World and Space 0716601915

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World and Space

Childcraft

THE^HOW

WHY

AND VOLUME

LIBRARY

4

World and Space World Book,

Inc.

a Scolt Felzer company

Chicago

London

Sydney

Toronto

1992 Edition Childcraft The

—

(Reg.

US

How and Why

Library

Pat. OH.)

(8 1991 World Book. Inc. All rights reserved. This volume may not be reproduced in whole or in part

in

any

form without prior written permission Irom the publisher.

World Book.

Inc.

525 West Monroe Chicago. IB

IL

60661

1990. 1989.1987, 1986. 1985 by World Book. Inc

1980. 1979

USA

c

1982. 1981.

by World Book-ChildcraH International. Inc

1976. 1974. 1973, 1971, 1970. 1969, 1968, 1965, 1964

USA

6

by

Field Enterprises Educational Corporation.

International Copyright

c

1987. 1986. 1985 by World Book. Inc

International Copyright

5

1982, 1981, 1980.

1

979 by World Book-

Childcraft International, Inc

International Copyright

O

1976, 1974. 1973. 1971, 1970, 1969. 1968.

1965. 1964 by Field Enterprises Educational Corporation.

ISBN 0-7166-0191-5 Congress Catalog Card Number 90-701 78 Printed in the United States of America Library of

A'lB

Acknowledgments The publishers gratefully

of Childcraft

—The How and Why

acknowledge the courtesy

publishers, agencies, authors,

and organizations

permission to use copyright material.

Library

of the following for

Full illustration

acknowledgments appear on pages 328-329

John

Ciardi:

"Why

Photograph

of

Photograph

of

the

Sky

Is

Blue.

S

1974, John Ciardi.

Japanese helmet, page 75, by Jonathan Norton Leonard and the Editors of Time-Life Books, 6 1968 Time. Inc Mars, page 248. and photograph of the

Great galaxy, page 280, e California Institute of Technology and Carnegie Institution of Washington, from Hale Observatories

Volume 4

World and Space Contents Our Home, the Earth Our world is a ball of

5 rock and metal, spinning in space

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

The

21

features of the earth's surface,

and how

they

came

to

be

Rocks, Stones, and Petrified Bones

The

things the earth

is

made

Oceans, Lakes, and Rivers

The water Air,

that lies in

of,

59

and how we use them Ill

.

and upon the

earth's surface

Wind, Clouds, and Weather

Earth's atmosphere

Our near and in the

it

is

and what

Who

The work

does

far

neighbors

203 in

space

World?

Maps, globes, and compasses, and how People

it

and Galaxies

Planets, Stars,

Where

— what

145

287 to

use them

Study the World and Space

305

of geologists, astronomers, and other scientists

Books to Read

322

New Words

324

Illustration

Index

Acknowledgments

..............

329 331

Our Home, the Earth

An

island

We

live

An

island

The earth all

around

A

on an is

is

in

island.

space An

island in space!

a piece of land with water

all

around

a giant ball of rock and metal with space

it.

ball of rock

and metal such as the earth

is

called

a planet. Planets are the "prisoners" of stars.

They

around and around the stars they belong

Earth

one of nine planets that star,

it.

circle

to.

circle is

around and around our

the sun.

The sun

is

us, the earth

an enormous seems

big,

ball of hot,

but

it's

glowing gas.

To

small compared to the

The sun is bigger than a million earths! The earth has one near neighbor, the moon. The moon is a ball of rock, like earth, but much smaller.

sun.

It

Our Home, the Earth

circles

around earth just as earth

circles

around the

sun.

The moon

is

thousands of miles (kilometers) away

from the earth. The sun and the other planets are millions of miles away.

And

the stars that you see

twinkling in the sky at night are trillions of miles (kilometers) away. So, the earth

is

really a tiny island

in the great, black emptiness of space. it's

the most important place of

•'•'•

A-/

But

all. It's

for us,

our home.

I

7

.-"."-

..it

The spinning world You may still.

But

think our world, the earth,

it isn't.

The

earth

is

is

standing

spinning around and

around, like a huge top.

Push a the stick.

stick

The

how

That's

through a ball

of clay

and then

twirl

clay ball will turn around like a wheel.

the earth spins— around a kind of imaginary

axle that runs through its middle. This imaginary axle is

called the axis.

One end

Pole and the other end

Why tiny

can't it's

the South Pole.

the earth turn? Because we're so

so big.

when the sky earth

feel

North

But we know it does turn because what gives us our day and night. In the morning,

and

that's

we

is

of the axis is the

is

is

bright,

we know

that our part of the

turned toward the sun. In the evening, when

the sky grows dark,

we know

that we've turned

away

from the sun.

The time turn

and

is

it

just a little less

night.

make one complete than 24 hours— one full day

takes the earth to

10

Around and around the sun The

earth doesn't just spin

—

it

also

moves through

space.

Right this very moment, the earth space at tremendous speed

is

rushing through

—more than 66,000 miles

(106,000 kilometers) an hour. It isn't going in a straight line, though. It's whirling around

the sun, in a kind of stretched-out

circle.

and around

This

circle

makes around the sun is called an orbit. What makes the earth keep moving around and

the earth

around the sun?

Why

doesn't

it

just fly off into space?

Our Home, the Earth

Everything pull

is

space pulls at everything

in

else.

This

The bigger a thing is, the The sun is more than a million times

called gravitation.

stronger

its pull.

bigger than the earth, so It is this strong

it

tugs hard at the earth.

tug that keeps the earth in orbit.

If

you fasten some string to a ball, you can whirl the ball around and around, to show the way the earth goes around the sun. sun's gravity ball

is

moving,

The time the sun

we

call

—

is

a

it

string

is like

it

holds onto the

it

can only move in a

ball.

takes the earth to go

little

a year.

The

the pull of the

Even though the circle.

all

the

way around

more than 365 days. This

is

what

11

mn

'*

Ira •'••• '

-

Our Home, the Earth

How was Why shaped like

the earth born? Why

the earth shaped like a ball?

is

like

a pie?

a block? Or

Why

does

it

why

isn't it

spin?

isn't it

round and

And why

does

it

flat,

whirl

around and around the sun?

Most

scientists think that the

answers to these

questions are part of the story of

They think

born.

it is

how

the earth was

a story that began billions of

years ago, with a giant, spinning cloud in space.

There are many such clouds are

made up

Scientists

of chemicals in the

have found that some

to be turning into

about

in space right

new

stars.

five billion years ago,

form

of gas

now. They

and

of these clouds

And

dust.

seem

scientists think that,

our sun and

its

planets

were formed from just such a cloud.

The cloud was hundreds of millions of miles (kilometers) wide! The force of gravitation pulled into the shape of a huge, flat wheel.

around and around, just

like

And

it

it

spun

a wheel.

Gravitation slowly pulled the cloud together.

Most

of

the gas collected in the middle of the cloud. It formed

a lump that got bigger and bigger. As the lump grew, its

gravity became stronger.

more gas from

all

into

itself.

Then

it

pulled

more and

Because gravity pulls equally

lump was squeezed into the This was the only shape it could

directions, the

shape of a round

ball.

take.

After a long while, there was a gigantic ball of gas in the

middle of the wheel-shaped cloud. This was the

beginning of the sun.

13

14

1.

A

gigantic cloud of dust

and gas

drifted in space.

Gravity pulled

gas

into a

much

huge

of the

the

ball in

was the

cloud's center. This

beginning of our sun.

Farther out, in the rest of the cloud, other balls

were forming as gravity pulled bits of dust and gas together. After a while,

There were only

most

balls of gas

of the cloud

and

was used up.

dust, whirling

around

They were spinning and moving around the sun because the cloud they were made from had been the sun.

spinning. These balls were the beginning of the earth

and the other planets and moons. So that earth

is

But and

if

the

the earth was once a spinning ball of dust

how

did

it

become a

earth's gravity pulled

ball of rock

tighter! This

hotter! It

became

made

and metal?

more dust and gas

everything was squeezed together

and

why

a spinning ball that whirls around the sun.

gas,

As

is

in,

— tighter and tighter

the ball grow hotter and

so hot that the bits of dust in

it,

which were mostly rock and metal dust, melted together.

The

earth became a glowing ball.

But the outside began to

cool.

of the earth couldn't stay hot. It

And when melted

rock and metal cools,

Our Home, the Earth

2. In

other parts of the

cloud, gravity pulled

dust and gas together

forming blobs.

3.

The blobs

of dust

and

gas slowly shrank into tight-packed balls. This

was the beginning

of the

earth and other planets.

it

gets hard. So the earth

became a

and metal, as it is today. But the earth still hasn't cooled still

fiercely hot,

and part

There are many other

ball of

off.

The middle

of the inside is

beliefs

hard rock

still

is

melted.

about how the earth was

The book of Genesis in the Bible says that God created the earth and all living things. But no one actually knows how it happened.

born.

I

15

16

crust

mantle

outer core

inner core

Our Home,

the Earth

17

What's inside the earth? Could you dig a hole to the other side of the earth? No, you couldn't. The center of the earth is about 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) beneath your feet. So, it's

almost 8,000 miles (13,000 kilometers) to the other

side of the earth.

most of that

You

distance, the earth

metal so hot that

melted!

it's

And

couldn't dig that far. is

You

for

either solid rock or certainly couldn't dig

through that!

When

the outside of the earth cooled,

kind of shell of rock.

and the continents oceans, the crust thick.

We

became a

the crust.

The oceans

on top of the crust. Beneath the

lie

is

call this

it

about

Beneath the land,

five miles (8 kilometers)

it is

about twenty-five miles

(40 kilometers) thick.

Under the crust there is another layer of rock called the mantle. The mantle is made of a different kind of rock than the crust. The deeper the mantle goes, the hotter thick.

it

At

gets. It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) its

bottom,

it is

Beneath the mantle metal so hot that

it's

is

hot enough to melt iron. a layer of melted metal

like thick syrup!

This layer

is

called the outer core. Scientists think the outer core is

made

of iron and nickel and

is

about 1,400 miles (2,250

is

the inner core.

kilometers) thick.

In the center of the earth ball of hot, solid,

It's

a

squeezed-together metal about 1,600

miles (2,570 kilometers) thick. That's what's inside the earth.

18

The outside We live

on the surface of the earth. The surface, or

made of rock. In some places, covered with soil. In many places, it is covered

crust of the earth, it is

of the earth

is

with water. All around

Some

of us live

continents.

A

it is air.

on huge pieces

continent

rock that sticks up a

is

little

like

of land called

a great platform of

higher than the rest of the

rocky crust.

Some islands.

of us live

on smaller pieces

An

is

island

the top of an underwater mountain

or part of a continent that has

from the rest

The

of land called

become separated

of the continent.

continents and islands where

we

live are

Our Home, the Earth

surrounded by water. Water covers nearly three-fourths of the crust of the earth.

enormous

Most

pits that are like great

These huge "bowls"

crust.

Water

of this

water

bowls

in

lies in

the rocky

water are the oceans.

of

and

also lies in smaller pits in the continents

islands.

These inland

pits of

water are lakes and

ponds. Water also flows in rivers and streams, from the high parts of the land All

around the surface

This layer of air high.

The

It gets

to

down

is

of the earth is

hundreds

air is thickest

to the lakes

and

seas.

a layer of

air.

of miles (kilometers)

next to the land and water.

thinner the higher

it

goes.

Where the

air

comes

an end, outer space begins. So that's our earth

of rock

—a

big, spinning,

moving

and hot metal, with a thin coating

ball

of soil,

water, and air on the outside.

J?"ft2

I

19

21

Mountains, Valleys,

and Plains

200 million years ago

135

m

today

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

The moving continents may seem to you that the earth's crust is piece of rock. You may think this crust covers It

a single

the outside

of the earth just as an apple's skin covers an apple.

the earth's crust

is

enormous separate

made up

actually

of a

pieces, called plates.

together, like the pieces of a puzzle.

moving, very slowly,

number

But

of

These plates

And they

are

fit

all

in different directions.

Scientists are not sure

what makes these huge,

They think the plates slide rock beneath them. The plates move

curved sheets of rock move. on the hot, soft

from

less

than one inch (2.5 centimeters) to eight

inches (20 centimeters) a year.

Some

of the plates

make up

part of the ocean

floor.

Others hold the high masses of rock that rise above the sea and form the continents.

As

the plates move, they

carry the continents and ocean floor with them.

The

plates have probably been

years. This

means that the

probably had

many

moving

for billions of

earth's continents

and seas have

different shapes. Scientists think

more than two hundred million years ago the earth's dry land was all bunched together, forming one gigantic

that

continent. Slowly, as the plates

moved, the one huge

continent broke into two continents. And, as the plates

continued to move, both of these continents broke up to

form the seven continents we know today.

As will

the plates keep moving, the continents and seas

keep changing shape. Scientists think that

fifty million

in

years South America and Africa will be

make the may move up and

farther apart than they are now. This will Atlantic

about

Ocean wider. And Australia

push against Southeast Asia, becoming part of

it.

23

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

25

Giant rocks Mountains are

gray giants.

like great,

They are huge chunks of rock that have been pushed up out of the earth. Some mountains stand

alone, but

all

most are

connected together. Long chains of connected mountains are called mountain ranges.

Mountains are not

all alike.

Many

mountains are bare and rocky. Others grass

have green forests and

fields of

growing on their

And most

sides.

high

mountains have snow on their tops year round. This

is

because the

height of a mountaintop

is

all

air at the

usually cold

keep water frozen. Scientists believe that most of the

enough

to

earth's mountains are

years

old.

many

millions of

The newest are wrinkled, and

have sharp, pointed

tops. Older

mountains are smooth, with rounded tops. These "old" mountains have been

worn down by wind and

many

millions of years.

