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YUGOSLAV NATIONALISM AS A FACTOR IN THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF THE BALKAN AREA

A T h e s is P re se n te d to th e F a c u l t y o f th e D e p artm en t o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e la ti o n s The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D eg ree M a ste r o f A rts

by Jack P h ilip G arv er June I 95O

UMI Number: EP59893

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

UMI EP59893 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code

ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346

X

's o

6- 3 - ^ /

This thesis, written by

.................. J a c k . P h i 1 i p __Ga r v e r ....................... under the guidance of h.lJk„ Faculty Com m ittee, and a pp ro ved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate S tu dy and Research in partial fulfill­ ment of the requirements fo r the degree of

M a ste r o f A rts H .J ..D e u e l,Jr* D ean

May 31, 1950______ Faculty Committee

Chairman

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................

1

T h e p r o b l e m ..................................................................................

1

S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m ..............................................

2

V a l i d a t i o n o f t h e s t u d y ....................................................

3

O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e re m a in d e r o f th e t h e s i s

.

4

.......................................................................................

6

S t a t e m e n t o f t h e s o u r c e s o f d a t a , t h e m eth o d s of p ro c e d u re , and th e tre a tm e n t of th e fin d in g s D e fin itio n s Summary II.

o f term s

..............................................................

9

.......................................................................................

20

NATIONALISM AS A SOCIO-POLITICAL PHENOMENON

.

22

P a t r i o t i s m .......................................................................................

22

D e f i n i t i o n ..................................................................................

22

M yth a n d s y m b o l ..................................................................

23

As a c o h e s i v e f a c t o r .........................................................

25

K e i t h t h e s i s .............................................................................

27

P a trio tism

a n d t h e s t a t e ..............................................

29

As a u s e f u l i n s t r u m e n t ....................................................

30

N a tio n a lity

. ♦

.

...................................................................

31

E v o l u t i o n f r o m t r i b a l i s m ..............................................

31

And C h r i s t i a n i t y ...................................................................

32

As a p a t t e r n

35

o f E u r o p e a n i d e o l o g y .....................

iii

CHAPTER

PAGE As b a s i s f o r d e p o l i t i c i z e d n a t i o n a l i s m

. . .

37

As b a s i s f o r t h e s t a t e ...........................................

38

o f ..........................................................................

40

U tility

N a t i o n a l i s m .........................

40

As a N i n e t e e n t h a n d T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y d e v e l o p m e n t ................................................................ A n th r o p o lo g ic a l e x p la n a t i o n s f o r g ro w th O b je c tiv e f a c t o r s Im p o rta n c e o U tility

41 of .

41

..............................................................

42

f ................................................................

44

o f ..........................................................................

46

R e la tio n t o n a t i o n a l id e o lo g y and pow er

. .

47

C o n t r o l ........................................

50

S u m m a r y ............................................................................... III.

53-

FACTORS MOTIVATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONFLICT­ ING NATIONALISMS IN YUGOSLAVIA............................ T he g e o g r a p h i c f a c t o r T opo graph y a s i t

.........................................................

re la te s

to in v a sio n

C o n trib u tio n to p ro v in c ia lism S tra te g ic

im p o rta n c e o f B a lk a n s

S u ita b ility

55

...............................

58

..........................

57

. . .

T h e e t h n o g r a p h i c f a c t o r ............................................ T h ra c ia n s and I l l y r i a n s

54

. . . .

o f v a lle y s o i l f o r fa rm in g

The S l a v i c m i g r a t i o n s

5*

58 58

..............................................

(T h ird t o

58

se v e n th

C e n t u r i e s ) .....................................................................

59

iv CHAPTER

PAGE Common k i n s h i p am ong S e r b o - C r o a t s ..................... The h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r

60

.........................................................

B y z a n tin e c o n tr o l o v er p a r t s

. . .

6l

K ossovo and th e T u r k is h o v e r lo r d s h ip

. . . .

63

P a trio tic

. . . .

6A

F irs t rise The l i t e r a r y

re v o lu tio n s

of S e rb ia

60

o f 180A e t aJL

o f n a t i o n a l i s m am ong C r o a t s

. . .

65

f a c t o r ..............................................................

67

..........................

67

S u r v iv a l o f S e rb o -C ro a t la n g u a g e The n a t i o n a l i s t i c

e p ic p o e tr y o f S e rb ia

.

.

68

r e v i v a l ..................................................................................

70

S e r b ia n p ro m o tio n o f th e B u lg a r ia n l i t e r a r y

T h e r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r ..............................

71

O rth o d o x y * s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p r o v i n c i a l i s m

.

J2

C o n f l i c t o f I s l a m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y .....................

72

U se o f r e l i g i o n b y W e s t t o a i d

in te rfe re n c e

i n B a l k a n s .........................

7^ 1

T he E c o n o m ic f a c t o r

...............................................

W e ste rn d e s i r e f o r B a lk a n p ro d u c e E x p l o i t a t i o n o f B a lk a n r e s o u r c e s The P o l i t i c a l f a c t o r

( W o r ld W ar I )

75

.....................

77

..........................

78

..........................

79

T o ta l p o l i t i c a l freed o m in Y u g o s la v ia

. . .

79

The p e a c e t r e a t i e s an d t h e b e g in n in g s o f C h a u v i n i s m .............................................................................

80

S u m m ary ..................................................................................................

82

V

CHAPTER IV .

PAGE

MODERN ATTEMPTS TO BUILD TWENTIETH CENTURY NATIONALISM IN Y U G O S L A V IA ...............................................

84

T h e S e r b M o n a rc h y ( 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 4 1 )

..........................

84

D i s u n i t y a n d b r e a k d o w n ....................................................

85

E v a l u a t i o n ..................................................................................

89

T h e T i t o s t a t e .............................................................................

90

T ito

.

t h e m a n .............................................................................

90

R i s e o f t h e T i t o g o v e r n m e n t ....................................

91

N a tio n a listic

p ro n o u n ce m en ts o f t h e T it o

s t a t e .......................................................................................

95

T h e T i t o - C o m i n f o r m B r e a k ...............................................

98

E v id e n c e s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c

u n ity

..........................

104

.........................................................

104

C o r i n t h i a ........................................................................

104

T rie ste

105

F o re ig n r e l a ti o n s

.

........................................

G r e e c e .........................

110

The P e a s a n t s an d t h e F i v e - Y e a r P l a n The f e d e r a t i o n q u e s t i o n

.

113

..........................................

118

C o u n te r-fo rc e s and e v a lu a tio n V.

.

.

..........................

122

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION..............................................................

125

BIBLIO G RA PH Y.............................................................

134

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A l l h u m a n k in d i s p l a g u e d b y a d ile m m a o f w o r l d p o litic s . se c u rity

T h e d ile m m a i s m an * s a b s o r p t i o n w i t h t h e of h is

sta te ,

th e p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n m ost

c o n c e r n in g an d p r o t e c t i n g h im , an d h i s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o se d p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h m eans t o r e t a r d t h e p r o g r e s s o f in te r n a tio n a l an arch y . n a tio n -sta te

T h is a n a rc h y i s a p ro d u c t o f th e

sy ste m , t h r e a t e n i n g d e s t r u c t i o n o f a l l c i v i l i ­

z a t i o n th ro u g h p ro m o tio n o f f u t u r e u l t r a - s c i e n t i f i c I .

w arfare.

THE PROBLEM

Man*s s e a r c h f o r p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y is s u e p re se n te d in an a n a ly tic

is

th e la r g e r

s tu d y o f n a t i o n a l i s m — one o f

th e fa c to rs

of in te rn a tio n a l r e la tio n s .

The p ro b le m o f

n a tio n a lism

is

p o litic s .

N a t i o n a l i s m , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a c a d e m ic

i n s e p a r a b le fro m th e pow er f a c t o r i n w o rld

r e s e a r c h and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c a n b e s e p a r a t e d fro m o t h e r fa c to rs

in in te rn a tio n a l r e la tio n s .

h ow ever, n a tio n a lis m

As a p h e n o m e n o n ,

i s n o t p ro p e rly u n d e rsto o d i f

e x c l u s i v e l y c o n fin e d w i t h i n a t h e o r e t i c a l vacuum .

it

is

H ence,

t h e m o re p r e c i s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f n a t i o n a l i s m is,

of n e c e ssity , F irst,

th re e fo ld .

th e a u t h o r p ro p o s e s t o d e a l w i t h t h e p ro b le m

2 of n a tio n a lism p e r s e .

T h is w i l l n e c e s s i t a t e a t h e o r e t i c a l

a p p ro a c h t o n a t i o n a l i s m a s a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l phenom enon. The a u t h o r , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s n o t p r o p o s e t o s im p ly d e f i n e h i s te rm s and h u r r i e d l y la u n c h i n t o an h i s t o r i c a l a p p r e c i a t i o n of th e r o le o f n a tio n a lis m in th is

in a p a r t i c u l a r a re a --Y u g o sla v ia

c a s e — i n l i n e *with s o m uch o f t h e m o d e r n a p p r o a c h .

The a u t h o r w i l l ,

on th e o th e r h a n d , a tte m p t to a d e q u a te ly

m eet th e c h a lle n g e o f p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n and t h e o r e t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f a h i g h l y co m p lex p h en o m en o n . Second, fo llo w in g i t s a lism as a fo rc e

th e o r e tic a l tre a tm e n t, n a tio n ­

i n hum an a f f a i r s w i l l h e r e l a t e d t o t h e

Y u g o s la v a r e a . T h ird , th e a u th o r w i l l a tte m p t to c o r r e l a t e th e im p o rta n c e o f n a tio n a lis m w ith o th e r f a c t o r s n a tio n a l re la tio n s ta in e d .

so t h a t t h e p r o p e r f o c u s w i l l h e m a in ­

The p o s s i b i l i t y

a c ts as tin d e r to

in in te r - ,

o f c o n t r o l o f n a t i o n a l i s m w here i t

r e v o lu tio n and w ar a ls o

co n cern in t h i s t h i r d

i s a p rim a ry

se c tio n .

S ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b le m .

The s u rv e y o f n a t i o n a l i s m

a s a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l phenom enon, i t s

a p p l i c a t i o n t o Yugo­

s l a v i a w h e r e i t b e c o m e s a d y n a m ic f o r c e i n hu m an r e l a t i o n s , and n a ti o n a l i s m ^ lem o f t h i s

p o ss ib le c o n tro l,

th e s is .

c o m p r is e t h e m ain p r o b ­

3 II,

VALIDATION OF THE STUDY

U n l e s s n o r m a l h u m an c u r i o s i t y c o u l d b e d e e m e d r e a s o n enough f o r r e s e a r c h ,

i t w o u ld n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o

ju stify

th e

s t u d y o f a n y s o c i a l an d p o l i t i c a l phenom enon t h a t no l o n g e r h a d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e t o p l a y i n hum an a f f a i r s .

A few

y e a r s b a c k m any w r i t e r s , b l i n d e d a s t o t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f th e s e lf - s ty le d

,!i n t e r n a t i o n a l 11 i d e o l o g i e s , h a d c o n s i g n e d

n a t i o n a l i s m t o t h e s c r a p p i l e w h ic h c o n t a i n e d o t h e r d i s ­ c a r d e d i d e a s , m o t i v a t i o n s , a n d m o v em en ts. n a t i o n a l i s m w as n e v e r d e a d . b e a r w itn e ss to t h i s

In tru th ,

T h e p o s t - W o r l d W ar I I y e a r s

i n s o f a r a s th e n a tio n a lis m p ro b le m ,

s i n c e 1 9 ^ 5 * h a s f l a r e d u p w i t h v i o l e n c e i n m any a n d v a r i e d s e c tio n s o f th e g lo b e . The p ro b le m o f n a t i o n a l i s m

im p lie s an u n d e rsta n d in g

o f pow er and a n a b s o r p tio n w ith p o w er.

Pow er i s

th e c o re

of p o litic s ,

n a tio n a l and i n te r n a tio n a l.

fin e s

t o a s t u d y o f one o f p o w er* s m a jo r s e r v a n t s —

its e lf

T h is p a p e r co n ­

n a tio n a lism . N a tio n a lism i s an id e o lo g y . it

is

o f te n m is u n d e rs to o d .

th o u g h t as b e in g , sta te

c o n flic ts

in i t s e l f ,

It

is

L ik e o t h e r id e o lo g ie s o f t e n c o n f u s e d i n m odern

th e f o c a l p o in t f o r n a tio n ­

t h a t h a v e sh a k en w o rld p o l i t i c s w ith e v e r

in c r e a s in g i n t e n s i t y s in c e th e F ren ch R e v o lu tio n . f o c a l p o in t i s pow er p o l i t i c s , b u t n a t i o n a l i s m ^

T he r o le w ith in

4

4 th e p o l i t i c a l re a lm i s a h ig h ly im p o rta n t o n e . i s deem ed t h e

As p o l i t i c s

! P - 1 5 2 *

n a tio n a lism . C h a p t e r IV d e a l s "w ith t h e e m e r g e n c e o f tw o s u c h p o l i ­ t ic a l in stru m e n ta litie s ,

t h e K in g d o m o f Y u g o s l a v i a ( I 9 I 8 -

1941) a n d t h e F e d e r a t iv e P e o p le s* R e p u b lic

(1 94 4-

).

An

e f f o r t w i l l b e m ade t o m e a s u r e t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e s e g o v e r n ­ m en ts i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e a d v a n c e d t y p e o f n a t i o n a l i s m th r o u g h Y u g o sla v p o l i t i c a l u n i t y . T h e Sum m ary a n d C o n c l u s i o n s

( C h a p t e r V) i n v o l v e t h e

t a s k o f c o m b in in g c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s w i t h o p i n i o n s , as such.

It

is

in th is

t i o n s a r e e m p h a siz e d .

f i n a l c h a p te r t h a t b ro ad r a m if ic a ­ C h a p te r V a tte m p ts to c l a r i f y

c o n n e c te d t o t h e w h o le p ro b le m o f n a t i o n a l i s m IV .

la b e le d

issu e s

in Y u g o s la v ia .

STATEMENT OF THE SOURCES OF DATA, THE METHODS

OF PROCEDURE, AND THE TREATMENT OF THE FINDINGS F rom t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b le m p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s of th e s is ,

ty p e

t h e a u t h o r f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o w o rk b r o a d l y i n

tw o f i e l d s .

H en ce, a s e p a r a t e b i b l i o g r a p h y and m e th o d o lo g y

was u t i l i z e d

f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e w ork on n a t i o n a l i s m

•per s e . a s o p p o s e d t o t h e s e c o n d p a r t o n n a t i o n a l i s m ! s a p p l i ­ c a tio n to Y u g o s la v ia . N a tio n a lism d e fin itio n

its e lf,

w ith in th e c o n fin e s of p re c is e

( e . & . * t h e a m a lg a m a tio n o f p a t r i o t i s m

2 Infra, p . 9.

and n a t i o n a l i t y ) ,

7 i s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y m odern i d e o l o g y . u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e phenom enon,

its

B u t, to a r r i v e a t an c o m p o n e n ts , p a t r i o t i s m

and n a t i o n a l i t y , have to he c o n s id e re d . ro o te d in a n ti q u i ty . ta tio n s to th is

th e s is.

P a trio tism

is

T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e no tim e d e l i m i ­ A lso t h e f u n c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h i s

used th ro u g h o u t. S o u r c e s o n n a t i o n a l i s m a r e many a n d v a r i e d . w rite rs

Many

o f d i f f e r e n t i n t e r e s t s and e d u c a tio n a l back g ro u n d s

have ta c k le d th e s u b je c t o f n a tio n a lis m , and t h e i r v a rie d a ttitu d e s, to

re so lv e .

d e v e lo p m e n ts, and c o n c lu s io n s a r e o f te n p u z z lin g A few c l a s s i c s

s ta n d o u t in th e f i e l d .

Men

l i k e S a i t , H a y e s, S u lz b a c h , Cobban, K ohn, H e r tz , F rie d m a n n , A c to n , K e i t h , and o t h e r s a r e c l a s s i c a l i n t h e i r a p p ro a c h t o n a tio n a lism

re g a rd le ss

a re a sso c ia te d .

o f t h e t im e s w i t h w h ic h t h e i r w orks

H e n c e , L o r d A c t o n 1s t r e a t m e n t i n t h e l a s t

q u a r t e r o f th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry i s

sc a rc e ly le s s p e rtin e n t

i n m o s t r e s p e c t s t h a n S u l z b a c h 1s 1 9 ^ 5 e f f o r t . T h e p r o b l e m o f s u r v e y i n g n a t i o n a l i s m p r e s e n t s fe w s h o rtc u ts .

The b i b l i o g r a p h y i s

la rg e .

I t m ust be s u r ­

veyed a s c a r e f u l l y a s tim e and o p p o r tu n ity a llo w and th e u s a b l e m ust be c a r e f u l l y s e p a r a t e d fro m t h a t w h ic h i s n o n a p p lic a b le to th e stu d y a t hand. The Y u g o s la v ia b i b l i o g r a p h y p r o b le m i s p r e c i s e l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t p ro b le m c o n n e c te d w ith a s u rv e y o f n a t i o n ­ a lism .

E v id e n c e s o f Y u g o s la v n a t i o n a l i s m m u st b e d raw n

f o r t h f r o m t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e x t o f t h e many e x c e l l e n t b o o k s and p e r io d ic a ls

on t h e a r e a .

T h e re a r e no a d e q u a te s o u r c e s ,

a s su c h , on an a n a l y s i s o f a th o ro u g h a p p l i c a t i o n o f n a t i o n ­ a lis m to Y u g o s la v ia .

A tte m p ts a lo n g t h i s

m is in te r p r e t th e n a tu r e o f n a tio n a lis m common u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t s

lin e e ith e r

o r i n v a l i d l y assum e a

c o m p le x ity .

A stu d e n t a tte m p t­

in g t o a n a ly z e th e p ro b le m o f n a t i o n a l i s m g e n e r a l l y f i n d s h im s e lf c o n fin e d to a p p ro ach . re la tio n s , tre a te d

so u rc es a d h e rin g to th e h i s t o r i c a l

U s u a l l y , t h e m o re b a s i c

fa c to rs

g e o g ra p h y , e c o n o m ic s, p o l i t i c s ,

in in te r n a tio n a l e t.a l.,,

s p a r s e l y and o n ly i n a v e ry g e n e r a l w ay.

th e a u th o r is

in d e b te d to c e r t a i n s p e c i a l i s t s

are H ow ever,

l i k e C h a d w ick ,

G ew ehr, F i t z g e r a l d , D o m in io n , J a n o w s k y , R . ¥ . S e to n - W a ts o n , R oucek, e t a i . , f o r t h e i r d e p a r t u r e fro m th e p u re h i s t o r i c a l ap p ro ach . I n a c o n te m p o ra ry B a lk a n s tu d y one i s p la g u e d by la c k of a u th o rita tiv e m a te ria l.

T h e New Y o r k

T im e s. th e

M a n c h e s te r G u a rd ia n W e e k ly , a n d o t h e r n e w s p a p e rs , a r e h e l p ­ fu l.

C o n s titu tio n s , S ta te p la n s,

n a tio n a lis tic

ro o ts.

e tc .,

The p r o b le m i s

c a n b e e x a m in e d f o r

one o f f a c t - g a t h e r i n g

f o l l o w e d b y t h e m o re d i f f i c u l t t a s k o f a n a l y s i s a n d i n t e r p r e ­ ta tio n .

Such a n a p p ro a c h , a lth o u g h i t

and d i f f i c u l t ,

may a p p e a r h a p h a z a r d

i s p r o p e r ly w i t h in th e re a lm of th e d i s c i p l i n e

of in te rn a tio n a l r e la tio n s .

9 V.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

I n few o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s

is

w i t h m o re c o n f l i c t i n g d e f i n i t i o n s

th e s tu d e n t p re se n te d th a n in t h i s

fie ld

s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l m o tiv a tio n , and r a m if ic a t io n s

of

th e re o f,

c o n ta in e d w i th in th e g e n e r a l re a lm o f s o c i a l s c ie n c e s a s th e y b e a r upon b e h a v io r in i n t e r n a t i o n s l r e l a t i o n s . s ta rtin g d e fin itio n w ritin g s

of n a tio n a lism

Is a v a ila b le

A good in th e

o f C a r l t o n J . H. H a y e s - - a c o n c i s e s t a t e m e n t w h ic h

s h o u l d s u f f i c e t o p r e p a r e t h e way t o w a r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e s u b je c t m agger o f t h i s h isto ric

th e s is :

and sim p le st se n se ,

n a tio n a lity

.

“N a t io n a li s m

is p a trio tis m

in i t s

a p p lie d to o n efs

.

T h is c l a s s i c

d e f i n i t i o n by H ayes r e p r e s e n t s a r e ­

sta te m e n t in e s s e n t i a l l y

t h e sam e w o r d s o f a n e a r l i e r o n e

p r e s e n te d i n h i s E ssa y s on N a tio n a lis m :

" N a tio n a lism is a

m o d e r n e m o t i o n a l f u s i o n a n d e x a g g e r a t i o n o f tw o v e r y o l d p h e n o m e n a --n a tio n a lity and p a tr i o ti s m .

The i d e a o f a n

a m a lg a m a tio n o f p a t r i o t i s m w ith n a t i o n a l i t y ,

or b e tte r yet

th e a p p lic a tio n of th e fo rm er to th e l a t t e r ,

form s th e c o re

d e fin itio n .

I t n e ed s c r i t i c a l e x a m in a tio n , h o w ev er, and

^ C a th o lic A s s o c ia tio n f o r I n te r n a tio n a l P eace, P a t r i o t i s m , N a t i o n a l i s m , a n d t h e B r o t h e r h o o d o f Man, Num ber 2 5 (New Y o r k : T h e P a u l i s t P r e s s , 1 9 3 7 )> P* 6 * Y ork:

^ C a r l t o n J . H. H a y es, E ssa y s on N a tio n a lis m T h e M a c m i l l a n C o m p an y , 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 5 ^

(New

^

10 t h i s w i l l f o l lo w a f t e r t h e o t h e r t e r m s , w h ich a r e w id e ly used th ro u g h o u t t h i s

t h e s i s , a r e e x a m in e d .

Now t h a t n a t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n b r o k e n i n t o t i a l c o m p o n e n ts , c o m p o n e n ts t o

it

tw o e s s e n ­

i s v i t a l to a n a ly z e each o f th e s e

r e a c h a common u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r p r e c i s e

usage. F irst,

th e phenom enon, p a t r i o t i s m ,

p a t r i a , t h e home i n t h e s t r i c t e s t w ord l o v e i n t h i s

is

"lo v e f o r th e

sense of th e

w o r d .”5

The

u sag e c o n n o te s l o y a l t y , and a c l e a r e r

a lth o u g h e s s e n t i a l l y

sim ila r d e fin itio n

is g iv e n , a g a in by

C a r lt o n H ay es, encom passed w i t h in th e f o llo w in g q u o t a t i o n : T h is l o y a l t y - - t h i s p a t r i o t i s m — t h i s " lo v e o f co u n try --in v o lv e s a tr ip le a ffe c tio n . I t em braces an a f f e c t i o n f o r f a m i l i a r p e rs o n s , and an a f f e c t i o n f o r fa m ilia r id e a s. O nef s " c o u n t r y ” c o n n o te s a l l t h r e e o f th e se The t h r e a d t h a t r u n s th r o u g h t h e H ayes t r e a t m e n t o f th e

se n tim e n t of p a tr io tis m

i s a ty p e o f f a i t h .

L ord

A c to n , w r i t i n g i n th e l a t e r y e a r s o f th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry , a ls o p ick e d t h i s ism i s

o u t a s t h e e s s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t:

in p o l it ic a l l i f e

sta n d s to

w hat f a i t h

is

" P a trio t­

in r e l i g i o n , and i t

th e d o m e s tic f e e l i n g s and t o h o m e sic k n e ss a s f a i t h

5 Adam d e H e g e d u s , P a t r i o t i s m o r P e a c e ? (New Y o r k : C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r * s S o n s , 1 9 4 7 ) , p . 22 .

6

C a th o lic A s s o c ia tio n f o r I n te r n a tio n a l P eace, c i t ., p . 6.

op.

11 to f a n a tic is m and to s u p e r s t i t i o n .

.

.

P r o f e s s o r H a y e s , who h a s b e e n m o s t h e l p f u l i n d e f i n i ­ tio n to th is

p o in t, f a ils

u s so m e w h a t w hen h e g r a p p l e s w i t h

t h e phenom enon, n a t i o n a l i t y .

He s t r e s s e s a n o b j e c t i v e

o f e le m e n ts to d e f in e a th in g e s s e n t i a l l y

set

su b je c tiv e .

H ence, th e a u th o r r e j e c t s a s a b a s ic d e f i n i t i o n

t h e H ayes

c o n c e p tio n o f n a t i o n a l i t y a s c o m p risin g a g ro u p o f p e o p le w i t h common l a n g u a g e a n d h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s who f e e l t h e y Q

c o n s titu te a d is tin c t c u ltu ra l so c ie ty .

H e r e i n i s em pha­

s i z e d t h e o b j e c t i v e e le m e n ts o f t h e n a t i o n — c o m b in ed , t r u e , w ith s u b j e c t i v i t y - - b u t th e f a i t h stre sse d

i s m in im iz e d .

i s m ade b y A l f r e d C o b b a n ;

is

e le m e n t w h ic h i s

so v ig o r o u s ly by H ayes in h i s d e f i n i t i o n

p a trio tis m

it

of

A c le a r e r sta te m e n t o f n a ti o n a lity ^ N a tio n a lity

i s a se n tim e n t

.

.

.

a s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g t o a s p e c i a l p l a c e a n d a d i s t i n c t com­

m u n it y .1^

T h is d e f i n i t i o n

f a r enough.

is good, b u t i t

W h at i s n e e d e d i s

d o e s n ’t

go q u i t e

t o show m e r e l y t h a t t h e

'‘d i s t i n c t c o m m u n i ty 11 e n v i s a g e d b y C o b b a n i s

in r e a lity

th e

7 L ord Jo h n A c to n , E s s a y s on F re ed o m a n d Pow er (B o sto n : The B eacon P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 ) , p p . I 8 8 - I 8 9 . The r e a d e r sh o u ld n o t be m is le d by th e d a te o f p u b l i c a t i o n . L ord A c t o n d i e d i n 190 2 . T h e re h a s b e e n a r e c e n t t r e n d to w a rd r e s u r r e c t i n g h i s m a t e r i a l - - h i g h l y a d v a n c e d a s i t w as f o r t h e t i m e s — a n d t h i s b o o k i s a n e x a m p le o f one o f A c t o n ’ s f i n e r w o rk s. Q

H ay es, E ssa y s on N a t io n a li s m , o p . c i t . ,

p . 6.

^ A lfre d Cobban, N a tio n a l S e lf D e te rm ln a tio n U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ) , p . 139*

(C h ica g o :

12 n a tio n . T h is c o n c e p t o f n a tio n I s d e fin e d by F r e d e r ic k H e rtz who r e c o g n i z e s t h e v a l u e o f a p p l y i n g c e r t a i n c rite ria

to

o b je c tiv e

t h e n a t i o n a n d who a l s o p r e s e r v e s a c e r t a i n

su b je c tiv is m : A n a t i o n c a n n o t b e fo u n d e d l i k e a com pany o r c l u b . I t i s a c o m m u n ity o f f a t e . t o a l a r g e e x t e n t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r a n d m o u ld e d b y h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s a n d n a t u r a l f a c t o r s . and th e i n d iv i d u a l h a s p r a c t i c a l l y l i t t l e o p p o r tu n ity o f c h o o sin g h i s n a t i o n a l i t y o r c h a n g in g i t s f u n d a m e n t a l ~ r a i t s .1 0 H e r t z fs d e f i n i t i o n

is

la c k in g in th a t i t does n o t

to u c h upon th e o b j e c ti v e c r i t e r i a . b a sic a lly p o in ts

la n g u a g e , c i v i l i z a t i o n ,

He c o n s i d e r s t h e s e a s and r e l i g i o n ,

o u t t h a t "none o f th e s e a r e a b s o l u te ly

and th e n

in d is p e n s a b le

f o r c o n s titu tin g a n a tio n ." H e r t z , l i k e C a r l t o n H a y e s a n d many o t h e r s b e f o r e h i m , p re fe rre d to

o m it fro m h i s

lis t

of o b je c tiv e sta n d a rd s th a t

w h ic h S i r A r th u r K e i t h c o n s i d e r e d b a s i c : M o st o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o r im p ly t h a t t h e c o h e siv e n e ss.

It

of n a tio n a lity

e .g ..

k in sh ip .

e ith e r s ta te

im p o rta n c e o f t h e phenom enon l i e s

o u trig h t in i t s

e m b o d i e s ffa p u r p o s e f u l w i l l w e l d i n g

^ F r e d e r ic k H e rtz , N a t io n a lit y in H is to ry and P o l i t i c s (New Y o r k : O x ford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ) , p. 13. I t a l i c i z i n g w as d o n e b y t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s th e s is . 1 1 Ibid.. p. J .

13 to g e th e r a l l . ”^

The b a s i s

m ent o f h e a t w h ic h f u s e s ,

of th e n a tio n is

and t h i s

i s k i n s h i p .^ 3

T h is e le m e n t o f k i n s h i p f i n d s a w a re n e s s , presum ed p e rh a p s ,

its

c e p t,

o p in io n s a s to

o f common r a c i a l h e r i t a g e .

th e v a l i d i t y

I n f a c t , m o s t m o d e rn s c h o l ­

th e te rm a s n o t s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a p p l i c a b l e

i n t e r m s o f p u r e b l o o d , p u r e wA r y a n ” d e s c e n t , S u b je c tiv e ly , ho w ev er, n a t i o n m y th .

o b je c tiv e ly

l i k e S te w a r t H o u sto n C h a m b e rla in ,

w o u ld h a v e u s b e l i e v e .

a r s have r e je c te d

so c ia l con­

o f hum an s a s t o

is not a p re c ise th in g ,

s p e a k i n g , a s m odern r a c i s t s et a l.,

p re s e n te d w ith

of th is

The a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r is tic s

f

fo u n d a tio n s in an

In th e c o n s id e r a tio n of ra c e th e s tu d e n t i s c o n flic tin g

th e n th e e l e ­

e tc .

i t h as g r e a t v a lu e a s r e l a te d

K e ith c l a r i f i e s

to th e

th is p o in t:

I f we u s e t h e t e r m ‘■ r a c e ” t o I n d i c a t e a p e o p l e t h a t is sh a rp ly d if f e r e n tia te d by i t s p h y s ic a l c h a ra c te rs fro m a l l o t h e r p e o p l e s , t h e n t h e r e a r e few n a t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e t e r m may b e a p p l i e d l e g i t i m a t e l y . B u t i f we u se i t , a s I th in k I t sh o u ld be u se d , to i n d ic a t e a d e ­ l i m i t e d , i n b r e e d i n g , s e l f - r e p r o d u c i n g c o m m u n i ty , t h e n we . r i g h t l y , and w ith a d v a n ta g e , speak o f a n a tio n a s a r a c e .

12

H a n s K o h n . T h e I d e a o f N a t i o n a l i s m (New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n C o m pany, 1 9 ^ 4 ) , p . 6 . 13 J W illia m Z . R ip le y , a lth o u g h he r e f u s e s to a p p ly th e t e r m #,r a c e M t o n a t i o n a l i t y , n o n e t h e l e s s s p e a k s o f r,t h e f u s i n g h e a t o f n a t i o n a l i t y ” i n T h e R a c e s o f E u r o p e (New Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n a n d C o m p an y , 1 8 9 9 )> P* 15* (New Y o r k :

S i r A r t h u r K e i t h , A New T h e o r y o f Human E v o l u t i o n P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , I n c . , 19^9)> P • 3 2 2 .

14 K e i t h *s ^ d e l i m i t e d , c o m m u n i ty ” i s . , t h e r e f o r e , th e n a tio n .

in b re e d in g ,

t h e s p i r i t u a l f a m i l y we may c a l l

P ro fe s s o r K e ith , w ith h is

t h e t e r m f,r a c e fT i n m i n d , f e e l s

ju stifie d

E n g l i s h r a c e com posed o f i n h a b i t a n t s who a r e

E

u

q u a lific a tio n s in r e f e r r in g

of th e B r itis h

of to th e

Isle s

ni n . t h e i r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , t h e m o s t h o m o g e n e o u s

and l e a s t m o n g re l-lik e of a l l of

se lf-re p ro d u c in g

r

o

p

e

th e p e o p le s o r n a t i o n a l i t i e s

We m i g h t d i s a g r e e w i t h h i s

o b s e r v a t i o n s on

t h e r e l a t i v e p h y s i c a l h o m o g e n ity o f E n g lish m e n , b u t th e above q u o ta tio n e n a b le s us to

s e e how t h e i d e a o f k i n s h i p ,

c o n ta in e d w ith in th e c o n fu s in g co n cep t o f r a c e ,

is a k in to

th e n a tio n and n a t i o n a l i t y . I n su m m ary a t t h i s p o i n t , th e fo llo w in g d e f i n i ti o n s : a p p lie d to n a tio n a lity ; in g to th e n a tio n ;

th is

th e s is w ill u tiliz e

n a tio n a lism

n a tio n a lity

and th e n a tio n

is

is p a trio tis m

i s th e sen se o f b e lo n g ­ th e s p i r i t u a l ,

m o re-o r-

l e s s hom o g en eo u s, f a m ily w e ld ed t o g e t h e r p r i m a r i l y b y a f e e l i n g of k in s h ip and s e c o n d a rily by o th e r o b je c tiv e c r i ­ te ria ,

such a s la n g u a g e ,

sc rip t,

e t. c e t e r a .

The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n n a t i o n a l i t y and n a t i o n a l i s m is a c tu a lly tio n .

It

one o f i n t e n s i t y is

o r d eg ree o f p a t r i o t i c

connec­

u n lik e ly t h a t any "sen se o f b e lo n g in g ” can

ev er be t o t a l l y

d e v o i d o f som e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a t t a c h m e n t

15 I b i d . . p . 3 2 6 .

15 or lo y a lty to

th e s u b je c tiv e

t h e s p i r i t u a l c o m m u n ity . n a tio n a lis m

is

of d issid e n ts

’' f e e l i n g ” o f m e m b e r s h i p w i t h i n

A t e s t a s to w h e th e r o r n o t

th e b a s ic m o tiv a tin g f a c t o r am ongst a g ro u p lie s

i n t h e d e g re e o f v i t a l im p a c t o f p o l i t i ­

c a l v a lu e s on t h e c o n c e p t o f n a t i o n a l i t y . a sen se o f b e lo n g in g to

t h e n a t i o n may s p o n t a n e o u s l y d e v e l o p

t o a n e x a g g e r a t e d d e g r e e am ong a p e o p l e g ro u p w h ic h f e e l s sp irit

In o th e r w o rds,

(u su a lly w ith in a

th e w e ig h t o f o p p r e s s i o n ) .

T h is u l t r a

o f n a t i o n a l i t y may a s s u m e q u i t e l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n s .

F o r e x a m p l e , c u l t u r a l a u to n o m y may b e d e m a n d e d a n d t h e n a t i o n may b e p r e p a r e d t o f i g h t f o r a r e a l i z a t i o n B u t, a s y e t ,

of th is

id e a l.

c e r ta in p o l i t i c a l c o n s id e ra tio n s a re la c k in g

w i t h i n t h e m o v e m e n t; a s y e t t h e p e o p l e h a v e n o t c o n s c i o u s l y id e n tifie d

t h e i r m o v em en t a s o n e s e e k i n g a p o w e r g o a l i n t h e

name o f t h e n a t i o n . such,

is

I n p l a i n e r w o r d s , t h e m o v e m e n t, a s

not p o litic iz e d " ^ — i t

s till

e s s e n tia lly

c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l .

—and i t

t h e a u t h o r ’ s them e t h a t

is

o p e ra te s w ith in an a re a

As p o l i t i c i z a t i o n it

In v a ria b ly d o e s --th e n

t h e m o v em en t e v o l v e s i n t o n a t i o n a l i s m , b u t t h i s is

its e lf

n a tio n a lis m

e v e n tu a lly abso rb ed by th e S ta te .

The S t a t e

16

o ccurs

so a k s up a l l p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s ;

it

’’c a p t u r e s ”

T he v e r b ” t o p o l i t i c i z e ” m eans t o i n v e s t w i t h p o l i ­ t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - - t o make I n t o a p o l i t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t . S e e C h a r l e s E d w a rd M e r r i a m , New A s p e c t s o f P o l i t i c s (C h ic a g o : The U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , I 9 2 5 ) , p . v an d p a ssim .

16 t h e m , t o u s e a v a l i d p o l i t i c a l t e r m , a n d i t b i n d s th e m t o th e S ta te

id e o lo g y .

W ere i t

p o s s i b l e t o c o i n a w ord t o

d e s c rib e th e change t h a t h as ta k e n p la c e o ccu rren ces, a s u f f ic ie n tly d e s c rip tiv e tic a l

" s ta tis m ,"

fro m l a b e l i n g t h i s

ferv o r.

M o st w r i t e r s h a v e r e f r a i n e d

n e w ly o b s e r v e d d e v e lo p m e n t.

i s V on M i s e s , who c a l l s

to th e s t a te

o n e w o u ld b e p o l i ­

f o r t h e s t a t e h a s now b e c o m e t h e f o c u s i n g

p o in t f o r p a tr i o ti c

tio n

in th is c h a in of

An e x c e p ­

i t E t a t i s m . t h a t w h ich " a s s i g n s

th e ta s k o f g u id in g th e c i t i z e n s and of h o ld in g

th e m i n t u t e l a g e .

17'

To b e l o g i c a l w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a c c e p t e d d e fin itio n ,

th e a u th o r p r e f e r s

to c o n sid e r n a ti o n a l i ty .

n a t i o n a l i s m , an d t h e S t a t e a s s u c c e s s i v e ru n g s on t h e l a d d e r o f c h r o n o l o g i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e phenom enon w h ic h i s com m on ly c a l l e d o f v iew , n a tio n "

it

is

(!* £ •>

ju s t n a tio n a lism .

F ro m t h e a u t h o r ' s p o i n t

e s s e n t i a l t h a t suprem e " l o y a l t y t o pure n a tio n a lism )

th e

m u s t i m p l y some i d e a

id e n tific a tio n

o f th e n a tio n w ith th e

b ra c e s p e o p le ,

te rrito ry ,

s ta te .

and g o v e rn m e n t.

The s t a t e

em­

G overnm ent

im p lie s an o rg an c a p a b le o f w ie ld in g s o v e r e ig n ty . to a r r i v e a t a m e a n in g fu l n a t i o n a l i s m

of

H ence,

t h e r e m ust b e a t r a n s i ­

t i o n fro m n a t i o n a l i t y a s a m o tiv a tio n to a s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g d e v e lo p m e n t w h ich h a s s u c c e e d e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g — a t

L u d w ig v o n M i s e s , O m n i p o t e n t G o v e r n m e n t (New H a v e n : Y a le U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ), p . 4 0 .

