h e

o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x a p p r o p r i a t e t o each p a t i e n t i n t h e paradigm.

6.6.34.

T r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s w h i c h r e f e r t o 3rd person

s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p a t i e n t s have t h e s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x shape o f t h e a g e n t .

That i s , 3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r

p a t i e n t s a r e n o t o v e r t l y expressed i n t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s .

They a r e

expressed, i n s t e a d , by t h e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e agent. The o n l y e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r u l e i s t o express t h e co-occurrence o f 3 r d person feminine/neuter p a t i e n t s and 3 r d person f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e agents.

I n t h i s case, t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x i s

6.6.35-

{kuwa-j

N o n - s i n g u l a r number f o r a g e n t s i s expressed

as t h e f i n a l component i n t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s .

Except w i t h 3rd

person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e p a t i e n t s (and t h e r e f o r e a l s o w i t h 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t s ) , d u a l a g e n t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s by t h e f i n a l component / - n i / , w h i l e p l u r a l agents a r e expressed by t h e f i n a l component /-wa/.

The o n l y e x c e p t i o n

143

t o t h i s r u l e i s when t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x expresses t h e co-occurrence of s i n g u l a r

o r d u a l agents w i t h p l u r a l p a t i e n t s .

I n t h e s e cases,

n o n - s i n g u l a r number i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e p l u r a l marker /-wa/. For example,

the t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x

^

jkwa-i

expresses t h e

f o l l o w i n g a g e n t / p a t i e n t co-occurrences: 1 s t p. sg. a g e n t / 2nd p. p i . p a t i e n t 1 s t p. d u a l agent / 2nd p. p i . p a t i e n t 1 s t p. p l . a g e n t / ^nd p. sg. p a t i e n t 1 s t p. p l . agent / 2nd p. d u a l p a t i e n t 1 s t p. p l . agent / 2nd p. p l . p a t i e n t The t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x

{kwa-}

therefore

expresses any c o m b i n a t i o n o f

1 s t person a g e n t and 2nd person p a t i e n t where t h e agent and/or is plural.

patient

The a m b i g u i t y o f t h i s p r e f i x r e s u l t s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t

p l u r a l i t y o f agent and o f p a t i e n t i s expressed by t h e p l u r a l marker /-wa/ and i s expressed o n l y once i n each p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x .

12

The f a c t t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x {kwa-} c o n t a i n s a c l u s t e r o f / k / and /w/ seems t o v i o l a t e t h e statement i n 6.6.34. above t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e /-kw-/ c l u s t e r i s o n l y p e r m i t t e d i n Akwesasne Mohawk w i t h i n a morpheme and n o t a c r o s s morpheme b o u n d a r i e s . I t may be t h a t t h e p r e f i x e s show a h i g h degree o f morpheme f u s i o n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f I r o q u o i a n languages, w h i c h p e r m i t s c e r t a i n /-kw-/ c l u s t e r s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s t a t e m e n t made c o n c e r n i n g the i n a d m i s s a b i l i t y o f /-kw-/ c l u s t e r s a c r o s s morpheme b o u n d a r i e s may have t o be m o d i f i e d t o r e f e r o n l y t o t h e morpheme b o u n d a r i e s between p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s and v e r b stems; t h a t i s , t h e r u l e may a p p l y o n l y a c r o s s b o u n d a r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t v e r b a l c l a s s e s b u t may n o t a p p l y a c r o s s morpheme b o u n d a r i e s w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r v e r b a l c l a s s .

144

6.6.351.

-'/hen a d u a l agent co-occurs w i t h a d u a l

p a t i e n t , t h e d u a l i t y o f number i s expressed by t h e d u a l component / - n i / . However, as w i t h t h e p l u r a l component, t h e d u a l marker i s expressed o n l y once.

T h e r e f o r e , c e r t a i n t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e ambiguous f o r

other a g e n t / p a t i e n t co-occurrences.

The p r e f i x

{(h)skeni-j

may

express t h e f o l l o w i n g co-occurrences o f agent and p a t i e n t : 2nd p. sg. agent / 1st

p. d u a l p a t i e n t

2nd p. d u a l agent / 1st

p. sg. p a t i e n t

2nd p. d u a l a g e n t / 1st

p. d u a l p a t i e n t

I n o t h e r words, t h e p r e f i x

j(h)skeni-)

expresses t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

agent and/or p a t i e n t i s d u a l and n e i t h e r i s more t h a n d u a l . I t a p p l i e s t o any a p p r o p r i a t e c o m b i n a t i o n o f 2nd person agent and 1st person p a t i e n t .

6.6.352.

The same k i n d o f a m b i g u i t y r e s u l t s

w i t h t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s e x p r e s s i n g p l u r a l number i n some c o m b i n a t i o n o f 2nd person agent and 1st

person p a t i e n t .

The p r e f i x

|(h)skwa-|

has p a r a l l e l a m b i g u i t i e s t o t h o s e d i s c u s s e d above f o r t h e p r e f i x {kwa-j

except t h a t

person agent and 1st o c c u r r e n c e s o f 1st j(h)skwa-J

{ ( h ) s k w a - } r e f e r s t o co-occurrences o f 2nd person p a t i e n t w h i l e

j kwa-}

r e f e r s t o co­

person agent and 2nd person p a t i e n t .

The p r e f i x

may r e f e r t o t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n t / p a t i e n t c o - o c c u r r e n c e s :

2nd p. sg. a g e n t / 1st 2nd p. d u a l agent / 1st

p. p i . p a t i e n t p. p i . p a t i e n t

2nd p. p i . a g e n t / 1st

p. sg. p a t i e n t

2nd p. p i . -igent / 1st

p. d u a l p a t i e n t

145

2nd p. p l . a g e n t / 1 s t p. p l . p a t i e n t That i s , t h e p r e f i x

{(h)skwa-}

can r e f e r t o a n y co-occurrence o f

2nd person a g e n t and 1 s t person p a t i e n t where one o r b o t h a r e p l u r a l .

6.6.36.

N o n - s i n g u l a r number f o r p a t i e n t s i s expressed Except w i t h 3 r d

as t h e f i n a l component i n t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s .

person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e agents (and t h e r e f o r e a l s o w i t h 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r a g e n t s ) , d u a l p a t i e n t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s by t h e f i n a l component / - n i - / , w h i l e p a t i e n t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by /-wa/.

plural

Examples o f t h e s e p r e f i x e s and

t h e i r a m b i g u i t i e s have a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n 6 . 6 . 3 5 . above. I t s h o u l d be k e p t i n mind t h a t o n l y 1 s t person and 2nd person d u a l a n d p l u r a l a g e n t s and p a t i e n t s a r e expressed by t h e s e n o n - s i n g u l a r number markers s i n c e 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t s a r e expressed w i t h t h e same p r e f i x a s t h e one used f o r 3 r d person feminine/indefinite patients.

singular

T h i r d person n o n - s i n g u l a r a g e n t s

l i k e w i s e f o l l o w t h e paradigm f o r p r e f i x e s e x p r e s s i n g 3rd person singular f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e agents.

6.6.361.

Dual and p l u r a l p a t i e n t s a r e merged

when t h e y co-occur w i t h 3rd person f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e a g e n t s (and t h e r e f o r e a l s o w i t h 3 r d person n o n - 3 i n g u l a r a g e n t s ) .

The shape o f

t h e number component i s a b e r r a n t f o r 1 s t and 2nd person p a t i e n t s . However, n o n - s i n g u l a r number i s expressed f o r 3 r d person p a t i e n t s by t h e r e g u l a r p l u r a l component f o r 3rd person:

6.6.4.

To summarize and i l l u s t r a t e

/-ti/.

the rules given i n

s e c t i o n 6.6.1. above f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s ,

146

a complete paradigm i s g i v e n below.

The paradigm i n v o l v e s a

c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l v e r b stem o f Stem-Class I : o r d e r " i n t h e sense o f " t e l l

-hloli?-

"tell,

i t t o someone," o r " t e l l someone t o

do s o m e t h i n g . " A number o f morphophonemic r u l e s which have been d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 4 above w i l l be r e p e a t e d below s i n c e t h e y a f f e c t t h e u n d e r l y i n g sequences i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v e r b f o r m s :

Stem-Class I : - h l o l i ? -

" t e l l , o r d e r " (see 6 . 3 . 4 1 . above.)

1st person s i n g u l a r a g e n t :

(see 6 . 6 . 1 1 . above)

wa?kohlo : l i ?

wa? ko hló:li?

" I t o l d you ( s g . ) " ( t o l d i t t o you, t o l d you t o . . . )

wahihlo:li?

wa h i hlo:li'-''

" I t o l d him"

wa?khehlo:li?

wa? khe h l o r l i -

"I

t o l d h e r , one, them"

147

wa'-'khló : l i " ;

wa? k hlórli?

"I

wa?kenihló:li

wa ? k e n i

" I t o l d you ( d u a l ) "

wa?kwahló

wa? kwa hlórli?

:li?

2nd person s i n g u l a r a g e n t :

hló:li?

"I

t o l d her, i t "

t o l d you ( p l . ) "

(see 6.6.12. above)

wahsekhló:li?

wa hsek hló:li'-

"you ( s g . ) t o l d me"

wahsehlo : l i ?

wa h t s hlórliv

"you ( s g . ) t o l d h i m "

wahsehlo : l i ?

wa hse h l o : l i ?

"you ( s g . ) t o l d h e r , one, them"

wahsehlo : l i ?

wa hs hló:li?

"you ( s g . ) t o l d h e r , it"

wahskenihló:li?

wa h s k e n i hló:li?

"you ( s g . ) t o l d us (dual)"

wahskwakló : l i ?

wa hskwa hló:li?

"you ( s g . ) t o l d us (pl.)"

3rd person s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e a g e n t : (see 6.6.13. above.)

wahakhló:li?

wa hak hló:li?

"he t o l d me"

wahyahló : l i ' ?

wa hya

"he t o l d you ( s g . ) "

wahohlo : l i ?

wa ho h l b : l i ' ;

"he t o l d him"

wahsakohlo:li?

wa hsako hló:li?

"he t o l d h e r , one them"

v/ahahlo : l i ?

wa ha hló:li?

"he t o l d h e r , i t "

wahsukenihlô : l i ?

wa h s u k e n i hló:li?

"he t o l d us

(du.)"

wahsukwahló:li?

wa hsukwa hló:li?

"he t o l d us

(pl.)"

xifahtsisenihlo : l i ?

wa h t s i s e n i

hlo:li?

"he t o l d you

(du.)"

wahtsisewahlo : l i ?

wa h t s i s e w a h l o r l i v

"he t o l d you

(pl.)"

hlórli?

3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e agent and 3rd person n o n -

s i n g u l a r agent (see 6.6.14. and 6.6.20. above)

148

wa?ukhló :li? wa? uk hló:li? "she, one, they told

me"

wa'-'esahló : l i ?

wa? esa h l o : l i ?

"she, one, t h e y t o l d you ( s g . ) "

wahuwahlo:li?

wa huwa hló:li?

"she, one, t h e y t o l d him"

wa?utathlo:li?

wa? u t a t hlórli?

"she, one t h e y t o l d h e r , one"

wa?ukhló :li? wa? uk hló:li? "she, one, they t o l d her, i t " wa?ukhló

:li?

wa?

uk

hló:li?

"she,

one, they t o l d us ( d u , p l ) "

wa?ukhló

:li?

wa?

uk

hló:li?

"she,

one, they t o l d you (du, p l ) "

wahuwatihloli?

wa h u w a t i h l o r l i ?

"she, one, t h e y t o l d them (masc. d u . p l ) "

wa k u w a t i h l o : l i ?

wa? k u w a t i h l o r l i v

"she, one, t h e y t o l d them ( f e m / i n d e f / n e u t e r dual, p l . ) "

3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r a g e n t :

(see 6.6.15. above)

ukhló:li?

u k hlóli?

"she, i t t o l d me"

usahlo r l i ?

u sa h l o r l i ' -

"she, i t t o l d you ( s g . ) "

wahohló : l i ?

wa ho hló:li'¡

"she, i t t o l d him"

wa'-'akohlo : l i ' .

wa ? ako hlór:li?

"she, i t t o l d h e r , one, them"

wa'-'ohlo : l i ?

wa

o hló:li?

"she, i t t o l d h e r , i t "

wa ?ukenihlfc : l i ?

wa ? u k e n i hló" : l i ?

"she, i t t o l d us ( d u ) "

wa?ukwahlo : l i ?

wa

usenihlo : l i ?

u seni

hlo:li?

"she, i t t o l d you ( d u ) "

usewahlo : 3 l i ?

u sewa h l o : l i ?

"she, i t t o l d you ( p l ) "

ukwa h l o : l i ?

"she, i t t o l d us ( p l ) "

149

1st

person d u a l a g e n t :

(see 6.6.16. a b o v e ) :

wa - k e n i h l o : l i •

wa?

wahsakenihló : l i -

wa h s a k e n i hló:li

"we ( d u ) t o l d h i m "

wa?akhihló : l i ?

waó a k h i hló:li?

"we ( d u ) t o l d h e r , one, them"

wa?akenihlo : l i ?

wa? a k e n i hló:li?

"we ( d u ) t o l d h e r , i t "

wa?kenihló : l i

wa? k e n i hló:li?

"we ( d u ) t o l d you ( d u . ) "

wa?kwahló:li ?

wa ?kwa hló:li?

"we ( d u ) t o l d you ( p i . ) "

1 s t person p l u r a l a g e n t :

wa?kwahló

:li?

e n i hló:li?

"we ( d u ) t o l d you ( s g . ) "

(see 6.6.17. a b o v e ) :

wa/kwa hló:li:'

"we ( p l ) t o l d you ( s g . ) "

wahsakwahló :li?

wa hsakwa hló:li?

"we ( p l ) t o l d h i m "

wa-akhihló:1i

wa? a k h i hló:li?

"we ( p l ) t o l d h e r , one them"

wa?akwahló : l i ?

wa?akwa hló:li?

"we ( p l ) t o l d h e r , i t "

wa?kwahlo : l i ?

wa? kwa hló:li?

"we ( p l ) t o l d you (du.,pl.)"

2nd person dual agent:

( s e e 6.6.18. above)

w a h s k e n i h l o :li?

wa h s k e n i h l o : l i ?

"you ( d u ) t o l d

wahtsisenihló:li?

wa h t s i s e n i

"you ( d u ) t o l d h i m "

wa'-'etsihlo : l i ?

wa ?et s i h l o : l i ?

"you ( d u ) t o l d h e r , one, them"

wesenihló : l i ?

we s e n i hló:li?

"you ( d u ) t o l d h e r , i t "

wahskenihlo : l i ?

wa h s k e n i hló:li?

"you ( d u ) t o l d us ( d u ) "

wahskwahló : l i ?

wa hskwa hló;li?

"you ( d u ) t o l d us ( p i ) "

hló:li?

me"

150

2nd person p l u r a l a g e n t : ( s e e 6.6.19. above)

wahskwahlorli?

wa hskwa hló:li?

"you ( p l ) t o l d

wahtsisewahló : l i ?

wa h t s i s e w a hló:li?

"you ( p l ) t o l d h i m "

wa'-etsihló : l i ?

wa? e t s i hló:li?

"you ( p l ) t o l d h e r , one, them"

wesewahló:li?

we sewa hló:li?

"you ( p l ) t o l d h e r , i t "

wahskwahló:li?

wa hskwa hló:li?

"you ( p l ) t o l d us ( d u a l , p l . ) "

me"

151

6.7.

K i n s h i p Terminology This s e c t i o n w i l l present an a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a n a l y s i s

of

p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s t o data c o l l e c t e d o f t h e Akwesasne k i n s h i p

t e r m i n o l o g i c a l system.

Mohawk k i n terms a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y verbis

and, as such, o b l i g a t o r i l y c o n t a i n a p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x . A l l t h r e e t y p e s o f p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , i . e . s u b j e c t i v e , o b j e c t i v e , and t r a n s i t i v e , o c c u r on k i n s h i p t e r m s .

The p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o r p r o n o m i n a l

p r e f i x which o c c u r s on any g i v e n k i n t e r m i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h a t k i n term.

They a r e n o t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e .

The a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t e d below

i s concerned o n l y w i t h t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s i n t h e k i n t e r m s .

The

v e r b stems which c o n s t i t u t e t h e k i n terms w i l l n o t be a n a l y z e d h e r e . For t h e most p a r t , t h e v e r b stems i n t h e k i n terms do n o t o c c u r w i t h o t h e r f u n c t i o n s i n o t h e r environments.

6.7.1.

Mohawk k i n s h i p terms may be grouped i n t o two main

c l a s s e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e o f pronominal p r e f i x which i s p r e s e n t i n t h e term.

The f i r s t , and most numerous, c l a s s c o n s i s t s o f k i n

terms w h i c h t a k e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , w h i l e t h e second c o n s i s t s o f k i n terms which t a k e s u b j e c t i v e o r o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e s e t y p e s a r e o r g a n i z e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g broad c r i t e r i a : Transitive:

o l d e r speaker/younger

referent

younger s p e a k e r / o l d e r r e f e r e n t Subjective or objective :

age e q u i v a l e n c e o f speaker and r e f e r e n t

The t r a n s i t i v e k i n t e r m c l a s s c o n t a i n s t w e n t y - f o u r k i n s h i p terms which d e s i g n a t e i n d i v i d u a l s o f e i t h e r o f t h e f o l l o w i n g

152

relationships : 1.

r e l a t i v e s belonging t o a generation other than that

o f t h e speaker, e i t h e r younger o r o l d e r ( s i x t e e n t e r m s ) ; and

2.

r e l a t i v e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e same g e n e r a t i o n as t h a t o f

t h e speaker b u t where r e l a t i v e age i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d ( e i g h t t e r m s ) .

The s u b j e c t i v e / o b j e c t i v e k i n t e r m c l a s s c o n t a i n s t e n k i n s h i p terms which d e s i g n a t e i n d i v i d u a l s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e same g e n e r a t i o n as t h a t o f t h e speaker where r e l a t i v e age i s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d .

6.7.2.

The t r a n s i t i v e c l a s s o f k i n s h i p terms may be f u r t h e r

d i v i d e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e l a t i v e age o f t h e kinsman and t h e speaker.

As has been d i s c u s s e d i n 6.6 above, t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

p r e f i x e s express t h e co-occurrence o f a g e n t and p a t i e n t .

The p r e f i x

can t h e r e f o r e express t h e speaker as t h e agent o r as t h e p a t i e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b .

I n the kinship terminology,

t h e r e l a t i v e age o f t h e kinsman and t h e speaker d e t e r m i n e s w h i c h o f t h e two i s expressed as agent and w h i c h as p a t i e n t .

The e l d e r ,

whether speaker o r person spoken a b o u t , i s expressed as t h e agent w h i l e t h e younger, whether speaker o r person spoken a b o u t , i s expressed as t h e p a t i e n t . The data below a r e d i v i d e d i n t o groups depending upon t h e r e l a t i v e age o f t h e kinsman and t h e speaker:

6.7.21.

Where t h e kinsman r e f e r r e d t o i s o f a

g e n e r a t i o n o l d e r t h a t t h a t o f t h e speaker (Note t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x expresses t h e e l d e r kinsman as t h e agent and t h e younger speaker as t h e p a t i e n t ) :

153

/lake'¿nina?/

my f a t h e r ( l i t e r a l l y : he t o me i s f a t h e r )

/lake?nuhá : ?a/

my u n c l e (my mother's b r o t h e r ; my f a t h e r ' s brother)

/laksóttha?/

my g r a n d f a t h e r

13

my

/aksóttha?/

grandmother

/laksà:wha?/

my f a t h e r - i n - l a w ( f e m a l e s p e a k e r )

/yuksà :wha?/

my m o t h e r - i n - l a w ( f e m a l e s p e a k e r )

/lakwehúsa?/

my f a t h e r - i n - l a w (male speaker)

/yukwehúsa?/

my m o t h e r - i n - l a w (male speaker)

6.7.22.

Where t h e kinsman r e f e r r e d t o i s o f a g e n e r a t i o n

younger t h a n t h a t o f t h e speaker (Note t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x expresses t h e e l d e r speaker as t h e agent and t h e younger

kinsman

as t h e p a t i e n t ) : /liyv:?a/

my son

/kheyv:"a/

my d a u g h t e r

/liyuhwatv:?a/

my nephew

/kheyuhwatv:?a/

my n i e c e

/liyatelé:-a/

my grandson

/kheyatelé :

13

?a/

my granddaughter

I t can be n o t e d t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x w h i c h o c c u r s i n t h i s k i n t e r m , /ak-/, d i f f e r s f r o m t h e one used i n o t h e r k i n terms and t h e one f o u n d t o express t h e co-occurrence o f 3rd person f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e a g e n t s ("she,one") and 1st person s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t s ("me"). The l a t t e r p r e f i x , /yuk-/, has become t h e p r o ductive p r e f i x i n Mohawk t h r o u g h processes o f h i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t i c change where i t has t a k e n o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e o l d e r p r e f i x /ak-/. The p r e f i x /ak-/ remains i n Akwesasne Mohawk o n l y i n a few k i n s h i p t e r m s .

154

/liyehúsa ?/

my s o n - i n - l a w

/khesà :wha'?/

my d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w

6.7.23.

