Women in Leadership and Work-Family Integration [1 ed.] 9781443883542, 9781443871938

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Women in Leadership and Work-Family Integration

Women in Leadership and Work-Family Integration Edited by

Margaret J. Weber and Kerri Cissna-Heath

Women in Leadership and Work-Family Integration Edited by Margaret J. Weber and Kerri Cissna-Heath This book first published 2015 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2015 by Margaret J. Weber, Kerri Cissna-Heath and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-7193-1 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-7193-8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ................................................................................... vii Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1 An Introduction to Life Course Research: Women and Work-Life Balance Dr. Margaret J. Weber Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 11 Research Design and Data Collection Dr. Margaret J. Weber Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 23 Faith and Work-Family Integration Dr. Elizabeth Krymis Bieler Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 51 Race and Work-Family Integration Dr. Gayle Colston Barge Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 93 Women in Non-traditional Careers and Work-Family Integration Dr. Miriam Almestica Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 107 Mentoring: Family and Work Integration Dr. Margaret J. Weber Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 123 Strategies for Work-Family Integration Dr. Kerri Cissna-Heath Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 151 Conclusions Dr. Kerri Cissna-Heath

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writing of a book is like birthing a baby. It takes a community of individuals and their support, including the families and friends of each author and contributor. It is with extreme gratitude for those that made major contributions, that this book volume is delivered. As I was listening to graduate students share some of their struggles, I was reminded of the findings from previous research about university faculty and their adaption to the academy. Teaching, advising and publishing were difficult for the female faculty, particularly those with families (husbands and children). They often mentioned issues of family being a component of their work life, while their male counterparts rarely shared any matters beyond their career adaption to the academy. This led to further conversations with several doctoral students about the ability to integrate career and family and the conflicts that are persistent in the integration, especially for women. As this project was developing, these doctoral students shared insights and reflections on the findings of current and previous research. These discussions and literature reviews were important in shaping the direction of the research. In reading the current research on women in leadership, we found that studies on work and family life have been conducted by professional fields, indicating that the conflict was related to each occupation or career. In the legal field, conclusions suggested that the path to which one made partner was the reason that women struggled to be in leadership roles. In the corporate field, it was the method by which corner office positions were appointed. In the academy, it was the way in which tenure was awarded. There were few, if any, studies that looked at the issues of women in the workforce and their opportunities for leadership and the subsequent impact on work-family life balance issues across the professions. This led to the creation of a research project to further explore these topics. I want to express appreciation for the early work and support of two gifted doctoral students: Elizabeth Krymis Bieler and Kerri Cissna-Heath. They were instrumental in responding to the research instrument, developing the sampling plan, and supporting the interview manual development. Their excitement and enthusiasm were critical as we started the interviews with a sample of wonderful women.

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The initial sample for this study explored the lives of female doctoral students and represented a wide range of professions. This satisfied the intent to have broad representation from a breadth of professions. These women ranged from women who were finishing their graduate degrees before starting families, those that had already raised a family, as well as those that were single by design or child-free by choice. Krymis Bieler and Cissna-Heath also played an important role in expanding the sampling process beyond doctoral students to women leaders that were named in publications (i.e. 40 women-leaders in Orange County) and identified through personal recommendations. Of great importance are the many women who shared their personal lives with us for the purpose of this study. They generously gave of their time for each interview conducted with open-ended questions. Their stories were amazing and presented private experiences, hopes, dreams and intentions to support their own children and grandchildren in reaching their goals. They shared their lives with us – strangers seeking understanding of the issues they faced as they achieved success and meaningfulness in their lives both personally and professionally. We thank each one of them for their graciousness as we intruded in their life stories and we hope that it provided insights, enjoyment and affirmations of their strength and vast accomplishments. I would like to thank Professor Emeritus Janet Z. Giele for her writings that influenced the framework for this study. The life course framework seemed like the perfect perspective to develop this qualitative research study. She willingly gave of her time and expertise in response to questions of the research team. She graciously provided insight into the individual and collective approach of women seeking balance with the institutions they interacted with for work, family and life. Research Methodologist, Dr. Yuying Tsong, provided excellent advice for the interview process. She supplied insight into privacy concerns for the participants in the study. She advised the training of the graduate students who would be interviewing participants to maintain objectivity as much as possible. And Dr. Tsong delivered support for the use of NVivo qualitative software for the coding and analysis of data. She has my unending appreciation for her crucial role in supporting the project and its development. As the project expanded from the initial study in 2009, additional graduate students have joined the research team. I would like to express appreciation to each of them, especially those that have contributed to this book. Thank you, Elizabeth Krymis Bieler, Gayle Coltson Barge, Miriam Almestica and Kerri Cissna-Heath. It has been a pleasure to work with you

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to develop this book volume and expose the stories of the amazing women that shared their lives with each of you. Kerri Cissna-Heath, it has been a pleasure to work with you on the project, and to edit this book volume with you. I will always treasure our friendship and relationship as I learned from you, and shared goals for your developing leadership and career. May God bless you as you continue to develop into an amazing, compassionate individual. And I extend gratitude to your father, Bill Cissna, for his suggestions and edits on the chapters in this book. And thank you to Joseph A. Weber, my life partner for almost four decades, whom I have had the privilege of sharing this life journey. I offer my deepest gratitude to you for supporting my career and being an amazing father to our sons, Daniel and Travis. All of you have taught me about faith, life, and courage; and challenged me to find my “voice” for a more just world. It is an honor to be your spouse and mother. Joe, I am thankful for your careful editing and questions that helped to shape this book.

CHAPTER ONE AN INTRODUCTION TO LIFE COURSE RESEARCH: WOMEN AND WORK-LIFE BALANCE MARGARET J WEBER

Introduction With higher levels of education and career aspirations, women are searching for the space and support to combine work and family responsibilities. Giele (2008) describes the dual-career family as one in which both husbands and wives are engaged in work life. This is changing both the workplace composition and the division of family labor. In twoparent households with children under the age of 18, approximately 60% have both parents working outside of the home (data from the Pew Research Center) (Parker and Wang, 2013). There are few institutional norms and policies to support these two-earner families for managing their domestic and work responsibilities. Although following World War II, there has been an increased presence of women in the workforce, until recently, they did not pursue a career (an occupation undertaken for a significant period of a person's life with opportunities for advancement). To understand this phenomenon, the life course research method was utilized to understand the lives of women and their perceptions of their own goals and life choices. Over 300 women have been interviewed utilizing this approach. This research methodology allows for the exploration of the competing narratives of women's lives as they seek to balance their work activities with the demands of marriage, caregiving and motherhood. This introductory chapter focuses on the life course method and presents a historic view of the approach to social problems. The human course is filled with a wide range of personal and family issues, many of which are shared by the larger culture. When these issues are mutually recognized and the shared perceptions concern a large

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number of people, they may be perceived as a social problem that requires social action. These social problems range over a lifetime such as birth, childhood, occupational entry, marriage, aging, and death. All emerge in an individual's life and have collectively been defined as “social problems.” Elder (1974, p. 4-5) suggests that "Overall the life course can be viewed as a multilevel phenomenon, ranging from structural pathways through social institutions and organizations to the social trajectories of individuals and their developmental pathways. In concept, the life course generally refers to the interweave of age-graded trajectories, such as work careers and family pathways, that are subject to changing conditions and future options, and to short-term transitions."

These pathways can be multiple, dependent or interdependent and have many similar or different issues. Elder, 1994 identified four paradigms that affect the life course of individuals that are listed below: 1. Historical and geographical context. Individuals are located in specific community locations during particular contexts. People that are born in a certain time period constitute a particular birth cohort. These individuals have a historical experience and opportunities based on their geographical location. For example, a child born in a farming community around the depression may have had few opportunities to pursue a college education, rather staying on the farm and contributing to the family income may have been expected. 2. Social embedded-ness. This idea centers on a role change and relationship-based approach to lives. An individual's life changes as their relationships and social roles change. Intergenerational relationships reflect the life cycle and the changes inherent from birth through adolescence, early adulthood, and later life. The social ties that develop through this family cycle establish norms that influence individual actions and decisions. 3. Agency and personal control. Individuals have the ability to select certain roles and situations for their lives. These choices mean that they construct their own course within given constraints. This establishes behavior patterns and social regulation within accepted boundaries and even outside of these boundaries. 4. Timing. The way in which an event occurs in an individual's life may impact their life course. For example, if the birth of a child occurs in later life (in the mid to late 40's), parenting continues

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through a person's retirement years. This is juxtaposed to the couples that had their children early in life (at early 20’s) and are ready to enjoy their later work years. These parents will enter into retirement with their children already launched. Elder's work is considered the classical approach to life course research. Giele (1995) utilized these four principles, along with Parson's functions of the social system, and applied them to social change and the life course. She suggested that there were four elements: cultural background, social membership, individual goal orientation, and strategic adaptation that she applied to the women's temperance and suffrage movements. She used the same schema in her recent studies of homemakers and careerist women (Giele, 2008). Lopata and Levy (2003) list five themes for the life course paradigm that are similar to Elder's work and include: 1. The interplay of human lives and historical times that may have a "cohort" effect in which life patterns of groups of people born within a certain bounded time may have similar experiences. An example might be the baby boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) and generation Y (born after 1981) that represent two cohorts with considerable differences in life experiences. 2. The social meaning of age, age-norms, and age-graded roles and events. Age-norms support the assignment of people to certain roles and expectations, rights and privileges according to their biological age with normative expectations. For example, most students will begin driving at the age of 16 and launch their college career around the age of 18. 3. The timing, sequencing, and duration of life events. As age-norms specify by whom and when certain things should be accomplished, the life course roles and events of individuals intersect. The multiple trajectories are expected to be similar to and coordinated with others in their social world. 4. The linking and interdependence of lives. Social relationships endure over time for each individual human life and may involve kin, friends, workers, and social groups. As one life intersects with another over the life span through these social roles, the concept is referred to as "linked lives". 5. The human agency in choice making. Individuals construct their own lives around their social and physical worlds to be compatible with their own goals and social role expectations. For example, some adolescents will choose to attend college with their peers and

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others will decide to pursue job opportunities and stay near their families. The life course framework contributes significant understanding to the direction of a life path. This framework functions as understanding living systems: individuals, social groups or whole societies. These areas are critical in shaping adult gender roles around work and family life. Lee, M.D., et al., (2011) suggest that life course research understands the broad life context as one focuses on the changes in human lives. Life course considers the individual, the couple and the family. These are framed within the context of individual actions and the institutional and structural conditions of society. This also includes the timing and sequencing of life events. Giele (2002) utilized her theoretical framework of life stories and gender role(s) to explore the rich tapestry of a woman's life in respect to traditional homemaker and the careerist woman. This allowed her to use a systematic approach to the analysis of the variables through the narrative story. The field of life course continues to evolve and recognize the powerful influences of women from their past experiences and that of their partner. Giele and Elder (1999) have shown the delayed effects of these early experiences on later life practices and impact for decision-making. The life course perspective suggests that women may be similar or different in various aspects of their life (age, education, family characteristics, socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity). These similarities and differences impact the way in which a woman considers combining a career with family or making a choice between family and career. Women careerists are receiving a lot of media attention recently with the book by Sandberg (2013). Women are discussing the issues of balance and career advancement to manage their careers and family life. Slaughter (2012) in the Atlantic Magazine suggested that women cannot have it all. In an interview on July 3, 2014, the CEO of PepsiCo reiterated that it is impossible for women to enjoy a career in leadership and have a strong family life. Nisen (2013) states that the decision to have children and a career has presented a zero sum game for women. In this perspective it is extremely difficult to excel in one area without sacrificing in other areas of life. Women are attending the university in ever increasing numbers, now constituting a majority of the students in the U.S. and around the world (Economist, 2006). Many of these women are striving for a career and are asking questions about balancing both career and family life. Gornick and Myers (2003) suggest the dual earner family is the norm. Women and men

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are both parents and careerists, and this is creating a shift in traditional roles. The changing lives of women and the family constitute a current social issue that challenges our understanding of role-assignments and contemporary work lives. Society still holds a gendered view of work and family, that career/work and family are separate spheres. Many hold the view that the workforce is male territory and career advancement to the top levels of leadership are still the prerogative of the male. In this same vein, woman's primary role is that of traditional homemaker, the caretaker of children and support for the spouse or significant other in their careers. Filipovic (2013) says that women have spent their entire lifetime being socialized as caregivers both within the family and the larger community. This gendered view that work and family are separate spheres continues to assume that men have wives to help them with the demands of work and family integration, and that women are wives, no matter what other roles they assume. Most of the research has assumed that work and family are competing entities. This duality has classified women as "work-centered, familycentered, or (in the middle) work-and family-centered" (Gersick, 2013, p. 6). This understanding of roles has typically stemmed from selecting women at one point in time rather than longitudinal studies that are able to track women over a longer time period. Scholars have rarely studied individual women for a longer term or considered the larger societal context for work-family integration. Arthur, M.B., Inkson, K. and Pringle, J. (1999) suggest that the findings from a majority of studies thought individual agency is rare for women. These studies focus on career management where individuals, not organizations, have control over their career fulfillment. The pursuit of personal meaning does not conceptualize the individual woman in her broad life and societal context. This perspective has major implications for women who are constrained by family and personal life problems that are usually outside of their control. Walzer (2003) gives an example of a life course study that focused specially on gender and divisions of infant care by parents. Gender plays a major role upon the birth of a child for the realization of work and family roles. It is the time of differentiation for most couples. Mothers are more apt to leave their employment or work part-time than fathers. Fathers tend to become "helpers" to mothers in supporting the new baby. Walzer (2003) also discusses the invisible issues of mental labor - the emotional work involved in the care.

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In summary, the life course as a social construction of understanding the role of women in leadership and their issues of work-life balance was deemed as an excellent approach to this project. The qualitative methodology allowed for the collection of data over the life span as women reflected on their lives and their futures. This framework allowed the research team to look at a woman’s entire life journey to explore issues of work life balance.

Plan of the book The Women in leadership: Work-Life Balance Project was started in 2009 as The Digital Women's Project. A semi-structured instrument based on the work of Giele (2008) was utilized for the data collection. A purposeful sample with candidates for doctoral degrees at a west coast private university served as the beginning sample for the project. Women leaders were then identified through various publications (i.e. Orange County Magazine that focuses on women in leadership). The sample developed through the snowball technique, as women would nominate colleagues and others to participate in the study. As of July, 2014, over 300 women have participated in the interviews. The project data is available for doctoral students to analyze and utilize for a variety of dissertation topics. The following chapters illustrate some of dissertations from the project. They represent important issues that have developed from the interviews and topics that are depicted in the media. Each chapter is summarized briefly below: Chapter One: Research design and data collection This introductory chapter highlights the background of life course research. The framework is shared, along with various research perspectives on how it is utilized for this study. This framework is described as it is applied to the Digital Women’s Project (DWP) and the impact on the study of work-life balance. The historic basis of the life course from Elder and Giele are described. This chapter creates the context for the rest of the book. Chapter Two: Faith and work-life balance Krymis (2011) summarizes the findings from her study of role of faith in the Digital Women’s Project and the women who shared stories about their reliance on faith. Her dissertation “Qualitative analysis of identity, relational style, adaptive style, and drive and motivation and the role of faith from the narrative life-study framework,” suggests that women value

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faith as a foundational element in their lives. They view their faith as a part of God’s purpose for their lives and that it gives meaning to their work. The women also indicated that professional and personal relationships that reflect their own faith and values are part of their coping strategies for work life balance. Chapter Three: Race and work-life balance Barge’s (2011) dissertation entitled “A phenomenological study of competing priorities and African American women striving to achieve work-life balance” focused on women of color. Findings from this study confirm that relationships, discrimination, ageism, workplace dynamics, and wellness are among the competing priorities impacting a woman’s ability to achieve sustainable balance at home and work. The study suggests that women of collectivist groups approach their work and family lives more communal than women from individualist groups. Chapter Four: Women in non-traditional careers and work-life balance Almestica (2012) wrote her dissertation on “Work-life balance issues and mentoring strategies for women in the contract management profession.” This study focused on women working in a historically male dominated field. The results of the study indicate that even through these professional women may have experienced challenges in their career paths, many, if not all, have accomplished a certain degree of success through learning, perseverance, work and family related coping strategies, motivation, willingness to take risks, and having a mentor. This study revealed that women have made progress in the contract management profession although few women hold the highest leadership positions in this male-dominated field. Chapter Five: Mentoring and impact on work-life balance Weber utilized the data from the interviews of the DWP to consider the role of mentoring and work-life balance. Analyzing the data from multiple perspectives, findings indicate that male and female mentors provide differing types of mentorship. Mentoring needs of individualistic and collectivist cultures impact a woman’s need for mentoring. Mentoring is a powerful tool for women and often not utilized for both work-life balance and issues of career advancement.

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Chapter Six: Strategies for work-life balance Cissna-Heath (2012) focused on “Women in leadership: Strategies for work-life balance.” This chapter summarizes the strategies that women are implementing into their lives to integrate the demands of work and family life. Findings from this study indicate that women are more likely to be successful at juggling multiple roles if their career is meaningful and fulfilling. Another strategy women use the utilization of mentors to balance the competing demands of their multiple roles. A strong work ethic is another strategy that surfaced as a theme for integrating work and home life. There were 15 additional strategies that came from this data analysis, which will be described in chapter six. Chapter Seven: Conclusions The final chapter of this book will summarize the overall goals of the study and the accomplishments of six research studies that utilized the Weber (2010) data set. The findings from each study, implications of the research and recommendations for future studies will be summed up in this brief conclusion. A final summation of the entire book will guide future researchers who wish to continue this work.

References Arthur, M.B., Inkson, K. & Pringle, J. (1999). The new careers: Individual action and economic change. Sage: London. Elder, G.H., Jr. (1974). Children of the great depression: Social change in life experiences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Filipovic, J. (2013). "When are we going to involve men in discussions of work/life balance?" The Guardian. Gersick, C. (January 14, 2013). Having it all, having too much, having too little: How women manage trade-offs through adulthood. Yale SOM Working Paper. Giele, J.Z. (1995). Two paths to women's equality: Temperance, suffrage, and the origins of modern feminism. New York, NY: Twayne. —. (2002). "Life course studies and the theory of action." In R. A. Settersten and T. J. Owens (Eds.) Advances in life-course research: New frontiers in socialization. Elsevier Science. 7, 65-88. —. (2008). Homemaker or career woman: Life course factors and racial influences among middle class Americans. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 39, 3, 393-411.

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Giele, J.Z. and Elder, G.H., Jr. (1999). "Life course studies: Development of a field." In J.Z. Giele and G.H. Jr. (Eds.) Methods of life course research: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Gornick, J.C. and Myers, M.K. (2003). Families that work: Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Lee, M.D., Kossek, E.E., Hall, D.T. & Litrico, J. (2011). "Entangled strands: A process perceptive on the evolution of careers in the context of personal, family, work, and community life." Human Relations, 64, 12. Lopata, H.Z. & Levy, J.A. (2003). Social problems across the life course. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Nisen, M. (2013). "New study destroys the myth women can't have it all." Business Insider, August 29, 2013. Parker, K. & Wang, W. (2013). Modern parenthood: roles of moms and dads converge as they balance work and family. Pew Social Demographical Trends, March 14. Sandberg, 2013. Lean In: Women, work, and the will to lead. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. Walzer, S. (2003). Thinking about the baby: Gender and divisions of infant care. In H. Z. Lopata & J.A. Levy (Eds.) Social Problems Across the Life Course. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Weber, M.J. (2011). Digital Women’s Project. Unpublished paper, Los Angeles, CA. Figure 1: Life course paradigm that links the frameworks of Elder, Giele, and Lopata & Levy framework.

Elder

Giele

Lopata & Levy

Historical Time & Place

Culture

Historical Time & AgeNorms

Linked Lives

Social Integration

Linking and Interdependence

Human Agency

Individual Development Adaptation

Choice Making

Timing of Events

Timing, Sequencing

CHAPTER TWO RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION MARGARET J WEBER

Introduction Qualitative research provides the opportunity to pursue in-depth stories of women and issues of work-life balance. This chapter outlines the research design and data collection procedures for the study of work-life balance issues. It provides the background for specific procedures that were utilized to understand issues related to gender and work.

Research Questions The research questions that guided the study were as follows: 1. What experiences (identity, relationship style, drive and motivation, and adaptive style) shape the life course of women that impact work-family life balance decisions? 2. How do socio-demographic variables (education, age, ethnicity, family composition, profession, marital status, and spouse education) influence work-family life balance decisions? 3. What are the relationships between influencers (family background, mentoring and faith) and career goals on work-family life balance decisions?

Qualitative Design Qualitative research occurs in a natural setting where the researcher(s) are assuming the role of data collection, focusing on the meaning of the information collected by the participants, and then forming analysis (Creswell, 2007). Denzin and Lincoln (1994) define qualitative research as:

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Chapter Two ".... multi method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts - that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals' lives" (p.2).

Creswell (2007) defines research less on information sources but with similar ideas: ".... is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The research builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting."

Qualitative researchers work with many variables and few cases. This is different from quantitative researchers that work with a few variables and many cases. Creswell suggests that qualitative inquiry is for the researcher who wants to: 1. Commit to extensive time in the field. 2. Consider the time-consuming process that is often complex data analysis. 3. Substantiate claims to show multiple perspectives by detailed written responses. 4. Understanding that the lack of firm guidelines is evolving and changing in the social and human research field. In qualitative research, the question often begins with how or what to describe the phenomenon that is ongoing within an individual in a social context. The intent is to understand each individual case within their natural setting with a detailed view of the information gathered. The qualitative approach allows the researcher to play an active role in telling the story from the participants' perspective and does not pass judgment on the participants. Assumptions help to guide the study for an understanding of knowledge. Knowledge is created from the meanings people make of their lives and/or the phenomenon being researched. Knowledge is laced with personal biases and values that emerge to the context in which the issues are

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studied. Often, the findings are situated within a social-political perspective aimed at creating change and action. Qualitative studies may take different forms. All have a strong inquiry based approach and engage those in the field. Creswell suggests there are five forms of qualitative research which include: Biographical life history; phenomenological study; grounded theory study; ethnographical study; and case study. The particular form that guided the work-life balance study described in this book is a phenomenological study. A phenomenological study begins with philosophical ideas about the themes to be studied and guides the research study (Rieman, 1986). In this case, the themes to be studied are identity, relational style, motivation and adaptive style. The challenges of work-life balance are studied by entering the lives of the participants; seeking to understand how they experience their own lives, that of their families of origin, their current families and their work environments within a historical context. The researcher finds meaning and significance in each participants experiences through a careful and detailed analysis.

Theoretical Framework and Definitions Various studies regarding work-life balance utilize the narrative and life story approaches, such as Elder and Giele, which stand as the models for this particular study. Giele also refers to the foundation of systems theory (Parsons, 1955). Systems theory encapsulates the concept of all parts working together, embedded in human behaviors. This psychosocial framework suggests an emphasis on the social implications as well as unique psychological differences. This perspective, contributed by Parsons, offers insight to the sociology of personality, creating a fusion for a framework that can adequately address such questions as, "why do women choose to stay home?” or “why do women choose to have a career and family and believe that it is manageable?” Some argue that feminist thought and systems theory are incompatible. It can be argued that systems theory can be part of the feminist analysis because marginalizing it from intellectual feminism is internally contradictory, and it offers purposeful thoughts toward feminism. Used in a broader range, systems theory can be applied to feminist thought on families (Hanson, 2009). A life course perspective suggests that women who may be similar in age, education, economic position and race may have different values, attitudes, or personal characteristics that might contribute to their decision to seek a career and/or become a homemaker (Elder, 1994, 1998, Giele, 2002). Giele (2008) suggests that the life story method provides a way to

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consider issues of gender role from the combined perspective of systems theory and the life course framework. The life course method enables a framework to question what factors assist a “minority” individual with inferior-ascribed status to achieve a higher “majority” status. An adaptation of life course theory will guide the study described in this book. Over the last couple of decades, life course theory has been applied to the study of human lives that places the context of the study across the social and behavioral sciences (Elder, 1994). Humans exist within changing societies and have choice making controls over their lives. The concept of life course theory has made time, context and process the dimensions of study, along with the cultural and intergenerational variables (Elder, 1975). Life course has been applied to the interweaving of work careers and family pathways that are subject to cultural changes with future options. Life course is defined as a field of inquiry that provides a framework for research on problem identification and conceptual development that delivers insight into the impact of changing societies on developing lives (Elder, 1985). Elder suggested there were four themes of life course which included: lives and historical times; the timing of lives; linked lives; and human agency. Giele (2002) expanded on the life course theoretical framework to develop a set of factors related to life stories and gender role(s) that she has framed as the life story method. The factors that are critical in shaping individuals’ adult gender roles are sense of identity, type of marital relationship, personal drive and motivation, and adaptive style. Definitions for the life story method (Giele, 2002): Identity: Being different versus conventional - is associated with a person's location in time, space, and cultural milieu Relationship: Egalitarian versus deferent - shaped by social networks and loyalties Motivation: Achievement versus nurturance - reflects the individual's goals and motivation Adaptive: Innovative versus traditional - sums up the accommodations and changes how a person has learned to negotiate while living through changing conditions and life transitions Human agency: Relates the human being as actor on the larger life stage of society within the world

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Instrument A semi-structured set of questions serves as the instrument which follows the four general questions from the Giele (2008) study, along with a socio-demographic set of questions. An additional set of questions was added to focus on strategies for coping with balancing life activities. Scott and Alwin (1998) indicate that the retrospective interview is an efficient way of eliciting the high and low points of one’s life. The questions follow for the interview: Question #1 [Early adulthood] This set of questions is about the period in your life immediately after college or your early twenties. What was your major, name of your college, and year of graduation, what about graduate education? What did you think you would like to become in terms of occupation and type of lifestyle or family life? What were you thinking then and how did things actually turn out? Question #2 [Childhood and adolescence] Thinking of the period in your life before college and the goals that you and your family held for you, what was your family’s attitude toward women’s education and you going to college and what you would become? What was the effect of your parents’ education, presence of brothers and sisters, family finances, involvement in a faith community, family expectations? How was your education different from or similar to that of your parents and brothers and sisters? Question #3 [Adulthood – current] Since college, what kinds of achievement and frustration have you experienced? What type of mentors have you had? What has happened that you didn’t expect-in employment, family, faith, further education? Has there been job discrimination, children, a separation or divorce, health problems of yourself or a family member? What about moves, membership in the community, faith community, housing problems, racial integration, job loss? And feelings about yourself? Have there been good things such as particular rewards, satisfaction, or recognition? Question #4 [Adulthood-future] Looking back at your life from this vantage point, and ahead to the future, what are your main concerns? What are your goals, hopes and dreams for the next few years? What problems do you hope to solve? Looking further out, where do you hope to be a few years from now with

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respect to work or finishing graduate school, family, faith, community, mentors, health, finances, etc.? Question #5 [Strategies for balancing life] What coping strategies do you use to respond to concerns related to the plurality of roles? Have you ever felt pressured to choose between work and home? What made you think that you could do both successfully? Do you feel that your family life or work life have suffered because of your involvement in work or family? Have you felt any guilt related to either family or work? Are there times that you felt particularly successful at juggling the demands of both work and home? Why? Were you prepared for the demands of work and life balance? Why or why not? What strategies do you implement in your own life in order to remain balanced?

Reliability and Validity Qualitative researchers have different approaches to understanding validity and reliability than quantitative researchers. Krathwohl and Smith (2005), suggest that reliability is dependent on the design. There are differing types of evidence for both validity and reliability, including “construct validity,” “content validity” (curricular validity), “face validity,” “stability reliability,” “internal consistency reliability” (homogeneity) and “equivalence reliability” (Krathwohl & Smith, 2005). Golafshani (2003) explained that the terminology which has been applied to quantitative studies might not apply to qualitative research. Golafshani argues that the concept of reliability is irrelevant for qualitative research unless it is defined as quality information. Patton (2002) suggests that qualitative research uses a more naturalistic approach to understand the phenomena. Hoepfl (1997) summarizes the unique perspective for qualitative research. He suggests that qualitative researchers seek illumination, understanding, and extrapolation of similar situations while quantitative research seeks causal determination, prediction, and generalization of findings. Reliability is defined in terms of replicability of the results. Validity seeks to verify that the means of measurement are accurate (Golafshani, 2003). Patton (2001) notes that when one is seeking credibility in quantitative research it involves the instrument, while in qualitative research “the researcher is the instrument” (p. 14). The role of the researcher thus becomes much more important in qualitative research for issues of reliability and validity. The researcher must be trained to maintain the credibility of the study.

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The researchers that participated in this project went through extensive training prior to conducting interview. The training included practice rounds of the interview experience in a group meeting with other researchers, where the lead researcher demonstrated the interview process. Training in how to create rapport and put the participant at ease were discussed by reviewing the informed consent form and answering any questions the participant may have had. An emphasis on maintaining objectivity was stressed and the researchers reviewed the questions themselves prior to interviewing to be mindful of any biases that they may have had. This study utilizes Giele’s (2008) qualitative narrative questions, which served as the initial pilot for these questions.

Population and Sample In 2009, Weber began a study of women and work-life balance with a group of graduate students. The original study invited women students in a doctoral leadership program at a private university on the west coast to participate in the study. These women represented a cross sampling of geographical locations, racial/ethnic diversity, age ranges, socio-economic levels and many different occupations. Therefore, they were an excellent population to sample. As the work progressed, the project expanded to include women that were in leadership roles and listed in magazines (i.e., Orange County Magazine of Top Forty Women) and newspapers in the larger Los Angeles region. A snowball sampling process was used to identify additional subjects, so the women being interviewed would be asked to nominate other women in professional positions to participate. Snowballing is a purposeful technique used for recruiting subjects, which supports variation and diversity among the experiences, and perspectives of the participants (Stone, 2007). Using the snowballing sampling, this study has expanded to women participants from many states in the U.S. and internationally. There are over 300 interviews in the database and the database continues to grow. The individual studies that are included in this volume have differing sample sizes depending on the focus of each personal research agenda. These women ranged in age from 26 to 81 years and are in occupations that are very diverse (education, corporate leadership, non-profit management, church leadership, law partner, to name a few). The sample includes women from many racial/ethnic groups, social classes, geographical locations and marital/parental statuses. Of the sample, approximately 72% were married with children, 20% were single/divorced/widowed, with the rest of the sample uncategorized.