17 l e a s t te m p o r a r ily — a p o te n t enough l e a d e r s h ip to c o n s t i t u t e go v ern m en t b y d e f i n i t i o n . I f we d o n o t c o n s i d e r n a t i o n a l i s m a s m o re t h a n s t e r ­ ile

l o y a l t y t o a m y th ,

it

is

im p o s sib le to a t t a c h

p h e n o m e n o n t h e v i r i l e n e s s a n d d y n a m ism o f i t s m o v em en ts,

in Y u g o sla v ia and e ls e w h e re .

to th e

m any h i s t o r i c

On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

n a t i o n a l i s m may b e c o m p l e t e l y c a p t u r e d b y t h e s t a t e . sh o u ld b e e s p e c i a l l y c a n d id and re c o g n iz e th e

i n s t a n c e s w here

th e c o m p le te c a p tu r e t a k e s p la c e and n a t i o n a l i s m p e rv e r te d by le a d e r s e rs d e c la re

it

of th e S ta te

to b e .

are

o f te n c a lle d upon to

w hat c o n s t i t u t e s

is a c tu a lly

in to w h a te v e r th e s e le a d ­

L o y a lty to th e n a tio n

as th e fo u n ta in h e a d of p a t r i o t i c

We

is p reserv ed

a tta c h m e n t, b u t th e p e o p le

r a d i c a l l y change t h e i r Id e a s as to

th e n a ti o n and w hat b e s t s e r v e s

th e i n t e r -

TQ

e s t of th e n a tio n as re d e fin e d . ° The a u t h o r d e s i r e s re g a rd in g th e d e f i n i t i o n

18

t o m ake c l e a r t h a t h i s v i e w s o f n a tio n a lis m a r e c o u n te re d by an

The c l a s s i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a p e r v e r t e d t h i r d s t a g e o f s t a t i s m — o r w h a t L u d w ig v o n M i s e s c a l l s " e t a t i s m * * — i s t h e G e rm a n N a z i s t a t e . S u p r e m e l o y a l t y w as g i v e n t o H i t l e r a n d h i s N a z i l e a d e r s , n o t t o t h e G erm an n a t i o n , a s s u c h . W. F r i e d m a n n , op., c i t . , p . 9 , i n c o m m e n t i n g u p o n H i t l e r ' s " I m p e r i a l i s t i c F a s c i s m , ” m ak e s t h e p o i n t c l e a r : "A N a tio n a lis m w h ic h h a s b e e n i n f e c t e d an d p e r v e r t e d by th e id e a o f th e suprem acy o f a n y p a r t i c u l a r p e o p le i s bound t o becom e a i r f c i - n a t i o n a l i s t b y d i s s o l v i n g a n d u n d e r m in in g t h e l o y a l t i e s w h ic h r e s t r a i n N a tio n a lis m u n d e r a n o r d e r e d g o v e rn m e n t. . .[T h e T h ir d H ie c h ] , th r o u g h i t s v e ry e x a l t a ­ t io n o f S ta te and N a tio n a lism , le a d s to th e d e s tr u c tio n of t h e G erm an N a t i o n a l S t a t e . ”

18 o p p o s in g s c h o o l o f th o u g h t w h ic h a t t e m p t s

to fo rm u la te a

b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n "fo rm s" o f n a t i o n a l i s m a s t y p i c a l o f th e N in e te e n th v e rs u s th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry .

T h is

sc h o o l re g a rd s th e N in e te e n th and T w e n tie th C e n tu rie s as r e f l e c t i n g tw o a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t p h e n o m e n a .

It

refers

t o t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y f o r m a s " t h e m o re a g g r e s s i v e t y p e of n a tio n a lism ,

th e e s s e n tia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

t h e v iew o f t h e S t a t e a s a m o r a l a b s o l u t e ,

o f w h ic h a r e

e c o n o m ic n a t i o n a l -

ism , an d t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s io n a t t h e e x p e n se o f a l i e n p e o p l e s . B e c a u s e

th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e so t y p i c a l

o f s t a t e d e v e lo p m e n t and p h ilo s o p h y , n o t,

th e re fo re ,

it

is h e ld "th e y a re

t o b e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g i n a n y w ay o f t h e

e sse n ce of n a tio n a lis m ,"

i,. e . . , su p re m e l o y a l t y t o n a t i o n

a s opposed t o s t a t e . ^ The s e c o n d v iew t o w h ic h t h e a u t h o r h a s p r e v i o u s l y in d ic a te d h is p re fe re n c e is

s ta te d

i n th e f o llo w in g q u o te

fro m t h e 1939 R o y a l I n s t i t u t e w ork e n t i t l e d N a t i o n a l i s m : B u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r p o i n t o f v iew w h ic h , w h i l e a d m i t t i n g a p r i m a f a c i e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e tw o t y p e s o f n a t i o n a l i s m , w o u ld m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e y a r e n o t i n r e a l i t y tw o d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f p h e n o m e n a , b u t tw o d i f f e r e n t p h a s e s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e sam e p h e n o m e ­ non; t h a t a s soon a s th e f i r s t ty p e o f n a tio n a lis m h a s a tt a i n e d i t s p rim a ry o b je c t in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f n a tio n and s t a t e , i t i s , a s a r e s u l t o f t h a t v e ry f a c t ,

a lism

^ R oyal I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a ti o n a l A f f a ir s , N a tio n ­ (L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 9 )> P* 330* 20 I b i d . ,

p. 331.

I t a l i c s by th e a u th o r o f t h i s

th esis.

19 l i a b l e , g i v e n c e r t a i n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , t o t a k e on th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e second ty p e . As a r e s u l t o f t h e v e r y l o g i c o f t h e n a t i o n a l i d e a , w h ic h i m p l i e s t h a t th e n a tio n as such h as c e r t a i n in d e f e a s ib le r i g h ts , th e id e o lo g y o f n a tio n and t h a t o f S ta te a r e th e n fu se d i n a s i n g l e w h o le i n w h ic h t h e o r i g i n a l i n g r e d i e n t s a r e In d istin g u ish a b le . T h is i s i n f a c t t h e p r o c e s s w h ic h h a s o c c u r r e d i n t h e c a s e o f some o f t h e m o re i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n s w h ic h a c h ie v e d s t a te h o o d i n t h e c o u r s e o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , an d w hose n a t i o n a l i s m h a s , p a r t l y i n c o n seq u e n ce o f t h a t f a c t , u n d erg o n e a s i g n i f i c a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s .^ 1 T h is q u o ta tio n a d e q u a te ly e x p la in s th e c o n fu s io n in w hat i s e s s e n t i a l l y a se m a n tic p ro b le m .

T h e e x a m p le o f

" n in e te e n th c e n tu ry n a tio n a lis m " — in o th e r so u rces re fe rre d to a s " c u l t u r a l n a tio n a lis m " n a tio n a lism

(a s opposed to

" p o litic a l"

o f th e T w e n tie th C e n tu r y ) * ^ - - is b e s t r e f e r r e d

a s o n ly a s l i g h t s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f " n a t i o n a l i t y , " c iz e d by d e f i n i t i o n . tio n .

N a tio n a lism

p o litic iz a tio n

it

it

is

n a tio n a lism

it

is

so m e th in g e l s e . 21

on t h e t r u e

" n a tio n a lity ."

A fte r

is n a tio n a lism .

T h e n n a t i o n a l i s m may come i n t o i n w h ich c a s e

d e p o liti­

i s p o l i t i c i z e d by d e f i n i ­

B e f o r e a l i b e r a t i o n m o vem ent t a k e s

essence of p o litic iz a tio n

to

is

im p a c t w ith th e s t a t e

l i k e l y t o b e co m e d e p o l i t i c i z e d .

th u s d e p o litic iz e d ,

it

A fte r

e s s e n t i a l l y becom es

F o r c l a r i t y ’s s a k e , h o w e v e r, t h e phenom e-

Royal I n s t i t u t e ,

0£ . c i t . ,

p . 3 31*

The t h e o r y o f a p u r e l y c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m v e rs u s a p o l i t i c a l n a ti o n a l i s m i s e x p re s s e d in th e E n c y c lo ­ p a e d ia o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , V o l. V I, p p . 2 3 1-40, and in t h e N a t i o n a l E n c y c l o p e d i a . V o l . V I I , p . 193*

20 non once la u n c h e d i s b e t t e r r e f e r r e d t o b y i t s The f o c u s w i t h in th e h i s t o r i c

o r i g i n a l nam e.

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m o v e m e n t,

a n d t h e c a r r y i n g o u t o f p u r p o s e f u l a c t s b y men a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t, h av e c h a n g e d .

None t h e l e s s ,

th e

p ro b lem o f n a ti o n a l i s m , a s i t d e v e lo p e d fro m p a t r i o t i s m n a tio n a lity ,

s till

S u m m a ry .

o c c u p ie s th e c e n te r s ta g e .

N a tio n a lism

is

t h e phenom enon o f suprem e

lo y a lty a tta c h in g to th e s p i r i t u a l fa m ily ; n a tio n a lism

is p a trio tis m

T h e s e tw o p h e n o m e n a a r e

T h is

and n a ti o n a l i s m .

o fte n n e a rly in d is tin g u is h a b le

The d i s t i n c t i o n

tu d e s o f p e o p le s in v o lv e d phenom enon o r t h e o t h e r . k in sh ip ,

in o t h e r w o rd s,

a p p lie d to n a t i o n a l i t y .

im p lie s a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n p a t r i o t i s m

from th e o t h e r .

and

is

re fle c te d

in th e a t t i ­

i n a n e x p r e s s io n o f e i t h e r one W h ere t h e e m p h a s i s i s p l a c e d

r a th e r th a n p a t r i a . n a tio n a lism

n a tio n a lis m as ex p ressed

one

in n a tio n a lity )

on

(o r th e seeds of is p rim a ry .

A c tu a lly in such a c a s e , a s o p h is tic a tio n h as o c c u rre d .

At

3orae e a r l i e r h i s t o r i c a l s t a g e ,

o n e c o u l d f i n d a n e m p h a s i s on

th e p a t r i a b ecau se n a tio n a lis m

i n v a r i a b l y g row s o u t o f

p a trio tis m . W h e re a n e x t r e m e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n

is p re se n t--w h e re a

phenom enon l i k e n a t i o n a l i s m h a s d e v e lo p e d a s a p o l i t i c a l in stru m e n ta lity u tiliz in g

m odern s t a t e m e c h a n is m s --w e c a n

l a b e l i t a T w e n tie th C e n tu ry m a n i f e s ta t io n .

T here i s a ls o

21 a m id d le g ro u n d b e tw e e n p a t r i o t i s m n a tio n a lity

(o r e s s e n tia lly

and n a tio n a lis m c a lle d

N in e te e n th C e n tu ry n a tio n a lis m )

w h ic h m arks a n a d v a n c e to w a rd s o p h i s t i c a t i o n b u t h a s f a i l e d , as y e t,

to

reach a tr u ly p o l i t i c a l s ta g e .

N a tio n a lity as a

m o v em en t g e n e r a l l y l a c k s t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f a s t a t e — a p o w e r n u c l e u s i n t h e m o re m o d e r n c o n n o t a t i o n . W ith t h e s e c o r e i d e a s

i n m in d t h e n e x t s t e p i s

f u r t h e r e x p lo re th e d e f i n i ti o n s

f o r a m o re c o m p l e t e u n d e r ­

s ta n d in g o f th e phenom ena, p a t r i o t i s m , n a tio n a lism .

n a t i o n a l i t y and

An a t t e m p t w i l l b e m ade t o a n s w e r i n some

d e t a i l th e q u e stio n : n a tio n a lism .

to

w hat i s p a t r i o t i s m , n a t i o n a l i t y ,

Then a f u r t h e r s te p

is

ta k e n ,

e g . , h a v in g

d e t e r m i n e d w h a t i s . we a r e n e x t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e b r o a d e ffe c ts

on m a n k i n d o f n a t i o n a l i s m a s a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l

phenom enon* e ffe c ts

T h is le a d s

i n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f how t h e s e

c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d b y h u m an r e a s o n .

CHAPTER I I NATIONALISM AS A SOCIO-POLITICAL PHENOMENON I.

PATRIOTISM

As i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r ,

th e e le m e n ts o f n a ti o n a l i s m —

p a tr io tis m and n a t i o n a l i t y - - a r e se lv e s b u t a re a lism p er s e . e x p la in e d

s e p a r a t e phenom ena i n th e m ­

o f te n c o n fu se d in te rm in o lo g y w ith n a t i o n ­ A c tu a lly ,

th e c o n fu sio n is

i f we c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a t i v e

phenom ena e a c h t o m ea n s l i t t l e

th e o th e r .

e a sily

c lo s e n e ss

P a trio tism --lo v e

i n t h e m o d e rn l i g h t ,

enough

of th e of c o u n try --

u n l e s s we c o n s i d e r t h e

c o u n t r y a s t h e n a t i o n a l home p o p u l a t e d b y a m o re o r l e s s hom ogeneous f o l k u n i t e d by bonds o f a c t u a l o r su p p o sed k in sh ip .

T h erefo re,

th e n a t i o n a l i t y e le m e n t i s n e a r l y

synonym ous w ith p a t r i o t i s m usage.

in th is

c o n te m p o ra ry g e n e r a l

H e n c e , a p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t , F r a n c i s W. C o k e r ,

c o n sid e rs p a trio tis m

as

" d e v o t i o n t o a p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n ity ,"

s a i d c o m m u n ity f o r m e d o u t o f t h e m y th o f common d e s c e n t g e n e ra tin g a tta c h m e n t to

th e f o l k , p lu s a tta c h m e n t to th e

s o il.1 T h e r e i s m o re t o p a t r i o t i s m , h o w e v e r ,

t h a n t h e m o d e rn

1 See C o k e rfs a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " P a t r i o t i s m ," in th e E n c y c lo p a e d ia of S o c ia l S c ie n c e s , V o l. V I, p p . 2 6 - 9 , f o r a p ro v o c a tiv e tre a tm e n t of th e s u b je c t m a tte r.

23 usage in d ic a te s .

B efo re th e e ra of n a t i o n - s t a t e s ,

in th e

m e d i e v a l a n d a n c i e n t a g e s w h en men g a v e o n l y p e r s o n a l a n d n o t t e r r i t o r i a l a l l e g i a n c e , h u m an k in d s t i l l a d h e r e d t o t h e i n t e r n a l s e n tim e n t o f lo v e o f c o u n tr y . c o n stitu te s

Id e a s a s to w hat

,1t h e c o u n t r y ” h a v e e v o l v e d a n d c a n h e e x p e c t e d

to e v o lv e f u r t h e r ;

b u t t h e r e h a s a l w a y s b e e n som e s e g m e n t o f

t h e s o i l w h i c h man h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a v i ta l p a rt of h im se lf. o t h e r o c c u p a n ts o f th e

A l s o , man h a s t e n d e d t o

reg ard

lo c a lity he in h a b its as a p a rt of h is

e m o tio n a l b e in g . T h i s l o v e o f c o u n t r y s t e m s f r o m l o v e o f hom e w h i c h i s s o m e t h i n g much n e a r e r t o man a n d s o m e t h i n g t h e r e f o r e m o re c a p a b le of b e in g fo rm u la te d as

re a lity .

It

is

th e e x p a n sio n

o f t h e c o n c e p t hom e w h i c h h a s l e a d t o t h e c o n c e p t c o u n t r y . In th e p ro ce ss of id e n tify in g th e f a m ilia r s ig h ts

of th e

i m m e d i a t e home a r e a w i t h t h e u n i d e n t i f i a b l e , a l l - e m b r a c i n g a n d f a r v a s t e r g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a l i t y know n a s t h e c o u n t r y man has p ro g ressed

in

i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c ity f o r g ra sp in g of

p s y c h o lo g ic a l and p h ilo s o p h ic a l c o n c e p ts . N e v e rth e le ss,

In c o n n e c tio n w ith t h i s

h o m elan d I d e a , w h e re t h e

i n t e l l e c t h a s ex p an d ed in one

resp ect

i t c o n v e rse ly has re la x e d

ju stify

th e c o u n try c o n c e p t,

z a tio n .

g ro w th o f a

in a n o th e r.

Man, t o

r e s o r t e d t o m y th s a s r a t i o n a l i ­

W a l t e r S u l z b a c h r e f e r s u s t o w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s tw o

o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p le s o f s u c h m y t h s .

One r e g a r d s t h e n a t i o n

24 a s t h e m o s t “ n a t u r a l 11 o f a l l c o n c e i v a b l e hum an g r o u p i n g s : th e o th e r re fe rs are

to th e

“illu s io n

t h a t home a n d c o u n t r y

.

.

s y n o n y m o u s.”2 C l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d t o m y th s a r e t h e s y m b o l s w h i c h man

e re c ts

t o g iv e s u b s ta n c e t o

in d u lg e s in

t h e m y th .

“ i m a g i n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l a n d h u m an

phenom ena i n t h e a b s e n c e o f s c i e n t i f i c e re c ts

T h u s , w h e r e man

c e rta in

sy m b o ls t o

d a t a , “3 h e a l s o

ju s tif y h is p re te n tio n s .

L a ssw e ll

illu s tra te s : The o rg a n is m p e rfo rm s . . . a c t s o f i n t e g r a t i o n . . . s p ittin g , b itin g [ e tc .] . B e h a v io r c o n s i s t s o f i n o r d i ­ n a t e l y c o m p l e x 'w a y s o f d i s p o s i n g o f s u c h a c t i v a t i o n s . W ith d e v e lo p e d p e r s o n a l i t i e s a c t i v i t y c o m p o n e n ts a r e s t y l i z e d i n r e l a t i o n t o im m e d ia te s i t u a t i o n s . ^ The s t y l i z a t i o n

of a c tiv ity

“m u t u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n / * th e te rm A m e ric a n . i s

c o m p o n e n ts i n v o l v e s

T hus a sy m b o l, a s ,

f o r e x a m p le ,

f l u n g l i k e a c l o a k o v e r many p e r s o n s

who a r e b e y o n d t h e r a n g e o f p e r s o n a l , f a c e - t o - f a c e

2

See W a lte r S u lz b a c h , N a tio n a l C o n s c io u s n e s s . (W a s h in g to n , D . C .: A m e ric a n C o u n c il on P u b l i c A f f a i r s , 1 9 4 3 ), p p . 135“136. The q u o t a t i o n , a s c r e d i t e d b y S u l z b a c h , i s fro m H a r o ld L a s s w e l l 's W o rld P o l i t i c s a n d P erso n al I n s e c u rity .

3

Jo se p h S . R oucek, and o th e r s , S o c ia l C o n tro l (New Y o r k : D . V a n N o s t r a n d C om pany, I n c . , 1 9 4 7 )# p . 1 9 0 • T h e - q u o t a t i o n i s R o u c e k 1s d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t e r m m y t h . He g o e s o n t o s a y t h a t m y th s a r e a l s o “ e x p r e s s i o n s o f m an* s p l a y f u l n e s s o f m in d a n d h i s l o v e o f n a r r a t i v e , t o l d i n a n a tte m p t to e n te r ta in h im s e lf. . . .“ 2i H a r o ld D . L a s s w e l l , W o rld P o l i t i c s a n d P e r s o n a l I n ­ s e c u r i t y (New Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k C om pan y, I n c . , 1935T7 P . 35«

.

25 e x p e rie n c e .

Men a t t e m p t t o e r e c t s u p e r i o r s y m b o l s .

Such

a c o n s t a n t s e a r c h f o r s y m b o l v a l u e s h a s l e d man i n e x o r a b l y in to p a trio tis m

and a t a r e l a t i v e l y

e a rly

sta g e

i n hum an

d e v e lo p m e n t. L o rd A cto n a l s o

sh o w s u s t h a t t h e r e

t i o n b e tw e e n p a t r i o t i s m c a l l n a tio n a lism *

( i n s t r i c t u s a g e ) a n d w h a t we t o d a y

He p o i n t s

out th a t th e

b e tw e e n n a t i o n a l i t y and t h e S t a t e of p a trio tic

is a d iffe re n tia ­

a tta c h m e n t.w

is

'’d i f f e r e n c e

e x h ib ite d

P a trio tism

in th e n a tu re

to th e s p i r i t u a l

n a t i o n s t e m s f r o m wa n a t u r a l c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e r a c e m anfs d u t i e s th e

to th e p o l i t i c a l n a tio n a re e th ic a l* w

read er cares to accept th is

p rem ise o r n o t ,

[w h ile ] W h eth er

n o n e th e le s s

A c to n h a s d o n e u s a g r e a t f a v o r i n i s o l a t i n g p a t r i o t i s m th e c o re e le m e n t. to

It

is p a trio tic

so m e th in g , n a ti o n o r s t a t e

e tc .^

On t h i s

lin e

as

se n tim e n t t h a t a tta c h e s

or n a tio n -sta te

or p a tria rc h ,

o f r e a s o n i n g som e a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e s e t

up a rg u m e n ts t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t i n a n y a tt e m p t t o c o n t r o l n a t i o n a l i s m man m u s t p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w i t h p a t r i o t ­ ism . An i m m e d i a t e q u e s t i o n t h a t m i g h t a r i s e a lte rn a tiv e

w o rth y . to n :

to p a trio tis m

i s w h e th e r an

i s a v a i l a b l e a s a cem ent f a c t o r

^ P r o fe s s o r L a s s w e llfs e n ti r e d is c u s s io n i s I b i d . , p p . 30~43.

v ery

L o rd Jo h n A c to n , E s s a y s on F re ed o m a n d P ow er (B o s ­ B eacon P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 ), p p . 1 8 5 -1 8 9 . A lso s e e p . 2 9 3 .

26

n e c e s s a r y t o s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s o l i d a r i t i e s .

The a n s w e r

se e m s t o b e , i n t h e l i g h t o f h i s t o r i c d e v e l o p m e n t s i n o u r tim e s, life .

th a t p a tr io tis m

is

a l l th a t i s

le ft

R e lig io n once p r o v id e d th e bon d.

i n con tem p orary I t was o n c e

t h o u g h t t h a t when C h r i s t i a n i t y v i r t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d a s a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n m anf s d a y - b y - d a y l i v i n g - - a s

it

d i d i n W es­

t e r n E u ro p e b e f o r e t h e c l o s e o f t h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y - th at i t co u ld be r e p la c e d by f a i t h in th e th r e e g r e a t p r i n c ip l e s o f th e [e ig h te e n th ] c e n tu ry , l ib e r t y , e q u a lit y , f r a t e r ­ n i t y ; and t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h o s e p r i n c i p l e s w o u ld i n a u g u r a t e a new e r a o f p e a c e . ' S u ch b e l i e f i s

t h e e s s e n c e o f l i b e r a l i s m , and f o r a

c o m p a r a t iv e ly s h o r t tim e t h e id e a s o f th e F ren ch R e v o lu t io n d i d f o r g e a h e a d u n d e r N i n e t e e n t h C e n tu r y m i d d l e - c l a s s le a d e r sh ip .

H ow ever, f a i t h

jected to a tta ck s tu al fr o n ts.

in th ese

on t h e p o l i t i c a l ,

i d e a s was s o o n s u b ­

e c o n o m i c , and i n t e l l e c ­

G a e ta n o M o sca , i n a r g u i n g t h a t p a t r i o t i s m

t h e o n l y m o r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l c o h e s i v e f o r c e l e f t E u r o p e , b la m e s t h e d e g e n e r a t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m

is

to

on s o c i a l i s m :

B u t s o c i a l i s t p r o p a g a n d a h ad no d i f f i c u l t y dem on­ s t r a t i n g t h a t t h i s l i b e r a l f a i t h had no f o u n d a t i o n i n f a c t , t h a t dem ocracy, how ever g e n e r o u s, d id n o t p r e v e n t p o w e r fr o m r e m a i n i n g i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e , w h ic h , a c c o r d in g t o s o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e s , w i l l a lw a y s be s e p a r a t e d fr o m t h e h u m b le r c l a s s e s i n s o c i e t y b y an

^ G a e ta n o M o sc a , The R u l i n g C l a s s H i l l B ook Company, I n c . , 19395V P* ^ 8 2 .

(New Y o r k :

McGraw-

27 in cu ra b le c o n f l i c t

o f i n t e r e s t s ,8

O th e r w r i t e r s h a v e w r e s t l e d w ith th e p ro b le m o f a n a ly z in g c a u se s and e f f e c t s ism .

in th e b a n k ru p tc y o f l i b e r a l ­

The p o i n t t o b e g r a s p e d h e r e i s

th a t,

w h a te v e r th e

c a u s e , t h e e f f e c t o f r a t i o n a l i s m 1s d o w n f a l l i s t o k in d o n ly th e p r e c a r io u s p a s s io n o f p a t r i o t i s m

l e a v e m an­

to su p p ly th e

n e c e s s a r y f o r c e to w a rd c o h e s i o n .^ P a trio tism , d e te rm in e ,

so f a r a s s c h o la r s have b een a b le to

i s a n a t u r a l phenom enon— a n in b o r n t h i n g —a c c o r d ­

i n g t o S i r A r t h u r K e i t h , who r e g a r d s

it

not as a lo y a lty but

a s a n e x a g g e r a te d a f f e c t i o n w h ic h a n c h o r s t h e g ro u p t o t h e home t e r r i t o r y

and

p ro v id e s t h e g ro u p w ith a m e n ta l arm o u r f o r th e d e fe n c e o f i t s h o m elan d . . . a b i a s [ e x t e n d i n g ] t o . . . g ro u p o r t r i b e - - t o i t s w e lfa re , to i t s p ro s p e rity , to i t s s a f e t y , a n d t o i t s g o o d name a n d f a m e . . K e ith ,

th e re fo re ,

c le a rly p ic tu re s p a trio tis m

as an

e m o tio n a l a tt a c h m e n t p r e c e d i n g n a t i o n a l i s m b u t o n ly so f a r Q Q

M osca,

op., c i t . ,

p . 482.

T h e a u t h o r re c o m m e n d s H a n s J . M o r g e n t h a u t s S c i e n ­ t i f i c Man V e r s u s P o w e r P o l i t i c s ( C h i c a g o : U n iv e rs ity of C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 q4 6 ) , p a s s i m , f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e b a n k ­ r u p tc y o f th e r a t i o n a l i s t id e a t h a t th e w o rld i s g o v ern ed by l a w s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o hu m an r e a s o n . 10 S i r A r t h u r K e i t h , A New T h e o r y o f Human E v o l u t i o n (New Y o r k : P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib ra ry , I n c ., 1 9 4 9 ), p . 47. K e i t h o b j e c t s t o t h e w o rd l o y a l t y i n d e f i n i n g p a t r i o t i s m b e ­ c a u s e l o y a l t y c o n n o t e s t o h im a p e r s o n a l a l l e g i a n c e - - s u c h a s t h a t g i v e n t o t h e s t r o n g men i n t h e c o u n t r y - - t o t h e l e a d e r s o f th e S ta te .

28 a s th e group h a s n o t y e t expanded In to th e n a t i o n .

When

t h e g r o u p g r e w i n t o w h a t w as i d e n t i f i a b l e a s a n a t i o n , a s t h e t e r m may b e ,

11

K e ith fs p a trio tis m

vague

e s s e n t i a l l y m erg es

w ith th e te rm n a t i o n a l i s m and th e l a t t e r phenom enon, to K e ith , a ls o It

i s n a t u r a l a n d p a r t o f " G o d 's m e c h a n is m .”

fo llo w s t h a t P r o f e s s o r K e ith f in d s

p e r se a h e a lth y ,

in p a trio tis m

n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t i n h u m an e v o l u t i o n .

r e c o g n iz e s , ho w ev er, th e p e r v e r s io n of p a t r i o t i s m

in to

He th e

i n f l a m e d a g g r e s s i o n we t e r m c h a u v i n i s m . fu tu re

He w o u ld d e d i c a t e •yp s tu d y to w a rd a tt e m p t s t o p r e v e n t t h i s o u tg ro w th .

K e ith ,

in reg ard to

t h i s p o in t o f v iew , h a s a s tr o n g

s u p p o rte r in th e p e rso n of C a rle to n H ay es: Men h a v e a l w a y s l i v e d i n g r o u p s . A p p a ren tly i t is p a r t o f G od’s p la n t h a t th e y s h o u ld . And o n e o f t h e t h i n g s w h ic h h a v e e n a b l e d th em t o l i v e i n g r o u p s h a s b e e n t h e l o y a l t y - - t h e p a t r i o t i s m - - w h i c h God h a s im ­ p l a n t e d i n t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e . ^-3 And f u r t h e r : . . . t o do t h i n g s f o r h i s f e l l o w s , t o h a v e a r e g a r d f o r o rd e r and t r a d i t i o n and i d e a l s . P a trio tism Is not m e re ly p a s s iv e lo v e o f c o u n tr y . I t is a c tiv e lo y a lty o f c o u n t r y . J. B u t t r u e p a t r i o t i s m , l i k e a n y t r u e l o v e , is c h e rish e d in h u m ility n o t in p r i d e . I t i s , of c o u r s e , p r i m a r i l y e m o tio n a l and im p u ls iv e , r a t h e r th a n d e l i b e r a t e a n d r e a s o n e d , t h o u g h l i k e a n y h um an e m o t i o n ,

^

S u p ra, p . 12.

12 0 £ . c i t . , p p . 4 7 - 5 3 . 1*3 C a th o lic A s s o c ia tio n f o r I n t e r n a ti o n a l P eace, Pa­ t r i o t i s m . N a t i o n a l i s m , a n d t h e B r o t h e r h o o d o f M an, N um ber 2 5 (New Y o r k : The P a u l l s t P r e s s , 1937)* p / U .

29 such a s h u n g e r o r p a s s io n , i t i s l i a b l e to g rav e a b u se i f i t i s n o t g u id e d by re a s o n and d i s c i p l i n e d by e x p e rie n c e I t may b e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f ^ p e r v e r s i o n ” o f w h a t i s b a s i c a l l y c o n s id e re d a s a n a t u r a l and t h e r e f o r e h e a lth y and d e s i r e d phenom enon i s

to o g l i b .

The a u t h o r p r e f e r s

r e g a r d t h e ^ p e r v e r s i o n ” a s i n n o w ay c o n n e c t e d t o ism e le m e n t p a trio tis m tio n ,

(w h ich re m a in s c o n s t a n t ) .

th e p a t r i o t ­

The m a r r ia g e o f

t o t h e n a t i o n may b r i n g a b o u t a p e r v e r t e d c o n d i ­

but if

th is

is

th e s u b je c tiv e r e s u l t i t

a b o u t by th e seco n d e le m e n t, occu rred

to

is

W h at h a s a c t u a l l y

t h a t p a tr io tis m has been w eakened.

fo r a s ta b ility im p ro p e r t o

th e n a tio n .

is b ro ught

of fo c u s.

I t c rie s

L a c k in g su c h s t a b i l i t y

s p e a k o f ”b a d M ( o r c h a u v i n i s t i c )

v ersu s

it

is

”g o o d M

p a trio tism . P r o f e s s o r F rie d m a n n s t a t e s

t h e a b o v e a rg u m e n t,

u sin g

N a z is m a s i l l u s t r a t i v e : F i r s t l y , p a t r i o t i s m lo o k s backw ard r a t h e r th a n f o r ­ w ard; and s e c o n d ly , i t n e ed s a s t a b l e f o c u s in g p o i n t . I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h e new F a s c i s t I m p e r i a l i s m h a s re v iv e d and i n s p i r e d - t h e p a t r i o t i s m o f th e p e o p le s w h ic h i t h a s c o n q u e re d an d s u b j u g a t e d , w h ile i t h a s , a t t h e sam e t i m e , w e a k e n e d t h e p a t r i o t i s m o f i t s own p e o p l e .1 5 F r i e d m a n n h a s t o r n a w ay t h e v e i l o f c o n f u s i o n .

I b i d . , p p . 6 -7 . ^■5 W. F r i e d m a n n , T h e C r i s i s o f t h e N a t i o n a l S t a t e ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n a n d C o m p an y , L t d . , 1 9 ^ 3 ) > P - 153* Supra. p. IcT f .

He

30 te lls

u s u n q u a l i f i e d l y t h a t G e rm a n s o f t h e H i t l e r S t a t e w e r e

not tru ly n a tio n a lis tic

b e c a u s e t h e i r l o y a l t y was r u t h l e s s l y

dem anded b y t h e i r l e a d e r s t h e S t a t e was t h e F a th e rla n d , its

th a t

o n ly i n t e r p r e t e r o f w h at was b e s t f o r t h e

of w hat in f a c t c o n s t it u t e d th e F a th e r la n d and

f o lk th e m se lv e s.

e ta tism ,

on t h e f l i m s y r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n

T h is

is a c la ss ic

th e S ta te , p o l i t i c a l s ta tis m ,

e x a m p le o f p o l i t i c a l

o r w h a t e v e r we p r e f e r

to c a l l i t . The F rie d m a n n t h e s i s

(i . e ..

n a tio n a lism a re a n ta g o n is tic ) S u l z b a c h who i d e n t i f i e s n a tio n a lis m .as d e fin e d

t h a t im p e ria lis m and

is a d e fin ite

c o u n te r to

flb a d ff n a t i o n a l i s m a s a m i x t u r e o f on p . 9 o f t h i s

th e s is ,

and im p e r ia l­

ism . J u l i u s B r a u n t h a l , who u s e s n a t i p n a l i s m a s v i r t u a l l y synonym ous w i t h p a t r i o t i s m , h a s r e g a r d e d t h e s e n t i m e n t a s n o b le

in th e f i r s t

case because

it

"e m b o d ie s a t t a c h m e n t t o

a c a u s e w id e r th a n t h a t o f o n e !s s e l f and o n e f s f a m ily because i t

e m b o d ies t h e p r i d e

o n e ! s own n a t i o n a

o f th e c u l t u r a l a ch ie v e m e n t o f

H ow ever, t h e r e

i s a lw a y s a se c o n d

c a s e , a c c o r d i n g t o B r a u n t h a l , w h ic h u t i l i z e s "ray c o u n t r y r i g h t o r w r o n g . " th a t p a trio tis m

16

is

in i t s e l f

[an d ]

th e p r in c ip le

F ro m t h i s we m i g h t c o n c l u d e th e v ic io u s e le m e n t, b u t

J u l i u s B r a u n t h a l , The P a ra d o x o f N a t i o n a l i s m ; E p ilo g u e t o t h e N urem berg T r l a 1s ( L o n d o n : S t . B o to lp h P u b l i c a t i o n C o m p an y , L t d . , 1 9 4 6 ) , p p . 4 - 1 5 .

An

31 i n i t i a l c o n fu s io n o f term s b lin d e d B r a u n th a l to w hat c a u s e s th e second c a s e ,

e.. g . . , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

of p a trio tis m

to

n a tio n a lity . W ith in th e fram ew ork o f r e a l i t y , w ise t o

how ever,

ta lk about re fo c u sin g of p a trio tis m

to

o f suprem e l o y a l t y

to

is not

One W o rld a s

th o u g h m ere t a l k i n g p r o v i d e s a n e a s y t r a n s i t i o n . seem s t o dem and t h e e le m e n t o f c o n f l i c t ,

it

U n ity

an d t h e m ere i d e a

One W o r l d p r e s u p p o s e s t h e e l i m i n a t i o n

of in te r-w o rld c o n f lic t .

It,

t h e r e f o r e , becom es q u i t e a

u n iq u e p r o b le m w hen one c o n s i d e r s m eans o f c h a n g in g t h e fo cu s. a lism

C o n tro l,

o r p o s s ib le e lim in a tio n of v ic io u s n a tio n ­

is d isc u sse d

s e p a ra te ly in o th e r p o rtio n s

of th is

th e s is II. M an, i n a n t i q u i t y , m e n ta l p a t r i o t i s m .

NATIONALITY d e v e lo p e d w ith in h im s e lf a n e l e ­

N ot u n t i l h e h a d em erged fro m t h e

b a rb a ris m o f cave and f o r e s t ,

liv e d th ro u g h th e g r e a t p e r ­

i o d s o f G r e e k a n d Roman c i v i l i z a t i o n s , a n d t h e n o n c e m o re lap sed in to

te m p o ra ry s a v a g e r y fro m w h ic h he s lo w ly r e c o v e r e d

d u r in g th e m e d ie v a l p e r io d , d id th e E uropean b e g in t o

tru ly

fa s h io n f o r h im s e lf th e co n cep t of n a t i o n a l i t y . T rib a lism

i s a s o ld a s lo v e o f c o u n try .

*. 137-9 •

17 In fr a , pp. 5

The slo w

32 e v o l u t i o n f r o m t r i b a l s e n t i m e n t t o 11t h e f u s i n g h e a t o f n a t i o n a l i t y 11 i s a b a s i c p re c ise d if f ic u lty

e le m e n t o f h i s t o r y .

T here i s

a

i n sh o w in g j u s t when E u ro p e a n s b e g a n t o

d e v e l o p a p r i m a r y r e g a r d f o r t h e i r own n a t i o n a l g r o u p i n g s . F irst,

i t was e s s e n t i a l f o r la n g u a g e t o em erg e a n d b e u s e d

as a v e h ic le

of lite r a r y

e x p re ss io n ;

th e n ,

a d istin c tiv e

n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e h a d t o d e v e l o p a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f1t o e s t a b l i s h and m a in ta in c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n s and c u l t u r a l iff u s a g e s p e c u l i a r t o t h e n a t i o n a l i t y .** T r a d i t i o n s e r v e d t o p o p u l a r i z e t h e c o n c e p t o f common b l o o d a n d k i n s h i p am o ng t h e p e o p l e s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n c e r t a i n e th n ic b o u n d a rie s. f a v o r e d o n e 's

M ass b e l i e f

own n a t i o n a l i t y

i n t h e m y th t h a t d e s t i n y

g r o u p was o b t a i n e d b y t h e

e r e c tio n and e n s h rin in g o f n a tio n a l h e r o e s . o f a m ere b e l i e f

D e g e n e ra tio n ,

i n n a t i o n a l i t y a s a phenom enon i n t o a n

e x tre m e n a t i o n a l s e n tim e n t w h ic h c o n s id e r e d p e o p le l i v i n g o u t s i d e t h e b lo o d l i m i t s a s e n e m ie s , was n o t a c c o m p lis h e d w ith o u t an in te r v e n in g p e rio d w h e re in p o l i t i c i z e d C h r i s t i a n ­ ity

c o n tro lle d

th e n a t i o n a l i t y c o n ce p t and r e le g a te d

seco n d ary l e v e l. p o s itio n

it

L o rd A c to n p i c t u r e s f o r u s t h e d o m in a n t

o f C h r i s t i a n i t y b e fo re th e F o u rte e n th and F i f t e e n th

C e n tu rie s: C h ristia n ity

^

to a

r e j o i c e s a t th e m ix tu re o f r a c e s ,

C a th o lic A s s o c ia tio n ,

o p . c i t ..

p . 10.

as

33 p a g a n is m i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f w i t h t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s , b e ­ c a u s e t r u t h i s u n i v e r s a l , and e r r o r s v a r i o u s and p a r tic u la r . In t h e a n c i e n t w o r ld i d o l a t r y and n a t i o n ­ a l i t y w e n t t o g e t h e r , and t h e same te r m i s a p p l i e d i n S c r ip tu r e to b o th . I t was t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e C h u rch t o o v e r c o m e n a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . . . . C h a r le m a g n e overcam e th e n a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f th e S axon s o n ly by t h e f o r c i b l e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r p a g a n r i t e s . 19 What a c t u a l l y had o c c u r r e d i n t h e m e d i e v a l p e r i o d , u n d e r C h u rch a e g i s , w as a n e v o l u t i o n fr o m t h e p r i m i t i v e r e g a r d f o r t h e t r i b e to w a r d a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a s a m o r a l a s w e l l a s p o l i t i c a l b e i n g h a v i n g much i n common w i t h oth er n a tio n s .

20

A t t h e same t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h a t C h r i s ­

t i a n i t y w as c u t t i n g a c r o s s n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s , t h e s e e d s o f a m ore v i r u l e n t n a t i o n a l i t y w e r e p l a n t e d and g r o w i n g s o t h a t b y t h e F i f t e e n t h C e n t u r y t h e C h urch w as f o r c e d t o c o n ­ fo r m and r e c o g n i z e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f n a t i o n a l i t y among h e r m em b ers.

C a r l e t o n H a y es l a u d s t h i s a s a s t e p t a k e n

w i l l i n g l y , b u t i t m ust b e rem em bered i t w as t a k e n a t a t im e when t h e p o w e r o f t h e C hurch w as r e d u c e d , when C h r i s t i a n i t y w as w e l l a l o n g t h e r o a d t o d e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n .

21

A t a b o u t t h e same t i m e t h a t r e l i g i o u s u n i v e r s a l i s m w as f a i l i n g ,

men I n S w i t z e r l a n d w e r e e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h t h e

id e a o f l o c a l i s m .

