Women in the Modern Workplace : Gender Barriers to Business Start-Ups [1 ed.] 9781443816274, 9781443813853

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Women in the Modern Workplace

Women in the Modern Workplace: Gender Barriers to Business Start-Ups

By

Jane Hession

Women in the Modern Workplace: Gender Barriers to Business Start-Ups, by Jane Hession This book first published 2009 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2009 by Jane Hession All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-1385-0, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-1385-3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ................................................................................... vii Abstract ...................................................................................................... ix List of Tables.............................................................................................. xi List of Figures........................................................................................... xiii Chapter One................................................................................................. 1 Introduction Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 7 Literature Review Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 25 Research Methodology Chapter Four.............................................................................................. 45 Single Case Analysis Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 85 Cross Case Analysis Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 103 Conclusion, Recommendations, and Implications References ............................................................................................... 125

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following individuals assisted the author during the research and writing of this paper and without whose help and encouragement, this study would not have been possible: First and foremost, I would especially like to thank my supervisor; Michele O’Dwyer, for her advice, support and continual guidance throughout the course of this project. Her door was always open whenever I needed her advice. Thank you so much! I would also to thank Case Study A, Case Study B and Case Study C for their invaluable contribution to this research. I would sincerely like to thank my parents Pat and Marie for all their help, love and support during my college years, and without whom I would not be where I am today. Love you both very much. I would also like to say a big thank you to Ronan for being a constant source of help love and encouragement throughout my college years. A special thanks to my favourite siblings (listed alphabetically in order to avoid future conflict): Barry, Clair and Gillian for all their support and encouragement during my college years, which will always be very much appreciated.

ABSTRACT

This research study aims to investigate the barriers and challenges that affect women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. More specifically, this study determines which of the following barriers have the most major effect on women who are in the process of start up: networking, mentoring, finance, family responsibilities. This study examines three nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of business start- up in order to assess the barriers or challenges they have experienced or anticipate to encounter as they embark on this venture. A cross case analysis was conducted in order to determine the significance of each barrier present within the Conceptual Framework. The findings revealed that mentoring are considered to be the most major of all the four barriers contained within the Conceptual Framework. A Descriptive Framework based on these conclusions is subsequently presented which can be used in further studies to explore the barriers and challenges that affect women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. The literature review revealed that few studies have focused primarily on family responsibilities as a deterrent factor for the female entrepreneur. Thus, for the purpose of this study it was decided that this factor along with its sub-elements would be examined in detail and in-turn assess the significance of family responsibility for the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. The empirical findings of this study indicate that family responsibility and its sub-elements have a major effect for the nascent female entrepreneur entering the entrepreneurial process. While, the various barriers and challenges that were discussed in this study have been investigated independently in the literature in the past, little if any attempt has been made to integrate all the barriers into one single framework.

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 The sub-elements which affect the nascent female entrepreneur during the start-up phase of the business 5.1 The effects of Networking and its sub-elements for women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial field 5.2 The effects of Mentoring and its sub-elements for women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial field 5.3 The effects of Finance and its sub-elements for women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial field 5.4 The effects of Family Responsibility and its sub-elements for women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial field 5.5 The effects of Age for women wishing to enter the entrepreneurial field 5.6

Summary of the findings of the Cross Case Analysis

5.7

Determining the relative significance of the main barriers

5.8 Using the findings from the Cross Case Analysis to construct a Descriptive Framework 6.1

Implications for Irish Government and Financial Institutions

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 The effect of Family Responsibility on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture creation process 2.2 The effects of Finance on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture creation process 2.3 The effects of Networking on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture creation process 2.4 The effects of Mentoring on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture process 2.5 The Conceptual Framework: The barriers affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum 4.1 Case Study A: The effects of the Conceptual Framework elements on women entering the new venture of creation forum 4.2 Case Study B: The effects of the Conceptual Framework elements on women entering the new venture of creation forum 4.3 Case Study C: The effects of the Conceptual Framework elements on women entering the new venture of creation forum 5.1

Mentoring Relationship

5.2 Conceptual Framework: The barriers affecting women who are in the 150 process of entering the new venture creation forum 5.3 The Descriptive Framework: The barriers affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process 6.1 The Descriptive Framework: The barriers affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of the Irish Economy Ireland has enjoyed substantial economic growth since the 1980’s (Forfas, 2006). During this period, Irelands economic performance has been paralleled by an ’employment boom’ which according to Grimes (2003), has been considerably fuelled by the Influx of ’Information or ’New’ economy organisations within the ’High-Tech’ Information and ‘Knowledge’ sector. One of the critical factors contributing to the success, development and expansion of the Irish economy has been the dramatic increase of female participation in the Irish labour force (Coughlan, 2002). According to Wirth (2001), the integration of women into the wage economy over the past decade has represented one of the most profound social and economic changes within the European and indeed Irish economy and society. Cross and O’Brien (2004), note that within the global labour force more women work today than ever before, 1.1 billion of the worlds 2.8 billion employees are women, which represents a worldwide increase of 200 million women in employment in the past ten years alone, according to the International Labour Organisation (Cross and O’Brien, 2004). According to Coughlan (2002,p.3), this higher participation rate can be attributed to a number of factors including “higher educational attainment, falling fertility rates, the removal of the ‘marriage bar’ in public service, equality legislation, and a higher earning capacity for women-all in a changing cultural environment, with changing value systems”. Davidson and Burke (2000), convey that this has resulted in a substantial increase in the number of women pursuing professional and managerial careers over the course of the last two decades. In 1991 there were 388,000 women working in Ireland by 2003 that figure had almost doubled to 739,000 (Eurostat, 2003).

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Chapter One

Despite this rapid acceleration in the Irish labour force it is widely acknowledged that this increase of female participation in the labour force has not been mirrored in the number of women-led businesses within the Irish economy, as women still remain under represented in the Entrepreneurial realm (GEM, 2002). Even though women have captured an increasing share of the labour market and are achieving comparable educational qualifications to men, improvements in the pattern of womenled business in the Irish economy have not kept pace (Guilder, 2004). Typically, such entrepreneurial talent has been mainly generated from the male section of the population, with significantly more men than women becoming entrepreneurs (GEM, 2003). However, research suggests that women-led businesses can also make a significant contribution to the economy (Langowitz, 2001). According to Deakins and Freel (1998), it appears to be generally accepted that a healthy and vibrant economy is heavily dependent on the competitive advantage that can be achieved from a strong and dynamic small business sector. According to McClelland (2003), many national governments have funded initiatives in an effort to promote entrepreneurship and the long-term development of small firms, this, in conjunction with considerable academic inquiry, has highlighted the significance of entrepreneurial activity for future economic development and the vital role of entrepreneurs within a small business sector that will generate and build fast-growth and internationally focused smaller firms (McClelland, 2003). According to McClelland (2003), the importance of female entrepreneurs and their potential contribution to both the local and global economy is now been acknowledged and there is increased policy and research interest in this area. According to O’Gorman and Terjesen (2005), many countries are not recognising their full entrepreneurial potential due to the lack of involvement by females in new business activities. In a forty one-country study, women were found to comprise only 36% of all entrepreneurs (Reynolds et al., 2004). Research suggests a low level of female entrepreneurial activity may negatively impact on a nation’s economic development and growth (O’Gorman and Terjesen 2005). In countries such as the US, there is evidence to suggest that the 10.6 million female owned businesses that are responsible for employing 19.1 million people and have generated $2.5 trillion dollars in sales have played a significant role in growing the economy (Centre for Women’s Business Research, 2005). In Ireland however, this resource of new venture creation remains virtually untapped

Introduction

3

and the importance of women as an ‘untapped’ resource is now widely accepted (GEM, 2002). According to the (OECD, 2001; CSO, 2004) Ireland has an under representation of female entrepreneurs. The ratio of female to male entrepreneurs in Ireland is 1 to 2.54, the lowest rate in Europe, and one of the lowest in the developed world and the seventh lowest of the forty countries surveyed from 2000 to 2003 (Reynolds et al., 2004). Ireland’s rapid economic growth, influx of foreign direct investment and deregulation have contributed to an increase in entrepreneurial opportunity and increased entrepreneurial activity in what has been referred to as the ‘Celtic Tiger’ (O’Gorman and Terjesen 2005). Even though Ireland has one of the highest rates of entrepreneurial activity of any European Union country in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (Acs et al., 2005), it appears that the positive entrepreneurial environment has led, as far as it is possible to ascertain, to increased entrepreneurial activity among males rather than females (Fitzsimons and O’Gorman, 2005). The conflict of opinion in the literature (Carter and Cannon, 1992) regarding why women have not increased their representation in this field raises the following question: are there certain barriers and challenges encountered by women that are different from those faced by their male counterparts, which limit or prevent their career advancement in the small business sector and if so, do these differences explain why females have not increased their entrepreneurial activity on the island of Ireland. Therefore, given the economic significance of female entrepreneurs both in Ireland and around the world, this study will investigate the factors that affect women wishing to enter the new venture creation process. This is an exploratory study that sets out to examine the barriers and challenges that have the most significant affect on the nascent entrepreneur as she embarks on this process.

1.2 The Research Issue The primary focus of this research is to examine the process of venture creation among women in Ireland and the dynamics at play, which affect the nascent female entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. A fundamentally explorative study, this research addresses idea formulation, motivations for business start-up, the start -up process and the challenges

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Chapter One

or barriers explicit to the nascent female entrepreneur. This study examines nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of business start- up in order to assess the barriers or challenges they have experienced or anticipate to encounter as they embark on this venture. The aim of this study is to propose a theory concerning the challenges and barriers that have the most significant effect on women wishing to enter the new venture forum.

1.3 Research Aim and Objectives According to Shaw (1999), the aims and objectives of any research study are fundamentally determined by how much is previously known about the topic chosen. The central research issue for this study is to explore and assess the implicit and explicit barriers or challenges encountered by women desiring to establish their own business. There are three research objectives that emerge from the primary research issue, which are: Research Objective One The first research objective was to explore the challenges and barriers faced by female entrepreneurs during the start up phase of business and in-turn clarifying which of these challenges or barriers was considered to be more major for the nascent entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. Research Objective Two To explore family responsibility and its consequences for the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. Research Objective Three To assess the challenges and barriers that have the most major effect for women aspiring to enter the new venture creation forum, and to subsequently build a theory that concerns the barriers or challenges that have the most major effect on women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial process.

1.4 Research Methodology for Primary research According to Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005), typical examples of qualitative research are research problems that focus their attention on exposing an individual’s behaviour or experience, or where additional understanding and disclosure of an unfamiliar phenomenon is desirable.

Introduction

5

The phenomenological approach was employed because it was deemed the most suitable for the subjective analysis of the real life circumstances of women aspiring to start their own business (Easterby et al., 1991). As the primary objective of this study was to assess what factors impact women wishing to enter the new venture creation process, case studies were deemed as the most suitable method of investigation (Yin, 1981). Case studies are an ideal methodology when a holistic, in-depth investigation is required (Feargin et al, 1991). Focussed interviews were considered as the most appropriate method for conducting the case studies (Bryman and Bell, 2003). The participants were asked a number of questions that were directly connected to the elements outlined in the Conceptual Framework (Chapter 2, Figure 2.5). Subsequently, the data from the single case studies were analysed with respect to the elements described in the Conceptual Framework. Then the results of the single case analysis were used in order to perform a cross case analysis.

1.5 Structure of the Study Chapter one introduces the central theme of the study, female entrepreneurship. The chapter subsequently outlines the research issue; the aims and objectives to the study and the research methodology undertaken for the study are presented. Finally, the structure of the study and a summary of the chapter are outlined. Chapter two reviews the relevant literature for this study. The implicit and explicit barriers are presented and examined in detail. The final part of the literature review concerns the conceptual framework that has been developed in order to examine the barriers and challenges faced by female entrepreneurs during the start up process, this framework is central for this study. Chapter three outlines the research methodology adopted for the purpose of this study. The selected research paradigm is discussed in detail. Interviews and case studies are identified as the most appropriate method of investigation and are examined in detail. Interview methods are also discussed. Finally the criteria for analysis are then presented. Chapter four presents the findings of the single case studies. Each of the case studies are analysed with respect to the Conceptual Framework developed in Chapter 2. The Conceptual Framework was comprised of the

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Chapter One

four main barriers that are identified in the literature as adversely affecting the nascent entrepreneur as she enters the new venture creation process: networking, mentoring, access to finance and family responsibilities. Each of these barriers was further divided into a number of sub-elements. The case studies were analysed specifically in relation to these sub-elements. Each case study gave a rating to each of the sub-elements; each element was considered to have a minor, moderate or significant effect on women entering the new venture creation forum. Chapter five contains a cross case analysis. The findings of the single case studies are compared in order to determine the overall significance of the factors described in the Conceptual Framework. The findings of the cross case analysis are discussed in detail, and then these findings are utilised in order to demonstrate that the research objectives have been satisfied. Subsequently, the findings are incorporated into the conceptual framework and a descriptive framework materialises Chapter six is the final chapter of the study. The contribution that this study has made to theory is revealed and the implications of the findings are presented. Finally, any emerging themes, research limitations, and any suggestions or recommendations for future research are outlined.

1.6 Summary This chapter has introduced the research study, and provided an overview to the area of women in small business and emphasising the important role they can play in the Irish economy. The research issue has been presented and the aims and objectives of the study outlined. The research methodology undertaken for this study has been introduced, followed by a brief summary of the six chapters that comprise this study. The next chapter will review the relevant literature to this study, concerning female entrepreneurs, motives for start up, the start up process, and the barriers or challenges experienced by women desiring to enter the new venture creation process.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to provide a critical overview of the selected literature exploring women’s small business ownership. This involves an examination into the process of new venture creation among women in Ireland and the dynamics at play, which affect the nascent female entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. There has been increased policy and research interest in the number of women entrepreneurs and their potential contribution to both the local and global economy. This section therefore aims to address key themes such as, identifying and examining the challenges of barriers faced by nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

2.2 Implicit and Explicit Career Barriers Encountered by women The literature has attempted to explain the lack of female representation in the small business sector by identifying a number of obstacles, which act as barriers for women desiring to establish their own business (Hisrich and Brush, 1986). According to Hisrich and Brush (1986), the most significant barriers for business viability for women entrepreneurs included discrimination experienced by women seeking financial assistance and exclusion from business and financial networks. According to Linehan and Scullion (2001, p. 395) “women face obstacles in their careers which are not faced by their male counterparts”.

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Chapter Two

A key issue therefore, is whether women entrepreneurs face specific problems in setting up in business that are different from those faced by their male counterparts. The researcher will now discuss four of the most prominent barriers that have been identified in the literature as deterring women from entering the new venture creation process, which are: reconciling work and family life, access to finance, networking and mentoring respectively.

2.3 Reconciling work and family A key barrier expressed and identified in the literature as adversely effecting the career progression, personal aspirations and development of women in the small business sector is that of reconciling family and work responsibilities (Buttner and Moore, 1997). According to Buttner and Moore (1997), women face a multifaceted environment, and that balancing work and family responsibilities are found to be the biggest obstacles for women concerning managing or starting new business. Aldrich (1986) maintains that women entrepreneurs are at a disadvantage because they face workplace, education and family barriers. (Drew, 2000, p.87), argues that the majority of women businesses tend to remain small is because “women continue to take full responsibility for the reconciliation of paid work and household labour”. Work-family conflict results from inter-role conflict caused by incompatible or conflicting pressures from work and family domains, including jobfamily role strain, work-family interference, and work-non-work role conflict (Parasuraman et al., 1996). A central ideology expressed throughout literature (Mavin, 2001) is that women experience conflict concerning their ability to juggle or play the role of wife/partner, primary care giver and realising their career ambitions (Mavin, 2001). The direct effect of this conflict is that women are forced to choose “between maintaining ‘upward mobility’ in their career and family stability in the home or even a family at all” (Mavin 2001, p. 183). Women are more likely to have primary domestic responsibility and to have interrupted careers (Aldrich et al., 1989; Gould and Parzen, 1990), which create work-family conflict. Crampton and Mishra (1999), maintain that the majority of domestic burdens are still placed on the woman’s shoulders, which adds another level of responsibility to their lives that is not faced by their male counterparts. According to Lahtinen and Wilson

Literature Review

9

(1994), these structural constraints can prevent women from breaking through the glass ceiling and being successful in their own careers. Seeking balance, in work-family life has been established as a significant factor in women’s decision to start a business (Chaganti, 1986; Holmquist and Sundin, 1988), although women business owners still appear to experience much greater conflict than men in managing family and work life (Parasuraman et al., 1996). According to Schwartz (1996), despite the fact that the last two to three decades have seen an enormous increase in the participation rates of females in the labour force, women still maintain primary responsibility for childcare and household duties (Schwartz, 1996). However, Fisher (2000) maintains that the traditional focus of women and their “dual role” has now been refocused and males “dual roles” are being taken into account. Fisher (2000) argues that there has been a shift in the male involvement in the family unit and their “willingness to modify work for family”. This is particularly true among the younger segment of the workforce. (Wilkonson, 1994, new ways to work, 1995 as cited in Lewis et al., 1996). Carmichael (2001) indicates that this is due to the fact that in the 21st century, both men and women are responsible for caring for their children and other family members such as elderly parents, while “balancing this with their work lives”. There are also historical and societal pressures and expectations, that regardless of the career path undertaken by women, they are still literally left ‘holding the baby’ Lahtinen and Wilson, (1994). Thus, it is women who are adversely affected with respect to their career advancement due to this expectation. Lahtinen and Wilson (1994), maintain that females and males have learned roles that both genders have been socialised to accept for example women are the homemakers and men are the breadwinners. Anker (1998), citied in (Coughlan, 2002, p. 18) contends that a basic premise of gender theory is that women’s “disadvantaged position in the labour market is the direct result of patriarchy and women’s subordinate position in society and the family”. Gendered roles can be a major obstacle in the path to career advancement especially when women try to “haveand-do-it-all”, that is, combine a successful work and personal life with a family (Linehan and Walsh, p. 56). Hessing, (1994), argues that although

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Chapter Two

men have increased their contribution regarding domestic responsibilities, their contribution is still inferior to that of women. Crampton and Mishra (1999), suggest that a major barrier facing the career minded woman lies in the negative stereotypes and attitudes enforced upon them in society. The authors came to this conclusion based on a 1994 study where it was reported that 79% of CEOs agreed that negative stereotypes and attitudes were among the most identifiable barriers facing women in their pursuit for advancement in U.S. Corporations. This study found that the most common stereotypes and negative attitudes reported were “women lack career advancement, are not tough enough, do not want to work the long hours, won’t relocate, are too emotional, lack quantitative and analytical skills and have trouble making decisions” Crampton and Mishra (1999, p. 91). However, Crampton and Mishra (1999), argue that these attitudes and stereotypes are based on ‘unsupportive notions’ or myths rather than rational analysis. Wilson (1995) supports this view in her study of organisational behaviour and gender. According to Wilson (1999), the primary myth imposed on women is that they are less committed to their careers, and therefore, are less reliable than men. Wilson (1995), suggests that is perhaps due to the traditional stereotype of women in that women are perceived as being the homemakers and men, the breadwinners and as such, it is assumed that a woman’s domestic commitments will take superiority over their careers. However, in a study carried out by Powell, Posner and Schmindt cited in Crampton and Mishra, (1999), they derailed any truth concerning this myth. They reported that the female managers who they examined for this study placed a greater emphasis on their careers over their family life than did male managers. Many females reported that they were probable to sacrifice a domestic function if it coincided with a job-related function and were less likely to turn down opportunities for advancement due to domestic constraints. Therefore, it could be argued that not all women in today’s society fit the mould of this myth. Although stereotypes are learned from an early age and are deeply embedded in society, there is evidence to suggest that prejudice and stereotyping may be reduced by means of open discussion and debate (Baron and Byrne, 1994; Elliot, 1986; Gaertner and Dovido, 1986; cited by Cleveland and Mahwah, 2000).

Literature Review

11

Another barrier that has been identified in the literature as adversely affecting women entering the new venture creation process is childcare facilities (Gem, 2004). The simultaneous demands of work and family create many significant conflicts for both men and women; however, the dilemma of finding good affordable childcare facilities is prominent in this conflict. Currently there is a situation where the demand for these childcare services, far exceeds the supply (GEM, 2004). The increasing burden of childcare costs is one that is frequently raised by women entrepreneurs in Ireland. The cost of childcare is increasing all the time, leading many women desiring to engage in entrepreneurial activity to question is it worth it? The Goodbody report (2002) specified that the expenses incurred concerning childcare facilities in Ireland were felt to be very high and required women entrepreneurs to be quickly successful if they were to combine entrepreneurial and family commitments. The GEM Report (2004) also supported this view; their findings indicate that the issue of the high costs associated with childcare are perceived to be a major barrier deterring women from establishing their own business. In summation, an extensive review of the literature has revealed that women encounter greater difficulties than their male counterparts in reconciling work and family life. The literature illustrates that the issues faced by female entrepreneurs are a combination of additional issues and psychological issues. Therefore, this study will examine family responsibility and the following sub-elements that have been identified in the literature as problem areas for the nascent female entrepreneur: family commitments, support provided, childcare support and ultimately whether family responsibility can be identified as a barrier to entry for the female entrepreneur, in order to assess the significance of family responsibility and its sub-elements when entering the new venture creation process and more specifically the effect it has for the nascent female entrepreneur. Figure 2.1 is a diagrammatical representation of the effects of family responsibility and its sub-elements for nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

Chapter Two

12

Figure 2.1: The effects of family responsibility on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture creation process. Barrier to Female Entrepreneurship 1. 2. 3. 4.

