A Fundamental Basalt Flake Analysis: Based on experimentally-produced and used flakes as well as the prehistoric Waikalua material 9780860547952, 9781407349190

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. MEASUREMENTS OF WAIKALUA FLAKES
III. TOOL MANUFACTURING EXPERIMENTS AND THEIR EVALUATION
IV. APPLICATION OF EXPERI MENTALLYPRODUCED FLAKES
V. HIGH AND LOW POWER USE-WEAR ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL BASALT TOOLS
VI. HIGH AND LOW POWER EXAMINATION OF THE WAIKALUA MATERIAL
VII. EXAMINATION OF PLANT RESIDUES
VIII. BLIND TESTS
IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
X. RECOMMENDATIONS
XI. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendices

Citation preview

A Fundamental Basalt Rake Analysis Based on experimentally-produced and used flakes as well as the prehistoric Waikalua material

Boris Deunert

BAR International Series 614 1995

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 614 A Fundamental Basalt Flake Analysis © Boris Deunert and the Publisher 1995 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547952 paperback ISBN 9781407349190 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547952 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1995. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS F igures 1 .G ene ra l iz ed f l ow mode la c co rd ing t oC o l l in s 2 .A r chaeo log ica lp opu la t ion -un ive r se a c co rd ing t oC henha l l 3 .Techno log ica la t t r ibu t ek ey a cco rd ing t oS u l l ivan /Rozen 4 .F lake s c a t t e rp a t te rn o fp r ima ry r educ t ion 5 .F lake s c a t t e rp a t te rn o fs e conda ry r e duc t ion 6 .F lake o u t l ine sw i th l o ca t ion o fe dg ed amage 7 .F lake o u t l ine sw i th l o ca t ion o fe dg ed amage 8 .F lake o u t l ine sw i th l o ca t ion o fe dg ed amage 9 .D is t inc t ive p hy to l i th k ey 1 0 . Appa ra tu st or e ta in h e igh ti nr e la t ion t os o lven t T ab les A : Mea su r em en t so fb a sa l tf l ake sf r om t h e Wa ika lua e xcava t ion B : Mea su r emen t so fh amm e r s tone s C :P r ima ry a nd s e conda ry r e duc t ion o fa dze m anuf a c tu r ing 0 : E dge d amag eo fe xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake sd u r ing u se E :F i r s to b se r va t ion so ft h ee xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake sd u r ing u se F :T oo l i n f o rma t ion ,r equ i r ed i nt h eb l ind t e s ta nd a bb r ev ia t ion k ey G : E va lua t ion o ff l ake si nt a bu la rf o rm P ho tos 2 3 . S or t ing i n to d eb i tage c a t ego r ie s 2 4 . 1 6 Wa ika lua f l ake s 2 5 . 1 8 Wa ika lua f l ake s 2 6 .C ru sh ing c au sed t h rough a nv i l 2 7 .B a sa l tb l o ck s 2 8 .H amme r s tone s S e r ie s : H and l ing o fh amme r s tone s 2 9 . C h ipp ing f l oo rb efo r ee x t ens ion 3 0 . A nv i l 3 1 .P roduced b l ank s 3 2 .P roduced p r ef o rm s 3 3 /34 : A u tho rs t r ik ing f l ake sf r om b lo ck 1 3 5 .E x tended c h ipp ing f l oo r 3 6 . C on tac tm a t e r ia lk oa 3 7 . Oh ia 'a lehua 3 8 . Oheohe h au 3 9 .Kuku i 4 0 /4 1 : P ho tog raph ic a pp l iance s 4 2 .H eavy p r ev iou se dge d amage S e r ies : P r ev iou se dge d amage o fe xpe r im en ta l ly u sed f l ake s 4 3 .H eavy p r ev iou se dge d amage 4 4 . Au tho rd e f le sh ing ac h ick en 4 5 . C lo se -up v i ew 4 6 .A u tho rs aw ing k uku i 4 7 .C lo se -up v i ew 4 8 . Au tho rp l an ing k oa

(P age ) 3 1 0 1 2 3 0 3 0 3 8 3 9 4 0 6 2 6 3

1 5 -1 8 2 3 2 9 3 5 4 6 -5 0 6 6 7 0

1 3 1 4 1 4 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 4 2 5 2 5 2 7 2 7 2 8 2 8 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 6 3 7 3 6 4 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 5 1

ACKNO WLEDGMENTS Ia mp a r t icu la r ly i ndeb ted t oS hawn B uchan an ,R obe r tB o ro f sky , a nd H e lmu tZ iege r t . S hawn (A rchaeo log ica l a s s i s tan t a tt h e B ishop Mu seum )p o s tponed h e r p e r sona l c a ree r t oh e lp m e t h rough ap ha se o f a dm in is t ra t ive d if i cu l t ies a nd d i spu te s a bou t c omp e t ence . S he a l so h e lped m e s e a r ch f o r l i t e ra tu re a nd d id mo s t o f t h e c o r r ec t ion o ft h e manu sc r ip t .W i thou th e r , Iw ou ld h ave g i ven u p . R obe r t B o ro f sky ( A ssoc ia t e p ro f e sso r a tt h e H awa i i L oa C o l lege ) w a s my s uppo r t ive a dv i so r a nd e l oquen t t e ache r i n H awa i i . H e a lway s e ncou raged m e t o g o o n , e ven i fe ve ry th ing s e emed t ob e a ga in s t m e . R ob w a s c ha l leng ing a nd p rovoca t ive e ve ry s e cond w es pen tt oge the ra nd h e lp ed m ed eve lop c r ea t ive i d ea s . H e lmu t Z iege r t (P rof esso r f o r p re - a nd e a r ly h i s to ry a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o fH ambu rg )s uppo r t ed m e a sb e s t a sh e c ou ld s e ve ra l t housand k i lome te r s a way . H e p rov ided m e w i th l i t e ra tu r e , a sw e l l a s , h e lp fu l a nd c r i t ica l a dv ice . P rof . Z ieger t a l so a woke my i n t e r es tf o rt h ee a r l ies tr ema in so fh uman h i s to ry . T hese t h ree p eop le n eve rg ave u pb e l iev ing i nm e . Ia mg ra tef u lt oP au lC legho rn (L eade ro ft h eA pp l ied R esea rch G roup a tt h e B ishop Mu seum )f o rh av ing i n t roduced m e i nt h eh igh a r to fH awa i ian a dz e manuf a c tu r ing a nd h e lp fu la dv ice s i nce t h en . Iw i sh t ot h ank D r . Ma ry S ch ramm -Cob e r ly f o rt h e c a r efu lr e co rd ing o ft h e t oo l u se e xp e r imen t s a nd h e lp fu l s ugge s t ion s . S he h a sb een ar ea lf r iend .D r .T e r ry Hun tp rov ided m ew i th t h en ece s sa ry a pp l iance sf o rt h eb a sa l tf l ake a na ly s i sa nd MA J oL ynn G unnes s s uppor ted m e w i th a i d ing a dv ice a nd u nconven t iona l h e lp . D r . Y o sh i S ino to , D r . Ma ry R ifo rd , a nd D r . S t ephan D ane C la rk made i tp o s s ib le t h a t Ic ou ld u s e t h e Wa ika lua ma te r ia l a nd t h e p a r t ly u npub l i shed s u rvey a nd e x cava t ion r epo r t s . Ia l so w i sh t oc r ed i tt h e B o tany D epa r tmen t , t h e D epa r tmen t o fG eophy s ic s , b o th a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o fH awa i i , a sw e l l a s t h eH ono lu lu P o l ice D epa r tmen tf o rt h eu se o ft h e i rf a c i l i t ie sa nd f o rt h es a c r if ice o ft h e i rv a luab le t ime . S p ec ia l t h ank s t oM ike t h e b u t che r f o r g i v ing m e t h e o ppor tun i ty t oc u t u p a1 / 2 y ea r o ld p ig . MA S co t t Medbu ry f r om t h e F o s t e r B o tan ica l G a rden s p rov ided m e w i th t h e w ood In eeded f o r t h e e xp e r imen t s a nd My rna , B randon , a nd A lex w e re t h e Gu inea P ig sf o rt h eb l ind t e s t s . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t ot h ank my p a ren t s , a st h ey a lway s s uppo r t ed my e duca t ion . W i thou t t h em , Iw ou ld n o th ave c ome s o f a r . F inan c ia l s uppo r tw a sp rov ided b y aGove rnmen tG ran to ft h eF ede ra lR epub l ic o fG e rmany a nd my p a r en t s . F a i l ing st h a t may a pp ea ra r e my o wn r e spon s ib i l i ty a nd d on o tr e f lec tt h eh e lp fu l a dv ice o ft h ea bove m en t ioned p eop le .

1 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS P age L is to f I lus t ra t ion s A cknow ledgmen t s

i

T ab le o fc on t en t s

i v

I . In t roduc t ion

1

1 . 1 O b jec to r ien ted p rob lem

1

1 . 2T heme d e l im ina t ion a nd d ef in i t ion a )f a c tua l

1 1

b )s pa t ia l c )t empo ra l

1 2

1 . 3R e sea r ch l e ve l a nd h i s to ry a )E thnoa rcha eo logy a nd b ehav io ra la r chaeo logy

2 3

b )E xpe r imen ta t ion c )U se -wea r 1 . 4E va lua t ion o fs ou rce sa nd t e chn ique su sed

4 4 7

a )L i t e ra tu r e b )I nw ha td eg r ee i st h ec ompu te ru s ef u lf o ra r cha eo log ica lq ue s t ion s i nc on s ide ra t ion o fb a sa l tf l ake a na ly s i s? c )T he u se o fs amp l ing 1 . 5I nqu i ry m e thod ,c on s t ruc t ion o ft h et e x t

7 8 9 1

I . Mea su remen t so f Wa ika lua f l akes

1 2

I I .T oo l manu f ac tu r ing e xpe r imen t sa nd t h e i re va lua t ion 3 . 1 P ed ro log ica lr e a l i ty 3 . 2A dze manuf a c tu r ing A )P r ima ry r e duc t ion a )p r e manu fa c tu r ing b ) manuf a c tu r ing c )p o s t manuf ac tu r ing B )S econda ry r educ t ion a )p r e manuf a c tu r ing b ) manuf a c tu r ing c )p o s tm anuf ac tur ing C )P roduc t ion o ff l ake sw i th s pec ia le dge a ng le s

1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 6 2 6 2 6

3 . 3F lak ing a t t r ibu t es o fb a sa l t

3 1

3 . 4Q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o ft h ef l ake sp roduced i nc ompa r ison t o t h e Wa ika lua ma ter ia l

3 1

3 . 5C ompa r i son o ft h ew a s t ef l ake sw i th e spec ia l ly p roduced c u t t ing ,s c rap ing ,e t c . f l ake s

3 1

I V .A pp l ica t ion o fe xp e r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake s 4 . 1 S e lec t ion o fc on tac tm a t e r ia l

3 2 3 2

4 . 2I n ves t iga t ion o fe dge d amage p r io rt ot h eu se o ft h et oo l sf o re xpe r imen t s

3 2

4 . 3E va lua t ion o ft h eq ua l i ty a nd s u i tab i l i ty o ft h ef l ake si n t e rms o fs aw ing ,s c rap ing ,e t c . a )s aw ing a nd c u t t ing o fb one b )c u t t ing o ff l esh

4 1 4 1 4 1

c )w h i t t l ing o fw ood

4 1

d )s aw ing o fw ood e )s c rap ing o fw ood

4 4 4 4

f )p l an ing o fw ood

4 4

i v

4 . 4D e term ina t ion o ft h e mo s tc onven ien ta ng le o fu se f o rs c rap ing ,c u t t ing ,e t c . i no rde rt os t a te t h e p robab le t oo lu se o rt oe xc lude t oo ls f r om s pec ia lf unc t ion s a )s aw ing a nd c u t t ing o fb on e ,f i sh ,o rw ood b )w h i t t l ing o f wood c )s c rap ing a nd p l an ing o fw ood

4 4 4 5 4 5 4 5

V .H igh a nd l ow p owe ru se -wea ra na ly s i so fe xpe r imen ta lb a sa l tt oo l s

5 1

5 . 1 I n t roduc to ry r ema rk s 5 . 2G r een p lan t s 5 . 3 . 1 Un soaked b one s aw ing 5 . 3 .2 C ooked b one s aw ing 5 . 4 . 1 S l ic ing w ho le f i sh 5 . 4 .2 S l ic ing f i sh f l esh

5 1 5 1 5 2 5 2 5 3 5 3

5 . 4 .3 D ef lesh ing f i sh b one 5 . 4 .4 . S l ic ing c ooked f i sh f l esh 5 . 5 . 1 S l ic ing f l e sh

5 3 5 3 5 4

5 . 5 .2 S l ic ing c ooked f l e sh 5 . 5 .3 D ismembe r ing (C u t t ing S l ic ing ) 5 . 5 .4 D ismembe r ing g r i l led f l e sh (C u t t ing S l ic ing ) 5 . 5 .5 D ef lesh ing b one 5 . 6 . 1 S crap ing d ry b a rk a nd w ood

5 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 6

5 . 6 .2 S crap ing f r esh b a rk a nd w ood 5 . 6 .3 P lan ing d ry wood 5 . 6 .4 P lan ing f r esh wood 5 . 6 .5 S aw ing f r esh w ood a nd b a rk 5 . 6 .6 S aw ing d ry wood a nd b a rk 5 . 6 .7 Wh i t t l ing f r esh wood a nd b a rk 5 . 6 .8 Wh i t t l ing d ry wood a nd b a rk

5 6 5 6 5 7 5 7 5 8 5 8 5 8

V I .H igh a nd l ow p owe re xam ina t ion o ft h e Wa ika lua ma t e r ia l 6 . 1 I n t roduc to ry r ema rk s 6 . 2T oo l i n terp r e ta t ion 6 . 3 S umma ry

5 9 5 9 5 9 6 1

V I I .E xam ina t ion o fp lan tr e s idues 7 . 1 P hy to l i th a na ly s i s 7 . 2B o tan ica l -chem ica le xp e r imen t si no rde rt oe x fo l ia t ea nd i n ves t iga te p l an ta nd o ra n ima lr e s idue s 7 . 3B o tan ica l -chem ica le xpe r imen t so fr a ndom ly c ho sen s amp les o f r o ck sa nd ma c ro f lo ra lr ema in s 7 . 4C ompa r ison o ft h eb o tan ica l -chem ica lr e su l t sw i th t h ef a una l a nd f l o ra la na ly s is o ft h e Wa ika lua s i te V I I I .B l ind t e s t s

6 2 6 2 6 4 6 5 6 5 6 6

I X . S umma ry a nd c onc lus ion

6 9

X .R ecommenda t ion s

7 3

X I .B ib l iog raphy

7 4

X I I .C a ta log

8 0

V

t i ng s hou ld e xp lo re t h e n ecessa ry r e touchmen t o f t h e f l akes t o make t h em u sefu l f o r t h is p u rpose . D ec is ive f o r t h e d e t e rm ina t ion w e re f a c to r s l i ke v u lnerab i l i ty d ur ing u se v er sus s ha rpnes s . Who wou ld u se af l ake f o r c u t t ing w hen i th ur t s t h e u se r h im /he r se lf ? H e /she w i l l p roduce a f l ake w i th a c onven ien t a ng le o f u se t h a t w i l l n o t h ur t h im /her w h i le u s i n g . I f t h i s c onven ien t a ng le o f u se wou ld i n f luence t h e s ha rpnes s o f t h e f l ake s o t h a t i t wou ld b e r endered u se less h e /she w ou ld f i nd p oss ib i l i t ies t o c ove r o r h a f t t h is f l ake . B ecau se o f t h eses r e f lec t ion s t h e r e su l t ing h ypo thes is c on c er n ing t h e Wa ika lua f l akes wou ld b e t h e f o l low ing . I ft h e a ng le o fu se o ft h e Wa ika lua f l akes i sn o t c onven ien t (c on s i der ing t h e v u lne rab i l i ty ) , b u t t h e b o tan ica l -chem ica l a na lys i s s hows p l an t a nd /o r a n ima l r e s idues , o r t h e f l akes s how u s e -wea r o r e dge d amage a s soc ia ted w i th c u t t ing o r s c rap ing ,t h ese f l akes w e re p robab ly c ove red o rh a f ted .

1 . 1 OBJECT ORIENTED PROBLE M

Is ea rched t h rough t h e a r chaeo log ica l r epor t s o f t h e B ishop Museum w i th t h e i n ten t ion o f f i nd ing a n a s semb lage o r a t l e a s t as uba ssemb lage o f s t one t o o l s , i no rde r t o a nswe r t h e f o l low ing q ue s t ions : A ) I s i tp o ss ib le t o f i nd s pec ia l m anuf ac tu ra l t e chn ique s t h rough t h e a na ly s is o ft h ee dges o ft h e s t one t o o ls ? B ) A re t h e r e a ny s c ra tches o r n o t ches o n t h e s t one t oo ls w h ich c ou ld g i ve ah in to ft h e i ru sage ? C ) A re e a r l ie rr epo r t s o fa s semb lage sa na ly t ica l , a nd i fs o a r e t h ey a pp ropr ia te ? D ) Doe s m y d eve lop ing mode l f i t t h e c ommon a r t ifac t a na l y t ica l mode ls o r d o Ih ave t oa dd s ome p o in t s t op rove s p e c i a l h ypo thes is ? E ) I s a r t ifa c t a na lys is h e lpfu l a nd u sefu l i n s o lv ing p r eh is t o r ic q ue s t ion s ? F ) F ina l ly , d o Ih ave t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t o s yn thes ize c u l tu ra l b ehav io r o f a nc ien t H awa i ian s b a sed o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s ?

Al a s tc on s ide ra t ion i nt h is e xper imen ta l p ar t wa s ac ompa r i s on o f w a s te f l akes a nd e spec ia l ly p roduced c u t t ing a nd /or s c rap ing f l akes t o e xam ine t h e h ypo thes is t ha t s imp ly r e t o uched o r u n re touched w a s te f l akes w e re u sed a s e a sy t o h and le c u t t ing a nd /o rs c rap ing t oo ls .

A f te r If i n ished s ea rch ing t h rough t h e ma t er ia l f r om t h e l a s t 2 8 y ea r s , Ih ad t of a ce t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re w a s n o a pp ropr ia te s t one t o o l a s semb lage t h a t w ou ld b e u sefu l f o r my a na lys is . A n a r t if ac t a na lys is w i th 5 3 d if e r en t a r t if ac t s v a ry ing i n a ppea rance , a nd p resumab le u se , i so fl i t t le o r n o p rof i t . B y s ea rch ing t h rough t h ese r epor t s my a t ten t ion w a s d rawn t o t h e t hou sand s o fb a sa l t f l akes t h a t h ad b een f ound o n n ea r ly e very e x t ens ive e xcava t ion .F or tuna t e ly ,n oo ne h ad a na lyzed t h ese f l akes ,l e av ing m e w i th t h e o ppor tun i ty t os e lec t o ne o f t h e mo re r e cen t e xcava t ions a t Wa ika lua i nK aneohe . Mo re t h en 1 2 .000 f l akes w e re f ound , w a i t ing t ob e a na lyzed u nde r

T he n ex t ma in m e thod ica l p ar t w a s t h e m ea su remen t o f t h e Wa ika lua f l akes i no rde r t o p rove t h e a bove m en t ioned h y p o thes is . I ft h e re a ppea r s ac l ea r ly r e cogn izab le p a t t e rn i nt h e e dge a ng le m ea su remen t s t h en i t wou ld s uppor t t h e t h eory a bou t t h e mos t c onven ien t a ng le o fu se . Ac l ea r ly r e cogn iz a b le p a t te rn i nt h e d imen s ions wou ld s peak a ga ins t t h e t h es is t h a t s imp ly r e touched o ru n re touched w a s te f l akes w e r e u sed f o r c u t t ing a nd /o r s c rap ing p urposes . O ther m ea su r emen t s e s tab l ished t h e c r i ter ia f o r t h e s e lec t ion o f t h e f l akes t h a t s hou ld b e c ons ide red f o rl ow a nd h igh p owe r magn if i ca t ion .

t h e f o l low ing q ues t ion s : T he l ow p owe r magn if ica t ion s hows r e cogn izab le u se -wea r , e dge d amage , a nd r e touchmen t t h a t c l ea r ly i nd ica te s t h e u se o ft h e se f l akes a st oo ls . T he o b ta ined r e su l t s s hou ld b e c om p a red w i th t h e i n ves t iga ted e dge d amage a nd u se -wea ro ft h e f l akes i nt h e e xper imen ta l p a r t t or e la te t h ese t yp ica l d amage p a t ter n s t op oss ib le c u to rs c raped ma ter ia l .

S ee q ues t ion s At oF . G ) I si tp o ss ib le t o r e cogn ize amanuf ac tur ing p l ace o r w a s t h e ma te r ia l p r e t rea ted a ta no the rl o ca t ion ? H ) We re f l akes u sed f o r c u t t ing , s c rap ing , e t c . i n a g r i - o r a quacu l tu ra lu se ?

1 . 2 THE ME DELI M INAT ION AND DEF INITION

T he h igh p owe r magn if ica t ion c an c onf irm o r d eny t h e r e s u l t s t h a t a r e t ob e o b ta ined i nt h e l ow p owe r magn if ica t ion . I ft h e b o tan ica l -chem ica l e xam ina t ions s how d i f f e r en t p l an t o r a n ima l r e s idues t h an a s sumed i n t h e e a r l ie r e xper imen t s , w e c an c onc lude o t her c u t t ing a nd /o r s c rap ing p u rposes o f t h e f l ake s . I ft h e r e su l t s o fb o th e xpe r imen t s c or respond , t h e p r ev iou sh ypo thes is s eems t ob ev ery l i ke ly . Ac ompa r ison o f t h e b o tan ica l -chem ica l r e su l t s w i th t h e f auna l a nd f l ora l a na lys i s o f t h e Wa ika lua s i te s ha l l p rov ide a f u r the r l i ne o f p o s i t ive ly c onf i rma tory e v idence .

a )f actua l i n o rde r t o a nswer t h ese q ues t ion s , m e thod s h ad t o b e w orked o u t t h a t wou ld b e u sefu l t os uppo r t t h e h ypo the s is . to w h ich t h e q ues t ions a r e r e la ted . B ecau se o ft h e u nfam i l ia r i ty o fb a sa l ta nd i t sf l ak ing a t tr ibu te s i tw a sn eces sa ry t oc onduc t s evera l b a sa l t mod if ica t ion e xper imen t s t o s how t h e u sefu l n ess o ff l ake sf o rc u t t ing a nd /o r s c rap ing p u rposes . As e cond s t ep w a s t h e a pp l ica t ion o ft h ese f l akes t om a ter ia l o fd if e r e n t h a rdnes s o r s o f tness t oi n ves t iga te p o ss ib le e dge d amage a nd u s e -wea r . T o make t h e e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake s c ompa rab le t ot h e Wa ika lua f l akes , s im i la rc ond i t ions h ad t o b e c r ea ted . A ssum ing t h a t mos t o f t h e p r esen t f l akes w er e w a s te f l akes , r e su l ted i nt h e t o o l manufac tu r ing p rocess , t h e q uan t i ty o f t h e p roduced f l akes i n r e la t ion t o t h e f i n ished w orked s t one t oo ls h ad t ob e i n ve s t iga ted . T he d e term ina t ion o ft h e m o s t c onven ien t a nge l o fu se f o r s c rap ing a nd o r c u t -

b )s pa t ia l T he p r esen tb a sa l t f l ake a na lys is i s ac on t inuous s t udy o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l s a lvage e xcava t ion a t s i te 5 0 -0a -G5 -101 Wa ika lua -Loko Ka neohe c onduc ted i n 1 986 . O n s i x teen n oncon secu t ive d ays b e tween 2 0 . A ugus t a nd 3 . O c tobe r 1 986 f i e ldwo rk w a s c a r r ied o u t i nt wo p ha ses : "( 1 ) 1 4 d ays o f c on tro l led e xcava t ions i n s e lec ted t e s t a r ea s t o o b ta in

1

s amp le s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s ; ( 2 ) 2d ay s o f mon i t o red b ackhoe t r ench e xcava t ion s . "(R ifo rd ,C la rk 1 986 :2 ) 1 . 3 RESEARCH LEVEL AND H ISTORY U nde rs eve ra l o t he ra r t i fa c t sa bou t 1 2 .000 b a sa l t f l akes w e r e f ound , 1 .000 o f t h em i np roven ience . T he s or t ing c r i ter ia w e r e d iagno s t ic f l akes , f l ake f r agmen t s , f l akes w i th p o l ish , a w l s , a nd mod if ied /u t i l ized f l akes . T he g i ven d efm i t ion o f d i agno s t ic f l ake s i s : "B yp roduc t o f t o o l manufa c tu r e a nd c o r er educ t ion ,t e rmed d eb i tage ,h av ing av en t ra l s u r f ace a nd c omp le te p rox ima l ( s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm ) a nd d i s ta l ( t e rm ina t ion )e nd s . T he l a t e ra l e dge s m ay b e c omp le te o r b roken ." F lake f r agmen t s a r e "d eb i tage h av ing a v en t ra l s u r f ace a nd o ne o rb o th e nd sb roken . "F lakes w i th p o l ish a r e d e sc r ibed a s "d i s t inc t ive b yp roduc to ft o o l (u sua l ly a dz u se ) r e sha rpen ing a nd /o r r ewo rk ing , e xh ib i t ing o ne o r mo r e p o l i s hed s u r fa ce s f r om t h e o r ig ina l t o o l . "I n h i s 1 979 w o rk C la rk d ef ined a w l sa s "n onha f ted b a sa l tf l ake o rc o re t oo l o n w h ich o ne o r mo r e p o in t s w e r e f o rmed b y mod if i ca t ion ( r educ t ion ) o fo ne o rt wo a d jacen te dge s . "Mod if ied /U t i l ized f l akes a r e s e en a s "f l ake s a nd f r agmen t s o f b a sa l t w h ich d i sp lay mac ro scop ic m a rg ina l s ca t te r ing . T he s ca r s o f p u r p o sefu l mod if ica t ion p r io r t ou t i l iza t ion a r e g ene ra l ly l a rge r t h an u t i l iza t ion s ca r r ing o n a n u nmod if ied e dge ." ( R i f o rd /C la rk 1 986 :46 -47 )O n ly t h e d i agno s t ic f l akes a nd f l ake f r agmen t s c omb ined a r e 9 8 ,8% o f t h e t o ta l b a sa l t a r t ifac t s f r om c on t ro l led e xcava t ion s . 5 6% o f t h e se f l ake s w e r e r e c ove red f r om t h e u n i t s 9 1 , 9 -5 , a nd 1 3 -4 . 6 39 f l ake s a nd f r agmen t s w e r e r e cove r ed f r om a p o s tho le f i l l ing (F ea tu re l a ) ,t ha tw a s s i tua t ed a d jacen t t os amp le a r ea 9 . Du r ing t h e p r eso r t ing p roces s , t h a t i n c luded a n e xam ina t ion u nde r t h e m ic ro scope a t1 0x , t wen ty -fou r mod if ied f l akes a nd t wen ty t h r ee a w l sw e r e i d en t i f ied c omp r is ing t h i r ty two r e spec t ive ly t h i r ty -one o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f r e cogn ized t oo ls . E dge d amage i n t h e f o rm o f r ound ing , p o l i sh , a nd c ru sh ing w a s d e te rm ined ,b u t ad e ta i led a na lys i sw a sn eve r made .

T he s t udy o ft h e e a r l ie s tr ema ins o fh uman h i s to ry f a sc ina ted g ene ra t ion so fs c ien t i s t s a nd h obby r e sea r che r s . T he i rs t ud ies w e r e c ha ra c te r ized b y t h e i r f i e ld o f i n t e r e s t a nd /o r e xp er i e nce t h ey g a ined i n t h e i r r e spec t ive o ccupa t ion s . I n nume r a b le t h eo r ie s a nd h ypo thes i s w e re d e r ived o n ly f o r t h e p o s s i b le u se a nd m anu f a c tu r e o f s t one t o o l s , h oweve r , t h e i r e nume ra t ion i so u t s ide t h e s cope o f t h i s o ve rv iew . T he a im h e re i sr e s t r ic t ed t ot h e d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e b roade r r e sea r ch c oncep t s a nd t h eo r ie s d eve loped o ve r t h e p a s t f ou r d ecades , c oncer n ing t h e s y s t ema t ic a na lys i s o fs t one t oo ls u nd e r s pe c i a l c on s ide ra t ion o f f l ake s . S t i l l i n f luenced f r om e a r l ie r w o rk "r e s ea rche r s "s t a r ted t od ive r s i f y a nd r ef ine a t t r ibu te c l a s ses w i th t h e p u rpo se t oo b t a in b e t t e rt y po log ie a cco rd ing t o w h ich t h ey c ou ld c l a s s i fy a nd d a t e l i t h ic m a te r ia l . J ohn E ven s w i th h i s b ook "T he a nc ien t s t one i mp lemen t s , w eap o n s , a nd or namen t s o fG r ea t B r i ta in "w a s p robab ly a u tho r i t a t ive f o rt h e l a t e r Ame r ican r e sea rch (E ven s 1 872 ) .E ven i f E ven s a pp roach w a s af unc t iona l ly o r ien t ed c l a ss if i ca t ion , t h a t u sed af ew u se -wea r f e a tu re s , t h e f u r the r r e sea r ch w a s mo r e c oncer ned t o d eve lop a t t r ibu te c l a s s es d e r ived f r om m ea su remen t s o f t h e s t one t o o ls . T h i s a pp roa ch c u lm ina t ed i n t h e t ypo log ica l s t ud ies o f t h e Upp e r P a leo l i th ic p e r iod f r om D . S onnev i l le -Bo rde sa nd J .P e ro t (1 954 , 1 955 , 1 956 ) , E sca lon d eF on ton a nd d eL um ley (1 955 ) ,B oame r s ( 1 956 ) , d e H e inze l in (1 962 ) ,a nd G . L ap lace ( 1964) . T he p u rpo se o ft h e se t ype l i s t sw a s t om ake as yn thes i so ft h e c ha ra c t e r is t i c s t h a t t h e m a t e r ia l m ay r ep r esen t s o t h a t t h e l i t h ic c ompo n en t o f a n a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage c an b e u nde r s tood . O ve rt h e y ea r s t h ese s t ud ie s w e re u sed t oa s s ign l i t h ic m a te r i a l t ot h e r e spec t ive t ime o u t l ined i nt h e t y pe l i s t s . R ef ined d a t ing a nd w o rk ing m e thod s , a nd t h e i mp rovemen t o ft h o se t ypo log ie s t h rough s eve ra l b l ind t e s t s i n d ica ted t h a td if e r en t w ay so fc l a s s if ica t ion l e d t od if e ren tc onc lu s ion s , s ot h a tt h e w ho le t ypo log ica l ly d er ived i n te rp re ta t ion s a r e h igh ly s u s p ec t . (M inzon i -D e roche 1 985 )

A n a dd i t iona l ma c ro scop ic s o r t ing w h ich w a s b a sed o n t h e v i sua lt e x tu r ew a s mad ea f t e rs t udy ing s eve ra l b a sa l ts amp le s f r om a l l o ve r t h e I s land o f O 'ahu . T he b a sa l t ma t er ia l w a s s o r ted i n to t h r ee c a t ego r ie s o fo bser ved s u r face t e x tu r e : m e d i um , m ed ium f me , a nd f i ne . T hese c a tego r ies r e la t e t o t h e d ens i ty o ft h ev i sua l ly e xam ined b a sa l tf l akes . F ou rp robab le b a sa l t s ou r ce s w e r e f ound . Ko 'o lau C a lde ra , Wa iaho le Q ua r ry , K a i lua Adz Q ua r ry , a nd t h e K ane 'ohe r eg ion . T he n omenc la tu r e o ft h i s p r eso r t ing w i l l n o tb e t a ken o ve r i nt h e p r esen t b a sa l t f l ake a na ly s is e ven t h ough t h i s m igh t l e ad t o c onfu s ion . (S ee s e c t ion I . )A no the ro b jec t ion t ot h i s p rev i o u s n omenc la tu r e i st h e o f t en h a s ty d ec i s ion a bou t t h e p rob a b le u se o f at oo l a nd e ven , p e rhap s , t h e d ec i s ion a bou t w ea the r i ti s at oo l a nd t h e r e su l t ing c l a s s if ica t ion t h e rea f t e r . ( See a l so 1 . 4a bou tc ompu te ra pp l ica t ion )

S eve ra l r e l ic t s f r om t h is s pecu la t ive a pp roach t o s t on e t oo l c l a s s if ica t ion a r e r e p resen ta t ive i . e . i n t h e w r i t ing s o f S i evek ing (1 958 ) ,T ugby (1 958 ) ,S a cke t (1 966 ) ,S hu t le r a nd K es s (1 969 ) ,a nd Ho le ,F lanne ry , a nd N e e ley (1 969 ) . I n 1 969 S ab lof f a nd Sm i th t r ied t o r e scue t h e t y po log ica l m e thod t h rough c hang ing i t s n omenc la tu r e t o t yp e -va r ie ty s y s t em i no rde rt oo b ta in a t t r ibu te v a r ia t ion s . I nt h is a na ly t ic a nd t a xonom ic c l a s s i f ica t ion at ype r e p r e sen ted "a n a gg ra te o fv i sua l ly d i s t inc t . . . a t t r ibu t e s a l ready o b jec t if ied w i th in o ne o r (g ene ra l ly ) s e ve ra l v a r ie t ie s w h ich , w hen t a ken a s a w ho le , a r e i d en t i t ive o f ap a r t icu la rc l a s s . . ,p roduced d u r ing a s pec if ic t ime i n t er va l w i th in a s p ec if i c r e g ion . "A v a r ie ty w ou ld b et h e "m ino r ,b u ts i gn i f ican tv a r ia t ion sw i th in at ype , e i the r i n t ra s i te o ri m e r s i te . "(S ab lof f /Sm i th 1 969 :278 ) T h is "n ew "s y s t em t h a t w a s a l so u sed b y P a r son (1 967 ) ,Wa l l r a th (1 967 ) ,a nd C u lbe r t (1 965 )f o rc e ram ic c l a s s if i ca t ion i si ng ene ra l t h e s ame s ub jec t ive c l a s s if i ca t ion mode l a st h e o ld " t ypo log ies " .B o th r e sea rch m e thod s r e ly o n ah igh d eg r ee o f p r edef ined a t t r ibu tes i n o rde r t o e s tab l ish a c h rono log ica l s equence . I n t h e s i x t ie s s t a t i s t ica l m e thod s w e r e a pp l ied t o m a s t e r t h e l a rge a moun t o f d a ta r e ce ived

c )t empora l C h ronome t r ic d a ta o fl a ye r Ii nd ica t e t h e o ccu r rence o ff i r s t s e t t lemen t a r ound AD 1 070 . T h is e a r ly d a te wa s e s tab l ished f r om t h e f e a tu r e 1p i t t h a t w a s d a ted AD 1 070 -1390 . T he d u ra t ion o fo ccupa t ion w a s a bou t 3 40 y ea r s u n t i l AD 1 405 . A s a l l o f t h e i n ve s t iga t ed b a sa l t f l ake s (i n p roven ience ) w e re r e cove r ed e i the rf r om t h e b a se o fl a ye rl bo rf r om l a ye r I ,t h e se f l ake s mus tf a l l i n to t h is t ime f r ame .

2

t h rough n ece s sa ry m ea su r emen t s i nt y po log ica l s y s tem s . I n 1 963 D emp sey a nd B aumhof fi . e .t r ied t oc onv ince t h er e ade r t h a t „ap u r e ly s t a t i s t ica lm e thod o fe s tab l i sh ing d ependab le s e quence s i sp o s s ib le , b u t a l so t h a t c on t ex tua l a na ly s i s i sa s uf i c ien t ly s e ns i t ive t e chn ique t o s o lve t h e a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem . „(D emp sey /Baumhof f 1 963 :496 )F o r f u r the r r e ad ing t ot h ea pp l ica t ion o fs t a t i s t ica l -ma thema t ica ls e r ia t ion m e thod s o f a r cha eo log ica l ma te r ia l i ti sr e commended t o c on s ide ra na r t ic le o fA l lan G e lf and p ub l i shed i n1 971 .W i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t he c ompu te r , a nd t he s ubsequen t d e sc r ip t ion o fa r cha eo log ica ld a ta i nc ompu te rl a nguage , a n e ven l a rger a moun t o f d a ta c ou ld b e p rocessed . T he a pp l ica t ion o f t h e se n ew t e chn iques i n t h e c once rn o f t y po log ie s , s t r e t ched o n ly am i se ry c a r r i ed o ve ry ea r s f r om t h ea r chaeo log ica ld i sc ip l ine .

a nd w eapons c ommon ly u sed i nt h e i r o wn c u l tu re . T he e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l a pp roach c on s id e r s s t one i mp lemen t s b e long ing t os t i l l e x i s t ing p r e indu s t r ia l s o c ie t ie s s u ch a st h e I nu i t ,A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig in ie s ,A f r ican t r i be s ,a nd N a t ive Ame r i can . T h rough c ompa r i son o ft h es t one t o o l su sed f r om t h e se s o c ie t ie sw i th t h ee xcava ted p r eh i s to r ic a s semb lage ss c ien t i s t s t r y t oe xp lo re f unc t ion a nd manuf a c tu r ing m e thod s o ft h e se r ema in s .R epo r t sf r om H e ide r (1 969 )a nd T hom son (1 964 ) c an b ee xemp la ry f o rt h i sk i nd o fr e sea r ch d e s ign . T he s t ep f r om p u re o b serva t iona l e t hnoa rchaeo logy t o b ehav io ra l a r chaeo logy w a s f i r s t d one b y B inf o rd i n 1 969 . H e a t t emp t ed t o e xp lo r e t h e r e la t ion s w h ich o ccu r b e tween p r eh i s to r ic c u l tu ra l b ehav io ra nd t h em a t e r ia l r e co rd o ft h a t b ehav io r .G ou ld ,w ho b ecame ar e p r e sen ta t ive o ft h i sm e thod

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i =2 p r oduc tg r oup o ppo r tun i ty f o r a u xi l i a ry m an ipu la t ion a nd /o rc omm i tm en tt o a r chae o log i ca lc o n t e x t ( F igu r e 1C o l l i n s , i nS wan son , L i th ic T echno logy 1 975 :18 )

e xp r e s sed t h en ew d e s ign a sf o l low s : "S i nce d i sca rd b ehav io r a nd r e s idue f o rma t ion , l i ke l a nguage a r e u n iv e r sa l h uman c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , t h e i r p a t t e rn ing c an b e s t ud ied i n am anne r a k in t og r amma r i nl a nguage . C on s i s t en t o b se rved r e la t ion s h ip sb e tween h uman b ehav io ra nd m a te r ia lr e s idue si nc on t empo ra ry s oc ie t ie s m ay p o s i ted a s p ropor t ion s f o r c r o ss c u l tu ra lt e s t ing a nd c ompa r i son w i th p r eh i s to r ic h uman r e s i d ue s . "(G ou ld 1 978 :8 15 )I nE a r lS wan son s 1 975 p ub l i shed l i t h ic t e chno logy w e g e ta cqua in ted w i th ag ene ra l ized f l ow mode l o ft h e p opu la t ion o f c h ipped s t one t o o l s . (C o l l in s 1 975 :18 )H ec on s ide r st h et h r ee m a in c r i te r ia t h a ti n f luence t h eu s e l if eo ft oo l s ,t h e manuf ac tu r ing p roce s s ,t h eu se a nd

A r chaeo logy i nt h e s i x t ie s a l so e xpe r ienced ab oom i n d if e ren tm e thodo log ica lr e sea rch c oncep t s .A st h ey a l a r o se a tn ea r ly t h e s ame t ime , i ti si mpo s s ib le t os t ay i n ac h rono l o g ica l s equence w i th t h i sh i s to r ica lo ve rv iew . T hey w i l lb e h and led i nt h es u cce s s ion :a )e t hnoa r cha eo logy a nd b ehav io ra l a r chaeo logy ,b )e xpe r imen ta t ion , a nd c )u se -wea r .

a )E thnoarchaeo logy a nd b ehav iora la rchaeo logy F o r an umbe ro fd ecade ss c ien t i s t ss ough tt od i scove rt h et r ue i d en t if yo fp r eh i s to r ic t o o l st h rough a na logy w i th m e ta lt o o l s

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c )U se -wear

p o s s ib le r e cyc l ing p ha se a nd t h e d i sca rd o f t h e e mac ia ted t o o ls . (F igu re 1)

U se -wea r a na ly s i s l e d t o an ew a venue o f r e sea rch , a s i t e nab le st h e s c ien t i s tt oe xam ine s t r ia e a nd e dge d amage t ha t w e r e c au sed b y n a tu ra l o rh uman f o r ce s . B ecause o fe xper i m en t st h ea na ly s ti sa b le t oa s s ign s pec ia l p a t te rns o n t h e t oo l s u r f a ce ( a r rangemen t o f g roves , n o tche s , e t c . . ) t o t oo l f unc t i on s a nd a ss uch t os t a te t h e f i e ld o fa c t iv i ty o fa nc ien t man . L i th ic u s e -wea r a na lys is , t h e s ys t ema t ic s t udy o f t h e d i s t r i b u t ion o f t r ace s o f u se i n r e la t ion t o o ve ra l l s hape o f t h e i mp lemen t , s t a r ted o u t w o r ldw ide w i th t h e t r ans la t ion o f S emenov s 1 957 p ub l i shed b ook " L i th ic T echno logy " i n 1 964 . S onnenf e ld w ho w ro t e ap aper a bou t "T he f unc t ion o f p r im i t ive i mp lemen t s " (S onnenf e ld 1 962 ) w i thou t p r io r k now ledge o f S emenov s r e su l t s c an b e p u t i n o ne l i ne w i th t h e f ounde r s o f t h e l ow p owe r magn if ica t ion a pp roach . I n g ene ra lu s e -wea ra na ly s i sc an b e d ev ided i n to t wo g roup s : 1 ) O ne g r oup f ocus ing o n t r ace s o f" e dge d amage " ,m ic ro s cop ic f r ac tu r ing , a nd a b ra s ion v i s ib le a t r e la t ive ly l ow magn i f ica t ion . (W i lm sen 1 968 , C rab t r ee 1 973 , N i ss en a nd D i t temo r e 1 974 , T r igham e t a l . 1 974 , Ode l l 1 977 , 1 979 , O de l l a nd Ode l l -Ve r eecken 1 980 )T he o the r g roup d ea ls w i th s t r ia t ion a nd p o l ishe s (m ic rowea r ) ,a tr e la t ive ly h igh magn i f ica t ion (u p t o7 00x )u nde r d i rec t l i gh t ing . T he s ec o nd a pp roach w a s d eve loped b y K ee ley ( 1980 ) a nd w a s f u r the r a pp l ied b y Mo s s (1 983 ) , V aughan ( 1985 ) ,T o th ( 1985 ) , a nd Y e rke s (1 987 ) .I l k jae r l amen t ed t h e l a ck o f e a sy a c ces s t o h igh p owe r magn if ica t ion d ev ices t h a t w i l l l e ad t o ad ec r ea se i n o b serva t iona l a ccuracy a nd d e lays i n d ocumen ta t ion a nd c l a s s if ica t ion o f u se -wea r . ( I lk jae r 1 979 :345 )B ecause o ft h i s d ef ic i t , t h e h igh p owe r a pp roach w a s o ve r t h e y ea r s s e en a sl e s s i mpo r tan t , a nd s i ng le w o rk s i nt h i s f i e ld w e re l i t t le n o t iced . T he mo re a bou t t h is r e sea rch m e thod w a s p ub l i shed t h e c l ea r e r i tb ecame t ha t t h is a p p roach c ou ld n o t b e d en ied , e spec ia l ly a f t e r t h e p roof o f i t s a ccu ra cy t h rough s eve ra lb l ind t e s t s . (K ee ley 1 980 , B am fo rd 1 986 . S hea 1 987 )P ropo r t iona l t o t h e j u s t if ica t ion o f t h e h igh p owe r a pp roa ch , t h e c r i t ique t owa rd s l ow p owe r , e spe c i a l ly t h e e dg e d amage a pp roach g r ew . I n p a r t icu la r t h e a t t emp t t or e la t e t oo l e dge a ng le s t os pec if ic t oo l f unc t ions . W i lm sen (1 970 )a s s er t s t h a t t oo ls w i th e dg e a ng le s o f 4 0 d eg r ee s t o 5 5 d eg ree s a r e p robab ly a s soc ia ted w i th h ide s c rap ing w h i le t o o ls w i th e dge a ng le s r ang ing f r om 6 6 d e g r ee s t o7 5 d eg ree s a r e b e t t e r s u i t ed f o r s c rap ing wood a nd b one . S i ege l s howed p roof t h a t t h e r e i sn o s i gn i f ican t r e la t i on sh ip b e tween p a r t icu la r w o rk ing a c t iv i t ies a nd t h e c o r re s pond ing t oo l e dge a ng le . "I t may b e s ugges t ed t h a t t oo l e dge a ng le i sr e la ted t og ro s sc a tego r ies o fa c t iv i t ies .I no the r w o rd s ,t o o l sw hose e dge a ng le f a l l s i n to t h el owe rr ange (i . e . 2 6 d eg r ee s t o3 5 d eg r ee s )may b e c on s ide red l i ke ly t oh ave b een u s ed i n a c t iv i t ie s b a sed u pon l ong i tud ina l mo t ion . T hes e w ou ld i n c lude c u t t ing , s aw ing , w h i t t l ing , a nd c a rv ing . T oo l s w i th e dge a ng les i nt h e h ighe r r anges may b e c on s id e r ed a sh av ing b een u sed i na c t iv i t ie s b a sed u pon t r ansve r se mo t ion , a ss c rap ing p l an ing a nd a dz ing ." (S iege l 1 985 :93 ) S eve ra l e dge d amage i n f luenc ing f a c to r s t ha t w e re n o t c on s i de r ed f r om t h e r e sea r che r s d ea l ing w i th e dge d amage i n v e s t iga t ion a r e l i s ted b y D onahue : "1 ) D if f e r en t w o rked ma t e r ia l c ause d i f f e ren t r a t e s o fm ic rowea rd eve lopmen t a nd r ound ing . 2 )D if f e ren t k i nd s o ff l in t (a nd s i l ica i ng ene ra l ) a l so v a ry i nt h e i r r a te o f r ound ing a nd m icrowea r d eve lop m en t . 3 )I n c lu s ion s o ff o r e ign ma t t e r , s uch a s d i r t , i n ma t er i -

F ur the r d eve lopmen t a nd r efmemen t o f t h e u se l if e mode l w a sd one j u s tr e cen t ly b y K e l ly (1 988 ) ,G r ime sa nd G r im e s (1 985 ) ,a nd S ho t t (1 989 ) . "U se l if e i st h e s t ra igh t forwa rd c oncep t t ha t d eno tes t h e l e ng th o f s e rv ice o f t o o l c l a sses i n s y s tema t ic c on t ex t" . (S ch if f e r 1 976 :60 )I tc an b em ea su r ed o n av a r ie ty o f s ca les , i n c lud ing t h e n umbe r o f s t roke s f o r w h ich a t oo l i se mp loyed a nd t h e n umb e r o f s pec i f ic u se s . F a c to r s o the r t h an t h e l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s o f at oo l mu s t b e c ons ide r ed t o make u se l if e m ea su rab le . D e te rm i n an t s o fu se l if e a r e: 1 )T he b reakage i np roduc t ion , w h ich i mp l ie s i mmed ia t e d i sca rd o r p u rpose u n r e la ted u se t o t h e o r ig ina lf unc t ion ,2 )a bandonmen td u r ing o ra f te rp roduc t ion , w h ich mean s t h a t e ven i n tac t t o o l s may b e a bandoned , i f p roved u n su i tab le f o r t h e i r i n tended p u rpos e , 3 ) l o ss o r b reakage i n u se , t h a t c ou ld l e ad e i the r t o d i sca rd o r t o 4 ) r e cyc l ing , ap ro ce s s t h a t c ou ld c hange t h e o r ig ina l f unc t ion o f at oo l , 5 ) r e jec t ion a nd a bandonmen t o ft o o l s t h a t a r e s t i l l f unc t iona l (s t y l is t ic c hange ) ,6 ) d ep le t ion b efo r e o r a f t e r p o s s ib le r e juvena t ion , 7 ) l a bo r i n ve s tmen t o r m anuf ac tu r ing c o s t a r e a n i nd ica to ro fq u ick o rl a t e d i sca rd , a si ts e em s n o t p l aus ib le t o a bandon at oo l i nw h ich a l o t o f l a bo r w a s i n v es ted , 8 )c u ra t ion o r ma in tenance t e chno logy a r e i nd ica to r s f o rh igh u se l if e ,a si ts e em sr e a sonab le t h a tt h em o r ec u ra t ed i t em s a r e l onge r l a s t ing . (F ree a f t e r S ho t t 1 989 :18 -23 )A f u r the rt r y i nb ehav io ra l a r cha eo logy t or e la te mob i l i ty t ot h e o rgan iza t ion o f at e chno logy w a s s hown t o b e u n r ea l i s t ic . ( Bramfo rd 1 986 )

b )E xper imen ta t ion A sc ou ld b e s e en i nt h e b ehav io ra l , a r chaeo log ica l a pp roach , e xpe r imen ta t ion w a s an eces s i ty t o i mp rove t o o l f unc t ion r e la ted h ypo the s i s . I n t h e p a s t t h i r ty y ea r s a r cha eo log ica l i n ves t iga t ion s i n to h uman h i s to ry h ave i n c r ea s ing ly e m p loyed t h e c oncep t s o f mode l - b u i ld ing i n t h e a t temp t t o p red ic t a nd u nde r s tand a nc ien t a c t iv i t ies . T o l e ad t h ese o f t en h igh ly t h eo re t ica l mode ls i n to t h eh ighe rr ank s o fp robab i l i ty t h ey h ad t ob et e s t ed i ns ome w ay .T h i st e s t ing c ou ld b e d one t h rough o b se rva t ion o f c on tempo ra ry s oc ie t ie s , t h e e nfo rce m en to fe xpe r imen t so r , e ven b e t t e rt h e c omb ina t ion o fb o th . E xpe r imen ta l a r cha eo logy i m i ta t e s p a s t c u l tu ra l b ehav io r t hough t h e c a r ry ing -ou t o f e xpe r imen t s . T he t e x t b ook t o l e a rn f o r e xamp le , s t one t o o l m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn iques a r e t h e a nc ien t s t one t o o ls , f l akes , a nd d eb i tage t h em se lve s . T he a im i st o r ep roduce t h es e t oo l s , f l ake s , a nd t h e i r a r range m en t sa sf ound i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion . N owaday s , e xpe r imen t s a r e q u i te c ommon i n a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t i on s a nd a r e d rawn n ea rt os eve ra l a r cha eo log ica l p rob lem s d e r ived b ecause o ft h e l a ck o fb a ckg round i n fo rma t ion . P a r t i cu la r ly D enma rk ,i . e . t h eL e j re c en t e rc a r r ie s o u tn o t iceab le r e sea rch i n t h i s d i r ec t ion . (H an sen 1 974 , 1975 ) S eve ra l s c ien t is t s ( A sche r , 1 96 1 ; C a l lahan , 1 976 ; C o le s 1 973 , 1 979 ; I nge r so l l e ta l . 1 977 ; K nud son 1 978 ; R eyno ld s 1 977 ,1978 ) h ave r ef ined t h i s a pp roach t h a t f md s i t s a pp l ica t ion a l so i n u s e -wea ra na ly s i s .

4

l ow p ower e xam ina t ion e nab les t h e o b serva t ion o f at h ree d imens iona l i mage . T he b i nocu la rm ic roscope c an b e u sed t o i n ve s t iga te l a rge ro b jec t s , w h i le t h e s t age a r ea s o f aS EM a r e mos t ly t o s ma l l t oh o ld t h em . T he refo re t h e h igher magn if i c a t ion o f a n e l ec t ron s c ann ing m ic ro scope a l lows a c l oser e xam ina t ion o fp o l i shes a nd s t r ia t ion .

a l s b e ing w o rked c an g r ea t ly a f f ec tt h e r a t e o fm ic rowea r . 4 ) E dge -ang le , e dge leng th , a nd f r ac tu r ing r a tes a f ec t t h e r a te o f r ound ing a nd m ic rowea r d eve lopmen t . 5 ) T he r e juvena t i on o fw or ne dges b y r e touch c an c onfound e s t ima te s o n t h e a moun t a n e dge wa s u sed . ( Donahue 1 984 :365 , s e e a l so L awrence 1 979 :117 )I n a dd i t ion t h e a na lys t mu s t a l so c on s i de rt h e c omp l ica t ing f a c to ro fd amage d one t oa ne dge a f te r t h e t oo l w a s a bandoned . ( Shee t s 1 973 )I n t h e k now ledge o f t h is , K ee ley e xam ined t h e d i scr im inan t f a c to r s b e tween t r aces r e su l t ing f r om n a tu ra l p roce sse s a nd t hose h uman ly p roduced . (K ee ley 1 980 :28 -62 )H e a l so n o ted t h e n eces s i ty o fe xper imen t s c a r r ied o u t i nt h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t r a the r t h en i n al a bo ra tory , a s t h e f l ake f a l l ing o n t h e g round r e c e ives i t s f i r s t u se -wea r . (K ee ley 1 980 :16 ) E spec ia l ly J e l inek e t a l . ( 1970 ) a nd K ee ley ( 1 980 :8 ,15 ,25 ,26 )c r i t i c i zed e xper imen ts c a r r ied -ou t u nde r c ons t an t c ond i t ions i na l a bo ra to ry l i ke S pe th 's h a rd -hamme r -pe rcuss ion e xper imen t a t ion . (S pe th 1 971 :74 .75 )S pe th 's m echan ica l d ropp ings o f s t ee l b a l ls o n t o ma ss ive g l a ss p r isms a ta n i mpa c t a ng le o f 4 5 d eg rees s hou ld d e term ine t h e e f f ec t s o fo b l ique i mpa c to n s evera l a t t r ibu tes o ff l ake s i ze a nd f l ake s hape .

C lean ing o f t h e e xam in ing t o o ls i sn ecessa ry i n a ny c ase . S emenov s ugge s ted c l ean ing w i th " s p ir i t o r b enzene a nd w a sh ing i n h o t w a te r w i th a l i gh t a pp l ica t ion o f s oap " ( Semenov 1 964 :24 )K ee ley i mme rsed t h e t oo ls i n wa rm HC I (1 0% s o lu t ion )a nd N aOH (2 0% t o3 0% s o lu t ion ) ,w h ich r emoves l ime , m ine ra ls , a nd o rgan ic d epos i t s . Af t e r t h is t r ea tmen t h e i mmer sed t h e t o o ls i n a n u l t rason ic c l ean ing t a nk t o r emove s ma l l p a r t ic les s uch a s s and , s i l t , o r d i r t . ( Kee ley 1 980 :11 )D onahue u sed a s af i r s t s t ep h yd roch lo r ic a c id a nd a ce tone , a f t erwa rd s n on a b ra s ive s oap a nd w a te r . T he l a t te r s howed h im t h a t ac hem ica l b a th wa s u nnecessa ry (Donahue 1 984 :363 )A l l r e sea rche r s p o in ted o u t t h a t i ti s e s sen t ia l t oe xam ine t h e t o o ls b efo r e w a sh ing t o d e tec t p os s i b le r e s idues t h a t c ou ld g i ve ah in t o f t h e t oo l 's u sage . A s s uch i ti sb enef i c ia l t ou se t h e "n ew t e chn ique f o r t h e m ea s u r emen t s o f a r t if ac t a ng les " d eve loped f r om B u rgess a nd Kwamme i n1 978 a f te rt h ee xam ina t ion o ft h e r e s idues .