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Data Collection - Interviews The semi-structured interviews for each individual subject use the four general questions from the work of Giele (2008) based on the life course framework. These questions center on a particular period of life and include: Early adulthood, Childhood and adolescence, Current adulthood, and Future adulthood. Basic socio-demographic data was collected to provide a context for the data analysis and to place the subject in the life story framework. An additional question was added that focuses on coping strategies for work-life balance. The interviews are conducted in person, online or via the telephone. They are audio-recorded to provide for consistent review and transcription of the interview. To maintain anonymity of each subject, the interviewees are asked to use their mother’s maiden name or pseudonym for coding purposes. A matrix was developed to allow for matching between the first series of individual interviews and the demographical information. The matrix lists the maiden name and allows for assigning a numerical value to each subject. The numerical value is used in coding the data. Once data are entered for the interview, the matrix is destroyed. This allows for complete confidentiality of responses. Graduate Assistants were also used to help transcribe the data. These Graduate Research Assistants participated in training in preparation for the data collection. Dr. Yuying Tsong (Research Methodologist for the Graduate School of Education and Psychology) provided support for the interview training. The graduate assistants read information in preparation for the interviewing process (Rubin and Rubin, 2005). They completed pilot interviews to further develop their skills for listening, recording, probing, and establishing rapport with the subjects. Each interview lasts approximately one hour and is scheduled at the convenience of the subject being interviewed. These interviews are scheduled one on one (there are no group interviews). The data from these interviews are then transcribed, coded and analyzed for emergent themes.

Data Analysis From the breadth of the questions asked in this qualitative study, a variety of themes emerge that provide many possible options for examination. The analysis for this study utilizes a theoretical framework that also provides multiple perspectives for data analysis. The life course themes provide a breath of areas to explore through: identity, relational style, motivation (level and type), and adaptive style. Graduate assistants

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and doctoral students transcribe each interview and prepare it for analysis. Then the graduate assistants, doctoral students and the principal investigator read the interviews thoroughly and code according to the themes that have been identified through the literature review(s). The following guidelines were used to identify the themes following the Giele (2008) study: Identity: How does A see herself? Who does she identify with as being like herself? Does she mention her race, ethnicity, social class, [religion], or how she is different or similar to her family? What qualities does she mention that distinguish her - intelligence, being quiet, likeable, innovative, outstanding, a good mother, lawyer, wife, etc.? Relational style: What is A's typical way of relating to others? As a leader, follower, negotiator, equal colleague? Taking charge: Is she independent, very reliant on others for company and support, has a lot of friends, is lonely? Nature of the relationship with her husband or significant other [and her children]? Drive and motivation: Need for achievement, affiliation or power. Is A ambitious and driven or relaxed and easy going? Is she concerned to make a name for herself? Focused more on helping her husband and children than on her own needs (nurturance vs. personal achievement)? Mentions enjoying life and wanting to have time for other things besides work. Enjoys being with children, doing volunteer work, seeing friends. A desire to be in control of her own schedule, to be in charge rather than to take orders. Adaptive style: What is her energy level? Is A an innovator and a risk taker or conventional and uncomfortable with change and new experience? Does A like to manage change, think of new ways of doing things? Is she self-confident or cautious? Used to a slow or fast pace, to routine and having plenty of time, or to doing several things at once". Strategies: What types of themes emerge for the way women balance their lives? Are they relational, boundary setting, and/or socio-psychological? Following the transcription of all the data and the completion of the coding, composite profiles of the themes that characterize the women are developed. The findings take into consideration the similarities and differences according to age, race, family background, current family, and

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emphasis on homemaker and/or career. Nvivo software is used to analyze the narratives from each transcribed interview of the subjects. Nvivo helps with connecting the socio-demographic data to the qualitative data. The analysis through this process is also compared with Giele's themes for similarities and differences.

Conclusions The interviews of the participants in this study have provided much insight into the lives of women. They share both personal and professional stories and experiences about their lives. The longitudinal approach to the questions requires the women to provide memories of the aspects of their lives that are important. Although many women have experienced challenges in their lives, their stories of resilience and positivity provide strong role models for future generations of women and men. These stories are inspirational and share ways these women have impacted their families, their communities, their professions, and their worlds. The following chapters will shed light into the complexity of the issues that women are facing as they juggle multiple roles in life. The chapters in this book will also serve to inspire women for generations to come as they pursue lives of work-life integration and balance.

References Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design. Sage Publication. Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Elder, G. H., Jr. (1975). Age differentiation and the life course. Annual review of sociology, 1:165-90. —. (1985). Perspectives on the life course. In G. H. Elder, Jr., (Ed.), Life course dynamics, (pp. 23-49), Ithaca: Cornell University Press. —. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social psychology quarterly, 57, 1, 4-15. —. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child development, 69(1), 1-12. Giele, J. Z. (2002). Life Course Studies and the Theory of Action. Advances in Life-course Research: New Frontiers in Socialization. 7th Ed. R. A. Settersten and T. J. Owens. Elsevier Science, 65-88.

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—. (2008). Homemaker or career woman: Life course factors and racial influences among middle class families. Journal of comparative family studies: Summer, 39, 3, 393-411. Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-607. Hoepfl, M. (1997). Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology Education Researchers. Journal of Education, 9 (1), 1-17. Krathwohl, D., & Smith, N. (2005). How to prepare a dissertation proposal: Suggestions for students in education and the social and behavioral sciences. Syracuse University Press. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Riemen, D.J. (1986). The essential structure of a caring interaction: Doing phenomenology. In P.M. Munhall & C. J. Oiler (Eds.), Nursing research: A qualitative perspective (pp.85-105). Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Rubin, H.J., & Rubin, I.S. (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Scott, J & Alwin, D., (1998). Retrospective versus prospective measurement of life histories in longitudinal research. In J.Z. Giele & G. H. Elder, Jr. (Eds.), Methods of life course research: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. (pp. 98-127). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Weber, M.J. (2011). Digital Women’s Project. Unpublished paper, Los Angeles, CA.

CHAPTER THREE FAITH AND WORK-FAMILY INTEGRATION DR. ELIZABETH KRYMIS BIELER

Abstract Work-life balance literature has failed to canvass and scrutinize faith as a contributing factor that influences women in the balancing of competing roles. Insights from this chapter illuminate eleven women’s life narratives as they seek balance in work and family. The findings indicate that faith can be linked to work as not only providing a source of purpose but also a means of coping and adapting. Further, these narratives provide us with an understanding of the value of professional and personal relationships that women create with one another through the commonality of their faith.

Introduction The competing roles of women have been examined through varying frameworks, propagating books, journal articles, and concepts that we have come to reference in every day vernacular such as the “glass ceiling.” These findings have collectively surmised contrasting impetuses and repercussions for the advancement of women’s new and multi-complex roles. Some of the most commonly assessed issues are social implications of the dual roles of females; cultural norms; workplace policies, with attention to female-specific hurdles; marital satisfaction in gender roles; social support such as religion, family, and mentoring relationships; and the short-term and long-term impact on children when a mother chooses the dual work-mother role. Although the literature includes multiple contributing factors to work-life balance (WLB), it has failed to incorporate the role of faith. In a recent article by Savitsky (2010), which examined the book Shriver Report: A Woman’s Nation Changes Everything, the lives of women in the 21st century were examined and inquired on “how they

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think, work, care, vote, worship, love and live” (p. 173). This illuminated the modern thoughts of conflicted woman. The report was modeled after Eleanor Roosevelt’s 1963 report, American Women, which revealed insights regarding gender equality and recommendations for improving women’s lives. Boushey described how the “increased presence of women in the workforce has extraordinary implications for the structure of families and communities” (as cited in Savitsky, 2010, p. 174). The new circumstances for women can be viewed as a “double-edged sword for each community, from the family unit to the broader structure of society” (Savitsky, 2010, p. 173). For families, more confusion regarding household responsibilities has surfaced, with equal distribution of those tasks far from reality. Dickerson (2004), a psychologist and leading field expert in women’s issues, has observed these opportunities and potential pressures in women with whom she has worked. “When young women face these multiple expectations, instead of asking themselves, what works for me, what do I want to do or accomplish, they find themselves caving into the pressure and feeling like failures for not measuring up” (Dickerson, 2004, p. 338). Therefore, women live with self-doubt and think that something is wrong with them for not “doing it right, being good enough, or being heard or understood” (Dickerson, 2004, p. 338). As stated earlier in this book, Gornick and Myers suggest that the dual earner family is the now the norm in society (2003). Women and men are both parents and workers, creating a shift in the traditional roles. With these new statistics, it is imperative to understand the issues revolving around role balance for women. Women are in nontraditional roles and learning how to navigate the changing roles. The military and other male-dominated fields are being challenged in their rules and expectations, as women become leaders in these areas. It has been documented that almost half of the women deployed in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan are mothers, which is more than 100,000 women (Bourne, 2010). Balancing multiple demanding roles is complicated and research has indicated that these new demands have added to women’s mental and emotional stress (Dickerson, 2004). Research suggests that marital relationships have become more egalitarian (Bielenski & Wagner, 2004). Other research suggests a large number of successful, well-educated women have left careers for full-time homemaking and motherhood (Belkin, 2003; Warner, 2005). Coheny and Sok (2007) found a decline in the number of married women with preschoolers who are employed, down from 64% in 1998 to 60% in 2007.

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The literature on women in the work place focuses mainly on paths for career advancement and opportunities for women who want to work (see Table 1). These theories range from the glass ceiling, glass cliff, labyrinth and the sticky floor. These metaphors are used to describe the pathways women have to choose from if they want to have successful careers. Currently, the literature on work-life balance for women and the role of faith is minimal and the studies that have examined faith and work-life balance emphasize faith’s role in career selection rather than faith as a factor in identity, adaptive style, drive and motivation, and relational style. This study is the first to examine faith as a factor within those four themes. Incorporating faith as a factor of influence within the WLB discussion offers us new insights into the female role evolvement. Table 1: Work-Life Balance Research Chart Summary Author Unknown

Contribution Glass Ceiling Theory

Year Between 1984–1986

Ryan & Haslam

Glass Cliff Theory

2007

Eagly & Carli

Labyrinth

2007

Shambaugh

Sticky Floor Explanation

2008

Definition Speaks to the struggles women have experienced in the workplace over the decades, with barriers to promotions and work success Women are more likely than men to find themselves on a “glass cliff” such that their positions of leadership are associated with greater risk of failure. If and when that failure occurs, it is then women (rather than men) who must face the consequences and who are singled out for criticism and blame Refers to the varying routes to top leadership for women, acknowledging the obstacles and twists and turns, requiring persistence and analysis of the puzzle De-emphasizes the possibility that men are preventing women from promotions (glass ceiling), and instead, emphasizing that women may be holding themselves back through self-defeating or self-limiting actions

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Work-Life Balance and Faith Although the literature on the relationship between work and faith began with Max Weber’s book called The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism in 1930, the literature is still lacking, as researchers emphasize other influencers above spirituality and faith (Lenski, 1961; Riccio, 1979). Researchers agree that social scientists are prompt in exploring the significance of gender, race, and class, while neglecting spirituality as a factor in studies. Bender (2003) noted “sociologists know remarkably little about how people practice religion in their daily activities, including work” (as cited in Sullivan, 2006, p. 99). Mahoney (2010) also criticizes the research on religion, as she noted, “184 peerreviewed studies were published in the past decade on religion and family life” (p. 813); however throughout her critique it becomes axiomatic that the research has failed to “specifically identify specific spiritual beliefs that prevent or intensify problems” (p. 805). There have been some disagreements about utilizing the terms “religious” and “spiritual” interchangeably in the literature and Matthias notes these terms as very different (as cited in Paludi, 2008). Spirituality is often understood as “highly personal yet inclusive between the two” while religion is understood as “institutional, dogmatic, inflexible, and divisive” (as cited in Paludi, 2008, p. 110). In this light, spirituality is seen as more psychological, while religion is seen as more sociological. Spilka, Hood, Hunsberger, and Gorsuch (2003) spoke about spirituality as a person’s beliefs, values, and behavior, while religiousness is described as a person’s involvement with a religious tradition and institution. They distinguish religion and spirituality as differing notions. Sleep (2000) noted that women more frequently distinguish between religious and spiritual, and identify themselves as more spiritual than religious, as opposed to men. Kanter (2010) wrote: Values are in vogue. Many companies seek universal values to unite diverse people behind a common purpose, matching the newer generation’s desire for meaningful, value-based work. At the same time, religion, long a personal matter left to family time, is creeping into the workplace and proving difficult to deal with. Some companies try to ban discussion of religion (and politics) at work. Others wonder where to draw the line: prayer breakfasts, spiritual study groups, religious garb, holiday decorations? (p. 38)

It has been noted by Davidson and Caddell (1990) that “intrinsically religious people who are well rewarded at work in terms of pay, benefits, and/or status were more likely than others to view their work as a calling

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or ministry as opposed to a career or job” (p. 140). Wuthnow determined that one-third of working Americans contemplate linking their faith directly with their work and “sixty percent of weekly religious service attendees thought about it a great or fair amount” (as cited in Sullivan, 2006, p. 100). Previous research finds that the primary role for religious faith or spirituality with regard to work is to contribute a greater sense of work’s purpose or meaning (Wuthnow, 1994). In one particular study in which women of the Pentecostal faith were interviewed, the women focused on “the importance of God’s will for their lives (revealed through prayer and Bible study) rather than on religious teachings” (Sleep, 2000, p. 476). Sleep (2000) also mentions that, “the importance of listening and hearing women’s voices to understand the power of religion” (p. 475) reveals, “the journey of faith for women is unique and must be treated accordingly” (p. 476). Faith has even been associated with reduced work burnout and increased job satisfaction (Wuthnow, 1994). Others argue that societies founded in religious tradition and values are more likely to resist acceptance of gender equality within their society (Gelb, 2004). However, other researchers such as Rose and Brasher “reveal the significance of a personal relationship with God in offering women from conservative faith traditions a source of power, freedom, and justification in the midst of patriarchal environment” (as cited in Sleep, 2000, p. 476). One specific narrative study explored 16 female chief academic officers (CAO) working in evangelical colleges and universities. The topics reviewed were career reflections, marriage, and faith as factors in their professional lives (Moretan & Newson, 2004). Faith contributed to their career decisions and several administrators indicated that their faith in God was a definitive part of their calling to their career. Their perspectives seem to be more focused on praying for direction regarding the work environment, and when asked about marriage, they offered a perspective of balancing the value of their marriage in time commitments. Some women expressed tension between balancing career and marriage commitments, but they acknowledged that faith helped their direction in career decisions. Church organizations have also conducted research to explore these issues. In a study conducted in 2002 by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops’ Committee on Women in Society and in the Church (USCCB), women spoke about faith “as a unifying factor that permeates all of life” (p. 109). Their “work is an extension of their spiritual lives” (Savitsky, 2009, p. 109). One of the more recent and more comprehensive studies regarding faith and gender comes from the Maria Shriver Report (2012). The report

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indicates that the typical large number of women in churches, as attendees and volunteers, has been decreasing (Savitsky, 2009). Morgan and Steenland suggested that the traditional family and gender roles are challenging the traditional practices of churches (as cited in Savitsky, 2009). They suggested several reasons for this decrease, including “appearance of institutional unfriendliness toward single women” (as cited in Savitsky, 2009, p. 185) and women’s desire for religious institutions to recognize and value their work schedules, by incorporating services that are more flexible. “These work-religion conflicts are felt more strongly by self-identified conservative women, who report feeling that their religious institutions are less respectful or encouraging of women’s participation in paid work” (Savitsky, 2009, p. 185). The report also indicated that many women still use faith to help manage their lives and purpose, with more than four in five American women as Christian, outnumbering men in almost every Christian denomination. Participation rates are even higher for lower-income and minority woman. Mahoney (2010) reported that research is divided as to whether religion truly shapes wives’ decisions to be full-time homemakers or whether it influences “men or women to prioritize family over career” (p. 808). In a study by Sherkat (2000), women who were born around 1948 and held fundamentalist views of the Bible in high school were more likely to become full-time homemakers or leave their careers after having children. Interestingly, in Josselson’s (1996) longitudinal study of how women construct their identities over a lifetime, career titles were seldom what they used to define themselves, whereas men often used occupation as defining. Josselson stated that, “more than half of the women I have interviewed define themselves in an important spiritual way… for many of these women, (spiritual development) is an even more consuming quest than occupational self-definition” (as cited in Paludi, 2008, p. 117). Many of the women described frustration and dissatisfaction with their companies when they felt that they were not finding meaning or impacting people’s lives because they connect their work to their identity and purpose. This deep connection with work and faith extends beyond these women’s choice of occupation and into their work relationships with colleagues, as religion has the propensity to connect one another thereby promoting sociality (Spilka, et al., 2003, p. 18). This connection to one’s faith fosters a sense of community and belonging that extends into the workplace, especially as Americans are spending more time working (Gunther, 2001), creating a more integrated experience and a perspective of community at work. Religion can serve as

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a coping mechanism for balancing career and life as Nash and McLennan (2001) offer “is a way of preventing oneself from getting too caught up in a corporate mindset that throws the individual out of balance” (as cited in Paludi, 2008, p. 119). Spilka et al. (2003) introduced three needs that inspire one’s attempt to cope which are all addressed by religion: “a need for meaning, based on a desire to make sense of life’s events; a need to maintain one’s sense of control over life events; and a need to maintain one’s sense of self-esteem” (p. 483). Although the benefits of integrating faith and work are evidenced in the literature, Gunther (2001) remarked that a recent Fortune magazine article proclaimed that spiritual expression in the work place is the “last taboo in corporate America” (p. 58). To resolve this dilemma, Wuthnow (1994) says that many individuals simply “compartmentalize” their faith and work (p. 55). Nash and McLennan (2001) described it as “spiritual schizophrenia” (p. 213), where Sunday is vastly different from Monday as a result of oppressive work environments. Table 2 describes the major contributing researchers of faith-related and spiritual topics. Table 2: Faith Research Chart Summary Author Morgan & Steenland Mahoney

Sleep

Wunthow

Contribution Shifting dynamics of gender roles and the church involvement 184 peer-reviewed studies were published in the past decade on religion and family life; none could specifically identify specific spiritual beliefs that prevent or intensify problems Importance of hearing women’s voices to understand the power of religion reveals that, “the journey of faith for women is unique and must be treated accordingly” Primary role for religious faith or spirituality with regard to work is to contribute a greater sense of work’s purpose or meaning. Also, associated with reduced work burnout and increased job satisfaction

Year 2009 2010

2000

1994

30

Rayburn & Richmond

Gelb

Rose & Brasher

Nash & McLennan

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Women more frequently distinguish between religious and spiritual, and women identify themselves as more spiritual than religious than men Argue that societies founded in religious tradition and values are more likely to resist acceptance of gender equality within their society Argue that religious and spiritual tradition can reveal the significance of a personal relationship with God in offering women from conservative faith traditions a source of power, freedom, and justification in the midst of patriarchal environment Workplace and faith- connection to work or calling

2002

2004

2000

2001

Problem Statement MacDermid and Marks (1996) discovered that “people who maintain more balance across their entire systems of roles and activities will score lower on measures of role strain and depression and higher on measures of self-esteem, role ease, and other indicators of well-being” (p. 417). This emphasizes the importance of life balance. Understanding the roles and dimensions of the influencing factors on those roles through gaining insight into the female can offer society beneficial guidance. Faith as a factor of influence for women in their competing roles is an eventuality and must be incorporated into the examination of the work-life balance of women. More than a source for strength, peace, and guidance, faith can serve as a community of support, coping and adapting mechanism. It offers women a foundation for their decisions and effort to balance life roles.

Sampling The participants in this study represent varying industries including: sales, education, business, hospitality, and one graduate student. Their positions ranged from dean, director of operations, therapist, and other varying executive positions. They were all educated and from a welltravelled background.

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This study utilized a feminist psychoanalytic framework and a lifecourse theoretical framework. The feminist framework emphasizes gender as center to the research (Olesen, 2005). Lather (1991) stated that the goal of this ideological framework is “to correct both the invisibility and distortion of female experience in ways relevant to ending women’s unequal social position” (p. 71). One author, Stewart, suggests that researchers need to inquire “how a woman understands her gender, acknowledging that gender is a social contract that differs for each individual” (as cited in Creswell, 2007). The life story framework was used for composing the interview questions, with a phenomenological methodology, which typically uses 8-12 selected individuals’ stories from a particular database based on specific sociodemographic criteria. Creswell (2007) described the process of phenomenological studies through specific task-related objectives: x Reading through the written transcripts several times to obtain themes and patterns x Identifying significant phrases or sentences that pertained directly to the experience x Formulating meanings and clustering them into themes common to all of the participants’ transcripts x Integrating the results into an in-depth, exhaustive description (essence) of the phenomenon x Validating the findings with the participants, and including participants’ remarks in the final description. (p. 89) The “essence” (Creswell, 2007, p. 89) can be tracked through the themes and the stories of the participants, providing rich data that can support, extinguish, or metamorphose or even revolutionize a concept. The narrative interviews were analyzed for common terms, themes, and schemas in family and life-course patterns. The research question discussed in this chapter is: 1. How does the role of faith impact these experiences (identity, adaptive style, relational style, and drive and motivation) in shaping the life course of women?

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Results and Discussion Analysis Selected from a database of over 100 participants, the raw data were first examined for those participants with the highest percentage (15% and above) of references to faith as a term. This resulted in a sample of 11 women. The 11 selected transcripts were then re-coded in greater depth to understand the role of faith in relation to identity, relational style, adaptive style, and drive and motivation. Using the software, NVivo, the researcher read the entire transcript and created nodes as part of the growing tree to create a structure for future coding using sentences, paragraphs, and passages. During the analysis seven reports were run to assess the relationship of faith to the factors that were queried in the research questions. The first four reports that were run included the four categories of Giele’s (2008) study. The first report, faith and identity, produced 31 coded entries within 11 of the 11 sources. Faith and relational style included 29 coded entries within 10 sources. Faith and adaptive style included 25 references that were coded within 9 of the sources. Faith and drive and motivation resulted in 26 references within 9 sources. The researcher then ran 7 reports regarding the other aspects of faith including faith community of origin, faith and worldview, and faith and family. Faith community of origin included 18 references within all 11 sources. Faith and worldview included 10 references in 6 sources. And, faith and family were noted 11 times in 6 sources.

Results In the analysis, results indicated a strong relationship between identity and faith. The common themes for identity included valuing education and independence, recognition and understanding of their gender as part of their identity, viewing themselves as holding many life roles, recognizing race/ethnicity as significant for the minority women, and being confident and yet humble. The importance of education was connected to faith, with some of the women studying faith-related topics or majors or some selecting their college based on its faith affiliation. All of the women were raised with a specific religious construct by their parents or caretakers. The religions ranged from Catholicism to Presbyterian to Judaism. One of the eleven identified herself as still seeking to understand what religion means to her and is questioning her place within her Jewish origin. Several noted that religion was a part of their upbringing, but not really a part of their

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identity until later on in life during adulthood. Both of these women acknowledged some regretful feelings regarding that decision now that they have reconnected with their faith. For one individual, growing up with a family of faith shaped her education. Participant 2 stated: I just remember my parents always said it’s important to use your gifts and do your best. That was kind of what I use on my kids too. Do your best with the gifts that God has given to you. Because he’s given those to you, so do your best.

One woman expressed regret in not considering a university of faith for her undergraduate degree. Participant 10 stated: You know it (religion) didn’t and now looking back I wish that it really had. There were a lot of factors, for one thing, that I would’ve chosen a smaller university. I wish that I had chosen one much more based on faith. Instead I went to a much larger university… But, no I wish, I wish that my religion had played more of a factor in a lot of my decisions. We lost my grandfather my senior year, very tragically, so I think I was far away from my religion at the time.

This group showed an overwhelmingly strong identification as advocates for various causes and perceived themselves as leaders and change agents in the community and world. There were specific word references to leadership, doing justice, change agent, and opportunities and challenges for the next generation of women. One individual spoke of her leadership being developed through religious camps because they allowed her to be in positions of leadership where she felt she was able to grow. Participant 2 stated: My sophomore year in college I began to be a counselor every summer at a Christian sports camp in a Mid-western state. For three summers I was at a summer camp and those were really formative experiences for me because they put me in a leadership role in terms of my faith.

One woman spoke about part of her identity in relation to a Biblical character, Moses. She described her character as being like Moses because it was strong and gravitated toward the “my way or the highway” (Participant 4) philosophy. She said that God had worked on her to massage that character down. Another woman stated that she was most like her mother, who was her spiritual role model. Two individuals chose to study theology and religion. One continued on in religion studies during her undergraduate years was greatly impacted

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as a young “Black” woman and developed from her studies on faith and her experiences to become a change agent. She became an advocate for women through her own personal experiences of discrimination and her exploration of faith. She experienced discrimination and judgment in faith communities where conservative views of women clashed with her having a child before marriage. Participant 6 stated: I think that this socialization came the most through church. It was very clear that I would become a wife and a mother. And I think that was the implicit message that I look back on and know that I got and I fulfilled that prophesy, at least partially. You know, very early in life, and frankly had I not gotten pregnant, with someone that I wasn’t married to at the time, that would have been so much better, because it was kind of acceptable at that time, to like be young, have a baby with a husband, and that’s life, you know. I don’t remember it ever being discussions outside of just that implicit message which I mostly got socialized in church.

Athletics through college was another avenue of influence on Participant 2’s faith. For one in particular, this was a highly influential aspect of her identity and was even part of how she met her husband. Participant 2 noted: I also grew up in a family of faith and going to church, and so I always assumed that’s what I would do. Actually, I met my husband when we were—I actually saw him play basketball in high school when we were both seniors in high school—I didn’t know him or anything. And then we were involved in fellowship of Christian athletes in college.

It was discovered that there were clear racial differences with the two women who identified themselves as African American. An interesting excerpt from one woman shows her identifying herself as African American and then notes the difference between Caucasian and African American versions of worship songs that she noticed as a child. Participant 1 stated that: We were talking about the song “Oh Precious Lord,” and of course, it was more of a Caucasian rendition of the song, and then you had the African American version of the song…the African American version of that song was filled with a lot of pain, a lot of suffering…and you know what, I like both versions and that’s the diversity I want to see in the world because I want my child to know both songs.

When another participant was asked about the impact of her racial integration on her life, she spoke to her Jewish background. Participant 9 stated:

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That is always a trick question. I think that I am always just constantly aware of it. I don’t, (not racially but religiously), I don’t tend to talk a lot about being Jewish, ever. Unless I have to… I don’t really ever share that with people, you know I have to say that even being in LA attend a live in neighborhoods that reflected my demographic of being white, middle to upper class, female in coming to Riverside were living in a completely different environment where we are both the minority and I tend to keep a lower profile I have noticed.

The second theme regarded relational style and faith. Relational style, support and relationships were a priority for these women in balancing their lives. Overall, these women felt loneliness and other negative impacts when they could not make those spiritual connections. Further, the relationship with spouses was significant and inspired spirituality, spiritual leadership, and spiritual connectedness for some of the women. Support systems through friendships, spouses, and work colleagues were especially important, and many were based on faith and or race. The women varied greatly in their approach to expressing themselves, and some used spiritual references to articulate or illustrate how they communicated or related to others. Regardless of life stage, every female desired deeper relational connections and often times connected relationships and faith as interconnected and interrelated. Interestingly, many of these women sought out other spiritual women or desired strong spiritual women in their lives, both professionally and personally. This was important to the women and helped them feel understood. They all viewed friendships as a vital part of their spiritual lives. Participant 8 stated that: I see my faith community as my close friends and family who I fellowship and pray with… You need the spiritual side especially when you have colleagues who are hurting and going through hard times. And, you also need it for the times when you celebrate with people…. Praying for people is generational knowledge because it models the behavior for the next generation.

One woman spoke about feeling lonely and described how she reconciled that with her faith perspective. Participant 11 said: I think I’ve grown immensely in regards to insight about myself, selfesteem, self-worth and all that through. Like how I saw myself in relationships and what I deserved. And what I could achieve. I think I always felt really of alone in a lot of stuff and had a hard time identifying what I felt going through and how it was significant but in the end looking back I just see how all my experiences were for good, whether I felt lonely

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The woman who studied theology experienced loneliness and isolation in her studies by being a female. She had no other women at the time to speak to about being a woman in that field and trying to navigate her way through her evolving religious beliefs. Participant 6 noted: I found this appetite for studying God. That God is an idea, God is a person, God is an intervener in my life. I had no women at that point teaching me any of those classes. I had all men teaching those classes for my master’s degree in religion.

Later on, she mentioned how important her church relationships became in her life, emphasizing diversity. Participant 6 said: And then despite the sort of challenges that I face, I mean at church, it’s a wonderful resource to be among people who aren’t living life perfectly who don’t totally get it, but who love Jesus. Just trying to live life in light of that and having relationships that cut across social class that cut across education. I mean there are women in our church who are illiterate, who have no education, are very limited, who don’t have like even high school degrees who only speak Spanish. And we’re friends, you know, and that is a coping mechanism for life. And we’re there for each other, you know as much as we have the issues, you know I’ve talked about the negative side of it probably too much but there’s a beauty of it too and that’s been a wonderful resource for me.”

One woman spoke about the difficulty of finding and connecting with others who aligned with her faith implying the importance of being able to connect with others of faith in all areas of life. She mentioned having two different mentors and the dynamics of those relationships in regards to her faith. Participant 9 noted: I think I had two mentors in graduate school that had a significant impact on me. One was my research advisor, she was a young female and with the same research interests; we’ve written together. She wasn’t a Christian though, and I think I couldn’t totally connect with her. I could connect with her professionally, but not really personally. And mostly because she

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made some lifestyle choices I wouldn’t have necessarily made, and at that time I was young, so young and impressionable, I guess. So she lived with her boyfriend, and she you know, had some other lifestyle things that weren’t a good fit for me. So you know, I didn’t want to model that, but then I also had a mentor, an older man who was Jewish. So he had some faith, and you know, they were few and far between people with faith, so you know. And he always respected that part in my life in a way that most people didn’t. Um because it wasn’t who they were, they didn’t really understand it in some ways. And in psychology you often get people, who, humanism is their sort of religion, you know. And, so that relationship was powerful for me.

One woman spoke about the pressure from losing friends due to her faith and her work in ministry in a context where her faith was not accepted. Participant 4 stated: The good thing about the hardship and suffering is that you get this intense love that comes after the sacrifice. This crazy walk that no one wanted to walk with me on- my girlfriends all left me- because I wouldn’t leave my marriage.

Another participant served beside her husband on movie sets and offered to be there to pray over the set. She was eventually requested to come to set because of her insights and prayerful leadership. Her leadership was shaped by her faith and beliefs, yet extended to her husband’s work as a Director. Another woman spoke about her job as an assistant to a woman who was pursuing her MD at the time and how that relationship impacted her faith through providing a spiritual voice. Participant 6 shared: I started to see ‘wow’ women do actually have a voice and spiritual conversations. I felt that voice in every other area of my life but not in spiritual conversations. I never felt like I couldn’t talk about justice or whatever in every area of my life, but when it came to religion, it was closed off.