Family Responsibility (Mavin 2001) Family Commitment Support Provided Childcare Support Family Responsibility as a Barrier To Entry

2.4 Access to Finance Entrepreneurship theory suggests that to participate in new venture activity, nascent entrepreneurs require access to resources and, in particular, financial capital (Wetzel, 1981; Mason and Harrison, 1999). However, research indicated that new ventures face important ‘liabilities of newness’ that results in them being labelled as unattractive investment opportunities for providers of finance (Aldrich and Fiol, 1994; Bhide, 2000). Nascent entrepreneurs are therefore typically under-resourced during the start up phase of business and experience barriers or challenges in trying to access resource, including external finance (Bhide, 2000). New ventures are generally funded from the nascent entrepreneur’s own resources, through accessing informal venture capital from family, friends, and investors (Harrison et al., 2004). Therefore, researchers have called for an increased focus on informal capital flows into emerging and newly formed ventures (Bygrave et al., 2003) and in countries not previously studied (Mason and Harrison, 1999). Similarly there have been requests for entrepreneurship studies that take into consideration female perspectives (Brush, 1992), especially regarding female participation in the supply and demand of entrepreneurial finance (Carter et al., 2003). Research proposes that there has been limited research exploring entrepreneurship from both demand and supply perspectives (Thornton, 1999), including a gendered perception (Brush et al., 2002). Research advocates that there are numerous gender-related difference in the field of entrepreneurship and it is suggested that females differ from their male counterparts in factors such as background, personality, motivations for

Literature Review

13

start up and sector of activity (Watkins and Watkins, 1986; Brush, 1992; and Birley et al., 1987). Previous research indicates that women-led businesses are usually in the service sector (Losoco et al., 1992) and that female entrepreneurs are less probable to acquire previous work experience (Watkins and Watkins, 1986). From the demand perspective it is argued that access to finance is a prominent barrier to entrepreneurial activity by females (Carter et al., 2003). According to (Gundry et al., 2002, p. 72) “lack of access to capital has been a primary obstacle for women entrepreneurs, and recent research suggests it continues to be”. Helm, (1997, p. 18) also supports this concept in her article by stating “financial aspects of venture start-up management are the biggest obstacles for women”. It has been argued in the literature (Carter and Rosa, 1998) that the acquisition and mobilisation of resources for start up and growth has shown the greatest disparity between male and female entrepreneurs (Carter et al., 2002). Research typically suggests that females use less capital than males for start-up (Carter et al., 2002). This is evident in a 2004 study across 34 countries, where it was reported that the fixed amount of start-up capital employed by female entrepreneurs was nearly half of the amount of start-up capital used by their male counterparts (Minniti et al., 2005). However, Carter and Rosa, 1998 have reported larger differences in their research, their findings indicate that males use three times the amount of start-up capital than females. Research suggests that these differences may arise because female entrepreneurs encounter greater difficulties in accessing financial capital (Carter and Rosa, 1998). According to Orser (1997), there is a persistent belief that female owners encounter excessively greater difficulty obtaining bank credit in comparison to their male counterparts. Therefore, the issue of finance for start up, development and growth remains one of the most significant difficulties for female entrepreneurs (EC- Staff Working Paper, 2000) and there would appear to be come subjective evidence that women have experienced some discrimination by finance providers in this regard (CEEDR, 2001). Studies of gender discrimination in acquiring finance for start-up have produced varied results, with some evidence that supports the notion that females are discriminated in accessing finance (Carter and Rosa, 1998). A UK study

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Chapter Two

reported gender differences in business financing, the study revealed that females were less probable to use overdrafts, bank loans and supplier credit, in comparison to males who used a large amount of capital for start up (Carter and Rosa, 1998). Furthermore, this study revealed that females were more likely to be refused bank credit as a result of their lack of business experience and domestic circumstances; whilst males were more probable to be refused on grounds such as their educational attainment or their choice of sector (Carter and Rosa, 1998). Minniti et al., 2005 reported that in a study of 34 countries the majority of female entrepreneurs personally raised all of the cash for start-up of their venture. Previous research has suggested that it is more complex for women to raise star-up and recurrent business finance than their male counterparts and that women are more probably to encounter credibility problems when dealing with financial institutions (Carter and Cannon, 1992). Bruni et al., 2004, p. 262 suggests “whether women entrepreneurs apply to an institutional financier, a bank, a finance agency, a friend, a relative or even her spouse, they are likely to come up against the assumption that ‘women cant handle money’ ”. In an exploratory study of female entrepreneurship Amatucci and Sohl (2004), found females reported gender-related bias in seeking financial assistance. According to Luthans et al., (1995) venture capitalists are keen in investing in businesses with rapid growth potential, which is not essentially associated with female entrepreneurs who have been found to have lower needs for achievement. According to Hirsch and Brush (1987), female controlled firms are more probable to be in the retail and service sector rather than any other sector. Aldrich and Auster (1986), support this view and suggest that women business owners are inclined to gravitate towards sectors that traditionally produce lower earnings. Research suggests that the size and sectors in which women are inclined to establish their business is an important variable for obtaining financial resources (GEM, 2004). According to GEM (2004), as women led businesses are prone to be less growth and export oriented, female entrepreneurs are eligible less often than their male counterparts for funding support from the development agencies.

Literature Review

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However, other researchers in this field conclude that disparities in the funding requirements of women and men do not essentially mean that females are discriminated when seeking financial assistance (Buttner and Rosen, 1998) and that the differences in the capitalisation between businesses started by women and men may not be attributed to gender (Birdley, 1989). They suggest that other factors such as sector of activity, age, prior business experience and prior start-up experience may explain why female entrepreneurs usually start with less start-up capital in comparison to their male counterparts (Read, 1998). For example it is suggested that as female entrepreneurs usually have less business experience and are more probable to commence business in the service sector (and therefore have fewer assets) they may be expected to use less finance, and to use less bank finance during the start-up process (Coleman, 2002). According to Coleman (2002), female entrepreneur’s comparative disadvantage in seeking financial assistance may be attributed to factors such as small business size, profitability and limited growth potential. Another problem area for female entrepreneurs is access to financial information; women appear to have less access to information than men do about the possibilities for financing options accessible to them (MFWBO, 1992). Several financial opportunities are potentially available to entrepreneurs however; the instruments for finance most regularly sought by women are bank and government loads, regardless of a wider range of existing alternatives available to them. Access to external finance is also linked to social networks, an area where it is suggested that females are disadvantaged (Brush et al., 2002). GEM (2004), also highlighted lack of networks as a problem area for females when seeking financial assistance, their findings indicate that 30% of women in comparison to 45% of men reported knowing a recent entrepreneur and it is often previous entrepreneurs who are active in investing in other peoples businesses therefore, women are disadvantaged in this area (GEM, 2004). In summation, a comprehensive review of the literature has revealed that female entrepreneurs encounter greater difficulties than their male counterparts in seeking financial assistance for their business venture. Access to finance is a crucial element of the new venture creation process therefore, this study will examine access to finance and the following sub-

Chapter Two

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elements that have been identified in the literature as problem areas for women seeking financial assistance: access to information, discrimination based on gender and ultimately whether access to finance can be identified as a barrier to entry for the nascent female entrepreneur. This study will examine the effect finance and its sub-elements have for women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial field. Figure 2.2 is a diagrammatical representation of the effects of access to finance and its sub-elements for nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. Figure 2.2: The effects of finance on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture creation process. Barriers to Female Entrepreneurship 1. 2. 3.

Finance (Carter, 2000) Access to Information Discrimination Based on Gender Finance as a Barrier to Entry

2.5 Networking “In your own business, you do it alone. There is a definite need to find support groups to share your problems with. It is very important to be a part of the business community to legitimise your business and to gain a general support for your endeavour” (Hisrich and Brush, 1986).

Travers and Pemberton (2000), contend that networking has long been established as a crucial and critical element for success in any professional career due to the variety of advantages afforded to an individual through its practice. Predominantly these include “exchanging information, collaboration, developing alliance, acquisition of tacit knowledge, visibility and support” (Ehrich, 1994). Vinnicombie and Colwil (1995, p. 88), believe networking to be simply “the banding together of like minded people for the purposes of contact, friendship and support”. Crampton and Mishra (1999, p. 89), assert that career progression in any field is strongly linked to networking and the whole concept of ‘it’s not always just a matter of what you know, but of whom you know and who

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knows you’. Networking enables the individual to create direct links with other professionals and access up-to-date information, which may help them progress along their career route (Hisrich and Brush, 1986). According to Moore and Webb (1998), networking is vital for career success, particularly for women and minority groups who appear to encounter specific challenges in terms of access to important information, guidance and social support. A lack of access to networks, whether formal or informal, has been suggested by many authors as being one of the chief factors effecting the advancement of an individual to a position of power (Coughlan, 2002; Crampton and Mishra, 1999; Linehan et al., 2001). According to Ibarra (1993), networking can serve both an influential function in providing career related information and a social purpose in commiserating on problems in addition to sharing good fortune. In essence, networking can provide the woman entrepreneur with valuable resources such as guidance, information and support, which are crucial especially during the start up process of business. Whilst women are typically involved in formal networking it can be much more of an obstacle to gain access to informal networking or old boys clubs that are often necessary for advancement within ones career. (Weiler and Bernasek, 2001). Research conducted in the 1990s revealed that a small number of male entrepreneurs included women business owners in their close business networks (Gould and Parzen, 1990). Female entrepreneurs were frequently excluded from “old boy networks”, were assumed to have more “affective” and less “instrumental” motives in creating relationships, and were inclined to rely on their spouses for information and support as opposed to outside advisors such as lawyers and bankers (Buttner, 1993; Canadian Advisory Council, 1991). Predominant theory affirms that business networking is a key element for the growth of women owned businesses as women are often found to have different needs than their male counterparts (Rosa and Hamilton, 1994). (Truman,1993 p.130) contends that women have different support needs because “women’s life experiences contrast with those of men in terms of the education they receive, their involvement with their families, their levels of confidence, the social spaces which they occupy and the circles in which they mix”.

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For the woman entrepreneur, networking is one way to establish an informal support group that can offer advice, referrals, industry information, moral support, clients and friends (Hisrich and Brush, 1986). It is evident that many women business owners in today’s society frequently lack colleagues at their level of business, and networks can assist these women to meet individuals in a parallel position (Hisrich and Brush, 1986). However in spite of networking and its invaluable benefits for women entrepreneurs, according to GEM (2004), one of the most significant barriers facing women in the small business sector is the lack of network facilities available to them. According to Allen and Truman (1993), women-led businesses are frequently hindered by lack of business advice, information, and access to networks and business support systems. Many women entrepreneurs were largely found not to be targeted by such organisations (Moore and Buttner, 1997), to the extent Rees (1999, p. 55) reports that a prominent business club in Cardiff which is a meeting point for senior private and public sector figureheads in Wales refuses to allow “women to become members.” According to Hisrich and Brush, 1986, whilst in every stage of the new venture, the entrepreneur requires a strong support system and an advisory panel; the entrepreneur especially needs throughout the early process of the new creation. The Goodbody Report (2000) reported in their findings that women entrepreneurs require a greater emphasis on mentoring and networking in comparison to their male counterparts who place a larger emphasis on developing their business on a sound footing. In summation, the literature review has revealed that there is a lack of networking facilities available for women in comparison to their male counterparts. Networking is a vital element of the new venture creation process therefore, this study will examine networking and the following sub-elements that have been identified in the literature as problem areas for women concerning the networking process: access to networks, support and affiliation provided and ultimately whether access to networks can be identified as a barrier to entry for the nascent female entrepreneur. This study will examine the effect networking and its sub-elements have for women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial process. Figure 2.3 is a diagrammatical representation of the effects of networking and its sub-elements for the nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process.

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Figure 2.3: The effects of Networking on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture creation process. Barriers to Female Entrepreneurship Networking (Mattis 1995) 1. Access to Networks 2. Support and Affiliation Provided 3. Networking as a Barrier to Entry

2.6 Mentoring Mentors have been defined by Linehan and Walsh (1999, p2) as “higher ranking, influential, senior members with advanced experience and knowledge and who are committed to providing upward mobility and support to a protégés professional career”. Research undertaken by many researchers has illustrated that there is a positive link between female career advancement and mentoring (Linehan and Walsh, 1999; Linehan et al., 2001). Evidence suggests that mentors may even be more critical to the career success of women than men (Kanter, 1997). Mentoring relationships can also be useful in building the candidates selfconfidence and providing them with psychological support (Ragins, 1989; Crampton and Mishra, 1999; Okanlawon 1994). Mentors provide both psychological benefits (example friendship, support, counselling and role modelling) and career-related benefits (example coaching, increased visibility, sponsoring and protection; (Kram, 1985). According to Okanlawon (1994), mentors are also vital to women who are excluded from the informal networks as mentors can provide access to information resources and contacts that will enable women to perform their role efficiently. According to Deakins and Whittam (2000, p. 126), it is crucial that the mentoring process is not underestimated, as it is “vital during the start up phase of any business”. Deakins and Whittam (2000, p. 126), argue that mentoring fundamentally involves “principles drawn from experiential and cyclical approaches of learning the entrepreneur learns from experience but, with the mentor, learns how to learn from that experience”. In addition Deakins and Whittam (2000, p. 130), reveal that this support is predominantly valuable because “clients have a clearer

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focus on achieving objectives; clients were more likely to use business planning; clients focused on profitability rather than just turnover or cash; new-start entrepreneurs were helped to learn, manage and cope with the change”. The Goodbody Report (2002) revealed in their findings that many women entrepreneurs could benefit from support aimed at enhancing their confidence levels through the mentoring and networking process. Research suggests that despite the importance of mentors for entrepreneurs it is believed that female entrepreneurs do not have access to this type of support and affiliation in comparison to their male counterparts. The Goodbody Report (2002) revealed in their research that access to mentors is seen as vital in assisting entrepreneurs to establish and grow their businesses in addition, to minimising failure. In summation, mentoring relationships are, therefore, crucial to the career woman especially to the female entrepreneur during the start up process of their business. The literature review has revealed that there is a lack of mentoring facilities available for women in comparison to their male counterparts. Mentoring is a crucial component of the new venture creation process in particular during the start up phase of business therefore, this study will examine mentoring and the following subelements that have been identified in the literature as problem areas for the nascent female entrepreneur women: access to mentors, availability to mentoring programmes, support and guidance provided and ultimately whether access to mentors can be identified as a barrier to entry to the nascent female entrepreneur. This study will examine the effect mentoring and its sub-elements have for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. Figure 2.4 is a diagrammatical representation of the effects of mentoring and its sub-elements for the nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial field.

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Figure 2.3: The effects of Mentoring on a woman’s ability to enter the new venture creation process. Barriers to Female Entrepreneurship 1. 2. 3. 4.

Mentoring (Kanter, 1997) Access to Mentors Availability to Mentoring Programmes Support and Guidance Provided Mentoring as a Barrier to Entry

2.7 Developing a Conceptual Framework that can be used to explore the barriers affecting the nascent female entrepreneur during the start-up phase of business. A comprehensive review of the literature therefore, has identified the four barriers that affect women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Reconciling Work and Family Life Access to Finance Networking Facilities Mentoring Facilities

These barriers have been examined in the literature in numerous studies (Carter and Cannon, 2000; Hisrich and Brush, 1986) however; their collective effect has not been investigated. Thus, for the purpose of this study, it was decided to examine three nascent female entrepreneurs with respect to the four barriers outlined above. The literature review revealed that each of the aforementioned barriers was found to comprise of a number of sub-elements (discussed in section 2.3-2.6) as illustrated in Table 2.1. These barriers and their sub-elements are consequently used to construct a Conceptual Framework, which will assist in the investigation of the research issue (See Figure 2.5).

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Table 2.1: the sub-elements, which affect the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. Barriers Networking Mattis (1995) Mentoring (Kanter, 1997)

Finance (Carter, 2000) Family Responsibility (Mavin, 2001)

Sub-elements Access to Networks Support and Affiliation Provided Networking as a Barrier to Entry Access to Mentors Availability to Mentoring Programmes Support and Guidance Provided Mentoring as a Barrier to Entry Access to Financial Information Discrimination Based on Gender Finance as a Barrier to Entry Family Commitments Support Provided Childcare Support Family Responsibility as a Barrier to Entry

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Figure 2.5 Conceptual Framework: The barriers affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process

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2.8 Summary This section examined and analysed gender issues and the deterrent factors or challenges affecting women’s decision to start a business. Before the research issues could be investigated, it was necessary to conduct and extensive examination of the literature concerning the barriers and challenges faced by female entrepreneurs during the start-up phase of business. A review of the literature identified that there are several factors that adversely affect women in small business however; this study will only be focusing on its research on the four prominent factors outlined above in this section. In addition, each of these factors was found to comprise a number of sub-elements. The literature review also found that few studies have focused primarily on family responsibility as a deterrent factor for female entrepreneurs. Thus, for the purpose of this study, the researcher decided that this factor would be examined in conjunction with the other three barriers that were reviewed in this section. Finally, these factors and their sub-elements were used to create a conceptual framework that is subsequently used to investigate the factors affecting female entrepreneurs during the start-up phase of business. The next chapter will outline the research methods that were employed for the purpose of this study.

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to examine, in detail, the research methodology that was adopted as part of this study. This chapter begins by discussing the two principal research paradigms that have dominated empirical research and reveals the reasons for the ultimate choice of approach. The various research approaches are subsequently examined. Then the numerous research methods that are available are briefly discussed, an appropriate research method is selected and the reasons for this selection are outlined. Following this, the chosen method is examined in detail. Finally, the data analysis and the criteria that were employed for data analysis are discussed in detail.

3.2 Research Paradigms Two principal research paradigms have emerged over the years namely: positivism (termed the quantitative, experimental or empiricist approach) and phenomenology (also known as the qualitative, constructive or naturalist approach) (Philips, 1987; Webb et al., 1986). According to (Creswell, 1994) both paradigms present dissimilar views on human behaviour and how researchers analyse such behaviour. The positivist view highlights the use of quantitative methods, similar to those that are used in the natural sciences (Gill and Johnson, 1991). However, the phenomenological perspective infers that objective knowledge is not obtainable and emphasis is placed on the subjective analysis of events by individuals (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Before a researcher can embark with a research study it is essential to recognise the most appropriate method of conducting their research (Creswell, 1994). Consequently, before this study could proceed any further, it was essential to decide whether the positivism or phenomenology paradigm was most appropriate for meeting the research objectives.

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Positivists deem that there is an objective reality that can be exposed by laws or law like generalisations and theories. Therefore, individuals who adopt this approach seek out the reasons and effects of social phenomenon without taking the subjective states of people into deliberation (Bogdan and Taylor, 1975). By supposing this approach, it is understood that the researcher can remain detached from the subject matter on hand by employing quantitative methods (Healy and Perry, 2000). Nevertheless, social scientists are required to portray and foresee human behaviour and as a result their research must be carried out in the subjects social setting (Guba and Lincoln, 1981). Positivists’ studies typically attempt to test theory, in an effort to increase the predictive understanding of phenomena. Additionally, this particular technique can be very much artificial and inflexible (Gill and Johnson, 1991). Consequently, this approach is considered unsuitable for most real-life circumstances. As this research would involve the study of real-life phenomenon, it was apparent that an additional approach would have to be implemented and consequently, phenomenology was observed in an effort to determine its suitability.

3.3 Phenomenology Research suggests that the notion of phenomenology materialised due to the fruitless application of positivism to the social sciences (EasterbySmith et al., 1991). Advocates maintain that the universe is socially created and researchers should take a subjective rather than an objective view of the world (Nieswiadomy, 1993). Every investigator is diverse and it is probable that two social scientists will have dissimilar understandings of the same situation (Parry, 2003; Hines, 2000). The phenomenology approach assumes a more holistic approach rather than reducing phenomenon down to their more fundamental elements, and consequently relies primarily on qualitative, rather than quantitative methods (Saunders et al., 2000). According to Easterby- Smith et al. (1991), this approach also proposes that ideas should be developed through induction from information rather than from testing and building theories. Subsequent to a review of the literature and the development of the Conceptual Framework in Chapter 2, it was evident that this particular

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study would entail the examination of several barriers and challenges to female entrepreneurship and thus the study would be holistic in nature. Additionally the study would involve an in-depth analysis of each subject’s real-life situation. Consequently, it was decided that the phenomenological approach would be most applicable for the purpose of this study.

3.4 Choosing a Research Approach Quantitative and qualitative research methods are most often associated with deductive and inductive approaches, respectively. Deductive research begins with known theory and tests it, usually by attempting to provide evidence for or against a pre-specified hypothesis (Saunders et al., 2003). However, inductive research begins by making observations, usually in order to develop a new hypothesis or contribute to new theory (Saunders et al., 2003). Thus, in this study it is suggested that this model is not being tested, rather it is being built and therefore the study is inductive in nature. As previously discussed in Chapter 2 a Conceptual Framework (Figure 2.5) was created in an effort to examine the challenges and barriers faced by female entrepreneurs during the start-up phase of business. In reality, the validity of the framework was being measured with respect to real life situation. On the contrary, while this process would appear to be similar to the deductive approach, it is actually inductive in nature. According to Creswell (1994, p.96), “when theories are found early in studies they can be viewed by the researcher as a theory in development”. Murguia et al. (1991, p.433) deems that at this particular stage of development, the framework is “incompletely conceptualised and as a consequence, only imprecisely understood and modified”. Consequently for the purpose of this study it is proposed that this conceptual model is not being tested, rather theory is being built, and thus this study is inductive in nature.