R ega rd les s o f t h e n ume rou s c r i t iques " e dge d amage r e s ea rche r s" w en to n t od eve lop a t t r ibu te c l a sses o fe dge d am a ge p a t ter n s a nd i n t h e e nd a"l og ica l a nd c ons is ten t s y s t em "(Ode l l 1 979 :329 )t or e cord t h e p roduced a moun t o fd a ta . T h is a t tr ibu te d ef in ing s y s tem s t rong ly r e semb les at y po log i c a l me thod t o s or t t oo ls a f te r at yp e l i s t a nd t h is , i ng ene ra l w a s a t temp t ed t od o . S pe th 's c ommen t t ot h is k ind o fa t tr ib u t e c l a ss if ica t ion i st h a t" i tw i l l p roduce ama ss ive q uan t i ty o fr edundan t i n forma t ion w i th l i t t le o rn o i mp rovemen t i ni t s e xp lana to ry v a lue . " (S pe th 1 972 :56 )A no ther p rob lem i s t h a t r e sea rche r s wo rk ing l a rge ly i ng eog raph ic a nd a cadem ic i s o la t ion w i l l v a ry i nt h e q ua l i ty o fr e co rd ing a nd e xper imen t a l d es ign t h a t wou ld l e ad t o d if e ren t a t tr ibu te c l a s s if ica t i ons . T ha te ven t h is i st h e ma in d i sc repancy s how b l ind t e s t s f r om Mc G u i r e (1 986 )a nd S i ege l (1 985 ) .B o th r e sea rch e r s s t a te t h a t t h ere a r e d i f f erence s b e tween i nd iv idua l s u s ing u se -wea ra na lys is . S hea , w ho d id t h e s ame t e s tc onc ludes t h a t "t h e r e su l t s o f s i x b l ind t e s t r e su l t s , s how a ppa r en t ly e qua l a b i l i t ies o f i n d iv idua l s u s ing m ic rowea r a nd e dge d amage t e chn iques t od e term ine s t one t o o l u se s . "(S hea 1 987 :44 ) Mc Gu i re a r gues t ha t e xper ience a ppa ren t ly p l ay s ap a r t t o r e ce ive q u i t e c ompa rab le r e su l t s . (Mc G u i re 1 986 :62 )T ha t Mc Gu i re 's c onc lud ing s t a temen t sa r er i gh ts how c a se s t ud ies o b ta in ing d i f f eren tr e su l t s o nt h e s ame o b jec t , w h i le u s ing t h e s ame me thod . Nance c onc ludes i n am ic rowea r s t udy a bou t s o c a l led "c en tra l C a l ifor n ian p ro jec t i le p o in t s " ,t h a t t h ese a r t ifac t sw e re r a ther u sed f o rc u t t ing p urposes (N ance 1 971) , w h i le S hee t s (1 973 )c l ea r ly s t a t e s t h e i r u se a s p ro jec t i le p o in t s . C ompa r ing K e l le r 's (1 966 :303 )d eve loped mode l o f e dge d amage p a t ter n s o n s t one t o o ls i ns evera l s t ages o fu se w i th T omenchuks (1 979 :124 )d eve loped mode l o ft h e s ame k i nd , o ne b ecomes a wa re t h a t t h er e s e em s t o b e ad i sc rep a ncy i nt h e r e su l t s , e ven i fw e c ons ide r t h e f a c t t h a t K e l le r 's e xper imen t s w e re c a r r ied -ou t i n a n a tura l e nv i ronmen t t h rough s t rokes w i th t h eh and v er sus T omenchuk ' m echan ica l a pp roach . F o rt h e f u tu r e i ts e ems a dv isab le , t ob e mo re a ccu r a te i n i n ve s t iga t ing u se -wea r , t oc ompa re r e su l t s a nd n o t t o r e ly o n ly o n o ne k ind o f a pp roach . (S i ege l 1 985 :90 )L ow p owe r a s w e l l a s h igh p owe r magn if ica t ion h a s i t s a dvan -

S ub sequen t r e sea rch s howed t h a t i ti si ndeed i mpor tan t t o i n ves t iga te p l an t a nd a n ima l r e s idues o n t oo l s ur faces . T he f ounder o f t h e p l an t a nd a n ima l r e s idue e xam ina t ion w as B r iue r i n 1 972 . H e i d en t if ied t h rough m icroscop ic a na lys is mo rpho log ica l ly d i s t inc t p l an t p ar t s . T hese r e su l t s w e re s up p o r ted t h rough t h e u se o f s t anda rd b o tan ica l -chem ica l r e a g en t s . H e a pp l ied P lo rog luc in a nd Hyd roch lor ic A c id , I od ine P o ta ss ium I od ide , a nd S udan I I o n t oo l s ur faces t o d e ter m ine r e s idues a s o u t l ined b y Mc L ean a nd C ook ( 194 1 :73 7 6 ) A l l t h e se r e agen t s r e ac t i n at y p ica l w ay w i th t h e c e l l w a l l s ubs tance o ft h e p l an to ra n ima l . T he i nd ica to r i s mo s t ly av i s ib le c o lo r c hange . T o e xc lude t h e p oss ib i l i ty t h a t t h e b o tan ica l -chem ica l e xam ina t ion o f t h e f l akes s how o n ly t h e p l an t s t ha t o ve rg r ew t h e a r t ifac t s w hen t h ey w ere e xposed a t t h e s ur face , B r iue r d i d a dd i t iona l r e sea rch o f r andom ly c ho s en s amp le s o fr o ck s a nd mac rof lo ra l r ema ins f r om t h e s ame l a ye r . B r iue r 's r e sea r ch w a s d i s rega rded f o r al ong t ime a nd w a s n o t t a ken s e r ious ly u n t i l 1 979 i n as t udy o f S ha f e r a nd H o l loway a bou t o rgan ic r e s idues . C on t ra ry t o B r iue r 's r e s ea rch t h ey w e re a b le t os c rape s uf i c ien t amoun t s o fo rgan ic ma t er ia l f r om t h e t o o ls t o e xam ine t h em u nde r t h e m ic ro s cope . Unde r c ons ide ra t ion o f u se -wea r , t h e amaz ing r e su l t o ft h e i rs t udy w a s ,t h a t af l ake w i th as ha rp e dge w a s s e lec ted f o r c u t t ing o fe ve ry k i nd o fm a ter ia l , r a ther t h an af l ake t h a t w a sp roduced f o r as pec if ic t a sk . A long w i th t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e p lan t a nd a n ima l r e s idues w en t t h e i nves t iga t ion o f a n o bserved " s i ck le s heen "o n t o o ls . T he a ppea rance o f t h is s i ck le s heen h a s b een e xp la ined t h rough s i l ica p a r t ic les s p read ing o ve r t h e t o o l s u r f ace w h i le c u t t ing o rgan ic ma te r i a l , e spec ia l ly w hea t . "O pa l p hy to l i ths a r e c rea ted f r om a h yd ra ted s i l ica d i s so lved i n g roundwa ter t ha t i s a b so rbed t h rough a p l an t s r oo t a nd c a rr ied t h rough t h e v a scu la r s y s t em P roduc t ion o f p hy to l i th s i l ica b od ies i s g enera l ly h eav ies t i n t h e e p iderma l t i s sue o f t h e s t ems a nd l e aves i n h e rbaceous p l an t s , e sp ec ia l ly i n monoco ty ledonous g roup s S i l ica b ody p roduc t ion i sc on t inuous d ur ing t h e g row th o f ap l an t ,w i th s i l if ica t ion b e ing g rea tes ti n ma tu r e o r

t a ges , a s K ee ley ( 1 980 :12 -14 )s t a t es . As t e reom ic ro scop ic

5

1 982 ) Mc C oy a nd C leghor n s e lec ted 1 9 d eb i tage f l ake s f o r t h in s e c t ion ing a s p a r t o f t h e i r r e sea rch a tt h e Mauna K ea Adze Q ua r ry t oe xam ine t h e r ange o f g eog raph ica l a nd o b s e rvab le ma c ro scop ic v a r ia t ion s i n q ua r ry r ock . I n 1 982 C legho rn e xp e r imen ted w i th t h e e dge -ho ld ing a nd c omp re s s i ve s t reng th p rope r t ies o f Mauna K ea A dz b a sa l t . H i s d eb i t a ge a s semb lage a na ly s is , w h ich a l so i n c luded t h e q uan t i ta t i ve a na lys i s o ff l akes r e su l t ing f r om t h e a dz manuf a c tu r ing p roces s , s hou ld p r ima r i ly e n l igh ten a dz m anufa c tu r ing t e ch n ique s a nd r educ t ion s t ra teg ie s , r a the r t h an i nve s t iga te t h e p os s ib le u se o f t hose " wa s t e" f l ake s . ( C legho rn 1 982 ) B eg g e r ly e xam ined e dge d amage o n e xp e r imen ta l ly u sed s c rap e r so fH awa i ian b a sa l ti n1 976 . S he d eve loped t h e t h eo ry t h a t t h e h a rdne s s o rs of tne s s o ft h e wood w o rked d oe s n o t a f f ec t t h e e dge d amage p a t ter n s o f t h e s t one t o o l s . S he o r ig ina l ly i n tended t o u se s t roke v a r iab les o f 1 000 t o 2 000 s t roke s , h oweve r s he a l t er ed h e r e xpe r imen t s t o l owe r s t rok e v a r i a b les s uch a s2 50 t o5 00 ,e ven t hough s he n o ted t h a tt h e t o o l w a sb lun ted a f te r2 00 s t roke s . ( Begge r ly 1 976 :23 )

s enescen t p lan tp o r t ions . "(R ovne r 1 983 :226 -227 )R ovne r a l so g i ve s a n o ve rv iew o f t h e d i ve r se m e thod s o f p hy to l i th e x t rac t ion a nd d e t erm ina t ion . (R ovne r 1 983 :238 -240 )D e l B ene , N ewcomb e r , a nd K amm inga (i nH ayden 1 979 )p re s en ted p ape r s a tt h e S imon F ra se r L i th ic U se -wea r C on f e r e nce a bou t t h e b u i l t u p , o b serva t ion , a nd t oo l a l t e ra t ion c aused b y p hy to l i th . B rown (1 984 )a nd P ipe rno (1 984 ) p ub l ished p hy to l i th k ey s f o r t h e c ompa r i son a nd i d en t if ica t i on o f p hy to l i th g roup s . S tud ie s o f A nd e r son ( 1980 )a nd H u rcombe (1 986 )d raw ad a rk p e r spec t ive f o r t h e a na lys i s o f p lan t a nd a n ima l r e s idue s . A nder son s t a te s t h a t o n ly a s ma l l p er cen tag e o f t h e t o o l r e s idue s w i l l b e a dhe ren t , a nd t h a t t h e amoun t i s mo s t ly i n suf f ic ien t f o r q ua l if ied a na ly s i s . H u rcombe s e e s av e ry u nf avo rab le r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e i n v es t ed t ime a nd t h e o u t come o f t ho se e xpe r imen t s , b u t i s g ene ra l ly c onv inced f r om t h ev a l id i ty o ft h o se i n ve s t iga t ions . I n 1 980 B u r ton (1 980 )a nd N ewcombe r /S ievek ing (1 980 ) d eve loped m e thod s t o a na lyze "w a s te f l ake s " ,t h a t w ou ld l a t e r b e c a l led d eb i tage a na ly s i s . Wh i le N ewcombe r a nd S i eve l c ing t r ied t of i gu r e o u tt h er e la t ion b e tween t o o l manu f a c tu r ing a nd t h er e su l t ing f l ake s ca t te rp a t t er n s , B u r ton t r ied t o r e la te f l ake g roups t o l c napp ing a c t iv i t ie s a nd a s s igned t h em k ey a t t r ibu t es t h rough d imen s ion m ea su remen t s . F i sh w ro te i n 1 981 a bou td eb i tage a na ly s is - t h es y s tema t ic s t udy o f c h ipped s t one a r t if ac t s t h a t a r e n o t c o r e s o r t oo ls - "i t p rov ides i mpo r tan t i n fo rma t ion f o r r e con s t ruc t ing p reh is t o r ic , l i th ic t e chno logy a nd p a t t er n s o f h uman b ehav io r . " ( F i sh 1 981 :374 )I ndeed h i s s t udy i lu s tra t e s h ow c omp lex i n te rac t ion o f f unc t iona l , o ccupa t iona l , a nd o rgan iza t iona l f a c to r s d i f f e r en t ia l ly i n f luence s d eb i tage a s s emb lage v a r ia t i on s . S ta l l a nd D unn e xam ined t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fw a s te f l akes r e su l t ing f r om t h e m anuf ac tu r e o fb i f ac ia l s t one t oo ls . T hey f ound o u tt h a t " t he s i ze o fw a s t ef l ake sf r om t h e manu f a c tu re o fb i f a c ia lp ro jec t i le p o in t s ,k n ives ,o rl a rge h andaxe s w i l l s y s tema t ica l ly d ec r ea se f r om t h e i n i t ia l t of ma l s t ages o f manufac tu r e a s t h e e me rg ing t o o l i ss uduced , t h inned , a nd s haped ." ( S ta l l a nd Dunn 1 982 :85 -86 ) T he refo re t h ey a d v i sed e xcava to r s t o b e mo r e c au t iou s w hen s c r een ing i n a r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion sa s ap a r t icu la rf l ake s i ze d i s tr ibu t i on r ep resen t st h eu nb ia sed r ema in so fb i f a c ia l manu fa c tu r e . S u l l ivan a nd R o sen c onc lude i n t h e i r 1 985 p ape r t h a t t h e a s s ignmen t o f k ey a t t r ibu t e s o bs erved o n i n d iv idua l s pec i men s i s an on r e l iab le w ay t oi n f e r t e chno log ica l o r ig in s o f d eb i tage . Manu fa c tu r e o f c h ipped s t one a r t ifa c t s s hou ld r a the r b e v i ewed a s ac on t inuum . (S u l l ivan a nd R o sen 1 985 :755 )T hey a l so c r i t ic ize n on too l s t age t ypo log ies a s t h ey c l ea r ly r e ly o n s ub jec t ive d ef in i t ion s w h ich , f o r e xam p l e , s hou ld b e c on s ide red a s as e conda ry o r a s at e r t ia ry f l ake .

C la rk ( 1979 ) w ho c onduc ted a r ep l ica t ion a nd u se -wea r s t udy o f H awa i ian b a sa l t a w l s i nd ica t es t h e u sage o f t h ese t oo ls f o rd e l ica te woodwo rk ing . K i rch ( 1979 :169 ) s ugge s ted ap os s ib le u sag e o fb a sa l t f l akes i nf i shhook manu f a c tu r ing , f i sh c l ean ing , g ene ra l f i sh ing a nd ma r in e e xp lo i ta t ion t a sk s , o r a s A l len (1 981 :66 )p ropo sed f o r f ood p repa ra t ion , l i ke c u t t ing t a ro c o rm s f o r v ege ta t ive r ep roduc t ion , h a rve s t ing l e aves a nd c o rm s , moun t ing e a r th f o rt r ad i t iona l t a ro c u l t iva t i on , a nd c l ean ing s ma l l c hanne ls a r ound t h e mound s f o r i r r iga t ion w a te r s a nd d ra inage . R esea rch a bou t f l ak e s , made o f ma ter ia l o t he r t h en b a sa l t , w a s d one w i th v o lcan ic -g la s s f l ake s . C legho rn (1 974 , 1 975 )i n ves t iga ted t h e t e chno log i c a l a nd e dge -damage a t t r ibu te s o f a n a s semb lage o f s ome 1 912 v o lcan ic -g la s s f l akes f r om t h e Wa i lea s i te a tt h e I s land o f Mau i . H e p rov ided a d e ta i led n on -me t r ica l a tr ibu te a na ly s i sa nd e xam ined u nm is takab ly u t i l ized f l ak es u nde rt h e m ic ro scope . H e c onc luded t h a t "v o lcan ic -g la s s f l ake s w e r e p robab ly u sed f o r m ino r c u t t ing o r s c rap ing t a sk s . " ( C legho rn 1 975 :47 )K i r ch (1 979 :169 -17 1 )o b ta in s as im i l a r s o lu t ion . B ecause o f t h e f a i r ly s ha rp e dge s o f t h e f l akes a nd t h e i re a sy u sage , s imp ly mod i f ied f l ake sc ou ld h ave b een u sed a s ak i nd o f mu l t ipu rpo se s c rap ing a nd /o r c u t t ing i m p l emen t .B a r re ra a nd K i rch (1 973 :185 -186 )s aw as im i la r i ty t o o u r "p ock e t k n if e "t h a t f u lf i l l s t h e s ame p u rpo se . T he r e cons t ruct ion o f c o r e r educ t ion s e quence s t h rough t h e a na lys i s o f v o lcan ic -g la s s f l akes w a s d one b y S chou sboe , R ifo rd , a nd K i r ch i n 1 983 . T hey d eve loped ap ro cedu re f o r t h e d escr ip t ion a nd a na ly s i s b o th n on -me t r ica l a nd m e t r ica l a t tr ibu te s a nd p ropo sed a mode l f o r h and -he ld a nd b ipo la r t e chn iques o fc o r er educ t ion s . I n 1 989 W i l l iam s c onduc ted ad eb i tage a na ly s i s o fm a te r ia l f r om Ko 'oho 'o lau R ock she l te rN o . 1a tt h e Mauna K ea A dze Q ua r ry .H ed eve loped ar educ t ion s t age mode l t h a t e nab les t h e e xcava to r t o a s s ign s p ec if ic d eb i tage o ccu r r ences t o s t age s i nt h er e duc t ion mode l .

T he Hawa i ian r e sea rch s how s o n ly l i t t le a pp l ica t ion o f e x p er imen ta l a r cha eo logy c oncer n ing b a sa l t f l ake s a nd t h e i r p robab le u sage i n p reh is tor ic H awa i i . P a t r ic V in ton K i r ch ( 1985 :194) a sw e l l a s J ane A l len (1 981 :65 )p o in ted o u t t ha t l i t t le a t t en t ion h a s b een g i ven t o b a sa l t f l ake s a t a l l . Empha s is e a r l ie rw a so nt h os ea r t ifa c t st h a tc ou ld b es e r ia ted . (B onk 1 954 , Emo ry a nd S i no to 1 961 , S ino to 1 962 , T uohy 1 965 , S oeh r en 1 966 , K i r ch a nd K e l ly 1 975 , S ino to 1 979 , C hapman a nd K i r ch 1 979 , K i r ch 1 979 )T he o n ly e x tens ive w o rk a bou t b a sa l t f l akes w a s d one b y Mc C oy a nd i nc on t i nua t ion b y C legho rn . ( Mc C oy 1 976 , 1 978 , C leghor n

T he mo s t r e cen t s t udy a bou t m ic rowea r p a t ter n s o n e xp e r i m en ta l b a sa l t t o o ls w a s d one b y R icha rd s (1 988 )b a sed o n ma ter ia l f r om C ache C reek , B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . H e a nd h i s t e am c onduc t ed s eve ra l e xpe r imen t s u s ing C ache C r eek b a sa l t ma in ly f o r s l ic ing , s aw ing , s c rap ing . w h i t t l ing , g ray -

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r e sea rch r e su l t se nd s i no ve rha s ty w r i t ten manuscr ip t s , w h ich a r e o n ly p a r t ia l ly p resen ted (a bs t rac t /summa ry )o r t o ta l ly a l tered f r om t h e r e spec t ive p ub l ishe r . (I n t h is c oncer n i tw a s v e ry u sef u l t oh ave t h e p os s ib i l i ty t or e ad t h e o r ig ina l manu s c r ip t s )A f ew s c ien t is t s h ave t h e o ppor tun i ty t o r e sea rch a nd p ub l ish e xc lus ive ly , s uppor ted t h rough a g ran t o r p er s ona l s a v ings . T hese w o rk ing s a r e i ng ene ra l mo re c a refu l ly p er formed a nd i ndependen t f r om p r eva i l ing r e sea r ch c on c ep t s .

i ng , a nd b or ing o fd i f f e ren t ma ter ia l w i th v a ry ing d eg rees o f q ua l i ty (d r y , w e t , g r i t ty , o ld o r f r e sh )O the r v a r iab les w e re t h e t oo l a ng le , t h e p rehens ion o f t h e t o o l , t h e a pp l ied p res s u re , t h e d u ra t ion o f t h e e xper imen t , a nd t h e n umber o f s t rokes . E sp ec ia l ly u nde r h igh magn i f ica t ion R icha rd s w a s a b le t o d e tec t u se -wea r i n f o rm o f s t r ia t ion , p o l ish , a nd r ound ing a nd a s s ign t h o se d ef in i te t r a i t s t os pec ia l a c t iv i t ies . B l ind t e s t s c onf i rmed h i s s t a temen t s . H e d id n o t h oweve r , e xam ine i fp r eh is to r ic C ache C reek s t one t o o ls s how t h e s ame u se -wea rp a t ter n so ri ft h ey a r ed e tec tab le a ta l l .

T he l i t e ra tu re u sed i nt h e p r esen t s t udy c an b e s een a s b a l a nced , c r i t ica l , a nd o fh i gh a cadem ic l e ve l , a l though i twou ld b e d es i rab le t oh ave ag r ea te rv a r ie ty o fr e sea rch c oncep t s .

1 . 4 EVALUAT ION OF SOURCES AND TECHNIQUES U SED

b ) I n wha td egree i st he c ompu ter u sefu l f or a rchaeo log i c a l q ue s t ions i nc ons idera t ion o fb asa l t f l ake a na lys is ?

a )L i tera ture Amer ica , t h e l a nd o fu n l im i ted o ppo r tun i t ies , f i nd s i t s l im i t s i n t h e p r esence o f E u ropean l i t e ra tu re . Wh i le p ub l ica t ion s f r om E ng land , F rance , a nd S pa in a r e q u i t e c ommon a nd e a s i ly a c ces s ib le i n t h e l i b ra r ies , t h e w r it ing s d one i n t h e c oun tr ies o n a nd e a s twa rd t h e l i ne S weden , D enma rk , G e r many , S w i tze r land , a nd I t a ly a r e h a rd ly d e tec tab le . S uppos i ng , t ha t t h e e xpona t ion o ft h e H awa i ian I s land s t owa rd s t h e Ma in land w a s t h e d ec is ive f a c to r f o r t h e l a ck o f t h is l i t era t u re , Ia s sumed s t ud ies i nB e rke ley a nd S tanfo rd w ou ld c l ose t h is g ap . T he o verwhe lm ing ly s oph i s t ica ted s y s tem o f t h ese l i b ra r ie s d i d h e lp i n g a in ing d eep e r i n s igh t s i n t h e E ng l ish a nd Ame r ican l i t era tu re , e spec ia l ly d i sser ta t ion manusc r ip t s , b u t d id n o t p rov ide t h e a bove m en t ioned l i t e ra tu r e . T he p os s i b i l i ty t oo rde r l i t era tu re l i s t s , b ook s a nd a r t ic les f r om t h e r e spec t ive c oun t r ies w a sn o tt a ken i n to c ons idera t ion b ecau se o f t h e r e s t r ic t ion i n r e sea rch t ime . (T hree w eek s )S up p or ted b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l I n s t i tu te i n H ambu rg i tw a s p oss ib le t o l o ok i n to s ma l l p a r t s o f t h e r e cen t ly p ub l ished G erman l i t e ra ture . C on f ron ted w i th t h e se p e r spec t ives , a d ec is ion h ad t o b e made w ea the r t or e s t r ic t t h e r e sea rch t o t h e Amer ican , E ng l ish , a nd F rench l i t e ra tu re o r t od o f u r the r r e sea rch i n E u rope . T he l im i ta t ion s i n t ime a nd f i nanc ia l b udge tf o rced t h e f i r s tp os s ib i l i ty .

"C ompu te ra r chaeo logy ?You d on ' t d ig u pv ery many o ft hose , d o y ou ?" ( Chenha l l 1 967 :16 1) T he mo s tv i s iona ry p red ic t ions h ave t e nded t ou nde res t ima te g ross ly t h e r ap id g row th i nt h e u s e o fc ompu te r s i na l l a r ea s o fo ur s o c ie ty . Ac ompu te r i sa b le t o d o s o r t ing a nd s e lec t i n g , p roces ses t h a t w ou ld i n vo lve a g rea t d ea l o f manua l w o rk f o r as i ng le r e sea rche r . T o m ee tt h ese r equ i remen t s o ne h a s t of e ed t h e c ompu te rw i th t h e a pp ropr ia te i npu t . A n i npu t i sa pp ropr ia te w hen c onver ted i n to a na logous s ymbo ls t h a t a dequa te ly r ep resen t t h e r e a l w or ld o f p hys ica l a nd c u ltu ra l r e a l i ty . A r t ifac t s h ave t ob e d esc r ibed i n t h e f r amewo rk o f mode ls , t ob e made m ean ing fu l a nd c onver t ib le i n to mach ine l a nguage . C henha l l 's p ropo sed mode l s e em s t ob e as uf ic ien t a pp roach . H e g i ves e very a r chaeo log ica l o b jec t s pec ia l a t t r ibu tes w h ich h e d escr ibed a s p erpe tua l , i n f eren t ia l , a nd r e la t iona l . I n s umma ry h e d escr ibed t h e se a t t r ibu tes a s f o l l ows : A : Emp ir ica la t tr ibu te s : 1 .S pa t ia l r e la t ions : P roven ience -s i te l o ca t ion , u n i t , r oom , l e ve l ,e t c . 2 . Quan t i ty 3 .C hemo -phys ica l s pec if ica t ions : Ma ter ia l (s ) , f orm , s ur face t r ea tmen t a nd d es ign , d imens ion s -l e ng th , w id th , t h ickness , h e igh t ,d i ame te r

T he a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re i s , s im i la r t oo t he r c oun t r ies , a c h i ld o fi t s t ime . T he f i nanc ia l s hor ten ing s i nt h e s oc ia l s c i e nces a f f ec t t h e c a ref u lness a nd c oncep tua l f e a s ib i l i ty o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . E ven i fs omeone r e a l izes t h e e f f ec t i venes s o fe l ec t ron s c ann ing m ic ro scopy a nd t h e v a lence o f b o tan ica l -chem ica l e xper imen t s , h e /she i sr e s t r ic t ed t o t h e u se o f ab i nocu la r m ic roscope o r af ew c hem ica l t e s t s t o d e term ine r e s idues , w h i le o t her s c ience b ranches a r e r ever se d i scr im ina ted c oncer n ing a ccess ib i l i ty o f e xpens ive a pp l i a nces a nd money s uppo r t . T he "r e sea rch l e ve l a nd h i s tory " (p a r t 1 . 3 )s hows t h e r e l iance o n t y po log ica l c oncep t s u p t o t h e s even t ie s , w h i le i n nova t ive i d ea s , l i ke B r iue r s p lan t a nd a n ima l r e s idue r e sea rch w er e n eg lec ted f o r al o ng t ime . T he f r u i t less t y po log ica l a pp roach i se xp la inab le a st h e a t temp tt o k eep r e sea rch c o s t s a s l ow a s p os s ib le , a nd i n deed , t h e mos t e xpens ive f a c to r i nt h is s y s tem i st h e c apac i ty f o r w o rk . T h is c apac i ty i sa l ready p a id , a s t h e s c ien t is t i sh i red f r om t h e e duca t iona l i n s t i tu te f o r t e ach ing a nd r e sea rch . B o th , t e ach i n g a nd r e sea rch a r e h a rd ly c omb inab le a nd l e ad t o a br idg men t s i nf r ee t ime . T he g enera l ly p o s i t ive t r y t op ub l ish t h e

B : I nf erence s I . Appa ren tf unc t ion o ru se 2 .T echn ique o f manuf ac tu re 3 . Appa ren t ly s i gn if ican ta s soc ia t ion s (C henha l l 1 967 :162 -163 ) T h is k ind o f t h eo re t ica l s t ruc tu re may s e em t o b e a lmos t n a ive ly o ver s imp l if ied i nv i ew o ft h e k ind o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch b e ing c a r r ied o n t o day , b u th i s s y s tem i ss uf i c ien t ly e xpandab le . I ts hows ah i gh d eg ree o fa ccu racy , e spec ia l ly i n p a r t A : , H oweve r , i th a s i t s w eakne sses . T hese s ame b a s ic w eaknes se s c an b e s e en i ne very s imp le o r c omp l ica ted r e s ea rch p ro jec t , ( a s w i l l b e e xp la ined f u r ther b e low ) .P a r t B i sb a sed o n s ub jec t ive o bserva t ions a nd p e r sona l o r s cho la r ly

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c haeo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion w ou ld h ave t oq ue s t ion t h e n a tu re o f t h e d a ta , t h e n a tu r e o f t h e a t t r ibu t e s u sed t o d esc r ibe o r c ha rac te r ize t h e d a ta , a nd t h e n a tu r e a nd s uppo sed m ean ing o ft h e d es i red c l a s s if ica t ion . H oweve r , t h e r e w ou ld n eve r b e e nough i n fo rma t ion t h a tr e ad ing t h e d a ta b a s e wou ld t a k e t h e p lace o fg o ing b ack t ol ook a tt h e o r ig ina la r t i fac t s .

o p in ion s .N umbe ro ne a nd t h r ee e spec ia l ly , s e tl im i ta t ion so n f u r the rr e sea r ch . O nce a n o p in ion a bou t t h e f unc t ion , u s e , o r s i gn i f ican ta s soc ia t ion so fa n a r t ifac ti se n t e r ed i n to t h e c om p u te r , t h e a r t i fac tg e t s al i f e long s t amp .F u r the rr e sea r ch w i l l n o t b e u n inf luenced , b y t h i s c l a s s if ica t ion . I f , f o r e xamp le , t h e a s soc ia ted f unc t ion o fa n a r chaeo log ica lo b jec ti sd ef ined a s a n a r rowhead i n t h e o p in ion o f r e s ea r che r x , w h i le r e s ea r che r y ,d ef ine s as im i la r l o ok ing o b jec t a s a n a b rade r , t h ese o b jec t s w i l ln eve rb e c ompa rab le t ot h e c ompu t e r . T he c ompu t er ' st r ea tmen ti sb a sed o nt h ei npu ta nd c an o n ly w o rk w i th t h a t . I tc an n o t s e e an ew c l a s s if ica t ion b a sed o n t h e s o lu t ion t o s ome p rob lem , u n les s p rog rammed w i th t ha t s pec if ic p rob lem , A l though t h e c ompu t e r p erm i t s m any t h ing s t h a t w e r e p r ev iou s ly i mpo s s ib le , i tc an n o t p e r form m i rac le so ni t so wn .

T he d a ta b ank i sc l ea r ly c oncen t ra ted o n a n e x t reme ly h i gh l e ve l o fd e ta i led a t t r ibu te d ef in i t ion . T h i s p a r t icu la r l e ve l o f l ong te rm , f i xed t a xonom ic h i e ra r chy t h a t wou ld d ef ine o ve ra l l t ype s i ss imp ly " n o t f l ex ib le e nough a p r io r i f o r p rog r ess ive a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . "(Wha l lon 1 972 :106 ) T he s t a tus o fe ve ry a r t if ac t i sa scr ibed a nd a s s uch n o t c e r t a in . I fw e r e ly o n t h is . a s c r ibed s t a tus , w e c r ea t e a tt h e s ame t ime t r ue o r f a l se , b u t i n a ny c a se u nce r ta in h i s to ry . ( Bo rof sky 1 987 )

A r chaeo logy , mo r e t h an m any o t he r s c ience s , h a s a c cumu l a t ed v a s t q uan t i t ie s o fd a ta o ve r t h e y ea r s a nd c on t inues t o d o s o a ta ne ve ri n c r ea s ing r a te . I nt h e s e ven t ies m any s c ien t i s t s w an t ed t oc r ea t e ad a ta b ank f o rs t o rage a nd r e t r ieva l o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , i fp o s s ib le a l l o ve r t h e w o r ld o r a tl e a s t f o r E u rop e a nd /o r t h e U n i t ed S ta t e s . Mo s t a r chaeo log is t s a g reed t h a t i tw ou ld b e w o r th w h i le t oi n s ta l l s uch as y s tem w i th s om e m in ima l l e ve l o fi n fo rma t ion (s u ch a st h a tr ep re s en ted i nP a r t Ao fC henha l l s 's p ropo sed mode l )o n a l l a r c haeo log ica l s i t es a nd a r t if ac t s . A h o t d i scu s s ion k i nd led a bou t t h e a dd i t ion o f e va lua t ion d a ta a s , f o r e xamp le , t h e p o s s ib le u s e o f a n a r t ifa c t i n ad oub t fu l c h rono log ica l a r r a ngemen t o f s i t e s . S ome a r chaeo log i s t s p o in t ed o u t t h e u se les sne s s o f s uch ad a ta b ank s y s tem t h a t w ou ld n o t c on t a in a l l o ft h e d a ta a bou t o ne a r t ifac t , f e a tu re o r s i t e . O the r s w e re s kep t ica l a bou t i t s v a lue t o f u tu r e r e sea rch d e s igns , s i nce p o s s ib le r e s ea r ch d es ign s a r e e x t r em e ly n ume rou s a nd d i ve r se , a nd t oa t t emp tt or e co rd d a ta f o ra l p o ss ib le a na ly t ic c on t ingenc ie s w ou ld b e i mpo s s ib le . A no the r c r uc ia l f a c to r w a s t h e l e ve l o f a r chaeo log ica l t r a in ing a nd k now ledge o f c oncep t s a nd t e rm ino logy t h a t w ou ld b e n eeded b y t h e c l a s s i f ie r s t od ea l w i th t h i s a moun t o f ma t e r ia l i n af i n i t e t ime . S cho l tz a nd C henha l le xp la ined t h a t ap e r iod ic r ev iew o ft h e i n s t ruc t ion s i sd e s i rab le t op r even t o bse rve r s "f r om s t ray ing f r om w ha t w a s t h ough t t o b e aw e l l d ef ined p a th , a nd t o i n su re t h a td if e r en to b serve r s h ave n o t g i ven d if e r en t i n te r p r e ta t ion s t o t h e i n s tr uc t ion s ." ( Scho l tz /Chenha l l 1 976 :94 ) T h is c l o sed , s e lf -mon i to r ing s y s t em w ou ld n o t a low t h e i n nova t ive i d ea s t h a t a r e s o i mpo r tan t i na r chaeo log ica l r e s ea rch .

I tc an b e s e en f r om t h e a bove t ha t e ven i fw e u se t h e s ame c r i ter ia f o r i d en t ify ing a r t if ac t s a nd t h e i r u se , a l l o ve r t h e w o r ld , a nd w e u se t h e s ame c od ing s y s t em f o r t h e c ompu te r , w e w i l l n o t o b t a in mo r e v a luab le r e su l t s . T he p rob lem w i l l s t i l l b e t h a t t h e c ompu te r , ( r espec t ive ly p rog ramme r ) , t h ink s o r f unc t ion s i n t oday 's l og ic a l - ma thema t ica l w ay . I n a r c haeo log ica l t e rm s t h e b road a im o f t h i s l o g ica l ma thema t ica l w ay i st oa s s ign e ach a r t if a c tt o ad efmed t yp e , a nd t h en t o d e scr ibe a ny a s s emb lage q uan t i ta t ive ly b y t h e c oun t o r p e r cen tage o fe ach t ype f ound . T he q ues t ion a r ises n ow , i f " p reh is to r ic p eop le" t hough t i n t h e s ame l o g ica l ma thema t ica l w ay i nw h ich w e t r y t oe xp lo r e t h em . T homa s G ladw in d id r e sea rch i nt h i sd i rec t ion . A sh e wo rked a n th ro p o log ica l ly i n P u lawa t , as ma l l i s land a mong t h e C a ro l ine I s land s ,h ef ound o u tt h a tt h e c oncep tua l mode lo ft h ink ing i s b a s ica l ly d if e r en tf r om o u rw es ter n ized o ne . H e s howed t h a t t h e P u lawa tan s a r e u nab le t o s o lve p r ob lem s a s t h ey a r e d ef ined i no u rI Q t e s t ing p rog ram . T hes ep eop le r e a c tw i th a l a ck o f u nde r s tand ing t ot h e se e xam ina t ion s a s w e o f t en d o t owa rd s t h e i r s oc ie ty . H e a l so f ound t h a t P u lawa tan s w ho w e r e e duca ted i nt h e w es ter n mode l h ad d i f f icu l t ies l e a rn ing a nd a ccep t ing t h e o ld t r ad i t iona l v a lue s o f P u lawa t s o c ie ty . G ladw in a sked t h e q ues t ion : "Wha t a r e t h e s i gn if ican t d i m ens ion s o fi n t e l l igence , i n nova t ion , o ra b s t ra c t ion t ow h ich w e s hou ld b e a dd r ess ing o u r se lve s w hen w e make c ompa r i s on s a c ros s c u l tu ra l l i nes , w he the r t h e se a r e b e tween s oc ia l c l a sses o r b e tween t h e U n i ted S t a t e s a nd P u lawa t ? " ( G ladw in 1 970 :22 1) I ndeed , a l though w e d o make c ompa r i s on s b e tween p r eh i s tor ic s oc ie ty a nd o u r o wn , w e p robab ly d o n o t b eg in t o i mag ine h ow d if e r en t p r eh i s to r ic l i f e m ay h ave b een . T he r e a son f o rt h i s i st h e u n f am i l ia r i ty o fm ode rn m an w i th m e thod s o fm anuf ac tu r ing a nd e ven mo r e o fu s ing f l aked s t one t o o ls , a nd h i s r emo tene s s i na l w ay s f r om p r e h i s to r ic g roup st h a tu sed s uch t oo ls .

C la s s ica l a r chaeo logy r e fu sed t oa ccep t t h e c ompu t e r iza t ion o f t h e i r b ranch o f s c ience f o r al ong t ime . C ompu t e r s c ien t i s t s s m i led a tt h em a nd s a r ca s t ica l ly c ommen t ed t h a t c l a s s i c a l a r cha eo log is t ss t i l lp r ef e r red t or e ly o ni n tu i t ion ,f e e l , e t c . Wha t t ho se s c ien t i s t s m ean t b y "f e e l "a nd i n tu i t ion w a s p e rhaps t h e r e fu sa l t oa ccep t as y s tem t h a t e xc luded f u r the r i n nova t ive i d ea s .

N owadays a r chaeo logy i sg radua l ly a dop t ing t h e c ompu te ra s o ne o f i t s m a jo r t oo ls f o r r e sea rch , b ecau se t h e c ompu te r p e rm i t s mo r e c omp lex man ipu la t ion a nd s t a t is t ica l c a lcu la t i on t han c ou ld b e a ch ieved i na ny w ay s . T h is a dop t ing p roc e s s i sn o t u n ique i nt h e h i s to ry o f a r cha eo logy . Adop t ion o f t e chn iques f r om p hys ic s , g eo logy , b i o logy , e t c . . h a s b een d one y ea r s b efo re . Mos t ly t h is a dop t ion r e su l t ed i n s e lf i sh b o r row ing o fm e thod s a nd t h eor ies t oa pp ly t oa r cha eo log i c a l p rob lem s a nd d a ta . I n mos t c a se s t h e re w a s a n a c t ive i n te rp lay b e tween t h e b o r rowed m e thod a nd t h e r e su l t ing

S cho l tz ' s a nd C henha l l 's p r ed ic t ion a bou t ad a ta b ank t h a t " h a s t o b e c r ea ted t o s a t i s fy r e a l i s t ic a nd p r ec ise ly d efmed n eed s" (S cho l tz /Chenha l l 1 976 :96 )i s av a r iab le w i th t h ree u nknown e l emen t s . Wha t i sr e a l is t ic , h ow c an t h i s b e p re c i se ly d ef ined , a nd w ha t a r e t h e n eed s ?D a ta b ank s h ave t o b e c ompa t ib le , t h a t i mp l ie s a n o ve ra l l t y po log ica l d ef in i t ion f o r C henha l l 's P a r t B , t o make r e ana ly s i s p o s s ib le . T h is a r -

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e r iza t ion o f a r cha eo logy s hou ld n o t b e r e though t a nd s hor t e ned , a s f o r i n s tance i ns t or ing o n ly d a ta t h a t a r e u nchange a b le . Maybe w e s hou ld s e e t h e c ompu te r mo re a s at oo l f o r r e sea r ch r a the rt h an a s an ew r e sea rch d es ign .

t h ink ing a nd t h e d i rec t ion o f r e sea rch . A lmo s t a l l o f t h e r e c en ta nd e x tens ive wo rk i nt h e f i e ld o fs t a t is t ica l o rc ompu ter c l a s s if ica t ion a r chaeo logy h a s c on s is ted s imp ly o fb o r row ing me thod s , a pp ly ing t h em t os ome b ody o fd a ta a nd c ons ide r i n g t h e r e su l t s . S ome t imes d a ta a r e p roces sed b y ac ompu te r p rog ram w i th o u t av ery c l ea r ly s t a ted p u rpose , a l though p r esumab ly i ti sh oped t od i scove ra tl e a s ts ome th ing t h a tc an b e u sed f o r f u r ther r e sea rch . ( I f t h e p r ed ic ted s ome th ing n eve r m a te r ia l izes , t h en t h e w ho le t h ing b ecomes a w h i te e l ephan t . ) T h is u nfor tuna te s i tua t ion h a s r e su l ted f r om t h e f a c t t h a t many a r chaeo log is t s a r e s o o verwhe lmed b y t h e e normou s c apa c i ty a nd a b i l i t ie s o f t h e c ompu te r t h a t t h ey

c ) The u se o fs amp l ing I n t h e l a s t t wen ty y ea r s o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , s amp l ing t e chn iques h ave c ome t ob e u sed a s ama t te r o f c ou r se . A r c haeo log is t s r e a l ized t h a t t h e m e thod s o f s t a t is t ics a nd ma thema t ics c ou ld b e a pp l ied t o a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch , e spec ia l ly t os ur vey a nd t oe s tab l ish a r t ifac t a t t r ibu te c l a sses . T h is l e d t o aw ide r a nge o f s ugges ted s amp l ing t e chn iques , wh ich w e re o f ten a pp l ied , mo re o r l e s s s uccessfu l ly . I n t h e 7 0 's " a rchaeo log ica l s t a t is t ic ians" c on t r ived h igh ly c omp l i c a ted s t a t is t ica l a na lyse s a pp ly ing t oe very p rob lem a r cha e o log is t sh ad r ega rd ing t h e s e lec t ion o fe xcava t ion u n i t so rt h e s amp l ing o f h uge a r t ifac t a s semb lages . T hese s t a t is t ica l a na lys i s w e re s o c omp l ica ted t h a t i tn eeded a n e xper t t o a s s ign t h em t o t h e p rope r t a sk . I n t h e e nd , a r chaeo log ica l s amp l ing g o t i t s own n omenc la tu r e , l i ke s amp le u n i t , s amp le f r ame ,a nd s t ra tum , w h i le o t he r t e rms , l i ke t a rge t - o r s am p l ed p opu la t ion , w e re t a ken o ve r f r om o t he r f i e ld s . I n t h e c a se o f (s imp le )r andom s amp l ing v e r sus p robab i l i ty s am p l ing t h is n omenc la tur e l e d t of i e rce d i scus s ions . I n g ene ra l t h ere a r e t h ree w ay s o f s amp l ing , w h ich w i l l b e a tt h is p o in t s u mma r i ly p resen ted : 1 )s t a t is t ica l 2 )a r chaeo -s ta t is t ica l 3 )a r chaeo log ica l

f o rge t ,i nt h i s a dm ir ing p ha se , t h e i r o wn r e sea rch c oncep t . O ne h a s t h e f e e l ing , f o r i n s tance , t h a t G a ins a nd G a ines , ( Chenha l l 1 968 : 2 0 / G a ines a nd Ga ines 1 980 :463 -466 ) i n t h e i r a r t ic le a bou t I t F u tu re T rends I n C ompu ter A pp l ica t i on" , a dm i re t h e c ompu te r s o much t h a t t h ey h ave f o rgo t ten t h e b a s ic p u rpose o f a r chaeo logy t o g e t k now ledge a bou t p r eh i s to r ic s o c ie t ies . A no the r p rob lem i st h a t t h e e x ten s ive u n fam i l ia r i ty w i th t h e c ompu ter a nd i t s f unc t ion s . R ober t C henha l l a sk s "h ow many a r cha eo log is t a r e t h e re ,f o r e x amp le ,w ho u nde r s tand t h e d i f f e rence b e tween f a c to r a na ly s i s a nd c l us te ra na lys i s , o r , f o rt h a t ma t te re ven s uch e l emen t a ry c oncep t s a s h ow a nd w hen t o u se t h e c h i s qua re?" ( Chenha l l 1 968 :23 ) E ven t o day , c ompu t e r a pp l ica t ions a r e n o t o f t en r e qu i red f o r t h e s t udy o fa r chaeo logy , a nd a l so t h e a u tho r h a s t o a dm i t t o h av ing o n ly i n su f i c ien t k now ledge a bou t t h e v a s t f a c i l i t ies o f c ompu ter s . T oday t h e re a r e al o t o f c ompu te r p rog ram s o n t h e ma rke t . A rchaeo log is t s b uy t h em a nd u se t h em w i thou t a sk ing t h e b a s ic f undamen ta l q ue s t ion i ft h ese a dop ted r e sea rch t o o ls f i tt h e i r own r e sea r ch d es ign . Wa l lon e nume ra tes s ome o f t h e c ompu te r a b i l i t ies : " s imp le d escr ip t ive s t a t is t ics , s o r t ing , c oun t ing , c ro ss -p lo t s , p a rame te r s o fd i s t r ibu t ion , f r equency d i s t r ibu t ions ,a s soc ia t i ons , a nd c o r re la t ions" (Wha l lon 1 972 :40 ) b u t a l so n ons ta t i s ica l t a sk s r a ng ing f r om i n i t ia l r e sea rch p l an ing , t h rough f i e ld a nd l a bo ra tory w o rk , t of i na lr epor tw r i t ing a nd a r ch iva l s t o rage o f i n forma t ion . T hese f unc t ions make t h e c ompu te r i n ah i gh d eg ree u sefu l f o r a r chaeo log ica l c l us te r a na lys is , f a c to r a na ly s i s , t a bu la t ion , h o r izon ta l a nd v er t ica l a r t ifac t p l o t s ,s imu la t ion ,r eg res s ion ,d i scr im inan ta na lys is , s amp l ing , a nd p o l len a na lys is . T oday 's a na lys is o f a r t if ac t s c ou ld b e d escr ibed a s t h e e xam ina t ion o f m ic ro s e t t lemen t l e ve l , a s t h is r e sea rch e xp lores o n ly a s ma l l p a r t o f t h e p r eh is to r ic s oc ie ty . Many r e sea rche r s o ve r look t h e n ecessa ry l e ve l o f a bs t rac t ion , s i nce t h ey c an n o t d e term ine modes o fb ehav io r t h rough t h e a na lys is o f a r t ifac t s w i thou t r e la t ing t h em t o b roader s e t t lemen tp a t ter n s .

1 )S ta t is t ica l Me thod T he a im o ft h e s t a t is t ica l s amp l ing m e thod i st of i nd ar ep re s en ta t ive s amp le , e l im ina t e b i a s t h rough s t a t is t ica l m e thod s a nd o b ta in r e l iab le d a ta t h a t c an b e u sed t o e xp la in a nd r e c ons truc t e x t inc t c u l tu res a nd p a s t h uman b ehav io r . T he s t a t is t ica l a pp roach n eed s t ou se c l ea r ly ma thema t ica l ly d e f i ned c r i ter ia t o s e lec t s ubd iv is ion s f o r i n ves t iga t ion . T h is s amp l ing me thod c l a im s t o b e mo re s oph i s t ica ted t h an t h e b ia sed -cho ice m e thod o f t h e p u re a r chaeo log ica l a pp roach . I n o rde r t oa vo id t h e h uman b ia s o fc on sc ious s e lec t ion , t h is s amp l ing me thod w a s d eve loped w h ich w a s i n ah igh d eg r ee s t a t ic a nd s imu l taneous ly p roduces s im i la r r e sea rch d es ign s f o r a l l b a s ic q ues t ion s , f r om t h e s e lec t ion o fe xcava t ion u n i t s t o a r t ifac t a na lys is . (S ee a l so t h e s e c t ion a bou t c ompu te r a pp l ica t ion i nt h is t h es is )

A f te ra l l , b a sa l t f l ake a na ly s is w i l l n o t b e d oab le w i thou t t h e u se o f t h e c ompu te r . D es i rab le i s as ma l l , s pec ia l ized d a ta b ank f o r b a s ic m ea su remen t s o f e dge a ng le , d imens ions , e t c . . . T hese m ea su remen t s s hou ld n o t l e ad i n to a t y po logy a nd s hou ld n o t b e u sed t oe xp la in p r eh is to r ic c u l tu res . T he a u tho r u se s t h em o n ly i n r e la t ion t o d a ta r e ce ived t h ough e xper imen t s i ns t one t oo l p roduc t ion . B o th d eb i tages w i l l b e q uan t i ta t ive a na lyzed t h rough t h e c ompu te r t o s o lve t h e p rob lem a bou t ap oss ib le manufac tur ing p l ace .

2 )A rchaeo -s ta t is t ica l Me thod T he a r chaeo -s ta t i s t ica l a pp roach t a kes i n to a ccoun t b o th t h e a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem , (r e spec t ive ly r e sea rch o b jec t )a nd t h e s t a t is t ica l m e thod s o f o b ta in ing r ep resen ta t ive s amp les . T h is c omb ina t ion a lows t h e a r chaeo log is t t o mod ify s t a t is t i c a l ly v a l id s amp l ing m e thod s b ecause o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta .

I nc onc lus ion Ia m e x treme ly d oub t fu l t h a t t h e c ompu te r c an b e u sed a s am ed ium t o s o lve a r chaeo log ica l q ues t ions . We s hou ld a sk o u r se lves i ft h e d i rec t ion w e t a ke i nt h e c ompu t -

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T he a r chaeo log ica l o rp rob lem o r ien t ed me thod d e te rm ine s w h ich s ubd iv i s ion s a r e s e lec ted d epend ing o n t h e r e sea r ch d e s ign . T he ma in c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h i s a pp roach i st h a t t h e s amp l ing m ay b eb i a sed i n amanne rt h a tc an n o tb em ea su r ed . A s sum ing t h a tt h e r e sea rch c oncep t d e te rm ine st h e s e lec t ed

v a r iab le sf o rt h ea na ly s i s . Of t en t h es pa c ia le x t en to f as i te i s u nknown , s ot h a tt h e a r cha eo log l i s tc on s id e r s o n ly as amp le o ft h e s i t e . T he f a c t t h a t t h e e x ten t o ft h e s i t e i su nknown i mp l ie st h a tt h ec u l tu ra lc on ten ta l so i su nknown ,a nd a ss uch h a s t o b e s amp led . T he d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ion i sk nown t h rough s t ra t ig raph ic e xcava t ion i ft h ee xcava t ed u n i t sa r en o t t o os h a l low , a sh appen s a ts ome s a lvage e xcava t ion s .

o b jec t s , t h en t h e re w i l l b e i n r e a l i ty a s many s o lu t ion s t o s e lec t ing s ubd iv i s ion s a s t h e re a r e p rac t ic ing f i e ld a r cha e o l og i s t s . T h i s i mp l ie s a tt h e s ame t ime many n ew r e sea rch d e s ign s , q ue s t ion s , a nd i nnova t ive i d ea s t h a t c ou ld s o lve b road e rs e t t lemen tp rob lem s . Ap r econd i t ion f o rt h i sa pp roa ch

T h i sm od e la l r eady i n c lud e st h r ee o ft h ee i gh ts amp l ing f a c to r s t h a t i n f luence t h e p r e sen t b a sa l t f l ak e a na ly s i s . T he f our th p r ev iou ss amp l ing f a c to ri st h es e lec t ion b yt h ef i e ld w o rke r s o fb a sa l tf l ake sa nd f l aked s t one t oo l st h a tw e r et h ough tt ob e

3 .A rchaeo log ica l Me thod

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(C henha l l 1 975 :7 ) s i gn if i can t i nt e rm s o ft h e c u r ren tt h eo ry . T ho se r e cogn ized a r t if a c t sw e r ek ep tw h i le o t he r sw e r et h rown a way . S ome o f t h e se s o -ca l led e cof a c t s m igh th av eb een i d en t if i ed a sa r t if a c t s b y s ome o t he r mo re t e chn ica l m e thod s (f o r e xamp le m ic ro scop ic i n ve s t iga t ion o fe dge d amag e , u s e -wea r e t c . ) . A s sum ing t h a tt h i sn a tu ra ls e lec t ion p roce s so ccu r red b o th i n t h ef i e ld a nd i nt h el a bo ra to ry ,t h e se f l ake sr e p r e sen t as t rong ly p r e samp led p opu la t ion .

i st h a tt h em e thod s ,s amp l ing c r i te r ia a nd r e sea r ch o b jec t ive s a r ee xp l ic i t ly s t a t ed . I nm azy c a se s t h e a r cha eo log i s t i sn o t i n ap o s i t ion t ow o rk e xc lu s ive ly o n o ne s i te f r om t h e b eg inn ing s u rvey p ha se u p t ot h e l a s t a na ly s i s o ft h e a r t if a c t s , f a una l , a nd a n ima l r e s i d ue s e t c . T h i s i st h e c a se i n t h e p r e sen t a na ly s i s o f b a sa l t f l ake s . I ns uch c a se s ,w ec an i n f e rt h a ts amp l ing h a sa l ready b een d one w hen t h e a r chaeo log i s t b eg in t h e i r w o rk . Many a r chaeo log i s t s r e cogn ize t h a t t h i s p r ev iou s s amp l ing i n f lu e nce st h e i rw o rk i mmen se ly .T he a u tho rc oun t ed f o rh i sw o rk f ou r l e ve l s o f p r ev iou s s amp l ing a nd f ou r l e ve l s o f o wn s amp l ing . B ef o r e t h e b r ief s umma ry o ft h e se e i gh t l e ve l s o f s amp l ing i tmay b eo ppo r tune t o make t h er e ade ra cqua in ted w i th C henha l l 's h i e ra r chy o fa n a r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion u n ive r se . C henha l lp r e sen ted t h i sa r chaeo log ica lp opu la t ion u n ive r se i n h i s p ape r , "A R a t iona le F o r A rcha eo log ica l S amp l ing " ,a s ac ube . T he re i si ne ach c a se o ne a x i s f o r t ime , s pace , a nd c u l tu ra l c on ten t . A l l f a c to r s a r e l i m i t ing

A dd i t iona l s amp l ing w i l l b e d one i nt h a t o n ly b a sa l t f l ake s t h a t w e r e f ound i np roven ience w i l l b e c on s ide red . T he c ho ice t oa na lyz e o n ly t h e b a sa l t f l ake s o u t o ft h e a r t if ac t a s semb lage i sa l so as amp l ing o ft h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu re . L im i t a t ion so ft i me , money ,a nd e qu ipmen tr e s t r ic tt h en umbe ro f b a sa l t f l ak e s t h a t c an b e a na lyzed u nde r t h e E l ec t ron S can n ing M i c ro scope . Mo s t mod if ica t ion a nd h i ghe s tp o s s ib i l i ty o fp l an ta nd a n ima lr e s idue sw i l lb et h ec r i te r ia . T he l a s ta nd o f ten u nde res t ima ted s amp l ing f a c to r i st h e e duca t iona l b ackg round o ft h e a u tho r ; t h e mo t to b e ing : "Y ou o n ly s e e

1 0

I nc onc lu s ion , i ti sq ues t ionab le i fi ti so fi mpor tance t h a t w e s amp le i n as t a t is t ica l -ma thema t ica l w ay r a the r t h an i n a n i n tu i t ive -sub jec t ive w ay , i fw el a ck b a s ic i n forma t ion l i ke t h e e x ten to ft h e s i te , t h e c u l tu ra l c on ten t s a nd i ns ome c a ses a l so t h e d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ion . A l l t h ese l im i t ing f a c to r s r ep re s en t as amp l ing p rocess i t se lf a nd i nf luence o u r a b i l i ty t o make e xa c t a r cha eo log ica l s t a temen t s . I n o t he r wo rds r e l i a nce o n ly o n s t a t is t ic s i so fl i t t le u se a s i tn a r rows t h e m ind a nd h inde r s u s f r om s e e ing n ew r e sea rch c oncep t s . I ti si m p or tan tt or emember t h a tw e g i ve t h e p a s tm ean ing a nd t r y t o e va lua te o u r t h eo r ie s t h rough f a c t s (s t a t is t ica l me thods , p hys ics e t c . )t h a ta r ea l so c r ea ted b y u s .

w ha t y ou k now a nd w ha t y ou w an t t os e e ! " ,h i s w i l l ing ly o r u nw i l l ing ly s e lec ted l i t era tu re a nd h i s w ay o f t h ink ing . ( s ee c ompu te rs e c t ion ) F aced w i th t h ese p recond i t ions i ts e em s t ob e i mpos s ib le t o s e e t h e s amp led p opu la t ion o ft h e b a sa l t f l akes a s a n e xp res s i ve s amp le o ft h e t a rge t p opu la t ion (t h e o r ig ina l n umbe r o f f l akes a t ac er ta in t ime a nd p l ace , o f ac er ta in c u l ture ) . I n s t a t is t ica l t e rm s i ti sn o t v a l id t o make a ny s t a temen t s a bou t " t he t a rge t p opu la t ion i n ar e la t ive -f r equency -p robab i l i ty s ense u n le ss t h e t a rge t p opu la t ion i sa l so t h e s amp led p opu l a t ion " . (C henha l l 1 975 :4 )I nt h e s pec ia l c a se o f Wa ika lua t h e t a rge t p opu la t ion o n t h e o t he r h and i su np red ic tab le a s w e a r e n o t a b le t o e xc lude t h e p os s ib i l i ty t h a t " p r eh i s tor ic p eop le" d id n o t s amp le t h e " wa s te f l akes" i n p o s t h o le f i l l i n gs . I ng ene ra l , i ti sd oub t fu l t h a ta l l o r ig ina l i mp lemen t s a r e p r eserved u n t i l t h e a r chaeo log is t d e tec t s t h em , a nd t h ose w h ich d os u rv ive a r e n o t 1 00% e xpo sed b yt h e a r chaeo log is t . H ence t h e b a s ic p rob lem i st h a t w e a r e n o t a b le t o s t a te t h a t t h e s amp led p opu la t ion i sr e p r esen ta t ive t ot h e t a rge t p opu l a t ion .