Another woman described a mentor who encouraged her and supported her spiritually at work. Participant 5 shared: She taught me just to be patient with my life because there were things that I think I wanted to do with my life or wanted my life to be that didn’t happen or that I didn’t see happening yet and she’d say, “you be patient, you’re young, and that may not be what God wants you to have done in your life but it may not be until you’re 60.”

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One woman spoke about her mother being a spirit-led woman who encouraged her to enjoy the experiences of life. She accredited her mother’s spiritual advice with her approach to college and deciding to minor in art. This was because it was more for enjoyment and less about practical purposes. One interesting finding regarding relational style and faith was the influence of husbands. Even though specific questions about spouses were not directly asked, the topic of husbands was frequently raised by these women. Husbands were viewed as partners and the women interviewed gave accolades to their husbands for their support, love, and help in their own success and happiness. Many of the women who were married noted that having helpful and supportive husbands was an important part of their success. The findings and analysis of adaptive style and faith supported the McKinsey Leadership Model that introduces energy as a part of the understanding of leadership and emphasizes relationships as important in the work-life balance dynamic. In understanding the relationship of adaptive style and faith, this energy was described in spiritual terms, with an emphasis on relying on God for the demands of life. These women understood that their decisions about how to use their energy was based on prayer or consulting God, other spiritual friendships, or leaving the change/decision to God. These women were high risk-takers, multidimensional, and innovative, which were directly related to their reliance on their faith, and the open-mindedness that God was taking care of things. Many spoke to a desire to be more innovative in their work, and a desire to take more risks in reaching goals. This courage stemmed from the strength of their faith. They were comfortable releasing outcomes to God, trusting that He knows best. They were highly adaptive women based on the strength of their faith. Energy level was a concern for all of the women. Many related their energy or time management or support to their faith. Participant 4 said: I’m not really good at juggling itíthe house is a mess, the kids don’t have the right clothes on, it’s crazy, but it’s working… Now I am getting honored in the home more and I have good self-esteem it doesn’t help to work outside the home. God planned it so that my children were the right age. I just had to wait it out.

Each woman had their own strategies in balancing life through their faith. One said her faith is a huge source of support and that includes reading scripture, prayer, and reading spiritual or faith-based authors. Another stated that her strategy for balance is total and complete

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dependence on God and that she would never plan ahead of time because she just follows Him. She relies on Him to tell her what they should do next and calls her life “fascinating” (Participant 4). These women appeared particularly receptive to change as a result of their faith. It was common for the women to express that although they may not have been happy about a situation or a major change in life, they were accepting of it because they felt that God was in charge and that it would all work out in the end. Further, when they shared anecdotes of those changes, they credited God with working things out for their best interest. Another woman spoke of her changing views of life and faith as she reflected upon working her entire professional career at Christian universities. Participant 2 expounded on newer ways of looking at things: I don’t know if that’s made living out your faith easier or more challenging. I think because people just sort of expect it, and that’s just part of the culture that you’re in. But I also think sometimes you don’t take it as seriously as you should. Or you don’t have to think about how you live that our in settings that aren’t expecting your faith.

She also shared a story of a former church she had belonged to that had opposed a new female pastor they had hired. Participant 2 spoke about that challenging situation and how it impacted her as a person responding to change and new ways of thinking of things: I’ve been surprised at the set and fixed viewpoints people have about their faith without trying to step back and try to see the bigger picture of what the Christian message is. I think that experience, from a faith perspective, gave me strength and courage to be willing to step out and go against the grain and the tradition on things that I thought were important and were consistent with my sense of what God’s calling us to do.

One woman spoke to her evolvement as a black person of faith, experiencing multiple sides of religion and being receptive to change and to new concepts that frame her world. Participant 6 stated: None of my black friends stayed home with their kids but most of my white friends did… And I just think it’s totally tied to social class. And even though a lot of my black female friends are educated now, you know as they were having kids, not all of them were. That just wasn’t an option so that’s affected me in the sense that it’s been a part of my psyche and I’ve been conscious and aware of it. And I do think in conservative Christian communities, it’s almost, I think it gets very radicalized and it almost becomes an expectation for some that… so that has affected me in

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a marginal way. Really as more of an irritant, like that not the only way, like I don’t even have a life- I’m a single mom. Are you kidding me?…Well I didn’t expect to sort of evolve in the way that I’ve evolved, I mean I didn’t expect that there was another way of thinking about faith and theology. You know, because I have come to, I mean I have stayed surprisingly connected to the very tradition that has also been really impressive toward me and I, this is what I know. And because I think I have something to contribute. So that’s also where there’s not a lot of frustration. But I also feel like, well if not me, then who? You know, so I feel like I’m a change agent everywhere I live. At church, at work, like I just want to be, sometimes, so I didn’t expect that, um but it’s been positive in that regard. .

One woman ascribed to risk taking by leaving her full time job after she had a baby. She spoke about renewing her faith and the impact that is making on her life and her decisions. Participant 7 states that, “With my new found relationship with God I know He’s going to take care of me, so I’m not worried about that.” Another woman who spoke about possibly being laid-off as reconciled by saying it might be part of God’s plan. She seemed at peace with the idea that He could be shifting her into a new area that could be better. Participant 6 said that it was important for her to integrate all areas of her life including her faith: …social justice wise in the community already, but hopefully having the freedom to align that work with my job life, my church, etc. I mean living I always sort of look for how do I integrate all these aspects of my life so that I’m not living five or ten different lives in many places if that makes sense, So I always look into how to kind of create congruence—it’s what I strive for.

One woman spoke about withdrawing from a certain job application process due to a complicated situation. Participant 2 said, “I was really disappointed it didn’t work out, but I have the philosophy that you kind of have to trust God in those situations that these things work out for a reason and for the best.” Women consulted friends, family, spouses, mentors, and God as ways to process and assess what choice to make or to reconcile challenging situations. One mother even used her faith as a way to address the challenges her child was facing. They have an adopted child who is the only minority in her class and is recognizing that she is different. The mother told her that she is a child of God and beautiful, in order to build up her self-esteem. They have confidence in creating that foundation for her so she will know who she is.

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Finally, the drive and motivation and faith analysis of these women resulted in providing value of understanding God’s purpose for their lives. These women desired purpose in their work and personal lives, according to their faith beliefs. They often connected family and faith, giving priority to both. They were often motivated by “what is best for the family”, with a strong sense of honoring their faith as well. They also valued the element of flexibility and were often caretakers of others, which honored their faith values. They valued travel, adventure, and having control over their lifestyle rather than those decisions being dictated to them by work or others. They were motivated by community involvement and charity work and volunteerism through their faith beliefs and sense of spiritual purpose. None of them were motivated for power as a goal, unless that position of power could offer them a platform to bring about positive influence or change to the world. Overall, these women were focused on the concept of being where they felt that God wanted them to be rather than achieving a specific level of life or career. There were many statements that presented their motivation as surrendering to God or being obedient to where He has them at that time. Participant 11 stated, “Just to have that sense of purpose and to feel like I’m doing something that God really wants me to do…just being in alignment.” This is a very independent natured group, so many of them had a preference for designing their own schedule, having flexibility, carving out their own unique life and some even had entrepreneurial aspirations for creating a life according to their own schedule. They were all intensely busy, involved in many environments and tending to many relationships. Although highly focused on the needs of others, they indicated that they still valued their own achievements and personal dreams. In fact, they viewed their own personal time or personal goals as a way to enhance their ability to give to and help others and make a better life for their family or their own self. There were certainly seasons for some of the women when they felt that their needs had to be put on hold due to circumstances out of their control. Overall, these women mentioned children, family, and community as motivators for future goals and as achievements. Taking care of their families, serving others and also achieving personally, motivated them. One woman noted that she was motivated to become a pastor just to be a spiritual support to her husband. Another woman seemed personally motivated to remain balanced in her faith so that she could offer support to her family and friends when a situation occurs. Many of the women were motivated to stay spiritually strong because they felt it helped them

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personally and internally, and also helped them reach out to others who needed them. This group appeared to be exposed to a higher level of travel experiences and desired activities with those who would offer them spiritual nourishment. One mentioned a desire to have time to attend a spiritual retreat or retreat center. She spoke about the importance of her prayer life and attending mass during the week because she can be “anonymous” (Participant 8). Participant 8 stated: I get a lot out of it because I can be anonymous. I could just go. I don’t have to interact with anybody. I can just go to mass and then I can get about my day.

This woman was committed to serving God in whatever capacity that may be. Participant 4 said: My career was serving God at home. And so as things really started transforming and I really started getting into watching God move I would be given more assignments from him. And then pretty soon I challenged God and so now you made yourself all this money- and what He did- He gave me a movie. I didn’t expect that I was just this mom. I was willing to sacrifice and I know suffering really well. Once you commit to standing forever you don’t have to stand for long.

Participant 1 stated: I want to give back more, and get into that phase of life where I’m trying to think what is it that I need to do. To glorify God more, to do more, because it seems like a lot of the portion in life you’re working, you’re trying to raise kids, you’re willing to build, build, build, but it may not necessarily be for the right reasons.

Conclusions and Recommendations The findings from this study indicate that women who value faith as an element in their lives, and connect faith to their work, view it as part of God’s purpose for their lives. These women derive significant meaning from that work. They also value professional and personal relationships that reflected their own faith and values as part of their coping strategies both personally and professionally. Moen and Sweet (2004) confirmed that gender is linked to cultural and national context due to the socially constructed perspectives of work and life balance and those relationships, including maternal employment and

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how that influences public policy (Treas and Widmer, 2000). The findings in this study confirm this according to the dialogues of the culturally diverse participants. The two African Americans and the woman who identified herself as having being a secular Jew had different views and hardships regarding their identity than the rest of the group of participants. Their experiences were greatly shaped by the cultural aspect of their identity and the social implications of their particular culture and race. The findings in this study aligned with the previous research linking an inner sense of work-life balance and motivation to progress with work. Amabile and Kramer (2007) found that the single most important factor to a person’s sense of inner work balance with regard to motivation was the person’s ability to make progress with their work. The authors are quick to point out that not only is this understanding important for organizations but also for the people who invest their time working for these organizations: “As the proportion of time that is claimed by work rises, inner work life becomes a bigger component of life itself…people deserve happiness” (p. 83). In the current study, women reported feeling content, even in stressful jobs, when they knew they were aligned with their purpose. Amabile and Kramer (2007) reported that people respond to events (at work or in life) through “sensemaking” (p. 75) in order to understand the events and their implications. This also involves cognitive and emotional components, as well as motivation. Within this group of women, faith served as a form of sensemaking and provided a space for women to better understand their circumstances with work and personal life. The results in this study also confirm that holding multiple roles provides positive benefits for work and family. The women reported that being a mother helped in their work and being a career woman helped in managing personal life. Jaga and Bagraim (2011) conducted research regarding work-life balance from an atypical perspective that would expound upon the positive benefits of involvement in both work and family roles. Sieber (1974) described the rewards that holding multiple roles may offer an individual, through role accumulation theory. Greenhaus and Powell (2006) noted that work-family enrichment refers to “the extent to which experiences in one role improve the quality of life in the other role” (p. 72). This study also confirms the importance of “inner-work” life. An important element of work-life balance is what is known as inner-work life, which involves emotions, perceptions, and motivations that can be dissected to better understand and evaluate how performance at work is affected by personal life and vice versa. Amabile and Kramer (2007)

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explained that the interplay between these three elements can improve the productivity of time at work and better balance work and family life. Perceptions are defined as “ranging from immediate impressions to more fully developed theories about what is happening and what it means” (p. 74). Emotions are explained as “…sharply defined reactions such as elation over a particular success or anger over a particular obstacle, or more general feeling states like good or bad moods” (Amabile & Kramer, 2007, p. 74). And, motivation is “one’s grasp of what needs to be done and your drive to do it at any given moment” (Amabile & Kramer, 2007, p. 74). The women in this study reported that faith was an important part of coping with work or life issues, shifting their perceptions and emotions when trying to assess or understand a situation or a person. According to this particular sample, flexibility was also the most valued resource for work-life balance. Several of the women spoke to wanting to have their own business, private practice, or have their own flexible work schedule with their employer as a way to maintain work-life balance. Hill et al. (2010) found that the benefit of work-at-home is increased when combined with schedule flexibility. Moreover, “schedule flexibility is the most valued form of flexibility by men and women in every life stage” (Hill et al., 2010, p. 355). The author’s theoretical framework included Voydanoff’s (2004) ecological systems theory. Hill et al. (2010) described this theoretical understanding as the conflict between resources and environmental demands. This particular group of women differentiated from the typically held beliefs that women have more communal qualities. They held many of the communal qualities, but they also held agentic qualities that are typically associated with men. The one quality that permeated all of the women’s lives was a sense of independence, which is often associated only with men. They were incredibly self-reliant individuals in all areas of life, while also balancing that independence with relying on others for support and community. Psychologists believe that the voice of women is accompanied with more communal qualities. This style includes being “affectionate, helpful, friendly, kind, sympathetic, interpersonally sensitive, gentle, and soft-spoken” (A. Eagly & Carli, 2007, p. 66). The voice of men is more associated with agentic, which includes “being aggressive, ambitious, dominant, self-confident, forceful, self-reliant and individualistic” (A. Eagly & Carli, 2007, p. 66). The problem with this correlation is not only that it is not applicable to all, but also that the agentic traits are those traits that are most associated in people’s minds with effective leadership, due to male domination in leadership. Reports have indicated that many women still use faith to help manage

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their lives and purpose, with more than four in five American women as Christian, outnumbering men in almost every Christian denomination. Participation rates are even higher for lower-income and minority woman. However, this study shows that minority women may actually feel more challenged or ostracized in church environments at times. Mahoney (2010) reported that research is divided as to whether religion truly shapes wives’ decisions to be full-time homemakers or even whether it influences “men or women to prioritize family over career” (p. 808). This study indicates that faith is overwhelmingly influential in a woman’s decision of not only to work or to stay home, but also of where and how to work. Morgan and Steenland suggested that the traditional family and gender roles are challenging the traditional practices of churches (as cited in Savitsky, 2009). Morgan and Steenland (as cited in Savitsky, 2009) give several reasons for this decrease, including “appearance of institutional unfriendliness toward single women” (p. 185) and women’s desire for religious institutions to recognize and value their work schedules, by incorporating services that are more flexible. This study did not find evidence of this with the 11 participants. In fact, women in this study reported finding most of their best friendships and relationships through church communities, religious groups, and other church-related organizations. The only indication of unfriendliness within the church in this group of women was with the woman who was part of a conservative Christian community and had a child before she was married and then went through a divorce. She felt that she was being judged in that situation. This study’s results strongly support the findings and basis for the McKinsey Centered Leadership Model. This study verified the importance of managing energy and relational connections, including those that provide spiritual strength. The McKinsey Leadership Project began an initiative to help professional women by learning what drives and sustains successful female leaders. From the research, they developed a leadership model for women with five dimensions: meaning, or finding your strengths and putting them to work in the service of an inspiring purpose; managing energy, or knowing where your energy comes from, where it goes, and what you can do to manage it; positive framing, or adopting a more constructive way to view your world, expand your horizons, and gain resilience to move ahead even when bad things happen; connecting, or identifying who can help you grow, building stronger relationships, and increasing your sense of belonging; and engaging, or finding your voice, becoming self-reliant and confident by accepting opportunities and the inherent risks they bring, and collaborating with others. This model “emphasizes relationships, being relational, and positive emotion, and

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provides intellectual, emotional, and spiritual strength that drive personal achievement” (Barsh, Cranston, & Craske, 2008, p. 36). Despite all of the research and dialogue regarding a woman’s struggle to balance work and life, there are overlooked gaps that could potentially link these factors to establish better adaptive skills for women. Since these links have not been established in one cohesive study, coping (adaptive) skills have also not been observed for all of these changes for womankind (Heraty et al., 2008). Some coping strategies have been investigated by Heraty et al. (2008): emotion-focused skills such as cognitive reappraisal and positive thinking or problem-focused coping such as direct action and advice seeking. Overall, there is a universal transition occurring with women’s roles and identity that is shifting the workplace and homes of many families and negating the stereotypical roles for women, while complicating the expectations of women to “have and do it all” (Dickerson, 2004, p. 340). According to this phenomenological study, faith is an important element in determining work-life balance, career choice, and shaping the relationship of a woman. Faith played an overwhelmingly important role in how women navigated through changes (adaptive style) and how they managed how their time would be spent. Faith was also a large part of the relational style component and also served as an influence for drive and motivation.

Recommendations for Future Research According to these findings it would benefit companies and the overall population to further investigate the role of faith in women’s lives. Studies should be conducted with regards to specific industries and companies to better understand the nuances of workplace and faith. The author recommends that studies be conducted that incorporate a broader variety of faith backgrounds to compare multiple faiths in women’s lives. Both men and women can benefit from such research as it holds implications for marriages, health, and overall wellbeing of work-life balance. Future research should examine the male and female perspective, including an understanding of work-life balance decisions between spouses of the individuals of this study. A comparison of the male and female responses to the complexities of work-life balance could offer more understanding regarding gender as an influencing factor. This study has supported that faith has the ability to influence and impact women in their work-life balance decisions, provide a coping mechanism, serve as a resource of energy and relational connectedness for

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resilience and strength, and is a tool for sense-making. The sense-making ability of faith impacts not only work and purpose but also family and personal life. Perhaps Auschwitz survivor, Victor Frankel, speaks best to the sense-making quality of faith when he states, “Just as the small fire is extinguished by the storm whereas a large fire is enhanced by it, likewise a weak faith is weakened by predicaments and catastrophes whereas a strong faith is strengthened by them” (as cited in Alcorn, 2009, p. 12).

References Alcorn, R. (2009). If God is good: Faith in the midst of suffering. Colorado Springs, CO: Multnomah Books. Amabile, T., & Kramer, S. (2007, May). Inner work life: Understanding the subtext of business performance. Harvard Business Review, 72–83. Barsh, J., Cranston, R., & Craske, R. (2008). Centered leadership: How talented women thrive. McKinsey Quarterly, (4), 35–36. Bielenski, H., & Wagner, A. (2004). Employment options of men and women in Europe. In J. Zollinger Giele & E. Holst (Eds.), Changing life patterns in Western industrial societies (p. 45-67). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. Bourne, L. (2010). Most powerful moms in the military. Retrieved from Workingmother .com. Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Coheny, S. R., & Sok, E. (2007, February 3). Trends in labor force participation of married mothers and infants. Monthly Labor Review, 130, 9–16. Davidson, J. C., & Caddell, D. P. (1990), Religion and the meaning of work. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33(2), 135–147. doi:10.2307/1386600 Dickerson, V. (2004). Young women struggling for an identity. Family Process, 43(3), 337–348. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2004.00026.x Eagly, A., & Carli, L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School. Gelb, J. (2004). Rising tide: Gender equality and cultural change around the world. Political Science Quarterly,119(1), 204-205. doi:10.2307/20202326 Giele, J. Z. (2008). Homemaker or career woman: Life course factors and racial influences among middle class Americans. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 39(3), 392–411. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/ehost/detail?vid=5&hid=

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126&sid=46cee64a-9309-484f-93d69e2afda1fb34%40sessionmgr114 &bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcD9jdXN0aWQ9czg0ODAyMzgmc2l0ZT1la G9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=psyh&AN=2009-01205006 Gornick, J. C., & Meyers, M. K. (2003). Families that work: Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Greenhaus, J. G., & Powell, G. N. (2006), When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. Academy of Management Reviews, 31, 72–92. doi:10 .5465/AMR.2006.19379625 Gunther, M. (2001). God & business. Fortune, 144(1), 58–80. Retreived from http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/ehost/detail?vid=11&hid =126&sid=46cee64a-9309-484f-93d6-9e2afda1fb34%40sessionmgr11 4&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcD9jdXN0aWQ9czg0ODAyMzgmc2l0ZT1l aG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=afh&AN=4729415 Heraty, N., Morley, M., & Cleveland, J. (2008). The work-family dyad: Multi-level perspectives. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(5), 477–483. doi:10.1108/02683940810884496 Hill, E. J., Erickson, J. J., Holmes, E. K., & Ferris, M. (2010). Workplace flexibility, work hours, and work-life conflict: Finding an extra day or two. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(3), 349–358. doi:10.1037/a0019282 Jaga, A., & Bagraim, J. (2011). The relationship between work-family enrichment and work-family satisfaction outcomes. South Africa Journal of Psychology, 4(1), 52–62. Retreived from http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfview er?sid=46cee64a-9309-484f-93d6-9e2afda1fb34%40sessionmgr114 &vid =28&hid=126 Josselson, R. (1996). Revising herself: The story of women’s identity from college to midlife. New York, NY: Oxford. Kanter, E. M. (2010). Work, pray, love. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/ehost/detail?vid=31&hid =126&sid=46cee64a-9309-484f-93d6-9e2afda1fb34%40sessionmgr11 4&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcD9jdXN0aWQ9czg0ODAyMzgmc2l0ZT1l aG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=buh&AN=55461409 Lather, P. (1991). Getting smart: Feminist research and pedagogy with/in the postmodern. New York, NY: Routledge. Lenski, G. (1961). The religious factor: A sociological study of religion’s impact on politics, economics, and family life. Garden City, NY:

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Doubleday. MacDermid, S., & Marks, S. (1996). Multiple roles and the self: A theory of role balance. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58(5), 417–432. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/ehost/detail?vid=46&hid =126&sid=46cee64a-9309-484f-93d6-9e2afda1fb34%40sessionmgr11 4&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcD9jdXN0aWQ9czg0ODAyMzgmc2l0ZT 1laG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=afh&AN=9606274170 Mahoney, A. (2010). Religion in families, 1999–2009: A relational spirituality framework. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(4), 805– 827. doi:10.1111 /j.1741-3737.2010.00732.x Moen, P., & Sweet, S. (2004). From ‘work-family’ to ‘flexible careers’: A life course reframing. Community, Work and Family, 7, 209–226. doi:10.1080 /1366880042000245489 Moreton, A., & Newson, R. (2004). Female chief academic officers in evangelical Christian colleges and universities: Part II: Reflections on careers, marriage, and faith. Christian Higher Education, 3, 313–328. doi:10.1080/15363750490507339 Nash, L., & McLennan, S. (2001). Church on Sunday, work on Monday: The challenge of fusing Christian values with business life. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Olesen, V. (2005). Early millennial feminist qualitative research: Challenges and contours. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.; pp. 235–278). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Paludi, M. (2008). The psychology of women at work. Westport, CT: Praeger. Rayburn, C., and L. Richmond. 2002. Special Issue: Theobiology: Interfacing Theology, Biology and the Other Sciences for Deeper Understanding. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(12). Riccio, A. (1979). Religious affiliation and socioeconomic achievement. In R. Wuthnow, (Ed.), The religious dimension: New directions in quantitative research (pp.199–226). New York, NY: Academic Press. Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, A. S. (2008), The road to the glass cliff: Differences in the perceived suitability of men and women for leadership positions in succeeding and failing organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 530–546. doi:10.1016 /j.leaqua.2008.07.011 Savitsky, Z. (2010). Inertia and change: Findings of the Shriver report and next steps. Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law, and Justice, 172–198. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/ehost/detail?vid=62&hid

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=126&sid=46cee64a-9309-484f-93d6-9e2afda1fb34%40sessionmgr 114&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcD9jdXN0aWQ9czg0ODAyMzgmc2l0ZT 1laG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=buh&AN=52418016 Shambaugh, R. (2008). It’s not a glass ceiling, it’s a sticky floor. New York: NY, McGraw-Hill. Sherkat, D. E. (2000). “That they be keepers of the home”: The effect of conservative religion on early and late transitions into housewifery. Review of Religious Research, 41, 344–358. doi:10.2307/3512034 Sleep, L. (2000). Personal encounters with sociology, religion, and issues of gender. Sociology of Religion, 61, 473–477. doi:10.2307/3712532 Spilka, B., Hood, R.W., Jr., Hunsberger, B., & Gorsuch, R. (2003). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Sullivan, S. (2006). The work-faith connection for low-income mothers: A research note. Sociology of Religion, 67(1), 99–108. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/ehost/detail?vid=68&hid =126&sid=46cee64a-9309-484f-93d6-9e2afda1fb34%40sessionmgr11 4&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcD9jdXN0aWQ9czg0ODAyMzgmc2l0ZT1l aG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#db=afh&AN=20418456 Treas, J., & Widemer, E. D. (2000). Married women’s employment over the life course: Attitudes in cross-national perspective. Social Forces, 78, 1409–1436. doi:10 .2307/3006179 Voydanoff, P. (2004). The effects of work demands and resources on work-to-family conflict and facilitation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 398–412. doi:10 .1111/j.1741-3737.2004.00028.x Weber, M. (1930). The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Mineola, NY: Dover. Wuthnow, R. (1994). God and Mammon in America. New York, NY: The Free Press.

CHAPTER FOUR RACE AND WORK LIFE INTEGRATION DR. GAYLE COLSTON BARGE

Abstract Organizations must address a myriad of issues from diversity initiatives to ensuring that work-life programs are responsive to the needs of its fastest growing segment—women of color. African American women are the largest minority group among women of color. Despite the significance of their presence, research to date on the topic of work-life integration and family issues is based primarily on the experiences of middle-class white women. This chapter discusses the connection between race and work-life integration. Concomitantly, it summarizes a qualitative research study that provided, via narratives, diverse views of how African American women conceptualize and balance work and family.

Introduction All women, regardless of race or ethnicity, struggle with issues related to work-life integration. Kamenou (2008) states, “with few exceptions, issues around ethnicity and culture have been absent from the majority of discussions around work-life balance debates and initiatives” (p. 100). This study of work-life balance among African American women was important for three primary reasons: to challenge previously accepted discourses of work and scholarship related to this topic that were based on one demographic perspective, to incorporate new thinking and understanding of the historical and socioeconomic impact of balancing work and family from an African American view point, and to contribute to a significant knowledge gap in research related to work-life balance in diverse families. Tucker and Wolfe (2002) note, “Women of color do not experience their workplace culture with their race-ethnicity and gender neatly

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compartmentalized as two separate facts of life” (p. 8). This statement reinforces the complexity of understanding the nuances of workplace diversity and family issues. Treatment of African American women as persons of color is associated with workplace diversity issues, while challenges to balancing responsibilities via work and personal life are separate and distinct from the aforementioned category. This study further explored the impact of life experiences and how they have impacted African American women’s ability to achieve balance in their personal and professional lives. An extensive literature review provided a context for associative reasoning related to connections between race and work life integration.

Review of the Literature The pertinent review of literature for the study included the following categories: cultural beliefs, work, family, work-life balance, and an overview of the life-story method adapted from the Giele (2008) study. The cultural literature included the following subcategories: faith, values, and norms. The work literature provided a review of mentoring and leadership while the family category included relevant overviews of family, motherhood, feminism, and womanist. Literature on the evolution of work-life balance was also reviewed and included a foundation for the theoretical basis of the study. For the purposes of this chapter, literature reviews of the cultural, family and work-life balance categories are highlighted.

Cultural Literature: Faith, Values, and Norms Shifting demographics are redefining how people work together with interrelationships and the dynamics of culture in the workplace taking center stage (Chao & Moon, 2005). Culture affects behavior, ways of thinking, and to a great extent, values and norms, and yet there is little consensus regarding how to define culture. Various sources offer a plethora of definitions. Admittedly, culture is one of the most complicated words in the English language (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952). The previous statement is as appropriate today as it was 5 decades ago because of the complexities inherent within diverse cultures. Taylor (1924) initially used the term culture in a sociological and anthropological context and defined the word as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (p. 1).

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Further, culture can be viewed as a construct that distinguishes individuals in addition to groups or group properties, often as the main source of identity (Chao & Moon, 2005; Schein, 1996). Classic definitions of culture are synonymous with the behavior with which it is linked as an important antecedent, a value component, and the missing link to furthering our understanding of the dynamics of organization behavior (Erez & Earley, 1993; Hofstede, 1980; Sackman, 1997; Schein, 1996; Schwartz, 1999). By viewing culture as a mosaic, Chao and Moon (2005) introduced a process for considering an individual’s culture simultaneously from global and local perspectives. To enhance previously limited views from the stance of gender or ethnicity, Chao and Moon suggested that combinations or patterns of tiles allow for a multilayered approach to understanding individuals’ cultural orientations (2005). Additionally, the researchers noted that an individual’s cultural mosaic comprises three primary categories: “demographic, geographic, and associative” (Chao & Moon, 2005, p. 1129). In concert with systems theory, the cultural mosaic as posited by Chao and Moon viewed culture via a broader and more holistic lens. Table 1 summarizes the three categories. Table 1: Taxonomy of a Cultural Mosaic by Chao and Moon (2005) Primary Category Demographic

Geographic

Associative

Definition

Sample Mosaic Tiles

Physical characteristics and social identities inherited from parents and ancestors Natural or manmade physical features of a region that can shape group identities Formal and informal groups with which individuals choose to associate and identify

Age, ethnicity, gender, race

Climate, temperature, coastal/inland, urban/rural, regional/country Family, religion, employer, profession, politics, avocation

Chao and Moon (2005) state, “Every individual has a cultural mosaic. The patterns of mosaic tiles that emerge in an individual represent localized patterns of structures within the person” (p. 1132). These structures comprise the individuals’ cores, from attitudes and values to

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behavioral characteristics. The other factor within this mosaic is how others are viewed in relation to the various mosaics. In some instances, individuals have certain tiles in common, whereas in other situations, divergent tiles are evident. Each of the tiles within the mosaic individually and collectively embraces the complexity of culture, providing a basis for a more in-depth understanding of interrelationships. This stance is offered as a platform for further review of cultural literature as it relates to understanding the complexities of African American women’s life experiences in conjunction with the impact of achieving work-life balance. Kamenou (2008) argues for a more holistic and broad-based approach to understanding the linkages among work, life, and family within the context of work-life balance and ethnic minority women’s life experiences. While her work focused on ethnic minorities and not African American women specifically, it provided a context within which to understand “different forms of life which may fall out of the standard white western model” (p. 99). Other research explored the pressure on minority women to balance commitments to their families, culture, and religion. With rare exceptions, the aforementioned categories are intertwined with and dominate the life component of work-life for women of color, creating bicultural stress. This term, coined by Thomas and Alderfer (1989), is defined as “the set of emotional and physical upheavals produced by a bicultural existence” (p. 135). It explains why in many instances, myriad levels of expectation abound at work and home. At work, they feel the responsibility to fit in to be accepted and have opportunities for career advancement. At home and within their communities, they may at times, be subjected to criticism from those who feel they are denying their culture by assimilating and adapting to westernized cultural norms. This delicate and demanding balancing act can result in the aforementioned bicultural stress and frustration. The African American Women’s Voices Project, chronicled in Shifting authored by Jones and Shorter-Gooden (2003), is recognized as the “largest, most comprehensive study to date of African American women’s perceptions and experiences of racism and sexism” (p. 4). The project focused on various aspects of African American women’s life experiences as they dealt with discrimination, gender bias, and its impact on their personal and professional lives, relationships, and community affiliations. “Shifting” as defined by the authors, refers to “all the ways that African American women respond to and cope with racial and gender stereotypes, bias and mistreatment” (p. 62). They further contend: Black women are forced to react or respond in some way to these challenges—and thus all Black women shift. Sometimes it is conscious—

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the person is fully aware of her reactions…but perhaps more often, shifting is done subconsciously. (p. 62)

When used as a coping strategy, shifting can incorporate cognitive functions, requiring the use of varied thought processes, and behavioral functions, necessitating changes in how one behaves (Jones & ShorterGooden, 2003). The authors proffered the following shifting strategies Black women use to cope in their various environments: (a) battling societal myths; (b) scanning, surveying, and scrutinizing the environment; (c) walling off the impact of discrimination; (d) seeking spiritual and emotional support through churches, religious communities, friends, and family members; (e) retreating to the Black community and abiding by the home codes; and (f) fighting back. Literature related to culture, domestic labor, and household management issues suggests that a key to understanding the experiences of African American women is based, in part, on the shared history of slavery and colonialism (Carby, 1982; Gardiner, 1997; Patterson, 2007). These studies assert that African American women sought work outside of the home as a result of socioeconomic necessity and survival; consequently, choosing full-time motherhood was not an option for the majority of African American women, many of whom have a pattern of earlier motherhood than their white counterparts (Bradley, Healy, Mukherjee, 2005; Gardiner, 1997; Holdsworth & Dale, 1997; Kamenou, 2008). Recognizing the impact of different life experiences in conjunction with work-life balance will enable leaders to manage effectively and address the needs of a changing demographic within their organizations. The cultural mosaic, as postulated by Chao and Moon (2005), affirms the complexities inherent within this discourse. This also underscores the importance and relevance and value of the study.