3.5 Research Methods According to Yin (1994), there are several research strategies that are available to the researcher when undertaking a particular study; case studies, surveys, histories, and archival analysis. Each strategy is competent of collecting and analysing empirical data and each can be used

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for exploratory, descriptive or explanatory studies whilst each strategy has innate advantages and disadvantages (Saunders et al., 2000). However the selection of a particular strategy will ultimately depend on the following conditions (Yin, 1994): 1. 2. 3.

The type of question being posed, The extent of control over behavioural events, And the degree of focus on contemporary events,

Given that the research question posed in this study satisfies these three conditions, it was decided that a case study was the most appropriate choice of research strategy for the purpose of this study.

The Case Study Method This research uses a case study based methodology, which focuses on understanding the dynamic present within a given setting (Yin, 1994). Case study approach is a research method, which emphasises in-depth understanding, and qualitative analysis, which is very appropriate for this situation. Yin (1994) maintains that case studies should use multiple sources of evidence in order to establish a chain of evidence. In summary, the case study was deemed appropriate to meet the research objective as it answered the research question, and presented the opportunity to investigate the situation in their natural setting. Yin (1994, p.13) defines a case study as an “empirical enquiry that: investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used”. Case studies are an ideal methodology when a holistic, in-depth investigation is required (Feagin, Qrum, and Sjoberg, 1991). According to Bryman and Bell, (2003) this research includes thorough interviews regarding an organisation, an individual or an event. Case studies can be used in order to appreciate complex social phenomenon and enable an investigation to preserve the holistic and significant characteristics of real life events (Yin, 1994). Silverman, (2000) maintains that case studies are perhaps the most flexible tool of all research methods. According to Hakim, (1992) organisations are extremely intricate entities, and the study of such businesses demands a research method that possesses a high degree of flexibility. According to

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Saunders et al. (2003), case studies may be either holistic or embedded in design. Holistic case studies examine the overall nature of the business and are conducted when there are no clear subunits and when the fundamental theory of the study is holistic in nature, whilst embedded case studies entail the various subunits of the subject (Yin, 1994). According to Lightfoot, (1978), even though the case study is usually associated with single cases, it is possible to carry out multiple or ‘comparative’ case studies. Multiple or comparative case studies are considered stronger than single case studies due to ‘replication logic’, which is similar to logic that is used for multiple experiments (Hersen and Barlow, 1976). For the purpose of this particular study, a multiple approach was assumed. It was anticipated that the findings would offer credible support for the Conceptual Framework designed in Chapter 2, Figure 2.5. The individual case studies were embedded in nature, as it was vital that the subunits of the conceptual framework were analysed in great depth. Each case study was individually examined then the cases were analysed collectively in an effort to establish whether the results from the individual case studies corresponded with each another. Given that the analysis of each study was to be carried out in such detail, the analysis of three female entrepreneurs was considered to be sufficient for the completion of this study. The method of selection that was used was purposive sampling; this is where the subjects are selected as they fulfil certain pre-defined criteria (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). First of all the subject had to be female and secondly a nascent entrepreneur who was in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

3.6.1 Interviews Interviews are an integral part of the case study method and are a very successful means of collating data from a respondent (Hanibuss, 1996). Unstructured interviews allow the respondent to speak freely, and in depth regarding the subject in question (Das, 1993). Often information that may not be disclosed when using other forms of analysis is willingly revealed during interviews (Hanibuss, 1996). The interview also has the advantage of subjects revealing attitudes or motives that they be hesitant to discuss in a group setting (Domegan and Fleming, (2003). Interviews have proved to be a very popular means of examination due to the interviewer’s ability to

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gain valuable insights into the minds of the subjects and to obtain large amounts of detailed data (Saunders et al., 2003). Interviews can be described as either open-ended or focussed in nature (Silverman, 2000). The open ended (or in-depth) technique uses extensive probing in the context of a personal interview in order to get the respondent to reveal motivations, beliefs, attitudes and feelings regarding a certain topic (Knox, 1986) as citied in Domegan and Fleming, (2003). According to Gill and Johnson (1993), the interviewer may even encourage the respondent to suggest their insights into certain occurrences and might use these suggestions as the basis for further investigation. However, during a focussed interview the respondent is interviewed for a short time and even though the interview may remain open-ended and assume an informal manner, the interviewer is likely to follow a list of set questions (Yin, 1994). For the purpose of this study focussed interviews were carried out. While the interviews were rather conversational in nature, a set list of questions was also covered throughout the course of the interviews. At the beginning of each interview the respondents were allowed to converse openly about their new venture creation process. Then during the second half of the meeting a list of set questions were asked, these questions were intended to investigate the principal factors that were outlined in the Conceptual Framework. This information was consequently analysed and used in order to examine the validity of the original framework (Creswell, 1994).

3.6.2 Data Analysis Data analysis consists of examining, categorising, tabulating, or otherwise recombining the evidence to address the initial propositions of a study (Yin, 1994). Yin (1994), suggested that every investigation should have a general analytical strategy, so as to guide the decision regarding what will be analysed and for what reason. The propositions can provide a theoretical orientation that directs the case study analysis (Creswell, 1994). Yin 1994, presented some possible analytical techniques: patternmatching, explanation-building, and time-series analysis. Generally the analysis will rely on the theoretical propositions that led to the case study (Saunders et al., 2003). If theoretical propositions are not present, then the researcher could consider developing a descriptive framework around which the case study is organised.

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As previously discussed in Chapter 3 Section 3.3, the research carried out for the purpose of this study was qualitative in nature. According to Saunders et al., (2003) the use of qualitative research instead of quantitative research has implications for both data collection and data analysis. Qualitative data is associated with concepts and is classified by its innate ambiguity therefore; it is rather complex to attain standardised information like one could when conducting quantitative research (Robson, 2002). Therefore, a different form of analysis to that employed in quantitative research must be assumed when conducting qualitative research (Saunders et al., 2003). According to Saunders et al., (2003), data collated from qualitative research can be analysed using either inductively, or deductively based analytical strategies. Analytical induction commences with the development of a conceptual model that is not based on existing theory, and therefore this particular hypothesis is investigated by analysing strategically selected cases (Johnson, 1998). Grounded theory is a research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analysed. According to Martin and Turner, (1986), it is an inductive theory discovery methodology that allows the investigator to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a subject whilst simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data. Whilst grounded theory and analytical induction are both useful approaches when analysing qualitative data, it was decided that for the purpose of this study an analytical strategy similar to the method known as pattern matching would be employed (Saunders, et al., 2003). Trochim, (1989), considers pattern matching as one of the most desirable strategies for analysis. This particular technique compares an empirically based pattern with a predicted one. When adopting this approach it is firstly necessary to develop a conceptual framework using existing theory, and then to determine the success of this framework in explaining the findings of the research (Yin, 1994). According to Saunders et al., (2003), this is accomplished by recognising ‘pattern’ or ‘themes’ within the research information and establishing, whether or not, the emerging pattern corresponds with the results originally predicted using the Conceptual Framework. If the patterns match, the internal reliability of the Conceptual Framework is enhanced (Yin, 1994).

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Similarly in the case of this study, a conceptual framework was developed and the research information was examined in an effort to analyse the precision of the framework in relation to explaining real life phenomenon. However, any emerging themes that were discovered throughout the course of this study were used to create a new framework, rather than to verify the invalidity of the original framework. Data analysis commenced as soon as the interviews began. As previously discussed in section 3.6.1 the interviews were conversational in nature and respondents were allowed to converse openly during the first half of the interview. During the second half of the meeting the respondents were asked a list of set questions addressing the Conceptual Framework. The interviews were recorded and subsequently transcribed for further examination (Patton, 1987). The transcripts were then analysed in-depth and any information that was considered to be of relevance was categorised according to the Conceptual Framework. The results were then compared and contrasted with the Conceptual Framework developed in Chapter 2 in an effort to determine the competence of the framework in describing the observed phenomena. If any findings were found to be in disagreement with the Conceptual Framework, a Descriptive Framework would be developed reflecting the disparity.

3.7 Criteria for Analysis Three research objectives were outlined in Chapter one of this study. In order to achieve these objectives, it is crucial to analyse the case studies in such a way that will allow the findings to satisfy the objectives. This section identifies the criteria for analysis and determining significance for each research objective.

3.7.1 Determining Significance Throughout the interview, the respondents were asked a list of questions, with each question dealing solely with a particular sub-element of the Conceptual Framework. This presented general information concerning each sub-element developed in the Conceptual Framework. After examining the particulars of each sub-element the respondents were asked whether each sub-element, was considered to have a minor, moderate or

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major effect on nascent female entrepreneurs entering the new venture creation process. For the purpose of this study, a sub-element was deemed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt that it did not deter women from starting their own business and was not perceived to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. A sub-element was considered to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately, a sub-element was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and that it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business. The literature has attempted to explain the lack of female representation in the small business sector by identifying a number of obstacles, which act as barriers for women desiring to establish their own business. The literature review in Chapter 2 identified four of the most prominent challenges that have been identified in the literature as deterring women from entering the new venture creation process: networking, mentoring, finance and family responsibilities. These barriers and their subelements will now be examined in conjunction with their level of significance.

3.7.2 Research Objective One The first research objective was to explore the challenges and barriers faced by female entrepreneurs during the start up phase of business and inturn clarifying which of these challenges or barriers was considered to be more significant for the nascent entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. This objective was achieved by asking each respondent whether each barrier and its sub elements had minor, moderate or major effect on women setting up their own business.

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3.7.3 Networking For the woman entrepreneur, networking is one way to establish an informal support group that can offer advice, referrals, industry information moral support, clients and friends (Hisrich & Brush, 1986). It is evident that many women business owners in today’s society frequently lack colleagues at their level of business, and networks can assist these women to meet individuals in a parallel position (Hisrich & Brush, 1986). However, according to GEM (2004) one of the greatest barriers facing women in the small business sector is the lack of network facilities available to them. As previously discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.5, a number of networking variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business; access to networks, support and affiliation provided and ultimately whether or not networking can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum. These variables and their level of significance will now be examined. 3.7.3.1 Access to Networks For the purpose of this study access to networks was deemed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study thought it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Access to networks was considered to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately, access to networks was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and that it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business. 3.7.3.2 Support and Affiliation Provided For the purpose of this study support and affiliation was deemed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study did not regard it as a significant factor concerning the future success of their business.

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Support and affiliation was considered to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as an important factor regarding the future success of their business. Ultimately, support and affiliation was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as having a major effect concerning the future success of their business. 3.7.3.3 Networking as a Barrier to Entry For the purpose of this study networking as a barrier to entry was considered to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study thought it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs entering the new venture creation forum. Networking as a barrier to entry was deemed to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately networking as a barrier to entry was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and that it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business.

3.7.4 Mentoring Mentors provide both psychological benefits (e.g. friendship, support, counseling and role modeling) and career-related benefits (e.g. coaching, increased visibility, sponsoring and protection; Kram, 1985). Okanlawon (1994) points out that mentors are also crucial to women who are excluded from the informal networks as mentors can provide access to information resources and contacts that will enable them to perform their role effectively. Evidence suggests that mentors may even be more critical to the career success of women than men (Kanter, 1997). As previously discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.6, a number of mentoring variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process: access to mentors,

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support/guidance provided, availability to mentoring programmes and ultimately whether or not mentoring can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to set up their own business. These variables and their level of significance will now be examined 3.7.4.1 Access to Mentors For the purpose of this study access to mentors was considered to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Access to mentors was deemed to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately, access to mentors was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and that it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business. 3.7.4.2 Availability to Mentoring Programmes For the purpose of this study availability to mentoring programmes was believed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study thought it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Availability to mentoring programmes was deemed to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately, availability to mentoring programmes was thought to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and that it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business.

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3.7.4.3 Support and Guidance Provided For the purpose of this study support and guidance provided was deemed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study did not regard it as an important factor regarding the future success of their business. Support and guidance provided was considered to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as an important factor regarding the future success of their business. Ultimately, support and affiliation was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a major factor regarding the future success of their business. 3.7.4.4 Mentoring as a Barrier to Entry For the purpose of this study mentoring as a barrier to entry was considered to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Mentoring, as a barrier to entry was believed to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however, it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately mentoring as a barrier to entry was deemed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and that it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business.

3.7.5 Finance The issue of finance for start up, development and growth remains one of the most significant difficulties for female entrepreneurs (EC- Staff Working Paper, 2000) and there would appear to be some subjective evidence that women have experienced some discrimination by finance providers in this regard (CEEDR, 2001). According to Helm, 1997 “financial aspects of venture start-up management are the biggest obstacles for women” (Helm, 1997, p. 18).

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As previously discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.4, a number of finance variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: access to finance, access to information, discrimination based on gender, and whether or not finance can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process. These variables and their level of significance will now be examined. 3.7.5.1 Access to Information For the purpose of this study access to information was believed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Access to information was understood to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately access to information was thought to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business. 3.7.5.2 Discrimination Based on Gender For the purpose of this study discrimination based on gender when seeking financial assistance was believed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study believed it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Discrimination based on gender when seeking financial assistance was understood to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately discrimination based on gender when seeking financial assistance was thought to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge

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for female entrepreneurs and that it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business. 3.7.5.3 Finance as a Barrier to Entry For the purpose of this study finance as a barrier to entry was thought to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Finance as a barrier to entry was understood to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately finance, as a barrier to entry was understood to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and it deterred women from starting their own business.

3.8 Research Objective Two The second research objective was to examine family responsibility and its consequences for the female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. The literature review revealed that few studies have focussed primarily on family responsibilities as a deterrent factor for female entrepreneur. Thus, for the purpose of this study it was decided that this factor along with its sub-elements would be examined in detail and in-turn assess the significance of family responsibility for the nascent entrepreneur during the start up phase of business by asking each respondent whether this barrier and its sub elements had a minor, moderate or major effect on women setting up their own business.

3.8.1 Family Responsibilities Work-family conflict results from inter-role conflict caused by incompatible or conflicting pressures from work and family domains, including job-family role strain, work-family interference, and work-nonwork role conflict (Parasuraman et al, 1996).

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The direct effect of this conflict is that women are forced to choose “between maintaining ‘upward mobility’ in their career and family stability in the home or even a family at all’ (Mavin 2001:183). Seeking balance, in work-family has been established as a significant factor in women’s decision to start a business (Chaganti, 1986; Holmquist and Sundin, 1988), although women business owners still appear to experience much greater conflict than men in managing family and work life (Parasuraman et al., 1996). As previously discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.3., a number of reconciling work and family life variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business family commitments, support provided, childcare support, and whether or not family responsibility can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process. These variables and their level of effect will now be examined.

3.8.2 Family Commitments For the purpose of this study family commitment was believed to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Family commitment was understood to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately family commitment was thought to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business.

3.8.3 Support Provided For the purpose of this study support provided was thought to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs.

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Support provided was understood to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately support provided was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business.

3.8.4 Childcare Support For the purpose of this study childcare support was thought to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Childcare support was understood to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; it did not deter women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately childcare support was believed to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business.

3.8.5 Family Responsibility as a Barrier to Entry For the purpose of this study family responsibility as a barrier to entry was thought to have a minor effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study felt it did not deter women from starting their own business and they did not perceive it to be a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs. Family responsibility as a barrier to entry was deemed to have a moderate effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study acknowledged it as a barrier for women wishing to start their own business however; they did not think it deterred women from entering the new venture process. Ultimately family responsibility as a barrier to entry was understood to have had a major effect on female entrepreneurship if the case study

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identified it as a barrier or a challenge for female entrepreneurs and they felt it ultimately deterred women from starting their own business.

3.9 Research Objective Three The third research objective was to build theory concerning the barriers or challenges that have the most significant effect on women wishing to start their business. This objective was satisfied by: firstly analysing the prominent barriers that have been identified in the literature, developing a conceptual framework, determining the relative importance of each barrier, and then developing a Descriptive Framework based on the primary research findings and the Conceptual Framework.

3.10 Validity According to (Saunders et al., 2003), when carrying out research whether it is quantitative or qualitative in nature, it is vital that the researcher does there very best in order to ensure the validity of their findings. Bryman (2004), proposes that validity and reliability are important factors when measuring the quality of research for quantitative research, however, they been questioned in the literature concerning their significance when assessing qualitative research. Mason (1994, p.21) argues that reliability; validity and generalisability ‘are different kinds of measures of the quality, rigour and wider potential of research, which are achieved according to certain methodological and disciplinary conventions and principles’. Bryman, (2004) suggests that, as this concept of measurement is more applicable for quantitative researchers than it is for qualitative researchers, it is essential that the researcher adapt conventional quantitative methods of validation in order to validate qualitative research.

3.10.1 Internal Validity Internal validity asks ‘Did X really cause the difference in Y? (Domegan and Fleming, (2003). It is concerned with establishing whether X was the sole cause of changes in Y and not outside factors therefore, ‘internal validity rules out alternative explanations and aims to control for errors, which may detract from establishing and measuring a casual relationship’ (Domegan and Fleming (2003, p. 237). Internal validity is attained if there is a reliable correlation between observations and the concepts developed. Guba and Lincoln (1994) propose that the respondent corroboration can be

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utilized to certify the internal validity of the information. Therefore, at the end of the interviews, each respondent was asked to validate the reliability of the data in an effort to ensure its internal validity.

3.10.2 External Validity External validity is concerned with how the findings can be generalised. According to (Bryman, 2004), this can present a problem for qualitative researchers as they employ smaller sampling sizes than quantitative researchers when conducting qualitative research. Lincoln and Guba (1985, p.316) question whether case study findings ‘hold in some other context, or even hold in the same context at some other time, is an empirical issue’. As an alternative, qualitative researcher are promoted to employ ‘thick descriptions’, this is, thorough descriptions of the cases being examined (Geertz, 1973). Consequently for the purpose of this study, the researcher has incorporated comprehensive profiles of the respondents, as well as an in-depth analysis of the elements under examination as part of the Conceptual Framework.

3.10.3 Reliability Internal reliability is achieved when there is more than one observer and if the associates of the same research team agree about what they observed. This study was carried out by one observer (the author) therefore it was impossible to attain internal reliability. External reliability is the extent to which a study can be simulated. External reliability was obtained in this study by means of semi-structured interviews. At the beginning of each interview the respondents were permitted to talk openly about their new venture creation process. Then during the second half of the meeting a list of set questions were asked, these questions were intended to investigate the principal factors that were outlined in the Conceptual Framework. Subsequently data from the second half of the interviews was used in order to draw conclusions concerning the research topic. Therefore, another investigator could acquire the same information by merely posing the same list of questions.

3.11 Summary This chapter commenced with a brief outline of the research issue. The two principal research paradigms (positivism and phenomenology) were

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then discussed in detail and it was illustrated why the phenomenological philosophy was implemented for the purpose of this study. The study then described how an inductive approach had been assumed throughout the study. Next the various research methods were analysed with respect to the research issue and the reasons for selecting the case study method were acknowledged. The case study method was subsequently discussed. For the purpose of this study focussed interviews were conducted therefore, the subject of interviews is dealt with in detail. Subsequently the method of data analysis was discussed and the criteria for analysis were also recognised. Finally the validity of the case study method was examined. The next chapter will present the findings from the case study analysis.

CHAPTER FOUR SINGLE CASE ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction As previously discussed in Chapter 3, section 3.6.1, three case studies were conducted for the purpose of this study. The data used to carry out these case studies was obtained from the detailed interviews of three women who are in the process of setting up their own business. This chapter discloses the findings from each of these cases. Each case study is examined in detail in relation to the Conceptual Framework that was developed in Chapter 2 of this study. The Conceptual Framework includes the four main barriers identified in the literature as adversely affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum: networking; mentoring; access to finance; and reconciling work and family life. A review of the literature also revealed that each of the aforementioned barriers was also found to comprise of a number of subelements (Please see Chapter 2, Table 2.1). These barriers and their subelements were subsequently used to construct the Conceptual Framework, which assisted in the investigation of the three research objectives of this study. Each of the case studies begins with a brief history about each of the research subjects who participated in this research study and then each case study is analysed with respect to each of the sub-elements outlined in the Conceptual Framework, their level of effect is also examined.

4.2 Research Objective One The first research objective was to explore the challenges and barriers faced by nascent female entrepreneurs during the start up phase of business and in-turn clarifying which of these challenges or barriers was considered to have the most major effect for the nascent female entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. This objective was achieved by asking each case study whether the barriers and their sub elements

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outlined in the Conceptual Framework had a minor, moderate or major effect on them setting up their own business.