1 . 5I NQU IRY METHOD ; CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEXT

A f te r s eve ra l d i scus s ions w i th s c ien t if ic c o l leagues i n Ame r i c a , w ho t r ied t oc onv ince t h e a u tho r o ft h e "more i n te res t i n g "a nd "p ub l ic ly e f f ec t ive "w r i t ing s t y le i n Amer ican s c ien t if ic p ub l ica t ion s , t h e a u tho r i s s t i l l n o t s a t isf ied w i th t h e i r a rgumen t s a nd c hose f o r t h i s t h e s i s t h e p rob lem o r i e n ted w o rk ing m e thod . T he a u tho rc an n o t d eny t h e f a c t t h a t h e i si n f luence b y t h e H ambu rg ian s choo l , s pec if ica l ly b y P rof . D r . Z ieger t , w ho i s av ehemen t r ep resen ta t ive o f t h i s r e sea rch d es ign , (s e e H . Z ieger t "O b jek tor ien t ier te u nd p rob lemor ien t ier t e F o r schung sansä tze i nd e r A rchäo log ie i n : H epha is tos 2 , 1 980 :53 -65 ) T he p r econd i t ion f o r t h is p rob lem o r ien ted w o rk ing m e thod i so ne o r s evera l c l ea r ly s t a ted p rob lem (s ) . T he c onc ise d ef in i t ion o f t h e p rob lem (s ) e nab les t h e r e sea rche r t o e s tab l ish c r i ter ia f o r ac a refu l ly d i rec ted s e a rch o f i n fo rma t ion . T he d i v is ion o f t h e p rob l em (s ) i n s eve ra l s ub -p rob lem s i sa n i mpor tan t s t ep i n t h e p rob lem a na lys is . E a ch o f t h e i n ves t iga t ions u nder taken t o s o lve t h ese s ub -p rob lem s , b ecome s as epa ra te s e c t ion i nt h e o u t l ine o f t h e f i na l r e por t o f t h e s t udy . W i th e ve ry s t ep ( t he s o lu t ion o fo ne s ub -p rob lem )t h e r e sea rche ri sa b le t oe s tab l i sh ah ypo thes is t h a t c an b e t e s ted w i th t h e n ex t s t ep . I fa s o lu t ion o f as ub -p rob lem c an n o tb e o b ta ined , t h e r ea son f o r t h is mu s tb e q ues t ioned a nd ac r i t ica l r e v iew o f t h e r e sea rch m e thod s i s an eces s i ty t od er ive b e t ter r e su l t s . Af t er t h e s o lu t i on o fe ve ry s ub -p rob lem a nd t h e t e s t ing o fe very h ypo the s i s ,t h e s o lu t ion o ft h eb a s ic p rob lem (s ) c an b e c onc luded .

T he o n ly p o s s ib i l i ty t os o lve t h is d i lemma i st oi mp ly t h a tt h e s amp led p opu la t ion i s a1 00% s amp le o f t h e t a rge t p opu la t i on s o t h a t t h e n ew p recond i t ion wou ld b e t h a t t h e s amp led p opu la t ion i se qua l t o t h e t a rge t p opu la t ion . We c ou ld t h en d raw a r a ndom s amp le o f a t l e a s t 3 0% o u t o f t h e w ho le p opu la t ion . A 3 0% s amp le i st h e m in imum r e qu i remen t i n s t a t is t ica l -ma thema t ica l t e rms t o make a ny r e la t ive f r equency -p robab i l i ty s t a temen t . E ven t h e l e a s t c r i t ica l r e ader w i l l o bserve t h e i n adequacy o f t h is p rocedu re , a l t h ough i ti ss t i l l o f ten f o l lowed i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . Mos t o f t h e a u thor s d id n o t a cqua in t t h e r e ader w i th t h ese w eaknesses . T h is c ou ld r e su l t e i the r f r om t h e ir s ub l im ina l f e a ro ft h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h e i rw o rk c ou ld b e i n ves t iga ted o r t h a tt h ey s imp ly w e re n o ta wa re o ft h i sw eakness . L ew is R . B info rd h a s c r i t ic ized " t h e n a ive n o t ion "m any a r chaeo log is t h ave " t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i sd i r e c t ly o b ser vab le a s m ean ing fu l i n forma t ion a bou t t h e p a s t ." H is r ema rk t o t hose " i gno ran t a r chaeo log is t s" i s t h a t t h e o bserved a r chaeo log ica l i n forma t ion i s "n o t ,n eve rh a s b een , a nd n eve r w i l l b e " mean ingfu l . (B info rd 1 975 :251 )T o max im ize t h e m ean ing fu lness o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l i n fo rma t i on w eh ave t oa sk t h e r i gh tq ues t ions ,h ave t oh ave ac l ea r ly d ef ined , p rob lem o r ien ted r e sea rch d es ign , a nd h ave t o make o ur s t a temen t s t e s tab le f o r f u r ther r e sea rch . I f w e d o s o , r a ndom s amp l ing b ecomes i mpor tan t t oa r chaeo log is t s , f o r i t e s tab l ishes af r amework w i th in w h ich t oe va lua te t h e r e a son a b leness o f s amp les w he the r o r n o t t h a t r ea sonab lene ss c an b e p rope r ly s t a ted i n r e la t ive ly -f requency -p robab i l i ty t e rm s . T he o f ten s amp led s amp le r e ce ives a u thor iza t ion w i th a c l ea r ly s t a ted r e sea rch p urpo se a nd b ecomes v a l id t os uppo r t as pec ia lh ypo thes is .

T he c ommon c r i t ique o f t h is me thod i s t h a t i tw ou ld b e " excess ive ly m e thod ica l" a nd a s s uch b or ing a nd u n in te res t i n g t o r e ad . C on t ra ry t o t hose p er sua s ion s , t h e a u tho r i so f t h e o p in ion t h a tt h e r e ad ing o fs e ve re ly p rob lem o r ien ted a nd m e thod ica lp ub l ica t ions c an b e e xc i t ing i nt h a t momen tw hen t h e r e ade r s t a r t s t oe va lua te t h e m e thod s a nd t h e i r e f f ec t ive n es s . O n ly t h is k i nd o f r e sea rch d es ign o f e r s t h e r e ade r t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t ob e c r i t ica l a s i ts how s t h e p o ss ib le w eaknes ses a nd r e s tr ic t ions a sw e l l a sr a t iona l wo rk ing t e chn iques . O ther m e thod s g i ve t h e r e ade r p r econce ived s o lu t ions t h a t a r e n o t t e s tab le . T hese m e thod s c an n o tc ha l lenge t h e r eader t ot h ink a bou t t h e w o rk , b u t m aybe t h i s i so ne o f t h e a im s o f t h ose w r i t ings .

T h is s amp le c an n o t b e e va lua ted u s ing t h e c h i s qua re t e s t . C h i s qua r e i s aq uan t ive , n om ina l leve l s t a t is t ic t h a t d e te r m ines w he the r t h e emp ir ica l r e su l t s d if e r s i gn if ican t ly o f n on -s ign if ican t ly f r om t h e e xpec ted r e su l t s . Wha t t h is i m p l ies i st h a t w e c anno t t e s t at h es is t h a t i sn o t e s tab l ished i n s t a t is t ica l -ma thema t ica l t e rm s w i th s t a t is t ica lm e thod s .

1

I . MEASURE MENTS OF WA IKALUA FLAKES

s c r ibed a bove . I n t h e c a se t h e d i s ta l e nd w a s b roken , t h ey w e r ea s s igned t ot h eb roken f l ake c a tego ry .

T he f o rm e r i n ten t ion t ou se t h e a l r eady p r e so r t ed Wa ika lua ma te r ia l i n i t s p r esen t c a tego r ie s h ad t o b e r e v ised , a s i t p roved t ob eu se le s sf o rt h e p u rpo se o ft h is w o rk . T he a u tho r w a su nab le t of i nd t h a tm any d i agno s t ic f l ake s ,a sm en t ioned a nd d ef ined i n R if o rd 's a na ly s i s ( s ee 1 . 2 b ) . A c omp le te s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm c ou ld s e ldom ly b ef ound .E ven u nde r a1 0x h and l e n s t h e v a s t m a jor i ty o f f l ake s u nd e r 1 0 c m i n s i ze w e re e i the r f l ake f r agmen t s o r d eb r i s r a the r t h an d i agnos t ic . I n R ifo rd 's c l a s s if i ca t ion , t h e b u lb o f p e r cu s s ion w a s n o t t a ken i n to c ons id e ra t ion . A s t h e a u tho r w a s u nab le t oa s s ign h i s e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake s t oR ifo rd ' s c a tego r ies , i t w a s u navo idab le t oe s tab l i sh h i s o wn c l a s s if i ca t ion i no rde r t oo b ta in c ompa rab le d a ta .

E ve ry f l ake u nde r 1c m i n s i ze w a s e xam ined u nde r a1 0x h and l e n s t o d i scove r p os s ib le p e r cus s ion f e a tu r es . T he f l ake s w e re c oun ted , w e ighed , a nd c l a s s if ied b y u n i t s . T he d ec i s ion t ow e igh a nd c oun t t h e f l ake s a ga in w a s made a f te r t h e d e tec t ion o fh uge d i sc repanc ies a tt h e s po t c heck o f o ne u n i t . T he d i sc repanc ie s i nt h e n umbe ro ft h ef l akes e xceeded mo s t ly t h e r a te o f p o s s ib le i n c rea se t h rough c r ush ing a nd b r eakag e i nt h eb ag s , t h ey whe re c ommon ly s t o r ed i n , s ot h a t t h ey h ave t ob e e xp la ined i n c oun t ing e r ro r s . L ikew is e t h e d if e r en t w e igh t m ea su remen t s h ave t o b e e xp la ined i n w e igh ing e r ro r s .T he c oun t ing m e thod u sed i nt h is s t udy , w a s t o c oun t f l ake s u p t o 1 00 , p u t t h em a s ide a nd c oun t a f te r w a rd s t h e h eap s t oge the r . T ha t t h e w e igh t m ea su remen t s i n e ach c a t ego ry h ave t ob e a ccu ra te ,s how s ac ompa r i son t ot h e t o ta l w e igh t o f e ach u n i t . I n t h e p rev iou s s t udy , t h e s ame a moun t o ff l ake s , c oun ted f r om b o th p a r t ies , r e su l ted i nd i f f e r en t w e igh t m ea su r emen t s . T h i s l e ad s t o t h e a s cer ta t ion t h a t i nt h e p r esen t s t udy n o f l ake s w e r e m i ss ing t h a t c ou ld h ave r e su l ted i nt h e o f t en h ighe rw e igh tm ea su r emen t s o ft h e p r ev iou ss t udy .

E ach c o l lec t ion u n i tw a s s o r ted i n to f ou rd eb i tage c a t ego r ie s p lu so ne n ondeb i tage c a tego ry . T he s o r t ing f o l lowed t h e n ew a pp roach t o d eb i tage a na lys i s p ropos ed b y S u l l ivan a nd R ozen i n1 985 . T h is s y s tem w a sf ound u sef u lt od e r ive i n te r p re ta t ion f ree c a t ego r ie s , a ga in m ea su rab le b y e ve ry i n d iv id u a l w i th s ome l i t h ic k now ledg e . T he d eb i tage c a t ego r ie s w e r e c omp le t e f l ake , b roken f l ak e ‚ f l ake f r agmen t , a nd d e b r is ,w h i le t h en ondeb i tage c a t ego ry w a sc o r e . A l l f l akes t h a t h ave a s i ng le i n te r io r s u r f ace , t h a t i si nd ica t ed b y p o s i t ive p e r cus s ion f e a tu r e s s uch a sr i pp le m a rk s , f o r ce l i ne s , o rb u lb o fp e rcus s ion a r ea tl e a s tf l ake f r agmen t s .F lake sw he r e t h ese f ea tu re s a r e n o td i scer n ib le w e r e a s s igned t ot h e d eb r is c a te g o ry . I ft h e f l akes w i th s i ng le i n t e r io r s u r f a ce a l so s how t h e p o in t o f a pp l ied f o r ce , i n d ica t ed b y a n i n ta c t s t r ik ing p l a t f o rm i n t e r s ec ted b y t h e b u lb o f p e r cus s ion , t h ey a r e e i the r c l a s s if ied a s c omp le t e o r b roken f l akes . I ft h e p o in t o f a p p l ied f o r ce i sa b sen t , t h ey f a l lu nd e rf l ake f r agmen t c a tego ry . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween c omp le t e a nd b roken f l ake s i s made o ve r t h e m a rg in s . I n c a se w he r e t h e ma rg in s a r e i n tac t d i s p lay ing ah inge o r f e a the r t e rm ina t ion a nd a tt h e s ame t ime

A n OHAUS E 1 20 s ca le a sw e l l a sa n OHAUS T r ipp le B eam B a lance w a s u sed f o r t h e w e igh t m ea su r emen t s , ac a l ipe r a nd ar u le rf o r t h e d imen s ion mea su r emen t s . E ach f l ake w a s c a r ef u l ly e x am ined f o r r e touch ; n o i n t en t iona l r e touch w a s f ound . A f te r e a ch c a tego ry w a s s or ted o u t , i tw a s c oun t ed a nd w e igh t ed s epa ra t e ly a nd t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion w a s e s tab l i shed . F lake s w i th c o r tex a nd p o l i sh w e r e m en t ioned s epa r a te ly . T he p l a t fo rm t h icknes s o f e ach c omp le t e a nd b roken f l ake w a sa s ce r ta ined a nd t h e t h ickne s sr ange w a s a dded i n to t h e c ha r t . (T ab le A )T he p u rpose o f t h ese m ea su r emen t s w a s t oe s tab l ish p o s s ib le c r i te r ia o f c ompa r ison t owa rd s t h e e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l akes . T he c ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s w a sd one i ns e c t ion 3 . 5 .

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I n as e cond s t ep , f l ake s t h a t w e re t ob e e xam ined u nde r l ow a nd h i gh p owe r magn if ica t ion , w er e s o r ted o u t . F lakes w e r e s e lec ted t h a t e i the r w e r e m ean t t os how o bv ious u s e -wea ro r m ean t t o b e s u i tab le f o r c u t t ing , s c rap ing , e t c . t a sk s . T he l e ng th w a sm ea su red f r om t h e p rox ima l e nd t ot h e d i s ta l e nd . I f af l ake f r agmen t d i d n o t s how t h e p o in t o f a pp l ied f o rce a nd i tc ou ld n o t b e i n f e r red , t he mo s t d i s tan t p o in t s w e r e

I n t h e s pec ia l c a se o f t h e H awa i ian f l ake s t h a t a r ose w h i le o n -anv i l b ipo la r f l ak ing , f l ak es w i th d i s tu rbed u nb roken d i s t a l e nd s ( f la t , c ru shed ) w e r e a l so c on s ide r ed t ob e c omp le t e , i ft h ey d i sp layed a l t h e o t he r c ha rac t e r i s t ic f e a tu r es , d e -

1 2

N owa t zyk 1 988 :10 )T he se a ng le m ea su r emen t s w e r e n eces s a ry i no rde rt oc omp ly t ot h e r e sea rch d e s ign w h ich i n ves t i g a t ed t h e mo s t c onven ien t a nd s u i tab le a ng le o f u se a nd t o c l a s s if y t h e f l ake s . T he e dge c urva tu r e a nd t h e e dge mo r p ho logy w a sa l so n o ted t of i gu r e o u tt h e mo s ts u i tab le c urva t u r e a nd mo rpho logy f o rd i ve r se p u rpo se s a nd t oc l a s s i fy t h e f l akes . (s e ea ppend ix A )

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I I . TOOL MANUFACTUR ING EXPERI MENTS AND THEIR EVALUATION

Group 2 .S amp le S a567 i s ar e la t ive ly c oa r se -g ra ined (7 2 g ra in s /mm )i n te r ser ta l b a sa l t . T he g round ma ss i sp r e d om inan t ly p lag ioc la se f e ld spa r l a ths w i th a pp rox ima te ly e qua l a moun t s o fc l inop roxene a nd a n o paque m inera l . S ome o f t h e o paques a r e e l onga ted . P henocrys t s a r e r e la t ive ly c ommon a nd a r e mo s t ly s e condary m inera ls . Una l te r ed p he n ocrys t sa r e a no r thopy roxene ,p robab ly h ype r s thene .

3 . 1 P edro log ica l r ea l i ty B a sa l t i sp r inc ipa l ly c omp r ised o fp y roxene a nd p l ag ioc la se w i th l e s se r amoun t s o f s ome c omb ina t ion o f o l iv ine , F e -T i o x ides , a pa t i te , a nd g l a s s . B a sa l t d oes n o t c on ta in q uar tz . When t h e v o lcan ica l ly o r ig ina ted b a sa l t emerges t o t h e s u r f a ce a nd a tmosphe re , i tc oo ls d own f a s t ly . When i tc oo ls d own s l ow ly i tf o rm s g abb ro ic r o ck s . E ven w hen b a sa l t c on s i s t s o f aw ide s pec t rum o fc hem ica l c ompo s i t ion i ts how s a c on t inuum t h a t s p l i t s i n to t wo b a sa l t t ypes -a l ka l i o l iv ine b a sa l t a nd t h o le i i t ic b a sa l t . T he w ide r a ng ing a ppea rance o f b a sa l t i s e xp la inab le t h rough d epo s i t iona l a nd p os t d epos i t iona l a l tera t ions . Ox ida t ion i st h e ma in f a c to r o f b a s a l t a l te ra t ion , r e su l t ing f r om t h e g r ea t c oncen t ra t ion o f i r on i nb a sa l t ic r ock . When w a te r s uppor t s t h e c oo l ing p ha se , i t b ecomes p u rose a nd o x ida tes f a s te r b ecause t h e s ma l ler h yd rogen mo lecu les d ifuse o u t o f t h e h o t b ody , a nd l e ss mob i le o xygen mo lecu les p a r t ic ipa te i no x ida t ive r e ac t ions . T he d eg r ee o fo x ida t ion d e term ines t h e v ar ico lo red a ppea r a nce o fb a sa l t ic r ocks . B lack , b l ue -g r een -ye l low , r ed -b rown , a nd g ray a r e t h e mos tc ommon c o lo r s .B a sa l th a s ama t s heen a nd a f i ne g ra ined s t ruc tu re t h a t b r eak s r ough a nd u neven a f ter c r a ck ing . (T ex t f r ee a f te r M .G . B e s t "O u t o f i g neous a nd m e tamorph ic p e t ro logy "NY 1 985 :62 -196 )

Group 3 .S amp le S a365 i s ar e la t ive ly c oar se -g ra ined (8 5 g ra ins /mm )i n te r ser ta l b a sa l t . T he g round ma s s i sp r e d om inan t ly p lag ioc la se f e ld spa r l a ths w i th s ma l ler a moun t s o f c l inopy roxene a nd a n o paque m inera l . T he o n ly p henoc r y s t sa r ee uhed ra lp l ag ioc la se f e ld spa ru pt o 1 . 25 mm l o ng . Group 4 .S amp le S a926 i sa ne xceed ing ly f i ne -g ra ined (4 50 g ra ins /mm )b a sa l t c omposed o f g la s s t h a t i sc l ouded w i th e x t reme ly s ma l l o paque m ine ra l c rys ta ls . W i th in t h i s ma tr ix a r e n ume rous e uhed ra l p l ag ioc la se f e ldspa r c r ys ta ls u p t o 0 . 25 mm l o ng a nd a f ew s ubhed ra l c l inopy roxene c rys ta l s a bou t0 .05 mm l o ng ." (C la rk /R ifo rd 1 986 :73 ) T he p r eh is tor ica l ly u sed b a sa l tc ou ld n o tb e emp loyed f o rt h e e xper imen t s a s t h e q ua r r ie s a r e n ow o n p r iva te p roper ty a nd n o t a cces s ib le . S o i tw a s d ec ided t ou se t h e Mauna K ea m a t e r ia l t h a t w a s a th and . T he m ea su r emen t s t a ken a f te r Moh s s how ah a rdness o f 7f o rb o th b a sa l t ic ma ter ia ls , e ven t h ough t h ep ed rog raph ic a na ly s is d i sp lay s d if eren tg ra in s i zes .

T he s pec if ic g rav i ty o f b a sa l t i s2 , 6 -3 ,11 . T he h a rdness a c c o rd ing t h e Mob 's s ca le i s6 -6 ,5 (S emenov 1 964 :34 -5 ) .T he a u tho r 's e xper imen t s s howed aw ide rh a rdne ss r ange o f5 -7 . T h in s e c t ion ing b o th o f t h e Wa ika lua a nd e xper imen ta l ly u sed ma t er ia l w a s n o t made . T he f o l low ing a na lys is a r e p r e s en ted d one b y Mac C oy a nd C legho rn f o r t h e Mauna K ea Adz Q ua r ry ( C leghor n , We is le r , D ye , a nd S in ton 1 983 )a nd b y C la rk a nd R ifo rd f o r t h e Wa ika lua ma ter ia l w h ich t h ey c ou ld t r a ce b ack t of ou rd i f f e ren ts ou r ces : 1 . Ko 'o lau C a lde ra , 2 . Wa iaho le Q uar ry , 3 . Ka i lua A dz Q ua r ry ,a nd 3 . Kane 'ohe r e g ion . (C la r l c /R ifo rd 1 986 :75 )

3 .2 Adze manufac tur ing A f ter a f ug i t ive p r eso r t ing o f t h e Wa ika lua f l akes i tw a s d ec ided t o r e s t r ic t t h e t o o l manufac tur ing t o t h e t r ad i t iona l H awa i ian a dze manufa c tu re . T he ma in d ec is ion c r i ter ia w er e t h e c ha rac ter is t ic f e a tu res o f t h e f l akes . S eve ra l c omp le te f l akes d ef in i te ly p o in ted t o ar ef inemen t o f t h e a dze p r e f o rms , a st h ey w e re r e c tangu la ri ns hape (d i sp lay s t h e t h ick n ess o f t h e a dze p r eforms )a nd s howed c rush ing s a t t h e s t r ik ing p l a t form a sw e l l a sa tt h e d i s ta l e nd s , w he re t h ey l a id o n t h e a nv i l . (S ee p ho to N o .26 ) Mos t o f t h e f l akes w e r e s ma l l w i th a t h in s t r ik ing p la t form , s how ing c or tex , w h ich p o in t s t o r e f inemen t o r s e conda ry r educ t ion . (W i l l iam s 1 989 :55 -59 )Many , h oweve r , w e re s o s ma l l , t ha t t h ey c ou ld n o t b e c l ea r ly a s s igned t o ap ha se i n Wi l l iam s p roposed r educ t ion mode l , b u t i fp o l ish w a s p r esen t t h e r e juvena t ion a nd r ewo rk ing s t age (W i l l iams 1 989 :60 -1 )s e emed t o b e a pp rop r ia te . I nt h is e xper imen t , p r ima ry a sw e l l a ss e conda ry r educ t ion i n vo lved p e rcu s s ion f l ak ing u s ing t h e t e chn ique o f f r eehand p e rcuss ion a nd o n -anv i l b ipo la r f l ak ing , a s d e s c r ibed b yC leghor n (1 982 ) .

I ng ene ra l t h e Mauna K ea b a sa l t c on s is t s o ff i ne t ov ery f i ne g ra ined ( 1 58 g ra ins /mm )a des i te c ompo sed p r ima r i ly o f p l ag ioc la se , a nd o l iv ine w i th o r w i thou t a l te ra t ion p roduc t s o ccur r ing i n m ino r a moun t s ; p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r s a r e t h e d om inan t p henocry s t s , w i th e i the r a ug i t e , p y roxene , o r o l i v i ne w i th o r w i thou t a l te ra t ion p roduc t s b e ing s ubdom inan t . T he o ccu r rence o fm ino r m ine ra ls i sr e s t r ic ted t ob io t i te a nd c a lc i t e . (C leghorn e ta l . 1 983 :245 -6 )C la rk a nd R ifo rd e x am ined s e ven t h in s e c t ions o f t h e Wa ika lua ma ter ia l . T hey c ou ld d i v ide t h e b a sa l t ic ma ter ia l i n to f ou r c l ea r ly d i s t in g u ishab le g roup s : "G roup 1 .S amp les S a 15 , S a461 , S a 566 , a nd " r oad f i l l" a r e a l l i n te r se r ta l amygda lo ida l b a sa l t w i th r e la t ive ly c oa r se t e x tu r es (5 0 -60 g ra in s /mm ) .T he g round ma s s i sp redom i n an t ly p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r l a ths w i th a pp rox ima te ly e qua l a moun t so fc l inpy roxene a nd a n o paque m inera l . T he o paque m inera l s a r e c ommon ly n eed le l ike , a nd o f t en f r om l a t t ice s t ruc tu re . O paque a nd s e conda ry m ine ra l p hencrys t s a r e

1 9

t h e p r ima ry r educ t ion , w he rea t t h e p o in ted i n tende r s d id mo r e a c cu ra te w o rk t h an t h e s imp ly r ounded o nes . When t h e s t r ike rd i dn o te xa c t ly h i t t h e m a rg in r e g ion o ft h e b lock a nd a tt h e s ame t ime t h e b low w a se xecu ted i n a9 0 d eg r ee a ng le t owa rd s t h e b lock , t wo f l akes w e r e t h en o f ten c h ipp ed o f . ( " Seconda ry -mu l t ip le f lake s" a cco rd ing t o J e l inek e t a l .197 1 :198 -200 )

A . P r imary r educ t ion a )P re -manufac tur ing E igh tb a sa l tb lock sw e re f ound t ob es u i tab le a nd s e lec ted f o r t h e a dze m anufa c tu r ing (P ho to No . 2 7 ) .F lak e s w i th s pec ia l e dge a ng le s w e r e s t r icken f r om b lock 1a nd b l ock 4 e xc lu s i ve ly (S ee s ec t ion C ) .E a ch b lock w a sp rev iou s ly w e igh t ,

Ap r ima ry f l ake w i th n ega t ive a nd p o s i t ive p e rcuss ion b u lb a s w e l l a s as e conda ry f l ake w i th o n ly ap o s i t ive p e r cu s s ion b u lb , w a s r e cogn izab le . T he c h ipped o f f l akes s howed , i n g ene ra l , f e a the r t e rm ina t ion a t t h e l a t e ra l e nd s , w h i le t h e d i s ta l e nd , c au sed b y t h e a nv i l , w a s f l a t a nd /o r c rushed . T he p rox ima l e nd w a s n o rma l ly f o rmed . I f at i p o ft h e a nv i l w a s u sed t o s uppo r t t h e b lock , i tc ou ld h appen t h a t e i the r t h e i n tende ro rt h et i po ft h e a nv i lc h ipped af l ake of . I nt h ec ase t h a t t h e p e r cu s s ion w a s n o t i n tens e e nough t o d iv ide t h e b lock i nt h e f u l l l e ng th , s ma l le r f l ake s w e re c h ipped o ft h a t s howed f e a the r t e rm ina t ion a tt h e d i s ta l e nd s . T h is u sua l ly h appened w hen t h eb lock w a sv e ry t h ick .

B lock 1=6 190 g r B lock 2= 2 450 g r B lock 3= 3 640 g r B lock 4= 2 820 g r B lock5= 1 250 g r B lock6= 1 420 g r B lock 7— 1 790 g r B lock 8= 9 40 g r t oe xam ine t h ew e igh tl o s st owa rd s a )t h eb lank s b )t h ep refo rm sa nd c )t os e eh ow much f l aked ma te r ia lf e l lo u to ft h e g r id a nd /o rt h rough t h e s c reen .

T he f l ake sf e l lf r ee ly o n t h e g round ,t h ey w e re n o th e ld . O n ly f ew f l ake s b roke w h i le h i t t ing o the r f l ake s o r b lock f r ag m en t s o n t h e c h ipp ing f l oo r . T he f r equen t c l ean ing o f t h e a nv i l s u r f a ce r e su l t ed t oa na ccumu la t ion o ft i ny f l ake sa tt h a t s i de o f t h e a nv i l t h ey w e r e w iped . T he o n ly p os s ib i l i ty t o c on t ro l t h e c h ipp ing o ft h e b a sa l t ic ma t e r ia l w a s o n t h e e dge o f t h e a nv i l . When t h e b lock w a s l a id f l a t o n t h e a nv i l i t c ou ld h appen , t h a t ab low a pp l ied t o al a te ra l e nd o f t h e b lock c aus ed t h e b reakage o f i ti n t h e m idd le . I ta l so w a s f ound t h a t i ti se a s ie r t ow o rk a l ong af l a t s i de o ft h e b lock , mo s t ly w e r e c o r tex w a s p resen t . T h i s f l a t s i de w a s u sed a s a b a s i sf o rt h ee s tab l i shmen to f ar egu la r ,r e c tangu la rs hap e .

Twen ty two h amme r s tone s w e r e c o l lec ted e i the r f r om t h e Mo leka s t ream , Mak i l c i v a l ley o r t h e K a le i a nd Manoa s t r eam , b o th i n Manoa v a l ley . (P ho to N o .28 ) T he ma in c r i te r ia f o r t h e s e lec t ion w e r e n o t o n ly d imens ion s , w e igh t a nd h a rdnes s , b u t a l so t h e o u t l ine (T ab le B ) .R ound w a t e r w o rn s t ones t ha t a r e s a id t ob e t h e t y p ica l s t r ike r s f o r a dze m anufa c tu r e , a s w e l l a s p o in ted , w a terwo rn i n t ende r s w e r e g a the red .E ach h amme r s tone wa sp ho tog raphed i nt h e t yp ica l w ay t ha t i tw a s h e ld i n t h e manuf a c tu r ing p rocess ( Pho to S e r ies ) . A n a pp rop r ia te c h ipp ing f l oo r w a s s e lec t ed a nd d ema rca ted w i th s t r ing i n t h e p rev iou s ly 2 x2 m u n i t t h en e x tended t o a3 x2 m u n i t . T he c h ipp ing f l oo rw a so ve rg rown w i th s ome k ind o f p l an t t e nd r i l a nd v e ry l i t t le g r a s s . H ow e ve r , mo s t o f t h e f l oo r w a s n o t o ve rg rown a ta l l s how ing r edd ish -b rown s o i l w i th f ew p ebb le s i nt h e m a t r ix . A s t h i s l o ca t ion w a s u sed f o r s eve ra l s t one t o o l m anuf a c tu r ing e x p e r imen t s b efo re , i th ad t o b e b ru shed c a re fu l ly a nd e ven s t epped i nf l akes h ad t ob e r emoved . A n a nv i l w a s s e lec ted a nd p la ced i nt ha t w ay t h a t i tw a s c l o se r t oo ne s i de o f t h e u n i t , o ppos i t e t o t h e d i r ec t ion o f t h e b low s . (P ho tos N o . 2 9 ,30 )

T he m a t e r ia l o ft h e s i x b lock s y i e lded s i x mo re o r l e s s r e c o gn izab le b l ank s w i th r egu la r s hape . (P ho to No . 3 1 )T he w e igh to ft h eb l ank sw a sm ea su red t o3 9 17 g r . (s e e s i ze so u t o ft a b le C ) c )P o s t manufac tur ing T he f l ake s c a t t e r p a t ter n w a s p ho tog raphed a nd d rawn , (F ig 3 )a nd t h e f l akes w e r e c oun t ed b y 5 x5 cm u n i t s t o d eve lop a d en s i ty v a r ia t ion . D efm i t e c h ip s f r om t h e a nv i l w e r e c o l lec t ed o u t o f t h e o t he r f l ake s . F lakes t ha t w ou ld b e s u i tab le f o r c u t t ing , s c rap ing , e t c . e xp e r imen t s w e r e s e lec ted a nd s i ng ly b agged , w h i le t h e f ew f l ake s t h a t h ad f a l len o u t s i de o ft h e 3 x2 m u n i tw e r e n o tc on s ide r ed . T he u n i t a nd t h e a nv i l w e r e b ru shed a ga in a nd t h e h eaped u p s o i l w i th t h e f l ake sw a sb agged t ob e s i f tw i th t h es am es i zed s i eve u sed a t t h e Wa ika lua e xcava t ion .

b ) Manufac tur ing T he r e spec t ive r aw ma t e r ia l b lock w a sh e ld i na n a ng le o f3 5 d eg rees t o5 0 d eg ree st owa rd s t h e w o rk ing e dge o ft h e a nv i l , s o t ha t o ne s i de o f t h e b lock b ecame f u l ly s uppo r ted b y t h e a nv i l e dge . T he a ng le o ft h e b lows (b low a ng le )emp loyed t o t h e b lock e dge , o ppo s i te t o t h e o ne s i t t ing o n t h e a nv i l , v a r ied f r om 5 0 d eg ree s t o7 0 d eg r ee s . T he f i r s tt im id b low s d id n o t e ven c h ip s ma l l p i ece s f r om t h e e x t r eme ly h a rd m a t e r ia l . Wh i le i n c rea s ing t h eb low i n t en s i ty , i tb ecame o bv iou s t h a t mo s t o ft h e s e lec ted h amme r s tone s w ou ld n o t s u i t t h e i r p u rpose . T hey b roke i np i eces . T he h amme r s tone f r agmen t s w e re i mmed ia te ly c o l lec ted s o t h a tt h ey w ou ld n o t i n f luence t h e f l ake s ca t te rp a t ter n a nd t h e w e igh tm ea su r emen t s . H am m e r s tone s 1 ,4 ,5 ,a nd 6 w e re f ound t ob e mo s t s u i tab le f o r

B . S econdary r educ t ion a )P re -manufa c tur ing T he b l ank s w e r e e xam ined f o r t h e i r s u i t ab i l i ty t ob e f u r the r w o rked e i the r a s q uad rangu la r o r t r i angu la r p refo rm s . T he i n tended o u t l ine o f t h e w o rk ing p r efo rm w a s s ke tched w i th c ha lk o n t h e b l ank s . T he f l a t , c or t ex s i d e o f t h e b lank s w a s a lway su s ed a st h et op o ft h ew o rk ing p r e fo rm .

2 0

(P ho to 2 6 : C ru sh ing c au s ed t h rough t h ea nv i l)

(P ho to 2 8 : H amme r s tones )

2 2

O b jec t I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2

L oca t ion

Mo leka S t ream M AW V a l ley K ak iS t ream Manoa V a l ley Mo leka S t ream Mak ik iV a l ley Mokka S t ream Mak ik iV a l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa Va l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa Va l ley K a le iS t ream Manoa V a l ley K a le iS t ream Manoa V a l ley Mo leka S t ream Mak ik i Va l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa V a l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa V a l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa Va l ley Mo leka S t ream Mak ik iV a l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa Va l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa Va l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa Va l ley Mo leka S t ream Mak ik i Va l ley Ma ma S t ream Manoa V a l ley Manoa S t ream Manoa V a l ley K ak iS t re am Manoa V a l ley Mo leka S t ream Mak ik iV a l ley K a le iS t ream Manoa Va l ley

H ar dness a ce . Mobs '

I L eng t h i nc m

W id th i nc m

T h ickne ss i nc m

We igh t i ng r

6+ 0 . 5s=6 .5

1 6 .4

1 0 .5

6 .6

1 343 .0

4+0 .5=4 .5

1 5 .8

1 0 .4

6 .8

1 033 .6

6+0 .5=6 .5

1 4 .5

9 .1

5 .9

9 58 .8

6+ 0 .5=6 .5

1 3 .6

8 .1

5 .2

7 49 .3

6 .5 +0 .5=7

1 3 .2

6 .7

6 .0

6 92 .0

6 .5 +0 .5=7

1 2 .9

6 .5

4 .8

5 25 .9

5 .5+ 0 .5=6

1 2 .3

7 .8

7 .1

9 13 .4

4 .5 +0 .5=5

1 2 .0

9 .3

5 .8

7 35 .2

6 +0 .5=6 .5

1 .3

7 .2

5 .6

5 35 .2

5+0 .5=5 .5

1 .2

9 .2

6 .1

6 85 .7

8 .6

6 .4

5 97 .7

4 .5 +0 .5=5 5 + 0 .5=5 .5

9 .7

9 .2

6 .4

6 49 .0

5 .5 +0 .5=6

9 .2

8 .1

7 .0

6 72 .0

5 .5 +0 .5=6

9 .2

6 .1

4 .2

2 74 .5

4 .5 +0 .5=5

8 .8

8 .1

5 .8

4 78 .5

5 +0 .5=5 .5

8 .4

7 .8

4 .0

3 65 .6

5 .5+0 .5=6

8 .3

5 .1

3 .8

2 12 . 1

5+ 0 .5=5 .5

8 .1

6 .0

2 .4

1 42 , 1

4 .5 +0 .5=5

7 .3

6 .5

5 .9

3 47 .2

4 .5 +0 .5=5

6 .6

4 .8

4 .1

1 22 .0

5 + 0 .5=5 .5

5 .8

4 .8

2 .1

6 8 .0

4 .5+ 0 .5=5

5 .2

4 .5

3 .7

8 5 .3

' The s ur face o ft h es t one si ss t rong ly e roded a nd r o l led i nt he r i ve rs ot ha ti tb ecame s of te r .A f te rc rack ing s ome s t one sa nd c onduc t ing m ea su remen ts a ce . Mobs ' amean v a lue o f0 .5 w as c ons ide red t ob ea ccu ra te t o a dd t ot he s u r face m easu remen t s (P age 2 3)

T ab le B : Measu reme n ts o ft he h amme r s tone s

(P ho to S e r ies : H and l ing o fh amme r s tones )

2 4

(P ho to 2 9 : C h ipp ing f l oo rb efo r ee x t en s ion )

(P ho to 3 0 : A nv i l )

2 5

b ) Manufac tur ing

C .P roduc t ion o ff l akes w i th s pec ia le dge a ng le s

I tw a s t r ied t op roduce r e ve r se t r apezo ida l , t a nged a nd u n t a nged a dze p r efo rm s w i th q uad rangu la ra sw e l l a so ne a dze w i th t r iangu la r c r o s s s e c t ion . I n t h i s r e duc t ion s t age , h am m e r s tones 6 ,9 , 1 4 , 1 7 , 1 8 , a nd 2 1 w e r e f ound t ob e mo s t s u i tab le f o r t h i s t a sk . H amme r s tones 1 4 a nd 1 8 b roke i nt h e a dvanced m anufa c tu r ing p roces s . T o o b ta in mo r e a ccu ra t e c h ipp ing r e su l t s , t h e e x t r eme e dge o f t h e a nv i l w a s u sed . Wh i le t h is t e chn ique w a s a pp l ied , t h e b r eakage o ft h e b a sa l t i c m a ter ia l c ou ld b e c on t ro l led . T he o ve r t h e a nv i l e dge p ro t rud ing p a r t o f t h e b l ank c h ipped a lmo s t a lway s i n t h e d es i red w ay . I n t h i s p ha se , a l so t h e a ng le o f t h e p roduc ing f l ake s c ou ld b e d e te rm ined t h rough t h e b l ow a ng le . T h i s n ew ly o b ta ined k now ledge w a s u sed t op roduce f l ake s w i th s p ec ia l a ng le s (s e e b e low ) .T he d rawba ck w a s t h a t t h i s m e thod c ou ld o n ly b e u sed t o r educe t h e t h icknes s o f t h e b l ank s o r t os moo th t h e p r efo rm s i de s . I nt h e momen t , w hen t h e p r efo rm c ou ld n o t b e f u l ly s uppo r t ed b y t h e a nv i l e dge d ue t o a n u neven b roken s u r f a ce , t h e b r eakage w a s b eyond t h ec on t ro l o ft h e s t one w o rke r . P rob lem sw i th e nd shock a nd p er ve r se f r a c tu r e c au sed mo s tc ommon ly t h e b r eakage o ft h e a lmo s t f m ished p r efo rm s , a nd t h is l e d t ot h e i r d i sca rd . E x p e r imen t s , w e r e i t ac h ise l o r ap o in t ed a nv i l , t h a t w ou ld s o lve t h is p rob lem w e re n o t u nde r taken ; b u t i ts e em s t ob e m o s tl i ke ly , t h a tt h e p o in t o ft h e a pp l ied f o r ce c ou ld b e c on t r o l led a nd a ss u ch t h eb r eakage .F ou ro ft h e s i xb l ank sb roke w h i le t r y ing t ow o rk t h e c u t t ing e dge o ft h e i n tended a dze . Two w e re d i sca rded i mmed ia te ly , a st h ey b roke i nt h e m id d l e , t h e t wo o t he r s w e r e t r i ed t ow o rk t os ma l le r a dze s , w i th mo r e o r l e s s s u cce s s . A l l t o ge the rt wo u sab le a dze p r efo rm s , o ne w i th q uad rangu la r a nd o ne w i th t r iangu la r c ro s s s e c t ion , a nd t wo q ua s i p r efo rm s w e r e w o rked w i th aw e igh t o f 1 855 g r . (s e e s i ze so u to ft a b le C ,a l so p ho to n o . 3 2)

T he r ema in ing b lock s 1a nd 4w e r eu sed t os t r ik e f l akes w i th r e la t ive e dge a ng les r ang ing f r om 5d eg rees t o9 0 d eg ree s . I n g ene ra l , i n t erva l s o f 1 0 d eg r ee s w e r e c hosen t ob e a ccu ra t e e nough t o s u i t t h e t a sk p rope r ly . T he e xa c t n umbe r o f t h e f l ake s a nd t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion t owa rd s t h e e dge a ng le i n ter va l s , c an b e s e en i nt h ef o l low ing t a b le : 5-1 5 1 5 -2 5 2 5 -3 5 3 5 -4 5 4 5 -5 5 T o ta l :

=3 =6 =1 8 =2 5 =2 2

5 5 -6 5 =1 3 6 5 -7 5 =1 0 7 5 -8 5 =5 9 0 1

1 03

T he f i r s t s t ep w a s t o p roduce a r e la t ive ly t h in , r e c tangu la r b l ock f o rm w i th f l a t s i des t h a t c ou ld b e f u l ly s uppo r ted b y t h e a nv i l e dge . A s e a r l ie r s t a t ed , t h i s i so ne o ft h e p r econd i t i on s i n c on t ro l l ing t h e b reakage o f t h e b a sa l t ic ma t e r ia l . B ecau se o fi t s p r ev iou s ly p roved s u i tab i l i ty , h amme r s tone 4 w a s u sed e xc lu s ive ly t o s t r ike t h e f l akes f r om t h e b lock . B y v a ry ing t h e b l ow a ng le o r t h e a ng le o f i mpac t i tw a s r e la t i ve ly e a sy t oc on t ro l t h e a ng le o f i n c idence a nd t op roduce t h ei n tended f l ake s .

T he p roduced w a s t ef l akes w e r ei ng ene ra ls ma l le ri nn umbe r a nd s hape , a nd l e s s o ft h em s howed af e a the rt e rm ina t ion o n t h ed i s ta le nd , a st h ey w e r e c h ipped o f aq uad rangu la rb l ank . S eve ra l s howed d ef in i t e c r u sh ing o nt h ep r ox ima le nd c au sed b y t h e h anune r s tone a s w e l l a s o n t h e d i s ta l e nd c au sed b y t h e a nv i l . B ecaus e o f t h e mo r e d e l ibe ra t e w o rk a nd t h e s t eepe r a ng le , t h e b l ank w a s h e ld t owa rd s t h e a nv i l , w ha t c au sed t h e f l ake s t of a l l o n t h e g round n ex tt ot h e a nv i l . T he f l ake , s ca t t e r p a t ter n w a s l im i ted t o a s ma l l a r ea (F igu re 4) .C o r tex c h ip s w e r e s ma l lb u tc ommon b ecaus e o f t h ea pp l ied m e thod d escr ibed a bove . c )P o s t manufac tur ing A ga in t h ef l ake s ca t te rp a t te rn w a s p ho tog raphed a nd d rawn , a nd t h e f l ake s w e r e c oun ted b y 5 x5 c m u n i t s t o d eve lop a d en s i ty v a r ia t ion . C h ip s f r om t h e a nv i l o r h amme r s tone s w e r e c o l lec ted a s w e l l a s s u i tab le f l ak e s f o r t h e c u t t ing , s c rap ing , e t c . e xper imen t s s e lec ted a nd s i ng ly b agged . T he u n i ta nd t h e a nv i l w e r e c a refu l ly b ru shed ,a nd t h e h eaped u p s o i l w i th t h e f l ake s w a s b agged t ob e s c r eened a f t erwa rd s . N of l ake sh ad f a l len o u t s ide t h eu n i t .

2 6

(P ho to 3 1 : P roduced b l ank s)

(P ho to 3 2 : P roduced p r e fo rm s)

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O ver 3 0 f lakes p er 5 x5 c m u nit 4220Disturbed a rea ( W orking a rea o f s tone w orker ) U p t o 1 5 f lakes p er 5 x5 c m u nit C 2227 4 t o 5f lakes p er 5 x5 c m u nit C IZ JP0 - 2 f lakes p er 5 x5 c m u nit 4 0 1 1 , C ore ( F ig 3 ) , B roken a dze f ragments ( F ig 4 )

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s c reened . T he s ame s i zed s c reen t h a t w a s e mp loyed a tt h e Wa ika lua e xcava t ion , w a s a pp l ied t ot h e s o i l -f lake m ix tu r e . U sed w a sa n 1 / 8 i n ch s c reen , w h ich m ean st h a to n ly p a r t ic les s ma l le r t h an 3 2 mm f a l l t h rough . T he s c reen w a s o n ly s haken ,n ot r owe l o rb a r e h and sw e r eu sed t of o rce t h e m a te r i a l t h rough i ti no rde rt oa vo id t h e c r u sh ing a nd b reakage o f t h e f l akes . T he r ema in s i nt h e s c r een w e r e p u t o n w indow g l a s s a nd t h e f l ake s w e r e s epa ra ted f r om t h e l a rge r s o i l p a r t i c le s , p ebb le s , a nd o rgan ic ma te r ia l . T he f l ake s w e r e s o r ted a cco rd ing t o s i ze . F lake s u nde r 1c m w e r e p u t i n o ne b ag , f l ake so ve r 1c mi na no the ro ne , a nd f ma l ly ,f l akes t h a tc ou ld b e a pp l ied t o f u r the r e xp e r imen ta t ion w e re s i ng ly b agged . T he s ame s o r t ing a nd m ea su r ing p rocedu r e t h a t w a s em p l oyed t o t h e Wa ika lua m a t e r ia l , w a s a l so a pp l ied t o t h e e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l akes . (S ee s e c t ion I )

3 .3 F lak ing a t tr ibu tes o fb asa l t E ven t h ough b a sa l t ic m a t e r ia l s how s ar ough a nd u neven f r ac tu r e , i td i sp lay s e ve ry s i ng le c r i te r ia , o b servab le i ns ev e ra l o f t h e f l ake s , w e w ou ld e xpec t b y f l ak ing f l in t . B o th t ype s , a s f a r a s i tc oncer n s t h e Wa ika lua a nd Mauna K ea b a sa l t ,h ave ah a rdness o f 7o nt h e Moh s ' s ca le .N eve r the le ss , f l in tb r eak se a s ie r , c oncho ida l , a nd i t s b r eakage i sc on t ro l la b l e . I ti sm o s t l i ke ly t h a t t h i s f a c t r e su l t s f r om t h e d i f f e r en t mo lecu la r s t ruc tu re o f b ot h ma te r ia ls . Wh i le f l in t t e nd s t o c h ip n a tu ra l ly , b a sa l t d oe s n o t . I ta l so s e em s t ha t i nt h e b a s a l t ic m a t e r ia l ,i fl oaded d ynam ica l ly a ts ome p o in t ,t h e f o rce o fi mpac tw i l ln o tb e t r an sm i t ted t h roughou t t h e w ho le ma te r i a l , e spe c ia l ly i n l ong i tud ina l d i rec t ion . Wh i le i n c r ea s ing e i the r t h e b l ow v e loc i ty o r t h e f o rce , t h e b r i t t le m a te r ia l r eache s i t s c r i t ica l p o in t a nd b reak s . E xac t ly t h i s c r i t ica l p o in tb eyond t h ee la s t ic i ty (e l a s t ic p rop e r ty )o ft h e ma te r ia l , t ha t t e nded t oa bso rb t h e s hock w ave s p roduced b y t h e d y n am ic l o ad , i sr e ached e a s ie rw i th f l in tt h an w i th b a sa l t . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e s t one w o rke r h a s t oh i t t h e ma te r ia l h a rde r , f a s te ro rw i th ah eav ie r i n t ende r . A l l t h ese f a c to r s r e su l t i na l e s s c on t ro l lab le manuf a c tu r ing p rocedu re , a s t h e ma te r ia l w i l l b e h i t l e s s a ccu ra t e ly . T h i s i se spec ia l ly t r ue w hen w o rk ing w i th a n a nv i l , w h ich r equ i r e s t o s t r ike t h e ma rg in r eg ion w he r e t h e f l ak e w a s s i tua ted . I f t h e b lock i s n o t w o rked o n t h e e dge o f t h e a nv i l , a nd i n s tead l a id f l a t o n i t , t h e a nv i l w i l l r e f lec t t h e a pp l ied f o r ce a nd may b r eak t h e b lock o r e ven w o r se t h e p r efo rm i na n u n in tended w ay , s o t ha t i tw i l l b e r ender ed u se les s a nd d i sca rded . T he c h ipped b a sa l t ic f l ake sa ppea rt ob e s im i la rt ot h ef l in tf l ake s a sl ong a s t h e i r p roduc t ion c ou ld b e c on t ro l led o ve r t h e e dge o f t h e a nv i l a nd t h e i n tende r h i t t h e ma rg in r eg ion o f t h e b lock a ccu ra t e ly .A sd escr ibed a bove , t h e s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm i si n tac t a nd t h e b u lb o f p ercu s s ion i n t er sec t s t h e s t r ik ing p l a tfo rm . T he l a te ra l e nd s o r ma rg in s e xh ib i tf e a the rt e rm ina t ion , o n ly t h e d i s ta l e nd i sd i s tu rbed t h rough t h e s uppo r t ing a nv i l . I fa f l ake s how s t h ese a t t r ibu t e s i ti sd ef ined a s ac omp le t e o r i f s l igh t ly d amaged a s ab roken f l ake . A s c an b e s e en i nt a b le A , t h e n umb e ro ft h e c omp le te r e sp ec t ive ly b roken f l akes i s s ma l l w i th in t h e Wa ika lua ma te r ia l , w ha t w i l l s uppor t t h e a bove m en t ioned t h eo ry . T he h uge n umbe ro fo the rd i agnos t i cf l ak e si n d ica t es p o s i t ive p e rcu s s ion f e a tu re s , s uch a sf o rce l i nes o r p a r t s o f t h e p e r cu s s ion b u lb , b u t t h e p o in t o f t h e a pp l ied f o r ce i sa bsen t . P r e sum ing t h e s t one wo rke r s a tt h e Wa ika lua s i t e w e re a tt h e h e igh t o f t h e i r s k i l l , i tb ecome s o bv iou s t h a t t h ey c ou ld n o t h ave s o lved t h i s b reakage p rob l em s u ff i c ien t ly . O the r H awa i ian d eb i tage s t ud ie s w i l l p robab ly s uppo r tt h i s s t a temen t . T he a maz ing ly h igh a moun t o f b roken p r efo rm s , f ound a tn ea r ly e ve ry e x ten s ive m anu f a c tu r ing s i t e , b ecome s e xp la inab le w hen o ne t r ies t ow o rk t h e c u t t ing e dge o f t h e i n t ended a dze s w i thou t t h e f u l l s up p o r to ft h ea nv i le dge . ( S ee s e conda ry r educ t ion )

R e s t r ic t ing f a c to r s i nt h e e xp re s s ivene s s o ft h e e xp e r imen ta l f l ake s i nr e ga rd s t ot h e Wa ika lua f l a l ce s ,we r e t h e d amage o f t h e l a t te r m a te r ia l t h rough t r amp l ing , t h e s ma l lne s s o f t h e e xcava t ion u n i t s , n o c omp le t e c h ipp ing f l oo r w a s l a id o pen , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t mo s t o f t h e f l ake s w e r e r e cove r ed f r om p o s tho le f i l l ing s .E ven t h ough d e ta i led , c ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s w i l l b e e xagge ra t ed , g ene ra l t r a i t s i ns i ze , n umbe r , a nd q ua l i t y a r e r e cogn izab le . O ve r 5 0% o f t h e Wa ika lua a nd n ea r ly 7 0% o ft h ee xp e r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake sa r eu nde r 1c mi n s i ze a nd 4 0% r e spec t ive ly 2 0% r ange i ns i z e f r om 1-3c m . T he se s ma l lf l ake s a r e s p l in te rp roduc t s a nd s how o n ly af ew c ha rac te r i s t ic f l ak ing f e a tu r e s . Mo s t o ft h em a r e e i the r f l ake f r agmen t s o r d eb r i s . I ta l so b ecome s o bv ious t h a t t h e r e a r e o n ly af ew h i gh q ua l i ty f l ake s , (b roken o rc omp le t e )p res e n t .A se a r l ie rm en t ioned ,t h e se f l ake so n ly o ccu r ed w hen t h e i n tende rh i tt h e m a rg in r e g ion o ft h eb lock a c cu ra te ly , w h ich i mp l ie s ac on t ro l led b low . C o r tex i sn o t l im i ted t o as pec if i c s i ze o r q ua l i ty o f t h e f l ake s , i ta ppea r se qua l ly t h roughou tt h e c a t ego r ies . T he l a ck o f c o r e o r b l ank f r agmen t s a tt h e Wa ika lua s i t e p o in t s t o a p r efo rm r ef inemen t , o r i fp o l i shed f l ake s o ccu r , t or e juvena t i on a nd r e sha rpen ing o ff i n i shed a dze s .