Where t h e kinsman r e f e r r e d t o i s o f t h e same

g e n e r a t i o n as t h a t o f t h e speaker b u t where t h e r e a r e d i s t i n c t i o n s made a c c o r d i n g t o r e l a t i v e age (Note t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x expresses t h e e l d e r , whether speaker o r kinsman, as t h e agent and t h e younger as t h e p a t i e n t ) : /lakji:?a/

my o l d e r b r o t h e r

/akji:?a/

my o l d e r s i s t e r

/li?kv:?a/

my younger b r o t h e r

/khe?kv:?a/

my younger s i s t e r

/lakuhà :wha ?/

my b r o t h e r - i n - l a w (female s p e a k e r )

/akuhè :wha?/

my s i s t e r - i n - l a w (male s p e a k e r )

/likstv:hah/

my husband

/khekstvrhah/

my w i f e

For s i b l i n g t e r m s , t h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g whether t h e speaker o r h i s kinsman w i l l be expressed as t h e a g e n t o r t h e p a t i e n t i s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f age; t h a t i s , t h e e l d e r , whether speaker o r kinsman, i s expressed by t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x as t h e g r a m m a t i c a l agent w h i l e t h e younger i s expressed as t h e g r a m m a t i c a l patient. I n t h e k i n s h i p terms f o r o p p o s i t e - s e x e d i n - l a w o f t h e same

155

g e n e r a t i o n ( i . e . "my b r o t h e r - i n - l a w " ( f e m a l e s p e a k e r ) /lakuha, :wha?/ and "my s i s t e r - i n - l a w (male speaker) /akuhà twha?/), t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x expresses t h e kinsman as t h e g r a m m a t i c a l a g e n t and t h e speaker as t h e g r a m m a t i c a l p a t i e n t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a c t u a l r e l a t i v e ages o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s concerned. I n t h e terms for spouse, i . e . "my husband" / l i k s t v : h a / and "my w i f e " / k y e k s t v r h a / , t h e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x expresses t h e speaker as t h e g r a m m a t i c a l a g e n t and t h e kinsman as t h e g r a m m a t i c a l p a t i e n t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a c t u a l r e l a t i v e ages o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s concerned.

6.7.3.

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t a l l o f t h e k i n s h i p terms

g i v e n above a r e terms o f r e f e r e n c e ; t h a t i s , t h e y a r e terms w h i c h a r e used by t h e speaker when r e f e r r i n g t o h i s kinsman.

For t h e most

p a r t , t h e terms o f a d d r e s s , i . e . terms used by t h e speaker when t a l k i n g d i r e c t l y t o o r c a l l i n g h i s kinsman, c o n t a i n t h e same t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x as does t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m o f r e f e r e n c e .

The

d i f f e r e n c e between terms o f r e f e r e n c e and terms o f address c o n c e m s t h e v e r b a l s u f f i x e s w h i c h a r e added t o t h e v e r b base.

However, t h e r e

a r e two k i n s h i p terms where t h e terms o f address c o n t a i n d i f f e r e n t p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s f r o m t h e terms o f r e f e r e n c e .

These a r e :

/li?kv:?a/

my younger b r o t h e r

(reference)

/khe-kv:?a/ ?a/

my younger s i s t e r

/ku?ko?ó :/

my younger s i b l i n g ( b r o t h e r ; s i s t e r ) ( address)

(reference)

but:

156

And: /likstv:ha/

my husband

(reference)

/khekstv:ha/

my w i f e

/sákstvh/

my spouse (husband; w i f e ) (address)

(reference)

but:

I n t h e f i r s t group, i . e . terms f o r younger s i b l i n g s , t h e terms of reference

a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o r sex o f t h e kinsman.

term o f address does n o t d i s t i n g u i s h sex.

However, t h e

The t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

p r e f i x which appears on t h e t e r m o f address f o r "my younger s i b l i n g " ,

/ku-/.14

expresse s t h e co-occurrences o f t h e 1 s t person s i n g u l a r

agent ( " I " ) and 2nd person s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t ("you"). I n t h e second group, t h e terms o f r e f e r e n c e

f o r spouse a r e

l i k e w i s e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o r t h e sex o f t h e kinsman w h i l e t h e t e r m o f address does n o t d i s t i n g u i s h sex.

The p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x which appears

on t h e t e r m o f address f o r "my spouse", /sa-/, i s t h e o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 2nd person s i n g u l a r .

6.7.4-

K i n s h i p terms which c o n t a i n a s u b j e c t i v e o r

o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x a r e those w h i c h a r e used t o r e f e r t o kinsmen o f t h e same g e n e r a t i o n

as t h a t o f t h e speaker where t h e r e i s

no d i s t i n c t i o n made a c c o r d i n g t o r e l a t i v e age.

The s u b j e c t i v e o r

o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x which o c c u r s on these k i n s h i p terms expresses t h e g r a m m a t i c a l a g e n t as t h e 1 s t person n o n - s i n g u l a r .

The p r o n o m i n a l

p r e f i x t h e r e f o r e expresses t h e u n i t y o f t h e speaker and h i s kinsman.

14 Note t h a t t h i s p r e f i x f o r m , /ku-/, i s t h e o l d e r p h o n o l o g i c a l o f t h e c u r r e n t l y used p r e f i x above.

£ko-j

.

shape See f o o t n o t e t o 6.6.11.

157

The 1 s t person d u a l p r e f i x i s used when t h e t e r m r e f e r s t o one

kinsman

w h i l e t h e 1 s t person p l u r a l p r e f i x i s used when t h e t e r m r e f e r s t o two o r more kinsmen. of

This i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the idea o f the u n i t y

t h e speaker and kinsman s i n c e t h e speaker and one kinsman f o r m

a proup o f two, hence t h e d u a l p r e f i x , w h i l e t h e speaker and or

two

more kinsmen f o r m a group o f t h r e e o r more, hence t h e p l u r a l

prefix.

The k i n s h i p terms g i v e n below a r e a l l t h o s e which c o n t a i n s u b j e c t i v e or o b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s . the

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t

terms g i v e n a r e terms o f r e f e r e n c e and t h e r e f o r e c o n t a i n p r e f i x e s

which express t h e 1 s t person n o n - s i n g u l a r e x c l u s i v e .

K i n terms

of address which c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e s e d i f f e r i n t h a t t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x expresses t h e 1 s t person n o n - s i n g u l a r i n c l u s i v e .

This

d i f f e r e n c e i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e use o f i n c l u s i v e / e x c l u s i v e markers; t h a t i s , t h e i n c l u s i v e r e f e r s t o t h e speaker and h e a r e r ( t e r m s o f a d d r e s s ) w h i l e t h e e x c l u s i v e r e f e r s t o t h e speaker and someone o t h e r t h a n t h e h e a r e r (terms o f r e f e r e n c e ) . The r e l e v a n t k i n terms a r e : /yakyatatenuhkwe?/

we ( d u a l , e x c l . ) a r e r e l a t e d ; we a r e r e l a t i v e s ; he, she, one i s my r e l a t i v e ; my r e l a t i v e

/yakyatatekv:'-'a/

my s i b l i n g (we two a r e s i b l i n g s )

/yakwatatekv:?a/

my two s i b l i n g s (we p l u r a l a r e s i b l i n g s )

/yakwatate ko?oku :?a/

my t h r e e ( o r more) s i b l i n g s

/yukyala'-se se:?a m y c ousin (we two are cousins) /kyakeni :telu?/ my spouse ( l i t e r a l l y : we two l i v e there together) /yukyakyóha?/

my b r o t h e r - i n - a w (male s p e a k e r )

158

/yukyaliha?/

my s i s t e r - i n - l a w , (female speaker)

/yukyatv:lo?/

we ( d u a l e x c l . ) a r e t h e husbands o f two s i s t e r s

/yukya'ttsi/

we

( d u a l e x c l . ) a r e t h e 'wives o f two b r o t h e r s

For t h e purposes o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , k i n s h i p terms which c o n t a i n s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s and those which c o n t a i n o b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x e s can be grouped t o g e t h e r ¡inca t h e p r e f i x i n b o t h cases expresses an i d e n t i c a l i d e a , t h a t o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e speaker and h i s kinsman.

The o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e o r t h e o b j e c t i v e

p r e f i x i s s e l e c t e d by t h e v e r b base and t h e v e r b a l s u f f i x e s . S p e c i a l n o t e can be made here t h a t t h e c a t e g o r y o f terms f o r one's s i b l i n g - i n - l a w demonstrates b o t h u n i t y and

differentiation.

That i s , terms f o r one's own-sexed s i b l i n g - i n - l a w occur w i t h t h e 1 s t person d u a l s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x , t h u s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e u n i t y o f t h e speaker and r e f e r e n t (see /yukyakyoha'•'/ b r o t h e r - i n - l a w (male s p e a k e r ) " and / y u k y a l i h a ? / "my (female s p e a k e r ) " ) .

"my

sister-in-law

Terms f o r one's o p p o s i t e - s e x e d s i b l i n g - i n - l a w ,

however, o c c u r w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x , thus d e m o n s t r a t i n g a h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e speaker and r e f e r e n t (see /lakuhà:wha•/ "my b r o t h e r - i n - l a w ( f e m a l e s p e a k e r ) " and /akuha :wha?/ W n

6.7.5.

s i s t e r - i n - l a w (male s p e a k e r ) " ) .

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f k i n s h i p terms on

t h e b a s i s o f t h e k i n d o f p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x which o c c u r s r e l a t e s t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f age i n Mohawk c u l t u r e .

As

has been shown, t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x e s occur on k i n terms where r e l a t i v e age i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d , e i t h e r w i t h i n t h e speaker's g e n e r a t i o n o r a c r o s s generations.

S u b j e c t i v e / o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x e s o c c u r on k i n terms where

159

the

r e l a t i v e age o f speaker and kinsman i s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d . In

the

t r a d i t i o n a l Mohawk c u l t u r e , as s e t down i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f

I r o q u o i s and as l a t e r r e p o r t e d by Lewis Henry Morgan i n t h e mid-

1 9 t h c e n t u r y (see b i b l i o g r a p h y ) , a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r t o w a r d kinsmen were v e r y s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e r e l a t i v e ages o f t h e involved.

A t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r o f d e f e r e n c e

people

toward one's e l d e r

r e l a t i v e s , b o t h a c r o s s g e n e r a t i o n s and w i t h i n one's own

generation,

were v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e system o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . was

t r u e b o t h i n i n f o r m a l i n t e r p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r and i n t h e f o r m a l

b e h a v i o r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l and c e r e m o n i a l of

functioning

t h e League o f t h e I r o q u o i s . A t t i t u d e s o f deference

at

This

toward one's e l d e r s a r e s t i l l t h e i d e a l

Akwesasne a l t h o u g h a c t u a l b e h a v i o r has changed c o n s i d e r a b l y .

The

v a l u e p l a c e d on t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e i d e a l i s s t i l l s t r o n g b u t t h e degree t o which t h e i d e a l i s r e a l i z e d has d i m i n i s h e d .

I n t h e more

t r a d i t i o n a l s e c t i o n s o f t h e Reserve and among t h e more t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l i e s , t h e i d e a l d e f e r e n t i a l b e h a v i o r toward one's e l d e r s occurs.

still

However, f o r younger people a t Akwesasne, d e f e r e n t i a l

b e h a v i o r and a t t i t u d e s toward one's e l d e r s i s l e s s i m p o r t a n t i n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e t h a n i t i s f o r o l d e r people.

This i s e s p e c i a l l y

so i n r e g a r d t o kinsmen o f one's own g e n e r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y one's s i b l i n g s , a l t h o u g h i t i s a l s o t r u e f o r many younger people i n r e g a r d to

15

kinsmen o f an o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n .

See e s p e c i a l l y Morgan (1851) and H o r a t i o Hale, The I r o q u o i s Book o f Rites ( 1 8 8 3 ) . See a l s o : The Great Law o f Peace o f t h e People o f the Longhouse (tf'-dte Roots o f Peace, 197ÏTT

160

The s t a b i l i t y o f the k i n s h i p terms i n contrast t o the changing s o c i a l habits and values brings up the question o f l i n q u i s t i c Lag. The d i s t i n c t i o n s which are made w i t h i n the k i n terms as expressed by the pronominal p r e f i x e s are d i s t i n c t i o n s which were a t one time important i n Mohawk c u l t u r e but which f o r the most p a r t do not f u n c t i o n c u l t u r a l l y a t the present time.

The k i n s h i p terms have

became frozen l e x i c a l items which no longer s i g n a l the c u l t u r a l behav°r which the l i n g u i s t i c analysis implies.

The l i n g u i s t i c

s t r u c t u r e , then, has remained i n t a c t even a f t e r i t no longer has c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , or when i t s c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e has g r e a t l y diminished. This i s not t o imply that the Mohawk k i n s h i p system has remained unchanged.

I t has i n fact changed considerably since Morgan's

d e s c r i p t i o n i n the mid-L9th century.

16

However, the changes which

have taken place are changes i n the occurrence and d i s t r i c t i o n o f l e x i c a l items.

They are not changes w i t h i n the l e x i c a l items themselves.

17

That i s , the l e x i c a l items have remained stable although t h e i r usage has been modified. According t o Morgan, the term f o r Father was also used t o r e f e r to Father's Brother and the term f o r Mother was used t o r e f e r a d d i t i o n a l l y to Mother's S i s t e r . Father's S i s t e r .

16 17

Separate terms existed f o r Mother's Brother and

On one's own generation, terms f o r Brother and S i s t e r

Morgan, 1871, pp. 131-169: Note the persistance o f /ak-/ and /ku-/ i n the k i n s h i p terms. The p r e f i x /ak-/ survives only on three k i n terms (see 6.7.21. above). The p r e f i x /ku-/ occurs on one term o f address and i s the older phonological shape o f the c u r r e n t l y used p r e f i x /ko-/, (see 6.7.3. above).

161

were extended t o r e f e r t o one's p a r a l l e l c o u s i n s , i . e . t h e c h i l d r e n o f one's F a t h e r ' s

B r o t h e r ( c a l l e d " F a t h e r " ) and one's Mother's S i s t e r

( c a l l e d "Mother"). Daughter.

A person's own c h i l d r e n were c a l l e d Son and

These terms were extended t o r e f e r t o one's same-sexed

s i b l i n g s ' c h i l d r e n w h i l e t h e c h i l d r e n o f one's

opposite-sexed

s i b l i n g s were c a l l e d by d i f f e r e n t terms. I n comparing Morgan's s e t o f k i n terms w i t h t h o s e e l i c i t e d a t Akwesasne, a number o f s t r i k i n g changes i n usage have o c c u r r e d . W i t h o n l y one e x c e p t i o n , these changes i n v o l v e t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o f k i n terms r e f e r r i n g b a s i c a l l y t o t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y .

Whereas i n

Morgan's t i m e , n u c l e a r f a m i l y terms were extended t o c o l l a t e r a l r e l a t i v e s , these terms a r e now r e s t r i c t e d t o usage w i t h i n t h e n u c l e a r family i t s e l f .

The t e r m f o r F a t h e r , / l a k e ' n i ha ?/, i s used t o r e f e r o n l y

t o one's own f a t h e r w h i l e one's Father's B r o t h e r and one's Mother's B r o t h e r a r e b o t h c a l l e d /lake?nuhá :?a/ " u n c l e " .

A l s o , t h e terms f o r

O l d e r B r o t h e r / L a k j i :?a/, O l d e r S i s t e r / a k j i r V a / , Younger B r o t h e r / l i V k v : V a / and Younger S i s t e r /khe?3kv:va/ a r e used t o r e f e r o n l y t o one's own s i b l i n g s .

A l l o f t h e c h i l d r e n o f a l l o f one's p a r e n t s '

s i b l i n g s a r e c a l l e d by t h e t e r m /yukyalaVsé:?a/, "we two a r e c o u s i n s . " F i n a l l y , t h e terms f o r Son, / l i y v : ? a / , and Daughter, /kheyv.?a./, used t o r e f e r o n l y t o one's own c h i l d r e n .

are

The c h i l d r e n o f one's s i b l i n g

a r e c a l l e d / l i y u h w a t v : ? a / , Nephew, and / k h e y u h w a t v : ? a / , Niece. The o n l y n u c l e a r f a m i l y t e r m whose usage has expanded i s t h e terms f o r Mother, / i s t a h / .

18

18

The k i n t e r m /istáh/ i s used a t Akwesasne

The t e r m /istáh/ has n o t been d i s c u s s e d i n 6.7.2. o r 6.7.4. above because i t s shape i s u n a n a l y z a b l e .

I t c o n t a i n s no p r o n o m i n a l

prefix.

162

t o r e f e r t o one's own Mother and a l s o one's Mother's S i s t e r and One's Father's S i s t e r .

19

E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e n , t h e changes i n usage o f Mohawk k i n terms a t Akwesasne have been a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e Euro-American k i n s h i p system.

The changes u n d o u b t e d l y r e s u l t f r o m p r e s s u r e s o f

b o t h l i n g u i s t i c and s o c i a l a c c u l t u r a t i o n . Only t h e t e r m /istáh/ "Mother" has h e l d o u t a g a i n s t these p r e s s u r e s .

19

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e i n comparison t h a t t h e Caughnawaga Mohawk d i a l e c t c o n t a i n s a borrowed French k i n term / a k w a t v r t / "my a u n t " w h i c h i s used f o r one's Mother's S i s t e r and One's F a t h e r ' s S i s t e r . The people a t Akwfe^asne a r e aware o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e and say t h a t t h e Caughnawaga / a k w a t v : t / i s n o t a Mohawk word.

163

7.0.

VERBAL PREFIXES The

g e n e r a l c l a s s o f v e r b a l p r e f i x e s occupies t h e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n

w i t h i n t h e Mohawk v e r b .

V e r b a l p r e f i x e s d i r e c t l y precede p r o n o m i n a l

p r e f i x e s (see 5.1.1. above.). The

class o f verbal prefixes contains

two major

V e r b a l p r e f i x e s a r e e i t h e r modal o r non-modal.

sub-divisions.

These sub-classes do

n o t s e p a r a t e n e a t l y i n t o two p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l c l a s s o f verbal prefixes.

I n cases o f t h e co-occurrence o f c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c

v e r b a l p r e f i x e s , t h e modal p r e f i x precedes t h e non-modal one.

However,

g i v e n o t h e r s p e c i f i c v e r b a l p r e f i x e s , t h e non-modal p r e f i x precedes The dynamics o f t h e s e co-occurrences and r e l a t i v e

t h e modal one.

p o s i t i o n s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d and e x e m p l i f i e d

i n the appropriate

sections

below. The

f o l l o w i n g i s a. c h a r t o f t h e p o s i t i o n c l a s s e s o f t h e v e r b a l

prefixes : NonModsl

NonModal

Parti­ tive

Transloca­ tive

Modal Aorist

NonModal

fodal

Duplica­ tive

Indefi­ nite

itera­ tive

t

a

s

Future

Cislocative

Modal Aorist and

wa?

n

NonModal

y Coinci­ dent

a

v s

t

Con­ t r a stive th Negative te?

Indefi­ nite

164

7.1.

Modal P r e f i x e s There a r e t h r e e modal p r e f i x e s i n Mohawk.

G e n e r a l l y , modal

p r e f i x e s express t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e speaker toward what i s b e i n g s a i d , r e f l e c t i n g the v a l i d i t y , p r o b a b i l i t y , or d e s i r a b i l i t y o f the action or state involved

i n t h e statement.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e modal p r e f i x e s a r e : |wa?-j

aorist

{a-j

indefinite

{v-}

future

The modal p r e f i x e s a r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e f o r semantic

reasons;

t h a t i s , t h e i r meanings a r e such t h a t t h e y would never co-occur i n any g i v e n word.

By d e f i n i t i o n , t h e n , a v e r b cannot be s p e c i f i e d as b o t h

f u t u r e and i n d e f i n i t e o r b o t h a o r i s t and i n d e f i n i t e , e t c . However, t h e a o r i s t modal p r e f i x i s l i s t e d i n a s e p a r a t e p o s i t i o n c l a s s f r o m t h e i n d e f i n i t e and f u t u r e p r e f i x e s because o f t h e r e l a t i v e o r d e r t h a t these p r e f i x e s t a k e i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r v e r b a l (non-modal) p r e f i x e s (see 7.0.

above).

7.1.1.

The A o r i s t P r e f i x

The a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

{wa?-}

expresses t h e i d e a t h a t

t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b has d e f i n i t e l y o c c u r r e d o r i s d e f i n i t e l y occurring.

I t simply states a f a c t .

A o r i s t verbs i n

Mohawk a r e o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h i n p a s t o r p r e s e n t

tenses.

There a r e s i x morphophonemic r u l e s which a f f e c t t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l shape o f t h e a o r i s t p r e f i x .

165

t h e o b j e c t i v e morpheme i s

{wa-}

/wflkekstvtha/

.

For example:

"I'm o l d "

wa-

o b j e c t i v e marker

-ke-

1st

-kstv:ha

person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x "be o l d "

/ukekstv:hahne?/

" I became o l d "

u-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x and o b j e c t i v e marker

-ke-

1st

person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-kstv:hahne?

"become o l d "

The u n d e r l i n g s t r u c t u r e f o r " I became o l d " i s

/wa?-wa-ke-kstv:hahne?/.

T h i s r u l e a p p l i e s where t h e a o r i s t p r e f i x i s f o l l o w e d by any o f a number o f / - h - / i n i t i a l p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s .

The p r e f i x e s a f f e c t e d

a r e g e n e r a l l y t h o s e w h i c h express t h e co-occurrence o f any 2nd

person

s u b j e c t w i t h an animate o b j e c t o r t h e co-occurrence o f any 3rd

person

m a s c u l i v e s u b j e c t o r o b j e c t w i t h any o t h e r person (see 6 . 6 . 2 . a b o v e ) . For example : /wahsekhló:lih/

"you ( s g . ) t o l d me"

wa-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-hsek-

t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x f o r 2nd person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 1st person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t

-hló:lih

"tell,

order"

The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e here i s /wahtsisenihló:lih/

w

aV-hsek-hló

:lih/.

"he t o l d y o u ( d u a l ) "

wa-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-htsiseni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x f o r 3rd person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 2nd person d u a l o b j e c t

166

-hló:lih The u n d e r l y i n g

"tell,

structure i s

order" wa?-htsiseni-hlo'':lih/.