4.2.1 Case Study A 4.2.2 Demographic Profile of Case Study A Case Study A is a 26-year-old female. She currently lives in Birr and completed her third level education in Dublin where she obtained a Bachelor of Business Studies Degree. She has worked in the teaching profession for the last three years as a Resource Teacher in her hometown Birr. She has also worked in the retail industry on a part time basis for the last ten years where she gained a vast amount of invaluable experience in the fashion industry. “I have always had a keen interest in the fashion industry and was even contemplating studying it in college but opted for business studies instead”. Case Study A is opening her business in August 2007. The sector of business she will be operating in is the retail sector specifically the fashion industry. Case Study A will be renting her premises in Birr city centre. Case Study A does not anticipate employing any staff when she commences in business. However, she revealed in the foreseeable future when the business is up and running she may be in a “financial position to employ additional staff”

4.2.3 Networking Variables As previously discussed in Chapter 2, section 2.5, a number of networking variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: access to networks, support and affiliation provided and whether or not access to networks can be identified as a perceived barrier for women desiring to enter the new venture creation process. Case Study A is now examined with reference to these variable in conjunction and their level of effect is also examined. 4.2.3.1 Access to Networks Case Study A is involved in networks but only those that are of informal in nature. “I would be a member of the golf club here in Birr, and I would be involved in the Heritage Committee. It’s great, the Golf Club helps you

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to meet people and as it’s such a small town that is very important, especially when you are in the process of setting up a new business”. Case Study A also revealed that she decided to join these networks solely for the benefit of her business. “I suppose it is a great way to get to know people on a more personal level, you know put your business out there and make people aware of it”. Case Study A is not involved with any formal networks at present but hopes to get involved with them over the next few months. “I know Mary who would be my mentor is involved with the Enterprise Boards and attends various meeting for women in business, as of yet I haven’t been to any of the meetings, but we plan on going, and hopefully I will be involved with formal networks before I set up my business in August”. Case Study A believes that women have equal access to networks and does not identify this as a problem area for women in the small business sector “I suppose for informal networks it’s a personal choice regarding what types of clubs, or societies you might decide to join, but I do believe that women would have equal access to informal networks as men would, concerning the formal networks as I’m not yet involved with them I wouldn’t know, but I would certainly hope that they are as available to women in business as they are to men”. This illustrates that Case Study A does not regard access to networks as a barrier for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum and does not highlight this issue as a potential barrier for women in small business. Therefore, for that reason Case Study A considers access to networks to have a “minor effect” for women setting up their own business. 4.2.3.2 Support and Affiliation Provided Case Study A stated the following concerning the benefits of networking “ Well I do think the benefits are definitely getting to know the people in the town, building a rapport with these individuals and most importantly getting my business out there and known to the locals in the town”. Case Study A also revealed as well as joining these networks for business related reasons there is also a sociable element that can be gained “It’s always good to be sociable I think, especially when your in a small town like Birr, you can get to meet a vast amount of individuals and strike up

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friendships, and of course if you are friendly people will come into your shop because they know you, it can be great for business but its also a nice social outlet for me as well”. When asked if she considered any drawbacks with networking Case Study A revealed that she had not experienced any drawbacks with informal networks and did not “anticipate any drawbacks in the foreseeable future”. This illustrates that Case Study A considers networking to have a “major effect” regarding the future success of her business. 4.2.3.3 Networking as a barrier to entry Case Study A believes that access to networks either formal or informal could be identified as a barrier for women setting up in business and inturn prevent them from setting up their own business. “Well yes I would think so, however, if you are seriously considering opening up your own business I would think that the onus of responsibility would be on yourself in joining informal networks and concerning the formal networks you would have to approach the enterprise boards and find out what type of services they provide that may be of benefit to you nevertheless, if women did not have equal access to these networks as men do in particular with the formal networks, this process may prove to be a very complex one for such an individual and in-turn they may not decide to go ahead with their venture”. This illustrates that Case Study A considers networking to have a “major effect” on women setting up their own business and if women did not have equal access to these networks this may ultimately deter them from entering the new venture creation process.

4.2.4 Mentoring Variables As previously discussed in Chapter 2, section 2.6, a number of mentoring variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: access to mentors, support and guidance provided, availability to mentoring programmes and whether or not access to mentors can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process. Case Study A is now examined with reference to these mentoring variables and their level of effect is also examined.

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4.2.4.1 Access to Mentors Case Study A is closely involved in the mentoring process and has a mentor who is assisting her at present in the process of setting up her business. “Yes I do have a mentor she is a lady whom I work for at the moment on a part-time basis in her gift shop here in Birr, and actually the premises where I will be opening my fashion boutique is situated upstairs in her establishment, so I will be renting the premises from Mary”. Case Study A reveals the valuable support and guidance she has received from her mentor by stating “I have learned a great deal about the business world from working with Mary as she is a successful and established business woman who has been involved in numerous business ventures throughout the course of her career. I have struck up a close relationship with the customers whom I hope will be my potential clientele for my business, Mary has been an enormous help and has offered me a vast amount of support especially over the last 6 months which have been particularly demanding and time consuming for me”. Case Study A states that this mentoring process would be informal in nature “Well as well as being my employer Mary would be a close friend of the family. I have worked with her part-time for the last 6 years, but I remember when I was secondary school I would help her out on a Saturday in the gift shop”. Case Study A also reveals “Although we are good friends and this mentoring process would be informal in nature at the same time we do get down to business”. Case Study A then stated the following concerning access to mentors as a potential barrier for women setting up their own business “Perhaps I mean if you didn’t have somebody to guide you I think it might be very difficult and extremely demanding. I know myself personally without Mary’s assistance I wouldn’t know where to start, although I studied business studies there is so much to learn regarding the practical side of running a business and I just think that I have been very lucky that I have been in a position where I had somebody to show me first hand”. Case Study A then discusses the importance of women having a mentor “For women particularly if they did not have access to mentors they might not consider entering this process as they may imagine it too much of a risk both personally and financially, so it would definitely encourage more women to come into business if there was mentoring readily available”.

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Hence, Case Study A believes that access to mentors has a “major effect” for women entering the new venture creation process and if women did not have equal access to mentors then this may ultimately deter them form entering the entrepreneurial field.. 4.2.4.2 Availability to Mentoring Programmes Case Study A would anticipate that the entrepreneurship field in Ireland promotes mentoring relationships for women in small business “ Well I haven’t really gone out in search of a mentor or information about mentoring programmes as I had Mary so I suppose that I was very lucky in that sense. I really don’t think I would be where I am today if I didn’t have somebody like Mary to guide me along this process. However, if I didn’t have Mary I would hope that women would have equal access and availability to mentoring programmes as men do and if I ever decided to set up another business of another nature I would anticipate that I would have access to such individuals quite easily”. For this reason, Case Study A considers availability to mentoring programmes to have a “major effect” for women wishing to enter the new venture forum and if women did not have access to mentoring programmes or there were not adequate programmes available for women to participate in, this may ultimately deter women from entering the entrepreneurship field. 4.2.4.3 Support and Guidance Provided The literature revealed that there is a positive link between female career advancement and mentoring (Linehan and Walsh, 1999). According to Kram (1985), mentors provide both psychological benefits and career related benefits. This is evident in the case of Case Study A. Case Study A talked about her experience of the mentoring process and how it has helped her career to date. “Absolutely it has played a crucial role in the succession of my career. Mary has been a tremendous help to me and has even put me in contact with various groups such as suppliers who will be supplying my clothing line for my store. She has also come to various clothing expeditions with me throughout the country and we have recently just come back from the UK, so definitely she has played a crucial role in my career to date”.

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Case Study A then revealed what she considers the benefits of having a mentor “I have gained a vast amount of knowledge from Mary over the last number of months in particular about the business side of things. It is great having someone who has been through this process, as Mary knows exactly what I am going through at the moment. However, as well as offering me guidance and support she is a very good friend, which is a bonus as she offers me emotional support also. Overall this arrangement is working out very nicely for me”. Case Study A is very positive regarding her experience of the mentoring process and revealed that she had not encountered any drawbacks to date “No not at all, my experiences so far have been very positive and I would definitely encourage other women to participate in this process”. Thus, Case Study A considers mentoring as being very important for the future success of her business. Consequently, Case Study A believes that availability to the mentoring process and access to mentors will have a “major effect:” for women entering the new venture creation process and if these facilities were not available for the nascent female entrepreneur then this may deter them from entering the new venture creation forum.

4.2.5 Finance As previously discussed in Chapter 2, section 2.4, a number of finance variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: access to information, support received, discrimination based on gender, and whether or not access to finance can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process. Case Study A is now examined with reference to these finance variables and their level of effect is also examined. 4.2.5.1 Access to Financial Information Research suggests that women in particular are heavily reliant on selfgenerated funds and family members when financing a business (Gundry et al; 2002). Case Study A is raising the start up capital for her business from a combination of self generated funds and a loan from her bank. “Well like a lot of other people I took part in the SSIA scheme so I will be using this cash to fund my venture”. According to Bruni et al; 2004, “Whether women entrepreneurs apply to an institutional financier (a

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bank, a finance agency), a friend, a relative or even their spouse, they are likely to come up against the assumption that “women can’t handle money”. This is not applicable in Case Study A’s case. “I approached my local bank about raising the additional cash for my venture and they approved me the loan almost immediately. I must say I found them very good to deal with and they provided me with a lot of information and time regarding this issue”. The issue of family support was also raised “My father is very supportive of my business venture and he is very much willing to help me financially if I needed his assistance”. Case Study A stated the following concerning state support “I don’t foresee that I will receive any financial assistance from them but to be honest I wouldn’t know anything about it or even if I was eligible for state support”. When the issue of availability of information concerning financing options for her business arose Case Study A revelaed” Well I knew I would be investing my own funds but I approached the bank and they provided me with a lot of information so yes the information is out there but you just have to go and get it yourself I suppose” Therefore, Case Study A considers access to information to have a “minor effect” for women entering the new venture creation process and does not regard access to information as a barrier for women wishing to set up their own business. 4.2.5.2 Discrimination Based on Gender Case Study A stated the following concerning the issue of discrimination “I really don’t think women are discriminated based on their gender when seeking financial assistance but I do acknowledge that it may be prove a harder task for women as opposed to men”. Case Study A states that credit history is prominent in this area “I suppose for many women who decide to go down this road they may not have worked before so therefore, they wouldn’t have the credit history with the bank. Or their account could be in their husbands name and as a result they would not have a financial record themselves which is unfortunate”.

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Case Study A makes reference to her own experience with her bank “Although I am a young woman I consider myself very lucky as the people in the bank would know me personally and my father so this definitely made this process run more smoothly for me I think”. In addition to credit history Case Study A believes that there are numerous other factors that the banks take into consideration when approving a loan application “There are several other issues as well as credit history that the bank would take into consideration when approving a loan such as the type of venture your setting up, the entrepreneurs own experience etc”. For this reason, Case Study A considers discrimination based on gender to have a “moderate effect “on women wishing to enter the new venture forum. Case Study A acknowledges that this can be a barrier for women but does not believe that it deters women from setting up their own business. 4.2.5.3 Finance as a Barrier to Entry Case Study A stated the following regarding finance as a barrier to entry, “Well yes definitely finance is probably the biggest hurdle for any business person regardless of your gender to overcome, so if its not there then you can’t go ahead with your business idea”. Case Study A further stated “I do believe that access to finance is probably one of the major reasons why more women aren’t setting up their own business and especially in the context of Ireland. I know myself that if I didn’t receive assistance I wouldn’t have preceded with my business idea”. For this reason, Case Study A considers access to finance to have a “major effect” for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process and if women did not have access to finance this may deter them from entering the entrepreneurial field.

4.2.6 Family Responsibility As previously discussed in Chapter 2, section 2.3, a number of reconciling work and family life variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business family commitments, support provided, childcare support, and whether or not family responsibility can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process. Case Study A is now examined with reference to these variables and their level of effect is also examined.

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4.2.6.1 Research Objective Two The second research objective was to examine family responsibility and its consequences for the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. The literature review revealed that few studies have focussed primarily on family responsibilities as a deterrent factor for the nascent female entrepreneur. Therefore, based on the literature findings it was decided that this study would examine this factor along with its subelements in-detail in order to assess the effect of family responsibility for the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business, by asking each case study whether this barrier and its sub elements had a minor, moderate or major effect for women setting up their own business. 4.2.6.2 Family Commitments A central ideology expressed in the literature is that women experience conflict concerning their ability to juggle or play the role of wife/partner, primary care giver and realising their career ambitions (Mavin, 2001). Case Study A is a 26 year single woman and does not have the responsibility of looking after a family but expressed her views regarding this matter. “Although I’m only 26 and do not have any children, I have thought about the future and how I will manage my business but I hope when the time comes my business will be established and I will in a financial position to employ somebody and that my partner will also share this responsibility with me”. Case Study A believes that if she had the responsibility of looking after a family then she would not be in a position to set up her own business “I really don’t know though if I could go ahead with this venture if I had children and is one of the reasons why I decided to do it while I am still young”. She further states “I know the start up process is going to be extremely time consuming and very demanding so if I had family commitments at home I really don’t know if I would able to cope”. For that reason Case Study A considers family commitment to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and believes that the responsibility of looking after a family may deter women from entering the new venture creation forum.

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4.2.6.3 Support Provided Case Study A hopes her future partner will share the responsibility of looking after their children “I hope if I get married that my husband or partner will share the responsibility of looking after my family”. She states “It is crucial that women receive support from their spouses especially if they have their own business, the responsibility and workload should definitely be shared”. Case Study A also revealed that if she had a young family to support but was not receiving any support from her partner then entering this field would not be a realistic or feasible option for her “I do appreciate that it can be very difficult for women who do want to go into this field but have to maintain sole responsibility for their children and ultimately probably decide against it. I know personally if I was in a position now and my partner did not offer me any support then I would not be in a position to go ahead with my venture”. Hence, Case Study A considers family support to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and if women did not receive adequate support from their partners this may deter them from setting up their own business. 4.2.6.4 Childcare Support Good affordable childcare is another factor that may be deterring women from setting up their own business (Gem, 2004). At present there is a situation where the demand for these childcare services, far exceeds the supply. “Yes it is definitely a problem area that needs to be addressed I mean if the services aren’t there what are we expected to do”. The increasing burden of childcare costs is a topic that is frequently raised by female entrepreneurs in Ireland “ The cost of these facilities is another area that needs to be reviewed I can see why many women who might think about going down this route decide against it as the expenses incurred concerning childcare is just too high”. Case Study A further stated “For many women it might not be practical to share the domestic workload with their partner so childcare is the next solution but if the services aren’t there and the prices are too high what other option do they have”.

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This illustrates that Case Study A considers childcare support to have a “major effect” on women setting up their own business and believes that the burden of childcare support may deter many women from entering the new venture creation process. 4.2.6.5 Family Responsibility as a Barrier to Entry Case Study A believes that it would depend on the woman’s personal circumstances “I really think that it would depend on your own personal circumstances, I mean only you have a family doesn’t mean you cant go into business, its just if you were not receiving any support I suppose or found that the costs of childcare were too expensive then you might decide against it. I just think that there are a number of additional factors that have to be taken into consideration when you have a family”. For that reason Case Study A considers family responsibility to have a “moderate effect” for women setting up their own business and acknowledges it as a barrier for women but does not believe that it ultimately deters women from entering the new venture creation process. Thus, in summation, the conceptual framework that was developed in Chapter 2 of this study incorporated four of the most prominent challenges that have been identified in the literature as deterring women from entering the new venture creation process: networking, mentoring, finance and family responsibilities. A review of the literature also revealed that each of the aforementioned barriers was found to comprise a number of subelements (Please see Chapter 2, Table 2.1). These barriers and their sub-elements were subsequently used to construct the Conceptual Framework in Chapter 2 of this study. During the interview Case Study A was asked whether each barrier and their subelements, was considered to have a minor, moderate or major effect on nascent female entrepreneurs entering the new venture creation process. Figure 4.1 illustrates the overall rating Case Study A gave to each barrier and their sub-elements.

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Fig 4.1 Case Study A The effects of the Conceptual Framework elements on women entering the new venture creation process .

Concepts Networking

Mentoring

Finance

Family Responsibility

Access to Networks Support and Affiliation Provided Networking as a barrier to entry Access to Mentors Availability to the Mentoring Process Support and Guidance Provided Mentoring as a barrier to entry Access to Information Discrimination Based on Gender Finance as a barrier to entry Family Commitments Support Provided Childcare Support Family Responsibility as a barrier to entry

Minor Effect X

Moderate Effect

Major Effect X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

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4.3 Case Study B 4.3.1 Research Objective One The first research objective was to explore the challenges and barriers faced by female entrepreneurs during the start up phase of business and inturn clarifying which of these challenges or barriers was considered to be more significant for the nascent entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. This objective was satisfied by asking each respondent whether each barrier and its sub elements outlined in the Conceptual Framework had a minor, moderate or major effect on them setting up their own business. 4.3.1.1 Demographic Profile of Case Study B Case Study B is a 25-year-old female. She currently lives in Limerick and completed her third level education in Dublin where she obtained a degree in Childcare. Case Study B worked in the teaching profession for a short period of time when she fulfilled her college education but has been teaching ballet on a full time basis for the last three years. She teaches in a ballet school that is located in the city centre and is responsible for teaching 150 pupils at present however, she also works freelance teaching in various crèches throughout the city. “Well I went to College and studied child-care but I have been teaching ballet on a part time basis since I was sixteen therefore I am very fortunate that I have a lot of experience in this field so, I decided to incorporate the two really and set up a ballet school it’s something that I have a passion for so, it’s very much a dream come true really” Case Study B is confident to commence in business by December 2007. “Well to be honest I was hoping to start in September but unfortunately things always take longer than originally planned but fingers crossed by Christmas 2007 I will be up and running” The sector of business she will be operating in is the teaching profession specifically she will be working as a full time ballet teacher. Case Study B is hoping to find premises to operate her business within the Limerick area however, as of yet she does not have this aspect of her business finalised. Case Study B does not anticipate employing any staff when she commences in business. However, she stated that when the business is “established and is making a profit she might consider employing another qualified ballet instructor”.

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4.3.2 Networking Variables As previously discussed in section 4.2.2 Case Study B is now examined with respect to the following networking variables: access to networks, support and affiliation provided and whether or not access to networks can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process, their level of effect is also examined. 4.3.2.1 Access to Networks Case Study B is involved in informal networks only “Yes I would be involved with the Ballet Society over in London as that is where our external examiner is based so I would attend various courses over there throughout the year. I would also be in regular contact with the Royal Society of Ballet in Dublin as I was a pupil there so I would still be very much in contact with them mainly just to keep up to speed with what’s going on with the ballet industry in Ireland at the moment. Other than that I would be a member of the local gym and tennis club”. Case Study B stated the following in relation to formal networking “ I know from other individuals who would be involved with formal networking that it can be very beneficial for your business as you get to meet other women who are in the process of start up so I will definitely get involved with this in the near future”. Case Study B also revealed that she is hopeful informal networking will benefit her business “Well I intend to advertise my business venture in the local tennis club as there is a large amount of children who are members and in the gym as well so maybe I could attract pupils to join my school you never know”. Case Study B believes that women have equal access to networking “Well personally I would think it’s probably the same for informal networks because you decide yourself where you want to socialize and what kind of committees or clubs you get involved with concerning formal networks, I would hope that they are readily available for women in business as I said I haven’t got involved with any myself yet but I would expect women would have equal access to formal networks as men would”. This illustrates that Case Study B considers access to networks to have a “minor effect” for women setting up their own business and does not

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perceive access to networks as a barrier for women wishing to set up their own business. 4.3.2.2 Support and Affiliation Provided Case Study B revealed that there are numerous benefits to be gained from being involved with the networking process“ The obvious one I suppose is meeting people and making friends which can be great for business, it is particularly important that I keep in contact with individuals in the ballet industry as this will definitely benefit my business especially if any of my pupils show promise then they may be accepted into the royal academy and of course as I will be running my exams in conjunction with the academy regular contact is a must”. Case Study B revealed that she has not experienced any drawbacks with networking she stated “No none at all, to date its all been very positive”. Case Study B revealed that she is optimistic her business will benefit by getting involved with formal networking “I am confident that formal networking will also benefit my business as I am only 25 therefore, I am still learning every day, so it would be great to meet other women who have more experience than me and maybe they could offer me advice and so on about running a new business” Hence, for this reason Case Study B considers networking to have a major effect regarding the future success of her business. 4.3.2.3 Networking as a barrier to entry Case Study B revealed that she does not believe networking can be identified as barrier for women wishing to enter the entrepreneurial process “Although networking can prove to be very beneficial for women setting up in business, I really don’t think that if the networking facilities weren’t available for women this would deter them from going down this route, I mean if you are 100% committed to this idea then you will do everything within reach to make it happen”. This illustrates that Case Study B considers access to networks to have a “minor effect” for women setting up their own business and if women did not have equal access to these networks this would not deter them from entering the new venture creation process.