Family: Motherhood, Feminism, and Womanism Significant research affirms the connection between and among work and family issues with that of culture, norms, values, and beliefs (Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinkley, 2005; Lobel, 1991; Mortazavi, Pedhiwala, Shariro, & Hammer, 2009; Schein, 1984). Studies on this subject further assert that one of the keys to understanding this link resides within a more detailed analysis of the impact of culture on diversified workforces in which women are playing more prominent roles. Global companies with multicultural workforces are the norm, not the exception in a world where more women are entering the world of work. The growth in these multinational organizations is contributing to increased research

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on the topics of issues related to work-life balance and acknowledgement of the impact of “broader life circumstances in relation to their family, culture and religion” (Kamenou, 2008, p. 100). Changes in the demographic makeup of the workforce since the early 1990s corroborate studies that point to an increase in the number of women, dual-income couples, and work-family conflict that evolved. In particular, social scientists devoted significant attention to research focused on the relationship of women with paid work versus volunteer work and motherhood. Landry’s (2000) research documented how middleclass white women were affected when they made the transition from volunteering to the world of paid work. The gap between working mothers and stay-at-home mothers widened creating a schism undergirded by cultural dichotomies that pitted motherhood against career goals. Finding the time and energy to manage both was a source of frustration and stress, leaving some career mothers feeling guilty about their decisions to choose full-time employment over traditional views of motherhood. Research suggests that the conflict that centered on finding solutions included identifying ways to juggle, manage, and balance work and family priorities, recognizing that these were both full-time pursuits (Garey, 1999; Gerson, 1985; Hays, 1996; Hochschild, 1997; Moen & Sweet, 2003; Presser, 2003). Studies documented a myriad of solutions to this dilemma that included women who decided to work fewer hours, less desirable shifts, and temporary assignments while others vacillated between full- and parttime employments (Garey, 1999; Presser, 2003). It should be noted that aforementioned studies, which focused without exception on white women, were at the time, believed to be synonymous with women of color, since no research made delineation across racial or cultural demographics (Barnett & Rivers, 1996; Gerson, 1985; Hochschild, 1997; Moen & Sweet, 2003; Perry-Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter, 2000). Consequently, widely accepted notions of motherhood were associated with stay-at-home moms who were predominately white or those working mothers who had the flexibility to be engaged in their children’s lives. In spite of a 2003 report by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that showed African American women represent the largest share of minority women’s employment during the decade (1990–2001) with 7.6% and a rate of change in that same decade of 43%, existing literature on their experiences is scarce, providing limited platforms for defining or identifying diverse ideologies of motherhood from Black perspectives (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2003). However, a Collins (1994) study asserted that, “black women have

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included being financial providers in their definitions and ideologies of motherhood for quite some time” (p. 168). Further research maintained that such long-standing employment history among African American women accounted for their separation from domestic categories synonymous with white counterparts. Concomitantly, from a cultural perspective they viewed and understood their roles as mothers and workers as simultaneous realities, creating their own meanings of womanhood and motherhood with an ideology that diverged from white cultures (Collins, 1994; Dill, 2000; Landry, 2000). Historically, the impact of slavery profoundly influences the thinking of African American women. For working women of color the dynamics of balancing work with family and personal life require them to learn how to function in two different settings. In many cases, this requires them to adopt a myriad of values and customs based on their work and personal lives. Researchers suggest that this is unique to women of color, requiring them to manage life demands from bicultural viewpoints (Bell, Denton, & Nkomo, 1993). These long-standing cultural premises explain, in part, the separation between white women and African American women, as it relates to ideological contexts regarding motherhood, further corroborating the need for more definitive research. The following literature review pertinent to feminism is an important component of this research. Sociological and philosophical perspectives on feminism are historically grounded in suppositions that white males dominated societal culture. From the genesis of this movement advocated by Sojourner Truth in 1851 via her speech, Ain’t I a Woman? to well-known activists Gloria Steinem, Bella Abzug, and Betty Friedan among others, feminism continues to evolve, recognizing the impact of race, class, and gender on societal oppression (Collins, 1994). White and Klein (2002) proffered the following theorems regarding feminism and the influence of gender: (a) our experiences and societies are influenced by gender; (b) as a class, women are oppressed by dominant males; (c) female-centric cultures emerged in response to the male dominance; (d) the family is generally at the center of female oppression and consequently most affected by such pressures. Noted African American feminists such as Mary Church Terrell, bell hooks, Anna Julia Cooper, Mary McLeod Bethune, Fannie Lou Hamer, Vashti McKenzie, Nannie Helen Burroughs, Angela Davis, Dorothy I. Height, and Barbara Jordan worked tirelessly in diverse fields, including education, civil rights, health and welfare, and government (Jones & Shorter-Gooden, 2003; Height, 2010). They were cognizant of the fact that

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African American women were more likely to experience discrimination in addition to being denied access to venues where their voices and thoughts would be equitably received. Despite these limitations, African American women’s points of view continued to ascend throughout history, giving rise to woman-ism, a term used to refer to a specific global view espoused by women from the African Diaspora and America. Influences from slavery to post colonialism gave it shape and context, from which this theoretical perspective emerged. Originally adapted from Alice Walker’s use of the term in her book, In Search of Our Mother’s Gardens: Womanist Prose, this theory is based in large part on the bond between African American women and men, in stark contrast to feminism as espoused by white women. Through an appreciation for the interconnectedness of life experiences, self-awareness, and advocacy, womanist epistemology draws on daily lessons of African American women while addressing with resolve those challenges as synonymous with embracing truth and knowledge (Banks-Wallace, 2000; Height, 2010). The core message from African American feminists who were the forerunners of woman-ism was simple but profound, as articulated by the Height (2010), Presidential Medal of Freedom and Congressional Gold Medal recipient who stated: It becomes easier for other people to manipulate you and almost destroy you if you do not have a solid base for your own values and self-esteem. Conversely, once you are clear on the meaning, you are on to the next thing. That meaning sustains you and keeps you moving forward with clear direction. (p. 5)

The literature espouses four components of womanist epistemology: (a) solid life lessons as a source of understanding and meaning making, (b) intellectual debate and dialogue to affirm knowledge-based assertions, (c) an ethos of compassion, and (d) an onus of ethics. Womanists suggest that with rare exceptions, African American women view life experiences as the threads that connect knowledge with values while distinguishing them from vision. Connections and relationships are grounded in sharing and perpetuating channels for disseminating knowledge with the ethos of compassion depicted in three measures: (a) personal expressions, (b) feelings and emotions, and (c) empathy (Banks-Wallace, 2000; Height, 2010). Personal expressions come from African traditions and practices that value individual worth and one’s evolution from a divine source that sustains life and well-being. Feelings and emotions are associated with honest expressions of truth and knowledge. Empathy implies that there are

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shared commitments to ensure that the well-being of others is a collective priority. As cultural dimensions, Hofstede (1984) affirms the value of individualism and collectivism in facilitating an understanding of the link between culture and work-family issues. Woman-ism provides another forum for viewing the uniqueness of African American women’s life experience within the context of managing competing priorities as they strive to achieve work-life balance.

Work-Life Balance The term work-life balance gained widespread acceptance and use in studies as early as the 1960s when the linkages between work and family roles focused primarily on women and work-family conflict (Gregory & Milner, 2009). Other terms and concepts evolved including work-family balance, work-family interference, work-family segmentation, and workfamily expansion (Burke, 2004; Greenhaus & Singh, 2003). As defined by Felstead, Jewson, Phizacklea, and Walters (2002), work-life balance is “the relationship between the institutional and cultural times and spaces of work and non-work in societies where income is predominately generated and distributed through labor markets” (p. 56). This definition suggests possibilities for levels of flexibility and autonomy despite the reality being otherwise. Recent studies argue for a broader more diverse approach to the life component in this equation (Kamenou, 2008), while other colleagues contest the term and any current definitions, suggesting the complexities inherent within the term balance preclude one from arriving at an allencompassing definition. The debate over a definition is undergirded by multifaceted assertions that the term balance implies that work is not integral to life and implies instead that a simple tradeoff is desirable. The drawback is the tendency within this school of thought to ignore fundamental inequities in lieu of quick fixes that are not sustainable. The outcome is more often than not a transfer of the onus for achieving worklife balance to individuals versus using a holistic approach to view all of the components within this dynamic (Burke, 2004; Felstead et al., 2002; Gregory & Milner, 2009; Lewis & Cooper, 2005). Additionally, critical discussions of work-life balance center around assumptions that a balance can be achieved between paid work and personal lives outside of work. Aforementioned tradeoffs associated with balance are disputed further based on a belief that overlap exists between the two worlds. The presence of this overlap and widespread debate present new opportunities to expand the parameters within which work-

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life balance is currently viewed; most notably from perspectives of ethnicity, culture, and religion. This is particularly important because, to date and with rare exceptions, issues around ethnicity, culture, and religion have been absent from major discourses, debates, and workplace initiatives (Bradley et al., 2005; Kamenou, 2008). Pertinent literature discusses work-life interface in terms of three issues: (a) time management, (b) inter-role conflict, and (c) care arrangements for dependents. Employee work-life balance priorities are categorized as follows: (a) working time arrangements, including flexibility; (b) parenting and other care-related responsibilities, such as maternity or parental leave issues; and (c) childcare (Kamenou, 2008; McDonald, Brown, & Bradley, 2005). Literature further suggests that benefits to organizations for implementing work-life balance programs include improvement in attendance and productivity, retention of key talent, and operational efficiency (Lee, MacDermid, & Buck, 2000; Lewis & Cooper, 2005). Despite improvement in the availability of work-life programs in organizations, many women are hesitant to take advantage of these opportunities. Several reasons are corroborated via research that affirms disconnects between manager and coworker support, career consequences, organizational time expectations, and gendered perceptions of policy use are key detractors (Kamenou, 2008; McDonald et al., 2005). Ultimately, the onus rests on the individual to get the job done, and as Gregory and Milner (2009) state, without regard for the issue of achieving balance, “raising questions about structure and agency that highlights the relationship between formal and informal routes to power” (p. 6). The literature review and summary of survey findings underscored the need for a phenomenological study of competing priorities focused within the context of African American women’s experiences of balancing their work and personal lives.

Problem Statement Demographic changes in the workforce and workplace during the last 3 decades are accounting for the emergence of a myriad of issues that are impacting every aspect of life for women, their families, and organizations. As women enter the workforce, they are faced with new challenges as leaders and homemakers, charged with the daunting task of managing competing priorities (Daniel, 2004; Noor, 2004; Nordenmark, 2004; Rothbard, Philips, & Dumas, 2005). In particular, discussions and research on the topic of work-life balance are gaining momentum and a

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prominent place on the national agenda of key thought leaders, including First Lady Michelle Obama, who identified it as a priority during her husband’s administration. According to results from a recent survey conducted by Strategy One, 89% of respondents view work-life balance issues as a difficulty, including 54% who say it is a significant problem (as cited in “Amid economic woes,” 2010). The study illustrates how consequences of economic uncertainty extend beyond workplace settings, disrupt family time, and negatively impact efforts to maintain semblances of balance. Additionally, nearly half of American workers (43%), are dissatisfied with their employer’s efforts to address this issue. Bird (2006) notes the increase in demand for solutions to the issue of work-life balance is affecting every aspect of organizational culture. With increasing numbers of women entering and advancing in the workforce, organizations are challenged with addressing complex issues from developing and implementing diversity initiatives to ensuring that work-life programs are responsive to the needs of its fastest growing segment—women of color. Within that segment, African American women are the largest minority group. Despite the significance of their presence in the workforce, research to date on the topic of work-life balance and family issues is based primarily on the experiences of middleclass white women. This is in part a result of the ascension of women to the world of work during the last 4 decades, facilitated by the feminist movement and advocacy by Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem who encouraged women to leave the confinement of homemaking for corporate settings. Within this assertion, women in general were uniformly categorized without regard for cultural and historical diversity. African American women were inadvertently marginalized without regard to life experiences historically impacted by slavery and other socioeconomic factors. Women of African descent entered the work force based on economic and social necessity, understanding that it was critical for the survival of their families versus doing so out of a need for personal gratification. Despite the dearth of scholarly research, two studies in 1999 and 2008 provide valuable insights that established a foundation for further research and the nexus for this study. The Center for Women Policy Studies’ National Women of Color Work/Life Study (1999) is credited with being the first quantitative study to focus on how women of color in corporate America manage work-life balance. The study, published in 1999, addressed the issue across a diverse population that included African American, African, Latinas, Native American, Asian, and Pacific Islander

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women, with African American women constituting 52% of respondents. Tucker and Wolfe (2002) stated the findings in part, “reveal the invisible line between the workplace issues defined as “balancing work/life responsibilities and workplace diversity and how the interplay between them affects women of color” (p. 1). The second study, Giele (2008), compared and contrasted perceived identities of career mothers and stayat-home mothers. In each instance, these studies contributed to a knowledge base that is still evolving. The intent of this study was to provide, via narratives, a broader, more diverse view of how African American women conceptualize and balance work and family. Such analysis can potentially inform organizational policy and practice in public and private sectors. Heightened interest in the topic of work-life balance is evident in a plethora of books, magazine articles, and talk show programs. The challenge of managing the world of work with personal lives is a problem that affects women in general (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Gershbain & Brownstone, 2007). While all women struggle with issues related to work-life conflict, missing from this dialogue are the voices of African American women who constitute one of the largest demographic groups in organizations. Researchers have limited information about African American women’s career experiences or how they integrate the world of work with their personal lives, despite evidence that work is a significant domain in their lives (Blair-Loy, 2003). Their life experiences and cultural dynamics inherent within historical antecedents of slavery and oppression are significant points of reference that must be added not only to topical debates, but also to diversity initiatives implemented by organizations within every business and industry. This phenomenological study argued in favor of exploring, via narratives and the life story method, a broader, more diverse approach to understanding competing priorities that impact African American women who are striving to achieve work-life balance. It endeavored to present an analysis that could potentially inform organizational policy and practice in public and private sectors.

Sampling Historical antecedents affirm the multi-century presence of African American women in the world of work, dating back to slavery. The significance of the aforementioned presence notwithstanding, research to date on work-life balance and family issues remains grounded primarily on the experiences of middle-class white women, contributing to the

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marginalization of African American women without regard for the depth, breadth, and impact of their life experiences. The three-fold purpose of this phenomenological study was to challenge previously accepted discourses of work and scholarship related to this topic that were based on one demographic perspective, to incorporate new thinking and understanding of the historical and socioeconomic impact of balancing work and family from an African American view point, and to contribute to a significant knowledge gap in research related to work-life balance in diverse families. This section presents results from interviews conducted with 30 African American women regarding the phenomenon of competing priorities that impact their ability to achieve work-life balance. It also reports major themes that emerged from the data. Via interviews that utilized the life-story method, these women shared life experiences that underscored complexities inherent within their personal and professional lives. The study revealed a myriad of competing priorities and factors that are simultaneously convergent and divergent. While all women struggle at some point with work-life balance issues, collective and individual viewpoints of these women corroborate the influence of culture and ethnicity. At the core of the study, which utilizes Giele’s (2008) life-story method, social constructivist correlations (both collective and individual) affirm the relevance of such research. This is, in large part, a result of the poignant and revealing responses from the study participants. The results discussed in this chapter suggest the potential for in-depth dialogue and new ways of understanding these issues. In tandem with this phenomenological study, the qualitative research and social constructivist perspective affirm Creswell’s (2009) postulation that “individuals seek understandings of the world in which they live and work” (p. 8). The use of an open-ended, semi structured interviewing approach created a setting within which the subjects could share personal reflections. Further, it enabled them to focus specifically on historical and cultural contexts within the interview framework. Concomitantly, several of Crotty’s (1998) assumptions related to phenomenology underscore the relevance and appropriateness for this study in addition to sharing an ideological basis.

x Human beings construct meanings of ones surroundings as they engage with the world they are interpreting. Qualitative researchers tend to use open-ended questions so that the participants can share their views. x Human beings engage with their world and make sense of it based

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on their historical and social perspectives—we are all born into a world of meaning bestowed upon us by our culture. Thus, qualitative researchers seek to understand the context or setting of the participants through visiting this context and gathering information personally. They also interpret what they find, an interpretation shaped by the researcher’s own experiences and background. x The basic generation of meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with a human community. The process of qualitative research is largely inductive, with the inquirer generating meaning from the data collected in the field. The research questions noted below guided this study, establishing a platform for the inculcation of social constructivism and phenomenological study. 1. How do competing priorities impact the lives of African American women who are striving to achieve work-life balance? 2. What experiences (identity, relationship style, goals and motivation, and adaptive) shape the life course of African American women that impact work-family life balance decisions? 3. How do socio-demographic variables (education, age, ethnicity, family composition, profession, marital status, spouse’s education, and spouse’s profession) influence work-family life decisions? 4. What are the relationships among influencers (family background, mentoring, and faith) and career goals on work-family life balance decisions?

Data Collection Procedures The data collection process included selection of subjects via purposive and respondent-driven sampling. Respondent-driven sampling, sometimes referred to as snowball sampling, is a technique for developing a sample from existing study participants who help recruit future subjects from their acquaintances. Thus, the sample appears to grow like a rolling snowball. As the sample grows, data are gathered to be useful for the research. This sampling technique is often used in populations in which a unique sample is difficult to identify. This variation of snowball sampling—respondentdriven sampling—has been shown to allow researchers to make asymptotically unbiased estimates from snowball samples under certain conditions. It also allows researchers to make estimates about the social

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network connecting the population. As a complement to snowballing, purposive sampling was used because it allowed the researcher to choose participants based on their unique characteristics, experiences, attitudes, and perceptions. Furthermore, the use of these sampling techniques in this qualitative research study allowed the researcher to obtain rich descriptions of the phenomena under investigation.

Population Descriptions and Selection Criteria A diverse group of 30 African American women participated in the research study. Ranging in age from 28 to 86, with an average of 46 years, they were a cultural mosaic of similarities and differences: from a cashier to a corporate executive. Marital status categories included 16 who are married, six who are divorced, five who are single, and two widows, and one separated. All are mothers with an average of two children and two siblings. Two thirds of their families were co-parented. Their lives were connected across cultural avenues intersected by socioeconomic differences. Salaries ranged from $15,000 to more than $250,000, averaging $70,000. Individually and collectively, their life experiences intoned moments of success and frustration as they strived to be present at home and work. Selections of participants were based on the following criteria: (a) must be an African American woman, and (b) either employed outside of the home in paid work or as a volunteer. Thirty interviews, with pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality, were completed with participants whose demographics are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Population Demographics Participant Elise

Age 28

Education Bachelor/Journalism

Marlena Shana Darla Camile Portia Phyllis Delia Polly Susan Marla Dolly

39 42 47 40 35 42 37 50 35 38 40

Bachelor/Education Doctorate Masters/Media Masters/Business J.D. J.D. Masters/Education Bachelor/Nursing Masters/Business Masters/Education Masters/Management

Profession Insurance Manager Educator Chiropractor Journalist Executive Attorney Attorney Administrator Executive Self-employed Administrator Admin. Executive

Marital Status Divorced Married Single Single Divorced Single Divorced Married Married Married Married Married

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66 Trudy Helen Debby Charlotte Kendra Bonnie Camila Laura Tammy Ruby Margaret Jillian Wanda Barbara Gretchen Sophia Ellen Elizabeth

49 48 36 36 45 43 42 86 63 47 84 50 29 41 40 46 60 61

Bachelor Associate Degree Bachelor/Marketing High school diploma 10th grade High school diploma D.C. Ph.D. Bachelor/Design Bachelor Masters/Education Masters/Education D.C. Masters/Education Bachelors/Marketing Masters/Business Bachelor/Education Masters/Education

Executive Vice President Manager Clerk Cafeteria worker Cashier Chiropractor College educator Retired educator Real estate owner Retired professor Educator Chiropractor Educator Executive Manager Retired Administrator

Married Married Married Married Separated Single Single Widowed Married Divorced Widowed Married Married Married Married Married Divorced Divorced

The Interview Process The individual interviews with the subjects were semi-structured, averaged between 45 minutes to 1 hour, and were conducted in person or via telephone. The interviews were audiotaped to provide for consistent review and transcription of the interview. To maintain confidentiality of each subject, a pseudonym was attributed to each interviewee. The matrix listed the pseudonym and assigned a numerical value for each subject. The numerical value was used in coding the data which were kept confidential. Once data were entered into Nvivo software for the interview, the matrix using the pseudonym and assigned numerical value data was destroyed. This allowed for complete confidentiality of responses. The researcher conducted and coded every interview. The interviews followed the general four questions from the Giele (2008) study, along with a socio-demographic set of questions. An additional set of questions focused on strategies for coping with balancing life activities, workplace culture, and leadership. At the onset of the interview, participants were assured that their participation in the interview was strictly voluntary with the option of not answering any of the questions. At the conclusion of the study, the researcher agreed to mail a summary of the study to participants who requested it.

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Results and Discussion Data Analysis The interviews were audiotaped and downloaded into the NVivo9 qualitative analysis software. This software was utilized to analyze the qualitative histories of each participant, including developing linkages between socio-demographic data and the qualitative data. The analysis was compared and contrasted with Giele’s (2008) themes for similarities and differences, using the theoretical framework from the four life-course dimensions. Giele’s (2008) study provided guidelines using the four life-course dimensions that served as the overarching themes listed in chapter 2. The composite profile of the themes that characterize the participants is presented throughout the thematic analysis. Thematic analysis. In addition to the themes that emerged as a result of the qualitative analysis, key influencers undergirded the thematic analysis and are discussed from individual and collective viewpoints. Identity. The participants tended to view themselves in a positive manner. Their educational background was a significant aspect and identifier for the interviewees along with their ethnicity, which is African American. The overwhelming majority, 87%, had college degrees with 33% holding bachelor’s degrees, 37% holding master’s degrees, and 17% holding terminal degrees. Education levels varied with the remaining four participants who finished the 10th grade, graduated from high school, and attended college for 2 years, respectively. With the exception of two participants, all of the women viewed themselves as successful and expressed satisfaction with their lives overall. Figure 1 illustrates the Identity theme. Two of the participants stated with certainty that the lack of support from family members impacted their self-esteem and interest in attending college. Quotations from participants are all based on personal communications with the researcher. According to Charlotte: My life didn’t turn out as I hoped. I got pregnant—couldn’t go to school. When you don’t have anyone to help you, it’s hard. My parents and siblings didn’t graduate from high school; I’m the only one. Education is important to me but my parents weren’t interested. They didn’t help me.

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Education

Ethnicity

Identity

Faith community

Family

Figure 1: Identity theme and influencers.

Kendra added: I didn’t finish high school but the local college extension program enabled me to teach nutrition. I and my siblings wanted to go to college but education wasn’t a priority.

Of the 28 respondents who were satisfied with their lives, 30% said their lives turned out differently. In each instance, the change was a result of a shift in career focus. Laura hoped to be a doctor; Tammy dreamed of being an interior designer; and Delia wanted to be a lawyer. They each chose education as careers based in part on the opportunity to have a high quality of life. In Laura’s case, she noted that as the granddaughter of slaves, she was not afforded as many opportunities, though her family believed in education. Another participant, Darla, stated: I thought I would have gotten married and had a lot of children. I never wanted to be in the field I am in. In some ways I am disappointed but overall I have to say I am still blessed.

Familial similarities were more often associated with participants who graduated from college. Throughout the study, they made references and comparisons with family members from parents and siblings to

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grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc. There was a collective sense of pride in the examples set for them; a built-in reinforcement of what their future portended. Debby said: My parents have been strong proponents of education—advance degrees and graduate school. My dad would have probably preferred that we went on to get our doctorate or law degrees. My parents did not pressure us regarding education. My sister is a strong student and I struggled to get a B. They were both very understanding. I knew early on that school beyond undergraduate was not for me. They let me be me. My sister went on to law school and I found my niche in a field I love. Definitely my parents’ patience and understanding and no-nonsense approach of loving and supporting us gave my sister and me a really strong balance and foundation. I definitely think I exceeded their expectations and continue to exceed their expectations.

Jillian shared: As a child, all I heard was education. My grandmother was from Mississippi and had an eighth grade education. My grandfather, also from Mississippi, had a fifth grade education. They settled in Arkansas and purchased a 200-acre farm where they raised their family. All of their five children graduated from college. I don’t know how they did it because he was a farmer and she stayed home to raise the children. In order to be successful, education was a priority. I am from the civil rights era and Dr. King was stressing education.

Elise noted: I wanted to go to college but it was mandatory. I wanted to pursue some of my dreams. I attended the college that both my parents and other family members attended; there was an implied pressure. I have the credits to graduate but haven’t finished because it is not in the field of my passion. I went to college to pacify my parents. Some frustrations are in the lack of mentoring from my family.

Delia remarked: I come from a family of educators. My dad was in the military. My mother was my kindergarten teacher. My aunt and uncle were all educators. My father had a lot of training in the military. My grandmother attended college in the 1920s. My grandfather was a landscaper. Education was important; on my father’s side, everyone had a college degree. College was expected. Two-parent homes were the norm. Subsequent generations

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are achieving graduate and terminal degrees. We are creating an expectation of education in our family.

Jones and Shorter-Gooden’s (2003) research affirms the importance African American women attribute to religion, noting, “For many it has been crucial for their very survival” (p. 259). Faith was a major theme throughout the study, with faith communities playing significant roles in not only shaping the intellect and character of many of the participants, but also encouraging them to purse higher education. Gretchen stated: College was not optional; college was expected. We were always pressed to do our best. All my aunts, uncles, and cousins were college educated. That’s the direction we always pursued. I can remember as a 9 and 10 year old, my uncles who were attending college would ask me when they came home for the holidays, “So where do you want to go to school?” I grew up in the Baptist church and I always saw the rewards of education. The kids that went away to college were the ones you saw the leadership acknowledging and praising. As a kid, you knew from a spiritual standpoint that this was something important as African Americans to pursue higher education. From a spiritual standpoint, that was always a forum for conversations about achievement and education.

Polly affirmed: I lived in a family that valued education. Education was expected. My church community encouraged education and set a standard for the youth to follow.

Conversely, participants from backgrounds where education was not a priority tended to compare themselves less to family members. Rather, they articulated new hopes and dreams for themselves and their children. It should be noted that they were not harboring ill will toward family members who didn’t encourage them to pursue an education; they were taking the initiative to shift the paradigm—to create new ways of viewing a future where education would be the order of the day among generations to come. Charlotte said: I didn’t have a mentor as a young person; no one encouraged or helped me. If someone had helped me, who knows where I could have been? I know education is important. That’s why I am sharing with my family the importance of reaching for more, getting an education. It was hard coming up with my parents who were more focused on their own needs. My

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daughter is listening to me and working hard in school; that makes me proud to see her looking to be more than I am.

Kendra added: Education wasn’t a priority in my family growing up but it is for me and my siblings. We all survived Katrina and feel blessed. We are so serious about college that we are working together to make sure our children have that opportunity. We don’t make a lot of money, but we started a family savings account for our children’s education. Each pay period, I and my siblings put $20 in to this account. I was not taught to save, so I am not usually real good at it, but this money none of us touch. It feels good because all our kids are going to go to college. One of my kids started this year.

Relational style. An overwhelming majority of the families of the participants encouraged their daughters to pursue college educations, accounting for 90% of all respondents. The majority of the participants, 60%, viewed themselves as leaders and stated that mentors had a positive impact on their lives and careers. Of the respondents, 25% believe followership is an important element of being a good leader while one respondent stated that she tries “never to be a follower.” More than 30% named family members as mentors and role models for balancing work and life. Figure 2 illustrates the Relational theme. Regarding the impact of mentoring, Portia stated: I’ve done a lot of mentoring that impacts my life in a positive way that enabled me to be aware of the needs of others. It allows me to give a helping hand. My mom and aunts have been role models throughout the years, as well as some judges who are moms balancing life and work.

Phyllis expressed the following views of followership and leadership: The wisdom comes from the ability to allow people to reach me. Being a follower allows me to do this. A lot of people like to lead who were not meant to lead. I have learned that when you lead, it’s a very humble place to be. And I’m not sure people decide to be leaders. Leaders are chosen.

Tammy concurred with this view noting: I never thought of myself as a leader. I am not a group person or joiner. I have never enjoyed being in a large-group setting. I tend to lose my focus in a big group. I do better with one-on-one relationships. It’s not my intention to be the leader. I am perfectly happy being the Indian and not the chief.

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Leadership Followership

Education

Relational

Family life Childhood

Mentoring

Figure 2: Relational theme and influencers.

One respondent, Trudy, did not take on leadership roles in the community because at the time she did not see the benefit. Now she does and stated if she could do something differently, she would have networked earlier. Despite 60% viewing themselves as leaders, it is important to note that 40% had the opposite perception. Delia stated: I have learned I am still a follower in different areas. Being a follower teaches you how to serve others. It is biblical in many ways, following and serving others. I focus on how I can serve. That is in my job, community and church. I feel that being a follower enables me to lead.