^

In t h e B a lk a n s v a r io u s n a t i o n a l i t i e s

A c t o n , op., c i t . ,

p p . 186-187*

2 0 Loc . c i t . See th e C a th o lic A s s o c ia t io n r e p o r t, 11.

op. c i t .,

p.

p lo tte d

t o g e t h e r f o r o v e rth ro w

o f t h e T urk*

In B r ita in ,

E n g lis h m e n , S c o t s , a n d W elsh b e g a n t o a m a lg a m a te i n t o " n a t i o n 11 o r ,

ra th e r,

,n a tio n - tr ib e . oped a t r u e fe d e ra lism

one

i n t o a l o c a l u n i t a s d i s t i n c t fro m a

F o r th e n ex t th re e c e n tu r ie s h is to r y d e v e l­

lo c a lism , as e v e n tu a lly

it

c ry s ta lliz e d

o f th e U n ite d S t a te s and S w itz e rla n d ;

in to

th e

b u t th e

N i n e t e e n t h a n d T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r i e s w e r e t o e r u p t a new n a tio n a lism

re p re s e n tin g a r e tu r n to th e

in te n sity of tr ib a l

s e n tim e n t. I n su m m atio n , t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n

o f w est E u ro p ean

id e o lo g y h a s t r a c e d a d e v e lo p m e n t fro m t r i b a l i s m , ism a n d r e l i g i o u s But t h is p a tte r n

u n iv e rsa lism , i n n o w ay f i t s

to

lo c a l22 in te n se n a tio n a lism .

th e f o lk of so u th e a s te rn

E u ro p e w ho, g e n e r a l l y s p e a k in g , due t o th e f a i l u r e id e a o f u n iv e r s a l r e l i g io n fo rc ib le

to

of th e

in th e a r e a , and due a l s o

to a

r e t a r d i n g o f n a t u r a l d ev elo p m e n t by f o r e i g n o p p r e s ­

s i o n , w ere d e n ie d th e e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e W e s t. D e v elo p m en t o f a s p e c i a l f e e l i n g f o r n a t i o n a l i t y d i d not ex p ress

I t s e l f t o t h e sam e d e g r e e i n a l l c o u n t r i e s

w e ste rn E u ro p e.

of

T h e r e w as s u c h a s m o o t h a n d a p p a r e n t l y

n a t u r a l g ro w th i n E n g la n d t h a t t h e n a t i o n n e v e r r e c e i v e d

2 2 ^ T r i b a l i s m m ea n s a l i v i n g i n t r i b e s , w i t h e a c h t r i b e o c c u p y in g a d e f i n i t e a r e a , u s u a l l y b o a s t in g o f a b lo o d r e l a t i o n s h i p . . . . am ong i t s m e m b e r s , a n d n o r m a l l y p o s s e s s i n g a d i s t i n c t i v e la n g u a g e . . . . a p e c u lia r p o l i t i c a l o rg a n iz a ­ tio n . . w F ro m p . 22 o f t h e C a t h o l i c A s s o c i a t i o n r e p o r t , o p . -c i t .

35 em p h a sis a s s u c h .

P a trio tism

to o k th e p la c e of n a tio n a lis m .

An ^ E n g l i s h m a n ” ( a t e r m u s e d v a r i o u s l y t o m ean S c o t , C o r n i s h m an , L o n d o n e r , ejb a j l . )

lo o k e d t o

”K i n g a n d C o u n t r y ” a s a

f o c a l p o in t f o r l o y a l t y and n e v e r, c o n s c io u s ly , to a n y th in g q u ite

so m y s tic a s a ” s p i r i t u a l f a m i l y . I n

o f th e w o rld ,

i n c l u d i n g th e B a lk a n a r e a ,

o r ig in a lly ex p ressed

its e lf

o th e r p a rts

n a tio n a lism a ls o

as a n o u tg ro w th fro m p a t r i o t i s m .

T h is o r i g i n a l lo v e o f c o u n tr y , h o w e v er, p ro n o u n c e d ly gave w ay t o a p r i m a r y l o v e o f n a t i o n ; h e r e i n l i e s b e tw e e n B a lk a n and W e s te rn n a t i o n a l i s t i c It

Is th is

lo y a lty ,

th is

t h a t gave r i s e

of n a tio n a lism .

d e v e lo p m e n t.

lo v e o f so m e th in g v a g u e ly

i d e n t i f i a b l e w ith o n e ’s c o u n try , n a tio n a lity ,

th e d if f e r e n c e

th is

p a trio tis m

a p p lie d

to

t o tw o s e p a r a t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s

In th e E ig h te e n th and N in e te e n th C e n tu rie s

o p p r e s s io n u n d e r t h e d y n a s t i e s an d e m p ire s o f E urope gave rise

to p a trio tis m

f o r e th n o lo g ic a l n a tio n a lity ,

form o f n a t i o n a l i s m . In to

th e p u re

T h is c u l t u r a l m ovem ent s o o n e v o lv e d

o n e p o s s e s s i n g m o re t e e t h .

A f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e w as won

t h e l i b e r a l c r e e d w a s i n m any c a s e s d i s c a r d e d ;

in a l l cases

\

”a p a t r i o t i c

e m o tio n a lism a k in to

o f t h e m id d le a g e s ” was f o s t e r e d .

th e r e l i g i o u s e m o tio n a lism In o th e r w ords, by th e

l a t t e r N in e te e n th C e n tu ry to th e p r e s e n t , a n u l t r a - p o l i t i c a l

h . M unro C h a d w i c k , T h e N a t i o n a l i t i e s o f E u r o p e a n d t h e G r o w th o f N a t i o n a l I d e o l o g i e s ( C a m b r i d g e : The U n i v e r s i t y p

H

t :------------------------

36 m a n ife s ta tio n of n a tio n a lis m —a p o litic iz e d

th in g as d i s ­

t i n c t fro m a m ere f e e l i n g f o r t h e n a t i o n a n d fro m a s im p le oh. c u lt u r a l e x p re s s io n — ru le d th e d ay . S u m m a r i z i n g , we h a v e t r a c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o n c e p t n a t i o n a l i t y and b r i e f l y c a p tu re by p o l i t i c s ,

d isc u sse d

its

t h e h a n d m a id e n o f p o w e r,

b a sis

of th e S ta te .

It

is

th is

a lity

a v i t a l m e a n in g , t h a t l i f t s

e v e n tu a l in tu r n th e

c a p tu re t h a t g iv e s n a tio n ­ it

out of th e c a te g o ry of

m ere m y s t ic a n d s y m b o lic phenom ena h a v in g l i t t l e d y n a m ic s .

N a tio n a lity

t o do w ith

e x is te d b e fo re th e S ta te b u t i t

th e S ta te t h a t p u b lic iz e s

It,

fo ste rs

it,

is

expands i t .

N a t i o n a l i t y e x i s t e d b e f o r e n a ti o n a l i s m , a c o n s c io u s w e ld in g of l o y a l t y t o b lo o d t i e s . tio n ,

N a tio n a lism , by i t s

n eed ed a s tr o n g S t a t e d e v e lo p m e n t. H a n s .K o h n , t h e r e f o r e ,

sta te s

p o litic iz a ­

is

q u i t e a c c u r a t e when h e

th e fo llo w in g in su p p o rt of h is

i s m , a s we u n d e r s t a n d i t ,

is

th e s is

th a t n a tio n a l­

n o t o ld e r th a n th e

o f th e E ig h te e n th C e n tu ry , w ith r o o ts

second h a l f

in th e F ren ch

R e v o lu tio n : N a tio n a lism is in c o n c e iv a b le w ith o u t th e id e a s of p o p u la r s o v e r e ig n ty p r e c e d in g - - w ith o u t a c o m p le te r e v is io n o f th e p o s i t i o n o f r u l e r and r u le d , o f c la s s e s a n d c a s t e s . . . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s m o f e c o n o m ic l i f e h a d t o b e b r o k e n b y t h e r i s e o f t h e t h i r d e s t a t e , w h ic h

oh

See th e a r t i c l e in th e N a tio n a l E n c y c lo p e d ia , V o l. 7, p . 193, f o r an e x p la n a tio n of c u ltu r a l a sp e c ts of n a tio n a lis m v ersu s p o l i t i c a l a s p e c ts .

37 w a s t o t u r n t h e a t t e n t i o n aw ay f r o m t h e r o y a l c o u r t s a n d t h e i r c i v i l i z a t i o n t o th e l i f e , la n g u a g e and a r t s o f th e p e o p le . T h e new c l a s s f o u n d i t s e l f l e s s h o u n d b y t r a ­ d i t i o n t h a n t h e n o b i l i t y o r c l e r g y . . . . The g ro w th o f n a tio n a lis m i s th e p ro c e s s of i n t e g r a t i o n of th e m asses o f t h e p e o p l e i n t o a common p o l i t i c a l f o r m . ^ 5 In o th e r w ord s,

to c re a te n a tio n a lism ,

c a p a b le o f o v e rtu r n in g e m p ire s, lift

n a tio n a lity

th e p e o p le . g e n e ra l,

o ff its

som eone o r s o m e th in g h a d t o

e s o t e r i c p e d e s ta l and p re s e n t i t

H a v in g p r e s e n t e d i t

r e a d ily a c c e p te d

a p o te n t fo rc e

it,

to

t h e m a s s e s who, i n

s ta te s m e n w ere im m e d ia te ly

c o n fro n te d w ith th e n e c e s s ity of q u ic k ly d e p o li t ic iz i n g F r a n k e n s t e i n 1s m o n s t e r . tra n sfe rre d

se rv e d o n ly to one.

re m a in e d a t t a c h e d t o n a t i o n a l i s m

p ro cess S ta te

c iz e d and th e S t a te ,

a s s u c h , becam e t h e f o u n t a i n h e a d

of

ferv o r.

He d e n i e s t h a t

n a tio n a lity .”

It

of th e n a tio n a lity

"b lo o d o r r a c e i s

is tru e ,

a s K o hn s t a t e s ,

th e b a s is

of

th a t n a tio n a lity

is n o th in g a b s o lu te and is n o t s c i e n t i f i c a l l y

a c c u ra te ;

h ow ever, th e s u b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g o f b e lo n g in g t o 2R

its e lf

i d e o l o g y h a d b eco m e p o l i t i ­

Kohn a l s o d w e l l s on t h e f i c t i o n c o n c e p t.

of n a tio n a lism

I d e n t i f y t h e phenom enon a s a d e p o l i t i c i z e d

D u rin g t h i s

p a trio tic

th is

To t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e S t a t e w a s

c e r t a i n e x p lo s iv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

and w hat e le m e n ts

to

th e s p i r i t u a l

H a n s K o h n , T h e I d e a o f N a t i o n a l i s m (New Y o r k : T he M a c m i l l a n C o m p an y , 1 9 ^ 4 ) , p p . 3 ” ^ See a l s o K ohnfs R e v o lu ­ t i o n s and D i c t a t o r s h i p s (C a m b rid g e: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1 9 ^1 ), p p . 6 8 -8 2 .

38 f a m i l y o f common b l o o d i s

a re a lity

r e m o v e d f r o m t h e m in d s o f m e n .

t h a t c an n o t be e a s i l y

H e re in l i e s

th e

im p o rta n c e

o f t h e n a t i o n a l i t y c o n c e p t - - w h a t i t m eans t o h u m a n k in d - - n o t w h a t i t m eans t o t h e s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t . T h a t t h e n a t i o n m e a n s a g r e a t d e a l t o men i s t r a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t g o v e rn m e n ts, t h e p o l i t i c a l S ta tism , c o n tin u a lly v ic e to th e n a tio n .

g o v ern m en t a r e u se d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . id e n tifie s

sta te

re p re se n ta tiv e s

id e n tify s ta te

The te rm s s t a t e ,

fo re ig n p o lic y as

illu s­ of

a c tio n as s e r ­

c o u n try , n a tio n , W hen t h e c i t i z e n

in lin e w ith h is

own

d e sire s he is

id e n tif y in g h im s e lf w ith th e f o re ig n p o lic y of

th e n a tio n .

M o r g e n t h a u a s k s how d o e s i t

come a b o u t t h a t

t h e g r e a t m ass o f p e o p le do so c o m p l e t e ly su b m e rg e t h e i r in d iv id u a lism . te rm in o lo g y .

H is a n sw e r i s fram ed i n p s y c h o l o g ic a l Men a r e

th w a rte d

in t h e i r d e s ir e s f o r p e rs o n a l

pow er a g g ra n d iz e m e n t so th e y p r o j e c t u n s a t i s f i e d a s p i r a t i o n s o n t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c e n e a n d d e r i v e som e c o m p e n s a t o r y p le a su re th e re b y .

S o c i e t y a s a w h o le t h e n p l a c e s

m ark o f r a t i o n a l i z e d a c c e p t a n c e u p o n t h i s

its

own

n o tio n :

P o w e r p u r s u e d b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r h i s own s a k e i s c o n s id e re d an e v i l t o be t o l e r a t e d o n ly w i th in c e r t a i n bounds. . . . Pow er d i s g u i s e d b y i d e o l o g i e s an d p u r ­ s u e d i n t h e name a n d f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e n a t i o n b e c o m e s a good f o r w h ic h a l l c i t i z e n s m ust s t r i v e . 2 '

^ Y o rk:

K ohn, The I d e a o f N a t i o n a l i s m ,

ojd.

c it,.,

p p . 8 -1 0 .

^ H a n s J . M o r g e n t h a u , - P o l i t i c s Among N a t i o n s A lfre d A. K n opf, I n c . , 1 9 4 8 ), p . 7 4 .

(New

39 S t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t f o r " t h e p o w er and p o l i c i e s n a t i o n ” com es fr o m t h e l o w e r m i d d l e c l a s s .

H ence,

o f th e it

w on d er, w it h t h e p r o g r e s s i v e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h i s c l a s s th e c r e s t o f w estern in d u s tr ia lis m , p o litic s

on

th a t in te r n a tio n a l

i s pursued w ith su ch f e r o c i t y

A ch ie v em en t o f s o c i e t a l s t a b i l i t y

i s no

is

in our t im e s .

a m eans to w a r d m i n i m i z ­

i n g a g g r e s s i v e n a t i o n a l i s m , a c c o r d i n g t o M o r g e n th a u , h e n c e a s t a b l e lo w e r m id d le c l a s s can be e x p e c t e d t o g i v e l e s s 2ft ir r a tio n a l lo y a lty . The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t o b e g r a s p e d h e r e i s e v e r one c a l l s th e " n a tio n .”

it,

t h a t , w h at­

l o y a l t y m u st b e c o n n e c t e d i n some way t o

A p r im a r y l o y a l t y i n o u r t i m e s g o e s t o t h e

S t a t e b u t o n ly in s o f a r a s th e S ta te i s c o n sid e r e d th e em b odim ent o f n a t i o n a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t .

T h i s - i s tr u e in th e

U . S . S . R . w h e r e l o y a l t y t o . t h e p r o l e t a r i a t e m eans l o y a l t y t o th e n a tio n

(i,. e .., th e " t o i l i n g s t r a t a ” ) 7 ^

T h is n a t i o n a l i t y ,

t h i s a r t i f i c i a l p ro d u ct, t h i s

" c u lt iv a t e d p la n t , b lo sso m in g

on r a c i a l s o i l and f e r t i l i z e d

by h i s t o r i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n

b e c o m e s i n t i m e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e l a n d t o w h ic h i t fin e d ”^

a n 3 o f t h e p e o p l e on t h e l a n d .

is

.

.

con­

T h ese p e o p le d e -

I»QC. c i t . 2 9 O sc a r J . J a n o w s k y , N a t i o n a l i t i e s and N a t i o n a l M i n o r i t i e s (New Y o r k : The M a c m illa n Company, 1 9 ^ 5 ) > p . 8 0 . 30 L e o n D o m i n i o n , T h e F r o n t i e r s o f L a n g u a g e a n d N a t i o n a l i t y i n E u r o p e (New Y o r k : H e n r y H o l t a n d C o m p an y , 1 9 1 7 )7 P.

.

40

raand r e c o g n i t i o n

o f t h e i r s a c r e d sy m b o ls, a r t i f i c i a l th o u g h

t h e y may b e • It p rin c ip le

i s p erh ap s d i f f i c u l t of n a tio n a lity

th a t n a tio n a lity

is

to fin d u t i l i t y

in th e

u n l e s s one a c c e p t s th e K e ith t h e s i s

a p a r t o f n a t u r e f s s c h e m e t o p r o v i d e men

w i t h t h a t c o m p e t i t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o h i s p r o g r e s s ,3 1 t h e l e s s , Cobban c o n s i d e r s th e

in d iv id u a l

[to f e e l a]

N ev er­

i t a " p sy c h o lo g ic a l n e c e s s ity f o r sen se of b e lo n g in g to a s p e c ia l

p l a c e a n d a d i s t i n c t c o m m u n i t y . ”32 Le B o n , c a l l i n g n a t i o n a l i t y a " m y s t i c i l l u s i o n , 11 c o n ­ s i g n s t h e c o n c e p t t o t h e d u s t b i n . ^3

g0 d o e s F rie d m a n n ,

a l t h o u g h m o re d i r e c t l y h e a t t a c k s n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y a n d d e c la re s

it

can no lo n g e r be i d e n t i f i e d w ith p a t r i o t i s m .

He q u o t e s C o l e :

" N a t i o n a l i t y can no l o n g e r ,

in t h i s

tw e n ti­

e th c e n tu r y , p ro v id e a b a s i s f o r th e S t a t e . "3^ III.

NATIONALISM

The N i n e t e e n t h a n d T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r i e s a r e o f t e n term ed c e n t u r i e s

of n a tio n a lism .

3^ New Y o r k T im e s M a g a z i n e , (C h ic a g o :

T h is

is n o t to

O c to b e r 2 ,

say,

of

1932.

A lfre d C obban, N a tio n a l S e lf D e te rm in a tio n U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ), p . 139•

33> G u s t a v L e B o n , T h e W o r l d i n R e v o l t M a c m i l l a n C o m p an y , 1 9 2 1 ) , p . 2 0 3 . 3 ^ F r i e d m a n n , op> c i t . . ,

p.

170.

(New Y o r k : p T he

41 c o u rse, fo re

t h a t th e r e e x is te d no n a tio n a lis m

th e

1800*s .

d is tin g u is h e d

i n t h e w o r l d "be­

C o n sc io u s d e v e lo p m e n t, n o n e th e le s s ,

fro m u n c o n s c io u s and s p o n ta n e o u s g ro w th i n

E n g la n d an d F ra n c e o f t h e

l a t e m id d le a g e s ,

o ccu rred

l a t e r p a r t o f t h e c e n t u r y w h ic h p r e c e d e d o u r own. and I t a l y

o f t h e 1 8 7 0 * s a r e "best e x a m p le s o f a r e a s

a n aw akened and i n f l a t e d n a t i o n a l p a t r i o t i s m era of in te rn a tio n a l p o l it i c s . se n t,

as

in th e G e rm a n y

i n w h ich

l a u n c h e d a new

f,When t h e s e e d s w e r e p r e ­

p r o p a g a n d a w as e m p l o y e d t o m ake th e m g e r m i n a t e . " 3 5 E x p la n a tio n s a re

n a tio n a listic

tra n s itio n

of

g ro w th and t h e b e g in n in g s o f p o l i t i c i z a t i o n .

L ib e ra ls p re fe rre d th e s p i r i t

le g io n f o r th e

to

r e g a r d dem ocracy a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

of a w a k e n in g --th a t s p i r i t t h a t c o n sc io u s ly d e ­

m an d e d a p o w e r s t a t e

f o r o n e f s own p e o p l e .

lo o k e d t o th e d o c t r i n e

S o c ia lists

o f e c o n o m ic d e t e r m i n i s m a s a n e x ­

p la n a to ry f a c to r . P h ilo s o p h ic a l a n th r o p o lo g is ts p erh ap s a tte m p te d th e m ost r a t i o n a l e x p la n a tio n s w h e re ,

i n t h e w ords o f K e i t h ,

it

w as s t a t e d n a t i o n a l i s m , a s p a r t o f N a t u r e f s e v o l u t i o n a r y m a c h in e ry , p ro v id e d w h ic h le a d s

”th e

in c ip ie n t sta g e of th e p ro cess

o n to r a c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . ”

w as d i f f i c u l t t o a r g u e w i t h K e i t h * s

At any r a t e ,

it

re s e a rc h c o n c lu sio n s

^ E d w a rd M c C h e sn ey S a i t , P o l i t i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n s , A P r e f a c e (New Y o r k : D . A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y C o m p an y , I n c . , 1 9 3 8 ), p . 371.

42 th a t p rim itiv e s form ed i n t o

(lik e

th e d i s t i n c t

g ro u p s i s o l a t e d

one fro m th e

as a n a tu ra l r e s u lt of t r i b a l p re s e rv a tio n .

race of A u s tra lia n s)

in stin c ts

is

of s e l f - i n t e r e s t and

C o n f l i c t b r e e d s p r o g r e s s a n d t h e o n l y w ay

man may " a d v a n c e u p t h e r u n g s o f t h e g ress"

o th e r, a p p a re n tly

to p a r tic ip a te

in th e

V iru le n t e x p re ssio n s

l a d d e r o f e m in e n t p r o ­

r a c i a l s t r u g g l e . 3^

of lo y a lty

to th e n a tio n

o c c u rre d in th e E ig h te e n th and N in e te e n th C e n tu r ie s and so c ia l s c ie n tis ts

b e c a m e m o re c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e f i n i t i o n s

th e term n a t i o n .

I t w as o n l y n a t u r a l ,

tim e when v o g u e d i c t a t e d tific

d a ta

to

As a r e s u l t ,

in a

of p h y sic a l s c ie n ­

many w r i t e r s a n d

t o d a y p l a c e w h a t may w e l l b e e x a g g e r a t e d e m p h a ­

sis

on s u c h c r i t e r i a .

(2)

common l a n g u a g e : ( 3 )

tio n

th e a p p lic a tio n

th a t,

s o c i a l m e th o d o lo g y , h i g h l y o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a

w ere m ost s o u g h t a f t e r . a u th o ritie s

p erh ap s,

of

One w r i t e r l i s t s :

(1 )

common r a c e :

common r e l i g i o n ; ( 4 ) common t r a d i ­

( i n c l u d i n g an a m a lg a m a tio n o f t h e f i r s t

th re e p lu s

i n s t i n c t , g eo g rap h y , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ).3 7 T ra d itio n th e o b je c tiv e

is

lis ts .

g e n e r a l l y g i v e n p r im a r y im p o r ta n c e on Jo h n S t u a r t M i l l th o u g h t so and

3 ^ s e e S i r A r t h u r K e i t h f s e n t i r e a r t i c l e i n t h e New Y o rk T im e s M a g a z i n e , O c t o b e r 2 , 1 9 3 2 . T h is i s t h e fam ous a r t i c l e c o n ta in in g th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n : " N a tu re s c o f f s a t t h e law s o f e c o n o m ic s . N a tio n a lis m is N a tu re ’s c a l l •

%

don:



37 C h r i s t o p h e r L lo y d , D em ocracy a n d I t s R i v a l s L o n g m a n s , G r e e n a n d C o m p an y , 1 9 4 6 ) , p . 1 6 .

(L on­

43 illu stra te d th e

ro le

i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m anner:

" it

is

enough to

re c a ll

o f J e a n n e d*A rc i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e F r e n c h

n a t i o n a l consciousness. ” 38 S a i t ta k e s an e m in e n tly r e a l i s t i c th e

o b je c tiv e f a c to rs

of n a tio n a lism

s ig h t of th e s u b je c tiv i ty a ll,

its

and c e r t a i n

T he t i e s

in th a t he n ev er lo se s a fte r

R a th e r, S a i t se es th e

i d e n t i ty ” a s th e key to n a tio n a lis m ,

"t ie s ” of a f f in ity

se n tim e n t.

in reg ard to

o f t h e phenom enon (w h ich i s ,

m ost s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t ) .

" se n tim e n t of s e p a ra te

sta n d

are:

a re p re s e n t to r e in f o r c e

(1 ) k i n s h i p : (2 )

th is

l a n g u a g e : (3 )

r e l i g i o n : (4 ) g e o g ra p h y ; (5 ) t r a d i t i o n s : (6 ) g o v e rn m e n t: (7)

e c o n o m ic i n t e r e s t .3 9

re c o m m e n d e d f o r i t s th is

lis t

in c lu sio n of k in s h ip , tre a te d

th e s is as th e b a s ic

a c o lle a g u e

P ro fe sso r S a i t's

of S a i t 's ,

is

a ls o e a r l i e r in

com ponent to n a t i o n a l i t y . ^ 0

H e rtz ,

w a rn s t h a t "m ere w i l l d o e s n o t y e t

m ake a n a t i o n " ; h e n c e , w h i l e a v o i d i n g a n o v e r - e m p h a s i s o f th e o b je c tiv e f a c to r s ,

t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d b e a r i n m in d t h a t

" th e s u b j e c t i v i s t th e o r y a l s o m ust n o t be s t r e t c h e d to o b lite r a te

[th e ir]

s i g n i f i c a n c e . ”^ 1

Man h a s l i v e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s

3 8 Q u o t e d i n S u l z b a c h , op., c i t . , 39 S a i t ,

op. c i t .,

40 C f . a n t i . , lil

tic s

so f a r a s

in f u l l

p. 55.

p . 351*

p. 13.

F r e d e r ic k H e r tz , N a t i o n a l i t y in H is to r y and P o l i ­ (New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ) , p . 1 3 .

a w a r e n e s s o f n a t i o n a l i s m , a l t h o u g h m any i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e n o c o n c e p tio n of i t s

t r u e m e a n in g .

f o r e v a lu a tio n of th e a ffe c ts

T h e r e h a s b e e n a m p le tim e

im p o rta n c e o f t h e phenom enon a s i t

in te rn a tio n a l r e la tio n s .

t h e r e a r e tw o d e f i n i t e

As m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d

sc h o o ls e v a l u a t i n g th e p o te n c y and

w o rth o f n a ti o n a l i s m .

T h is t h e s i s h a s

in d ic a te d e a r l i e r

t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f S i r A r t h u r K e i t h t o men l i k e F r i e d m a n n who h a v e f o u n d t h e n a t i o n a b a n k r u p t m y th d r i v i n g m a n k in d t o se n se le s s s la u g h te r and, p erh ap s,

to w a rd e v e n t u a l e x t i n c t i o n .

W ith o u t r e f e r e n c e t o th e u t i l i t y m ere c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f i t s w rite rs.

l i g i o n and n o tio n s

th e

im p o rta n c e p la g u e s c o n te m p o ra ry

S u lz b a c h i s p o s i t iv e

t h e m ost im p o r ta n t f o r c e

of n a tio n a lism ,

th a t " n a tio n a lism

is by f a r

i n m o d e r n t i m e s / 1 m o re s o t h a n r e ­

of " c la ss

s o l i d a r i t y /* ^3

H e rtz a ls o

c o n s i d e r s n a t i o n a l i s m a s " m o re p o w e r f u l t h a n a n y o t h e r p o l i t i c a l creed tic s .

.

[a n d ] t h e s t r o n g e s t f a c t o r i n m odern p o l i ­

. T h e S u l z b a c h a n d H e r t z a n a l y s i s may b e c o m p a r e d w i t h

th e a n a ly s is

o f H a n s K o h n who r e g a r d s n a t i o n a l i s m a s " o n l y a

p a s s i n g fo rm o f i n t e g r a t i o n / *

^

S u p r a . p p . 2 0 a n d 4j0.

^3 S u lz b a c h , lili

K ohn, h o w e v e r, b y no m eans

op., c i t . , p . 1 .

H e rtz , p p . c i t .. p . 1 . H e rtz a ls o i l l u s t r a t e s so m e th in g o f t h e c h a l le n g e p r e s e n t e d i n a s tu d y o f n a t i o n ­ a l i s m w h en h e r e f e r s t o i t a s t h e m o s t o b s c u r e a s w e l l a s stro n g e st p o litic a l f a c to r .

45 c o n s i d e r s t h e phenom enon a s one w h ic h h a s p la y e d a r e l a t i v e ­ l y s m a l l p a r t i n p a s t h u m an a f f a i r s .

On t h e c o n t r a r y , h e

d e v o te s c o n s id e r a b le tim e to a n e x a m in a tio n o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c w o rk in g s w here th e y m a n if e s te d th e m s e lv e s

i n w h a t Kohn

r e g a r d s a s a "n ew m o r a l i t y

[em b o d ied ] i n t h e

n a tio n a lity and l i b e r t y .

.

.

tw o c o n c e p t s o f

. o f te n a lm o st i n s e p a r a b le ."

W h e re t h e m o d e r n a g e o f n a t i o n a l i s m n o l o n g e r e x p r e s s e s m o r a l i t y man m u s t , a n d w i l l , .

.

lo o k to o th e r id e a s

. n a tio n a lis m above i t s e l f ,

"w h ich l i f t

p o i n t i n g f o r w a r d on t h e ro a d

t o d e e p e r l i b e r t y a n d t o h i g h e r f o r m s o f i n t e g r a t i o n . " 1^ O t h e r w r i t e r s a l s o p l a y dow n n a t i o n a l i s m 1s m o d e r n ro le .

Be H e g e d u s c o n s i d e r s a m o d e r n g r o w t h o f r e g i o n a l i s m

(su b -s ta tis m ) as v ir tu a lly are

i n e v i t a b l e w here p r e s e n t n a ti o n s

to o b i g to be lo v e d c o m p le te ly .

m iz e s to d a y * s n a ti o n a l i s m

F rie d m a n n a l s o m in i­

f a c to r b u t fo r a d if f e r e n t reaso n ,

w h ic h s p r i n g s fro m a s e m a n tic p ro b le m . F a s c i s m " o f W o r l d W ar I I and,

of co u rse,

" Im p e ria listic

i s n o t n a tio n a lis m t o F rie d m a n n ,

in s t r i c t d e f in itio n , he is

q u ite

rig h t.

T h e a u t h o r a g a i n c a u t i o n s t h e r e a d e r t h a t o n l y i f we t a k e t h e v iew t h a t t h e te r m n a t i o n a l i s m of lo y a lty

to

th e S ta te ,

i n c l u d e s t h e m odern s h i f t

aw ay fro m t h e n a t i o n d i r e c t l y ,

can

JiR ^ H ans K ohn, The I d e a o f N a t i o n a l i s m , o p . c i t . ,

pp.

5 7 5 -6 . 2i^

.

Adam d e H e g e d u s , P a t r i o t i s m o r F e a c e ? (New Y o r k : C h a rle s S c r i b n e r fs S o n s, 1 9 4 7 ), p . 2 2 .

th e s e th o u g h t m ire s be b r id g e d . a n a ly sis

of th e

ro le

At any r a t e , K ohnfs

of n a tio n a lis m

a n o th e r p re o c c u p a tio n ,

te n d s to

in tro d u c e

e . & ., w hat h a s b e e n th e u t i l i t y

o f c o n s c io u s ly d e v e lo p in g n a tio n a l s e n tim e n t. N a tio n a lism se rv ed th e dom i s

in te re s ts

o f freed o m i f

to be in te r p r e te d as e sta b lis h m e n t of s t a te s

free­

(som e­

tim e s c a l l e d n a tio n h o o d s ) by d i s t i n c t c u l t u r a l and r a c i a l e le m e n ts.

I t d id fu rn is h th e sp a rk s,

first

to w a rd c u l t u r a l

a u to n o m y a n d t h e n t o w a r d a p o l i t i c a l a u t o n o m y t h a t w a s q u i t e w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d i n p r e - W o r l d W ar I I E u r o p e . d e s tru c tiv e n e s s

E s se n tia l

s o o n a p p e a r e d w hen i t was n o t e d t h a t s a t i s ­

f a c t i o n w a s n 't t o b e fo u n d i n t h e m ere f o r m a t i o n o f n a t i o n ­ h ood a n d t h e a g g r e s s i v e s p i r i t e n g e n d e r e d seem ed t o b ly c a rry over to Im p e ria lism .

in v a ria ­

e c o n o m ic q u a r r e l s a n d a t t e m p t s a t

S a it,

i n t h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t e , w as i n p a r t

p a r a p h r a s i n g m en l i k e H a y e s w h e n h e s t a t e d t h a t : N a t i o n a l i s m , t h e c r i t i c s s a y , a r o u s e s sy m p a th y a t t h e o u t s e t b y i t s a s p i r a t i o n s f o r f r e e d o m , a n d l a t e r , m o v in g a r o u n d t h e c i r c l e , t r i e s i t s h a n d a t s u b j u g a t i n g o t h e r s 7^7 A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p resu m ed u t i l i t y , to n a tio n a lis m --in

its

advanced s t a t e

a n a l y z e d b y E v e r e t t M a r t i n who w r i t e s

o r la c k of i t ,

of s ta tis m --is a p tly t h a t p e o p le n eed ” Papa

S t a t e , ” s o m e t h i n g o v e r t h e m s e l v e s t o w h i c h ” t h e y may i n

47 im a g in a tio n re g a rd a s s u b l i m e . M a r t i n , n o t f e e l t h a t men m u s t l o o k u p t o

h o w ev er, does

sy m b o ls o f c o r r u p t i o n :

I h a v e c a l l e d t h e m o d e r n S t a t e a new C h u r c h . . . . B ut I f e a r t h a t su c h a c o m p a ris o n i s v e r y u n f a i r t o th e m e d ie v a l C h u rc h . F o r w h a t a c h u r c h t h i s new o n e i s — a s o u l l e s s m e c h a n i s m t o w h i c h men l o o k f o r t h e r e d e m p ­ t i o n o f th e w o rld and s a l v a t i o n fro m th e m s e lv e s . . .; i t s p r ie s th o o d th e p r o f e s s i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s . . .; and i t s God t h e s e l f - i d o l a t r y o f ” t h e P e o p l e ” a s m a s s . 49 To c o n c l u d e t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i s m a s a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l phenom enon i t re la tio n sh ip to : p o litic s .

in b r ie f ,

in e v ita b le

of th e n o tio n th a t s e l f -

i s c a p a b le o f s o lv in g a l l w o rld ,

s ta b ility

and peaG e.

He c o n s i d e r s

s p re a d o f t y p i c a l l y W este rn p o l i t i c a l

s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n am ong t h e m , a s , u n e x p e c te d and ev en an u n d e s ire d tr u e b ecau se n a tio n a l id e o lo g y , t e r of n a tio n a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t, of s ta b ility ,

(2 ) pow er

som e t h o u g h t s o n t h e c o n t r o l

th e f a lla c y

in i t s e l f ,

p ro b lem s r e l a t i n g t o th e

to u c h on i t s

sh o u ld be expounded.

Cobban o u t l i n e s d e te rm in a tio n ,

n ecessary to

( 1 ) n a tio n a l id e o lo g y ; and

F in a lly ,

of n a tio n a lism

is

to a c e rta in

d e v e l o p m e n t

in i t s is

e x te n t, T h is

”a n is

c a p a c ity as in te r p r e ­

c o n d itio n e d by th e d e g re e

p r o s p e r i t y , and c o n d itio n s

iiQ

. ” 50

id e a s,

o f p eace th ro u g h o u t

E v e r e t t D e a n M a r t i n , ”T h e R e l i g i o n o f t h e S t a t e , ” i n W a ld o R . B ro w n e ( e d . ) , L e v i a t h a n i n C r i s i s (New Y o r k : The V ik in g P r e s s , 1 9 4 6 ) , p p . 2 1 3 - 1 9 . M a rtin ,

Ib id .,

p. 219.

C o b b a n , o£>. c i t . p . 1 2 3 .

48 th e w o rld . s ta b le

T h e r e c a n “b e no n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y d e d i c a t e d

in te rn a tio n a l p o litic s

a re e re c te d .

to

u n t i l tru e p o l i t i c a l n a tio n s

T h is s i t u a t i o n presum es a c o n d itio n p r e c e d e n t,

j e . g . . , c u l t u r a l a u to n o m y

[fo llo w e d b y ] th e d e v elo p m e n t o f

common p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . ^

S a i d c u l t u r a l a u to n o m y i s

to be a c h ie v e d by p o s i t iv e m easures to e s t a b l i s h c o n d itio n s of n o n -o p p re ssio n . f,r i g h t s

L a c k i n g t h e p r o p e r ^ c l i m a t e *1 t h e

o f n a t i o n a l i t y a r e n o t a b s o l u t e . f,52 F r e d e r i c k H e r tz g iv e s th e m ost c o m p le te e m p h a sis t o

th e

id e a

t h a t n a t i o n a l id e o lo g y e v e n tu a lly assum es m a jo r

im p o rta n c e b e c a u se i t

d e te rm in e s w hat n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t ,

g o a l o f t h e v e h i c l e p o l i t i c s . w i l l b e . 53 o th e r re la te d fa c to rs

in fo rm a tio n ,

it

c irc le "

and

i s p o s s i b l e t o draw a c h a r t o f

c o m p o sin g t h e c o m p l i c a t e d p i c t u r e

re la tio n s .

F ro m t h i s ,

as

of in te rn a tio n a l

B ra u n th a l does t h i s and la b e ls

it

a ^ v ic io u s

i n c l u d i n g n a t i o n a l i s t p s y c h o lo g y , w h ic h c r e a t e s

th e

n a t i o n a l an d s o v e r e i g n s t a t e , w h ic h i n t u r n f e e d s n a t i o n a l i s t p sy c h o lo g y . n a tio n a l

The a u t h o r p r e f e r s t o

id e o lo g y in th e p ic tu r e

in c lu d e H e r tz !s

i n ro u g h ly th e fo llo w in g

m anner:

51 I b i d .•

P. 138.

52 i b i d . ,

p.



H e rtz ,

0 2 ,. e l t . .

^

B ra u n th a l,

182. p p . 1 8-19 .

T he P a r a d o x o f N a t i o n a l i s m , p p . 9 2 - 1 0 0 .

49 ( 1 ) P o w e r, a s e x p r e s s e d i n a n y known s y s te m o f w o rld p o l i t i c s , i s th e c o re o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s and th e fo c u s o f to d a y * s n a t i o n ­ s t a t e s y s te m ( i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n a r c h y ) . Pow er b e c o m e s t h e m e a n s b e s t s e r v i n g w h a t i s d e em ed to be n a tio n a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t . (2) N a tio n a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t , in t u r n , i s in flu e n c e d b y t h e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r w h ic h g i v e s fo rm to th e n a tio n a l id e o lo g y . (3 ) N a tio n a l id e o lo g y d e riv e s i t s fo r c e ( p o l i t i c i z a ­ t i o n ) fro m im p a c t w ith th e phenom enon n a t i o n a l ­ ism a n d c o n s e q u e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f v i t a l a s p e c t s o f t h i s phenom enon. (4 )

N a tio n a lis m i s a p r o d u c t o f t h e s t a t e sy ste m ( a lth o u g h one r o o t c o m p o n e n t- - p a tr io tis m - a n t e d a t e s m odern h i s t o r y ) .

E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e f o u r e l e m e n t s sh o w s a d e c i d e d l i n k am ong t h e m , w i t h t h e l a s t f a c t o r h o o k i n g b a c k t o t h e s ta r tin g p o in t,

pow er p o l i t i c s .

vance th e th e o ry t h a t n a tio n a lis m al

i d e o lo g y , w h ic h i n t u r n

sta te ,

a s d e te rm in e d by i t s

is

The c i r c l e h e l p s t o a d ­ se rv e s th e ends of n a tio n ­

th e c o n d itio n e d p ro d u ct of th e

le a d e rs

in c o n fo rm ity w ith

n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r a b o u n d in g w i t h i n th e s t a t e .

T h is

n a tio n a l c h a r a c te r , a lth o u g h n o t h ig h - lig h te d by th e a u th o r i n h i s w o rd p i c t u r e

of th e v ic io u s c i r c l e ,

h e l p s t o m o ld n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y , p e r h a p s fa c to r in a l l . q u ity .

It

Its

ro o ts,

is,

w here i t

t h e m ost im p o r ta n t

lik e p a trio tis m ,

r e s t in a n t i ­

i s m ade u p o f

t r a d i t i o n s , i n t e r e s t s , and i d e a l s p re d o m in a n t in - a n a t i o n [an d t h e s e ] d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o th e id e a o f th e n a ti o n . . . fro m th e n a t i o n a l id e o lo g y and th e

50 n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s .5 5 N a t i o n a l id e o lo g y once form ed becomes p a r t and p a r c e l w ith th e

s t a t e , w hich expends i t s

s e l f - i n t e r e s t g o a l. U .S .S .R .

ta c tic s,

power tow ard th e n a t i o n a l

An a p t e x a m p l e may e v e n b e f o u n d i n t h e w here th e S o v ie t s t a t e

p o st-re v o lu tio n a ry days,

in ten d ed ,

to a c q u ir e power and t u r n

it

d i r e c t l y and im m e d ia te ly tow ard w o rld r e v o l u t i o n . co n d itio n s d ic ta te d ,

in e a rly

Then, as

t h e n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y was r e - i n t e r -

p r e t e d a s dem anding a n i n d i r e c t a p p ro a c h t o

in te rn atio n al

r e v o l u t io n w ith s e c u r i t y of R ussia as th e f i r s t p r e r e q u i s i t e . N a tio n a lis m , w i t h i n t h e fram ew ork of th e s t a t e q u ick ly re in s ta te d

s y s t e m , was

t o a p o s i t i o n o f dom inance i n t h e s t a t e

p o lic y o f th e U .S .S .R .