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4.3.3 Mentoring Variables As discussed in section 4.2.3, Case Study B is now examined with reference to the following mentoring variables, access to mentors, availability to mentoring programmes, and whether or not access to mentors can be identified as a barrier for women setting up in business, their level of effect is also examined. 4.3.3.1 Access to Mentors Case Study B is currently involved with the mentoring process “Yes Alice who owns the ballet school I work in would very much be my mentor, she has been extremely supportive about my business venture and has encouraged me considerably especially over the last couple of months”. Case Study B reveals the valuable support and assistance she has received from Alice by stating “Well Alice has been running a successful business for nearly 25 years and was a professional ballet dancer before she opened her school so she has thought me so much about what is involved with running a ballet school which is a fantastic opportunity for me, as she has so much knowledge and experience in this field”. Case Study B also states that this process would be informal in nature “I have known Alice all my life as she was my ballet teacher so we have worked closely together for many years and I would consider her a very good friend of mine as well as my mentor which I think is great, as she knows me on a personal level. I really don’t think I would be where I am today without her guidance and support”. Case Study B further states that she is confident this process may benefit her business financially “Alice has a waiting list for her school at the moment so she is going to pass some pupils my way which is fantastic I mean you might expect some competition between us but its not like that in the slightest as I said she is very supportive of my venture”. Case Study B revealed the following regarding access to mentors as a potential barrier for women setting up their own business “ I have personally learned so much from this process and have benefited in numerous ways, yes I have learned a great deal about the business side of things but also my confidence levels have grown enormously and I honestly believe that I will make this business a success so I really do think if women did want to get involved in this arrangement and the facilities weren’t available it might deter them from going down this road, I mean I

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am just very lucky I had someone like Alice to guide and help me along this process. So yes I definitely think the mentoring process plays a very important role for women setting up their own business and I would consider access to mentors as crucial”. This illustrates that Case Study B considers access to mentors to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and ultimately if women did not have equal access to mentors then this may deter them form entering the new venture creation forum. 4.3.3.2 Availability to Mentoring Programmes Case Study B revealed the following concerning whether she thinks that the entrepreneurship field in Ireland promotes mentoring relationships for women in small business “ I would really hope so yes, as I was fortunate enough to have Alice I didn’t have to go in search of a mentor but I presume the entrepreneurship field would encourage women to engage in this activity especially as this process can prove extremely beneficial for women setting up in business and particularly during the start up phase as this can be a very strenuous time and it may take the pressure off slightly by having someone to talk to”. Thus, this illustrates that Case Study B considers availability to mentoring programmes to have a “major effect” for women setting up in business and if these programmes were not available for women then this may deter them from entering the entrepreneurial field. 4.3.3.3 Support and Guidance Perceived Case study B revealed that she has benefited enormously by having a mentor “It has been a tremendous help having Alice as my mentor as she has so much experience and knowledge in this field so she really has thought me so much about what is involved in running your own business, although I have been working as a part time instructor with the school for many years Alice has brought me through the whole process, especially concerning the ballet side of things”. Case Study B talked about her experience of the mentoring process and how it has helped her career to date. “Alice has been very helpful to me and has put me in contact with numerous individuals in the industry such as external examiners, suppliers for equipment and so on which is great,

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as I said she’s had the ballet school for nearly 25 years so I would consider myself very fortunate to be able to gain all her knowledge and understanding of running a professional ballet school, especially now at this crucial stage”. Case Study B then stated that she had not encountered any drawbacks with the mentoring process to date “No not at all it has been a very positive experience, I do think that maybe Alice could have been a little bit reluctant to help me in the fact that I may be a competition for her school, but she hasn’t at all I’ve got a great relationship with her, and hopefully we’ll be able to pass on pupils to each other so both benefit from this venture”. Thus, this illustrates Case Study B considers mentoring as having a “major effect” regarding the future success of her business. Consequently, Case Study B believes that if women do not have sufficient access to the mentoring process or there were not adequate mentoring programmes available for women then this may deter them from entering the entrepreneurial field.

4.3.4 Finance Variables As discussed in section 4.2.4, Case Study B is now examined with respect to the following finance variables: access to finance, support received, and discrimination based on gender, access to information, and whether or not access to finance can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process, their level of effect is also examined. 4.3.4.1 Access to Financial Information Case Study B is raising the capital for start up from a combination of self generated funds and financial assistance from her parents “I will be using my own savings but my parents have been generous to me regarding raising the additional finance for start up”. The issue of family support was then raised further “My father ran a successful business in the United States for nearly 30 years so he has encouraged me that it can be a very rewarding experience to run your own business and that it’s very important to take ownership over your own career, so as a result they have both been very supportive of my venture both financially and emotionally”.

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Case Study B stated the following concerning state support “It was never really an option for me to seek financial assistance either from an institution or from the government as my parents advised me from the start that they would assist me with raising the capital for start up so I was very fortunate that I didn’t have to go down this road”. Case Study B revealed the following regarding applying for a loan from the bank “I consider myself very lucky that my parents are so supportive of my venture as I really don’t know if I would have been approved a loan from the bank as I wouldn’t have a long credit history with them but I do have a business plan so maybe if my parents went guarantor then I would have been approved I really don’t know”. When the issue of availability of information arose Case Study B stated the following “I presume there is an abundance of information available when seeking a loan either from the state or from the bank so yes there is plenty of information out there, the problem is if you are entitled to a grant for start up or a successful candidate for a loan”. This illustrates that Case Study B considers access to information to have a “minor effect” for women entering the new venture creation process and does not perceive access to information as a barrier for women desiring to set up their own business. 4.3.4.2 Discrimination Based on Gender Case Study B revealed the following regarding this issue “Well I do think some women may encounter greater difficulty then males when seeking financial assistance from the bank but I definitely don’t think they would be discriminated based on their gender alone”. Case Study B stated credit history is a key factor when applying for a loan “A lot of women may prove unsuccessful when applying for a loan for start up, as they may not have worked before so the banks may be reluctant to approve them such a big loan, so yes I would think it is more difficult for women to seek financial assistance as it is probable if a male was applying for a loan he would most likely have a long credit history with the bank. As I said I consider myself very lucky that my family has been so supportive so I have not encountered any difficulties in raising finance for my venture”. Thus, this illustrates that Case Study B considers discrimination based on gender to have a “moderate effect” for women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum. Case Study B acknowledges that this is a barrier

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for women but does not believe that it deters women from entering the new venture creation forum. 4.3.4.3 Finance as a Barrier to Entry Case Study B revealed the following regarding finance as a barrier to entry “Yes I would definitely think finance is probably the biggest barrier that you come across when setting up in business especially if women are coming from the home and do not have a strong credit history with the bank”. Case study B further stated “I know myself I am very fortunate that I have family support but if I did have to rely on the bank and was not approved a loan, I would not be in a position to proceed any further with my venture so yes I do think that many women may not choose to go down this road as they may not have the self generated funds to invest in the business or possess a strong credit history to receive a loan from a financial institution”. For this reason Case Study B considers access to finance to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and ultimately if women could not generate the capital for start up this would deter them from entering this field.

4.3.5 Family Responsibility As discussed in section 4.2.5, Case Study B is now examined with respect to the following family responsibility variables: family commitments support provided childcare support and whether or not family responsibility can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process, their level of effect will also be examined. 4.3.5.1 Research Objective Two The second research objective was to examine family responsibility and its consequences for the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. The literature review revealed that few studies have focussed primarily on family responsibilities as a deterrent factor for female entrepreneur. Therefore, based on the literature findings it was decided that this study would examine this factor along with its sub-elements in-

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detail in order to assess the effect of family responsibility for the nascent entrepreneur during the start up phase of business; by asking each case study whether this barrier and its sub elements had a minor, moderate or major effect for women setting up their own business. 4.3.5.2 Family Commitments Despite the fact that the last two to three decades have seen an enormous increase in the participation rates of females in the labour force, women still maintain primary responsibility for child care and household duties (Schwartz, 1996). Case Study B is a 25 year single woman and does not have the responsibility of looking after children but expressed her views regarding this issue “Oh definitely I think if I had a family to look after now I really don’t know if I could go ahead with this venture, as its such a time consuming and strenuous process, I really don’t know how I would be able to cope”. Case Study B further states “ As I’m only 25 I don’t plan on raising a family for another few years but hopefully by then my business will be established and I would be in a financial position to employ another instructor to work with me and share the workload”. Case Study B then reveals this is one of the reasons why she decided to set her business at this age “I really hope that when the time comes to start a family of my own everything will fall into place, as I know now that having your own business is not to be taken lightly and that is one of the reasons why I decided to do it while I’m young”. This illustrates that Case Study B considers family commitment to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and believes that many women who have the responsibility of looking after a young family may not decide to enter the new venture creation process. 4.3.5.3 Support Provided Case Study B states the following regarding family support “It is very important that women receive adequate support from their partners or family when raising a family the workload should definitely be evenly distributed, and in particular if both parties work full time” Case Study B further states “I think in this day and age the onus should not be on the woman to maintain full responsibility for looking after a family but unfortunately it still happens in today’s society”.

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Case Study B then reveals that support is even more crucial when setting up a new business “When you set up your own business you do not work regular 9-5 hours so support is even more vital when looking after a family”. Case Study B then makes reference to family support “I have talked to my parents about the future and as they are both retired and I am their only daughter they have told me that they would be more than willing to help me out but that’s just my circumstances” Case Study B further states “Unfortunately for many women who do not receive support they might not choose to go down this road as a result of having children to look after. I know myself if I didn’t receive any support looking after my children, setting up a new business would not be a practical option for me”. For this reason Case Study B considers family support to have a “major effect” for women setting up in business and ultimately if women did not receive sufficient support from their partners the new venture creation process may not be a realistic option for them. 4.3.5.4 Childcare Support The simultaneous demands of work and family pose many significant conflicts for men and women, not least the problem of finding good and affordable childcare. Case Study B is a qualified Montessori teacher and has worked in this profession for three years “I know only too well how hard it can be for working mothers in Ireland to find suitable and affordable childcare services for their children” Case Study B then states “I think this issue needs to be reviewed by the Irish government as at present the demand for these services is not being met and the prices of childcare facilities are not realistic for working mothers”. Case Study B then makes reference to the small business sector “For many women setting up in business you are not guaranteed a monthly wage as it can vary from month to month and if you are dependent on childcare support this may deter you from going down the road of becoming self employed”. Case Study B further states “ If I was in a position at present to rely solely on childcare support this could prove a very difficult task as finding suitable services is a problem in itself but the prices incurred would definitely be a financial strain”. This illustrates that Case Study B considers childcare support to have a “major effect” on women setting up their own business and for many

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women the issue of childcare support may deter them from setting up their own business. 4.3.5.5 Family Responsibility as a Barrier to Entry Case Study B stated the following regarding whether or not family responsibility could be identified as a barrier to entry “Oh Yes definitely, I think if I had a family now I don’t know how I would able to take care of young children, manage a household and set up a new business at the same time, as I said its taking up all of my time at the moment”. Case Study B further states “I can understand why many women would opt for Monday to Friday jobs as opposed to running their own business especially if they had young children. I think that is why a lot of younger women are setting up in business now as they probably want to have the business established before they start a family or some women may wait until their children are older to go down this road”. Case Study B then makes reference to her mentor “Alice set up her school prior to starting a family and the school was established when she had her children so as a result she was in a financial position to employ another ballet instructor to work with her”. This illustrates that Case Study B considers family responsibility as a barrier to have a “major effect” for women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum and believes many women who have the responsibility of looking after a family may not choose to go down this road. Thus, in summation, the conceptual framework that was developed in Chapter 2 of this study incorporated four of the most prominent challenges that have been identified in the literature as deterring women from entering the new venture creation process: networking, mentoring, finance and family responsibilities. A review of the literature also revealed that each of the aforementioned barriers was found to comprise a number of sub-elements (Please see Chapter 2, Table 2.1). These barriers and their sub-elements were subsequently used to construct the Conceptual Framework in Chapter 2 of this study. During the interview Case Study B was asked whether each barrier and their subelements, was considered to have a minor, moderate or major effect on

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nascent female entrepreneurs entering the new venture creation process. Figure 4.2 illustrates the overall rating Case Study B gave to each barrier and their sub-elements. Fig 4.2 Case Study B The effects of the Conceptual Framework elements on women entering the new venture creation process Concepts Networking

Mentoring

Finance

Family Responsibility

Access to Networks Support and Affiliation Provided Networking as a barrier to entry Access to Mentors Availability to the Mentoring Process Support and Guidance Provided Mentoring as a barrier to entry Access to Information Discrimination Based on Gender Finance as a barrier to entry Family Commitments Support Provided Childcare Support Family Responsibility as a barrier to entry

Minor Effect X

Moderate Effect

Major Effect X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

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4.4 Case Study C 4.4.1 Research Objective One The first research objective was to explore the challenges and barriers faced by female entrepreneurs during the start up phase of business and inturn clarifying which of these challenges or barriers was considered to be more significant for the nascent entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. This objective was achieved by asking each case study whether each barrier and its sub elements had a minor, moderate or major effect on women setting up their own business. 4.4.1.1 Demographic Profile of Case Study C Case Study C is a 25-year-old female. She currently lives in Limerick and completed her third level education in Dublin where she studied a Bachelor of Business Studies Degree in Griffith College. When she completed her degree she got involved with business to business selling and went to work for a high potential start up company who were based in SixMileBridge Co Clare. This company sold software and Case Study C took over their hardware side of business and worked with them for four months. Her job entailed going out on the road and finding out what hardware was needed within manufacturing companies, she was working on behalf of a UK Manufacturing company called Electronics. Case Study C then drew up a report for this company advising them that would close their hardware business by October 2003 as it was only costing them money having her out on the road. Case Study C then decided to study a MBS in Entrepreneurship Management in the University of Limerick in September 2003. Whilst completing her Masters she was looking at various different businesses and franchises that she get involved in once her studies were completed but Case Study C decided that she needed to go out into industry and gain some experience of her own first before setting up her own business. Her thesis was on Succession Planning for small businesses and based it on her own family business as a case study; this then led her to introduce the succession plan within the family business. When she completed her thesis in May 2005 she went to work for the family business until December 2005 as the succession plan had taken place and she had “developed it as much as she could”. In January 2006

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she went back out to industry and worked as a Marketing Manager with a Manufacturing company who were based in Shannon. Her job entailed developing a website; designing promotional material and was responsible for the day-to-day marketing activities of the company. She states although the job was a good opportunity she did not find it challenging enough for her to stay motivated in this role. She reveals” I am very much motivated by challenge the bigger the challenge the more excited I tend to get.” One of the reasons that led her to start up her own business was the everyday tasks like going to the “bank or to run an errand was an absolute chore between the hours of 8-5 and she states that it frustrated the life out of her”. Whilst working in the position of Marketing Manager she began designing business plans on a part time basis for start up companies within Shannon whom she had got to know. She revealed that she got so busy with all the additional workload that if she didn’t go out on her own now she may never do it and she felt as she was still young she could get the best opportunity from this experience. This then led her to start up her own consultancy company for small businesses in Limerick city. She has just gone into business and although “she has never worked so hard in her life she is enjoying every minute of it as being her own boss has always been her ultimate goal in life”.

4.4.1 Mentoring Variables As discussed in section 4.3.3 a number of mentoring variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: access to mentors, support and guidance provided, availability to mentoring programmes and whether or not access to mentors can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum. Case Study C is now examined with reference to these variables, their level of effect is also analysed. 4.4.1.1 Access to Mentors Case Study C does not have a mentor at present “ I have never had a mentor myself but as both my parents have their own businesses I would consider them my sounding board if I ever needed advice or someone to talk to, I know they would always be very willing to help me”. Case Study C further states “There is another woman I know who is in the same line of

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industry as myself that I could contact so if I needed one or had the opportunity to have one I definitely would have access to a mentor”. Whilst Case Study C worked in the position of Marketing Manager she completed a mentoring programme by night where she trained to become a mentor. “As I was trained as a mentor and it is part of what I do in my business I was fortunate enough that I didn’t need one myself”. Case Study C then reveals “At the moment I am a mentor to two ladies who are in the process of start up one of the ladies has just gone into business while the other lady is in the process of sourcing products and materials from China”. Case Study C then makes reference to her own family business “Many people might not understand the amount of experience I have gained from working in my family business, but when you are involved with a family business it is part of your everyday life so you are learning new skills every day. As I was brought up in the family business I was exposed to every element of the business so I would definitely think that I have enough experience myself to run my own business and in-turn guide and support other women who are in the process of start up”. Case Study C then talks about how beneficial mentors are particularly for women “I think mentors are extremely beneficial and especially for women who are in the process of setting up a new business, it is vital that women have access to the mentoring process”. This illustrates that Case Study C considers access to mentors to have a “major effect” for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process and if women did not have equal access to the mentoring process then this may deter them from entering the new venture creation forum. 4.4.1.2 Availability to Mentoring Programmes Case Study C revealed that she does not believe the entrepreneurial field in Ireland promotes the mentoring process adequately for women “No I really don’t think there are enough mentoring programmes available for women wishing to start up their own business and access to mentors is another area that needs to be reviewed”. Case Study C further states “However, I think mentoring is going to become huge within the next couple of years in Ireland” and reveals “Actually only last week I was

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having a meeting with a lady from the Limerick City Enterprise Boards and she was also talking about the mentoring process and believes it is really going to kick off in Ireland in the foreseeable future”. Case Study C then makes specific reference to the area of training “People can not afford to continuously go out and get training and as training isn’t customised anymore, individuals are just going out and receiving general training instead”. Case Study C further states “Whereas a mentor can provide individuals with what they actually need in the path to go forward with their business”. Case Study C then reveals that she thinks the mentoring process in Ireland needs to be reviewed “When people think of a mentor they automatically think of an older man or woman who has been in business most of their lives” Case Study C then makes reference to the mentoring course she participated in “ Two of the individuals who were on my course were your typical mentor they had both worked in Dairy Gold Co-op for most of their lives they both had very successful careers and were very strategic orientated but at the same time they couldn’t see outside of that box , I mean they didn’t know what it was like to obtain the finance for start up, deal with the people in the business and the pressures involved when starting up your own business”. Case Study C further states “ A lot of mentors who are out there at the moment would be older and settled down and maybe forget what its like to be involved in business in 2007”. Case Study C then states “I think that it is very important that the mentor is actively involved with business at the same time so they have an idea with what is going on with in the world of business”. Case Study C further states “However, I don’t think this is being promoted enough in Ireland and especially in the context of women, at present it is very much along the lines of we will give you a mentor he/she has 20 years experience although experience is very beneficial I think the matching of the mentor with the men tee is equally important and at the moment they are not being matched”. For this reason, Case Study C considers availability to mentoring programmes to have a “major effect” on women setting up their own business and if these facilities were not available for women then this may deter them from entering the entrepreneurial field.

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4.4.1.3 Support and Guidance Provided Case Study C then talked about the benefits for women who engage in the mentoring process Case Study C states “I am not there to answer questions or to give them direct answers that’s not what I do” Case Study C further states “The ladies I mentor would ring me and maybe run a few things by me its just basically to get a second opinion really or to just reiterate what they are thinking themselves”. Case Study C then reveals “A mentor never gives their opinion that’s a very important point to note” Case Study C then states “As a result maybe some people might not see this process as beneficial as I am not actually giving my opinions but at the same time most people know the answer themselves and know what they want to get out of the person and if they have investigated it enough and you see that they did enough research then in most cases they should be right” .Case Study C reveals that she offers these ladies “support and guidance which is extremely important especially now at this crucial stage of start up”. This illustrates that Case Study C considers mentoring as having a major effect regarding the future success of women in small business.

4.5 Networking Variables As discussed in section 4.2.2, Case Study C is now examined with respect to the following networking variables, access to networks, support and affiliation provided, and whether or not access to networks can be identified as a barrier to entry for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process, their level of effect will also be analysed.

4.5.1 Access to Networks Case Study C is actively involved with both formal and informal networks “Yes I have just recently got involved with Network Ireland; I saw an advertisement in the Clare Champion Newspaper inviting women in business to come along to a meeting so I decided to attend with another friend of mine who has also just started up her own business”. She then states that she found the meeting extremely interesting “Actually myself and my friend are now on the committee and we think it is a fantastic organization for women in business to get involved in”.

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Case Study C further states “These women are extremely powerful business women who are very business orientated and know their goals and have a great strategy for their business”. Case Study C then reveals, “I find it a fascinating experience to be involved in”. Case Study C then talked about what types of informal networks she is involved with “ I am in the process of joining a golf club with another friend of mine but to be honest I have no interest in golf its just purely for business purposes why I am joining”. When asked if she felt that women had equal access to networks Case Study C stated “Well I had never heard of Network Ireland before and this network is purely for women only which I think is great and they are expanding all the time, at the moment they have 11 networks throughout Ireland so yes I would think women have equal access to networks as there is an opportunity there to join one of these networks as they are based all over the mid-west region”. Concerning informal networks “ I do appreciate maybe for the golf club it might be a little harder for women to get involved with but for other types of informal networks I would think women would have equal access as men would”. This illustrates that Case Study C considers access to network to have a “minor effect” for women setting up in business and does not perceive access to networks as a barrier for women wishing to set up their own business.

4.5.2 Support and Affiliation Provided Case Study C stated the following concerning the benefits of networking “Well I am hoping to meet potential clients in the golf club and basically getting myself known whilst promoting my business at the same time”. Case Study C then talks about Network Ireland “I find it so interesting meeting a diverse range of women and talking to them about their business venture as I said some of these ladies have been running a successful business for many years, so you get the opportunity to hear other peoples stories”. Case Study C further states “ I also find it a great motivation knowing that many women have created very successful careers for themselves, I also enjoy the social element of meeting new people every month and

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making some good friendships I hope”. Case Study C then reveals “I would definitely recommend formal networks for women who are in the process of start up as it can be a fantastic learning experience, I encouraged the two ladies I mentor to attend one of the sessions and they found it extremely beneficial as well”. When asked if she had encountered any drawbacks with networking she revealed “Not at all it has been a great experience and I have benefited enormously by getting involved with Network Ireland”. This illustrates that Case Study C considers networking as having a “major effect” regarding the future success of her business.

4.5.3. Networking as a Barrier to Entry When asked if she felt if networking could be identified as a barrier to entry for women in small business Case Study C revealed “No I honestly believe that there are a sufficient amount of formal networks for women to get involved with and they are still growing in Ireland so I wouldn’t classify networking as a barrier to entry”. Case Study C then makes reference to her own business “I didn’t even know that there were formal networks for women in the Limerick region and I wasn’t involved with any types of informal networks but I still went ahead with my venture”. Case Study C further states “I think for informal networks women do have equal access as men do its just that it might be a little harder to get involved with the typical “old boys network” such as the golf club but that has always been the way I suppose”. Thus, this illustrates that Case Study C considers networking to have a “minor effect” for women setting up in business and ultimately does not think it deters women from entering this field.