Cascade Mountains, Washington

rain during

26

Some mountains

are bare and rocky.

Others are green with grass and trees.

Newer mountains are sharp

and pointed. Very old mountains are

smooth and rounded by erosion.

Snowy Mountains,

Australia

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

Mount Rundle,

Alberta,

Canada

I

27

28

The of

and death

birth

a mountain range

Mountain ranges

They

start to

rise

where a sea once met a shore.

form when a sea bottom along the edge

up with mud and sand. As the mud and sand grow thicker, the sea bottom begins to sink. The mud, sand, and rock drop slowly down of

a continent begins to

into the earth's mantle

They

fill

— the hot rock beneath the crust.

heat and pressure. Hot rock from the mantle in

by mixed

are crushed, squeezed, and melted together

with them. All this takes

many

Mountains are born when

this

is

millions of years.

mixture of rock

is

pushed up again by earthquakes and other forces earth.

As the huge

pile of

rock

pushes the

rises, it

edge of the land into wrinkles and

in the

folds.

After

many

more millions of years, the upper part of the long, lumpy mass of rock has risen high above the land. Mountains now sit where once the sea met the shore.

As soon as mountains down. Rain breaks

falls

are born, they begin to wear

on them. Each drop,

off tiny bits of rock.

of rock

and

carries

like

Wind blows

a

off

little

tiny grains

them away. Streams and

down the

slopes, cutting great grooves.

masses of

ice

bomb,

rivers

run

Sometimes, huge

and snow move down mountainsides,

grinding the rock to powder.

For millions

of years, all these forces

and tons and tons

of rock

from mountains. Slowly, the

proud, peaked mountaintops are worn

smoothed left of hills.

out. After

many

wear tons

down and

millions of years, nothing

a mountain range but a row of small, smooth

After more years, even those are worn away.

is

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

Mountains begin

hundreds

to

form on a sea bottom

of millions of

years ago.

mat

During millions of years, mud, sand, and hot rock are mixed together and pushed

up out

of the

sea bottom. This forms a

long chain of wrinkled mountains.

During

many

millions of years, wind, rain,

and snow slowly wear down mountains.

I

29

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

I

31

The highest place the world

in

Where do you in the

world

think the highest place

is?

As you may have place in the world

mountain.

It is

guessed, the highest

the top of a

is

the top of

Mount

Everest,

which stands between the countries

of

Tibet and Nepal, in Asia.

When we want mountaintop

mountain land

is,

to find out

we

how

can't just measure the

—we have to measure

it's sitting

high a

To do

on, too.

the

all

that,

we

—

must go to where the land begins at the top of the sea. That way, we can measure the land that slopes up from the

all

sea to the very top of the mountain.

When we measure we

something this way,

are measuring from sea

land in the world

below sea

level.

is

either

The top

of

level.

above or

Mount

the highest place in the world,

above sea

feet (8,848 meters)

On May of

New

29, 1953, Sir

the top of

29,028

is

level.

Edmund

Mount

first

men

Hillary

to climb to

Everest. Since then,

other climbers have

made

"top of the world."

Mount

Everest,

Zealand and Tenzing Norgay of

Nepal became the

many

All the

Everest,

between Nepal and Tibet

it

to the

32

I

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

Mountains of fire A

volcano

builds

is

a special kind of mountain that actually

itself! It is

made

of red-hot rock that

pours up

out of the earth amid earthquakes, explosions, and

towering clouds of smoke and ash. Scientists think that far it is fiercely

It is

down

in the earth,

where

hot, there are "pockets" of melted rock.

thought that the pressure

of gas

pushes this

melted rock, called magma, up out of the ground.

When magma comes out of the ground it is called lava. It may be as thick as syrup or as thin as watery soup, but

it

cools into a black, gritty rock. It

that builds the volcano. earth,

it

piles

comes

down

out, the higher

its

of the

a cone or dome, with

of

The more

middle.

and wider the volcano

After a volcano has built for

this rock

As the lava pours out

up into the shape

a tunnel running

is

itself, it

may

sit

lava that gets.

quietly

hundreds or even thousands of years. Then,

The ground come from deep

suddenly, the volcano becomes active. begins to shake. Rumbling noises inside the earth.

From

the top of the volcano, clouds of

dark smoke twist up into the sky. The rumblings

become a

loud, steady, rushing roar.

Magma

gas comes surging up through the tunnel. It

or hot

may

burst

out of the top of the volcano or flow out of cracks in the side.

The volcano has erupted!

There are different kinds

of volcanoes that erupt

te

0:9

Mount Hekla, Iceland

hot lava

cooled lava

in different ways.

One kind shoots a stream

lava high into the

air, like

Another kind shoots out

solid

chunks

of red-hot rock of lava

cinders.

clouds of

glowing, super-hot steam and gas rushing

mountainside.

when they

And some blow

of

down

the

themselves to pieces

erupt!

There are several thousand volcanoes

Many

glowing

a giant, fiery fountain.

Some volcanoes pour rivers through cracks in their sides. Some send

and

of

them do not seem able

in the world.

to erupt

any more, and

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

are called "dead" volcanoes. But some volcanoes that

have been "dead" for hundreds of years have suddenly

become

active and had terrible eruptions.

And

active

volcanoes are liable to erupt at any time. Volcanoes

have

killed

many

people and destroyed whole

But volcanoes have done good that

most

things, too.

cities.

The ash

comes from volcanoes becomes some of the fertile soil in

billions of

the world.

years ago,

much

And

richest,

scientists think that,

of the earth's first air and

water came from gas and steam spouted from volcanoes.

35

36

When the earth

shivers

"The mountains seemed to walk!" That is what a Chinese writer said about a

terrible

earthquake he saw. During the worst earthquakes, the

ground shivers and shakes and rumbles. Whole sections of land get

truly

pushed out of place, so that mountains

seem to "walk."

Earthquakes begin

earthquake damage, San Francisco

in the earth's

rocky crust. Pressure

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

builds

up and begins

to push.

actually bends the rocks, just

|

37

The force of this push as you bend a stick.

And, suddenly, the rocks snap and break, just as the stick

would snap

if

you kept bending

shivers through the ground

making

it

it.

quiver and quake.

Earthquakes are actually happening

Every few minutes there

is

Sometimes an earthquake lot of

This sends

all

the time.

one somewhere in the world.

is

very powerful and does a

damage. But most earthquakes are so

slight

they

don't even rattle a spoon in a teacup.

It's

a Fact

Every two or three minutes there's an earthquake

V)

somewhere in the world. The earth is always shivering!

I wS%i 4

*V Fk\iVl

4 **#
'**:

-•?•-«,* irtJ^*

-'?'..

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

Nature's ditches What

parts of the earth's surface have floors

and walls? Valleys.

A

the ground.

valley

is

like a long ditch

The bottom

scooped out of

of the ditch is called the

The sides are called valley walls. Some valleys are places where the ground has sunk. But most valleys are made by rivers and streams. As water flows along, it tears away bits of the land. As years go by, more and more land is worn away. The floor.

river sinks deeper sides of

it.

the walls,

becomes a

and deeper. Steep walls form on both

Then wind and rain begin to wear away making the valley wider. In time, the valley long,

V-shaped ditch, with the river or

stream flowing along the

Some

valleys have

longer V-shaped.

floor.

grown

Some

so wide that they are

no

are U-shaped. Others have

become deeper rather than wider. Very deep valleys with steep walls are called canyons or gorges.

Oneonta Gorge, Oregon

I

39

40

I

Mountains, Valleys, and Plains

A

valley

of the

is like

a long ditch

ground. Most

rivers that carry dirt

every year.

scooped out

valleys are

made by

away tons of rock and During many thousands

years, the valley

grows deeper and

broader. Valleys with very steep walls are called canyons or gorges.

Rhone

Valley, Switzerland

of

Canyon de

Chelly, Arizona

',ii^;;;:: ^:J .

•

.

,

•

'

'

'•

•

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'

Rocks, Stones, and Petrified Bones

I

83

Precious stones They shine, they sparkle, they flash and shimmer. The crowns of kings and emperors were covered with them, and wealthy people have always worn necklaces, rings, and other jewelry made of them. They are only but they are so beautiful and hard to find that they have been symbols of wealth and power for

stones,

thousands of years. They are the "precious stones"diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and opals.

Diamonds come from deep buried in rock that

is

diamonds are shaped

in or like

bottoms stuck together. ground they are

dull

in the earth.

They

are

near dead volcanoes. Most

two pyramids with

When

their

they are taken from the

and grayish.

It is

only after they

are cut and polished that they sparkle and flash.

A

diamond

is

from the earth.

the hardest of It

all

things that

come

can even cut rocks. The only thing

that will scratch a diamond

is

another diamond. Most

diamonds are used to make cutting and grinding tools. Only the biggest, most perfect diamonds become jewels. Corundum is a stone that's like a cube with two corners cut

off,

so that

and bottom, instead mineral that rock.

is

it

has six

flat sides

of four sides. It is

plus a top

a very

common

usually found stuck in other kinds of

But sometimes a

piece of

corundum has a

of another mineral, either titanium or cobalt,

jeweled crown of the Holy

Roman Empire

tiny bit

mixed

in

polished opal

%4.

A A

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

Why

do stars twinkle?

The sun and

its

family of planets, asteroids,

meteoroids, and comets are like tiny specks of dust

The

floating in a gigantic ocean.

endless ocean of space

also contains countless billions of other "specks"

—the

stars.

Stars shine with a steady glow, just as the sun does.

But they seem

to twinkle.

Why?

from stars reaches our atmosphere,

light

bent, several times,

by

Five of the "stars"

layers of

we

when

Because, it

moving

gets

air.

see in the sky at night

are really other planets in our solar system.

because they

the

But most

reflect sunlight.

They

shine

of the stars

are other suns, like our sun, that shine with light of their

own. These stars are

miles (kilometers)

The nearest years for

away from

star to us

its light

trillions

is

trillions of

us.

so far that

to reach us.

and

And

it

takes four

light travels at

the tremendous speed of 186,282 miles (299,792 kilometers) per second. it

Some

stars are so far that

takes their light thousands, or even millions, of years

to reach us!

tonight

A

twinkle of light that you see in the sky

may have

been given

off

when dinosaurs

lived on earth!

How many

stars are there?

We

don't

know

exactly,

but scientists believe there are billions and billions-

more

stars

than there are grains of sand on

all

the

beaches of the world! Children sometimes wonder where stars go in the

daytime. They don't "go" anywhere, of course. They're still

we

there. It's just that our

can't see the stars.

daytime sky

is

so bright

|

267

268

Star pictures On

a clear night, you

stars.

They seem

the sky. But

if

may

see thousands of twinkling

to be scattered helter-skelter

you look

carefully,

you

will see

all

over

that

groups of stars seem to form shapes.

Long

ago, people found that, with a little

imagination, each of these star groups looked like a

One group

picture of something.

of stars

seemed to

look like a hunter with a club, holding the body of an

animal he had picture that

Another group of stars made a

killed.

was

like a flying

stretched out and

swan, with

its

long neck

wings spread. Other star groups

its

were

like pictures of

man

shooting a bow, and

a crab, a bull's head, a dragon, a

many

other creatures and

objects.

The looked

and

its

named

star pictures were like.

By knowing

after the things they

the shape of each star picture,

position in the sky, sailors of long ago could

find their

way

across the sea. If a ship were blown off

course by a storm, the captain had only to look at the star pictures to find the right direction again.

amateur astronomers

still

Today,

use these star pictures, called

constellations, to locate the stars they

want

to study.

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

269

the constellation of Orion

Long ago, people thought that groups

of stars

looked

like

pictures of creatures or objects.

Each

star

the thing

These

group was named it

star

seemed

after

to look like.

groups are called

constellations. This constellation is

Orion the Hunter.

270

Finding constellations Do you

live in the

Northern Hemisphere

— say,

in

the United States, Canada, Great Britain, or Japan?

Then, during most of the year you

will

be able to see

shown on the star chart on page 271. Do you live in the Southern Hemisphere in Australia, New Zealand, or South Africa? If so, during most of

the constellations

—

the year you will be able to see the constellations

shown on the

star chart on page 273.

And,

if

you

live

southern United States, Hawaii, or northern

in the

Australia, you'll sometimes be able to see

some

of the

constellations on both star charts.

On

the charts, the stars in each constellation are

joined together with lines to constellation. If

you know the shape of a

and where to look it

without

much

To use the

show the shape

for

it

in the sky,

of the

constellation,

you can usually

find

trouble.

charts, take this

book outdoors at about

nine o'clock, on a clear, moonless night. Stand where

you can see as much of the sky as in the

possible. If

you

live

Northern Hemisphere, face north. In the

Southern Hemisphere, face south.

To see the

chart, you'll

need a

flashlight.

But cover

the light with red cellophane. Otherwise, the light will dazzle your eyes and stars

when you

The

make

it

hard for you to see the

look up at the sky.

constellations

move

into a different part of the

sky each month. So, around the outside of each chart are the names of the months. Hold the book so that

name of the right month is pointed at your chest. Then the chart will show where the constellations will be when you look up at the sky. the

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

^ 0^

^f,

r

2*?^ \

cygnus;

DRACO «i

URSA MINOR

pi

CEPHEUS

Big Dipper

CASSIOPEIA :

pointers

URSA MAJOR

•

Capella

AURIGA

AUGn ST

jUtf

,

PERSEUS

271

272

For example,

in the

Northern Hemisphere,

in

May,

the group of stars Americans call the Big Dipper and

the British

call

the Plough will be straight ahead of

you, high in the sky. In the Southern Hemisphere, in June, the constellation called Crux will be straight

ahead

On

of you, close to the horizon.

the charts, each constellation has

Some

of the

its

Latin name.

names are based on what people thousands

ago thought the constellation looked

of years

For example,

in the

like.