3 . 5C ompar i son o f wa s te f l ake sw i th e spe c ia l ly p roduced c u t t ing ,s crap ing ,e t c .f l ake s . A s t h e c i r cum s tances a nd p u rpo ses o f t h e f l ake p roduc t ion w e r e d if e r en t , t h e o b ta ined ma te r ia l d i sp layed d i spa ra te a t t r ibu te s . T he r e la t ive ly h i gh a moun t o f c omp le te a nd b ro k en f l akes , u p t o 3 0% o f t h e t a rge t p opu la t ion , i ss t r ik ing . T he c omp le t ef l ake ss how f e a the rt e rm ina t ion n o to n ly o n t h e l a t e ra l e nd s ,b u ta l so o n t h e d i s ta l e nd s . T hey a r e l onge r a nd g ene ra l ly s ha rp e r t h an t h e "a cc id en ta l ly "p roduced f l ake s , s o t h a t t h ey w ou ld s u i t t h e i r c u t t ing , s c rap ing , e t c . p u rpo ses mo re ef i c ien t ly . T he r e a son f o r t h e o ccu r rence o f t h o se f l akes i st wo -fo ld . O nt h eo ne h and t h e mo s ts u i tab le ,p o in ted i n t ende r , a l r eady p roven o fi t sa ccu ra cy , w a su sed a nd o n t h e o t he r h and e ve ry s i ng le f l ake w a s c a r ef u l ly wo rked o n t h e a nv i l e dge . T he s t r ik ing b l ock p a r t f r om w h ich t h e f l ake s hou ld o ccu r ,h ung o ve rt h e a nv i l e dge , s ot h a t t h e d i s ta l e nd o f t h e f u tu r e f l ake c ou ld s how o n ly m ino r o r n o c r u sh ing c aused b y t h e a nv i l . A l so , b ecause o ft h e c on t ro l led f l ak ing , t h e r e w e r e o n ly f ew s p l in t e r p roduc t s , w h ich make s ac h ip p ing f l oo r o f t h i s k ind c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i shab le t o t h e a dze

3 .4 Quan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o ft he f l ake sp roduced i nc or np ar i son t ot he Wa ika lua ma ter ia l T o c onduc t ac ompa rab le , q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s is o ft h e f l ake s p roduced i n t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond r e duc t ion p ha se , s im i la r f i nd ing r e a l i t ies h ad t ob e e s tab l ished . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r , t h eb ru sh ing o ft h e c h ipp ing f l oo rl e dt o as o i l -f lake m ix tu r e , p robab ly s im i la r t o e ve ry e xcava t ed u n i t , t h a t h ad t o b e

3 1

d r a s t ic e x t in c t ion o f t h e e ndem ic H awa i ian b i rd s , f r oz en c h icken w a sc ho sen i n s t ead ,a sa n e xamp le o ft h e w ide r ange o fH awa i ian b i rd s . B i rd f l e sh wa sc l a s s if ied a ss of t ,b i rd b one a sh a rd c on ta c tm a t e r ia l . M ike , ab u tche ra pp r en t ice , a l lowed t h e c u t t ing u p o f a1 / 2 ay ea r o ld p ig , t h a t w a s k i l led t wo h ou r s b efo re t h e e xp er imen t . (H i s b o s s s t i l l d oes n o t k now t h a t w e c u t u p o ne o f h i s p i gs w i th b a sa l t f l ake s )T he p ig f l e sh w a sc l a s s if i ed a ss o f tm a ter ia l ,t h eb one a sh a rd .

r educ t ion f l oo r . T he se r e f lec t ion s l e ad t ot h e c e r ta in c onc lu s i on t h a t f l akes a tt h e Wa ika lua s i t e , i fu sed i na ny w ay , p ro d uced f r om a dze r educ t ion r a the rt h an s epa ra te p roduc t ion .

I V . APPLICAT ION OF EXPER I MENTALLY PRODUCED FLAKES

Al a s tc on ta c tm a te r ia l w e r e l e aves a nd s ma l lb ranches o ft h e a bove m en t ioned w ood .T h i s ma te r ia lw a sc l a s s if ied a ss o f t .

4 . 1 S e lec t ion o fc on tac t ma ter ia l T he f undamen ta l q ue s t ion f o rt h e s e lec t ion o ft h e ma t e r ia l t o b e wo rked w i th t h e f l ak es w a s : "Wha t t y pe s o f p l an t s o r a n ima ls w e re a tt h e d i spo sa l o f t h e H awa i ian s i n t h e t ime p e r iod f r om AD 1 070 -1 405 ?"B egge r ly s i n ves t iga t ion o f" e dge d amage o n e xpe r imen ta l ly u sed s c rape r s o f H awa i ian b a sa l t "(B egge r ly 1 976 )w a sf i n i shed a f t e rs c rap ing v a r iou s n a t ive P o lynes ian w ood s . T he s ame f ou r H awa i ian w ood s pec ies s he u sed w e r ea l so s e lec ted f o rt h i se xpe r imen t . T hey w e re n o tt a ken o ve ru nc r i t ica l ly .A f t e rc on su l ta t ion o fs eve ra l b io log is t sa nd b o t an i s t s , w ho a l c on f i rmed t h e c o r rec tnes so f B egger ly 's s e lec t ion , t h e d ec i s ion w a s m ade t o u se t h e se w ood s pec ies . T hese w e r e H ib i scus T i l l ia ceu s (o heohe h au ) ,A leur i te s mo lucc a na (k u l cu i ) ,A ca c ia k oa (k oa ) ,a nd Me t rosode ro s C o l l ina (' o h ia 'a lehua ) .T hese w ood s pec ie s h ave b een m en t ioned a sh av ing b een u sed b y a nc ien t H awa i i a n s . ' Oh ia 'a lehua w a s s upposed ly u sed f o r w eapon s , t oo ls , a nd i mages , w h i le k u l cu i f ound i t s u se f o r c on ta ine r s , h ouse t imbe r s , a nd o cca s iona l ly c anoe s . H au w a s e xc lu s ive ly u sed f o rc anoe o u t r igge r sa nd f i shn e tf l oa t s ( Handy /Handy 1 972 ) . K oa , o n t h e o t he r h and , w a s n eeded f o r t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f c anoes , h ou se p o s t s , a nd c a laba shes (K rau s 1 972 ) .K uku i a nd h au w e r e c l a ss if ied a s m ed ium so f t , k oa a nd ' o h ia 'a l e hua a sm ed ium -ha rd c on tac t ma te r ia l . T he w ood w a s ag i f t f r om t h e F o s t e rB o tan ica l G a rden s . E xcep tf o r t h e k oa , w ha t w a s c u t o ne w eek b efo r e t h e e xp e r im en t s , t h e wood w a s f r esh ly c u t a nd w o rked w i th in t h e n ex t t h r ee d ays . (P ho to s N o . 3 6 -3 9 ) O the rc on taa m a ter ia ls w e r ef i sh ,p ig , a nd b i rd . T he f i sh w a s p u rcha sed f r om t h e T ama sh i ro f i shma rke t . A can thuru s T r io s tegu s o r C onv ic t T ang ( Man in i ) , A d io ryx X an thery thru s o r H awa i ian S q i r r e lf i sh (A la ih i ) ,a nd P r ia c an thus Meek i o r H awa i ian B igeye (Aweoweo )w e re s e l e c ted t o b e u sed i n t h e e xp er imen t s . T he h a rdne ss o f f i sh f l e sh w a s c l a ss if ied a s s of t , t h e h a rdne s s o ft h e f i sh b one a s m ed ium -ha rd . A st h ea u tho rd i dn o tw an tt oc on t r ibu te t ot h e

3 2

4 . 2 I nve s t iga t ion o fe dge d amage p r ior t o t he u se o f t he t oo l sf or e xper imen t s E ve ry u sab le e dge o ft h ee xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l akes w a s e xam ined u nd e r 2 0x , 5 0x , 1 00x , a nd /o r 2 00x magn if ica t ion . A N IKON p o la r iz ing OPT IPHOT -POL m ic ro scop e w i th r ef lec t ed l i gh t w a s u sed f o r t h e e xam ina t ion . T h is m ic ro s c ope w a s e qu ipped w i th ar o ta t ing s t age , s o t h a t t h e o b jec t d i d n o t h ave t ob e t o uched , i fn eeded t ot u rn t ob e t te r l i gh t c ond i t ion s . T h is w a s e spec ia l ly h e lp fu l w hen o bserv ing u n d e rh igh m agn if ica t ion , a st h e p o in to fi n ve s t iga t ion c ou ld b e h e ld f i xed . Av a r ie ty o f f i l t e r s w e r e a tt h e a u tho r s d i spo sa l , m o s t ly e mp loyed t os c reen t h e b r igh tne s s o ff i e ld s o f c r u sh i n g t owa rd s t h o se w i th l e s s l i gh t r e f lec t ive a t t r ibu tes . O n ly w i th t h is l i t t le t r i ck ,wa s i tp o s s ib le t o e xam ine t h e l a t te r f i e ld s c l o se ly . T he p owe r s ou rce w a s a1 2 V -5 0 W h a logen l amp a t tached t o t h e m ic ro scope (P ho to N o . 4 0 /4 1) . T he a pp l ied b u lb h ad 1 20 V -4 0 W i n ten s i ty . T he p ho to s w e r e t a ken w i th aN IKON FX 3 5 WA c ame ra . T he t ime o fe xpo s u r e w a s c on t ro l led a u toma t ica l ly b y aN IKON UFX I e x p o su r e m e t e r . T he a dd i t iona l l i gh t s ou rce s ho r tened t h e s hu t te r t ime f o r a bou t 6 -1 2 s econd s d epend ing o n t h e b r igh tnes s o f t h e o b jec t a nd t h e magn if i ca t ion emp loyed . E ven t h e s l igh te s t p r ev ious e dge d amage w a s n o ted (T ab le D) .T he d amaged p a r to ft h e t oo l wa sp ho tog raphed , (P ho to S e r ie s )a nd i t sp o s i t ion o n t h e f l ake w a s c i r c led o n as ke t ch o f t h e r e spec t ive f l ake (F igu r e 5 -7 ) . Twen ty two o f t h e h und red a nd t h ree f l akes w e r e p rev iou s ly d amaged , t h ree o f t h em s o h eavy t h a t t h ey h ad t o b e s o r ted o u t . T hese w e r e f l ake s 4 , 1 , a nd 7 6 . T hey s howed e i the r s t ep t e rm ina ted m ic rof lake s c a r s , h eavy c r u sh ing , a nd /o r s eve ra l c rack s o r n o tches . (P ho to sN o . 4 2 -4 3 )I n t h e f o l low ing t a b le a r e t h e t o o ls m en t ioned t h a td i sp layed s l igh tt oh eavy e dge d amage .

(P ho to 3 7 : O h ia -a ' lehua )

(P ho to 3 8 : O heohe H au )

fn

, . .

r i ) c u n ü c r s Z . , — . .

(P ho to 3 9 : K uku i )

(P ho tos 4 0 /4 1 : P ho tog raph ic a pp l iances )

3 4

T oo l 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 5 2 6 3 2 4 0 5 2 5 3 6 2 7 1 7 3 7 6 7 8 8 5 9 0 9 2 9 5 9 7

D amage

P ho t oN o . D raw ing N o . 1

S l i gh tc r u sh ing S m a l le dge f r ac tu re H eavy e dg ed amage ; seve ra lo ve r la pp ing s t ep t e rm in a t ed m i c ro f lake s c a r s ;c rack s S ma l lg r oove sa n dc r ack s H eavy e dg ed am age-c ru sh ing S l igh td amage -s m a l ln o tche s H eavy e dg ed am age ; seve ra ln a tu ra lr e touche s ; b u t as e c ond u n d i s tu rbed e dge S l igh td am age no t ch S l igh td amage no tch M ed ium d am ag eno tch a n dn a tu ra l re t ouch S l igh td am age no tch M ed ium d am age -t w on o tch e s S l igh td amag ere tou ch M ed ium d amage l i t t le n o tch i nt wo l a rge r n o tch e s S l igh td amage re touch H eavy e dg ed am age ; seve ra lo ve r la pp ing ; s tep t e rm in a ted m ic ro f l ake s c a r s S l igh te dge d amage -r e tou ch S l igh te dge d amage no tch M ed ium e dg ed amag e -n o tch a nd g r oove S l igh te dg ed amag eno t ch S l igh te dg ed amag eno t ch S l igh te dg ed amag eno tch

1 1 8 1 7

1 2 3

2 0 1 3 5

4 5 6 7

1 4 9 1 0 1 6 4 2 1 5

8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

7 1 9

1 5 1 6

2 1 3 6 2 1 8 1 2

1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2

T ab le D : E dge d amage o n e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake sp r io rt ou se

(P ho to 3 6 : C on tac t ma ter ia lk oa )

3 5

(P ho to 4 2 : H eavy p r ev ious e dge d amage )

(P ho to 4 3 : H eavy p r ev iou se dge d amage )

3 6

(P ho to S e r ie s : P r ev iou se dge d amage o fe xper imen ta l ly u sed f l ak e s)

3 7

7 3 7 / (F ig.

5 : F lake o utlines w ith l ocation o f e dge d amage ) 3 8

0

C D

3

a l

I

(F ig.

as

6 : F lake o utlines w ith l ocation o f e dge d amage )

3 9

E

3 l

s

S S 3 0

9 g (F ig.

7 : F lake o utlines w ith l ocation o f e dge d amage )

4 0

4 . 3E va lua t ion o ft he q ua l i ty a nd s u i tab i l i ty o ft he f l akes i nt e rms o fs aw ing a nd s crap ing e t c .

Of t en o b servab le w a s ad en t icu la t ion o f t h e t oo l e dge a f t e r u se . T h is w a s p a r t icu la r ly v i s ib le o n t o o ls u sed f o r p i g s k in a nd p i g f l e sh o r s i nuou s f l esh c u t t ing . P o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o r t h is , c ou ld b e t h e d i f f e ren th a rdne s s o ft h e c on ta c t ma t e r i a l s t h a t l e d t o p a r t ia l b reakage o r t h e d i spa ra t e p r e s su re d i s t r ibu t ion w h i le r i pp ing f l e sh a ga in s tt h et o o le dge .

a )S aw ing a nd c u t t ing o fb one A s ar u le , f l ake sw i th s ma l le re dge a ng les c u t a nd s aw b e t t e r t h an t hose w i th l a rge r a ng le s . R e s t r ic t ing f a c to r s t ot h e r u le a r e t h e t h ickne s s , w e igh t a nd d imen s ion s o f t h e r e sp ec t ive t o o l .I ft h et o o l sw e re t h in ,t h ey b roke o f ten ,e sp ec ia l ly u nd e r s t rong p r e s su r e . T he b r eakage d id n o t s e em t o e f f ec t t h e c u t t ing o r s aw ing a t tr ibu t es o ft h e t oo l s a sl o ng a st h ey w e r e l a rg ee nough t ob eh e ld c om fo r tab ly . T he m a jo ra dvan tage o f t h e e qua l t h inn e s s o ft h e b l ade , w a s t h e a b i l i ty t om ake e ven d eep c u t s i n to t h e b one , w h ich w a s i mpo s s ib le , w hen t h e c r o s ss e c t ion o ft h e t oo le n la rged . T he h eav ie r at oo l w a s ,t h e l e s s p r es su r e h ad t o b e a pp l ied , w h ich l e d t ol e s s b r eakage a nd a ss uch t o al onge ru se l if e o ft h et o o l . F lake s w i th e dge a ng le s r ang ing f r om 4 0 d eg r ee s t o 9 0 d eg rees w e r e a b so l u t e ly u n su i tab le f o r t h e c u t t ing a nd s aw ing p u rpo se . T hey e i the r s c ra t ched t h e b one m a t e r ia l o r c u t / saw o n ly a s ma l l g roove . When s t rong p r e s su r ew a sa pp l ied , i to f ten l e d t ot h e c r u sh ing o ft h eb one m a t e r ia l . E xcep t ion t ot h e r u le w a s t o o l F F COa 1 ,w i th a ne dge a ng le r a ng ing f r om 4 5 d eg r ee s t o5 5 d eg r ees . T h is t o o lh ad t h e a dvan tage t h a tt h et h ickne s s o ft h e c u t t ing e dge w a sc on s tan t , b u tt h e g r ip w a s t h ickened . T he se f e a tu r es m ade i ta lmo s t t o t h e u l t ima te c u t t ing a nd s aw ing t o o l , a s i tc ou ld b e a pp l ied w i th s t rong p r e s su r e w i thou t b r eak ing a nd b ecause o ft h e c on s ta n tt h ickn es s i tw a s a b le t o c u t / saw d eep ly .

S o f tt om ed ium p re s su r e s e emed t ob ea pp rop r ia te t oo b ta in a c a refu l c u t . S t rong p r e s su re t e nded t o r i p a nd f l a t t en t h e c on ta c t ma te r ia l , s o t h a t w e c an n o t s peak o f ac u t t ing p roc e s s . F i sh f l e sh d iv ided e a s i ly , a lmo s t w i thou t p r e s su re . P ig f l e sh a nd c h icken f l esh a r eo f at o ughe rc on s i s t ency a nd n eed s t ronge rp r es sure a sw e l la s as ha rpe rt oo le dge t ob ed i v id ed . T he s o f tne s s o f f i sh f l esh v e r su s p ig o r c h icken f l esh i sr e f l ec ted b y t h e d eg ree o f d u l lne s s o f t h e e mp loyed t oo l s a p p l ied t oc h icken o r p ig f l e sh d ef in i t e ly c u t s w o r se c au sed b y a t t r i t ion , t h e t oo ls u sed t o c u t u p f i sh f l e sh s e em n o t t ob e e f ec t ed f r om t h e c on ta c t ma te r ia l a t a l l . A f t e r 3 00 -350 s t roke s o r a bou t 4 -5 m inu te s o f c u t t ing p ig o r c h icken f l e sh mo s tt o o l sw e re b lun t ed .

c ) Wh i t t l ing o f wood

O n t h e a ve rag e , med ium p r e s su r e s e emed t ob e a pp rop r ia t e t oo b ta in ac a r efu l c u t . S t rong p r es su re t e nded t oc r u sh t h e c on ta c t m a t e r ia l , w ha t o f t en r e nde r ed t h e b one u se le s s f o r s ub sequen t w o rk ing p roce s se s . T h r ee m inu te s p i g /ch icken b one a nd f i ve m inu t e s f i sh b one c u t t ing w e r e t h e m ax imum t ime s pan s t h a t t h e t oo ls c ou ld b e e mp loyed b ef o r e b e ing a b so lu t e ly b l un ted , w hen u s ing t h e mo s t s u i tab le t o o ls . I n t h i s s pa ce o ft i me , t h e t o o ls c ou ld b e a pp l ied t ot h e w o rk ing m a te r ia l w i th 1 80 -2 40 s t roke s d epend ing o n t h e c on tac t m a t e r ia l . T he p ressu r e , r a the r t h an t h e v e lo c i ty , m ade a m ea su rab le d if e rence i nt h ed eg r ee o fb l un tnes s .

b )C u t t ing o ff l esh C u t t ing f l e sh a c tua l ly r e qu i r e s af a i r ly s ha rp t oo le dge . I ft h i s i sn o t g i ven , t h e f l esh w a s r a the rr i pped o fa ga in s tt h e f l ake e dge t h en c u t . U s ing t o o l F FS P5 7 ,f o re xamp le , t h e g ene ra l s hape o ft h e p roduc ing f l esh p a r t w a s n o tp r ed ic tab le , a st h e c u t t ing w a s n o t c on t ro l lab le . E sp ec ia l ly s ma l l b u t s ha rp f l ak es w e r eh i gh ly s u i tab le t oc u tu pf l esh e a s i ly . L a rge rt o o l s w e r e u sab le t oc u t s hee r f l e sh , b u t u se le s s t o d e f le sh b one c a r e fu l ly . I ft h e o n ly i n t en t ion w a s t o s e pa ra te f l e sh p a r t s r a p id ly , n eg lec t ing t h e o u t come , l a rge r t o o ls l i ke F F S P 9 5 w e r e mo s t s u i tab le . T he t r i angu la r s hap e a nd t h e w e igh t o f t h i s t oo l m ad e i tp o s s ib le t o c u t t h rough f l esh o r b one i n s e cond s . I ng ene ra l , t o o ls w i th e dge a ng le s u p t o5 0 d eg ree s w o rked b e s t , r e s t r ic t ed o n ly t h rough i n adequa te s i ze . F lake s w i th a ng le s l a rge r t h an 5 0 d eg r ees d id n o t w o rk a ta l l . T he j u s tr i pped t h ef l esh i nl i t t le p i eces .

4 1

T o w h i t t le wood e f f ec t ive ly , t h e w ood w o rke rh a s t os e lec t a f l ak e t h a t d i sp lays t h e f o l low ing a t t r ibu t es : T he f l ake h a s t o b e e x t r eme ly s ha rp a nd t h in , t oi n tr ude t h e w ooden m a t e r ia l e a s i ly a nd t o w h i t t le w i th l i t t le p r es su re . I th a s t o b e h a rd e nough , s ot h a t i td oe s n o tb reak i fs t uck a nd t h e w hen w ood w o rke r h a s t o w igg le t h e f l ake i n o rde r t o f r ee i t . O n o ne h and t h e t oo l h a s t o b e l a rge e nough , t o b e h and led c om f o r tab ly a nd l e ave s u ff i c ien t s pace f o r t h e c h ip s t o g l ide a l ong t h e t oo l s ur face . O n t h e o t he rh and , t h e l a rge s se o ft h e t oo l s hou ld n o t e f ec t t h e t h innes s e spec ia l ly t h e e x t r eme f o rwa rd e dge . I ft h e f o rwa rd e dge i ss ha rp t h en i td oe s n o t ma t t e r i ft h e t oo l c ro ss s e c t ion i st r iang le o r c on s tan t i n s hap e . E dge a ng les o f 3 0 -55 d eg r ees s e em t ob e mo s t s u i t a b le f o r w h i t t l ing p u rpo ses , w h i le s ma l le r a ng les , mo s t ly r e la ted t o t oo l t h inne s s a r e u n su i tab le a s t h e t oo l b r eak s . ( Exp . C F COa 1 6 )W ide r a ng les a r e i mp rop e r f o r w h i t t l ing , a s t h e t o o l t a kes o f t h e b a rk r a the r t h an g e t t ing i n to t h e w ood . ( E xp . F F COa 5 )I n o rde r t ow h i t t le w i th t oo ls w i th w ide ra ng les , s t ronge rp r es su re h a s t ob e a pp l ied w h ich l e ad s t oe a r ly b l un t ing . A n e xcep t ion t ot h e r u le i st oo l F F S P 9 9 w i th a n e dge a ng le o f 6 5 -75 . E x t r eme s ha rpne s s i st h e o n ly p l aus ib le e xp lana t ion f o ri t .T o w h i t t le b ranche s i tw a s f ound t ob e a dequa te t ou se t h ose f l ake s t h a t s howed an o tch i nt h e s ame s i ze t h an t h e d i ame te r o f t h e w h i t t led b ranch . U s ing s uch at o o l , t h e f i r s t w ood l a ye r o ft h e b ranch w a s t a ken o f q u ick ly . I ts e em s a pp rop r ia te t oc l ean t h e t oo l e dge o f t en , a s wood mu sh a dve r se ly a f f ec t s t h e c u t t ing p roper t ie s o f t h e t oo l . I tw a sa l so f ound , t h a te ven s l igh t ly s ea soned w ood w a s i mpo s s ib le t o w h i t t le w i th t h e f l akes . O n t h e a ve rage , m e d i um p r e s su re w a s s u ff ic ien t t o w h i t t le n on -sea soned w ood e a s i ly . S t rong p re s su re l e ad s t or ap id b lun tnes s a nd u nc lean w h i t t l ing . T he t oo ls w e r e b lun ted r e la t ive ly e a r ly i n t h e w h i t t l ing p rocess . Am ed ium o f 1 70 s t roke s b y t wo m inu t e s o fw h i t t l ing w a sm ea su red .T h i sr e la t ive ly l ow a ve rage s t roke n umbe r r e su l ted f r om t h e f a c t t h a t h a rd w ood w a s a lmo s t i mpo s s ib le t o w h i t t le , s o t h a t t h e t oo ls b l un ted e a r ly . When w h i t t l ing s o f t wood l i ke k u l cu i , t h e t oo ls w e r e b lun ted a f t e r 2 50 -300 s t rokes . (E xp .F FS P4 2 )

(P ho to 4 4 : A u tho rd e f le sh ing ac h icken )

(P ho to 4 5 : C lo se -up v i ew )

4 2

(P ho to 4 6 : A u tho rs aw ing k u l cu i)

(P ho to 4 7 : C lo se -up v i ew )

4 3

o ne a t al a t e ra l e nd o f t h e t oo l , d epend ing o n r i gh t o r l e f t h anded u se , t ob e h e ld w i th t h e t humb . T he t oo l s hou ld n o t b e s os ma l l t h a ti th u r t s t h e u se rw hen t h e f i nge rk nuck les h i t t h e c on tac t ma te r ia l . C ha ra c t er is t ica l ly f o r t h e t oo l s u sed f o r s c rap ing i s t h e b r eakage p ha se o f t h e f i r s t t wo o r t h r ee s t roke s . E ven tua l u nevenne s s o f t h e e x t reme f o rwa rd e dge a r e s moo thed s ot h a tt h e s o l id t oo l e dge h a s c on tac tw i th t h e w ooden s u r f ace . T he s ame p henomenon i so bse rvab le i ft h e t oo l i ss l igh t ly c onvex o rc oncave .

d )S aw ing o fw ood L a rge rt oo ls w e re n eeded t of u lf i l l as aw ing mo t ion o n w ood . T he f i r s t r ea son f o r t h i s i st h e f r equen t b r eakage o fp a r t s o f t h e t oo l e dge , w h ich l e t t h e f l ak e s h r ink r ap id ly . T he s e cond r e a son f o r t h i s i st h e i n c r ea s ing r i sk o f i n ju ry , e spec ia l ly t o t h ef i nger t ip s ,t h a tt h ew ood w o rke rh a s t of a ce w hen t h e t o o l b ecome s t oo s ma l l . A no the r n eces sa ry a t t r ibu te i st h a t t h e t oo lu sed f o rs aw ing p u rpo se s s hou ld d i sp lay af l a t ,d u l l s i de , o ppo s i t e t o t h e c u t t ing e dge . T h i s i se x tr eme ly i mpo r tan t i f t h e w ood w o rke rw an t s t oa vo id s e r iou s w ound s o ft h e f o r e f i nge r ,w h ich h a st ob eu sed t oa pp ly p r e ssu r e o nt h et oo l . O n o ne h and , t h e t o o l s hou ld b e t h in a nd s ha rp t o b i t e i n t h e w ood a nd c u t d eep ly , o n t h e o t he r h and , i ts hou ld b e h a rd e nough t o r e s is t e ven i mpe tuou s a t temp t s t o f r ee a s t uck t oo l .F lakes w i th ac on s tan tc r o s s s ec t ion s hou ld b e p r ef e r r ed t ot ho se w i th at r iangu la ro ne ,e ven i ft h el a t te ra r e s ha rpe r . I t s e em st ob er ea sonab le t h a t at o o l w i th c on s tan tc ro s s s e c t ion i sa b le t oc u t d eep ly i nt h e c on tac t ma t er ia l a nd m ay d i v ide i t ,a s o ne w i th at r iangu la r s h ap e w i l l s aw an o tch a nd g e t s t uck , w he r e t h e c r o s s s e c t ion o ft h e t oo l e n la rge s . T he re i s n o s pec ia l e dge a ng le t h a t w ou ld b e mo r e s u i tab le t h an a n o t he r o ne . I f af l ake s howed t h e a t t r ibu t es m en t ioned a bove , i tw a s a ccep tab le t ob e u sed a s as aw ing t o o l . I tw a s f ound t h a t f l akes a r e o n ly u seab le t od i v ide b ranche s u p t o t h r ee c en t ime te r s i nd i ame te r . T h icke r b ranches w e r e o n ly d i v i s i b l e w i th t h e "s aw ing a r ound "t e chn ique , a st h e c u t t ing e dge t h ickened s ot h a t an ew n o tch n ex to ro ppo s i t e t ot h e o ld o ne h ad t ob e s awed . S pec ia l p rom inence h a s t ob e g i ven t ot o o l C F COa 1 4 . T h i s t o o l w a s a pp l ied t o t h e e x t reme ly h a rd w ood o h ia 'a lehua w i th s l igh tp r e s su r e . I nc on t ra s tt o mo s to f t h e o the r t oo ls t h a t w e re a pp l ied t o h a rd c on ta c t ma t e r ia l s w i th s o f t o r m ed ium p re s su r e , t o o l CF COa 1 4 s awed w e l l a nd d eep .T he r e a sons c ou ld b ee xp la ined i nt h e t h innes s a nd s ha rpnes s o f t h e t o o l . T o ta l b l un tnes s w a s r e ached o n m e d i um -sof t ma te r ia l a f t e r 2 15 s t rokes b y 11 / 2 m inu tes . Me d i um t os t rong p r es su re w a s m o s tp rac t ica l t os aw q u ick a nd d eep ly . T he t o o li t se lf h ad t ob ec l eaned o f t en f r om t h e w ood mu sh a nd t h e s aw ing i n c is ion h ad t ob e c l eaned o u t w i th a f l ick ing mo t ion .

S ea soned w ood i sl e s sp rom i s ing t ow o rk w i th , a st h e a t temp t t o s c rap e t h e s l igh t ly s ea soned wood s pec imen h au s how s . (T oo l F F S P9 6 )A s l o ng a st h e p res su r e w a s i n c r ea sed , t h e h a rdne s so ft h e w ood i t se lf s e emed n o t t o ef ec t t h e s c rap ing a b i l i t ie s o ft h e f l ake s . T oo l BR S P 3 2 w a s a pp l ied t o' o h ia 'a l e hua w i th s t rong p r es su re a nd wo rked b eau t ifu l ly u n t i l i t w a s d u l l a f te r 4 12 s t roke s . T he a pp l ied p ressu r e s hou ld b e a d ju s t ed t ot h e h a rdne ss o f t h e c on ta c t ma te r ia l . T he h a rde r t h e w ood t h e s t ronge r s hou ld b e t h e a pp l ied p r essu r e . S l igh t p r es su r e i sd efm i te ly u nsu i tab le . T he t oo ls a r e b l un ted a t a bou t3 50 -4 00 s t roke sb y 3-4m inu t e s .

f )P lan ing o fw ood T he w o rk ing w ood w a s p repa red i nt h e s ame w ay a s i tw a s d one f o rt h e s c rap ing p roces s .T he f l ake w a s emp loyed t ot h e w ood c ompa rab le t o t h e f unc t ion o f a mode rn p l ane . A s s uch , t h e f l ake s hou ld d i sp lay t h e f o l low ing f e a tu r es . I t s hou ld b e l a rge e nough t o b e h e ld c omfor tab ly w i th t h e w ho le h and o rt h e f i nger t ip s o fb o th h and s . I ts hou ld b e d u l l a tt h e s i de w he re i ti sh e ld a nd s hou ld g ua ran t ee a n i n ju ry f r ee u se . A n e x t r eme t r iangu la r c ro s s -sec t ion a nd a f a i r ly s ha rp w o rk ing e dge a r e g ua ran tor sf o rs ucce ssfu lw o rk ing . T he p l aned c h ip s s hou ld b e a b le t o g l ide f r ee ly a l ong t h e u ppe r t o o l e dge s o t h a t l o ng a nd r egu la r c h ip s c an b e t a ken o f f .T oo l sw i th e dge a ng les u nder 3 5 d eg rees w e re a b so lu t e ly u n su i tab le f o r p l an ing p u rpo se a s t h ey b roke t h rough t h e t r an sve r se mo t ion , b ecaus e o f t h e i r t h innes s . S t ra igh t o r s l igh t ly c onvex w o rk ing e dge s wo rk b e s tw h i le c oncave o nes t e nd t oc u t t o o d eep i nt h e c on tac t ma te r ia l , s o t h a t t h e t oo l g e t s t uck . T he h eav ie r at oo l i s , t h e b e t t e r i tw o rk s , a nd t h e l e s sp r e s su r eh a st ob e a pp l ied ,a st h e t o o lF FS P9 3 s how s .

b )S crap ing o fw ood S c rap ing a s w e l l a s p l an ing r e qu i re s s p ec ia l p repa ra t ion o f t h e w o rk ing w ood . A s t h e i n t en t ion o f s c rap ing a nd p l an ing w ooden ma te r ia lw a sp robab ly t os moo th ,r e spec t ive ly p l ane , t h e s u r fa ce t h e a r t s a nd c r a f t s a nd t h e w ood h ad t ob e p r e w o rked . F i r s t t h e b a rk w a s t a ken of w i th a k n if e a nd b r anches t h en w e re r emoved . S econd ly t h e w ood w a s d i v ided i n to t h ree c en t ime te rt h ick s t r ip sw i th a n i r on s aw . T he s o p repa r ed w ood , w a s c on s ide r ed t oh ave t h e s ame p rope r t i e s o f ar aw w o rked c anoe o r s cu lp tu r e . T he s c rap ing t o o l i t s e lf s hou ld n o tb e t o o s ha rp , a sf o re xamp le t o o lF F S P 8 9 , s o t h a t i td oe s n o t c u t i n to t h e w ooden ma t er ia l . T oo l s w i th e dge a ng les u nde r 3 5 d eg ree s w e r e u n su i tab le f o r t h e s c rap i n g a s t h ey b roke t h rough t h e t r an sve r se mo t ion d ue t ot h e i r t h inne ss .T he mo s ta pp rop r ia t e s hape o f as c rap ing t o o l c ou ld b e d escr ibed a s s l igh t ly t r i angu la r i n t h e c ro s s sec t ion w i th t wo d u l l s i des .O ne d u l lp a r ts hou ld b e a tt h eo ppo s i t e s i de o f t h ec u t t ing e dge t ob ee nc lo sed w i th f ou rf i nge r s a nd a no the r

T he s l igh t ly s e a soned h au w ood w a s a lmo s t i mpo s s ib le t o p l ane ,o n ly af ew s p l in te rw e r e t a ken o f (E xp .F F COa 2 2 ) , w h i le t h e o t he r w ood s pec imen w e r e e a s i ly p l anab le . T he p u rpos e o fp l an ing i st og e t a n e ven s u r face e i the r t ob e f u r t h e rw o rked w i th t h e s c rap ing t oo l o rt ob e u sed i nt h i s s t age . Mo s t t o o l s f u lf i l l t h i s p urpo se , b u t w e re b lun ted a f te r 5 00 6 00 s t roke sb y 5-7m inu t es o f wo rk ing t ime .

4 . 4D e term ina t ion o ft he mo s tc onven ien ta ng le o fu se f or s crap ing ,c u t t ing ,e t c .i no rder t oa scer ta in t he p robab le t oo lu se o rt oe xc lude t oo ls f rom s pec ia l f unc t ions . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r , t h is p a r t s ha l l e s tab l i sh a t h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk f o rt h e c l a s s if ica t ion o ff l ake st os pec ia l f unc t ion s b ecause o ft h e i ra t t r ibu t es c ons ider ing a l so c l ea r ly r e cogn iz -

4 4

a b le u se -wea rp a t te r n s . T h is f r amewo rk s ha l le nab le t oa s ce r t a in t h e p o s s ib le u se o f f l ake s f o r d ef inab le p u rpo ses a nd u nde rs pec ia lc on s ide ra t ion o fu se -wea rt h e i ra c tua lu s e .

a )S aw ing a nd c u t t ing o fb one ,f i sh o rw ood T he s i gn if icance o ft h is w o rk i st h a t t h e e s tab l i sh ing a ng le o f t h e w o rked m a t e r ia l , r a the r t h en t h e f l ake a ng le , d e t erm ine s t h e a ng le o fs k ew o ru se . I ft h e o n ly i n ten t ion i st oc u t am a t e r ia l , t h e t o o l w i l l b e h e ld p erpend icu la r t o t h e w o rk ing o b jec t . T h is i se spec ia l ly t r ue w hen c u t t ing b one o r w ood . F l e sh , a s ar u le , w i l l a l so b e c u t w i th at oo l h e ld i n a9 0 d e g r ee s a ng le t owa rd s t h e c u t t ing o b jec t . A n e xcep t ion i st h e a t t emp tt od e f le sh ab one . I nt h i sc a se t h e t oo l w i l lb eh e ld i n s u ch aw ay t h a ti tg e t s mo s t a cce ss t ot h e c u t t ing p a r t a nd , a s f l e sh w i l l n o t h u r t t h e t oo l u s e r s f i nge r s , w hen a pp ly ing t h e t o o lw i th v a r iou sa ng le s .C ommon a t t r ibu te so fs uch t oo ls a r e t h e e x t reme s ha rpness , as ma l l e dge a ng le , a nd , e xcep t f o r f l e sh , t h e l a rge s i ze . T he se v ague a t t r ibu te s a low n o te ven a g ue s s o ft o o l u s e w i thou t ac au t ious e xam ina t ion o ft h e u se w ea r . I ft h eu s e -wea ra na ly s is s how sr ound ing o ft h e e x t r em e f o rwa rd e dge a nd s moo th ing o rp o l ish o ft h e d o r sa l a nd v en t r a l a spec t s o ft h e t oo l , t h en i tw a s p robab ly u sed f o r s aw ing o rc u t t ing . F l e sh c u t t ing c an b e s uppo sed t h rough ad en t icu l a t ion t yp ica lf o rt oo ls u sed t oc u tf l e sh w i th ar i pp ing mo t ion a ga in s tt h et o o le dge .

b ) Wh i t t l ing o fw ood N o t o n ly f o r c u t t ing a nd s aw ing t h e a ng le o fu se i so f g r ea t i mpo r tance , b u t a l so f o r t h e w h i t t l ing a b i l i t ie s o f at oo l . A m ean a ng le o f 5 0 -6 0 d eg ree s w a s e s tab l i shed t o b e mo s t s u i tab le f o r t h e w h i t t l ing p u rpo se . T h is a ng le o fs kew a l low s t h e w o rke r t ow h i t t le t h e c on ta c t ma te r ia l e a s i ly , w h ich i m p l ie s an o tt od eep c u ti no rde rt ot a ke o f fl o ng c h ip s w i thou t h u r t ing h i s /he r f i nger s . A s s ugge s ted i n s e c t ion 1 . 2 , h a f t ing o ft h e t oo l s m ay h ave b een ap o s s ib le w ay t ou se t oo ls w i th s ma l le ru se a ng les o r e ven t oo ls w i th n o rma l ly i n app rop r ia t e e dge a ng les . T he t yp ica l o u tcome o f t h e u se o f f l ake s w i th s ma l le r e dge a ng les a nd a n u nf i t t ing s ma l l a ng le o f s kew i s i mmed ia te b r eakage a nd i n ju r ies o f t h e t h umb . When t h e a ng le o f s k ew i st oo l a rge , ad eep c u t w i th b r eakage i st h e c on sequence . T he c ommon r e su l t o f t h e u se o f f l ake s w i th w ide re dge a ng les a nd a ni n app rop r ia t e s ma l la ng le o fs kew

4 5

i s amo r e s c rap ing t h en w h i t t l ing mo t ion . Aw ide r a ng le o f s k ew c an o n ly s c ra tch t h e m a t e r ia l a nd m aybe t a k e o f f t h e s o f t b a rk . E xcep t iona l ly u sefu l f o r t h e w h i t t l ing , a r e t h o se t oo ls w i th an o t ch o r c oncave c ur va tu re t h a t s u i t s t h e w h i t t l ing b ranch . S uch a t o o l i sa pp l icab le w i th e ven a s t eep e r a ng le o f s k ew a nd , i ft h e t o o l i sl a rge e nough w i th ac o r r e s pond ing ly s ma l le ra ng le I ng ene ra l , t o o ls w i th a ne dge a ng le o f3 0 -5 5 d eg rees , h e ld t owa rd s t h e o b jec t i na na ng le o f5 0 -6 0 d eg ree s , a r e a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e w h i t t l ing p u rpo se . U se w ea r c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f at o o l u sed f o r w h i t t l ing a r e t h e r ounded f o rwa rd e dge , a nd t h e e x t en s ive f i e ld o f s moo th ing o rp o l i sh a l ong t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e t oo l t h a th ad p e rmanen t c on ta c t t o t h e c on tac t m a t e r ia l , a nd t h e s t r ia t ion o r i n te r r up t ed f i e ld so fp o l i sh o nt h ev en t ra l s i de .

c )S crap ing , and p lan ing w ood A l though w ood s c rap ing a nd p l an ing s ha l l f u lf i l l t h e s ame p u rpo se ,t h a ti st os moo th t h e c on tac tm a t e r ia l , t oo ls u sed f o r t h i s a r e h e ld i nd i f f e r en t a ng les t owa rd s t h e w ooden s u r fa ce . Wh i le s c rap ing i sp o s s ib le w i th a n a ng le o f s k ew o f4 0 -5 0 d eg r ee s , p l an ing s hou ld b e d one w i th au se a ng le o f 0 -2 0 d eg r ee s i no rde r t oo b ta in t h e b e s tr e su l t s . Wh i le t h e p l an ing t oo l w i l l b e p u shed , t h e s c rap ing t oo l w i l l b e d rawn o ve r t h e c on tac tm a t e r ia l . A s s u ch , a l so t h e o b ser vab le u se -wea rc ha r a c te r i s t ic s a r e d if e r en t . T he f l ak e e mp loyed f o r ap l an ing mo t ion s how s , s im i la rt ot h e w h i t t l ing t oo l , a n e x tended f i e ld o f s moo th ing o r p o l i sh o n t h e d o r sa l s i de a nd s t r ia t ion o r i n te r rup t ed f i e ld s o fp o l i sh o n t h e v en t ra l s i de c au sed b y t h e p l an ed c h ip s . T he f o rwa rd e dge i sr ounded . A d i s t inc t ion b e tween a w h i t t l ing a nd a p l an ing t oo l i sd oab le t h rough e x t en s ion m ea su r emen t s o f t h e p o l i shed f i e ld o n t h e d o r sa l s i de (t h e b igge r , t h e mo r e p robab le a p l an ing t o o l ) ,t h e g ene ra l s hape o f t h e t o o l (t r iang u la r c r o s s sec t ion f o r p l an i n g t o o l s ) ,a nd t h e e dge a ng le o ft h e t o o l (o ve r 5 0 d eg r ee s d ef in i t e ly a p l an ing t o o l ) .T he s c rap ing t oo l , o n t h e o t he r h and , s how s p o l ish o n ly o n t h e v en t ra l s i de a ccompan ied b y ar ounded f o rwa rd e dge . I ng ene ra l t oo l s w i th e dge a ng les o f 3 5 -7 0d eg ree s f o rs c rap ing a nd 4 0 -9 0 d eg rees f o rp l an ing , h e ld i na n a ng le o f 4 0 -5 0 d eg ree s r e spec t ive ly 0 -2 0 d e g r ee s t owa rd s t h e o b jec t , a r e a pp rop r ia t e f o r t h e s c rap ing r e sp ec t ive ly p l an ing p u rpo se .

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V . H IGH AND LO W PO WER USE - WEAR ANALYSIS OF EXPER I MENTAL BASALT TOOLS

5 . 1 I n troduc tory r emark s E ven t h ough t h e a na ly s i s o f o bs e rved m ic rowea r o n e xper i men ta l b a sa l t t oo ls , e s tab l ished b y R icha rd s i n 1 989 , i sf a r mo re e x t ended t han t h e p r esen t e xam ina t ion , i ts e em s t ob e a pp rop r ia t e t o u se a tl e a s t t h e s ame o r as im i la r r e co rd ing me thod .A na s s im i la t ion i nt h e r e co rd ing me thod w ou ld h ave t h e a dvan tage o f e a sy c ompa r i son a nd q u ick d e tec t ion o f a b su rd i t ies . I n t h e f o l low ing , t h e r e ade r w i l l f i nd ad esc r ip t i ve e nume ra t ion o f m ic ro f lake s ca r s (d ef ined b y R icha rd s 1 989 :61 ) ,e dge r ound ing ,p o l ish , s t r ia t ion , a nd d en t icu la t ion o ft h e 1 03 u sed t oo ls . A tt h ee nd o fe ve ry u se -wea re xam ina t i on t h e r e w i l l b e ac ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s w i th p r ev iou s ly d one r e sea r ch .

M ic ro f lak e s ca r s : O n ly f ew m ic ro f lake s ca r sw e re o bservab le a nd t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h em w e r e s ma l l i ns i ze (7 5 % ) .S nap ( 50 % )a nd f e a the r (5 0 % )s ca r s a r e t h e t wo mo s tc ommon m ic ro f lake t e rm ina t ion t yp e s . T he d o r sa l , a sw e l l a st h e v en t r a l s i d e , d i sp layed m ic rof lake s c a r s i n a lmo s t e qua l n um b e r s . T he s c a r c onf igu ra t ion i sa lway s s ca t te red i ndep enden t o nt h eh a rdne s so ft h ec on tac tm a t e r ia l . E dge r ound ing : T he e dge s a r e e i the r u nmod if ied o r s l igh t ly r ounded . P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : D o r sa l a nd v en t ra l e dg e s moo th ing a r e a lway s d e tec tab le . D epend ing o n t h e c u rva tu r e a nd t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e t o o l t h e p o l i sh i se i the r c on t inuou s o r s c a t t e red a l ong t h e e dge , b u t a lway s p i t t ed . T oo l F F S P 1 00 d i sp lays a n a r ea o f h eav i ly d eve loped p o l i sh o n p a r t s o f t h e v en tra l s i de o f t h e t oo l . T he p o l i shed a r ea s a r e u sua l ly a l ong t h e c u t t ing e dge .

T he r e ade r i s s t rong ly a dv ised t o c onsu l t t h e a ppend ixe s A+B w he r e t h e d esc r ibed m ic rowea ri sc omp le t e ly t a bu la ted a nd s om e i l us t ra t ion so ft h ee xper im en ta lt oo l sa r ep rov ided .

5 .2 G reen p lan ts (s ma l lb ranche s) S t r ia t ion : O n ly t o o l F F S P 1 00 s how s s t r ia t ion o n s ome o f t h e a r ea s o fh eavy p o l i sh . T hese s t r ia t ion s w e re o n ly v i s ib le u nde r am agn if ica t ion o f a tl e a s t x2 50 . T he o r ien ta t ion o f t h e s t r ia e i sp r inc ipa l ly p a ra l le l t ot h ee dge .T he s t r ia t ions a r e s ho r t ,n a r row ,a nd n o tv e ry d eep .

Two t o o ls w e re u sed o n s ma l lb ranche sa nd l e aves o f' o h ia 'a l e hua , h au , a nd l c uku i . (T oo ls F F S P 1 00 , F F S P 4 5 )T he l e ave s a nd s ma l l b ranche s w e r e t a k en of o f t h e w ood t h a t w a s a cqu i red f r om t h eF o s te r B o t an ica l G a rden s . T he f l ake s w e r e e mp loyed w i th t h e r i gh t h and , w h i le t h e l e f t o ne h e ld t h ec u t t ing b ranches r e sp ec t ive ly l e ave ss ot h a tt h ec on tac t

D en t icu la t ion : T he d en t icu la t ion o f t h e f o rwa rd e dge i si n -

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D en t icu la t ion : B ecause o f t h e e x t reme s t ra in o f t h e b a sa l t ic m a ter ia l a nd t h e e a r ly d eve loped b lun tne s s , n o d en t icu la t ion w a sr e co rded .

t e rm i t ted a nd s ha l low a st h e t oo l s s e ldom ly h i tc on ta c t m a t e r i a l p a r t so fd i f f e r en th a rdne s s ,a sf o re xamp le k no t -ho le s . C ompa r i son : T he h i gh ly r ef lec t ive p o l i sh o b served f r om O de l l a nd O de l l -Ve r ecken ( 1 980 :114 -115 )a nd R icha rd s ( 1 989 :70) w a s n o t r e co rded i nt h e p r esen t s t udy . T h is m ay b e c au sed b y t h e e x t r eme d i f f e r en t t ime o ft oo l e mp loymen t . I n t h e p r e sen t s t udy , t h e t o o l u s e w a s p robab ly t o s ho r t t o d eve lop s u ch ar e f lec t ive p o l i sh a nd a l so t h e c on tac tm a t e r ia l i sn o t a b so lu te ly c ompa rab le . O ve ra l l , t h e o b ta ined r e su l t s c on f i rm R icha rd si n ve s t iga t ion .

C ompa r i son : C on t ra ry t oK annn inga 's (1 978 :151-156 , 5 44 5 45 )d e t ec t ed p redom inan t l a rge s nap s c a r s , w i th s ma l le r s c a r s w i th in t h em , t h e p r e sen t s t udy c onf i rm s R icha rd s ( 1 989 :76 )o b se rva t ion s o f c ommon h i ng e a nd s t ep m ic ro f l ake s ca r r ing . A c on t rad ic t ion , o n t h e o t he r h and , i st h e p rom inen tb r igh t s moo th tex tu r ed ,b u t s e ldom ly p i t ted p o l i sh t h a t i s r a re a nd mo s t ly p i t ted i n R icha rd s i n ves t iga t ion . G ra iny - t e x tu red d u l l p o l ish i sa lmo s t a b s en t i nt h e p r e sen t s t udy , b u tc ommon i nR icha rd s . N e i the r Mon tgome ry ( 1979 ) n o r K a rmn inga ( 1 978 ) d e tec ted s t r ia t ion . R icha rd s ( 1989 :76 ) f ound p o ss ib le s t r ia t ion , w h i le t h e a u tho r s e es s t r ia t ion a sc ha rac ter iza t ion o fb one c u t t ing a nd s aw ing .

5 . 3 .1 Un soaked b one s aw ing Twe lve b a sa l t t oo ls (T oo l s F F COa 1 ,C F COa 1 5 , F F COa 1 8 ,F F COa 8 ,F FS P7 3 ,C F COb 2 ,F FS P7 8 , C FS P5 8 ,F F S P 9 8 , F F S P 5 7 , F F S P 1 02 , a nd F F S P 4 6 )w e r e u sed t o s aw f r e sh ,u n soaked p i g ,f i sh ,a nd c h icken b one f o r 1t o 41 / 2 m inu t e s b y 7 1 t o 3 15 s t roke s . T he b one s w e r e p r ev iou s ly d ef leshed f r om a l l f l e sh , s i new s , a nd s ma l le r b one s . T hey w e r e p l a ced o n ac u t t ing b oa rd a nd h e ld w i th t h e l e f t h and . T he t oo l w a s v igo rous ly d r awn b ack a nd f o r th w i th m ed ium t os t rong p r e s su r e .

5 . 3 .2 C ooked b one s aw ing Two t oo ls (F F S P 9 0 a nd B F S P 1 0 1 )w e r e u sed t o s aw c ooked f i sh a nd p ig b one s f o r 2m inu t e s b y 1 64 t o 1 79 s t roke s . T he p i g b one w a s p r ev ious ly d ef l e shed , w h i le t h e f i sh w a s c u t / sawed t h rough f l esh a nd b one . B o th c on ta c t m a ter ia ls w e r e p l aced o n ac u t t ing b oa rd a nd h e ld l i ke t h e p r ev iou s ly d esc r ibed u n soaked b ones . Med ium p res su re w a s s u f f ic ien t f o r f i sh , w h i le s t rong p ressu r e w a s an eces s i ty f o r t h ep ig b one .

M ic rof la l ce s ca r s : A l though s ma l l i n s i ze , s eve ra l h i nge (4 0 ,2 % )a nd s t ep (4 2 ,4 % )s c a r s w e r e d e tec tab le , w h i le s nap term ina t ed s ca r s w e r e s e ldom (9 , 2 % ) ,b u t l a rge i n s i ze . F ea the r s ca r s a r e u ncommon (8 , 1 %) .T he d o r sa l s i de s how s s l igh t ly mo r e m ic rof la l ce s c a r s t h en t h e v en t ra l o ne , a nd t h e s c a r c on f igu ra t ion i sa lway s s c a t te r ed d ue t o t h e s ma l l n umbe r s o fs ca r s o n e a ch t o o l , o n t h e a ve rage a bou t 7 p e rt oo l .

M ic ro f la l ce s ca r s : T he t oo l e mp loyed t of i sh f l e sh a nd b one d i sp layed ma in ly h inge (6 0 % )a nd s nap (4 0 % )s ca r s i n t h e a b sence o ff e a the r a nd s t ep s ca r s , w h i le t h e t oo l u sed f o r p i g b one c u t t ing s howed m a in ly s nap (3 0 % )a nd s t ep (4 0 % )s ca r s , w h i le h inge s c a r s (2 0 % )w e r e s e ldom a nd f e a the r o ne s (1 0 % )r a re . T he p resen t s c a r s w e re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he v en t ra l s i de o ft h e t o o l s how s s l igh t ly mo r e m ic ro f l ake s ca r r ing t h en t h e d o r sa l , a nd t h e c onf ig u ra t ion o f t h e s c a r si sa lway s s c a t te red p robab ly d ue t ot h es ma l l n umbe ro f s c a r so ne ach t o o l .

E dge r ound ing : T he e dges a r e mo s t ly w o rn o u t t o a b so lu t e b l un tnes s . O n ly t h e m ed ium h a rd c on ta c t ma t e r ia l f i sh b one l e ads t om ed ium a nd s l igh tr ound ing . P o l ish /Smoo th ing : T he d o r sa l , a s w e l l a s t h e v en t ra l e dge a spec t , i ss t rong ly p o l ished o ve r t h e w ho le l e ng th o f t h e c u t t ing e dge . E spec ia l ly w hen c u t t ing / saw ing t h e h a rde s t o f t h e b one s , p i g b one , p o l i sh i sh eav i ly d eve loped . T he p o l i sh i sb r igh t ,e x t r eme s moo th tex tu red a nd s e ldom ly p i t t ed . O n ly o n s ome t o o ls u sed o nf i sh b one , p i t t ed p o l ish i so b ser vab le . G ra iny t ex tu red d u l l p o l i sh w a s o n ly t w ice d e tec tab le , b o th t imes o nt o o l su sed f o rc h icken b one s aw ing /cu t t ing .

E dge r ound ing : T oo l F F S P 9 0 s how s s l igh t e dge r ound ing w h i le t oo l BF S P 1 0 1 i ss t rong ly r ounded d o e t ot h e e x t r eme u se c ond i t ion s . P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : P o l ish i s n ea r ly c on t inuous a l ong t h e d o r sa l a sw e l l a st h e v en t ra l e dge a spec t s o ft o o l BF S P 1 0 1 a nd i n term i t ted b y t oo l F F S P 9 0 . T he p o l i sh i sb r igh t a nd e x t r eme s moo th tex tu red , s h iny , a nd s e ldom ly p i t ted . P i t t ed , g ra iny tex tu red , a nd d u l l p o l i shed t oo l p a r t s a r e p resen t o n t h et oo lu sed f o rf i sh f l esh a nd b one c u t t ing .