However, a d e t a i l e d r u l e can be i n c l u d e d t o s p e c i f y t h i s

situation.

f o r example: /lo?nikuhlaksvs/ lo-

3 r d person masculine o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l prefix

-?nikuhlaksv -s

"he's sad, c r y i n g "

"be sad, c r y "

s e r i a l aspect s u f f i x

but: /waho?nikuhlaksv/

"he was sad, c r i e d "

wa-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-ho-

3 r d person m a s c u l i n e o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l prefix

-?nikuhlaksv The u n d e r l y i n g

"be sad, c r y "

s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e l a t t e r i s */wa? */vs?-lo-?nikuhlaksv/.

167

o f s i m u l t a n e o u s processes r a t h e r t h a n a s t r i c t o r d e r i n g o f o p e r a t i o n s i n t e m p o r a l sequences.

T h i s r u l e a p p l i e s when t h e a o r i s t modal p r e f i x precedes

2nd

p e r s o n n o n - s i n g u l a r ( d u a l and p l u r a l ) s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s . I t a l s o a p p l i e s when t h e a o r i s t mode precedes t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s w h i c h express t h e co-occurrence o f 2nd p e r s o n n o n - s i n g u l a r a g e n t s w i t h 3rd person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p a t i e n t s (see 6 . 6 . 2 . above).

For example:

/wesenihlo:lih/

"you ( d u . ) t o l d h e r , i t "

we-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-seni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 2nd person d u a l agent and 3rd person f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r s i n g u l a r patient

-hlorlih The u n d e r l y i n g

"tell,

order"

s t r u c t u r e here i s

7.1.15.

The shape o f t h e a o r i s t modal p r e f i x i s

sometimes a f f e c t e d by o t h e r v e r b a l precede

*/waV-seni-hlo'ilih/.

(non-modal) p r e f i x e s w h i c h may

it:

That i s , when t h e a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

{wa?-}

p r e f i x e n d i n g w i t h a consonant, t h e /-w-/ For

f o l l o w s another v e r b a l

of the aorist i s lost.

example: /wa?uté:ko/

"she, one r a n away"

(no p a r t i c u l a r s t a r t i n g point or destination i s specified)

wa ?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-u-

3rd p e r s o n s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e subjective pronominal p r e f i x

168

-té :ko

" r u n away"

but : "she, one r a n away"

/ya?uté:ko/

( f r o m some p l a c e t o a p l a c e i n a d i r e c t i o n away f r o m t h e speaker)

y-

translocative

-a?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-u-

3 r d person s i n g u l a r feminine/indefinite s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x

-té:ko

" r u n away"

The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e non-modal t r a n s l o c a t i v e

non-modal p r e f i x

f o r t h e l a t t e r i s *y-wa?-yu-té :ko/. The prefix

{ y - } expresses t h e i d e a t h a t t h e

a c t i o n o f t h e verb o c c u r s i n a d i r e c t i o n away f r o m t h e speaker ( f o r a detailed discussion of the translocative

7.1.16. as

/-à:-/.

p r e f i x , see 7.2.5. b e l o w ) .

The a o r i s t p r e f i x

{wa?-}

i s sometimes r e a l i z e d

T h i s o c c u r s when t h e a o r i s t p r e f i x forms t h e p e n u l t i m a t e

s y l l a b l e and t h e r e b y r e c e i v e s s t r e s s (see 3.7.2. above). /atha?kéhsu ne? yahà:ke?/

For example:

" I walked t h e r e , went t h e r e by f o o t "

yah-

translocative

-à:-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x

-e?

"walk"

The u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e 7.1.2.

non-modal p r e f i x

i s -*/yVh-wá?-k-e?/.

The I n d e f i n i t e

Prefix

The i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x that the action

{ a - } expresses t h e i d e a

o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b w i l l p o s s i b l y o r p r o b a b l y

occur sometime i n t h e f u t u r e .

I n o t h e r words, t h e a c t i o n

or state i s

not now o c c u r r i n g o r has n o t y e t o c c u r r e d , b u t w i l l p o s s i b l y o r

169

p r o b a b l y occur a t some t i m e .

The i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x g e n e r a l l y ,

unless

negated, connotes a c e r t a i n d e s i r e on t h e p a r t o f t h e speaker t h a t t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e should occur. i n t o English

I n d e f i n i t e verbs a r e o f t e n

translated

as c o n d i t i o n a l s , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e sometimes t r a n s l a t e d

i n present o r f u t u r e tenses.

7.1.21.

The i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x occurs as { a - }

except as p r o v i d e d :

7.1.22.

A verb containing

an i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x

o c c u r s i n a c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r v e r b which expresses

often

some k i n d

o f d e s i r e , v o l i t i o n , o r a t t i t u d e o f t h e speaker toward t h e a n t i c i p a t e d a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e i n d e f i n i t e v e r b . /í:kehle? akhnekí:la?/

" I want t o d r i n k "

a-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e

-hneki:la?

" I want t o d r i v e a g a i n "

au-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-sa-

i t e r a t i v e non-modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e

prefix

"drive"

/vakuTWéskwsni ne? ake?ní?khu/ a-

prefix

"drink"

/írkehle? ausakató:li?/

-ato:li?

For example:

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

" I l i k e t o sew"

170

-ke-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e

-?nx?khu

prefix

"sew"

/kaska:neks ne ake?ní?khu/

" I would l i k e t o sew"

/teyotuhujóhu ne ahayvtho?/

"he s h o u l d p l a n t

(it)"

a-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-ha-

3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e

-yvtho?

"plant"

prefix

/ t e y o t u h u j u h u : n e ? ne ahoyvtho?/

"he s h o u l d have p l a n t e d "

/ t e y o t u h u j u h u : n e ? ne a u k y v t h o ? /

" I s h o u l d have p l a n t e d "

au-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e

-yvtho?

"plant"

/vhakwé:ni ne? ahá:late?/

prefix

"he c a n , i s a b l e t o l i e down"

a-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-h-

3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-á :1ate?

" l i e down"

/ahokwényu ne? aholátu/

"he c o u l d have, would have been been a b l e t o l i e down ( b u t didn't)"

a-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-ho-

3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-láu

" l i e down"

/aukwatkwényuke?/

" I would have won ( i t ) ( b u t d i d n ' t ) "

au-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-kw-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-atkwényuke?

"win"

/seléka? ne? ahá:wv?/ a-

"he a l m o s t s a i d i t ( b u t d i d n ' t ) "

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

171

-h-

3 r d person masculine

-áwv?

singular subjective p r e f i x

"say"

/yausayeteniya?tvhawe?/

"we ( d u a l ) would t a k e h e r , i t back w i t h us"

y-

t r a n s l o c a t i v e non-modal p r e f i x

-au-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

-sa-

i t e r a t i v e non-modal p r e f i x

-yeteni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 1 s t person d u a l s u b j e c t and 3 r d person f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r singular object

-ya?tvhawe?

" t a k e , c a r r y a body"

7.1.3.

The F u t u r e P r e f i x

The f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

{v-}

expresses t h e i d e a t h a t

t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b w i l l d e f i n i t e l y occur a t some t i m e i n t h e f u t u r e .

I t expresses t h e c e r t a i n t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e

speaker t h a t t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e w i l l t a k e p l a c e .

Some n e g a t i v e

commands a r e composed o f a v e r b i n t h e f u t u r e mode, preceeded by a s e p a r a t e word, t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o E n g l i s h as " d o n ' t . "

F u t u r e modal

verbs i n Mohawk a r e g e n e r a l l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h i n t h e f u t u r e tense.

For example:

/vkyvtho?/

" I w i l l plant ( i t ) "

v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-yvtho?

"plant"

/vwá:tu?/

" i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e "

v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-w-

3 r d person prefix

singular feminine/neuter

subjective

172

-a:tu?

"be a b l e , can, be p o s s i b l e "

/vwa:tu? k v ? vká:clate?/ " W i l l I be a b l e t o l i e down, be a l l o w e d t o l i e down?" " W i l l i t be p o s s i b l e l i e down?" v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-árlate?

" l i e down"

/ u t a : ? u j i vke?ní?khu/

" I have t o sew ( i t ) "

v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-ke-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-?ni?khu /tóhsa?

"sew"

vsaná":khwv/

"Don't g e t , be a n g r y ! " ( s g . )

v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-sa-

2nd person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-narkhwv

"be a n g r y "

/tóhsa? vskwatsté:list/

"Don't b o t h e r me, t o u c h me, p e s t e r me! ( s g . ) " "Leave me a l o n e ! "

v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-skw-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 2nd p e r s o n s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 1 s t person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t

-atsté:list

7.2.

that I w i l l

"pester,

t o u c h , annoy, b o t h e r "

Non-Modal P r e f i x e s I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e modal p r e f i x e s d i s c u s s e d i n 7.1. above,

t h e r e a r e e i g h t non-modal v e r b a l p r e f i x e s w h i c h can occur i n Mohawk verbs.

These p r e f i x e s express a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t i d e a s w h i c h

cannot be u n i f i e d under a more s p e c i f i c l a b e l .

They a r e l i s t e d below

and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t u r n i n an o r d e r based on t h e i r p o s i t i o n c l a s s

173

arrangement w i t h i n t h e v e r b .

(see 7.0. above).

The p o s i t i o n c l a s s arrangement o f t h e non-modal v e r b a l p r e f i x e s i s based on t h e i r p a t t e r n s o f co-occurrence. c h a r t i s repeated

NonModal

NonModal

Parti­ tive

Transloca­ tive

The b a s i c p o s i t i o n c l a s s

here:

Modal

Aorist

NonModal

Modal

NonModal

Duplica­ tive

Indefi­ nite

Itera­ tive

Modal

Aorist

and n

t

wa?

Coinci­ dent

y

s

a Future

Cislocative

Indefi­ nite a

V

s

t

Con­ t r a stive th Negative te?

C e r t a i n c o m b i n a t i o n s o f non-modal v e r b a l p r e f i x e s a r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e on f o r m a l grounds, i . e . t h e y do n o t occur t o g e t h e r i n any Mohawk v e r b . {t-}

For example, t h e i t e r a t i v e ,

{s-}

, and t h e c i s l o c a t i v e ,

, never occur i n t h e same v e r b a l t h o u g h b o t h can occur i n

s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o other verbal prefixes.

Since

they

never co-occur and s i n c e t h e y occur i n t h e same p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x e s , t h e y a r e p l a c e d i n t h e same p o s i t i o n c l a s s . O t h e r non-modal v e r b a l p r e f i x e s a r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e on semantic grounds, i . e . t h e i r meaning r e s t r i c t s t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e p r e f i x e s

174

i n any one g i v e n v e r b .

V e r b a l p r e f i x e s w h i c h a r e semántically

i n c o m p a t i b l e do n o t co-occur b u t t h e y may o r may n o t be i n t h e same position class.

Placing semantically incompatible prefixes i n

d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n c l a s s e s i s based on t h e r e l a t i v e o r d e r o f these p r e f i x e s w i t h o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x e s w i t h which t h e y a r e b o t h c o m p a t i b l e . And p l a c i n g s e m a n t i c a l l y c o m p a t i b l e p r e f i x e s i n t h e same p o s i t i o n c l a s s i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y never co-occur f o r m a l l y .

A position

c l a s s , then, i s d e r i v e d from observable p a t t e r n s o f formal

co-occurrence.

The non-modal v e r b a l p r e f i x e s a r e : {n-}

partitive

{ s-}

coincident

jth-}

contra s t i v e

{ te?-

}.

negative

{y-}

translocative

{t-}

duplicative

{s-}

iterative

{t-}

cislocative

7.2.1. t h e semantic

The o n l y g e n e r a l i z a t i o n which can be o f f e r r e d about

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f non-modal v e r b a l p r e f i x e s i s t h e i d e a

o f t h e u n i t y o f s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l l o c a t i v e s .

The i d e a o f " l o c a t i v e "

i n Mohawk e n t a i l s components b o t h o f s p a t i a l l o c a t i o n , i . e . s p e c i f y i n g t h e p l a c e o r d i r e c t i o n o f an event, and o f t e m p o r a l l o c a t i o n , i . e . s p e c i f y i n g t h e t i m e o f occurrence

o f an event.

o f t i m e and space i s e x e m p l i f i e d and expressed modal v e r b a l p r e f i x e s :

partitive

{ n - } (see 7 . 2 . 2 3 . )

coincident

{s-}

(see 7 . 2 . 3 . )

I b i s semantic

unity

by t h e f o l l o w i n g non-

175

translocative

-

cislocative The

(see 7.2 .6.}

{y } {t-}

(see 7.2.9. )

s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and

1

usages o f each o f these p r e f i x e s

will

be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n s below.

7.2.2.

Partitive

The

partitive prefix

{

n-}

expresses a v a r i e t y o f i d e a s

w h i c h a r e concerned w i t h s p e c i f y i n g a c e r t a i n p o r t i o n , number, manner, p l a c e , o r t i m e o f an o c c u r r e n c e o r The

state.

p a r t i t i v e p r e f i x , along w i t h the c o i n c i d e n t ,

contrastive,

n e g a t i v e , o c c u p i e s the i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n c l a s s w i t h i n t h e v e r b .

It

precedes a l l modal p r e f i x e s as w e l l as a l l o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x e s included

i n i t s own

p o s i t i o n c l a s s (see c h a r t i n 7.2.

above).

and

not By

d e f i n i t i o n , i t does n o t co-occur w i t h t h e o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x e s i n i t s own

position The

class.

partitive

{n-}

i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic

rules :

1

S i m i l a r semantic components a r e expressed by the p r o g r e s s i v e v e r b r o o t s u f f i x {-hakye-} (see 8.3.6. below.)

2

The symbol { n-} has been chosen t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p a r t i t i v e p r e f i x even though t h e p r e f i x i s never a t t e s t e d i n t h i s p h o n o l o g i c a l shape. The c h o i c e was between / n - / and / n i - / and the f o r m e r was d e c i d e d upon p a r t l y because t h e morphophonemic change o f */ni-/ to /na?-/ o r t o /nu-/ would be p h o n o l o g i c a l l y u n m o t i v a t e d . T h e r e f o r e , I have l e f t t h e vowels as p a r t o f t h e a l l o m o r p h s and have s t a t e d the c o n d i t i o n i n g environments i n semantic t e r m s , i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e d a t a . The meanings r e l a t e d t o t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g environments cannot be a t t a c h e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n t vowels because t h e meanings may a p p l y o n l y t o one p a r t i c u l a r p r e f i x , w i t h a n o t h e r meaning a p p l y i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t p r e f i x . The s o l u t i o n o f f e r r e d , t h e n , may be a e s t h e t i c a l l y u n p l e a s i n g , b u t i t seems t o me t h a t i t i s appropriate.

176

/jina?ako':ta? ?we?/

"when one goes t o s l e e p "

na?-

partitive prefix

-akó:-

3 r d person s i n g u l a r indefinite prefix

-ta?we?

"sleep"

/na?kataweya?te?/

"when I e n t e r , go i n "

na?-

partitive prefix

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e prefix

-ataweya?te? nu-/

" e n t e r , come i n "

directional /kvhnekwa nutà:se?/

ni-/

feminine/

"you ( s g . ) came over here"

nu-

partitive prefix

-t-

cislocative

-à:-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-s-

2nd person s i n g u l a r p r e f i x

-e?

"come"

prefix

elsewhere /to n i h a : t i /

/ji

"how many o f them?"

ni-

partitive prefix

-ha:ti

3 r d person m a s c u l i n e nonsingular p r e f i x

nihawvno:tv/

" t h e way he speaks"

ni-

partitive prefix

-ha-

3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r prefix

-wvnd:tv

"the kind o f voice"

177

7.2.21.

Quantifier

—

expresses how much, how many,

amount o f , number o f , d u r a t i o n o f , s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t i m e : /to niha :ti/

"how many o f them?"

/

/ahsv nihá:ti/

" t h r e e o f them"

/ t o nithó:yu/

"How o l d i s he?"

/ji

nikali:wes/

"while, during"

/tékeni niyohselá:ke n i k a l i : w e s / /ji

niwahsuhtes/

"two y e a r s d u r a t i o n "

"during the n i g h t "

The p a r t i t i v e p r e f i x { n - } a l s o o c c u r s i n t h e enumeration o f i t e m s o f t h r e e o r more, as w e l l as i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f numerals f o r m u l t i p l e s o f t e n w h i c h a r e t h i r t y o r more: /ja:tah niyoli:wake/

" t h e r e a r e seven

/ w i s k nikanáktake/

" t h r e e beds"

/kayé:li niwáhsv/

7.2.22. way,

items"

"forty"

Manner —

expresses t h e manner o f , k i n d o f , t h e

o r how (what w a y ) : /ji

nihawvno:tv/

" t h e way he speaks" ( l i t e r a l l y : t h e way h i s words a r e , t h e way h i s v o i c e i s "

/ji

nihaya?tó:tv/

" t h e way he l o o k s , t h e way he i s " ( l i t e r a l l y : t h e way h i s body i s )

/ji

na?tekya?tolehtatselo:tv/

/ j i

niwvtó:le? n i k v : /

/ t o niyolihwanelákwah/ /ne? niwakyé:sv/

"my judgment" ( l i t e r a l l y : t h e k i n d o f j u d g i n g I do, t h e way I r e g u l a r l y j u d g e , my h a b i t u a l way o f j u d g i n g )

"how d i f f i c u l t "how w o n d e r f u l ,

i t is" s t r a n g e , awesome i t i s "

" i t ' s v e r y easy; t h e way, manner i s v e r y easy"

I n t e r r o g a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f manner can a l s o be made w i t h t h e

178

partitive prefix. /to

They ask "What k i n d o f , what manner?":

nihaya?to :tv/ /

"What does he l o o k l i k e ? " ( l i t e r a l l y : what i s t h e way h i s body i s ? )

/ ( o h ) niwahsokd:tv/

"What c o l o r i s i t ? "

/óhute? niwahsoko':tv/ / ( o h ) nikanyahtaló:tv/

7.2.23.

" i t ' s green-color" "What k i n d o f c l o t h i s i t ? "

L o c a t i v e — L o c a t i v e c a t e g o r i e s i n Mohawk

c o n t a i n i d e a s o f b o t h s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l l o c a t i o n .

That i s , a

l o c a t i v e p r e f i x can f u n c t i o n t o s p e c i f y o r p i n p o i n t an a c t i o n o r s t a t e i n terms o f p h y s i c a l space and/or i n terms o f t h e t i m e t h a t t h e event occurs.

The p a r t i t i v e p r e f i x

|n-j

f u n c t i o n s i n t h i s way, as do t h e

c o i n c i d e n t , t r a n s l o c a t i v e , and c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x e s (see 7 . 2 . 3 . , and 7 . 2 . 9 . below, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .

7.2.6.,

( A l s o , see 8 . 3 . 6 . below f o r a

d i s c u s s i o n o f s i m i l a r semantics o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e v e r b r o o t

suffix.)

The p a r t i t i v e p r e f i x { n-} o c c u r s i n e x p r e s s i o n s o f s p a t i a l location.

I t expresses t h e p l a c e o f , p l a c e where an event occurs and

i s u s u a l l y preceeded by a s e p a r a t e word e x p r e s s i n g " p l a c e , where", /-nú:/,: / vkatolíssv j i n u : niyolahkwawéhlo/ /tho

nu: n i y o t e n a k t a t s v l y u /

/ j i n u : niyakoyohtehkwe?/ /ka.?nu: n i h v : t e l u /

" I ' l l r e s t where i t ' s shady"

" t h a t ' s where she, i t found a bed, place f o r h e r s e l f "

"where she, one used t o work, was w o r k i n g "

"Where does he l i v e ? "

/ j i k n u : kv? n i t h o y e l a n y u / "here and t h e r e he s t r u c k them (matches)" The p a r t i t i v e p r e f i x location.

I t expresses

/ j i na?akó:ta?we?/

{ n-}. a l s o occurs i n e x p r e s s i o n s o f t e m p o r a l

t h e t i m e vhen, when, t i m e o f an e v e n t : "when one goes t o s l e e p "

179

/na?kataweya?te?/

"when I go i n , e n t e r "

7.2.24.

Diminutive

expresses r e l a t i v e smallness i n

—

dimension o f s i z e : /niwá:?a/

"it's

/nika':?a/

small"

"she, one i s s m a l l "

/nikatuhsa/

"it's

/niyenvyesha/

thin"

"she, one i s s h o r t "

(compare: /yehnv:yes/ / n i y u h s a káhnyv/ (compare: /thi

a short

"it's

/í:yus káhnyv/

nikanuhsa:?a/ (compare:

"she, one i s t a l l " ) stick" "it's

" t h a t l i t t l e house"

/ t h i kanuhsa?ko:wa/

7.2.25.

a long s t i c k " )

Continuation

—

" t h a t b i g house")

expresses t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f

an a c t i o n o r s t a t e i n t h e p r e s e n t , when known t o have e x i s t e d In

t h i s type o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , the verb i s o f t e n preceded

previously.

by a s e p a r a t e

w o r d , /shé:ku/, meaning " s t i l l , more.": /shé:ku tho'': n i k a h y a : t u / /shé:ku n i k y v t h o s /

"I'm s t i l l p l a n t i n g "

/shé:ku nihinú:we?s/ /shé:ku nikatkwényes/

" I s t i l l l i k e him" " I s t i l l win,

/shé:ku kv? nisatékkhah/

7.2.26.

" i t ' s s t i l l w r i t t e n there" (e.g. on a w a l l )

I s t i l l keep w i n n i n g "

"Do you ( s g . ) s t i l l have h e a t ? "

Directional —

expresses movement t o some p l a c e

w h i c h i s s p e c i f i e d by a. d i r e c t i o n a l o r l o c a t i o n a l p a r t i c l e o r w o r d : /ka.na'rtaku n u t a : y v ? /

"she, one came uptown"

/kwah k i ? ksu:ne? kvh nutaya^wv?/

"behind me, t h i s i s what happened"

180

/ohna':kv nekwa ñútanse?/ 7.?.3.