Northern Hemisphere there's a

That means "Dragon." Ursa Major means "Great Bear." Ursa Minor means "Little Bear," though we usually call this constellation the Little Dipper. Cygnus means "Swan" and Auriga constellation called Draco.

is

"the charioteer." Cepheus was a king, and Cassiopeia

was a queen. Perseus was a storybook hero who

killed

a monster and saved a princess. In the Southern Hemisphere, there constellation called Crux, is

known

better

is

It

as the Southern Cross. Triangulum

"Peacock," and Grus

"sail" of a ship,

a famous

which means "cross."

Australe means "Southern Triangle."

Pavo

is

and Carina

is

Musca

is

"Crane." Vela

"Fly," is

the

the ship's "keel," or

is

bottom.

The

charts also

show a few

of the brightest stars,

such as Vega and Canopus. If

you

to see

live in or

all of

city lights.

near a

city,

you may not be able

the stars or constellations because of the

But you

will nearly

always be able to see

the brightest stars and some of the constellations.

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

httf

naa^

273

4* ^/v *r

&. Fomalhaut

i?, ul

PHOENIX

ffl

.

TRIANGULUM AUSTRALE

S

— \

''

• Alpha Centauri • Beta Centauri

HYDRUS Achernar

MUSCA

CRUX False Cross

Canopus

CARINA

J

0u

UJGUST

&

274

I

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

Exploding stars! Nearly a thousand years ago,

new

in the

year 1054, a

was

star suddenly appeared in the sky. It

tremendously bright in daytime.

glowed

— so bright

could be seen even

it

For two years, the strange new

in the sky,

day and

night. Then,

began to fade away. And, after a time,

Where had what became Actually,

it

this bright

of

new

it

it

star

slowly

disappeared.

come from? And

star

it?

wasn't a

new

star at

all.

It

was a

star

that had exploded.

Certain kinds of stars sometimes do explode. of small star called a white flare

kind

dwarf star may suddenly

up and become much, much brighter. Such an

explosion it

A

is

called a nova,

looks like a bright

new

which means "new," because star appearing in the sky.

But after a time the brightness fades away. The star becomes no blighter than

When die,

it,

it

was before

it

exploded.

a very large star called a supergiant begins to

too, explodes.

But

tremendous

this is a

explosion that destroys the star.

The explosion sends a

gigantic cloud of glowing gas rushing out into space,

and the once-giant star suddenly becomes a

dwarf

star.

supernova.

become a

This kind of explosion

A

star that

is

little

white

called a

becomes a supernova may

billion times brighter. It

supernova that was seen

in the

sky

was the in 1054.

light of a

n»

»#

^^i V

v1

'•*\V »«

276

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

Misty shapes A

crab

— a ring — a

veil.

in

space

These are some of the

shapes taken by giant clouds of gas and dust, called nebulas, in space.

Some

The word nebula means

"mist."

nebulas are the remains of stars that exploded

long ago.

A

ring nebula

is

a shell of gas that surrounds

a star, and looks like a ring from a distance.

It is

caused by an explosion that blew away part of the

star.

the Great Nebula

the Ring Nebula

Milky

Way Galaxy

Our sun

is

part of a gigantic cloud of stars called the Milky

Way

Galaxy.

The Milky Way On

a clear

summer

night you can sometimes see a

bright haze in part of the sky. This haze

Milky Way.

It looks like

them, they look

like

The Milky Way stars.

called the

a gigantic cloud of stars, close

together. Actually, the stars are

miles (kilometers) apart.

is

many

But there are

trillions of

so

many

of

a glowing cloud.

is

This star cloud

part of an even bigger cloud of is

shaped

like

a pancake with a

bulge in the middle. It contains more than 100 billion

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

stars. This

Milky

Way

Our sun far out

way

huge mass of stars

is

called a galaxy

—the

Galaxy. is

one of the stars

in this galaxy.

near the pancake's edge.

We

The sun

cannot see

to the bulging center. Clouds of gas

all

and dust,

is

the like

thick fog, block our view.

Just as the earth moves around the sun, the sun and

move around

other stars the galaxy

is

center, that

go

all

the

the Milky

the center of the galaxy. But

so enormous, and the sun

it

way

is

so far from

its

takes the sun about 225 million years to

around!

Way

The glowing cloud we

call

the Milky

Way

is

made up

stars that are trillions of miles (kilometers) apart.

photograph

is

the track of an

of billions of

The white

artificial satellite circling

line in the

the earth.

279

280

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

Other galaxies Our

Way, has more than a But it is not the only such

galaxy, the Milky

hundred

billion stars.

"cloud" of stars in space. There are at least a billion

other galaxies, and probably more, and each of them also contains

the Great galaxy

many

billions of stars.

the Whirlpool galaxy

282

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

Waves from space Right

this

minute you're being

hit

by "bullets" from

outer space!

Space

is full

These aren't the kind

of waves.

waves you see on an ocean, of radiation. Radiation

is

of course.

They

of

are waves

streams of tiny, tiny bits of

atoms. These particles are so small you couldn't see

them even with the most powerful microscope. They travel at tremendous speed— 186,282 miles (299,792 kilometers) per second. They are like little bullets. When they reach earth, some of them go zipping right through you, without you even knowing it Radiation is given off by most things in space stars,

—

quasars, planets, and the huge clouds of gas and dust called nebulae. Radiation

comes to earth

of light, heat, radio waves,

cosmic rays, and

gamma

and what we

in the

form

X

rays,

call

rays.

Earth's atmosphere shuts some of these things out. Scientists think there solar

is

also a kind of "wall" in our

system that shuts out others. This

thing, because

if

too

many

of

some

is

a good

of these particles

entered peoples' bodies, they could cause sickness.

Even though the waves are

particles are so small that the

invisible, scientists

have many machines

that can find different kinds of radiation and

where

it

comes from.

tell

this radio

telescope can locate waves from space

284

Sky "fireworks" People

who

live far

enough north or

far

enough south are often treated to a giant "fireworks" display on clear nights. Great

sheets of light

seem

hang

to

rippling

and wavering

breeze.

The

in the sky,

like curtains in

light flickers

a

with colors

frosty-white, pale green, and pink.

These

lights are inside the earth's

atmosphere, but what causes them comes

through space from the sun. Whenever

many

the sun has

sunspots,

it

shoots out

great numbers of tiny particles of energy into space.

Many

of these particles

come

to earth.

Near the

earth's

North and South poles

there are magnetic poles. These north

and south magnetic poles are ends of a big magnet. particles of

They

like

the

attract the

energy from the sun. The

particles collide with other particles in the

earth's atmosphere. This

glow,

filling

makes them

the sky with shimmering,

shivering light.

In the Northern Hemisphere, these sky "fireworks" are called the aurora borealis,

which means "northern

lights." In the

Southern Hemisphere, they are called the aurora australis, meaning "southern lights."

Planets, Stars, and Galaxies

285

287

Where in

the

World?

the earth as seen from space

Where

The The

big,

the World?

blue marble

earth looks like a big, blue marble to astronauts

flying in outer space. It's easy for

round shape far

in

of the earth

them

to see the

because the astronauts are so

away. But how can you see the shape of the earth

while you're standing on

it?

Look at a globe. A globe is a model of the earth. It shows you mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, deserts, grasslands, and forests. Most globes even tilt, just like the real earth.

A it

globe shows the earth as

shows the true shapes

globe,

you

see places If

But with a

on the other

side,

you must turn the

globe.

see the whole earth at one time,

map

To

you

won't show you the

Mapmakers squeeze and stretch of the world when they draw them on a flat map. globe is the best way to see the shape of the

earth as

earth

— round. And

is-

of the continents.

have to look at a map. But a

So, a

really

see only a part of the earth at one time.

you want to

parts

it

it

really

is.

— unless you have a spaceship.

a globe

is

a model of the earth

I

289

i-"^

J^L

v^c

photographs taken from airplanes help mapmakers

Places on paper You globe

why

can't put a globe in your pocket.

is

big,

round

too bulky to carry from place to place. That's

there are maps. Travelers can easily fold paper

maps

to take with them.

Besides being easy to carry, part of the earth in detail. small

map

A

town

If

maps can show

you are looking

for such places

for a

you can find it on a There isn't room on a globe

or a street in a city,

but not on a globe.

a small

— even a very large globe.

map made from

the photograph on the opposite page

Maps make

the earth look

flat.

you are high up, looking straight

When you forest or

How

They are drawn as down on the land.

if

look at a map, you can see what's beyond a

on the other side

of

a mountain.

do the people who make maps know so much?

They learn about the earth in many ways. But the best way is to use photographs taken from an airplane or satellite. The photographs are put together like pieces of a puzzle. Using the photographs as a guide,

—

—

mapmakers who are called cartographers draw their maps. They pick only the places that may be

the

important to people

who

will use the

maps.

a meteorologist using a

computer map

to forecast

the weather

a pilot and weather forecaster using flight

charts and weather

maps

a family using a road

map

to plan their vacation

maps

kinds of

All

Maps show you all kinds of things about the earth and space. The kind of map you probably know best

is

map shows roads, cities, places. You use road maps when

a road map. This kind of rivers,

and important

you go on auto Sailors

map"

trips.

and airplane

pilots also

called a chart. Their charts

use a sort of "road

show the "highways"

of the oceans and skies.

maps

In school, you use

that

show

countries, states,

provinces, cities, and other important places.

might use a land

is.

map

One kind

You can

You

also

how rough or smooth the of map has a raised, bumpy surface.

that shows

see and even feel the earth's

hills

There are maps that show where people

and valleys! live.

kinds of

maps show

history.

There are even maps of the moon, the

Other

the weather, crops, or events of

and the planet Mars!

stars,

294

Forest

Where

Map language Follow the Yellow Brick Road!

you were

If

Land

in the

of Oz, the

Yellow Brick Road would lead you to

Emerald City. But

in real life there are

no Yellow Brick Roads to guide us to where we want to

And mapmakers to

we

go. So,

use maps.

use symbols and colors

show us what we want to know.

Map

symbols stand for

the surface of the earth.

real things

Most

on

of the

symbols are simple and quite easy to understand. in a

They

are usually explained

box near a corner

the colors help. as highways lines.

Man-made

highway. Crossed

line,

lines

and dots stand

or dot inside a circle

And

to find

things

— such

—are usually red or black

The wider the

tracks,

map. And

of the

an

the bigger the

stand for railroad for cities.

means a

A

star

capital city.

airport, look for a tiny

drawing of an airplane.

Water

is

shown

in

shades of blue, so

show rivers. used to show the

those squiggly blue lines

Sometimes color

is

height, or elevation, of the land. Fairly

low land might be colored green. High

mountains

may

be dark brown.

The next time you

see a

map, look

again. You'll be surprised to find out

how symbols and show a

lot

colors help

mapmakers

on a very small map.

in

the World?

295

296

How far is A map may land is

it

it?

be millions of times smaller than the real

pictures.

So how can you find out how far

it

from one place to another?

To

find out,

scale. Scale

you use a "measuring

means that a

stick" called a

certain distance on a

map

stands for an actual distance on the earth's surface.

Map

scales are

kind of scale

shown

in three different ways.

a straight line on which distances are

is

marked. Each mark stands for a certain number miles or kilometers.

two

map. To do

move

find the actual distance

between

up the two places on the edge of paper. Make a mark for each place. Then, this, line

the paper

with the

To

of

measure the distance between them on the

places,

a piece of

One

down

to the scale. Line

up one mark

on the scale and read the distance opposite

the other mark.

Another kind

of scale says that so

many

centimeters equal so

perhaps

1 centimeter

inches or

miles or kilometers. For

example, the scale might read:

=

many

1

inch

=

10 miles, or

20 kilometers. With a ruler,

measure the distance between two places on the map. Then, multiply inches by 10 to get miles or centimeters

by 20 Still

the

to get kilometers.

another kind of scale

map

has

1

50,000 as

1 centimeter

on the

shown as a

its scale,

measurement on the map surface of the earth.

is

With

is

then 1 unit of

50,000 times larger on the

this kind of scale, 1 inch or

map would

centimeters on the earth.

fraction. If

equal 50,000 inches or

Where

in

the Work]'.'

measuring distance on

a

297

map

Find the distance from Paris

,-""=

to

Vienna by using a piece

of

paper and the scale from

the

map

is

from Berlin to Madrid, or

it

below. About

how far

from Dublin to Athens?

,

z.-

Copenrtager

' Warsaw * --------

--••; .'.' =

:-:

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:

-:: r.: v.: a;:

-.::

-.::

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:

298

pocket compass

Which way? Which way are you going? compass

is

that turns. north.

end

is

compass can

tell

you.

A

a box with a magnetic pointer or needle

The marked end

Why? Because

magnet

A

it is

of the needle always points

pulled

— the earth. The earth

by a larger a giant magnet.

is

near the North Pole and the other end

the South Pole.

And

is

One

near

the north-seeking end of a

magnetic needle always points toward the north magnetic pole. If

you want

to

go

east, hold the

compass

level until

the needle stops moving. Then turn the compass case until

N, or north,

under the marked end of the

is

needle. Face north and turn to your right

You can use

—

that's east.

the sun as a direction-finder, too. The

sun rises close to the east and sets close to the west.

Face the

rising sun

from your

side.

and

You

will

lift

your

left

arm

straight out

be pointing nearly north.

you face the setting sun, your

left

nearly south. And, at about noon,

arm if

If

will be pointing

you

live in

the

Northern Hemisphere (North America, Europe, or Asia),

your shadow

will point north. If

you

live in

the

Southern Hemisphere (Australia, South America, or southern Africa), your shadow

will point south.