S t r ia t ion :D ef in i te s t r ia t ion s s i tua t ed p a ra l le l t ot h e c u t t ing e dge o ft h e t o o ls w e r e a lway s o b served o nt oo ls e mp loyed t o p i g b one . I te x tended a l ong t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l s i de o ft h e e n t i re c u t t ing e dge . I tw a s s e ldom ly i n te rm i t ted . T he s aw i n g /cu t t ing o f f i sh b one d eve lop ed a lmo s t n o s t r ia t ion . A n e xcep t ion i st oo l C F COb 2t h a ts how s s t r ia t ion o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o f t h e t oo l p robab ly c au sed w h i le h i t t ing t h e c u t t ing b oa rd . T he d eve lopmen t o f s t r ia t ion o n t h e t oo ls a pp l ied t o c h icken b one i sd ep enden t o n t h e s i ze o f t h e b one . Sma l le r b ones t e nd t ol e ave f ew a nd s c a t te r ed s t r ia t ion w h i le l a rge r b ones d eve lop e x tended a nd c l ea r ly v i s ib le u se -wea r . A l l t h e s t r ia t ion w a sv i s ib le u nde r amagn if i ca t ion o fx 150 -2 00 .

S t r ia t ion : E ven u nder h igh m agn if ica t ion (x 250 - 3 00 ) , s t r ia t ion w a s o n ly d e tec tab le o n t oo l B F S P 1 0 1 . T he s t r ia t i on i ss i tua ted p a ra l le l a nd u n in t erm i t t ed ly e x tended a l ong t h ec u t t ing e dge . D en t icu la t ion : T he e x t reme t o o l a b ra s ive c on ta c t m a t e r ia l b l un ted t h e f l akes r ap id ly s o t h a t n o d en t icu la t ion c ou ld b e d eve loped .

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C ompa r ison : N o c ompa ra t ive e xp er imen t w i th b a sa l t ic m a t e r ia l i sk nown .

S t r ia t ion : A b sen t D en t icu la t ion : A b sen t C ompa r ison : T he a u tho ri so ft h eo p in ion t h a tR icha rd s (1 989 :85 -86 )o n ly f ound u s e -wea r o n h i s t oo ls b ecause o f t h e u sage o fv i t r eous b a sa l ta nd t h e o cca s iona l c on tac t o ft h e t o o l w i th b on e a nd s k in p a r t s . I nt h e p resen t s t udy t h e d if e r e nce b e tween a nu nused a nd a n a c tua l ly a pp l ied t oo l w a s n o t d i sce rn ib le .

5 . 4 .1 S l ic ing w ho le f i sh Two b a sa l t t o o l s (F F S P 4 9 , C F COa 1 9 )w e r e u sed t oc u t u p f r e sh f i sh . I n ac u t t ing / s l ic ing mo t ion ,f l e sh , b ones , s ca le s a nd s k in w e r e c u t t h rough . T he e l ap s ed t im e o f t h e e xpe r i m en t s w a s 1r e spec t ive ly 2 m inu t e s b y 9 4 a nd 1 32 s t roke s . T he a pp l ied p r e ssu re v a r ied f r om m ed ium t os t rong . T he f i sh w a sp l aced o n ac u t t ing b oa rd , s e cu r ed w i th t h e l e f th and a nd c u ti nt h ep r ev ious ly d esc r ibed w ay .

5 . 4 .3 D e f le sh ing f i sh b one Two t o o ls (C F COa 6 ,C F COa 3)w e r eu sed t od ef le sh f i sh b one c a refu l ly w he r eby o cca s iona l c on ta c t o ccu r red . T oo l a nd f i sh w e r e a lway s h e ld i nt h a t w ay t h a t t h e b one w a s e a s i l y a cces s ib le . T he c u t t ing b oa rd w a s n eve r h i t . T he e l apsed t ime r a nged f r om 11 / 2t o 5m inu te sb y7 9 -2 51 s t rokes .

M ic ro f lake s c a r s : S nap (5 5 ,6 % )a nd h i nge (3 3 ,3 % )s ca r s w e re t h e m a in o bservab le u se -wea r c ha ra c te r is t ics o n b o th t o o ls . F ea the rt e rm ina t ed s c a r s (1 ,1 % )w e r e r a re , a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed s ca r s w er e n o t p r e sen t . T he s c a r s w e r e s ma l l i n s i ze a nd s c a t te red , d ue t o t h e i r s ma l l n umbe r . O n ly o ne r n ic rof lake s c a ro ver lapped a no the r o ne o n t oo l CF COa 1 9 . T he r e a r e s l igh t ly mo r e s ca r so n t h e v en t ra l s i de o ft h e t oo l s t h en o nt h ed o r sa l o nes .

M ic rof lake s c a r s : T he r e la t ive ly "h igh "a moun t o f m ic ro f l ake s c a r s i se xp la inab le o n ly t h rough t h e c on tac t ing o f t h e f i sh b one . A l though s ma l l i ns i ze , s t ep (5 0 % )a nd f ea the r ( 4 1 ,7 % )t e rm ina t ed s ca r s a r e d om inan t o n t h e t oo ls , wh i le h inge (8 , 3 % )s c a r s a r e u ncommon a nd s nap s ca r s a r e a bso l u t e ly a b sen t .T he s ca rc on f igu ra t ion i sa lway s s ca t te red .

E dge r ound ing : S l igh tr ound ing o ft h e e x t r eme f o rwa rd e dge i sd i scern ib le . P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : A s c ou ld b e s e en i n s e c t ion 5 . 3 .2 f i sh b one a nd f l e sh l e aves g ra iny t ex tu red , p i t t ed , a nd d u l lp o l ish . T he p o l i sh i se xc lus ive ly l o ca t ed o nt h et o o le dge

E dge r ound ing : T he e x t reme f o rwa rd e dge a nd p a r t s o f t h e d o r sa l ,r e spec t ive ly v en t ra l s i d ea r e s l igh t ly r ounded .

S t r ia t ion : A b sen t

P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : D o r sa l a nd v en t ra l e dge s moo th ing i sn o t a lway s d e tec tab le a nd i fs o t h en i ti si n t e rm i t t ed a nd h a rd ly p e r cep t ib le . T he p o l i sh i sg ra iny tex tu r ed , mo s t ly p i t ted a nd o f d u l l a ppea rance . T he p o l i shed a r ea s a r e e xc lu s ive ly l o c a t ed n ea rt h ef o rwa rd e dge o ft h et o o l .

D en t icu la t ion : T oo l F F S P 4 9 d i sp lay s i n te rm i t ted a nd s ha l l ow d en t icu la t ion o ft h e e x t r eme f o rwa rd e dge , w h i le t oo l C F COa 1 9s how sn one . C ompa r ison : C on t ra ry t oO de l l a nd O de l l -Ve r eecken ( 1980 ) a nd R icha rd s (1 989 :85 )t h e p r e sen t s t udy s how s s nap a nd h inge t e rm ina t ed s ca r s , a sb yf a rt h e mo s tc ommon t y pe w i th l e s se r a moun t s o ff ea the r t e rm ina ted s c a r s . Wh i le Ode l l a nd O de l l -Ve r eecken s aw o ve r lapp ing f e a the r a nd h inge t e rm i n a ted m ic ro f lake s ca r s ,a s m a in c ha rac te r is t ic , R icha rd s e x p e r imen t s e mpha s iz e f e a the r t e rm ina t ed s c a r s w i th c ommon s t ep a nd f ew h inge s ca r s .

S t r ia t ion : A b sen t D en t icu la t ion : S u rp r is ing ly ,t o o l C F COa 3s how s o n p a r t s o f t h e e dge d eep d en t icu la t ion e ven t hough t h e c u t t ing b oa rd w a s n eve r h i t . T h is i so n ly e xp la inab le t h rough t h e r e la t ive e dge t h inne s s o f t h e t o o l , t h a t c aused e dge b reakage e ven t h ough t h e c on ta c t m a t e r ia l w a s s of t . T oo l CF COa 6 d i s p l ay si n t erm i t t ed a nd s ha l low d en t icu la t ion . C ompa r i son : N oc ompa ra t ive a na ly s is a r ek nown .

5 . 4 .2 S l ic ing f i sh f l esh F ou rb a sa l t t o o ls (T oo l s B F COa 2 3 , F F S P 4 3 , BR S P 7 7 , a nd F F S P 5 2 )w e re u sed t o s l i ce f r e sh f l esh i n to f i l le t s . C on tac t w i th b one , s k in , o r t h e c u t t ing b oa rd w a s s t r ic t ly a vo ided . S o f t t o med ium p r e s su r e w a s a pp l ied . T he c u t t ing t ime w a s 1-2 1 / 2m inu te sb y 17 t o2 11 s t rokes .

5 . 4 .4 S l ic ing c ooked f i sh f l e sh O n e b a sa l t t o o l (BR S P 6 6 )w a s e mp loyed t oc ooked f i sh f l e sh w i th ac u t t ing / s l ic ing mo t ion . T he f i sh b one w a s p rev i o u s ly r emoved a nd t h e c u t t ing b oa rd w a s o n ly n i cked af ew t ime s b y t h e t o o l . T he d u ra t ion o f t h e e xp er imen t d id n o t e xceed 3 m inu t e s b y 1 87 s t roke s . Med ium p res su re w a s a pp l ied .

M ic ro f lake s ca r s : E xcep t f o r t o o l BR S P 7 7 , w he r e o ne f e a the r t e rm ina ted s ca r w a s f ound , n o r n ic ro f la l ce s ca r s w e r e d i scern ib le .

M ic rof lake s c a r s : A b sen t E dge r ound ing : A bsen t E dge r ound ing : A b sen t P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : Ab sen t P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : A b sen t

5 3

S t r ia t ion : A b sen t

5 . 5 .2 S l ic ing c ooked f l e sh

D en t icu la t ion : A b sen t

T oo l F F COa 1 0 w a s e mp loyed t o p r ev iou s ly c ooked p ig f l esh . T h i sf l e sh w a s o b ta ined f r om t h e s upe rma rke ti n an on f r ozen s t a t e . T he f l e sh w a sc ooked f o ra bou t3 0m inu te s . T he f l esh p a r t s a s w e l l a s s i newy p a r t s h ad t ob e d iv ided i n a s l ic ing mo t ion . A su sua l t h e c on tac tm a t e r ia l w a s p l a ced o n a c u t t ing b oa rd a nd h e ld w i th t h e l e f t h and . I tw a s c a r efu l ly a vo ided t oc on tac tt h e b oa rd i no rde rt oa t ta in c o r rec tr e su l t s . T he d u ra t ion o f t h e e xpe r imen t w a s 3m inu te s b y 2 54 s t rokes . Med ium p re ssu r e w a sa pp l ied .

C ompa r i son : N oc ompa ra t ive a na ly s i si sk nown

5 . 5 .1 S l ic ing f l e sh S ix b a sa l t t oo ls w e re u sed t oc u t / s l ice f r esh c h icken a nd p ig f l e sh . T he t oo ls (C F S P 4 1 , C F S P 8 1 , F F S P 3 , F F S P 5 5 a nd F F COa 1 7 )w e r e a pp l ied w i th m ed ium t os t rong p re s s u r e . T he c on ta c t m a te r ia l w a s mo s t ly p l aced o n aw ooden c u t t ing b oa rd o r h e ld f r ee ly w i th t h e l e f t h and . T he b oa rd i t se lf w a s s e ldom ly h i t , s o w e r e b one o r s k in p a r t s . T he e l ap sed t ime o fe ve ry e xpe r imen t v a r ied f r om 1 / 2 t o 5m in u t es , s uf ic ien tt ime t os t roke 4 1 t o3 25 t ime s .

M ic rof lake s ca r s : S t ep t e rm ina ted (5 0 % )a r e mo s tf r equen t , a nd f e a the r (2 5 % )a nd s nap (2 5 % )t e rm ina ted s c a r s , a l so s how e qua l n umbe r s . H inge s ca r s a r e a b sen t . D ue t o t h e s ma l l a moun t o f d e tec tab le s ca r s , t h i s r e su l t s hou ld b e s e en c r i t ica l ly , a s o ne o t he r m ic ro f lake s c a r c ou ld a l te r t h e o u t c ome i mmen se ly . T he o b served s ca r s a r e s ma l l i n s i z e a nd s ha l low i n a pp ea rance . T he s ca r c onf igu ra t ion i s a lway s s ca t te r ed ,d ue t ot h e s ma l ln umbe ro fs c a r s .

M ic ro f lake s ca r s : S u rp r i s ing ly h i gh a moun t s o f m ic rof lake s ca r s w e r e d e t ec t ed , i nt h e c ou r se o f w h ich t h e d o r sa l s i de s howed s l igh t ly mo r e o f t h em . F ea the r (4 0 ,9 % )a nd s t ep ( 3 8 ,65 % ) t e rm ina ted s c a r s w e r e d om inan t , w h i le s nap ( 1 3 ,65 % )a nd h i nge (6 , 8 % )t e rm ina ted s c a r sw e r e s e ldom t ou ncommon . A l l o ft h e s c a r s a r e s ma l l i ns i z e a nd s ha l low . T he s ca r c on f igu ra t ion i sa lway s s c a t te r ed a l ong b o th e dge a spec t s .

E dge r ound ing : S l igh tr ound ing o ft h ee dge sw a sr e co rded . P o l ish /Smoo th ing : O n t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e t oo l t h e r e w e re t r aces o f d u l l , g ra iny p o l ish a nd s ome s po t s o fb r igh te r , b u t a l so g ra iny p o l i sh . T he v en t ra l s i de o f t h e t oo l s howed n o t r aces o f s moo th ing o r p o l ish . T h is o ne s ided p o l i sh i sm i r a cu lous , a sb o th s i des o ft h e t oo l w e r e e qua l ly s t re s sed . T he p o l ish o ft h e d o r sa l s i de i ss ca t te red a nd i n te rm i t ted a l ong t h e t oo l e dge .

E dge r ound ing : I n g ene ra l , t h e e dge s d i sp lay s l igh t e dge r ound ing . O n ly t o o lF FS P7 9 ,e mp loyed w i th ah a lf s c rap ing mo t ion , s how ss l igh tt os t rong e dge r ound ing . P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : N ea r ly a l o ft h e t o o ls s how a tl e a s ts l igh t e dge s moo th ing , b u t o f t en a l so a r ea s o f h eav i ly d eve loped p o l ish . T hese p o l ished a r ea s a r e u n ifo rm ly e x t ended a l ong t h e t oo l e dge o ft h e mo s t v i go rou s ly u sed t o o ls . D u l l , g ra iny p o l i sh i sp r edom inan t ,b r igh t ,g ra iny p o l ish i sp r e sen to n ly o n t oo l F F S P 7 9 . T oo l s C F S P 4 1 a nd C F S P 8 1 , a pp l ied t o c h icken f l esh p r e sen to n ly t r a ce so fp o l i sh .

S t r ia t ion : A bsen t i sp layed i n t e rm i t t ed a nd D en t icu la t ion : T he t oo lF F COa 1 0d a s s o f t e r i nt h e c ooked s ha l low d en t icu la t ion , a s t h e f l esh w o o le dge . s t a te a nd w a sn o tr i pp ed a ga ins tt h e t C ompa r ison: T he a u tho r a cqu i red n o k now ledge o fe xpe r i m en t s w i th c ooked f l e sh , e xecu ted w i th n on -v i t r eous b a sa l t t oo ls .

S t r ia t ion : O n ly t o o l F F S p 7 9 s how s s hor t s t r ia t ion , p a ra l le l t ot h e c u t t ing e dge . T he s t r ia t ion i sl o ca t ed o n a r ea s o fh eav i l y d eve loped p o l ish a nd o n ly d e tec tab le u nde r amagn if ica t i on o f x3 00 .

5 . 53 D i smember ing (Cu t t ing /S l ic ing ) S even b a sa l t t o o ls (F F S P 9 2 , F F S P 2 7 , B F S P 3 6 , F F S P 6 7 , BF COa 2 5 , F F S P 7 2 , a nd F F COa 7 )w e r e u sed t o d i smembe r a c h icken a nd s eve ra l p i g p a r t s i n a c u t t i ng / s l ic ing mo t ion .T he c h icken w a sf i r s tc u ti nh a lf a nd t h en c a rved i n to p l a tab le p i ece s . T he d i smembe r ing o f t h e p i g ma in ly i n vo lved c u t t ing of t h e l e g s , c u t t ing t h rough s k in , f l esh , a nd r i bs . A l though i ts e em s t h a tp r ima r i ly h a rd c on tac t ma ter ia l w a s c u t , c a r t i lage a nd b one w a s s e ldom ly t o uched . T he i nd iv idua l t o o l w a s v a r ied f r om 1 4 m inu te s b y 9 4 30 1 s t rokes . S o f t t om ed ium a s w e l l a s s t rong p r e s su re w a s a p p l ied , d ep end ing o n t h e e xpec ted h a rdne s s o f t h e c on tac t ma ter ia l . T he c h icken w a s p l aced o n ac u t t ing b oa rd , t h e p i g o nt h eg round .

D en t icu la t ion : B y c u t t ing a nd r i pp ing f l esh a ga in s t t h e t oo l e dge , t yp ica ld en t icu la t ion i so b ser vab le . T he d en t icu la t ion i s mo s t ly u n in te rm i t ted a nd s ha l low t od eep a l ong t h e e x t reme f o rwa rd e dge . T he c au se o ft h e d en t icu la t ion i st h e b r eakage o ft h et oo l 's e dge t h rough t h er i pp ing mo t ion o ft h e t o o l . C ompa r i son : T he p r esen t s t udy c onf irm s R icha rd s ( 1989 :88 8 9 )o bse rved u se -wea r c ha rac t e r i s t ics . F ea the r a nd s t ep t e rm ina ted s ca r sa r eb yf a rt h ep r edom inan tm ic ro f lake s ca r s . O de l l (1 980 ) o b ser ved o n ly b i f ac ia l , f e a the r t e rm ina ted s c a r r ing a nd Mon tgome ry (1 978 )n o u se -wea r a ta l . R ich a rd s i n te rp re t s t h i s t h rough t h e r e la t ive ly l ow m agn i f ica t ion e mp loyed . I n g ene ra l , m ic ro f lake s c a r s w e r e v i s ib le n o t u n d e r amagn if ica t ion o f x1 50 .

5 4

M ic ro f lak e s c a r s : S t ep t e rm ina ted (4 8 ,2 % ) a s w e l l a s f e a the r t e rm ina t ed (4 2 ,9 % )m ic rof lake s ca r s a r e b y f a r t h e mo s tc ommon t y pe p r e sen to n t h e t oo l s . S nap s c a r s (3 , 6 %) a r e u n common a nd h inge s c a r s a r e r a r e (5 , 3 % ) .I ti sc u r i o us t h a t t h e a moun t o fm ic ro f lake s c a r s r i ses p ropor t iona l ly t o t h e s t ra in o f t h e t o o l , ap henom enon a l so o bserved i n R icha rd s i n ve s t iga t ion . T he v en t ra l s i de o f t h e t o o l s how s mo r e m ic rof l ake s ca r s t h an t h e d o r sa l o ne , w h ich m igh t b e c au sed t h rough s l igh t s c rap ing o f t h e c on tac t m a t e r ia l . T he s ca r c on f igu ra t ion r ef lec t s t h e h igh a moun t o f m ic ro f lake s ca r s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion v a r ie s f r om s c a t te r ed t o c on t inuou s , a nd i no n ec a se o ve r lapp ing s c a r s . E dge r o und ing : T oo l s t h a t c u t ma in ly f l esh a nd s i new s d i s p l ay s l igh t t os t rong e dge r ound ing , w h i le t h e t o o ls , u sed t o c u tf l e sh a nd b one s how s t rong e dge r ound ing .

a nd t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h em w e r e s ma l l i ns i ze . F ea the r t e rm i n a ted (5 3 ,8 % )a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed (3 8 ,5 % )s ca r s w e r e d om inan t w i th o n h i nge t e rm ina ted (7 , 7 % )s ca r a nd n o s nap t e rm ina ted s ca r s . T he d o r sa l a sw e l l a st h e v en t ra l s i de d i sp layed m ic ro f lake s ca r si na lmo s te qua ln umbe r s .T he s ca r c on f igu ra t ion i sa lway s s ca t te r ed , d ue t ot h e s ma l l a moun t o f s ca r s . E dge r ound ing : D ue t ot h e u nequa l s t ra in o ft h e t oo ls , s l igh t e dge r ound ing i sp e r cep t ib le o n t oo l F F S P 9 5 , u sed o n ly t o c u t f l esh a nd s i new s , a nd s l igh t t o s t rong e dge r ound ing i s o b se rvab le o n t oo lF FS P 6 2 , u sed t oc u t , n o t o n ly f l esh a nd s i new s ,b u ta l so b on e . P o l ish /Smoo th ing : T o ta l ly a b sen t i sp o l i sh o r s moo th ing o n t o o l F F S P 9 5 , w h i le t h e o t he rt oo l d i sp lay s d u l l , g ra iny , a nd p i t ted p o l ish o n b o th e dge a spec t s t o e qua l a moun t s . T he p o l ish i si n te rm i t t ed ly a r ranged a l ong t h e v en t ra l a nd d o r sa l t oo l s i de .

P o l ish /Smoo th ing : S ome t o o l sl i ke F F S P9 2 t h a tw e r e u sed t o c u t t h rough f l esh a nd s i news , o n ly s ome t ime s d i sp lay t r a ce so fd u l l , g ra iny p o l i sh . T he p o l i sh i s mo s t ly p i t ted . T he mo r e v i go rou s ly u sed t o o ls , l i ke F F S O 7 2 , s how n ea r ly c on t inuou sb r igh t ,g ra iny p o l i sh a l ong t h ef o rwa rd e dge .

S t r ia t ion : A b sen t C ompa r i son : No c ompa ra t ive s t udy i sk nown .

S t r ia t ion : A s ar u le , s t r ia t ion c an b e f ound o n t h o se t oo ls t h a t c on ta c t ed b one p a r t s o f t en . T he s t r ia t ion i si n t e rm i t ted a nd s ha l low , a nd o n t oo l F F S P 2 7 a lmo s t u n i te rm i t ted b u t s t i l l s ha l low . T he s t r iae o b served o n t h e t o o l s B F S P 3 6 a nd F F COa 7w a s r e s t r ic ted t ot h e v en t ra l r e sp ec t ive ly d o r sa l s i de , s ho r ti ne x t en s ion a nd o n ly v i s ib le b y x3 00 magn if ica t ion .

5 . 5 .5 D ef le sh ing b one (Cu t t ing /S l ic ing )

D en t icu la t ion : Due t ot h e e x t r eme s t ra in o f s ome t oo ls a nd t h e s ub s equen t b lun tnes s , n o d en t icu la t ion w a s o b ser vab le , w h i le t o o l s u sed l e s s v i go rou s ly s how i n te rm i t t ed a nd s ha l l ow d en t icu la t ion . C ompa r i son : R icha rd s d i s t ingu i shed i n h i s i n ves t iga t ion b e tw een " d i smembe r ing ( s l i c ing ) " a nd " d i smembe r ing ( s aw ing / s l ic ing ) "p robab ly b ecause o fu n i - o r b i -d i rec t iona l mo t ion . (1 989 :89 -9 1 )A l though t h e w o rk ing p roce ss i s s im i la r , (h ef ound d if e ren tp o l i sh s t r uc tu r es , a nd i no ne c a se s t r ia t ion ) ,O de l l (1 980b )d escr ibed , s im i la r t ot h is s t udy , a d en t icu la ted e dge a nd b i f a c ia l ly d i s t r ibu t ed m ic rof l ake s c a r s . K amm inga (1 978 :476 -478 )n o t iced e dge d u l l ing , b lun t ing a nd m ic rof lake s ca r s . T he p r esen t e xp e r imen t s c onf irm t h e d om inance o fs ma l l s t ep a nd f e a the rs c a r s .

T h ree b a sa l t t oo ls w e r e u sed t od ef le sh e i the r c h icken o r p ig b one s . (T oo ls F F COa 2 1 , F F S P 8 3 , a nd F F S P 7 4 )T he c u t t ing / s l ic ing mo t ion ma in ly i n vo lved d ef le sh ing o fc h icken l e g s a nd p a r t s o f t h e b r ea s t a s w e l l a s p i g s hank s a nd t h e u ppe r p a r t o ft h e p i g s h ind l e g . B o th t h e c h icken a nd t h e p ig w e r e p l a ced o n ac u t t ing b oa rd t h a t w a s o cca s iona l ly n i cked . T he i nd iv idua l t oo l u se v a r ied f r om 1t o 5m inu t e s b y 6 8 t o 4 73 s t rokes . Med ium p r es su r e w a s s uf i c ien t t oi n su r e g ood c u t t ing r e su l t s . M ic ro f lake s ca r s : A r e la t ive ly h igh n umbe r o f m ic rof lake s c a r s w a s f ound o n t o o l F F S P 7 4 , p robab ly d ue t oi t s v igo r o u s u se . A l l t h e t oo ls s howed ma in ly f e a the r (4 4 , 1 % )a nd s t ep (4 4 ,1 % )t e rm ina ted m ic ro f lak e s c a r s . T he se s ca r s w e re s ma l l i ns i ze a nd s c a t te red a l ong t h e t o o l e dges . T oo l F F S P 7 4 d i sp layed a c on t inuous a nd s ome t ime s o ve r lapp ing s ca r c on f igu ra t ion . T he d o r sa l a nd t h e v en t ra l s i de w e re s t res sed e qua l ly a st h ev en t ra l a nd d o r sa l s c a rr a t io s hows . E dge r ound ing : T he t oo ls t h a t w e r e u sed t o c u t f l esh a nd s i new p a r t s s how s l igh te dge r ound ing ; t h e t o o l t h a th i t b one p a r t so cca s iona l ly d i sp lays s t rong e dge r ound ing .

5 . 5 .4 D i smember ing g r i l led f l e sh (C u t t ing /S l ic ing ) Two b a sa l t t o o ls (F F S P 9 5 , F F S P 6 2 )w e r e u sed t od i s m emb e r ap r ev ious ly g r i l led c h icken a nd p a r t s o f ap ig i na c u t t ing / s l ic ing mo t ion . T he c h icken w a s r oa s t ed o n as t i ck o ve r a n o p en f i re t oi n su r e t h e a u then t ic i ty , b u t t h e p i g w a s r oa s t ed i nt h eo ven .T he c h ick en w a sc u tu p i nt h e p r ev iou s ly d es c r ibed w ay , a nd t h e p i g p a r t s , m a in ly c on s i s t ing o f t h e f o r e leg s a nd r i b p a r t s , w e r e c u t w h i le n i ck ing b one p a r t s t empo ra r i ly . T he e l ap sed t i m e o f e ach e xpe r imen t w a s 3 m inu t e s b y 2 11 t o 3 04 e xecu ted s t roke s . T he a pp l ied p r e s s u r ew a sm ed ium . M ic rof lak e s c a r s : T h i r teen m ic ro f lak e s ca r s w e r e o b ser vab le

5 5

S t r ia t ion : T oo l F F S P 7 4 a pp ea red t oh ave p o s s ib le s t r ia t ion o n b o th e dge a spec t s . T he s t r ia t ion i ss ho r t , n a r row , a nd s ha l low . I ti ss i tua ted p a ra l le l t ot h et o o le dge . D en t icu la t ion : T oo l F F COa 2 1 a nd F F S P 8 3 d i sp lay i n t e rm i t ted a nd s ha l low d en t icu la t ion , w h i le t oo l F F S P 7 4 s hows n one . C ompa r ison : R icha rd s d ef le shed b one w i th a s c rap ing a s w e l l a s s l ic ing mo t ion (R icha rd s 1 989 :9 1 ,92 ) .T he c ompa r a b le s l ic ing mo t ion r e su l ted i n a lmo s t t h e s ame u se -wea r

a s w e l l a s t h e t o o l , w e re h e ld i n t h e p r ev iou s ly d escr ibed w ay . T he a u tho r e xper imen ted w i th v a r iou s p r es su r e a pp l i c a t ion s t o r e in fo rce t h e e f ec t ivene s s o f t h e s c rap ing t oo ls . T he e l ap sed t i me p e r e xpe r imen t v a r ied f r om 1t o 6m inu t e s b y9 2t o6 11 s t roke s .

p a t te rn a si nt h ep r esen ts t udy . A s ton ish ing w a so n ly t h eh i gh a moun to fm ic rof lake s ca r so n t o o l F F S P7 4a nd i t s p o s s ib le s t r ia t ion .

5 . 6 .1 S crap ing d ry b ark a nd w ood M ic rof lake s c a r s : F ew m ic rof lake s ca r s w e re d e t ec tab le o n t h e t o o l s . T he mo r e v i go rou s ly u sed t o o ls , l i k e t o o l BR S P 3 2 , d i sp lay ah i ghe r a moun t o f ma in ly s t ep (4 8 ,5 % )a nd f e a the r (5 1 ,5 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r s . T he s c a r s a r e s ma l l i n s i ze a nd n o rma l ly s ca t te red a l ong t h e d o r sa l t o o l e dge . A n e xcep t ion i st o o l BR S P 3 2 t h a t s how s ac on t inuous a nd i n t wo c a ses o ve r lapp ing s ca r c onf igu ra t ion o n t h e d o r sa l s i de a nd as ca t te red o ne o nt h ev en t ra l s i de .

Two t o o l s (T oo l s CF COa 2 6 a nd F F S P 6 3 )w e re u sed t o s c rape d ry k oa b a rk a nd w ood . T he k oa w a s c u t a bou t o ne w eek b efo re t h e a c tua l u se i nt h e e xpe r imen t s . T he s c raped w ood h ad a lway si n ta c tb a rk o nt h ep a r t s t h a tw e re emp loyed f o rs c rap ing e mp loyed . T he ma in u sed b ranch o ft h e w ood en ma t e r ia l w a s 4 -5 c m i n d i ame te r . T he b ranche s t h a t d i s t u rbed t h e s c rap ing mo t ion w e r e r emoved . T he c on tac t m a t e r ia l w a s w o rked i n as i t t ing p os i t ion , i nw h ich o ne s i de o f t h eb r anch w a sg r a sp a nd s e cu red w i th t h ef e e t , a nd t h e o t he r o ne h e ld w i th t h e l e f t h and . T he t oo l w a s s c raped w i th t h e r i gh t h and o ve r t h e c on tac t ma t e r ia l . S t rong p r e ssu r e w a s a n ece s s i ty t os c rape o f fw ooden ma ter ia l . T he i n d iv idua l t o o l u se v a r ied f r om 3t o 9m inu t es b y 2 98 t o 1 243 s t rokes .

E dge r ound ing : T he e dge s a r e u nmod if ied o n t h e v en t ra l e dge a spec ta nd s l igh t ly r ounded o nt h ed o r sa lo ne . P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : N e i the rp o l i sh n o rt r a ce so fs moo th ing a r e s e lf -ev iden t f o r s c rap ing t oo l s . T h ree o f t h e t e n e mp loyed t oo ls s how n op o l i sh a ta l l . Mo s to ft h eo t he rt o o ls s how o n ly t r ace s o fp o l i sh o r s moo th ing s c a t t e red a l ong t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h et oo ls . S o le ly t o o ls BR S P3 2 , BR S P6 4 ,a nd F F S P 9 4 d i sp lay s ome t ime se x t ended a nd h eav i ly p o l i shed a r ea s . T h i s p o l i sh i sb r igh t ,g ra iny ,v e ry s moo th a nd s e ldom ly p i t ted .

M ic rof lake s c a r s : T he p resence o f m ic rof lake s ca r s i sr e s t r ic t ed t ot h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e t oo ls . T h i s i n vo lves ma in ly f e a the r (3 3 ,3 % )a nd s t ep (5 5 ,6 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r s . A n e xcep t ion i s as i ng le h inge (1 ,1 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r o n t h e v en t ra l s i de o ft o o l F F S P 6 3 . A l l s ca r s w e r e s ma l l i n s i ze a nd s ca t te red a l ong t h ed o r sa lt oo le dge .

S t r ia t ion : A b sen t D en t icu la t ion : A b sen t

E dge r ound ing : T he e dge s , e spec ia l ly t h e d o r sa l e dge a s p ec t s ,a r es l igh t ly r ounded .

C ompa r ison : E ven o n t h e mo s t v igo rous ly u sed t o o l w a s n o s t r ia t ion d e tec tab le . N e i the r K amm inga ( 1 978 :651 )n o r Mon tgome ry (1 978 :273 -274 )o rS chu t t (1 982 :Append ix 2) w e r e a b le t oi d en t i fy s t r ia t ion o n f o r s c rap ing o ff r e sh w ood emp loyed t o o l s . A l though t h i s s t udy c on f i rm s R icha rd s ( 1989 :94) o b se rved f e a the ra nd s t ep s ca r s , o t h e rr e sea r che r s (s e ea bove )o b ta ined o t he rr e su l t s .

P o l i sh /Smoo th ing :T he d o r sa le dge a spec ts how sh eavy , v e ry s moo th , a nd s e ldom ly p i t ted p o l i sh , wh i le t h e v en t ra l e dge a spec t d i sp lay s n o s moo th ing a t a l l . T he p o l i sh i sa lmo s t c on t inuous ly e x t ended a l ong t h e ma in ly u sed t oo le dge . S t r ia t ion : A b sen t D en t icu la t ion : A b sen t

5 .63 P lan ing d ry w ood C ompa r i son : T he p redom inan t s t ep a nd f e a the r t e rm ina t ed s ca r s c onf i rm R icha rd s (1 989 :93 ) i n ve s t iga t ion a bou t m ic ro f lake s c a r s . T he a b sence o f s t r ia t ion a nd t h e h eavy p o l i sh c on t rad ic th i s o bserva t ions , e spec ia l ly w hen c ons ide r i n g t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a u tho r w o rked w i th n on -v i t r eou s b a sa l t t o o ls . S chu t t (1 982 :Append ix 2 ) a l so u sed g l a s sy b a sa l t t o o l s , b u t c ou ld n o t d e tec t s t r ia t ion a ta l l . I n s tead s he f ound f e a the r a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed s ca r s , a nd o n mo r e t h an h a l f o f t h e i n ves t iga t ed t o o ls ,d ef in i te p o l ish .

T h ree b a sa l t t o o ls (T oo ls F F S P 4 8 , F F S P 3 9 , a nd F F S P 3 8 ) w e re u sed t op l ane k oa i n as ea soned s t a te . T he s c rap ed w ood h ad o n ly f ew i n tac t b a rk p a r t s t h a t w e r e f a s t ly a nd e a s i ly p l aned o f f . I n t h e p l an ing p roces s , d i f f e r en t t o t h e s c rap ing mo t ion ,t h e t o o l i sp ushed o ve rt h ec on ta c t ma t e r ia l . T he w o rk ing b r anch w a s h e ld a nd s e cu red w i th t h e f e e t o n o ne e nd ,w h i le t h eo t he rs i de o ft h eb ranch w a sp r e s sed i nt h e b e l ly . Med ium p r e s su r e w a s a lway s s uf i c ien tt oi n su r e g ood p l an ing r e su l t s . T he i n d iv idua l t o o l u se v a r ied f r om 1t o 4 m inu t es b y 8 3 t o3 99 s t rokes .

5 . 6 .2 S crap ing f r e sh b ark a nd w ood M ic rof lake s c a r s : T he mos t c ommon m ic ro f lak e s ca r t y pe i s f ea the r t e rm ina ted (6 3 ,2 % ) ,f o l lowed b y s t ep (2 6 ,3 % ) a nd f ew h inge t e rm ina ted (1 0 ,5 % )s c a r s . D if f e r en t ly t ot h e s c rap ing mo t ion a l so t h e v en t ra l s i de i si n vo lved i nt h e d e v e lopmen t o fu se -wea r . T he v en t ra l s i d e s how s o n ly f e a the r t e rm ina ted s c a r s . T he s ca r c on f igu ra t ion i ss c a t t e r ed o n t h e d o r sa ls i de , a nd ,i fs ca r sa r e p r es en ta l so o nt h ev en t ra l s i de .

T en b a sa l tf l ak e s (T oo ls BR S P3 2 ,F FS P9 6 ,F FS P6 8 , BR S P 6 4 , F F S P 8 9 , F F S P 5 6 , F F S P 9 4 , F F S P 8 0 , C F COa 1 3 , a nd F F S P 8 6 )w e re u sed t os c rape f r esh w ood o f d if e r en t h a rdne s s . O h ia 'a lehua w a s t h e h a rdes t emp loyed w ood , h au m ed ium , a nd k u l cu i t h e s of te s t . T he b a rk w a s p r ev iou s ly t a ken o f o f mo s t o f t h e w ood , w he reby b a rk r eg ion s w e r e t o uched . I n s ome c a ses t h e w ooden ma t e r ia l w a s a l r eady p r ewo rked a nd f l a t tened s o t h a t ap u re s c rap ing mo t ion o n e ven m a ter ia l w a s p os s ib le . T he c on tac t m a te r ia l ,

E dge r ound ing : T he e dge a sp ec t s a r e u nmod i f i ed t os l igh t ly

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r ounded o n t h e v en tra l s i de o ft h e t o o l a nd s l igh t ly r ounded o nt h ed o r sa ls i de .

C ompa r i son : N oc ompa ra t ive a na ly s is i sk nown .

P o l ish /Smoo th ing : A t l e a s t o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o f t h e t o o l s , p o l i sh i sa lway s p re sen t i n s uf i c ien t ly o b servab le a moun t s . T he p o l ish i sb r igh t , v e ry s moo th a nd n eve rp i t ted . T he v en t r a l s i de d i sp lays o n ly t r aces o f p o l i sh a tt ho se a r ea s w he r e c h ip s g l id ed a l ong t h e v en t ra l e dge a spec t . T oo l F F S P 3 8 h a sa r ea so fh eavy p o l i sh a nd o ve r lapp ing a r ea so fl e s sh eavy p o l i sh .

5 . 6 .5 S aw ing f r e sh w ood a nd b ark S eve ra l b ranches o fo h ia -a lehua ,h au , a nd k u l cu i w e re s awed w i th 1 0 b a sa l t t oo l s (T oo l s C F COa 1 4 , F F S P 2 9 , F F COa 2 0 ,F F COa 9 , CF S P 8 7 , F F S P 5 4 , C F COa 1 6 , BF S P 5 9 , F F S P 6 1 , a nd CF S P 8 4 ) T he b ranches w e r e n o t d eba rked o rp re t rea ted i na ny o t he rw ay . T he d i ame te ro ft h e b ranches r anged f r om 1 c m -6 cm . T he s aw ing mo t ion t ook p lace p e r p end icu la r t o t h e l o ng i tud ina l a x i s o f t h e c on ta c t ma te r ia l . T he t oo ls w e r e v i go rou s ly d rawn b a ck a nd f o r th . S l igh t , m ed ium a nd s t rong p r e s su r e w a s a pp l ied t o t e s t t h e s aw ing a b i l i t ies o ft h e t oo l s . T he t o o ls w e r e u sed b e tween 0 . 5 a nd 5 m inu te s ,s uf i c ien tt ime t os t roke 7 9t o 107 t ime s .

S t r ia t ion : S hor t , n a r row a nd n o t v e ry d eep s t r ia t ion i so b s e r vab le o n t h e a r ea s o fh eavy p o l ish o ft oo l F F S P 3 8 . T he o t he rt o o l ss how n op o l ish . D en t icu la t ion : Absen t C ompa r ison : No c ompa ra t ive s t udy i sk nown .

M ic ro f lake s ca r s : T he p r edom inan tm ic rof lake s ca r t ype w a s f e a the rt e rm ina ted (4 3 ,6 % )f o l lowed b y s t ep (3 7 ,2 % )a nd s nap t e rm ina t ed (1 6 ,7 % )s c a r s ,a nd l e ss e ra moun t so fh inge t e rm ina ted (2 , 5 % )s c a r s . Mo s t s ca r s w e re s ma l l i ns i ze a nd a lmo s t e qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted o ve r t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l e dge a sp ec t s . T oo l F F S P 2 9 t h a t w a s emp loyed f o r 5m inu te s b y 107 e xecu ted s t roke s c oun t s 1 6 m ic rof lake s ca r s i n t o ta l . D ue t ot h eh igh a moun to fm ic ro f lake s ca r s , t h e s ca rc on f igu r a t ion o f t o o l F F S P 2 9 w a s c on t inuou s a nd o f ten o ve r lap p ing , w h i le t h e o t he r t o o l s d i sp layed o n ly a s ca t te r ed s ca r c onf igu ra t ion .

5 . 6 .4 P lan ing f r esh wood S even t o o l s (BR COa 2 4 ,F F COa 2 2 , BR S P9 1 ,F FS P7 5 , F F S P 9 7 , F F COa 1 2 , a nd F F S P 9 3 )w e r e u sed t op l ane f r e sh w ood w i th d if e ren t h a rdnes s . T hese w ood s i n c lude ' o h ia 'a lehua , h au , a nd k u l cu i . T he w ood b ranche s w e r e c u t l o ng i t ud ina l ly s o t ha t t h e i nne r , e ven p a r t o ft h e w ood c ou ld b e p l aned . I n o rde r t o s e cu re t h e c on tac t ma te r ia l , t h e w ood w o rk e ru sed ag ap o ft wo w ooden p l ank s t h a tw e r e p a r t o fa b ench a s av i ce .T he a pp l ied p res su r ev a r ied f r om m ed ium t o s t rong , d epend ing o n t h e p l an ing a b i l i t ies o f t h e r e spec t ive t o o l . 1t o1 0 m inu te s w a s t h e t ime v a r ia t ion o fe ve ry e xp er i m en t .T h i st ime wa ss uf i c ien tt os t roke 7 1 t o1 254 t ime s .

E dge r ound ing : T oo l B F S P 5 9 r ep r e sen ted a n e xcep t ion t o t h e r u le i nt h a t t h e e dge s w e re s t rong ly r ounded . T h i s t oo l s howed o n ly s l igh te dge r ound ing , p robab ly d ue t ot h e s hor t t ime o fu s e .

M ic rof lake s ca r s : Ma in ly f e a the r (5 5 ,8 % )a nd s t ep (3 2 ,6 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r s , w i th s ma l le ra moun t s o fh i nge (7 % ) , a nd f ew s nap (4 ,6 % )t e rm ina ted s c a r s w e re p r es en t o n t h e b a sa l t t o o ls . T he s ca r s w e r e g ene ra l ly s ma l l b u t , i no ne c a se ( Too l BR COa 2 4 )l a rge i n s i ze . T he v igo rou s ly u sed t o o l F F S P 9 7 c oun ted b y f a r t h e h ighe s t a moun t o f m ic ro f lake s c a r so b ser ved . T he s ca rc onf igu ra t ion o ft h e d o r sa l s i de w a s u sua l ly s c a t t e red ,o n o ne t oo l c on t inuou s a nd o n a no the ro ne c on t inuou s a nd o f ten o ve r lapp ing . T he v en t ra l s i de s howed n one o r as ca t te red s ca r c onf igu ra t ion d ue t ot h e s ma l l n um b e ro fo b ser ved s ca r s .

P o l ish /Smoo th ing : P o l i sh o r e ven s moo th ing w e re o n ly s e l d om ly p r e sen t . T he m o s th eav i ly u sed t o o l s p resen ted ad u l l , b u t p a r t ia l ly b r igh t g r a iny p o l i sh w i th f i e ld s o f e x t r eme ly s moo th a nd n on -p i t t ed s u r f a ce s t ruc tu re . T h i s k ind o fp o l i sh w a s c on t inuou s ly e x t end ed o n ly o n t o o l C F S P 8 7 a nd p a r t i a l ly o n t o o l C F S P 8 4 . S o le ly t h e d o r sa l s i de w a s p o l i shed o nt oo lF F COa 9 . S t r ia t ion : S t r ia t ion w a sg ene ra l ly a b sen t ,b u tp resen to nt o o l CF S P 8 7 . T he s t r ia t ion w a s s ho r t , n a r row , a nd n o t v e ry d eep . I tw a sl o ca ted p a ra l le lt ot h ee dge .

E dge r ound ing : T he d o r sa l e dge a spec t w a s s l igh t ly , b u t o f t en a l so s t rong ly r ounded , w h i le t h e v en t ra l e dge a spec t w a su nmod if ied o rs l igh t ly r ounded .

D en t icu la t ion : A b sen t . C ompa r i son : C on t r a ry t oK amm inga 's (1 978 :590 )ma in ly d e t ec ted s nap t e rm ina t ed m ic rof lake s c a r s , t h e p res en t s t udy c onf i rm s R icha rd ' s (1 989 :96 )a s ce r ta t ion o f p redom ina te f e a the r , c ommon s t ep , a nd s ome s nap t e rm ina t ed s ca r s . A lso S chu t t (1 982 : A ppend ix 2 )c onf i rm s t h e p r ev iou s ly d e s c r ibed m ic rof lake s c a rp r e sence a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . Mon tgom e r y (1 978 :274 )d o e s n o t e ven m en t ion t h e k ind o f m ic ro f l ake s ca r s s he f ound . T he p re sen t s t udy c on trad ic t s R ich a r d 's i n ve s t iga t ion c once rn ing t h e a moun to fp o l ish f ound o n t h e t oo l s . T he n umbe r o ft o o ls w i th p o l ish w a s s ma l le r t h an R icha rd ' s .

P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : T he d o r sa l s i de o f t h e t oo l s w a s a lway s p o l i shed o r a t l e a s t s moo thed . T he mo re v igo rou s ly u s ed t o o l s h ad a r ea s o f b r igh t , e x t reme s moo th p o l i sh ; l e s s s t ra ined t o o ls s howed d u l l t o b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh . S ome t o o l s s howed p o l ish a l so o n t h e v en t ra l s i de . T he p o l ish w a s d u l l ,g ra iny a nd p i t ted . S t r ia t ion : T he t h ree mo s t v igo rou s ly u sed t o o l s s ome t im e s s howed e x tended b u tn a r row s t r ia t ion s a l ong t h e d o r sa l e dge a sp ec to ft h et oo l . T he s t r ia t ion w a sp e rp end icu la rt ot h e t o o l e dge . D en t icu la t ion : Absen t

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(3 8 ,2 % ) .S nap (1 ,2 % )s ca r s a r e s e ldom . A l though t h e s ca r s w e r e s ma l l i n s i ze , s o t h ey a pp ea r ed l a rge r t h an t h e s ca r s o n t h e t o o ls emp loyed f o r p lann ing a nd s c rap ing . T he s ca r c onf igu ra t ion w a s o n ly i n o ne c a se c on t inuou s , b u t i n g ene ra l s c a t te r ed a l ong t h e t oo l e dge . T he d o r sa l a nd t h e v en t ra l s i de o ft h e t oo l s s howed a n e qua l a moun t o f m ic ro f l ake s ca r s .

5 .6 .6 S aw ing d ry w ood a nd b ark F ou rb a sa l tt o o ls w e r e u sed t os aw k oa i n ad ry s t age . T hese t oo ls w e re C F S P 6 5 , F F S P 3 5 , CF S P 3 4 , a nd F F S P 8 8 . T he wood w a s n o t p r ev iou s ly p repa red i n a ny w ay . T he c on tac t ma t e r ia l w a s h e ld w i th av i ce o n o ne e nd w h i le t h e o the r e nd w a s h e ld w i th t h e l e f t h and . T he d i ame t e r o f t h e b ranch u sed w a s 3 cm . A l so h e re , t h e s aw ing m o t ion w a s p e rpend icu la r t o t h e l o ng i tud ina l a x i s o f t h e c on ta c t ma te r i a l . S l igh t , m ed ium , a nd s t rong p res su r e w a s a pp l ied e ven t hough s l igh t p r essu re w a s a bso lu te ly u n su i tab le f o r k oa s aw ing p u rpo ses . T he i n d iv idua l t oo l u s ev ar ied f r om 0 . 5 -2 m inu tes ,w h ich l e dt o1 24 t o3 52 s t roke s .

E dge r ound ing : T he e dge a spec t s w e r e s l igh t ly t o s t ong ly r ounded ,d epend ing o nt h e s t ra in o ft h et oo l . P o l ish /Smoo th ing : P o l ish w a s s e ldom , b u t w hen p r e sen t , o f t en o n ly i nt r a ce s . T oo l BF S P 3 0 , a sw e l l a sT oo l F F S P 6 9 , d i sp layed b r igh t , s moo th -p i t ted , g ra iny p o l ish , w h i le o t he r t o o l s s howed d u l l t o b r igh t , s moo th , a nd g ra iny p o l i s hed s po t s .

M ic rof lake s ca r s : F ea the r (5 2 ,2 % )a nd s t ep t e rm ina ted ( 30 ,4 % )m ic ro f lak e s c a r s w e re t h e mos t c ommon t ypes . S nap ( 1 3 % )a nd h i ng e t e rm ina ted (4 , 4 % )s c a re s w e r e s e ldom . Mo s t s ca r s w e r e s ma l l i ns i ze a nd s ca t t e r ed a l ong t h e t oo l e dge .T he d o r sa l a nd t h e v en t ra l t o o l s i de s howed a n e qua l amoun to fm ic ro f la l ce s ca r s .

S t r ia t ion : E xcep tf o r t oo l F F S P 6 9 , t h a t s howed n a r row a nd s ho r t s t r ia e o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o f t h e t o o l , s t r ia t ion w a s a b s en t . D en t icu la t ion : A bsen t

E dge r ound ing : I nt wo c a se s t h e a u tho rr e co rded s t rong e dge r ound ing , i nt wo o the r s s l igh te dge r ound ing o ft h e d o r sa l a s w e l l a st h ev en t ra le dge a sp ec t s .

C ompa r i son : T he p re sen t ly o bserved u se -wea rw as s im i la rt o S chu t t s (1 982 :App end ix 2 )r e su l t s . R icha rd s (1 989 :99 ) f ound mo r e p o l i sh , a nd a l so t h e o bserved s t r ia t ion s e emed t o b ec l ea r e r .

P o l ish /Smoo th ing : P o l i sh w a s d e f in i t e ly p r e sen t o n t oo l C F S P 3 4 . T he p o l ish w a sb r igh t a nd s moo th , b u t o ccu r r ed o n ly i n s po t s . S l igh t s moo th ing a nd t r a ce s o f p o l ish w e r e a l so v i s ib le o nt o o lF FS P3 5 ,b u tr e s t r ic t ed t ot h ed o r sa l s i de .

5 . 6 .8 Wh i t t l ing d ry w ood a nd b ark S t r ia t ion : P o s s ib le s t r ia t ion w a s o bse rved o n t o o l F F S P 3 4 . T he d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l s i de s howed s hor t i n t erm i t t ed a nd s ha l low s t r ia e .

Two b a sa l tt o o l s (T oo ls C FS P6 0 a nd B F S P 5 0 )w e r eu sed t o w h i t t le d ry w ood w i th s l igh t t o m ed ium p res su re . T he c on tac t m a t er ia l w a s n o t p re t rea ted i na ny f o rm , a nd h e ld i n t h e p r ev ious ly d esc r ibed w ay . T he u sed b ranch h ad ad i ame t e r o f 3c m . T he t o o l s w e r e u sed 3 m inu te s b y 5 2 r e spec t i ve ly 6 3 e xecu ted s t roke s .

D en t icu la t ion : A bsen t . C ompa r i son : S chu t t (1 982 : A ppend ix 2 ) ,a s w e l l a sR ich a rd s , (1 989 :97 ) d e t ec t ed s im i la r u se -wea r t o t h ose d e s c r ibed i nt h e p r esen ts t udy . C on t ra ry t ot h e i r i n ve s t iga t ions , t h ea u tho rf ound p o s s ib le s t r ia t ion o no ne o ft h eu sed t oo l s .

M ic rof lak e s c a r s : Ma in ly f e a the r a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed s c a r s w e r e o bserved (5 3 ,8 % r e spec t ive ly 4 6 ,2 % ) .T he s ca rc on f i gu ra t ion w a s a lway s s ca t t e red d ue t o t h e s ma l l n umb e r o f s ca r s .

5 .6 .7 Wh i t t l ing f r e sh w ood a nd b ark . E dge r ound ing :T he e dge sa r es t rong ly r ounded . 1 6 b a sa l t t oo l s w e re u sed t o w h i t t le o h ia -a l lehua , h au a nd k u l cu i a l ong t h e l ong i tud ina l a x i s o f t h e c on ta c t m a te r ia l . T oo ls BF S P 3 0 , BF S P 2 8 ,F FS P 8 5 , F F S P 7 1 , F F S P 4 2 , F F COb 5 ,BF S P5 3 , B F S P 3 7 , F FS P 4 4 , CF S P 8 2 ,F F S P 4 7 ,F F S P6 9 ,F FS P3 1 ,F F S P5 1 ,F F S P 9 9 a nd F FS P 1 03 w e re a pp l ied w i th s l igh t , m ed ium , a nd s t rong p r e s su re . T he c on tac t ma te r ia l w a sh e ld i nt h e s ame w ay a st h e w ood u sed f o rp l ann ing . T he d i ame t e ro ft h e emp loyed b ranche s r anged f r om 1c m t o5 , 5 cm . T he i n d iv idua l t o o l u se v a r ied f r om 1 t o 4m inu te s e mp loym en t , i nt h e c ou r se o fw h ich 3 8 t o4 51 s t rokes c ou ld b ed one .

P o l i sh /Smoo th ing : T he p o l i sh o f t h e e dge s w a s u n if o rm , b i fac ia l a nd e x t en s ive . B r igh t , v e ry s moo th , a nd n on -p i t t ed p o l i sh w a s p r eva i l ing , w h i le p a tche s o f d u l l t o b r igh t , s moo th -p i t t ed p o l ish w a sa l so p resen t . S t r ia t ion : A b sen t D en t icu la t ion : A b sen t C ompa r ison : Wh i le S chu t t (1 982 :Append ix 2 )d id n o t o b s e rve p o l i sh a t a l l , t h e p resen t s t udy c onf irm s R icha rd s ( 1989 :99 -100) i n ve s t iga t ed p o l ish s t ruc tu re . S t r ia t ion c ou ld n o tb ef ound o nt h ee mp loyed t oo ls .

M ic ro f lake s c a r s : F ea the r t e rm ina ted s c a r s (4 9 ,5 % )w e r e d om inan t , b u t a l so c ommon w e r e s t ep t e rm ina t ed s ca r s

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C F W 4 :F ou r m ic rof lake s ca r s w e r e d e t ec ted , t h ree o n t h e v en t ra l a nd o ne o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o f t h e t oo l . T h is i n vo lved ma in ly f e a the r (5 0 % ) ,b u t a l so s t ep (2 5 % )a nd h inge t e rm ina t ed (2 5 % ) s ca r s . T he s ca r s w e re s ca t te red a l ong t h e t oo l e dge . A l l s c a r s w e r e s ma l l i n s i ze . B o th e dge a spec t s w e r e s l igh t ly r ounded , a nd t h e s po t t ed p o l ish w a s d u l l t ob r igh t , g ra iny , a nd n o t v e ry s moo th .T he a ppea rance o ft h e m ic ro f lake s ca r s p o in t ed t ob i -d i rec t iona l mo t ion , p robab ly c u t t i ng , a nd t h e i n te rm i t ted a nd s ha l low d en t icu la t i on w i l l b e e xp la inab le t h rough t h e t o o l e m p loymen t o n t h e s of t c on tac t ma t e r ia l f l esh . E a lua t ion : R e l iab le c onc lu s ion

V I .H IGH AND LO W PO WER EXA M INAT ION OF THE W A IKALUA MATER IAL

6 . 1 I n troduc tory r e mark s T he a pp l ied o b se rv ing a nd r e co rd ing m e thod sw e r e t h e s ame a st h o se u sed t oe xam ine t h ee xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ak e s . Two f a c to r s t h a t r ende red t h e i n ves t iga t ion mo r e d if icu l t w e r e t h e d e t e rm ina t ion o f a c t ion a nd c on ta c t m a t e r ia l . T h i s d e t erm ina t ion , a l r eady d one a nd p roven t ob e p o s s ib le i nt h e b l ind t e s t s , t u rned o u t t o b e e ven h a rde r , a s t h e h i s to r ica l t oo ls w e r e s ome t ime s s t rong ly p a t ina t ed o r r e cen t ly s c ra tched o rb roken t h rough i mp rope rh and l ing a nd s t o rage . N eve r the le s s , t h e r e ade r w i l l f i nd ad esc r ip t ive e nume ra t ion o f t h e 3 4 i n ve s t iga ted b a sa l t t o o ls a nd t h e i r o b servab le u se w ea r . A t t h e e nd o f t h e l i s t ing as ho r t s umma ry s ha l l s how a b su rd i t ie sa nd e ven tua ld i scove r ie s .