" i n the back, you (sg. ) come around!"

Coincident

The coincident p r e f i x

{ s - } expresses ideas t h a t have

to do w i t h temporal or s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f actions and s t a t e s . In t h i s sense, the coincident i s b a s i c a l l y a l o c a t i v e p r e f i x .

The

coincident expresses r e l a t i v e temporal sequences or expresses the f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n states or actions occur i n r e l a t i o n t o other states or actions.

The coincident p r e f i x also can express the idea t h a t two or

more states or actions are the same or occur a t the same time. The coincident p r e f i x , being i n the f i r s t p o s i t i o n class w i t h i n the verb (see 7.2. above), by d e f i n i t i o n i s always w o r d - i n i t i a l . I t preceeds a l l modal p r e f i x e s as w e l l as a l l other verbal p r e f i x e s w i t h which i t can co-occur. The coincident p r e f i x i s a f f e c t e d by the f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic rules :

7.2.31.

Temporal subordination —

expresses the idea

t h a t a s t a t e or a c t i o n occurs a t a c e r t a i n time when other events also happen: /sa?ehyatu?selu:ni/ /shé:ku siwakyonte?/ /ka? sihú:na?s/

"when she, one made a w i l l ; a t the time she made a w i l l " "when I was s t i l l working, a t the time t h a t I was s t i l l working"

"when they (masc. p i . ) were t h i s s i z e " (accompanied by gesture o f s i z e )

181

7.2.32.

Temporal r e f e r e n c e —

expresses t h e i d e a t h a t

a s t a t e o r a c t i o n occurs i n r e l a t i o n t o a p a r t i c u l a r time o r time period : /wvhu:nise? s i k o y a ? t i s a k u h a k y e ? s /

/sihskale?/ /siwvtaktah/

" i t ' s a long time s i n c e , t h a t , d u r i n g w h i c h I'm, I ' v e been g o i n g around l o o k i n g f o r y o u (sg. )"

"on t h a t d a t e " "on Saturday"

/siwakeseléhtayv?/

7.2.33.

" I had a c a r ( a t t h a t t i m e ) "

Expresses t h e i d e a t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e

o r a c t i o n a l r e a d y o c c u r s when a n o t h e r s t a t e o r a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . I n t h i s t y p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e v e r b i s o f t e n preceeded by a s e p a r a t e w o r d , /o:nv/,

meaning "now, t h e n , a l r e a d y . " :

/sihanakele?/ /o:nv

"he was a l r e a d y b o r n "

siyeVnikuhlaksa': ?a/

/o':nv siyukwatahswahtu/

7.2.34.

" a l r e a d y , she, one was s e n i l e " (she was o f c h i l d i s h mind) "we ( p l . ) had a l r e a d y p u t o u t t h e l i g h t "

Simultaneity —

expresses t h e i d e a t h a t two

o r more events a r e c o i n c i d e n t i n t i m e : /jináhe? sikuhne? s i w a k a t i : w v /

"Since, as l o n g as I ' v e been a l i v e , I've been t h i n "

" V " i t w o u l d be odd" kohsatvsneh sitetewakenunyábkwv siwa.ka'tstu/

3

"nurse's u n i f o r m "

" I t would be odd i f , i n a barn, I were d a n c i n g i f I were wearing a nurse's u n i f o r m "

This u t t e r a n c e o c c u r r e d i n a t e x t and was e l i c i t e d w i t h t h e E n g l i s h words as i n d i c a t e d .

182

7.2.35.

Similarity —

expresses t h e i d e a t h a t c e r t a i n

a c t i o n s o r s t a t e s a r e t h e same o r s i m i l a r : /sa?té:yot/

" i t ' s t h e same"

/sa?tehu:nas/

" t h e y (masc. p i . ) a r e t h e same s i z e "

/sa?tetewawvno:tv/

"we ( p l . i n c l . ) speak t h e same" ( l i t e r a l l y : our words a r e t h e same)

/sa?tetewahlukhahtseld:tv/

7.2.4.

"we ( p l . i n c l . ) speak t h e same language"

Contra s t i v e

The c o n t r a s t i v e non-modal p r e f i x concerned w i t h n e g a t i o n and

{ t h - } expresses i d e a s

contrast.

The c o n t r a s t i v e p r e f i x i s always w o r d - i n i t i a l .

I t precedes a l l

o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x e s , modal and non-modal, w i t h w h i c h i t co-occurs (see 7.2.

above.).

The c o n t r a s t i v e p r e f i x i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic rules :

7.2.41.

Negation

With some v e r b s , t h e c o n t r a s t i v e p r e f i x expresses t h e i d e a o f negation.

I t o c c u r s w i t h v e r b s c o n t a i n i n g any o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x

except t h e i t e r a t i v e o r c i s l o c a t i v e .

(The i d e a o f n e g a t i o n i n v e r b s

c o n t a i n i n g t h e i t e r a t i v e o r c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x i s expressed by t h e negative p r e f i x — s e e

7.2.5. below.)

I n t h e meaning o f n e g a t i o n , a

v e r b w i t h a c o n t r a s t i v e p r e f i x i s preceded particle,

/iyah/.

by a s e p a r a t e n e g a t i v e

183

W i t h t h e d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x and t h e d u p l i c a t i v e non-modal prefix

{t-}

:

/ i y a h tha?tehalistó:lalaks/

"he's n o t a t y p i s t "

" I d i d n ' t break

/iyáh tha?tewa.khlíhtu/

it"

With t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x { y-} : /iyáh kaná-.taku khyayàkene?/ /iyáh khyahihyá:tu?se?/

"we ( d u . ) w i l l n o t be g o i n g uptown"

" I won't w r i t e t o h i m t h e r e "

W i t h t h e i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x

{a-}

: (Verbs i n t h e i n d e f i n i t e

mode w i t h t h e c o n t r a s t i v e p r e f i x a r e o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h as negative future

verbs.):

/iyáh thakkwé:ni?/

" I c a n ' t , I'm n o t a b l e t o , I won't"

/iyáh thakathú:tate?/

" I won't consent,

/iyáh t h a h a k y v : t e l e ? s /

refuse"

"he w o u l d n ' t know, r e c o g n i z e me"

/tokáh iyáh t h a y o k e n o l u /

7.2.42.

I'll

" i f i t hadn't

rained..."

Contrast

With t h e verb r o o t / - t - / ,

t h e c o n t r a s t i v e p r e f i x expresses t h e

meaning o f " d i f f e r e n t " : /tha?teyoli:wate?/

7.2.5.

" t h e y (fern/neuter d u a l ) a r e d i f f e r e n t i d e a s "

Negative

The n e g a t i v e p r e f i x

{ t e - } expresses t h e idea o f t h e

n e g a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o r a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b .

I t occurs as

t h e i n i t i a l p r e f i x i n t h e v e r b and i s f o l l o w e d by e i t h e r a p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x , t h e i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x , o r t h e c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x , (see 7.2. above.) expressed

Before any o t h e r v e r b a l p r e f i x , t h e i d e a o f n e g a t i o n i s by t h e c o n t r a s t i v e p r e f i x (see 7.2.41.

above).

Verbs c o n t a i n i n g t h e n e g a t i v e p r e f i x a r e u s u a l l y preceded

by a

184

separate negative p a r t i c l e , / i y a h / . which i s t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o E n g l i s h as " n o t " o r " n e g a t i v e . " With p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s

only:

/ i y a h te?kyvté:lih/ /iyáh tehá:kv/

" I d o n ' t know"

"he c a n ' t see, he's b l i n d "

/iyáh k v te?sanú:wals?/

"you ( s g . ) don't have a b r a i n ! "

/ i y a h te?wake?nikuhlaksv:?v/

" I wasn't sad"

" I don't l i k e h i m "

/ i y a h tehinú:we?s/

/iyáh nuwa'rtu tehakwanowvhtv:ni/ / i y a h tekheyvtelé:?u/ With t h e i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x /iyáh. te?skaya':kv?s/ / i y a h tesewá:koh/

" I d i d n ' t r e c o g n i z e h e r , one, them" {

s-}

:

"she, i t doesn't go o u t anymore"

" I d i d n ' t a r r i v e back"

/iyáh t e j u k w a t s v l y u / With c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x

"we ( p i . ) d i d n ' t f i n d i t a g a i n " {t-}

/ i y a h tetewakatá^tih/ / i y a h tekyakotaweya^tu/

7.2.6.

"he never l i e s t o me"

:

" I d i d n ' t answer, d i d n ' t say a n y t h i n g " "she, one d i d n ' t come i n , e n t e r t h e r e "

Translocative

The t r a n s l o c a t i v e non-modal p r e f i x

j y-j

expresses

ideas

which have t o do w i t h a l o c a l i t y o r d i r e c t i o n away f r o m t h e speaker, e i t h e r a t t h e time o f the a c t i o n o r a t t h e time o f the utterance.

I f the

v e r b d e s c r i b e s a change i n l o c a t i o n o r a d i r e c t i o n o f movement, t h e n t h e d i r e c t i o n i s away from t h e speaker,4 s t a r t i n g e i t h e r a t a p l a c e 4

T h i s i s so i n a l l v e r b s w i t h n o n - l s t person s u b j e c t s . I n verbs w i t h 1 s t person s u b j e c t s , t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x r e f e r s t o m o t i o n i n a d i r e c t i o n away f r o m t h e h e a r e r .

185

where t h e speaker i s o r a t some o t h e r p l a c e , b u t always i n v o l v i n g a d i r e c t i o n o f movement away f r o m t h e speaker.

I f t h e v e r b does n o t

d e s c r i b e a change i n l o c a t i o n o r a d i r e c t i o n o f movement, t h e n t h e translocative

prefix refers t o the fact that the state or action o f the

v e r b i s e i t h e r t h e r e s u l t o f such movement o r occurs i n a t i m e o r p l a c e d i s t a n t f r o m t h e speaker a t t h e t i m e o f t h e a c t i o n o r a t t h e t i m e o f the utterance.

T h i s , t h e n , i s a n o t h e r example o f t h e u n i t y o f i d e a s

i n Mohawk o f s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l l o c a t i o n

( f o r o t h e r s , see 7 . 2 . 2 3 . ,

7.2.3.., 7 . 2 . 9 . , and 8.3.6.). The t r a n s l o c a t i v e

p r e f i x may a l s o express t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a c t i o n

t a k e s p l a c e i n a d i r e c t i o n away f r o m a l o c a l e t h a t i s t h e normal f o r b e h a v i o r , e.g. go u p s t a i r s

place

i n a house, c l i m b up a t r e e , go

downstairs i n t o a c e l l a r . When t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e (i.e. the declarative, preceeds t h e modal.

p r e f i x co-occurs w i t h any modal p r e f i x

i n d e f i n i t e , and f u t u r e ) , t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e The t r a n s l o c a t i v e

p r e f i x follows

t h e non-modal

p r e f i x e s w h i c h occur i n t h e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n c l a s s ( i . e . p a r t i t i v e , c o i n c i d e n t , and c o n t r a s t i v e ) .

The t r a n s l o c a t i v e

p r e f i x i s semantically

i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x and t h e two t h e r e f o r e do n o t co-occur

even though t h e y a r e i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n c l a s s e s (see 7.2.

a bove). 7.2.61. translocative

prefix:

The f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic r u l e s a f f e c t t h e

186

For example: I n non-modal v e r b s : /yekatketotha/

"I'm p e e k i n g ( o v e r t h e r e ) " " I often look i n the m i r r o r "

/yotka'rte? y e k a t a t k v s / /yehv?telu:tahkwe?/ /yehi?ni?khú:nis/ /yehihyatu:ni/

"he was l i v i n g , s t a y i n g over t h e r e " "I

sew f o r him over t h e r e "

"I'm w r i t i n g t o h i m "

I n modal v e r b s : / t h o nú: ya?kakyv/

"I

s a t (down) over t h e r e "

/atha?kéhsu ne? ya?ákene?/

/yahaté:ko/

"he r a n away"

/vyohlv?ne? yv:yuwe?/

"we ( d u a l ) went t h e r e by f o o t , walked t h e r e " (away f r o m speaker)

"she, one w i l l a r r i v e t h e r e tomorrow"

/ t e w a k a t u h u j u : n i sé?s t h o ya':ke?/

/yasatena':taloh/

/yp?keláhthv/

"Dunk y o u r bread i n t h e l i q u i d ! ( s g . ) " (e.g. i n c o f f e e , m i l k , e t c . )

" I c l i m b e d up (a t r e e ) ; I went u p s t a i r s "

/ohujo:ku ya?katsnvhte?/

/yahplahthv/

" I went down, climbed down i n t o the c e l l a r "

"he climbed

/ya?tvhanijuhkwahkwe?/ 7.2.62.

" I wanted t o go t h e r e (but d i d n ' t ) "

up (away f r o m s p e a k e r ) "

" h e ' l l jump u p "

As s t a t e d i n t h e morphophonemic r u l e s above

(see 7 . 2 . 6 1 . ) , t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x sometimes has t h e shape /yVh-/. The r u l e a p p l i e s when t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x d i r e c t l y precedes a s t r e s s e d vowel.

The vowel i n t h e p r e f i x /yVh-/ i s a c t u a l l y e p e n t h e t i c

and has t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l shape o f t h e s t r e s s e d vowel w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e

A-/.

187

For example : /atha?kéhsu ne? yvhv:ke?/

" I w i l l walk t h e r e , go t h e r e by f o o t "

yvh-

translocative prefix

-v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t i v e p r e f i x

-e?

"walk, go by f o o t "

Here, t h e s t r e s s e d l o n g vowel / - v : - / i s t h e modal p r e f i x f o r f u t u r e . I t i s s t r e s s e d because i t i s t h e p e n u l t i m a t e vowel (see 3.7.2. above). The r u l e above s t a t e s t h a t t h e f o r m o f t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x o c c u r r i n g d i r e c t l y b e f o r e a s t r e s s e d vowel i s /yVh-/, where /-V-/ i s r e a l i z e d as i d e n t i c a l t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r e s s e d v o w e l , i n t h i s case /-v-/.

The e p e n t h e t i c vowel / - v - / must be s h o r t even though t h e

f o l l o w i n g vowel on w h i c h i t i s modelled i s l o n g .

T h i s i s so because

no more th»n one l o n g vowel may be p r e s e n t i n any Mohawk word (see 3.7.13. above).

T h e r e f o r e , t h e e p e n t h e t i c vowel has t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l

shape o f t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , b u t i s always s h o r t . The example g i v e n above can be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a n o t h e r f o r m i n t h e same paradigm: /atha?kéhsu ne? yvku:ne?/

" t h e y ( f e m / i n d e f / n e u t e r p l . ) w i l l walk t h e r e , go t h e r e by f o o t "

y-

translocative prefix

-v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-kun-

3 r d person f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e / n e u t e r p l u r a l subjective prefix

-e?

"walk, go by f o o t "

188

I n t h i s case, t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x does n o t d i r e c t l y precede t h e s t r e s s e d p e n u l t i m a t e vowel / - u : - / .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e shape o f t h e

t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x here i s / y - / , in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e morphophonemic rules stated

i n 7.2.61. above,

(see 4.2.2. above f o r a more d e t a i l e d

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e s e r u l e s and t h e i r o r d e r i n g . )

7.2.7.

Duplicative

The d u p l i c a t i v e non-modal p r e f i x

j t - j expresses a

v a r i e t y o f i d e a s , a l l o f w h i c h share t h e b a s i c i d e a t h a t more t h a n one person, o b j e c t , a c t i o n , o r s t a t e i s i n v o l v e d . The d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x precedes t h e f u t u r e modal and i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x e s as w e l l as t h e i t e r a t i v e and c i s l o c a t i v e non-modal prefixes.

I t f o l l o w s a l l o t h e r non-modal p r e f i x e s and a l s o f o l l o w s t h e

d e c l a r a t i v e modal p r e f i x (see 7.2. The d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x

above).

j t - j i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g

morphophonemic r u l e s :

7.2.71.

Quantifier —

the enumeration o f o b j e c t s

o r persons:

expresses t h e idea o f "two" i n

189

/tekawi:sake/

"two g l a s s e s "

/tehnu:kwe?/

"two men"

/tekenu:kwe?/

"two women"

7.2.72.

Occurs when two o r more agents a r e r e q u i r e d

f o r t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b : /wa?thyátela?ne?/

" t h e y (masc. d u a l ) met"

/tvjitewatekháhsih/

"we ( p l . i n c l . ) w i l l p a r t ,

/teskyaké:lu/

"they ( f e m / i n d e f / n e u t e r d u a l ) l o o k a l i k e , resemble each o t h e r "

/ya ?tehutela?né :kv/

" t h e y (masc. p i . ) were s i t t i n g together"

/sa?tehú:nas/

" t h e y (masc. p i . ) a r e t h e same s i z e "

7.2.73.

separate"

there

Occurs when t h e v e r b r e f e r s t o a s t a t e o r

a c t i o n i n v o l v i n g a number o f a s p e c t s , p a r t s , o r processes: /áhsv na?tehaya':sele?/

" i t has t h r e e l a y e r s , i t ' s t r i p l e "

/tehotstikahwhvhákye?/

"he was t r a v e l l i n g around, t r a v e l l i n g a l o n g , roaming a l l a r o u n d "

/tehahnvhsaká:lu/

"he has wide s h o u l d e r s "

/ya?tahutkabtunyuhwe?/

" t h e y (masc. p i . ) would l o o k around there a t a l o t o f things"

/wa?tewákya?ke?/

" i t broke i n t o two p i e c e s "

7.2.7/4.

Occurs when t h e v e r b r e f e r s t o changes o f

state o f t h e object or the subject. the

Where t h e o b j e c t undergoes

change,

s u b j e c t i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

prefix.

Where t h e s u b j e c t undergoes change o r i s a f f e c t e d by some f o r c e

190

or process, i t i s represented by the appropriate

o b j e c t i v e pronominal

prefix.^ : /tejetenyukwas/

"she, one keeps changing t h i n g s " (e.g. d e t a i l s i n a s t o r y )

/wa?thawvïye?/

"he messes, s t i r s i t , them up"

/taho':yu?ne?/

"he's

afeing"

/teyakotuhnakali:?u/

"she,

one i s orphaned"

/tewakatehnuhukyú:ne?/

" I had my door open"

/wa Vtehsakohúlya ?ke?/

"he chocked her, one, them"

/wa?tewakatenuhyaníhtv/

" I was shocked, appalled; appalled me"

7.2.75.

i t shocked,

Occurs i n place o f the i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x { s- }

with verbs containing the c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x

{t-}

.

The i t e r a t i v e

and c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x occur i n the same p o s i t i o n class; t h a t i s , they are formally mutually exclusive

(see 7.2. above.).

In t h i s s i t u a t i o n , the d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x expresses the meaning of the i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x ; i . e . having t o do w i t h r e p e t i t i o n , r e t u r n , etc. and o f t e n t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o English as "again, back, r e - " .

The

replacement o f the i t e r a t i v e by the d u p l i c a t i v e i s somewhat consistent

5

In two recent works, Wallace Chafe discusses Onondaga pronominal p r e f i x e s i n terms o f agent and p a t i e n t functions. Chafe states t h a t when the subject o f the verb i s r e l a t e d t o i t s verb as agent (or experiencer), then the subject i s represented by the subjective pronominal p r e f i x . When the subject of the verb i s r e l a t e d t o i t s verb as p a t i e n t (or b e n e f i c i a r y ) , then the subject i s represented by the o b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x (see pp. 8 f f . o f Chafe's A Semantically Based Sketch of Onondaga). This analysis i s consistent w i t h the patterns o f subjective and o b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x a l t e r n a t i o n i n Akwesasne Kohawk.

191

semantically.

These préfixes both share a meaning h a v i n g t o do w i t h

r e p e t i t i o n o r r e c u r r e n c e , i n t h e i t e r a t i v e w i t h events o r s t a t e s and i n t h e d u p l i c a t i v e w i t h agents o r p a r t s o f a c t i v i t i e s .

What i s c u r i o u s

i s t h a t t h e i t e r a t i v e and c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e f o r m a l l y m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e even though t h e y a r e s e m a n t i c a l l y c o m p a t i b l e .

Also t h e f a c t

t h a t t h e c i s l o c a t i v e and t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x e s occur i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n classes w i t h i n the verb i s curious since they are s e m a n t i c a l l y o p p o s i t e s and t h e r e f o r e never

co-occur.

Examples o f t h e use o f t h e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x t o express t h e meaning o f t h e i t e r a t i v e i n verbs w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e c i s l o c a t i v e a r e : /tutarle?/

"he came back h e r e "

/tutayutsnvhte?/

"she, one came d o w n s t a i r s " (she had been d o w n s t a i r s a t some p r e v i o u s t i m e and she then returned)

/tutokke?tdhstahkwe?/ 7.2.8.

" I suddenly appeared back a g a i n "

Iterative

The i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x { s - } expresses i d e a s o f r e p e t i t i o n , r e c u r r e n c e , o r r e t u r n o f an a c t i o n o r s t a t e .

These i d e a s can u s u a l l y

be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h as " a g a i n , " "back," " r e - . " I n non-modal o r f u t u r e modal v e r b s , t h e i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x occurs d i r e c t l y preceding

the pronominal p r e f i x e s ; t h a t i s , i t f o l l o w s t h e

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x as w e l l as a l l t h e non-modal p r e f i x e s w i t h i t can co-occur

(see 7.2. above.).

which

When i n d e c l a r a t i v e o r i n d e f i n i t e

modal v e r b s , t h e i t e r a t i v e precedes these modal p r e f i x e s , b o t h o f w h i c h i n t h i s case a r e r e a l i z e d as / - a - / (see 7.2. above). i t e r a t i v e and c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x e s cannot co-occur. f o r semantic

The

T h e r e f o r e , when

reasons t h e y would b o t h be expected, t h e i t e r a t i v e i s

192

r e p l a c e d by t h e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x (see 7.2.75. above). The i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic rules :

For example: /shotuhné: t u /

"he came back t o l i f e "

/vskatô:ktv?/

" I ' l l run out of i t again"

/tejetenyukwas/

"she, one keeps c h a n g i n g "

/yvske?/

" I ' l l go back t h e r e ( l a t e r ) "

/ k a t k e ? sewahtvkyuhe?/ "when i s she, i t g o i n g back home, r e t u r n i n g home?" /iyáh teskayá:kv?s/

7.2.9.