The i d e o l o g y o f t h e

sta te

subm erged

t h e i n v a l i d a s s u m p t i o n s o f K a r l Marx. Hence,

rem oving t h e v i c i o u s n e s s from n a t i o n a l i d e o l ­

o g y “ i f we m e a n b y v i c i o u s n e s s a n i n t e n d e d u s e o f p o w e r f o r a g g re s s io n and u p s e t t i n g of th e s t a t u s

quo— is

in fin itely

more i m p o r t a n t t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o f o c u s p a t r i o t i s m . a u th o r reaso n s t h a t to w hatever u n it o r p r a c t i c a l p a trio tism tic s,

is focussed,

w hich m a n i f e s ts

rem ains c o n s t a n t .

id eal

th e problem of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i ­

itse lf

in a tu g - o f - w a r f o r pow er,

T his t h e s i s d is c o u n ts t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

o f One W o r l d w i t h o u t a f o r c e t o

55 i b i d . . p .

The

19.

oppose i t .

51 I n o th e r w o rd s,

in a stu d y of n a tio n a l id e o lo g y —

w h i c h i s a n o t h e r w ay o f l a b e l i n g a p o l i t i c i z e d w h ich d raw s i t s

p o litic iz a tio n

id e o lo g y

fro m th e s t a t e * s c a p tu r e and

r e t e n t i o n o f c e r t a i n v i t a l e l e m e n t s o f n a t i o n a l i s m —- l i e s p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n t o th e p ro b lem o f i n s t a b i l i t y a ffa irs .

th e

in w o rld

No s t u d y o f n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y c a n b e u n d e r t a k e n

w ith o u t stu d y o f th e s t a t e and th e n a tu r e of i n te r n a t i o n a l p o litic s . e tc .,

R e sp o n sib ility f o r i n s t a b i l it y ,

sh ifts

e v e n tu a lly to

r e s u l ta n t w ars,

u p w ard t h r o u g h t h e c h a i n o f phenom ena c o n n e c te d in te rn a tio n a l p o litic s - - th e

co re o f i n t e r ­

n a tio n a l r e l a ti o n s . I n su m m a ry , n a t i o n a l i s m

i s a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l phenom e­

n o n w h ic h h a s f o l lo w e d a som ew hat c o n s c i o u s d e v e lo p m e n t u tiliz in g

t h e cem en t o f a suprem e l o y a l t y e n g e n d e re d b y lo v e

o f c o u n try u n ity

( p a trio tis m ) a p p lie d

(n a tio n a lity ),

to a concept of n a tio n a l

p ro v id in g th a t t h i s

concept is

g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d b y t h e f o l k m a k in g up t h e n a t i o n .

T hese

f o l k a r e p r i m a r i l y a w a r e o f w h a t t h e y c o n s i d e r a common k i n ­ sh ip f a c to r ,

o f t e n t i m e s m e r e ly a p r e s u m p ti o n , b u t so m e tim e s

gro u n d ed in f a c t ,

p a rtic u la rly

b a c k m any c e n t u r i e s

i f h i s t o r i c a l re fe re n c e goes

(su c h a s S e rb , C ro a t and S lo v e n e g ro u p s

i n t h e Y u g o sla v a r e a ) .

A d iffe re n c e

I s n o te d i n e x p re s s io n s

o f p a t r i o t i s m w here t h e p rim e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s

th e p a t r i a ,

a n d n a t i o n a l i s m w here t h e p rim e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s th e n a tio n .

lo y a lty

to

T h is d i f f e r e n c e , w hen o b s e r v e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n

52 w ith an a re a s tu d y ,

i s b e s t re g a rd e d a s m e re ly th e d i f f e r ­

ence in h is to r ic

d e v e lo p m e n t.

lik e

re v e a ls

n a tio n a lis m

P a trio tism ,

f o r e x a m p le ,

i t s e l f as an e a r l i e r m a n ife s ta tio n

o f a d i s c o n t e n t a m on g p e o p l e s u n d e r f o r e i g n c o n t r o l . th e p a t r i o t i c

p e rio d s

of h isto ry

(u su a lly p r io r to

In

th e l a t e

N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y ) , we u s u a l l y s e e t h e u r g e f o r f r e e d o m ex p re sse d by in d iv id u a ls

in d e p e n d e n tly o f any p a r t i c u l a r

f e e l i n g s f o r t h e i r b r o t h e r k in sm e n .

N a tio n a lism

on th e

o t h e r h a n d , m akes a w i d e r a p p e a l t o k in s m e n i n t h e i r nam e, a s w e l l a s t h e name o f t h e w ith c o n tr o l o f n a tio n a lis m has been re v e a le d in i t s

in d iv id u a l o r c la s s .

C oncern

fo llo w s n e x t - - a f t e r n a tio n a lis m

tr u e n a tu re as a p o w erfu l s o c io ­

p o l i t i c a l phenom enon. The m a c h in a tio n s a n d g r e a t c o m p le x ity o f t h i s phenom enon n a t i o n a l i s m w i l l be e x p lo r e d i n C h a p te r I I I . T hro u g h a n a n a l y s i s

o f s e v e r a l o f t h e many f a c t o r s

c o n tri­

b u t i n g t o t h e g r o w t h o f m o re t h a n o n e c o n t i g u o u s n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e w e s te r n B a lk a n a r e a ,

th e

r e a d e r may g a i n som e c o m p r e ­

h e n s i o n o f t h e d e e p - r o o t e d , m a n y - f a c e t e d , d y n am ic c h a r a c t e r of tru e n a tio n a lism . fo llo w in g p a t r i o t i c

A d e fin ite

lin e

m o v em en ts, a s o p p o se d a n d c o n t r i b u t o r y t o

n a tio n a lis m , w ill n o t be ad h ered to c al o rd er.

o f d e v e lo p m e n t

stric tly

in c h ro n o lo g i­

H e n ce , t h e g e n e r a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a t i o n a l i s m

53 is h ig h lig h te d

in C h a p te r I I I by a s e l e c t i o n o f m ajo r

c o n sid e ra tio n s. g ro w th o f t h e

F a c to rs c o n tr ib u tin g to t h i s

g en eral

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l phenom enon n a t i o n a l i s m a r e

ex a m in e d i n a s l o g i c a l a n o r d e r a s t h e a u t h o r c o u ld a r r a n g e .

CHAPTER III FACTORS MOTIVATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONFLICTING NATIONALISMS IN YUGOSLAVIA The w h o le p an o ram a o f Y u g o s l a v ^ h i s t o r y o f f e r s n e c e ssa ry c lu e s to n a t i o n a l i s t i c B a lk a n a r e a .

d ev elo p m e n ts in th e w est

T hese c lu e s a p p e a r as s e le c te d , h ig h lig h te d

f a c t s w i t h i n t h e fram ew o rk o f th e f o l lo w in g f a c t o r s in g th r o u g h o u t Y u g o sla v h i s t o r y : h isto ric a l;

re lig io u s ;

lite ra ry ;

g e o g ra p h ic ;

o p e ra t­

e th n o g ra p h ic ;

e c o n o m ic ; a n d p o l i t i c a l .

THE GEOGRAPHIC FACTOR G eography p l a y s a n I m p o r ta n t r o l e n a tio n a lism .

Y u g o s la v ia a c t s a s a p i v o t w i t h i n th e B a lk a n

a r e a w h ic h i n t u r n fo rm s t h e P a rts

i n Y u g o sla v

j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n tw o c o n t i n e n t s

of Y u g o s la v ia --th e t e r r i t o r y

o f t h e S o u th S la v s - - h a v e

b e e n c l a i m e d a n d h e l d b y p e o p l e s r e p r e s e n t i n g tw o d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s — E a s te r n and W e ste rn , a s b e s t r e f l e c t e d and A u stro -H u n g a ria n o v e r lo r d s h ip . to

in T u rk is h

W h ile f o r e i g n e f f o r t s

s e c u r e d o m in a tio n o v e r t h e Y u g o s la v s a n d o t h e r B a lk a n

p e o p le s rag e d o v e r s ix

c e n tu rie s

(F o u rte e n th to

I t m u st b e rem em bered t h a t p e o p le s n a t i v e t o

th e a r e a w ere

o f t e n t i m e s n o m o re t h a n p a w n s i n t h e s t r u g g l e . C e n tu ry d e v e lo p m e n ts,

T w e n tieth )

T w e n t i e t l f -""

i n th e e n t i r e B a lk a n a r e a h o w ev er,

v a l i d a t e t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t i n a l o n g s t r u g g l e am ong

L a tin - T e u to n ic , O r ie n ta l- N e a r -E a s te r n and G re c o -S la v ic c u l ­ tu re s

t h e l a t t e r h a s won o u t ,

te m p o ra rily a t l e a s t .^

M o u n ta in s, h ig h and ru g g e d . h av e b e e n s t r b n g d e te r m i­ n a n ts

of n a tio n a lis tic

-p o lic y i n Y u g o s l a v i a .

The ab u n d an ce

o f s u c h m o u n t a i n r a n g e s w i t h i n m uch o f t h e S o u t h S l a v a r e a h as le d to

s t r o n g d ev elo p m e n t o f t h a t p e c u l i a r k in d o f

p a trio tic

a tta c h m e n t to k in s h ip c a lle d t r i b a l i s m o r 2 p ro v in c ia lism . N e g a tiv e ly , th e f a c t t h a t Y u g o sla v ia l i e s

acro ss

tw o o f t h e m a i n c o r r i d o r s

o f E u r o p e , e ..jg .,

th e ro u te

fro m t h e N o rth A d r i a t i c a lo n g t h e Sava an d D anube t o

th e

B la c k S e a , an d t h e n o r t h - s o u t h r o u t e fro m t h e V ie n n a G ate dow n t o B e l g r a d a n d o n t o

th e A egean, h as e n a b le d p a s t

co n q u ero rs to g a in a c c e s s

in to

s e c u r e hegem ony.

enough o f Y u g o sla v ia to

Thus th e sm a ll s t a t e

o f Y u g o sla v ia l i e s

i n t h e p a t h o f m ore p o w e r f u l c o u n t r i e s - - T u r k e y a n d A u s t r i a i n t h e p a s t , G e rm a n y a n d I t a l y m o re r e c e n t l y . la r g e p a r t , a c c o u n ts f o r i t s

som ew hat t r a g i c

T h is ,

in

h isto ry .

^ H a m i l t o n F i s h A r m s t r o n g , W h e re t h e E a s t B e g i n s (New Y o r k : H a rp e r and B r o th e r s , P u b l i s h e r s , 1929) / p a s s im . T h is book i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t a ^ p a s s io n a te lo n g in g t o b e lo n g t o E urope h a s d r i v e n b a c k th e E a s t , ” ( p . x v i i i ) . M ore t h a n t h i s , n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e B a lk a n s i s c o n s i d e r e d b y A rm stro n g to b e d e v e lo p in g a s a b u lw a rk a g a i n s t p o s s ib l e W e ste rn a tt e m p t s .a t f u tu r e d o m in a tio n . A ls o , w r i t e s A rm stro n g , t h i s n a tio n a lis m n e g a te s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p a s s iv e a c c e p ­ t a n c e o f f o r c e d u n i t y by a n y f u t u r e B a lk a n ^ s tr o n g m a n .w 2 Supra p . 34 f .

56 N o n e th e le ss,

in v a .:s i o n - - e s p e c i a l l y fro m t h e s o u t h —

h a s b e e n no sim p le m a t t e r .

Rugged t e r r a i n ,

f o r e x is te n c e of p e n e tra tio n

tfc o r r i d o r s , ” p r e s e n t e d a p r o b ­

lem .

T urk ey , th e r e f o r e ,

in h e r r e la tiv e ly

even a llo w in g

le is u re ly

c o n q u e s t o f t h e a r e a f r o m t h e F o u r t e e n t h t o t h e d aw n o f t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y , w as a i d e d l e s s b y t h e f a c t t h a t n o s p e c i f i c m o u n ta in ra n g e h ad t o b e h u r d l e d , in d ir e c t f a c t o r - - t h e v ery e x is te n c e am o n g r e s i d e n t S o u t h S l a v s . one v i t a l l y

c o n trib u tin g

th a n by th e

of a p ro v in c ia l a ttitu d e

Lengyel c r e d its

to T u rk is h su c c e ss

th is

fa c to r as

i n t h e w h o le

B a lk a n a r e a : How d i d t h e T u r k s o v e r c o m e t h e g r e a t h a n d i c a p s o f f e r e d by th e B a lk a n t e r r a i n ? T h e y m ade t h e b e s t o f t h e D anube*s a lo o f n e s s and o f th e f a c t t h a t e v e ry v a l l e y w a s t h e enem y o f t h e n e x t v a l l e y [ a n d ] t h e y g a v e G r e e k s a u th o r ity o v er th e S e rb ia n s . . . [ e t c .] 3 The S o u th S la v s i n t h e B a lk a n a r e a w e re e s p e c i a l l y a ffe c te d by to p o g ra p h ic a l d iv is io n s .

C ro a ts and S lo v e n e s,

f o r e x a m p le , w ere e c o n o m ic a lly o r i e n t e d to w a rd t h e A d r i a t i c C o a s t an d D a n u b ian p l a i n b y t h e t a i n c h a i n , w h ic h l i k e w i s e

r u g g e d W e s t e r n B a l k a n s m oun­

in su la te d

th em fro m a n y t h i n g

w orse th a n a n i n d i r e c t T u rk is h im p a c t.

In c o n tra st,

th e

S e r b s w e r e g a t h e r e d a r o u n d a n d w i t h i n t h e M o ra v a V a l l e y . T h ese v a l l e y f a r m e rs w ere i n th e d i r e c t p a th o f t h e a d v a n c in g T u rk s.

S e rb ia n h i s to r y ,

th e re fo re ,

in g e n e ra l and in

^ E m i l L e n g y e l , T h e D a n u b e (New Y o r k : 1 9 3 9 ) , P* 3 0 7 -

Random H o u s e ,

57 r e l a t i o n t o th e d ev elo p m e n t o f n a t i o n a l i s m , t y p i c a l l y B a lk a n t h a n C r o a t i a n h i s t o r y . g e o g ra p h ic fo c u s i n Y u g o s la v ia area p o ssesses

is

i s m o re

T h is c o n f l i c t o f

s i g n i f i c a n t in t h a t th e

” no n a t u r a l c e n t e r ,

such as P a ris

in F ran ce,

a ro u n d w h ic h a g r e a t s t a t e m ig h t c r y s t a l l i z e W h a t n a t u r a l l y f o llo w e d was t h a t t h e g e o g r a p h ic f a c t o r te n d e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e C r o a ts fro m th e S e r b s .

K ern er s t a te s :

F o r t h e C r o a t s who e n t e r e d t h e r e g i o n o f t h e S a v a t r i b u t a r y o f th e D anube, th e no rm al d i r e c t i o n o f e x ­ p a n s i o n w as w e s t w a r d , t h a t i s , t o t h e c o a s t o f D a lm a tia and t o th e A d r i a t i c S ea; w h ile f o r th e S e rb s i t w as s o u t h w a r d , u p t h e M o rava a n d dow n t h e V a r d a r to w a rd th e A egean. The D i n a r i c r i d g e s w h ic h r u n n o r t h a n d s o u t h a l s o i n v i t e d t h e S e r b s t o move s o u t h w a r d . 5 It

s h o u l d b e rem em bered t h a t Y u g o s l a v i a a n d o t h e r

B a lk a n t e r r i t o r y was n e v e r s o u g h t s o l e l y tin c tiv e m e rits .

on i t s

own d i s ­

R a th e r, th e re g io n h as h e ld c o n s id e ra b le

a p p e a l m a in ly b e c a u se o f i t s s t o n e t o m ore a t t r a c t i v e

s tra te g ic

la n d s b e y o n d .^

lo c a tio n as a ste p p in g Such an o b s e r v a tio n

2i

W e s l e y M. G e w e h r , T h e R i s e o f N a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e B a l k a n s , 18 Q 0- 1Q30 (New Y o r k : H e n r y H o l t a n d C o m p an y, 1 9 3 1 ), p . 3 . ^ ' R o b e r t J . K e r n e r , " T h e Y u g o s l a v M o v e m e n t," I n Y u g o s l a v l a . e d ite d by R o b ert J . K ern er (B e rk e le y : U n iv e rs ity of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ) , p . 33* f.

A g ood e x a m p le was t h e c o n t e m p l a t e d B e r l i n - t o - B a g d a d r a i l r o a d w h i c h 'V o u ld p l a c e u n d e r G e rm a n c o n t r o l t h e f e r t i l e H u n g a ria n p l a i n , th e A n a to lia n p l a t e a u and th e o i l f i e l d s o f R u m a n ia a n d o f I r a q . ” S e e D u p u y * s a r t i c l e on g ra n d m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y i n t h e R o u c e k e d i t e d C o n tem p o rary E u r o p e (New Y o r k : D . V an N o s t r a n d , I n c . , 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 5 4 8 -

560.

' %

58 i n n o w ay d e t r a c t s at a ll

fro m t h e a r e a fs i m p o r t a n c e - - i t h a s b e e n

t i m e s a n Ha x l e

o f p r e s s u r e a n d d i v i s i o n , * 1? d u e t o

its

g e o g ra p h ic p o s i t io n i n g . G e o lo g ic a l f o r c e s , b e s id e s and h e a v ily f o r e s t i n g th e la n d ,

s h a p in g th e m o u n ta in r i d g e s

p ro du ced enough a r a b le

so il

i n t h e v a l l e y s t o p r o v i d e m en , w h e n t h e y cam e t o Y u g o s l a v i a , w i t h t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f f a r m i n g - - a n o c c u p a t i o n t h a t w as t o p e r s is t as p rim a rily

im p o rta n t th ro u g h o u t S o u th S la v h i s t o r y .

THE ETHNOGRAPHIC FACTOR I f we s t a r t w i t h Y u g o s l a v i a a s a p u r e g e o g r a p h i c e n t i t y an d draw a p i c t u r e v a lle y s ,

o f “d a r k m o u n ta in s ” a n d a r a b l e

o u r n e x t c o n s id e r a tio n i s to p e o p le t h i s

t h o s e i n h a b i t a n t s who a r e

th e a n c e sto rs

a re a w ith

o f m odern S e rb o -

C ro at s . An a n c i e n t p e o p l e s , T h r a c i a n s a n d I l l y r i a n s ,

once

ra n g e d o v e r t h e w h o le B a lk a n P e n i n s u l a w i t h t h e e x c e p ti o n o f H e lle n ic G reece.

T h ese p e o p le s w ere t o w it n e s s

o f t h e P e r i c l e a n Age a n d o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e rio d s.

T h e n , i n d a y s o f Roman d e c l i n e ,

Hun p a s s e d ^ t h r o u g h t h e P e n i n s u l a , of th e ir h a b ita tio n .

E v e n tu a lly ,

th e g lo r ie s

a n d Roman G o t h , V a n d a l ’, a n d

le a v in g o n ly f a i n t t r a c e s t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p ire

^ D a v i d M i t r a n y , T h e E f f e c t o f t h e W ar i n S o u t h ­ e a s t e r n E u r o p e (New H a v e n : Y a le U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 6 ) , p. 9 .

59 s e i z e d c o n t r o l o v e r p a r t o f Y u g o sla v l a n d s . h e ld th e A d ria tic

L a te r , V e n ice

C oast f o r a tim e .

T h e g r e a t S l a v i c -m i g r a t i o n c h a n g e d t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c fa c e o f - th e v h o le P e n in s u la . tu ry ,

I t b e g an i n th e T h ird Cen­

A .D ., a t im e when t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p ire n o m i n a l l y o r

a c t u a l l y p o s s e s s e d a l l th e re g io n s s o u th o f th e D anube, and it

c o n tin u e d th ro u g h th e S e v e n th C e n tu r y .

T hese S la v s a r e

g e n e r a l l y assum ed t o h a v e b e e n a N o rd ic p e o p le s u n i te d c u l t u r e a n d l a n g u a g e , m i g r a t i n g fro m som ew here i n t h e

in re g io n

now c a l l e d P o l a n d . ^ The R o m an ize d , L a t i n - s p e a k i n g , T h r a c o - I l l y r i a n p o p u ­ l a t i o n s w ere p u s h e d i n t o

th e m o u n ta in s b y t h e S la v ic

e le m e n ts , w h ic h , how ever v ig o r o u s , c o u ld n o t su c c e e d i n e x tin g u ish in g a n a tiv e

rem nant c a l l e d A lb a n ia n s .

S erb o-

C r o a ts , a S l a v ic p e o p le s , p u sh ed so u th w a rd t o e s c a p e p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d o n th e m b y t h e A v a r s a n d T a r t a r s .

They m a s te re d

th e n o r th w e s t r e g io n b y t h e e a r l y S e v e n th C e n tu ry . in th e

sam e c e n t u r y , T u r a n i a n s ,

carv ed out p a r ts

L a te r

r a c i a l l y a k in to th e A v ars,

o f T h race a s th e b e g in n in g of a g r e a t

e m p ire o f t h e E ig h th and N in th C e n t u r i e s w h ich d u r i n g t h e T e n th C e n tu ry f e l l

t o B y z a n tin e i n v a d e r s .

a d o p t e d t h e name B u l g a r i a n s .

The T u r a n ia n s

They w ere a b s o r b e d by S l a v i c

Q

G r i f f i t h T a y l o r , "T h e G e o g r a p h i c a l S c e n e , " i n R o b e rt J . K e r n e r fs ( e d .) Y u g o s la v ia (B e rk e le y : The U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 9 )> P* 7 •

60 c u l t u r e and to d a y a r e

i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m S l a v s .9

B a lk a n e th n o g r a p h y , c a lly S la v ic .

K ayser is

in g e n e ra l,

is

th e re fo re b a s i­

q u i t e c l e a r on t h i s

p o in t:

A lth o u g h t h e m odern G re e k s t a k e p r i d e i n a n a s s e r t e d c u l t u r a l t i e w i t h t h e a n c i e n t H e l l e n e s a n d t h e R u m a n ia n s c l i n g t e n a c i o u s l y t o a n a l l e g e d Roman o r i g i n , i t i s t h e l a t e - c o m e r s [ S l a v s ] who h a v e f i x e d t h e p r e s e n t r a c i a l c h a ra c te r of th e p e n in s u la . T h ere i s one o u ts ta n d in g e x c e p t i o n ; t h e A l b a n i a n s , n o t w i t h o u t som e r e a s o n , c l a i m d e s c e n t fro m th e a n c i e n t T h r a c ia n s an d I l l y r i a n s , a l t h o u g h l a t e r c o n q u e r e d b y o t h e r p e o p l e s . 10 Y u g o sla v e th n o g r a p h y , S e rb o -C ro a t.

in p a r t i c u l a r ,

is b a sic a lly

Thus t h e e le m e n t o f k i n s h i p r e i n f o r c e d b y l a n ­

guage, a u n ify in g f a c to r ,

i s p r e s e n t in Y u g o sla v ia .

O th e r

e l e m e n t s o f u n i t y w h i c h m u s t e m a n a t e f r o m common h i s t o r i c a l h e r i t a g e a r e l a c k i n g , h o w e v e r , a s we saw i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c f a c t o r a n d a s we s h a l l s e e i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r n e x t p r e ­ se n te d .

The r e l i g i o u s ,

e c o n o m ic a n d p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s

ch ro n ­

o lo g ic a lly fo llo w in g t h i s h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r a ls o p o in t out e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s am ong Y u g o s l a v s .

Such e m p h a sis o f d i f ­

fe re n c e g iv e s us an in s ig h t in to th e n a tu r e o f p ro v in c ia lis m . THE HISTORICAL FACTOR S i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s o f Y u g o s la v h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n

9 T h e s e m e c h a n i c s a r e a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t e d b y T he E ncvc1o p a e d ia B r i t a n n i c a , 1 1 th E d itio n , I I I , p . 2 5 9 . 10 J o s e p h S . R o u c e k ( e d . ) , C o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e , op. c it., p. 259. E lm e r L o u is K a y s e r w r o t e , i n t h i s s y m p o s i u m , t h e c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d , ,fT h e B a l k a n s / *

61 g e n e r a l l y d e v e lo p e d a f t e r th e T u rk is h c o n q u e st in th e F o u r­ te e n th C e n tu ry . n o n e th e le ss ,

is

Some o f t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y n o te w o rth y .

A f t e r th e Y u g o sla v s s e t t l e d th e S e v e n th C e n tu ry , in to

down i n t h e i r new hom e b y

th ey b eg an th e p ro c e ss o f s e p a r a tin g

t h e t h r e e m a i n d i v i s i o n s m ade t o d a y .

a n d S lo v e n e s becam e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d dow n i n t h e s o u t h ,

S e rb s, C ro a ts ,

f i r s t by t h e i r s e t t l i n g

c e n te r and n o rth re s p e c tiv e ly .

S lo v e n e s , a lth o u g h n o t so d i s t i n c t l y c a lly

of th e a re a ,

se p a ra te d

The

g e o g ra p h i­

fro m t h e C r o a ts w ere s e p a r a t e d p o l i t i c a l l y by th e

G e rm a n D r a n g n a c h O s t e n .

C r o a ts and S e rb s w ere s e p a r a t e d

b o t h g e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d p o l i t i c a l l y . 11 S e r b i a , w hose h i s t o r y

s t a r t e d a r o u n d 6 5 0 A . D . , w as

c l o s e r t o B y z a n tiu m t h a n o t h e r B a lk a n s t a t e s

except

B u lg a ria and th e r e f o r e e x p e rie n c e d p ro lo n g a tio n o f p a r t i a l c o n t r o l b y t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p ire C e n t u r i e s ) . 1^

(T h ird to F o u r te e n th

G reek C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

th e re fo re ,

fro m th e

11 K e r n e r , o p . c l t . T S e e K e r n e r ! s own c h a p t e r "T h e Y u g o s l a v M o v e m e n t. C i ta t io n r e f e r s to page 12

Byzance e x e rte d d i r e c t c o n tr o l o v e r S erb s r e s id e n t i n S o u t h e r n T h r a c e a n d S o u t h e r n M aced o n ia u n t i l t h e F o u r ­ t e e n th C e n tu ry . T hese S e rb s h e ld la n d a s f r e e r e n t e r s , as bonded te n a n ts , o r a s s o l d i e r - t e n a n t s . S erb s to th e n o rth , S e v e n th C e n tu ry m ig r a n ts , w ere n e v e r B y z a n tin e s u b j e c t s and d e v e l o p e d t h e i r own s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n u n d e r t h e Z h u p a n s ( le a d e r s o f th e c la n s ) u n t i l th e b e g in n in g s o f a cru d e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a rc h ia l s t a t e i n th e T w e lfth C e n tu ry . See P r i n c e L a z a r o v ic h - H r e b e lia n o v ic h , The S e r v ia n P e o p l e . V o l. I (New Y o r k : C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r * s S o n s , 1 9 1 0 ) , p p . 1 9 2 - 9 3 .

62 F o u r t h C e n t u r y o n m ade i t s

sp o ra d ic

e n trie s

in to th e a re a

o c c u p ie d by th e S e r b s , and n o r th i n t o C r o a tia n l a n d s .

By

th e N in th C e n tu ry th e S e rb s and C ro a ts r e c e iv e d sim u lta n e o u s c o n v e r s io n w hen, f o llo w in g a n e a r l i e r sc h ism t h r e e c e n t u r i e s b efo re,

t h e E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n C h u r c h e s w e r e o n c e m o re i n

c o m m u n io n . Two c e n t u r i e s l a t e r t h e S e r b s t a t e

u n d e r S te p h a n

D u s h a n i n t h e m i d - F o u r t e e n t h C e n t u r y w as t o a c h i e v e f u l l s t a t u s a s a m ed ie v a l e m p ire , d e s tin e d t o e x i s t h a lf c e n tu ry . A lb a n ia ,

le ss

th a n a

A t t h a t t i m e , hegem ony was e x te n d e d o v e r

M o n te n e g ro a n d M a c e d o n ia ; B u l g a r i a was a v a s s a l ;

a n d t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p ire h a d s h r u n k i n t o a p e t t y p r i n c i ­ p a lity . The C r o a ts w en t t h e i r s e p a r a t e w ay, e x e m p lif ie d by a r e o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d Borne f o l l o w i n g a f i n a l r e l i g i o u s i n 105^*

sc h ism

C r o a t i a , a l t h o u g h a u to n o m o u s fro m t h e T w e l f t h t o

T w e n tie th C e n tu r ie s , w as,

i n t h e m ain , d e p e n d e n t upon

B udapest d u rin g th e s e e ig h t hundred y e a r s .

In th e E le v e n th

C e n tu ry , th e C ro a ts had e x p e rie n c e d s ta te h o o d , b u t n a ti o n ­ a lity

and u n i t y w ere n e v e r f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d .

due to th e la c k o f a n in d e p e n d e n t c h u rc h t o so c ie ty

T h i s w as

g iv e th e C ro a tia n

i m p e t u s a n d t o t h e i m p a c t o f e n e m i e s m o re r u t h l e s s

th a n th o se fa c e d by th e S e rb s . ^

^ A le x N. D r a g n ic h , " S o c i a l S tru c tu re * * K e rn e r, Y u g o s la v ia , o n . c i t . . p . 219•

i n R. J .

63 The T u r k i s h p e r i o d - - f r o m

th e F o u rte e n th to

th e N in e ­

t e e n t h C e n tu ry --w a s u sh e re d i n f o llo w in g th e c o ll a p s e B y z a n tiu m w h ic h h a d o f f e r e d p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e u n t i l th e E m p ire ’s u n tim e ly f a l l . B y z a n t i n e ' s d e m i s e , w as p l a c e d

O tto m an s

S e rb ia , as a r e s u lt of

in th e p a th of th e T u rk s.

S e to n -W a ts o n su m m a riz e s t h e T u r k is h v i c t o r y a r m ie s on t h e f i e l d

of

o f K ossovo, and i t s

over S e rb ia n

im m e d ia te r e s u l t s ,

as fo llo w s: The f a t a l b a t t l e o f K o sso v o [ 1 3 8 9 ] . . . a s s u r e d t o t h e T u rk s a d o m in a n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e - B a l k a n s . I t w as f o l l o w e d i n a fe w y e a r s b y t h e s u b j e c t i o n o f B u l g a r i a [1393] . . . . S e r b ia an d B o sn ia w ere re d u c e d t o th e d e f e n s i v e , an d w ere o n ly p e r m i t t e d t o s u r v i v e i n u n c e r ­ ta in v a ssa la g e . . . . F o r a w h o l e c e n t u r y t h e M a g y a rs a n d R u m a n ia n s w e r e l e f t v i r t u a l l y u n a i d e d t o s t e m t h e T u r k is h t i d e . 1^ Not u n t i l th e E ig h te e n th and N in e te e n th C e n tu r ie s w ere t h e Y u g o s la v s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

th e S e rb s, a b le to

o ffer

a n y m a jo r r e s i s t a n c e t o T u rk ey i n th e fo rm o f a f u l l - s c a l e p a trio tic

re v o lt.

p a trio tic

m o v e m e n t, a l t h o u g h e v e n a t t h i s

S u l t a n w as l e s s

S e r b i a ’ s r e v o l t o f 1 8 0 4 w as j u s t s u c h a

sp e c ific a lly

la te d a te

th e t a r g e t f o r th e u p ris in g

t h a n w as t h e J a n i s s a r i e c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . w rite s

th a t

a g a in st h is

th e

th e S u lta n h im s e lf a c tu a l ly own c i v i l s e r v a n t s ,

S ta v ria n o s

su p p o rte d S e rb ia

(Ja n issa rie s)

many o f th e m

S o u t h S l a v s c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m , who h a d b e c o m e u n r u l y a n d

14

R . W. S e t o n - W a t s o n , T h e R i s e o f N a t i o n a l i t y i n t h e B a lk a n s (L ondon: C o n s t a b l e a n d C om p an y, L t d . , 1917T* p . 4.

64 sh o w e d t e n d e n c i e s t o u s u r p p o w e r . ^ The p a t r i o t i c

r e v o l t o f 1804 an d o t h e r e a r l i e r u p r i s ­

in g s sh o u ld be c o n tr a s t e d w ith l a t e r n a t i o n a l i s t i c T h e S e r b n a t i o n ■*., a s s u c h , h a d l e s s u t i l i t y p o in t th a n d id

th e S erb s o i l .

i n t h e name o f t h e P a t r i a p a trio tic

m o v em en ts.

as a ra lly in g

An a p p e a l t o a r m s w as m ade

r a t h e r th a n th e n a tio n .

a p p e a l s h a d b e e n m ade e a r l i e r

S im ila r

in th e S e v e n te e n th

C e n tu ry an d w ere t o c o n ti n u e u n t i l t h e se c o n d q u a r t e r o f th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry .

S erb le a d e r s

p e rio d ic a lly

lo o k e d t o

A u s tr ia f o r p r o t e c t i o n and ” re c o g n iz e d th e E m p e ro r’s r i g h t to

in te rv e n e

on b e h a l f o f C h r i s t i a n s u b j e c t s

by such t r e a t i e s

a s K a rlo w itz

A u s tria ’s f a ilu r e

( 1 6 9 9 )* e t a l .

to c o n c e n tra te

o f th e P o r te ”

16

O n ly

on g a i n i n g t e r r i t o r y

d i r e c t i o n a t one tim e p r e v e n te d h e r fro m a b s o r b in g a l l S e rb ia and B o sn ia .

Such a b s o r p t io n , had i t

have been w ith w illin g a id le a d e rs h ip .

i n one of

c o m e , w o u ld

on th e p a r t o f m ost o f S erb

C h a d w ic k c o l l a b o r a t e s a l l

of th is :

The S e r b i a n w a r o f in d e p e n d e n c e — fro m 1904 o n w a rd -w as p r i m a r i l y a p a t r i o t i c m o v e m e n t. Many o f t h e l e a d e r s , i n c l u d i n g K a r a - G j o r g j e h i m s e l f had a s s is te d th e A u s tria n s in t h e i r a b o rtiv e in v a s tio n of t h e c o u n t r y i n I 7 8 O; a n d now , w h en t h e y saw t h a t n o m o re h e l p w as t o b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h a t q u a r t e r , t h e y u n d e r t o o k

h a m p to n : l6

L . S . S t a v r i a n o s , B a lk a n F e d e r a t i o n S m ith C o l l e g e , 1 9 4 1 ) , pT 2 4 . S e to n -¥ a tso n ,

o p . c i t . , pp.

13- 1 5 .

(N o rth ­

6 5

t h e w o r k o f l i b e r a t i o n b y t h e m s e l v e s .^-7 No m a t t e r how t h e r e v o l u t i o n s a r e r e g a r d e d , a s p a trio tic a lly

in sp ire d

and b lo o d y .

S o o n t h e y won t h e a c c l a i m o f a new C h r i s t i a n

^ p r o t e c t o r ” who a r o s e

or as n a tio n a lis tic ,

to c h a lle n g e th e

th e y w ere f i e r c e

in flu e n c e

of A u s tria .

T h i s w as t h e R u s s i a o f P e t e r t h e G r e a t a n d C a t h e r i n e w h o , a f t e r th e M o n te n e g rin u p r i s i n g o f 1702, b e g an t o “c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s ” and fe llo w

r e f e r to

“ m em b ers o f t h e S l a v n a t i o n ”

r e s i d e n t i n th e B a lk a n a r e a . ^ B a lk a n n a ti o n a l i s m ,

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e fro m p a t r i o t i s m ,

c a n f i r s t b e sh o w n c o n s c i o u s l y d e v e l o p i n g am o ng C r o a t a n d S lo v e n e p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e A u s t r i a n E m p ire w h e re t h e y had been s u b je c te d to E ap sb u rg r u le

s i n c e 1527*

T h is m ig h t

w e ll be e x p e c te d b e c a u se i n th e S ix te e n th and S e v e n te e n th C e n tu rie s

“ t h e H a p s b u r g s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m o re r e l i g i o u s

p e r s e c u t i o n t h a n a n y o t h e r d y n a s t y o f w h i c h we h a v e re c o rd .? * l9 Iro n ic a lly ,

w h a t was i n t e n d e d b y E m p e ro r J o s e p h I I

in

1781 a s a r e fo r m p r o g r a m - - o n e w h ic h a c t u a l l y d i d a b o l i s h se rfd o m and o t h e r form s o f o p p r e s s io n i n a r e l a t i v e p ro v ed to be th e d i s p e r s e r o f th e

seeds of tr u e

sen se--

n a tio n a lism ,

^ 7 E . M onro e C h a d w i c k , T h e N a t i o n a l i t i e s o f E u r o p e a n d t h e G r o w th o f N a t i o n a l I d e o l o g i e s ( C a m b r i d g e : The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 5 )> p . 6 . ^

S e to n -W a ts o n ,

^

C h a d w ick ,

op. c i t . ,

op. c i t .,

p. 32.

p. 5 .

66 a s d i s t i n c t fro m p a t r i o t i s m . in itia lly

J o s e p h ' s b l u n d e r w as t o

i n s i s t o n G e rm a n a s t h e o f f i c i a l t o n g u e a n d a s t h e

e d u c a tio n a l la n g u a g e .

He d i e d b e f o r e r e p e a l o f t h e " o b n o x ­

i o u s d e c r e e , ” a n d f o r ” m o re t h a n h a l f a c e n t u r y t h e new n a tio n a lis m had to

lim it its

a c tiv itie s

m o re o r l e s s t o

lite ra tu re S u m m a riz in g a t aw are f i r s t

th is

p o in t,

t h e r e a d e r h a s b e e n m ade

o f th e g e o g ra p h ic f a c t o r and i t s

th e s e p a r a t i o n o f th e S o u th S la v s i n t o c a lle d

S e rb , C ro a t and S lo v e n e .

c o n tr ib u tio n to

t h r e e g ro u p s to d a y

A b r i e f e th n o g ra p h ic d i s ­

c u s s i o n w as i n t r o d u c e d s o t h e r e a d e r c o u l d m o re c l e a r l y

see

t h e e x i s t e n c e am o n g Y u g o s l a v s o f a common k i n s h i p a n d la n g u a g e f a c t o r w h ic h i n c e n t u r i e s f o l l o w i n g t h e e a r l y S e r b o - C r o a t m i g r a t i o n s t o Y u g o s la v ia h a s b e e n m in im iz e d b y th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d i f f e r e n t Y u g o sla v b r a n c h e s .

t r a d itio n s w ith in th e th re e

N e x t, a s h o r t h i s t o r i c

p h a s e w as c o v ­

e r e d t o b r i n g th e r e a d e r up th ro u g h t h e p e r i o d

o f T u rk ish

d o m in a tio n and th e E ig h te e n th and N in e te e n th C e n tu ry , p a trio tic

r e v o lu tio n s d ir e c te d a g a in s t T u rk is h r u l e .

C h a d w i c k , op., c i t . . p . 6 . T he a u t h o r a l s o w o u ld draw a t t e n t i o n t o t h e g r e a t e n c o u ra g e m e n t g iv e n to S lo v e n e and C r o a tia n n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s by N a p o le o n fs a n n e x a tio n o f t h e i r l a n d s i n 1809 a n d h i s a p p r o v a l o f t h e u s e o f t h e i r la n g u a g e s in o f f i c i a l m a t te r s . T h ese p r i v i l e g e s w ere a b o l i s h e d a f t e r N a p o le o n 's f a l l , b u t t h e y h a d a n i m p o r t a n t in f lu e n c e upon su b s e q u e n t h i s t o r y by s t i m u l a t i n g n a tio n a li s m .