Where

On

in

the World?

a clear night, you can use the stars to find north.

In the Northern Hemisphere, look for the Big Dipper.

Find the two pointer stars

two stars always point

in

to the

the side of the cup. These

North Star,

at the tip of

the handle of the Little Dipper. The North Star

always

in

is

the northern part of the sky, directly over

the North Pole. In the Southern Hemisphere, look for the Southern

Cross.

The two

stars in the longer bar always point

south.

Things needed to make a compass magnet straight pin or needle

piece of cork about 1 inch (1 centimeter) wide by A inch (1 centimeter) thick 1

bowl or saucer of water

Rub one end of the pin along the magnet about twelve times. Rub in one direction only. Don't rub back and forth.

Lift

the pin

up each time.

of water. At

and cork

will

first,

the pin

swing around.

Then the pin will in one direction.

point steadily It

points along

the magnetic line between the

Place the pin on the cork. Gently place the cork

bowl

in

the

earth's North

and South poles.

299

300

Where

in

the World?

Lines around the world Look

at a globe or a

ever wondered parallels of latitude

There are no

places.

Have you

many crisscross lines? so why put lines on

there are so

on the earth,

lines

lines are

The

put there to make

it

lines are like city streets.

meet at the corner where two

of the world.

maps?

globes and

The

why

map

of

easy to find

When two

Oak and Main, they

On

streets cross.

friends

are meeting

a globe or map, the

east-west lines cross the north-south lines just like streets. meridians of longitude

Every place on earth can be found at or near

where two

The

of the lines cross.

east-west lines measure distance north or south

of the equator. This is called latitude. lines are parallel call

them

— always the same distance apart—we

parallels of latitude. Latitude is

in units called degrees. is

Because the

a degree

The symbol

Latitude

sign.

is

measured

number

after each

always given as so

many

degrees north or south of the equator.

The north-south

We

lines

call this longitude.

The

starting point

This

line passes

given as so

is

measure degrees east and west.

The

a line called the prime meridian.

through Great Britain. Longitude

many

degrees east or west of this

Latitude and longitude

Another way

is

lines are called meridians.

is

way

one

is

line.

to find a place.

used on small area maps, such as road

maps. Numbers and

letters are

around the edges

of a

road map. Lines drawn from the letters cross other lines list is

drawn from the numbers. Such a map

of the places

will

have a

shown. After each place name, there

map and you lines C and 4 cross.

a symbol, such as C4. Look at the

will find the place

near where the

Treasure Hunt treasure

Find the four treasures by

ship

using the latitude and

buried

longitude given for each one.

treasure

Work

out for yourself the

latitude

and longitude

pieces of eight

of

places shown on the map.

latitude 2° north longitude 2° east latitude 2° south longitude 0° latitude 1° north longitude 2° west

golden

latitude 0°

idol

longitude 1° west

302

The sun's boundary Do you know why most stands? tilt,

It's

globes are tilted on their

because the earth

different places

lines

Because of this

is tilted.

on earth get different amounts

sunlight. Special lines on globes

of

and maps mark the

edges of these different places.

Halfway between the North and South poles imaginary it is

line

we

call

the equator.

always daylight for twelve hours each day. So

North

of the

equator

is

year long.

all

an imaginary

Tropic of Cancer. South of the equator called the Tropic of Capricorn. for star constellations.

Both

line called the is

another line

lines are

Once a year the sun

over the Tropic of Cancer. That's the

day of summer

first

in

first

day

of

is

named directly

day

summer

of

in

the Southern Hemisphere

the Northern Hemisphere

Arctic Circle

Tropic of Tropic of

Cancer

Cancer sun -sun directly

directly

overhead

overhead

Tropic of Capricorn Antarctic Circle

the

At the equator,

days and nights are the same length

first

is

Tropic of Capricorn

Antarctic Circle

Where

It's

a Fact

At the North Pole, the sun

never sets from about

March 20 to about September 23.

c-

-"VJ

1

* Jsummer sun first

is

in

the Northern Hemisphere. Once a year, the

directly over the Tropic of Capricorn. That's the

day of summer

in

the Southern Hemisphere.

Near the North and South imaginary lines

poles are

two other

— the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic

Circle. In the region

between the Tropic of Cancer and

the Arctic Circle, the sun always shines clown at a slant.

The same thing

is

true in the region between the

Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn. So in

these regions, days are long during part of the year

and short during another part of the year.

North of the Arctic Circle called the

is

a region sometimes

"Land of the Midnight Sun." In the summer,

there are days

when

the sun never sets.

You can go

out at midnight and see the sun! But in the winter,

there are days thing

is

when

the sun never rises.

The same

true south of the Antarctic Circle.

in

the World?

303

.",();-»

People Who Study the World

and Space

¥ off a rock sample for laboratory study

geologist chipping

People

Who

Study the World and Space

Learning about the earth Who

wants to study rocks? Geologists do.

Geologists are scientists

who "read"

rocks as though

they were history books. Rocks have a history of their

own. They show geologists what the earth was millions of years ago,

and how

has changed since then,

By

studying rocks,

where rivers once flowed

volcanoes once erupted

once

it

changing.

it is still

geologists learn

how

like

— where

— and where plants and animals

lived.

Many

geologists travel all over the world.

They

explore mountains, swamps, deserts, and even the

bottom

of the ocean.

As

more about

geologists learn

the structure of the earth, the search for

and other sources

of energy

minerals, such as gold, tin,

becomes

oil,

easier.

coal,

Valuable

and copper, are found by

geologists, too.

Before geologists become geologists they

may

be

"rock hounds." Rock hounds collect rocks as a hobby.

But

if

rock hounds become geologists, they do

more than study

rocks. Geologists study everything

about the earth. That It

is

what the word

comes from two Greek words,

"earth" and

much

logos,

ge,

geology means.

which means

which means "study." And now

geologists study rocks brought

back from the moon

|

307

308

|

People

Who

Study the World and Space

Learning about prehistoric

life

Scaly dinosaurs and flying reptiles

disappeared from the earth about sixty-five million years

— long before

ago

there were people. Yet there are pictures

How

animals in books.

of these

do we

know what

these prehistoric animals

looked like

if

no one ever saw a

live

dinosaur or a flying reptile? Scientists called paleontologists tell

us what the plants and animals of long ago were fossils

like.

They examine

— the remains of plants and

animals

These include footprints, fossils,

stone and other places.

left in

fossil

and

bones, teeth,

leafprints.

From such

paleontologists can

tell

a great

deal about living things of the past

how like,

what they looked how they walked, and even what

big they were,

food they probably ate!

Where

are fossils found?

for fossils goes

Fossils

The search

on just about everywhere.

have been uncovered on high

mountaintops, under layers of steep

cliffs

mines.

The

ice, in

along rivers, and in coal oldest fossils ever found are

simple plants that lived more than three billion years ago.

This paleontologist fossil

skeleton of a

is

looking at the

mammoth.

searching for fossils

fossil insect

This insect

was trapped

sap millions

fc

of

in tree

years ago.

When

the sap hardened, the

insect

was sealed

in

forever.

J

-.-rf*

w 7.

t/

m

310

Cave

scientists

Watch your head

— there's a stalactite! Oops, don't

trip over the stalagmite!

Scientists

Most caves

who study

Where

are you? In a cave!

caves are called speleologists.

are dark, slippery tunnels of rock and

water. Exploring

them can be dangerous. So

speleologists

wear protective clothing and headlamps. And they carry rope and other tools. These scientists want to find out

about the changes a cave goes through. They

want to know how long each change what happens to a cave during this time. also

Some caves

are like underground art

lasts

and

museums. The

limestone formations look like beautiful sculptures.

And man's

earliest art

thousand years ago

Where

is

—painted more than twenty-five

— has been found on cave walls.

the deepest cave?

No

one knows. But

in

cave in France, explorers climbed down almost three

thousand feet (910 meters).

a

People

Who

Study the World and Space |

cave scientists

A group

of

at

work

cave explorers

(left)

crawl

through a narrow underground tunnel.

A

scientist (below)

limestone cave

in

makes

Mexico.

tests in a

31]

312

People

Who

Study the World and Space

Watching

for

Earthquakes happen of

all

earthquakes the time.

We

don't feel most

them. They are just small shakes in the earth. But

some earthquakes make the ground tremble, rattle dishes, and even cause buildings to shake. And a few earthquakes smash and crumple buildings. Seismologists are scientists

who study

earthquakes.

Seismologists can't go underground to watch the rocks

push, snap, and break. Instead, seismologists watch

instruments called seismographs. These instruments help keep track of earthquakes

even the quakes we can't

all

feel.

Seismographs are usually set on vaults. There, they do not pick

by man-made

over the world

solid rock or inside

up vibrations caused

But when an earthquake makes the earth shake, tremble, and shiver, it also moves a pen

on a

things.

in the seismograph. roll of

The pen draws

squiggly lines

paper.

Scientists use seismographs in groups of three. This

way they can measure

the east- west, north-south, and

up-and-down ground motions

A

of the earth.

few times, seismologists have been able to predict

much to learn about earthquakes and when they will happen.

earthquakes. But there

what causes

is still

seismologist checking a seismograph

A seismograph

is

used

to record

the earth near the top of Mount

movements

Asama

in

of

Japan.

314

volcanologist collecting samples of hot lava

People

Who

Study the World and Space

Volcano watchers The ground shakes and in

the earth there

Suddenly, there

is

Deep

quivers.

a roaring rumble.

A

a giant explosion!

is

cloud of steam, mixed with dust and

chunks

of rocks, shoots out of the top

of the volcano.

lava

A

river of hot, boiling

— melted rock—pours out of cracks.

The lava

flows

down the

sides of the

volcano, burning everything in

its

path.

After the lava cools, scientists called volcanologists to study

it.

may

visit

Someday,

the volcano

scientists

hope to

forecast volcanic eruptions. So, to learn

more, they climb to the top of the volcano to collect gases. They draw the gas from the boiling bubbles inside.

Changes

in the gas

warn volcanologists

when a volcano might

erupt.

Several machines help scientists watch volcanoes, too.

A

tiltmeter measures the

slant of the earth's surface.

When

slant changes around a volcano,

it's

sign that the volcano could erupt.

seismograph

is

used, also, to

the

a

A

show any

warning rumbles, shakes, and quivers the earth. Being a volcanologist

plenty of watching and waiting.

4

in

means

I

living

under water

An oceanographer uses

a device called a

sonar to locate underwater sounds. Behind her

is

the underwater house she stays

in.

People

Who

Study the World and Space

317

Learning about the sea How

A

long can you hold your breath under water?

few seconds?

A

minute? Whatever the length of

you can't stay under water very

time,

But

scientists called

long.

oceanographers often swim

under water for hours. Some oceanographers even

live

beneath the ocean's surface for months at a time!

Oceanographers use

air tanks, diving suits, or

small submarines while under water.

even

And when

oceanographers stay under water for days at a time, they live in a canlike house right on the ocean

floor.

There, scientists spend hours outside their underwater shelter studying everything

There are many kinds

maps

of the

rocky ocean

around them.

of oceanographers. floors.

Some make

Other sea scientists

map

the direction and strength of the moving water.

Still

other oceanographers study the plants and animals

that live in the ocean.

sampling the ocean bottom

Japanese oceanographers check and

bottle

samples

of

mud and

sand brought up from the ocean floor.

They

will

study the

to find out what's in

it.

mud

318

Watching the weather Everyone

is

a weather watcher. But no one knows

what the weather will be like tomorrow next week not even meteorologists.

for sure

or

—

Meteorologists are scientists

and try

to forecast

who study

Sometimes

it.

the weather

their forecasts are

wrong because weather conditions can change quickly.

They them discover what coming. They check the wind for

In a way, meteorologists are like detectives. look for

all

kinds of clues to help

kind of weather

is

speed and direction. They keep records of temperature, air pressure,

and the amount

follow the progress of storms. find

of

water in the

With

air.

They

radar, they can

approaching storms as far away as two hundred

miles (320 kilometers).

Meteorologists also have "weather spies" in the sky.

One such spy

a large, gas-filled balloon. The

is

balloon carries instruments high into the sky. speed, temperature,

Wind

and other weather conditions are

automatically radioed to the weather stations below.

The

highest sky spies are weather satellites. These

satellites circle the earth

and photograph cloud cover

and any gathering storms. The pictures are then radioed to earth. Meteorologists gather weather reports from

all

over

the world. Using this information, they draw weather

maps. With the help

of computers, forecasts are

made

and sent to weather stations and then on to you. Will

it

rain tonight? Will the sun shine

Meteorologists try to

let

you know ahead

tomorrow? of time.

measuring weather

This gas-filled balloon carries instruments to

measure the weather.

studying weather

A

meteorologist uses a bank of computers

to

study weather information.

320

Studying the stars What

Why life

is

the shape of the universe?

do stars sometimes explode?

Is there

on other planets? Scientists called

astronomers and astrophysicists try to

answer these and other questions.

Most astronomers do much of their work at places called observatories. There, they use telescopic cameras to

hundreds

photographs to find out the

of

movements

r&BBS1C«:

They study

take photographs of stars.

and to look

of stars

for

new

With mathematics, they out how far away stars are and

objects in space. figure

how

fast

they move.

Astronomers also

come from

space.

To do

this,

they use

up radio waves.

radio telescopes that pick

The astronomers

sounds that

listen to

try to find where the

sounds are coming from and what makes them. Astrophysicists

want

things in space are

to

made

know what

of.

the

For example, astronomer, Chile

they can the light

the star.

by the different colors in of a star what chemicals are in They also study other planets tell

to try to find

From scientists, we

what they are

like.

the work of

all

are learning

more and more about the

these space

amazing universe

in

which we

How

far

many

live.

away are

the stars?