"she, i t doesn't go o u t anymore"

Cislocative

The c i s l o c a t i v e non-modal p r e f i x

j t - } expresses i d e a s

tha.t have to do with a l o c a l i t y or d i r e c t i o n near of toward t h e speaker,^ e i t h e r a t t h e t i m e of t h e a c t i o n o r a t t h e t i m e o f t h e u t t e r a n c e .

I f

t h e v e r b d e s c r i b e s a change i n l o c a t i o n o r a d i r e c t i o n o f movement,

7

T h i s i s so i n a l l v e r b s w i t h n o n - l s t person s u b j e c t s . I n v e r b s w i t h 1 s t person s u b j e c t s , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x r e f e r s t o m o t i o n i n a d i r e c t i o n toward t h e h e a r e r .

193

then t h e d i r e c t i o n i s toward t h e speaker, e i t h e r a r r i v i n g near o r by t h e speaker o r coming i n a d i r e c t i o n toward t h e speaker.

I f t h e verb

does n o t d e s c r i b e a change i n l o c a t i o n o r a d i r e c t i o n o f movement, t h e n the c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x r e f e r s t o the f a c t t h a t the state or a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d i s e i t h e r a. r e s u l t o f such movement o r occurs i n a t i m e o r p l a c e near o r by t h e speaker a t t h e t i m e o f t h e a c t i o n o r a t t h e t i m e

o f t h e u t t e r a n c e . (See 7 . 2 . 2 3 . , 7 . 2 . 3 . , 7 . 2 . 6 . , and 8 . 3 . 6 . f o r d i s c u s s i o n s o f o t h e r p r e f i x e s and s u f f i x e s w h i c h demonstrate o f i d e a s o f s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l

the unity

location.)

The c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x may a l s o express t h e idea t h a t t h e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n a d i r e c t i o n toward a l o c a l e t h a t i s t h e normal p l a c e f o r b e h a v i o r , e.g. come d o w n s t a i r s , c l i m b down f r o m a t r e e o n t o t h e ground, come u p s t a i r s

from a c e l l a r .

I n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e f u t u r e modal p r e f i x o r i n a non-modal v e r b , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x always f o l l o w s t h e f u t u r e modal o r t h e non-modal p r e f i x e s .

I n combination w i t h e i t h e r only the d e c l a r a t i v e

modal o r o n l y t h e i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x e s , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e a g a i n f o l l o w s these p r e f i x e s .

However, i n d e c l a r a t i v e o r i n d e f i n i t e modal

verbs which a l s o c o n t a i n t h e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x preceeds t h e modal p r e f i x e s , b o t h o f which i n t h i s environment a r e r e a l i z e d as /-a-/.

(see 7.2.

above.).

Although o c c u r r i n g i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n c l a s s e s , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e and t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e f o r semantic

reasons;

t h e former i n v o l v i n g d i r e c t i o n toward t h e speaker and t h e l a t t e r i n v o l v i n g d i r e c t i o n away f r o m t h e speaker.

For these semantic

t h e n , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e and t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x e s never

reasons,

co-occur.

Although s e m a n t i c a l l y c o m p a t i b l e , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e and i t e r a t i v e

194

p r e f i x e s a r e f o r m a l l y m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e , o c c u r r i n g i n t h e same p o s i t i o n class.

The c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s demonstrated by

t h e f a c t t h a t i n verbs whose meaning c a l l s f o r b o t h t h e c i s l o c a t i v e and t h e i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x e s , t h e i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x does n o t occur' b u t i s r e p l a c e d by t h e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x (see 7.2.75.

7.2.91.

above).

The c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x i s a f f e c t e d by t h e

f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic r u l e s :

For example: /kvhnekwá t h v t s k o t e ? /

"he's s i t t i n g h e r e "

/telutó: nutà: l e ?/

"he came ( h e r e ) f r o m T o r o n t o "

/vtke?/

" I w i l l come ( h e r e ) "

/takátsnvhte?/

"I

/vthátsnvhte?/

" h e ' l l come down here f r o m u p s t a i r s "

/tahaláhthv?/

"he c l i m b e d up ( t o w a r d me, from below)"

came down ( d o w n s t a i r s ) " ( I was u p s t a i r s )

With t h e d u p l i c a t i v e : /tutayutsnvhte?/

"she, one came d o w n s t a i r s a g a i n "

/tvthanijuhkwahkwe?/

" h e ' ' l l jump down"

7.2.92.

C e r t a i n verbs o f m o t i o n ( i . e . c l i m b , go o r come

u p s t a i r s o r d o w n s t a i r s ) can be used t o i l l u s t r a t e some i n t e r e s t i n g

195

semantic d i f f e r e n c e s

between t h e c i s l o c a t i v e and t r a n s l o c a t i v e

As has been mentioned above, w i t h v e r b s d e s c r i b i n g

prefixes.

a change o f

l o c a t i o n o r d i r e c t i o n , t h e c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x r e f e r s t o m o t i o n toward t h e speaker w h i l e t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x r e f e r s t o m o t i o n away from t h e speaker.

I t has a l s o been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e c i s l o c a t i v e can

r e f e r t o m o t i o n toward a l o c a l e w h i c h i s h a b i t u a l f o r b e h a v i o r w h i l e t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e can r e f e r t o m o t i o n away from such a l o c a l e .

The

f i r s t meaning, i . e . movement toward o r away f r o m t h e speaker, i s t h e b a s i c one s i n c e i n a c o n t r a d i c t o r y

s i t u a t i o n i t t a k e s precedence over

the f a c t o r o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f h a b i t u a l behavior.

That i s , when a

v e r b d e s c r i b e s m o t i o n away f r o m a l o c a l e o f h a b i t u a l b e h a v i o r b u t toward t h e speaker, t h e p r e f i x used i s t h e c i s l o c a t i v e , w h i c h i s t h e expected p r e f i x e x p r e s s i n g m o t i o n toward t h e speaker. /yahalahthv?/

For example:

"he c l i m b e d up (a t r e e ) " (away f r o m s p e a k e r — s p e a k e r t h e ground)

i s s t a n d i n g on

y-

translocative prefix

-a-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-ha-

3rd person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-lahthv? "climb" but : /tahalahthv?/

"he c l i m b e d up (a t r e e ) " (toward speaker—speaker already i n the tree)

i s o r was

t-

cislocative prefix

-a-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-ha-

3 r d person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-lahthv? "climb"

196

Also : /vtkelahthv?/

and

" I ' l l c l i m b up" ( f r o m b e l o w — e . g . I'm i n a w e l l i n t h e ground and w i l l c l i m b up t o ground l e v e l where t h e hearer i s ) " I ' l l come u p s t a i r s " ( h e a r e r i s u p s t a i r s i n t h e house a l r e a d y and I w i l l come up f r o m t h e main l e v e l t o where h e a r e r i s )

v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-t-

cislocative prefix

-ke-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

subject

but : /yvkeláhthv?/

" I ' l l go u p s t a i r s " ( h e a r e r i s on main l e v e l and I w i l l go go t o u p s t a i r s l e v e l away f r o m h e a r e r )

y-

translocative prefix

-v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x

-ke-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r

The same p i e c e o f p h y s i c a l

subject

b e h a v i o r can be expressed u s i n g e i t h e r

the c i s l o c a t i v e o r t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x , t h e c o r r e c t one chosen on the b a s i s o f t o whom t h e i n f o r m a t i o n

i n t h e u t t e r a n c e i s b e i n g conveyed.

For

example, i f I were down i n s i d e a w e l l w i t h a number o f o t h e r people

and

t h e r e were a l s o some p e o p l e s t a n d i n g above us on t h e ground, and I

were s a y i n g " I w i l l c l i m b up", I would use e i t h e r t h e c i s l o c a t i v e o r t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x depending upon who was t h e r e c i p i e n t o f t h i s information.

For example:

/yvkeláhthv?/

" I ' l l c l i m b up" ( f r o m i n s i d e t h e w e l l t o t h e ground) ( s a i d t o someone w i t h me down i n t h e w e l l — t h e r e f o r e , my movement w i l l be away f r o m t h e hearer)

197

but : /vtkeláhthv?/

" I ' l l c l i m b up" ( f r o m i n s i d e t h e w e l l t o t h e ground) ( s a i d t o someone above us on t h e g r o u n d — t h e r e f o r e , my movement w i l l be toward the h e a r e r )

Roth o f t h e s e v e r b s d e s c r i b e movement toward a l o c a l e w h i c h i s h a b i t u a l f o r b e h a v i o r (e.g. t o t h e ground l e v e l ) . d e s c r i b e t h e same p h y s i c a l

behavior.

Both, i n f a c t ,

However, t h e d e c i s i v e

semantic

component i s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f movement i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e h e a r e r . T h i s i s demonstrated by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c i s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x i s used when t h e movement i s toward t h e h e a r e r whereas t h e t r a n s l o c a t i v e p r e f i x i s used when t h e movement i s away f r o m t h e h e a r e r .

196

VERBAL SUFFIXES

P.O.

The

g e n e r a l c l a s s o f v e r b a l s u f f i x e s occupies the l a s t o f

f o u r v e r b a l p o s i t i o n c l a s s e s (see f o l l o w v e r b bases.

The

5-1.1. above).

verb root

2.

aspect s u f f i x e s

3.

attributive

suffixes

suffixes

v e r b r o o t s u f f i x e s f o l l o w the v e r b r o o t s and The

Verbal suffixes

They are o f t h r e e g e n e r a l t y p e s :

1.

suffixes.

the

precede the

aspect s u f f i x e s , t h e n , a r e w o r d - f i n a l .

The

aspect

attributive

s u f f i x e s co-occur w i t h o n l y a l i m i t e d c l a s s o f non-modal v e r b s are

and

word-final.

8.1.

Verb r o o t s u f f i x e s express a number o f i d e a s concerned

w i t h m o d i f y i n g the v e r b o r e x p r e s s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the s u b j e c t s and

objects

o f the s t a t e o r a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d by the

These s u f f i x e s f o l l o w v e r b r o o t s o r v e r b bases w h i c h are composed o f one

verb.

themselves

o r more v e r b r o o t s w i t h p o s s i b l e i n c o r p o r a t e d

noun

roots. Aspect s u f f i x e s , i n g e n e r a l , e x p r e s s and

describe the

temporal

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by the v e r b .

Aspect

s u f f i x e s d e s i g n a t e an a c t i o n o r s t a t e i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s p o s i t i o n on a continuum o f t i m e , w i t h o u t r e f e r r i n g t o any tense.

p a r t i c u l a r time

or

That i s , t h e y d e s c r i b e whether an a c t i o n o r s t a t e i s

continuous, i n t e r r u p t e d , r e p e t i t i v e ,

etc.

A t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x e s express i d e a s w h i c h i n v o l v e

particular

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s i z e , number, o r c o n d i t i o n r e f e r r i n g t o t h e o r s u b j e c t o f the

verb.

agent

199

8.2.

S u f f i x Formation

Before proceeding t o a d i s c u s s i o n of the v e r b a l s u f f i x e s t h e m s e l v e s , i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o p o i n t o u t and

exemplify c e r t a i n

g e n e r a l o p t i o n s and processes a v a i l a b l e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f Mohawk verbs. The

f o r m a t i o n o f v e r b s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f the v e r b a l s u f f i x e s ,

i s extremely

complex.

Several possible patterns o f s u f f i x

formation

exist :

8.2.1.

I n terms o f t h e s u f f i x components, the

v e r b form i s t h e b a s i c i m p e r a t i v e . of verbal suffixes. /sato:lat/ s-

I t i s expressed by the absence

For example: "hunt!"

(sg.)

2nd p e r s o n s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-atd:lat

"hunt"

/testa?n/

"stand!

stand up!"

(sg.)

té-

duplicative prefix

-s-

2nd p e r s o n s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-ta?n

"stand

8.2.2.

(up)"

The n e x t l e v e l o f c o m p l e x i t y i s e x e m p l i f i e d

verbs which contain a s i n g l e v e r b a l aspect s u f f i x . /lato:lats/ 1-

"he

h u n t s , he's

h u n t i n g , he's

3rd person masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-ato:lat-s

simplest

"hunt"

s e r i a l aspect s u f f i x

by

For example: a

hunter"

?00

/vkato:late?/

" I ' l l hunt"

f u t u r e medal p r e f i x

v-k-

1 s t person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-ato:lat-e?

prefix

"hunt"

p u n c t u a l aspect s u f f i x

/lotolá:tu/

"he hunted"

3rd person masculine s i n g u l a r

lo-

-tolá:t-u

object

"hunt"

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

8.2.3.

Verbs can be made up o f i n c r e a s i n g

c o m p l e x i t y by a d d i t i o n a l c y c l e s o f s u f f i x f o r m a t i o n .

levels of That i s ,

a f t e r t h e aspect s u f f i x (see 8.4. b e l o w ) i s added t o t h e v e r b base, a d d i t i o n a l a s p e c t u a l and n o n - a s p e c t u a l v e r b a l s u f f i x e s can be j o i n e d t o the verb.

F o r example:

/tehatkahtunyus/

"he's l o o k i n g

around"

te-

duplicative

-h-

3rd person masculine s i n g u l a r

-atkaht-ú-

v e r b base:

distributive

"look"

suffix

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect

/takuhnetuhákye?s/

suffix

"you ( s g . ) keep me a l i v e , y o u a r e are k e e p i n g me a l i v e "

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 2nd person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t and 1 s t person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t

tak-

-uhnet-u-

subject

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

-nyu-s

prefix

v e r b base:

"live,

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

life"

suffix

201

-hákye?-s

8.3.

progressive s u f f i x

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect

Non-Aspectual

suffix

Verb Root S u f f i x e s

The e i g h t v e r b r o o t s u f f i x e s are : Causative

| -ht |

Distributive

I -nyu- \

B e n e f a c t i v e I {3 - v n i - } II

{-?s-}

{-hakye-}

Progressive

{-k-}

Continuative Ambulative Former Past

{

-?n-} {-kwe?-}

The f o l l o w i n g c h a r t p l a c e s t h e n o n - a s p e c t u a l v e r b r o o t s u f f i x e s i n t h e i r p r o p e r p o s i t i o n - c l a s s arrangement.

( I t i s understood

t h e s e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s a p p l y t o v e r b s w h i c h have n o t been t h r o u g h o p t i o n s o f v e r b f o r m a t i o n — s e e 8.2.

above.).

that

re-cycled

The v e r b

r o o t s u f f i x e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t u r n below a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the verb.

?0?

Causa­ tive

Distribu­ tive

Benefac­ tive

Progres­ sive

Former Past

ht

nyu

vni

hakye

kwe?

s

Continuative

k Ambula­ tive

?n

8.3.1.

Causative

The c a u s a t i v e v e r b r o o t s u f f i x

j -ht-j

a number o f i d e a s r e l a t e d t o t h e concept o f c a u s a t i o n .

expresses The s u b j e c t

or a c t o r o f t h e v e r b may p e r f o r m some a c t i o n upon an o b j e c t o r a n o t h e r person w h i c h r e s u l t s i n a change o f s t a t e o f t h a t o b j e c t or person.

The s u b j e c t o r a c t o r may cause a n o t h e r person o r an

o b j e c t t o undergo some process o r be somehow t r a n s f o r m e d .

The

c a u s a t i v e s u f f i x a l s o co-occurs w i t h v e r b bases where i t s meaning has become m e t a p h o r i c , o f t e n d i s g u i s i n g o r d i s t o r t i n g t h e semantics o f t h e c a u s a t i v e component.

However, a l t h o u g h t h e semantics

cannot

be s t a t e d p r e c i s e l y , t h e c a u s a t i v e s u f f i x can be i s o l a t e d on f o r m a l grounds. I t occurs as f o l l o w s : /akwa?nikuhlayvtáhtv?/

" f o r me t o make y o u ( p l . ) understand"

-?nikuhlayvtá-ht-

v e r b base:

causative s u f f i x

"understand"

203

-v?

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

/yoji?yohtu:nis/ -,ji?yo-

suffix

" i t makes her,

i t lazy"

"lazy"

v e r b base:

-ht-

causative

-ú:-

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

-ni-

benefactive I s u f f i x

-s

suffix

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect s u f f i x

/tukewvnatáhkwahte?/

" I spoke r i g h t o u t " ( l i t e r a l l y : I t o o k t h e words o u t )

-wvnatáhkwa-ht-

v e r b base:

causative

-e?

suffix

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

8.3.2.

Distributive

The d i s t r i b u t i v e the

"speak"

verb r o o t s u f f i x

{-nyu-}

expresses

idea o f a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f o b j e c t s o r a c t i o n s which are d i s t r i b u t e d

over t i m e o r space.

The d i s t r i b u t i v e

s u f f i x may r e f e r

o f t h e o b j e c t s o f t h e v e r b o r i t may r e f e r action i t s e l f

t o the r e p e t i t i o n

or r e p e t i t i o n

example :

/tehatkahtúnyus/ -atkaht-u-nyu-u-

o f the

o r t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b

i n v o l v e s a necessary d i s t r i b u t i o n For

to a distribution

"he's l o o k i n g around"

root:

" l o o k , eye"

p e r f e c t i v e aspect distributive

suffix

suffix

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

over t i m e o r space.

?04

-s

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect

"I'm t h i n k i n g (many

/kanuhtúnyu/ -nuht-u-

suffix

root :

thoughts)"

"think"

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x

-nyu

distributive

suffix

"she, one i s . was p o i n g back and f o r t h "

/teyotohetstányus/

/vhseli?wanutunyú:hahse?/

"you ( s g . ) w i l l ask h e r , one, them many t h i n g s "

/tehatányus/

8.3.3.

"he's m i x i n g them ( t h o s e t h i n g s ) up"

Benefactive I

There a r e two v e r b r o o t s u f f i x e s w h i c h can be l a b e l l e d "benefactive."

They occur i n t h e same p o s i t i o n c l a s s w i t h i n t h e

v e r b and a r e t h e r e f o r e

mutually-exclusive.

Both o f t h e b e n e f a c t i v e s u f f i x e s e x p r e s s t h e i d e a o f a c t i o n toward a n o t h e r person i n w h i c h t h a t person i s t h e r e c i p i e n t o f an o b j e c t o r t h e b e n e f i c i a r y o f an a c t i o n . The v e r b r o o t s u f f i x l a b e l l e d " B e n e f a c t i v e I " i s t r e a t e d i n t h i s section, while

t h e second i s t r e a t e d below.

The b e n e f a c t i v e I v e r b r o o t s u f f i x /sakolihunyv:ni/ -lihuny-vni

stem:

-?nek-

-s

suffix

" I beg y o u ( p i . ) " stem: "beg"

benefactive

occurs as f o l l o w s :

was t e a c h i n g h e r ,

"teach"

benefactive

/kwa?nekv:nis/

-vni-

"he t a u g h t

{_vni-}

suffix

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect s u f f i x

one, them"

0Q[

" I -was t e l l i n g h e r , one, them 3 s t o r y "

/khekalatu:ni/ /watenihas/

"she, i t used t o l e n d i t o u t "

/sana?talu:ni/

8.3-4.

"you ( s g . ) make t h e b r e a d ! )

Benefactive I I

The b e n e f a c t i v e I I v e r b r o o t s u f f i x

| - ? s - ^ occurs

as f o l l o w s : /vkoselehtahni:nu?se?/

" I ' l l buy a v e h i c l e f o r y o u ( s g . ) "

-selehtahni:nu-?s-

stem:

benefactive

-e?

"buy a v e h i c l e "

suffix

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

/wa?kyukyakyel\inyu?se?/

suffix

"we ( d u . ) had a v e r y s t r a n g e t h i n g happen to us"

-akyelunyu-?s-

stem:

benefactive

-e?

" s t r a n g e , awesome" suffix

p u n c t u a l aspect

/waholi?wanú:to?se?/ -li?wanu:to-?s-

"he asked h i m " stem: "ask"

benefactive

-e?

suffix

p u n c t u a l aspect

/wahahnekahla?se?/ -hnekahla-?s-

stem:

"drink" suffix

p u n c t u a l aspect

8.3.5.

suffix

"he o f f e r e d h e r , i t a d r i n k "

benefactive

-e?

suffix

suffix

Progressive

The p r o g r e s s i v e v e r b r o o t s u f f i x {-hakye- } expresses

?06

the idea t h a t the a c t i o n or state described by the verb occurs over a period o f time or space.

I t can r e f e r t o an a c t i o n or state which

requires time or space t o be accomplished or i t can r e f e r t o a r e p e t i t i o n of actions or states.

The progressive s u f f i x , then,

contains components of meaning which exemplify the u n i t y o f temporal and s p a t i a l l o c a t i v e s i n Mohawk.

(For discussions o f v e r b a l p r e f i x e s

which exemplify s i m i l a r semantic ranges, see 7.°.,

7.2.23., 7.2.3-,

7.2.6. and 1.7.9. above.)