6 7

THE LITERARY FACTOR H ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a ti o n a l i s m in Y u g o s la v ia ,

th e l i t e r a r y

fa c to r is ,

in e f f e c t,

th e

o n ly

c o n tin u o u s e x p r e s s io n o f n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h i n th e a r e a fro m K ossovo to

th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry .

T h is f a c t o r i s

common r e f l e c t o r o f w h a t t h e R o y a l I n s t i t u t e

th e m ost

of In te rn a tio n a l

A f f a i r s p r e v i o u s l y d e f in e d a s t h e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry m an ipi f e s ta tio n of n a tio n a lism . C h a d w ic k c o n s i d e r s n a t i o n a l i s m a s a n 11o u t g r o w t h f r o m p a t r i o t i s m .

.

. la rg e ly a ff e c te d by

t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n I s l a m a n d o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y . f,22 He r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e e a r l y f o r c e s lite ra ry

s e n s e , w ere n o t f u l l y d e v e lo p e d and n o t ,

c a p a b le o f b e in g u t i l i z e d D u rin g th e C e n tu ry ,

of n a tio n a lis m ,

in th e

th e re fo re ,

as p a rt of an appeal to p a trio tis m .

e a r ly l i b e r a t i o n p e rio d o f th e N in e te e n th

th e re fo re ,

" n a t i o n a l i s m a s d i s t i n c t fro m p a t r i o t i s m ,

w a s m o re p r o m i n e n t i n l i t e r a t u r e

t h a n i n a c t u a l p o l i t i c s . w23

S o u t h S l a v s , p a r t i c u l a r l y C r o a t s , h a d a m uch b e t t e r chance to

in itia lly

tu r a l sp h ere.

re v iv e n a tio n a l

in te re s ts

in th e c u l ­

S e r b o - C r o a t a s a m od ern l i t e r a r y

la n g u a g e

w as f o u n d e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d b y a g r o u p o f S e v e n te e n t h C e n tu r y

21

S u p ra, p . 1 5 .

See R oyal I n s t i t u t e ,

p. 330. pp

C h a d w i c k , op., c i t . , Ib id .,

p . 7•

p.

-

6.

op.. c i t . . ,

68 p o e ts and d ra m a tis ts te rrito ry * S la v ic

in D u b ro v n ik ,

F ro m t h i s

tin y

c u ltu re u n til i t s

1814, w ritin g s

sta te ,

th e o n ly f r e e

S o u th S la v

th e t o r c h b e a r e r o f S o u th

su b m e rsio n by th e H ap sb u rg s in

i n t h e n a t i v e t o n g u e f o u n d t h e i r w ay a l l

th e P e n in su la .

over

N a p o l e o n 's te m p o r a r y a n n e x a t i o n o f C r o a t i a n

and S lo v e n ia n l a n d s , a s w e ll a s D u b ro v n ik , h e lp e d e n c o u ra g e u s e o f S e r b o - C r o a t r a t h e r t h a n G e rm a n . V ie n n a an d K a r l o v i t z , ish e d s in c e th e

A lso ,

S e rb o -C ro at p u b lic a tio n s had f l o u r ­

l a t e E ig h te e n th C e n tu ry .

n e c e s s a ry o n ly to

i n V e n ic e and

in te n sify

H ence,

i t w as

th e p u b lic a tio n and d i s t r i b u t i o n

,of such p r in te d m a t e r i a ls . The r e s u l t o f t h e Y u g o sla v p e o p l e 's c o m p a r a tiv e c u l ­ t u r a l a d v a n t a g e s w as t h e d e v e l o p m e n t , e sp e c ia lly , lite ra ry

in S erb la n d s

o f a v e ry h ig h ty p e of e p ic p o e tr y .

w rite r,

H e l e n R o o th a m , s t a t e s ,

n a t i o n t h a t c a n b e com pared t o

One

“T h e r e i s n o m o d e r n

th e S erbs in e p ic p ro d u c tiv e -

ness . S e rb ia n n a t i o n a l i s t i c c a te g o rie s: m o tiv e s;

l)

p o e try f a l l s

in to fo u r

t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l , w h ic h s t r e s s e s

2) th e e p ic

o f K ossovo;

3 ) th e e x p lo its

K r a l y e v i c h , T u r k - k i l l e r , w hose “e x p l o i t s a r e of th e S e rb ia n ,

O il

le g e n d a ry o f M arko

th e tr u e m irro r

o r r a t h e r o f t h e e n t i r e Y u g o s la v s o u l and

.

»

H e l e n R o o th a m , ( t r . ) , K o s s o v o : H e r o i c S o n g s o f t h e S e r b s (L o n d o n : H a z e l l , W atso n a n d V in e y , L t d . , I 920T , p. 10.

6 9

c h a r a c t e r ? 4) N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t t h e T u rk i n c l u d i n g th e r e v o l u t i o n s

o f 1804 a n d 1 8 3 0 .

A M o n te n e g rin S e r b » F e t a r N v e g o sh , P r i n c e - B ish o p o f M o n te n eg ro fro m 1830 t o

1 8 3 1 , w as t h e g r e a t e s t o f S o u t h

S la v p o e ts a s w e ll a s a p a t r i o t . e n title d ,

H is p r e m i e r w ork i s

#,T h e M o u n t a i n W r e a t h , H a n e p i c

M o n te n eg ro a s

of th e g lo ry of

i l l u s t r a t e d b y s c e n e s fro m h e r s t r u g g l e s w ith

th e T urks f o r th e p r e s e r v a t i o n

o f freed om and C h r i s t i a n i t y .

T h e poem i s d e d i c a t e d t o K a r a g e o r g e , h e r o o f 1 8 0 4 . a s m uch e m p h a s i s i n t h e poem i s p l a c e d f o r c ib le d e liv e ra n c e

on th e need f o r

o f M o n te n eg ro f ro m t h e

Mohammedans a s f r o m t h e T u r k .

F u lly

M o n te n eg rin

Some p a s s a g e s t o

illu stra te

th e a p p e a l to n a t i o n a l i ty a re as fo llo w s ; [E u lo g iz in g p a s t h e ro e s and p r e s e n t le a d e r s ] He [ K a r a g e o r g e ] r a i s e d h i s p e o p l e i n C h r i s t ' s Name, b ro k e th e B a rb a ria n 6 1 C h a in s , B ro u g h t b a c k fro m D e ath th e S e r b i a n f o l k , r e v iv e d t h e i r p a l e re m a in s S e c r e t o f fam e i m m o r t a l - - a r o u s 'd t o n o b l e r p a rt, W hen k n i g h t l i n e s s w a s l a n g u i s h i n g b r o u g h t h i s p e o p le l i o n h e a r t . L e t h i m e a t n o t o f l a m b , b u t o f h i s own k i n U pon h i s f e s t a l d a y 1. L e t w in d o f m ad n ess w h i r l h im f a r a s t r a y F ro m W is d o m 1s p l e a s a n t w ay I B r o t h e r s , h e who i s f a l s e u n t o t h e s e h e r o e s , May d i r t a n d r u s t a n d s q u a l o r e ' e r p o s s e s s h is house! Who b a s e l y

s h a ll b e tra y our le a d e r,

R ooth am , op.. c i t . ,

p.

12.

70

L e t e a c h c r e a t e d t h i n g t o h im h e s t o n e . . . C h a n g e . . . t h e f o r m i n g b a h e i n womb t o s t o n e [D a m n in g f a l s e

.

.

k i n f o l k who e m b r a c e I s l a m ]

I f e a r th e m n o t , t h i s D e v i l 1s s p a w n , [ t h e T u r k s ] Though t h e y b e t h i c k a s a u tu m n l e a v e s , B u t I h a v e f e a r o f i l l s a t home I O ur k i n s m e n w i l d h a v e own*d M a h o m e tf s Name; And i f t h e r e n e g a d e s we s h o u l d a t t a c k , T h e i r S e r b i a n k i n d r e d n e v e r w o u l d d e s e r t th e m . . Our la n d i s

.

fo u l--re e k s

.

o f t h is F a ls e H e lig io n !

S h a l l b r o t h e r , b r o t h e r e v e r t h u s w a r down; S h a l l n o t su ch s t r i f e so b lo o d y and so lo n g D e s t r o y t h e v e r y s e e d w i t h i n t h e womb! [ B e m o a n in g t h e

sad p l i g h t of th e S erb ra c e ]

O u r God h a t h p o u r e d H i s A se v en -h e ad e d m o n ste r To p l a g u e a n d e x t i r p a t e Be t h e y b e t r a y e r s o r b e

W ra th upon t h e S e r b s ! [ T u r k e y ] He s e n t f o r t h t h e S e r b i a n Nam e, th e y b e tra y e d ,

0 h a p le ss t r i b e ! How l o n g s h a l l l a s t t h y s l e e p ? One l i t t l e r a c e — t h a t o n e a s g o o d a s n o n e ! F o r t h o u a r t o n l y m a r t y r !d b u t t h e m o re ! F o rce d ia b o lic e v ery s id e d o th t h r e a te n . Oh, h a d we b r e t h e r n s o m e w h e re i n t h e w o r l d To w e e k f o r u s . , B u l g a r i a w as h e l p e d in g s in

S e rb ia n s c h o o ls .

in h e r lite r a r y

r e v iv a l by te a c h ­

A lth o u g h S e r b ia n r i v a l r y had le d

t o a f e u d b e t w e e n t h e tw o S l a v i c

g ro u p s in th e F o u r te e n th

C e n t u r y a n d f,m ade t h e e n t r y o f t h e T u r k s p o s s i b l e ,

26

in th e

F e t a r P e t r o v i c h N y e g o s h , J a m e s W. W i l e s , ( t r . ) , The M o u n ta in W re a th (L o n d o n : G e o r g e A l l e n a n d U n w in , L t d . , 1930), pp. 44, 52, 69, 100, 101, 106, 199, 2 0 0 . S e to n -W a tso n ,

op., c i t . ,

p. 75.

71 N in e te e n th C e n tu ry th e p a s t g lo r y was e m p h a s iz e d b y S e rb e d u c a t o r s . Ja n issa rie

e ffo rts

to e r a d ic a te

o f t h e B u l g a r i a n E m p ire In a d d itio n ,

d e sp ite

s u c h m o v em en ts, a n i n t e l l e c ­

t u a l r e n a i s s a n c e to o k p l a c e w h ic h r e s u l t e d

i n th e o p e n in g o f

B u l g a r s c h o o l s b y 1835 • THE RELIGIOUS FACTOR A n o th e r im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a lk a n n a tio n a lism up b e f o r e

is

re lig io n .

in th is

. T h is r e l i g i o u s

th e s is .

The r e a d e r ,

f a c t o r h a s cro p p ed

f o r e x a m p le , h a s

s e e n t h a t S e rb s an d C r o a ts w ere o r i g i n a l l y th e tu rn

sam e G r e e k O r t h o d o x m a n t l e i n t h e N i n t h C e n t u r y , in d if f e r e n t d ire c tio n s

a d d itio n , to ,

c o n v e rte d u n d er

th re e c e n tu rie s

o n ly to

la te r.^

In

th e c o n f l i c t of Isla m h as p re v io u s ly b een r e f e r r e d

p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e r e som e S o u t h S l a v s e m b r a c e d Mohammed­

a n is m t o t h e h o r r o r o f t h e i r f e l l o w s - - a f a c t o r w h ic h a c c e n tu a te d

in te r-trib a l

A lso , S erb p a t r i o t i c

riv a lrie s

re v o lts

pa to a g re a t d eg ree. y

caused th e a c c e le r a tio n

,1c o - r e l i g i o n i s t f’ s y m p a t h y f r o m R u s s i a .3 ^

of a

in g e n e ra l,

p e rh a p s t h e m ost s i n g l y im p o r ta n t t h i n g t h a t can b e s a i d about th e r e lig io u s

fa c to r is

^

S u p ra, p . 62.

^

S u p r a , p . 70 * S u p ra, p . 6 5 .

th a t,

lik e

th e g e o g ra p h ic

72

f a c t o r , i t

c o n trib u te d

to a p ro v in c ia lism

in Y u g o s la v ia .

P r o v i n c i a l i s m was a id e d b y t h e n a t u r e o f E a s t e r n o rth o d o x y i t s e l f .

The O rth o d o x c l o a k f e l l

p e o p le s of th e P e n in s u la .

T hese S la v s ,

w en t on w ith t h e i r p a g an r i t e s f o r t h e o l d G ods .

l i g h t l y upon th e

f o r th e m ost p a r t ,

and o n ly s u b s t i t u t e d

T rib a l re lig io u s

S a in ts

v a lu e s and c lo s e ly

a s s o c i a t e d b e l i e f - s y s t e m s w ere n o t r e l a t i v e l y

e x tin g u ish e d

s o c o m p l e t e l y a s i n t h e W e s t w h e r e Homan C a t h o l i c i s m M id d le A ges t e n d e d t o

s u p p l y m o re o f a c o h e s i v e c e m e n t t o

t h e id e a o f C h r i s t i a n c o m m o n a lity . of n a tio n a lism ,

H ence, th e

stro n g

ra w m a t e r i a l

o r t r i b a l i s m , was c l o s e r t o t h e s u r f a c e

t h e B a lk a n s a s e a r l y a s th e N in th C e n tu r y . id e a s

in th e

of a u n ity

in sp ire d

I n o th e r w o rd s,

th ro u g h r e l i g i o n — e s p e c i a l l y

i n Roman C a t h o l i c i s m - - w a s n e v e r a p o t e n t f o r c e

B a lk a n s.

in

Y u g o sla v h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t l e d

in th e

t o a m o re

sp o n ta n e o u s t r i b a l n a tio n a lis m b u t h in d e r e d th e e v o lu tio n of a p o litic iz e d

n a t i o n a l i s m , w h ic h m ig h t h a v e s e r v e d a s an

e a sie r tra n s ito ry

sta te

to

th e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f a w o rk a b le

T w e n tie th C e n tu ry p o l i t i c a l e ta ti s m

on t h e p r im a r y b a s i s

of

k in sh ip . A m o re d i r e c t s l a v i a w as p r e s e n t e d

im p a c t o f th e r e l i g i o u s in

th e c o n f li c tin g n a tu re

C h r i s t i a n i t y and a t t i t u d e s

3 1 S u p r a , p . 57 •

f a c t o r on Yugo­

c o n n e c te d to

th is

o f Is la m and

re lig io u s

73 c o n flic t.

As h a s b e e n s e e n i n t h e

sa m p le s o f S e rb p o e t r y ,

a g o o d m any o f t h e Y u g o s l a v u p p e r c l a s s e s w e r e c o n v e r t e d t o Isla m .

T h ese w ere m o s tly B o s n ia n an d H e r z e g o v in ia n n o b le s

who b e c a m e Mohammedans i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r p o w e r o v e r th e C h r i s t i a n p o p u la c e by r e t a i n i n g S u lta n .

T h ere I s

reaso n to b e lie v e

th e f a v o r o f th e T u rk is h t h a t s u c h a c t i o n w as

n o t t a k e n w h e r e m o re r e a s o n a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s w e r e p r e s e n t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , R o u m a n ia n n o b l e s w e r e a b l e t o g e t s a t i s f a c t o r y a rra n g e m e n ts fro m th e P o r te

" w ith o u t b e in g fo rc e d

t h e e x a m p le o f t h e i r e q u a l s

in B o sn ia and H e rz e g o v in ia



to fo llo w .

.

i*32 D e sp ite th e

T u rk ish

irrita tio n s

re lig io u s p o lic y

c au se d by e a r l y

in stitu te d

i t w a s n ’ t u n t i l t h e h a t e d T u r k w as

on t h e v e r g e o f b e i n g c a s t o u t , a n d t h e e r a

o f W e ste rn

i n t e r v e n t i o n b e g u n , t h a t r e l i g i o n assum ed tre m e n d o u s im p o r­ ta n c e to

th e n a tio n a l q u e s tio n .

H a l id e E d ib e m p h a s iz e s t h e

p ro b le m s c o n f r o n t i n g th e T u r k is h re g im e . c o n te n tio n t h a t W e ste rn th o u g h t gave r i s e id e a ls w ith in th e The T u rk s h e l d tie d

It to

is

Madam E d ibfe

tw o s e t s

of

O tto m a n E m p i r e , d e m o c r a c y a n d n a t i o n a l i s m .

t o a c o n c e p ti o n o f d em o cracy w h ic h p e c u l i a r l y

in w ith r e l i g io n ,

in t h a t p o l i t i c a l e q u a lity - - b y th e

1839 R e f o r m s o f T a n z i m a t , e t c . , - - w a s e x t e n d e d t o a l l B a l k a n

S i d n e y W h itm a n , ( e d . ) , R e m i n i s c e n c e s o f t h e K i n g o f R o u m a n ia (Hew Y o r k : H a r p e r a n d B r o t h e r s , 1899)> P - 2 .

7^ p e o p l e s who w o u l d r e n o u n c e C h r i s t i a n i t y f o r I s l a m . m id -N in e te e n th C e n tu ry , h ow ever,

th e n a t i o n a l i s t i c

By t h e sp irit

had ta k e n h o ld : N ot o n ly th e l a r g e C h r i s t i a n m a j o r i t i e s , b u t th e s m a l l m i n o r i t i e s , h a d b e e n im b u e d w i t h t h i s s p i r i t o f n a tio n a lism . H e n c e t h o u g h i t w as e a s y t o w e s t e r n i z e t h e m , i t w as a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o d e m o c r a t i z e t h e m , t h a t i s t u r n t h e m i n t o O tto m a n c i t i z e n s . . . . th e i m p a c t o f w e s t e r n n a t i o n a l i s m am ong t h e C h r i s t i a n s p r o v e d s t r o n g e r . 33 W h e re t h e T u r k s f a i l e d w as i n t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t to a llo w

th e n a tiv e s

th e r ig h t to b u ild

In o th e r w ords, th e y f a i l e d d e p o litic iz e

on t h e i r f o l k b a s i s .

to use p o l i t i c a l te c h n iq u e s

n a t i o n a l i s m a n d a t t h e sam e t i m e r e t a i n

e le m e n ts o f i t

f o r th e p u rp o se o f i n s t i l l i n g

l o y a l t y am ong

t h e p e o p l e o f t h e P e n i n s u l a f o r T u r k i s h la w a n d o r d e r . O tto m a n s,

The

in t h e i r i n s i s t e n c e upon u se o f r e l i g i o n a s a

c o h e siv e f a c t o r ,

w ere b l i n d e d to

p o s s ib l y w o rk a b le , m eth o d s. u n d e rsta n d in g w ith lo s s W ith t h e c o l l a p s e T h is i s

to

in to

of o th e r,

And, t h e y p a i d f o r t h i s

m is-

•^ li

o f a n e m p ir e .* "

o f T u r k e y a new e r a w as i n s t i t u t e d .

th e tim e o f th e s o - c a l l e d

in tu r n d iv id e d

th e v a l i d i t y

tw o s t a g e s .

" E a s t e r n Q u e s tio n " w h ic h One w as c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y

G r e a t Pow er r i v a l r y f o r e f f e c t i v e m a s te r y o f t h e B a lk a n s

^ H a l i d e E d i b , T u r k e y F a c e s W e s t (New H a v e n : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 75*

Y a le

3^ T h is i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e E m il L e n g y e l t h e s i s i n T h e D a n u b e (New Y o r k : Random H o u s e , 1 9 3 9 ) * p p . 308309.

75 a r e a p a r t i c u l a r l y Y u g o s l a v i a - - p r i n c i p a l l y b e tw e e n A u s t r i a and R u ssia ;

t h e o t h e r e n co m p a sse d t h e p e r i o d 1912 t o

I9I9--

t h e B a l k a n W a rs t o

th e peace s e ttle m e n ts fo llo w in g th e

H ap sb u rg f a l l - - a n d

in v o lv e s th e

S e rb ia and h e r a l l i e s .

stru g g le s

D u rin g th e s e tu m u ltu o u s tim e s

n a tio n a l f e e l i n g c o n tin u e d

to a c c e le r a te .

N a tio n a lism --w h ic h h as to as a fo rce p rim a rily

th is

s e rv in g th e

ous o f s e c u r in g p o l i t i c a l ,

th e a r e a .

so c ia l,

Langyel s ta te s

p o in t been p ic tu re d

in te re s ts

in d ep en d en ce--n o w se rv e d t o a llo w in to

o f B u lg a ria and

of p e o p le s d e s i r ­

c u l t u r a l and r e l i g io u s t h e W est t o d r i v e a w edge

th is

as fo llo w s:

I t [ t h e W e s t] rem em b ered t h a t t h e B a lk a n p e o p le w e re C h r i s t i a n - - G r e e k O rth o d o x — and t h a t W e ste rn r a p a c i t y c o u ld be v e il e d w ith r e l i g i o n . They [th e W e ste rn P o w ers] w ere w i l l i n g t o l e t C h r i s t i a n i t y w in , b e c a u s e i t was m e r e ly a n i d e a l . C h r i s t ia n n a tio n s , how ever, w e r e c o m p e t i t o r s a n d t h e D a n u b e v a l l e y w as p r e c i o u s . . . . The s p r e a d o f n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e p e n i n s u l a p a r t l y s o l v e d t h e i r p r o b l e m s . 35 THE ECONOMIC FACTOR L e n g y e lfs q u o te a l s o s ig n ific a n t eras

sh o w s t h a t t h e new a n d t r u l y

o f N in e te e n th C e n tu ry n a tio n a lis m ,

fo llo w ­

in g t h e d e m ise o f T u rk e y , a l s o w itn e s s e d a n em erg en ce o f t h e

Loc. c i t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , C h r i s t i a n i t y was u s e d a s a l e v e r t o h e l p o u s t t h e T u r k s a n d a t t h e sam e t i m e a i d W e s te r n d e s i g n s on t h e B a lk a n a r e a . The l a t t e r s t e p , h o w e v er, n e e d e d r e in f o r c e m e n t fro m t h e * * fa ith n o f n a t i o n a l ­ ism w h ic h was v o l u n t a r i l y s u p p l i e d b y t h e B a lk a n p e o p le s th e m s e lv e s .

76 im p o r t a n c e o f t h e e c o n o m ic f a c t o r .

T h is f a c t o r u s u a lly

p l a y s an i n d i r e c t p a r t i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m i l i t a n t p a trio tis m

as

it

e c o n o m ic p o l i c i e s fo re ig n e rs.

re la te s

to o rg a n iz e d r e s i s t a n c e a g a in s t

t h a t may b e c a r r i e d

o u t b y d o m in a n t

Many p e o p l e may b e d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h s u c h

p o l i c i e s a n d may d e s i r e m o re e c o n o m ic e q u a l i t y , a v e r a g e man i s ris k h is

life

b u t f,t h e

o r d i n a r i ly w illin g n e i t h e r to change n o r to f o r th e

s a k e o f l a w s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , f13 6

S uch-w as t h e c a s e i n t h e B a lk a n s w h e re , a lth o u g h th e a n d W e s te rn pow ers e x t r a c t e d

e x o rb ita n t ta x a tio n ,

O tto m a n

no p u r e l y

e c o n o m ic r e v o l u t i o n w as i n s t i t u t e d .3 7 B ro ad h i s t o r i c a l s t a g e s m ent show , h o w e v e r,

o f w o r ld e c o n o m ic d e v e l o p ­

t h a t c h a n g i n g e c o n o m ic i d e o l o g y h a s i t s

d e fin ite

i m p a c t on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n a t i o n a l i s m .

e x a m p le ,

u n t i l th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c i t i e s

i t was i m p o s s i b l e

to p o in t to any s tro n g f e e lin g s f o r n a t i o n a l i t y . of n a tio n a l or p a tr io tic

L ead ers

m o v e m e n ts s e e m r e g u l a r l y

d e r i v e d t h e i r c h i e f s u p p o r t from to w n s,

For

to have

i n d u s t r i a l o r com ­

m e r c ia l c o m m u n itie s , and fro m th e l e s s e r n o b i l i t y . c o n n e c tio n th e P r o t e s t a n t R e fo rm a tio n , w ith

its

In th is

re s u lta n t

i m p e t u s t o d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s t r o n g e r b a r o n a g e — a new e c o n o ­ m ic c l a s s

in e ff e c t- - o f f e r e d

v ita lity

to

th e p r in c ip le

of

36 W a l t e r S u l z b a c h , N a t i o n a l C o n s c i o u s n e s s (W a sh in g ­ to n , B .C .: A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f P u b l i c A f f a i r s , 1 9 ^ 3 ) > P* 103* 37 C h a d w ick ,

ojd.

c i t ., p .

112.

77 n a tio n a lity . c e rta in ly

The d e v e lo p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m ,

fa c ilita te d

in d u stria lis ts

in g e n e ra l,

th e g ro w th o f n a t i o n a l i s m .

W h ere

em erged t o c h a l l e n g e t h e f e u d a l c l a s s

sy s te m

i t w as n a t u r a l t o e x p e c t e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f n a t i o n a l i s m b y th is

g ro u p ;

p o litic a l

in d u s tria l c a p ita lis ts

h a d m o re t o g a i n i f

in d e p e n d e n c e c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d .

W h e re t h i s

s e c t i o n o f t h e m id d le c l a s s was r e l a t i v e l y w e a k - - a s

in

Y u g o s l a v i a — t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l m en, a i d e d b y i n s p i r e d p e a s a n tr y , b o re th e b ru n t o f th e a tt a c k a g a in s t f i r s t T u rk is h ,

t h e n A u s t r i a n d o m i n a t i o n .3 8

W e s te rn P ow ers i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h and T w e n tie th C e n t u r i e s b e g a n t o e x e r t m o re p r e s s u r e o n t h e B a l k a n a r e a f o r e c o n o m ic a n d s t r a t e g i c

reaso n s.

p o w e r s y s t e m b e c a m e m o re a p a r t th e u t i l i t y

As t h e b a l a n c e - o f -

o f c o n s c io u s E u ropean p o l ic y ,

o f th e B a lk a n P e n in s u la as a s u p p ly c e n t e r o f

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e b e c a m e m o re a p p a r e n t . th e m a jo r e x p la n a tio n f o r i n c l u s i o n B a lk a n sy s te m

d o m in a tio n o f a r e a t r a d e .

tre a tie s

of a la rg e p a rt

of th e

( C r o a t i a , S l a v o n ia , B o sn ia and H e rz e g o v in a )

w ith in A u s tro -H u n g a ria n t e r r i t o r i e s ,

c la rify

H e re in l i e s

a s w e l l a s E m p ire

T h i s e c o n o m ic f a c t o r h e l p s

th e p e rio d o f th e E a s te rn Q u e stio n .

to

T h o s e many

and W este rn a lig n m e n ts and re a lig n m e n ts o f th e

p e r i o d m e re ly c o n f ir m t h e s e c o n d a r y p o s i t i o n w h ic h g e o g ra p h y

Royal I n s t i t u t e ,

ojd.

c it.,

p .

112.

78 had d e a lt to

th e B a lk a n p e o p l e s .

The w h o le B a lk a n P e n in ­

s u l a paw n i n t h e l a r g e r p o w e r s t r u g g l e s th e se s tru g g le s

re la te d

and p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s .

to th e

to

th e n o rth a s

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e c o n o m ic

An e x a m p l e i s

fo u n d in E n g lis h

d o c u m e n ts i s s u e d a f t e r t h e T r e a t y o f B e r l i n

( 1 8 7 8 ) w here t h e

r i s i n g p o w e r o f R u s s i a was c h a l l e n g e d b y G r e a t B r i t a i n . I am c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e E n g l i s h w o u l d t a k e a n a c t i v e p a r t i n i n s i s t i n g on p r o p e r m e a s u r e s b e i n g a d o p t e d t o s e c u re th e r i g h t s o f E u ro p e, and th e in d ep e n d en c e o f th e B u lg a ria n s . . . . B u lg a r ia in th e h an ds o f R u ssia w o u ld b e a v e r y f o r m i d a b l e p o w e r . . . . I t i s t o b e f e a r e d t h a t R u s s i a may s o i n f l u e n c e t h e B u l g a r i a n p e o p l e [ t h a t ] we m u s t e n c o u r a g e t h e P o r t e t o r e s i s t A u s t r i a f i n a l l y won t h e p o s i t i o n so u g h t o v e r R u ssia

o f d o m in a n c e s h e

in th e N ear E a s te rn c o n tro v e rs y .

T h is

m e a n t t h e H a p s b u r g s e x p l o i t e d m uch o f Y u g o s l a v a n d o t h e r B a l k a n l u m b e r a n d m in e r e s o u r c e s T h e a g r i c u l t u r a l S o u t h S l a v s 2^

w ere a b le

p re d o m in a n tly

to th ro w o f f th e f i n a l

T u r k i s h y o k e i n 1 9 1 2 , b u t 1 9 1 3 saw t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f new

39 , H a r o l d W. T e m p e r l y , F o u n d a t i o n s o f B r i t i s h F o r e i g n P o l i c y fro m P i t t t o S a l i s b u r y (C a m b rid g e: The U n i v e r s i t y P re s s , 1 938), p p . 4 4 2 -4 . T he c i t a t i o n i s p a r t o f D ocum ent 174: C o n f i d e n t i a l M em orandum C o m m u n ic a te d t o A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y on 2 O c to b e r , 1 8 8 6 . 4n W i l l i a m M. S l o a n e , T h e B a l k a n s : A L a b o r a t o r y o f H i s t o r y (New Y o r k : The A b in g d o n P r e s s , 1 9 2 0 ) , p . 1 4 4 . ^ I n Y u g o s l a v i a 82 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w as engaged, d u rin g 1936, in a g r ic u ltu r e . T h is in fo rm a tio n i s fro m R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , The B a lk a n S t a t e s (L ondon: O x fo rd P r e s s , 1 9 3 6 ), p . 8 .

79 In te r-P e n in su la r r i v a l r i e s N o t 1 9 1 4 -1 8 was f u l l d o n ia ,

u n t i l t h e G r e a t W ar o f

i n d e p e n d e n c e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f M ace­

t o h e a c h ie v e d o v e r t h e w h o le B a lk a n a r e a . THE POLITICAL FACTOR (WORLD WAR I ) W o r ld W a r I u s h e r e d

Y u g o s la v ia .

i n a new p e r i o d o f n a t i o n a l i s m

I t was d u r i n g t h e s e t im e s o f f i n a l

in

lib e ra tio n

t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r assu m ed m a jo r im p o rta n c e t o Yugo­ sla v ia ^

n a tio n a listic

d e v e lo p m e n t.

c o lla p se

o f th e H a p sb u rg s , th e B a lk a n n a ti o n s b ro k e a l l

fo rm e r bonds w ith A u s tria -H u n g a ry . D u a l M o n arch y , w h i l e

it

D u rin g a w a rtim e

T he c o l l a p s e

of th e

p ro v id e d a n e c e s sa ry c o n d itio n

p r e c e d e n t to w a rd p o s s i b l e

re a liz a tio n

of n a tio n a lis tic

u n ity

in Y u g o s la v ia , a ls o p ro v id e d th e b ack d ro p f o r th e b e g in n in g s o f m o re i n t e n s i f i e d Im p o rta n t,

r i v a l r i e s b e tw e e n S e rb and C r o a t .

th e c o lla p s e

M ost

o f t h e D u a l M o n a rc h y i n t r o d u c e d a t

th e o u ts e t th e v en g efu l s t i r r i n g s

o f c h a u v in is m .

R ace

h a t r e d s w ere u n d o u b te d ly a g i t a t e d by A l l i e d p ro p a g a n d a t o b e t t e r p ro m o te t h e m i l i t a r y d i s i n t e g r a t i o n

42

of th e

T h e f i r s t B a l k a n W ar w i t n e s s e d B u l g a r i a n l i b e r a ­ t i o n o f M a ce d o n ia. S e r b i a a n d G r e e c e w r e s t e d M a ce d o n ia fro m th e B u lg a rs In th e Second B a lk a n W a r - - a ls o a p a r t o f T h ra c e w h ic h w en t t o T u rk e y a n d G r e e c e . See A. A n g e lo ff , flWhy N a t i o n a l i s m F l a m e s i n t h e B a l k a n S t a t e s , p. 2^9. R o b in so n ,

op., c i t . ,

p. 260.

82 w as d a s h e d i n t h e Sum m ary.

re a lm o f p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c s . ^ C h a p te r I I I h as s p o t- lig h te d

r a th e r th an s i m il a r it i e s

am o ng t h e Y u g o s l a v s .

th e fa c to r s c o n trib u tin g to th e n a tio n a lis m ;in th e

stu d y a re a

k i n s h i p and la n g u a g e p r e s e n t s n a tio n a l u n ity .

d iffe re n c e s A re v ie w

of

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l phenom enon

re v e a ls

t h a t o n ly th e t i e

of

i t s e l f as a b a s is f o r stro n g

The o t h e r f a c t o r s

em p h a size d n a t i o n a l

d isu n ity . N a tio n a lism

in Y u g o s la v ia ,

to

th e end o f th e f i r s t

W o r l d W a r, h a s b e e n r e v e a l e d a s n o t o n e m o v e m e n t, b u t m any m o v e m e n ts s t e m m i n g f r o m e a r l y t r i b a l p a t r i o t i s m s .

The y e a r

I 9 I 8 w i t n e s s e d f o r m a t io n o f t h e f i r s t Y u g o sla v s t a t e w h ic h e m b raced t h e p e o p le w hose t r a d i t i o n s h a d b e e n so v a r i o u s l y m o ld e d b y t h e f a c t o r s

ju s t d isc u sse d

H ere e x is te d a p o l i t i c a l b e s t m eans f o r b u i l d i n g

lo y a lty

in stru m e n t--a

or fa ilu re

such lo y a lty

la c k of bro ad c u lt u r a l a f f i n i t y

s ta te --th e

to a la r g e r u n i t .

IV w i l l e x a m i n e t h e d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s Y u g o s l a v M o n a rc h y t o b u i l d

in th is c h a p te r.

C h a p te r o f th e

in th e fa c e o f a

am ong S e r b s , C r o a t s a n d

S lo v e n e s. F in a lly ,

th e T ito

s t a t e w i l l be a n a ly z e d a lo n g th e

C h a d w ick , o p . c i t . , p . 1 1 4 . D ism isse s th e p e r i o d i c S e v e n te e n th and E ig h te e n th C e n tu ry R u ss ia n a p p e a ls t o t h e i r Mf e l l d w ;s S l a v s ” i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r : ,fT h e P a n S l a v i s t i c id e a a p p a r e n tly n e v e r to o k r o o t . In i t s p la c e t h e r e grew up a " f e e l i n g . . . i n t e r p r e t e d a s s t r i c t l y t o t h e o rth o d o x , S la v o n ic p e o p le s o f th e B a lk a n s .

83 sam e l i n e s .

M o d e rn Y u g o s l a v i a

B a lk a n n a t i o n a l i s m T ito * s e f f o r t s

is

t h e m ain l a b o r a t o r y

t o d a y , a n d m uch h i n g e s on t h e

to d e a l w ith e s s e n t i a l l y

t h a t fa c e d by th e sta te sm e n of 1 9 1 8 .

th e

of

o u tco m e o f

sam e p r o b l e m a s

CHAPTER IV MODERN ATTEMPTS TO BUILD TWENTIETH CENTURY NATIONALISM IN YUGOSLAVIA Two g o v e r n m e n t s e m e r g e d i n t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t War o f 1 9 1 A t o t a c k l e c re a tin g u n ity sta te

th e

g ro u p s.

i n s u c c e s s io n th e p ro b le m o f

i n Y u g o sla v ia by p e rm a n e n tly a p p ly in g t o

lo y a ltie s

e m a n a tin g fro m p r o v i n c i a l n a t i o n a l i s t i c

T h e tw o g o v e r n m e n t s a r e

t h e S e r b i a n M onarchy a n d

t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y C o m m u n is t g o v e r n m e n t o f M a r s h a l T i t o . first 19^1*

o f t h e s e p o s t - w a r g o v e rn m e n ts e x i s t e d Its

n a tio n a lism

th e

T he

fro m 1918 to

p r o g r e s s to w a rd b u i l d i n g T w e n tie th C e n tu ry i s d e s c r i b e d b e lo w . THE SERB MONARCHY

T h e new Y u g o s l a v s t a t e , fe sto

p r o c l a i m e d b y t h e C o r f u M a n i­

o f 1 9 1 7 9 w a s l a b e l e d t h e K in g d o m o f t h e S e r b s ,

C ro a ts

a n d S l o v e n e s a n d e m b o d i e d a n a g r e e m e n t am ong t h e m e m b e rs t o e sta b lis h a c o n s titu tio n a l, m onarchy u n d e r t h e

d e m o c ra tic and p a rlia m e n ta r y

r u lin g house of S e rb ia .

A m a jo rity of

C ro a ts and S lo v e n e s fa v o re d a m o n a rc h ia l u n io n w ith th e S erb s,

s o t h e K in g d o m w a s p r o c l a i m e d d e f a c t o

i n D ecem b er,

1918. T h is

is

th e

sta te

t h a t p ro v id e d th e p o l i t i c a l a p p a ­

r a t u s f o r r e d u c i n g t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s am o ng Y u g o s l a v s . I t w as v e s t e d w i t h t h e

re s p o n sib ility

o f m ak in g t h e

85 p o l i t i c a l u n io n a r e a l i t y by w e ld in g to

its e lf

im p lie d by th e u n io n .

t h e K in g d o m w a s

In o th e r w o rd s,

fa c e d w ith th e n e c e s s ity c o n n e c te d to th e

id e a

a p o litic a l i t had to a s s u re

lo y a ltie s

of e s ta b lis h in g th e c o n d itio n s

o f a T w e n tie th C e n tu ry n a tio n a lis m ,

" s t a t i s m .*1

B u t, b e fo re

it

c o u ld do t h i s ,

t h e p e o p l e t h a t t h e r e w as r e a l u n i o n .

D is u n ity tr o u b le s a p p eared a t once to p la g u e S e rb ia n le a d e rs h ip .

C h a p te r I I I

w ere i n h e r e n t .

th a t th e se tro u b le s

M e r e l y p r o n o u n c i n g a common s t a t e w as

o b v io u sly n o t enough. e n th u s ia stic

in d ic a te d

a t th e

C r o a tia n le a d e r s had n o t b een to o

o u t s e t on m ak in g a u n i o n w i t h S e r b i a .

In 1918, S ta d le r ,

t h e A rc h b is h o p o f B o s n ia , had p r e ­

s e n t e d a m em orandum t o E m p o r e r C h a r l e s o f A u s t r i a u r g i n g th e c re a tio n

o f a m odest Y u g o s la v ia ,

D a lm a tia and B o s n ia ,

t o c o m p rise C r o a ti a ,

le a v in g th e S lo v e n e s to

th e S e rb s In S o u th H ungary t o

t h e G e rm a n s a n d

t h e M a g y a rs ,fw h i l e o r g a n i z i n g

a s m a ll p a r t o f p r e - w a r S e r b i a a n d M o n te n eg ro a s a q u a s i i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e . ,1l D is u n ity to o k t h e fo rm o f I n t e n s e p o l i t i c a l r i v a l r y p e r s o n i f i e d by P a s h i t c h 's C r o a tia n P e a sa n ts* P a rty ,

under I ts

fe d e ra lism .

S e rb ia n P a r ty and R a d ltc h * s

P a rty .

new l e a d e r ,

R a d i t c h was m u rd e re d a n d h i s M a tc h e k , b e g a n t o

lo b b y f o r

M atch ek w as s u p p o r t e d b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f

^ V l a d i s l a v R . S a v i c h , f,Two P r o b l e m s o f Y u g o s l a v i a ,*3 T h e N a t i o n . 1 0 8 : 2 0 9 - 1 1 , F e b r u a r y 8 , 19 1 9 *

86 C ro a ts.

F a ilin g

in t h is

ta sk ,

th e C ro a tia n d e p u tie s w ith ­

drew fro m P a r l ia m e n t i n p r o t e s t . a d ic ta to rsh ip

on J a n u a ry 5 ,

K in g A le x a n d e r p r o c la im e d

1929.

T h i s w as a t i g h t l i t t l e to a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g re e by th e

d ic ta to rsh ip S erb s.

s u p p o r te d o n ly

O n ly t r a c t a b l e

p a r t i e s w e r e l e g a l , w h i c h m e a n t t h a t Communism w a s f o r c e d u n d erg ro u n d ;

even tr a d e

u n io n s w ere o u tla w e d .