How

stars are there?

Astronomers use telescopes, special instruments, and math to

answer questions

like

these.

People

Who

Study the World and Space

.".21 |

Hubble Space Telescope

Hubble Space Telescope in orbit around the earth artist's idea of

322

Books If

you

Read

to

read about the world and

like to

space, you'll find a wide variety of books to read

A few of them are Your school or your public have many others.

and enjoy.

listed below.

library will

Mars by Seymour Simon (Morrow,

1987)

Read about and see amazing photographs of the earth's closest neighbors in the solar system. You can also find books about other planets and the sun by the

same author.

Ages 5

One Day to

8

Air Is All Around

You

Revised Edition

by Franklyn M. Branley (Crowell, 1986)

You

can't see

even

in

but air

it,

some

is

everywhere,

places that will surprise

book.

you.

The Big Dipper and You by E. Krupp (Morrow, If

you ride

fast as the billion

in the Desert by Jean Craighead George (Crowell, 1983) Deserts are dry; deserts are sandy; deserts can be very hot and very cold. How do plants and animals live there? Read about daily life in the desert in this

in a

My

C.

1989)

spaceship that travels as

Voyager,

it

would take you 10

years to get to the Big Dipper.

This book will get you there

Place in Space by Robin and Sally

Hirst (Orchard Books, 1988)

much

faster.

Comets by Ruth Radlauer and Charles H. Stembridge, Ph.D. (Childrens Press,

In this picture book,

What

are comets? Where do they come from? This book is full of astounding

Henry if he knows where he lives. Henry knows more than his address; he knows the exact location in the universe.

The Sun: Our Neighborhood Star by J.

Darling (Dillon Press, 1984)

This book answers questions that you

might have about the sun and connection to the earth. It also

information.

his sister

asks

David

1984)

Henry and

Rosie ride the bus home. The bus driver

its

tells

when

the eclipses of the sun occur from 1984 to

The Great Lakes by Kathy Henderson (Childrens Press, 1989)

Did you know that more standing fresh water can be found in the Great Lakes than anywhere else in the world? That's one-fifth of all the earth's standing fresh

water.

Read

about the

book to find out more Great Lakes.

this

five

1999.

Why

Doesn't the Earth Fall Up? by

Vicki

Cobb

(Lodestar, 1989)

Find out how the force of gravity keeps things on earth from floating off into space.

Ages 9

to

12

The Magic School Bus Inside the Earth by Joanna Cole (Scholastic, The magic school bus goes on a field

1987)

The Arctic and Antarctic by Cass R.

trip

inside the earth. Ride along to learn

how

Sandak (Franklin Watts, 1987) Explore the polar regions at the top and bottom of the earth, around the North and South poles.

the earth formed and find out about different kinds of rocks.

Books

My

to

Read

323

Discover

Book of Space by Robert A. (Simon & Schuster, 1985) This informative book about our universe is illustrated with NASA photographs and

signals

art.

Earthquakes: Nature in Motion by rlershell H. Nixon and .loan Lowery Nixon (Dodd, Mead, L981)

why the earth quakes, the we look for to predict earthquakes, and even how we might "turn them off"! Earth Songs by Myra Conn Livingston (Holiday, 1986)

—

These poems celebrate the earth its continents, hills, forests, and seas. They are enhanced by Leonard Everett Fisher's beautiful paintings. Also, look for Space Songs by the same author.

Simple Things Kids Can Do to Save Works Group (Andrews & McMeel, 1990) .earn what you can do to make the earth

First

Bell

Questions and Answers About the Universe by Roy A. Gallant

101

(Macmillan, 1984)

As

the director of a planetarium, the

author spent a

lot

of time talking to

children. In this book, he

answers

questions that children have asked him

most frequently.

")()

the Earth by The Earth

I

Satellites

and Space Stations by Moira

Butterfield (London, Usborne, 1985) Satellites play a vital role in

world

a healthy place for people everywhere.

communications, astronomy, and many other areas. Learn what space stations

The Galaxies by David Darling

are and

(Dillon,

This book

tells

people work and live in

what galaxies are and how

they were formed.

How

Did We Find Out About Volcanoes? by Isaac Asimov (Walker, 1981)

Science Activities for Children by Willard J. Jacobson and Abby B.

Bergman These

(Prentice-Hall, 1983)

activities are a fun

way

to help

understand some important ideas

The author

tells

how

people have viewed

volcanoes from ancient times to the present.

how

them.

1985)

He even

tells

you

in

science. Several chapters contain activities

related to our world and space.

about volcanoes

that are not on earth.

and Gases: From Superconductors to the Ozone Layer by Melvin Berger (Putnam, 1989)

Solids, Liquids

Mountains by Keith Lye

(Silver Burdett,

1986)

mountains alike? How are they formed? Do they ever change? You may be surprised by the answers to these and

Are

all

Gain a deeper understanding of the three forms of matter by performing scientific experiments.

other questions.

Space Laboratories by Gregory Vogt

Mountains and Earth Movement by Ian Bain (Bookwright Press, 1984) Learn why the earth moves and what happens when parts of the earth move.

(Franklin Watts, 1987)

Laboratories in space help us understand

our universe. Learn about past, present,

and future space laboratories.

324

New Words Here are some

of the words you have met in this them may be new to you. Others are just hard to pronounce. Since you'll see them again, they're good words to know. Next to each word you will see how to say the word: ammonia (uh MOHN yuh). The part shown in capital letters is said a little more loudly than the rest of the word. Under each word are one or two sentences that tell what the word means.

book.

Many

of

ammonia (uh MOHN yuh) Ammonia is a colorless

gas.

It is

often dissolved in water and used for cleaning.

anemometer (an uh MAHM uh tuhr) An anemometer is an instrument

calcite (KAL syt)

that

measures the speed of the wind. asteroid (AS tuh royd)

An

one of many small planets that revolve around the sun. astrophysicist (as troh FIHZ uh sihst) An astronomer who studies the physical and chemical characteristics of planets and stars is called an asteroid

is

sfihr) all

the air that

surrounds the earth.

aurora australis (aw RAWR uh aw STRAY lihs) The aurora australis is bands of light in the night sky in the Southern Hemisphere. aurora boreal is (aw RAWR uh bawr ee AL ihs) The aurora borealis is bands of light in the night sky in the Northern Hemisphere. azurite (AZH yuh ryt) Azurite is a copper mineral that has It is

used for jewelry.

basalt (BAS awlt or buh SAWLT) Basalt

is

Calcite

a dark-colored rock that

was once red-hot

lava.

a mineral.

is

It is

the

chief substance in limestone, chalk,

and marble. carbon dioxide (KAHR buhn dy AHK syd) Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that

is

in the earth's

atmosphere. carnotite (KAHR nuh tyt) Carnotite

astrophysicist.

atmosphere (AT muh The atmosphere is

a blue color.

bauxite (BAWK syte or BOH zyt) Bauxite is a brownish or grayish mineral. Its ore is the chief source of aluminum.

is

a yellow-colored,

powdery, radioactive mineral that is one of the sources of uranium. cartographer (kahr TAHG ruh fuhr) A person who makes maps or charts is

called a cartographer.

cassiterite (kuh SIHT uh ryt)

Cassiterite

is

a mineral ore.

It

is

the

chief source of tin.

chromium (KROH mee uhm) Chromium is a shiny, gray metal that does not rust.

cinnabar (SIHN uh bahr) Cinnabar is a mineral. It is the chief source of mercury. cirrocumulus (sihr oh KYOO myuh luhs) Cirrocumulus clouds are rows of small, fleecy, white clouds, often called a

"mackerel skv."

New Words

cirrus (SIHR uhs)

A

cirrus cloud

a thin,

is

fleecy,

white

cloud of ice crystals that forms at a

nickel

is a metal often found with and copper.

comet (KAHM

A

comet

It

looks like a star with a

a bright object

condensation trail (kahn dehn say shuhn

A

condensation

trail,

in

space.

tail.

or contrail.

corundum (kuh RUHN duhm) Corundum is a very hard mineral. Rubies and sapphires are kinds of corundum.

Crux (kruhks)

cumulonimbus loh

Cumulonimbus

NIHM buhs)

is

a heavy cloud

mass

with high peaks: a thundercloud.

cumulus (KYOO myuh

luhs)

A

cumulus cloud has a rounded top and a flat bottom. It is usually seen weather.

detail (dih

A

TAYL

or

DEE

tayl)

detail is a picture of a small part

of something. It

is

sometimes shown

larger than the whole thing.

diatom (DY uh tahm)

A

diatom

is

leaf.

a measuring instrument. Geiger counter (GY guhr KOWN tuhr) The Geiger counter is an instrument that detects radioactivity.

geyser (GY zuhr or GY suhr) A geyser is a spring that shoots up hot water and steam. glacier (GLAY shuhr)

A

glacier

is

a huge mass of gritty

over the land.

ice that slides slowly

graphite (GRAF yt) Graphite is a soft, black mineral used with clay to make the "lead" for

Common

Southern Hemisphere. It is usually called the Southern Cross. crystal (KRIHS tuhl) A crystal is something that has hardened into a shape that has smooth, flat surfaces that meet in sharp edges and corners.

fail'

the remains or traces of an animal or plant that lived longago. A fossil may be a footprint, a

halite (HAL yt or

"cross," is a constellation in the

in

uhl)

pencils.

Crux, a Latin word that means

myuh

(PAHS fossil is

bone, or the outline of a

a

(kyoo

ryt)

a mineral with a glassy

is

gauge (gayj) A gauge is

trayl)

stream of water droplets or ice crystals that can be seen forming behind highflying aircraft in the upper atmosphere. constellation (kahn stub LAV shuhn) A constellation is a group of stars that appears to have special shape when viewed from the earth. is

(FLOO uh

luster. fossil

A

iht)

is

of soil or rock.

Fluorite

cobalt (KOH hawlt) Cobalt

erosion (ih ROH zhuhn) Erosion is the slow wearing away fluorite

high altitude

:!25

a tiny water plant.

HAY

table salt

ryt) is

the mineral

called halite.

hematite (HEHM uh tyt or HEE muh tyt) Hematite is iron ore that is sometimes called blood ironstone because of its red color. igneous (IHG nee uhs) Rock that was formed when it was heated to a liquid state is called igneous rock. See also metamorphic; sedimentary. indigo (IHX duh goh) Indigo is a deep violet-blue color.

magma (MAG muh) Magma is the hot,

melted rock beneath the earth's crust. malachite (MAL uh kyt) Malachite is a green mineral. meridian (muh RIHD ee uhn) A meridian is an imaginary line around the earth. Meridians meet at the North and South poles. We use

326

meridians to measure distance east or west. See also parallel.

metamorphic (meht uh MAWR fihk) Metamorphic means changed. A metamorphic rock is one that has been changed by heat and pressure. See also igneous; sedimentary. meteor (MEE tee uhr) A meteor is a chunk of metal or

It

is

burning up from

is

friction.

often called a shooting star.

meteorologist (mee tee uh RAHL uh jihst) A meteorologist is a person who studies the atmosphere and its effect

on weather.

molecule (MAHL uh kyool) is

can be divided without changing into

something else. nebula (NEHB yuh luh) A nebula is a huge cloud of gas or

or snow

clouds.

80 per cent of the air we breathe. obsidian (ahb SIHD ee uhn) Obsidian is a hard, dark, glassy rock

when

fuhr)

Polaris

used

above the North Pole.

is

It is

the Northern Hemisphere to

in

find north.

pulsar (PUHL sahr) A pulsar is a very tiny star that sends out short, regular bursts of pyrite (PY ryt)

Pyrite

is

a yellow mineral that looks

quadruplet (KWAHD roo pliht) A quadruplet is any group or combination of four. quartz (kwawrts) Quartz is a very hard mineral. refinery (rih FY nuhr ee) refinery

is

a place

where metal, is

made

as pure

as possible.

person who studies the ocean and life

is

saltpeter (sawlt

Saltpeter

used

in

is

PEE

tuhr)

a salty, white mineral

making gunpowder. uh lyt)

satellite (SAT

paleontologist

A

been changed into stone. petroleum (puh TROH lee uhm) Petroleum is a dark, oily liquid found in the earth. Gasoline and oil are made from petroleum. Polaris (poh LAIR ihs) Polaris, the North Star, is in the northern constellation Ursa Minor,

petroleum, or sugar

the different kinds of ocean called an oceanographer. (pay lee ahn

south. See also meridian, patina (PAT uh nuh) Patina is a coating often found on the surface of old bronze or copper. petrified (PEHT ruh fyd) Something that is petrified has

A

lava cools.

oceanographer (oh shuh NAHG ruh

A

use these

like gold.

nitrogen (NY truh juhn) Nitrogen is a gas that has no color, odor, or taste. It makes up almost

that forms

We

measure distance north or

radio waves.

dust in space.

nimbostratus (nihm boh STRAY tuhs) Nimbostratus is a low, dark-gray layer of rain

above and below the equator are

usually called the Little Dipper.

the tiniest part into which any substance, such as water,

molecule

Lines that are parallel are the

same distance apart everywhere. The imaginary lines circling the earth

parallels to

meteorite (MEE tee uh ryt) A meteorite is a meteor that has reached the earth without burning up. meteoroid (MEE tee uh roihd) A meteoroid .is a chunk of rock that is moving through space.

A

long ago. parallel (PAR uh lehl)

called parallels.

stone (a meteoroid) that has entered the earth's atmosphere from outer

space and

studies the plants and animals of

TAHL uh

paleontologist

is

A

jihst)

a person

who

satellite is a natural or artificial

object that revolves around a planet.