For example : /lonvyohlukwvhákye?/

!,

he's p i c k i n g up, gathering stones as he's coming along"

-nvyohlukwv-hakye-?

base:

"pick up, gather'

progressive s u f f i x

p e r f e c t i v e aspect s u f f i x "he's h i d i n g here and there a l l over

/loya?tahsehtakwvhakye?s/ -ya?tahsehtakwv-hákye?-s

1

base:

,r

"hide a body"

progressive s u f f i x

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect

/takuhnetuhakye?s/

suffix

"vou (sg.) keep me a l i v e , you are keeping me alive"

/lonatelihwahtvkyatuhákye?/

"they (masc. p i . ) are accomplishing many t h i n g s "

With some verb stems, the progressive s u f i x occurs i n a shorter r

form, i . e . w i t h shape /-kye-/. /yakotulyoktákye?/ -tulyoktá-kye-?

For example:

"she. one was out o f breath"

"be out of breath"

progressive s u f f i x p e r f e c t i v e aspect

suffix

207

/kotitakhehnúkye?s/

"they (fem/indef/neuter p l . ) are r u n n i n g around"

-takhehnu-kye?-s

base :

" r u n around"

progressive

suffix

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect

/luwawvnukye?s/

suffix

"she, one, t h e y keep d i s o b e y i n g him" (literally:

she, one, t h e y keep

l o s i n g h i s v o i c e , words) -wvnú-

base :

-kye?-

nrogressive

-s

"word" suffix

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect

8.3.6.

suffix

Continuative

The c o n t i n u a t i v e v e r b r o o t s u f f i x

{_k-}

expresses

t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b occurs a particular

period o f time.

/vhluhneke?/ -uhn-

F o r example:

" h e ' l l be a l i v e , be l i v i n g ; h e ' l l root:

"live"

-k-

continuative s u f f i x

-e?

p u n c t u a l aspect

/wa?ketsá:ni?ke?/ -tsá:ni?-

" I was

base:

suffix afraid"

"be a f r a i d ,

-k-

continuative suffix

-e?

p u n c t u a l aspect

/tehutitáhke?/ -atitáh-

live"

fear"

suffix

" t h e y ( masc. p l . ) were r i d i n g base:

"ride"

-k-

continuative s u f f i x

-e?

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

suffix

together"

over

208

/naho?tv:hsu

nahunehyahláhkwake?/

" t h i n g s f o r them (masc. p i . ) t o remember"

-ehyahlahkwa-

"remember"

base:

-k-

continuative

-e?

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

8.3.7.

suffix suffix

Ambulative

The a m b u l a t i v e v e r b r o o t s u f f i x the

{-?n-

}

expresses

i d e a t h a t t h e a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b i n v o l v e s w a l k i n g .

The a m b u l a t i v e s u f f i x i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic rules :

For example : /yukwayakv?v:ne?/ -yakv?v-

"we

stem:

( p l . e x c l . ) went o u t " "go o u t "

-n-

a m b u l a t i v e s u f f i x ( f r o m u n d e r l y i n g -?n-)

-?e

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

/lastelihstv:ne?/ -stelihstv-

"he was stem:

ambulative

-e?

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

-i?telu-hn-

l a u g h i n g (as he r a n away)"

"laugh"

-n-

/sahi?teluhna?/

suffix

suffix suffix

"when I t o o k him t h e r e " base:

ambulative

" l i v e , stay" suffix

209

-a?

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

/wakenu,]istv?tù:ne?/ -nujistv?tu-

" I hang my head low ( w h i l e I'm w a l k i n g ) " stem:

"hang a head"

-n-

ambulative

-e?

p e r f e c t i v e aspect

8.3.8.

suffix

suffix suffix

Former Past

The f o r m e r p a s t v e r b r o o t s u f f i x

j-kwe?j

occurs

w o r d - f i n a l l y t o express t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a c t i o n o r s t a t e d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b o c c u r r e d d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f t i m e b e f o r e t h e t i m e o f speaking.

The a c t i o n o r s t a t e has s i n c e stopped o c c u r r i n g and

t h e r e i s no e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t i t w i l l resume. /yeyákwe?skwe?/ -e?-s-kwe?

"we ( p i . e x c l . ) were t h e r e "

root:

"go. be"

a c t i v e s t a t e aspect former p a s t

"she, one used t o have an a n i m a l , p e t "

-nahskwayv:tah- . stem:

-hwistaká:teh-

"she, i t used t o have a l o t o f money" stem:

"have money"

former p a s t s u f f i x

/yehv?telu:tahkwe?/ -i?telu:tah-kwe?

"have, own, possess an a n i m a l , p e t "

former p a s t s u f f i x

/yohwistaká:tehkwe?/

-kwe?

suffix

suffix

/yakonahskwayv:tahkwe?/

-kwe?

For example:

"he was l i v i n g , stem:

former past

staying there" ( a t that time)

" l i v e , stay" suffix

?10

8.4.

Aspect S u f f i x e s

1

The aspect s u f f i x e s occur i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e v e r b . The o n l y e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r u l e i s i n t h e case o f aspect i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e former p a s t s u f f i x .

suffixes

Here, t h e former p a s t

s u f f i x i s always w o r d - f i n a l (see 8.3.9. above). I n g e n e r a l , asoect s u f f i x e s express i d e a s which r e f e r t o t h e placement o f t h e occurrence d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b on a continuum of time, without r e f e r r i n g t o a s p e c i f i c temporal instance.

That

i s , t h e aspect s u f f i x e s express i d e a s r e l a t i n g t o t h e k i n d o f t i m e or t e m p o r a l sequences i n which t h e occurrence t a k e s place w h i l e n o t themselves

s p e c i f y i n g t h a t t e m p o r a l f a c t as o c c u r r i n g i n t h e

past, future, etc.

I n Mohawk, f o u r aspects a r e expressed; two o f these r e f e r t o a c t i v e v e r b s : p u n c t u a l and a c t i v e s t a t e ; and two r e f e r t o p a s s i v e v e r b s : p e r f e c t i v e and passive s t a t e .

These f o u r aspects can be

s e m a n t i c a l l y d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s : Active : Punctual:

The p u n c t u a l aspect r e f e r s t o a s i n g l e e v e n t ;

t h a t i s , t h e a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d by t h e v e r b occurs once a t some p a r t i c u l a r t i m e a l t h o u g h t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t i m e i s n o t s p e c i f i e d by the p u n c t u a l aspect

suf ix.

Active State:

f

The a c t i v e s t a t e aspect r e f e r s t o t h e

c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e occurrence o f t h e v e r b over a p e r i o d o f t i m e . _ I am i n d e b t e d t o P r o f e s s o r Floyd G. Lounsbury f o r h i s h e l p and guidance i n d i s c u s s i n g problems r e l a t e d t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e aspect s u f f i x e s .

?11

I n t h i s case, " s t a t e " r e f e r s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a c t o r o r s u b j e c t o f the verb i s i n the s t a t e o f performing

some a c t i o n .

The a c t i v e

s t a t e aspect has two semantic components: one, s e r i a l , r e f e r s t o an a c t i o n o r s t a t e -which occurs a t repeated p o i n t s i n t i m e : t h e o t h e r , p r o g r e s s i v e , r e f e r s t o an a c t i o n o r s t a t e which occurs over a c o n t i n u o u s period o f time. Passive : Perfective:

The p e r f e c t i v e a s p e c t r e f e r s t o t h e occurrence

o f s t a t e s , whether as i n h e r e n t s t a t e s o r as s t a t e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m actions. Passive S t a t e :

The p a s s i v e s t a t e a s p e c t r e f e r s t o s t a t e s

which are the r e s u l t s o f t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e a c t o r s o r subjects o f a c t i v e aspect s t a t e s .

That i s , these s t a t e s , i . e . p a s s i v e s t a t e s ,

have a component o f p a s s i v i t y , i . e . o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e p a t i e n t o r o b j e c t o f some a c t i o n , and a component o f n o n - p u n c t u a l i t y , i . e . o f o c c u r r i n g over a p e r i o d o f t i m e , e i t h e r a t repeated p o i n t s o r continuously.

8.4.1.

The shape o f t h e a s p e c t s u f f i x e s depends upon

t h e i r co-occurrence w i t h a number o f o t h e r v e r b a l c a t e g o r i e s . Some o f these v e r b a l c a t e g o r i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by modal p r e f i x e s w h i l e o t h e r s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by n o n - a s p e c t u a l s u f f i x e s and s t i l l o t h e r s do n o t have o v e r t f o r m a l markers.

The p a r t i c u l a r

phonological

shape o f t h e aspect s u f f i x i n any p a r t i c u l a r co-occurrence w i t h o t h e r v e r b a l c a t e g o r i e s depends upon t h e v e r b base i t s e l f .

That i s , t h e r e

are s e t s o f " c o n j u g a t i o n c l a s s e s " i n t o w h i c h v e r b bases

fall.

The members o f these c o n j u g a t i o n c l a s s e s a r e g e n e r a l l y d e t e r m i n e d

?1?

by m o r p h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g .

8.4.?.

Following t h i s section there i s a chart o f the

v e r b a l c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h may co-occur.

The f i l l e r

f o r each

co-occurrence i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a f o r m o f t h e v e r b " t o p l a n t , " the

base f o r w h i c h i s / - y v t h o - / .

I n the i n t e r s e c t i o n s f o r the a c t i v e

aspect s u f f i x e s , t h e v e r b f o r " t o p l a n t " i s e x e m p l i f i e d w i t h t h e

3rd

person masculine s i n g u l a r p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x s u b j e c t "he" except f o r the

forms f o r t h e i m p e r a t i v e where t h e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x t h e n

r e p r e s e n t s t h e 2nd

person s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t "you."

I n the

i n t e r s e c t i o n s f o r the passive aspect s u f f i x e s , the verb " t o p l a n t " i s e x e m p l i f i e d w i t h t h e 3rd "it."

person f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

The p h o n o l o g i c a l shapes o f a l l p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s a r e i n

accordance

w i t h s e l e c t i o n r u l e s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 6 above.

The v e r b forms i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h p a s s i v e a s p e c t s u f f i x e s a r e g i v e n w i t h o u t agents.

I t i s p o s s i b l e t o express t h e agent

who

performs t h e a c t i o n w h i c h r e s u l t s i n t h e p a s s i v e s t a t e s by t h e use o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x , as d i s c u s s e d i n 6.5. "it

above.

For example, / k a y v t h u /

i s p l a n t e d by him".

" i t i s planted" but /loyvthu/

913

The c h a r t o f v e r b a l aspect s u f f i x e s

follows:

ASPECT SUFFIXES:

ACTIVE

Active

Punctual

State S e r i a l

Present (no o v e r t markers)

/layvthos/ "he's p l a n t i n g ; he p l a n t s ; he's a planter

Former Past /-kwe?/

/layvthoskwe?/ "he used t o p l a n t "

Indefinite Mode A-/

/ahayvtho?/ " f o r him t o p l a n t " (one e v e n t : one day, one c r o p , one f i e l d , one season)

/ahayvthóhseke?/ " f o r him t o c o n t i n u e t o p l a n t , keep on p l a n t i n g "

Future Mode A-/

/ v h a y v t h o ? / "he w i l l plant"

/vhayvthóhseke?/ "he'll continue t o p l a n t , keep p l a n t i n g "

Aorist Mode /wa?-/

/wahayvtho?/ planted

Imperative (no o v e r t marker)

/jvtho/

"

"he (it)"

Plant!"

/jvthóhsek/ "Keep p l a n t i n g ! Continue t o p l a n t ! "

?14

ASPECT SUFFIXES: PASSIVE

Perfective

Present (no o v e r t marker)

Former Past /-kwe?/

Punctual

Passive S t a t e S e r i a l

/kayv'thu/ "it is planted; i t i s i n the state o f being planted"

/kayvthù:ne/ " i t was p l a n t e d ; i t used t o be planted"

Indefinite Mode /a-/

/akayvthoke?/ " f o r i t t o be p l a n t e d ; be i n the s t a t e o f being planted"

/akayvthohake?/ " f o r i t t o be, c o n t i n u e t o be, keep on b e i n g planted ; continue t o be i n t h e s t a t e o f being planted"

Future Mode A-/

/vkayvthoke?/ " i t w i l l be planted"

/vkayvthóhake?/ " i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be p l a n t e d ; keep b e i n g planted"

/kayvthok/ "Let i t be p l a n t e d !"

/kayvthohak/ "Let i t c o n t i n u e t o be p l a n t e d ; keep b e i n g p l a n t e d !"

Aorist Mode /wa?-/

Imperative (no o v e r t marker)

1

?15

P.4.3.

From t h e above c h a r t s , s e v e r a l f o r m a l

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the c o m p o s i t i o n o f aspect s u f f i x e s be

can

stated.

8.4.31.

The v e r b forms f o r t h e a c t i v e p u n c t u a l

a s p e c t are c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e v e r b base a l o n e , i n t h i s case /-yvtho-/.

The i m p e r a t i v e i s expressed by t h e absence o f any f o r m a l

s u f f i x on t h e v e r b base.

I n the other v e r b a l aspectual c a t e g o r i e s ,

g l o t t a l s t o p , / - ? / , i s t h e marker f o r t h e a s p e c t s u f f i x ; t h e p a r t i c u l a r semantic d i f f e r e n c e s are expressed by t h e p a r t i c u l a r modal p r e f i x

markers.

8.4.3?.

The v e r b forms f o r t h e a c t i v e s t a t e aspect

are c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e s i m p l e s e r i a l o r p r o g r e s s i v e s u f f i x , which i n t h i s case i s

|_s-.|

The v e r b form / l a y v t h o s /

"he n i a n t s , he i s

p l a n t i n g , he i s a p l a n t e r " i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s b a s i c form around the

which

o t h e r s are c o n s t r u c t e d . 8.4.321.

The a c t i v e s t a t e s u f f i x marker ^ - s - j

a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic r u l e s :

8.4.33.

The aspect s u f f i x component

i n t h r e e o f t h e aspect s u f f i x c a t e g o r i e s . t o express t h e occurrence o f a s t a t e .

^ _ k - j occurs

I t s semantic f u n c t i o n i s

I t does n o t occur w i t h t h e

p u n c t u a l aspect s i n c e l o g i c a l l y a s i n g l e event i s n o t a s t a t e . The " s t a t i v e "

or " c o n t i n u a t i v e "

| - k - "| can be added t o t h e a c t i v e

is

216 s t a t e s e r i a l base: /vhayvthóhseke?/

/jvthohsek/

"he w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p l a n t , he w i l l keep p l a n t i n g "

"Keep p l a n t i n g ! to plant!

(sp.)" (sp.)"

"Continue

I n t h e s e examples, t h e concept o f " s t a t e " r e f e r s t o t h e a c t o r o r s u b j e c t o f t h e v e r b who i s expressed as b e i n g i n t h e s t a t e o f p e r f o r m i n g an a c t i o n .

The s t a t i v e s u f f i x { - k - 1 can a l s o be added t o t h e p a s s i v e aspect verbs : /vkayvthoke?/

" i t w i l l be p l a n t e d "

/vkayvthóhake?/

In

" i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be p l a n t e d ; i t w i l l keep b e i n g p l a n t e d "

these examples, t h e concept o f " s t a t e " r e f e r s t o t h e p a t i e n t o r

o b j e c t o f t h e v e r b which i s expressed as b e i n g i n a s t a t e r e s u l t i n g from an a c t i o n . 8.4.34. by t h e component

The p a s s i v e s t a t e aspect s u f f i x i s expressed

{-ha-}

/vkayvthóhake?/ /kayvthóhak/

:

" i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be p l a n t e d ; i t w i l l keep b e i n g p l a n t e d "

" L e t i t c o n t i n u e t o be p l a n t e d ! ( s g . ) " L e t i t keep b e i n g p l a n t e d ! "

8.4.35.

Seven o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s i n t h e c h a r t s

do n o t have a t t e s t e d v e r b forms and a r e t h e r e f o r e l e f t b l a n k (see 8.4.2. above). The reasons f o r t h e absence o f v e r b s f o r these hypothetical

co-occurrences a r e t h e l o g i c a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f t h e

p a r t i c u l a r semantic

categories.

?17

8.4.351.

The p u n c t u a l a s p e c t , e x p r e s s i n g a

s i n g l e e v e n t , cannot co-occur w i t h e i t h e r t h e p r e s e n t o r former p a s t c a t e g o r i e s because these c a t e g o r i e s express a c t i o n s which a r e n o n - p u n c t u a l , i . e . a c t i o n s which occur over a p e r i o d o f t i m e e i t h e r as s e r i a l ( r e p e a t e d e v e n t s ) o r p r o g r e s s i v e ( c o n t i n u o u s e v e n t s ) .

8.4.35?.

The p a s s i v e s t a t e aspect l i k e w i s e

cannot co-occur w i t h e i t h e r t h e p r e s e n t o r former p a s t c a t e g o r i e s because t h e p a s s i v e s t a t e aspect r e f e r s t o t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f an activity.

The i d e a o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f an a c t i v i t y i s i n c o m p a t i b l e

w i t h t h e semantics o f t h e former p a s t w h i c h r e f e r s t o an a c t i o n o r s t a t e o c c u r r i n g over a p e r i o d o f t i m e i n t h e p a s t and no l o n g e r o c c u r r i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t and n o t expected i n t h e f u t u r e .

The i d e a

o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f an a c t i v i t y i s a l s o i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e semantics o f t h e p r e s e n t which focusses on t h e p r e s e n t occurrence o f an a c t i v i t y w i t h no e x t e n s i o n i n t o a n o t h e r t i m e p e r i o d , e i t h e r p a s t o r f u t u r e .

8.4.353. the p u n c t u a l a c t i v e aspect.

The a o r i s t mode co-occurs o n l y w i t h I t cannot co-occur w i t h any o t h e r aspect

because i t r e f e r s t o an a c t i o n w h i c h o c c u r r e d once and i s completed. The p u n c t u a l a c t i v e aspect i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e a o r i s t mode s i n c e b o t h c o n t a i n a semantic component r e f e r r i n g t o a s i n g l e e v e n t . The a o r i s t mode i s s e m a n t i c a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e o t h e r aspect c a t e g o r i e s s i n c e a l l these r e f e r t o s t a t e s which a r e e i t h e r noncompleted, i . e . w h i c h occur now o r a t some f u t u r e t i m e , o r which are n o n - p u n c t u a l , i . e . which occur over a p e r i o d o f t i m e .

8.4.4.

A v e r y complex problem i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e

218

Mohawk aspect s u f f i x system i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p e r f e c t i v e s u f f i x forms.

I n Oneida Verb Morphology, F l o y d Lounsbury s e t s up a

s e r i e s o f f i v e major c o n j u g a t i o n c l a s s e s , w i t h f o u r t e e n sub-classes i n a l l , t o account f o r t h e v a r i o u s aspect s u f f i x forms.

The verbs

w h i c h f a l l i n t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s e s and sub-classes sometimes share p h o n o l o g i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e endings o f t h e v e r b bases. However t h e r e i s a l s o much o v e r l a p p i n g so t h a t no g e n e r a l i z e d p h o n o l o g i c a l s e l e c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s can be f o r m u l a t e d t o account for a l l o f the data.

No a t t e m p t w i l l be made i n t h i s work t o go more d e e p l y i n t o the

c o m p l e x i t i e s and problems o f t h i s m a t t e r .

A d e s c r i p t i o n has

been p r e s e n t e d above o f t h e semantic c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h a r e r e p r e s e n t e d and expressed by t h e a s p e c t s u f f i x system.

The co-occurrences o f

these semantic c a t e g o r i e s w i t h n o n - a s p e c t u a l semantic c a t e g o r i e s has a l s o been d i s c u s s e d and e x e m p l i f i e d .

I n illustrating this

system

w i t h t h e v e r b " t o p l a n t " , some f o r m a l c o m p l e x i t i e s have been p o i n t e d out w h i c h a r e a l s o p e r t i n e n t t o many o t h e r Mohawk v e r b s .

To l e a v e

the m a t t e r a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e p r e s e n t work i s n o t t o i g n o r e i t but

fdmply t o r e c o g n i z e i t s problems and r e s e r v e them f o r a d d i t i o n a l

study.

8.5.

Attributive

Suffixes

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e aspect and n o n - a s p e c t u a l v e r b a l s u f f i x e s d i s c u s s e d above, t h e r e a r e f o u r " a t t r i b u t i v e

s u f f i x e s " which can be

added t o e i t h e r a n o n - m o i a l v e r b o r t o a noun.

G e n e r a l l y , these

s u f f i x e s express i d e a s w h i c h i n v o l v e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s i z e , number, o r c o n d i t i o n r e f e r r i n g

t o t h e agent o f t h e v e r b ( i n

?19

non-modal v e r b s ) o r t o t h e noun.

I n a l l cases, t h e a t t r i b u t i v e

s u f f i x e s occur f i n a l l y i n t h e word.

P.5.1.

Characterizer

The c h a r a c t e r i z e r a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x

|-ha:ka? |

expresses t h e i d e a t h a t someone o r something i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the

v e r b o r noun t o which t h e s u f f i x i s added. /kahnawa?keha:ka?/

8.5.?.

" t h e people o f Caughnawaga; t h e people who a r e a t t h e r a p i d s " (/kahnawà:ke/ "Caughnawaga; a t t h e rapids")

Decessive

The d e c e s s i v e a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x the

For example:

£-kvha?^

expresses

i d e a o f t h e former e x i s t e n c e b u t p r e s e n t n o n - e x i s t e n c e o f someone

or something.

For example:

/yukyala?se?kvha?/

"my deceased r e l a t i v e , c o u s i n ; he, she was my r e l a t i v e , c o u s i n " (/yukyalà:se?/ "my c o u s i n , r e l a t i v e " L i t e r a l l y : we ( d u . e x c l ) a r e c o u s i n s , relatives")

/ i : ? i akenuhsa?kvha?/

" i t used t o be my house; i t was my house"

p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x f o r 1st

ake-

person s i n g u l a r

possessor -nuhs-a?-

root:

"House"

perfective

suffix

-kvha?

decessive a t t r i b u t i v e

8.5.3.