C a ld e r-

M a rsh a ll s a y s : T h e r e was no n e e d f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a F a s c i s t p a r t y , b e ca u se th e S erb s p ro v id e d th e m il i ta r y and a d m in is tr a ­ t i v e p e r s o n n e l f o r h o l d i n g dow n t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y . 2 Two c e n t r a l f a c t o r s

need c l a r i f i c a t i o n a t

1) The C r o a ts w ere n o t s e p a r a t i s t s s h ip --^

th is

p o in t:

even d u rin g th e d i c t a t o r ­

m ore so t h a n t h e y h a d b e e n u n d e r t h e A u s t r o -

H u n g a ria n y o k e — b e c a u s e o f a n a w a re n e ss o f w hat th e y c o u ld e x p e c t from I t a l y

and H u ng ary i f

th e y s e v e re d th e m se lv e s:3

2 ) The g o v e r n m e n ta l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was a c t u a l l y u n d e r t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p . 1*

im p ro v ed

The f i n a l w e a k e n in g f a c t o r ,

w h ic h

l e f t Y u g o s l a v i a e a s y p r e y t o G e rm a n e c o n o m ic p e n e t r a t i o n , w as th e d e v a s t a ti n g e f f e c t o f w o rld d e p r e s s io n . K in g A le x a n d e r f s a s s a s s i n a t i o n

2

1 6 :1 5 ,

C a ld e r-M a rs h a ll,

op., c i t . .

in 1934 in tr o d u c e d th e

p. 113.

3 " Y u g o s la v P o l i t i c a l S i t u a t i o n , ” W o r ld T o d a y . J a n u a r y t o D ecem b er, 1 9 4 6 . ^ T b ia ..

p. 16.

8 7

b e g in n in g of th e reg en cy of P rin c e P a u l. w as t h u s

E c o n o m ic c r i s i s

su p p le m e n te d by c r a v e n l e a d e r s h i p .

Y u g o s l a v i a w as

f u r t h e r w eak en ed i n 1939 an d 1940 b y t h e w o rk in g i n t r i g u e s o f m any f a c t i o n s .

The I t a l i a n s w ere a c t i v e l y

s u b s id iz in g

th e P a v e litc h U ta s h i gro u p ;

t h e B o s n i a n M oslem s w e r e d e v e l o p ­

in g s e p a r a t i s t a f f l i c t i o n s ;

t h e C o m m u n is ts w e r e o b s e r v i n g a

stra n g e f i d e l i t y Y u g o s la v ia ,

th e N a z i-S o v ie t P a c t; P ra n ce f e l l and

t h e r e b y , was d e p r i v e d

and s u p p o r te r. tio n to

to

C ro at le a d e rs

to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e

situ a ­

g e t a f u l l a u to n o m y i n t h e fo rm o f a f e d e r a l s t a t e .

The S porazum , s o - c a l l e d , w ith f u l l a u th o r ity

e s t a b l i s h e d a Z ag reb P a rlia m e n t

over lo c a l a f f a ir s .

H itle r p ressu re

i n 1941 t u r n e d f u l l f o r c e on P r in c e

P a u l, and th e S erb R egent e n te r e d G erm any. b o ile d

of a tr a d itio n a l frie n d

to

At t h i s

tim e f i g h t i n g

in to a s e l l - o u t p a c t w ith in stin c ts

o f t h e Y u g o s la v s

th e s u r f a c e and a g r e a t coup d fe t a t ,

M a rch 7# 1 9 4 1 ,

was s u c c e s s f u l l y

la u n c h e d .

S v e tk o v tic h f le d

t h e c o u n tr y w h ile Y u g o sla v s p r e p a r e d t o

re sist

th e

in v a d e r.

P r i n c e P a u l and P rim e M i n i s t e r

The sw eep o f t h i s

" d ia p e r re v o lu tio n " ^

5 R o b e rt S t . Jo h n p o p u l a r i z e d t h e e x p r e s s io n on p . 6 o f h i s b o o k , F ro m t h e L a n d o f t h e S i l e n t P e o p l e (New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y a n d C o m p an y , 1 9 4 2 Y 7 s o m e w h a t t o t h e c e n s o r s h i p o f L e i g h W h i t e , who c o m m e n ts o n t h e e x p r e s s i o n on p . 2 0 7 o f T h e L o n g B a l k a n N i g h t (New Y o r k : C h a rle s S c rib n e r* s S o n s, 1944) a n d c o n c l u d e s t h a t i t w a s n o t a n i s o l a t e d m o v em en t o f " c h i l ­ d re n le a d in g a d u l t s " b u t "a r e v o l u t io n o f th e S e rb ia n n a t i o n ­ a l s p i r i t - - a n a c t o f f a i t h and lo y a lty to t h e i r p e o p le s 1 f o r e b e a r s who h a d f o u g h t f o r c e n t u r i e s t o w i n t h e i r i n d e p e n ­ d e n ce fro m th e T u r k s ."

88 is

in d ic a te d

in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n :

The S lo v e n e s an d t h e P o w e rfu l C r o a t i a n P e a s a n t P a r t y "both j o i n e d t h e new G o v e r n m e n t [ c o m p o s e d o f G e n e r a l S i m o v i t c h a n d t h e h o y K i n g P e t e r ] ; C o m m u n is t a n d F a s c i s t g roups a lo n e c o n tin u e d t h e i r q u is lin g r u l e .^ S e r b - C r o a t c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e M a rc h c r i s i s s u r p r i s e t o m any o b s e r v e r s e s p e c i a l l y

c am e a s a

in s o fa r as d isse n sio n s

h a d r e a c h e d a h i g h m a r k i n t h e m o n th b e f o r e t h e o u t b r e a k o f th e H i t l e r w ar.

T hese d i s s e n s i o n s , h o w ev er, h ad b een o f a

p o l i t i c a l b e n t.

A c tu a lly th e

and th e e x tr e m itie s red u ced . E a s te rn

re g io n a lism

of th e C ro a tia n s

of G r e a te r S e rb ia n ism had b een g r e a t l y

As e a r l y a s 1 9 1 8 , b y r o y a l p r o c l a m a t i o n , O rth o d o x f a i t h

A ugust 2k,

lo st

its

th e

p riv ile g e d p o s itio n ;

1939 ( a s p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d ) , C r o a t i a

th e n ,

on

re c e iv e d h e r

l o n g d e s i r e d a u to n o m y w i t h t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e h i s t o r i c C ro a t-S e rb ia n a g re e m e n t.7 F o r m a l r e s i s t a n c e w as s o o n c r u s h e d a n d Y u g o s la v i a was p a rtitio n e d

in to

seven a d m in is tra tiv e

z o n e s w h ic h becam e

I t a l i a n , B u l g a r i a n , A lb a n ia n an d H u n g a ria n s p h e r e s o f i n f l u ­ e n c e a s w e l l a s G erm an. F o rm al w a rfa re ended w ith th e d e f e a t o f th e R oyal Y u g o s l a v A rm y, b u t i n f o r m a l r e s i s t a n c e w a s j u s t b e i n g o r g a n ­ iz e d

in th e

s p r i n g a n d su m m er o f 1 9 ^ 1 .

A g a in st t h i s

^ '’Y u g o s l a v P o l i t i c a l S i t u a t i o n , ” o p . c i t . , ^ R oucek, o p. c i t , . ,

p p . 3 0 0 -3 0 1 .

p.

18.

89 b a c k -d ro p of in fo rm a l r e s i s t a n c e M arshal T ito a r o s e to p ro m in e n c e an d b e g a n t o sla v

sta te

l a y t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r a new Y u g o ­

t h a t w o u ld h a v e t o f a c e p ro b le m s l e f t

th e p re v io u s

u n so lv e d by

s ta te .

Much h a s b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e f a i l u r e S e r b i a n M onarchy.

of th e

Some e f f o r t s w e r e m ade t o p r o m o t e t h e

n e c e ssa ry c o o p e ra tio n needed f o r s u c c e s s fu l f e d e r a tio n . S uch c o o p e r a t i o n , h o w e v e r, was n o t f o r t h c o m i n g .

F ro m t h e

p o i n t o f v iew o f a g e o g r a p h e r , P r o f e s s o r F i t z g e r a l d

o u tlin e s

t h e m ain r e a s o n f o r f a i l u r e : O u ts id e o f o ld S e r b i a , w hose g e o g r a p h i c a l n u c le u s i s t h e M o ra v a V a l l e y , t h e r e a r e t h r e e m a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of r e g io n a l lo y a lty in Y u g o sla v ia . One i s Z a g r e b , t h e c a p i t o l o f t h e C r o a t s a n d t h e s e c o n d c i t y o f t h e K in g d o m ; se c o n d i s L y u b ly a n a , t h e c u l t u r a l c e n t e r o f t h e S lo v e n e s ; t h i r d i s th e C ro a t p o p u la tio n of th e D a lm a tia n l i t t o r a l , g ro u p e d m a in ly a ro u n d F iu m e, K o to r , S p l i t , an d D u b ro v n ik . T h e c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s o f t h e s e p o r t s h a v e b e e n m o re i n t i ­ m ate w i t h I t a l y t h a n w i t h S e r b i a . I t w o u ld b e d i f f i ­ c u l t f o r a g e o g r a p h e r t o e x p e c t s u c c e s s f o r a Y u g o sla v F e d e r a t i o n w h ic h f a i l e d t o c o n c e d e a g e n e r o u s d e g re e o f a u to n o m y b o t h c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l , t o t h e s e p a r a t e n u c l e i o f p o p u l a t i o n i n t o w h ic h t h e W e s te rn B a lk a n s i s d iv id e d .° F a ilu re

o f t h e n a r r o w p a n - S e r b s t o g r a n t a m o re

g e n e r o u s a u to n o m y i s

u s u a l l y b la m e d on p o o r s t a t e s m a n s h i p :

A h i g h o r d e r o f s t a t e s m a n s h i p , a l a s , was n o t f o r t h ­ c o m in g . T he r e a s o n may h a v e b e e n t h a t t h e f l o w e r o f t h e n a t i o n ^ m an h o o d h a d f a l l e n d u r i n g t h e G r e a t W a r , f o r t h e c a s u a l t i e s i n S e r b i a an d M o n te n eg ro a l o n e h ad

^ W a l t e r F i t z g e r a l d , T h e Wew E u r o p e : An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o i t s P o l i t i c a l G e o g r a p h y (New Y o r k : H arp er and B ro th e rs , P u b l i s h e r s , I 9 A6 ) , p . 1 6 6 .

90 e x ce ed e d one m i l l i o n o u t o f a t o t a l S e rb ia n f a i l u r e , th is

th e s is ,

c u ltu ra lly .

la y

of fiv e m il l i o n .9

a s h a s b e e n e m p h a siz e d b e f o r e

in

i n n o t b r i n g i n g t h e k in sm en t o g e t h e r

N ot o n ly w ere t h e m i s t r u s t s b e tw e e n th e

tw o

m ain b r a n c h e s n o t r e d u c e d , b u t t h e y w e re a c c e n t u a t e d . C r o a ts had n e v e r b e e n f a v o r a b l e to w a rd p a n - S e r b ia n is m .

The

C r o a t i a n p e o p l e h a d w a n te d o n l y a u to n o m y w i t h i n t h e f r a m e ­ w o rk o f A u s tr i a - H u n g a r y e v e n i n jo in e d in a c o n s p ira c y a g a in s t p e rio d

of c o o p e ra tio n ).

1905 when C ro a t an d S e rb t h e D u a l M onarchy ( a r a r e

I n 1 9 1 8 , C r o a ts m ig h t h a v e e x ­

p e c t e d t o f e e l u n c o m f o r t a b l e w hen t h e y co m p ared t h e i r p o p u la tio n fig u r e ,

th r e e m illio n , w ith th e e ig h t m illio n

S e rb m ark . THE TITO STATE T i t o , th e m an. It

is

D e ta ils

of T i t o fs l i f e

kno w n t h a t h e w a s b o r n p l a i n

C ro at b la c k sm ith ;

are

J o s i f B ro z,

i n 1915 b e was c a p t u r e d b y ,

o b scu re.

son o f a or d e se rte d

to

t h e R u s s i a n s w h i l e i n t h e u n i f o r m o f t h e A u s t r i a n A rm y . T h e y o u n g Y u g o s l a v who r e t u r n e d

to h is

w a s a n a v o w e d C o m m u n is t a n d , a s

s u c h , w as s e n t t o p r i s o n f o r

fiv e y e a rs.

He l a t e r f o u g h t f a s c i s m

b e f o r e t h e G e rm a n a r m i e s

n a tiv e

la n d i n 19^9

in S p a in .

A m o n th

in v ad e d R u ssia he re a p p e a re d

^ ”The Y u g o s l a v P o l i t i c a l S i t u a t i o n , ” op.. c i t . .

in

p . 15*

91 B e l g r a d e and Z a g r e b * T h ese f a c t s

e s t a b l i s h t h e M a r sh a l a s a v e r y s e r i o u s

s t u d e n t o f Communism. i s a s i n c e r e M a rx ist

C . L . S u l s b e r g e r com m ents t h a t flT i t o [h a v in g ]

s t u d i e d Marx a n d L e n i n and

. p r a c t i c e d t h e i r d o c t r i n e s t h e h a r d way.**-*-0 fa ct--th e

For t h i s

.

.

very

M a r x i s t r e c o r d o f t h e m a n - - p r o a nd c o n a r g u m e n ts

a b o u t h i s P a r t i s a n m ovem ent h a v e t e n d e d t o b e v i o l e n t and e m o tio n a l. M arshal i s

D e p e n d in g o n a w r i t e r * s p o l i t i c a l c o l o r t h e u s u a l l y made o u t a g r e a t h e r o o r a b l a c k v i l l a i n .

F a r t i s a n r y *s b l o o d y d u e l w i t h G e n e r a l M i k h a i l o v i t c h and t h e C h e tn ik s i s

g iv e n d i f f e r e n t in t e r p r e t a t io n s .

R is e o f T i t o G overn m en t. i n t e r e s t in th e p e r so n a l a s p e c ts

T here i s

le ss

in te lle c tu a l

o f t h e s t r u g g l e f o r pow er

b e t w e e n t h e tw o g r o u p s , C h e t n i k s and P a r t i s a n s ,

th an in th e

te c h n iq u e s u sed and e v id e n c e s o f n a t i o n a li s m th r o u g h o u t. R . H . Markham m akes t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t t h e w a r s e r v e d o n l y a s a smoke s c r e e n b e h i n d w h ic h r e v o l u t i o n a r y s k i l l w as p e r ­ f e c t e d t o e n a b l e a m i n o r i t y g r o u p o f C om m unist P a r t i s a n s t o overth row Y u g o s la v ia * s l e g a l g o v ern m en t.

Mr. Markham s c o f f s

a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e P a r t i s a n s made a n y m a j o r c o n t r i ­ b u tio n to th e lib e r a t io n

o f t h e ir co u n try .

Mr. Markham, when I t a l y c o l l a p s e d

i t w as a g r e a t l y w e a k e n e d

G erm an y--n ot T i t o * s f o r c e s — w h ic h f i l l e d

^

Y ork T i m e s , J u l y 4 ,

To p a r a p h r a s e

1948,

i n t h e vacuum ,

IV , 5 : 1 ,3 *

92

r e c o v e re d e v e ry D a lm a tia n p o r t , in th e m o u n ta in s.

and dro v e th e P a r tis a n s b ack

11

Of c o u r s e , T i t o f o u g h t b r a v e l y a g a i n s t i n v a s i o n

in

t h e b e g i n n i n g d u r i n g -w hich t i m e p r e p a r a t i o n s -were b e i n g m ade f o r th e a n ti-m o n a rc h is tic th e M ik h a ilo v itc h p o lic y

re v o lu tio n .

T h is c o n t r a s t e d w ith

of r e c r u i t and w a it.

d e f e n d e r s p i c t u r e h im a s f a r - s i g h t e d

M ik h a ilo v itc h

enough to f o r e s e e th e

e v e n t u a l d e f e a t o f G e rm a n y a n d t h e p o s t w a r s t r u g g l e f o r d o m in a tio n i n th e B a lk a n s b e tw e e n R u s s ia and th e U n ite d S ta te s. A llie s , fig h t

He w a n t e d

(c o n tin u e s th e d e fe n se )

to p re s e n t th e

B r i t a i n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w i t h a n a rm y t o h e l p

th e S o v ie t U n io n .

e n v is a g e d a s e iz u r e

He a l s o , w r i t e s C a l d e r - M a r s h a l l ,

o f pow er by h i s C h e tn ik s

i n t h e nam e o f

K in g P e t e r . I t w as t h e

s t r o n g show o f r e s i s t a n c e

in th e e a r ly

d a y s o f o c c u p a t i o n t h a t a p p a r e n t l y won A l l i e d T ito

in 1944.

su p p o rt to

A ls o i t was t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s o l i d a r i t y .

T h e C h e t n i k - P a r t i s a n f i g h t h a s b e e n o v e r - s i m p l i f i e d b y m any o b s e r v e r s a s a t r i b a l w ar b e tw e e n S e rb s and C r o a t s . an o b s e rv a tio n ig n o re s th e

id e o lo g ic a l a f f i n i t i e s ,

Such w h ic h

te n d e d i n Y u g o sla v ia a s ev ery w h ere e l s e ,

to cu t acro ss t r i ­

bal riv a lrie s .

th is

H ill:

P h i l i p M o sely s t a t e s

it

way:

^ R . H . M arkham , T i t o 1s I m p e r i a l Communism ( C h a p e l U n i v e r s i ty o f N o rth C a r o lin a P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ) , p . 1 3 6 . 12 C a l d e r - M a r s h a l l ,

op., c i t . ,

p . 117.

93 B e f o r e t h e w a r o n e f a c t o r w h i c h w on m any i d e a l i s t i c Y u g o s l a v i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o s u p p o r t Communism w a s t h a t i t p ro p a g a te d th e n e c e s s ity f o r r e a l e q u a l it y and c o o p e r a t i o n a m ong t h e p e o p l e s o f Y u g o s l a v i a . T h e Com­ m u n i s t P a r t y w a s , i n f a c t , t h e o n l y p a r t y w h i c h w as n o t p rim a rily a p a rty e i t h e r of S e rb s, of C ro a ts , o r of S l o v e n e s .1 3 M a rk h a m f s p a t t e r n f o r t h e b rie fly th e

o u tlin e d

is

i n 1941 T ito

on a s e p a r a t e P a r t i s a n arm y ;

s e t up a t e n t a t i v e

T ito e s ta b lis h e d

of P a rtis a n ism

in th e f o llo w in g m anner:

red f l a g and i n s i s t e d

1942 T i t o

rise

P a r t i s a n G o v e rn m e n t;

ra ise d in

i n 1943

t h e p u r p o r t e d p e rm a n e n t P a r t i s a n G o vernm ent

and began to d e v o te u s e d h i s m ain f o r c e s

" h i s m ain e n e r g y i n f i g h t i n g S e r b s a n d in f ig h tin g S erb s";

i n 1 9 4 4 T i t o won

i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e ju n k in g o f t h e o ld Y u g o s la v Iks t a t e in i t s e n t i r e t y . A c tu a lly , in te r n a tio n a l su p p o rt w a s w o o e d a n d p a r t i a l l y won e a r l i e r w h e n M a j o r W i l l i a m D e a k i n w as s e n t b y t h e B r i t i s h Army i n May 1 9 4 3 t o L ia is o n w ith th e P a r tis a n s

serv e as

o s te n s ib ly f o r th e purp o se of

w o o i n g T i t o a w ay f r o m M oscow .

M a jo r D e a k in was r e p o r t e d b y

M arkham t o h a v e s e e n o n l y o n e s i d e o f t h e C i v i l W a r , . i e . , P a rtis a n

s id e .^

P e r h a p s t h e w h o le i s s u e

o f who c o n t r i b u t e d m o s t t o

P h i l i p E . M o sely , " C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , P o la n d , Y ugo­ sla v ia : O b s e rv a tio n s and R e f le c t i o n s ," P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e Q u a r t e r l y , M arch, 1 9 4 8 , p . 12 . ^

M a rk h am , op,, c i t . ,

^

I b id .,

p . 156.

p.

146.

th e

9^ t h e w in n in g o f Y u g o s la v f r e e d o m , a n d why,

is b e st sta te d as

fo llo w s: I n a c t u a l f i g h t i n g T i t o ’ s P a r t i s a n s c e r t a i n l y accom ­ p l i s h e d f a r m o re t h a n t h e C h e t n i k s , h u t i t m u s t h e rem em b ered t h a t t h i s was i n p a r t t h e r e s u l t o f i n t e n s i v e A l l i e d s u p p l y , a f a c t t h a t t h e P a r t i s a n s seem ed t o h a v e fo u n d c o n v e n i e n t t o f o r g e t . 16 At any r a te ,

t h e new r e g i m e w a s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e

A llie s

in th e

sp rin g of 1944.

From t h i s

tim e on i t

seem s

fa irly

c l e a r t h a t T i t o b e g a n t o p l o t how h e c o u l d f o i l t h e

u n w a n te d c o a l i t i o n b e tw e e n t h e L u b a s i t c h L ondon G o vernm ent a n d t h e N a t i o n a l C o m m itte e o f L i b e r a t i o n , w i t h T i t o a t t h e re ig n s. T h is s t r a n g e c o m p ro m ise ,

l a t e r fo rm a lly b le s s e d a t

Y a l t a , was a n a t t e m p t t o s a l v a g e a l o s t c o n t r o l on t h e p a r t o f t h e A l l i e s who p e r h a p s r e a l i z e d a t l a s t gone to o f a r th e B a lk a n s.

th a t th e y had

i n t h e i r w h o l e h e a r t e d s u p p o r t o f Communism i n The h a n d w r i t i n g w as on t h e w a l l - - B u l g a r i a was

in th e hands of D im itr o f f fs F a th e rla n d F ro n tj

th e se

"B u lg a rs

w i t h t h e R ed Army a t t h e i r s i d e m a r c h e d i n t o B e l g r a d e a n d tu rn e d S e rb ia

o v e r t o T i t o . ” ^-?

Y a l t a w a s s i g n e d o n F e b r u a r y 13* 1 9 4 5 * th e

seven p a ra g rap h s

re fe rrin g

to

In so fa r as

t h e B a lk a n s w ere c o n c e r n e d ,

t h e m e a n in g o f t h e Y a l t a a g r e e m e n t was t h a t a n A n g lo -

1 6 f,The Y u g o s l a v P o l i t i c a l S i t u a t i o n , ” o p . c i t . , ^

Markham, o p . c i t . . ,

p.

185•

p. 21.

95 A m e ric an d i r e c t i v e was i s s u e d t o T i t o

t h a t he ta k e in th e

new L o n d o n G o v e r n m e n t a l h e a d , S u b a s i t c h , a n d f o r m a c o a l i ­ t i o n Y u g o sla v g o v e rn m e n t.

S u ch a n a r r a n g e m e n t seem ed t o b e

w e ll w ith in a d e m o c ra tic fram ew o rk . F o re ig n M in is te r S u b a s itc h q u it h i s

E i g h t m o n th s l a t e r , g o v ern m en t p o s t an d

accu sed T ito o f sa b o ta g in g th e p la n s f o r c o a l it i o n . N ovem ber, T i t o , p ro c la im e d th e

th ro u g h h is

In

s e l e c t e d C o n s t i t u e n t A sse m b ly ,

end o f t h e K a r a g e o r g e v itc h re g im e and t h e

b e g in n in g o f th e F e d e r a l P e o p le s R e p u b lic P e t e r in London r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t h i s

o f Y u g o s la v ia .

d e f e a t, b u t th e

B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e new o r d e r . N a tio n a listic M arkham i s was t o

c o n v in c e d t h a t T i t o fs f u n d a m e n ta l a im , b y 19^5?

f,u n i t e a l l

r y #« l 8

P ro n o u n c e m e n ts o f t h e T i t o S t a t e .

t h e B a lk a n S l a v s i n C o m m u n istic P a r t i s a n -

was n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e M a rs h a l t o

id e n tify

h im s e lf as a G o d -lik e f ig u r e

to even ap p ro ach a r e a l i z a t i o n

of th is

A g r e a t p r o p a g a n d a m a c h in e was

en o rm o u s a m b i t i o n .

b u i l t up t o

serv e th is

p u rp o se.

T h e m y th t h a t Y u g o s l a v

P a r tis a n r y had sin g le -h a n d e d ly lib e r a te d its

e n e m ie s b e g a n t o c i r c u l a t e .

i n t h i s m anner to F i e l d

t h e m o th e rla n d fro m

F o r e x a m p le , T i t o

re p lie d

M a rsh a l A le x a n d e r 's a c c u s a t i o n o f

H i t l e r m e th o d s, a p p l i e d t o Y u g o sla v s e i z u r e

of T rie s te :

I c a n n o t h e l p b u t e x p r e s s my r e s e n t m e n t a t t h e

18 I b i d . ,

p. 205.

96 im p o ssib le e n em y w i t h Iso n z o and a ttrib u te d

c o m p a riso n . T h e Y u g o s l a v Army c h a s e d t h e t h e m ig h t o f t h e i r arm s r i g h t t o t h e R i v e r b eyo nd , and no c h a r a c t e r of c o n q u e st can be t o i t s p r e s e n c e i n t h i s t e r r i t o r y .^ 9

T i t o fs f a i l u r e R ed Army t o

t o a c k n o w le d g e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n

th e su ccess of P a r tis a n r y

background t o

is

th e ch arg e of n a tio n a lis m ,

of th e

no s m a l l i t e m a s C y ril F a lls

says:

Y u g o s la v ia h a s a lw a y s t a k e n a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l i n e fro m t h a t o f th e o t h e r s a t e l l i t e s . She c la im e d t o h a v e freed h e rs e lf. She h ad i n M a rsh a l T i t o " o u r g r e a t l e a d e r . *' Now a l l g o o d C o m m u n i s ts know t h a t t h e r e c a n b e o n l y o n e " g r e a t l e a d e r " i n t h e C o m m u n is t w o r l d a n d t h a t h e i s M r. S t a l i n . 20 H ad t h e c h a r g e o f i n s i g n i f i c a n t R u s s i a n a i d b e e n l a i d a t th e f e e t of th e S o v ie t le a d e rs have had v a l i d i t y .

i n M a rc h 1 9 4 1 i t m i g h t

An i n t e r e s t i n g

s i d e li g h t to th e

M i k h a i l o v i t c h t r i a l was t h e t e s t i m o n y o f f o r m e r P r e m ie r S i m o v i t c h who t o l d how h e h a d " t r i e d tre a ty

in v a in to

o f m u tu a l a i d fro m t h e S o v ie t U n io n / 1 b u t s u c c e e d e d

o n l y t h e n i g h t b e f o r e t h e G e rm a n a t t a c k m ent t o a " t r e a t y a s s i s t a n c e . " 2 -*le ss, in th e

o b ta in a

is

in o b ta in in g a g re e ­

of f r ie n d s h ip w ith o u t any p ro v is io n s f o r To b e l i t t l e

in s u ltin g because i t

R u ssia n a id to T ito ,

n e v e rth e ­

ig n o re s th e f a c t th a t

i t w as,

l o n g r u n , t h e R ed Army t h a t m a r c h e d i n t o B e l g r a d e .

19 “T r i e s t e D i a r y , " W o r l d T o d a y . 2 : 1 6 5 , D ecem b er, 1 9 4 6 .

Jan u ary to

2 0 C y r i l F a l l s , " A f t e r m a t h o f W ar: Moscow C r a c k s t h e W h ip i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e , " I l l u s t r a t e d L o n d o n T i m e s , J u l y 1 7 , 1948. 2 1 New Y o r k T i m e s . J u n e 2 9 , 1 9 4 6 , 7 : 4 .

97 E v id e n c e i s

p l e n t i f u l to th e e f f e c t th a t T ito , as

p a r t of a c o n sc io u s p o lic y to e le v a te h im s e lf in th e p e o p l e ’ s e y e s a s a G o d - lik e f i g u r e , was s p e a k in g b r a v e l y an d a rro g a n tly th ro u g h o u t th e y e a rs 1945,

1946,

1947,

The f o l l o w i n g a r e e x c e r p t s fro m a few o f M a r s h a l T i t o ’s sp eech es and w r itin g s

o f th o se y e a rs :

A g r e a t day o f p eace and freed o m h a s daw ned. How we m u s t w i n a n o t h e r g r e a t v i c t o r y . We m u s t b u i l d up our d e v a s ta te d c o u n try and c o n s o lid a te o u r t r u e p e o p le ’s a u th o rity . L e t u s c o n s o l i d a t e s t i l l m o re o u r b r o t h e r ­ hood and o u r u n i t y so t h a t no pow er w i l l e v e r a g a in d e s t r o y t h e m . 22 (May 1 0 , 1 9 4 5 ” ” i n a b r o a d c a s t f r o m B e lg ra d e ) . T h e Y u g o s l a v Army h a s e q u a l r i g h t s w i t h o t h e r A l l i e d a r m i e s , a ll o w i n g h e r th e r i g h t t o re m a in i n th e t e r r i ­ t o r y w h ic h sh e h a s l i b e r a t e d . 2 3 (May 1 9 , 1 9 4 5 - - i n r e f e r e n c e t o Y u g o sla v s e i z u r e o f T r i e s t e ) . O u ts id e e le m e n ts a r e s e e k in g t o p r e v e n t Y u g o sla v e l e c t i o n s , t o c r e a t e c o n d it i o n s in o u r c o u n tr y , by w h a t­ e v e r m eans, so a s to pro vo ke f o r e ig n i n te r v e n t i o n [b u t] t h e p e o p l e o f Y u g o s l a v i a w i l l know how t o d e f e n d t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d f r e e d o m ; t h e y w i l l know how t o p u t t h e i r own hom e i n o r d e r w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t a t i n t e r f e r e n c e fro m a b r o a d . 2 4 (O c to b e r 1945”“ in a l e t t e r to S u b a s itc h , r e s i g n e d F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , a c c o u s i n g h im o f a i d i n g e n e m ie s a b r o a d . ) We p u n i s h t h o s e who a r e a g a i n s t u s r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t i s b e in g s a id ab road . 5 (S e p tem b er 2 2 , 1 9 4 6 - - in

Hew Y o r k T i m e s , May 1 0 , 2 3 F a c ts

194 5# 4 : 7 *

on F i l e . 1 9 4 5 -

^ 4 Hew Y o r k T i m e s . O c t o b e r 1 4 , 1 9 4 5 * 2 : 2 . ^

F a c ts

on F i l e , 1 9 4 6 .

98 r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a r r e s t o f A rch b ish o p S t e p i n a t z ch arges o f a id in g th e U s ta s h is )

on

Y u g o s la v ia i s e n t i t l e d t o sp e a k on e q u a l te rm s w ith b i g c o u n t r i e s . 2 *5 (A u g u st 2 5 , 1 9 ^ 7 ) . T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s w e r e i s s u e d b y a s t r o n g man who f e l t secu re

o r was a t l e a s t

s u c c e s s f u lly g iv in g t h a t

T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t b u t t h a t T i t o w as i n f i r m in te rn a lly . a u to n o m y t o S lo v e n ia ,

The f e d e r a t i v e th e s ix

re p u b lic s

im p re ss io n . c o n tro l

sy s te m p r o v id e s a m ea su re o f (S e rb ia , C r o a tia , B o sn ia ,

M o n te n eg ro , M a c e d o n ia ), b u t c e n t r a l c o n t r o l i s by

no m eans u s u r p e d .

T he f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n fro m W o rld T oday

sum s u p t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e

o f m odem Y u g o s la v ia :

A C o m m u n is t d i c t a t o r s h i p w as e s t a b l i s h e d a n d t h e e a r l i e r f o u n d a t i o n s o f p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y - - i n t r u e fe w e n o u g h — w e r e s w e p t a w a y ; t h e la w c o u r t s w e r e t u r n e d i n t o f a i t h f u l s e r v a n ts o f th e s t a t e and th e pow er of t h e s e c r e t p o l i c e (O .Z . N . A . ) w a s e x t e n d e d t o e v e r y c o rn e r of th e c o u n try . . . . The v a u n te d f e d e r a t i v e o r g a n iz a tio n i s a fa c a d e f o r such pow er as i s n o t in t h e h a n d s o f t h e arm y o r t h e s e c r e t p o l i c e ; t h i s p o w er i s e x e r c i s e d b y t h e l o c a l b r a n c h e s o f t h e C o m m u n is t P a r t y w h ic h i n t u r n ta k e t h e i r o r d e r s fro m B e lg r a d e . * T h e T i t o C o m in f o r m B r e a k . tre a te d

to th e s p e c ta c le

s a te llite , se rie s

The w o r ld was u n e x p e c t e d l y

of w itn e s s in g th e c h a stise m e n t of a

w hen, on Ju n e 2 8 ,

1 9 ^ 8 , t h e C o m in f o r m d i r e c t e d a

o f s e r i o u s a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t M a rsh a l T i t o * s Yugo­

s l a v C o m m u n is t P a r t y ,

26 I b i d . ,

c u lm in a tin g i n d i s m i s s a l o f Y u g o sla v ia

19^7•

2 7 "The Y u g o s la v P o l i t i c a l S i t u a t i o n , "

ojo. c i t . ,

p. 26.

99 f r o m t h e C om in f orm o r g a n i z a t i o n .

T h ese c h a r g es w ere t o th e

e f f e c t t h a t a h a t e f u l a n t i - R u s s i a n p o l i c y w as b e i n g t o l e r ­ ated

in Y u g o sla v ia ,

t h a t a B u k h a r in o p p o r t u n i s m w as f l o u r i s h ­

in g ,

t h a t i m p e r i a l i s m , T r o t s k y i s m a n d a r e t r e a t fr o m t h e

M a r x is m - L e n in is m a p p r o a c h t o p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s w as f l a g r a n t r u d e n e s s t o t h e C o m in fo r m . to be g u ilty

A l s o M a r sh a l T i t o w as d e c l a r e d

o f a m b itio n .

W ith in th e l i s t w h ic h sums up t h e b a s i s

o f c h a r g e s w as i n c l u d e d t h e o n e word o f th e q u a r r e l--n a tio n a lis m .

It

is

f u r t h e r m o r e e v i d e n c e o f n a t i o n a l i s m when o n e r e v i e w s t h e d e f i a n t sta n d ta k en by T it o b e m ore s p e c i f i c fo llo w in g :

th e l i s t

in answ er t o th e c h a r g e s .

of a c c u sa tio n s

in c lu d e d th e

R u s s i a ' s arm y h a d b e e n d i s c r e d i t e d ;

c i v i l i a n s had b e e n k e p t u n d er s u r v e i l l a n c e ; b u s i n e s s had b een t o l e r a t e d ;

To

R u ss ia 's

sm a ll p r iv a t e

p e a s a n t s w ere b e in g d e s c r ib e d

as th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e s t a t e ;

.

and t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t i n

Y u g o s l a v i a w as a l l o w e d t o d i r e c t t h e Communist P a r t y What l a y b e h i n d t h e w o r d i n g o f t h e c h a r g e s w as s t r o n g i m p l ic a t i o n t h a t Y u g o sla v p o l i c y

i n many s p e c i f i c

in sta n c e s

h a d b e e n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y fr o m t h e R u s s i a n p o i n t o f v i e w . H a n so n B a l d w in s u b m i t s h i s d iffe r e n c e s a ir e d

own l i s t

t o o u t l i n e t h e m a jo r

in th e q u a r r e l:

2Q

See th e R oyal I n s t i t u t e o f I n te r n a tio n a l A f f a ir s , The S o v i e t - Y u g o s l a v D i s p u t e ( O x f o r d : O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 Q 4 8 V / p a s s im u

100 1. D iffe re n t a ttitu d e s 2 . D iffe re n t

to w a rd a g r a r i a n

id e a s a s to th e

refo rm .

lo o se n e s s of a ll i a n c e

b e t w e e n t h e C o m in f o r m o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e Y u g o s l a v C o m m u n is t P a r t y . 3 . T h e q u e s t i o n o f e c o n o m ic a i d p o s s i b l y f o r t h c o m i n g fro m t h e W est in th e e v e n t o f l e s s m a n i f e s t a t i o n of h o s tility

on t h e p a r t o f t h e Y u g o s l a v s i n t h a t

d ire c tio n . 4 . T i t o f s G o e r i n g C o m p le x . 3- The Y u g o s la v G o v e r n m e n t s a t t i t u d e A u s tria and T r i e s t e ,

to w a rd G re e c e .

and B a lk a n f e d e r a t i o n .

6 . Y u g o s l a v f e a r o f R u s s i a n a n n e x a t i o n .^ 9 T h e Y u g o s l a v C o m m u n is t P a r t y g a v e t h e i r a n s w e r , re fu ta tio n

of th e c h a rg e s ,

u n d erg ro u n d P a r t i s a n

t h a t a n y o n e who h a d f o l l o w e d t h e

r e s i s t a n c e kn ew t h a t t h e c h a r g e o f

n a t i o n a l i s m was r i d i c u l o u s . is

in

T he c l e v e r n e s s

r e a l i z e d when one c o m p a re s t h e

of th is

re p ly

re v o lu tio n a ry e x p e rie n c e s

o f T i t o a n d S t a l i n a n d s e e s t h a t b o t h men w o r k e d f r o m w i t h i n and th e r e f o r e

s h o u l d know b e t t e r how t o d e a l w i t h t h e i r

re s p e c tiv e c o u n trie s

th a n p e o p le

lik e

Some w r i t e r s h a v e c h o s e n t o

L e n in o r P a u k e r.

in te r p r e t th e f ig h t as

n o t one b e tw e e n g o v e rn m e n ts b u t one p u r e l y w i t h i n t h e

^ 9 H a n s o n W. B a l d w i n i n t h e New Y o r k T i m e s , J u l y 2 , 1948, 4 :4 , 5.

101 P a r ty .3°

Such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

th e p e rso n a l c h a r a c te r is tic s M arsh al T i t o . e v id e n c e t h a t

It

is

in v o lv e s a m in im iz in g o f

of a S ta lin

u n re a lis tic

o b je c tio n to

a c c o rd in g to c e r t a i n

i t was t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s ,

in t h e i r l e t t e r to

t h e C o m in f o r m w r i t t e n A p r i l 2 3 , who f i r s t b r o u g h t c h a r g e s a g a i n s t t h e Y u g o s l a v l e a d e r s .^ 1 tu rn , d ire c te d p o rte rs

C o m in f o r m l e a d e r s ,

in

t h e i r b l a s t a t t h e Y u g o s l a v C o m m u n is t s u p ­

of T ito as an answ er to

th is

le tte r.

The b l a s t

i t s e l f a n d th e Y u g o sla v r e p l y o n ly h i n t a t th e b a s i c

reaso n s

fo r c o n flic t. A th ird

d o c u m e n t - - t h e Y u g o s l a v C o m m u n is t C e n t r a l

C o m m i t t e e r e p l y b y D j i l a s , Y u g o s l a v p o l i t b u r o m em ber a n d T i t o fs f r i e n d - - t o

th e B u lg a r ia n , H u n g a ria n and C z e c h o slo v a k

C o m m u n is ts o f f e r s a t l e a s t a c l u e t o D jila s

re je c te d

th e fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m .

c o m p u lsio n an d i n t e r f e r e n c e w here i t

g a rd s th e re s o u rc e s and c a p a c i ti e s

d isre ­

o f m em ber s t a t e s .

f,D j i l a s , w i t h o u t s a y i n g s o , w a s r e j e c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n o f th e le a d e rsh ip p rin c ip le s

f r o m a s i n g l e C o m in f o r m s t a t e

to

t h e e n t i r e C o m in f orm w o r l d . ,f^

J As d o e s H a n s o n B a l d w i n i n r e f e r e n c e t o h i s i n t h e New Y o r k T i m e s , l o c . c i t .

com m en t

3 1 M. S . H a n d l e r , ^ T h e B a s i c C a u s e s o f t h e K r e m l i n . T i t o S p l i t . ,f New Y o r k T i m e s . J u l y 1 1 , 1 9 ^ 8 , 3 : 3 . A lso R o y a l I n s t i t u t e , ojd. c i t .