4.6 Finance Variables As discussed in section 4.2.4, Case Study C is now examined with respect to the following finance variables: access to finance, support received, and discrimination based on gender, access to information, and whether or not access to finance can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process, their level of effect will also be analysed.

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4.6.1 Access to Financial Information Case Study C raised the capital for her business from self generated funds “Well I am fortunate that my start up costs for my business are quite low as I have a laptop, and a printer so there wasn’t a need for me to obtain financial assistance” Case Study C further states “At the moment I don’t need to get a bank loan but maybe as the business grows I will seek financial assistance from the bank”. Case Study C reveals the following regarding state support “Unfortunately I do not qualify to receive support as I am a professional and as I am educated I am not entitled to receive any type of state support”. Case Study C then discusses the difficulties in raising finance for start up “ I consider myself very lucky that my start up costs were low and that I had my own funds to invest in the business as I think if I went to the bank seeking financial assistance it may have proved rather difficult as I am only 25 and I also have a mortgage and more importantly it’s a new business” Case Study C further states that the most important thing especially for women who are in business is to “know your bank manager and for him/her to understand your business and to see where you are going then I don’t think you would have a problem in seeking financial assistance”. Case Study C then talked about the business plan and how important it can be when seeking financial assistance” I think it is vital that all new businesses but especially women have prepared a solid business plan before approaching any type of financial institution seeking financial assistance”. Case Study C then reveals “I do appreciate that it can be more difficult for women to seek financial assistance than men from the bank especially if they haven’t worked before or do not have a long credit history with their bank”. Case Study C further stated “I believe that many women who are thinking about going into business are not very knowledgeable about the various finance options that are available or also the issue of state support, many women do not even know if they are entitled to receive additional support this area definitely needs to be reviewed” This illustrates that Case Study C considers access to financial information to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and if women did not have equal access to finance then this could deter women from entering the new venture creation process.

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4.6.2 Discrimination Based on Gender Case Study C states the following concerning this issue “One of the ladies that I mentor has experienced huge barriers in raising the finance for her business as she is separated from her husband and supports a young family and unfortunately the banks have refused her loan application” Case Study C then makes reference to the other lady whom she mentors “She hasn’t encountered any difficulties in raising the capital as her husband works in the building industry so the bank would know him personally”. Case Study C further states “It is a very unfortunate situation as that lady does not have the funds herself to invest in the business and has really had to consider whether she can go ahead with the business based on the banks opinion but she is hopeful that she will be able to raise the capital from the Paul Partnership or First Steps in Limerick”. For this reason Case Study C considers discrimination based on gender to have a “moderate effect” on women entering the new venture creation process and acknowledges that this can be a barrier for women but does not believe that it deters women from setting up their own business.

4.6.3 Finance as a Barrier to Entry Case Study C stated the following regarding finance as a barrier to entry “Oh definitely I think if you could not obtain financial assistance and did not have the funds yourself to invest in the business it would certainly put people off”. Case Study C further states “If you were setting up in retail you would have huge outlays at the beginning so you would need the finance to cover these costs or if you were building a product or souring a product the most important factor is that you have the finance to be in a position to source the material and conduct the research, at the end of the day money talks in business and it is vital that you have adequate finance especially if you are setting up a new business”. Case Study C then reveals “I would think that access to finance is probably the biggest barrier for women in small business and one of the major reasons why there isn’t more women setting up in business, its just very unfortunate as I am sure there are many women out there with some great ideas and who are more than capable of going down this road but at

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the end of the day if they cant raise the capital what else are they supposed to do”. This illustrates that Case Study C considers access to finance to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and ultimately if they can not raise the capital for start up this will deter them from entering the entrepreneurial field.

4.7 Family Responsibility Variables As discussed in section 4.2.5, Case Study C is now examined with respect to the following family responsibility variables: family commitments support provided childcare support and whether or not family responsibility can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum, their level of effect will also be analysed.

4.7.1 Research Objective Two The second research objective was to examine family responsibility and its consequences for the female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. The literature review revealed that few studies have focussed primarily on family responsibilities as a deterrent factor for the female entrepreneur. Therefore, based on the literature findings it was decided that this study would examine this factor along with its sub-elements indetail in order to assess the effect of family responsibility for the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business, by asking each case study whether this barrier and its sub elements had a minor, moderate or major effect on women setting up their own business.

4.7.2 Family Commitments Case Study C is a 25-year-old single woman and does not have the responsibility of looking after a family. However, when the issue of family responsibility was raised she stated the following “One of the reasons I set up my own business was to be my own business but also I thought I would have more flexibility however, I have never worked so hard in my entire life as I am literally working 24 hours a day but at the same time I love it as it motivates me”. Case Study C reveals that “It was a huge decision for me to leave my full time job but one of the reasons at the back of mind for

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setting up my own business was if I do it now while I’m still young then hopefully the business will be developed by the time I settle down”. Case Study C further states “ In my line of business I will have the opportunity to schedule some free time to pick the kids up from school but I know for a fact that if I was working in Shannon between the hours of 85 then this would not be possible”. Case Study C then reveals “Obviously at the moment I don’t have any free time but I am confident that when the business is established and I am financially secure then I will have more flexibility with my time however, if I had young children at home now then I would not be setting up this business as I am literally working round the clock and it would not be an ideal situation”. For that reason Case Study C considers family responsibility to have a “major effect” for women setting up their own business and believes that many women who have the responsibility of looking after a family may not decide to go down this route.

4.7.3 Support Provided Case Study C states the issue of support from family members and your partner is crucial when setting up a new business “I think it is very important that the responsibility of looking after a family is not left solely to the woman and the workload should definitely be shared”. Case Study C further states “ As I said I am hoping the business will be developed by the time I start a family but at the same time I expect my partner will play an active role looking after the children”. Case Study C then reveals “I think the way it is going at the moment many women may decide to set up in business before they start a family or may wait until the children are older to go down this road, unfortunately if women do not receive adequate support from their partners concerning looking after the children then the idea of setting up in business would probably not be a realistic option”. Case Study C then makes reference to her own situation “At the moment I have no responsibilities of my own but I have never been so busy or worked so hard in my life so I could not even imagine having to look after a young family at home and even more so if I did not receive any support”.

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For this reason Case Study C considers family support to have a “major effect” for women setting up in business and ultimately if women did not receive support from their partners the new venture creation process would not be a realistic option for them.

4.7.4 Childcare Support Case Study C stated the following concerning the issue of childcare “Oh without a doubt the issue of childcare support needs to be readdressed, I don’t know the exact figure but I do know the prices of childcare are astronomical at the moment, I mean families are struggling enough to buy houses, cars and so on, so this is just additional financial pressure”. Case Study C further states, “I really think the Irish Government needs to reevaluate this situation and try and help out as much as they can concerning childcare costs”. Case Study C then reveals “ When you are self employed you do not have a steady wage and that is an enormous financial risk to take but if you had a young family to look after and had the financial strain of paying for childcare support, then you may reconsider whether to go down this road or not”. This illustrates that Case Study C considers childcare support to have a “major effect” for women entering the new venture creation forum and believes that the issue of childcare support may deter women from entering this field.

4.7.5 Family Responsibility as a Barrier to Entry Case Study C stated “If I was starting a family right now then I definitely would not be considering going into business”. Case Study C further states, “ If I had the responsibility of looking after children at the moment, I would probably tell myself continue with your fulltime job, keep on your weekly wage and give the children what they need and then maybe when they are grown up and if the opportunity presented itself then I would consider the idea”. Case Study C then reveals “I suppose as I’m still young and I’m not thinking in that line I have told myself I have no commitments now and if I fail I fail, so I may as well go out there and give it a shot while I still have the opportunity to do so”. Case Study C then states “I can understand why some women may not choose to go down this road as it is such a time consuming and strenuous process especially

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during the start up stages and you really have to be 100% committed to the business, so if you had a young family to look after the idea of setting up a new business may not be that appealing for many women”. This illustrates that Case Study C considers Family Responsibility to have a “major effect” on women wishing to start their own business and many women who have a young family to support may not decide to go down the route of being self employed. Thus, in summation, the conceptual framework that was developed in Chapter 2 of this study incorporated four of the most prominent challenges that have been identified in the literature as deterring women from entering the new venture creation process: networking, mentoring, finance and family responsibilities. A review of the literature also revealed that each of the aforementioned barriers was found to comprise a number of sub-elements (Please see Chapter 2, Table 2.1). These barriers and their sub-elements were subsequently used to construct the Conceptual Framework in Chapter 2 of this study. During the interview Case Study C was asked whether each barrier and their sub-elements, was considered to have a minor, moderate or major effect on nascent female entrepreneurs entering the new venture creation process. Figure 4.3 illustrates the overall rating Case Study C gave to each barrier and their sub-elements.

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Fig 4.3 Case Study C The effects of the Conceptual Framework elements on women entering the new venture creation process Concepts Networking

Mentoring

Finance

Family Responsibility

Access to Networks Support and Affiliation Provided Perceived Barrier Access to Mentors Availability to the Mentoring Process Support and Guidance Provided Perceived Barrier Access to Information Discrimination Based on Gender Perceived Barrier Family Commitments Support Provided Childcare Support Perceived Barrier

Minor Effect X

Moderate Effect

Major Effect X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

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4.8 Summary This chapter presented the findings from each of the case studies. Each case study was analysed individually with respect to the Conceptual Framework that was developed in Chapter 2. The Conceptual Framework was comprised of the four main challenges that have been identified in the literature as affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process: networking, access to finance, mentoring and family responsibilities. Each of these barriers was further sub-divided into a number of sub-elements. The case studies were examined specifically in relation to these sub-elements. Each respondent gave an overall rating to each of the sub-elements; each element was considered to have a minor, moderate or major effect on women entering the new venture creation forum. The next chapter will reveal the findings from the cross case analysis.

CHAPTER FIVE CROSS CASE ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction This chapter presents a cross case analysis of respondents A, B and C. This cross case analysis is undertaken in a similar manner to the single case analysis and therefore will be based on the elements discussed in the Conceptual Framework. Thus, it will examine the four main factors of the Conceptual Framework and their sub-elements: networking, mentoring, access to finance and family responsibilities. In the preceding chapter, each of the sub-elements was given a rating (minor, moderate or major effect) by Case Study A, B and C. This chapter will combine the findings from the individual analysis and present an overall rating for each element. The purpose of this activity was to verify the relative significance of each element and subsequently to identify which factors had the most major effect on a woman’s decision to enter the new venture creation forum, therefore satisfying the main research objectives of this study.

5.2 Networking Variables As previously discussed in Chapter 2, section?, a number of networking variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up a new business: access to networks, support and affiliation provided, and ultimately whether or not access to networks can be identified as a barrier to entry for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. Case Study A, B and C are now examined simultaneously with respect to these variables.

5.2.1 Access to Networks Both Case Studies A, B and C do not consider access to networks as having a major effect on women who are in the process of entering the

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new venture creation forum. All of the research respondents believe that for informal networking women decide what types of clubs or societies they wish to get involved with, so it is very much a personal choice. Case Study C did acknowledge that it may prove more difficult for some women if they decide to join golf club however, Case Study A and C are both involved with this type of informal networking. At present Case Study A and B are not involved in any type of formal networking but both parties stated that they would imagine that women have equal access to formal networking as men do, and that if they wanted to get involved with this process that the facilities would be readily available for women. Hence, Case Study A and B consider access to networks as having a minor effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. Case Study C also believes that women have equal access to networks as men do especially concerning formal networking, at present Network Ireland have eleven networks set up throughout Ireland so there is definitely an opportunity for women to join one of these networks, as they are based all over the mid-west region. Thus, Case Study C considers access to networks as having a minor effect on women setting up their own business. In conclusion Case Study A, B and C all consider access to networks as having a minor effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business.

5.2.2 Support and Affiliation Provided The literature revealed that networking is very important for women in business and many researchers contend that networking has long been established as a crucial and critical element for success in any professional career due to the various advantages afforded to an individual through its practice (Travers and Pemberton, (2000) and these results showed no exception. All of the respondents consider networking as being very important for the future success of their business. Case Study A stated that in addition to promoting your business and getting yourself known among the locals in the town there is also a great social element that be gained from being involved in networking. Thus, Case Study A considers networking as having a major effect regarding the future success of her business. Similarly, Case Study B revealed that networking is a great way to meet new people but more importantly a fantastic opportunity to promote your business. She further stated that she

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hopes by getting involved with formal networking she will get the opportunity to meet other women who have set up their own business and is confident that this process will be of great benefit to her and her venture. Thus, Case Study B regards networking as having a major effect concerning the future success of her business. Case Study C revealed that she has benefited enormously from formal networking and is confident that informal networking will benefit her business also. She stated that she has met some fantastic individuals through formal networking and has found this process extremely interesting. She further stated that formal networking has motivated her to succeed with her venture as she has been fortunate enough to meet some very successful business women through Network Ireland. For that reason, Case Study C considers networking as having a major effect concerning the future success of her business. In conclusion, both Case Studies A, B and C consider networking as having a major effect regarding the future success of their business.

5.2.3 Networking as a Barrier to Entry Case Study B and Case Study C do not consider networking to be a barrier to entry for women wishing to set up their own business. Both research respondents believe that women have equal access to networking facilities as men do. Hence, both Case Study B and Case Study C consider networking to have a minor effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process. Contrasting, Case Study A considers networking to have a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business. Case Study A felt that access to networks either formal or informal could be identified as a barrier for women setting up in business and in-turn prevent them from setting up their own business. Case Study A believes if women did not have equal access to networking as men did in particular with the formal networks, then this process may prove to be a very complex one for such an individual and in-turn they may not decide to go ahead with their venture. Thus, Case Study A considers networking to have a major effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. In conclusion Case Study A, Case Study B and Case Study C have opposing views on whether or not networking has a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business. Hence, the findings are deemed to be inconclusive.

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5.3 Mentoring Variables As previously discussed in Chapter 2, section?, a number of mentoring variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: access to mentors, availability to mentoring programmes, support and affiliation provided and whether or not access to mentors can be identified as a barrier to entry for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process. Case Study A, B and C are now examined simultaneously with respect to these variables.

5.3.1 Access to Mentors The literature has shown that there is a positive link between female career advancement and mentoring (Linehan & Walsh, 1999; Linehan et al, 2001). Evidence suggests that mentors may even be more critical to the career success of women than men (Kanter, 1997). This is applicable as seen below in the cross case analysis of Case Study A, B and C. Both Case Study A and B are closely involved in the mentoring process and both parties have an informal mentor who is assisting them in the process of setting up their own business. Case Study A and B believe that the mentoring process plays a very important role for women setting up their own business and they would consider access to mentors as crucial, especially for women. Case Study C is also involved in the mentoring process, at present she is a mentor to two ladies who are in the process of setting up their own business. Case Study C felt that as she had trained as a mentor and it is part of what she does in her business she was fortunate enough that she didn’t need one herself, but would encourage all women who are in the process of start up to engage in this process. Case Study C also revealed that it is vital that women have equal access to mentors as their male counterparts. All of the Respondents agreed that if women did not have access to mentors then this might deter them from entering the new venture creation forum and ultimately identified access to mentors as a barrier to entry. They thus deem access to mentors to be significant.

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In conclusion, Case Study A, Case Study B and Case Study C regard access to mentors as having a major effect on women entering the new venture creation process.

5.3.2 Availability to Mentoring Programmes Case Study A and B are involved in informal mentoring. They both revealed that if they did not have their mentors to assist them over the last few months they don’t know if they could have gone ahead with their venture, as this process has proved invaluable to them. Both Case Study A and B stated that they hoped the entrepreneurial field promotes mentoring programmes for women but neither party had actively gone out in search of a mentor. Both Case Study A and B agreed that if women did not have access to mentors or there was not adequate mentoring programmes available then this could deter many women from entering this field as they collectively agreed how beneficial this process can be for the career woman especially for the female entrepreneur. Case Study C stated that there are not enough mentoring programmes for women who are in the process of starting up in business to avail of and revealed this area need to be readdressed in conjunction with access to mentors. Case Study C revealed that the Irish Government need to focus their attention on implementing structured and formal mentoring programs in an effort to ensure that mentoring is more widely available to entrepreneurs and in particular female entrepreneurs. Thus Case Study C considers availability to mentoring programmes to have a major effect on women setting up their own business. Hence, Case Study A, B and C consider availability to mentoring programmes to have a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business and if women do not have sufficient access to the mentoring process then this may ultimately deter them from entering the new venture creation forum.

5.3.3 Support and Affiliation Provided The literature suggests that mentoring relationships can also be useful in building the candidates self-confidence and providing them with psychological support (Ragins, 1989; Crampton & Mishra, 1999; Okanlawon, 1994). Mentors can provide both psychological benefits (e.g. friendship, support, counseling and role modeling) and career-related

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benefits (e.g. coaching, increased visibility, sponsoring and protection; Kram, 1985) and these results show no exception. Both Case Study A and B agree that mentoring has played a crucial role in the succession of their career. They both revealed that they have received emotional support from their mentors in addition to career support and have benefited enormously from this process. Hence, Case Study A and B consider mentoring as being very important for the future success of their business. Case Study C reveals that she offers her men tee’s support and guidance, which is extremely important for women who are in the process of setting up a new business. In conclusion Case Study A, B and C consider mentoring as having a major effect regarding the future success of their business.

5.3.4 Mentoring as a Barrier to Entry Both Case Study A, B and C view mentoring as an essential aspect regarding the future success of their business. All of the research respondents agreed that if women did not have equal access to mentors or there were not adequate mentoring programmes available for women to participate in, this may ultimately deter women from entering the new venture creation process as they all believe that the mentoring process is a crucial component for the career woman but especially for the female entrepreneur. Thus, Case Study A, Case Study B and Case Study C consider mentoring to have a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business and ultimately if women did not have sufficient access to the mentoring process then this may deter them from entering the new venture creation process.

5.4 Finance As discussed in Chapter 2, section?, a number of finance variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: access to finance, support received, discrimination based on gender, access to information and whether or not access to finance can be identified as a perceived barrier for women wishing to enter the new venture creation process. Case Study A, B and C are now examined simultaneously with respect to these variables.

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5.4.1 Access to Financial Information The literature has revealed that many women may have particular problems with raising finance for their business and the issue of finance for start up, development and growth remains one of the most significant difficulties for female entrepreneurs (EC- Staff Working Paper, 2000. Previous research has suggested that it is more complex for women to raise start-up and recurrent business finance than their male counterparts and that woman are more probable to encounter credibility problems when dealing with financial institutions (Carter and Cannon, 1992). In this context, Carter (2000) has identified four areas of financing that previous research has recognised as potential problem areas for the female entrepreneur. Firstly women may be disadvantaged in their ability to raise start-up finance Carter (2000). Secondly, guarantees necessary for external finance may be beyond the scope of many women’s personal assets and credit track record with the bank Carter (2000). Thirdly, once the business is established, finance may be more difficult for the female entrepreneurs to raise than their male counterparts, because of the greater difficulties that women face in penetrating informal financial networks Carter (2000). Finally, the relationship between female entrepreneurs and bankers may suffer as a result of discrimination or sexual stereotyping Carter (2000). These will now be examined with reference to Case Study A, B and C. Case Study A is raising the start up capital for her business from a combination of self generated funds and a loan from her bank. Case Study A stated that she approached her local bank regarding raising the additional cash for her business venture they approved her loan almost immediately. She also revealed that she found them very pleasant to deal with and they provided her with a lot of information and time concerning this matter. When the issue of availability of information concerning financing options for her business arose, Case Study A stated that the bank provided her with a lot of information about the various loan packages that may be suitable for her to avail of and strongly believes that the information is available but individuals will have to source it themselves. Thus, Case Study A considers access to information to have a minor effect on women entering the new venture creation process. Case Study B is raising the capital for her venture from a combination of self generated funds and financial assistance from her parents. Case Study B revealed

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that it was never really an option for her to seek financial assistance either from the bank or from the government as her parents had informed her from the beginning that they would assist her with raising the additional capital for start up. Case Study B revealed that there is an abundance of information available for women when seeking a loan either from the state or from a financial institution however, the problem is if women are entitled to a grant for start up or a successful candidate for a loan. Consequently, Case Study B considers access to information to have a minor effect on women entering the new venture creation process. Contrastingly, Case Study C raised the capital for her business from self generated funds she revealed that as her start up costs were low she didn’t need to obtain financial assistance from the bank. Case Study C does not qualify for state support as she is a professional and has been educated. Case Study C then stated that if she had to rely on financial assistance from the bank it might have proved a rather difficult task as she is only 25 and already has a mortgage and more importantly it’s a new business. Case Study C believes that it can be more difficult for women to obtain financial assistance from the bank than men as many women may not have worked before so may not have a long credit history in the bank. Contrastingly, Case Study C thinks the area of availability to financial information needs to be reviewed by the Irish Government and imagines that many women do not know of the various financial options that are available from financial institutions when setting up a new business, she also stated that the issue of state supports needs to be re-examined as many women do not even know if they qualify for state support. Hence, Case Study C considers access to information to have a major effect on women entering the new venture creation process In conclusion, neither Case Study A nor B consider access to information to have a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up a new business and gave the element a minor rating respectively. However, Case Study C gave this element a major rating thus the findings are deemed to be inconclusive.