Pluralizer

suffix

The p l u r a l i z e r a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x e s

^ - s u : ? a ? j and

220

!Í-okú:?a?j or o b j e c t s .

express t h e i d e a o f p l u r a l i t y o r m u l t i p l i c i t y o f persons F o r example:

/kheyo?okú:?a?/

"my daughters daughters" (/kheyv:?a/

8.5.4.

"my

( r e f e r e n c e ) " " a l l my

daughter")

Populative

The p o p u l a t i v e a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x

{-(C)6 :nv ^

expresses t h e i d e a o f r e s i d e n c e a t a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e o r membership i n a p a r t i c u l a r group. /ahkwesashlo:nv/

For example: "person who l i v e s a t Akwesasne" (/ahkwesásne/ "Akwesasne" ( l i t e r a l l y : where t h e p a r t r i d g e drums")

/lalistakehlo:nv/

la-

3rd p e r s o n masculine s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t

-list-ake-

"he's an i r o n w o r k e r " (literally: he's a r e s i d e n t , inhabitant of iron)

root:

"iron,

metal"

"at"

-hló:nv

populative a t t r i b u t i v e

suffix

221

9.0.

NOMINAL CONSTRUCTIONS

There a r e two k i n d s o f nouns i n Mohawk: f o r m a l nouns and f u n c t i o n a l nouns.

A l l f o r m a l nouns a r e a l s o f u n c t i o n a l nouns b u t t h e obverse i s

not necessarily t r u e .

A f o r m a l noun i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a number o f

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f form w h i c h a r e s p e c i f i c t o nouns, d i f f e r i n g f r o m those o f verbs.

A f u n c t i o n a l noun i s a word w h i c h f u n c t i o n s as a

noun, i . e . w h i c h i s used t o l a b e l a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t , p l a c e , o r p e r s o n . A c c o r d i n g t o i t s f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a f u n c t i o n a l noun may f o r m a l l y be a noun o r a v e r b .

This c h a p t e r i s m a i n l y concerned w i t h

formal

nouns, i . e . those w h i c h share f o r m a l n o m i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . ( F u n c t i o n a l nouns w h i c h a r e f o r m a l l y v e r b s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o f p r e f i x a i , base, and s u f f i x a l components i n accordance w i t h r u l e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h a p t e r s f i v e t h r o u g h e i g h t above.)

9.1.

Formal Nouns /nominal prefix

+

noun stem

(nominal suffix)/

Formal nouns a r e composed o f t h r e e elements : an o b l i g a t o r y n o m i n a l p r e f i x , an o b l i g a t o r y noun stem, and an o p t i o n a l n o m i n a l s u f f i x .

9.1.1.

The n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s a r e : kao-

These n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s a r e m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d ; t h a t

is,

t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f e i t h e r one i n any g i v e n case i s s e l e c t e d by t h e noun stem i t s e l f and does n o t f o l l o w any p h o n o l o g i c a l o r semantic p a t t e r n s .

9.1.2.

The noun stems a r e composed o f an o b l i g a t o r y noun

222

r o o t and o p t i o n a l l y may c o n t a i n

9.1.3.

a morpheme j o i n e r , u s u a l l y /-a-/.

The n o m i n a l s u f f i x e s a r e : -? -a? -u?

Nominal s u f f i x e s a r e o p t i o n a l .

Noun stems may end w i t h t h e base

r o o t o r t h e y may end w i t h a n o m i n a l s u f f i x . As i n t h e case o f n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , n o m i n a l s u f f i x e s a r e morphologically conditioned. predicted

T h e i r o c c u r r e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , cannot be

on t h e b a s i s o f p h o n o l o g i c a l o r semantic

9.1.4. /nominal prefix

patterns.

A more d e t a i l e d d i a g r a m o f f o r m a l nouns f o l l o w s :

+

noun root

(morpheme joiner)

+

(nominal suffix)/

Examples o f f o r m a l nouns a r e : /ojihkwa?/

"tuber:

beet, c a r r o t , t u r n i p , e t c . "

"button"

9.2.

/o:kwile?/

"tree"

/kanuhsa?/

"house"

/ono:la?/

" c o r n husk"

/o?wà:lu?/

"meat"

/ka:lis/

"sock,

stocking"

I n a d d i t i o n t o these nouns s h a r i n g s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

t h e r e a r e a number o f o t h e r s w h i c h must be r e c o g n i z e d as nouns b u t w h i c h do n o t have t h e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e o f e i t h e r nouns o r v e r b s .

Most

o f these a r e a n i m a l o r n a t u r a l names and many a r e p r o b a b l y onomatopoetic. For

example : /kftklt/

"chicken"

223

/kwlskwls/ /tawxstawis/

"pig" "snipe, p l o v e r , sandpiper"

1

There a r e some a d d i t i o n a l a n i m a l and n a t u r a l names w h i c h a r e n o t onomatopoetic b u t which however do n o t f o l l o w t h e normal p a t t e r n s o f nominal s t r u c t u r e

formation.

For example: /éhlalh/ /tako:s/

"dog"

2

3

"cat"

/éhsah/

9.3-

" b l a c k ash t r e e "

Nouns may be composed o f o t h e r s u f f i x a i elements w h i c h a r e

a t t a c h e d t o t h e noun stems.

These elements a r e semantic and s y n t a c t i c ;

t h a t i s , they express components o f meaning and a l s o express

relationships

between t h e noun t o w h i c h t h e y a r e a t t a c h e d and o t h e r n o m i n a l and/or v e r b a l segments.

(Note t h a t some o f these elements may a l s o occur w i t h

c e r t a i n v e r b s and have been d i s c u s s e d i n 8.5. above.)

9.3.1.

Attributive Suffixes

The a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x e s g e n e r a l l y express c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s i z e , number, o r c o n d i t i o n o f t h e noun.

They a r e added t o t h e complete

^

T h i s word i s a d d i t i o n a l l y u n u s u a l i n i t s p h o n o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . I t c o n t a i n s two s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s and t h e r e b y v i o l a t e s v e r y s t r o n g s t r e s s r u l e s i n Akwesasne Mohawk (see 3.7.12. above).

3

T h i s word i s a l s o u n u s u a l i n t h a t t h e f i n a l vowel i s s t r e s s e d . This t o o v i o l a t e s v e r y s t r o n g p h o n o l o g i c a l r u l e s , as d i s c u s s e d i n 3.7.1. above.

224

noun; t h a t i s , t h e y f o l l o w t h e n o m i n a l s u f f i x , i f p r e s e n t , o r t h e noun stem, i n t h e absence o f a n o m i n a l s u f f i x . are

The f o u r a t t r i b u t i v e

suffixes

d i s c u s s e d below.

9.3.11.

Augmentative

The a u g m e n t a t i v e a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x /-kó :wa/ expresses t h e idea o f l a r g e n e s s i n s i z e o r i m p o r t a n c e . /onu?usela.?ko :wa/

For example:

"pumpkin"

/onu?u:sela?/

"squash, watermelon, pumpkin, c a n t a l o u p e , cucumber, e t c . "

-kó'twa

augmentative

suffix

"sturgeon" (literally: big fish)

/kvja?kó:wa/

/kvju?/

"fish"

-kó :wa

augmentative

9.3.12.

suffix

Characterizer

The c h a r a c t e r i z e r a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x

|ha:ka?|

expresses t h e i d e a t h a t someone o r something i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e noun t h a t precedes i t .

The s u f f i x occurs as /a'ika?/ f o l l o w i n g /?

.

For example: /ka.hnawa ?keha':ka ?/

"the p e o p l e o f Caughnawaga; t h e p e o p l e who are a t t h e r a p i d s "

/kahnawà:ke/

"Caughnawaga" ( l i t e r a l l y : a t the rapids)

-ha:ka?

characterizer

9.3.13.

suffix

Pluralizer

The p l u r a l i z e r a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x

|-su:?a?j

expresses t h e idea o f p l u r a l i t y o r m u l t i p l i c i t y o f persons o r o b j e c t s

225

o r o f types o f persons o r o b j e c t s .

For example:

"vegetables;

/ojihkwa?sú:?a?/ /ojihkwa?/

"tuber"

-su:?a?

pluralizer

/o?uwala?su:?a?/

suffix

" a l l d i f f e r e n t kinds of

/o?ú:wala?/

"plant"

-su?a?

pluralizer

9.3.2.

a l l kinds of vegetables"

plants"

suffix

Locative Suffixes

The l o c a t i v e s u f f i x e s express o f a person o r o b j e c t .

They may

a l s o express

the idea o f the l o c a t i o n t h e idea o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p

o f a person o r an o b j e c t t o a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e o r space.

The f o u r

l o c a t i v e s u f f i x e s w h i c h w i l l be d i s c u s s e d below a r e :

{-ke}

}-ne}

:

" a t , " " i n , " "on," " t o "

{-ku}

:

" i n , " "inside"

{-okuj

:

"under"

{-akta}

. :

9.3.21.

{-ke}

"near," "by," " n e x t t o "

{-ne}

The l o c a t i v e s u f f i x e s

|-ke|

and

|~

n e

}

express

t h e idea o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f something " a t , " " i n , " "on," o r " t o " something e l s e .

They a r e added t o t h e complete noun; t h a t i s , t h e y

f o l l o w t h e n o m i n a l s u f f i x , i f p r e s e n t , o r t h e noun stem, i n t h e absence of a nominal The

suffix.

f o l l o w i n g morphophonemic r u l e s g e n e r a l l y a p p l y :

226

That i s , t h e l o c a t i v e s u f f i x

{ ~ ^ } occurs as a s u f f i x a f t e r nouns e

ending i n a g l o t t a l s t o p w h i l e t h e l o c a t i v e o t h e r nouns.

{

-

n

e

| occurs a f t e r a l l

There a r e a number o f e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s r u l e and t h e r e

i s a degree o f o p t i o n a l c h o i c e v / i t h some o t h e r nouns. G e n e r a l l y , when a noun ends i n a. g l o t t a l s t o p and i s f o l l o w e d by the l o c a t i v e s u f f i x

{ ~ ^ | » t h e n o u n - f i n a l g l o t t a l s t o p i s l o s t and e

i s r e p l a c e d by t h e l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e p r e c e e d i n g f a l l i n g tone, according t o r u l e s discussed

v o w e l accompanied by

i n 3.7.14. above.

For

example : /onu:ta?/

"hill"

/onutà:ke/

"on t h e h i l l "

/onekwvhsa?/

"blood"

/onekwvhsà:ke/

" i n the blood"

9.3.211.

The l o c a t i v e s u f f i x e s

{-ke}

and

{-ne}

may a l s o express t h e idea o f t h e d o m i c i l e o f a person o r a n i m a l , and as such a r e f r e q u e n t l y /ahkwesásne/ /ohkwé:sv?/

found i n p l a c e names. "Akwesasne" partridge

(literally: drums)

For example: t h e p l a c e where t h e

"partridge"

/kahnawà:ke/

"Caughnawaga" ( l i t e r a l l y : on t h e r a p i d s )

/kvja?kova'hne/

" F t . Covington (N.Y. ) " ( l i t e r a l l y : a t t h e place o f the sturgeon, b i g f i s h )

/kvja?kb:wa/

"sturgeon"

"big fish"

These l o c a t i v e s u f f i x e s a r e used w i t h some a n i m a l names t o i n d i c a t e t h e p l n c e where the named a n i m a l i s k e p t : /kltkítne/ /kítklt/

" c h i c k e n coop" "chicken"

227

/kohsatvsne/

"stable; barn"

/kohsa'itvs/

"horse"

Finally, the suffixes

{ - k e } and {-ne} may be added t o p r o p e r

names t o i n d i c a t e t h e home o f t h e named person.

The meaning may r o u g h l y

be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h as " a t t h e house o f " o r i s perhaps b e s t translated

by t h e French "chez."

/anvhne/

For example:

" a t Annie's, a t Annie's house, chez Annie"

/a':nvh/

"Ann, Annie, Anna"

/tavwitne/

" a t David's, a t David's house, chez D a v i d "

/tà:wit/

"David"

9.3.22. { - k u j The l o c a t i v e s u f f i x

{-ku}-

expresses t h e i d e a o f

l o c a t i o n o f something " i n , " o r " i n s i d e , " something e l s e .

I t i s added

t o t h e noun stem, t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n o m i n a l s u f f i x , i f p r e s e n t . For example : /ohwvjaku/

" i n s i d e t h e e a r t h ; under t h e ground"

/ohw^ja/

" e a r t h ; ground"

/oshú:waku/

" i n t h e d i t c h ; i n t h e h o l e i n t h e ground"

/ohsu:wa?/

" d i t c h ; h o l e i n t h e ground"

/khnyà:saku/

" i n , i n s i d e my t h r o a t "

/ohnyà:sa/

"throat"

9.3.23.

{-oku}

The l o c a t i v e s u f f i x

{-oku}

l o c a t i o n o f something "under" something e l s e .

expresses t h e i d e a o f I t i s added t o t h e noun

stem, t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n o m i n a l s u f f i x , i f p r e s e n t . /kahsyo':ku/ /ohsya?/

For example:

"on my palm" ( l i t e r a l l y : under my palm) "palm o f hand"

228

9.3.24.

{

-akta}

The l o c a t i v e s u f f i x

j-aktaj

expresses t h e i d e a

o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f something "near," "by," o r "next t o " something e l s e . I t i s added t o t h e noun stem, t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n o m i n a l s u f f i x , i f present. "near, by t h e house"

/kanuhsa'kta/ /kanúhsa?/

"near, by t h e t o v n , s e t t l e m e n t "

/kanatákta/ /kana:ta?/

9.3.3.

"house"

"town, s e t t l e m e n t ,

{-néha?}

village"

{-kéha?}

The n o m i n a l s u f f i x e s

{-néha?}

and

{-kéha?}

may be

added t o a complete noun t o express t h e i d e a t h a t something i s done " a c c o r d i n g t o " t h e h a b i t s o r b e h a v i o r o f something e l s e . -kéha?

occurs f o l l o w i n g /?

, while

-néha?

The s u f f i x

occurs elsewhere.

For example : /ahkwesasnéha?/

" t h e language spoken a t Akwesasne" ( L i t e r a l l y : a c c o r d i n g t o t h e way o f Akwesasne)

/solahnéha/

"Duck Dance" (a s o c i a l dance) ( l i t e r a l l y : according to, according t o the ways of the duck)

/so:lah/ 9.4.

"duck"

P e r s o n a l Possessive P r e f i x e s Another m o d i f i c a t i o n o f nouns i n v o l v e s t h e a f f i x i n g o f a

p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x which i n d i c a t e s t h e p o s s e s s i o n by t h e person o f t h e t h i n g expressed by t h e noun.

9.L.l.

The p h o n o l o g i c a l shape o f t h e p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e

229

p r e f i x i s selected

by t h e i n i t i a l phoneme o f t h e noun t o w h i c h i t i s

attached. The r u l e s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s a r e somewhat s i m i l a r t o those a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s by v e r b stems as d i s c u s s e d i n 6.3.

9.4.2. phonological

above.

For t h e purposes o f t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e

appropriate

shape o f t h e p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s , nouns may

grouped i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e noun-stem 1)

C o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l stems

2)

/a-/ - i n i t i a l

stems

3)

/u-/- i n i t i a l

stems

be

classes:

These stem c l a s s e s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n t u r n below.

9.4.21.

C o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l Stems

The l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f nouns i n Mohawk f a l l i n t o t h e c l a s s o f c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l stems. been c h a r a c t e r i z e d

These i n c l u d e a l l nouns w h i c h have

as f o r m a l nouns, c o n t a i n i n g a n o m i n a l p r e f i x / k a - /

o r /o-/. In combination w i t h the p e r s o n a l possessive p r e f i x , the nominal p r e f i x / k a - / o r /o-/ i s dropped and t h e p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x t h e n d i r e c t l y preceeds t h e c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l stem. The f o l l o w i n g s e t o f p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s occurs w i t h c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l noun stems: 1 s t person s i n g u l a r

:

ake-

2nd person s i n g u l a r

:

sa-

:

lao-

3 r d person

singular masculine

230

feminine/ indefinite

:

ako-

feminine/ neuter

:

ao-

1st

person d u a l

:

ukeni-

1st

person p l u r a l

:

ukwa-

2nd person d u a l

:

seni-

2nd

person p l u r a l

:

sewa-

3rd

person d u a l and plural

:

laoti-

masculine

feminine/ indefinite/ : neuter

9.4.211.

aoti-

There i s a s u b - c l a s s o f c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l

stems w h i c h b e g i n w i t h t h e consonant / h - / .

These noun stems s e l e c t a

s e t o f p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s which a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e s e l e c t e d by o t h e r c o n s o n a n t - i n i t i a l noun stems w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g exceptions : 1st

person s i n g u l a r 9.4.22.

:

ak-

The second l a r g e s t group o f nouns f a l l i n t o t h e

c a t e g o r y o f / a - / - i n i t i a l noun stems.

These a r e a l l nouns w h i c h l a c k

a f o r m a l n o m i n a l p r e f i x and b e g i n w i t h t h e phoneme /a-/. The f o l l o w i n g s e t o f p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s o c c u r s w i t h /a-/ - i n i t i a l noun stems: 1st

person s i n g u l a r

:

akw-

2nd

person s i n g u l a r

:

s-

3rd

person

:

lao-

singular masculine

231

feminine/ indefinite

:

ako-

feminine/ neuter

:

ao-

l s t person d u a l

:

uky-

l s t person p l u r a l

:

ukw-

2nd

person d u a l

:

2nd

person p l u r a l

:

sew-

3rd

person d u a l and plural :

laon-

masculine

feminine/ indefinite/ neuter :

j

-

aon-

The p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s f o r a l l 1st and f o r 3rd

and 2nd

person n o n - s i n g u l a r forms d i r e c t l y preceed t h e / a - / - i n i t i a l

I n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s f o r 3rd

stem.

p e r s o n forms

person

s i n g u l a r f o r m s , t h e i n i t i a l / a - / o f t h e noun stem i s dropped.

9.4.23. phoneme / u - / .

There a r e a few nouns w h i c h b e g i n w i t h t h e

The f o l l o w i n g s e t o f p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s o c c u r s

w i t h t h i s class : 1 s t person s i n g u l a r

:

ak-

2nd

person s i n g u l a r

:

s-

3rd

person s i n g u l a r masculine

:

la-

feminine/ indefinite

:

aka-

feminine/ neuter

:

a-

:

uk-

l s t person d u a l and plural

232

2nd person d u a l 2nd person

•

sen-

:

sevr-

masculine

:

laon-

feminine/ indefinite/ neuter

:

aon-

plural

3rd person d u a l and plural

A l l o f these p r e f i x e s ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e ending w i t h a vowel / - a / ) preceed t h e / u - / i n i t i a l noun stem.

9.4.3.

The f o l l o w i n g paradigms

i l l u s t r a t e the rules f o r the

s e l e c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s and t h e f o r m a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e nouns.

Possessive c o n s t r u c t i o n s g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n a

s e p a r a t e p e r s o n a l pronoun w h i c h preceeds t h e possessed the

noun and i n d i c a t e s

possessor. "bed, p l a c e , s e a t "

Class I :

-nakt-

kanákta

"bed, p l a c e , s e a t "

(see 9.4.21. above)

i : ? i akenákta?

ake nákt a?

"it

s my bed, p l a c e , s e a t "

í:se sanákta?

sa nákt a?

"it

s y o u r ( s g . ) bed"

laúha laonákta?

l a o nákt a?

"it

s h i s bed"

ak.-*úha akonákta?

ako nákt a?

"it

s her,

one's bed"

aúha aonákta?

ao nákt a?

"it

s her,

i t ' s bed"

i':?i akeninakta?

a k e n i nákt a?

" i f s our ( d u . ) bed"

í:?i akwanákta?

akwa na'kt a?

"it

i:se

seniná'kta?

s e n i nákt a?

" i t ' s your ( d u . ) bed"

i:se

sev.anákta?

sewa nákt a?

" i f s y o u r ( p l . ) bed"

l a o t i nákt a?

" i t ' s their be d'!

lonúha laotinákta'

s our ( p l . ) bed"

(masc. du., p l . )

233

onuha aotinákta?

Class I I : - a h t áhta?

a o t i n a k t a?

"shoe"

" i t ' s t h e i r (fera/indef/neuter du., p l . ) bed"

(see 9 . 4 . 2 2 . above)

"shoe"

x:?i

akwalita?

akw áht a?

" i t ' s my shoe"

i:se

sahta?

s áht a?

" i t ' s your ( s g . ) shoe"

l a u h a laóhta?

l a o h t a?

" i t ' s his

akauha akohta?

akó h t a?

" i t ' s her,

one's shoe"

auha. a óh t a ?

ao h t a?

" i t ' s her,

i t ' s shoe"

í:?i ukyahta?

uky áht a?

" i t ' s our

( d u . ) shoe"

í:?i ukwáhta?

ukw áht a?

" i t ' s our

( p i . ) shoe"

í:se jáhta?

j áht a?

" i t ' s y o u r ( d u . ) shoe"

í:se sewáhta?

sew áht a?

" i t ' s your ( p i . ) shoe"

lonúha l a o n a h t a ?

l a o n áht a?

" i t ' s t h e i r (masc. d u . , p l . ) shoe"

onúha aonáhta?

aon áht a?

" i t ' s t h e i r (fem/indef/neuter du., p l . ) shoe"

Class I I I : u:ta?

- u t - "pail"

(see 9 . 4 . 2 3 .

shoe"

above)

"pail"

í:?i akú:ta?

ak u : t a?

" i t ' s my p a i l "

í:se sú:ta?

s ú:t a?

" i t ' s your (sg.) p a i l "

lauha l a u : t a ?

l a ú:t a?

"it's his pail"

/ akaúha akaúrta?

ska ú:t a?

" i t ' s h e r , one's p a i l "

aiíha aú:ta?

a ú:t a?

" i t ' s her, i t ' s p a i l "

í:?i ukú\í:ta?

uk ú:t a?