32 i b i d .

102 An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e S o v i e t - Y u g o s l a v q u a r r e l i s t h a t , d e s p i t e h e r c u r r e n t p ro n o u n c e m e n ts, R u s s ia , h e r s e l f , has been fo rced to

re c o g n iz e and even f o s t e r n a tio n a lis m ,

e v e n t h o u g h M arx d i s m i s s e d t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c u n im p o rta n t e x c e p t in s o f a r a s ness.

P ra c tic a litie s

in te r e s t to

it

re la te d

im p u lse a s

to c la s s

c o n sc io u s­

o f t h e p o l i t i c a l s c e n e w ere o f u tm o s t

t h e - B o ls h e v ik s , f o llo w in g L e n in fs pro n o u n cem en t

to th e

e f f e c t t h a t one c o u ld n o t r e f u s e

w as.

N e v e rth e le ss,

to re c o g n iz e w hat

t h e R u s s i a n C o m m u n i s ts b e l i e v e d t h a t

s o c i a l i s m w o u ld tr iu m p h o v e r n a t i o n a l i s m e co n o m ic p l a n n i n g

wo n c e e d u c a t i o n a n d

had a c h ie v e d s u b s t a n t i a l e q u a lity

of

s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g a n d c u l t u r a l l e v e l . ” 33

co u rse,

R u ssia n s sq u a re d t h e i r c o n c e p t o f w hat n a tio n a lis m a p p ly in g th e te rm o n ly t o

,ft h e

i n th e

i s by

la b o r in g m asses o f a g iv e n

c o m m u n ity ,” t h u s t h e r e c o u ld b e no v a l i d

p ro te s t ra ise d

t h e S o v i e t s w e re b y n o m eans r e s p e c t f u l o f n a t i o n a l i s m t h e i r m urderous a t t a c k s b r i n g th e m i n t o

upon r e c a l c i t r a n t n a t i o n a l i t i e s

th a t in to

t h e f o l d . 3^

S o v ie t a p p a re n t su ccess a l ism - - a l t h o u g h t h i s

in d e - p o litic iz in g n a tio n ­

c o n d i t i o n was n e v e r a c t u a l l y b r o u g h t

a b o u t--w a s assum ed b y th e f o r e i g n a n a l y s t s c a rrie d

th e

over w ith e q u a l ^ s u c c e s s ” to

to have been

th e s a t e l l i t e

c o u n trie s .

33 O s c a r J . J a n o w s k y , N a t i o n a l i t i e s a n d N a t i o n a l M i n o r i t i e s (New Y o r k : T h e M a c m i l l a n C om pany , 19^ 5) > P* 79 • 3* I b i d . ,

p. 80.

1 03 It

Is

o n ly a f t e r th e e v e n ts o f l a t e

of aw aren ess i s

Ju n e 1948 t h a t a d e g re e

e x h ib ite d to th e p o s s ib i l i ty

th a t n a tio n a l­

ism m ig h t f l o u r i s h u n d e r t h e v e r y n o s e s o f t h e th e K re m lin .

in

I t w as known t h a t , a l t h o u g h S t a l i n h a d h im ­

s e l f espoused th e cau se of a n a ti o n ’s r ig h t to its e lf

le a d e rs

on a u to n o m o u s l i n e s t h i s

o rg a n iz e

r i g h t was h e l d b y t h e

C o m m u n is ts t o n o t b e a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r a n a t i o n

in ev ery

situ a tio n . T h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n w o u l d r e s t w i t h t h e C o m m u n is t P a rty . T h is was t h e r a t i o n a l e w h ic h m o t i v a t e d a l l m easu res ta k e n by th e B o lsh e v ik s to s o lv e th e n a ti o n a l q u e s t i o n .3 6 T he a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e p r o b le m o f n a t i o n a l i s m w o u ld b e e f f e c t i v e l y d e - p o l i t i c i z e d b y C o m m u n is t l e a d e r s h i p in s id e and o u ts id e R u ssia e x p la in e d

t h e s h o c k f e l t b y many

o f t h e p o l i t i c a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t s w hen t h e J u n e 28 s t o r y b ro k e. W hat I s su rv ey in to d u a l.

o b v io u sly im p o rta n t to

causal fa c to rs

The a u t h o r f e e l s

th is

th e s is

is a

l e a d i n g up to t h e T ito - K r e m lin

th a t n a tio n a lism

in Y u g o s la v ia ,

w h i c h i f p r e s e n t s h o u l d b e m o re o f a ’’Y u g o s l a v i a n !11 d u e t o

3 5 s t a l i n , i n a s p e e c h d e l i v e r e d b e f o r e t h e XVI C o n g re ss o f C .P .S .U . in 1930, s a i d : ”We m u s t l e t t h e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s d e v e lo p and expand and r e v e a l a l l t h e i r p o t e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s , in o rd e r to c r e a te th e n e c e s s a ry c o n d i t i o n s f o r m e r g i n g t h e m i n t o o n e common c u l t u r e w i t h o n e common t o n g u e . 36 ja n o w sk y ,

op.. c i t . . ,

p. 80.

104 th e ra m ific a tio n s

o f t h e C o m in f o r m a c c u s a t i o n ,

w i t h i n th e f o l l o w i n g Y u g o sla v p ro b le m s : tio n s ;

2) la n d ,

can be found

1) f o r e i g n r e l a ­

th e p e a s a n try , and th e F iv e -Y e a r P la n ;

3)

fe d e ra lism . A s u r v e y w i l l now b e m ade o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s f o r a su b s ta n tia tio n

o f t h e C o m in f o r m c h a r g e .

p ro v id in g n a tio n a lis m if

it

is

fo u n d ,

i s a s t r o n g "Y u g o s la v ism "

d ire c te d

A fte r th e su rv ey ,

th e a u t h o r m ust d e te r m in e in th e

sense th a t i t

t o T ito fro m a l l d i r e c t i o n s .

I f T ito

is

i s b e in g

g iv e n su c h l o y a l t y , h e h a s i n e f f e c t b r i d g e d t h e g ap b e tw e e n N in e te e n th C e n tu ry and T w e n tie th C e n tu ry n a ti o n a l i s m , a t l e a s t f o r t h e m o m en t. E v id e n c e s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c —tb e C o rin th ia n D is p u te .

u n ity ;

F o re ig n r e la tio n s

S o m e tim e a f t e r t h e v i c t o r y o f

P a rtis a n ism ,

t h e R u s s ia n s d e s i r e d t o draw a t r e a t y w ith

A u s t r i a .3 7

f,By c l i n g i n g t o

[te rrito ria l]

s l a v i a dam aged t h e p r o s p e c t o f a n A u s t r i a n

dem ands Yugo­ t r e a t y . f,3 8

T h ese t e r r i t o r i a l c la im s w ere l e v i e d f o r t h a t A u s tr i a 's

te rrito ry

c a lle d

strip

of

S lo v e n e C o r i n th i a by Y u g o s la v s .

C o r i n t h i a fs 2470 k ilo m e te rs

i n h a b i t e d by one h u n d re d

n i n e t y t h o u s a n d p e o p le h a s p r e s e n t e d a p ro b lem - i n y e a r s p a s t .

Ju ly 4,

Raymond D a n i e l l ' s a r t i c l e 1 9 ^ 8 , 5 : 1 * 3*

3^ C y r i l F a l l s , London T im e s, J u l y 1 7 ,

i n t h e New Y o r k T im e s

" A fte rm a th o f W a r," I l l u s t r a t e d 1948, p . 6 7 .

105 P e r h a p s t h e p e a c e m a k e rs o f 1919 f e l t

th e y had a r r iv e d a t a

p e r m a n e n t s o l u t i o n w hen t h e y s u b m i t t e d t h e b o r d e r r e g i o n t o a p le b isc ite

in 1920.

T he v o t e r e s u l t s

gave th e a re a

to

A u s tria . T hen,

i n 1945, M arsh al T ito b eg an a s e r i e s

d e n tis t speeches r e f e r r in g

to C o rin th ia as

C o rin th ia .”

th is

To r e i n f o r c e

T ito a tte m p te d w ar g u i l t . fo rced

of i r r e ­

“S lo v e n e

“c a l l t o b lo o d ” arg u m e n t

to tu r n th e q u e s tio n o f le g itim a te c la im

on

D r . G r u b e r , t h e A u s t r i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , w as

t o a d m i t t h a t t h e r e w e r e som e e i g h t h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d

A u s tria n s

in th e

w ith t h i s

rem arks

r a n k s o f t h e G e rm a n A rm y, b u t h e c o u n t e r e d

I t w o u ld n o t be d i f f i c u l t f o r A u s t r i a t o e n u m e ra te f o r e a c h s i n g l e A u s t r i a n n am ed b y Y u g o s l a v i a a s a w a r c r i m i n a l m any Y u g o s l a v s w h o s e c o n d u c t w a s n o b e t t e r . 39 I n a d d i t i o n , T i t o m ade w h a t h e t e r m e d " a s t r o n g e co n o m ic a r g u m e n t f o r t h e Y u g o s la v ia . ”

in c o rp o ra tio n of C o rin th ia to

T he a n a l y s t o f W o rld T o d ay i s u n d e r t h e

p re ssio n th a t th is

e c o n o m ic a r g u m e n t i s

im ­

th e w eakest of a l l ;

“T h e tw o S l o v e n i a s c o u l d n e v e r b e c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o e a c h o th e r f o r o b v io u s g e o g ra p h ic

reaso n s.

E v id e n c e s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c T rie s te .

40

u n ity : fo re ig n r e la tio n s —

As p o t e n t a s Y u g o s l a v p r e s s u r e may b e f o r

^ “S lo v e n e C o r i n t h i a — th e A u s tro -Y u g o sla v F r o n t i e r Q u e s t i o n , ” W o r l d T o d a y . S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 7 > P* 3 3 6 .

I b id .,

p. 67.

106 C o rin th ia th e T ito

it

i s b y n o m ea n s a s v i o l e n t a s t h e a t t e m p t s b y

reg im e t o a c q u i r e T r i e s t e .

T h is q u e s t io n o f

T r i e s t e and th e V e n e z ia G u ilia a r e a p r e s e n t s an e x tre m e ly e m o tio n a liz e d

issu e .

g ro u n d i n re v ie w .

It

re q u ire s

som e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k ­

A u t h o r s K i n g a n d 0 fB r i e n s u m m a r i z e t h e

1918 I t a l i a n a c q u i s i t i o n

of th e a re a

("a h i l l y ,

b a rren

r e g i o n f e a r e d by b o th I t a l y and th e B a lk a n s a s a s p rin g b o a rd f o r e x p a n s i o n * 9) i n t h i s

m an n er;

T r i e s t e and t h e V e n e z ia G u i l i a , th e n a n im p o r ta n t t r a d e o u t l e t o f t h e cum bersom e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n e m p i r e , was t h e b r i b e p r o m is e d t o I t a l y b y F r a n c e a n d E n g la n d I n I 9 I 5 f o r e n t r y I n t o W o r l d W ar I o n t h e s i d e o f t h e A llie s. I t was s t r i c t l y a q u e s t i o n o f t h e h i g h e s t b i d . By t h e en d o f t h e w a r i n 1918 c i r c u m s t a n c e s h a d c h a n g e d . The A u s tr o - H u n g a r ia n e m p ire h ad d i s s o l v e d i n d e f e a t . N a t i o n a l i s t i c - m i n d e d S o u th S l a v g r o u p s c o m b in ed t o fo rm t h e b r a n d new s t a t e o f Y u g o s l a v i a , w h i c h t h e y c l e a r l y w o u ld n e v e r c o n s i d e r c o m p le te u n t i l i t i n c l u d e d t h e S lo v e n e s o f V e n e z ia G u i l i a . A l t h o u g h ^ t h e s e new f a c t o r s m a t e r i a l l y c h an g ed th e p ro b lem s o f r e s h u f f l i n g E u ro p e , I t a l y i n s i s t e d on h e r pound o f f l e s h . C y n ic a lly th e b i g pow ers l e f t t h e i n f a n t Y u g o s la v ia h e l p l e s s b u t to a c c e p t th e te rm s o f a m i l i t a r i l y p o w e rfu l I t a l y . The 1920 T r e a t y o f R a p a l lo g a v e I t a l y a l l o f h e r dem ands e x c e p t t h e D a lm a tia n c o a s t .^ 1 It Ita lia n s

i s p e rh a p s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t R a p a llo gave th e slig h tly

T re a ty o f London.

m o re t h a n t h e y h a d b e e n p r o m i s e d b y t h e To a d d t o t h e e m o t i o n a l im p a c t o f t o d a y * s

T r i e s t e p ro b le m th e F a s c i s t

o c c u p a tio n o f th e C ro a tia n

c o a s t , D a lm a tia a n d M o n te n e g ro c o u ld n o t h e l p b u t b r i n g

^ W i l l i a m B . K i n g , a n d F r a n k 0 fB r i e n , T he B a l k a n s , F r o n t i e r o f Two W o r l d s . New Y o r k ( A l f r e d A . K n o p f , C o m p any, 19 * 7 ) , p \ “ 5 i “

107 added h a tr e d s .

up

As a p a r t o f a l o n g r a n g e p l a n n i n g p r o g r a m , t h e A llie s had a g re e d w ith T ito

in J u ly 1 9 ^

o c c u p a tio n o f th e T rie ste -F iu m e a r e a . Z e a la n d f o r c e s T it o 's

e n te re d T r ie s te

tro o p s a lre a d y th e r e ,

a g re e m e n t w h ic h a l l o t t e d th e a re a

t o t e m p o r a r y A .M .G . H o w e v e r , w h e n Hew

o n May 2 ,

19*1-5 t h e y f o u n d

in d i r e c t d e n ia l of th e

19

F iu m e t o Y u g o s l a v i a n o c c u p a t i o n a n d

to th e w est in c lu d in g T r ie s te

to B r itis h

o c c u p a tio n .

Some c o m p r o m i s e w as n e c e s s a r y , a n d i t w as f o r t h c o m i n g i n a w i t h d r a w a l o n J u n e 1 2 , 19**5 o f Y u g o s l a v f o r c e s th e s o - c a lle d

M o rg a n l i n e .

T h is

te m p o ra ry i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z i n g

e a st of

in tim e a llo w e d a

of th e c ity

of T rie ste b u t I t

was a g r e e d t h a t a f i n a l s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e m a t t e r was t o fo llo w

in th e peace n e g o tia tio n s

to

c o m e .

^3

A s h o r t m o n th b e f o r e t h e c o m p r o m i s e i t a p p e a r e d t h a t Y u g o s la v f o r c e s h a d no i n t e n t i o n th e c it y . e n tire ly

o f g iv in g up any p a r t o f

T h e Army h a d e l e c t e d a n a s s e m b l y c o m p o s e d o f Y u g o s la v s.

S la v ic tro o p s

G e n era l K u ed er,

in th e c it y ,

sa id

in e f f e c t

i n command o f t h e th a t he had

l i b e r a t e d T r i e s t e a n d w o u ld n o t b u d g e u n t i l T i t o s o o r d e r e d . The Y u g o s la v c o n t r o l l e d to

n e w sp a p e r, N o s tro A v e n ire had t h i s

say:

^2 . ,!T h e V e n e z i a G u i l i a Q u e s t i o n , M W o r l d T o d a y . C h a th a m H o u s e R e v i e w , 1 : 1 5 0 , J u l y t o D e c e m b e r 1 9 ^ 5 • r b id ..

p . 155.

108 T r i e s t e i s a b a s t i o n w h ic h , w renched fro m i m p e r i a l ­ i s t i c r e a c tio n , h as a tta in e d an advanced p o s itio n in th e new a n d t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c w o r l d . And t h e u n i t e d f o r c e s who h a v e won i t w i l l know how t o d e f e n d i t a g a i n s t a n y o n e .4 4 T h e r e w a s c e r t a i n l y m uch e v i d e n c e o f a d y n a m ite -la d e n i s s u e . fa c to ry

th e e x is te n c e

of

I n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t a m o re s a t i s ­

te m p o ra ry s o l u t i o n th e q u e s tio n o f V e n e z ia G u ilia

was r e f e r r e d

t o th e C o u n c il o f F o re ig n M i n i s t e r s , m e e tin g in

l io n d o n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 - 1 9 ,

1945*

B r. K a rd e lj,

l a t e r to

becom e T i t o ' s F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r i n S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 8 ,

la id

c la im

t o t h e w h o le o f V e n e z ia G u i l i a f o r Y u g o s la v ia , a n d v i o l e n t l y opposed th e

id e a o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n .

sig n ific a n t th a t a t th is

It

is v ery

tim e

M r. M o l o t o v g a v e som e d e g r e e o f s u p p o r t t o t h e Y u g o s l a v c l a i m , b u t h e s a i d t h a t i t w o u ld b e p r o p e r f o r I t a l i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s I t a l i a n i n c h a r a c t e r . 45 The i d e a June,

of in te rn a tio n a liz a tio n p e rs is te d ,

and in

1946 B i d a u l t p ro p o s e d a s e t t l e m e n t f o r T r i e s t e .

T he

B i d a u l t p l a n was f o r 1 0 - y e a r j o i n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b y t h e B ig F o u r, th e

I t a l y and Y u g o s la v ia , w ith a p erm an en t g o v e rn o r f o r

te rrito ry

a g ree.

t o b e nam ed l a t e r when t h e B ig F o u r m ig h t

M r, M o l o t o v a t t h i s

tim e s a i d he w ish e d t o

stu d y

th e id e a s s e t f o r t h b u t o ffh an d he su g g e ste d t h a t he p r e ­ f e r r e d a "p e rm a n e n t” fo rm u la t o d is p o s e o f th e d i s p u t e d a r e a

^

New Y o r k T i m e s , May 1 9 ,

1945, 4 :6 .

^

f,T h e V e n e z i a G u i l i a Q u e s t i o n , ” o p . c i t . ,

p.

158.

109 r a t h e r th a n a te m p o ra ry s o l u t io n ; he a l s o

stre sse d

i d e a c e r t a i n l y w o u ld n o t b e w e l l r e c e i v e d

in

D e sp ite Y u g o s la v ia n a t t i t u d e

t h a t th e

Y u g o s l a v i a . ^

t h e c o m p ro m ise i n t e r ­

n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n p l a n was a p p r o v e d i n t h e a u tu m n o f 1 9 4 6 . To i l l u s t r a t e

th e c o m p le te f a i l u r e

e it h e r of th e T r ie s te c la im a n ts ,

o f th e p la n to

Ita lia n s

s a tis fy

in th e c i t y h a ile d

th e a d o p tio n o f th e F re n c h l i n e a s a S o v ie t-Y u g o sla v v i c t o r y and w arned t h a t u n l e s s A l l i e d tr o o p s w ere m a in ta in e d i n t h e a r e a a q u i c k s e i z u r e b y t h e Y u g o s la v s w o u ld r e s u l t . q u o t e t h e New Y o r k T i m e s :

“ C o m m u n is t a g e n t s ,

To

th e I ta lia n s

s a y , h a v e b e e n o r g a n i z i n g T r i e s t e w o r k e r s s i n c e May, 1 9 4 5 w hen Y u g o s la v t r o o p s t o o k T r i e s t e a n d h e l d

it

f o r f o r ty days

u n t i l f o r c e d t o w i t h d r a w ^7 The c r u x o f t h e p r e s e n t T r i e s t e fa ilu re

p ro b lem h a s b e e n th e

o n t h e C o u n c i l f s p a r t a f t e r m o re t h a n t h r e e y e a r s t o

nam e a G o v e r n o r . Ita lia n s

and S la v ic

B e sid e s le a d in g to p e o p le s th e

rio ts

a m o ng t h e

in te rim Z onal m ilita r y

g o v ern m en t h a s b e e n u n a b le t o p r e v e n t s e r i o u s t r a d e n a tio n .

The c l a s h

—c o n tin u e s .

sta g ­

of id e o lo g ie s - - b o th n a ti o n a l and r a c i a l

G e n e r a l A i r e y , E n g l i s h C o m m ander o f t h e U . S .

- B r i t i s h Z one was q u o te d a s s a y i n g t h a t t h e

tw o g r o u p s m u s t

be e x p e c te d to c o n tin u e t o p r e s s f o r i n c o r p o r a ti o n o f T r i e s t e

^

Kew Y o r k T i m e s . J u n e 3 0 > 1 9 ^ 6 ,

1 2 :3 *

New Y o r k T i m e s ,

1 9 ^ 6 , 3 si*

S e p te m b e r 2 5 ,

110 i n t o t h e i r own r e s p e c t i v e a r e a s , u n s a tis fa c to ry W hat i s

in stru m e n t o f m i l i t a r y

so lo n g a s th e

g o v ern m en t c o n t i n u e s ^

im p o rta n t a b o u t T r i e s t e fro m th e S t a l i n

p o i n t o f v iew i s c ity to

e sp e c ia lly

th a t he o rig in a lly

th e I t a l i a n s

as b a it

to

in te n d e d to g iv e th e

lu re

t h e m i n t o C o m m unism .^ 9

T hen h e was m et b y a w ave o f Y u g o s la v n a t i o n a l i s t i c tio n .

T h e W o r l d T o d a y w r i t e r su m s u p i n t e n s e n e s s

Y u g o s la v a t t i t u d e

in th is

o p p o si­ of th e

m an ner:

I n T r i e s t e , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , Communism h a s com e r i g h t u p a g a i n s t a p l a c e w h e r e a ” new a g e ” i d e a w i l l n o t w ork w i t h o u t t h e u s e o f i n t i m i d a t i o n on s u c h a b i g s c a l e a s t o im p a ir t h e e n d s , h o w e v e r i d e o l o g i c a l , f o r w h ic h su c h m eans a r e u s e d . B u t Communism i s a f l e x i b l e m o v e m e n t, e v e r r e a d y t o c h a n g e i t s t a c t i c s t o w a r d t h e o u ts id e w o rld : o f t h a t one i s c o n s t a n t l y aw are i n T rie ste . Among i t s own m e m b e rs d i s c i p l i n e i s a d a m a n t . O b e d i e n c e t o t h e ,fP a r t y L i n e 11 m u s t b e i m p l i c i t , a n d e v e ry o n e o u t s i d e th e P a r t y h a s a l a b e l ; m ost n o n C o m m u n i s ts i n T r i e s t e a r e l a b e l e d F a s c i s t o r C h a u v i n i s t i f th e y v e n tu r e t o d i f f e r a b o u t th e " Y u g o s la v n e s s” o f T r i e s t e .5 0 E v id e n c e s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c G reece.

u n ity : fo re ig n r e la tio n s --

I n G r e e c e t h e P a r t i s a n m o v e m e n t o f G e n e r a l M a rk o s

V a f i a d e s w o u ld b e e x p e c te d t o s u p p o r t fro m T i t o .

so lic it

sy m p a th y a n d a c t i v e

T h ere i s good e v id e n c e t h a t ,

t h e r e was p l e n t y o f sy m p a th y a n d w e l l - w i s h i n g ,

I b i d . , -F eb ru ary 2 4 ,

w h ile

sig n ific a n t

19^8, 8 r2 .

49 B o t h C y r i l F a l l s , ( o p > c i t . ) a n d Raymond D a n i e l l ( i n t h e New Y o r k T im e s o p . c i t . , J u l y 4 , 1 9 4 8 , 3) c o n firm t h i s s ta te m e n t. ^ T r i e s t e D i a r y , ,f op.. c i t . ,

p . 162 .

Ill m a t e r i a l a s s i s t a n c e was l a c k i n g . th a t th is

Raymond D a n i e l l i s

su re

i s a n i t e m o f i m p o r t a n c e b e h i n d t h e C om inform

charge o f n a tio n a lism .

A. V a lla n c e g iv e s us t h i s

rep ort:

I c o u l d f i n d n o e v i d e n c e i n M a ce d o n ia o r e l s e w h e r e th a t Y u g o sla v ia i s c o n te m p la tin g any a d ven tu re in th e d ir e c tio n of G reece. I am n a t u r a l l y n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o t e s t i f y t h a t no s i n g l e G re ek p a r t i s a n c r o s s e s t h e f r o n t i e r and i s n o t s u c c o r e d by s y m p a t h e t ic v i l l a g e r s , b u t a f t e r c a r e f u l c r o s s - c h e c k i n g o f s t a t e m e n t s fr o m o f f i c i a l q u a r t e r s and fr o m q u i t e u n o f f i c i a l p e a s a n t s I am f i r m l y p e r s u a d e d t h a t n o o r g a n i z e d Y u g o s l a v m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e i s r e a c h i n g t h e G re ek r e b e l s . 51 F o r m ore o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l and G e n e r a l

A s s e m b ly d o c u m e n t s a r e a s o u r c e o f c o n ­

f i r m a t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l p r o p o s i t i o n a d v a n c e d b y Mr. V a lla n c e . The G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly h a d f u l l r e a s o n t o b e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e G reek w a r s i t u a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e a p p o i n t e d a S p e c i a l C o m m itte e on t h e B a l k a n s to in v e s t ig a t e .

(U.N.S.C.B.)

in th e w in te r o f 1947,

T h i s C o m m itte e w as r e f u s e d r e c o g n i t i o n b y

T i t o on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t i t was a U . S .

t o o l f o r " r u th le ss

i n t e r v e n t i o n i n G r e e c e ” and t h e r e b y p a r t o f a p l a n t o t h r e a t e n B a lk a n p e a c e .

The

C o m m itte e s t a r t e d t o w ork on

t h e b a s i s o f c e r t a i n a c c u s a t i o n s made b y t h e G reek L i a i s o n R e p r e s e n t a t iv e , A. D a l i e t o s ,

on D e c e m b e r 8 , 1 9 4 7 -

T he

a c c u s a t i o n s may b e su m m a rize d a s f o l l o w s ;

51 A . V a l l a n c e , " Y u g o s l a v i a ; P l a n and P o l i c y , ” New S t a t e s m a n and N a t i o n ; 3 4 : 6 6 - 7 * J u l y 2 6 , 1 9 4 7 *

112 1 . C o l l a b o r a t i o n and c l o s e c o n t a c t b e tw e e n g u e r i l l a le a d e rs and le a d e rs 2 . U nchecked v i o l a t i o n free

o f th e n e ig h b o rin g c o u n tr i e s . o f th e f r o n t i e r s ,

p e rm ittin g

reb el e n tr ie s .

3 . U s e f r e e l y m ade o f t h e t e r r i t o r y c o u n trie s

(h o sp ita liz a tio n ,

4 . S u p p ly , fro m t h e n e ig h b o r s ,

o f n e ig h b o rin g

e tc .). o f arm s, m u n itio n s and

p ro v isio n s. 5 . T r a i n i n g cam ps f o r b a n d i t r e s e r v e s on n e i g h b o r i n g so il The S econd I n t e r i m R e p o r t o f t h e U .N .S .C .B . h a d t h i s to

say: The a d v i s o r s a r e o f t h e o p in io n t h a t no fo o d i s a t p r e s e n t b e in g p ro v id e d f o r th e g u e r i l l a s fro m a c r o s s t th e f r o n t i e r , as th e y ap p ear to liv e e n tir e ly by l o o t ­ in g G reek v i l l a g e s ; a s t o c l o t h i n g , th e a d v i s o r s a r e n o t c o n v in c e d t h a t l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s h a v e , i n f a c t , b e e n f u r n i s h e d .5 3 S o m e tim e e a r l i e r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l

a p p o i n t e d a C o m m issio n t o c h e c k c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d t h a t a l a r g e b a n d i t t r a i n i n g cam p, B u l k e s , was b e i n g m a in ­ ta in e d

in Y u g o s la v ia .

C h a rg e s w ere t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t

G re e k r e f u g e e s w e re b e i n g p r o v i d e d w i t h arm s a n d o t h e r m ili-r ta ry

s u p p l i e s a t th e B u lk e s cam p, a s w e l l a s f o o d , an d w ere

^ U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A ssem b ly A /5 2 1 , R e p o rt o f th e U .N .S .C .B . . p . 8 8 .

1 s t In te rim

53 U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A sse m b ly A /5 2 2 , 2 n d I n t e r i m R e p o rt o f th e U .N .S .C .B . , p . 8 .

113 e x te n d e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

s e rv ic e back a c ro ss th e b o rd e r.

T he r e p o r t o f t h e C o m m issio n i n A p r i l ,

19^7 i s ,

in p a r t, as

fo llo w s: A t t h e t i m e o f i t s v i s i t t o t h e cam p a t B u l k e s on A p r i l 2 , 19 ^ 7 * t h e C o m m i s s i o n w as u n a b l e t o f i n d a n y e v id e n c e o f re p o r te d m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s and t r a i n i n g . T h e r e i s n o d o u b t , h o w e v e r , t h a t a t t h e B u l k e s cam p t h e r e f u g e e s fro m G re ec e w ere s u b j e c t e d t o i n d o c t r i n a t i o n an d p ro p a g a n d a lo o k in g to w a rd th e o v e rth ro w o f th e G r e e k g o v e r n m e n t .5 ^ I t m i g h t b e d i f f i c u l t t o m ake o u t a c a s e t o show com­ p le te n e u tra lity

on Y u g o s la v i a ’s p a r t i n th e G reek f i g h t i n g .

B ut e v id e n c e s o f s i g n i f i c a n t a c t i v e s ta n tia te d .

A lso ,

t h e f a c t re m a in s t h a t T i t o d id n o t

re c o g n iz e th e s o - c a lle d

M a rk o s P r o v i s i o n a l D e m o c r a t i c

G o v ern m en t fo rm e d on D ece m b er 2 k , E v id e n c e s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c t h e F i v e -Y e a r P l a n .

su p p o rt a re not sub­

Y u g o s la v ia

19kj. u n i t y : th e P e a s a n ts and is h is to ric a lly

a la n d of

p e a sa n ts.

"E ven th e K a r a g e o r g e v itc h and th e

O b re n o v itc h

w ere l i t t l e

m o re t h a n w e l l t o d o p e a s a n t s , f o r a l l

th e o ld

S erb n o b i l i t y had b een e x te rm in a te d by th e T u r k s . F o r th is

r e a s o n " t h e a g r a r i a n q u e s t i o n an d t h e dem and f o r la n d

w e r e am o ng t h e p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e s

o f t h e n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n ts

5 ^ u n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , M im e o g r a p h e d D o c u m en ts, S /3 6 0 , p p . 1 6 7 - 9 . 55 R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , N a tio n a lis m (L ondon: O x f o r d P r e s s , 1 9 3 9 )> P« 1 0 6 -

1X4 i n S e r b i a . 56

W h at t h i s a d d s u p t o

is

th e p ic tu r e

of a

p e o p l e who c h e r i s h a t r a d i t i o n a l l o v e o f s o i l a n d c a n b e won t o a n a t i o n a l pro g ram f a v o r in g th e m s e lv e s , c l a s s , b u t c an b e e x p e c te d t o w h ic h b lo c k s t h e d e s i r e A first to

Le.,

sho w h o s t i l i t y

to re ta in p riv a te

th e p e a sa n t

to an y re g im e

o w n e rsh ip o f l a n d .

i n d i c a t i o n t h a t T i t o was n o t l o o k i n g f o r w a r d

ra p id c o lle c tiv iz a tio n

o f t h e l a n d was w i t n e s s e d a t

B i h a t c h i n 1 9 4 6 w h e r e t h e Y u g o s l a v E c o n o m ic P l a n n i n g Com­ m itte e

is s u e d a s o - c a l le d B ih a tc h P rogram .

com m en t a t

th e tim e w as:

S t a l i n fs

"W hat y o u a r e c o n t e m p l a t i n g i s

m e re ly a r e v i v a l o f th e o ld N .E .P .—y ou a r e

re p e a tin g

L e n i n ’ s o l d m i s t a k e s . 57 M a r s h a l T i t o was e x p l i c i t e n o u g h i n A p r i l ,

1947 i n

re fe re n c e to th e p ro p o sa l, a t th a t d a te , f o r a f iv e y e ar p la n f o r Y u g o s la v ia : We s e e k t r a n s i t i o n f r o m e x t e n s i v e t o i n t e n s i v e a g r i ­ c u ltu re . . . . We d e s i r e t o i n c r e a s e t h e f e r t i l i t y o f t h e l a n d a n d t o i m p r o v e t h e m e th o d o f i t s c u l t i v a t i o n [ a n d ] i n o r d e r t o d o t h i s we m u s t h a v e t h e n e c e s s a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l im p le m e n ts. O p p o s itio n [ to th e p la n ] r e v e a l s t h e i l l - f o u n d e d an d m en d a cio u s c h a r a c t e r o f th e p ro p ag an d a o f s o - c a l l e d f r i e n d s o f th e p e a s a n ts who a r e o p p o s e d t o t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f o u r p e o p l e . . . . T hese w is e a c re s even a s s e r t t h a t t h i s [p la n ] i s th e b e g in n in g o f a g e n e r a l a b o l i t i o n o f p r i v a t e o w n e rsh ip .

56 I b i d • • P . 1 0 4 . ," I n s i d e S t o r y - - T h e T i t o C r i s i s , " 57 ___________ W o r l d , A u g u s t 1 9 4 8 , p . 3*

115 T h is i s

m ere i d l e

c h a t t e r . 58

R u s s i a * s p a t t e r n f o r l a n d r e f o r m was t o n a t i o n a l i z e th e

la n d f i r s t and th e n fo llo w

up w ith a p o lic y

of c o lle c ti­

v i z a t i o n w h ic h was w e l l l a u n c h e d b y 1 9 3 0 . Y u g o s la v ia , f a c e d w ith a d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f p ro b lem and a d i f f e r e n t k in d o f p e a s a n t, h a s b e e n e x tre m e ly slo w , under T ito ,

to c o lle c tiv iz e .

A g ric u ltu ra l p ro v isio n s

th e F iv e Y ear P la n e s t a b l i s h a v e ry r i g i d d is trib u tio n

sc h e d u le and a s s u re

p ro d u c tio n and

th a t ev ery a d m in is tra tiv e

e f f o r t w i l l be b e n t to s e c u re th e P la n * s c o m p le tio n . re fe rrin g

t o th e p r e c i s e w o rd in g o f th e P la n ,

c a n t th a t th e p ro v is io n to S t a t e farm s

i s f a r dow n t h e

ra ise lis t

of

it

is

B u t, sig n ifi­

th e te c h n ic a l l e v e l o f th e of a g ric u ltu r a l house-

c l e a n i n g — f o llo w in g su ch g e n e r a l ite m s a s p ro m o tio n o f u p - t o - d a t e fa n n in g m eth o d s,

i n c r e a s i n g t h e a r e a s sow n,

e t c .5 9 P e rh a p s th e F iv e Y ear P la n i s a m a jo r k ey to th e n a tio n a lism ra is in g

ch arg e.

I n a n u t - s h e l l t h e P l a n i s a im e d a t

in d u s tr ia l p ro d u c tio n u n t i l i t

re p re s e n ts , by 19519

65 p e r c e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l in c o m e , a s c o m p a re d w i t h 45 p e r c e n t b e fo r e th e w ar.

I t c a lls

f o r im m e n se i n c r e a s e s

in th e

. F i v e Y e a r P la n ( B e lg r a d e : P u b lis h e d b y t h e O f f i c e o f I n f o r m a t i o n a t t a c h e d t o t h e G overn m en t o f t h e F e d e r a t i v e P e o p l e * s R e p u b lic o f Y u g o s l a v i a , 1 9 4 7 ) , p . 5 5 .

^ Ibid., p. 66.

116 o u tp u t o f h y d r o - e le c tr ic e n g in e e rin g p ro d u c ts .

pow er, c o a l ,

The e x p l o i t a t i o n

r i c h m in e ra l r e s o u r c e s — m anganese, — is

z in c ,

t o b e s te p p e d up e n o rm o u s ly .

sc ie n tific

ste e l,

and heavy

of Y u g o s la v ia n l e a d , a n d a lu m i n u m

S im u lta n e o u s ly — th ro u g h

m e t h o d s o f i r r i g a t i o n a n d d r a i n a g e , m o re g e n e r a l

use of f e r t i l i z e r s ,

b e t t e r seed and a la r g e

in v e s tm e n t i n

a g r i c u l t u r a l e q u ip m e n t— farm p r o d u c tio n , w ith p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a sis on i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s , F in a lly ,

sin c e i t

is

is

to be c o n s id e ra b ly r a is e d .

re c o g n iz e d t h a t th e e f f o r t s

o f th e

p e a s a n t s d e p e n d n o t o n ly on " F a r t i s a n i s m ” b u t a l s o a b ility

to

o b t a i n co n su m er* s goods i n th e

v illa g e

c o o p e ra tiv e s to r e s ,

th in g s a s b o o ts and sh o e s,

lig h t

on th e

shops and in th e

i n d u s t r i e s — p ro d u c in g such

iro n m o n g e ry an d w i r e l e s s

se ts—

a re to be d e v e lo p e d .^ The s n a g s a r e num erous t o a s u c c e s s f u l c o m p le tio n o f th e F iv e Y ear P la n . The w r i t e r f o r t h e

Some w r i t e r s a r e p e s s i m i s t i c O ffic e of In fo rm a tio n a tta c h e d

Y u g o s la v G overnm ent h a s t h i s

to

of success. to th e

say:

T h e P l a n c a l l s f o r a n im m e n se c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t - n e a rly £1400 m illio n s . I n a c a p i t a l i s t econom y t h i s w o u ld b e a n a l m o s t i n s o l v a b l e d i f f i c u l t y . I n Yugo­ s l a v ia , w ith i t s th re e s e c t o r s — s o c ia liz e d in d u s try , c o o p e r a t i v e e n t e r p r i s e s , a n d p r i v a t e l y ow ned f a r m i n g a n d t r a d i n g and a r t i s a n p ro d u c tio n o f sm a ll s c a le v a r i e t y - a l l s u b j e c t t o r i g i d p r i c e c e i l i n g s , t h e p ro b le m c a n , I b e lie v e , be s o lv e d . . . . T h e re i s no i n f l a t i o n , r a tio n in g i s b e in g e n fo rc e d , a g r i c u l t u r a l e f f ic ie n c y is

Loc. c i t .

117 b e in g in tr o d u c e d , and v o l u n ta r y u n p a id l a b o r i s a v a ila b le to c a rry out th e p h y s ic a l re c o n s tru c tio n o f t h e c o u n t r y .6 1 W h e th e r Y u g o s la v e c o n o m ic p l a n n i n g i s d e s t i n e d f o r fa ilu re

o r s u c c e s s seem s t o d e p e n d ,

in any e v e n t,

upon th e

v i t a l c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p e a s a n t s - - t h e k ey 70 p e r c e n t o f Y u g o s l a v i a ’s p o p u la tio n *

The P l a n i s d e s ig n e d t o d e v e lo p 62 in d u s try w ith o u t e f f e c tin g a re v o lu tio n in a g r i c u lt u r e .

P e a sa n try is f u r th e r geared to

th e P la n by th e

in g e n io u s

s y s te m o f l i n k e d p r i c e s u n d e r w h ic h th e p e a s a n t s e l l s h i s p r o d u c e t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t a t lo w f i x e d p r i c e s b u t i s title d

to buy i n d u s t r i a l goods in S ta te

p ric e s u su a lly

en­

shops a t f ix e d

sev en t o e ig h t tim e s c h e a p e r th a n goods s o ld

on t h e f r e e m a r k e t .

T he s e l l e r c a n d e a l t h r o u g h t h e f r e e

m a rk e t i f h e w ish e s b u t th e n h e m u st,

of c o u rs e , buy h is

g o o d s a t h i g h e r p r i c e s . ^3 Y u g o s la v ia ’ s u n iq u e p e a s a n tr y i s u n d e rsto o d by S t a l i n , sp e c ific

f o r t h e C o m in f o r m a t t a c k c o n t a i n e d a

c h a r g e o f ’’k u l a k p e a s a n t p o l i c y — c o d d l i n g t h e

p e a s a n t s . ,f sta te d

a p p a re n tly n o t w e ll

T h e Y u g o s l a v C o m m u n is t P a r t y a l l a l o n g h a d

t h a t maximum e f f o r t s w e r e b e i n g m ade t o i n d u c e t h e

I b i d ., p . 67. _____________ , " Y u g o s l a v i a ' s F i v e Y e a r P l a n , " T h e W o rld T o d a y , R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , A u gu st 1 9 ^ 8 , p . 331* ^ , “T h e M e a n i n g o f t h e T i t o E p i s o d e , ” A m e ric a n P e r s p e c t i v e , S e p te m b e r 1 9 ^ 8 , p . 185*

118 p e a sa n ts

to

j o i n t h e c o o p e r a t i v e m o v em en t.