Family life and relationships were significant priorities discussed by the participants with more than 85% specifically referring to how their parents’ work ethic and education impacted their future. College was an expectation for 87% of participants, and in each instance, the average educational level for their parents and siblings was a master’s degree. Participants reflected on childhoods that were affirming, positive, and nurturing with college at the forefront of family communication. These

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early experiences shaped their sense of self, image, and relationship dynamics in the community. Dolly noted that pursuing an education was mandatory with generations of college-educated relatives serving as role models. She said: Bottom line, the women in the family were entrepreneurial, too. They may have been taught to be aggressive, but always lady like and lovable. All of the women were impeccable dressers who never once let a hair get out of place (that I saw!).

Phyllis remarked, My mother and father built a foundation around me. I had a wonderful childhood. Both of my parents believe in education. My father worked two jobs and helped his siblings. My mother was a second-generation college graduate. Both of my parents were educators. My dad always said, “Your full time job is to be well educated and to prepare yourself to make a contribution to society.” College was an expectation not an option regardless of gender. We are a family of learners. It continues with my daughter.

In other settings where participants were not encouraged to get an education, they made commitments to shift the paradigm for future generations. Other respondents were the first on their families to attend college, assuming the position of role model. Her grandmother raised Marla after losing her mother at age 12. She recalled afternoons sitting at the kitchen table under the watchful eye of her late mother, who despite graduating from high school at the age of 16, did not have an opportunity to attend college because it was not a family priority. The juxtaposition of thinking manifested when her maternal grandmother raised her and insisted that she and five other cousins complete college. To date, five of the six attained college degrees and two received master’s degrees. Participants overwhelmingly affirmed that the importance of attending college started during grade school, with extended family members joining with their parents to reinforce this expectation. More than 87% stated that gender was not an issue regarding educational pursuit. Wanda stated: My family members are educators who taught us that knowledge is the key to power and success. My church community supported my educational endeavors. My education was different because I was able to go away to college while my mother commuted.

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Portia reiterated: Everyone in my family is very focused on education regardless of gender. College was an expectation, not an option. Both of my parents have undergraduate degrees; my father is a doctor. We always aimed high.

Goals and motivation. Relationships with spouses were positive for the majority of the married respondents and those who were widowed. More than 60% of the respondents described their relationships in terms of partnerships with shared responsibilities both at home and with their children’s extracurricular activities. More than 50% noted that support from family members enabled them to have quality time together as couples apart from their children. Managing competing priorities between time and attention for spouses versus their children were topics of concern with several of the participants. One respondent expressed concern that her spouse felt she was competing with him for visibility in community settings. Divorced participants recalled frustrations related not only to being single parents, but also having to assume both roles in situations in which the ex-husband was disengaged from the children. Two participants, Phyllis and Elise, opted for divorce as a way of modeling the difference between being in an unhealthy relationship and maintaining a sense of self that affirmed the importance of self-respect and self-assurance. Elise noted that being a single parent was challenging because her ultimate goal is to remarry someday. In the interim, she replied, “I am working on falling in love with myself again.” Overall, the participants were independent, take-charge mothers who were comfortable requesting and receiving support from friends and family members. Equity in their relationships was the norm rather than the exception, with 25% earning more than their spouses. Figure 3 illustrates the Goals and Motivation theme. Jones and Shorter-Gooden (2003) postulate researchers have determined that, overall, African American women tend to minimize experiences of bias and discrimination further suggesting they are “subconsciously denying or knowingly ignoring it” (p. 74). Nonetheless, discrimination, perceived or experienced, is a reality. While 47% of participants expressed an awareness of discrimination in the work place, 21% of these respondents experienced ageism; 36% attributed it to racism; and 43% say they have not experienced it personally. Tammy, who owned a business in a predominately white neighborhood, expressed concern initially about letting the surrounding community know that she was the owner because she was afraid that they would not send their children. She noted:

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At first, I said, “God, whhy am I here?” Then a light buulb went on. You Y are not here tto teach them arrt, you are here to teach them aabout people.

Discrimin nation

Workplace Culture

Goals and Motivaation

Relationships

Ageissm Racism

a influencers.. Figure 3: Goals and mottivation theme and

Camile ssaid: Without hhesitation, I haave not experien nced discriminnation in my caareer. I hear it froom other peoplee but have not experienced e it.

Ellen staated: I was inn a position where w I was discriminated d aagainst. I wass very uncomforrtable. It wasn’t that long ag go. I ultimatelyy left because it was affecting my life and myy health.

Elise notted: While I ddon’t feel discriiminated againsst, I don’t currenntly see a lot off color in the faaces of those who w have the top leadership roles. It makes me wonder hhow receptive thhe organization will be to someeone like me.

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Using shifting as a strategy for assessing prejudice and bias enables African American women to survey the workplace landscape and decide how to proceed. Several of the participants said that sometimes it comes down to a last-minute decision. “Do I work late to be seen or attend a happy hour versus going home to spend a relaxing evening with my family?” Collectively, the participants are goal oriented, in tune with their historical and cultural strengths, and cognizant of the demands on them and management expectations to outperform the status quo. Phyllis stated: I don’t get stressed in the workplace; when I leave it and go home, that is it. My boss once said, “It just disturbs me that you’re never disturbed.” I problem solve, I strategize so I will have the ability to think effectively.

Portia noted: Sometimes there’s an expectation that as a female or a minority that you don’t work as hard. You feel you have to be better than everybody else. If someone does the bare minimum, I have to do more than that. I think there is an expectation that you are not going to perform as your male counterparts because of the expectations outside of the job.

Gretchen remarked: Some frustrations can be self-inflicted and some of it what you experience in the workplace. As a military child, I was mostly in integrated situations, but I did notice the difference. I knew that African American women were treated differently. During my adult life, especially in corporate settings, those things are quite blatant. They may be hooded or shaded, but they are still there. Knowing that you have got to be the best or you have got to be better or you have to take two extra steps. Being what I call a “double minority,” African American and woman take extra effort. Those are frustrations, but those are things that I keep in the back of my mind because those kinds of things will stop you. If you dwell on frustration, you will never get anywhere.

Darla said: I didn’t expect to be a mother to four nephews and nieces, but I am glad that I accepted this responsibility. There was a time when I was working four jobs to provide for them. I never thought I would be out in the community, celebrated like I am.

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Adaptive mode. The participants are collectively open to change and new ways of thinking while negotiating the complexities inherent within today’s workplace. Their view of the future is a combination of new ideas anchored by a need for predictability and consistency. In the midst of change, they are committed to finding their voice and their purpose. More than 40% of the participants are planning to make career changes; 30% are pursuing additional degrees; 20% are planning for retirement; and 10% are undecided. Their life experiences attest to the idea that valuing differences is crucial and that life is short. Two of the participants are currently dealing with chronic illnesses that precipitated their willingness to ensure that their voices were heard via this study. There is an overall spirit of optimism tempered with skepticism given the current economic era and ongoing life experiences. It should be noted that this theme had a high level of resonance. In particular, the focus on health and family was articulated as a primary hope and dream by 55% of the women. These women individually and collectively affirm their gifts and follow the beat of their own drummers. They are making time to heal and be whole. Figure 4 illustrates the Adaptive Mode theme.

Values

Health

Adaptive Mode

Family

Figure 4: Adaptive style theme and influencers.

Alignment

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Susan stated: I have a group of girlfriends and we started a tradition. Every December we get together and do what we call a burning bowl and vision boards. We write down bad things or the negative things that either we’ve done or we’ve observed. We burn it up in a bowl and we go through magazine and create a collage for our vision for the next year. My theme for the next few years is evolution. This year has made me highly reflective. For the first time in my recent recollection, I don’t know what is next because a lot of my perceived self-identity was caught up in what I wanted to be since sixth grade. Now I don’t know what I want to be. In my career life, I was the business woman at major corporations, so I’ve checked that box. So now I’m trying to explore other interests like writing. I always thought of myself as a corporate chick, but now I realize that what I liked about corporations was an illusion.

Participants are prioritizing, thoughtfully determining what matters most to them and those they cherish. They are reexamining their values and assessing how they align with their workplace culture. More than 25% are concerned about quality of life, health, and wellness and the state of the nation as a future provider for their heirs. Themes emerged, such as volunteering and serving the needs of others, which resonated with the majority of the respondents. Jillian noted: Future dreams include enjoying our second home in East Texas, relaxing, and enjoying my family. Volunteering is important to me; leaving this world a little better than I found it.

Barbara said: In the future, I want to write some books and see the kids grown and successful. I want to be healthy and free to enjoy life and have someone to share my life with. Health needs to be a priority. Balance is important. I have made some of the biggest mistakes of my life when I was out of alignment. You are only here for a short time.

Ruby added: I decided I needed to love myself more and loving myself means taking better care of myself and start saying no. I cannot make everybody happy.

Marla said: I believe that God set me up and put me here. I took advantage of the opportunity to see excessive workloads as a chance to help someone. No

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one has higher expectations of me than I have of myself. Aligning the workplace culture with my values has been very important as I work to achieve balance. I work from the bid IDEA—inclusion, diversity, equity, and access. If we can look at those elements across the board, no one will be left behind.

Collectively, the participants brought to the interviews an understanding of the struggle and a desire to see a new day dawn where there is concurrence to support each other during times of challenge. The village that has raised so many children has a new opportunity to renew and refresh the matriarchs of the African American family. Marla is, in her words, “on a mission to pave the way for others.” She stated: Discrimination is real; it is a fact of life. We as African American women have to have the philosophy that “she ain’t heavy.” We have to have the mentality akin to the African proverb: “If I stand tall it is because I stand on the shoulders of those who came before me.” Someone paved the way for me, so it is my job to leave a legacy for someone else. I want my grandchildren to be able to say some one is standing on my grandmother’s back; that I did something along this road to make it better for others. These factors impact our ability to achieve balance but because of our determination and perseverance as African American women, we’ve been doing it since the slave ships and the cotton patches. We’re not running around.

As granddaughters of slaves, Laura and Margaret reflected individually on their own struggles as young women in the segregated South where each aspired to different career paths. Laura wanted to be a doctor and Margaret had minimal input regarding where she would attend college or her first teaching assignment. Their era was a time period of when honoring traditions and respecting the status quo was expected. Their familiarity with that school of thought, life lessons, and wisdom bridged the gap between new avenues of thought and conventionalism. Elise seemed to mirror their thoughts, marrying the new with the established, when she said: Specifically, I want to figure out how to balance finances with quality of life. I’m trying to get to a place where compensation is about more than money. I really want to be married and have a family; there is a sense of urgency about that. I want the best of both worlds: independence and conventionalism.

Camila recently graduated from chiropractic school, and as a new wellness doctor, she is excited about educating the African American community about her profession. Like Wanda, she is a leader and

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trailblazer in a field unknown to many in her community. As with more than 50% of the participants, she accepts the challenge to embrace change with a spirit of optimism, anxious to usher in new paradigms of thought. She stated: I know I will be successful in the future, but I want to build a practice, reduce college loan debt, and work in the African America community to help it be healthier. I want to get stronger and grounded in my faith.

Phyllis said: You hit a place of happiness where you are comfortable, but that is not a great place to stay. You need to have a plan for the future. I am thinking about either being a judge, school board member, or lobbyist. Looking ahead, I will consider my future with family members in mind.

Conclusions and Recommendations African American women have historically been marginalized by societal stereotypes and bias. In Shifting, Jones and Shorter-Gooden (2003) assert, “As a society, we know very little about the psychology of Black women, a group of 19 million—seven percent of the US population” (p. 2). It is, on many levels, incredulous that such blatant inattention to this significant demographic has been acceptable for such a substantial timeframe. While all women struggle with issues related to work-life conflict, missing from this dialogue are the voices of African American women who compose one of the largest demographic groups in organizations. Despite evidence that work is a significant domain in their lives, researchers have limited information about their career experiences or how they integrate the world of work with their personal lives (BlairLoy, 2003). This affirms why a phenomenological study on competing priorities that impact African American women’s ability to achieve worklife balance was not only relevant, but also appropriate. A multifaceted approach was used to guide the research study. Four themes espoused by Elder per M. Weber, (personal communication, December 21, 2010) are lives and historical times, the timing of lives, linked lives, and human agency. These postulations were linked to Giele’s life-story method comprised of four dimensions: identity, relational, goals and motivation, and adaptive mode. Utilizing a systems theoretical framework and employing systems thinking, the researcher viewed cause and effect via the interviews of the 30 women who participated in the study. The multidisciplinary perspective facilitated the identification of correlations between the life-story dimensions employed in the study and

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Capra’s (1996) five basic principles of ecology: “interdependence, recycling, partnership, flexibility, and diversity” (p. 304). The linkages among these dimensions and the following themes that emerged provide the foundation for elevating this topic within organizations in the public and private sectors. In concert with this phenomenological study, the qualitative research and social constructivist perspective affirmed Creswell’s (2009) premise that “individuals seek understandings of the world in which they live and work” (p. 8). The participants’ responses affirmed the relevance of the researcher’s decision to create an environment in which they could share poignant life stories and the researcher could make meaning using cultural and historical frameworks. It further enabled the researcher to interpret the findings, shaped in part by her own experiences and background as an African American woman and in concurrence with Crotty’s (1998) assumptions related to phenomenology. In addition to themes that emerged as a result of the qualitative analysis, key influencers undergirded the thematic analysis. The participants tended to view themselves in a positive manner with high levels of selfconfidence. Their educational background and ethnicity were significant identifiers with which they strongly associated. The majority, 87%, had college degrees with the following categorizations: bachelor’s degrees— 33%; master’s degrees—37%; and terminal degrees—17%. Of the 30 participants, 28 viewed themselves as successful and expressed satisfaction with their lives overall. These statistics correlated to an overwhelming majority of the families, 90%, who encouraged their daughters to attend college. Of the participants, 60% viewed themselves as leaders, noting the positive impact of mentors. Among the participants, 25% believed followership was an important element of being a good leader and one participant responded that she tries “never to be a follower.” More than 30% named family members as role models for balancing work and life, with the group citing their faith communities as influencers. Family life and relationships emerged as significant priorities in 85% of the interviews. College was an expectation for 87% of the participants who reflected on childhoods that were affirming, with college at the forefront of family communication. Their parents and siblings not only graduated from college, but also held master’s degrees, with seven of these family members attaining terminal degrees. Early experiences shaped their sense of self. Conversely, of the 13% for whom college was not an expectation, they expressed disappointment at not having the support and did not attend. However, the majority of participants affirmed the

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importance of getting a college education. Relationships with spouses and significant others were positive for the majority of the married and widowed respondents. Of the 16 married participants, 60% described their relationships in terms of partnerships with shared responsibilities at home and with their children’s extracurricular activities. Among the participants, 50% collectively remarked that support from family members enabled them to have quality time together as couples apart from their children. Managing competing priorities between time and attention for spouses versus their children were topics of concern with several of the women. Divorced participants shared frustrations related to being single parents who had to assume both roles when ex-spouses were disengaged from their children. Overall, the participants were independent, take-charge mothers who were comfortable requesting, providing, and receiving support from and for family members and friends. Equity in their relationships was the norm rather than the exception, with 25% earning more than their spouses. Research indicates that African American women tend to minimize experiences of bias and discrimination, further suggesting, as Jones and Shorter-Gooden (2003) state, that they are “subconsciously denying or knowingly ignoring it” (p. 74). Of the participants, 47% expressed an awareness of discrimination in the workplace and 21% of experienced ageism. Among the participants, 36% attributed it to racism and 43% said they have not personally experienced it. One respondent admitted initially pretending not to own a business was located in an upscale area out of fear that the parents would not send their children. There were feelings of having to do more work to be appreciated or respected. Among the women, 55% mentioned struggling with balancing their family time after work with social gatherings such as happy hours or dinners. Research shows that African American women use shifting as a strategy for assessing prejudice and bias as well as surveying the workplace landscape to decide how to handle these types of occurrences. However, collectively, the participants were goal oriented and grounded in historical and cultural strengths while remaining cognizant of the demands on them to over perform. Collectively open to change and shifting paradigms within their organizations, the majority of the women were committed to finding their voices and their purpose. They understand the importance of staying connected to their African ancestry. Just as womanism defined on a broader ideological basis the experiences of African American women internal and external to the world of work, the life experiences of these 30 women continue that sojourn in a way that is deferent and cohesive,

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affirming the presence of collectivism and individualism. The diverse perspectives of the participants incorporated a myriad of common threads. The influence of ethnicity, culture, education, family, discrimination, faith, and community were evident throughout their interviews with education and family attributed to numerous themes. They cited personal and general experiences that further defined themselves and others with whom they interacted or were affiliated. Specifically, family, faith and community were associative cultural influencers that resonated collectively. Many of the women reflected on the influence of church communities and family members as elements within networking and mentoring respectively. Individually, the participants discussed perceptions of demands at home and work, but reiterated collectively that they felt a responsibility to balance competing priorities akin to previous generations of women in their immediate and extended families. Individually at work, they felt compelled to be proactive and assertive with a focus on fitting in to be successful and get promoted. At home, dealing with additional cultural, familial or faith-based demands was considered a part of daily life with individuals managing those responsibilities. Collectively, a broader view of their lives in both settings underscores the complexities of their balancing acts. The acknowledgement and enhanced understanding of the polarities between individualism and collectivism can potentially inform organizational development practice in public and private sectors. Further, the life experiences of these respondents, with historical connections to slavery and post colonialism, corroborate the relevance of this study and why in the future, the dialogue must continue. Viewing the future with a sense of optimism while negotiating the complexities within their workplace cultures, these women also expressed a need for a balance of renaissance thinking and conventionalism. This perspective notwithstanding, more than 40% were planning to make career changes, with 30% pursuing additional degrees and 20% anticipating retirement. Volunteering and serving the needs of others also emerged as an important theme. Their life experiences were profoundly influenced by aligning personal values with their family and wellness, with more than 25% concerned with the quality of life and state of our nation as a future provider for their heirs. Whether a cafeteria worker who someday dreams of attending college or an attorney who aspires to the judiciary, each hears a similar song, a tune that beckons them to live life on their terms, understanding that life is not a dress rehearsal. They share a sense of community and family in which they have roles to play roles that may or may not transfer seamlessly into the workplace. Grounded in faith, they draw on historical

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and cultural legacies to retain their sense of self, while honing a surety of purpose that enables them to excel and succeed. Implications, comparisons, and contrasts. Findings from this crossgenerational study have implications for younger African American women, particularly those in college or entering postgraduate study. Viewing from the onset and embracing the importance of networking and mentoring could enable them to sidestep some of the barriers that affected participants. Understanding the pros and cons of shifting in their personal and professional lives could be the difference between mental wellness and bicultural stress, thereby managing the double-jeopardy roles of being a minority and a woman. Many unspoken messages throughout these interviews need to be communicated. Grasping the rules of the game in workplace cultures from performance expectations to social networking will facilitate their abilities to be accepted and considered for career promotion opportunities. Finding and creating places of solace for their wellness and peace of mind will give them an advantage over predecessors who evolved via trial and error. Putting themselves first, learning at an early age how to say no, and being happy from within will sustain them during times of frustration. Embracing faith communities as more than places to worship is another opportunity for self-renewal. The researcher hopes the voices of these women will be joined by African American women from Generations X and Y to expand further opportunities for knowledge sharing and learning. From professional perspectives, those organizations that are committed to diversity will include the voices and concerns of African American women as they develop work-life balance initiatives. Changing demographics are no longer cliché terms within organizational development training programs and workshops. Returns on investment in talent and resources will be minimized as long as the value of contributions by African American women is marginalized. Comparisons and contrasts between this study and Giele’s (2008) point to three key areas: faith as a major influence in managing work-life balance was identified by 90% of respondents, the impact of discrimination and pressures to over perform, and the influence of womanism versus feminism on self-perceptions of African American women. She references broad-based exposure and career options being open to middle class educated women, while such opportunities are often unavailable for African American woman. Discrimination has precluded them from having the access she postulates. An example is a statement from one of the respondents, a MBA graduate of one of the nation’s prominent business schools. She said:

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I always thought I would end up in corporate America with the perfect career opportunity but after having my baby, a manager suggested that I consider a position elsewhere that would afford me more flexibility. That was the beginning of the end of my fast track.

Further, the study appears to track more closely with the Center for Women Policy Studies research in 1999 that affirms three crosscutting themes: links between workplace culture and work-life balance, the impact of workplace stress in personal lives, and balance and coping strategies.

Recommendations for Future Research As noted in the aforementioned limitations section, opportunities abound to broaden the study by conducting it over a longer timeframe. In addition, with Hispanic women constituting the fastest growing segment of women of color in the workforce, a parallel study could generate rich data with which to compare and contrast these two significant groups. Identifying organizations currently engaged in creative work-life balance programming could be another avenue for case study research. Further subject considerations could include global research comparing and contrasting women of African descent residing in the United States with women residing in Africa and the Caribbean.

Final Thoughts While all women struggle with issues related to work-life conflict, missing from this dialogue were the voices of African American women. This group constitutes 7% of the U.S. population and one of the largest demographic groups in organizations. Their life experiences and cultural dynamics inherent within historical antecedents of slavery and oppression are significant points of reference that must be added not only to topical debates, but also to diversity initiatives implemented by organizations within every business and industry. Giddings (2006) reiterates, “Black women survived the rigors of slavery to demand the rights of their race and of their sex. Black women forged humane communities out of rough settlements. They converted the rock of double oppression into a steppingstone” (p. 357). The aforementioned steppingstone metaphorically and historically affirms the basis for in-depth analysis that confirmed not only the qualitative distinctiveness of individualism and collectivism but also opportunities for further research that can potentially open new avenues for systems thinking that is socially reconstructive and innovative. Cross-generational

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responses suggested a shift in such thinking regarding how younger participants viewed and experienced discrimination from ageism lenses versus racism as articulated by older respondents. Intrinsically linking individual and collective stances further corroborated the significance of adding the voices of African American women to this timely topic. Further research that explores the divergence and convergence of individualism and collectivism will add immeasurably to this topic. This phenomenological study argued in favor of research that would challenge previously accepted discourses of work and scholarship related to this topic that were based on demographic perspective. It also incorporates new thinking and understanding of the historical and socioeconomic impact of balancing work and family from an African American view point. And finally, it contributes to a significant knowledge gap in research related to work-life balance in diverse families. Utilizing the life-course method, 30 African American women shared personal and professional experiences that affirmed their uniqueness, rich cultural and historical perspectives, and commitment to bring their voices to a dialogue that previously marginalized the relevance and importance of their journey. From these rich, poignant, and telling messages, 30 women dared to be heard. They discussed coping strategies, relationships, discrimination and ageism, workplace dynamics, education, families, parents, siblings, and wellness. Summarily, they collectively and individually affirmed that these diverse competing priorities are most certainly impacting their abilities to achieve sustainable balance at home and work. The stories of these women represent a different journey and experience. In conclusion, the researcher recalls an instance during an interview with Marla, one of the participants. She was moved by an excerpt this participant shared from Mary McLeod Bethune’s Last Will and Testament. It aptly describes the depth and breadth of the African American woman’s journey for equity, respect, and acceptance as well as the onus on her to pay forward—all of which are critical to remaining in balance and alignment with one’s roles and values. Marla said: True leaders go outside the norm. They push the envelope. I believe we are supposed to pave the way. Mary McLeod Bethune in her Last Will and Testament said in part, “I leave you love, hope, and the challenge of developing confidence in one another. I leave you a thirst for education. I leave you a respect for the use of power. I leave you faith. I leave you racial dignity. I leave you a desire to live in harmony with your fellow

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men. I leave you finally a responsibility to our young people.” Someday, I hope my legacy will include some of these expressions of service.

These 30 life experiences as caregivers, mothers, sisters, daughters, wives, and coworkers remind each of us that regardless of ethnicity or gender, the world deserves our best; anything less is not an option. Their frustrations and joys will continue. It is the hope of this researcher that their voices will also continue to resonate beyond the parameters of this study. Thirty African American women shared personal and professional experiences affirming their cultural and historical perspectives and commitment to bring their voices to a dialogue that previously marginalized the relevance of their journey. Findings confirmed that relationships, discrimination, ageism, workplace dynamics, and wellness were among the competing priorities impacting their abilities to achieve sustainable balance at home and work.

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CHAPTER FIVE WOMEN IN NON-TRADITIONAL CAREERS AND WORK-FAMILY INTEGRATION DR. MIRIAM ALMESTICA

Abstract In this chapter, the author explores the lives of women who work in the industry of contract management. Qualitative research methodology is used to analyze the mentoring strategies these women use to attain success and leadership positions in the profession. The study was conducted with 26 female professionals in the field. All of the females were employed in major private, public, and non-profit organizations. The participants varied as to their leadership role in the organizations, educational background, race, age, faith and family life. Several factors emerged in the study as important in the lives of the participants. Looking to the future, the demands for women working in non-traditional careers such as contract management will continue to increase as more women enter the workforce and this study can be used as a resource for them.

Introduction When conducting a research study on work-life balance issues, it becomes apparent that the world has changed around us. Roberts (2009) suggests that having a woman run in the 2008 Presidential Campaign demonstrated how opportunities for women have advanced in the last five decades. According to Roberts, this is in spite of the high profile criticism by the media against women (2009). Although we have not yet had a female president, we have had women reach top positions in other industries. Having a woman in the top office of the land would provide a role model for women and families, especially in roles that have been male dominated.

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While women’s roles have changed in America they are still underrepresented in leadership roles across many industries, especially in the contracting profession. The research in this chapter will include a historical review of women’s changing roles throughout their careers and participation in the workforce. Several topics are discussed to represent the roles women play historically, such as: (a) leadership theories, (b) women in the workplace social and economic trends, (c) women coping with work-life balance issues, (d) women and leadership: theoretical perspective, (e) the contracting world: roles and responsibilities, (f) women working in contracting, and (g) historical perspective on mentoring. The research literature in this chapter describes theoretical and empirical work on work-life balance, leadership, contracting, and mentoring strategies for women who work in the contracting profession in different organizations targeted for the study. Several questions were investigated for this research, and all were related to the study of women who work in the contracting field. Findings included: leadership, mentoring, and the work-life balance issues that women experience.

Research Questions The research questions that guided the investigation in this research study are: 1. How do the factors of socio-demographic variables such as education, age, and ethnicity influence women in the contract management profession as they balance work and family issues? 2. How do women view work and family life balance from the mentoring, faith, and strategies that they utilize to address the principles of balance in their lives? 3. How does the identity of motivation factors of the women impact the strategies used in the contract management profession to succeed in leadership positions? In addition to answering these research questions, the researcher examined the following variables: ages, ethnicities, religious backgrounds, educational backgrounds, social classes, and marital statuses.

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Review of literature Many of the theorists reviewed for this study have noted that the trend of women taking leadership roles in non-traditional jobs is likely to continue in the future. They suggest that women in America are creating new social and economic trends in the workforce. Women are now free to reach their intellectual capacity in diverse professions and the corporate work environment (Kaltreider, 1997). They are also entering the service industry and growing in rapid numbers. The demographics of the American women in the workforce has increased drastically in the last 5 decades. The female portion of the workforce represents a significant mix of race, religion, age, and other cultural factors. These differences are gaining importance in the literature as a way to understand the meaning of life events and diversity in the workforce for women. Despite the diversity in today’s workforce, women are trying to incorporate their new priorities without giving up any of the family responsibilities that are still present in their lives. However, some women experience guilt or selfishness if they put their career interests first (Heins, Hendricks, & Martindale, 1982). Because women’s work and family demands are concurrent, they have a significant impact on women’s careers (Valdez & Gutek, 1987). Their life experiences (e.g., greater education, fewer children, and participation in the paid labor force) may be changing the relationship between husbands and wives (Weber, 2009). Elder and Giele (2009) discuss the traditional marriage norm where the husband serves as the authority figure, which is challenged by a new ethic of gender equality. This structural change is creating a more democratic lifestyle in many modern marriages (Weber, 2009). However, women seeking career advancement are now experiencing even greater conflict between work and family. Women and men are both parents and workers, contributing to the economic and social trends in the workplace. Even though women and men are making every effort to balance work and family, new conflicts are emerging and creating problems (Gornick & Meyers, 2003). With more women entering the labor force, families are spending less time together. Working mothers often find themselves working long hours at work, reducing their ability to care for their children. According to Gerson (2009), men and women are integrating work and family life in a democratic way. With the demands of work and family, men and women are confronted with new challenges. Because of the increase of women in the workforce, for some women, gender inequality is entrenched in the

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home. This creates problems for families and in some cases increases the risk of divorce. Families in all industrialized countries are struggling to balance the demands of work and family. The changing roles of men and women have reshaped patterns in marriage and divorce, childbearing, living arrangements, and aspirations for education and careers. Among the most common issues relate to social inferences of the dual roles of females are; cultural standards, workplace policies, and marital satisfaction in gender roles, as well as social support such as religion, family, and mentoring relationships (Weber, 2009). Women joining the labor force are demonstrating a strong commitment to higher education and non-traditional jobs, many of which have been held by men. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010) 25% of women in the workforce hold non-traditional jobs. However, since the beginning of World War II, the presence of women seeking career opportunities in the workforce has increased. Women are increasingly influenced by the potential to leverage their knowledge, experience, and skills to benefit themselves, their families, their work, and society at large (Weber, 2009). This study has the potential to provide an understanding of how women in administrative and management leadership positions of Contract Management balance their family life with challenges they face in their professional roles. In addition, it reveals mentoring strategies women use to excel in the profession. While literature on mentoring and leadership development exists, no previous studies have specifically investigated women mentoring women in the contracting profession. Mentoring is currently a focal issue in the government, universities, and private industry. Women in particular are encouraged by their employers to find mentors who can help them navigate their careers and guide them in successfully combining full-time careers with personal and family lives. Given the current economic climate, contracting professionals are feeling the pressure caused the demands associated with balancing work and family, which can create a great deal of conflict and stress. Women in contracting work serve in positions such as contract managers, audit coordinators, and negotiators. These are positions historically performed by men. The main function of a Contract Manager is to assure that the organization is in compliance with State and Federal laws. They will review contract terms and conditions, negotiate contracts, and provide counsel to line managers. These professionals add other acquisition projects to their major job duties and conduct training modules in order to improve employee work performance, mentoring, and career development. Often contract managers work together to successfully

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purchase or provide quality products and services on time, on budget, and to the total satisfaction of their customers. Contract professionals are constantly refreshing their knowledge and skills to remain knowledgeable and competitive in the profession. Technology is an important component in the advancement and development of the managers responsible for these duties. Prior to the events of 9/11, many of the important information technology (IT) systems in the Federal Government agencies were outdated and running obsolete. 20 years ago, everything in the contracting industry was seen as problematic and reactive. Today, contracting professionals are more proactive in acquiring knowledge and new insights. They continue to learn more and acquire higher education. According to the National Contract Management Association (NCMA), a learning environment creates the possibility of shaping the future of an organization to be well represented by the next generation of proficient contracting professionals. The terms CM professional, acquisition professional, contract professional, and procurement professional are used synonymously throughout this chapter. These personnel functions are similar in the CM profession and can be used interchangeably. A CM professional is part of an ever-changing field that is continuously challenging professionals to improve their skills and increase occupational performance (NCMA, 2011). Contracting professionals always strive for professional status, earning a place in formal education courses within the government, universities, and private industries. NCMA has partnered with several institutions to offer training, certifications, or degrees in CM. Current professional level training programs are available at American Graduate University, Bellevue University, Federal Contracts Training Center, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Public Contracting Institute and Saint Louis University. In recent years the CM process has transformed from an administrative function to a strategic process contributing to the organization’s competitive advantage. A study conducted by the Hackett group found that world-class organizations that treat procurement as a core competency generate 133% greater return on their investment in procurement than the average organization. The study revealed that procurement operations costs are 20% less for world-class organizations than they are for typical companies. The 2010 Contract Management Salary Survey report demonstrates that CM professionals in different organizations are highly experienced, well-educated people that possess various professional certifications. The report also demonstrates that professionals managing

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contracts are financially well rewarded (Quinn, 2005). They are also distinguished by obtaining certification from the NCMA. The NCMA enables the workforce to grow professionally by assessing contract professionals individually, providing access to qualified individuals, and encouraging them to establish values, develop best practices, and improve their buyer-seller relationships with customers. The profession focuses on building and maintaining successful business relationships by using CM processes, tools, techniques, and documented best practices in the profession for both buyers and sellers. This function is the art and science of managing a contractual agreement throughout a contracting process. Transformational Leadership was reviewed in the study to demonstrate how this leadership style can influence contracting professionals and the personal development of professionals pursuing the career. Bass’s (1985, 1998) Leadership Method relates to the men and women leaders that motivate their followers to manage contracts with collaboration, by meeting the needs of the customers, developing an increasing awareness of their functions, maintaining flexibility, and continuing to improve in their careers. Also, Northouse’s (2004) model fits well into the contracting environment because his approach includes emotions, values, ethics, and standards that are essential in the CM profession. Emotional Intelligence was reviewed in the study as well to demonstrate how a positive environment can influence productivity and change. The ability to control one’s emotions is an important skill that effective leaders possess. Furthermore, Emotional Intelligence is vital when managing people effectively and mentoring women (Goleman, 1994). This study provides invaluable insights about mentoring professional women in the contracting community, as well as the challenges they experience in balancing career and family.