Wu

sedimentary (sehd uh MEHN tuhr ee) Anything that is sedimentary is made small bits of matter from sediment left by water, wind, or ice. Rocks formed from minerals that settle in this way are sedimentary rocks. Set also igneous; met amorphic. seismograph (SYZ nnih graf) A seismograph is an instrument that measures and records movements in

—

the earth, especially earthquakes. seismologist isyz MAHL uh jihst) A seismologist is a person who studies earthquakes and other

movements

of the earth.

selenite (SEHL uh nyt)

Selenite

is

a form of the mineral is used in making plaster

gypsum. It and cement. sonar (SOH nahr) Sonar is an instrument that uses sound waves to find the direction and distance of objects under water. speleologist (spee lee AHL uh jihst)

A

speleologist

in

the studv of caves.

is

a person skilled

LAK

stalactite (stuh

A

Words

327

tyt)

an icicle-shaped deposit of calcite hanging from stalactite

is

the roof or sides of a cave.

stalagmite (stuh LAG myt)

A

stalagmite

is

a deposit of calcite

forming a stone column that rises up from the floor of a cave. titanium (ty TAY nee uhm) Titanium is a metal used in making steel.

turquoise (TUR koyz or TUR kwoyz) Turquoise is a blue-to-green gemstone. uranium (yu RAY nee uhm)

Uranium

is

a radioactive metal.

volcanologist (vahl

kuhn NAHL uh

jihst)

A

scientist

is

called a volcanologist.

who

studies volcanoes

wulfenite (WUL fuh nyt) Wulfenite is a mineral that contains a metal used in making steel. zircon (ZUR kahn) Zircon is a mineral often used as a gem.

328

Illustration

acknowledgments acknowledge the and corporations for illustrations in this volume. Page numbers refer to twopage spreads. The words "(left)," "(center)," "(top)," "(bottom)," and "(right)" indicate position on the spread.

The publishers

of Chitdcraft gratefully

following artists, photographers, agencies,

are the exclusive property of the publishers

All illustrations

names

of Childcraft unless

(top

NASA

left)

left)

Childcraft photo; (bottom right)

6-19:

20-21 22-23: 24-25: 26-27:

E

S.

Ross

Rare Coin Co

(top right)

*;

Chitdcraft photo; (center

4-5:

are marked with an asterisk

left)

NASA

ol

America,

(center right)

';

James Conahan; (bottom

*

(*).

78-79: 80-81

Childcraft photos

82-83: 84-85;

Erich Lessing.

James Conahan

30-31

32-33 34-35

36-37 38-39 40-41 42-43:

George Suyeoka Ray Atkeson, DPI (left) Alan Band Associates *; (right) R N Mariscal, Bruce Coleman Inc. James Conahan * Paolo Koch, Rapho Guillumette * James Conahan; Alan Band Associates (left) C. Bonongton, Woodfm Camp. Inc. *; (center) Walter Bonatti, Pictorial Parade "; (right) B Kielczynski, Bruce Coleman Inc. * (left) Paul X. Scott. Sygma *; (right) James Conahan * Bruce Coleman Inc. (left) Alan Band Associates '; (right) Esther Henderson, * Rapho Guillumette '

(left)

B|orn Bolstad, from Peter Arnold

Bruce Coleman

III,

(center photo) J

R

Inc.

John Moss, Colorific "; & Press Service Guy Mannering, Bruce Coleman Alex Langley, DPI

James Conahan; Coleman Inc *, (right) Coleman Inc. * (left)

(left)

J.

";

James Conahan

M

108-109

Brunley. Bruce

110-111: 112-113:

114-115 *;

(right) Childcraft

116-117:

photos by

18-1 19 120-121 122-123 124-125. 1

';

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Childcraft photos

(bottom) John Gerard

James Conahan.

Museum

(left)

72-73

Museum of Natural History, Childcraft photo Field Museum of Natural History. Childcraft photo

of Art

';

(right) Field

Japan by Jonathan Norton Leonard and the Books c 1968 Time Inc (Paulus

(bottom) Field

Museum

of Natural History,

Childcraft photo (left)

Field

James Conahan;

Museum

of Natural History,

Field

James Conahan

Museum

of Natural History, Childcraft photo;

Kaiser Aluminum

& Chemical Corp James Conahan James Conahan. David Muench (top) E R Degginger \ (bottom) Bill Ratcliffe David Muench (left) Thomas Henley, Tom Stack & Assoc *; (right) Marvin E Newman. Woodfm Camp, Inc (top) Robert H Glaze. Artstreet ". (bottom) David Muench James Conahan Henry Monroe, DPI '; James Conahan James Conahan ' David R Frazier *

*

*

(right)

Department

of

of Natural History. Childcraft

Energy photo

*

Kirsty

McLaren

James Conahan Francisco Erize, Bruce Coleman Inc (left)

*;

James Conahan

Peter Fronk, Van Cleve Photography

Brooks, Bruce

Coleman

*;

(right) Bill

*

Inc. '

126-127

(left)

128-129: 130-131

132-133

Morion Beebe, DPI *; (right) Ed Barans, DPI Claude Haycraft, Van Cleve Photography '; (right) Ray Atkeson. DPI Oregon State Highway Division "; James Conahan

134-135.

G

136-137 138-139 1 40- 1 4 1

James Conahan, Vance Henry, Taurus (top) Rodney Allin. Bruce Coleman Inc

Aerofilms. Ltd.

*,

(right) Artstreet

(left) (left)

'

Editor of Time-Life *;

(left)

106-107:

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Leeser)

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104-105

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94-95:

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Inc. *;

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Field

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Robert

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Field

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Deirdre Wroblewski

Ratchtfe

Field (top)

(left)

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'

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Robert

90-91:

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*;

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of Natural History, Childcraft photo,

McCutcheon. Superstock

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Institute of

"

Leonard

(right)

Brownlie. Bruce

(right)

J

*;

Institute of

Museum of Natural History, Childcraft photo; (right) Rare Coin Co of America, Childcraft photo (left) E R Degginger *; David R. Frazier; (right) Shaw

86-87:

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(left)

58-59 60-63 64-65 66-67 68-69

America America

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46-47:

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Lee Rue

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50-51

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Herb Hernck

44-45:

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(left)

photo

of Natural History, Childcraft

Robert Weldon, Gemological Robert Weldon. Gemological

"

28-29

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Field

',

142-143:

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APWide

*

World

'

Conahan. (right) Ray Atkeson, DPI * Barbara Van Cleve

'

*

';

James

'

acknowledgments

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144-145

James Conahan

146-147:

NASA

148-149: 150-151: 152-153 154-163: 164-165: 166-167 168-169: 170-171:

James Conahan

172-173 174-175 176-177: 178-179: 180-181 182-183:

(top)

186-187 1 88- 1 89 190-191

•;

(bottom) Grant Heilman

'

-

E R. Degginger ': (right) Tom Stack Hubbard Scientific Company {J. A. Day) (left) James Conahan; (nght) Childcraft photo San Francisco Convention & Visitors Bureau (Sandor '

"

Childcraft photo: (nght) Grant Heilman

"

"

266-267 268-269 270-271 272-273 274-275 276-277 278-279

*

194-195:

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James Conahan * Onen Ernest. Astronomy Magazine Glenn Van Nimwegen ": James Conahan

US

Naval Research Laboratory Herb Hemck Stack

294-297 298-299 300-301 302-305 306-307 308-309

'

"

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Tom

Stack

"

310-311:

'

(left)

of Natural History, Childcraft photo;

Arizona Office of Tourism of Astronomy. University of Michigan; * Astronomical Society of the Pacific

Department

James Conahan James Conahan; Product (top) Product (top)

Minolta Corporation

'

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;

(bottom)

Illustration. Inc

;

(bottom)

Herb

Hemck

US

Naval Observatory

James Conahan James Conahan

* *

Herb Hemck: U S Naval Observatory (left) c California Institute of Technology and Carnegie Institution of Washington, from Hale Observatones ':

US Naval Observatory World Book photo F Yasuhara

"

'

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NASA

Chicago (left)

(right) Childcraft

•;

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Survey

Cameramann

c

':

photo by Brent Jones

Childcraft art

Intl.

Ltd

';

(right) Childcraft

photo

Childcraft art Childcraft photos: (left)

Childcraft

James Conahan James Conahan

art; (right)

James Conahan Standard (left)

(lop)

Oil

Co. (Ind

)

Peter A. Silva, Picture Group

5

•;

(right) E. S.

'

Jed

Spiegel, Black Star

Childcraft photo by

',

(bottom) Leo Choplin.

318-319:

Geological Survey

(left)

Flip

(top)

(left)

News

•

• '

Technology and Carnegie Institution of Washington, from Hale Observatories ' (top) James Conahan; (bottom) NASA

Cover:

E California Institute of

';

*;

(nght) Childcraft photo

Service

Stephen Krasemann, Science Photo Library *; Hank Morgan. Science Photo Library NASA •; Douglas Kirkland. Contact Stock •; (nght)

NASA

Herb Hemck; Roberta Polfus

'

Schulke, Black Star

(bottom)

320-321

Kyodo News Service

US

by Kyodo

-

James Conahan; NASA James Conahan; NASA

Museum

Field

Black Star

312-313: 314-315: 316-317:

"

'

'

Astronomy Magazine

Patrick Michaud, (left)

Ross

James Conahan James Conahan; George East ' Dan Marrill. Van Cleve Photography T. C. Brandt, Van Cleve Photography James Conahan: (top) NASA "; Lick Observatory James Conahan James Conahan: Steve Larson NASA \ James Conahan

NASA

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Herb Hemck

by Brent Jones

James Conahan

Tom

Jet Propulsion

'

(right)

282-283 284-285 286-287 288-289 290-291 292-293

Photo Service '; (bottom) National Center for Atmosphenc Research (left) Clyde H. Smith *; (nght) Teisaku Kobayashi Gram Heilman Robert H Glaze

McEwen, U.S.G.S..

Facility; (right)

James Conahan: NASA (left) James Conahan, (right)

(right)

264-265:

280-281

Childcraft photo

A.

left)

'

James Conahan

'.

(right)

(left)

E R Degginger

NASA

(lower

•;

Image Processing

'

"

James Conahan: John Deeks John Deeks ': James Conahan

200-201 202-203: 204-205: 206-207 208-209: 210-211: 212-215: 216-217: 218-219: 220-221 222-223: 224-225: 226-227: 228-229 230-231: 232-233: 234-235: 236-237: 238-241 242-243: 244-245: 246-247: 248-249:

'

252-253 254-255 256-257 258-259 260-261 262-263

'

192-193:

196-197: 198-199:

'

'

John Deeks

NASA

left)

Laboratory

Roman Vishniak '; James Conahan James Conahan (left) James Conahan: (nght) Childcraft pholo John Stanford. Iowa State University (R D Dockendorff) National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration James Conahan: Daniel Farber, Rapho Guillumerte Rod Borland. Bruce Coleman Inc.

(left)

(upper

Flagstaff

Barbara Van Cleve

Balatoni)

184-185:

250-251

•

329

Roberta Polfus

*

:;::u

calcite (mineral), 67 (picture)

Index

caves, 108

in

Canopus This index

is

an alphabetical

list

covered

of the important topics

in this

in both words and pictures. means, there is often a helping word in parentheses, for example. Achernar (star). If there is information in both words and pictures, you will see the words (with pictures) after the page number. If there is only a picture, you will see the word (picture) after the page number. If you do not find what you want in this index, please go to the General Index in Volume 15,

book.

will

It

help you find information given

To help you understand what an

which

is

a key

to

of the

all

entry

books.

(star),

canyon, 39-40 on Mars, 251

272

(with picture)

(with pictures)

Canyon de Chelly

(Arizona), 40-

41 (picture)

Capella

(star).

Carina

271 (picture)

(star group).

272

Carlsbad Caverns (New Mexico), 109 (picture) carnotite (mineral), 77 cartographer, work

Achernar

273

(star),

(picture)

Atacama Desert

Africa land features Nile River,

1

32

148-149 (with pictures)

wind

development

of

185 (with picture)

stream, 158

pressure, 154-155 (with

pictures)

Alabama Russell Cave, 106 (picture)

Alberta (Canada)

Mount Rundle, 26-27

(picture)

Algeria

Sahara, 45 (with picture)

Alpha Centauri

(star),

of

Mexico), 109 (picture)

see also air Atomic Age, 76 Auriga (star group), 271 (picture). 272 aurora australis and aurora borealis, 284 (with picture) Australia

Ara

(star group),

273

(picture)

Arctic Ocean, 50-51, 113 Chelly, 40-41

study

Meteor Crater, 263

(picture)

(with pictures)

(picture),

241

astronomer, work

320

(with

(with pictures)

(star group).