F FW 5 :L ike t h e p rev ious t oo l , t h i s o ne w a s u sed t oc u t o r s l ice t h e s o f t c on tac t ma t e r ia l f l esh . T he c om mon m ic rof lake s ca r s , ma in ly f e a the r (4 4 ,5 % ) a nd s t ep t e rm ina ted (3 3 ,3 % )s c a r s w i th l e sse r a moun t s o f s nap ( 1 , 1 % )a nd h inge t e rm ina ted ( 1 ,1 % ) s c a r s p o in ted t h rough t h e i r a r rangemen t t o ab i -d i r ec t iona l mo t ion . D ue t ot h e i r s ma l l n umbe r a nd s i ze t h e m ic ro f l ake s ca rc onf igu ra t ion w a s s ca t te r ed . T he d o r s a l a nd v en t ra le dge a spec tr ound ing w a s s l igh t . T he a lmo s t c on t inuou s ly e x tended a r ea s o f p o l ish w e r e d u l l t ob r igh t a nd g ra iny . T he t y p i c a l d en t icu la t ion i n =in te rm i t ted a nd d eep . E va lua t ion : R e l iab le c onc lu s ion

A l so h e r e , t h e c a r efu l r e ade r w i l l c on su l t t h e a ppend ixe s C a nd D , w he r e t h e f o l low ing m ic rowea r i sc omp le te ly t a bu l a t ed a nd s eve ra lp i c tu r e so ft h e Wa ika lua t o o l sa r ep rov ided .

6 . 2T oo li n terpre ta t ion F FW 1 :T h i st oo lw a sc ha ra c te r iz ed t h rough t h e a b sence o f m ic rof lake s c a r s o fa ny k ind ,b u t s howed s l igh t e dge r ound ing o ft h e d o r sa l a sw e l l a st h e v en t r a l e dge a spec t . T he s i de s w e r e s moo thed a l ong t h e c u t t ing e dge , b u t t h e s moo thed s u r f a ce w a s a lway sp i t ted . S t r ia t ion w a s a b sen t , s o w a s d en t icu la t ion . T he b i f a c ia l e dge r ound ing a nd s moo th ing p o in t s t o c u t t ing o r s aw ing . S aw ing u sua l ly d eve lop s s t rong e dge r ound ing a nd o bv ious p o l ish , s o t h a t ac u t t ing m o t ion s e emed t o b e mo r e a pp rop r ia t e . S o f t c on ta c t m a t e r ia l , f i sh o rf l e sh , t h a t d oe s n o t a lway s d e v e lop d en t icu la t ion w a s i mp l ied d ue t ot h e f ew i mpac t si tl ef to nt h et o o l . E va lua t ion : U n r e l iab le c onc lu s ion C F W

F FW 6 :T h i s t oo l s howed o ne f e a the r t e rm ina ted (1 00% ) m ic ro f lake s ca ro n t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e . T he re w e re n o o t he r h in t s o f u sage . Know ing t h a t c u t t ing u p f i sh f l esh l e ave s a lmo s t n o d i scer n i b l e u se -wea r , t h i s t oo l c ou ld h ave e i the r b een u sed t o f u lf i l l t h e f i sh c u t t ing p u rpo se o r w a s n o tu sed a ta l l . E va lua t ion : U n re l iab le c onc lu s ion F FW 7 :N ou se -wea r F FW 8 : No u se -wea r

2 : S ix d o r sa l m ic rof lake s c a r s w e r e o b se rved , a l s ma l l i ns i ze .F ea the r (6 6 ,7 % )a nd s t ep t e rm i n a t ed (3 3 ,3 % ) s ca r s w e r e t h e ma in ly o b s e rved m ic rof l ake s c a r s . T he s c a rc on f igu ra t ion w a s s ca t te r ed . S l igh t d o r sa l e dge r ound ing a nd d u l l , g ra iny , b u t v e ry s moo th p o l i sh w a s r e c o rded . S t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e a b sen t . T he e xc lus ive s t ra in o f t h e d o r sa l s i de o f t h e t o o l w i th a b so lu t e ly n o t r a ce s o f u se -wea r o n t h e o the r s i de p o in ted t o as c rap ing mo t ion . Wh i t t l ing , a s w e l l a s p l an ing , w ou ld l e ave a t l e a s t r e cogn izab le t r a ces o f u s e -wea r o n t h e v en t ra l s i de o r e dge a spec t s t r ough c h ip s t h a t g l id a l ong t h e t oo l 's s u r face . T he i n ten s i ty a nd e x t en s ion o f t h e u se -wea r i n d ica t ed m ed ium h a rd c on ta c t ma t er ia l . E va lua t ion : R e l iab le c onc lu s ion

C F W 9 : On ly t wo m ic rof lake s ca r s o ft h e d o r sa l s i de w e r e e xp lo red . F ea the r (5 0% )a nd s t ep t e rm ina ted ( 50% )s ca r s s e em t ob e c ha rac te r i s t ic f o r t h e s pec ia l t oo l u se . As ca t te red s ca r c on f igu ra t ion i s s e lf -ev iden t , a nd t h e s l igh t e dge r ound ing s uppo r t s t h e i d ea o f t im id t oo l u se . O n ly s c rap ing , p l an ing , a nd w h i t t l ing a r e p o s s ib le t o o l u se s , b u t t h e l a t te r o nes d eve lop mo re d ef in i te u se -wea r e ven b y t im id u se . (S ee e x p er imen ta l t oo ls ) S c rap ing o f s o f t m a t er ia l s e em st ob e mos tp robab le . E va lua t ion : Un r e l iab le c onc lu s ion F FW 1 0 : No u se -wea r C FW 1 : T he h ighes ta moun to fm ic ro f lake s ca r s w a sf ound o n t h is t oo l , w h i le d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l s c a r s a r e r ep resen ted i ne qua l n umbe r s . F ea the r (4 0 % ) a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed (5 0 % )s ca r s w e r e d om i -

C FW 3 :N ou se -wea r

5 9

s c a r s w e r e u ncommon a nd t h e s c a r c on f igu ra t i on w a s s c a t te r ed . T he d o r sa l t oo l e dge a spec t w a s s t rong ly r ounded , w h i le t h e v en t ra l o ne s howed i n t e rm i t ted a nd s l igh t r ound ing . T he p o l ish o f t h e d o r sa l s i de w a s a lmo s t c on t inu o u s ly e x t end ed a l ong t h e t o o l e dge a nd a pp ea r s b r igh t a nd v e ry s moo th . T he v en t ra l p o l i sh o n t h e o t he r h and w a s s e ldom a nd o n ly p r e sen t i n s po t s o fd u l l , g r a iny p o l i sh t r a ce s . S t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e a b so lu te ly a b sen t . T he o b s e r vab le s t ra in o f t h e t o o l , e v iden t ly c au sed t h rough a w h i t t l ing mo t ion , p o in t ed t o t h e w o rk ing o fm ed ium -ha rd m a t e r ia l . E va lua t ion : R e l iab le c onc lu s ion

n an t , w h i le h inge t e rm ina ted ( 1 0 % )s ca r s w e r e r a r e . D ue t o t h e s ma l lne s s o f t h e s ca r s , t h e i r c on f igu ra t ion i ss c a t te red a l ong t h e t oo l ' s e dge s .P a r t so ft h ee dge a spec t so ft h e t oo l w e re s l igh t ly , o t he r s s t rong ly r ounded . T he p o l ish w a s d u l l , g ra iny a nd mo s t ly p i t t ed . T he o b s e rved s t r ia t ion o f t h e d o r sa l t oo l s i de i s i n t e rm i t t ed a nd s ha l low . T he m ic ro f lake s ca r s , a s w e l l a s t h e i n te rm i t ted a nd s ha l low d en t icu la t i on , p o in t t o ab i -d i rec t iona l c u t t ing o r s l ic ing mo t ion w i th r i pp ing a ga in s t t h e t o o l e dge . S o f t t om ed ium -so f t ma t e r ia lw a s wo rked . E va lua t ion : R e l iab le c onc lu s ion C FW 1 2 :N ou se -wea r

B F W 2 3 : E ven t hough s im i la r w o rk m igh t h ave b een e xe c u ted , t h e u s e -wea r c ha ra c ter i s t ic s w e r e n o t a s c l ea r a s o n t h e p rev iou s t o o l . T h i s h a s b een e xp la ined t h rough t h e w o rk ing o f s o f t e r , e x a c t ly m ed ium -so f t ma te r ia l . T he f ou r m ic ro f l ake s ca r s w e r e c ompo sed o ft h r ee f e a the r (7 5 % )a nd o ne h inge t e rm ina ted (2 5 % )m ic ro f l ake s ca r s . T he f ew s ca r s a r e s ca t te r ed a l ong b o th e dge a spec t s . S l igh t e dge r ound ing w a s v i s ib le , b u t n o p o l ish c ou ld b e d e tec ted . S t r ia t i on a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e a l so p r e sen t . E va lua t ion : Un r e l iab le c onc lu s ion

B FW 1 3 :N ou se -wea r C F W 1 4 : S im i la r u se -wea r c ha rac te r i s t ic s a s t h o se o f t oo l CF W 9w e r e f ound . Two d o r sa l f e a the r t e rm i n a t ed (1 00% )m ic rof lake s ca r s w e r e o bserved t h a t w e r e s c a t te r ed a l ong t h e t o o l e dge . T he e dge s w e r e s l igh t ly r ounded , w h i le p o l ish , s t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e a b sen t . T he s ame e va lua t ion c r i t er ia , a su sed f o rt oo l CF W 9 , l e d t o t h e o p in ion t h a t s o f t m a te r ia l w a s s c raped . E va lua t ion : U n re l iab le c onc lus ion

F FW 2 4 : N ou se -wea r B FW 1 5 :N ou se -wea r C FW 2 5 : N ou se -wea r F F W 1 6 : T he s e ven m ic ro f lake s f ound w e r e c omposed ma in ly o f f e a the r (4 2 ,85 % )a nd s t ep t e rm i n a ted ( 4 2 ,85 % ) s ca r s . H inge t e rm ina ted (1 4 ,3 % )s ca r s a r e u ncommon . T he s ca r c on f i gu ra t ion w a s s c a t te r ed a nd t h e e dge r ound ing i ss l igh tt os t rong . D u l l , g ra iny , a nd mo s t ly p i t t e d p o l i sh w e r e p r edom inan t , b u t s ome s po t s a l so s how b r igh t , v e ry s moo th a nd n on -p i t ted p o l ish . T he i n te rm i t ted a nd s ha l low d en t icu la t i on s uppo r t s t h e g ene ra l t r a i t s o f f l esh c u t t i ng / s l ic ing . A l l i n a l t h e t oo l s how s ag rea t s im i la r i ty t ot h ep r ev iou s ly i n ve s t iga t ed t oo l CF W 1 . B o th t oo ls w e r e p robab ly u sed t o d i s m embe rf l esh . E va lua t ion : R e l iab le c onc lu s ion

C FW 2 6 : N ou s e -wea r

F FW 1 7 : N ou se -wea r F FW 1 8 : N ou se -wea r C FW 1 9 : NO u se -wea r C FW 2 0 : N ou se -wea r F FW 2 1 : NO u se -wea r B F W 2 2 : T oo l B F W 2 2 s howed a l l c ha ra c te r i s t ics af l ake u sed f o r w h i t t l ing s hou ld d i sp lay . Ma in ly f e a the r (3 7 ,5 % )a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed (5 0 % ) s ca r sc on t r ibu te t ot h er e la t ive ly h i gh a moun to f m ic ro f lake s ca r s . S nap t e rm ina ted ( 1 2 ,5 % )

6 0

F F W 2 7 : T h i s s t rong ly s t re s sed t oo l d i sp lay s d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l m ic rof lak e s ca r s a lmo s t i ne qua l n um b e r s . F ea the r t e rm ina t ed (7 1 ,4 % )m ic ro f lake s c a r s a r e t h e p r edom inan t t yp e , b u t a l so s t ep ( 2 8 ,6 % )t e rm ina ted s ca r s a r e c ommon . T he s c a r s w e r e s ma l l i ns i ze a nd s ca t te r ed a l ong t h e t o o l e dge s . T he o bse rved p o l i sh o n b o th e dge a spec t s w a s d u l l a nd g ra iny w i th s ome s po t s o f b r igh t a nd e x t r eme s moo th , n on -p i t t ed o ccu r r e nce . T he p o l i sh i sa lmo s t u n ifo rm ly d i s t r ib u t ed a l ong t h e s uppo sed ly u sed e dge a spec t s . S t r ia t ion , l o ca t ed p a ra l le l t o t h e t o o l e dge , i s o b servab le o n t h e v en t ra l s i de o f t h e t o o l . T he s t r ia t ion w a s s ho r t , n a r row , a nd s ha l low . D en t i cu la t ion i sa b sen t . A l though t h e p o l i sh d oe s n o t f i t t h e p ropo sed u se -wea r c ha rac te r i s t ic s a t e ve ry p o in t , t h e a u tho r r e se rves h im se lf t h e r i gh tt oi n t e rp re tt h e t oo la sh av ing b een u sed t o s aw m ed ium -ha rd ma te r ia l . T he ma in p o in t s t h a t l e d t ot h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w e r e t h e d i s t r ibu t i on o ft h e f e a the r a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed s c a r s t o a lmo s te qua la moun t so nb o th t o o le dge s ,p a ra l l e l t o t h e t o o l e dge o r ien ted s t r ia t ion , a nd t h e m a in t r a i t s t h e t o o l d i sp lay s i n t e rm s o f p o l i s h / smoo th ing . E va lua t ion : U n r e l iab le c onc lu s ion

B F W 2 8 : S i x o bserved m ic rof l ake s c a r s w e r e e xc lus ive ly f ound o n t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e t o o l , a n u nm i s t a kab le i nd ica to r o f a n e xecu ted s c rap ing o r p l an ing mo t ion . T he s c a r s w e r e c ompo sed o f ma in ly s t ep (5 0 % )a nd f e a the r t e rm ina ted ( 3 3 ,3 % )b u t a l so l e s se r a moun t s o f s nap t e r m ina ted (1 6 ,7 % )m ic rof l ak e s c a r s . A l l s ca r s w e r e s ma l l i ns i ze a nd s c a t te r ed a l ong t h e d o r s a l t oo l e dge . C on sequen t ly , t h e d o r sa l e dge o f t h e t oo l s how s s t ronge r e dge r ound ing t h an t h e s l igh t ly r ounded v en t ra l o ne . P o l i sh w a s a l so o b se rvab le a tt h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e t o o l a nd o c c u r s b r igh t , e x t r eme ly s moo th a nd n on -p i t ted . T he p o l i sh i s a lmo s t u n ifo rm ly d i s t r ibu ted a l ong t h e ma in ly u sed t o o l e dge . S t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e a b sen t . A s t h e c ha rac te r i s t i cs f o r s c rap ing a nd p l an ing a c t ion s w e r e s im i la r , ad i s t inc t ion w ou ld o n ly b e p o s s ib le t h rough e x ten s ion m ea su r emen t s o f t h e p o l i sh o r s t r ia t ion , w h ich p roved t ob e u n r e l iab le a nd o f ten m i s lead ing i n t h e i n t e rp r e t a t ion . O the r t oo ls (C F W 2a nd C F W 8)c ou ld b e r e cog n i zed a sp u r e s c rap ing t o o l s a st h e v en t ra l s i de w a s u nmod if ied , a nd p l an ing a s w e l l a s w h i t t l ing w ou ld l e ave a tl e a s tr e cogn izab le t r aces o f u se -wea r . T he u se o f m ed ium so f t c on ta c t m a t e r ia l s e emed t ob e s u i tab le i nv i ew o ft h e n um b e r a nd a pp ea rance o f t h e m ic rof lake s ca r s . E va lua t ion : R e l iab le c on c lu s ion

C FW 3 2 : N ou se -wea r F F W 3 3 : T he f ou r m ic ro f lake s ca r s a ppea r ing o n ly o n t h e d o r sa l t oo l s i de p o in t ed t o as c rap ing /p lan ing mo t ion . T he s ca r s w e re c ompo sed ma in ly o f f e a the r (5 0 % ) ,b u t a l so o fs nap (2 5 % )a nd s t ep t e rm ina t ed (2 5 % )m ic ro f lake s ca r s . T he s c a r c onf igu ra t ion w a s s ca t te red . S l igh t d o r sa l e dge r ound ing a nd d u l l , g ra iny , b u t v e ry s moo th d o r sa l p o l i sh w e re r e co rded . S t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e a b sen t . T he i n te rp r e ta t i on o f as o le s c rap ing t oo l i sf ounded o n t h e s ame a r gumen ta t ive p o in t s u sed t oc ha ra c t e r ize t oo l CF W 2a s as c rap ing t oo l . E va lua t ion : R e l iab le c onc lus ion F FW 3 4 : N ou se -wea r

6 . 3S ummary

F FW 2 9 : N ou se -wea r C FW 3 0 :N ou se -wea r C F W 3 1 : T he f ew (t wo )o bse rvab le m ic rof lake s ca r s w e r e f ound o n t h e d o r sa l a s w e l l a st h e v en t ra l s i de o f t h e t oo l , a nd c on s i s ted o f av en t ra l s t ep (5 0% )a nd ad o r sa l h i nge t e rm ina t ed (5 0% ) m ic ro f lake s ca r s . A cco rd ing ly , t h e s ca r c on f i gu ra t ion w a s s ca t te r ed a nd a l so t h e e dge r ound ing w a s o n ly s l igh t o n b o th s i des . P o l i sh , s t r ia t ion a nd d en t icu la t ion w e r e a b so lu t e ly a b s en t . T he c onc lus ion o fw h i t t l ing o f s o f t m a t e r i a l d e r ived f r om t h e o u t e r a pp ea rance o f t h e t oo l a s i tw a s e x t reme ly t h in a nd d i sp layed a s ma l l e dge a ng le . T he l a ck ing d en t icu la t ion e xc lud ed t h ec u t t ing / s l ic ing o ff l e sh . E va lua t ion : Un re l iab le c onc lu s ion

6 1

T he h igh a nd l ow p owe r e xam ina t ion o f t h e s e lec t ed Wa i k a lua f l ake s e s tab l ished 1 4 o u t o f 3 4 t oo l s a s b e ing u sed . O ne t oo l (F F W 6 )d i sp layed u se -wea r , b u t c ou ld n o t b e a s s igned t o as pec ia l a c t iv i ty o r t h e u sed c on tac t m a t e r ia l . E igh tt ime st h e a u tho rc ou ld d ef in i te ly d e te rm ine t h e t o o l u se a nd /o r t h e c on ta c t ma te r ia l t h e t oo l w a s e mp loyed t o . T he r ema in ing s i x t ime s o n ly a n u n r e l iab le c onc lus ion w a s p o s s i b le . S t r ik ing , i st h e c o r respondence o f t h e p r ev iou s ly e s t a b l ished u se -wea r c ha rac te r is t ic s f o r v a r iou s t oo l u se s . (S ec t ion 4 . 3 a nd V . )One n o t ices t h a t t h e Wa ika lua f l ake s d i sp lay g ene ra l ly l e s s u se -wea r t h an c ompa ra t ive ly u sed e xper imen ta l f l akes . T he u se -wea r i sl e s s o bv iou s a nd n eed s h ighe r magn if ica t ion t o b e d e t ec ted . A s ar u le i tc an b e s t a ted , t h a t t h e h ighe r t h e e mp loyed magn if ica t ion , t h e s ma l le ri st h e a ccu racy t or e la t eu se -wea rt od ef in i te t oo l u se . T h i s i mp l ie st h a tt h e i n terp re ta t ion o ft h eu se o ft h e Wa ika lua f l ake s i sl e s s a ccu ra te t h an t h eu se s t a ted f o rt h e e xpe r imen ta l f l akes . (C ompa re b l ind t e s t s) A n c on t rad ic t ion t h a t s hou ld b e m en t ioned h e r e i st h e d i s c r epancy b e tween t h e p rev iou s ly e s tab l ished o p t ima l e dge a ng le f o r w h i t t l ing t oo ls a nd t h e e dge a ng le o f t h e Wa ika lua f l ake s d e te rm ined a s w h i t t l ing t oo ls . Mos t ly t h e e dge a ng le o ft h e t oo ls i st oo s ma l l t ob e u sed f o rw h i t t l ing ,e ven t h ough t h eu se -wea rc ha rac te r i s t ic sp o in tt owa rd t h a t .

V I I . EXA M INAT ION OF PLANT RESIDUES

mon ly u sed e xp lana t ion mode l ,w ou ld b et h et h e rma lm e l t ing o f p lan t ma te r ia l t h rough f r ic t ion b e tween t oo l a nd t h e r e spec t ive p l an t . T h i sw ou ld c au se t h es p read ing o fs i l iceou s ma te r ia la c ro s st h et oo ls u rf ace , wh i le t h e mo rpho logy o ft h e i nd iv idua l p a r t ic le wou ld b e d e s t royed . K amm inga (1 979 )

7 . 1 P hy to l i th a na ly s i s

a nd A nde r son (1 980 ) ,w ho a r ev ehemen tr ep re sen ta t ive s o f t h e c hem ica l b ound ing t h eo ry e mpha s iz e t h e i mpor tance o f w a te rt og ene ra te p hy to l i th o nt h et oo ls u rf a ce .A nde r son s t a t e s

C orn g lo s s o r s i ck le s heen , ap henomenon t ha t h a s b een p roven t ob ec au sed b yp hy to l i th a dhe r ing t ot he t oo ls u rf ace , i ti ss t i l l n o t f u l ly e xp la ined . I ns p i te o fs ome d i sag reemen t , mos t e xper t s s t a te t ha t p hy to l i th i s as ed imen t b u i ld -up t h rough p lan t r e s idues , ma in ly s i l ica . T he p roduc t ion o f p hy to l i th s t a r t s i n t he g round w a te r w e re h yd ra ted s i l ica c r ea tes p hy to l i th s uppor t ing m i l ieu , t ha t w i l l b e a bso rbed t h rough t h e p lan t s r oo t s a nd c a r r ied t h rough t he v a scu la r

t ha t n ex t t ot h e w a te ra nd h ea t p roduc t ion o ft h e t oo l w o rk , t h et oo ls u rf ace a l te ra t ion i sh igh ly d epend ed u pon t h et e x tu re o ft h e t oo l . T he f i ne rt h e g ra in s t ruc tu re o ft h e t oo l , t h e l e s s s i l iceou s ma te r ia l may a dhe re t ot h et oo l s u rf ace . C on s ide r ing t h a t p hy to l i th i ss ub jec t t oc hem ica l c o r ro s ion

s ys tem . T he mos t p ro l if erous p hy to l i th p roduc t ion a nd

( a )

( b )

( e)

( c )

( f )

( i )

( d )

( 9 )

( j )

( k )

: 8 1 :3 ACM ( 1 )

(h )

( m )

HU =

( n )

( 0 )

( p ) I

0

1

1

m ic rons

1 00

D is t inc t ive n on -g rass o pa l p hy to l i ths : ( a -e ) d ec iduous t r ee t ype ; ( f -h ) c on i fe rous t r ee t ypes ; ( ik )d ico ty ledonous h e rb t ypes ;( 1 -p ) monoco ty ledonous h e rb t ypes . ( From Rovne r 1 971 , Q ua te rna ry R e sea r ch 1 ( 3 ) :350 . )

(F igu re 8 :D i s t inc t ive p hy to l i th k ey )

c on t rad ic t st h eo ccu r rence o fc hem ica lb ound ing b e tween t h e p hy to l i th a nd t h e t oo l s u rf ace a s h e o b served i ndub i tab le

a nd m echan ica la b ra s ion o rs imp ly b reakage i ns o i l d epo s i t s , t h e q ues t ion o ft h e d u rab i l i ty o f p hy to l i th a r ise s . S eve ra l f a c to r s may i nf luence t h ep re serva t ion o f ap hy to l i th l a ye ro n s t one t oo l s . P o s td epo s i t iona l a l te ra t ion t h rough h igh ly a l ka l i ne s o i l s , p os td epo s i t iona ld i sp lacemen t (l a nd s l ide , r i ve r) , t h e r e spec t ive p hy to l i th f o rm a nd i t s t h ickne s s o n t h e t oo l s u rf ace may a dve r se ly a f f ec t t h e r e s i s tance o ft h e p hy to l i th

e xf o l ia t ion o f ap hy to l i th l a ye ro nt h e s u rf a ce o f aN ea rE a s t s i ck le b lade (D e l B ene 1 979 :171 , F igu re 5)Ano the r c o rn -

l a ye r . T he a ge o ft h e p hy to l i th l a ye r i s af a c to r t h a t s hou ld n o t b e o ve r looked . G ene ra l ly , when m echan ica l b reakage

a ccumu la t ion s e em st ob ei nt h es t em sa nd l e ave so ft h ep l an t . N ewcombe r (i n H ayden 1 979 :190 )f ound e v idence t ha t p hy to l i th m igh t a c tua l ly p ene t ra te t he t oo l s u rf ace , a nd A nde r son (1 980 :188 )l o ca l ized a ppa ren td i s so lu t ion o ff l in t t oo l s u rf aces t ha t w ere a f f ec ted b y p hy to l i th . D e l B ene

6 2

a nd c o r ro s ion i n c r ea se sw i th t h ea g eo ft h ed epo s i t ,t h ec hance s o fp r e se rva t ion b ecome s ma l le r .

t h e r e l iab le OPT IPHOT -POL , p o la r iz ing m ic ro scope w a s u sed .E ve ry e dge t h a tw a se s tab l i shed t oh ave b een u sed (s e e s e c t ion V I )w a s e xam ined u nde r 1 50 x a nd 2 50 x m agn i f i ca t ion . U nf o r tuna t e ly , n o s i ck le s heen o r c o rn g l o s s t h a t c ou ld p o in tt op hy to l i th a nd a ss u ch t ot h eu se o ft h et o o la sa c u t t ing / sc rap ing u t en s i l c ou ld b e o b se rved . A n e xam ina t ion o ft h ee xpe r imen ta l ly u s ed f l ake sd e l ive r ed as im i la rd e so la t e p i c tu r e . A s sum ing t h e p r e sence o fp hy to l i th d oe s n o t i mp ly v i s ib le s i ck le s heen o rc o rn g l o s s ,t h ep l an tr e s idue st h a th ave b een e xf o l ia t ed f r om t h e c u t t ing e dge o ft h e t o o l s h ad t ob e i n ve s t iga t ed . I no rde rt oa c comp l i sh t h i s ,t h e r e s idue sh ad t o b e moun t ed o n s l ide s . (P rocedu re s e e s e c t ion 7 . 2 )A l so h e re , n o k nown o r c ompa rab le p hy to l i th s t ruc tu r e s w e re o b se rved .

T he u s ef u lne s s o fp hy to l i th a na ly s i s i ss e en i ni t s a b i l i ty t o i d en t if y e i the r t h e o r ig ina l f l o ra o r t h e ma te r ia l t ha t w a s c on tac ted b y t h e t o o l . S i nce t h e re a r e many d i f f e r en t , b u t s p ec if i cp hy to l i th s pec imen s , ar e cogn i t ion a nd ad i s t inc t ion b e twe en t h em m igh to n ly b ep o s s ib le i fp r ev iou s ly i n ve s t iga t ed i ne xp e r imen t sa nd w r i t t en d own i nd i s t inc t ive p hy to l i th k ey s . (B rown 1 984 ,P ip e rno 1 984 ,R ovne r 1 983 ,c ompa re a l so f i g . 8)T h i sh a sn o tb een d one f o rH awa i iy e t , b u ts t i l l c ou ld b e e ncou raged f o rt h e f u tu r e . N eve r the le s s , t h e a u tho r d ec ided t o c a r ry o u t ap hy to l i th a na ly s i s , a s t h e e a r l ie r men t ioned p hy to l i th k ey sa l so s how p hy to l i th s p ec imen o ft r op ica lw ood c ompa rab le t ot h ew ood s t ock i nH awa i i .

T he r e a r e t h ree p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion m ode l s t h a t c ou ld e x p l a in h i s p henomenon . T he f i r s t i st h a tt h e r e i s /wa sn o p hy t o l i th a ta l l . As e cond p o s s ib i l i ty c ou ld b et h eu se o fa na l ka l i ne s o lu t ion t oe xf o l ia t e t h e p l an t r e s idue s o ft h e t o o l s u r f a ce . (s e e s e c t ion 7 . 2 )A n a l ka l ine s o lu t ion c ou ld h ave d amaged o rd e s t royed t h ep hy to l i th l a ye r ,w h i le i tw a su sef u l

H u r combe (1 985 :83 )s howed t h a t c a ref u l s t ud ie s a r e n o t l im i ted t o t he u se o f aS cann ing E lec t ron M icroscope (S EM ) ,o f t en i ti ss uff ic ien tt oc onduc tr e s idue o b serva t ion a nd p ho tog raphy w i th a l i gh t m ic ro scope . F o r t h e p re sen t p hy to l i th a sw e l la st h ef o l low ing b o tan ica l -chem ica la na ly s i s

4)‘ (F i gu re 9 :A ppa ra tu st or e ta in h e igh ti nr e la t ion t os o lven t)

6 3

c a t ion v a r ied f r om 5 0x t o 2 00x , d ep end ing o n t h e t r an s lu c ence o ft h e ma t er ia l .

t o r e cove r o t he r p l an t r e s idues . A no the r e xp lana t ion w ou ld b e t h a t t h ee x t reme ly f i ne t e x tu re o ft h e b a sa l t ic ma te r ia l d id n o ta l low t h eb u i ld -up o fp hy to l i th ma te r ia l .

R e s idue A : V a r iou s r od s haped a nd a ppa ren t ly b roken s t ruc tu res w e r e o bserved . A t s ome p l aces t h e r od s j o ined e ach o t he r a nd f o rmed c r o s se s . T he ma in b a r w idened t oo ne s i de a nd a ppea red t o b e l e s s f r ag i le t h an t h e c r o s s ing o ne s . S ome p a r t s w e re e x t r eme ly t r ans lucen t , o t he r s a ppea red t o b e a lmos t b la ck . T he c o lo r o f t h e s ub s tance r anged f r om y e l low t ob rown . (T oo l CF W 2)

7 .2 B o tan ica l -Chem ica le xper imen t si no rder t oe x fo l ia te a nd i nves t iga te p lan ta nd/or a n ima lr es idues .

S ince t h e h igh p owe r e xam ina t ion o ft h e Wa ika lua m a t er ia l e xam ined s eve ra l s po t s o f d efm i te o rgan ic r e s idue s t h a t c ou ld n o th ave b een f u r the r i n ves t iga ted a sl o ng a sa dhe r en t t o t h e t oo l e dge , m e thod s h ad t ob e w o rked o u t t oe x fo l ia t e t h er e s idues f r om t h e t oo l . T he b a s ic p rob lem w a s t oe mp loy s o lven t s t h a tw ou ld b e a b le t of u lf i l l t h i s p u rpose , b u tw ou ld n o td amage o rd es t roy t h e r e s idue s . S c rap ing t h e p l an t ma t e r i a l f r om t h e s u r fa ce w a s i mpos s ib le , a s n o s uf i c ien t amoun t s w e r e p r esen t . A n a c id ic s o lven t o n t h e o ne h and wou ld h ave d e s t royed v a luab le i n fo rma t ion w h i le d e so lv ing r e s idue p a r t s , a n a l ka l ine s o lven t o n t h e o t he r h and m igh t h ave c aus ed t h ev an ish ing o ft h ep hy to l i th l a ye r . C on s ide r ing t h e f a c t t h a t p hy to l i th a na ly s i s i nH awa i i i ss t i l l a tt h e b eg in n ing a nd p o ten t ia l i n fo rma t ion t ha t c ou ld h ave b een g a ined wou ld b e l i t t le , t h e l a t te r p o s s ib i l i ty w a s c hosen . Af t e r t h e c on su l ta t ion o fe xpe r t s i nt h e c r ime l a bo ra to ry o ft h e H ono l u lu P o l ice D epa r tmen t , i tw a s d ec ided t ou se s a l ine a nd /o r e x t ra s t reng th C SP (C ompa c t S od ium P hospha te )c l ean se r , c ommon ly u sed t oc l ean t h e c ozy b a th room . Due t ot h e m e t i cu lou s w o rk i n vo lved , t h e t r ea tmen t o ft h e t oo ls w a s t r ou b le some a nd t ime c on sum ing . E xpe r ience s howed t h a t j u s t d ipp ing t h e t o o l i n t h e s o lu t ion w a s i n su f i c ien t t od i sso lve t h e r e s idues o n t h e t o o l 's s u r fa ce . E ven a n e l ec t ro ly t ic b a th l e f t p lan t p a r t s o n t h e t oo l a nd d e l ive r ed i n suff ic ien t p l an t ma te r ia l f o r t h e a na ly s i s . T he b es t m e thod , w h ich c an b e d emon s t ra t ed w a s t h e b ru sh ing of o f t h e r e s idues w i th a l i t t le t oo thb rush . T he r efo r e t h e wo rk ing s u r face o f t h e t oo l h ad t o b e c on s tan t ly i mme r sed i n t h e s o lven t . I n o rde r t o s oak a nd b rush o n ly t h ose p a r t so ft h ef l ake st h a th ad c on ta c t w i th t h e s uppo sed ly c u t ma t e r ia l , al i t t le a ppa ra tu s w a sb u i l t . (S ee f i g . 9)

R e s idue B :D ef in i t e c e l l s t ruc tu re sw e r eo bserved . T he s i ng le c e l ls j o ined e ach o the rb y t h e i rs ma l le rs i des a nd f o rmed s l igh t ly i r regu la r r ow s . E ach r ow w a s c onnec ted t oa no the r r ow o f e qua l o r u nequa l s hape a nd e x t ens ion s o t h a t a n i regu la rh oney c omb l i ke f o rma t ion w a s t h e o u tcome . S eve ra l r od s t h a t w e r e a s f me a s h a i r w e re c r o s s ing t h e s t ruc tu re . T he c o lo r r a nged f r om y e l low t or edd i sh -b rown . ( Too l B FW 2 2 ) R e s idue C : Ac shaped p ar t ic le w i th v a ry ing w id th . I ts e emed t o b e b roken o n t h e l a te ra l e nd s , w h i le i t s how sl ong i tud ina l ly n oi n te rrup t ions e xcep t f o r ad eep i n c is ion t owa rd s t h e m idd le o f t h e o b jec t . S eve ra l p a ra l le l d o t ted l i ne s s t ruc tu r ed t h e s u r face , w h i le t h r ee i ndef in a b le s po t s d i s tu rbed t h e e qua l a ppea rance . T he o b jec t w a s h igh ly t r ans lucen t a nd o f l i gh tb rown c o lo r . (T oo lF FW 2 7 ) R e s idue D : T h is i regu la r ly s haped s ub s tance s howed n o c l ea r ly d i sce rn ib le p l an t l i ke c ha rac te r i s t ic s . S ome p a r t s i n t h e m idd le o f t h e o b jec t s e emed t o b e t h icke r a nd l e s s f r ag i le t h an t h e o u te r o ne s . No r e gu la r l i nes o r p a t ter n s c ou ld b e o b served . Al i gh tb rown c o lo r w a s p r edom inan t . (T oo lF FW 3 3 )

T he ma in f unc t ion o f t h i s o u t f i t wa s t h e s t eady r e t en t ion o f t h e h e igh t o f t h e f l ake i n r e la t ion t o t h e s o lven t 's s u r fa ce . T h i s w a s n ece ssa ry i no rde r t os t a te t h a t o n ly p l an t ma t e r ia l a dhe r en t t ot h e t oo l 's w o rk ing s ur face t h a t a c tua l ly c ame i n c on ta c tw i th t h e wo rked ma te r ia l wa sc o l lec ted . T he o b t a ined s o lu t ion w a sp ou red i n to t e s tt u be s a nd c en tr ifuged . T hen t h e s u rp lu s w a t e r w a s p ou red o u t , a nd t h e r e s t t h a t c on ta ined ma in ly p l an t ma ter ia l w a s d i s t r ibu t ed o n d i shes . T he d i she s w e r e p u ti n to ad ry ing c hambe rf o r 4 5 m inu te s a t al ow t em p e ra tu re . I n al a s t s t ep , t h e r e s idues w e r e moun t ed o n s l ide s i no rde rt oe xam ine t h em u nde rt h e l i gh tm ic roscope .

A f t e r t h e se p r e l im ina ry o bser va t ion s t h e s l ides w e r e s en t t o t h e D epa r tmen t o f B o tany a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f H awa i i a t Manoa f o r f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion . T he o b jec t s w e r e e xam ined m ic ro scop ica l ly (Z e is s P ho tonüc roscop e I )a nd t e s t ed f o r t h e p r esence o fl i gn in . N ex t t oc e l lu lo se , l i gn in i so ne o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t w ooden c omponen t s t h a t l e ad t ot h e l i gn if i c a t ion o ft h e p l an t c e l l i fa ccumu la t ed i ni t .T he p r esence o f l i gn in c an b e p roven t h rough h i s tochem ica l t e s t s w i th P lo ro g l uc ino l -HCL t h a t l e ad s t o as t a in r e ac t ion . I f t h e c o lo r c hange s t o r ed , l i gn if i ed c e l l s a r e p re sen t . T he p r ev iou s ly d e sc r ibed o ccu r rence o ft h e r e s idue sf ound o nt h e t oo l BF W 2 2 p o in ted t os c le r enchyma t h rough t h e l o ng ish , r od -shaped s t r ing st h a tw e re c r i s s -c ro ss ing e ach o t he r . T he p os i t ive s t a in r e ac t ion (r e d )s uppor ted t h e e xp lana t ion o f as t ab i l iz ing t i s sue . R e s idue B s howed n o s t a in r e ac t ion w i th P h lo rog luc i n o l -HCL , t h e r efo r e s o i tc ou ld n o t c on ta in l i gn in . T he g en e r a l a pp ea rance a nd s ome u n ique f ea tu r es p o in ted t o p l an t f i be r . R e s idue s Ca nd D w e r e f ound t ob e X y lem e l emen t s

I n t h e f o l low ing t h e re w i l l b e av e rba l d esc r ip t ion o f t h e r e s idues f ound o n f ou r t o o l s . T hese t o o l s w e re C F W 2 ,d e s c r ibed a s as c rap ing f l ake ,e mp loyed t om ed ium -ha rd w ood , BF W 2 2 , s e en a s w h i t t l ing t oo l o n m ed ium -ha rd m a te r ia l , F F W 2 7 u sed t o s aw m ed ium -ha rd w ood , a nd F F W 3 3 e s tab l i shed a s af l ake u sed f o r s c rap ing m ed ium -sof tc on ta c t ma t er ia l . A ga in a n OPT IPHOT -POL p o la r iz ing m ic roscope w a s u sed , b u t t h is t ime w i th t r an sm i t t ed l i gh t . T he m agn if i -

6 4

t h a t o nce t r an spor ted t h e n u t r ien t s t h ough t h e p l an t . (S ee r e su l t sa nd p ho tog raphs i na pp end ix E )

T he o n ly h a lf w ay l e g i t ima t e p o s s ib i l i ty t o o b ta in a t l e a s t s ome r e su l t s , w a s t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f a l r eady c o l lec t ed h amme r s tones a nd o t he r r o ck ma ter ia l f r om t h e s ame l a ye r /f i l l ing . T h i s r o ck m a te r ia l w a s a l so p r ev iou s ly w a shed b y t h e e mp loyee s o f t h e B ishop Mu seum . T he s ame p roce d u re s a l r eady a pp l ied t o t h e p r eh is to r ic b a sa l t f l ake s w e r e a l so e mp loyed t ot h e r o ck m a te r ia l . I n s p i te o f mo s t c a refu l w o rk , a lmo s t n o p l an t m a te r ia l c ou ld b e r e cove red . I n o ne c a se , s e ve ra l t i ny r oo t s w e r e o bserved . T hese r oo t s w e r e n o t w o rked a s t h ey d i sp layed n o i n c i s ion s o r o the r h in t s o f b r eakage o r d amage c ommon ly f ound o n p lan t ma t er ia l t h a t w a sc on tac ted b yt h ew o rk ing e dge o ft h es t one t oo l .

T he b o tan ica l -chem ica l e xp e r imen t s s e em t o s uppor t t h e p rev iou s ly s t a ted t oo l u se (S ee s e c t ion V I . ) .E ven t h ough t h e f l akes t h a th ave b een a s s igned t ot h e c u t t ing o r s l ic ing o f f l esh s howed n o p os i t ive b l ood r e ac t ion , s o t h ey a l so d i s p l ayed n o p lan t r e s idues . T h i s c ou ld l e ad t ot h e h ypo these s t h a tn od e tec tab le r e s idue sw i l lr ema in o nt h e t o o l ' s s u r f a ce i f f l esh o r o t he r a n ima l p a r t s w e r e w o rked . T he s ame c an b e s t a t ed f o r t im id o r s ho r t t o o l u se o n s o f t p l an t ma te r ia l t h a t w i l l l e ave n o d i sce rn ib le r e s idues o n t h e c u t t ing e dge o f t h e t oo ls . I ta l so s e em s t ha t r e s idues t e nd t ob e mo r e n ume rou s o nt oo la r ea sw i th s u r f ace i regu la r i t ie s .T he r oughnes so ft h e t oo l s uppor t s t h e r e s idue a dhe rence a nd c on ser va t ion , a st h e i n den t ion st a ke u pt h er e s idue sa nd h inde ru se a sw e l l a sp o s t d epo s i t iona l f a c to r s t o d e s t roy o r a l t e ra te t h em . F ina l ly , i t c an b e s a id t h a t p l an t r e s idues m ay b e p r e s en t o n t oo ls t h a t h ave b een u sed o n m ed ium t o h a rd c on ta c t ma t e r ia l f o r a t ime o f a tl e a s to ne m inu t e . T he se r e s idue s m ay f u r the r s up p o r t t h e m ic rowea r t r a ce s s o t h a t ad ef in i t e d e te rm ina t ion a bou tt o o lu se s e em sp o s s ib le .

I tc an b e s t a ted t h a tp l an t ma t e r ia l t h a to ve rg rew t h e a r t ifac t s a f t e rt h e i rd i sca rd ,m ay n o tb e p r e served o n t h e s t one t oo ls i f p r ev iou s ly w a shed . T h i s p l an t ma te r ia l i so n ly l oose ly a dhe r e n tt ot h et oo l s u r fa ce a nd n o tp re s sed i n to i nden t ion sl i ke t h e w o rked p l an t ma t e r ia l . E ven t h ough a s uf i c ien t a moun t o f u nwo rked p lan t m a t e r ia l m ay b e p r eserved , i tc an e a s i ly b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om w o rked p l an t ma te r ia l a s i ts how s t h e u nd i s tu rbed o u te r e p ide rm is , n o s i ng le f i be r s , a nd n o u ncov e r ed X y lem e l emen t s .

7 . 3B o tan ica l -chem ica le xper imen t so fr andom ly c hosen s amp le so f rock sa nd macrof lora lr ema in s

7 . 4C ompar i son o ft he b o tan ica l -chem ica lr esu l t sw i th t he f auna la nd f l ora la na ly s i so ft he Wa ika lua s i te

T he o r ig ina l ly p lanned a pp roa ch t og ot ot h e f o rme r e xcava t i on s i te a nd c o l lec t s amp le s f r om v a r ious l a ye r s w a s n o t p rac t icab le . T he re wa sa b so lu t e ly n o p o s s ib i l i ty t og e t a c ce s s t o t h i s n ow p r iva te ly u sed a r ea . T he i n fo rma t ion o b ta ined s ugge s ted t h ea r ea h ad b een d eve loped . F u t u r es c ien t i s t sw ho may w o rk o n af undamen ta l b a sa l t , v o lcan ic g l a s s , o r f l in t f l ake a na ly s is s hou ld b e a dv ised t oa vo id w o rk ing w i th m a t e r ia l o f as i t e t h a t t h ey w i l l n o t h ave a cce s s t o f o r f u r the r r e sea r ch .

E ven t h ough C la rk a nd R ifo rd (1 986 :87 -95 )p resen ted a n e xemp la ry f auna l a na ly s i s , i tw a s o f n o u se f o r t h e p re sen t w o rk a s n o f a una l r e s idues w e r e f ound o n t h e s t one t oo l s . Un fo r tuna te ly , t h e f l o ra l a na ly s is w a s n o t a s g ood a s t h e f a una l a na lys is s o t h a t o n ly t h e u se o f l c u l cu i c an b e r e l iab ly c onc luded (1 986 :95 ) .S ince t h e a u tho r o ft h e p resen t s t udy w a sa l r eady i nG e rmany w hen h e w ro t et h i s s e c t ion t h e re w a s n o p o s s ib i l i ty t og e t a cces s t op o s s ib le e x i s t ing r eg iona l i n v es t iga t ion s o ft h i s a r ea . F u tu re w o rk s s hou ld c on s ide r t ho se c ompa r i son s a s v a luab le t op rove h ypo the ses d eve loped i n t h eu se -wea ra nd b o tan ica l -chem ica le xper imen tp a r t .

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A l l t h e i n fo rma t ion h ad t ob e w r i t ten d own o n ap r ev iou s ly p r epa red s hee t , a ny s pec ia l o ccur r ence s o rc hanges h ad t ob e m en t ioned w i th c ommen t s . A l so o n t h i s s hee t t h e f ou r p o s s i b le a r ea s o f u se w e r e s hown s chema t ica l ly , s o t h a t t h ey c ou ld b e u sed i na bb rev ia t ion s (T ab le F ) .

V I I I . BL IND TESTS

B l ind t e s t s , c ompu lso ry f o r e ve ry u se -wea r s t udy , s i nce t h ey w e r e p roved t o b e u sef u l a nd a ccu ra t e (K ee ley a nd N ew c ombe r 1 977 , O de l l a nd O de l l -Ve r ecken 1 980 , G ende l a nd P i rnay 1 982 , Un ra th e ta l . 1 984 /6 ) ,w e r e a l so c onduc ted i n t h e p r esen t s t udy . T he t e s t s s hou ld o b jec t ive ly e va lua te t h e e f f ec t ivenes s o f t h e a pp l ied m e thod t o d e t e rm ine u se -wea r a nd t h e a ccu racy a nd s k i l lfu lne s so ft h ei n ve s t iga to r .

T he b l ind t e s t sd i scu ssed h e r e w e r e t wo -fo ld . F ive t oo l sf r om t e s t( A ) w e r ee xam ined p r io rt ot h e o b ser va t ion o fm ic rowea r t r aces o n t h e e xp er imen ta l b a sa l t t oo ls , t h e o t he r t e n t oo l s w e r e e xam ined a f t e r a n i n te rp r e t ive f r amewo rk h ad b een d ev i sed f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fw ea rt r ace s o bse rved o n t h e t oo ls .

O ne s e to ff i ve b a sa l tt o o ls w e r e u sed f r om e a ch o ft h e t h ree s ub jec t s t op e r fo rm c u t t ing , s c rap ing , w h i t t l ing , s aw ing , a nd p l an ing a c t ions o n d i f f e r en t m a te r ia l . T hese f i f t een t oo ls r e su l ted f r om t h e m anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s o ff l ake s w i th s pe c i a l a ng le s (S ee I I c) .T he f l ake s w e r e r a ndom ly s e lec ted f r om t h e b y s tand ing t h r ee s ub jec t s , t o s e e i ft h ey s u i t t h e i r i n tended p u rpo se . E a ch o f t h e t h ree s ub jec t s b agged t h e f l ake s s i ng ly a nd h and led t h em c au t iou s ly b efo r e a nd a f t e r t h e i r u sage . T he t o o ls w e r e c a r efu l ly w a shed , s o t h a t t h ey w ou ld n o t g i ve a ny h i n t o f t h e i r u sage t h rough r e s idue s o n t h e t o o l 's s u r f ace . T he i n ve s t iga to r d id n o t s e e t h ose f l ake s a ga in , u n t i l h e e xam ined t h em u nde r t h e m ic ro scope . (l ow a nd h igh p owe r)

P rof .D r . H e lmu tZ iege r t i nH ambu rg f unc t ioned a s am idd le m an . T he s ub jec t s a s w e l l a s t h e a u tho r i n dependen t ly s ub m i t ted h im t h e i r f i l led o u t s h ee t s r e sp ec t ive ly t h e e xam ined m ic rowea r t r a ce s a nd t h e i r i n te rp re ta t ion . A f t e r t h e e xpe r i m en t s w e re c omp le ted a nd t h e a u tho r r e tu rned t oG e rmany , t h er e su l t sw e r e p u tt oge the r . R esu l t s : P r ior t oa ny m icrowear e xam ina t ion T e s t : A S ub jec t : A (ma le ,24 ) T oo l : 1 F unc t ion : T h is t oo l w a s u sed l ong i tud ina l ly t o c u t u p ap i g s hank w i th m ed ium p r es su r e . F lesh a sw e l l a sb one w a s c u t . O n ly a r ea 2 o f t h e t o o l w a s a f f ec ted . (5 m in , 1 55 s t roke s ) T he t oo l w a su sed b id i rec t iona l ly . E va lua t ion : T he l ong i tud ina l d i rec t ion w a s r e cogn ized . A rea 2w a s d e f in i t e ly a s s igned t oc u t h a rd m a te r ia l a nd w a s u sed mo r e o f ten t h an a r ea 3 ,h oweve r , a r ea 3 a ppea r ed t oh ave b een u sed t o c u t s o f t p l an t s b ecause o f s eve ra l m ic rof lake s ca r s . Au n i - o r b i -d i rec t iona l u se o f t h e t oo l c ou ld n o t b e i d en t i f ied . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on tac tm a t er ia l : 1 / 2D i rec t ion : 0A r ea : 1 / 2

A f ew r e s t r ic t ion s w e r e p la ced o n t h e s ub jec t s u se o f t h e b l ind t e s tt o o l s . A sc on ta c tm a te r ia lt h ey h ad t ou s e f i sh , b i rd , o r p i g f l esh , s ma l l p l an t s , b one , o r o ne o f t h e f ou r k ind s o f wood . Ac on ta c t m a te r ia l k ey a s w e l l a s a bb r ev ia t ion u sage w e r e p rov ided b efo r e (T ab le F ) .T he c on tac tm a te r ia l i t se lf w a s c on t r ibu ted b y t h e a u tho r . T he s ub jec t s c ou ld c hoo se b e tween u n i - o r b i -d i r ec t iona l movemen t o f t h e t o o l . T hey c ou ld v a ry i nt h e a c tua l t ime o f u se , t h e n umbe r o f s t roke s , a nd t h e a pp l ied p r e s su r e . T he t o o ls h ad t ob e u sed u nha f t ed . Ano the rp o s s ib i l i ty w a s e i the rn o t t ou se t h e t o o l o rt ou se i t f o r , a t mo s t ,t wo d if e r en t ma te r ia ls o ra c t ion s .

S ub jec t : S ex :

T oo l 2 F unc t ion : T h is t oo l w a s u sed t r an sve r se ly t o w h i t t le k u l cu i w i th s of t p r e s su re . I n i t ia l ly u sed a r ea 3b roke s o t h a t a r ea 1 w a su sed . (7m in ,2 30 s t roke s )Un id i rec t iona lu se . E va lua t ion : T he t r an sve r se d i r ec t ion w a s r e cogn ized . A r ea 3 a s w e l l a s a r ea 1w e r e a s s igned t ob r eakage a s w e l l a s u se w h i le w o rk ing o n m ed ium so f t ma te r ia l . T he u n id i rec t iona l u se c ou ld b e i d en t if ied . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on ta c tm a t e r ia l : 1D i rec t ion : 1A rea : 1

A ge :

T oo l :

E dge Ang le : U sed a r ea (s ) A c t ion : C on tac t ma t er ia l : P ressu re : S t roke s : E lap sed t ime : D i rec t ion : U n iC ommen t s :

L eng th : W id th : T h icknes s : A c t ion : L ong i t ud ina l =L T ran sve r se =T C on tac t ma te r ia l : F le sh ( F ish ,B i rd ,P ig ) Sma l lp l an t s =S o f t( S ) S of t Wood s K uku i ,Hau S inew =Med ium -So f t( MS ) H a rd Wood s' o h ia 'a lehua ,koa F i sh b one =Med ium -ha rd ( MH ) B i rd /P ig b one =H a rd ( H ) P re s su re : S o f t =SO Med ium =ME S t rong = S T

T oo l : 3 F unc t ion : T he f l ake w a sn o tu sed . E va lua t ion : T he t oo l w a s e i the r a s s igned t o c u t t ing o f s o f t m a ter ia l w i th s o f t p r e s su re b ecause o f s l igh t r ound ing o ft h e e dge o fa r ea 2o rn o u se . I fu sed n o d i r ec t ion c ou ld b e i d en t i f ied . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1 / 2 C on tac t ma te r ia l : 1 / 2 D i rec t ion : 1 A rea : 1 / 2 T oo l : 4 F unc t ion : T h is t oo l w a s u sed a t f i r s t l o ng i tud ina l ly t o s aw ' o h ia 'a lehua w i th s t rong p r e s su re a nd i n as e cond s t ep t r an s v e r se ly t o w h i t t le h au w i th m ed ium p r es su r e . T he t oo l w a s b id i rec t iona l ly u sed . (1 2 m in , 3 70 s t rokes )A r ea 2w a s u sed i nb o th c a ses .

T ab le F :T oo l i n fo rma t ion ,r e qu i r ed i nt h eb l ind t e s ta nd a bb r ev ia t ion k ey .