Methodology This qualitative research study was conducted as a phenomenological study. The goal was to explore themes relating to women in the contract management industry and work life balance issues. A life course framework was used to study themes of identity, relational style, motivation and adaptive style.

Women in Non-traditional Careers and Work-Family Integration

Population Demographics The participants selected for this study were of diverse ethnicities, religious backgrounds, educational backgrounds, social classes, and marital statuses. The participants felt comfortable sharing their experiences and spoke about their backgrounds with great enthusiasm and confidence. The women’s ages ranged from 28-69; some revealed that they are close to retirement. Their occupations ranged from administrator to corporate executive. Twenty-one of the women are parents with an average of three children and one woman has six children. Thirteen of the participants were White/Caucasian, five were Hispanic, four were African American and four were Asian American. Table 1 represents the demographics of the participant population. Table 1: Population Demographics Marital Status

Participant #

Education

Race/Ethnicity

Age

1

Masters

White

Single

32

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Bachelor’s Doctorate Bachelor’s Masters Masters Bachelor’s Masters Masters Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Associate Masters Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Masters

Caucasian African-American African-American Hispanic White Chinese White Hispanic Japanese Caucasian White Hispanic African-American White Hispanic Hispanic

Single Single Married Married Married Single Divorced Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Single Married

66 61 43 54 43 61 61 31 56 69 54 32 57 40 28 48

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Masters Masters Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Masters Masters Doctorate Masters Masters

Caucasian White White White Chinese African-American White Korean Caucasian

Married Divorced Married Married Married Married Married Single Married

N/A 46 52 66 51 62 42 39 49

Results and Discussion During the course of the interviews, the most important factors affecting the life course framework of identity appeared to be education, age, and ethnicity. All 26 participants had some type of college education in the fields of business, education, law, philosophy, history, mathematics, or psychology. Table 2 illustrates the coding identity sources and references that affirmed the research question one. Table 2 NVivo Coding for Identity Theme Identity Theme Family attitude towards education Education Career opportunities Being a role model to their family Ethnicity as a major factor Equal opportunity in education Age Extensive training

# of sources

# of mentions

26

39

16 20 8

34 29 10

8

8

7

8

5 4

5 4

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The participants all attributed education as being vital to helping them attain their goals and career aspirations. Several participants were influenced by their parents, role models, or spouses to pursue education regardless of their social status. All quoted materials are based on personal communication with participants in this study. Some participants stated that their parents never spoke about education. Participant 6 stated: My parents didn’t discuss education…They didn’t have any education themselves…We were workers, and college was not really a necessity for me or my older brother, it was never even mentioned.

Participant 17 stated: My parents never discussed education. I was a young mom; I always wanted to go back to school because I love school. I was a kid, and single mom, so I wanted to give my kids a better life and I couldn’t just get any job. I realized I had to go back to school to get a better education; a better skill set.

Another participant stated: Education in my family has always been huge; we never had any option in going to school.

Several single parents mentioned that throughout the course of their careers, earning a higher degree was an important tool in earning a decent income to support their families. Many women identified themselves as a role model to their children and relatives. This was because they were the first in their family to earn a degree and have a successful career. The participants in this study represent a varietal range of race, religion, age, education, and other cultural factors. These differences influence the meaning of life events, diversity, and educational background for each of them. Despite the differences in this population, one common pattern appeared. The women who had a mentor generally had a positive experience in their career paths. They found their own informal mentoring relationships increased knowledge, visibility, access to contract opportunities, networks, having someone to ask for advice and guidance, and their skills in CM. At the same time, they discovered that a mentor could boost their selfconfidence, expand resources, provide encouragement, and help doors open that might have been closed in the past. The women of this study displayed similarities in trying to prioritize the family responsibilities that are still entrenched in their lives. Their

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work-life experiences (e.g., greater education, raising children, and caring for parents) were challenging and changing. These women experienced some conflicts between work and family. Many women often found themselves working long hours at work and home, reducing their ability to care for their children. Even though these women integrated work and family life, they confronted their challenges by applying different strategies to attend to their multiple tasks. Their ethnicity, age and educational backgrounds were their strong identifiers. Thirteen participants out of 26 were White/Caucasian women, five were Hispanic, four were African American, and four were Asian American. All the participants held a degree: one held an Associate Degree, nine Bachelor’s Degrees, 13 Master’s Degrees, and three Doctoral Degrees. Eighteen of the participants were married, six were single, and two were divorced. Twenty-one of the participants had children. These profiles reflect the next generation of female leaders in the CM Profession. With real life experiences these participants will mentor the next generation from the administrative level to the executive level; and give aspiring women a means to gauge their own career paths. In the study, 90% of the participants were encouraged by their parents to attend college. They all described education as a very important factor in helping them attain their goals and career aspirations. More than 45% attributed their success to their parents, and 30% to their spouses. Some participants mentioned family members as their role models for balancing work and life. Family life was a significant priority for 90% of the participants. Several single parents attributed their career success to family members that helped them balance work and family life. Several parents and siblings of participants graduated from college. Ten of the family members identified had obtained master’s degrees (four parents, six siblings); two siblings obtained doctoral degrees. Education was a high priority among the participants, 90% of their children are currently attending college or have graduated from college. Relationships with parents and spouses were identified as vital for all the participants. Of the 26 participants, 21 described their relationships with spouses as involving shared responsibilities with children, education, finances, volunteer work, and extracurricular activities. Quality time was an important factor to balance work and life. Some participants felt that traveling helped them reduce stress and cope with balancing family and work. Divorced women shared some frustrations with being a single parent, coping with dual roles while balancing work-life. Some women shared their frustrations with slow career movement. Some women stated

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that they use faith to help manage their goals and purpose in life. Overall, these women have demonstrated perseverance, drive, and commitment to their personal and professional goals.

Conclusions and Recommendations The study strongly supports the findings of and basis for Valdez and Gutek’s (1987) theory that women’s work and family demands are concurrent, and that these demands have a significant impact on women’s careers. This theory aligned with the life experiences of the participants: family and work demands that had a significant impact on the choices and roles they filled at work and with family. The women worked hard to manage their families, create structural change in their lifestyles using strategies that contributed to balance work and family, in efforts to advance into leadership positions at work. Giele’s (2008) life course framework helped to identify the elements that would address the themes of identity, relational style, motivation and drive, and adaptive style. The findings of this study provide an understanding of how these women balanced their family lives and addressed challenges they faced in the CM profession. The study revealed that multiple roles provided positive benefits for work and family. This study also gives an overview of the strategies they used to balance work and family lives. Several factors in the study emerged and were important in the lives of all the women that participated. Women’s ability to achieve work-life balance was not only relevant for this research, but also indicates strategies for other women to implement. The most important factors were education, mentoring, faith, and strategies they use to succeed in their careers. These factors appeared to have an influence on the participants’ work-life experiences. The results of the study indicated that even though these professional women may have experienced challenges in their career paths, many, if not all, have accomplished a certain degree of success. These were identified as important skills in accomplishing that success: perseverance, strategies they use to cope with family and work, motivation, learning, and mentoring. The study demonstrated that the participants benefited positively from informal mentoring and that informal relationships helped their careers. Many participants indicated that mostly male managers or people invested in the participant’s success mentored them. In most cases, this informal mentoring relationship has continued over the years. Eby et al. (2008) and Underhill’s (2006) studies on the effectiveness of mentoring confirm the

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findings of this study. Mentoring had significant favorable effects on relational, motivational, and career outcomes for the women who participated in this study. The study confirmed that the CM profession is still a male-dominated environment, and women at the top are a rarity. Some women stated that they were mentored by men, and it was difficult to find a female mentor. This was not because were no women in the field, but because women tend to be more competitive in nature, or had more time delegated to family responsibilities than men. It is clear from this study that more opportunities for women in executive management positions are needed in this field. The increasing number of women available to the workforce seems to call for more research on women’s leadership styles. There is a particular need for women mentoring women in CM for the next generation. Despite of the advancement of women in CM there is still a shortage of women holding executive positions in the profession. The factors of mentoring, faith, and strategies appeared to contribute to the principle of balance in the women’s lives. Women’s ability to achieve work-life balance was not only relevant in this study, but also provides paths for other women. The women in the study bring an abundance of talent to the profession, and the CM community has much to learn from their rich qualities and talents. These women demonstrated the qualities of transformational leadership; they are able to inspire followers to share their values and connect with their vision (Bass, 1985). These women were impressive with their confidence, courage and determination. They manage multiple roles, balance work and family with an infinite passion to offer a better future for their children, serve as role models, and share their wisdom. As one of the participants stated: My main accomplishments at work are being able to take leadership positions, leadership roles, take on other duties and responsibilities because I have confidence that I can do it. I was able to achieve the educational goal I set for myself. It helped to increase my confidence in all areas of my life.

Recommendations for Further Research The study generated information and knowledge that is important to other CM professionals and the contracting environment in public, private, and educational organizations. Through the individual interviews, issues

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have been noted for further research. As mentioned previously, several factors have been identified that appear to influence the success of women in CM. The women attributed their success to higher education, hard work, persistence, ability to take risks, ability to work well with people, and having a mentor that cared about their career paths. It is recommended that future research be directed to investigate a larger population of women working in different industries related to work-life balance issues in CM. It is also recommended that future studies should include females in other male-dominated contracting fields, such as engineering or science. This study demonstrated that the women benefited positively from mentoring, so it is recommended that a study be conducted on the impact of women mentoring other women in CM. It is recommended that a study be conducted that investigates to what extent women have access to mentoring and how a mentoring culture can offer women increased opportunities. This study demonstrated that a large number of women are retiring in the near future, so it is recommended that a study be conducted on women that are near retirement in CM and to what extent they are transferring knowledge to the next generation of professionals entering the field. Further research should be investigated on female and male perspective on work-life experiences in the CM world, including spouses mentioned in this study. This study demonstrated that layoffs occurred in many organizations, so it is recommended that a study be conducted on what happens after this experience, and the whether the individual continues in the field or changes careers, in addition to what strategies they use to cope with the change.

References Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York, NY: Free Press. —. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industry, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Eby, L. T., Allen, T. D., Evans, S. C., Ng, T., & DuBois, D. L. (2008). Does mentoring matter? A multidisciplinary meta-analysis comparing mentored and non-mentored individuals. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(2), 254-267. doi:10.1016 /j.jvb.2007.04.005 Elder, G. H., & Giele, J. Z. (2009). The craft of life course research. New York, NY: Guilford Gerson, K. (2009). About opting out. Sociological Forum, 24(4), 735-753. doi:10.1111 /j.1573-7861.2009.01151.x

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Goleman, D. (1994). Emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Dell. Gornick, J. C., & Meyers, M. (2003). Families that work: Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Gutek, B. A., & Larwood, L. (Eds.). (1987). Women’s career development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Heins, M., Hendricks, J., & Martindale, L. (1982). The importance of extra-family support on careerchoices of women. Personnel & Guidance Journal, 60(8), 455-459. doi:10.1002/j.2164-4918.1982.tb00695. Kaltreider, N. B. (1997). Dilemmas of a double life: Women balancing careers and relationships. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. National Contract Management Association. (2011). Contract management leadership Development program. Retrieved from http://www.ncmahq.org/NewProfessionals/Content.cfm?Item Number=952&navItemNumber=576 Northouse, P. G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Quinn, F. J. (2005). The power of procurement, supply chain management review. Retrieved from http://www.manufacturing.net/scm Roberts, C. (2009). We are our mother’s daughter cd. Harper Audio; Rev Una Ex edition. Underhill, C. M. (2006). The effectiveness of mentoring programs in corporate settings: A meta-analytical review of the literature. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 292-307. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2005.05.003 Weber, M. (2009). Work-life balance issues for women. Unpublished research study. Pepperdine University. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010). Women in the labor force: A data book. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2010.htm Valdez, R. A., & Gutek, B. A. (1987). Choices about partnership. In N. B. Kaltreider (Ed.), Dilemmas ofa double life: Women balancing careers and relationships (pp. 55-64). Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

CHAPTER SIX MENTORING: FAMILY AND WORK INTEGRATION MARGARET J WEBER

Abstract This chapter explores the mentoring roles which women perceive important in their life. Women in this study provide examples of the mentoring roles they have received as a mentee and their own mentorship of others. The findings suggest that women have more mentors that provide psychosocial mentoring functions than career sponsorship functions. Many struggle to find the work-life balance with their career and family and want modeling and support (especially emotional) for their family/household lives. A framework is proposed that adds a third function of mentoring – integration.

Introduction Levinson, et al. (1978) is credited with the early understanding and research on mentoring. His studies focused on career development of adult men. He suggested mentoring was linear, exclusive, and self-perpetuating. Newer research has focused on two primary functions of mentoring: Career related support and Psychosocial. The first is in support of mentees progress through their career (career advancement, coaching, and sponsorship). The second function is psychosocial and supports the interpersonal aspects of the relationships and includes one’s sense of competence, identity and effectiveness in the role. For women, there may be a third area of mentoring that would include issues of integrating family life with work responsibilities. Previous studies indicate that the type of mentoring may make an important difference in the outcomes for the mentee (Weinberg & Lankau, 2011). Allen, et al. (2004) suggests mentoring

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is critical because it plays a key role in the development of mentees selfesteem and work identity. The research to date has primarily focused on two areas: outcomes for mentees or protégés and the type of mentoring functions. A meta-analysis of the literature was conducted by Allen (2004) to examine career outcomes and their relationship with mentoring. Allen found that career and psychosocial mentoring were similar for job and career satisfaction. Kramm (1988) had discussed the functions of mentoring in her seminal work over a decade earlier. Most of the studies focus on mentee outcomes while some studies do focus on the impact on the mentor (Hirschfeld, Thomas & Lankau (2006). Mentoring as an area of study is still relatively young within the literature and even less has been written about women and race in relationship to mentoring. The research is mixed in addressing the perception that women and minorities have difficulty both in mentoring and finding mentors. Chandler, Kram & Yip (2011) looked at the antecedents to the mentoring relationship. O’Brien, Biga, Kessler, & Allen (2010) investigated gender differences for mentoring. No significant difference was found for the mentee experience between genders. However, there was a significant difference between the types of mentoring experience. Women reported more psychosocial mentoring support; males experienced more career development mentorship. While the literature has focused primarily on these two types of mentoring: Career and psychosocial, very little in the literature adds the third dimension to mentoring which supports work-life balance/integration issues. This area is especially critical for women who are balancing the issues of the home and family, along with their career aspirations. This chapter describes the study which explored this additional area of mentoring and the impact on women.

Research Questions The research questions that guided this study are as follows: Research Question 1: How does the role of mentoring support women in balancing work and family life for career advancement? Research Question 2: How do the different types of mentoring (careerrelated mentoring, psychosocial mentoring and personal integration mentoring) support women in balancing work and family life?

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Review of literature Kram (1985) suggests that career success can be attributed to mentoring which is usually ascribed to older individuals mentoring the new or younger within the organization for career advancement. With the gendered nature of the workplace, specific roles and values are ascribed to both men and women (Valian, 1998). Valian (2005) wanted to understand the slower pace for female academics across disciplines as compared to their male counterparts. Other studies have similar findings (Elg & Jonnergard, 2010; Hill, Leinbaugh, Bradley, and Hazler, 2005; Hammer, Trepal, & Speedlin, 2014) around organizational politics and the implications for women. Capron (2014) found that mentoring relationships for women focused mainly on the psychosocial. Mentors supported establishing priorities and roles as a supervisor or supervisee, and developing their voice within the organization. Those that experienced career mentoring with advancement opportunities had an emphasis on coaching, supporting their development as a mentee for success in their current position. When asked about the information/support they would like from a mentor, the women expressed the need for assistance with balancing work and life. Capron’s findings suggest that work-life conflict is evident for women that work outside the home with participants feeling challenged to balance expectations for their own lives and that of others (2014). Social learning theory describes the modeling process. Mentors serve as the role models for their mentees and provide knowledge and organizational socialization (Kleinman et al., 2001). Bandara (1985) suggests that learning in community is important for the mentor and the mentee. The relationship becomes reciprocal where both the mentor and mentee gain benefits. This research presents the interdependent nature of an individual, in relationship with one another, for growth potential; and that there is power in the interdependence of one on another within an organization. Today, there is a distinction being made between mentors (those that advise others) and sponsors (those that use their influence to advocate) (Ibarra, Carter, & Silva, 2010). The studies suggest that males have sponsorships and females are more likely to have a mentor or none at all. Sponsorship fits the first category of mentoring, that of career achievement where there is advocacy. The area of mentorship that many females receive is in the second category; that of psycho-social – support within the organization for navigation.

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Sandberg (2013) suggests that women need to be told “Excel and you will get a mentor” rather than “get a mentor and you will excel,” comparing it to the idea of the prince on the white horse that comes riding in to capture the princess for a life of “happily ever after.” There is a reciprocal nature to the mentoring relationship. Mentees receive assistance, however, mentors benefit with a sense of fulfillment and pride. Therefore, if you are exceling you will attract high performers within the organization who will have a sense of pride in your development. Mentoring relationships change over time, as the mentee moves through their career and their family life stages. Life course theory suggests that through time and culture, the mentor roles and mentee needs change. In this framework, individuals are interacting with the organization and as both face changes over time, mentoring relationships must change as well. There will be no one single mentor over the life of an individual. Life course research illustrates the importance of human agency and the bidirectional relationship between the individuals and their settings (Giele & Elder, 1998). Very little attention has been given to the role of mentoring in worklife integration (the personal side of life). Women have differing levels of work-life balance and conflict, yet this “softer” side of mentoring is relatively new. It raises the question in leadership development as to whether women prefer more balance in their lives for their professional lives; and so do not seek mentorship for familial support. Or are women concerned about the professional consequences of expressing need for mentoring for the private side of their lives? If men who are in the leadership positions primarily mentor women, is it more about achievement in their lives? How would it change the mentorship to provide mentorship on the importance of one’s personal or private issues in life with work integration?

Method In qualitative research, the question often begins with how or what to describe the phenomenon that is ongoing within an individual within a social context. The intent is to understand each individual case within their natural setting with a detailed view of the information gathered. With understanding the way in which women mentor and how they were mentored, a qualitative approach helped to probe these issues. The qualitative approach allows the researcher to play an active role in telling the story from the participants' perspective and does not pass judgment on the participants.

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This phenomenological study began with the philosophical ideas about the themes to be studied. In this case, the themes to be studied are identity, relational style, motivation and adaptive style and are applied to the concept of mentorship. The researcher makes meaning of the participants' experiences through a careful and detailed analysis. The narrative the women provided allowed for a deeper understanding of the dynamics that shaped their life, both through their family and professions. These life stories were rich in detail because they covered the social issues of the time, along with the individual life. Kohli (1981) suggests that the subjectivity which gives a view of life “from within” and the narrative form adds the dimension of change over time. The women provided insights from those early childhood years to the present and wishful ideas for mentoring both for themselves and for others. The concern is with the individual and the way in which they employ narratives to develop a sense of unity and purpose across their life. It resonates with this study to view the perceptions of the roles of mentors in an individual’s life story.

Sample The women in this study represented a subsample from the original study (Weber, 2010). They represent a cross sample of geographical locations, racial/ethnic diversity, age ranges, socio-economic levels and many different occupations. Therefore, this sample was an appropriate population to sample. This study randomly sampled the population of 300 participants for a total of 50 subjects. These women ranged in age from 32 to 79 and are in occupations that were very diverse (professors, corporate leadership, non-profit management, church leadership, law partner, to name a few). The sample includes women of many racial/ethnic groups, social class, geographical location and marital/parental status. Of the sample, approximately 68% are married with children, 18% were single or divorced or widowed, and with the rest of the sample uncategorized. Instrument. The semi-structured set of questions served as the instrument that followed the general four questions from the Giele (2008) study, along with the socio-demographic set of questions. The additional questions focused on strategies for coping with balancing life activities. The specific questions for the in-depth interviews are detailed in Chapter 2. Specifically for this mentoring study, particular attention was given to Questions 1, 3, and 5.

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Data Coding and analysis Coding. All transcripts were read for any reference to mentors, both those that had been mentored and those that were mentoring others. These references were coded using NVivo qualitative software for identifying patterns, themes, similarities and differences among the women interviewees. Once the themes were identified, then the respondents’ concepts were categorized into three areas: career-related (sponsorship, exposure, achievement, advancement) mentoring, psychosocial (competence, identity and effectiveness, work environment) mentoring and personal integration (work and family time, support for family and self) mentoring.

Findings There were many statements about mentoring throughout the interviews. In many of the transcripts there were comments such as, “I wish I had a mentor” or “I want to be a really good mentor and help others with issues that would have been helpful to me.” Reflections on mentoring suggest that women want a mentor, sometimes do not know how to find a mentor, and wish to mentor others. Many of the women particularly mentioned their family members both as mentors and wanting to mentor family members to better prepare them for the world of work and life. From the transcripts reviewed in this sample, the primary role of mentors served in the psychosocial arena. They supported the women at work, helped them navigate the environment, and provided encouragement. This is consistent with the research literature that suggests women seek and are provided with supportive and appreciate mentoring by others, including both male and female mentors (Okawa, 2002). Career (sponsorship and advocacy). Mentorship is defined by Kram (1985) as sponsorship, exposure, visibility, coaching, and protection. Some of the participants in this study talked about the career mentorship they received. Amy said: Senior employees had been in the organization for many years, yet I didn’t advocate to get a mentor – I regret not doing that.

The implication is that there were many available to support her sponsorship and advocacy, yet she was the one who had to advocate for herself. Lauren indicated:

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That she had great mentors along the way. They boosted me up or encouraged me to take on different jobs that I didn’t think I could do. Yet as I took on those challenges it brought me a lot of pride and confidence building over the years.” And that “she would not pursue certain opportunities without the encouragement of a mentor for her career.

She is suggesting that she did not have the confidence to move forward. Yet, once she did take on new opportunities, she apparently did well and felt a lot of pride in her work. This is consistent with the research, which suggests that women want to be sure they are 100% prepared for a position before applying. Confidence is critical for the next step. Molly said: That I had mentors throughout my career; there may have been coworkers, senior level people whose taken an interest in me and tried to help me. She adds that the main thing has been the slow growth, and lack of opportunities.

Although Molly had mentors that took an interest, it would appear that they did not actively sponsor her and advocate for her to advance in her career. Lou stated that: As a leader I have tried to share my experiences along the way with those colleagues because I have found that was the most beneficial to me as I was growing as a professional. I liked having the ability to go to someone and not be judged, I just learned all I could learn from them and be in a safe environment, so I try to provide that same level of comfort to mentees that I mentor.

Lou spoke both as a mentor and also shared her experiences as a mentee. Now that she is in a position to mentor, she likes to support her staff, help them grow and learn in a safe environment. In this context, she is also providing psychosocial mentoring, providing comfort. Nancy said that: I want to be improving; a mentor in the short term could be helpful. She could help me build my resume, so I am prepared for the next step. I need to continue evolving, continue learning, and continue to learn from those around me.

Nancy recognizes how a mentor could help her in her career. She is thinking that short term a mentor could be a great support. Many women express similar sentiments to Nancy, they want a mentor that will help

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them build their resumes and prepare them for the next step. However, they indicate that it is difficult to find a mentor. Guida said: I haven’t had the one-on-one mentoring.

From the comments above, career mentorship takes many forms. These interviewees indicated that support and encouragement in a safe environment are essential for career advancement. As several participants indicated, they did not receive individual mentoring, but would have liked that one on one support for their careers. Psychosocial Mentoring. The psychosocial mentoring function is critical for social learning within the organization. Manz & Sims (1981) suggest that modeling by senior leaders in an organization allows individuals to vicariously learn. Mentees develop an understanding of professional competence and self-esteem (confidence in their own ability) through social learning. The psychosocial mentoring may occur through friendship, counseling, and peer support. Often psychosocial mentoring may be more about satisfaction then career success. Kamen said: I had a great mentor, several really. A professor that I had during undergraduate, then again in graduate school was a great mentor and got me through the master’s program. She helped me navigate the political competitiveness of the academic setting. She has written recommendations for me over the years. These mentors taught me finesse and politics. You have to learn these types of things from mentors, no books can teach you.

Amy said: I had professional mentors, and then my grandmother and aunt. Those that invest in you, they care about you, and are helpful as you go through life and professional positions.

Lynda shared a poignant comment: My older sister who was a mentor and encourager who died in the prime of her life so left a big hole in my life. I never really found a mentor that supported me in the same way.

June said: Some professors in undergrad really helped me solidify my goals.

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Kamen, Amy, Lynda, and June all shared about mentors that were family members or professors. These mentors were all invested in the success of each of these women and cared about them in a deep, loving, caring manner. Research suggests that many women do turn to their family, friends or college professors for mentorship. They believe that these individuals have a vested interest in their success so they will feel comfortable in seeking their support. There is an acceptance and confirmation of their identity and the fear of failure or rejection is less with family and friends. Patton (2009) says that support systems may be more important for guidance, strength, and encouragement, particularly in settings that may feel foreign or unfriendly. Patton is referencing women of color, but this advice may also apply to all women in the workplace (2009). Beverly said: People approach me and share about their personal lives, they confide in me – they see me as a positive person at work. I feel that I mentor, I love to share ideas, make it easier for anybody to handle a situation.

Hilda said: Her role was in coaching, mentoring and motivating people.

Beverly and Hilda recognize the need for psychosocial support in the work place. They provide important support both professionally and personally. It seems that people at work approach them for support and as confidants. Fran said: A manager at work listened to me when I reached the breaking point. I told him that I wished I could work from home – he said “well why don’t you ask, the worst thing that could happen is that they’ll say no. Give it a shot!” So he gave me the push and motivation. I did submit a memo to my supervisor, who sent it to her supervisor – and they approved. It helped me juggle both work and home life.

Fran did not approach her own manager for support when her family situation was overwhelming her at work. Instead, she approached another manager who would listen to her. This manager did listen and encouraged her to ask. Without his support, the outcome might have looked different. Lona said:

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I love to learn from people, it helps me make better decisions, and I like to help other people, that create a bond with me and others at work – collegial mentoring.

Emma revealed: I have had a lot of different what I call mentors. I have built relationships and continued to keep those relationships. They have guided me in my career, but they are also my friends.

These women are illustrating the concept of social learning theory. They learn from others, build relationships with them that help them navigate work and support their careers. In both cases, friendships formed and colleagues mentored each other. Sonya said: I would like to get a mentor, somebody that I could trust that I could look up to and be honest with. It is really hard to find somebody when you’re involved in your everyday job. I am so involved in my work that I just don’t have time.

Sonya illustrates the desire and need for a mentor, yet the time commitment as a barrier for utilizing a mentor. Women do express that time constraint is a major limitation in their achieving success. If time is important in mentoring, this may explain the inability to find and enjoy a mentoring relationship. Psychosocial mentoring seems to be the main form of mentoring for the women in this study. This is consistent with the recent media reports that suggest women need sponsors (career mentoring) to succeed and flourish in their careers. The reports say that men have had sponsors which explains why they have been more successful in reaching the top CEO roles in major companies. However, when women report the type of mentoring function they have experienced, they report psychosocial – the supportive, emotional connections – that provide navigation through their work environments. Personal, private mentoring. There is very little research that discusses the role of personal, private mentoring. This is an important area of mentoring to support women and men in the workplace and in home life. Women carry the extra shift with the major burden of the home after a day of work. This may leave them physically and emotionally exhausted. Some of the interviewees from this study indicated that they would say they had a meeting off work site, in order to make it to an activity with their children. They felt they would not be respected if it was known that

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they were leaving for a child’s tennis match or soccer game. Yet, these same women felt that the men who leave work for their child’s activities are celebrated. This places women in a double bind. They must be totally focused on their work at the organization (and often carry it home) without any admission that they also have a family. As Mary Ann said: I am at a dis-advantage, I have to pick up my son after work. So I don’t join the informal conversation that continues over drinks among the males. Will I be remembered and considered for promotions if I can’t be present?

Debra said: I want to mentor my family and my grandchildren.

Maggie said: Helping my children create their own lives and their own families and watch out for them and be a mentor, helping others with service.

Debra and Maggie want to provide the mentoring for their own families and especially their children and grandchildren to help them be active, successful participants in society. Both of these women were near retirement and felt they did not have the support from their families and external colleagues in their own lives to be as successful as they envisioned. Fran said: A manager at work listened to me when I reached the breaking point. I told him that I wished I could work from home – he said “well why don’t you ask, the worst thing that could happen is that they’ll say no. Give it a shot!” So he gave me the push and motivation. I did submit a memo to my supervisor, who sent it to her supervisor – and they approved. It helped me juggle both work and home life.