271

272 259

(asteroid),

(picture)

Chile

chlorophyll (plant coloring) sunlight

picture)

Ciardi,

Why

used

John

the

1 26 (with picture) beach, formation of, 125 (with

bay,

Sky

by,

Is

of,

176-178 (with pictures)

183 (with picture)

beryl (mineral), 84

fog,

Beta Centauri (star), 273 (picture) Big Dipper (star group), 271

from breathing

making clouds,

Blue, 151

(ore),

(with pictures)

kinds

299

213

(poet)

78 (picture) cirrus cloud, 178 (with picture) cloud, 174-185 (with pictures) experiment in making, 180-181

cinnabar

in

cold

air,

184

(with picture)

from

jet

airplane,

185 (with

picture) 1

84 (with picture)

breeze, 160-161 (with pictures) of,

310

of,

Cepheus

breathing

(picture)

in,

Atacama Desert, 47 (picture) China (country) ancient sword of, 73 (picture)

(picture). 272,

(with picture)

astronaut on moon, 239

and stalagmites

(with pictures)

Chalbi Desert (Kenya), 46

(picture)

asteroid, 243 (with picture), 259

08

Cer^s

(picture)

pictures)

(picture)

pictures)

1

Beaufort Island (Antarctica), 50

Arizona

Canyon de

stalactites

Snowy Mountains, 26

picture)

Arctic Circle, 303 (with picture)

(picture)

Nullarbor Plain, 46-47 (picture)

bauxite (mineral), 96 (with 13

1

Cave (Alabama), 106

Russell

(picture).

basalt (rock), formation of, 105

picture)

Antarctic Ocean,

107 (with pictures)

of,

of

Carlsbad Caverns (New

balloon, weather, 318 (with

Antarctic Circle, 303 (with

cave

names

(with pictures)

pictures)

picture)

formation

anemometer (weather instrument) how to make, 162-165 (with Antarctica, 50-51 (with picture)

271

(star group).

272

cat's-eye (gemstone), 85

252-253 Mars, 248-251 Venus, 246-247

azurite (mineral). 64 (picture)

aluminum, 96

(Washington), 24-25 (picture)

pictures)

autumn, 221-222

273

(picture)

291

cassiterite (mineral), 72 (with picture)

35, 153 (with

of.

of,

Cascade Mountains

(picture).

1

of Jupiter,

airplane

air

Ocean, 13 atmosphere of Earth, 19, 147 (with

color of sky, 151 (with pictures)

see also atmosphere; precipitation; water vapor;

in jet

(Chile),

320 47

Cassiopeia

Atlantic

(picture)

Serengeti Plain, 43 (picture)

contrail of,

of,

(picture)

Sahara, 45 (with picture) air,

work

astrophysicist,

(with

picture)

brimstone, 80 (with picture) bronze, 72 (with picture)

coal. 91 (with picture)

color in

nature

rainbow, 192-193 (with pictures)

331

in

nature (continued)

sky, 151 (with pictures)

Colorado Las Animas River. 130 (picture) Columbia River (WashingtonOregon), 132-133 (picture) waterfall of, 131 (picture)

comet, 264 (with picture) compass, 298 (with picture) how to make, 299 (with pictures) condensation. 180-181 (with

on Uranus. 256 on Venus. 247 Dead Sea (Israel-Jordan) valley of. 42 (with picture) degrees of longitude and latitude. 300 (with pictures) Deimos (moon of Mars), 251 delta of river, 1 34 (with picture)

Deneb

see also precipitation constellation (star group). 269-

of,

names

movement

of,

185 (with picture) copper, 71-72 (with pictures) core of Earth, 17 (with picture) Cornwall, Barry (poet) Sea. The. 112

cosmic

ray,

282

(with

picture)

fossils of.

crown

Roman

Empire. 82-83

Draco 272

98-100 (with pictures) 298

(star group).

271 (picture).

(with pictures)

growing, 68-69 (with pictures)

cumulus cloud, 176

(with

172 glaciers,

52-55 (with pictures)

lakes.

1

38 (with pictures)

mountains, see mountain

oceans, see ocean

43 (with picture) see polar regions rivers, see river rock layers, 1 05 (with picture) valleys, 39-42 (with pictures) volcanoes, see volcano plains.

polar regions,

of

tilt

length of day. 302-303 (with pictures)

map

earthquake, 36-37 (with pictures) Earth (planet), 6-7 (with picture)

53 (with picture)

atmosphere.

1

formation

14-15 (with picture)

oceans, inside in

of,

of.

(star group),

271

272

14

1

7 (with picture)

243

solar system,

(picture)

(with picture)

causing seasons. 221-222 (with pictures)

photographed from space, 288 (picture) plates,

day, length of on Earth, 9, 217-219. 302-303 (with pictures)

253

Mars. 251 Mercury. 244

moon. 238 Neptune. 257 Pluto. 257 Saturn, 254

movement

of,

23 (with

of, 9 causing day and night, 217-219

spin

tides,

1 1

9 (with

234 224

(with pictures)

(with pictures)

in lightning, 190 (with picture) emerald, 84 (with picture) energy from sun, 212-215

equator, 302 (with pictures)

seasons on, 222 erosion by glaciers, 53-55 (with pictures) mountains, 28 (with picture)

of

pictures)

eruption, volcanic, see volcano

(picture)

experiments

pictures)

study of

air,

307

(with picture)

meteorologists, 318 (with picture)

solar,

Escalante Canyon (Utah), 104

(with pictures)

geologists,

lunar,

valleys formed by, 39-40 (with

pictures)

causing

eclipse

electricity

1

orbit of, 10-11

picture)

cyclone, see hurricane

Jupiter,

18-19 (with picture)

of.

caves, see cave

measuring, 312 (with pictures)

picture)

on on on on on on on

(with

pictures)

dust devil, 1 72 (with picture) dust storm, 172

pictures)

(picture).

315

picture)

see also atmosphere;

see also Earth (surface of) Crux (star group). 272 (with

Cygnus

pictures)

dust, 56 (with picture)

crust of Earth, 17-19 (with

66

picture)

causing seasons, 221-222 (with

(picture)

crystal,

312 (with 310 (with

lowest place, 42 (with picture)

direction, finding,

on Earth, 262 (with picture) on Mercury. 244-245 (pictures) on moon. 238. 240 (picture) Holy

45

(Africa).

dinosaur

crater

speleologists.

highest place. 31 (with picture)

storms in, 172 dew, 1 87 (with picture) diamond, 66. 83-85 (with picture) diatom (plant) making oxygen, 153 (with

83-84 (with

pictures)

seismologists,

earthquakes, 36-37, 312

(picture)

Sahara

(with

deserts. 45-46 (with pictures),

picture)

contrail,

(mineral),

47

(picture)

(with pictures)

corundum

(Chile),

308

pictures)

surface

of

Nullarbor Plain (Australia), 46

23

pictures) paleontologists.

Chalbi Desert (Kenya), 46

270-272 (with pictures)

continents,

oceanographers, 317 (with

volcanologists,

271 (picture)

(picture)

constellation (star picture)

study of (continued)

desert, 45-46 (with pictures)

(with pictures)

charts

(star),

Atacama Desert

pictures)

272

Earth (continued)

day, length of (continued)

color (continued)

air

148-149 (picture) pressure. 154-155 (with

pictures) floating ice,

123 (picture)

332 experiments (continued) phases of moon, 232-233 (pictures)

water trom

air,

180-181 (with

gold, 86 (with pictures)

insect

gorge. 39-40 (with pictures) granite (rock), 61, 62 (picture) graphite (mineral), 66, 88-89 (with

lo

see also projects

effect

autumn

(season), see

falling star, 259,

in

260-262 (with

pictures) (star group),

273

formation of solar system, 13-

tides,

103 (picture) flood, 136-137 (with picture) fluorite (mineral), 64 (picture) fog, 183 (with picture) fossil,

Follen, Eliza

Lee

(poet)

moon, 230 Fomalhaut (star), 273 (picture) food chain, 213-215 (with Oh! Look

at the

43

Grus

(star group),

272

(with

study frost,

of, 1

98

of,

1

308

02

(with pictures)

(with pictures)

(with picture)

about

Jack

Frost,

1

volcano, 35 (picture)

194 (with pictures)

hail,

crystals,

66

Halley's comet, 265 (picture)

92 (with pictures)

galaxy, 280 (with pictures)

Way, 278-279

(with

gale (weather), 161 (with pictures)

282 Ganymede (moon of Jupiter), 252-253 gas in air, 148-149 (with pictures) in nebula, 276 (with pictures) ray,

solar system, 13-15 (with

(iron ore),

74-75

(picture)

Edmund

(mountain

Hubble space telescope, 320

320 (with picture)

318 (with picture) oceanographer, 317 (with 308 (with picture) 312 (with picture) speleologist, 310 (with pictures) volcanologist, 315 (with picture) Jordan Dead Sea, 42 (with picture) Jupiter (planet), 243 (picture), 253 (with pictures) paleontologist,

(picture)

Kenya

pictures)

on

Jupiter.

Hydrus

252-253

(star group),

(with picture)

273

(picture)

lake, 138 (with pictures)

made glaciers,

52-55 (with pictures)

sun, 207-208 (with pictures), 21

in

nitrogen, 148, 153 oxygen, 148-149, 153

Geiger counter (instrument), 76 gemstones, 83-85 (with pictures) geologist, work of, 307 (with picture)

polar regions, 50-51 (with picture)

iceberg, 122-123 (with pictures)

forming lakes, 138

Mount Hekla, 33

(picture)

Surtsey Island, 48-49 (pictures)

200 (with picture) igneous rock, 61-62 (with

(with picture)

inlet,

126

of the Midnight Sun, 303

(with picture)

Las Animas River (Colorado), 1 30 (picture) latitude, 300 (with picture) lava (melted rock), 32-35 (with

light

speed of, 207-208, 212 see also sunlight lightning, 190 (with picture) limestone, 61

picture)

Indian Ocean,

Land

pictures)

Iceland

icicle,

geyser, 142 (with picture) glacier, 52-55 (with pictures)

by glacier, 55 (with

picture)

hail

(with pictures)

(African country)

Chalbi Desert, 46 (picture)

causing floods, 137

and sleet, 194 (with pictures) icicles, 200 (with picture)

pictures)

globe (map), 289

307

hurricane, 161, 169-170 (with

pictures)

1

astronomer, 320 (with pictures)

seismologist,

pictures)

hematite

158

pictures)

climber), 31

in

(wind),

meteorologist,

95 (with picture)

halite (mineral),

Hillary, Sir

in

helmet from, 75 (picture)

geologist,

98

coal, 91 (with picture)

gamma

iron jet

growing crystals, 68-69 (with

fuel

Milky

(with picture)

astrophysicist,

poem

oil,

26 (picture)

85

jade,

stream jobs

picture)

Guatemala San Pedro

1

Japan

(picture)

98-100 (with picture)

formation

Man,

Dead Sea, 42

pictures) fossil,

of

Israel

19

Great galaxy, 280 (picture) Great Nebula, 277 (picture) Grotto Geyser (Wyoming), 1421

names

Isle of

243

of sun, 11,

fish

1

74 (with pictures)

islands, 48 (with pictures)

Surtsey, 48-49 (pictures)

252-253 moon, 240

causing

(picture)

iron,

Beaufort, 50 (picture)

15 (with pictures). 211

of

309 (picture) 252-253

(picture)

on atmosphere, 148 on moon, 227

of Jupiter,

False Cross

(picture),

of Jupiter),

Iran

gravity effect

fall

(moon

copper sculpture from, 70

pictures)

pictures)

103

fossil,

1

13

caves, 107, 310 (with pictures) formation

of,

105

333 Dipper (star group). 271 272 longitude, 300 (with picture) lunar eclipse, 234 (with pictures) Little

(picture).

mountain (continued)

mine salt.

Snowy Mountains

95

mineral, 65 (with picture) crystals

names

66 (with pictures)

of,

of

64 (picture) 96 (with picture) beryl, 84 calcite, 67 (picture), 108 carnotite, 77 cassiterite, 72 (with picture) cinnabar, 78 (picture) corundum, 83-84 (with pictures) azurite,

mackerel sky, 178

magma

bauxite.

(melted rock), 32 (with

pictures)

magnet compass, 298 (with picture) malachite (mineral). 64 (picture) in

mammoth 308

man

(prehistoric animal),

22

halite,

malachite. 64 (picture)

longitude and latitude. 300 (with

pitchblende. 77 (with picture) pynte. 66

pictures)

marble (rock), 62 (with picture) Mariana Trench (Pacific Ocean), 121 (picture),

248-

(metal).

80 (with picture)

uranium, 76-77 (with pictures)

64

79

wulfenite,

(picture)

see also metal; rock

(with

moon

pictures)

Mercury (planet). 243 (picture), 244-245 (with pictures) meridian, 300 (with pictures)

of Earth, 6-7 (with picture),

227-240 causing

(with pictures)

tides,

eclipse of

metal

19

1

moon, 234

(with

aluminum, 96 (with pictures) bronze. 72 (with picture) copper, 71-72 (with pictures)

eclipse of sun,

Jupiter,

72 (with picture) uranium, 76-77 (with pictures) metamorphic rock, 61-62 (with picture)

meteor, 260-262 (with pictures)

see crater

meteorite, 262 (with picture)

meteoroid, 259. 260-262 (with pictures)

meteorologist, work

272

(with

of,

318

(with

(picture),

Carlsbad Caverns, 109 (picture)

New Zealand Tongariro River Delta. 135 night

and day, see day, length

of Nile River (Africa), 132 (picture)

nitrogen

in

atmosphere, 148,

153 Norgay, Tenzing (mountain climber), 31

Northern Hemisphere constellations of. 270-272 (with picture)

257 Saturn. 254-255 Uranus, 256 mountain, 25-35 formation of, 28

302-303

in,

(with

pictures) in,

222

(with pictures)

picture)

North Pole, 50-51. 113. 222 (with

sun

in,

lights, 284 (with picture) 302-303 (with pictures)

North Star

Neptune, 257

finding, 299 nova (exploding

Pluto,

star),

274

Nullarbor Plain (Australia), 46-47 (with pictures)

(picture)

(with pictures)

highest, 31 (with picture)

ocean, 120-121 (with picture)

(Washington), 25 (picture) Everest (Asia), 31 (with picture)

Galaxy, 278-279 (with

Neptune (planet), 242 257 (with picture) New Mexico

northern

names of Cascade Mountains

picture)

Way

252-253

Mars, 251 (with picture)

in

243 238

solar system.

pictures)

(star group),

picture)

pictures)

(with picture)

(with pictures)

crater,

Musca

seasons

moons

tin,

moon

Canada).

northern lights, 284 (with

Oh! Look at the Moon, 230 of other planets, 242-243

86 (with pictures) 74 (with pictures) mercury, 79 (with pictures)

crater,

(with

pictures)

iron.

meteor

224

poem about

gold.