P erhap s th e

P a r t i s a n G o v ern m en t a t t a c h e s a d i f f e r e n t m e a n in g t o " in d u c e ” th a n do th e l e a d e r s

i n M oscow .

E v id e n c e s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c q u e stio n . ta n c e ,

t h e w o rd

u n ity :

th e fe d e ra lism

Som ewhat a k i n t o t h e p e a s a n t q u e s t i o n i n im p o r ­

so f a r a s t h e B a lk a n p e o p le s a r e c o n c e rn e d ,

q u e s tio n of fe d e ra lis m .

T h e tw o p r o b l e m s a r e

is

th e

sim ila r

b e ca u se b o th in v o lv e th e p e a s a n t m asses and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t c u lt u r a l and r e l i g io u s , Some w r i t e r s g ra v e s t c rim e .

a n d i n some c a s e s ,

r a c i a l m ores.

la b e l " p e a sa n t c o d d lin g ” a s T ito * s

O th e rs,

lik e C y ril F a lls ,

f o r a B a lk a n b lo c d e s e r v e s to p b i l l i n g . ^ a s w e e p in g a n n o u n c e m e n t when T i t o

in Ju n e,

f e e l th e p ro p o sa l I t c e r t a i n l y w as 1948 p ro p o s e d a

r e g io n a l ag reem en t f o r Y u g o s la v ia , B u lg a r ia and A lb a n ia , se rv e a s a s t a r t i n g p o in t f o r th e fe d e ra lism . c h a n n e ls .

id e a

to

o f e n t i r e B a lk a n

T h i s a n n o u n c e m e n t w a s m ade t h r o u g h o f f i c i a l A c tu a lly ,

t h e C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f Y u g o s l a v i a d r e w

up a p ro g ra m an d s u b m itte d i t P o litb u ro fo r a p p ro v a l.

on J u n e 1 4 ,

1948, to th e

T he a p p r o v a l w a s g r a n t e d .

T h is

program in p a r t re a d a s f o llo w s : T h e C o m m u n is t P a r t y o f Y u g o s l a v i a w i l l s t r i v e

64

See th e o u t li n e ap p ro v ed by th e P o l i t b u r o Ju ly 1, 19^8, 1, 6 :8 . 65 F a i i s ,

ojd.

f o r th e

o f th e Y u g o sla v P a r t y P rogram a s on Ju n e 1 4 , 1 9 4 8 . New Y o r k T i m e s .

c i t *. p .

66.

119 c l o s e s t t i e s o f c o o p e r a tio n w ith th e P e o p le * s R e p u b lic o f A lb a n ia a n d w i l l w ork f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f u n i t y o f t h e B u l g a r i a n , A l b a n ia n a n d Y u g o s la v p e o p l e s on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f n a t i o n a l e q u a l i t y . . . t h e sa m e p r i n c i p l e on w h i c h t h e Y u g o s l a v F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f S e r b i a n s , C r o a t i a n s , M a c e d o n ia n s, S lo v e n e s an d M o n tin e g ra n s i s c o n s t i t u t e d .6 6 T h is p r o p o s a l n e ed n o t have b e en so sh o c k in g t o th e K re m lin l e a d e r s .

T h ere had b e e n p re v io u s

in d ic a tio n s

a f e d e r a l m o v em en t w a s u n d e r w ay i n t h e B a l k a n s . n o tic e a b le th a t

th a t

I t w as

i n t h e P a r t y p ro g ra m r e f e r r e d t o no m en tio n

w a s m ade o f a Y u g o s l a v s t r i v i n g T h is w as, o f c o u r s e ,

f o r B u lg a ria n c o o p e ra tio n .

u n n e c e s s a ry b e c a u se o f th e a g re e m e n t,

r e a c h e d on D e c e m b e r 2 7 , 1 9 4 7 b e t w e e n T i t o a n d D i m i t r o f f , w h ic h e s t a b l i s h e d a T r e a t y o f F r i e n d s h i p a n d C o o p e r a tio n b e t w e e n t h e i r tw o c o u n t r i e s . Im m e d ia te ly f o llo w in g th e T r e a ty , reco rd ,

Jan u ary 28,

E a s te rn E uro p e.

P ra v d a w e n t on

1948, a s b e in g a g a in s t f e d e r a lis m

in

T h is c o u ld h a r d ly be i n t e r p r e t e d a s an y ­

th in g b u t a rebuke a g a in s t T ito and D im itr o f f . T h e m an D i m i t r o f f f i g u r e s a l m o s t a s p r o m i n e n t l y i n th is

q u e s tio n a s d o es th e M a rsh a l.

P r e m i e r who f i r s t m ade t h e p r o p o s a l , in Jan u ary 1948.

I t was t h e B u l g a r i a n i n a w a t e r e d dow n f o r m ,

B ut even b e fo re o u tr ig h t p ro p o sa ls th e

B u lg a rs h in te d b ro a d ly a t

th e s u b je c t.

In e a rly

1947

B u l g a r i a *s V i c e P r e m i e r w a s q u o t e d a s s a y i n g t h a t #1m o r a l l y

66 M. S . H a n d le r , Hew Y ork T im e s , J u l y 1 , 1 9 4 8 , 1 , 6:8.

120 a B a l k a n C o n f e d e r a t i o n a l r e a d y e x i s t s .*1

C e rta in ly

th e

D ecem ber 1946 c o m m e rc ia l a rr a n g e m e n t b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia and A lb a n ia am o u n ted t o a lm o s t th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p r o t e c t o r ­ a te

over A lb a n ia .

read y to

S i x m o n th s l a t e r D i m i t r o f f s e e m e d a b o u t

jo in B u lg a ria to th e arran g em en t a s T ito -D im itro ff

c o n v e r s a t io n s h i n t e d a t c u sto m s u n io n i n t h e n e a r

f u t u r e . ^7

I n a r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1947 D i m i t r o f f was q u o te d : The q u e s t i o n o f f e d e r a t i o n i s n o t on th e ag en d a a t t h e m o m e n t, b u t w h e n t h e q u e s t i o n i s r i p e , a n d i t w i l l r ip e n a t a l l c o s t s , th e n o u r p e o p le s o f th e P e o p le s D e m o c ra c ie s o f R u m an ia, H u n g a ry a n d G re e c e w i l l d e c id e i t . 68 T h i s r e m a r k c o u l d m ean a n u m b e r o f t h i n g s , b u t s e e m s to

i n d i c a t e t h a t D i m i t r o f f was t a k i n g A lb a n ia n an d Y u g o s la v

c o o p e ra tio n f o r g ra n te d .

He w a s a p p a r e n t l y

lo o k in g ahead

to a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t o f th e f e d e r a l id e a fro m th e c o u n ­ trie s

n a m e d , p e r h a p s w i t h som e o f M a r s h a l T i t o ' s

m in d , p a r t i c u l a r l y

speeches in

t h e o n e m ade i n S o p h i a o n N o v e m b e r 2 5 ,

1946: We s h a l l e s t a b l i s h c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h B u l g a r i a s o g e n e r a l and so c lo s e t h a t th e q u e s t io n o f f e d e r a t i o n w i l l b e a m ere f o r m a l i t y . We c a n n o t b u t s e t o u t o n a new w ay a n d l i n k o u r common d e s t i n i e s t o s h a r e , i n t h e

1 _____________ , “F e d e r a t i o n i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e , ” A m e r i c a n P e r s p e c t i v e . M a rc h 1 9 4 8 , p . 6 1 5 *

^ I b id ., p. 6l6.

121 f u t u r e , a l l o u r p o s s e s s i o n s a n d t o e n j o y th e m t o g e t h e r .6 9 S u m m a ry .

I n sum m ary, t h e c h a r g e o f n a t i o n a l i s m

b a s e d on good e v id e n c e t h a t P a r t i s a n o p e n ly a d v o c a te d a p o l ic y

is

le a d e rs h ip had q u ite

of la n d c a p i t a l is m , had spoken o u t

f o r f e d e r a l i s m am o n g B a l k a n p o w e r s , h a d a d o p t e d a s o m e w h a t a r r o g a n t and b o a s t f u l a t t i t u d e n o t even e x c lu d in g R u s s ia . o b se rv a tio n to

re c o n c ile th a t

to w a rd th e r e s t o f th e w o rld

It

seem ed d i f f i c u l t a t f i r s t

t h e a rc h -C o m m u n ist T i t o h ad

t a k e n a d i f f e r e n t p a t h f r o m t h a t l a i d dow n b y M oscow . se em in g i n c o n g r u i t y h a s b e e n e x p la in e d b y t h e f o r c e n a tio n a lis tic

p u b lic

M r. F o t i t c h ,

of

o p in io n b ro u g h t t o b e a r on T i t o . l a s t A m b assad o r t o th e R o y al Y u g o sla v

g o v e rn m e n t, h a s s a i d : n o t S t a l i n . 117 °

T h is

f!T i t o

is

c o n fro n te d w ith n a tio n a lis m ,

O ur s u r v e y h a s t e n d e d t o v a l i d a t e F o t i t c h f s

9 C h ro n o lo g y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l E v e n ts a n d D o c u m en ts, D ecem ber 2 3 -D ecem ber 2 1 , 1 9 4 6 -1 9 4 ? : S u p p le m e n t t o W o rld T o d a y . New Y o r k a n d L o n d o n . One m a j o r s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e c o n t e m p l a t e d B u l g a r o - Y u g o s l a v c o n s o l i d a t i o n w i t h i n a ”G r e a t e r S o u th S l a v F e d e r a t i o n ” was t h a t i t o f f e r e d h o p e f o r a f i n a l s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e M a ce d o n ian p r o b le m . At l e a s t i t r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n te m p l a t e d j o i n d e r o f B u l g a r i a n M aced o n ia w i t h t h e M a ce d o n ian P e o p l e s R e p u b l i c , I r r e s p e c t i v e o f A gean M a ce d o n ia. F a i l u r e o f t h i s f e d e r a t i o n sc h e m e o n t h e o u t ­ b r e a k o f t h e T ito - K r e m lin q u a r r e l a c c e l e r a t e d th e G reek w a r. ”T h e o b j e c t o f t h e w a r w a s r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a M a ce d o n ian s t a t e i n g u e r i l l a - c o n t r o l l e d G r e e c e . C le a rly t h i s may h a v e b e e n p a r t o f t h e C o m in fo rm p l a n t o c o m b a t T i t o s in c e such a s t a t e c o u ld s e rv e a s a n u c le u s o f a g r e a t e r M a c e d o n ia .” [ S e e E m i l L e n g y e l , E a s t e r n E u r o p e T o d a y (New Y ork: F o re ig n P o lic y A s s o c ia tio n , I n c ., H e a d lin e S e r ie s , No. 7 7 , S e p te m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 4 9 ) , p . 47*] New Y ork T i m e s . J u l y 1 ,

1948, 8 :3, 4 ,

6.

122 rem ark ♦ C o u n te r F o rc e s .

W hat r e m a in s t o b e d o n e i s

e x a m in e c o u n t e r f o r c e s w h ic h m ig h t i n d i c a t e p o rt is

e re c te d

th a t T ito ^

on s a n d - - w h i c h w o u ld b e t h e c a s e

c o u n te r fo rc e s a re

sh o w n t o b e q u i t e

to

stro n g .

if

sup­

th e se

In o th e r

w o r d s , we m u s t e x a m i n e t h e d e g r e e o f o p p o s i t i o n t o T i t o w ith in Y u g o s la v ia and w hat T i t o F ro m 1 9 4 2 t o

1 9 4 4 , t h e r e w as a w a r e n e s s o f S e r b i a n

o p p o sitio n s to p a r tis a n r y . p o rt e x is te d

i s d o in g to c o u n te r i t .

W h at s m a l l d e g r e e o f S e r b s u p ­

seem ed a b o u t t o b e w ith d ra w n u n t i l t h e a n n o u n c e ­

m ent o f t h e T i t o - S u b a s i t c h a g re e m e n t b r o u g h t a c a lm w h ic h la s te d

u n til e a rly

1945 when i t becam e q u i t e

t h e C o a l i t i o n G o v e r n m e n t w as a s h a m .

e v id e n t t h a t

By t h i s

tim e , how­

e v e r , T i t o was f i r m l y e n t r e n c h e d a n d t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p irre sp e c tiv e

o f o p p o s itio n , a lth o u g h th e

g ra n te d c e r t a i n lis ts

th e

c o n c e ssio n s to p la c a te

ru le d

o p p o s i t i o n w as

th e m .

E . I». J a m e s

o u t s t a n d i n g c o n c e s s i o n , w h i c h we h a v e a l r e a d y

n o t e d , m ade t o

th e S erb s and C ro a ts a l i k e ,

reaso n f o r i t s

issu a n c e :

and g iv e s th e

One. may i m a g i n e t h a t t h e R u s s i a n i d e a o f t h e c o l l e c ­ t i v i z a t i o n o f f a r m s , f o r e x a m p le , was n o t t o o p o p u l a r am ong t h e Y u g o s l a v s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g t h e S e r b s . I f i t w ere t r u e t h a t T i t o d id n o t t h i n k i t w is e t o t r y to d is p o s s e s s th e fa rm e rs in o rd e r to fo llo w th e S o v ie t p a t t e r n , i t w o u l d b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . ' 3-

7 1 Hew Y ork T im e s . J u l y 4 , 1 9 4 8 , I V , 3 : 4 .

123 I n o t h e r w o rd s, t h e p e a s a n t p ro b le m h a s p o i n te d o u t u n i t y o f c o m p la in t w h ic h a l s o p o i n t s sitio n

to T ito .

d i le m m a

o f one p h a se o f t h i s

(th e d e c is io n n o t to n a tio n a liz e

e x p e c te d t o tio n

T i t o fs " s o l u t io n "

o u t a d e g re e o f oppo­

red u ce t h i s

o p p o sitio n .

o f A u g u st 1948 c o n f ir m s t h i s

la n d ) m ig h t b e

The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a ­

e x p e c ta tio n :

T h e r i f t h a s won o v e r t h e p e o p l e ♦ . . T h e C r o a t s and S lo v e n e s a r e n a t u r a l l y a tt a c h e d t o T i t o ’s p e r ­ son . . . . T h e M o sle m s o f B o s n i a - H e r z o v i n a h a v e b e e n g ra n te d f u l l r e c o g n itio n f o r th e f i r s t tim e and a r e on T i t o ’ s s i d e . . . . The S e r b s , e v e n , a r e w i t h T i t o on t h i s q u a r r e l ; o p p o s i t i o n t o B o l s h e v i s m I s n o new o r u n w a n t e d e x p e r i e n c e f o r m any a S e r b . T h e Army i s d e p e n d a b le . T h e o n l y u n s a f e e l e m e n t s a r e a m ong t h e o f f i c i a l s . . .7 2 T he " u n s a f e e l e m e n t s " h a v e s i n c e b e e n p u r g e d . a rre sts

o f 2 * u j o v i t c h a n d H e b r a n g w e r e m ade b e c a u s e

d ared to c r i t i c i z e l e a d e r s ; " ^

th e a n ti- S o v ie t a t t i t u d e

The

" t h e s e men

of th e P a r t y 's

G e n e r a l Y o v a n o v itc h was k i l l e d b y Y u g o s la v s a t

t h e R u m a n ia n b o r d e r a s h e a p p a r e n t l y w a s a t t e m p t i n g t o f l e e to

j o i n t h e M a r s h a l ' s o p p o n e n t s ; E d w a r d K a r d e l j w a s mad©

F o re ig n M in is te r in an e f f o r t

t o t i g h t e n Y u g o sla v P a r t y

d isc ip lin e . I t w o u ld b e n a i v e t o

le a v e th e a n a ly s is a t

The a s s u m p tio n t h a t th e C r o a ts a r e T i t o 's p erso n "

is

p o s s ib ly to o p a t .

" n a tu ra lly a tta c h e d

Meaning o f th e T ito

p o in t. to

A le x a n d e r W erth

" In s id e S to ry --T h e T ito C r i s i s ," 73

th is

op., c i t . . p . 8 .

E pisode," op. c i t . ,

p. 1 85*

124 p re se n ts

th e p ic tu r e

t h e o t h e r w ay a r o u n d w h e r e h e s t a t e s

t h a t t h e S e r h s now t e n d t o and a m i l i t a r i s t ,

lo o k up t o

T i t o a s a s t r o n g man

w h ile C r o a tia n e le m e n ts a r e

le ss

sto ic a l

a b o u t p u t t i n g up w i t h t h e d i s c o m f o r t s o f t h e F i v e Y e a r P l a n , W e rth , h o w e v e r, g o es on t o

sta te

th a t la c k

o f e n th u s ia sm

fro m any segm ent o f th e p o p u la tio n i n th e r e l a t i v e d o es n o t c o n n o te la c k o f s u p p o r t.

He f o l l o w s t h i s

s e r v a tio n w ith th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n : w h e re a l l p r e - w a r G o v e rn m e n ts f a i l e d , n a tio n a listic

sense ob­

f1T i t o h a s s u c c e e d e d ,

in s o lv in g th e

q u e s t i o n o f Y u g o s l a v i a ,**7^

P r e s e n t a p p e a r a n c e s t e n d t o b e a r o u t M r. W e r t h 1s o b se rv a tio n .

W hat t h e f u t u r e h o l d s i s

T ito can c o n tin u e to red u ce th e

a n o th e r m a tte r.

If

in d e p e n d e n t p e a s a n t c la s s by

w i t h h o l d i n g f a r m m a c h i n e r y f r o m th e m ( a n d t h e r e b y f o r c i n g th em i n t o t h e c o o p e r a t i v e f a r m u n i t s ) re v o lu tio n , he w ill sh a k ie st p i ll a r s

( i n th e a u th o r ’s o p in io n )

e lim in a te th e

o f p o p u l a r s u p p o r t now i n e x i s t e n c e .

c o u r s e , h e may c r e a t e new d i s u n i t y sp e c u la tio n s

w ith o u t fo m e n tin g

in days t o com e.

s h o u l d n ’ t b e t o o much i n d u l g e d

in .

Such

O n ly t i m e

w ill t e l l .

^ A le x a n d e r W e rth , W e e k ly , A p r i l 1 4 , 1949*

Of

i n The M a n c h e s te r G u a r d ia n

CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS N a t i o n a l i s m , a s a p h en o m en o n , h a s e x e r c i s e d and s t i l l e x e r c is e s a g r e a t in flu e n c e

in th e w o r ld .

Its

im p a c t on

s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s m arks i t a s a f o r c e i n s o c i o ­ p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t s w h ic h m u st b e i n c r e a s i n g l y t a k e n a c c o u n t o f b y p o l i c y m a k ers i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . N a t i o n a l i s m e m erg ed a s a c o n s c i o u s f o r c e i n t h e l a t e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , on t h e h e e l s

o f th e F ren ch R e v o lu tio n .

I t d rew s u b s t a n c e fr o m tw o e a r l i e r p h en o m en a , n a t i o n a l i t y and p a t r i o t is m . th e tw o .

In f a c t , n a tio n a lis m

I t d iffe r s

p o litic iz a tio n .

fro m n a t i o n a l i t y

is

a n a m a lg a m a tio n o f

in th e d eg ree o f

N a tio n a lis m b y d e f i n i t i o n

N a tio n a lity by d e f in it io n

is

is

p o litic iz e d .

not p o lit ic iz e d , but th is

ph en om en on n o n e t h e l e s s c o n t a i n s e le m e n t s o f p o l i t i c i z a t i o n w h er e t h e n a t i o n , p e r h a p s u n c o n s c i o u s l y , b e g i n s t o i d e n t i f y its

g o a l s w i t h som e fo r m o f s t a t e a c t i o n .

N a tio n a lis m i s

o p e n ly d e v o t e d t o t h e s t a t e , a l t h o u g h n a t i o n a l i s m

in th e

N i n e t e e n t h C e n tu r y su b m erg ed t h i s d e v o t i o n i n t h e fo r m o f c u l t u r a l r a t h e r th a n p o l i t i c a l a f f i n i t y . N a t i o n a l i s m d i f f e r s fr o m p a t r i o t i s m i s a lo y a lty

ste m m in g fro m l o v e o f c o u n t r y .

In th a t th e l a t t e r T h is l o y a l t y

h a s b e e n p r e d o m in a n t ly d i r e c t e d to w a r d t h e n a t i o n i n m odern tim e s ,

i n c o n t r a s t t o e a r l y m e d ie v a l t i m e s w hen u n i v e r s a l

126 C h r i s t i a n i t y w as s u c h a p o w e r f u l c o h e s i v e f o r c e .

In th e

N i n e t e e n t h C e n tu r y t h e p r e d o m in a n t c o n c e p t o f n a t i o n e n t a i l ­ e d a n o t i o n o f a s p i r i t u a l f a m i l y , c u l t u r a l l y h ou n d t o g e t h e r by c e r ta in t i e s , tr a d itio n .

c h i e f o f w h ic h w e r e k i n s h i p ,

la n g u a g e ,

L o y a l t y c o n t i n u e d t o beam to w a r d t h e n a t i o n In

t h e e a r l y T w e n t ie t h C e n tu r y b u t tw o. w o r ld w a rs w i t n e s s e d , e s p e c ia lly

in d ic t a t o r c o u n t r ie s , a n o tic e a b le

s t a t e , a l t h o u g h t h e s t a t e w as h e l d

s h i f t t o th e

to be c l o s e l y

id e n tifia b le

w ith n a t io n a l i n t e r e s t . I n g e n e r a l , T w e n t i e t h C e n tu r y n a t i o n a l i s t i c m en t a p p r o a c h e s p o l i t i c a l " s t a t i s m . ”

T h is w as t r u e i n

H i t l e r f s G erm any, M u s s o l i n i f s I t a l y , m i l i t a r i s t i c to ta lita r ia n

R u s s ia .

It

is

d e v e lo p ­

Japan,

tr u e to a l e s s e r d e g r e e in th e

U n it e d S t a t e s , B r i t a i n and o t h e r g r e a t p o w e r s .

U n d er t h e

t e c h n i q u e s r e f l e c t e d b y t h e c o n te m p o r a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i s m - - w h i c h i n t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n tu r y p r e s e n t s a s o p h i s t i c a t i o n t o N i n e t e e n t h C e n tu r y d e v e lo p m e n t s — t h e p r i n c i ­ p l e p o w e r s o f t h e w o r ld d e a l on e w i t h t h e o t h e r . The B a lk a n a r e a ,

in g e n e r a l h ow ev er— a lo n g w ith o th e r

b a ck w a rd a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d - - h a s , up t o t h e n e a r p r e s e n t , b e e n d e n i e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f a t r a n s i t i o n fr o m c u l t u r a l t o p o lit ic a l n a tio n a lis tic

e v o lu tio n .

T h is w as b r o u g h t o u t ,

In C h a p te r I I I , a s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r Y u g o s l a v i a , w h er e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m anf s b e h a v i o r , a s r e f l e c t e d

in th e f o r c e o f n a tio n a lis m

and

127 o t h e r s u c h p h e n o m e n a, w e re p r e s e n t e d a s d y n am ic c o n d i t i o n ­ in g e le m e n ts .

D isu n ity ,

re g a rd le ss

o f t h e common k i n s h i p

f a c t o r , was e m p h a s iz e d I n h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n a f f e c t i n g th e p e o p le s of Y u g o s la v ia . H o t o n l y was d i s u n i t y p r e s e n t , b u t i t fa irly

re m a in e d a

c o n s t a n t c o n d i t i o n w h e re t h e r e was l a c k

o f a common

p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h ip t o d e a l w ith th e p ro b le m .

F o re ig n

i n f l u e n c e s h a d r o b b e d t h e Y u g o s la v s o f a n y c h a n c e t o w ork t o g e t h e r to w a rd a n y th in g b u t a l i t e r a r y n a t i o n a l i s m . n a t i o n a l i s m w as r e l a t i v e l y its e lf

it

f,d e p o l i t i c i z e d , ” a n d e x p r e s s e d

o n ly In e p ic p a t r i o t i s m

aw areness as to

Such

and a n e m p h a sis o f g e n e r a l

common l a n g u a g e am ong common k i n .

As s u c h ,

c o u ld p ro v id e o n ly a s u p e r f i c i a l c u l t u r a l a f f i n i t y .

T r u e c u l t u r a l u n i t y d e m a n d e d m o re t h a n t h e l o n e l i t e r a r y ” o u t l e t ” c o u ld p r o v id e ; h e n c e , ev en th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry fo rm o f n a t i o n a l i s m w as l a c k i n g i n s u b s t a n c e a s l a t e a s t h e first

q u a r te r of th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry . No w o n d e r , t h e r e f o r e ,

t h a t t h e new K in g d o m o f S e r b s ,

C ro a ts and S lo v e n e s had to u n d erg o c o n s id e r a b le p a i n s " w h e re t h e u n io n was p r e c i p i t a t e l y d iv is iv e b o u n d a rie s o f t r ib a li s m , a s t ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n . p o litic a lly

"g ro w in g

fo rm ed a c r o s s

o rth o g ra p h y and e c c l e s i ­

When t h e K in g d o m w a s s h a t t e r e d

by I n t e r n a l d is s e n tio n s , and m i l i t a r i l y

H i t l e r fs i n v a s io n ,

th e p ie c e s

m ent a p p e a r e d on t h e

sc a tte re d .

by

A second g o v ern ­

s c e n e b y 1944 d e d i c a t e d

to

th e

128 r e s t o r a t io n o f Y u g o s la v ia .

W here t h e K ingdom h ad f a i l e d ,

w o u ld t h e T i t o S t a t e f a i l a l s o ? F e d e r a te d Y u g o s la v ia , un der T i t o , a t f i r s t ap p eared t o su b m e rg e i t s

n a tio n a lis m

(tr ib a lis m ).

E ven t h e r e l a t i v e l y

w eak f o r c e o f d i v i d e d n a t i o n a l i t y seem ed d e a d .

S o v ie t e x ­

p a n s i o n is m a p p e a r e d t o h a v e c o n q u e r e d t h e Y u g o s la v s w i t h no o p p o s itio n b e in g o f f e r e d . w ere n o t d e a d .

The o l d n a t i o n a l i s m s , h o w e v e r ,

T h ey w e r e m e r e ly s m o l d e r i n g .

B e s id e s t h i s ,

t h e y w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s i n a d i f f e r e n t way t h a t b e s p o k e t h e u s h e r i n g i n o f a new p e r i o d i n Y u g o s la v n a tio n a lis tic p la in ts

d e v e lo p m e n t .

T h ey b e g a n t o t u r n t h e i r com­

t o th e c e n t r a l govern m en t th ro u g h t h e i r l o c a l

g o v e r n m e n ts ( w h ic h a r e r e l a t i v e l y p o w e r l e s s b u t d o a l l o w f o r l o c a l e x p r e s s i o n s and t h e r e b y p r o v i d e a n e c e s s a r y e s c a p e v a lv e f o r e m o tio n s ). made up e s s e n t i a l l y

T h e s e c o m p l a in t s fr o m a p o p u l a t i o n o f p r i v a t e f a r m e r s w e r e e m p h a s iz in g

Y u g o s l a v i a n p r o b le m s — a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y , q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n ­ i n g t h e s a f e g u a r d i n g o f s e g m e n ts o f o a t r i a a g a i n s t I t a l i a n s and A u s tr ia n s

( T r i e s t e and C o r i n t h i a ) , e t c .

C r o a t s s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s som ew h at u n iq u e fr o m S e r b s , an d v i c e v e r s a , b u t t h e i r p r o b le m s seem ed m ore i d e n t i f i e d w ith ea ch o t h e r .

T h is w as t r u e t o s u c h a d e g r e e

t h a t T i t o w as a b l e t o g e t aw ay w i t h h i s d e f i a n c e o f M oscow . T i t o w as f o r c e d n a tio n a lis m

i n t o t h e showdown b y n a t i o n a l i s m , and

( s u f f i c i e n t l y Y u g o s la v i n c h a r a c t e r )

in tu rn

129 p r o v id e d T i t o w i t h a m m u n itio n a g a i n s t R u s s ia now t h a t t h e c a r d s w ere d e a l t . S u m m a riz in g t h e c u r r e n t d e v e lo p m e n t s i n Y u g o s l a v i a , th e a u th o r a r r iv e s a t th e c o n c lu s io n th a t a t l a s t

th e

b r i d g e b e t w e e n N i n e t e e n t h and T w e n t i e t h C e n tu r y n a t i o n a l i s m h as been c r o s s e d . nent is

W h e th e r o r n o t t h e c r o s s i n g i s p erm a ­

c o n j e c t u r e and i s n o t a c o n c e r n o f t h i s

th e s is .

T h a t t h e b r i d g e w as c r o s s e d u n d e r C o m m u n istic l e a d e r ­ s h i p may i n d i c a t e p a r a d o x i c a l l y t h a t c e r t a i n S o v i e t i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g f r e e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e h a v e t e n d e d t o m o d e r n iz e p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t i n an e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r y w h ic h h e r e t o f o r e seem ed t o p r e s e n t t h e g r e a t e s t d iffic u ltie s .

T h ese d i f f i c u l t i e s

w ere e x e m p lif ie d by w hat

p a s s e d a s ^ r a c i a l ” r i v a l r i e s b e t w e e n S e r b and C r o a t .

As

t h e t h e s i s h a s e m p h a s iz e d , c a r e f u l e x a m in a t io n sh ow s t h a t le g itim a te r e a lity ,

e le m e n t s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c

la c k in g ;

f u s io n w ere n o t ,

in

e s p e c i a l l y v a l i d w as t h e e le m e n t o f k i n ­

s h i p a n d l a n g u a g e , a l t h o u g h r e l i g i o n and t r a d i t i o n p r e s e n t e d e x a g g e r a te d p r o b le m s • Of c o u r s e S o v i e t i d e a s ,

o r l i p - s e r v i c e p a i d t o th e m ,

a r e n o t t o b e c o n s t r u e d a s f a v o r i n g t h e o u tc o m e . tr a r y i s

tru e.

The c o n ­

H en ce, th e T ito -K r e m lin q u a r r e l r e a c h e s

g ia n t p r o p o r t io n s , in c o n t r a s t w ith c o n d it io n s o f a p p a r e n tly n e a r c o m p le t e s u b s e r v i e n c e t o t h e R u s s ia n s t a t e b y o t h e r B a lk a n c o u n t r i e s .

N e i t h e r may we u n q u a l i f i e d l y h o l d t h a t ,

130 had i t b e e n a llo w e d t o d e v e lo p in

its

own w a y , t h e S e r b

m on arch y m ig h t n o t h a v e s u c c e e d e d t o b u i l d

sta te

lo y a lty .

A m a jo r ity o p in io n d i s c o u n t s , h o w ev er, th e p r o g r e s s o f th e p r e w a r m on arch y to w a r d t h i s

end.

Y u g o s la v s , h a v in g su c c e e d e d u n d er s t r o n g le a d e r s h ip i n b r e a k i n g t h e b o n d s t h a t p resu m ed t o t i e

th em t o f o r e i g n

p o l i t i c a l d o m in a tio n , a r e in a p o s i t i o n t o

in flu e n c e fe llo w

S l a v s i n t h e B a lk a n a r e a .

An a t t e m p t t o do j u s t t h i s

t h r o u g h p r o p o s a l s f o r a B a lk a n f e d e r a t i o n h a s t e n e d t h e b r e a k w i t h M oscow .

S u c c e s s o f t h e Y u g o s la v n a t i o n a l i s t i c m ove­

m ent w as i n no s m a l l w ay i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e b e l l i g e r a n c y o f t h e p e o p l e — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s t r o n g in d e p e n d e n t p e a s a n t c l a s s who s o h i g h l y v a l u e t h e i r p l o t s

o f la n d .

G e o g r a p h ic

c o n d i t i o n s w e r e f a v o r a b l e w h e r e m o u n ta in r a n g e s f a c e t h e R u s s ia n s ,

in c o n t r a s t w ith c o u n t r ie s l i k e C z e c h o s lo v a k ia .

O th e r B a lk a n s t a t e s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a d v a n c e d p o litic a lly

fro m t h e p o s i t i o n t h e y h a v e p r e v i o u s l y h e l d

u n d e r Rome, B y z a n tiu m , T u r k e y , A u s t r i a .

A su r v e y o f th e

t e n s i o n s t h a t b u i l t up u n d e r t h e d o m in a t io n o f t h e s e v a r i o u s m a ste r s g iv e s a c lu e t o c e r t a i n d e d u c tio n s c o n c e r n in g p o s s i b l e u n d e r ly in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l tr e n d s to d a y .

L ack o f s t a b i l i t y

may b e d e d u c e d fr o m t h e p r e s e n t B a lk a n s i t u a t i o n . s ta b ility ,

if

i t a c t u a l l y e x i s t s , may b e e x p e c t e d

cap th e S o v ie t in th e fu tu r e i f by U . S . fo r e ig n p o l ic y .

it

is

S u ch i n ­ t o h a n d i­

e x p e r t l y p l a y e d upon

131 I t t h e r e f o r e b e h o o v e s t h e U n it e d S t a t e s t o make c a p i ­ t a l o u t o f t h e p r e s e n t B a lk a n p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n .

I d e o lo g y

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , A m erica c a n an d s h o u ld d o a l l t h a t i s b l e t o f u r t h e r t h e b r e a k b e tw e e n T i t o and S t a l i n .

p o s s i­

In a

l a r g e r s e n s e t h i s m eans e n c o u r a g in g a m ovem ent to w a r d p o l i t i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n a s I t t o u c h e s and c o n c e r n s a n i n d e ­ p e n d e n t p o w er i n t h e B a lk a n a r e a — o n e w h ic h h a s n e w ly e m e rg e d on t h e p o l i t i c a l s c e n e . R a m i f i c a t i o n s o f U . S . e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f Y u g o s la v p o l i t i c a l s ta tis m

p o in t to a p o s s ib le r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a

t r u e b a l a n c e o f p o w er i n E u r o p e .

I f t h e o t h e r B a lk a n

s t a t e s c a n b e a t t r a c t e d t o t h e new n u c l e u s e s t a b l i s h e d b y Y u g o s la v ia th e n p o l i t i c s ,

t h e a r t o f c o m p ro m ise an d a d j u s t ­

m e n t, may b e r e s u r r e c t e d a s an I n s t r u m e n t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n a n a tm o s p h e r e a l l o w i n g f o r some t r u e a c c o m m o d a tio n . I n t h i s w ay n a t i o n a l i s m m ig h t b e a g a i n u t i l i z e d

a s an

i n s t r u m e n t t o h o l d r a t h e r th a n b r e a k i n t e r n a t i o n s l p e a c e . T h e r e fo r e , th e a u th o r h a s p r e se n te d a ty p e o f d e fe n c e f o r n a tio n a lis m

( I n I t s T w e n t i e t h C e n tu r y m e a n in g ) , a s a s h o r t

ru n p o l i c y a t a n y r a t e . F o r th e lo n g ru n , i t b le ,

I s a p p a r e n t t h a t , w ere i t

t h e w o r ld w o u ld b e t t e r a s s u r e i t s

p o s s i­

liv e lih o o d fr e e o f

i n t e r n a t i o n a l w ar I f o n l y t h e w h o le ph en om en on o f n a t i o n a l ­ is m c o u l d b e b r o u g h t u n d e r c o n t r o l .

S u ch c o n t r o l i m p l i e s a

132 m in im iz a tio n o f n a t io n a lis m be w illin g

to s a c r if ic e

id e a l o f p ea ce.

t o t h e p o i n t w h er e s t a t e s w o u ld

som e o f t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y to w a r d t h e

D e s t r u c t io n o f n a tio n a lis m

to w a r d t h i s

end

a p p e a r s t o b e , a t t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e o f human d e v e lo p m e n t , m e r e ly a n i d e a l i n i t s e l f .

H en ce,

t h is paper h as d e a lt

m ore w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s o f n a t i o n a l i s m a n d m ore p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l i t i e s

in g e n e r a l-o f B a lk a n

n a t i o n a l i s m - - r a t h e r th a n w i t h t h e s e a s p e c t s w h ic h a p p e a r o u t s i d e t h e p r e s e n t fra m ew o rk o f r e a l i t y . L o o k in g a h e a d , t o a p e r i o d w h e r e in man may show m ore m a t u r i t y , t h e p r o b le m o f m i n i m i z a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i s m d is c u s s e d . it

From a s t u d y o f t h e v i c i o u s c i r c l e

r e la t e s to n a tio n a l in t e r e s t , a s i t

can be

o f p o w er a s

in tu r n r e l a t e s

to

n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y an d n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r and n a t i o n a l i s m , t h e a u t h o r s u g g e s t s t h i s p r o b le m m ig h t b e m ore r e a l i s t i c a l l y a t t a c k e d b y d r i v i n g a w ed g e i n t o t h e m o st v u l n e r a b l e l i n k s i n t h e c h a i n c o m p o s in g t h e c i r c l e .

T h is s u g g e s t i o n a c t s a s

a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e r a t h e r b a r r e n n o t i o n t h a t man m u st r e ­ fo c u s p a tr io tis m n a tio n s

t o t h e W orld r a t h e r th a n t o

(o r s t a t e s

in d iv id u a l

i n t h e name o f n a t i o n s ) .

An u n d e r s t a n d in g o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r may p r o v i d e th e e n te r in g p o in t .

It is

t h r o u g h a b a s i c u n d e r s t a n d in g o f

n a t i o n a l m e n t a l i t y t h a t n a t i o n s may b e a p p r o a c h e d w i t h a n o tio n to p u r ify t h e i r p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . tio n

R e -e d u c a ­

o f n a t i o n a l m e n t a l i t y , w h ere s u c h m e n t a l i t y sh o w s i t

13 3 I s p r o n e t o a c c e p t w a r l i k e i d e o l o g y , may w e l l b e t h e b e s t a p p r o a c h to w a r d a t t a i n m e n t o f c o n d i t i o n s o f p e a c e . n a t io n a lis m , a s s e r v a n t o f th e s t a t e and i t s n o t be e x p e cted to a sp e c ts.

I n s till

T hen

id e o lo g y , can

th e id e o lo g y w ith i t s

v ic io u s

S u ch v i c i o u s a s p e c t s may b e e a s i e r c a s t o f f w i t h

a g en era l r e a liz a tio n

o f th e i d e a l o f s e l f d e te r m in a tio n

w h e r e n a t i o n s a p p e a r t o b e r e a d y an d c a p a b l e o f e x e r c i z i n g b o t h t h e r i g h t s an d d u t i e s o f f r e e d o m .

When t h e more

v i o l e n t dem ands o f s e l f d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e r e a l i z e d t h e w ay m ig h t m ore e a s i l y b e p a v e d to w a r d l a r g e r a m a lg a m a tio n s o f sta te

lo y a lty

on t h e b a s i s o f m u l t i n a t i o n a l s t a t e h o o d .

In c o n c lu s io n , th e f o r c e e x e r te d by n a tio n a lis m

on

t h e m odern s c e n e p r e s e n t s a c l u e to w a r d a t l e a s t b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d in g o f w o r ld p o l i t i c s a s I t e x i s t s

to d a y .

O nly

w i t h u n d e r s t a n d in g a s t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f w o r ld p r o b le m s may s i g n i f i c a n t a n a ly s is b e u n d e r ta k e n .

I t may w e l l b e t h a t a

s t u d y o f B a lk a n n a t i o n a l i s m p r e s e n t s a k e y to w a r d a n a p p r o a c h t o s o l v i n g w o r ld p r o b le m s t h a t a r i s e a s a r e s u l t o f t h e p r e s e n t w a r - p e a c e d ic h o t o m y , o r e v e n a k e y t o a p p r o a c h t h e e v e n t u a l s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e d ic h o to m y I t s e l f .

BIBLIOGRAPHY A.

BOOKS

A c to n , L ord J o h n , S s s a y s on F reed o m and P o w e r. The B e ac o n P r e s s , 19451 428 p p .

B o sto n :

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