Fran’s quote was utilized for psychosocial mentoring, yet also illustrates the need for someone to provide mentoring support for juggling home and work life. There is almost no research that discusses the need for women to have mentoring support to manage their personal, family life with their work role. These seem to be considered the “soft” issues that we just expect women to understand and be able to manage. As Quinlan (1999) says, “women often have different needs and concerns from their male counterparts.” Men rely on their significant other to provide the

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support for the home and family, while women are providing the support for the home/family and working fulltime as well. Denise said: Her grandmother and aunt ran a business and still managed the family. They kept everyone together and connected. They were a great example for me.

Role modeling by a grandmother and mother provided an example for Denise as she worked to manage her home life and her career. However, many women do not have mothers that had a career. Women before them worked mostly in a secretarial role and did not have visions of advancement, or the culture disallowed these visions. Role models in leadership roles in the work place are still limited and one rarely sees the dual role of work and family (the background of what it takes to manage both). Shaunte said: I am able to have my career, along with my husband having an important career through hiring support. I have a nanny and someone that supports my household needs. At first, I was bothered with hiring outside help because I didn’t see others in my organization with help. It was the only way I could manage.

Lucille said: It was a tough family time when I already had a baby, then I learned I was pregnant again, I wasn’t sure if I should continue my MBA and continue to work. There was little support or help available to support me in the decision.

Shaunte and Lucille are illustrating the lack of mentors and role models to support the dual roles of family and work. This is an area that needs more exploration as the research is often lacking. The emphasis has been focused mainly on career advancement and promotion to leadership roles. From these interviews, it seems that family, as a part of life is problematic for the career. The women indicate the need to have mentors that would provide support for them in balancing or integrating family and work. The women shared emotional stories of both mentors within their own families and then their need to be deceitful to be able to participate in their children’s activities.

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Discussion Research over several decades has suggested that there are benefits associated with mentoring for mentees (Levinson, et al, 1978; Kram, 1985; Allen, et al, 2004). Much of the research has focused on the career advancement of males. In recent years, there is increasing research on mentoring and females. Sandberg (2013) has given recent media attention to the need for sponsors for women if they wish to advance in their careers. The current qualitative study shares women’s perceptions of their mentoring relationships and the way in which they mentor. The two functional areas of career and psychosocial that have consistently been researched were used for categorizing the responses. Most of the responses suggested that their mentoring relationships were in the psychosocial functional area. The women indicated some sponsorship (career mentoring) or the desire for such mentoring. Several women also indicated the need for support in their work-family life balance, so an additional functional area of personal/private was added. Patton (2009) suggests that women may need several mentors over their lifetime because of the numerous roles they play at work and home. The women in this project also indicated the need for mentors at different stages in their lives. One suggested that a different mentor each year would be helpful. Although this study did not consider the gender or race of the mentor, Patton suggests that sometimes males (“the others”) can be general mentors for one entering their career, but may not provide the strong need to connect “emotionally”. Okawa (2002) suggests that cultural similarity is significant in mentoring. This may explain why many women in this study mentioned their family members as mentors and role models; there is a comfort level of familiarity. This may suggest that the mentoring relationship needs to be contextual in nature. Life experiences for an individual changes their need for mentoring relationships as their family grows and develops, the individual achieves and advances in their career, personal and peer relationships change, and one’s identity changes through their own growth and development. Given the number of research studies that found a relationship between mentored versus non-mentored individuals, it is important to further understand the role of gender in mentoring, as well as, the role of mentors in socialization, career advancement and success. Given that women comprise over 50% of the work force yet hold less than 15% of the leadership positions in Fortune 500 companies, mentoring functions may continue to be elusive to many women.

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Impliications and d Conclusioons A theorretical framework for th he continued study of mentoring m especially ffor women iss proposed. The T frameworrk utilizes the current functions off career and psychosocial p mentoring m andd adds a third function, that of balannce or integrattion. See Figu ure 1.

Figure 1: Fram mework for Meentoring Functio ons

The adddition of thee third function of menttoring (integrration) is important too consider as a a gendered d concept off the world of work. Integration rrepresents thee multiple rolees of the indivvidual and reffers to the roles outsidee of the workkplace environ nment. It incluudes the family, which might be sppouse or signiificant other, children, sibllings, older paarents, or care taking roles; the houusehold, whicch includes thhe activities for f caring for a home; and reflectivee time (person nal, self-care aand spiritual). With this additional fu function, career success an nd satisfactionn would be integrated i into one’s life space.

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References Allen, T.D. Eby, L.T., Poteet, M.L., Lentz, E., &Lima, L. (2004). Career benefits associated with mentoring for proteges: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 127-136. Bandara, A. (1985). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Capron, R. (2014). The role mentors play in women’s work-life balance. Malibu, CA: Pepperdine University. Chandler, D.E., Kram, K.E/. & Yip, J. (2011). An ecological systems perspective on mentoring at work: A review and future prospects. The Academy of Management Annals, 5(1), 519-570. Elg, U., & Jonnergard, K. (2010). Included or excluded? The dual influences of the organizational field and organizational practices on new female academics. Gender and Education, 22, 209-225. Giele, J.Z. (2010). Life stories to understand diversity by class, race, and gender. In J. &. J. Elder, The craft of life course studies. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Giele, J.Z. and Elder, G.H., Jr. (1998). Methods of life course research: Qualitative and quantative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Hammer, T., Trepal, H., & Speedlin, S. (2014). Five relational strategies for mentoring female faculty. Adultspan Journal. 13(1), 4-14. Hill, N.R., Leinbaugh, T., Bradley, C., & Hazler, R. (2005). Female counselor educators: Encouraging and discouraging factors in academia. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83, 374-380. Hirschfeld, R.R., Thomas, C.H., & Lankau, M.J. (2006). Achievement and avoidance motivational orientations in the domain of mentoring. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(3), 524-537. Ibarra, H., Carter, N.M., & Silva, C. (2010). Why men still get more promotions than women. Harvard Business Review, 88, 9, 80-85. Kleinman, G., Siegel, H., & Eckstein, C. (2001). Mentoring and learning: The case of CPA firms. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22(1), 22-34. Kohli, M. (1981). Biography: Account, text, method. In D. Bertaux, Biography and society: The life history approach in the social sciences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. —. (1988). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Lanham, M.D.: University Press of American, Inc.

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Levinson, D.J., Darrow, D., Klein, E., Levinson, M., & McKee, F. (1978). Seasons of a man’s life. New York: Knopf. Manz, C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. (1981). Vicarious learning: The influences of modeling on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 6, 105-113. O’Brien, K. E., Biga, A., Kessler, S. R., & Allen, T.D. (2010). A metaanalytic investigation of gender differences in mentoring. Journal of Management, 36(2), 537-554. Okawa, G.Y. (2002). Diving for pearls: Mentoring as cultural and activist practice among academics of color. College Composition and Communication. 53(3), 507-532. Patton, L.D. (2009). My sister’s keeper: A qualitative examination of mentoring experiences among African American women in graduate and professional schools. The Journal of Higher Education, 80 (5), 524-537. Quinlan, K. M. (1999). Enhancing mentoring and networking of junior academic women: What, why, and how? Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 21(1), 31-42. Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean In: Women, work, and the will to lead. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. Singer, J. (2004). Narrative identity and meaning making across the adult lifespan: An introduction. Journal of Personality, 72, 437-459. Stanley, P.D. and Clinton, J.R. (1992). Connecting: The mentoring relationships you need to succeed in life. Colorado Springs, CO: NavePress, Inc. Valian, V. (1998). Why so slow: The advancement of women. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. —. (2005). Beyond gender schemas: Improving the advancement of women in academia. Hypatia, 20, 198-213. Weber, M.J. (2011). The digital women’s project: Work-life balance issues. Unpublished manuscript. Pepperdine University. Weinberg, F.J. & Lankau, M.J. (2011). Formal mentoring programs: A mentor-centric and longitudinal analysis. Journal of Management, 37(6), 1527-1557.

CHAPTER SEVEN STRATEGIES FOR WORK-FAMILY INTEGRATION DR. KERRI CISSNA-HEATH

Abstract Cissna-Heath (2012) summarizes the strategies women use for balance in her dissertation titled “Women in Leadership: Strategies for Work-Life Balance.” Findings from this study indicate that women are more likely to be successful at juggling multiple roles if their career is meaningful and fulfilling (Cissna-Heath, 2012). Another strategy women use is learning from mentors how to balance the competing demands of dual roles. A strong work ethic is another strategy that surfaced as a theme for integrating work and home life. There were 15 other strategies for worklife balance that emerged from this study.

Introduction “Can a woman have it all?” is a common question in civil discourse around women in the workplace. This question drives many researchers to look closely at the phenomena of work-life conflict and all the issues surrounding this. There are few studies, however, asking “how can she have it all?” when both women and men are interested in finding synergy among all of the demands of work and home life. This chapter reviews a study that was designed to look at the lives of female leaders with the intention of revealing how these women integrate work and family (Cissna-Heath, 2012). This qualitative study was crafted to explore personal narratives of successful women leaders, specifically looking at work-life conflict and strategies for balance. “Work-family conflict has been found to be associated with more negative work, family and individual well-being

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outcomes” (Burke, 2004, p. 3). Women who lack a sense of balance report higher levels of exhaustion, less job satisfaction and are more likely to quit their positions (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2004). Employers and employees alike will benefit from the results of this study, which describe strategies that can be implemented to obtain a sense of balance among all the demands at work and home. “Most of us respond to the rising demands in the workplace by putting in longer hours, which inevitably take a toll on us physically, mentally, and emotionally,” according to Schwartz (2007, p. 64). These negative coping strategies can lead to less engagement at work, increased distraction, high turnover rates, and soaring medical costs among employees (Schwartz, 2007). However, there are women who are successfully implementing strategies that lead to well-balanced and fulfilled lives. To achieve balance, individuals should implement efforts into their lives that help them cope with stress (Burke, 2004). Using a framework by Giele (2008) which reviews the experiences (identity, relationship style, drive and motivation, and adaptive) over a woman’s life course, this study focused on strategies used for work-family life balance. This study looked at the lives of 22 successful female leaders who shared their personal and professional life experiences. This revealed a series of strategies that can be implemented for work-life balance. The ultimate goal was to give practical advice to women who are working while raising a family (or entertaining the idea for the future).

Research Questions The research questions that guide this study are: 1. What experiences (identity, relationship style, drive and motivation, and adaptive) shape the life course of women that impact workfamily life balance decisions and strategies? 2. What pro-active strategies are women utilizing for work/life balance? 3. What reactive coping strategies are women using in response to the demands of dual roles?

Review of literature A brief review of the literature reveals that there are strategies people can implement to create balance between their lives at work and home. Many of the findings are grounded in anecdotes that highlight stressors of

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maintaining dual roles. These data reports are helpful in creating a conversation, but the research lacks a framework or theory outlining strategies used to successfully juggling multiple roles. Hattery (2001) did an intensive research project to determine what factors are considered as mothers make the decision to stay at home or return to work. At the end of her study she suggested that future studies seek to conceptualize the strategies that women use to combine work and family, in order to support women who want to have it both ways (Hattery, 2001). Hattery states that “women can be successful professionally as well as in their roles as mothers when they are supported by partners, family, friends, child care teammates, and those in their work place in their efforts to seamlessly weave work and family” (p. 187). Additional research is warranted around strategies for work-life balance, which is what Catalyst tried to do. Catalyst put out survey results in 1996 that describe the ways in which women executives balance career and personal life (Wirth, 2001). According to this study, women employ domestic help, pursue or curtail personal interests, use childcare services, and develop networks outside of their employment. Finally, they described that some female executives worked at home or worked part-time, flexible hours in order to balance a career and home life. Catalyst made recommendations for companies who wish to maximize the potential of their female workforce. These include moving women into line positions and promoting them, finding mentors for them, creating networking opportunities, embracing change, being flexible with work schedules and more (Nelson & Michie, 2004). Some working women decide not to get married or have children, or they delay marriage and motherhood until a more convenient time that would not conflict with career goals. In fact, out of “a small percentage of high-level executives who are women, almost half do not have children” (Halpern & Cheung, 2008, p. 4). The US Census Bureau (2004) reports that women who make over $100,000 a year are less likely to have children. And finally, some women take a leave of absence to raise children. Somech and Drach-Zahavy (2007) evaluated 266 parents through quantitative interviewing methodology to propose eight coping strategies for coping with work-family conflict. These strategies include: super at home, good enough at home, delegation at home, priorities at home, super at work, good enough at work, delegation at work, and priorities at work (Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2007). Foley (2005) shares success strategies with women who are seeking career and personal success: Don’t take things personally, build relationships, network, market your value, know

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how to be treated, take a stand, thrive on change, know your worth, embrace politics, and think strategically while acting bodacious. One author summarizes the greatest challenges for work/life balance, which include time management (39%), being organized (16%), financial pressures (10%), lack of energy (9%), emotional management (9%), childcare (7.5%), saying ‘No’ (7%), and living with a focused partner (2.5%), (Molloy, 2004, p. 7). Her book Get a Life explains strategies that women can use to address these challenge and achieve work life balance such as: getting focused (on dreams, priorities, people, and finances), getting organized, not getting stressed, getting connected with others, and pursuing goals (Molloy, 2004). Creating A Life: Professional Women and the Quest for Children states that, “women should start achieving as soon as possible, strategically choose a life partner early in life, have children before the age of thirty five and find a career that is flexible” (Hewlett, 2002, p. 301). Hochschild (2003) also shared strategies from working mothers that she interviewed in her book the Second Shift. She boldly revealed that some women utilize negative strategies in order to share the domestic responsibilities with their spouse, including acting helpless or withholding sex. Hochschild (2003) also suggests cutting back hours on all things including time at the office, housework, marriage, self and time with children. Seeking additional support from others is another strategy including housekeeping, childcare, or hiring a personal assistant to help with bills and other administrative tasks. “Supermoms” go without sleep, time for self, and can be unattached emotionally. “Super-moming” also describes women who keep their children up late at night so they can spend quality time with them after working long hours in the office (Hochschild, 2003). This strategy is for moms who can do it all, and do it with a smile, a perfect figure and on a budget (Hall & Bishop, 2009). In her book, Making it in Corporate America, Smallen-Grob (2003) suggests that women band together to shatter the glass ceiling. Women need to build alliances and support one another in order to succeed in the workplace. She suggests being open to learning new fields and applying for positions where women are underrepresented. It would require women to start at the bottom in entry level positions and work their way up in an organization (Smallen-Grob, 2003). Another way that women will advance in their careers is learning to be friendly while at the same time confident. Smallen-Grob (2003) advises women to be nice but not a pushover, confident and willing to ask questions and take risks, and willing to make mistakes. While women tend

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to overanalyze situations, they need to learn from their mistakes as a strategy for getting ahead, not agonize over the details of a situation (Smallen-Grob, 2003). Women should have integrity, self-awareness, and select a job that revolves around passion and purpose. Work should be fun and fulfilling in order for it to be successful (Smallen-Grob, 2003). Gender roles can imply strategies for success as well. White (1995) suggests that women must employ aggressive or “gutsy” behaviors in order to succeed in the workplace, and she cautions women about “motherly” behaviors. Mendell (1996) lists seven rules for making it in a man’s world: act confident, act strong, play to win, do not get emotionally involved, be aggressive, accept fighting, and be a team player. Women should be in control at all times and learn masculine skills for communication (Mendell, 1996). More masculine characteristics are regarded as traits that are required for management (Wirth, 2001). Eagly and Carli (2007) suggest that women should blend kindness, niceness and helpfulness with a dose of assertiveness to find success (p. 164). Eagly and Carli (2007) suggest that men need to share domestic responsibilities like housework and childcare. Women are taking the mommy-track which describes women who take part-time jobs, and a big cut in ambition and salary (Warner, 2005). Women take leaves of absence and use their sick days to be with their children. Eagly and Carli (2007) also suggest flexibility in full time jobs or reduction of workload by parttime status. Henderson (2006) suggests the following strategies for work life balance: exercise, identifying values, meditation, creativity, social activities, financial stability, taking regular holidays, having do-nothingdays at least once a week, learning to say no and stopping the “superwoman-syndrome.” This syndrome is what she refers to as women who strive to be perfect all the time. Those who suffer from this typically impose deadlines and pressure when there is no real urgency. “Women still maintain primary responsibility for child-rearing and elder care, still take the lead in household management, still report higher percentages of time spent on the job, and deem diminished commitment in any area to be unacceptable” (Aleman & Renn, 2002, p. 485). Balance is not about giving equal amounts of time and energy to everything, but it is about prioritizing the most important things in life and nurturing them (Goodchild, 2006). Goodchild (2006) describes strategies such as making time for self-care and then using what energy is left for others. She thinks that self-care and the pursuit of passion is the key to living out a balanced life. Campbell (2006) says that, “work/life balance revolves around the need for setting boundaries so that our work doesn’t

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intrude on our private lives” (p. 76). She implements six strategies to obtain balance: seeing obstacles as opportunities, eliminating unhelpful guilt, building supportive networks, responding to change, making time for self, and enjoying each moment in life. Ellison (2005) implies that women are smarter once they become moms. She summarizes the strategies that various neuroscientists have said women should implement to make the most of the Mommy Brain: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Take Back Motherhood (remind yourself of that you are smarter) Recognize your Priorities Do not underestimate the Power of Sleep Improve your Spin Control (reframe stressful situations into mental challenges) 5. Engage Oxytocin (birthing and breastfeeding hormone which increases memory) 6. Socialize 7. Stroller-cize (exercise) 8. Mother Thyself (take breaks for self) 9. Multi-task Away (within limits) 10. Change the World (starting with your world)

Blair-Loy (2003) categorized careers of women who have reached senior leadership positions dominated by men into two cultural schema models. The schema of “work devotion” describes an immense commitment and devotion to career development. Vocational calling takes over a single-minded allegiance and is driven by meaning and purpose (BlairLoy, 2003). The schema of “family devotion” is the priority of marriage and motherhood as the primary vocation. These schemas create work life conflict so new schemas have been introduced. Some women work parttime in high-level positions while others have opted not to have children while pursuing careers. Professional strategies. Organizations are beginning to address issues surrounding work-life balance (Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2007). Some organizations develop policies and benefits that build more flexibility between work and family (Fu & Shaffer, 2001). Companies are able to help create a family-friendly environment by providing flex-time, family leave, on-site day care, career-breaks, and support networks (Perry-Smith & Blum, 2000). Bird (2006), the founder and CEO of WorkLifeBalance.com, suggests dual-purpose learning to help employees with professional development on-the-job and in their off-the-job lives. Studies have shown that dual

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purpose learning has doubled the “retention and utilization rates of specific relationship, time management, and project-management skills learned as measured 60-120 days following the learning” in organizations (Bird, 2006, p. 6). Employees are looking for a work environment that is positive and values the life outside of work. Employers will greatly benefit from a healthier workplace when they commit to the work and life success of each individual in the organization (Bird, 2006). Bird suggests ten options for work-life balance from an organizational standpoint: 1. Reinforce through better communication what you are already doing. Pull together all work-life benefits, procedures, and policies and publicize them as a work-life package. 2. Abolish internal Friday-afternoon meetings. 3. Give half day off on Fridays if the individual has put in the incremental hours earlier in the week and assuming that no outside customer meetings are scheduled. 4. Endorse working from home one day per week. 5. Offer subsidies for off-site exercise. 6. Create and support athletic teams. Consider underwriting part of the expense. 7. Provide one or two days off with pay for approved community involvement. 8. Create and encourage an annual or quarterly “bring your family to work” day. 9. Establish a “disconnect from work” vacation policy- no cell phones or laptops. 10. Create a more accommodating “on-and-off ramp” policy for those who leave the firm, especially if it is to spend time with family. When they show interest in coming back, make it easy for them to get back on where they left. Mason and Ekman claim that, “a loyal, stable workforce is more productive than a revolving door” (2007, p. 132). Organizations who adapt practices to boost work-life balance have increased retention rates among employees. Organizations like Ernst & Young and Johnson & Johnson offer part-time employees the opportunity to progress in the company, while Merck and Goldman Sachs supply mentoring and networking for women who are “up and comers” in the organization (Finnigan, 2001). Strategies that help with work-life balance are flexible schedules, job sharing, telecommuting, working from home, part-time hours, and parental leave. Companies that have a culture of long-hours can be oppressive to

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people with families. “Flex-time” gives people choice about when to begin and end each workday. People with flex schedules have less work-family related stress than workers who work a standard schedule (Bohen & Viveros-Long, 1981). Pricewater Coopers and the Family and Work Institute (FWI) sponsored a study called Feeling Overworked: When work becomes too much (Finnigan, 2001). According to this study, the more control people have over their schedules, the less overworked they feel (Finnigan, 2001). Hewlett (2002) describes strategies for work-life balance in her book, Creating a Life. She suggests a time bank of paid parenting leave that can be taken at any point in the child’s life. Women like the option of taking job-protected leave for up to three years, without having to worry about adjusting their retirement plans. Tax breaks for workplace reentry and creation of alumni status for employees to retain health benefits are other professional strategies. Middlaners are people who live reasonable and appropriately balanced lifestyles (Hitchin & Hitchin, 1998). Most leaders strive to be “careerist” putting all energy into professional responsibilities. In order to become a “Middlaner” there are several rules that must be followed. Middlaners take on limited assignments but do an exceptional job with them (Hitchens and Hitchens, 1998). The concept suggests that they are in the “middle lane” and are not pushed to either extreme of the demands of work and family roles. Wirth (2001) encourages women to: build confidence, take risks, cope with stress in hostile environments, and balance work and home. She suggests career-building strategies such as networking, mentoring, careertracking, succession planning (Wirth, 2001). Companies can capitalize on the full potential of their female staff members by implementing flexible schedules, assistance with childcare, work/family programs, recruitment and promotion systems are all needed for (Wirth, 2001). Personal strategies. Gallagher (2000) conducted in-depth interviews with 200 women executives and found three vital strategies that they use to get ahead. First, these women leaders were self-aware and had an understanding of their strengths, growth areas, and purpose. They also had a keen awareness of the company they worked for and the unwritten rules of the culture (Gallagher, 2000). Last, women leaders had role models in each of their careers. Gallagher identified that, “almost every executive mom whom I interviewed has a house manager, a housekeeper, a nanny, a supportive spouse, and/or someone else who provided crucial logistical and emotional support” (p. 193). These support structures can help women obtain

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“Work/Life Harmony.” Work/Life Harmony is defined as a pleasing and congruent arrangement of integrating work and life roles into a single narrative of life (McMillan et al., 2011). Rockler-Gladen (2007) encourages women to lose the guilt they have, divide the workload among family members, and be in the moment at work or with family. Females need to communicate with the boss and coworkers, look for smart ways to readjust schedules, document anything “fishy” at work, put housework lower on your list of priorities, find a good child care solution, and schedule in down time for others and time for self (Rockler-Gladen, 2007). These strategies will increase work life integration and balance. Sachs (2005) suggests clear boundaries between work and family life, staying organized, setting boundaries, delegating responsibilities, and having terrific childcare and support at home. Compartmentalizing helps women focus full attention on work when they are on the job and then focus fully on family when they are at home. Letting go of perfection, both at home and at work, and letting go of the guilt that is associated with the demands of dual roles is suggested as an important strategy. In 2007, the Bureau of Labor Statistics released data that women do 63% of the domestic work, and put in sixteen hours of household work each week compared to men who only do ten hours a week (Lerner, 2010). Multi-tasking is also a strategy that working parents use to juggle the demands of work and family. Motherhood cannot be separated from multitasking (Sachs, 2005). New technology which includes email, smart phones, laptop computers, Ipads, etc. has made multi-tasking a lot easier. Anyone can access the internet and email at almost any moment in any setting worldwide. “Advances in technology have made it possible to work twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week” (Burke, 2004, p. 4). Rest and sleep are very important for work life balance. According to the National Sleep Foundation in 2006, working mothers get less than 6 hours of sleep a night (Lerner, 2010). If women are not getting enough sleep they will not be able to function at their highest level. Support groups and social support can reduce the negative effects of stressors for working women (Carlson & Perrewe, 1999). This interpersonal transaction demonstrates emotional concern, esteem, information and instrumental aid for others (House, 1981). According to Gallagher, “there is an inherent strength in numbers” so women should create networks of support (2000, p.13). Eagly and Carli (2007) state, “women need to remind themselves of their worth, assertively seek demanding assignments, expect more rewards for their work, and learn to negotiate well” (p. 180). Women attend

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workshops, conferences, professional associations, small groups, churches and more to find social networks and community. Some research proposes that social support can improve the entire stress process of an individual (Carlson & Perrewe, 1999). Mentoring and coaching programs are strategies for women. Women in leadership roles should serve as role models for the younger generation or a significant amount of power will be left on the table (Smallen-Grob, 2003). Mentoring relationships based on trust and shared tasks are the key to building authentic connections and furthering career advancements (Gallagher, 2000). Networking is used as a tool for women to make connections in order to advance their careers. Women should forge connections with others in multiple networks both inside and outside of the organization (Eagly & Carli, 2007). In order to succeed, women need to gain full support from employees, peers and supervisors. Smallen-Grob (2003) states that women must build a strong support system through networking. Close relationships can help people cope with stress as they disclose personal information, discuss concerns, and receive advice (Wills, 1990). Childcare can assist with work-life balance however it can be very expensive. The U.S. Census released data in 2006 concluding that families who live below the poverty line spend a quarter of their income on child care, while the average family spends 7% of their annual income on childcare (Lerner, 2010). The landscape of childcare in the U.S. has dramatically changed as there was very little paid childcare during the 1950s and 1960s, and today many employed mothers rely on non-parental paid childcare. However, many private employers do not provide options for childcare. The U.S. Department of Labor said that only 2% of bluecollared workers and 7% of white-collared workers have access to employer-sponsored child care (Lerner, 2010). While studies often focus on the negative impact that childcare might have on children, there are also studies that have shown otherwise. Galinsky (1999) shows that children in high-quality childcare situations can do just as well academically and socially, if not more so, than when children stay at home with their mothers. Mothers are intentionally seeking out childcare that will better prepare their children for kindergarten by placing them in a day care facility or preschool. PerrySmith and Blum (2000) report that a “bundle” of family-friendly practices are also associated with superior ratings. Political strategies. Official laws and policies help to create a political environment in an organization. There are also accepted rules and behaviors such as civil law, common law, ethics and customs that

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contribute to legal culture. Organizations can increase relevancy by thinking holistically about gender issues in the workplace, which oftentimes have legal implications. Feminist ethics describe the awareness of women’s oppression and the policies that could rectify past injustices (Hinman, 2008). The goal of feminist political strategies is to look at legislation and policies that are dominated by power relationships and diminish women. According to Peters (2010), “the major task of the policy analyst is to define clearly the problem that must be solved. Once that is done the solution may not be simple, but it at least potentially analyzable, and a feasible course of action may become more apparent” (p. 112). The elimination of domination in regards to power over women is the ultimate goal (Hinman, 2008). Organizations are increasingly offering parental leave, flexible hours and part-time work schedules to employees in order to retain them while they are raising families. There is a negative impact of outdated corporate systems that were designed by men at a time when many women were not working. They lack benefit systems and productivity measures that take into account flexible work arrangements. Workplace arrangements such as job sharing, working from home or via the internet, taking career breaks, extended leave, maternity/paternity leave, child care and flexible schedules are not an end in themselves, but they are a means to help women advance in an organization (Nelson & Michie, 2004). Companies that offer a wide array of work/life options such as flextime, paid leave, and reduced hours have a higher rate of women who stay in their careers (Hewlett, 2002). One of the great challenges that working women face in regards to childcare, are the hours and holiday breaks of our American school system. Schools should match the hours of the workday so that parents could work while the children are learning, however most American schools do not. Fewer families have a full-time parent at home, yet school days still remain six or seven hours long and summer vacation still remains to be several months long. Students should be in school while adults are working and holiday breaks need to coincide with offices being closed on national holidays. Students also need to remain in school during the summer months. If this does not change, it would also be helpful if schools could provide care for children after school. Prekindergarten programs could be free or subsidized by the government. These political strategies would assist all parents with work life balance. There are several laws that have greatly impacted the role of work life balance in the lives of women. In the 1930s, the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) set a standard for the workweek to be forty hours and anything

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outside of that to provide overtime compensation. This law, however, did not provide any safeguards for part-time employees whom are primarily female (Christensen & Schneider, 2010). Hourly workers could be compensated for overtime in the form of time off instead of extra pay, which will encourage parents to spend time with their families. The Family Medical Leave Act allows women to take twelve weeks unpaid job protected leave for medical and maternal reasons. As a result of the women’s movement in the 1970s, many legal and social changes occurred which reduced the most dramatic forms of gender discrimination (BlairLoy, 2003). Hewlett (2002) suggests an extension of the Family Medical Leave Act to workers in small companies that can be turned into paid leave. She also suggests tax incentives to companies that offer employees what she calls “the gift of time” which come in the form of job sharing, reduced hours, paid parenting leave, telecommuting, and compressed work weeks. She would like the government to promote legislation which eliminates the incentives for long-work hours and start paying everyone overtime for any extra hours they work. The U.S. government still has no family leave and childcare programs like most industrialized nations (Faludi, 2006). Mothers who do not have maternity leave because they are new to their positions, should be able to receive unemployment benefits from the government (Kinnick, 2009). Workers should also be allowed to use sick leave to care for an ill child, parent or parent (which is now practiced in California). Tax incentives could encourage organizations to install family-friendly policies such as flex-time and part-time work (Kinnick, 2009). The marriage penalty tax needs to be reformed so that married couples are not taxed higher than two people with the same income. Tax deductibles that can offset the cost of college will also help working parents. There is still a rather large wage gap between women and men in the American workforce. It has improved over time, but is still not equal. Sexism and discrimination play a large role in the cause of this gap. It has become cultural acceptable and women are now settling for a lower wage (Schwartz, 1992). The highest paid jobs typically go to men and they have more continuity in their careers while women tend to opt out to have families or change companies in order to progress. There is a need for an appraisal and compensation systems that are uniform for men and women, to ensure that women are not being paid less for the same jobs. Workplace policies really do make a difference in the retention of employees. This is a political strategy that could ensure assistance for women who strive for work life balance.