5.4.2 Discrimination Based on Gender Case Study A acknowledged that seeking financial assistance for start up may prove more difficult for women as opposed to their male counterparts

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but did not think that women are solely discriminated based on their gender when seeking financial assistance. Case Study A imagines financial institutions take into consideration several other issues when reviewing applications for a loan such as the type of business you are setting up, credit history with the bank and the candidates previous work experience to name a few. Consequently, Case Study A considers discrimination based on gender to have a moderate effect on women wishing to enter the new venture forum. Case Study B also recognised that women encounter greater difficulty than men when seeking financial assistance but did not think that women were discriminated on their gender alone. Case Study B believes credit history is a key factor when applying for a loan and as many women may not have worked before the banks may be hesitant to approve them a loan. Hence both Case Study A and B consider discrimination based on gender to have a moderate effect on women wishing to set up their own business. Similarly, Case Study C also recognised that for many women obtaining financial assistance can prove to be a very difficult process. Case Study C made reference to one of the ladies whom she mentors as at present she is experiencing great difficulties in raising the capital for start up as the banks did not approve her loan application. Case Study C believes this is because she is a single parent and has a young family to support however; the other lady whom she mentors did not experience any problems when seeking financial assistance as her husband is involved in the building industry and the banks would know him personally. In conclusion both Case Studies A, B and C regard discrimination based on gender as having a moderate effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business but did not believe that it deters them from entering the new venture process.

5.4.3 Finance as a Barrier to Entry Case Study A, B and C collectively agreed that access to finance is probably one of the key reasons why more women aren’t setting up their own business and acknowledged obtaining finance is the biggest hurdle to overcome when entering this field. Case Study A stated that if the finance is not available then you couldn’t go ahead with your business idea. Case study B believes that if she had not received financial support from her

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family then she would not be in a position to proceed any further with her venture and presumes that many women may not choose to go down this road, as they might not have the funds to invest in the business or possess a strong credit history to receive a loan from a financial institution. Case Study C revealed that if you could not obtain financial assistance and did not have the funds to invest in the business then it would certainly put people off the idea. In conclusion, Case Studies A, B and C consider finance to have a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business and if women could not obtain the finance for start up then this could deter them from entering the new venture creation forum.

5.5 Family Responsibilities As discussed in Chapter, section?, a number of family responsibility variables have been found to affect women who are in the process of setting up their own business: family commitment, support provided, childcare support and whether or not family responsibility can be identified as a barrier for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. Case Study A, B, and C are now examined with reference to these variables.

5.5.1 Family Commitment Case Study A is a 26-year old single woman. Case Study A revealed that she could not proceed with her business venture if she had the responsibility of looking after a young family and is one of the main reasons why she decided to set up her own business while she is still young. She further stated that she anticipates that this process is going to be extremely time consuming and demanding, therefore if she had a young family to look after she does not think she would be able to manage the dual responsibility of work and family responsibilities. For that reason Case Study A considers family commitment to have a major effect for women setting up their own business. Case Study B is a 25- year single woman and does not have the responsibility of looking after children. Case Study B revealed that she hopes when the time comes to start a family her business will be established so she would be in a financial position to employ another instructor to share the workload. Case Study B also stated this is one of the

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key reasons why she decided to set her own business while she is still young and does not have the responsibility of looking after a family. Thus, Case Study B considers family commitment to have a major effect on women setting up their own business and believes that many women who have the responsibility of looking after a family may not decide to enter the new venture creation process. Case Study C is a 25-year-old single woman. Case Study C revealed that it was a huge decision for her to leave her full time job but one of the reasons at the back of her mind for setting up her own business was if she did it now while she is still young then hopefully the business will be developed by the time she decides to settle down and start a family. Case Study C further stated she is confident that when the business is established and she is financially secure then she will have more flexibility with her time however, if she had young children to look after now then she would not be setting up her own business as she is literally working round the clock and it would not be an ideal situation if she had a young family to look after. For that reason Case Study C considers family responsibility to have a major effect for women setting up their own business and believes that many women who have the responsibility of looking after a family may not decide to go down this route. To conclude, both Case Studies A, B, and C consider family commitment to have a major effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

5.5.2 Support Provided Case Study A revealed that she imagines when she starts a family her husband will share the responsibility of looking after the children. She revealed that it is crucial that women receive adequate support from their partners and that women should not maintain direct responsibility of looking after the children. Case Study A then stated if she had a young family to look after and her partner did not offer her any support then she would not be in a position to set up her own business. Thus, Case Study A considers family support to have a major effect for women setting up their own business and if women did not receive adequate support from their partners this may deter them from setting up their own business.

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Case Study B believes that it is vital that women receive sufficient support from their partners when raising a family; she also revealed that the onus of responsibility should not be on the woman when looking after the children and believes the workload should be evenly distributed. Case Study B stated that it is even more critical when setting up a new business that women receive adequate support from their partners. Case Study B revealed that if she had a young family to look after at present and was not receiving any support from her partner then setting up a new business would not be a realistic option for her. Hence, Case Study B considers family support to have a major effect on women setting up in business and ultimately if women did not receive support from their partners the new venture creation process may not be a realistic option for them. Similarly, Case Study C revealed that the issue of support from family members and your partner is crucial when setting up a new business. Case Study C also believes that the responsibility of looking after children is not left solely with the woman and that the workload is evenly distributed. Case Study C revealed that if women did not receive support from their partners concerning childcare arrangements then entering the new venture creation process would not be a practical option for them. Thus, Case Study C considers family support to have a major effect on women setting up in business and ultimately if women did not receive support from their partners the new venture creation process would not be a realistic option for them. In conclusion, both Case Studies A, B, and C consider the issue of family support to have a major effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

5.5.3 Childcare Support Case Study A revealed that the issue of childcare support is an area that needs to be reviewed by the Irish Government. She stated that at present there is a situation where the demand for these services far exceeds the supply and if these services were not available for women then what other alternative do they have. She also believes that the expenses concerning childcare arrangements in Ireland are far too expensive and this area also needs to be re-assessed. Hence, Case Study A considers childcare support to have a major effect on women setting up their own business and

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believes that the burden of childcare support may deter many women from entering the new venture creation process. Case Study B is a qualified Montessori teacher and has worked in this profession for three years and revealed that it can be extremely difficult for working mothers in Ireland to find good affordable childcare services for their children. She also believes that this area needs to be reviewed and agrees that the costs regarding childcare are far too expensive. Case Study B further stated that if she had to rely solely on childcare support this could prove rather difficult, as finding suitable services is a problem in itself but the prices incurred would definitely be a financial strain. Hence, Case Study B considers childcare support to have a “major effect” on women setting up their own business and for many women the issue of childcare support may deter them from setting up their own business. Similarly, Case Study C also believes that the issue of childcare support needs to be readdressed. Case Study C agrees that the Irish Government needs to re-evaluate this situation and try and help out as much as they can regarding childcare costs and increasing childcare facilities in Ireland. Case Study C further stated that when you are self employed you no longer have a steady income to rely on and if you had a young family to support then many women may reconsider going down this road as the financial costs incurred concerning childcare may be too expensive for many families. Thus, Case Study C considers childcare support to have a major effect on women entering the new venture creation forum and believes that the issue of childcare support may deter women from entering this field. In conclusion, both Case Studies A, B and C consider childcare support to have a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business.

5.5.4 Family Responsibility as a Barrier to Entry Case Study A believes that many women may run successful businesses even if they have a young family to support but acknowledges that it can prove rather difficult if women do not receive adequate support from their partners or they find the costs regarding childcare too expensive. Hence, Case Study A considers family responsibility to have a moderate effect on women setting up their own business and acknowledges it as a barrier

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for women who are in the process of setting up their own business but does not believe that it deters women from entering this field. Contrastingly, Case Study B revealed that she believes family responsibility could be perceived as a barrier to entry for many women wishing to set up their own business. Case Study B stated that she understands why many women in today’s society may opt for Monday to Friday jobs as opposed to running their own business especially if they had young children to support as this route is an extremely time consuming process and may not be a realistic option for many women to pursue. Case Study B also believes that is why a lot of younger women are setting up their own business as it is probable that these women do not have the responsibility of looking after a family. Thus, Case Study B considers Family Responsibility to have a major effect on women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum and believes many women who have the responsibility of looking after a family may not choose to go down this road. Case Study C revealed that if she had a family to support at present then she would not be considering the idea of setting up her own business. She further stated she would most likely wait until the children were older and then consider the option of entering the new venture creation process. Case Study C stated that it is crucial that you are 100% committed to your business venture especially during the start up stages and understands that if you had a young family to look after, the idea of setting up a new business may not appeal to many women, as it is such a time consuming process. Hence, Case Study C considers Family Responsibility to have a major effect on women wishing to start their own business and many women who have a young family to support may not decide to go down the route of being self employed. Thus, Case Study A, B and C have opposing views on whether family responsibility can be perceived as a barrier to entry for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. Thus the findings are deemed to be inconclusive.

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5.6 Emerging Themes Whilst undertaking the case study analysis of Case Study A, B and C, one additional theme emerged that was not present in the Conceptual Framework: age as a factor in entering the new venture creation process (Family Responsibility). Both Case Studies A, B and C agree that this factor had an important role to play when deciding whether or not to set up their own business. This section reveals both Case Studies A, B, and C’s views regarding this factor.

5.6.1 Age Case Study A revealed that one of the key reasons why she is undertaking this venture is that she is still young and does not have the responsibility of looking after a family. She believes that this would not be a realistic option for her to pursue if she had a young family to support, and anticipates that her business will be developed when the time comes to start a family. Similarly, Case Study B agreed and revealed that she decided to undertake this venture while she is still young and does not have any responsibilities. She further stated that she believes this is why many younger women are entering the new venture creation process or that many women may wait until their children are older before setting up their own business. Case Study B believes that this would not be a realistic option for her if she had the responsibility of looking after a young family, as at present all of her time is being monopolised with her business venture. Case Study B also anticipates that her business will be established by the time she starts a family. Case Study C also revealed that she hopes her business will be established by the time she settles down and also stated that she decided to undertake this venture while she is still young and has no responsibilities: “I suppose as I’m still young and I’m not thinking in that line I have told myself I have no commitments now and if I fail I fail, so I may as well go out there and give it a shot while I still have the opportunity to do so”. Case Study C agrees that many younger women are setting up in business at present as this process may prove rather difficult if women have the responsibility of looking after a family, and may decide to undertake this

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venture while they are young, in a hope that there business will be developed when the time comes to start a family. Thus, in addition to the numerous factors contained within the Conceptual Framework, age was found to have had a major effect on Case Study A, B and C’s decision on entering the new venture creation forum.

5.7 Summary This chapter revealed the results from the cross case analysis. This analysis was achieved by comparing the findings from each of the single case analysis studies. In a parallel manner to the single case analysis, the cross case analysis of Case Study A, B and C was conducted by examining each of the research respondents with respect to the elements present within the Conceptual Framework. In the previous chapter each of the case studies assigned a rating of importance to each of the elements developed in the Conceptual Framework. Each element was deemed to have had either a minor, moderate or major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business. Where each case study assigned the same rating to a particular element, this is perceived as conclusive confirmation of the accuracy of the result. When research respondents had differing views concerning the same element, the result of the cross case analysis was considered to be inconclusive. In the next chapter, the final conclusions of the study will be presented. Table 5.1 Summary of the findings of the Cross Case Analysis Concepts Access to Networks Support and Affiliation Provided Networking As a Barrier to Entry Access to Mentors Support and Guidance Provided

Case Study A Minor

Case Study B Minor

Case Study C Minor

Cross Case Analysis Minor

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Minor

Minor

Inconclusive

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Cross Case Analysis Availability to Mentoring Programmes Mentoring As a Barrier to Entry Availability to Financial Information Discrimination Based on Gender Finance As a Barrier to Entry Family Commitments Support Provided Childcare Support Family Responsibility As a Barrier to Entry Emerging Theme: Age

101

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Minor

Minor

Major

Inconclusive

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major

Major Major

Major Major

Major Major

Major Major

Moderate

Major

Major

Inconclusive

Major

Major

Major

Major

Notes on Table 5.1: *Even though the results concerning one of the family responsibility variables were inconclusive, each of the remaining variables (family commitment, support provided, and childcare support) were deemed to be significant enough to earn a triple weighting and hence overall, family responsibility variables were considered to have a major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business. **Although one of the finance variables was deemed to be inconclusive, the subject of Finance overall is considered as having a major effect on women setting up their own business thus, finance variables were adjudged as having a major effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

6.1 Introduction In chapter 5 the conclusions of the research study were revealed. These conclusions were based on the findings from the literature reviewed in Chapter 2 and the primary research results and analysis. These findings are subsequently used in order to address the research objectives of this study that were outlined in Chapter 1. This chapter gives an overview concerning how the three research objectives of this study were satisfied. This chapter then reveals the contribution that this study has made to the theory and discusses the implications that these conclusions have for policy and procedures. The author has also proposed some implications for nascent female entrepreneurs based on the empirical findings of this study. Finally, the limitations of the study are discussed and recommendations are made for future research. As previously discussed in Chapter 1, section 1.3, the primary objective of this research was to build a theory concerning the barriers or challenges that are considered to have the most major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process. Three objectives also emerged from the main research issue, which were: Research Objective One: To explore the challenges and barriers faced by the nascent female entrepreneurs during the start up phase of business and in-turn clarifying which of these challenges or barriers was considered to have the most major effect for the nascent entrepreneur as she embarks on this process.

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Research Objective Two: The second research objective was to explore family responsibility and its consequences for the female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. Research Objective Three: To assess the challenges and barriers that have the most significant affect on women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum, and to subsequently build a theory that concerns the barriers or challenges that have the most major effect for women wishing to start their own business.

6.2 Conclusion: Research Objective One The first research objective was to explore the challenges and barriers faced by female entrepreneurs during the start up phase of business and inturn clarifying which of these challenges or barriers was considered as having the most major effect for the nascent entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. In achieving research objective one the empirical findings revealed that mentoring was considered to be the most significant of all the four barriers present within the Conceptual Framework, as mentoring contained more major effect variables than either networking, finance or family responsibility and because each of the four mentoring variables received a unanimous rating of major effect by all three case studies. These findings agreed with the literature (Hisrich and Brush, 1987: Kanter, 1997) who advocates that mentoring is critical for women particularly and plays an important role during the start up phase of business. The empirical findings revealed that mentoring has provided these individuals emotional support in addition to career related support therefore; these findings support the literature (Ragins, 1989). Case Study C agreed with the (GEM, 2004), findings and believes that the lack of mentoring facilities available for women is a significant barrier facing women in the small business sector. The empirical findings of this study indicate that all three case studies place a large emphasis on the mentoring process therefore; these findings support the literature (Goodbody Report, 2002). In conclusion based on the empirical findings of this study mentoring are considered as having the most major effect for female nascent entrepreneurs. Hence, the primary objective of this study has been achieved.

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6.2.1 Conclusion: Research Objective 2 The second research objective of this study was to explore family responsibility and its consequences for the nascent female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. The empirical findings indicate that family responsibility and its sub-elements have a major effect for the nascent female entrepreneur. Therefore, the second research objective of this study has been satisfied as the primary research findings revealed that family responsibility and its sub-elements: family commitment, support provided, childcare support and family responsibility as a barrier to entry have a major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

6.2.2 Conclusion: Research Objective 3 The third and final research objective of the study was to assess the challenges and barriers that have the most major affect for women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum, and to subsequently build a theory that concerns the barriers or challenges that have the most major effect for women wishing to start their own business. Fig 6.1 illustrates the Descriptive Framework, which was developed based on the factors present within the Conceptual Framework that was developed in Chapter 2 of this study and the findings from the empirical research. In conclusion by constructing a Descriptive Framework, this study has proposed a theory concerning the barriers and challenges faced by women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum and have consequently satisfied the final research objective of this study.

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Fig 6.1 The Descriptive Framework: The barriers affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process

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6.3 Contribution to Theory This section reveals the contribution that this study has made to the theory. The conclusions presented in Chapter 5 have made the following contributions to theory:

6.3.1 Mentoring have the most major effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum The empirical findings presented in chapter 5 revealed that mentoring are considered to be the most significant of all the four barriers present within the Conceptual Framework because they contain more major effect variables than either networking, finance or family responsibility and since each of the four mentoring variables received a unanimous rating of major effect by all three case studies who participated in this research study. The literature identified finance as the primary obstacle for female entrepreneurs (Gundy, Ben-Yoseph and Posig, 2002, p.72). However, this research study identified mentoring and its sub-elements as the biggest hurdle for the nascent female entrepreneur. The literature revealed that despite the importance of mentoring for the career woman and in particular to the nascent female entrepreneur it is believed that women entrepreneurs do not have access to this type of support and affiliation in comparison to their male counterparts. Therefore, these findings have numerous implications for women entering the new venture creation process. Most significantly if women do not have equal access to mentors, or there are not adequate mentoring programmes available for women, this may ultimately deter women from entering the new venture creation forum.

6.3.2 Family Responsibility have a major effect for women entering the new venture creation process The second research objective of this study was to explore family responsibility and its consequences for the female entrepreneur during the start up phase of business. During the cross case analysis, all three case studies were examined with respect to the following family responsibility variables: family commitments support provided, childcare support and ultimately whether family responsibility could be identified as a barrier to entry for women wishing to enter the new venture creation forum. Based

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on the empirical findings of this study these conclusions have many implications for women setting up in business. Most significantly if women do not receive adequate support from their respective partners concerning the responsibility of looking after their children this may deter them from entering the new venture creation process. The literature revealed that although men have increased their involvement regarding domestic responsibilities, their contribution is still inferior to that of women (Hessing, 1994). Therefore, it is imperative that the playing field is leveled in order to entice more women to enter the entrepreneurial process. In addition if there are not sufficient and affordable childcare facilities available for women this may also deter them from entering this field. The GEM report (2004), also supported this view; the findings indicate that the issue of the high costs associated with childcare are perceived to be a major barrier deterring women from establishing their own business. All of the case studies revealed that if they had the responsibility of looking after a young family at present then they would not be in a position to proceed with their business venture. Chaganti et al., 1986 also supported this finding he revealed that seeking balance in work-family life has been established as a significant factor in a woman’s decision to start a business however, women business owners still appear to experience much greater conflict than men in managing family and work life (Parasuraman et al., 1996). Case Study A, Case Study B and Case Study C had opposing views concerning family responsibility as a barrier to entry for women. Case Study B and Case Study C assigned this sub-element a major effect rating respectively however, case study A considered this factor to have a moderate effect for women entering this process. Therefore, since there was no consensus concerning this element an aggregate of the results was taken into consideration and this sub-element was deemed as having a major effect for women entering the new venture craetyion forum. The literature also supported this finding according to Mavin, 2001 a central ideology expressed throughout literature is that women experience conflict concerning their ability to juggle or play the role of wife/partner, primary care giver and realising their career ambitions. The direct effect of this conflict is that women are forced to choose between maintaining ‘upward mobility’ in their career and family stability in the home or even a family at all” (Mavin 2001, p. 183).

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Thus, in summation family responsibility was given a rating of major effect overall because the majority of case studies considered this subelement as having a major effect for women entering the entrepreneurial field.

6.3.3 The theory proposed could be used to explore the challenges and barriers that have the most major effect for women who are in the process of setting up a new business. In section 6.2.2 a Descriptive Framework was constructed based on the factors present within the Conceptual Framework and the empirical findings from the primary research. The theory proposed could be used in further studies to investigate the factors that have the most major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

6.3.4 Networking as a Barrier to Entry Three of the fourteen sub-elements present within the Conceptual Framework have not been included in the Descriptive Framework: networking as a barrier to entry, availability to financial information and family responsibility as a barrier to entry. Case Study A, Case Study B and Case Study C had differing views regarding the significance of these factors for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process. Therefore, since all three case studies had opposing views concerning these elements an aggregate of the findings of the cross case analysis was taken into account and all three factors were not incorporated in the Descriptive Framework. For the purpose of this research study only sub-elements that all three case studies considered as having a major effect for women entering the new venture creation process were included in the final Descriptive Framework. Both case study B and case study C did not consider networking as a barrier to entry to have a major effect for women who are in the process of setting up a new business. They both agreed that it is a personal choice what types of clubs, activities or organisations you wish to get involved in. Case study C revealed that she was not involved in any type of networking before she set up her business. Case study B revealed that if you were 100% committed to your idea then you would do everything within reach to make your business a success. Therefore, both case studies gave this element a minor rating respectively. Contrastingly, case study A considered

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this factor to have a major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process. Case study A revealed that “It’s always good to be sociable I think, especially when your in a small town like Birr, you can get to meet a vast amount of individuals and strike up friendships, and of course if you are friendly people will come into your shop because they know you, it can be great for business but its also a nice social outlet for me as well”. Case study A further stated “If women did not have equal access to networking facilities then this process may prove rather complex and this may ultimately result in women not entering the new venture creation process”. It is probable that case study C may have assigned a rating of major effect to this sub-element as she lives in a small town and deems networking as a key feature concerning the future success of her business. Case study C also benefited enormously from being involved in various types of networking facilities in her hometown of Birr. Therefore, it is advisable that this factor should be further investigated before it is permanently excluded from the Descriptive Framework.