6 6

c ou ld n o t b e d e t erm ina ted t h rough o b ser va t ion . A r ea 3 d i s p l ayed mo r e o bv ious w ea rp a t ter n s . T he c on ta c t ma ter ia l w a s d escr ibed a sh a rd . U n i - o rb i -d i r ec t iona l m o t ion w a s n o t s e en b ecau se o ft h e l a ck o fm ic rof lake s c a r s . Un id i r ec t iona l mo t i on w a sc onc luded . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on tac t ma te r ia l : 1 / 2D i rec t ion : 1 / 2A rea : 1

E va lua t ion : O n ly t h e u s e o f t h e t oo l o n h a rd ma te r ia l w a s i d en t if ied . L ong i tud ina l a s w e l l a s t r an sve r s e d i rec t ion w a s o bserved . A r ea 2 w a s r e cogn ized t ob e t h e u sed e dge . B i -d i r ec t iona lm ovemen tw a sn o ted . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on ta c tm a t er ia l : 1 / 2D i r ec t ion : 1A r ea : 1 T oo l : 5 F unc t ion : T h i s t oo l w a s l o ng i tud ina l ly a nd t r an sve r se ly u sed t o d e f lesh f i sh w i th s o f t p r e s su re . U n i - a nd b i -d i rec t iona l a pp l ica t ion o ft h e t oo l . A r ea 3w a s emp loyed . (1 0 m in , 2 20 s t rokes ) E va lua t ion : A r ea 3 a s w e l l a s a r ea 2 a ppea r ed t oh ave b een u sed f o r l o ng i tud ina l c u t t ing o f s o f t m a t e r ia l . B i -d i r ec t iona l u se w a sm o r eg ues sed t h an s e en . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1 / 2 C on tac t ma ter ia l : 1D i r ec t ion : 1 / 2 A rea : 1 / 2

T oo l 3 F unc t ion : H au w a s wo rked w i th s t rong p r es su r e . T he a c t ion w a s t r an sve r se . O n ly a r ea 2 w a s e mp loyed w i th au n id i r ec t i ona l mo t ion . E va lua t ion : T h is t oo l w a s m ean tt ob e e mp loyed t om ed ium h a rd c on tac t ma te r ia l , u n id i rec t iona l . A r ea 2w a s r e cogn ized t ob et h eo n ly t r an sve r se ly u sed e dge . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on ta c t ma te r ia l : 0D i rec t ion : 1A rea : 1

T o ta l a ccumu la ted p o in t s : 1 4 1 / 2 A c t ion : 4C on tac t ma t e r ia l : 31 / 2D i r ec t ion : 31 / 2A r ea : 31 / 2 T o ta l p o s s ib le p o in t s : 2 0 A c t ion : 5C on tac t ma t e r ia l : 5D i rec t ion : 5A r ea : 5 E ven t h ough t h e a u tho r h ad p rev iou s k now ledge o n ly w i th f l in t a r t i f a c t s a nd t h e i re xam ina t ion u nde r l ow p owe r m agn i f i ca t ion , g r ea t a ccu ra cy w a s a ch ieved . 7 2 .5 % o f t h e t o ta l p os s ib le p o in ta moun tw a sc onc luded (i no ne c a se g ue s sed ) c o r rec t ly .T h i s t e s ta l r eady s how s t h a ti ti sp o s s ib le t oa s s ign u se -wea rc ha rac te r is t ic st op e rfo rmed t o o lu ses . E xam ina t ion a tt he e nd o fa ny m icrowear i nves t iga t ion T es t : B S ub jec t : B (f ema le ,2 7) T oo l : 1 F unc t ion : T h is t oo l w a s u sed l o ng i tud ina l ly f o r c u t t ing a nd s aw ing o fc h icken b one . S t rong p r es su r e w a s a pp l ied . A r ea 1 w a se mp loyed e xc lu s ive ly (5m m, 3 25 s t rokes ) .T he mo t ion w a sb i -d i r ec t iona l . E va lua t ion : B i -d i rec t iona l mo t ion w a s c onc luded b ecau se o f t h e a r rang emen t o f f i ve m ic ro f lake s c a r s (n ega t ive p e rcu s s i on b u lb s how s t h e p o in t o f i n c iden ta l ly a pp l ied f o r ce ) . A r ea 1w a sr e cogn ized t oh ave b een u sed f o rc u t t ing o rs aw i n g o fh a rd ma te r ia l . T he d o r sa l , v en t ra l , a sw e l l a s t h e e x t r em e f o rwa rd e dge o ft h i s a r ea w e r e s t rong ly r ounded . A l so a r ea A l /A2 w a s men t ion ed t ob e c r u shed , p robab ly t h rough h i t t ing t h e g round w hen t h e t oo l s l ipped o f ft h e c on ta c t m a t e r ia l . When t h e a u tho r q ue s t ioned t h e s ub jec t Ba bou t t h a t a f te rwa rd s ,s he c onf i rmed t h et h eo ry . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on ta c tm a te r ia l : 1D i r ec t ion : 1A r ea : 1 T oo l : 2 F unc t ion : T h is t oo l w a su sed t r an sve r se ly o n t wo a r ea s , a r ea 2a nd a r ea 3 . W i th t h e f i r s t a r ea k uku i w a s s c raped w i th m ed ium p r e s su re . ' Oh ia 'a lehua w a sp l aned w i th s t rong p r e s s u re w i th t h e s e cond a r ea . B o th mo t ion sw e r eu n id i r ec t iona l . E va lua t ion : T he u se o ft h e t wo a r ea sw a s s e en . T he r ound ing o f b o th e dges d i sp layed d ef in i te ly t r an sve r se a c t ion a s o n ly t h e f o rwa rd e dge a nd t h e v en t ra l s i de o ft h e r e spec t ive a r ea s w e r e r o unded . T he h a rd ly r e cogn izab le u s e -wea r o f a r ea 2 w ou ld a c tua l ly p o in tt os o f t m a t er ia l , b u t m ed ium so f t m a t e r i a l w a s c onc luded , a ss c rap ing o ft h e p rov ided s o f t m a te r ia l s e em st ob e i mpo ss ib le . N op o in t sw i l lb e g i ven f o rt h i s , a si t

T oo l : 4 F unc t ion : T oo l No . 4w a s u sed t oc u t a nd r i p p ig f l e sh a nd s i new w i th m ed ium p r es su re . A r ea 2 w a s b id i rec t iona l ly e mp loyed .T he t oo le dge b roke o nce a ts e c t ion A 2 /A3 . E va lua t ion : T he b roken e dge a spec t w a s r e a l ized . A r ea 2 s howed d en t icu la t ion c ha rac t e r is t ica l ly f o r t oo ls u sed t oc u t f l e sh a nd r i p i ta ga in s t t h e t oo l e dge . T he d en t icu la t ion a nd t h e r e touch o nb o th s i des o ft h e t oo l e dge m ade i ti mpo s s ib le t oc onc lude t h ed i rec t ion o ft h e mo t ion . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on ta c t ma te r ia l : 1D i rec t ion : 0A rea : 1 T oo l : 5 F unc t ion : T he t oo l w a s u sed l o ng i tud ina l ly t o d e f le sh f i sh w i th s o f tp r es su re . A r ea 3w a sb id i rec t iona l ly emp loyed . E va lua t ion : T h is t oo l s howed n ea r ly n o s i gn s o f u se -wea r . T he r ew a so ne s ma l lr e touch ,t h a tc ou ld b e n a tu ra l ,b u ta l so a m ic rof lake s ca r o n a r ea 3 . N o p a r t o f t h e t oo l s howed t h e s l igh t e s t p o l ish . E xpe r ience w i th t h e e xp er imen ta l ly p ro d uced f l ake s s howed t h a t s of t m a t e r ia l , e sp ec ia l ly f i sh , d i s p l ay s n ea r ly n o u se -wea r b y d e f le sh ing . T he s i ng le m ic ro f l ake s c a rw a sd ec i s ive t oa s s ign t h i st o o l t oc u t t ing u po fs o f t ma te r ia l . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on ta c t ma t er ia l : 1D i r ec t ion : 0A rea : 1 T e s t : B S ub jec t : C (ma le , 2 1 ) T oo l : 1 F unc t ion : T h i s t oo l w a s u sed t ow h i t t le k oa u n id i r ec t iona l . A r ea 2 w a s u sed i n al ong i tud ina l a c t ion . P a r t s o f t h e e dge b roke d ue t ou se w i th s t rong p r e ssu r e . E va lua t ion : T he b roken e dge o f a r ea t wo w a s o bserved , t h e a r ea i t se lf a s s igned t o t r an sve r se a c t ion o n m ed ium -ha rd ma t e r ia l . T he h a rdne ss o f t h e c on ta c t m a t e r ia l w a s f i gu r ed t h rough ac ompa ra t ive s t udy o f u se p a t t er n i n t en s i ty o n t h e e xp e r imen ta l ly p roduced f l akes . F ou r m ic ro f lake s c a r s p o in t ed t ou n id i r ec t iona l mo t ion . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on ta c t ma t e r ia l : 1D i rec t ion : 1A rea : 1 T oo l : 2 T oo l No . 2w a su sed t r an sve r se ly t os c rap e l c uku i w i th s t rong p r es su r e . A rea 2w a su n id i rec t iona le mp loyed . E va lua t ion : T he t oo l w a s m ean t t ob e u sed t r an sve r se ly o n m ed ium -so f t t o m ed ium -ha rd ma te r ia l . A rea 2 w a s r e cog n i zed t ob e t h eo n ly u sed o ne .T h r ee m ic rof lake s ca r sp o in t ed t ou n id i rec t iona l mo t ion . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on tac t ma t e r ia l : 1 / 2D i r ec t ion : 1A r ea : 1

6 7

T he c ha rac te r i s t ic s aw ing d en t icu la t ion w a s v i s ib le a nd p o in t ed t ob i -d i r ec t iona l mo t ion . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1 / 2 C on ta c t ma te r ia l : 0 D i rec t ion : 1 / 2 A rea : 1 / 2

T oo l : 3 F unc t ion : T h is t oo l w a s u sed f o r b o r ing o f k u l cu i w i th m e d i um p r e ssu r e .T he t oo l w a sd r i l led b id i rec t iona l ly . O n ly t h e t i p o f a r ea A 2 /A3 w a s e ngaged . T h is u se w a s a ga in s t t h e p r esc r ibed p robab le a pp l ica t ion . E va lua t ion : T oo l e dge 3 s howed t wo r e touches a nd c r ush ing o n a r ea A 2 /A3 . S ome a spec t s o fa r ea A 2 /A3 w e r e r ounded , s o t h a t i tw a s r e cogn ized t h a t t h i s a r ea w a s ma in ly u sed . C u t t ing o fm ed ium -ha rd ma te r ia l w a s c onc luded . U n i - o r b i d i rec t iona l mo t ion c ou ld n o tb es e en . P o in t s : A c t ion : 0C on ta c t ma te r ia l : 0D i rec t ion : 0A r ea : 1

T o ta l a ccumu la ted p o in t s : 3 0 A c t ion : 81 / 2C on tac t ma t e r ia l : 6D i r ec t ion : 6A rea : 91 / 2 T o ta l p o ss ib le p o in t s : 4 0 A c t ion : 1 0C on ta c t ma t e r ia l : 1 0D ir ec t ion : 1 0A rea : 1 0 E ven t h ough o ne t oo l w a s n o t u sed i nt h e p r escr ibed w ay , g r ea ta ccu racy w a s a ch ieved . 7 5 T oo ft h e t o ta l p o s s ib le p o in t a moun t w a s i n t e rp r e ted c o r r ec t ly . S eve ra l f a c to r s t h a t r e n d e red t h e a na ly s i s mo r e d if i cu l t w e r e f ound o u t a nd s ha l l b e m en t ioned h e r e . I fm ed ium so f t ma te r ia l w a s u sed w i th e x t r eme ly s t rong p r es su re o r , o n t h e o the r h and , m ed ium -ha rd m a t e r ia l w i th e x t reme ly s o f t p r es su re , ad i s t inc t ion b e tween t h em w a s a lmo s t i mpo s s ib le . T he a b sence o f m ic rof iak e s ca r s i sa no the r d i sadvan tage i nt h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e d i r e c t ion o f t h e mo t ion . W i thou t t h em , ad i r ec t ion c an n o t b e c l ea r ly s t a ted , o n ly i mp l ied . When s o f t m a t er ia l w a s u sed a s c on tac t ma t e r ia l , e sp ec ia l ly f i sh f l esh , t h e b o rde rb e tween a n u nu sed t oo l a nd t h i st oo lw a sh a rd ly d i sce rn ib le . A st h er e su l t o ft h e i n ves t iga t ion o ft oo l 3 ,u sed b y s ub jec t C , s how s , t h e i n ve s t iga to r w a s p r e suppo sed w i th t h e i d ea o f f i nd ing t h e k ind o f u se -wea r h e w a s s uppo sed t o f i nd . I ft h e p r econd i t i on s l i ke i nt h i s e xamp le c hanged , t h e i n ve s t iga to r w a s u n a b le t os t a t e t h e u sage o ft h e t o o l . Know ing t h i s , i ts e em s t o b e a pp rop r ia te t oa d ju s t t h e a c cu racy t o al owe r p e r cen tage , i na dd i t ion i ts e em s a dv isab le t h a t o the r r e sea r che r s d o t h e s ame e xp e r imen t sw i th ag r ea t e rv a r ie ty o fp o s s ib le u ses .

T oo l : 4 F unc t ion : T he t oo l w a sn o tu sed . E va lua t ion : T he t oo l w a s d ef in i te ly f ound n o t t o b e u sed . F ea the r t e rm ina t ion w a s a l l a round t h e t o o l . N o t as i ng le d i s tu rbance i nt h e s ur face s t ruc tu r e o f t h e d o r sa l a s w e l l a s v en t ra l s i de c ou ld b ed e term ined . P o in t s : A c t ion : 1C on tac t ma t e r ia l : 1D i rec t ion : 1A rea : 1 T oo l : 5 F unc t ion : T h i s t o o l w a s u sed t r an sve r se ly w i th a r ea 1w i th m ed ium p r e s su re , u n id i rec t iona l . T he c on tac t m a te r ia l w a s k oa . As e cond u se o fa r ea 3w a sp ig b one s aw ing w i th s t rong p r es su r e .T he mo t ion w a sb i -d i rec t iona l . E va lua t ion : T he t oo l w a s m ean t t o b e u sed o n t h r ee s i de s . A r ea 1 w a s a s s igned t o t r an sve r se a c t ion o n m ed ium s o f t ma t e r ia l . Two m ic ro f lake s ca r s p o in ted t o u n id i r ec t iona l mo t ion . A r ea 2 w a s m ean t t o b e u sed o n s o f t m a t e r ia l , p robab ly f i sh ,w i th al ong i tud ina la c t ion . T he r ew e r e n o s ca r s t h a t w ou ld i n d ica te u n i - o r b i -d i rec t iona l mo t ion . F ina l ly , a r ea 3w a sm ean tt ob eu sed l ong i tud ina l ly o nh a rd ma t er ia l .

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I X . SU M MARY AND CONCLUS ION

T he c a ref u l r e ade r w i l l u ndoub ted ly h ave o b served a d i s c r epancy b e tween s ome i n i t ia l ly i n tended r e sea rch p ro jec t s a nd t h e o u t come o f t h e e xp e r imen t s . E ven t h ough t h e mo s t c onven ien ta nd mo s t p o s s ib le a ng le o fu se / s k ew c ou ld h ave b een e s tab l i shed f o r t h e t oo ls , t h e u se -we ar i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e Wa ika lua f l ake s s how s t h a t t h o se a ng le s m u s t n o t i n ev i t a b ly l e ad t os p ec ia l t oo l u se . (C ompa r e s e c t ion V I . )A t t h e b eg inn ing , t h e a u tho r e xp res sed t h e s uppo s i t ion t ha t f l ake s t h a t m ay d i sp lay u se -wea r o r e dge d amage , a s soc ia ted w i th s pec ia l t a sk s , b u t w ho se e dge a ng le w e re i n conven ien t f o r t h i s p u rpo se m us t b e c ove red o r h a f t ed . C on t ra ry t o t h ese a rgumen t s , t h e a u tho r a s sume s t h e u se o f t h e t oo ls w i th s t eepe ro rf l a t t e ra ng le s t owa rd st h e c on tac tm a te r ia l , w hen i t w ou ld h u r t t h e u se r , e ven t h ough t h i s a ng le w ou ld r e su l t i n w o r se c u t t ing , s c rap ing , e t c . T h is c onc lu s ion r e su l ted f r om t h ef a c tt h a ta b so lu te ly n oe v idence f o rh a f t ing w a s f ound o n t h e t o o ls . E v idence c ou ld h ave b een f r ic t ion p a t t ern s o n t h e t o o l s u r f a ce c au sed b y t h e h af t o r p l an t m a t er ia l t h a t w a s p r e ssed i nt h e i n den t ion s o ft h e t o o l s u r f a ce a s sum ing t h a t a f r e sh ly c u th a f tw a su sed . I nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e p resen t w o rk , t h e a u tho re xp la ined i n f u l l t h e w eakne s se s o fp u re ly s t a t i s t ica l m e thod s a nd w hy h e d id n o tu se t h e c ompu te rf o rt h i sp u rpo se . T he m ea su r emen t s o f t h e Wa ika lua f l ake s e s tab l i shed t h e n ece s sa ry p recond i t i ons t o c ompa r e t h em w i th t h e e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced o nes a nd t os o r t o u t 3 4 p o s s ib ly u sed f l ake s . S ince R ifo rd ' s p r ev ious c l a s s if ica t ion p roved t ob e u se les s f o r t h e p re sen t s t udy , S u l l ivan 's a nd R o sen 's f l ake a t t r ibu t e k ey w a s e m p l oyed t o e s tab l ish a no the r c l a s s if a c t iona l s y s tem . A dd i t i ona l ly , t h e t o o l n umbe r , t h e s i ze c l a s s , a nd t h e p resen t p o l i s h a nd c o r tex w e r e r e co rded . We igh ing a nd c oun t ing d if e r e nce s i nr e ga rd s t ot h e p r ev iou s e xam ina t ion w e re o bse rved . I n as e cond s t ep , t h e w e igh t , l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h icknes s o f t h e 3 4 s e lec t ed f l akes w e re m ea su r ed , t h e r e la t ive a nd a b so l u t ee dge a ng le w a se s tab l i shed , a sw e l la st h ee dge c u rva tu re w a sr e co rded .F i r s to b serva t ion sw e r ea l so n o ted . T he s o r t ing o ft h e Wa ika lua f l ake s s howed t h a t t h ese f l ake s w e r e w a s t e p roduc t s c ommon ly o b se rved o n t r ad i t iona l H a w a i ian a dz e m anuf a c tu r ing p l a ce s . C on sequen t ly , t h e f o l low i n g t o o l m anuf a c tu r ing e xp e r imen t s w e r e r e s t r ic ted t o a dze m anuf a c tu r ing i no rde r t o p roduce e qu iva len t f l akes . S ince t h e o r ig ina l ly u sed b a sa l t ma te r ia l s ou r ce w a s n o t a cce ss ib le a ny mo r e , Mauna K ea b a sa l t w a s c ho sen t ob e wo rked w i th i nt h e e xp er imen t s . A l though t h e p ed ro log ica l a na lys i s d i s p l ayed as l igh t ly d i f f e ren ts t ruc tu r eo fb o th b a sa l t ic ma te r ia l s , t h e h a rdne s s a cco rd ing Moh s 's s c a le w a s t h e s ame . G ene r a ly , t h e a dze manuf ac tu r ing e xp e r imen t s c on f i rmed W i l l i am s 1 989 p ropo sed mode l o f a dz e manuf a c tu r e r educ t ion p ha se s . T he p r ima ry , a s w e l l a s t h e s e conda ry r educ t ion , ma in ly i n vo lved p e rcuss ion f l ak ing w i th t h e u s e o ff r eehand p e r cu s s ion a nd o n -anv i l b ipo la r f l ak ing t e chn ique . T he p u r p o s e o f t h ese e xp er imen t s w a s 4 fo ld . F i r s t i ts hou ld t e s t W i l l iam s r educ t ion mode l , s e cond ly i ts hou ld e s tab l ish t h e b e s t m anuf a c tur ing t e chn ique , t h i rd ly i ts hou ld d eve lop a d en s i ty v a r ia t ion o f t h e "w a s t e f l akes " ,a nd f i na l ly af l ake s ca t te r p a t te rn s hou ld b e d r awn a nd a na lyz ed . T he b reakage o f t h e b a sa l t ic m a ter ia l c ou ld b e c on t ro l led a s l ong a s t h e

6 9

e x t r eme e dge o f t h e a nv i l w a s u sed t o s uppo r t t h e w o rk ing b lock . Af l a t c o r t ex s i de o ft h e b lock s e emed t ob e d es i rab le t ou se a s ab a se f o r t h e w o rk ing p r efo rm . T he c o r tex w i l l b e t a ken o f fi nt h e s e conda ry r educ t ion . Mos to ft h e c h ipped o f f l akes w i l l b e a ccumu la ted a l ong a nd o n t h e s i de s o f t h e w o rk ing e dge o ft h e a nv i l i n ar a d iu s o f 5 0 c m . O n ly af ew f l akes w i l l f a l l o u t s ide o f a2 x 3 m e te r u n i t . C lo se t o t h e a nv i l e dge , t h e r e w i l l b e o ve r 3 0 f l akes p e r 5x5 c m u n i t , w h i le mo re d i s tan tp a r t s d i sp lay 1 5 , 5 ,o r 0 -2f l akes p e r 5x 5c mu n i t . T he c a r efu l ly c o l lec ted a nd s c r eened f l ake m a t er ia l w a s s o r ted i n t h e s ame w ay a s t h e a l r eady f i n i shed Wa ika lua ma te r ia l .E ven t h ough ad e ta i led ,c ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s w ou ld b eu n l ike ly (f i nd ing c ond i t ion s ) ,g ene ra l t r a i t s i ns i ze , n um b e r , a nd q uan t i ty w e r e r e cogn izab le . Mo s t o ft h e f l ake s w e r e s ma l l i n s i ze a nd f e l l u nde r t h e d eb r is c a t ego ry . O n ly f ew h igh q ua l i ty f l akes w e r e p re sen t , d ue t ot h e h a rd ly c on t ro l la b l e w o rk ing o f b a sa l t ic ma te r ia l . T he l a ck o f c o re o r b lo ck f r agmen t s a tt h e Wa ika lua s i te p o in ted t o ap r efo rm r ef ine m en t p ha se , o r i fp o l i shed f l akes o ccu r red , t o t h e r e juvena t i on o r t h e r e sha rpen ing p ha se o fp o l i shed a dze s . I n t h e f o l l ow ing , t h e e xp e r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake s w e r e a pp l ied t o s uppo sed ly w o rked c on tac t m a te r ia l i n p reh is to r ic H awa i i . Wood , f i sh , p i g , a nd b i rd w e r e s e lec t ed f o r t h e e xper imen t s w h i le s ome t ime s o n ly s o f t , h a rd , o r b o th p a r t s s hou ld b e c on tac ted b y t h e t o o ls . A p r e l im ina ry i n ves t iga t ion o f t h e t oo ls s hou ld d e tec ta nd r e co rd e ven tua l e dge d amage p r io rt o u se . A v a r ie ty o f d a ta w a s r e co rded i n t h e o ngo ing u se e xpe r imen t s . T hese d a ta i n c luded t h e a ng le t h e t oo l w a s h e ld t owa rd s t h e o b jec t , t h e w o rked m a t e r ia l , t h e t o o l u se , t h e d i r ec t ion o f u sage , t h e e l ap sed t ime , t h e n umb e r o f s t roke s , a nd t h e p r es su re t h a t w a s a pp l ied t ot h e t oo ls . A dd i t iona l ly , s eve ra lr ema rk sa bou tt h e c u t t ing a b i l i t ies o ft h et oo ls a nd t h e e xpe r imen ta lp ecu l ia r i t ies a nd mod if ica t ion s w e re made . T he e va lua t ion o ft h e q ua l i ty a nd s u i tab i l i ty o ft h e f l akes i nt e rm s o f s aw ing , s c rap ing , e t c . c an b e s umma r iz ed a s f o l low s : ( Tab le G ) T he h igh a nd l ow p owe r a na ly s i s o f t h e e xper imen ta l t o o ls b rough t a maz ing r e su l t s , a s a lmo s t e ve ry s i ng le t oo l d i s p l ayed u se -wea r . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e d escr ip t ion o f t h e u se w ea r , g ene ra l t r a i t s c ou ld b e s e en w hen c u t t ing s pec ia l c on t a c t ma ter ia l . I tw a s f ound t h a t c u t t ing f i sh w i l l l e ave n o r e cogn izab le u se -wea r o n t h e t oo l s , w h i le f l e sh c u t t ing u su a ly d eve lop s ac ha rac t e r i s t ic d en t icu la t ion o f t h e c u t t ing e dge d ue t or i pp ing o f t h e f l ake a ga in s t t h e t o o l e dge . T h i s w o rk a l so d eve loped c r i te r ia t od i s t ingu ish s eve ra l t oo l u se s t h rough t h e c a refu l o b serva t ion o f t h e u se -wea r . When , f o r e xamp le , o n ly t h e d o r sa l s i de o ft h e s uppo sed ly u sed c u t t ing e dge s howed d ef in i t e u se -wea r i nf o rm o f m ic ro f lake s ca r s , p o l i sh , a nd p e rhap s s t r ia t ion , t h en as c rap ing o rp l an ing mo t i on s e emed t o b e mo s t p o s s ib le . T he o ccu r r ence o f s nap , f e a the r , s t ep , a nd h i nge t e rm ina t ed m ic rof lake s ca r s , a nd t h e i r p o s s ib le a r rangemen t , w e r e a s s igned t or e sp ec t ive c on t a c t ma ter ia l t h a t c au sed d i em , i no rde r t od e te rm ine t h e t o o l u se o f t h e Wa ika lua ma te r ia l . A d e l ibe ra te p ho tog raph ic d ocumen ta t ion , t h ee nume ra t ion o fc ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s , a nd b l ind t e s t s s uppor tt h e s t a temen t s m ade a bou tu se -wea rc ha r a c t e r is t ics . T he o b se rva t ion o fh igh ly a dhes ive p l an t r e s idue s t ot h e t oo l s u r fa ce o f t h e e xp er imen ta l t oo ls g ave h ope f o r t h e d e tec t ion o fs im i la rr e s idue so nt h e Wa ika lua ma ter ia l .

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s omeone t r i e st ot r an spo r to n ly t h eb lo ck st h a tw i l lb e n eeded f o rt h ea dze p roduc t ion o ve r al onge rd i s tance .

T he i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e u se -wea r o f t h e Wa ika lua ma t e r ia l s howed o nce a ga in t h a t t h eo ry a nd p rac t ice m igh t d i f f e r i mmen se ly . E ven t hough 1 4 o ft h e 3 4 t oo ls h ad b een e s tab l i shed a sb e ing u sed o n ly e i gh t t ime s , ar e l iab le c onc lu s ion c ou ld b e a s cer ta ined . T h is c ou ld b e e xp la ined t h rough p o s t d epo s i t iona l d amage o r a l te ra t ion o f t h e t o o l s u r f ace . T h i s w ou ld d r aw ad i sma lp e r spec t ive f o rf u tu r e u s e -wea ra na ly s i s w i th m a t e r ia l t h a t m igh t b e e ven o lde r t h en t h e p r e sen t ly u sed m a te r ia l , a s a l t e ra t ion p roce s se s w ou ld h ave mo r e t ime t ow o rk . T he t h eo ry o f amo s t c onven ien ta ng le o fu se a sa n i nd ica to r f o r s pec ia l t oo l u se , p roved t o b e i n s ign if ican t a s m en t ioned e a r l ie r .

T he u se o f f l ake s f o r a g r icu l tu ra l p u rpo se s w a s p roven t h rough b o tan ica l -chem ica l e xp er imen t s . A quacu l tu ra l u se c ou ld n o t b e d e te rm ined , a s t h i s t a sk w ou ld l e ave n o d i s c er n ib le u se -wea r o n t h e t oo ls . T he n ega t ive b lood t e s t r e s u l t s i n d ica t e t h a t t h e f l ake s w e r e n o t u sed t oc u t u p d i ve r se a n ima l s . O the r e xp lana t ion s w ou ld b e t h e s e lec t ion o f t h e w rong f l ake s , o t he r s m igh t h ave s hown b lood r e s idue s , t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a tt h e Wa ika lua s i t e w a s ap u re a g r icu l tu ra l s i t e (s on o a n ima l s w e r e c u t) ,o rt h e t oo l s u r f a ce d oe s n o ta l low t h e b u i l t -up o fb lood r e s idues . T he a na ly s i s o fo the r s i te s i n t h e a bove s hown manne rm igh ts o lve t h i sp rob lem .

U nfo r tuna t e ly , n o s i ck le s heen o rc o rn g lo s st h a t c ou ld p o in t t op hy to l i th ,c ou ld b eo bserved a dhe r ing t ot h et o o l 's s u r f a ce . I ti s r ema rkab le t h a t a l so t h e e xp e r imen ta l ly u sed f l ake s s howed n o s i gn s o f p hy to l i th p r e sence . T he e xp lana t ion f o r t h is p henomenon c ou ld b e t h e e x t r eme ly f i ne t e x tu r e o f t h e b a sa l t m a t e r ia l t h a t w ou ld n o t a low t h e b u i ld u p o f p hy to l i t h ic m a t e r ia l . Mo re s uccess fu lw e r et h eb o tan ica l -c hem ica l e xpe r imen t su s ing c hem ica ls t os how p roo fo fl i gn in . S pec ia l m e thod s h ad t ob e wo rked o u t i no rde r t oe x fo l ia t e t h e r e s i d ues f r om t h e c u t t ing e dge a nd moun tt h em o n s l ide s . S a l ine s o lu t ion a nd C SP c l ean se r w e r e t h e d emon s t rab ly b e s t e x fo l i a t ing a gen t s . F ou r r e s idue s w e r e o bserved , d esc r ibed a nd a na lyzed . T he l a t te r w a s d one b y t h e D epa r tmen t o fB o tany i nH awa i i . S c le r enchyma , f i be r , a nd x y lem e l emen t s s howed p roo fo fu se o ft h e t oo ls f o rc u t t ing a nd s c rap ing p urpo se s ,a t l e a s t o n w ood . Ab lood t e s t w a s n ega t ive , s o t h a t m ea t c u t t i ng c an o n ly b ei mp l ied t h rough u se -wea ra na ly s i s .

Add i t iona l ly ,t h ep r e sen ts t udy s how st h a tt h e a nc ien tH awa i i a n s d id n o t a lway s w o rk s pec ia l iz ed t oo l s t o f u lf i l l m ino r c u t t ing , s c rap ing , e t c . p u rpo ses , b u t s e lec ted w a s t e f l ake s f r om t h e a dz e m anuf ac tu r ing f o r t h i s t a sk . T he u sed f l ake s w e re u nmod if ied ,n eve rr e sha rpened ,a nd f a s t ly d i sca rded . S ummary I nG erman : Z u B eg inn d e r v o r l iegenden A rbe i t s t e l l t e d e r A u to r d i e S chwä chen v on e i nz ig s t a t is t isch g e le i t e t en Me thoden h e rau s u nd e rk lä r t e , w a rum e rd en C ompu te r f ü r d e ra r t ige Zwecke n i ch t v erwende t e . D ie Me s sungen d e r Wa ika lua A b sch läge w a ren e i ne d e r n o twend igen V o rau s se tzungen , um d i ese m i t d en e xper imen t e l l p roduz ier ten z u v e rg le ichen , u nd 3 4 w ah r s che in l ich b enu tz t e A b sch läge a u szu so r t ie ren . D a s i ch R i f o rd s v o rher ige K la s s if ika t ion a l s u nb rauchba r h e rau s s t e l l te , w u rde S u l l ivan s u nd R o sen s A b sch lag sa t t r ibu t sch lü s se l b e -

T o w rap u p t h i s r epo r t , i ti st ime t oi n qu i re i ft h e p r ev iou s ly a sked q ue s t ion s m igh t b e a b le t o b e a n swe red t h rough a na ly s i s . T he a na ly s is o ft h e e dge o u t l ine a nd m a rg in r eg ion s o ft h e Wa ika lua f l ake s p o in ted t oa dze manu f a c tur ing u s ing , t h e o n -anv i l b ipo la r f l ak ing t e chn ique a nd p e rhap s s ome t ime st h ef r eehand p e rcu ss ion t e chn ique .T he l a t te rt e chn ique w a s i mp l ied b ecause p ropo r t iona l ly n o t e nough f l ake s s howed c r ush ing o nt h ep rox ima lo rt h ed i s ta le nd s . S ince n o t t h e w ho le c h ipp ing f l oo r w a s e xcava ted , a nd a s s uch t h e e x ten s ion o f t h e f l ake s ca t te r w a s n o t m ea su r ed , af i na l a n s we r i si mpo ss ib le . F ree h and p e rcu ss ion f l ak ing w ou ld r e s u l t i n aw ide r f l ake d i spe r semen t t h an t h e o n -anv i l b ipo la r m e thod .

n u tz t , um e i n a nde r e sk l a s s if ika to r i sches S y s t em z u e r s te l len . Z u sä tz l ich w u rde d i e We rkzeugzah l , d i e G rößenk la s sen u nd v o rhandene P o l i tu r o de r R inde v e rme rk t . U n te r sch iede i n G ew ich t u nd A nzah l d e r A b sch läge z u v o rhe r igen Un te r su c hungen w u rden b eoba ch te t . I n e i nem z we i t en S ch r i t t w u r d en d a s G ew ich t , L änge u nd D icke d e r 3 4 a u sgewäh l ten Ab sch läge g emes sen , d e r r e la t ive , w ie a b so lu t e K an tenw in k e l e rm i t t e l t a l s a uch d i e K an t enb iegung v e rme rk t . E r s te , a uf sch luß re iche B eoba ch tungen w u rden n i ede rge sch r ieben . Da s S o r t ie r en d e r Wa ika lua A b sch läge z e ig te , d aß j ene A b s ch läge a l s A bf a l lp roduk t e a nzusehen w a r en , g ene re l l a nf a l l e nd b e i d e r t r ad i t ione l len h awa i ian i schen B e i lhe r s te l lung . F o lg l ich w u rd e d i e e xp e r imen t e l le We rkz eughe r s t e l lung a uf d i e d e r B e i lan f er t igung b e sch ränk t , um v e rg le ichba re A b s ch läge z u e r ha l ten . D ad e ru r sp rüng l ich g enu tz t e S t e inb ruch f ü r B a sa l tma t e r ia l n i ch t m eh r z ugäng l ich w a r , w u rde Mauna

T he u s e w ea r a na ly s i s o f t h e e xp e r imen ta l ly u sed f l ake s , e s tab l i shed c r i te r ia t o a s s ign t h e Wa ika lua o nes t o s pec ia l t a sk s . T he a ppea rance a nd a r rangemen t o f m ic ro f la l ce s c a r s , d ef in i t e o r l a ck ing d en t ic lua t ion a s w e l l a s d o r sa l a nd /o r v en t ra l u se -wea r p a t ter n s , w e r e a s c r ibed t o p a r t icu la r t o o l a c t ion sa nd c on tac t ma ter ia l . Un fo r tuna te ly ,p o s td epo s i t iona l a l te r a t ion s s e em t o n ega t ive ly i n f luence t h e t o o l s u r f a ce i n t e rm so fd i scer n ib le s t r ia t ion a nd /o rd en t icu la t ion .

K ea B a sa l t i n d en E xp er imen ten v e ra rbe i te t . O bg le ich d i e p ed ro log i sche A na ly se g e r ingf üg ige , s t ruk tu r e l le U n t e r sch ie d e d e r b e iden Ma t e r ia l ien w ide r sp iege l te , s o w a r w en ig s ten s d i e H ä r te d e r B a sa l t e g l e ich n ach Mohs . I m A l lgeme inen

T he Wa ika lua s i te h a s a lway s b een a s e conda ry r e duc t ion a nd r e juvena t ion p la ce r a the rt h en amanu f a c tu r ing o ne . T h i s c ou ld b e d e te rm ined t h rough t h e a na ly s i s o f a l t h e f l ake s f ound a tt h e s i t e . C on s ide r ing t h e p r esen t r e su l t s a s w e l l a s W i l l iam s 1 989 , p ropo sed r educ t ion mode l t h e m a t e r ia l w o rked a tt h e Wa ika lua s i te h ad b een p r e t r ea ted a ta no the r l o ca t ion . T h is e spec ia l ly , s e em s t ob e e sp ec ia l ly t r ue w hen

b e s tä t ig ten d i eB e i lhe r s te l lungsexpe r imen t ed i ev on W i l l iam s 1 989 v o rgesch lagenen R eduk t ion spha sen i nd e r B e i lhe r s te l l ung . D ie e r s t e w ie a uch d i e z we i t e R eduk t ion w u rde h aup t s äch l ich d u rch A b sch lag t echn iken w ie d i e F r e ihand sch lag t e chn ik u nd d i e Amboß -b ipo la r A b sch lag t echn ik a usgefüh r t . Da s Z ie l d i e se r E xp e r imen t e w a r v i e rge t e i l t . E r s t en s s o l l t en s i e W i l l iam s R eduk t ion smode l ü be rprü f en , z we i t en s d i e

7 1

b es ten H e r s te l lung s techn iken e rm i t t e ln , d r i t t en s e i ne D ich tev a r ia t ion d e r A b fa l lab sch läge a uf ze igen u nd s ch l ieß l ich s o l l te e i n A b sch lag sve rb r e i tung smus te r g eze ichne t u nd a na l y s ie r t w e rden . D e r B ruch d es B a sa l tma t er ia l s k onn t e i n so f er n k on t ro l l ier t w e rden , a l s d i e ä uße r s te K an t e d es Ambo s -

e r kennba r en G eb rauchs spu ren am S t e inge rä t h in te r läß t , w äh r e nd F l e i sch g ewöhn l icherwe ise e i ne Z ähnung d e r G e b rauch skan te h er vo r ruf t d adu r ch d aß d a s G e rä t o f t r u cka r t ig s e i t l ich b eweg tw i rd , um d en S chne id ep roz eß z ue r le ich t er n .

s e s z u r A uf lage d es z u b ea rbe i t end en Ma te r ia ls b enu tz t w u r -

D ie se A rbe i te rm i t te l te e ben so K r i ter ien z u r Un te r sche idung

d e . D ie f l ache C o r tex s e i t ed e sB locke s s ch ien w ün schen swe r t

v on G e rä t egeb räuchen d u rch d i e s o rg same B eobach tung v on

z u s e in a l s A usgang s f läche f ü r d i e A rbe i t sp la t fo rm . D ie

G eb rauch s spu r en . Wenn z um B e isp ie l n u r d i e d o r sa le S e i t e

C or tex w i rd e r s t i ne i nem z we i ten B ea rbe i tung s sch r i t t a bge s ch lagen .D ie m e is ten d e ra bge sp l i t t er t en A b sch läge s amme l t e n s i ch e n t lang d en g enu tz t en Amboß se i ten a n i n e i nem

d e r w ah r sche in l ich g enu tz ten G eb rauch skan te e i ndeu t ige G eb rauch s spu r en i nF o rm v on M ik ro r e tu schen , P o l i tu r u nd e ven tue l l R i tzungen a ufwe is t , s che in t e i ne S chab - o de r Ho b e lbewegung h öchs t w ah r sche in l ich . D a s A uf tauchen v on s nap , f e a the r , s t ep u nd h inge g efo rm t en M ik ro re tu schen u nd d e r en mög l iche A no rdnung wurden d en j ewe i l ig v eru r sa -

R ad ius v on 5 0 c m . N u r w en ige A b sch läge f i e len a uße rha lb e i ne r v o rhe r a bge s teck t en 2 x 3 Me t e r F läche . N ahe d e r Amboßkan t e s amme l t en s i ch 3 0 A b sch läge p ro 5 x 5 c m F läche , w äh r end w e i t e re n t f e rn tg e legene T e i le 1 5 , 5o de r 02Ab sch läge p ro 5x5c mF läche z e ig t en . D a s s o rg sam g e samme l te u nd g e s ieb t e A b sch lag sma te r ia l w urde i ng l e iche r We ise s o r t ie r t w ie d a s b e r e i t s b ea rbe i te te Wa ika lua Ma te r ia l . A uch w enn e i n e d e ta i l l ier te V e rg le ichsa -

c henden K on tak tma ter ia l ien z ugeo rdne t , um d en G eb rauch d e r Wa ika lua G e rä t e f e s tzu s te l len . D ie s o rg same f o tog ra f i s c he D okum en ta t ion , d i e E rwähnung v on v e rg le ichba ren A na lysen u nd b l ind t e s t s u n ter s tü tz en d i e Au s sagen ü be r G eb rauch s spu r encha rak te r is t ika . D ie B eobach tung v on h ochg rad ig a nha f t enden P f lanzen re s ten a n d e r G e rä t eobe r f l äche d e r e xp er imen t e l l h e rges te l l t en S t e inge rä t e m a ch t e

n a ly se z u w e i t g eg r if f en w ä r e ( Fundb ed ingungen ) , s o w a r en

H of fnung a u fe i ne ben so lche s Vo rhanden se in b e i d en Wa ika l u aA bsch lägen .

a lgeme ine Me rkma le i nG röße , A nzah l u nd Menge e rkenn b a r . D ie m e i s ten A b sch läge w a r en k l e in , u nd i nd i e S p l i t te r k a tegor ie e i nzuo rdnen . N u r w en ige , h ochwe r t ige A b sch läge w a ren v o rhanden , z u rückzufüh ren a uf d i e s c hwe r l ich k on t r o l l ie rba r e B ea rbe i tung v on B a sa l t . D a s F eh len v on K er n s t e inen o de r A usgang sma t e r ia lf ragmen t en b e i d e r Wa ika lua A usg rabung d eu te te a uf e i ne V e r f e ine rung v on B e i len i m e r s ten B ea rbe i tung s s tad ium h in o de r , w enn p o l ie r te A b sch lä g e v o rhanden w a ren , a uf e i ne E rneuerung s - o de r N ach -

D ie G eb rauch s spu r enana ly se d es Wa ika lua Ma te r ia ls z e ig te e i nma l m eh r d a s T heo r ie u nd P rax is s t a rk v a r i ie ren k önnen . A uch w enn b e i 1 4 v on 3 4 G e rä ten e i ne N u tzung a ngedeu te t w e rden k onn t e , s o w a r d i e se s n u r 8 x s i che r mög l ich . Mög l i c he E rk lä rung sva r ian ten k önn ten Um lagerung sschäden o de r O be r f lächenve ränderungen s e in . F ü r z ukün f t ige G eb rauchs s pu r enana ly sen v on w e sen t l ich ä l te rem Ma ter ia l a l s d a s v on Wa ika lua e r geben s i ch s eh r n ega t ive V o raus se tzungen , d a V e rände rung sp roze s se p ropo r t iona l z um A l t e r d e s F unde s z unehmen .

s chä r fpha se . I ne i nem n äch s ten m e thod i schen S ch r i t t w u rden d i e e xpe r imen t e l l h e rges t e l l ten A b sch läge f ü r d i e B ea rbe i t ung v on w ah r sche in l ich a uch p räh i s to r i sch g enu tz ten Ma t e r i a l ien v e rwende t . Ho lz , F i sch , S chwe in u nd V oge l w u rden f ü r d i e E xp e r imen t e a u sgewäh l t , w obe i n u r w e iche , h a r t e o de r b e ide r le i T e i le m i t d en S t e inge rä ten b ea rbe i te t w e rden

D ie a nfäng l iche T heo r ie d es g ün s t igen G eb rauchsw inke ls a l s A nze ige r f ü re i nen s pez ie l len G erä t egeb rauch z e ig t e s i ch a l s u nbedeu t end . U ng lück l icherwe ise k onn t e k e in S i che l - o de r

s o l l ten . E in e v o rhe rgehende U n t e r suchung d e r S t e inge rä t e e rm i t te l t e a le K an t enbe schäd igungen d e r G e rä t e v o r i h re r N u tzung .

K or ng lanz , u n t rüg l iche r H inwe is a uf P hy to l i th , a n d e r G e rä t e oberf lä che e n tdeck t w e rden . I n te re s san te rwe ise z e ig ten

E ine V ie lzah l v on D a t en w u rde w äh rend d e r E xper imen te

a uch d i e e xp e r imen t e l l g enu tz ten A b sch läge k e in s o lches P hänomen .E ine mög l iche E rk lärung k önn t ed i e ä uße r s tf e ine T ex tu r d e s B a sa l t e s s e in , w e lche e i ne A n lager ung v on

z usamm enge t ragen . S o w u rde z um B e isp ie l d e r A n s te l lw in k e l d es S t e inge rä te s e rm i t t e l t , d a s Kon tak tma t er ia l , d e r

P hy to l i then v e rh inde r t . Wesen t l ich e r fo lg r e iche r w a r en d i e b o tan i sch -chem ischen E xper imen te , w e lche C hem ika l ien z u r F e s t s t e l lung v on L ign in v erwende t en . S pez ie l le Me thoden w u rden e r a rbe i te t um d i e o rgan ischen R e s te v on d e r G e b rauch skan t e a bzu lö sen . S a lz lösung u nd S od iumPho spha t R e in ige r s t e l l t en s i ch a l s d i e b es ten A b lö sung sm i t t e l h e rau s . V ie r u n te r sch ied l iche o rgan i sche R e s t e w u rd en b eoba ch te t , b esch r ieben u nd a na ly s ie r t . D ie A na ly se w urde f r eund l i -

S t e inge rä t egeb rauch , d i e F ührung s r ich tung , d i e v e r s t r ichene Z e i t , d i e A nzah l d e r S t r iche u nd d i e A nd ruck s tä rke . Z u sä tz l i ch w u rden e i nze lne B eme rkungen z u d en S chne ide igen s cha f ten d e r G e rä te g emach t , w ie a uch ü be r e xp e r imen te l le B esonde rhe i t en u nd A bände rungen . D ie A u swer tung d e r Q ua l i tä t u nd Nu tzba rke i t d e r A b sch läge i m H inb l ick a uf S äge , S chabe igen scha f ten , e t c . k ann f o lgende rmaßen z u s ammenge faß tw e rden . ( Tabe l le G )

c he rwe is e v om D epa r tmen t o f B o tany a uf H awa i i d u r chge f üh r t . S c le r enchym ,F a ser nu nd Xy leme lemen t e b ew iesen d i e A nwendung v on G e rä ten f ü r S chne ide - u nd S chabvo rgänge

D ie m ik ro skop i sche h i gh a nd l ow p owe r A na ly se d e r e xpe r imen te l l h e rges t e l l t en G e rä te z e ig t e e r s taun l iche R esu l ta t e , d a n ahezu j e des e i nz e lne G e rä t G eh rauch s spu ren a ufw ies .

z um indes t v on H o lz . E in B lu t tes t w a r n ega t iv , s o d aß d a s S chne iden v on F l e i sch n u r d u rch d i e G eb rauchsspu r enana ly -

Z usä tz l ich z u r r e inen B esch r e ibung d e r G eb rauchs spu r en k onn ten a lgeme ingü l t ige E r sche inungen e rm i t t e l tw e rden .E s w u rd e h e rau sgefunden , d aß d a s Z e r legen v on F i sch k e ine

s ea ngedeu t e tw e rden k ann .

7 2

X . RECO M MENDAT IONS

Um d i esen B e r ich t z ue i nem b ef r ied igenden E nde z u f üh r en , s c he in t e s a ngeb rach t h e rauszuf inden , o b e i ngang s g e s t e l l t e F ragen d u rch d i e Ana ly sen b ean two r t e t w u rden . D ie U n t e r -

Af ew r e commenda t ion s m igh t b e a l lowed a tt h i s p o in t , a s t h ey c an m ake f u tu re r e sea r ch i nt h is f i e ld mo r ee f f ec t ive a nd s u cce s sf u l . T he s t one t oo l m anuf ac tur ing e xper imen t s s hou ld b e d one w i th b a sa l t ic ma t e r ia l t ha t h a s b een s oaked f o r s e v e r a l d ay s . T h is p rocedu r e w ou ld make t h e w o rk o n t h e m a t e r i a le a s ie ra nd mo re a ccu ra t er e su l t s wou ld b eo b ta ined .

s u chung d e rK an ten fo rm en u nd A ußen r eg ionen d e r Wa ika lua A b sch läg e d eu te ten a uf B e i lhe r s t e l lung u n te r V erwendung d e r Amboß , w ie a uch z e i twe i l ig d e r F r e ihand techn ik h in . D ie l e tz t e r e T echn ik w i rd a ngenomm en , d a p ropo r t iona l n i ch t g enug A b sch läge e i ne Z e rb rö se lung d e r p rox ima len o de r d i s ta len E nden z e ig t en . D a j e doch n i ch t d e r g e sam t e A b sch lag sp la tz e rg raben w u rde u nd a l s s o lche s d i e A usdeh n ung d e r A b sch lagss t r euung n i ch t g eme s sen w u rde , i s t e i ne

I ta l so s e em s a dv isab le t oc onduc t s im i la rf l ake a na ly s i s w i th v o lcan ic g l a s s f l akes . T he o b ta ined u se -wea r r e su l t s w ou ld h ave mo r e e xp ress ivene s s , a s v o lcan ic g l a s s s e em s t o b e mo r e u s efu l f o r m ino r c u t t ing , w h i t t l ing , e t c . p u rpo ses . Mo r eove r , v o lcan ic g la s s w ou ld d i sp lay mo re o bv ious u se w ea r .

e ndgü l t ig e A us sage u nmög l ich . D ie F r e ihand sch lag techn ik w ü rde e i ne w e sen t l ich w e i te r e V e r t e i lung d e r A b sch läge z u r F o lge h aben a l sd i ese sb e id e r Amboß t echn ik d e rF a l l w ä re . D ie G eb rauchs spu ren a na ly se d e r e xp e r imen te l l g enu tz ten A b sch läge e r b rach t e K r i t e r ien , w e lche d i e Wa ika lua G e rä t e z u s p ez ie l len A rbe i ten z u te i len l i eß . D a s V o rhanden se in u nd

F u r thermo r e t h e a u tho r s ugge s t s a n i nves t iga t ion o ft h e p l an t a nd a n ima l r e s idue a dhe r ence p roper t ie s o f r ough ly s t ruc t u r ed ma t e r ia l . T he o u t com e o f t h ese e xper imen t s w ou ld s uppo r t o r d i sp rove t h e t h eo ry t ha t t h e f i ne t e x tu r e o f t h e p r e sen t ly u sed b a sa l t ic ma t e r ia l a dver se ly a f f ec t s t h e r e s idue a dhe r ence p roper t ies .

d i e Ano rdnung v on M ik ro re tu schen , d ef in i t ive r o de r f eh len d e r Z ahnung , w ie a uch d o r sa le r u nd /ode r v en t ra le r G e b rauchs spu r enmus te r w u rden z u b e s t imm t en G e rä t egeb räu c hen u nd K on tak tma t e r ia l ien z ugeo rdn e t . U ng lück l iche rwe i s e s che inen Um lage rung s - u nd c hem i sche P roze s se d i e E rkennba rke i t v on R i tzungen u nd /od e r Z ahnungen a uf d e r G e rä teobe r f lä che n ega t iv b ee in f luß tz uh aben .

A mo r e c a refu l f auna l a nd f l o ra l a na ly s i s o ft h e r e sp ec t ive ly i n ve s t iga t ed s i tes i sd es i rab le . T he r e su l t s a r e ap r econd i t ion f o r t h e s u cces sfu l c ompa r ison o f t h e r e s idues f ound o n t h e t o o l s . T he d eve lopmen to f aP hy to l i th k ey f o rH awa i i s hou ld g oa l ong w i th t h i sa na ly s i s . P lan ta nd a n ima l r e s idue a nd u se w ea r a na ly s i s f o r p reh is to r ic t oo ls s hou ld b e c ompu lso ry i n o rde rt od e t e rm ine t h e t oo lu se mo r e p rop e r ly .

D e r Wa ika lua P la tz w a r i mme r e i n Zwe i t reduk t ion s - u nd G erä te r ep e ra tu rp la tz , w en ige r e i n G e sam the r s te l lung sp la tz . D ieses k onn t e a usgesag t w e rden d u r ch d i e A na ly se a l le r g efund en en A bsch läge . I n A nbe t ra ch t d e r v o r l iegenden R e -

S ince t h i s s t udy s howed t h e i mpo r tance o f f l ak es t o s o lve p r eh i s to r ic q ues t ions , t h e f l ake s s hou ld b e b agged a nd h an d l ed mo r ec a r ef u l i nt h ef u tu re .

s u l ta te , w ie a uch Wi l l iam s ( 1989 ) R eduk t ion smode l , w u rde d a s V e ra rbe i tung sma t e r ia l v on Wa ika lua a n a nde re r S t e l le v o rgea rbe i t e t . D iese A u s sage b e s tä t ig t s i ch um s o m eh r , w enn j emand a uch n u r v e r such t ä hn l iche G e s t e in sma s sen z u t r an spo r t ie r en , w e lche f ü r d i e G e sam tbe i lhe r s t e l lung n o t w end ig w ä r en .

Own e xpe r ience s how s t h a t al i t t le mo r e s uppo r t o fr e sea rch e r s w ou ld b e d e s i rab le , e ven w hen t h ey w o rk i n dependen t ly . T h is c ou ld c l ea r ly e nhance t h e o u tcome o f i n t e rd i sc ip l ina ry a nd i n te r cu l tu ra l r e sea rch .

D e r G eb rauch v on A b sch lägen f ü r l a ndw i r t scha f t l iche Zweck e w u rde b ew ie sen d u rch b o tan i sch -chem i sche E xpe r imen t e . A quaku l tu re l le r G eb rauch k onn t e n i ch t n a chgew ie -

T he w o rk ing a r ea s o f f i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry a r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld b e mo r e p rof ess iona l , e spec ia l ly r e ga rd ing t h e e qu ip m en t . H e re t h e S ta te o f H awa i i s hou ld b e a sked t o i n ve s t mo r e i nt h e B ishop Museum a s t h is i n s t i tu t ion i sn o t o n ly a t o u r is ta t t rac t ion ,b u tt h e i n ve s t iga to ra nd p r eserve ro fp reh i s t o r ic H awa i i .

s en w e rd en , d a k e ine G eb rauch s spu r en n achwe isba r w ä r en . D ie n ega t iven B lu t te s t s z e igen a n , d aß d i e A b sch läge n i ch t z um Z e r legen d ive r se r T ie r e g enu tz t w u rden . A nde r e E rk lä r ungen w ä r en d i e A u swah l d e rf a l schen A b sch läge , d a a nde r e B lu t re s t e a ufgew ies en h aben k önn t en , d i e Mög l ichke i t , d aß Wa ika lua e i n n u r l a ndw i r t scha f t l ich g enu tz te rP la tz w a r , o de r d i e G e rä teoberf lä che e i ne A n lage rung v on B lu t re s t en n i ch t f ö rde r t . D ie A na ly se a nde re r P l ä tz e i nä hn l iche r We i se k önn t ed i e se sP rob lem z u rL ö sung f üh r en . Z usä tz l ich z e ig t d i e v o r l iegende S t ud ie , d aß d i e p räh is to r i s chen H awa i iane r n i ch t i mme r s p ez ia l i s ie r t e S t e inge rä t e h er s te l l t en , um k l e ine r e S chne ide , S chabaufgaben , e t c . z u e r fü l len , s onder n A b sch läge , a n fa l lend z um B e isp ie l b e i d e r B e i lhe r s t e l lung , f ü r s o lche A rbe i t en n u tz ten . D ie g enu tz t en Ab sch läg ew a r en u nbea rbe i t e t ,w u rden n i ema l sg eschä r f tu nd n ach i h r e rN u tzung w iede rw eggewo r f en .