86

(Alberta.

26-27 (picture)

length of day

pictures)

silver,

Mount Rundle

(picture)

66 (with picture) selenite, 64 (picture) quartz,

sulfur,

243

251 (with pictures)

Milky

see

74 (with picture)

iron,

treasure, 301 (picture)

in

(with picture),

hematite, 74-75 (picture)

293 (with pictures) 289 (with picture)

of,

mercury

95

halite

(picture)

(planet).

33

(Iceland),

(picture)

by stars, 268 nebula, 276 (with pictures)

pictures)

millions of years ago,

Mars

(with picture)

Mount Hekla

navigation

pictures) graphite. 66, 88-89 (with

Earth

globe,

river in, 128-132 (with pictures) see also volcano Mount Everest (Nepal-Tibet), 31

fluonte,

the moon, 227

mantle of earth, 17 (with picture) map, 289-297 (with pictures)

kinds

26

64 (picture) gemstones. 83-85 (with

(picture)

in

(Australia),

(picture)

Rundle

(Alberta,

(picture)

Canada), 26-27

oasis

in

desert, 45 (with picture)

observatory, 323 (with picture) ocean, 112-121 (with pictures) 1 26 (with picture) beaches. 125 (with pictures) bottom of. 120-121 (with picture)

bays.

formation

of,

153

334 ocean (continued)

planet (continued)

icebergs, 122-123 (with pictures)

poem about 1 27 (with picture) 317 (with pictures)

waves,

1 1

6 (with picture)

oceanographer, work (with pictures) oil,

92

(picture)

space)

221-222 (with pictures) of other planets, 242 ore, see metal 132-133

Plough 272

271 (picture),

(star group),

in

Cornwall, Barry,

atmosphere, 148-149,

from space, 282 radio telescope, 283 (picture)

use

153

clouds, 176-178

glaciers,

in

308

of,

rainbow, 192-193 (with pictures) night,

302-303 (with

300

(with

pictures)

Pavo

(star group),

272

(with

picture)

peat, 91

Perseus

rapids, river,

(picture),

271

northern and southern

272

pictures)

Phobos (moon

of Mars),

251

mercury, 79 pond, 138 precious stones, 83-85

picture)

(with

(star group),

273

sleet,

rain;

1

94

snow

picture)

tools

planet, 6 (with picture)

259

(with picture)

see Earth Jupiter, 252-253 (with pictures) Mars, 248-251 (with pictures) Mercury, 244-245 (with pictures) Neptune, 257 (with picture) Pluto, 257 (with pictures) Saturn, 254 (with pictures)

used

by,

pictures)

71-72 (with

prehistoric plants

made from, 91 made from, 92

coal

pressure,

air,

names

of

Columbia (Washington-Oregon), 131 (picture), 132-133 (picture)

Las Animas (Colorado), 130

pictures)

oil

136-137 (with picture)

forming lakes. 138 pictures)

308 (with prehistoric people

43 (with picture)

1 34 (with picture) dumping salt in ocean, 127

delta,

forming valleys, 39-40 (with

98-100, 102 (with

fossils of,

128-132 (with pictures)

beaches, 125

flood,

(with pictures)

pictures).

pitchblende (mineral), 77 (with

asteroids, 243,

in air)

(with pictures)

see also

picture) river,

dew, 187 (with picture) experiment in making, 180-181

and

(picture)

rings of Saturn, 254-255 (with

prehistoric animals

(picture)

Earth,

284

pollution

hail

(with picture)

plain,

lights,

Ring Nebula, 277 (picture) ring of Jupiter, 252-253 (with

precipitation (water

petroleum, 92 (with pictures) phases of moon, 231-232 (with

Phoenix

53

pictures) (star group),

gauge, 188 (with picture) 1 30 (with picture) red planet, see Mars Rhone Valley (Switzerland), 40 rain

(with picture)

parallels of latitude,

45

deserts,

measuring, 188 (with picture)

icebergs, 122-123 (with pictures)

(with pictures)

of,

hurricane, 169-170 (with picture)

271 (picture) polar regions, 50-51 (with

pictures)

Ocean, 113 Mariana Trench, 121

174

cause

230

picture)

Pacific

320

12

(star).

day and

of,

radio waves, 282 rain

1

Follen, Eliza Lee,

Polaris

weather forecasting, 318

radiation

Setoun, Gabriel, 198

pictures)

paleontologist, work

quartz (mineral), 66 (with picture) quicksilver, 79 (with pictures)

radar

poems and rhymes

Ciardi, John, 151

(picture)

Oneonta Gorge, 38 (picture) Orion (star group), 268 (with in

23

Jack Frost, 1 98 Oh! Look at the Moon, 230 Sea, The. 112 Why the Sky Is Blue, 151 poets

Oregon

oxygen

of,

(with pictures)

of Earth, 10-11 (with picture),

River,

213-214

Pluto (planet), 242 (picture), 257

opal, 84 (with picture)

Columbia

of,

movement

(with pictures)

Oneonta Gorge (Oregon), 38

in

rain gauge, 188 (with picture) see also experiments pyrite (mineral), 66

(with pictures)

food making process plate (geology),

(with pictures)

orbit (path

Venus, 246-247 see also moon

68-69 (with

pictures)

plant

317

of,

(picture)

crystal growing,

Uranus. 256 (with picture)

salt water, of,

compass, 299

(with

picture)

Sea, The, 112 study

projects (continued)

242-243

solar system,

(picture)

(with picture)

154-155 (with

132 (with picture) Tonganro (New Zealand), 135 Nile (Africa),

(picture)

rock, 61-62 (with pictures)

pictures)

prime meridian, 300

beach

of,

1

projects

layers

of,

1

anemometer, 162-165 pictures)

(with

25 (with picture) 05 (with picture)

study of, 307 (with picture) see also limestone; mineral

ruby (gemstone), 84

(with picture)

Russell Cave (Alabama), 106

in Africa),

44 (with

cause

of earth;

moons

sun

see halite

of,

1

pillar,

Southern Cross

25 (with picture) 172 (with picture)

eclipse of

(star group),

272

Southern Hemisphere constellations of. 270-272

see moon 242 (picture),

glacier,

Saturn (planet), 254-255 (with pictures) sea, see ocean sea level, measuring from, 31

302-303 (with

in,

222

(with pictures)

lights,

284

cause of, 221-222 (with pictures) sedimentary rock, 61 63 ,

seismograph

(instrument),

312

in,

312

(with

spring (water), 141 (with pictures) stalactites

and stalagmites, 108

moon, 228

reflected by

(with

picture)

sunrise and sunset, 217-219 (with pictures)

supernova (exploding

star),

274

surface of Earth, see Earth (surface

of)

(Iceland),

48-49

Rhone

Valley,

40

(picture)

Setoun, Gabriel (poet) Jack Frost, 198 shooting star, 259, 260-262 (with

star,

267-280

constellations,

pictures)

silver (metal). 86 (with pictures)

formation

sinkhole, 138

galaxies,

sky

nebula, 276

poem about Why the Sky

Is

Blue, 151

slate (rock), 62

194

snow (with picture)

snowflakes, 196 (with pictures)

Snowy Mountains

(Australia).

26

(picture)

56 (with pictures) 35 solar eclipse, 224 (with pictures)

made from

21

1

278-280

299

(with picture) (with pictures)

of,

lava,

(Africa)

twinkling, 267 see also sun steel, 74 Steel Age, 74 Stone Age, 71-72 storm (weather), 161 clouds, 176-178 sand and dust. 172 thunder and lightning, 190

telescope radio, 283 (picture), 320 use of, 320 (with picture) temperature highest recorded, 47 lowest recorded, 51

208

of sun,

thermometer mercury

in,

79 (with picture)

thunder, 190 tide,

1 1

9 (with pictures)

tiltmeter (instrument), tin,

315

72 (with picture)

Titan (moon of Saturn), 254-255

Tongariro River (New Zealand), 135 (with

picture)

soil

composition

of,

nova, 274

151 (with pictures)

200

268-272 (with

finding direction with,

pictures)

Tanzania

Serengeti Plain, 43 (picture)

(with pictures)

(picture)

icicles,

221-222

Switzerland

spring (season), 221-222 (with

Serengeti Plain (Tanzania), 43

sleet,

by,

(with pictures)

(pictures)

selenite (mineral), 64 (picture)

of,

(with picture)

1

pictures)

picture)

color

298

3 (with pictures),

polar regions, 51

in

Surtsey Island

web, 186 (picture) of,

1

energy from, 212-215 rainbow, 192-193 (with pictures)

53

spider

315

(with picture),

seismologist, work

of,

sunlight

pictures)

(picture)

(with

see also solar system

(with

lights. 284 (with picture) 302-303 (with pictures) space, outer, 204 see also universe space probe, 252-256 speed of light, 207-208, 212 speleologist, work of, 310 (with

sun

224

seasons caused

southern

seasons

formation 21

in,

pictures)

seasons southern

(with

finding direction with,

(with

picture)

length of day

moon, 234

pictures)

South Pole, 50-51, 113

weather, 318 satellite, natural,

(with

pictures)

299

finding south with,

picture)

satellite, artificial

217-219

eclipse of sun,

(with picture)

sandstone, 61. 63 (picture) formation of, 105 sandstorm, 172 San Francisco (California) earthquake damage, 36 (picture) San Pedro volcano (Guatemala). 35 (picture) sapphire, 83-84 (with picture)

night,

pictures) Earth's orbit, 10-11 (with picture)

sonar, 317 (picture)

sand, 56 (with picture)

221-222 (with pictures)

of,

day and

of other planets; planet; star;

salt, table,

(with picture)

summer sun, 6-7, 207-208 (with pictures)

moon

see also

seawater, 127 (with

picture)

80

sulfur,

pictures)

picture)

sand

259 (with picture) comets, 264 (with pictures) meteoroids, 260-262 (with asteroids,

Sahara (desert

beach

pictures)

picture)

(picture)

salt in

stream, mountain, 128-129 (with

solar system, 242-243 (with

tornado, 1 67 (with picture) see also hurricane stratus cloud, 1 76 (with picture)

(picture)

tornado,

1

67 (with picture)

treasure map, 301 (picture)

trench (ocean), 121 (with picture) Triangulum Australe (star group),

272

(with picture)

336 Tropic of Cancer, 302-303 (with pictures)

Tropic of Capricorn, 302-303 (with pictures)

turquoise, 85

Venus

(planet),

twister (tornado), 167 (with

lakes

typhoon, see hurricane

276

study

in,

of,

of

Mount Hekla, 33 (picture) San Pedro (Guatemala), 35

see also galaxy; moon; planet; solar system; star; sun uranium (mineral), 76-77 (with

ocean,

study

282 weather anemometer (instrument), 1621 65 (with pictures) forecasting, 318 (with picture) see also cloud; precipitation; rain; snow; storm Whirlpool galaxy, 281 (picture) whirlwind (tornado), 167 (with wind, 156-172 (with pictures)

(with picture)

volcanologist, work

of,

315

(with

picture)

Voyager

anemometer

and Voyager 2 (space

1

probes), 252-256

pictures)

strength

Ursa Minor (picture),

(picture),

(star group),

Washington (state) Cascade Mountains, 24-25

271

(star group),

271

272

Escalante Canyon, 104 (picture)

Columbia River, 131 (picture), 132-133 (picture) water geysers, 142 (with picture) in air, see precipitation; water

vapor in

valley, 39 (with pictures)

names of Canyon de

Chelly (Arizona), 40-

(with picture)

Escalante (Utah), 104 (picture)

waves

1

85

Grotto Geyser, 142 (picture)

ray,

282

(with picture)

ocean, 116 (with

water table, 141 water vapor

(with picture)

picture)

276

with,

180-181 (with

pictures)

(with picture) in

clouds, 174 (with picture)

(picture)

in

272

in fog,

dew, 187 (with picture) 183 (with picture) snowflakes, 196 (with pictures)

271 (picture)

(star group),

picture)

in

experiment

(picture)

Vela

27

waterfall, 131 (with picture)

Valley (Switzerland), 40

Veil Nebula,

1

breathing clouds, 184 (with

(picture)

trail,

221-222 (with pictures)

Wyoming

X

picture)

Oneonta Gorge (Oregon), 38

(star),

of,

wulfenite (mineral), 64 (picture)

underground, 141 (with picture)

Dead Sea, 42

Vega

tornado, 167 (with picture)

caves, 107 (with pictures)

seawater,

41 (picture)

vapor

160-161 (with

winter

cause

(picture)

272

Utah

Rhone

of.

pictures)

Uranus (planet), 242 256 (with picture) (picture),

(instrument), 162-

65 (with pictures) hurricane, 169-170 (with 1

pictures)

Ursa Major

16 (with picture)

picture)

315

of,

1

radiation,

(picture)

(with pictures)

282 (with picture) 320 (with pictures)

radiation

14

1

138 (with picture)

in,

names

universe, 204 (with picture)

waves

(picture),

pictures)

forming oceans,

picture)

nebula,

243

246-247 (with pictures) volcano, 32-35 (with pictures) forming atmosphere, 153 forming islands, 48 (with

(with

in

year

on Earth, 1 on Jupiter, 253

on on on on on on on

Mars, 251 Mercury, 244

Neptune. 257

257 254 Uranus, 256 Venus, 247 Pluto.

Saturn,

zircon (gemstone), 85

r-zxffif

' '

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