6.3.5 Availability to Financial Information Availability to financial information was the second element of the Conceptual Framework, which was omitted from the Descriptive Framework. Case Study A did not consider availability to financial information to have a major effect for women who are in the process of setting up a new business and gave this factor a minor rating respectively. Case Study A is raising the capital for her business venture from a combination of self generated funds and a loan from a financial institution. She revealed that the bank provided her with an abundance of information regarding this matter and she found them very approachable. However, case study A revealed that as she lives in a small town therefore, she would know her bank manager on a personal level. Therefore, this process may have been biased as case study A’s father runs a very successful business in Birr and would know the bank manager on a personal level. Similarly, case study B did not regard this factor to have a major effect for women and also gave this factor a minor rating respectively. She stated that she imagines that there is sufficient financial information available for women but the onus is on the women to seek the information herself. However, case study B is raising the capital from a combination of self generated funds and assistance from her family therefore, she did not have

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to seek financial assistance or obtain information concerning financial options available to her. Contrastingly, case study C firmly believes that this factor has a major effect for women who are in the process of setting up a new business and revealed that many women are not informed about the various finance options that are available to them when setting up a new business venture. Case Study C also stated that the issue of state support needs to be reviewed by the Irish Government, as many women may not even know if they qualify to receive state support. When the issue of state support arose during the interviews case study A and case study B both revealed that they did not know if they were entitled to seek additional financial assistance as neither party were familiar with this issue. However, case study C would be very knowledgeable in this area as she tried to secure state support for her own business venture. Case study C is also a mentor to two women therefore, she has a strong understanding concerning the difficulties women experience when seeking financial assistance for their business. Therefore, it is probable that she may have assigned this rating as a result of personal experiences she has encountered or observed through the mentoring process. However, all three case studies collectively agreed that finance had a major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process and revealed that if women could not generate the capital for start up it was probable that they would not proceed any further with their venture. Therefore, it is imperative that this factor is examined further before it can be permanently excluded from the Descriptive Framework.

6.3.6 Family Responsibility as a Barrier to Entry Family Responsibility was the third and final element of the Conceptual Framework, which was not included in the Descriptive Framework. Case Study B and Case Study C considered this factor to have a major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process and both stated that many women who have a young family to support may not decide to go down the route of being self-employed as it can be a very time consuming process.

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However, case study A considered this factor to have a moderate effect for women who are in the process of setting up a new business, although case study A acknowledged that this factor can be a barrier for many women she does not believe that it ultimately deters women from entering this field. Case Study A revealed that there are a number of additional factors that have to be taken into consideration when you have a family to support but does not believe having children deters women from setting up in business. Nevertheless, case study A deemed family commitment, support provided and childcare support as having a major effect for women entering the new venture creation process therefore, it is apparent that if women could not afford or find suitable childcare facilities for their children or they were not receiving any support from their respective partners concerning domestic responsibilities, it is quite probable that these women would not be in a position to enter the new venture creation process. Thus, this factor also warrants further study before it can be permanently omitted from the Descriptive Framework.

6.3.7 Emerging Themes included in the Descriptive Framework One additional theme emerged while conducting the case study analysis: age of women entering the new venture creation process. All of the research respondents considered this factor to have a major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum and as a result this factor was included in the final Descriptive Framework. Similarly, all of three case studies revealed that this issue had a significant role to play when deciding whether or not to enter the new venture creation process.

6.3.8 Age All of the three case studies who participated in this study revealed that one of the primary reasons they were undertaking their business venture at present was that they were all in their early twenty’s and did not have the responsibility of looking after a family. The three case studies collectively agreed that this process would not have been possible or practical if they had a young family to support. Similarly they all stated that they anticipate that their business will be established and developed by the time they decide to start a family. All three case

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studies further stated that they strongly imagine this is why many younger women are entering the new venture creation process or why many women may decide to wait until their children are older before setting up their own business, as this process may prove rather difficult if women have the responsibility of looking after a family. Case Study A, case study B and case study C revealed that if they had the responsibility of looking after young children then they would not be in a position to enter the new venture creation process, as at present all of their time is being monopolised with their business venture. Hence, in addition to the numerous factors present within the Conceptual Framework, age was found to have had a major effect on all three case studies decision to enter the new venture creation forum and justifies its inclusion in the final Descriptive Framework. Thus, it is advisable that this factor warrants further investigation and it is hoped that future studies will be carried out in order to examine this subject comprehensively.

6.4 Family Responsibilities: Implications for Policy and Procedures Based on the empirical findings of this research and a comprehensive review of the literature, the author has outlined the following implications for policy and procedure concerning the four barriers that were examined in this research study. Women should not conform to societal pressures: It is evident that the notion that women are the primary carers and men are the breadwinner’s remains intact in today’s society. However, in order for this stigma to shift women must not conform to societal pressures and expectations regarding their working lives. It is therefore necessary that women must accept direct responsibility and confront these stereotypes embedded in society in an effort to overcome them. It is also imperative that the playing field must be levelled regarding the sharing of family responsibility between men and women in order to entice more women entrepreneurs to enter the new venture creation process. Review government policies concerning childcare: Good, affordable childcare is also prominent in this conflict. Currently there is a situation where the demand for these childcare services, far exceeds the supply. In order to encourage more women in Ireland to set up their own business

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more crèche/childcare facilities must be provided in order to overcome this barrier. The increasing burden of childcare costs is an issue that is frequently raised by women entrepreneurs in Ireland. The cost of childcare is increasing all the time, leading many women desiring to engage in entrepreneurial activity to question is it worth it? The Goodbody Report (2002) specified that the expenses incurred regarding childcare facilities in Ireland were felt to be very high and required women entrepreneurs to be quickly successful if they were to combine entrepreneurial and family commitments. The GEM report (2004) also supported this view; the findings indicate that the issue of the high costs associated with childcare are perceived to be a major barrier deterring women from establishing their own business. Therefore, it is apparent from examining the literature that this is a key social and political issue that needs to be addressed. Government policies concerning childcare need to be reviewed and a comprehensive policy on childcare must be brought forward in an effort to increase the growth of women led businesses in the Irish economy. This policy should focus on key aspects such as affordability and cost effectiveness, addressing the lack of availability of childcare facilities, and ensuring that quality is an essential feature of the childcare system. The aim of this policy should be to significantly reduce the burden on working mothers. Tax relief: Tax relief is also a key consideration that should be addressed. Fortunately, the Irish government indicated in the current estimates for the 2007 budget that childcare including crèche facilities are being allocated a substantial amount of money, which will go some way towards offsetting the high costs associated with childcare encountered by working parents. The existing exemption limit of up to (€)10,000 per annum on gross income from child minding where an individual minds up to three children, is being increased to (€)15,000 per annum (www.revenue.ie).

6.4.1 Finance: Implications for Policy and Procedures Investigate relationship between female entrepreneurs and financial institutions: Access to finance is a crucial element to the new venture creation process, it is essential that an in -depth investigation regarding the relationship between banks and female entrepreneurs is undertaken, with the intention of obtaining an insight into the banks perception and attitudes towards female entrepreneurs. This would assist to unearth the relationship

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between financial institutions and entrepreneurs, therefore aiding gender comparisons. Identify common problems experienced by women when seeking finance: The common problems women face in seeking financial assistance must also be identified, defined and explained. A review of credit schemes that have worked in other countries and may be applicable in Ireland should be researched in-depth. Develop a campaign for women business association’s in Ireland: There should be a campaign for women business association’s in Ireland who could distribute funds to their members. This has proven enormously successful in Africa, where the African Development Bank listened to the requirements of their women associations. It now has a “Women in Development” division advising the bank. The United Republic of Tanzania have adopted a similar approach and set up the “Small Industries Development Organisation” which established a women’s desk that surveys the needs of female entrepreneurs and devises programs that assists them in attaining finance. This has been extremely successful, in a period of two years, loans for women business owners have increased from 35 to 129. This could be particularly beneficial for women entrepreneurs if a similar organisation was implemented in the financial institutions in Ireland. Re-evaluation of funding in the service sector: According to the GEM report (2004) as women led businesses are inclined to be less growth and export oriented, female entrepreneurs are eligible less often than their male counterparts for funding support from the development agencies. With a particular shortage of funding accessible for the services sector, a reevaluation of funding criteria for women in the service sector is crucial. Increase awareness of financing options available to women: Women also seem to have less access to information than men do about the possibilities for financing options accessible to them. Several financial opportunities are potentially available to entrepreneurs. The instruments for finance most regularly sought by women are bank and government loans, regardless of a wider range of existing alternatives available to them. In order to overcome this barrier it is imperative that awareness is created of the various financial possibilities available to women. In turn this may help boost the number of women setting up their own business as

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access to capital is consistently reported in the literature as one of the main stability blocks preventing women from establishing their own business in greater numbers. Assess business plans on merit: Another recommendation for financial institutions is that business plans must be assessed on individual merits and not on the gender of the entrepreneur. This way, it is probable to avoid issues of gender discrimination. Finance for female-owned businesses must also be made more available and the attitudes and outlook of some banking managers towards women business owners need to be addressed. Based on the empirical findings of this research study the author recommends the following implications for the Irish Government and Financial Institutions to undertake, in order to entice more female entrepreneurs to the new venture creation forum. Table 6.1 Implications for Irish Government and Financial Institutions Implications for Policy and Procedures x Offer women low cost start up loans x Develop a loan fund specifically targeted at women entrepreneurs x Offer women additional financial support during the start up phase of their business x Offer better incentives for entrepreneurs to enter the new venture creation process x Offer training or support for women entrepreneurs who lack the necessary skills and knowledge needed to set up a business x Target women in particular in advertising campaigns in order to entice them to enter the new venture creation process x Provide more entrepreneurial education in secondary & third level institutions in order to build awareness x Introduce motivation, confidence and coaching programs for women

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The incorporation of these factors may imply that women would be better equipped entering the new venture creation process and therefore the rate of female entrepreneurial activity in the Irish economy may increase in the foreseeable future.

6.4.2 Mentoring: Implications for Policy and Procedures Implement formal mentoring programmes: Mentoring relationships are crucial to the career woman especially to the female entrepreneur during the start up process of their business. Research suggests that despite the importance of mentors for entrepreneurs it is believed that female entrepreneurs do not have equal access to this type of support and affiliation in comparison to their male counterparts. Therefore, it is crucial that in order to overcome this barrier, government policies need to focus their attention on implementing structured and formal mentoring programs in an effort to ensure that mentoring is more widely available to entrepreneurs and in particular female entrepreneurs. It is imperative that sufficient mentoring programmes are available for women entrepreneurs through which new entrepreneurs are assigned a personal mentor. These mentors should be experienced business-women who understand the numerous problems encountered during the start up phase of business development and are in a position to offer individually tailored support and advice to female entrepreneurs. Target young entrepreneurs: It is also advisable that mentoring programmes should be designed for young female entrepreneurs; these could prove extremely beneficial especially for those women who want to develop their business. It is also recommended that these programmes should employ successful women entrepreneurs to assist with delivering these programmes. If the mentoring process was reevaluated this may assist in increasing the number of women-led businesses in the Irish economy as mentoring is invaluable to the female entrepreneurs, as evident in this research study, where mentoring was identified as the most significant barrier for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum.

6.4.3 Networking: Implications for Policy and Procedures Improve access to networks: It is evident that many women business owners in today’s society frequently lack colleagues at their level of business, and networks can assist these women to meet individuals in a

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parallel position (Hisrich & Brush, 1986). Networking, like mentoring, can provide women with important information that is necessary to perform in their role effectively but it can also be an important source of career guidance and or opportunities for advancement. This is perhaps why networking has become known as a form of peer mentoring ( Lahtinen and Wilson, 1994). However, according to GEM (2004), one of the greatest barriers facing women in the small business sector is the lack of network facilities available to them. Many women entrepreneurs were largely found not to be targeted by such organisations (Moore & Buttner, 1997). According to (Hisrich and Brush 1986), whilst in every stage of the new venture, you require a strong support system and an advisory panel; you need them especially throughout the early process of the new venture creation. It is therefore imperative that this matter is addressed; active measures need to be taken regarding the limited access to formal network facilities encountered by women in an effort to increase the level of female entrepreneurial activity in Ireland and to sustain the development of existing female led businesses. Develop networking web pages for women: Another solution is to develop web pages and web links for women entrepreneurs. Through these Internet Web Pages, women may look to other female entrepreneurs for advice, support, career strategies, finding mentors, links to other websites providing career assistance, providing chat room services and creating a support system for one another (Knouse et al., 1992). This could prove extremely beneficial for those women who are not involved in formal or informal networking as they may use the Internet as the basis for their network contacts. This type of informal networking would be extremely accessible as many women in today’s society have access to the Internet through either home or work connections furthermore, electronic mail will provide these women instant access to individuals around the world. In the United States of America numerous women and minority organisations offer extensive web pages that offer their members names for possible network contacts, career information and linkages to other sites (Knouse et al., 2001). A number of specialised women Web pages are appearing to be of great assistance to women entrepreneurs and executives such as Working Women Network, Women’s Forum ( Gilbert, 2000) and Women at the Top (Knouse et al., 2001). If such services were available for female entrepreneurs in Ireland this may enhance the Networking facilities for women in the small business sector.

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6.4.4 Implications for Nascent Female Entrepreneurs Based on the empirical findings of this research study the author has prepared the following implications for the nascent female entrepreneur. The nascent female entrepreneur could adopt the following implications before they embark with their business venture in order to ensure this transition runs as smoothly as possible. Critical Role of a Business Plan- This is a crucial aspect for women entrepreneurs. Without a business plan, a business is fundamentally without direction, a competent business plan will show potential investors that you have confidence in your venture and have thought about future circumstances. The Dublin Business Innovation Centre in their guide for entrepreneurs when dealing with investors reveals that organising a satisfactory business plan is a gruelling but essential exercise. Therefore, it is imperative that women entrepreneurs have devised a proficient business plan before they enter the new venture creation process. Hire a Good Accountant- It is critical that women integrate the cost of a good accountant into their business plan. Whatever field of business you are entering in, a reputable accountant is vital. They may assist the entrepreneur with numerous aspects of their business such as preparing cash flow forecasts, handling business forms, income tax, VAT, therefore allowing the entrepreneur additional time to proceed with you business venture. Cash Flow is King- The primary reason for the low survival rate of many SMEs is cash flow. It is imperative that the entrepreneur puts procedures in place in order to ensure that they will get paid on time. Slow payment is a chief problem area for many entrepreneurs; several entrepreneurs may have to wait numerous months to receive payment, even though there is legislation in place in order to ensure this doesn’t happen. It is significant that the entrepreneur is persistent in issuing and collecting invoices. Experience the Business First- It is advisable that the entrepreneur has some prior experience about the business they are entering if possible. This would assist in reducing the risks involved in setting up your own business. Many successful business people make a point about acquiring some practical experience of the actual business so they can understand every element of the new business. There is no such thing as a sure thing in today’s business world but tried and true is indeed a sound philosophy.

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Identify your Unique Selling Point- It is imperative that the nascent entrepreneur can identify their unique selling point in order to differentiate themselves from their competitors. The entrepreneur needs to ask themselves what is unique about their business and more importantly why will customers buy or use their product or service. A new service or product needs to attract the attention of customers especially if you are operating in a market where there is not much difference between products or the services you offer. Therefore, this is a key aspect for all nascent entrepreneurs. Consider all Options Available- The entrepreneur should investigate all alternatives before they commence in business. There are a number of options available such as the franchising route, or buying an established business this may be an easier option as opposed to starting a company from scratch as there will be already an established customer base. Therefore, the entrepreneur needs to seriously consider all options before they start. Engage in Networking/Mentoring Facilities- It is advisable that the nascent entrepreneur participates in networking and or mentoring activities. These can prove very beneficial for the career woman and offers women the opportunity to interact and form relationships with other business people. The nascent entrepreneur should find out what types of programmes are available that may be of interest to them prior to commencing in business. Sourcing Bank Finance- There is three sources of finance available for the nascent entrepreneur, grants, equity and bank finance. It is imperative that the entrepreneur finds out if they are entitled to receive any grants or financial support. If the entrepreneur can organise this aspect of finance before approaching the financial institution they be more probable to be successful with their application to the bank. This is because many banks require that loan applicants have a good credit history, submit a financial statement and in some instances make an equity investment in their business. These may not be easy for many women who may not have worked before or in particular for many young entrepreneurs to accomplish. Therefore, there are numerous options available to the nascent entrepreneur when seeking financial assistance: Bank Finance, Venture Capital, State Support, and Business Angel who assist entrepreneurs who require small amounts of funding.

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6. 5 Limitations of Research The key limitations of this research study are as follows: x

x

x

As previously discussed in Chapter 3 qualitative analysis has a number of intrinsic limitations. The subjectivity is identified as the principal research concern when employing this form of analysis. For the purpose of this research study the author attempted to construct a Conceptual Framework that was as thorough as possible, and as a result, increased the complexity of the research and the detail required. Thus, there is a risk that the Conceptual Framework became too complicated in order to make indisputable affirmations about women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. The three research respondents who participated in this research study are aged between 24-26 years of age respectively, neither party is married or have any children to support. Thus, the findings of the research may be biased in favour of women who do not have any family responsibilities i.e. husband/partner or children.

6.6 Recommendations for Future Research This study has identified a number of issues that warrant further investigation. Hence, the following recommendations have been made for future research. A number of sub-elements present within the Conceptual Framework were excluded from the final Descriptive Framework as the case studies had opposing views concerning these sub-elements networking as a barrier to entry, access to financial information and family responsibility as a barrier to entry. Therefore, the author believes that these elements warrant further study in order to confirm whether or not these factors affect women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. If further investigation confirms that the omitted elements do indeed have a major effect on women setting up their own business, these variables may be incorporated in the Descriptive Framework. The primary objective of this study was to propose a theory concerning the barriers and challenges faced by women who are in the process of entering

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the new venture creation forum. This objective has been accomplished by means of the construction of a Descriptive Framework (See Figure 6.1). However, it is important to note that this theory can not be universal to other women who are in the process of setting up their own business as case studies can not be generalised to global populations (Saunders et al., 2003). However, if this theory could be adapted for quantitative analysis purposes, it could be consequently tested, validated, and then used to generalise to external populations (other women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum). Any attempts to research this topic in the future should consider investigating the subject with a larger number of female entrepreneurs. It is also advisable that the research respondents who participate in this research would be a diverse range of individuals ranging in age and in particular including those individuals who have family responsibilities in this study. The pressures of family responsibilities have also been brought to light by this piece of research and although it is impossible to ascertain what effect these barriers have for women in the new venture creation process, this research study has highlighted these issues for future research. Hence, it is hoped that further studies will be carried out in order to investigate this issue thoroughly.

6.7 Conclusion To conclude, the primary objective of this research study was to propose a theory concerning the barriers and challenges that have the most major effect on women who are in the process of setting up their own business. The findings have disclosed the importance of each of the barriers outlined in the Conceptual Framework and consequently the order of significance of the four main barriers examined in this study. In achieving research objective one the empirical findings indicate that mentoring was found to have the most major effect for women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum followed by: family responsibility, finance, and networking. In achieving research objective two the empirical findings indicate that family responsibility and its sub-elements have a major effect for women who are in the process of entering the entrepreneurial process. The final objective of this study was to propose a theory that would comprise the

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barriers that have the most major effect on women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation forum. In satisfying this objective a review of the literature was conducted and the key issues that emerged were subsequently employed to develop a Conceptual Framework. The primary research consisted of three case studies, which entailed the use of focussed interviews. The interviews were subsequently examined with respect to the numerous elements present within the Conceptual Framework. All of the case studies who participated in this study were required to assign a rating of importance to each of the elements contained within the Conceptual Framework and were required to decide whether they considered each element of the Conceptual Framework to have a minor, moderate, or major effect for women entering the entrepreneurial field. Only those elements that were deemed to have a major effect by all of the research respondents were included in the final Descriptive Framework. Therefore, the final objective of this study was achieved by constructing this Descriptive Framework as this proposed theory could be used in further studies in order to examine the barriers and challenges affecting women who are in the process of entering the new venture creation process. This study has demonstrated that there are deterrent factors affecting women’s decision to start a business. The culmination of these barriers may ultimately deter many women from attaining their personal career aspirations or in attempting to start their own business. It is evident that Ireland has a small pool of highly educated women who aspire to be entrepreneurs (GEM, 2004). Whether these women enter the forum of new venture creation will be dependent on a number of issues including the cost and availability of childcare facilities, and improved access to finance networks and mentoring/networking facilities. The challenge is to present these women with the access to networks, finance, skills, information and confidence they require to establish their own business but furthermore to effectively nurture their business. Furthermore, it is imperative that female entrepreneurs recognise that they have certain disadvantages, and face unique challenges or barriers, that their male counterparts do not. However, identifying their weaknesses is not sufficient; women must also utilise their strengths and inimitable differences as advantages over their male counterparts also. The literature review revealed that female entrepreneurs differ from their male counterparts in several areas, such as their management styles,

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communication skills Helm, (1997) and motivations for start up Weiler and Bernasek (2001). . These characteristics could potentially be used in order to level the playing field in today’s business world. Women have a stronger propensity towards more personal communication and their strong capability to form deeper relationships facilitates them to create stronger, more loyal networks, than their male counterparts (Weiler and Bernasek, 2001). According to (Nguyen, 2005), this type of barrier-reversal mindset, such as the weakness of creating broad networks, and as an alternative woman forming different types of networks can be extremely favorable for women. Therefore, it is apparent that there are certain advantages to being diverse and women entrepreneurs can use this power in order to conquer other prejudices that are outside their control (Nguyen, 2005). If women decide to take advantage of this momentum the number of women-owned businesses will increase significantly, as more women around the world will desire, create and maintain prosperous business ventures.

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Newspaper Articles Guilder, I. ‘Only 5% of Irish Directors are Women’. Irish Examiner, 23 January 2004.