7 3

B ra ine rd ,G .W . T he p l ace o fc hrono log ica lo rder ing i n a r cha eo log ica la na ly s i s . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 1 6 , No . 4 ,1 948 :301-313 ( t he s am e ) T he u se o f ma thema t ica lf o rmu la t ion si na r c ha eo log ica l a na ly s i s . I nG r if f in ,T . J . , e d . " E s say so n a r cha eo log ica lm e thod s" , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan P res s ,A nn A rbo r 1 951 B r igham ,W .T . S t one i mp lemen t sa nd s t one w o rk o ft h e a nc ien tH awa i ian s .K rau sr ep r in tC o . N ew Y o rk . O r ig ina l ly p ub l i shed a s BPB M Memo i r s 1 ( 4 ) , 1 974 B r iue r ,F . N ew c l ue st os t one t oo lf unc t ion .P lan ta nd a n i ma lr e s idue s . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 4 1(4 ) , 1 976 :478 4 83 B rown ,P .A . P ro sp ec t sa nd l im i t so f ap hy to l i th k ey f o r g ra s se si nt h ec en t ra lU n i ted S t a te s .I nJ our na lo f A rcha eo log ica l S c ience 1 :345 -368 B uck ,P . A r t sa nd c r a f t so fH awa i i , BPB M P r e s s 1 964 B uck land ,P . A ne xpe r imen ti nt h eu se o f ac ompu t e rf o ro n s i te r e co rd ing o ff md s .I nS c ien t i f ic A r chaeo log is t 9 ,J an 1 973 :22 -24 B u rges s ,R .J . a nd K vamme ,K .C . A . n ew t e chn ique f o rt h e m ea su r emen to fa r t if a c ta ng le s .I n Ame r ican A n t i q u i ty 4 3 , 1 978 :482 -486 B u r ton ,J . Mak ing s en se o fw a s te f l ake s : N ew me thod sf o r i n ves t iga t ing t h et e chno logy a nd e conom ics b eh ind c h ipped s t one a s semb lage s .I nJ our na l o fA r cha eo l og ica l S c ience 7 ,1 980 :13114 8 C a l lahan ,E . T he P amunkey p ro jec t ,p ha se Ia nd I .I nT he Ape ,E xp e r imen ta lA r cha eo logy P ap e r s , V o l .4 , V i rg in ia C ommonwea l th Un ive r s i ty ,R ichmond 1 976 C hapman ,P .S . a nd K i r ch ,P .V . A rcha eo log ica le xcava t ion s a ts even s i t e s , s ou thea s t Mau i ,H awa i ian I s land s .I n D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy R epor tS er ie s7 9 -1 , B PB M 1 979 C henha l l ,R .G . T he d e sc r ip t ion o fa r cha eo log ica l d a ta i n c ompu t e rl a nguage . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 2 , No .2 , ! 9 67 :1 6 1167 ( t he s ame ) Ar a t iona le f o ra r chaeo log ica l s amp l ing .I n Mue l le r , J .W . ,ed . " Samp l ing i na r cha eo logy" ,U n i v e r s i ty o fA r izona P r es s ,T ucson ,A r izona 1 975 :3 -25 C la rk ,J .T . C on t inu i ty a nd c hange i nH awa i ian a g r icu l tu re . I nA rg icu l tu ra lH is to ry , Vo l .6 0N o . 3 Un ive r s i ty o fC a l i for n ia P r es s , 1 986 C la rk , S .D . A na na lys i so fH awa i ian b a sa l ta w l s ; Ar e p l ica t i on a nd u se -wea re xpe r imen t .M .S . i nD epa r tmen t o fA n th ropo logy ,B PB M H ono lu lu , 1979 ( t he s ame ) a nd R ifo rd ,M . A r chaeo log ica l s a lvage e xcava t i on sa ts i te 5 0 -0a -65 -101 , Wa ika lua -Loko Ka n e 'ohe ,K o 'o laupoko ,O 'ahu I s land , Hawa i i . T ype sc r ip ti nl i b ra ry Ms .102386 ,D epa r tmen to f A n th ropo logy ,B PB M 1 986 C leghom ,P .L . S u rvey a nd s avage e scava t ion s i ns p ec if iced a r ea so f Wa i lea L and s , Mau i t y pe sc r ip ti nD ep a r t m en to fA n th ropo logy ,B PB M 1 974 ( t he s ame ) P ha se I ,p a r t 2a r chaeo log ica l s a lvage o pe ra t i on sa ts i t e5 0 - Ma -B10 -1 , Wa i lea ,K ihe i , Mau i , Ms 0 6 1075 ,B PB M 1 975

X I .B IBL IOGRAPHY

A l len ,J . A rcha eo log ica le x cava t ion si nK awa inu i ma r sh , I s land o f 01a hu . T ype scr ip ti nl i b ra ry ,B PB M , 1981 A nde r son ,P .C . At e s t imony o fp reh i s to r ic t a sk s .D iagno s t ic r e s idues o ns t one t oo l w o rk ing e dge s . I n Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 2 : 181-96 , 1 980 A sche r ,R . E xp e r imen ta lA r chaeo logy .I n Amer ican A n t h ropo log i s t6 3 (4 ) ,7 93 -816 , 1 961 A then s ,J . S . P reh i s tor ic p ondf ie ld a g r icu l tu r ei nH awa i i . T ypesc r ip ti nl i b r a ry , B PB M , 1 983 A t la so fH awa i i D epa r tmen to fG eog raphy ,U n ive r s i ty o f H awa i iP r e ss , Hono lu lu 1 973 (s e c . e d i t ion 1 883 ) B amfor th ,D . Ac ommen to n" Func t iona lv a r iab i l i ty i na n a s semb lage o fe nd sc rape r s" . I nL i th ic T echno logy 1 5 :61-4 , 1 986 B a r r e ra ,W .J r . a nd K i rch ,P .V B a sa l t ic g l a s sa r t ifac t sf r om H awa i i :T he i rd a t ing a nd p r eh i s to r ic u se s .I nJ ou r n a lo fP o lynes ian S oc ie ty 8 2 :176 -87 , 1 973 B a r r e ra ,W . K aho 'o lawe a r cha eo logy .I nH awa i ian A r c haeo logy 1 : 31-43 ,H ono lu lu 1 984 B egge r ly ,P .P . E dge d amage o ne xpe r imen ta l ly u sed s c ra p e r so fH awa i ian b a sa l t .I nN ew s le t t e ro fL i th ic T echno logy 5 (3 ) :22 -24 , 1 976 B enf e r ,R .A . S amp l ing a nd c l a s s if ica t ion .I n Mue l le r ,Led . " Samp l ing i na r cha eo logy" .T he U n ive r s i ty o fA r i z ona P r es s ,T ucson ,A r izona 1 975 :226 -247 B e s t ,M .G . O u to fi g neou sa nd m e tamo rph ic p e t ro logy . F reeman a nd C ompany N ew Y o rk , 1 982 :62 -196 B info rd ,L .R . S tone t oo ls a nd h uman b ehav iou r . I nS c ien t i f ic Ame r ican 2 20 :70 -84 , 1 969 ( t he s ame ) A na r chaeo log ica lp e r spec t ive ,P t . IV ,N ew Yo rk : S em ina rP re s s 1 972 ( t he s ame ) S amp l ing ,j udg emen t ,a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .I n Mue l le r , J .e d . " Samp l ing i na r cha eo logy" .T he U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re ss , T ucson ,A r izona 1 975 :250 -257 B ohme r s ,A . S ta t i s t ics a nd g r aphs i nt h e s t udy o ff l in ta s s emb lage s .I nP a la eoh i s to r ia 5 ,1 956 :1f f ( t he s ame ) A s t a t is t ica l a na ly s i s o f f l in t a r t if ac t s . I n B ro thwe l l ,D .a nd H igg s ,E .e d ."Sc ience i nA rchaeo l ogy" L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son 1 969 B onk ,W .J . A rchaeo log ica le xcava t ion so n Wes t Mo loka i , M .A .T he s i s , Un ive r s i ty o f Hawa i i , 1 954 B o rdaz ,J . T oo l so ft h eo ld a nd n ew s t one a ge .N ew Y o rk : Amer ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry , 1 971 B o rde s ,F . Ap ropo sd ' une r i e i l le q ue re l le : p eu to nu t i l i se r l e ss i lex t a i l lés c omm ef o s s i les d i rec teu r s ?I n B u l le t in d el aS oc i6 t 6P r6h is to r ique F ranca ise 4 7 :242 -6 , 1 950 ( t he s ame ) T ypo log ie d up a leo l it h ique a nc ien e t moyen . CNRS ,P a r i s 1 961a ( t he s ame ) R ef l ec t ion so nt ypo logy a nd t e chn iques i nt h e p a laeo l i th ic .I nA r t ic A n th ropo logy 6 , No .1 , 1 969 :1-29 B o rof sky ,R . Mak ing h i s to ry ,C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge 1 987 B rad ley ,B .A . L i th ic r educ t ion s equence s : Ag lo s sa ry a nd d i scu s s ion .I nE a r l S wan son ,e d . " L i th ic t e chno logy . Mak ing a nd u s ing s t one t oo l s" Mou ton P ub l i she r s , T he H ague ,P a r is 1 975

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Emo ry ,K .P . a nd S ino to ,Y .H H awa i ian a r cha eo logy : O 'ahu e xcava t ions ,B PB M S pec ia lP ub l ica t ions 4 9 , 196 1 E p s t e in ,J . F . T owa rd st h e s y s t ema t ic d esc r ip t ion o fc h ipped s t one .I nA c ta s yMemo r ia s XXXV C ong r eso I n te r n a t iona ld e Ame r ican i s ta s 1 ,1 964 :155 -69 E ven s ,J . T he a nc ien ts t one i mp lemen t s ,w eapon s ,a nd o r n amen t so fG r ea tB r i tan .L ongm an s ,G reen ,R eade r a nd D ye r : L ondon 1 872 F au lkne r ,A . Mechan ica lp r inc ip le so ff l in two r l c ing .P .H .D . d i s se r ta t ion . Wa sh ing ton S ta t eU n ive r s i ty 1 972 F ed je ,D . S cann ing e l ec t ron m ic roscopy ,a na lys i so fu se s t r ia e .I nH ayden ,B . " L i th ic u se -wea ra na ly s i s" , A cadem ic P re s sN ew Y o rk 1 979 :179 -18 F e rgu son ,T .A . L i th ic a na lys i sa nd t h ed i scove ry o fp r eh i s t o r ic m an -l a nd r e la t ion sh ip si nu p land so fB ig S ou th F o rk o ft h eT ennes see C umbe r land P la teau . P .H .D . d i s se r ta t ion ,U n ive r s i ty o fT ennessee 1 988 O rde rN o . DA8904051 F i sh ,P .R . B eyond t o o l s : M idd le p a leo l i th ic d eb i tage a na ly s i sa nd c u l tu ra l i n f e rence .I nJ our na lo fA n t h ropo log ica lR esea r ch 3 7 , 1 981 :374 -86 F l in tknappe r 's E xchange L abo ra to ry o fA r chaeo logy ,D e p a r tmen to fAn th ropo logy ,Ca tho l ic U n ive r s i ty o f Ame r ica , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . 2 0064 (an ew s le t te rf o r l i t h ic t e chno log i s t sp ub l ished t h r ee t ime s ay ea r) F o lan ,W .J .a nd R ic i c /Zacha r chuck T he m echan iza t ion o f a r t if a c tp roce s s ing . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 3 ( 1) , 1 968 :86 -89 F on ton d eE .M . a nd L ume ley d eH . L e sc i v i l i sa t ions d el a Med ie ran6e s ep tent r iona le e tl e u r si n t e r cu r rences . L ec omp lexe Mon tad ien . I nB u l le t in d el aS oc i8 t6 P r eh i s to r ique F ranca ise 5 2 , 1 955 :379 -94 F o rd ,J .A . C ommen to nA .C .Spau ld ing ' s " S ta t i s t ica lt e ch n i que sf o rt h ed i scove ry o fa r t if ac tt ype s" . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 1 9 , 1 954 :390 -91 ( t he s ame ) Aq uan t i ta t ive m e thod f o rd e r iv ing c u l tu ra l c h rono logy ,P an Amer ican U n ion ,T echn ica l Manua l 1 ,1 962 F raye r ,D .W . B ody s i ze ,w eapon u se ,a nd n a tu ra l s e lec t ion i nt h eE u rop ean Uppe rP a leo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic . I n Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t8 3 , 1 981 :57 -73 F r i son ,G . F unc t iona la na ly s is o fc e r ta in c h ipped s t one t o o l s .I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 , 1 968 :149 -55 G a rd in ,J C . F ou rc ode sf o rt h ed esc r ip t ion o fa r t ifac t s . I n Ame r ican A n th ropo lg i s t6 0 , 1 958 :335 -357 G e lf and ,A .E . S e r ia t ion m e thod sf o ra r cha eo log ica l ma ter i a l s . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 , 1 971 :263 -74 G ende l ,P .a nd P ir nay ,L . M ic rowea ra na ly s is o fe xpe r imen t a ls t one t o o l s : f u r the rt e s tr e su l t s .I nS tud ia P r eh is t o r ia B e lg ica 2 ,1 982 :251-65 G ib son ,E .C . D iach ron ic p a t te rn so fE th ic p roduc t ion ,u se a nd e xchange i nt h e s ou ther n Maya l ow land s . P .H .D . D i ss er ta t ion , Un ive r s i ty M ic rof i lm ,A n A rbo r ,H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty 1 986 G ladw in ,T . E a s ti s ab ig b i rd . H ava rd U n ive r s i ty P r es s 1 970 G oodw in ,A . J .H . C hem ica la l te ra t ion (p a t ina t ion )o fs t one . I n VFPA 2 8 , 1 960 :300 -12 G ou ld ,R .A . C h ipp ing s t ones i nt h eO u tback . I nN a tu ra l H i s to ry 7 7 , 1 968 :42 -49

( t he s ame ) T he Mauna K ea a dze q ua r ry : T echnno log ica l a na ly s i sa nd e xpe r imen ta lt e s t .P .H .D . d i sse r ta t ion . U n ive r s i ty o fH awa i i 1 982 C leghor n /Dye a nd We i s le r /S in ton A p r e l im ina ry p ed ro g r aph ic s t udy o fH awa i ian s t one a dze Qua r r ie s . I n J ou rna lo ft h eP o lynes ian S oc ie ty 9 4 (3 ) , 1 985 :235 -251 C o les ,J .M . A rchaeo logy b ye xper im en t ,C ha r les S c r ibne r 's s on ,N ew Y o rk , 1 973 ( t he s am e ) E xper im en ta la r cha eo logy .A cadem ic P res s , I n c .N ew Y o rk , 1 979 C o l l in s ,D . S tone a r t i f a c ta na ly s is a nd t h er e cogn i t ion o f c u l tu r et r ad i t ion s .I n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy ,V o l . 2 1 970 :17 -27 C oo ley ,W .a nd L ohne s ,P . Mu l t iva r ia te d a ta a na ly s i s ,N ew Y o rk : Wi ley , 1 971 C o rdy ,R . S amp l ing p r o lb lem si nr eg iona li n te rp re ta t ion i n H awa i ian a r cha eo logy . 1 982 C rab t r ee ,D . A ni n t roduc t ion t of l in t -wo rk ing . I nI daho S t a t e Museum O cca s iona lP ape r s No . 2 8 1 973a ( t he s am e ) T he o b tu se a ng le a sf unc t iona le dge . T eb iwa 1 6 :46 -53 1 973b C owg i l l ,G .L . S amp l ing a nd r e l iab i l i ty p rob lem si na r chae o l ogy .I n " A r cheo log ie e tC a lcu la t eu r s" P a r is : E d i t i on sd uC en t r eN a t iona ld ul aR e rche rche S c ien t i f i que , 1 970 C rox ton ,F .E .a nd C owdon ,D .J . A pp l ied g ene ra l s t a t i s t ics . E ng lewood C l if f :P r en t ice H a l l 1 955 C u lbe r t ,T .P . T he c e ram ic h i s to ry o ft h eC en tra lH igh land s o fC h iupa s ,M ex ico .I nP ape r so ft h eN ew Wo r ld A r cha eo log ica lF ounda t ion ,P ub l ica t ion 1 4 , No . 1 9 , P rovo 1 965 D emp sey ,P .a nd B aumhof f ,M .A . T he s t a t is t ica lu se o f a r t i f a c td i s t r ibu t ions t oe s tab l ish c h rono log ica l s e q uences . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 2 8 , 1 963 :496 -509 D ibb le ,H .L . T he i n t e rp r e ta t ion o fm idd le p a leo l i th ic s c rape r mo rpho logy .I n Am e r ican An t iqu i ty 5 2 (1) , 1 987 :109 -117 ( t he s am e )a nd Wh i t take r ,J .C . N ew e xp e r imen ta le v idence o nt h er e la t ion b e tween p e r cus s ion f l ak ing a nd f l ake v a r ia t ion .I nJ ou rna lo fA rcha eo log ica l S c ience 8 / 3 , 1 98 1 :283 -296 Donahu e ,R .E . M ic rowea ra na ly s is a nd s i t ef unc t ion o f P ag l icc iC ave ,l e ve l4 8 . I n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy , V o l . 1 9 (3 ) .F eb . 1 984 :357 -375 Do ran ,J .a nd Hod son ,F .R . Ma thema t ic sa nd c ompu te r si n a r chaeo logy .C amb r idge ,H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty P r e s s , 1 975 D ragoo ,D .W . S ome a s pec t so fe a s t er nn o r th Ame r ican p r eh i s to ry . Ar e v iew 1 975 .I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 1 , 1 976 :3 -27 Dumond ,D .E . Ar e exam ina t ion o fE sk imo -A leu tp reh i s t o ry .I n Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t8 9 , 1 987 :32 -56 Dunne 1 1 ,R .C . S e r ia t ion m e thod a nd i t se va lua t ion .I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 5 (3 ) , 1 970 :305 -19 ( t he s ame ) S ys tema t ic si np r eh is to ry .N ew Yo rk F ree P r e s s , 1 97 1 E hr ich ,R .W . S ome r e f lec t ion so na r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e t a t ion . I n Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t 5 2 , 1 950 :456 -82 ( t he s ame ) F ur the rr ef lec t ion sI n Ame r ican An th ropo log i s t 6 5 , 1 963 :16 -31

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( t he s ame ) F o rm ,f unc t ion a nd s t y le i nE t h ic a na ly s i s .I n C le land ,C .B . e d . " Cu l tu ra l c hange a nd c on t inu i ty" A cad em ic P res s ,N ew Yo rk 1 976 :19 -33 J e t e r ,M .D . A na ly s i s o ff l aked s t one a r t i f a c t sa nd d eb i tage . nDoy e l ,D .E . a nd D ebowsk i ,S .S .e d . ' P reh i s to ry i n D ead V a l ley ,e a s t -cen t ra lA r izona : T he TG+E S p r inge rv i l le r epo r t " ,A r izona S t a t e Museum A r c haeo log ica l S e r ie s 1 44 ,T uc son 1 980 :235 -305 K a epp le r ,A .L . C ook v oyage a r t ifac t s .B i shop Museum P r e ss ,H ono lu lu 1 978 K amm inga ,J . T he n a tu r eo fu se -po l i sh a nd a b ra s ive s moo th ing o n s t one t o o ls . I nH ayd en ,B . e d . " L i th ic u se -w ea ra na ly s i s" ,A cadem ic P r e s s , N ew Y o rk 1 979 :143 -158 K ee ley ,L .H . T echn ique a nd m e thodo logy i nm ic rowea r s t ud ie s : ac r i t ica lr e v iew .I n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 5 (3 ) , 1 974 :323 -336 ( t he s ame ) T he f unc t ion o fp a leo l i th ic f l in tt oo l s . I nS c ien t i f ic Ame r ican 2 37 (5 ) , 1 977 :108 -27 ( t he s ame ) E xp e r imen ta l d e t e rm ina t ion o fs t one t o o lu se s : Am ic rowea ra na ly s i s .C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s 1 980 ( t he s ame ) a nd N ewcombe r ,M . M ic rowea ra na lys i so n e xp er imen ta lf l in tt o o l s : At e s tc a se . I nJ ou rna lo f A r cha eo log ica l S c ience 4 ,1 977 :29 -64 K e l le r ,C . T he d eve lopmen to fe dge d amage p a t ter n so n s t one t o o l s . I n Man 1 ( 4 ) , 1 966 :50 1-11 K e l ly ,R .L . T he t h ree s i de so f ab i face .I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 3 , 1 988 :7 17 -34 K e rhof ,F .a nd Mü l le rBeck ,H . Z u rb ruchmechan i schen D eu tung d e rS ch lagma rken a nS t e inge rä ten .I n G la s techn ische B e r ich te 4 2 , 1 969 :439 -48 K i r ch ,P .V . Ma r ine e xp lo i ta t ion i np r eh i s to r ic Hawa i ' i : A rcha eo log ica l e xcava t ion s a t Ka lahu ipua 'a , H awa i ' i I s land . I n P a c if ic A n th ropo log ica l R eco rd s 2 9 . D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy B PB M 1 979 ( t he s ame ) F ea the r ed g od sa nd f i shhook s .A ni n troduc t ion t oH awa i ian a r cha eo logy a nd p r eh i s to ry . Un ive r s i ty o fH awa i iP re ss ,H ono lu lu 1 985 K i r ch ,P .V . a nd K e l ly ,M . P r eh is tory a nd e co logy i na w indwa rd H awa i ian v a l ley : H a lawa V a l ley Mo loka i . I nP a c if i cA n thropo log ica lR eco rd 2 4 , D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy B PBM 1 975 K luckhohn ,C . T he u se o ft y po logy i na n th ropo log ica lt h e o ry . I n Wa l la ce ,A .F .C .e d . "Man a nd C u l tu r es " , P h i lad e lph ia ,U n ive r s i ty o fR enn sy lvan ia P res s 1 960 K nud son , S . J . C u l tu r e i nr e t ro spec t . A ni n t roduc t ion t o a r chaeo logy . R and MC Na l ly ,C h icago 1 978 K rau s s ,B . S y l labu s -E thnobo tany o fH awa i i -1 05 . U n i v e r s i ty o fH awa i i 1 972 K r iege r ,A .D . T he t ypo log ica lc oncep t .I n Amer ican A n t i qu i ty 9 ,1 944 :271-88 ( t he s ame ) A r chaeo log ica lt y po logy i nt h eo ry a nd p ra c t ice . I nS e lec ted P ap e r so ft h eF if th I n t er na t iona lC on g r es so fA n th ropo logy a nd E thno log ica l S c ience 1 960 :271-88 L ap la ce , G . E s sa id et ypo log ie s ys tima t iqe .I n Anna l i d e l l 'Un ive r s iä d eF e r ra ra ( Nuova S er ie ) .L ez ione XV P a leon to log ia umana eP la e tno log ia : s upp le m en to I a tv o lum e I1 964

( t he s ame ) T he a n th ropo logy o fr e s idue s .I n Ame r ican A n th ropo log is t8 0 , 1 978 :815 -35 G raham ,F .a nd G a l loway /Scho l la r Mode ls t ud ie si nc om p u t e rs e r ia t ion In J ou rna l o fA r cha eo log ica lS c ience 1 , Ma r ch 1 976 :1-30 G r imes ,J .a nd G r imes ,B . F lakeshave r s : Mo rphome t r ic . F unc t iona la nd l i f e -cyc le a na ly s i so f ap a leo ind ian u n ifa c ia lt oo lc l a s s .I nA r cha eo logy o fE a s t er n No r th Amer ica 1 3 , 1 985 :35 -57 Gu i re Mc ,R . Wh i t take r ,H .A . ,a nd McCa r thy / McSwa in Ac on s ide ra t ion o fo b se rva t iona le r ro ri nl i t h ic u se w ea ra na ly s is . I nN ew s le t te ro fL i th ic T echno logy , V o l .11(3 ) ,D ec . 1 982 :59 -63 H andy ,E /C ra igh i l l N a t ive p l an te r s i no l dH awa i i . BPB M Museum B u l le t in 2 33 ,H ono lu lu 1 972 H an sen ,H .O . S ome m a in t r end si nt h ed eve lopmen to ft h e L e j r eC en te r ,L e jr e ,D enma rk 1 974 ( t he s ame ) T he p reh i s to r ic v i l lage a tL e j r e .H i s to r ica l A rchaeo log ica lR e sea r ch C en t r e ,L e j re 1 977 H ayden ,B . L i th ic u se -wea ra na ly s is . A cadem ic P re s s ,I n c . N ew Y o rk 1 979 H e ide r , K .G . A rchaeo log ica la s sump t ion sa nd e t hnog raph i c a lf a c t s : Ac au t iona ry t a le f r om N ew G u inea .I n S ou thwes te r nJ our na lo f An th ropo logy 2 3 , 1 967 :52 -64 H e inze l in d e ,J . Manue ld et y po log ie d e si n dus t r ie s l i th ique s .L 'h i s t i tu tR oya ld es S c ience sN a tu r e l le s d eB e lg ique .B ru s se l s 1 962 H es te r ,T .R .a nd H e ize r ,R .F . P rob lem si nt h ef unc t iona l i n t e rp re ta t ion o fa r t if a c t s : S c rap e rp l ane sf r om M i t la a nd Y ugu l ,O a sea ca ,U n ive r s i ty o fC a l ifo rn ia (B e rke ley )A r cha eo log ica lR es ea r ch F a c i l i ty ,C on t r ibu t ion No .14 , 1 972 :107 -23 Hodges ,H .W . A r t ifac t s : A ni n t roduc t ion t oe a r ly m a te r ia l s a nd t e chno logy .L ondon : J .Bake r , 1 964 ( t he s ame ) T echno logy i nt h ea nc ien tw o r ld . N ew Y o rk : Knopf 1 970 Ho le ,F . App roach ing t ypo logy r a t iona l ly .I nT he R eco rd , D a l la s ,A rchaeo log ica lS oc ie ty 2 7 (3 ) , 1 971 :11-16 ( t he s ame )a nd F lanne ry /Nee ley P r eh i s to ry a nd h uman e co logy o ft h eD eh L u ranP la in .A ne a r ly v i l lage s equence f r om K huz i s tan ,I r an . Memo i r so ft h e Mu seum o fA n th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan No .1 , 1 969 Ho le ,F .a nd S haw ,M . C ompu te ra na ly s i so fc h rono log ica l s e r ia t ion . Hous ton ,T exa s : R ice U n ive r s i ty S tud ie s 5 3 (3 ) , 1 967 H un t ,T . a nd K i rch ,P .V . A na r chaeo log ica ls urvey o ft h e Manu 'a I s land s , Ame r ican S amoa .I nJ our na lo f P o lynes ian S oc ie ty ,V o l .97 (2 ) ,J une 1 988 H urcombe ,L . R e s idue s t ud ie so no b s id ian t o o l s . I n Un ra th ,G . " An e va lua t ion o fu se -wea rs t ud ie s : a mu l t i -ana ly s ta pp roa ch ." E a r ly Man N ew s9 / 10 /11 , T üb ingen 1 984 /85 /86 :83 -92 I l k jae r ,J . An ew me thod f o ro bserva t ion a nd r e co rd ing o f u se -wea r .I nH ayden ,B . " L i th ic u se -wea ra na ly s i s ." A cadem ic P res s ,N ew Y o rk 1 979 :345 -50 I nge r so l l ,D . a nd Y e l len / Ma cDona ld E xp e r imen ta la r chaeo l o gy .C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P re s s .N ew Y o rk 1 977 J e l inek ,A .J . T he p roduc t ion o fs e conda ry mu l t ip le f l akes . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 (2 ) , 1 971 :198 -200

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( t he s ame ) F unc t iona l i n t e rp re ta t ion f r om m ic ro scop ic a na lys i s .I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 , 1 97 1 :36 1-66 N ewcome r ,M .H .a nd S i evek ing ,G . E xp e r imen ta lf l ake s c a t t e r -p a t t er n s : An ew i n t e rp re t ive t e chn ique . I n J ou rna lo fF ie ld A rcha eo logy 7 ,1 980 :345 -52 N is sen ,K .a nd D i t temo r e ,M . E thnog raph ic d a ta a nd w ea r p a t ter na na lys i s : As t udy o fs o cke ted E sk imo s c rap e r s . I nT eb iwa 1 7 , 1 974 :67 -87 N owa tzyk ,G . D ie F unk t ion s in t e rp r e ta t ion v on S t e ina r tef ak t e n . I n BAR I n t e rna t iona lS e r ies 4 29 , 1 988 O ak ley ,K .P . Man t h e t o o l -make r .B r i t i sh Museum o fN a tu r a lH i s to ry ,L ondon 1 967 O de l l ,G .H . T he a pp l ica t ion o fm ic rowea ra na ly s i st ol i th ic c omponen t so fa ne n t i re p r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t : Me thod s ,p rob lem s ,a nd f unc t iona lr e cons tr uc t ion s . P .H .D .d i s se r ta t ion ,D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy , H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty 1 977 ( t he s ame ) An ew a nd i mp roved s y s t em f o rt h e r e t r ieva lo f f unc t iona li n fo rma t ion f r om m ic ro scop ic o bser va t i ons o fc h ipped s t one t o o l s .I nH ayden ,B .e d . " L i th ic u se -wea ra na ly s i s " ,A cadem ic P res sN ew Y o rk 1 979 :329 -44 ( t he s ame ) V e r i fy ing t h er e l iab i l i ty o fl i t h ic u se -wea ra s s e s smen t sb y " b l ind t e s t s " : T he l ow p owe ra p p roa ch . I nJ our na lo fF i e ld A r chaeo logy 7 , 1 980 :87 -120 P a r son ,L .A . B i lbao ,G ua t ema la : A na r chaeo log ica l s t udy o ft h eP ac if ic c oa s tC o tzuma lhuape r eg ion . M i lwaukee P ub l ic Mu seum P ub l ica t ion si nA n th ro p o logy 1 (1) ,M i lwauk ee 1 967 P a t te r son ,T .C . T he l a s ts i x ty y ea r s : T owa rd s as oc ia lh i s t o ry o f Ame r ican a r cha eo logy i nt h e USA . I n Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t8 8 , 1986 :7 -26 P ea r son ,R . J . a nd K i r ch ,P .V A ne a r ly p r eh i s to r ic s i t ea t B e l low sB each , Wa im a na lo ,O 'ahu ,H awa i ian I s l a nd s .I nP i e t ru sew sky ,M . A r chaeo logy a nd P hy s i c a lA n th ropo logy i nO cean ia 6 ,1 97 1 :204 -34 P h i l l ip s ,P . T ra ceo logy ( M ic rowea r )s t ud ie si nt h e USSR . I n Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 1 9 (3 ) ,F eb . 1 984 :349 -56 P ip er no ,D . Ac ompa r i son a nd d if e ren t ia t ion o fp hy to l i ths f r om ma ize a nd w i ld g ra s se s : U se o f mo rpho log ica l c r i te r ia .I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 9 , 1 984 :361-83 P ryo r ,F .L . T he a dop t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e .I n Amer ican A n t h ropo log is t8 8 , 1 986 :879 -97 P u rdy ,B .A . F ra c tu re so ft h ea r cha eo log i s t .I n Swan son ,E . e d . " L i th ic T echno logy . Mak ing a nd u s ing s t one t o o ls " , Mou ton P ub l i she r s ,T he H ague ,P a r is 1 975 R aw l in s ,T .E .a nd T akaha sh i ,W .N . T echn iques o fp l an t h i s tochem ie a nd v i ro logy .N a t iona lP res s , M i lb rae ,Lo sA nge le s 1 952 R ead ,D .W . S amp l ing p rocedu r e sf o rr e g iona l s ur veys : A p rob lem o fr e p re sen ta t ivene s sa nd e f ec t ivenes s . I n J our na lo fF ie ld A rcha eo logy 1 3 (4 ) , Win t e r 1 986 :477 -9 1 R edman ,C . Mu l t i s tage f i e ldwo rk a nd a na ly t ica l t e chn iques . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 , 1 973 :6 1-79 R eyno ld s ,P . J . E xpe r imen ta la r cha eo logy a nd t h eB u s te r a nc ien tf a rm r e sea r ch p ro jec t : I nC o l l is , J .e d . ' The i r on a ge i nB r i ta in -ar e v iew" U n ive r s i ty o f S hef f ie ld 1 977a :32 -40

L aw rence ,R .A . E xpe r imen ta le v idence f o rt h es i gn if icance o fa tr ibu tes u sed i ne dge -damage a na ly s is .I n H ayden ,B . " L i th ic u se -wea ra na ly s i s" A cadem ic P r e s sN ew Yo rk 1 979 :113 -22 L each ,F .a nd D av id son ,J . A r chaeo log ica ls t ud ies o fP a c i f i cs t one r e cou r ces .BAR I n t er na t iona lS er ie s 1 04 ,1981 L eno i r ,M . L es g ra t to i r s -b u r ins d u Mo r in e td uR oc d e Ma r camp s .I nB u l le t in d el aS oc i6 te P rA is to r ique F r ança i se 7 5 , 1 978 :73 -82 L ewen s te in ,S .M . S tone t o o lu se a tC e r ro s : T he e t hnoa r c ha eo log ica la nd u se -wea re v idence .A u s t in , Un i v e r s i ty o fT exa sP r e s s 1 987 L oy ,T . P r eh i s tor ic b lood r e s idues : D e tec t ion o n t oo ls u r f a ce sa nd i d en t i f ica t ion o fs pec ies o fo r ig in .I nS c i e nce 2 20 . 1 983 :1269 -1271 Macdona ld ,G .A .a nd A bbo t /Pe te r son V o lcanoes i nt h e s ea . U n ive r s i ty o fH awa i iP r e s s ,H ono lu lu 1 970 Mc C oy ,P .C . T he Mauna K ea a d zq ua r ry p ro jec t : As um m a ry o ft h e 1 975 f i e ld i n ves t iga t ion .T ype sc r ip ti n t h eD epar tmen to fA n th ropo logy . Ms 0 51276 , 1 976 ( t he s am e ) T he BPB M Mauna K ea a dz q ua r ry p ro jec t . T yp e sc r ip ti nt h eD epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy Ms 0 12778 , 1 978 Mc L ean ,R .C .a nd C ook ,W .R .J . P lan ts c ience f o rmu la e ; a r e f e r ence b ook f o rp l an ts c ience l a bo ra tor ies . Ma cm i l lan ,L ondon 1 94 1 ,R ev iew 1 952 M inzon i -De roche ,A . T ypo log ie se nP r6h i s to i r e .P .H .D . t h e s i s . Un ive r s i ty o fP a r i s , 1 981 ( t he s am e ) L i th ic a r t if a c ti n t e rp r e ta t ion .A ne mp i r ica l a pp roach . I n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 1 ( 1) , 1 985 :19 -31 Mo r r i s ,G . M ic rowea ra nd o rgan ic r e s idue s t ud ie so ns wee t t r a ck f l in t .I nS omme r se tL eve l sP ape r s 1 0 , 1 984 :97 -106 Mo ss ,E . T he f unc t iona l a na ly s i so ff l in ti mp lemen t s : P r ineven ta nd P on td 'Ambon ,t wo c a se s t ud ies f r om t h eF rench f ma lp a leo l i th ic .I n BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 77 , 1 983 Mue l le r ,J .W .e d .S amp l ing i na r chaeo logy .I nS oc ie ty o f Ame r ican A rchaeo logy Memo i r s2 8 , 1 974 ,s e cond e d i t ion T he Un ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s ,T ucson , A r izona 1 975 ( t he s am e ) A rchaeo log ica lr e sea rch a sc l us t e rs amp l ing . I n Mue l le r , J .W .e d . " Samp l ing i nA r chaeo logy" ,T he U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P r e ss ,T uc son ,A r izona 1 975 :33 -4 1 Mu to ,G .R . As t age a na ly s i so ft h e manufac tu r eo fs t one t o o ls .I nA cken s ,M . e d . " G r ea tB a s in a n th ropo log i c a lc on f e r ence 1 970" ,S e lec t ed P ape r s ,U n ive r s i ty o fO r egon A n th ropo log ica lP ape r s 1 ,1 971a ( t he s ame ) At e chno log ica la na lys i so ft h ee a r ly s t age si n m anu f ac tu r eo fl i t h ic a r t ifac t s . Unpub l i shed M .A . t h e s i s ,I daho S ta t eU n ive r s i ty , 1 971b Mye r s ,O .H . S ome a pp l ica t ions o fs t a t i s t ic st oa r chaeo logy . I nS erv ice d es A n t ique sd e l ' Egyp t e , 1 950 Naga ta ,K .M . E a r ly p l an ti n t roduc t ion i nH awa i i . I nT he H awa i ian J ou rna lo fH i s to ry 1 9 , Hong K ong 1 985 Nance ,J .D . L i th ic a na ly s i s : I mp l ica t ions f o rt h ep reh i s to ry o fc en t ra lC a l ifo rn ia . Un ive r s i ty o fC a l ifor n ia ,L os A nge les ,D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy ,A r cha eo l o g ica lS u rvey A nnua lR epo r t 1 2 , 1 970 :62 103

7 7

S i ege l ,P .E . E dge a ng le a s af unc t iona li n d ica tor . At e s t .I n L i th ic T echno logy 1 4 (2 ) , 1 985 :90 -94 S i evek ing ,A . T he p a la eo lo i th ic i ndus t ry o f Ko ta T ampan , P e rak ,N o r thwe s t er n . I nA s ian P e r spec t ives 2 , 1 958 :9 1-102 S ino to ,Y .H . C h rono logy o fH awa i ian f i shhooks . I nJ our na l o ft h eP o lyne s ian S oc ie ty 7 1 , 1 962 :162 -66 ( t he s ame ) H awa i ian f i shhook c l a s s if ica t ion a nd c od ing s y s t em ( r ev is ed 1 979 ) .T ypesc r ip ti nD epa r tmen to f A n th ropo logy ,B PB M , 1 979 S o eh r en ,L . J . H awa i ie xcava t ion s : 1 965 .T ype sc r ip ti n l i b ra ry B PB M , 1 966 S onnenf e ld ,J . I n t e rp r e t ing t h ef unc t ion o fp r im i t ive i mp le m en t s .I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 2 8 , 1 962 :56 -65 S onnev i l le -Bo rdes D .d eS ta t i s t ica l t e chn ique sf o rt he d i s c ove ry o fa r t ifa c tt y pe s .I n Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 1 8 , 1953 :305 -13 ,39 1-393 ( t he s ame ) L ep a l6o l i th ique s up6r ieu re nP i r egord . D e lma s ,B o rdeaux 1 960 ( t he s ame )a nd P e r ro t ,J . L ex ique t ypo log ique d u P a lio l i th ique s up 6 r ieu r .Ou t i l lage l i t h ique : IG ra t t o i r s -I O u t i l ss o lu t rien s . I nB u l le t in d e l aS oc i8 t 6 P r eh i s to r ique F r ança ise 5 1 :327 -33 O u t i l lage l i t h ique : I IO u t i ls c ompo s i t es . I nB SPF 5 2 :76 -9 O u t i l lage l i t h ique : I VB u r in s . I nB SPF 5 3 :408 -12 S pau ld ing ,A .C . T he c oncep to fa r t ifa c tt y p e i na rchaeo l o gy . I nP la teau 4 5 , 1 973 :149 -63 S pau ld ing ,A .C . Mu l t if ac to ra na ly s i so fa s soc ia t ion ( Ce ram ic s ) .I nC le land ,C .E . e d . " Cu l tu ra l c hang e a nd c on t inu i ty" ,A cadem ic P r e s sN ew York 1 975 S pe th ,J . T he m echan ica lb a s i so fp e r cu s s ion f l ak ing . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 7 , 1 972 :34 -60 ( t he s ame ) E xpe r imen ta l i n ve s t iga t ion so fh a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion f l ak ing .I nT eb iwa 1 7 , 1 974 :7 -36 ( t he s ame ) M i sce l laneou ss t ud ie s i nh a rd -hamme rp e rcu s s i on f l ak ing : T he e f ec t so fo b l ique i mpac t . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 0 , 1 975 :203 -207 ( t he s ame ) T he r o le o fp l a t fo rm a ng le a nd c o re s i ze i n h a rd -hamme rp e r cu s s ion f l ak ing .I nL i th ic T echno l o gy 1 0 , 1 981 :16 -2 1 S t ah le ,D .W . a nd D unn ,J . E . A na na ly s i sa nd a pp l ica t ion o f s i ze d i s tr ibu t ion o fw a s te f l akes f r om t h e manuf a c t u r eo fb i f a c ia ls t one t oo ls . I n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 1 4 (1 ) ,J une 1 982 :84 -97 S t even s ,W .C . P l an ta na tomy . F our th e d i t ion . P .B la l c i s ton t s , P h i lad e lph ia 1 924 S u l l ivan ,A .P . a nd R ozen ,K .C . D eb i tage a na ly s is a nd a r c ha eo log ica li n t e rp re ta t ion . I n Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 5 0 (4 ) , 1 985 :755 -79 Swan son ,E . L i th ic t e chno logy : Mak ing a nd u s ing s t one t o o l s . Mou ton P ub l i she r s ,T he H ague ,P a r is 1 975 S ab lof f ,J .A . a nd Sm i th ,R . T he i mpo r tance o fb o th a na ly t ic a nd t a xonom icc la s s if ica t ion i nt h et y pe -va r ie ty s y s tem .I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 4 (3 ) , 1 969 :278 -85 T homa s ,D .H . A r cha eo logy H o l t ,R inha r ta nd Wins ton , N ew Y o rk 1 979 T hom son ,D . S om e w ood a nd s t one i mp lemen t so ft h e B ind ibu t r ibe o fc en t ra lw es te rn A u s t ra l ia . I nP PS 3 0 , 1 964 :400 -422

( t he s ame ) A rchaeo logy b ye xpe r imen t : Ar e sea r ch t o o l f o rt omo r row . ln D a rv i l l ,T .C . ,Pea r son ,M .P . , Sm i th ,R .W . ,a nd T homa s ,R .M .e d s ."New a p roa che s t oo u rp a s t .A na r chaeo log ica l f o rum" ,U n ive r s i ty o f S ou thamp ton 1 978 R icha rd s ,T .H . M ic rowea rp a t te rn so ne xpe r imen ta lb a sa l t t o o l s . I n BAR I n t e rna t iona lS er ie s4 60 , 1 980 R ouse ,I . O nt h et ypo log ica lm e thod .I n Ame r ican A n th ro p o log is t 1 0 , 1 944 :202 -204 ( t he s ame ) T he c l a s s if ica t ion o fa r t if ac t s i na r chaeo logy . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 2 5 , 1 960 :313 -23 ( t he s ame ) P reh is to ry ,t y po logy a nd t h es t udy o fs oc ie ty . I nC hang ,K .C .e d . " Se t t lemen ta r cha eo logy" ,P a lo A l to ,C a l ifor n ia : N a t iona lP r e s sB ook s 1 968 ( t he s ame ) C la s s if ica t ion f o rw ha t ?I nN o rweg ian A r c ha eo log ica lR ev iew 3 ,1 970 :4 -34 R owe ,J .H . S t ra t ig raphy a nd s e r ia t ion . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 6 (3 ) , 1 961 :324 -30 R ovne r , I . P lan to pa lp hy to l i th a na ly s i s . I nA dvances o n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry 6 ,1 983 :225 -66 S a cke t t ,J .R . Q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i so fu ppe rp a laeo l i th ic s t one t oo ls .I n Ame r ican A n th ropo log is t6 8 (2 ) , 1 966 :356 -94 S chou sbo e ,R . a nd R ifo rd /K i r ch V o lcan ic -g la ss f l aked s t one a r t if ac t s .I nC la rk , J .T . a nd K i rch ,P .V .e d s . " A r cha eo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion so ft h e Mud lane Wa imea -Kawa iha er oad c o r r ido r " ,D epa r tmen to f A n th ropo logy R epo r tS e r ie s8 3 -1 ,B PB M 1 983 :348 -70 S ch if f e r ,M .B . B ehav io ra la r cha eo logy . A cadem ic P r es sN ew Y o rk 1 976 S chof ie ld ,A , J , T he i n te rp r ta t ion o fs u r f ace l i th ic c o l lec t i on s .C a se s t ud ie sf r om s ou ther nE ng land . P .H .D . d i s ser ta t ion ,U n ive r s i ty o fS ou thamp ton 1 988 ,O r d e r No . BRDX84 127 S cur f ie ld ,G .a nd A nde r son /Segn i t S i l ica i nw ooden s t em s A u s t ra l ian J our na lo fB o tany 2 2 , 1974 :211-29 S emenov ,S .A . P r eh is to r ic t e chno logy ,T homp son M .W . t r an s la t ion .L ondon : C o ry ,A dam sa nd Ma cK ay 1 964 S ha f e r ,H . J .a nd Ho l loway ,R .G . O rgan ic r e s idue a na lys i si n d e te rm in ing s t one t o o lf unc t ion .I nH ayden ,B .e d . " L i th ic u se -wea ra na ly s i s" ,A cadem ic P r e s sN ew Y o rk 1 979 S hea ,J . J . O na ccu racy a nd r e levance i nl i t h ic u se -wea r a na ly s is .I nL i th ic T echno logy 1 6 (2 -3 ) , 1 987 :44 -51 S hee t s ,P . E dge a b ra s ion d u r ing b i f a ce m anuf ac tu r e . I n Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 , 1 973 :215 -18 S ho t t ,M .J . O nt oo l -c la s su se l i ve sa nd t h ef o rma t ion o f a r cha eo log ica la s semb lages . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 5 4 , 1 989 :9 -30 S hu t le r ,R .a nd K es s ,C .A . Al i t h ic i n dus t ry f r om N ew B r i ta in ,T e r r i to ryof N ewGu inea ,w i th p o s s ib le r e a l a nd c h rono log ica lr e la t ion sh ip s .I nB u l le t in o ft h e I n s t i tu te o fE thno logy ,A cadem ia S in ica 2 7 , 1 969 :129 140 S iege l ,S . N onpa rame t r ic s t a t is t ic sf o rt h eb ehav io ra l s c i e nce . Mc G raw -H i l l ,N ew Y o rk 1 956 S iege l ,P .E . F unc t iona lv a r iab i l i ty w i th in a na s semb lage o f e nd sc rape r s .I nL i th ic T echno logy 1 3 (2 ) , 1 984 :35 -51

7 8

Wha l lon ,R . J r . T he c ompu t e ri na r chaeo logy : Ac r i t ica l s ur vey .I nC ompu t e r sa nd t h e Human i t ie s7 ( 1) , S ep t .1972 :29 -45 Wh i t e ,E .M .a nd H a r m s ,L .A . C hem ica lw ea r ing o fb one s i na r chaeo log ica ls o i l s .I n Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 4 8 (2 ) , 1983 :316 -46 W i l lcock ,J .D . Ag ene ra ls u rvey o fc ompu te ra pp l ica t ion s i n a r cha eo logy . I nS c ien t if ic A r chaeo log is t9 , J an .1973 :17 -21 Wi l l iam s , S . S . At e chno log ica la na ly s is o ft h ed eb i tage a s s emb lage f r om K o 'oho 'o lau r ock she l te r No .1 , Mauna K ea Adze Q ua r ry , Hawa i i . M .A . Wa sh ing ton S ta t eU n ive r s i ty 1 989 W i lm sen ,E . F unc t iona l a na ly s is o ff l aked s t one a r t ifac t s . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 3 3 , 1 968 :156 -6 1 W i lm sen ,E . L i th ic a na ly s i sa nd c u l tu ra l i n f e rence : AP a leo I nd ian c a s e . I nA n th ropo log ica lP aper so ft h e Un i v e r s i ty o fA r izona 1 6 , 1 970 ( t he s ame ) L i th ic a na ly s i si np a laeoan th ropo logy . I n L eone ,M .P . e d ."Con tempo ra ry A rchaeo logy" , C a rbonda le I I , S ou ther nI l ino i sU n ive r s i ty P r e s s , 1 975 Wyan t ,J .R . A ne xpe r imen ta l s t udy o fl i th ic u se -wea r . I n D oe l le ,W .H .e d ."Des er tr e sou rces a nd Hohokam s ub s i s t ence . T he C onoco F lo rence P ro jec t " , A r izona S ta te Mus eum A rcha eo log ica l S e r ies 1 03 , 1 976 :231-43 Y e rke s ,R . P r eh is tor ic l i f eo nt h eM is s i s s ipp i f l oodp la in : S tone t o o lu se , s e t t lemen to rgan iza t ion , a nd s ub s i s t e nce p ra c t ice sa tt h eL ab ra sL ake S i te , I l ino i s . U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r ess 1 987 Z iege r t ,H . O b jek tor ien t ie r t eu nd p rob lemo r ien t ier te F o r s chung sansä t ze i nd e rA rchäo log ie . I n H epha i s to s 2 ,1 980 :57 -65 . ( t he s ame ) W is senscha f t l iche A rbe i t s techn iken i nd en K u l tu rw is sen scha f ten .I nR e ihe Ku l turw issen s cha f t en 1 2 , 1 986

T omenchuk ,J . T he c a lcu la t ion o fe dge l o s so nc h ipped s t one t o o ls r e su l t ing f r om u s e .I nH ayden ,B . " L i th ic u se -wea ra na ly s i s " ,A cadem ic P r es sN ew Y o rk 1 979 T o th ,N . T he O ldowan r e a s ses sed : Ac l o se l ook a te a r ly s t one a r t ifac t s . I nJ ou rna lo fA rcha eo log ica lS c ience 1 2 , 1 985 :101-20 T r ingham ,R .e ta l E xpe r im en ta t ion i nt h ef o rma t ion o fe dge d amage : An ew a pp roach t ol i t h ic a na lys i s .I n J ou rna lo fF ie ld A r chaeo logy 1 ,1 974 :17 1-96 T ro ike ,R .C . T ime a nd t y pe si na r cha eo log ica la na ly s i s : T he B ra ine rd -Rob in son t e chn ique .I n TASB 2 8 , 1 957 :269 -84 T ugby ,D .J . At ypo log ica la na lys i so fa xes a nd c hoppe r s f r om s ou thea s tA u s t ra l ia . I n Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 2 4 , 1 958 :24 -33 T uoky ,D .R . S a lvage e xcava t ions a tC i ty o fR efuge N a t i ona lH is tor ica lP a rk , Honaunau ,K ona ,H awa i i . T yp e scr ip ti nl i b ra ry BPB M 1 965 U n ra th ,G . A ne va lua t ion o fu se -wea rs t ud ies : A mu l t i a na ly s ta pp roach .I nE a r ly Man N ew s9 / 10 /11 , T üb ingen 1 984 /85 /86 :117 -76 V an Hor n ,D .M . T he a r cha eo log ica ls u r vey : C h ipped s t one . ln E xped i t ion 1 9 (1) , 1 976 :50 -54 V aughn ,P . U se -wea ra na ly s i so ff l ak ed s t one t oo l s .U n i v e r s i ty o fA r izona P r ess ,T uc son 1 985 Wa l l i s ,F .S . P e t ro logy a sa na i dt op r eh i s to r ic a nd m ed ieva l a r cha eo logy . I nE ndeavou r 1 4 , 1 955 :146 -51 Wa l l ra th ,M . E xcava t ion si nt h eT ehuan tepec r eg ion , Mex ico .I nT ran s la t ion so ft h e Ame r ican P h i lo s oph ica l S oc ie ty 5 7 (2 ) ,P h i lad e lph ia 1 967 Wa rd ,G .K . As ys tema t ic a pp roach t ot h ed efm i t ion o f s ou rces o fr aw m a t e r ia l .I nA r cha eome t ry 1 6 , 1 974 :4 1-53 We is le r /Ma r sha l la nd K i rch T he s t ruc tu r eo fs e t t lemen t s pa ce i n aP o lyne s ian c h iefdom : K awe la , Mo loka ' i , H awa i ian I s land s .I nN ew Z ea land J our na lo fA r c ha eo logy 7 ,1 985 :129 -58 Wen two r th ,C .K . a nd Mac D ona ld ,G .A . S t ruc tu r es a nd f o rm so fb a sa l t ic r o ck si nH awa i i .I nG eo log ica l S u rvey Bu l le t in 9 94 , Wa sh ing ton 1 953

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A pp end ix D :R e su l t so ft h em ic ro scop ic i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e Wa ika lua F l ake s

E l i e l • . . e ee . 1 11 m 811111E q uEEll i ll

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Un ivers i ty o fH awa i ia t Manoa D epar tmen t o f B o tany S t . J ohn P lan t S c ience L abora tory Roo m 1 01 •3 190 Ma i le Way •Hono lu lu , Hawa i i 9 6822 T e lephone i 8 00 .040 i i ia i e •C ab le Address : UN IHA W ( 8 08 )9 584389

1 2.

S eptember

1 990

D ear Boris,

we examined your samples under the a nd d id histochemical t ests

The

samples were

f or

l ight microscope

l ignification.

f ound t o c ontain p lant material.

f ollowing photo

s lides o f plant t issue were

P hotomicroscope

I I.

S lide

1 6

S c1erenchyma

1 7

G ood

1 8,

l uck

( red)

with Phloroglucinol-HCl

f iber no

S lide

t aken o n a Z eiss

( sclereids) '

stain reaction S lide

The

1 9

stain r eaction with Phloroglucinol-HC1

Xylem elements

for your d issertation.

S incerely,

( Dr.

Karin Ruth Jacobsen )r ( Gail Murakami)

(A ppendix E : R esults o f h istochemical t ests f or l ignification )

8 9

(App end ix E :S l ide 1 6S c le r enchyma )

(A pp end ix E : S l ide 1 7F ibe r )

9 0

(A ppend ix E :S l ide 1 9X y lem e l emen t s)

(A pp end ix E :S l ide 2 0F ibe r)

9 1

F s pe g .

5

0

(A ppendix F : S ome b asalt f lakes u sed f or e xperiments ) (D rawing b y N ancy C hin )

9 2

B RS Pb2 .

2 .

3 _

4 _ J .

5

4

A

8

9

1 0 CM

(A ppendix F : S ome b asalt f lakes u sed-for e xperiments ) (D rawing b y N ancy C hin ) 9 3

(A pp end ix G : Wa ika lua f l ake F FW 2 7 s how ing p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion a t2 00x magn i f ica t ion )

(A pp end ix G : Wa ika lua f l ak eF FW 1 6d i sp lay ing e dg er ound ing a t1 00x magn i f ica t ion )

(A pp end ix G : Wa ika lua f l ake F F W 5s how ing e dge r ound ing a t1 00x m agn if i ca t ion )

(A ppend ix G : Wa ik a lua f l ake B FW 2 2d i sp lay ing p o l ish a t3 50x m agn if ica t ion )

9 5

(Append ix H :F l ake B FS P3 0d i sp lay ing ap o l i shed e dge a t2 00x magn if ica t ion )

(A ppend ix H : F lak eF F COa 7s how ing r e touch a t2 00x m agn if ica t ion )

9 6

(A ppend ix H : F lak eC FS P8 1 s how ing s c a r r ing a nd d en t icu la t ion a t2 00x magn if i ca t ion )

(Append ix H : F lake F F COa 1d i sp lay ing p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion a t3 50x magn if i ca t ion )

9 7

(A pp end ix H : F lake F FS P5 5 d i sp lay ing d en t icu la t ion a t3 50x magn if ica t ion )

(A ppend ix H : F lake B FS P6 4s how ing p o l i sh a t2 00x magn if ica t ion )

9 8

(A ppend ix H : F lake F FS P 8 5 d i sp lay ing m ic ro f lake s ca r sw i th p l an t ma te r ia la dhe ren t)

(A ppend ix H : F lake C FS P8 7 s how ing p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion a t3 50x magn if ica t ion )

9 9

(Append ix H : F lake F FS P9 3 d i sp lay ing r ound ing a nd p o l i sh a t1 00x m agn if ica t ion )

(App end ix H : F lake F FC oa 1 8 s how ing c ru sh ing a t3 50x m agn if i ca t ion )

1 00

(A ppend ix H : F lake F FS P102 s how ing p o l i sh a t1 00x magn if ica t ion )

(A ppend ix H : F lake B FS P3 6d i sp lay ing am ic ro f lake s ca ra t3 50x magn if ica t ion )

1 0 1

(Append ix H : F lake B FS P3 7d i sp lay ing e gde s moo th ing a t1 00x magn if i ca t ion )

(App end ix H : F lake B FS P5 0 s how ing c r u sh ing a nd f l ak ing a t2 00x magn if i ca t ion )

1 02

(A ppend ix H : F lake F FS P7 4d i sp lay ing p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion a t2 00x m agn i f ica t ion )

(Append ix H : F lake F FS P9 2s how ing e dge r ound ing a t1 00x magn if i ca t ion )

1 03