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Problem statement With a female dominated workforce, there is a growing need to prepare workers for the demands of dual roles. Studies show that women now make up more than half the workforce and mothers are breadwinners/cobreadwinners in nearly two-thirds of American families (Shriver & Center for American Progress, 2009). According to the Department of Professional Employees (2010), women accounted for 47% of the workforce in 2008. According to this same report, about half of the multiple-job holders are women and women make up the majority of temporary and part-time workers in the United States. The number of working women was over 66 million in 2009 (DPE, 2010). In 2007, it was reported that 80% of moms in the U.S. were working (Cotter, England & Hermsen, 2007). The U.S. has roughly 26 million working mothers and nearly 40% of them have children under the ages of six (Ellison, 2005). Women earned more than half of the bachelor’s degrees, 58% of master’s degrees and 44 % of the doctoral degrees in the year 1999-2000 (Davidson & Burke, 2004). Women make up more than half of the workforce and in 1999 women comprised 45 % of the managerial jobs in the United States (Gallagher, 2000). Women outnumber the male students in universities across the nation yet only earn more money than men in a few American cities (Leonhardt, 2008). Women are not entering the executive level positions at the same rate as their male counterparts, even though they are just as educated and trained, and are being hired by organizations at the same rate (Davidson & Burke, 2004). Only a handful of these women have climbed into the highest corporate levels and in 1997 only 3% of top executives in America’s top 500 companies were women (Gallagher, 2000). There has not been much progress since that time and women are not advancing to the upper echelons of organizations at the same rate as men. This lack of women reaching the highest positions is not isolated to one field, but seems to be a national trend across all sectors. It is a strange phenomenon being that there is no shortage of women who are qualified. Preparation is needed in order for women to succeed at the top, especially in regards to work-life balance. Working women have different needs from working men, “and anyone who thinks that it is the same has never had a boob leak in the boardroom” (Storm, 2009, p. 4). Work-life balance may contribute to the success of women in the workplace, and therefore should be studied and replicated when possible. This study will focus on strategies that working women can implement to simultaneously pursue families and careers.

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Sampling Twenty-two female leaders were selected for this qualitative study. Each of the participants had at least one child, was employed full-time while raising the family, and made an annual salary of $100,000. They all have children: four have one child, 11 have two children, six have three children and one woman has four children. Ten of the subjects are Caucasian, five are African American, two are Filipino and one is Middle Eastern (three are unreported). Four women were born in the 1940s, three in the 50s, seven in the 60s and seven in the 70s (one unreported). Six of the women have bachelor’s degrees, four have master’s degrees, and twelve have doctoral degrees. Twenty of these women are married, one is single and one is living with her significant other. Nine women work in the field of education, eight are in the corporate sector, two are therapists, one is employed at a non-profit organization, one is in the military and one is a lawyer.

Results and Discussion The findings from this qualitative study identify 18 strategies for worklife balance that might be replicated by those who seek balance in raising a family while working full time. If these women can maintain a high profile career and make a good salary while raising children, then others may be able to observe and apply some of these strategies to their own lives. The 18 strategies that surfaced as a result of this study are: Meaningful work. Women need to work hard to get into careers that align with their passions. They cannot settle for entry-level positions where they are not making a significant impact. Women at the top of their organizations are finding a lot of meaning and satisfaction in their work, which makes work-life balance easier. Smallen-Grob (2003) suggested that women should select work that resolves around passions and desires. Work needs to be fun and fulfilling (Smallen-Grob, 2003) and women need to pursue their passions (Goodchild, 2006). Blair-Loy (2003) describes women who are driven by single-minded allegiance and purpose. Kim said: I always knew that I wanted to help people and everything that I’ve done since college, that I’ve really enjoyed, has been helping people in some capacity.

Obtain a mentor. Although leadership is often referred to as being lonely, these women have someone that they are looking up to. Finding a

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mentor has helped these women think through the issues of juggling multiple roles, and even given them a role model in some situations. Emerging leaders should look for mentors in the field. Mentoring was a strategy listed in the literature for this chapter (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Gallagher, 2000; Nelson & Michie, 2004; Smallen-Grob, 2003; Wirth, 2001). Ella stated: I think mentors have really helped me sort of think outside the box and not in such a straight line and that’s been very valuable, and I am trying to do that with my daughter as well as encouraging her to think outside the box.

Work hard. Juggling multiple roles is not easy. Women who are hoping to work and raise children will need to work really hard to maintain balance. It can be done, but it is going to take some effort. Wellington and Spence (2001) stated that women should become indispensable at work by working harder than everyone else. Women need to develop an excellent level of competence (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Veronica said: There has been equal work opportunity as long as we want it, we’re willing to work for it and prove to others that we can do it, the work has been there. I’ve been very strong and when somebody tells me that I can’t do anything, the likelihood is minimal; it makes me want to work harder.

Prioritize. Time management, multi-tasking, and organizational skills will help in the pursuit of balance. Women need to decide what is truly important and put their effort and energy into those things. Anything that is not a priority will need to be sacrificed in order to avoid burn-out and overexertion. Several strategists described “getting focused” and “getting organized” as two strategies for balance (Molloy, 2004; Sachs, 2005), while Finnigan (2001) suggested establishing clear priorities, and setting limits. Learning to “say no” was mentioned in the literature a few times (Finnagan, 2001; Henderson, 2006: Molloy, 2004). Goodchild (2006) tells women to identify what is most important and allocate time and energy to those things. Multi-tasking was mentioned a lot in the literature review but was not a major result of this study (Lerner, 2010). Laura said: Our kids are very accustomed to having either me or my husband at all of their activities and events. All the kids know, my kids at the school, all their friends and staff know that we are going to be there. If I’m not there then my husband is going to be there. Those (are the) types of things that balances out for me. That’s why I continue to work.

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Confidence. Women will need to work at overcoming insecurities in order to remain balanced. It takes courage and hard-work, but it cannot be achieved if there is no confidence. Women need to be more ambitious and confident in their abilities. The literature review mentioned several strategists who felt that building confidence was essential for work-life balance (Mendell, 1996; Smallen-Grob, 2003; Wellington & Spence, 2001; Wirth, 2001). Gale said: I always for whatever reason had the confident that I could do whatever came my way. I don’t know, it’s just sort of an innate confidence, and I don’t know where I got it but all my sisters have it.

Laura said: I am more confident. I love me some me.

Faith. A little faith can go a long way. Women who believe in something greater than themselves are using this as a means to balance it all. Anyone can look into various forms of faith and spiritual direction in order to remain balanced including (but not limited to) prayer, meditation, signing worship songs, and participating in a faith community. Faith was also found in the literature as a strategy (Wellington & Spence, 2001). Cary said: Whatever is crazy with work or with this or that, in the greater scheme of things, so the faith piece is a huge anchor. And huge anchor for my family, both keeping things in perspective but the faith community is there.

Organizations outside of work. Women need to find ways to get connected to communities outside of work and home. These organizations should bring meaning to life and serve as an outlet for relationship building and developing passions. Wirth (2001) described this by saying that women executives balance career and personal life by developing networks outside of employment. Debi: We started volunteering with habitat and I really enjoyed that and kind of moved into that as a full time career at some point in my life. Just involved in kids school, and I sit on a couple of board of directors.

Support systems. Women need to intentionally design a support system so that they are not on their own. The African proverb describes this by saying “it takes a village to raise a child.” Women need to employ

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domestic help, build a true partnership with their spouse and rely on family and friends to assist in the journey towards balance (Gallagher, 2000). This was reflected by Hattery (2001) who stated that women can be successful in their roles when they are supported by partners, family, friends, child care teammates, and co-workers. Hochschild (2003) also suggested seeking help from others for housework, childcare, and help with administrative tasks like bill paying. Women should strategically select a life partner (Finnigan, 2001; Eagly & Carli, 2007); childcare assistance (Lerner, 2010; Molloy, 2004; Rockler-Gladen, 2007; Sachs, 2005; Wirth, 2001) and other support systems (Smallen-Grob, 2003). Ola: So as far as coping I think I have a great partnership with my husband in that it is not, I don’t feel like I’m super mom. I feel like it is definitely a partnership.

Philosophy. Developing a framework for how one will achieve balance and overcome challenges will get women through the difficult times. The literature review covered several similar topics. Foley (2005) states that women should not take things personally. Letting go of perfection was a popular philosophy from the literature (Majstorovic, 2006; Sachs, 2005) and seeing challenges as constant (Campbell, 2006). Cary said: Well like I said, the one step at a time thing, I never thought I was going there, you know like, faculty stuff so that was a surprise, but then once I was there I never thought I was going to leave either. So everything was a surprise.

Penny said: When you get thrown curve balls over which you have no control that is the frustrating piece. And you just have to – you, you come to learn – you learn to live with it because it’s what happens.

Intentional parenting. It does not just naturally happen. A parent needs to develop a strategy for how to raise children to be healthy, successful and productive people. This strategy will make work-life balance all the more manageable. The subjects often mentioned that it is not the quantity of time in child-rearing that matters, but the quality of that time together. Cary said:

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So part of the strategy is look at the outcome, they are fine and they’re happy.

Whitney said: It’s not the quantitative time that you spend with your kids but it is the quality of time. I definitely hold onto that especially the last few years being in school. You know you can spend a whole day with your kid and not mean anything and then you can spend a few hours and fully be present with your kids.

Education/professional development/try new things. In order to stay engaged, a woman needs to remain challenged. If she is not getting that at work or at home, she will need to take manners into her own hands and seek opportunities for growth. Women attend workshops, conferences, and engage in professional associations (Eagly & Carli, 2007) and learn new things (Smallen-Grob, 2003). Self-care. play hard. hobbies. These women try to make health a priority. In order to stay energized and excited about work and home, women need to build self-care into their daily routines. Henderson (2006) suggested many of the same tactics that surfaced through this study: exercise, meditation, taking holidays, and having “do nothing days” once a week. Jeffries (2006) integrates good food, good rest, and good play as a strategy for balance and suggests planning down time, booking vacations in advance, and enjoying the moment. Self-care was listed by many as a great way to balance life (Goodchild, 2006; Campbell, 2006: Postans, 2006). Time with friends was a major theme in the literature (Carlson & Perrewe, 1999; Gallagher, 2000; Rockler-Gladen, 2007; Wills, 1990). Minnie said: I have my own therapist, I work out, I try to eat well, um and I meditate like I do it all. Work strategies. Women can start looking for ways to manage stress in the work place. By aligning institutional values, hiring the right people and building in the right policies, women can succeed in the workplace. Several work strategies were mentioned in the literature such as networking (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Foley, 2005; Wirth, 2001), hiring the right people (Foley, 2005), choosing the right company (Gallagher, 2000; Wellington & Spence, 2001) and flexible work schedules (Finnigan, 2001; Hewlett, 2002; Mason & Eckman, 2007; Nelson & Michie, 2004; Wirth, 2001). Ira said:

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I was able to fortunately work part time when my kids were little 20-25 hours a week and be able to be home a lot.

Proximity of work to home/school. It is difficult for women to remain balanced if they are spending a large amount of time commuting to work. Women should be more selective when accepting a job or choosing a school based on the proximity. This will allow for more time to invest in work and home. Ola: But there’s a lot in it that works, as far as with my family and financially and how the proximity to their schools and all of that.

Technology. Balance can be achieved more easily today than just a few years ago. Women can work from literally anywhere and should continue to utilize technology to make life easier. Technology will only keep advancing so women will need to stay on top of the latest trends and usage in order to capitalize on this strategy. Ella said: I think one of the things is mobile devices, phones, you know laptops, Ipads, those have really made the juggling easier.

Nicole said: My other suggestion is you got to keep up with technology today, if you don’t keep up with technology today you are going to be at a loss.

Take break from work. Women often keep their foot on the accelerator in their careers until the moment that they have to leave. This means that women stay invested and work hard to get to the top, even though they anticipate taking a few years off for children. Women seem to find more satisfaction in positions at the top, so women should strive for these roles even though there may come a time when they need to take a break. This strategy was mentioned a few times in the literature as well (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Warner, 2005). Helen said: I quit my job and we were on a single income for a while which was hard with three children. I stayed home for little bit and I couldn’t take it, it was not enough for me and so I decided to go back to work but to try to juggle in a way that nobody suffered.

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Integrate/segregate work and family. Some women integrate their work and personal lives, while others keep them completely separate. Each person needs to decide for herself which style works best. If it is easier to integrate work into family life, then women should seek ways to have a more integrated life plan (Lerner, 2010; McMillan et al., 2011). However, if it is easier to compartmentalize, then women should create boundaries between personal and professional life (Campbell, 2006; Rockler- Gladen, 2007; Sachs, 2005). This will depend on personal preference and vocational expectations. Jan said: I certainly worked during vacations.

Urma said: What I found is that my life has bled together, there is no line personally or professionally… it blends together.

Helen said: When I am at work, I am at work and I concentrate on work, when I am at home, I am at home, and I make a separation to concentrate at home quality time with family I am not trying to do work.

Manage emotions. In order to make life easier, women should learn to manage their emotions, and embrace calm and peaceful ways of dealing with stress. They should also embrace positive emotions such as love, laugher and joy as a way of life. Molloy (2004) talked about “not getting stressed.” James (2006) stressed that a woman must give up any guilt she feels, choose a peaceful mood, and find energy. Several other strategists mentioned the need for women to give up the unhelpful guilt (Campbell, 2006; Majstorovic, 2006; Rockler-Gladen, 2007). Debi: I think you can let yourself feel guilty, I think it’s better to acknowledge it and say “this is the pull.”

Conclusions Women are not making it to the top of any profession worldwide according to the COO of Facebook, Sandberg (Speech, 2010). In a 2010 “Ted Talk” Sandberg spotlights the problem with the facts that out of 190 main heads of state in the world only nine are women, out of the parliaments in the world only 13% are female, women in the corporate

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sector make up 15-16% Board members and C seats (CEO, COOs, etc.), and not-for-profit organizations only have 20% women at the top. Forbes magazine reported 1,226 billionaires in 2012, yet only 21 of these are women (Carlyle, 2012). Out of the 400 wealthiest Americans, only 42 are women (O’Connor, 2011). Out of the 500 largest companies, 17 of them have a woman at the top (DeCarlo, 2012). This void of women at the top does not make logical sense in a world where more than half of the workforce and students at universities are comprised of women. It raises the question about equity of opportunity at all levels of organizations. Hearing from the few women who have already made it to the top would be useful to other women. Strategies for work-life balance may help women who are striving for these top seats across the globe. Sandberg (2010) gives three suggestions for work-life balance: sit at the table, make your partner a real partner, and do not leave before you leave. “Sitting at the table” is about ambition. She is encouraging women to fight for the top roles and be confident in their ability to sit at the table and be heard. Making your partner a real partner is about sharing the domestic responsibilities with a significant other. “Do not leave before you leave” is a strategy for women who are thinking about staying home with children while they are young. She suggests “keeping your foot on the pedal” and going full force until that time when you need to leave. Often women will start to pull back in their careers knowing that at some point they will want to take time off, however she is saying that this becomes very detrimental in the end. In order for women to be truly happy at work, they need to be in meaningful positions that they can enjoy and these seats can only be reached by working hard. Women should work very hard to get to those positions at the top, which will make work-life balance easier in the end. If women are not being challenged, they will find themselves bored and unsatisfied.

Overview/Summary of Study The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the personal narratives of women in leadership, specifically looking at the phenomenon of work-life conflict and strategies for balance. “Work-family conflict has been found to be associated with more negative work, family and individual well-being outcomes” (Burke, 2004, p. 3). Women who do not have balance have less job satisfaction and are more likely to quit, and

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they have higher levels of emotional exhaustion (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2004). Some women choose to respond to work-life conflict in a negative way. “Most of us respond to the rising demands in the workplace by putting in longer hours, which inevitably take a toll on us physically, mentally, and emotionally,” according to Schwartz (2007, p. 64). This leads to less engagement, increased distraction, high turnover rates, and soaring medical costs among employees (Schwartz, 2007). However, there are many women who are implementing strategies in their lives that lead to well-balanced and fulfilled lives. To achieve this balance, individual coping efforts should be implemented (Burke, 2004). Coping strategies vary from woman to woman, however this study uncovered strategies that surface more frequently than others for successful women leaders. For this study, 22 female leaders shared experiences from their personal and professional life which led to a series of strategies that can be implemented for work-life balance.

Recommendations for Future Research There are several opportunities to broaden this study in the future. According to the findings in this study, there are a significant number of strategies that can be used for work-life balance. Further investigation on this subject could only strengthen the pool of resources for working parents. Men and women alike can benefit from the lessons these highly effective women leaders have learned in regards to the struggle for balance. A parallel study should be conducted with men to identify the strategies they use for work-life balance, with a comparison to the findings from this study. Tise study analyzes females only, so the strategies that surfaced might not be completely transferable across gender. Some of the strategies are capable of applying to both males and females, but there is no way to ensure that men would respond the exact same way as the women in this study. It would be interesting to see if the most frequent strategies for balance remain the same across gender lines. This sample for this study was intentionally selected based on the parental status, employment status and social class (a salary higher than $100K annually). Studies could control demographic variables such as age, length of time each respondent has been married and organizational factors such as family-friendly policy (Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2007). Future studies could also take different demographical information and compare/contrast with this study.

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The women in this study were highly educated, so another study might include women who did not complete any form of higher education. An additional study could be to explore the strategies that women use in specific industries and organizations, as this study looked at women with a variety of occupations. These additional studies could generate rich data to equip women and men for the challenges of competing roles. Many researchers have explored the phenomenon of women in the work place and all of the issues surrounding work-life balance. However there remains a void of research on coping and work-family conflict, which means that very little is known about how individual coping styles might relate to work-family facilitation (Heraty, Morley, & Cleveland, 2008). The Hattery (2001) study mentioned in the first chapter made reference to the need for future studies to conceptualize the strategies that women use to combine work and family in order to move past the notion that women cannot “do it all.” This phenomenological study adds important and applicable information for women who seek to create balance in their lives by exploring the various coping styles and techniques that are used. Women hold many prominent positions in the workforce while the highest offices in the nation are still filled primarily by men. Yet, the possibility and promise of women in leadership positions is on the rise. The strategies found in this study that help with work-life balance intend to encourage women to shoot for the stars and aspire to be at the top of their careers, no matter how many children and family members are waiting for them at home. Hattery (2001) stated it best, “women can be successful professionally as well as in their roles as mothers when they are supported by partners, family, friends, child care teammates, and those in their work place in their efforts to seamlessly weave work and family” (p. 187).

References Aleman, M., & Renn, K. (2002). Women in higher education: An encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc. Allen, T., Herst, D., Bruck, C., & Sutton, M. (2004). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 278308. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.278 Bird, J. (2006). Work-Life balance: Doing it right and avoiding the pitfalls. Employment Relations Today, 33(3), 21. Retrieved from

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http://www.worklifebalance.com/assets/pdfs/article3.pdf Blair-Loy, M. (2003). Competing Demands: Career and family among women executives. Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press. Bohen, H., & Viveros-Long, A. (1981). Balancing jobs and family life: Do flexible work schedules help? Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Burke, R. J. (2004). Work and family integration. Equal Opportunities International, 23, 1-5. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02610150410787828 Campbell, B. (2006). Lessons in integrating work, life, family and friends. In S. Tregeagle (Ed.), Balance: Real-life strategies for work/life balance. Kingscliff, N.S.W.: Sea Change. Carlson, D., & Perrewe, P. (1999). The role of social support in the stressor strain relationship: An examination of work family conflict. Journal of Management, 25, 513-540. Retrieved from http://jom.sagepub.com/content/25/4/513.short Christensen, K., & Schneider, B. (2010). Workplace flexibility: Realigning the 20th-century jobs for a 21st century workforce. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press. Cotter, D., England, P., & Hermsen, J. (2007). Moms and jobs: Trends in mothers’ employment and which mothers stay home. American Families: A Multicultural Reader. New York, NY: Routledge. Davidson, M., & Burke, R. (Eds). (2004). Women in management: Facts, figures and analysis. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Department for Professional Employees. (2010). Fact Sheet 2010: Professional women vital statistics. Retrieved from www.pay-equity.org/PDFs/ProfWomen.pdf Eagly, A., & Carli, L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publications. Ellison, K. (2005). The mommy brain: How motherhood makes us smarter. New York, NY: Basic Books. Faludi, S. (2006). Backlash: The undeclared war against American women. Westminster, MD: Bantam Books. Finnigan, A. (2001, October). Tug of Work. Working Mother Magazine, 24, 52-62. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/advance/106 Foley, M. (2005). Bodacious career: Outrageous success for working women. Richmond, VA: Bodacious! Books. Fu, C., & Shaffer, M. (2001). The tug of work and family: Direct and indirect domain-specific determinants of work-family conflict. Personnel Review, 30, 502-522. Retrieved from

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000005936 Galinsky, E. (1999). Ask the children: What America’s children really think about working parents. New York, NY: William Morrow. Gallagher, C. (2000). Going to the top: A road map for success from American's leading women executives. New York, NY: Penguin Books Ltd. Giele, J. Z. (2008). Homemaker or career woman: Life course factors and racial influences among middle class families. Journal of comparative family studies, 39(3), 393-411. Retrieved from http://www.brandeis.edu/departments/sociology/pdfs/Giele2008.pdf Goodchild, S. (2006). Are you happy in all the roles you play in life? In S. Tregeagle (Ed.), Balance: Real-life strategies for work/life balance. Kingscliff, N.S.W.: Sea Change. Hall, D. (2009). Moms.com. In A. Hall, & M. Bishop (Eds), Mommy angst: Motherhood in American popular culture (pp. 179-195). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. Halpern, D., & Cheung, F. (2008). Women at the top: Powerful leaders tell us how to combine work and family. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell. Hattery, A. (2001). Women, work, and family: Balancing and Weaving. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Henderson, R. (2006). Time for a sea change. In S. Tregeagle (Ed.), Balance: Real-life strategies for work/life balance. Kingscliff, N.S.W.: Sea Change. Heraty, N., Morley, M., & Cleveland, J. (2008). The work-family dyad: multi-level perspectives. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(5), 477-483. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683940810884496 Hewelett, S. (2002). Creating a life: Professional women and the quest for children. New York, NY: Talk Miramax Books. Hinman, L. (2008). Ethics: A pluralistic approach to moral theory. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Hitchin, D., & Hitchin, J. (1998). Living a reasonable and appropriately balanced life. Graziadio Business Review: A Peer-Reviewed Journal of Relevant Information and Analysis, 1(2). Retrieved from http://gbr.pepperdine.edu/2010/08/middlaning Hochschild, A. (2003). The second shift. New York, NY: Penguin Books. House, G. (1981). Work stress and social support. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley.

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James, N. (2006). Is there any such thing as work/life balance? In S. Tregeagle (Ed.), Balance: Real-life strategies for work/life balance. Kingscliff, N.S.W.: Sea Change. Jeffries, J. (2006). A prescription for modern living: The seven steps to sanity. In S. Tregeagle (Ed.), Balance: Real-life strategies for work/life balance. Kingscliff, N.S.W.: Sea Change. Kinnick, K. (2009). Media morality tales and the politics of motherhood. In A. Hall & M. Bishop (Eds), Mommy angst: Motherhood in American popular culture (pp. 2-28). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. Leonhardt, D. (2008, May 21). A diploma’s worth? Ask Her. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/21/business/21leonhardt.html Lerner, S. (2010). The war on moms: On life in a family-unfriendly nation. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Majstorovic, P. (2006). Everything happens for a reason. In S. Tregeagle (Ed.), Balance: Real-life strategies for work/life balance. Kingscliff, N.S.W.: Sea Change. Mason, M., & Ekman, E. (2007). Mothers on the fast track: How a new generation can balance family and careers. New York, NY: Oxford Univesity Press. McMillan, H., Morris, M., & Atchley, E. (2011). Constructs of the work/life interface: A synthesis of the literature and introduction of the concept of work/life harmony. Human Resource Development Review, 10(1), 6-25. Retrieved from http://cstl-hcb.semo.edu/hmcmillan /Pubs/McMillan_Morris_Atchley_2011.pdf Mendell, A. (1996). How men think: The seven essential rules for making it in a man’s world. New York, NY: Fawcett Columbine. Molloy, A. (2004). Get a life: simple strategies for work/life balance. Auckland, New Zealand: Random House. Nelson, D., & Michie, S. (2004). Women in management in the USA . In Davidson & Burke (Eds), Women in management worldwide: Facts, figures and analysis (pp. 195-207). Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Perry-Smith, J., & Blum, T. (2000). Work-family human resource bundles and perceived organizational performance. Academy of Mangement Journal, 43(6), 1107-1117. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1556339?uid=3739256&uid=21 29&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=56295728043 Peters, B. G. (2010). American public policy: Promises & performance (8th ed.). Washington DC: CQ Press.

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CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSIONS DR. KERRI CISSNA-HEATH

Introduction One of the most pressing challenges to the mental and physical health of employees is the increasingly demanding work culture in our country (Ross & Vasantha, 2014). The concept of ‘work-life balance’ is a means of tackling the problems that accompany increasing amounts of stress in the work place (Deepika & Rani, 2014). Balance is needed as people juggle a wide range of factors in their life/work environment, including: work; family; friends; health; and spirit/self (Deepika & Rani, 2014). Many employees strive to minimize role conflict and achieve satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home (Clark, 2000). Employees who struggle with work-related problems, emotions, and associated energy levels during non-work time can find their private roles impaired and work–life balance derogated (Bosch & Rexroth, 2014). All of this points to a greater need for literature and research regarding work-life integration. This publication is the result of a visionary leader, Dr. Margaret J. Weber, who wanted to address the pressures that the female American workforce is facing. Dr. Weber and a group of researchers set out to explore the challenges, opportunities and advice from women in leadership and the issues surrounding work and family integration. The focus was work-life balance, yet the data revealed a wide range of topics to be analyzed and further explored. At the point of this publication, this team has collected over 300 interviews from women around the globe. The interviews for this study were collected both in person, via the phone, and online. With advances in technology and globalization, a new opportunity has been created for researchers to collect data easily through a variety of new methods. The research has now expanded to include a digital project that

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seeks to collect qualitative interviews from women around the globe through the world-wide web. These can easily be conducted with anyone who has access to the internet. The data set continues to grow and the topics of interest expand along with it.

Overview/Summary of Study This qualitative study is designed to evaluate the personal narratives of women leaders and the phenomenon of work-life integration. There are many issues surrounding the lives of women and work-life balance that can be explored. Human Solutions conducted a survey and found that workers who report having a good balance between work and personal/family life experience less stress than workers who lack this balance (Ross & Vasantha, 2014). It is important to note that work-family conflict can be associated with negative well-being outcomes (Burke, 2004). It is likely that women will have less satisfaction and be more likely to quit their jobs if they do not have balance but do have higher levels of emotional exhaustion (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2004). Women may be forced to put in longer hours than their male counterparts, or juggle multiple roles at work and at home. These demands can increase stress levels and take a toll on women who are striving to balance work and life. However, there are many women who are finding satisfaction in their lives regardless of the high demands of work and home life. This fulfillment that they experience contributes to a sense of work-life balance. This research study utilized the Giele (2008) life-story framework to explore the identity, relational style, drive and motivation, and adaptive styles of women. From these interviews a myriad of issues have emerged regarding women and the challenges surrounding work and family integration. The purpose of this research is find out what women are facing and how they are overcoming obstacles and veering toward successful integration of work and life.

Findings From the interview questions that followed the Giele (2008) life story methodology experiences (identity, relationship style, drive and motivation and adaptive style), each individual researcher selected a specific demographic or area of study. The studies that have been summarized in this book are women and the role of faith in work life integration, African American women and work life balance, women in

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the contracting industry, mentoring (vs. sponsorship), and strategies for work life balance. The opportunities for future studies are truly endless.

Implications The implications of this study are clear. Work-life integration is a very important topic to both women and men in this society. Lessons shared by women leaders can be utilized to shape a new generation of families and employees. Although the implications for each of these studies will vary, the overarching implication is that there is a demand for more data and more analysis on this subject matter. Research that has been conducted in the past focuses on improving work–life balance by evaluating organizational interventions such as flexible work schedules (Behson, 2002). Rarely do studies address how employees can enhance their own work–life balance, except for a study suggesting tactics for better separation between life domains (Kreiner, Hollensbe, & Sheep, 2009). More research is needed that analyzes the complexities for work related roles and non-work time roles.

Limitations of the Study Every good research project will come with a set of limitations. To date, there has not been a study that has utilized the entire group of interviews (over 300). Up to this point in time, each researcher selected a subset of data to focus on for analysis. As qualitative research can be time consuming, it is prudent for the researcher to select a group within the larger data set to investigate. However, the study would increase its validity with an examination of a larger number of participants. There are also limitations in regards to the methodology that was selected for this study. Due to the nature of quanlitative research, it is difficult to translate these patterns as truth for a larger population. Qualitative methodology is used to develop insights about the dynamics of the phenomenon under study, which focuses on issues surround work-life integration. The findings can be useful or enlightening, but they cannot be accepted as applicable to all women. A study of this nature would not be able to hypothesize a new universal truth. This study relied on a collection of self-reports. Reaching back in time of one’s memory can be self-selective and biased (Somech & DrachZahavy, 2007). Future studies should explore designs that could collect data with current knowledge or select a longitudinal approach to data collection.

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This project only analyzed female leaders, so the findings that surfaced might not be applicable to all women in general. Many of the women had at least a college education and could access greater levels of support. A study that focused on all socio-economic levels is needed to balance this out. This study could also broaden its reach to men, in order to create some comparison studies. This study lacks a longitudinal component, which can help in predicting causal relationships (Havlovic & Keenan, 1991). This book reports several studies that were conducted once with a group of women. To strengthen the study in the future, women should be interviewed a second or third time or over a several year period of time.

Recommendations for Future Research Further investigation on the subject of work and family integration could only strengthen the pool of resources for working parents. Both men and women can benefit from the lessons that are shared regarding work life integration. Future studies can equip and enable those who are juggling multiple roles to achieve a sense of contentment and balance in their lives. A parallel study should be conducted with men to identify issues surrounding work family integration, by comparing and contrasting with the studies already conducted. This study could open up a new dialogue around work and family life. Men may be facing the same issues as women, or future studies may reveal a new set of issues that are specific to each gender. Future research can explore women from specific industries and organizations, similar to the chapter in the book on women in the contracting industry. With the results from those studies, a comparison could be done to evaluate the differences across industries. Studies could also be done of various ethnic groups and other distinct demographics. These additional studies could generate rich data to equip women and men for the challenges of competing roles.

Conclusion The question of whether or not women can have it all does not come with an easy answer. If women make up more than half of the workforce and more than half of the students at universities nation-wide, then there has to be some acknowledgement that not only can women have it all but many currently do have it all. These women are working, studying, raising

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families, investing in their communities, and striving to live out their professional callings. Many researchers have examined the phenomenon of women in the work place and issues surrounding work-life balance. However there remains a void of research on specific demographics of women across all industries and socio-economic levels. All the data collected from the study in this book have been analyzed and translated to equip men and women who are pursuing a life of balance. Each reader who has poured over the pages in this book will hopefully close the final cover page having been equipped with a few new ideas and strategies for work life integration. If each reader’s life is enhanced in some small way regarding the balance of work and family roles and the pursuit of a meaningful life, this book has served its purpose.

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