" i t ' s o u r (du. p l ) p a i l "

í:se senú:ta?

sen ú:t a?

" i t ' s your (du.) p a i l "

23 4 í:se sewú:ta? sew ú:t a? "it's your ( p l . ) p a i l " lomíha laonú:ta?

l a o n ú:t a?

" i t ' s t h e i r (masc. du., p l . ) pail"

onúha aonú:ta?

aon

" i t ' s t h e i r (fem/indef/neuter du., p l . ) p a i l "

9.5.

ú:t

a?

Enumerations Nouns may

a l s o be i n c l u d e d i n n u m e r i c a l

constructions i n

o r d e r t o i n d i c a t e t h e number o f persons or o b j e c t s r e f e r r e d t o by

the

noun.

9.5.1. o f two t y p e s .

N u m e r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s f o r one or two o b j e c t s are

The

f i r s t c o n s i s t s of the f o l l o w i n g simple s y n t a c t i c

arrangement : /numeral/

+

/complete noun/

The second t y p e c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l

ordering

w i t h i n a s i n g l e word : /numerical prefix

+

noun stem

9.5.11.

+

numerical suffix/

The s e p a r a t e numerals f o r "one"

and

"two"

are : /vhska/

"one"

/tékeni/

"two"

9.5.12.

When combined w i t h i n a word w i t h an

inanimate

noun stem, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n u m e r i c a l p r e f i x e s a r e : /ska-/

"singular"

/teka-/

"dual"

These n u m e r i c a l p r e f i x e s are composed o f t h e f o l l o w i n g elements: /s-/

singular numerical

component

235

/te-/

d u a l n u m e r i c a l component

/-ka-/

3 r d person f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p r o n o m i n a l

prefix

The d u a l n u m e r i c a l component, / t e - / , a l s o f u n c t i o n s as a. v e r b a l non-modal p r e f i x r e f e r r e d t o as " d u p l i c a t i v e " and i s d i s c u s s e d i n

7.27.

above.

9.5.13.

The n u m e r i c a l s u f f i x which f o l l o w s a noun

stem enumerated f o r two o b j e c t s i s : /-ke/

dual numerical

I n t h e enumeration

suffix

o f s i n g u l a r nouns, t h e n u m e r i c a l s u f f i x i s

absent.

9.5.14.

The f o l l o w i n g s e t s o f nouns and

numerical

constructions i l l u s t r a t e the a v a i l a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s i n numerical formation : "lamp; l i g h t "

/ohahsela?/ /vhska ohahsela?/

"one

lamp, l i g h t "

/skaháhselah/

"one

lamp, l i g h t "

/tékeni ohahsela? /

"two lamps, l i g h t s "

/ t e k a h a h s e l a :ke/

"two lamps, l i g h t s "

/kanúhsa?/

"house"

/vhska kanúhsa.?/

"one

house"

/skanuhsah/

"one

house"

/tékeni kanúhsa?/

"two houses"

/tekanuhsake/

"two houses"

9,5.2.

Numerical c o n s t r u c t i o n s f o r p l u r a l , i . e . three or

more, o b j e c t s have t h e f o l l o w i n g s y n t a c t i c and m o r p h o l o g i c a l arrangement:

236

/numeral/

-t- / n u m e r i c a l prefix

noun stem

nuirierical suffix /

I n t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s e p a r a t e numeral w o r d , e x p r e s s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e number preceeds t h e n u m e r a l i z e d noun which i n t u r n i s made up o f a n u m e r i c a l p r e f i x , a noun stem, and a n u m e r i c a l s u f f i x . The n u m e r i c a l p r e f i x and s u f f i x a r e t h e same f o r a l l p l u r a l nouns, the p a r t i c u l a r number b e i n g expressed

by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e numeral word.

The n u m e r i c a l p r e f i x and s u f f i x a r e : /nika-/

p l u r a l numerical

prefix

/-ke/

p l u r a l numerical s u f f i x

The n u m e r i c a l p l u r a l p r e f i x / n i k a - / i s composed o f two elements: /ni-/

p l u r a l n u m e r i c a l component

/-ka-/

3 r d person s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r pronominal p r e f i x

The p l u r a l n u m e r i c a l p r e f i x / n i - / a l s o f u n c t i o n s as a v e r b a l nonmodal p r e f i x r e f e r r e d t o as " p a r t i t i v e " and i s d i s c u s s e d i n 7.22. above. The p l u r a l n u m e r i c a l s u f f i x / - k e / i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e d u a l n u m e r i c a l s u f f i x and can t h e r e f o r e more a c c u r a t e l y be termed a "non-singular numerical s u f f i x . " The f o l l o w i n g n u m e r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r o p e r formation: /ahsv nikanuhsake/

" t h r e e houses"

/ w i s k nikahahselá:ke/

" f i v e lamps, l i g h t s "

9.5.3.

There a r e some m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e above p a t t e r n s

f o r t h e enumeration

of l i v i n g things.

I n enumerations,

r e f e r r i n g t o a person o r an a n i m a l i s preceded noun.

t h e noun

by a s e p a r a t e

numeralized

I f t h e number o f people o r animals i s p l u r a l , i . e . t h r e e o r more,

237

t h e s e p a r a t e n u m e r a l i z e d noun i s i t s e l f p r e c e d e d numeral word.

by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

The c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s :

(/plural + numera 1/)

/numeralized word/

/complete noun/

The n u m e r a l i z e d noun i s composed o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : /numerical prefix

pronominal prefix +

noun stem/

The n u n e r i c a l p r e f i x e s a r e : /s-/

singular

/te-/

dual

/ni-/

plural

The p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s w h i c h occur i n t h e n u m e r a l i z e d noun r e f e r s t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e 3 r d person forms: /-ha-/

3 r d person m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r

/-ye-/

feminine/indefinite singular

/-ka-/

feminine/neuter singular

/-hni-/

masculine d u a l

/-keni-/

feminine/indef/neuter dual

/-hati-/

masculine p l u r a l

/-kuti-/

feminine/indef/neuter p l u r a l

A l l o f t h e s e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s may a p p l y t o human b e i n g s .

The

o n l y one w h i c h may never a p p l y t o non-human a n i m a l s i s t h e p r e f i x / - y e - / w h i c h o n l y r e f e r s t o 3 r d person f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t s , a l l o f whom a r e , by d e f i n i t i o n , human. The f o l l o w i n g paradigm i l l u s t r a t e s t h e n u m e r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s f o r non-human a n i m a l s : /kano:jot/

"muskie"

/sk?ya:tah k a n o : j o t /

"one female muskie"

23 8

/tekeniyáhsv kano:jot/

"two female muskies"

/ahsv nikúrti kano:jot/

"three female muskies"

/shayà:tah kanótjot/

"one male muskie"

/tehniya'hsv k a n o : j o i /

"two male muskies"

/ahsv nihá:ti kanó:jot/

"three male muskies"

The f o l l o w i n g paradigms i l l u s t r a t e the numerical constructions f o r human beings.

(Note that the pronominal p r e f i x w i t h i n the noun

i t s e l f r e f l e c t s the number o f people expressed i n accordance w i t h pronominal p r e f i x rules as discussed i n Chapter 6 above.): /yeksa':?a?/ Vjeyà:tah yeksá:a?/

"small g i r l " "one small g i r l "

/tekeniyáhsv tekeniksá :?a?/

"two small g i r l s "

/ahsv nikú:ti kotiksa?oku:?a/

"three small g i r l s "

/kaksa:?a?/

"small g i r l "

/skayà :tah kaksá:Ta?/

"one small g i r l "

/tekeniyáhsv tekeniksa'iVa?/

"two small g i r l s "

/ahsv n i k u : t i kotiksa?okú:?a/

"three small g i r l s "

/laksa':?a?/

"small boy"

/shayà:tah laksáTa?/

"one small boy"

/tehniya'hsv tehniksá:?a?/

"two small boys"

/áhsv nihá:ti latiksa?oku:?a/

"three small boys"

239

APPENDIX

PARTICLES

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t c o n t a i n s t h e most commonly used p a r t i c l e s i n Mohawk.

The p a r t i c l e s a r e l i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Mohawk.

(See 2.5.3. above f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f Mohawk p a r t i c l e s . )

/p:leh/

again

/ase?kv/

because

/a?é:lu/

away, f a r away

/é:soh/

/é:su/

a l o t ; much

/hányu/

come on!

/hv:/

yes

/i:nu/

let's...

far

/ise/

t h e r e ; over t h e r e

/ iya'h/

no

/iyáh t v /

no ( e m p h a t i c )

/kahnu:/

right

/ka?nu:/

\;here ( i s i t ? ) ; where

/káti?/

or

/katke/

when

/kátkek/

sometime

/kha':le?/

f i n a l l y again

/khérkv/

instead

/khé:lek/

maybe

/ki'ikv/

t h i s ; t h i s one

/nékji/

but

/nekwa/

d i r e c t i o n ; t h e way

/íse nekwa/

h e r e ; here

over t h e r e ; i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n ; t h a t way

240

/kvh neltva!/

over h e r e ; i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n ; place

/-nú:/ /kahnú:/

right

/thonú:/

right there

here

/nú:wa?/

now

/oksa?/

h u r r y up!

/óksak/

r i g h t away; i m m e d i a t e l y

/o :nv/

now; a l r e a d y ; good-bye

/o:nv

t h i s way-

tho:ha?/

i t ' s almost t i m e

/ó:nvk/

r i g h t away; i m m e d i a t e l y

/o:ni/

also; too

/she:ku/

s t i l l ; more; h e l l o

/seléka/

almost

/sdk/

then

/stu:ha/

a little bit

/tó:ka/

if

/toka?nu:wa/

maybe

/to:ske?/

v e r y much

/váhhe?/

1 fiuess so!

Isn't i t ?

"N'est-ce pas?" /ki?wáThhe?/

/w??jek/

t h a t ' s so; o f c o u r s e ; t h a t ' s t h e way i t i s , i s n ' t i t ? l a t e r on, a f t e r a w h i l e ( t o d a y )

241

APPENDIX R;

LIST OF AFFIXES

-a-

2nd person s i n g u l a r o b j e c t i v e p r e f i x 6 . 5 . 2 .

-a-

i n d e f i n i t e modal p r e f i x 7 . 1 . 2 .

ak-

1st person s i n g , p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e n o m i n a l

p r e f i x 9.4.21. ako-

3rd person s i n g , f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e p e r s o n a l possessive nominal p r e f i x 9.4.21.

-akta

l o c a t i v e n o m i n a l s u f f i x : "near," "by,"

"next t o " 9.3.24. ao-

3rd person s i n g , f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e nominal p r e f i x 9 . 4 . 2 1 .

aoti-

3rd person d u a l , p l u r a l f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e / neuter personal possessive nominal p r e f i x

9.4.21.

5.2.11.

-at-

reflexive prefix

-atat-

r e c i p r o c a l p r e f i x 5.2.12.

-a?

nominal s u f f i x 9.1.3.

-v-

f u t u r e modal p r e f i x 7 . 1 . 3 .

-vni-

benefactive I s u f f i x 8.3.3.

-ha-

p a s s i v e s t a t e aspect s u f f i x 8 . 4 . 3 4 .

-ha:ka?

c h a r a c t e r i z e r v e r b a l and n o m i n a l s u f f i x

-hakye-

progressive s u f f i x 8.3.5.

-hla-

3rd person s i n g , masculine s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

8 . 5 . 1 . ; 9.3.12.

p r e f i x 6.3.53; t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , m a s c u l i n e a.gent/3rd person s i n g , f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r

p a t i e n t 6.6.13. -(h)ni-

3rd person d u a l m a s c u l i n e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l

-(h)s-

2nd person s i n g , s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x

p r e f i x 6.3.62.

6.3.52.

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd p e r s o n s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p a t i e n t 6.6.12.

2U 2

-(h)sakeni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1st person d u a l a g e n t / 3 r d person masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.16.

-(h)sako-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , masc. a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e p a t i e n t and 3rd person n o n - s i n g u l a r p a t i e n t 6.6.13.

-(h)sakwa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1st person p l u r a l a g e n t / 3 r d p e r s o n s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.17.

-(h)se-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd p e r s o n s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , f e m i n i n e / i n d e f i n i t e p a t i e n t and 3rd person n o n - s i n g , p a t i e n t 6.6.12.

-(h)sek-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd p e r s o n s i n g , a g e n t / l s t person s i n g , p a t i e n t 6.6.12.

-(h)seni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd person d u a l a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p a t i e n t 6.6.18.

-(h)sewa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd person p l u r a l a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , f e m i n i n e / n e u t e r p a t i e n t 6.6.19.

-(h)skeni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd person s i n g , a g e n t / l s t person d u a l p a t i e n t 6.6.12.; 2nd person d u a l a g e n t / l s t person s i n g . , d u a l p a t i e n t 6.6.18.

-(h)skwa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd person s i n g , a g e n t / 1st person p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.12.; 2nd person d u a l a g e n t / l s t person p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.18»; 2nd person p l u r a l a g e n t / l s t person s i n g . , d u a l , p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.19.

-(h)sukeni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , masc. a g e n t / l s t person d u a l p a t i e n t 6.6.13.

-(h)sukwa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , masc. a g e n t / l s t person p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.13.

-ht-

causative verbal s u f f i x 8 . 3 . 1 .

-(h)tsiseni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , masc. agent/2nd person d u a l p a t i e n t 6.6.13.

-(h)tsisewa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , masc. agent/2nd person p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.13.

243

-(h)ya-

t r a n s i t i v e pi-onominal p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , masc. agent/2nd person s i n g , p a t i e n t 6.6.13.

-k-

1st person s i n g , s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.3.51.; t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1st person s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , fern/neuter p a t i e n t 6 . 6 . 1 1 .

-k-

c o n t i n u a t i v e s u f f i x 8.3.6.

-k-

s t a t i v e aspect s u f f i x 8.4.33.

-ka-

3rd person s i n g , fern/neuter s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.3.55.

ka-

nominal p r e f i x

-ke

l o c a t i v e n o m i n a l s u f f i x : " a t , " " i n , " "on," " t o "

-ke

non-singular (dual, p l u r a l ) numerical nominal

9.1.1.

9.3.21.

s u f f i x 9 . 5 . 1 3 . ; 9.5.2.

-keni-

3rd person d u a l f e m / i n d e f / n e u t e r s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x 6.3.63.j t r a n s i t i v e p r e f i x : 1st person s i n g , a g e n t / 2nd person d u a l p a t i e n t 6 . 6 . 1 1 . 1st p e r s o n d u a l agent/2nd person s i n g . , d u a l p a t i e n t 6.6.16.

-kvha?

decessive v e r b a l a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x 8 . 5 . 2 .

-khe-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1st person s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , f e m / i n d e f . p a t i e n t and 3rd person n o n - s i n g , p a t i e n t 6 . 6 . 1 1 .

-ko-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1st person s i n g . agent/2nd person s i n g , p a t i e n t 6.6.11.

-koti-

3rd person p l u r a l f e m / i n d e f / n e u t e r s u b j e c t i v e pronominal p r e f i x 6.3.65.

-kó:va

augmentative n o m i n a l a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x 9 . 3 . 1 1 .

-ku

l o c a t i v e nominal s u f f i x :

-kuwa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , f e r n / i n d e f i n i t e agent and 3rd person n o n - s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person fem/neuter p a t i e n t 6 . 6 . 1 4 . ; 6.6.20,

9.3.22.

" i n , " "inside"

244

-kuwati-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3 r d person s i n g , f e m / i n d e f . agent and 3 r d person n o n - s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person n o n - s i n g , non-masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.

-kwa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1 s t person s i n g . , d u a l agent/2nd person p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.11.; 6.6.16.; 1 s t person p l u r a l agent/2nd person s i n g , d u a l , p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.17.

-kve?

former p a s t s u f f i x P.3.8.

-lak-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3 r d person s i n g , masc. a g e n t / l s t person s i n g , p a t i e n t 6.6.13.

lao-

3 r d person s i n g . masc. p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e n o m i n a l p r e f i x 9.4.21.

laoti-

3 r d p e r s o n d u a l , p l u r a l masc. p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e n o m i n a l p r e f i x 9.4.21.

-lati-

3 r d person 6.3.64.

-li-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1 s t person s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.11.

-lo-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3 r d person s i n g , masc. a.gent/3rd person s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.13; 3 r d person s i n g , fern/neuter a g e n t / 3 r d p e r s o n s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.1$.

-luwa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3 r d person s i n g , f e m / i n d e f agent and 3 r d person n o n - s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.

-luv/a t i -

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3 r d person s i n g , f e m / i n d e f . agent and 3 r d person n o n - s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person n o n - s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.

-ne

l o c a t i v e n o m i n a l s u f f i x : " a t , " " i n , " "on," "to" 9.3.21.

-néha ?

" a c c o r d i n g t o " n o m i n a l s u f f i x 9.3.3.

-ni-

p a r t i t i v e p r e f i x 7.2.2.

nika-

p l u r a l numerical nominal p r e f i x

-nyu-

d i s t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x 8.3.2.

9.5.2.

245

-o-

3rd person o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.5.2.

o-

nominal p r e f i x 9.1.1.

-(C)o-.nv

p o p u l a t i v e v e r b a l a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x 8.5.4.

-oku-

l o c a t i v e n o m i n a l s u f f i x "Under" 9.3.23.

-oku:?a?

p l u r a l i z e r v e r b a l a t t r i b u t i v e s u f f i x 8.5.3.

-s-

coincident p r e f i x

-s-

i t e r a t i v e p r e f i x 7.2.8.

-s-

7.2.3.

s e r i a l , p r o g r e s s i v e a c t i v e s t a t e aspect s u f f i x 8.4.32. t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd p e r s o n s i n g , fern/neuter agent/2nd person s i n g , p a t i e n t 6.6.15.

-sa-

2nd person s i n g , p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e n o m i n a l

sa-

p r e f i x 9.4.21.

-seni-

2nd person d u a l s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.3.60.; t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd p e r s o n s i n g , fern/neuter ?gent/2nd person d u a l p a t i e n t 6.6.15. 2nd person d u a l p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e n o m i n a l

seni-

-sevip.

p r e f i x 9.4.21.

—

2nd person p l u r a l s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.3.61.; t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , fern/neuter agent/2nd person p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.15.

sev.a-

2nd person p l u r a l p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e n o m i n a l

p r e f i x 9.4.21. ska-

s i n g u l a r n u m e r i c a l n o m i n a l p r e f i x 9.5.12.

-su:?a?

p l u r a l i z e r v e r b a l and n o m i n a l a t t r i b u t i v e

s u f f i x 8 . 5 . 3 . ; 9.3.13. -t-

d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x 7.2,7.

-t-

cislocative

prefix

7.2.9.

246

-te?-

negative p r e f i x 7.2.5.

teka-

d u a l numerical nominal p r e f i x

-teni-

1st person d u a l i n c l u s i v e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.3.56.

-tewa-

1st person p l u r a l i n c l u s i v e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.3.58.

-th-

contrastive p r e f i x 7.2.4.

-ts-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd p e r s o n s i n g . a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.12.

-tsiseni-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd person d u a l a g e n t / 3rd person s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.18.

-tsisewa-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 2nd person p l u r a l a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g . masc. p a t i e n t 6.6.19.

ukeni-

1st person d u a l p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e n o m i n a l

prefix

9.5.12.

9.4.21.

ukwa-

1st person p l u r a l p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i v e nominal p r e f i x 9.4.21.

-u?

nominal s u f f i x 9.1.3.

-wa-

1st person o b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.5.2.

-v;ak-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 3rd person s i n g , fem/neuter a g e n t / l s t person s i n g , p a t i e n t

6.6.15.

7.1.1.

-wa?-

a o r i s t modal p r e f i x

-y-

trgnslocative p r e f i x 7.2.6.

-yakeni-

1st person d u a l e x c l u s i v e s u b j e c t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x 6.3.57. ; t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1st person d u a l a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , fem/neuter p a t i e n t

6.6.16.

-yakhi-

t r a n s i t i v e p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x : 1st person d u a l , p l u r a l a g e n t / 3 r d person s i n g , f e m / i n d e f . p a t i e n t and 3rd person n o n - s i n g , p a t i e n t

6.6.16.; 6.6.17.

247

-yako-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fem/neuter agent/3rd person sing, fem/indef. p a t i e n t and 3rd person non-sing, p a t i e n t 6.6.15.

-ypkwa-

1st person exclusive subjective pronominal p r e f i x 6.3.59.

-ye-

3rd person sing, fem/indef subjective pronominal p r e f i x 6.3.54.

-yesa-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fem/indef agent and 3rd person non-sing. agent/2nd person sing, p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.

-yetsi-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fem/indef agent and 3rd person non-sing. agent/2nd person dual, p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.; 2nd person dual, p l u r a l agent/3rd person sing, fem/indef p a t i e n t and 3rd person non-sing, p a t i e n t 6.6.18.; 6.6.19.

-yo-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fern/neuter agent/3rd person sing, fern/neuter p a t i e n t 6.6.15.

-yuk-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fem/indef agent and 3rd person non-sing, agent/ 1st person sing, p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.

-yukeni-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fern/neuter agent/lst person dual p a t i e n t 6.6.15.

-yukhi-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fem/indef agent and 3rd person non-sing, agent/ 1st person dual, p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.

-yukwa -

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing. fern/neuter agent/lst person p l u r a l p a t i e n t 6.6.15.

-yutat-

t r a n s i t i v e pronominal p r e f i x : 3rd person sing, fem/indef agent and 3rd person non-sing, agent/ 3rd person sing, fem/indef p a t i e n t 6.6.14.; 6.6.20.

-?

a c t i v e punctual aspect s u f f i x ./+.31.

— ?

nominal s u f f i x 9.1.3.

-?n-

ambulative verbal s u f f i x 8 . 3 . 7 .

-?s-

benefactive I I s u f f i x 8.3.4.

Q

248

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